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THE ANALYST ;

“QUARTERLY JOURNAL,

SCIENCE, LITERATURE,

~ NATURAL HISTORY, AND THE FINE ARTS.

?

m9. roe | x ; EDITED BY
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es Sy < a AE a :
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Sebastian Bach and his Works «...-ss...--s.se0 yO Rll a eam pre
Essay on the Rationale of Circumstantial Evidence; No. II. By W. Wills, Esq. ...... 19
Sketches of European Ornithology ; Gould’s “ Birds of Europe,” Parts IX. and X, .....: 35.0
Contributions to the Botanical Geogrpky of the South of Europe. By Professor Linke 50 _
Remarks on Musical Precocity ; illustrated with Cases. By J. L. Levison............... 54
On Fossil Infusoria.: ‘By C..G. Ehrenberg 2 12i..esessdeslisnisscsssssgs es. — 60.
Education, as it is and as it should be .....0....-..cceccecsessssescssseseeeeseeteeses ee 63
tay eee sstaspessascnisdeusesivvapoasseresesoserendeerasadaracdeaaleonsceseeoseebbencids eevee eochoete MBE EM

A Letter from J. I. Levison, Esq-—Observations on Diluvial Phenomena 7
Proceedings of Sociekies si5.0.0:./i:....sgtsne Sod ave te as Ge eS See 91 ~

Entomological ce ie Warwickshire Natural History and Archeological Society
oring Central Africa— Literary and Scientific Institution at

aterary, Unbellimencs Ay yeh ket Se Oe UA BONE AR eect Ne On
Select List of New Publications :
di eteordlopical Report 5.5 i502: suas cases ape EERO cto MUTE get ee ha se hea

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THE ANALYST:

QUARTERLY JOURNAL

OF

SCIENCE, LITERATURE,

NATURAL HISTORY, AND THE FINE ARTS.

EDITED BY
WILLIAM HOLL, Esa., F.G.S.; E. MAMMATT, Esa., F.S.A. ;
AND
NEVILLE WOOD, Esa.,
(AUTHOR oF “BRITISH SONG BIRDS,” “ORNITHOLOGIS1’S TEXT BOOK,” &c.)

LONDON :
SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO.
WHYTE & Co., EDINBURGH ; BARLOW, BIRMINGHAM,

1837.

ON, a Mae
d Tee
eR iaty AMP e OLE My

ie bok ae ata? MATS a st

THE ANALYST.

SEBASTIAN BACH AND HIS WORKS.

To make the English public better acquainted than it at pre-
sent is with the name of a great composer—to promote investiga-
tion, serious study, and frequent performance of his works, and thus
to improve the taste of both the connoisseur and amateur—are the
objects of the present article. That the name of Sebastian Bach is
scarcely, or at least by far too little, known in England—that his
works are never heard at the great festivals, and very seldom, if
ever, at the public concerts—are lamentable facts, we confess, and
facts which speak but ill for the state of musical cultivation in our
country. But the causes which have been, and still are, active in
producing such culpable indifference, are, we think, by no means
difficult of discovery. In the first place, Bach was never in Eng-
land. ‘This alone, in the hitherto existing and present state of mu-
sical knowledge in this country, is sufficient to account for his
works not having received a much larger portion of that attention
and admiration which, if the truth were known, they merit, to the
exclusion of almost all others. The reverence in which we English
hold the works of Handel is well known. And why this? Be-
cause they surpass all others in grandeur, beauty, and ideality of
conception, in finish and elaborateness of execution? Oh, no! But
simply because he had the good fortune to spend a great part of his
life in our favoured isle, and there to produce his great works.
This, without periphrasis, is one great constituent in the excessive
and often ridiculous veneration in which the name of Handel is

4 SEBASTIAN BACH AND HIS WORKS.

held.* He is our Handel, belonging, we fondly imagine, to none
but ourselves ; we alone can understand him. Foreigners must be
content with their Leos, their Pergolesis, their Bachs, their Grauns,
and a host of other composers, respectable, no doubt, but not to be
named in the same breath with our idol, our own peculiar treasure,
the “ giant Handel.” And this because, instead of in Germany, he
lived and wrote in England ;+ because he composed in a fog instead
of under a blue sky ; and because he gratified English self-love by
setting his music to English words. All this, doubtless, is con-
temptible enough ; but, contemptible as it is, such is the fact: we do
but state it, in the hope that people, now knowing the seat of the
disease, will set about removing it with all diligence.

Another cause of the neglect we are complaining of lies deeper,
but will be equally apparent when we have explained, further on,
what are the characteristics of Bach’s music. At present we will
only state, and that without fear of contradiction, that it is his sur-
passing excellence, his entire freedom from the pedantic and conven-
tional observances of inferior minds, his independent boldness of
imagination, which dared and performed every thing worthy of
’ being performed, and, above all, the elevated ideal which was con-
tinually present to his mind, which has hitherto opposed effectual
barriers to his just appreciation and extended fame. Let not these
barriers any longer prevail; let us break through the trammels in
which ignorance, self-esteem, and prejudice, have hitherto confined
us, and resolve to seek out, and when found to appreciate, whatever
is noblest and most elevated in the art ; not to remain satisfied with
any degree of excellence as long as there exists one yet more excel-
lent, nor to pride ourselves on a one-sided admiration of any com-
poser, resulting more from ignorance of his rival’s than from due
estimation of his own merits.

Another and the last cause which occurs to us is, the unreflecting
readiness with which most men bow down before authority—in

* We yield to none in a rational admiration of Handel; but what we
mean to assert is, that his almost exclusive celebrity in this country is owing
rather to adventitious and extrinsic circumstances than to admiration arising
from a knowledge of the merits of other composers, and his superiority over
them. Besides this, Handel was essentially a popular composer— that is, he
adapted his undoubtedly great powers to the capacities of uncultivated
tastes; and inasmuch as he has done so has he lewered his claims to rank as
a great artist, in the highest acceptation of the term.

+ Handel composed the Messiah at Gopsall, the seat of Earl Howe, in
Leicestershire. “here is a good portrait of the “gigantic” melodist in the
earl’s collection at this family residence.—Eps.

—*

SEBASTIAN BACH AND HIS WORKS. 5

other words, before the dictum of individuals. Now such a dictum,
to be at all valuable, must proceed from one really competent to
judge of the point on which he decides. We must, before we re-
gard him as an authority, first ascertain that he has given the sub-
ject mature consideration, and then that, having done so, his mental
faculties and their cultivation are such as will enable him to decide
in a satisfactory manner. This mode of inquiry, however, even
when properly conducted—which, unfortunately, it seldom or never
is—furnishes us at best with a probability only, by no means with
a certainty. Thus, the more attention any one has bestowed on a
given subject the more likely he will be to give a correct opinion
with regard to it ; but that he should do so is altogether uncertain,
for this simple reason, that the wisest and least prejudiced of mor-
tals is liable to error, and if so, how are we to be satisfied that the
very point to be determined is not that in which he will err? It is
simply seeing with the eyes of others and neglecting the use of our
own. No, no! see with your own eyes, hear with your own ears,
and think with your own minds; use the faculties of others only to
consult, not to follow their dictates, ~ Let this be your rule in every
matter, as well of opinion as of taste, and your safe-guard against
the undue influence of authority. Almost all whom the English
public has been accustomed to look up to on the subject of music,
have either dismissed the name of Bach with a sneer, or else have
awarded him so small a share of praise as almost to produce the
same effect upon the reader. To adduce an example or two: Bur-
ney, in his History of Music, condescends to assign our author a
niche in the temple of fame, with the limitation, however, that he
would have merited one more honourable 7f he had been more assi-
duous tn courting popular applause! This is the dictum of one of
the wise ones by whom the public has been “ tenderly led by the
nose, as asses are.” Dr. Crotch, of whom one should have expected
something very different, owns that Bach’s Preludes and Fugues
are the finest ever produced, and that after hearing them almost all
other music appears common and insipid; but, almost in the same
breath, the Doctor dismisses his vocal works with the very negative
praise that they are inferior to Handel’s, and the equally positive
accusation—which we shall, in the sequel, prove to be unfounded—
that they are wanting in variety of excellence. Such a charge can
only come from one who is either unable or unwilling to see things
and judge of them as they exist, unless they contribute to the glory
of a pre-established favourite. We have brought these two exam-
ples, in one of which the weak point of a really great man is con-

6 SEBASTIAN BACH AND HIS WORKS.

spicuously shewn, to confirm our position that the verdict of critics
has hitherto been, if not always directly hostile, at least nugatory,
to the reputation of Bach, and that this is one of the causes of the
neglect by the public of the greatest composer who ever existed.

Far be from us the wish to set ourselves up as dictators in the
place of any one. What we desire is, by inducing every one to rea-
son, investigate, and admire with his own faculties, to undermine
the power of all dictators whatsoever. If we shall have prevailed
upon one only of our readers to work this hitherto neglected mine,
and thereby be the mediate cause of his finding an inexhaustible
store of intellectual wealth where he only expected labour and sor-
row, we shall deem ourselves amply repaid for the time and space
we have deveted to the subject ; if upon more, so much the greater
will be our reward. We now proceed to give a sketch of our au-
thor’s life.

John Sebastian Bach* was born on the 2]st of March, 1685, at
Ejisenach, where his father was musician to the court and town.
He lost his mother before he was ten years of age, and his father
shortly after. Thus early left an orphan, he was obliged to have
recourse to John Christopher, his elder brother, organist at Ordruff,
from whom he received his first instructions in playing the clavi-
chord.t He soon became master of the pieces set before him by his
brother, and, indeed, made such rapid progress as to excite his jea-
lousy. The following anecdote is a striking instance of pitiful
meanness on the one side, and dauntless perseverance on the other.
Sebastian Bach had observed, in his bruther’s possession, a book
containing the works of most of the celebrated clavichord composers
of the day, and earnestly begged permission to profit by its contents.
The refusal he received only increased his desire to possess the for-
bidden treasure. This he accomplished by passing his little hands
through the interstices of a lattice door which barred his access to
the object of his desire, rolling up the book, and thus bringing it
forth to the light of day. He now ‘et about copying its contents ;
but being obliged to use the greatest secrecy, and not being allowed
the use of a candle, he was under the necessity of employing the
light of the moon for this purpose. Thus was this child of genius

* These particulars are extracted from the life of our author by Dr. For-
kel, a work which we cannot too often recommend to our readers. We must
warn them, however, that they will find none of the gossiping details which
occupy so much space in the popular biographies of Haydn, Mozart, and
Rossini, and which to some, we fear, form their chief attraction.

+ The forerunner of the harpsichord.

——————S a OOo

SEBASTIAN BACH AND HIS WORKS. a

and industry engaged during six entire months, when at length he
thought himself safely possessed of his treasure ; and, while pleasing
himself with the idea of making good use of it in secret, his brother
discovered it, and without pity deprived him of what had cust so
much labour. Yet, though his hopes were thus cruelly blighted,
his toil was not without its reward. During his solitary moonlight
vigils, with no other incentive than his enthusiasm, no other solace
than the consciousness of his rising powers, he had been laying the
foundation of that mighty edifice which was destined to astonish the
world, and to endure, for countless ages, the admiration of all be-
holders, the envy and despair of all rivals.

Shortly after this, being again left destitute by the death of his
brother, he went, in company with one of his schoolfellows, to Liin-
berg, where he engaged in the choir of St. Michael’s School, as a
soprano singer. His fine voice procured him here, for a short time,
a good salary ; but losing it soon, and not immediately acquiring
one equally good in its stead, with it he lost his lucrative situation.
His inclination to play on the clavichord and organ was at this time
as ardent as in his earlier years, and impelled him to see and hear
every thing which he thought could, in any way, contribute to his
improvement. With this view, he not only went several times from
Liinberg to Hamburgh, to hear the celebrated organist John Rein-
ken, but also to Zell, in order to become acquainted with the
prince’s band—which consisted chiefly of Frenchmen—as well as
with the French taste, which was then entirely new to him.

In 1703, when only eighteen years of age, he was made court
musician at Weimar. This appointment, however, he exchanged
in the following year for that of organist to the New Church at
Arnstadt ; probably to follow his inclination for playing on the or-
gan with greater facility than he could at Weimar, where he was
only engaged to play the violin. Here he began most zealously to
make use of all the works for the organ at that time celebrated, for
the purpose both of improving himself in the art of playing on that

instrument, and in that of composition.* So ardent was his zeal,
and so great his resolution to leave nothing undone which could be

done towards the furtherance of this object, that he even made a

* If musical composition were considered an art instead of a science, we
should have, instead of treatises without end and theories without number,
a more useful, a more practical, musical education. It is through practice
alone, not through theory, that art can be improved and elevated. How far
the world in general is from this view of the subject it is needless for us to
say.

8 SEBASTIAN BACH AND HIS WORKS.

journey on foot to Lubeck to hear the organist of St. Mary’s Church
in that city, with whose compositions he was already acquainted.
For almost a quarter of a year he remained a secret hearer of this
organist, and then returned to Arnstadt with an increased stock of
knowledge.

The efforts of his zeal and unwearied diligence were followed by
their appropriate reward. He received, in rapid succession, several
offers of places as organist, and in 1707 he accepted that of St. Bla-
sius, at Miihlhausen. A year, however, after he had done so, mak-
ing a journey to Weimar to perform before the reigning duke, his
execution on the organ was so highly approved of that he was of-
fered, and accepted, the place of court organist. The extended
sphere of action, with regard to his art, in which he here moved,
impelled him to exert himself to the utmost ; and it was probably
during this period that he made himself the unrivalled performer
he was universally allowed to be. He had still further occasion to
improve himself when his prince, in 1717, appointed him director
of the concerts, in which office he was expected to compose and
perform pieces of sacred music.

Bach was now thirty-two years of age ; he had made such good
use of his time, had studied, composed, and played so much, and by
unremitting diligence had acquired such a mastery over every prin-
ciple of his art, that he stood, like a giant, able to trample all
around him into dust. He had long been regarded, not by amateurs
only, but by judges of the art, with wonder and admiration, when,
in the year 1717, M. Marchand, who had attained considerable
celebrity in France as a performer on the clavichord and organ,
came to Dresden, where he played before the king with such success
that a large salary was offered him if he would engage in his ma-
jesty’s service. Volumier, at that time director of the concerts in
Dresden, knowing Bach’s superiority, in all respects, over the
Frenchman, wished to procure a public contest between them, in
order to give his prince and the inhabitants of Dresden an opportu-
nity of judging of their respective merits. With the consent of the
king, accordingly, « message was dispatched to Sebastian Bach, at
Weimar, inviting him to this trial of skill: he accepted the invita-
tion, and immediately set out on his journey. On his arrival in
Dresden, Volumier procured him an opportunity of hearing Mar-
chand play unobserved by the latter ; and Bach, nowise discouraged
by what he had heard, sent to the French artist a polite note, for-
mally inviting him to the trial of their powers ; offering to play
without preparation whatever the other might please to set before

- #7) Sse

SEBASTIAN BACH AND HIS WORKS. 9

him, but requesting the same readiness on his part. Marchand
having accepted the terms, and the time and place having been ar-
ranged, a large company, of both sexes and of the highest rank, as-
sembled. Bach did not keep them long waiting, but Marchand
failed to appear. On inquiry, it was ascertained that he had left
Dresden that morning, without taking leave of any one. The
whole of the performance, therefore, devolved on Bach, who excited
the astonishment and admiration of all who heard him. Volumier’s
intention, however, to show in a striking manner the superiority of
German art, was frustrated, though certainly the cause of that frus-
tration was far from discreditable to Bach’s powers and reputation.

In the year 1723 he was appointed music director to St. Thomas’s
School at Leipsig, where he remained till his death. Whilst in this
situation he received the title of chapel master to the Duke of
Weissenfels, and in the year 1736 that of court composer to the
King of Poland.

The indefatigable diligence with which, particularly in his earlier
years, he had frequently passed days and nights without intermis-
sion in the study of his art, had weakened his sight. This weakness
continually increased towards the close of his life, till at length it
terminated in a painful disorder of the eyes. Having been persuad-
ed to apply to an oculist who had arrived in Leipsig from England,
he submitted to an operation, which, twice proving unsuccessful,
not only wholly deprived him of sight, but, conjoined with the pro-
bably noxious medicines which he took, completely undermined his
hitherto vigorous constitution. For more than half a year after this
he continued to decline, when, on the tenth morning before his
death, he suddenly regained his sight. This, however, was only
the last flicker of the dying flame: within a few hours he was
seized with an apoplectic fit, followed by an inflammatory fever ;
and his enfeebled frame being unable to bear up under such a com-
plication of disorders, he shortly after breathed his last, on the 30th
of July, in the 66th year of his age.

Such was the life of this truly great man—a standing rebuke to
many pseudo-musicians of the present, and it is to be feared of all
times, who, by Nature endowed with a certain degree of talent,
imagine that all the rest may be left to chance; who go through a
certain—generally unprofitable—routine of study, and think they
have done all that is necessary towards acquiring a mastery of the
art ; whose ideal, if they have any, consists in what they feel them-
selves competent to produce, not in what they feel they ought to
produce ; and who are not ashamed of sending forth to the world

VOL. VII., NO. XXI. B

-
e

10 SEBASTIAN BACH AND HIS WORKS.

works conceived without consideration and executed without study.
Here we have the rare and noble example of a man naturally pos-
sessed of musical powers, greater, perhaps, than have ever been en-
joyed by any single individual, engaged in diligent and unremitting
study from early childhood to the close of his long career, never for
one moment losing sight of the degree of excellence he wished to
obtain, though he knew it unattainable, and consequently always
making advances towards it. He who is satisfied with what he has
already performed, and looks to no further improvement, does but
shew how unworthy is his idea of what ought to be accomplished,
and how contemptible his ambition. The essence of true genius is
to keep in view a nobler, a more ethereal, sphere of action than is
ever dreamt of by common minds—to regard what is already attain-
ed only as one step in advance towards the regions of perfect purity,
of perfect beauty, in which alone it lives, and moves, and has its
being. Can he who is endowed with such a genius ever rest in his
glorious career?—ever console himself with the idea that he has
done more or better than his rivals >—ever relax his efforts to fulfil
the ideal on which his mind’s eye continually rests? No! for rest
implies satisfaction ; and he is not, cannot be satisfied: no! for he
disdains comparison with aught but his own elevated ideas of per-
fection: no! for he longs—he thirsts—for that perfection as the
hart panteth for the water-brooks, and he knows that his utmost
efforts can only approach him to the wished-for end, never enable
him to attain it. Such is the essence of true genius—such its con-
stitution ; in this exists its difference from, its superiority over, that
by no means uncommon talent (for it merits no higher designation)
of retailing other men’s ideas ina novel garb, accompanied by com-
plete satisfaction at what it has produced, and by not the slightest
desire for anything higher, anything nobler.

A correct edition of Bach’s works, from the first effort of his in-
fant muse to the last production of his genius, would, if arranged
in chronological order, not only prove highly interesting to those
who delight in watching the progress and internal development of
the human mind, but would without doubt be in a great measure
conducive to the revival of the art from that stagnation, that hope-
less inanity, which, in this country at least, if not in others, is its
unfortunate characteristic. Beautiful it is, in spring time of the
year to see all Nature rising forth, as it were, from the bleak and
dreary abyss of winter, unfolding herself before our eyes in all her
loveliness and grandeur, and assuming various shapes, various dispo-
sitions, every one of them perfect, every one inimitable. More

SEBASTIAN BACH AND HIS WORKS. ll

beautiful still, to watch the development of the “ human form
divine” in its advance from helpless, shapeless infancy to the spring-
tide of youth and beauty, a being but a little lower than the angels
—the most perfect of his Creator’s visible works. How far more
beautiful, then, than either, to mark the progress of mind, the
image and reflex of that Creator, from its first timid and unequal
flight, to its subsequent sublime soarings in the ethereal regions of
boundless space, of infinite perfection—the foretaste of what every
one shall enjoy in an ever-happy, ever-during world! The work
which assists us in researches of this nature, does more for human
improvement, for human happiness, than thousands of the aimless,
and therefore abortive, attempts of the present day, which men in
their ignorance and their folly designate as art.

In the absence of a guide, such as we have referred to, we must
rest satisfied with the sources of information and enlightenment
which lie before us. Of all Sebastian Bach’s voluminous works,
we are as yet acquainted with eleven only, besides the preludes and
fugues for the organ, now publishing in this country. Of these
latter we shall merely say, that, exhibiting as they do a mastery
over the art, unattained by any but our author, yet many of them
bear faint traces only of the excellence at which he arrived during
the last twenty years of his life: we therefore refer them to a time
when his powers were already gigantic, but his judgment yet un-
matured.*

* On this subject Forkel observes :—‘‘ Only uninterrupted practice can
jJead to true excellence. But if we were to pronounce all the works pro-
duced during this practice to be master-pieces, because master-pieces at
length proceed from it, we should greatly err. ‘This is the case with Bach’s
works. Though we find, in his earlier altempts undeniable evidences of a
distinguished genius, yet they contain at the same time so much that is use-
less, poer, and extravagant, that they are not worth preserving—at least for
the public in general; and, at most, may be interesting to the connoisseur
who wishes to make himself acquainted with the course which such a genius
has followed from the commencement of its career. For the separation of
these attempts, or juvenile exercises, from the real master-pieces, Bach has
himself given us two means, and we have a third in the art of critical compa-
rison. At the appearance of his first work he was above forty years of age.
What he himself, at so mature an age, judged worthy of publication, has cer-
tainly a presumption in its favour that it is good : we may therefore consider
all the works which he himself had engraved to be extremely good. With
respect to those among his compositions which circulate only in manuscript,
and which are by far the greatest number, we must have recourse, in order
to know what is worth preserving, partly to critical comparison, partly to the
sound means which Bach has given us. Like all really great geniuses, he

12 SEBASTIAN BACH AND HIS WORKS.

The Forty-eight Preludes and Fugues form a master work
unique of its kind. He who knows only the fugues of the greatest
of other composers cannot possibly form any idea of the pitch to
which this art may be brought, of the ends to which it may be
adapted, or of the feelings which it may excite. Of the fugues of
other composers, he who knows one knows all, and can play all ;
but each of Bach’s fugues is a study of itself, and requires separate
study properly to understand it. A characteristic and, at the same
time, a beautiful subject, a delicious and equal flow of melody in all
the parts, complete connection between the ideas, so that one seems
necessarily to arise from the other, a bold and ever-varying medula-
tion, perfect conformity of each part to the whole, and the result
of all these, the highest degree of ease and freedom, of sublimity
and beauty, of which the heart is capable—these are the distin-
guishing features of Bach’s fugues. To say that they break
through many of the (at that time) recognized rules of musical
composition, is only saying that they opened new and hitherto un-
trodden paths of harmony and melody, which, once discovered, lead
us through scenes of beauty and loveliness of which before we could
form no idea. It is generally imagined that harmony and melody
are totally independent branches of the art, and that the one may
be perfected without the aid of the other. This is only partially
correct, for while melody may acquire considerable excellence with-
out the intervention of harmony, the latter improves only in pro-
portion to the improvement of the former: in short, melody is no-
thing but a constituent part of harmony, which only arrives at its
highest excellence by a judicious union of well-conceived and well-
amalgamated harmonies. This union of melodies equally scientific
and poetical is the essence of all Bach’s harmonies ; this it is which
makes his works the admirable models they are. He is almost the
only composer we are acquainted with who, taking this principle
as his starting-post,* carries it out, fearless of the difficulties it in-

never laid aside the critical file in order to make his fine works still finer.
Any of his early works that were at all susceptible of improvement he im-
proved. The desire to improve was extended even to some of his engraved
works. Under this head I reckon the most of what he composed before the
year 1725. A great many later compositions, but which, for reasons easily
understood, are likewise known only in manuscript, bear too evidently about
them the stamp of perfection to allow us to doubt whether we shall number
them among the essays or among the works of the accomplished artist.”

* Weber, in his Luryanthe, has shewn what may be achieved in secular mu-
sie by following this principle : but, in consequence, this master-piece of art

SEBASTIAN BACH AND HIS WORKS. 13

volves in its execution, and who shews in that execution that he is
fully capable, not only of surmounting those difficulties, but of sur-
mounting them with grace. The preludes, possessing as they do
the same excellencies, the same beauties, and the same highly poetic
feeling as the fugues, form, together with these, a treasure of art,
a mine of wealth, which we can never study too deeply, never value
too highly.

The world has never yet seen the instance of a great and original
instrumental composer who has not also excelled in writing for
voices. The means which are employed, the resources which are
required for both, are essentially the same; they vary only in the
mode of their adaptation to a proposed end. Can it be supposed,
then, that he who excelled all rivals in the one, should not also be
equally superior in the other? Such a supposition can only pro-
ceed from one possessed of partial and incorrect notions of the art.
He who asserts that Bach’s instrumental works exhibit variety,
learning, and sublimity unsurpassed and unsurpassable, will be re-
quired to prove that the resources which, in instrumental music,
have been employed to produce the highest excellence, become,
when applied to vocal writing, in a measure unavailable to the same
end. To do this is impossible; we are accordingly favored with
the assertion only, not with the proof. As such, let us receive it,
and proceed without delay to its refutation, as one detrimental, not
only to the fame of him against whom it is directed, but also to the
interests and advance of the art to which it relates.

Sebastian Bach’s vocal works—all, so far as we are aware, devot-
ed to sacred subjects—may be divided into those written for the
Protestant, and those for the Roman Catholic, form of worship.
This arrangement in the examination of his works is purely one of
convenience, for the stamp of his exalted genius is to be found in
all alike: of his compositions adapted to German words we are
acquainted with seven only. We now proceed to their examina-
tion.

No. 1. 4 Litany, after the Text of Martin Luther—This is a
master-work, evincing, in its fullest extent, all the learning and
sublimity of its author. It consists of one movement in I minor,
with orchestral accompaniments. The alto, tenor, and bass voices,
move easily and unconstrainedly in free canon, whilst the soprano
makes the subjects that have been proposed by the other voices be

must wait for general appreciation till the time when music is cultivated as
an art, and not as a mere idle amusement.

14 SEBASTIAN BACH AND HIS WORKS.

heard by augmentation. The accompaniment, which is such in the
strictest sense of the term, and not a mere replicate of the voices,
completes the harmony by traits of melody and imitation totally dis-
tinct from, yet perfectly in character with, the vocal parts. The
boldest forms of progression—forms which our author alone ever
attempted—are here employed with startling yet sublime effect.
Nothing vulgar, nothing commonplace, nothing even beautiful, is
admitted to profane this holy of holies ; here all is grand, dignified,
and majestic. Such was the idea entertained by this great man of
the duties of the sacred composer—thus nobly has he fulfilled them.

2. Herr deinen Augen sehen nach den Glauben.—This piece con-
sists of a chorus for four voices, with orchestral accompaniments dis-
tinct from the vocal parts ; two airs, the one for a bass, the other
for a tenor voice; an accompanied recitative, and two chorals.*
The bass song is perfect of its kind ; and being highly characteristic
of Bach’s manner of writing for single voices, we will now take the
opportunity of explaining in what that manner consists, and in
what it surpasses that of other composers. It is the common prac-
tice to make the voice the principal, nay, the sole interesting part,
and to give the accompaniment only such secondary importance as
may suffice to bring out the solo into the greatest.possible relief. If
nothing more than the good pleasure of the singer be desired, this
is certainly the best way of obtaining it. If, again, the uninstruct-
ed in musical science are alone to be taken into account, the princi-
ple usually acted upon is still, undoubtedly, to be lauded. If, on
the other hand, we regard music not merely as a means of gratify-
ing individual vanity or uncultivated taste, but as an art capable of
indefinite improvement, and in proportion to that improvement mi-
nistering to the development, and to the satisfaction when develop-
ed, of many of our highest faculties,t shall we not be compelled to

* Generally answering to our ideas of a psalm-tune, but sometimes (as
in the choral O Mensch bewein’ dein’ Siinde, in the Passionsmusik ) extended to
whatever contains within itself a choral melody as a foundation on which to
build a more varied superstructure. The piece we have instanced appears
to us one of the finest specimens of this kind of composition with which we
are acquainted.

+ The new Science of Mind affords the most satisfactory explanation of
the mental phenomena; and by no means the least useful part of this science
is the degree of certainty with which we are enabled to discover the compa-
rative utility of the various branches of study to which our attention may
be directed. That science or that art (exclusively of material benefits to be
derived from it) is more or less useful—that is, conducive to happiness—in
proportion to the greater or less number or importance of the faculties it ad-

SEBASTIAN BACH AND HIS WORKS. 15

doubt, nay, utterly to deny, the propriety of giving the name of art
to that which concerns itself only with a constituent and, in truth,
insignificant portion, and leaves all the rest in comparative neglect ?
Such, however, zs the principle laid down and acted upon, with
more or less strictness, in the generality of solo songs. Their har-
mony is poor in exact proportion to the want of interest in the me-
lodies which compose it, and in them melody is cultivated at the ex-
pense of harmony ; thus gratifying almost exclusively one only of
the faculties which the art has the power of bringing into exercise,
namely, the mental faculty which discriminates, and finds pleasure
in discriminating, difference of pitch—in other words, the percep-
tion of harmony. Now it will be admitted that the composition
which affords delight to other powers of the mind, in addition to
the one we have mentioned, is entitled to a higher rank than that
which pleases this alone. The only question, then, is whether a
more complicated style of composition, which should produce this
effect, be appropriate to the species of writing whose objects we are
now investigating. A priori, we should have answered, decidedly it
is. Nay more, the only reasons why it so seldom is thus applied
are the jealousy entertained by singers of any applause not bestowed
on themselves, and the incompetence of the majority of the public
to appreciate the higher excellencies of the art. A posteriori, we
are fully and satisfactorily answered by a reference to Bach’s
acHievements in this style. Bach’s solos are, strictly speaking, ra-
ther concerted pieces, in which all the parts take an ‘interesting
share, not at all interfering with each other, but all contributing to
make a complete and homogeneous whole. As in his fugues, so
here, the interest continues increasing to the end, each idea flows
naturally out of the preceding ; the melody given to the voice is
never doubled in the accompaniment, and those in the accompani-
ment cease when they have completed what they have to say, only
resuming their functions when they can contribute to the common
stock anything really valuable. Hence there are no arbitrary notes
appearing on the paper, as if dropped from the clouds, a propos de
rien, and producing a chasm in the succeeding phrase which the
composer is at a loss how to fill up; no abrupt changes of key, re-

dresses. Viewed in this light, music has far higher claims upon our regard
than is commonly imagined. It addresses itself directly to many of our
highest faculties, and indirectly there are few to which it has not something
to say. Had we space, we could go on to shew that the degree of praise to
be awarded to particular styles of music may de determined in like manner.

16 SEBASTIAN BACH AND HIS WORKS.

sembling more the shifting scenes of a pantomime than anything for
which we can reasonably account ; no turns of melody in any sin-
gle part which are not in strict accordance with the character of the
rest ; no repetition, caused rather by deficiency of ideas in the com-
poser than by any consciousness that it will conduce to the effect of
the composition. On the contrary, every note is so exactly in its
place—the modulation is so even, so beautiful, like a fair stream
gliding through peaceful and flower-besplanged meadows—each
single melody sympathises so admirably with its companions, and
with the disposition of the whole—the flow of the richest, the most
poetical, ideas, is so boundless, so exhaustless—that we cannot but
regard these productions as the most beautiful to be found in the
entire range of the musical art.

3. Thr werdet Weinen und Heulen ;

4. Du Hirte Israel! Hore ;

5. Herr! gehe nicht in’s Gericht ; are all three on the same plan
as the foregoing. Nos. 3 and 5 contain each a chorus of unexam-
pled learning and grandeur, and airs of the highest beauty and ide-
ality. No. 4 might aptly be designated a sacred pastoral ; and as an
example of happy mixture of the two styles, as well as from its
great beauties as a composition, it is worthy of all admiration.

6. Gotles Zeit ist die allerbeste Zeit.—This piece was certainly
composed when our author’s powers were yet immature. No one
at all acquainted with his works can for a moment doubt as to this
being one of them ; but yet, amid a great deal of what is good and
beautiful, we have here and there an infusion of what is weak, per-
haps even commonplace. It is highly important that we thus dis-
tinguish between what is wholly worthy of admiration and study,
and what is only partially so ; otherwise we lower the standard of
excellence, thus losing sight of the true aim of music, considered as
a fine art. The piece of which we are speaking would perhaps be
more pleasing than those we have just mentioned to uncultivated
tastes ; but the propriety of admitting such as judges in the fine
arts we utterly deny, asserting, on the contrary, that it is only be-
cause the great majority of the public is uncultivated that this
principle has ever been admitted and acted upon.

7. Grosse Passionsmusik (Messiah), according to the gospel
of St. Matthew. This is an oratorio in the primitive sense of the
term, being in its form essentially dramatic. It describes the last
days of our Saviour on this earth ; and is interspersed with chorals,
performing the same office as the chorus in the Greek tragedy.
One of these, O Mensch bewein’ dein’ Siinde, is of more worth than

SEBASTIAN BACH AND HIS WORKS. 17

the whole of such an effeminate and whining production as Spohr’s
Crucifixion, which has been so extravagantly bepraised by certain
eritics, and which has not the merit of novelty to recommend it.
The double chorus in E minor, at the beginning of the Passionsmu-
sik, is, both in design and execution, the grandest, the most pro-
ductive of sublime and holy feeling of any we are acquainted with.
The choruses throughout the work are all equally fine in their seve-
ral styles: the ad lib. and accompanied recitatives are magnificent,
both in expression and modulation ; and the airs, possessing all the
beauties which we have above attempted to describe, are worthy of
equal praise. On the whole, admiring as we do Handel’s great
work on the same subject, yet regarding it as a work of art, and not
as a mere candidate for the majority of suffrages, we should without
hesitation assign it a lower rank than the Messiah of Bach. When
musical education shall be conducted on the plan and to the extent
which alone can make the individuals composing the public compe-
tent judges, we are confident that our verdict will be confirmed.

~The works of this composer for the catholic church which we
have seen, consist of three masses in G and A raajor and B minor,
the two former for ordinary occasions, the latter for high mass. All
three are very fine works, but the latter displays such consummate
learning, such complete mastery of the art, and in the employment
of these such inconceivable sublimity and such entire loveliness,
that it seems rather the work of a disembodied and exalted spirit,
than that of a mere mortal, occupied with the cares, the sorrows,
the trials of this transitory state, and subject to the same failings as
ourselves. As a work, asa masterpiece of art, it is worthy to stand
beside the Messiah of the same composer; and any comparison
which may be instituted between this and the greatest works of
other composers, will only demonstrate the more clearly the im-
measurable, the impassable gulph which lies outstretched between
them.

We have new finished our too brief examination of these mighty
achievements of human genius. It only remains for us to consider
what will be their reception at the hands of the present and of suc-
ceeding generations. In the present state of general education, a
knowledge of musical science is by no means accounted a universally
indispensable element. ‘The capability of performing on some in-
strument, with some power of interpreting the conventional symbols
of musical combinations, is all that is required to complete the com-
mon idea of a musical education. Now, the one is a purely mecha-
nical accomplishment, the other intellectual in a very slight degree ;

VOL. VII., NO. XXI. c

18 SEBASTIAN BACH AND HIS WORKS.

both may be acquired without in the least cultivating the taste or
imparting vigour to the higher powers of the mind. Further, in
the present state of society, it is difficult for the majority of the pub-
lic to obtain even this slight modicum of cultivation ; and in the
present state of society it is, perhaps, impossible for the majority to
make that perfect use of their faculties which the Creator in bestow-
ing them evidently willed. As long as things continue thus, man
cannot enjoy that degree of happiness of which his mental constitu-
tion renders him capable, and to the attainment of which all his ef-
forts are, or ought to be, directed. That things will always con-
tinue thus, we think too highly of the benevolence and wisdom of
the Creator and of the just adaptation of all parts of his creation to
each other to believe. We deem it every way possible, that each
individual in a highly-civilized community may find not only lei-
sure, but means also, for the due cultivation of the faculties granted
to him for his happiness by the Creator: but until this zs the case,
how can we expect a due and universal appreciation of the wonders
of Nature or of Art, designed, through the medium of those facul-
ties, to be conducive to the well-being, to the felicity, of the human
race? As it is, art is mot art in its noblest acceptation—namely,
when considered as the means of producing the highest gratification
to faculties in the highest state of cultivation; but a mere farce, a
juggler’s trick, at best but the pander to individual vanity or igno-
rant presumption.

In conclusion, our thorough conviction is, that Sebastian Bach,
having shewn in his works what art should be, not what it is, must
still wait many a long year for general appreciation, general admi-
ration; but that, when once appreciated, once admired, he will be
looked upon as the great pioneer who, disregarding vulgar and tem-
porary applause, singing only for “ himself and the muses,” cleared
the way for the new and glorious career which art has yet to run,
under auspices more bright—for aims more noble.

[Since the above was written, we understand that the directors of the Bir-
mingham Festival intend (and before this meets the reader’s eye the intention
will probably have been fulfilled) to favour the public with one or two speci-
mens of Bach’s powers, selected from the Passionsmusik, noticed above.
Better late than never, say we; but why these eternal selections, why this
insane policy of giving one or two bricks as a specimen of the entire edifice ?
The directors intend to give Mendelsohn’s Paul entire. Now, weask, which
has the greatest claims to be considered as the greater composer, Mendelsohn
or Bach? The answer to this question should decide, in our opinion, the
propriety of giving the work of the one in all its completeness, and of the
other scattered fragments only. |

19

ESSAY ON THE
RATIONALE OF CIRCUMSTANTIAL EVIDENCE.

No. II.
By Witwi1am Witts, Esa.

In a former Essay on Circumstantial Evidence,* it was stated to
be a cardinal rule of jurisprudence to require direct proof of the cor-
pus delicti. In the present essay I purpose to investigate the rea-
son and illustrate the propriety of this rule.

Every allegation of legal crime involves the establishment of two
separate propositions; namely, that an act has been committed
from which legal responsibility arises, and that such act has been
committed by a particular individual. Such a complication of diffi-
culties often attends the proof of crime, and so many cases have oc-
eurred of conviction of alleged offences which were never committed,
that it isa sound rule of legal procedure, derived to us from the
Romans, those great lights in all that relates to the principles of
jurisprudence, to require express and unequivocal proof of the cor-
pus delictt before it is permitted to adduce evidence tending to in-
culpate any particular person.

If it be objected that rigorous proof of the corpus delicti is some-
times unattainable, and that the effect of exacting it must be that
crimes will occasionally pass unpunished, it must be admitted that
such may possibly be the result. But it is answered that where
there is no proof, or, which is the same thing, no sufficient proof, of
crime, there can be no legal guilt. Considerations of expediency
ean never supersede the immutable obligations of justice, and occa-
sional impunity of crime is an evil of far less magnitude than the
punishment of the innocent. Such considerations of mistaken po-
licy led the civilians to adopt that cruel and execrable maxim, “ in
atrocissimis leviores conjecture sufficiunt et licet judici jura trans-
gredi ;” and when the plea of expediency is once permitted to influ-
ence judicial integrity, such is the logical and inevitable consequence.
The rule in question is so important in relation to cases of circum-
stantial evidence, that it will be expedient to illustrate its pertinency
and propriety at some length, and, for the sake of simplicity and

* Ante, ». 177.

20 ESSAY ON THE RATIONALE OF

consistency, the exemplifications will be borrowed from cases of al-
leged murder.

In the application of this rule to cases of homicide, it is essential
that there be distinct proof, Ist, of the fact of death, and 2nd, of the
specific cause of death ; nor without such proof can any individual
be reasonably implicated, or required to explain or account for facts
of supposed suspicion. The inspection of the body necessarily af-
fords the best evidence as well of the identity of the deceased as of
the fact of death ; and a conviction of murder is never allowed to
take place unless the body has been found, or there is equivalent
proof of the fact of death ; and many cases have shewn the peril of
a contrary practice. Joan Perry and her two sons were executed, in
the year 1660, for the murder of William Harrison, who had sud-
denly disappeared, but in about two years afterwards re-appeared.
The deceased had been out to collect his lady’s rents, and had been
robbed by highwaymen, who put him on board a ship, which was
captured by Turkish pirates, by whom he was sold to a physician
near Smyrna.* Sir Matthew Hale mentions a case where A was

long missing, and upon strong presumptions B was supposed to

have murdered him, and to have consumed him to ashes in an oven,
that he should not be found. Whereupon B was indicted of mur-
der, convicted, and executed, and within one year after A re-
turned, being, indeed, sent beyond sea by B, against his will; ‘and
so,” he adds, “though B justly deserved death, yet he was really
not guilty of that offence for which he suffered.”+ Sir Edward
Coke also gives the case of a man who was executed for the murder
of his niece, afterwards found to be living. [See also Green’s case,
State Trials, vol. xiv., p. 1311, and Arnott’s Collection of Criminal
Trials |.

But to require the production of the body in all cases would be
unreasonable, and lead to absurdity and injustice ; since the mur-
derer might secure impunity by effectually disposing of his victim’s
remains, which has often been attempted by burning, but generally
without effect, owing to the slow and imperfect combustibility of
animal matter. The fact of death may, therefore, be inferred from
such strong and unequivocal circumstances of presumption as render
it morally certain, and leave no ground for reasonable doubt. Thus,
a mariner was indicted for the murder of his captain at sea, and a
witness stated that the prisoner had proposed to kill the captain ;

* State Trials, vol. xiv., p. 1312.
+ Pleas of the Crown, vol. ii., c. 39.

|

CIRCUMSTANTIAL EVIDENCE. 21

that, being alarmed in the night by a violent noise, he went upon
deck and saw the prisoner throw the captain overboard ; that he
was not seen or heard of afterwards, and near the place on the deck
where the captain was a billet of wood was found, and the deck and
part of the prisoner’s dress were stained with blood. It was stre-
nuously argued that, as there were many vessels near the place
where the transaction was alleged to have taken place, the probabi-
lity was that he had been taken up by some of them and was then
alive ; but the court, though they admitted the general rule of law,
left it to the jury to say, upon the evidence, whether the deceased
was not killed before the body was cast into the sea, and the jury
being of that opinion, the prisoner was convicted and executed.*
The cases which present the greatest difficulty in establishing the
corpus delicti, are those of infanticide, poisoning, and suicide. As
a consequence of the rule which requires express proof of the corpus
delicti, that, in cases of alleged infanticide, it must be proved that
the child had acquired an independent circulation and existence ;
it is not enough that it had breathed in the course of its birth.t If
a child has been wholly born and is alive, it is not essential that
it should have breathed at the time it was killed; as many children
are born alive and yet do not breathe for some time after birth.
Cases of this distressing class generally involve questions purely or
principally of medical jurisprudence, and are, therefore, so far not
within the province of this Essay.§ The moral circumstances gene-
rally adduced as indicative of this crime, may commonly be account-
ed for by the agency of less malignant motives, and can seldom be
unequivocally pronounced to afford a safe presumption of murder.
Hard must be the struggle between the opposing motives of shame
and affection, before a mother can form the dreadful resolve of tak-
ing away the life of her own child. The unhappy subject of these
conflicting emotions is commonly the victim of brutality and trea-
chery. Deserted by a heartless seducer and scorned by a merciless
world, scarcely any condition of human weakness can be imagined
more calculated to excite the compassion of the considerate and the
humane.|| The wisdom and the humanity of the legislature, in

* Hindmarsh’s case, Leach’s Cases in Crown Law, vol. ii., p. 571.

+ Rex v. Poulton; Carrington and Paine, vol. v., p. 399—and Rex v.
Enoch, ibid., 539.

t+ Rex v. Brain; Carrington and Paine, vol. vi., p. 350.

§ See The Proofs of Infanticide Considered, by Dr. Cummin, for a summary
of the present state of medico-legal knowledge on that subject.

|| See Dr. William Hlunter’s tract on Child Murder.

22 ESSAY ON THE RATIONALE OF

accordance with the spirit of the times, has repealed the cruel rule
of presumption created in a barbarous age,* and made the endea-
vouring to conceal the birth of a child, by secret burying or other-
wise disposing of the body, a substantive offence, instead of treating
it as a conclusive presumption of murder.t

In charges of poisoning, the object is to determine whether poison
has been administered, and whether it has been the cause of death ;
since it does not necessarily follow, even where poison has been ad-
ministered, that death has not resulted from natural causes.

The principal grounds upon which the proof of poisoning gene-
rally rests, are 1, the symptoms during life ; 2. the post mortem ap-
pearances ; 3. chemical tests; 4. the results of experiments upon
animals; and 5. moral circumstances.

The first and second of these heads of evidence involve questions
of a medical nature merely: but the diversity of opinion which pre-
vails amongst medical jurists respecting the sufficiency of such evi-
dence alone, and the consideration that the facts must ultimately be
submitted to a popular tribunal, acting upon the principles of com-
mon observation and experience, render it expedient to notice the
general result of those opinions as applicable to this numerous class
of cases of circumstantial evidence.

There appears to be no difference of opinion, that the symptoms
and post mortem appearances which are usually relied upon as
indications of poisoning are such as may in general be produced by
other causes. Dr. Christison, while he admits, with every esteemed
author on medical jurisprudence, that the symptoms, however exqui-
sitely developed, can never justify an opinion in favour of more than
high probability,§ maintains that the doctrine applies only to the
general characteristics of the symptoms, and that in some cases of
particular poisons, as, for instance, sulphuric, nitric, and oxalic acids,
arsenic, the compounds of mercury,|| and some others, the symptoms
only may occasionally afford decisive evidence of poisoning.**

* Stat. 21, Jac. I., c. 27, ante, p. 32.

+ Stat. 9,G. IV., c. 31.,s. 14,

+ Mary Ann Alcorn’s case, Syme’s Justiciary Reports, vol. i., p. 2213; and
Charles Munn’s case, Inverness Spring Circuit, 1824. Christison, On Poi-
sons, pp- 50, 82.

§ Christison, On Poisons, p. 39, citing Orfila, Hencke, and Beck ; and see,
to the same effect, Outlines of a Course of Lectwres on Medical Jurisprudence,
by Dr. Traill, p. 42.

|| Christison, On Poisons, pp. 165, 207, 308, 402.

** See the case of Richard Overfield, Shrewsbury Assizes, March 19, 1824,

CIRCUMSTANTIAL EVIDENCE. 23

Dr. Christison conceives that, in many instances, both of acute
and chronic poisoning with the strong acids, contrary to the general
statements of most systematic writers on medical jurisprudence, dis~
tinct evidence may be presented from the morbid appearances only.*

The effect of these several heads of evidence was much discussed
in the memorable case of Captain Donellan, who was convicted at
the Warwick Spring Assizes, 1781, of the murder of his brother-
in-law, Sir Theodosius Boughton. The material facts of this case
were as follow :—Sir Theodosius Boughton was a young man of
fortune, twenty years of age, and in good health and spirits, with
the exception of a trifling ailment, for which he occasionally took a
laxative draught. His mother and his brother-in-law, Captain
Donellan, and his sister, Mrs. Donellan, lived with him. At the
age of twenty-one years Sir Theodosius would have been entitled
to a fortune of above £2,000. a year, which, in the event of his
dying under that age, would have descended to his sister, Mrs. Do-
nellan. Lady Boughton went into her son’s room for the purpose
of giving him his draught, and remarked that it smelt like bitter
almonds. In about two minutes Sir Theodosius struggled very
much, as if to keep the medicine down, and Lady Boughton observ-
ed a gurgling in his stomach ; in ten minutes he seemed inclined to
doze, but in five minutes afterwards she found him with his eyes
fixed upwards, his teeth clenched, and froth running out of his
mouth ; and within half an hour after taking the draught he died.
Lady Boughton ran down stairs to give orders to a servant to go
for the apothecary, who lived at Rugby, a distance of three miles,
and in less than five minutes the prisoner came into the bed-room ;
and after she had given him an account of the manner in which Sir
Theodosius had been taken, he asked where the physic bottle was,
and she shewed him the two draughts. Donellan then took up one
of the bottles and said ‘‘ Is this it ?” and being answered “ Yes” he
poured some water out of the water-bottle, which was just by, into
the phial, shook it, and then emptied it out into some dirty water
which was in a wash-hand basin. Lady Boughton said, “ You
should not meddle with the bottle ;” upon which the prisoner
snatched up the other bottle, and poured water into it, and shook
it, then put his finger to it, and tasted it. Lady Boughton again
asked him what he was about, and said he ought not to meddle

for poisoning his own child with sulphuric acid, Edinburgh Medical and Sur-
gical Journal, vol. Xxii., p. 222.
* Christison, On Poisons, 52, 169.

24 ESSAY ON THE RATIONALE OF

with the bottles ; on which he said he did it to taste it, though he
had not tasted the first bottle. The prisoner ordered a servant to
take away the basin, the dirty things, and the bottles, and put the
bottles into her hands for that purpose, who put them down again
on being directed by Lady Boughton to do so. The body was ex-
amined ten days after death, but putrefaction was far advanced, and
the head was not opened, nor were the bowels examined, and in
other respects the examination was incomplete and unskilfully per-
formed ; “so that very little reliance,” says Dr. Christison, “ can
be placed on the evidence from the inspection of the body.”* Cap-
tain Donellan had a still in his own room, and had used it for dis-
tilling roses; and a few days after Sir Theodosius’s death he
brought it, full of wet lime, to one of the servants, to be cleaned.
It also appeared that Sir Theodosius, shortly before his death, had
bought arsenic to poison fish, and some of it was afterwards found
locked up in his closet. Captain Donellan appears to have resorted
to several disingenuous devices to prevent the post-mortem exami-
nation of the body, and to induce Sir William Wheeler, the young
man’s guardian, to believe that an examination had taken place,
when the professional men, having been led by the prisoner to sup-
pose it a case of ordinary sudden death, had declined the examina-
tion, on account of the advanced state of putrefaction in which they
found it ; there were several other circumstances of suspicion in the
prisoner’s conduct. Four medical men, three of whom were physi-
cians, were examined on the part of the prosecution, and expressed a
very decided opinion—mainly grounded upon the symptoms, the
smell of the draught, as observed by Lady Boughton, and the simi-
lar effects produced by experiments on animals with laurel-water to
the symptoms in the case of Sir Theodosius—that the deceased died
of poison, and that the particular poison was laurel-water. The
weight of Dr. Rattray’s opinion was greatly diminished by the fact
that, after he had known all the symptoms, and seen the body
opened, he had been as positive that Sir Theodosius died from arsenic
as he was at the time of the trial that he had died from laurel-water.
When asked “‘ Why may you not be mistaken now ?” he answered,
«TI cannot conceive that, in these circumstances, any one can be
mistaken as to the medicine; from the sensible qualities described
by Lady Boughton I believe it to be of that nature”-—the sensible
qualities referred to being the resemblance of the smell to that of
bitter Almonds. Mr. John Hunter was examined on the part of the

‘
* Christison, On Poisons, p. 725.

CIRCUMSTANTIAL EVIDENCE. 25

prisoner, and stated a positive opinion that the symptoms did not
necessarily lead to the conclusion that the deceased had taken poi-
son, and that the appearances upon dissection explained nothing but
putrefaction. This trial has given rise to great diversity of opinion
amongst legal and medical men, and the evidence of Mr. Hunter
has subjected him to severe animadversion by many of his profes-
sional brethren.*

Dr. Christison thus expresses his opinion upon this memorable
case :—‘ The conclusion at which, in my opinion, every sound me-
dical jurist must arrive is, that poisoning in the way supposed was
very probable. But I cannot go aiong with those who think that
it was certain ; nor is it possible to see on what grounds such an
opinion can be founded, when the general or moral circumstances
are excluded.”’t

This opinion seems to be sound and discriminating. It is clear,
from an attentive perusal of the testimony of the professional wit-
nesses, that their opinions were not formed upon symptoms and ap-
pearances only, but upon those symptoms and appearances joined
with other facts and circumstances. Mr. Hunter was much pressed
by the counsel for the prosecution, and by the learned judge, to give
an opinion grounded upon those mixed elements ; about which, he
justly observed, in one of his answers, every man was as good a
judge as he was.

The most decisive and satisfactory evidence of poisoning, is the
discovery, by chemical means, of the existence of poison in the body,
in the matter ejected from the stomach, or in the food or drink of
which the sufferer has partaken. Dr. Christison dissents from the
opinion expressed by all German and most French authors in medi-
cal jurisprudence, that “ poisoning can never be completely substan-
tiated unless the particular poison be found out.”{ That broad doc-
trine has certainly never been adopted in English jurisprudence ;§
and its adoption would be fraught with danger. Some of the vege-
table poisons, at least in the present state of chemical science, scarce-
ly admit of that kind of proof ;|| and to require it would be to pro-
claim impunity to offenders skilled in medical chemistry. A case of
conviction occurred in Scotland, where a servant girl had put some

* Beck’s Elements of Medical Jurisprudence, 901; Christison, On Poisons, p.
725; The Theory of Presumptive Proof:
+ Christison, On Poisons, p. 724.
+ Christison, On Poisons, Preface, p. 14.
§ Rex v. Donellan, ut supra ; and Rex v. Angus, infra.
|| Christison, On Poisons.
VOL. VII., NO. XXI. D

26 ESSAY ON THE RATIONALE OF

poisonous matter into gravy. Dr. Christison was of opinion that
all the symptoms might have been produced: by natural means ; and
was led to suppose that poison had been swallowed merely from the
circumstance of two persons being taken ill nearly at the same
time, after partaking of the same food, and with symptoms which
various kinds of poisons would produce. In answer to questions by
the court, he said the probability was greatly strengthened by the
fact that the violence of the symptoms was in proportion to the
quantities of the suspected food taken.* The prisoner'admitted that
she had introduced a little powder, but declared that it was only for
a bit of fun, and not to do harm, but merely to sicken the parties.
This question was the subject of much discussion in the celebrated
case of Castaing. But, upon general principles, it cannot be doubt-
ed that courts of law would require chemical evidence of the poison-
ing to be adduced wherever it were attainable ; and it is believed
that mo modern case of satisfactory conviction can be adduced where
there has not been such evidence or, in its absence, the equivalent
evidence of confession. The following remarkable case is highly
instructive in relation to this important question.

Robert Sawle Donnall, a surgeon and apothecary, of Falmouth,
was tried at the spring assizes, 1817, at Launceston, before Mr.
Justice Abbott, for the murder of Mrs. Elizabeth Downing, his mo-
ther-in-law. The prisoner and the deceased were next-door neigh-
bours, and lived upon friendly terms ; and there was no suggestion
of malice, nor could any motive be assigned which could have int
duced the prisoner to commit such an act, except that he was in
somewhat straightened circumstances, and in the event of his mo-
ther-in-law’s death would have become entitled to a share of her
property. On the 19th of October the deceased drank tea at the
prisoner’s house, and returned home much indisposed, retching and
vomiting, with a violent cramp in her legs, from which she did not
recover for several days. On Sunday, the 3rd of November, after
returning from church, she dined at home on boiled rabbits smo-
thered with onions, and, upon the invitation of her daughter, drank
tea in the evening at the prisoner’s house, with a family party.
The prisoner handed to the deceased cocoa and bread and butter ;
and while she was drinking the second cup she complained of sick-
ness and went home, where she was seized with retching and vomit-
ing, attended with frequent cramps, and then a violent purging took
place, and at eight o’clock the next morning she died. The nervous

* Rex v. Mary Ann Alcorn, Syme’s Justiciary Reports, vol. i., p. 221.

CIRCUMSTANTIAL EVIDENCE. 247

coat of the stomach was found to be partially inflamed or stellated
in several. places, and the villous coat was softened by the action of
some corrosive substance; the blood-yessels of the stomach were
turgid, and the intestines, particularly near the stomach, inflamed.
The contents of the stomach were placed in a jug in a room to which
the prisoner—to whom, at that time, no suspicion attached—had
access, and it appeared that he had clandestinely tampered with
those contents by throwing them into another vessel containing a
quantity of water; and there were other suspicious moral circum-
stances in his conduct which are purposely omitted in this analysis,
as the case turned entirely upon the question of the sufficiency of
the proof of the corpus delicti. Dr. Edwards concluded from the
symptoms—the shortness of the illness and the morbid appearances
—that the deceased had died from some active poison ; and, in order
to discover the particular poison supposed to have been used, he ap-
plied to the contents of the stomach the chemical tests of the sul-
phate of copper in solution, and the ammoniaco-nitrate of silver,
which severally yielded the characteristic appearances of arsenic:
the sulphate of copper producing a green precipitate, whereas a blue
precipitate is formed if no arsenic be present; and the nitrate of
silver producing a yellow precipitate, instead of a white precipitate,
if arsenic be not present. Dr. Edwards considered these tests in-
fallible, and used them, as he stated, because they would detect a
more minute portion of arsenic; on which account he considered
it to be more proper for the occasion, as, from the appearance of
the tests, he found there could not be much. Dr. Edwards also
tried experiments upon the bile mixed with water and with a decoc-
tion of onions, to ascertain whether any substances taken into the
stomach would alter the appearances produced by those tests, but
they produced no appearance of arsenic. The great object of the
prisoner’s counsel was to extract from Dr. Edwards, upon his cross
examination, admissions, Ist. That the symptoms and appearances
were such as might have been occasioned by some other cause than
poisoning ; 2nd. That the reduction test would have been infallible ;
and 3rd. That it might have been adopted in the first instance, and
might also have been tried upon the matter which had been used
for the other experiments. Upon his re-examination, Dr. Edwards
accounted for his omission of the reduction test by stating that the
quantity of matter left after the other experiments would have
been too small, and that it would not have been so correct to
use the matter which had been subjected to the experiments.—
The prisoner's counsel, having obtained this admission, proceeded

28 ESSAY ON THE RATIONALE OF

to neutralize and explain away the circumstances of presump-
tion against the prisoner, by shewing, first, that the symptoms and
morbid appearances, though they were such as might and did com-
monly denote poisoning, did not exclude the supposition that they
might also have been occasioned by cholera morbus, or some other
cause ; secondly, that no valid reason existed why, if arsenic had been
contained in the contents of the stomach, it had not been reproduced
in the metallic state, either by an original experiment, or by experi-
ments on the matter to which the other tests had been applied;
thirdly, that the dilution of the contents of the stomach had not ren-
dered the experiment of reduction impracticable, but only more
dilatory and troublesome ; and, fourthly, that the tests actually
resorted to were fallacious, and produced the same appearances upon
application to innocent matter, namely, the sulphate of copper pro-
ducing the green, and the nitrate of silver producing the yellow pre-
cipitate, on being applied to an infusion of onions. It was in vain to
urge that a decoction of onions was not the same thing as that parti-
cular preparation of onions of which the deceased had partaken, and
that, in the hands of the witness for the prosecution, this experiment
had been attended with a different result ; the facts adduced by the
prisoner’s witnesses conclusively proved that the appearances produced
by the tests employed might be produced by some other cause than
the presence of arsenic, and therefore that the tests were fallacious,
and that an infallible test might have been resorted to. Thus every
one of the grounds of presumption against the prisoner were succes-
sively destroyed, so that the case was left without any substantial
foundation ; though the conduct of the prisoner had naturally created,
and must necessarily leave, strong and well-founded impressions un-
favourable to the belief of his innocence.

The chemical evidence brought forward in the case of Mary Ann
Burdock, who was convicted at the Bristol Spring Assizes, 1835, of
the murder of Mrs. Clara Ann Smith by poison, presents an instruc-
tive contrast with that adduced in the last-mentioned case: the mo-
ral eyidence was also strong. The deceased, a widow, about sixty
years of age, was possessed of considerable property in money, and
had for several years lived in lodgings at various places, and ulti-
mately went to lodge with the prisoner, who kept a lodging-house in
Bristol. In October, 1833, the deceased became indisposed from a
cold; and in the evening of the 26th of that month the prisoner gave
her some gruel, into which she had been observed, by a young woman
hired to wait on the deceased, to put some pinches of yellow powder,

CIRCUMSTANTIAL EVIDENCE. 29

which she stated to be to relieve her from pain, after which she twice
washed her hands. The servant remarked to the prisoner upon this,
as an unusual mode of administering a powder. The prisoner cau-
tioned the servant not to take of any thing out of vessels used by the
deceased, falsely representing her to be dirty in her habits; and cau-
tioned her not to tell the deceased that she had put anything into the
gruel, representing that if she knew there was anything in it she
would not take it. The prisoner carried away what was left of the
gruel ; and in a few minutes after the deceased had partaken of it she
complained of being poorly, and in half an hour became ill ; vomiting,
purging, and violent pain ensued, and in about two hours she expired.
The prisoner had employed a man, about six days before this event,
to purchase arsenic in order to poison rats, a pretext which was proved
to be groundless. The deceased was buried on the 28th of October,
but her friends did not hear of her death until many months after-
wards. From the change which took place in the prisoner's habits
and mode of living after Mrs. Smith’s disease, from her denial that
the deceased had left any property, and from some other circum-
stances, suspicion was excited, and the corpse was disinterred and ex-
amined on the 24th of December, 1834, and found to be in a re-
markable state of preservation. Without detailing all the appear-
ances, it is sufficient to observe that the mucous membrane of the
stomach and duodenum was smeared very thickly with a large quan-
tity of a yellow substance, which penetrated in patches the coats of
the stomach and intestines; and where the spots had so penetrated,
the inside of the intestinal canal was stained to a much greater extent
than the outside ; so that it must have penetrated from the interior to
the exterior, as would be the effect of the matter having been taken
into the stomach. Mr. Herapath, the lecturer on chemistry and che-
mical toxicology at the Bristol Medical School, submitted the yellow
powder found in the stomach to various experiments. Having dried
it, he ground some of it up with carbonate of soda and charcoal, and
introduced it into a reducing tube, and immediately formed a volatile
metallic body, which was metallic arsenic ; he then oxidized the me-
tallic arsenic, and it sublimed into a white volatile oxide, which was
characteristic of arsenious acid; he then made a solution of the oxide
by infusing two drops of water, and added a small portion of ammo-
niacal nitrate of silver, when there was formed the characteristic yel-
low precipitate. He put into another portion a minute quantity of
ammoniacal sulphate of copper, which immediately produced the
green precipitate of Scheele ; and, finally, he reduced a larger quanti-

30 ESSAY ON THE RATIONALE OF

ty, and passed through it a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen gas, and
reproduced the original orpiment, or sulphuret of arsenic: these
various experiments were repeated five or six times, and uniformly
with the same results. Mr. Herapath then washed the stomach in
water, allowed the substance to precipitate, dried and weighed
it, and found it to contain seventeen grains; he then destroyed
the animal matter, dissolved the arsenic, turned the sulphur into
sulphurie acid, and precipitated the whole by sulphuretted hydrogen
gas, and that reproduced sulphuret of arsenic. From thirteen grains
of the mixed matter he obtained four grains of sulphuret of arsenie :
there were still some portions adherent to the stomach, which he
could not wash off, and it must be remembered that some had been
evacuated by vomiting. This case is one of the most satisfactory on
record.

Sometimes, even with all the aids of science, it is impossible to
arrive at a safe and unquestionable conclusion in cases of this kind.
A young man, named Freeman, a druggist’s apprentice, was tried at
the Leicester spring assizes, 1829, before Lord Chief Justice Best,
for the murder of Judith Buswell, his master’s female servant, by
Prussic acid. The deceased was pregnant by the prisoner, and was
found one morning dead in bed. Several circumstances led to
the suspicion that the apprentice had been instrumental in the admi-
nistration of the poison; but it was proved that the deceased had
made arrangements for a miscarriage by artificial means on the very
night in question; and it was therefore represented, on the part of
the prisoner, that she had taken the poison of her own accord. It
appeared that she had taken Prussic acid from a partially emptied
phial, which lay corked and wrapped in paper beside her bed, where
she was found lying with the bed-clothes drawn up to her chin and
her arms folded across the trunk ; a piece of leather and string, which
appeared to have been taken from a bottle, were found in the room.
It was considered in the highest degree improbable, but was, generally
admitted by the medical witnesses to have been possible, that the de-
ceased might have corked the bottle after taking the dose from which
she died, and the prisoner, though his conduct had very deservedly
drawn suspicion upon him, was therefore acquitted. The fact is in-
structive and admonitory, that Professor Christison, in the subse-
quent edition of his book, On Poisons, with the candour which ever
marks the scientific mind, acknowledges that the concurrence which
he had previously expressed in the opinion of the majority of
the witnesses, that there could not be time, after swallowing the

CIRCUMSTANTIAL EVIDENCE. 31

poison, for the performance of the acts of volition implied in
the supposition of suicide, was given rather too unreservedly ; and he
mentions a lately published case of suicide, in which an apothecary’s
assistant was found dead in bed, with an empty two-ounce phial on
each side of the bed, the mattress, which is used in Germany instead
of blankets, pulled up as high as the breast, the right arm extended
straight ‘down beneath the mattress, and the left arm bent at the
elbow.*

On the trial of Charles Angus, at Lancaster, in 1808, for the mur-
der of Miss Burns, there was abundant evidence of suspicious con-
duct to fix the prisoner as the criminal, had there been clear proof of
the corpus delicti. The cause of death was an aperture in the sto-
mach, alleged to have been caused by the action of poison; but it
was considered possible that it might have been a case of spontaneous
perforation after death, from natural causes, and there was no evidence
that poison had been administered. One of the medical witnesses
caused great offence by his testimony in favour of the accused, which
gave rise to much angry controversy; but the appearances have since
been declared, by the high authority of Professor Christison, to be
incompatible with the effects of a strong corrosive poison, unless
death had occurred very soon after it was swallowed, which was out
of the question.+

It of necessity happens that circumstances of suspicion in the con-
duct of the accused are frequently blended with the scientific testi-
mony; but it is apprehended that conviction cannot be considered
satisfactory, unless the crime be established by adequate evidence, in-
dependently of the moral circumstances. The peculiar office of evi-
dence of moral circumstances appears to be, the discrimination of the
guilty individual, rather than to supply deficiency of substantive and
independent evidence as to the existence of the corpus delicti.. Dr.
Christison urges that “there may be sufficient evidence in the symp-
toms and morbid appearances without any chemical facts to render
poisoning so highly probable, that, in conjunction with strong moral
circumstances, no sensible man can entertain any doubt on the sub-
ject.” Mr. Justice Abbot, in his charge to the jury upon Donnall’s
case, in reference to this question, said, “if the evidence as to the
opinions of these learned persons who have been examined on both

* Rex v. Freeman—Christison, On Poisons, p.'705; London Medical and
Surgical Journal, vol. viii., pp. 527, 750; and Beck’s Medical Jurisprudence,
p- 888.

{ Christison, On Poisons, p. 183; and the printed report of the trial.

32 ESSAY ON THE RATIONALE ‘OF

sides, should lead you to doubt whether you should attribute the death
of the deceased to arsenic having been administered to her, or to the
disease called cholera morbus, then, as to this question, as well as to
the other question, the conduct of the prisoner is most material to be
taken into consideration ; for he, being a medical man, could not be
ignorant of many things as to which ignorance might be shewn in
other persons: he could hardly be ignorant of the proper mode of
treating cholera morbus, he could not be ignorant that an early. burial
was not necessary ; and when an operation was to be performed in
order to discover the cause of death, he should not have shewn a
backwardness to acquiesce in it ; and when it was performing, and he
attending, he could not surely be ignorant that it was most material
for the purposes of that investigation that the contents of the stomach
should be preserved for minute examination.”* It is manifest that
the learned judge intended these remarks to apply only to cases cir-
cumstanced as the case before him was; for thus to conjoin the mo-
ral circumstances with the medical facts, as an element of proof of
the poisoning in cases not so circumstanced, appears to be open to
objection, since the hypothesis of poisoning is resorted to in order to
account for the moral circumstances as well as for the morbid appear-
ances, while the moral circumstances are appealed to as corroborative
of the evidence of poisoning.

Suicide and accident are sometimes artfully suggested and plausi-
bly urged as the causes of death, where the allegation cannot receive
direct contradiction ; and in such cases the truth can be ascertained
only by comparison of all the attendant circumstances, some of which,
if the defence be false, are commonly found to be irreconcileable with
the cause assigned. Although these cases are generally connected
with questions of medical jurisprudence, the scientific facts must
nevertheless be submitted to the test of experience and common ob-
servation, as applied by the mass of mankind in many other cases
not less difficult of determination. Such cases, therefore, in their
more general aspects and bearings, belong to general jurisprudence,
and supply important illustrations of general legal doctrines; and
they, moreover, shew the manner in which such defences are fre-
quently repelled by their manifest incompatibility with the general
circumstances.

William Corder was tried at the Bury St. Edmunds Summer As-
sizes, 1828, for the murder of Maria Marten. The deceased had

* Report of the trial, ut supra.

CIRCUMSTANTIAL EVIDENCE. 33

borne a child to the prisoner, and was taken by him from her father’s
house, under the pretence of taking her to Ipswich to be married.
The prisoner having represented that the parish officers meant to ap-
prehend the deceased, she left the house, on the 18th of May, in dis-
guise, a bag containing her own clothes having been taken by the
prisoner to a barn belonging to his mother, where it was agreed that
she should change her dress. The deceased was never heard of after-
wards; and the various and contradictory accounts given of her by
the prisoner having excited suspicions, which were confirmed by other
circumstances, it was ultimately determined to search the barn, where,
on the 19th of April, a distance of nearly twelve months, the body of
a female was found, which was clearly identified as that of the de-
ceased. A handkerchief was drawn tight round the neck; a
wound from a pistol ball was traced through the left eheek, passing
out at the right orbit ; and three other wounds were found (one of
which had entered the heart) made by a sharp instrument. The pri-
soner, who, in the interval, had removed from the neighbourhood,
upon his apprehension denied all knowledge of the deceased; but in
his defence he admitted the identity of the remains, and alleged that an
altercation had taken place between them at the barn, in consequence
of which, and of the violence of temper exhibited by the deceased, he
expressed to her his determination not to marry her, and left the
barn ; but that immediately afterwards he heard the report of a pistol,
and, going back, found the deceased on the ground, apparently dead ;
and that, alarmed by the situation in which he found himself, he
formed the determination of burying the corpse and accounting for
her absence as well as he could. But the variety of the means and
instruments employed to produce death, some of them unusual with
females, were considered important in connection with the contradic-
tory statements made by the prisoner to account for the absence of
the deceased and the general moral circumstances, to discredit the ac-
count ultimately set up by him. He afterwards made a full con-
fession, and was executed pursuant to his sentence.*

At the Durham autumn assizes for 1824, Mr. Hodgson, a surgeon,
was tried for attempting to poison his wife. It was proved that pills
containing corrosive sublimate, and compounded by the prisoner,
were given by him to her in place of pills of calomel and opium, which
had been ordered by her physicians. But it was alleged by him that,
being at the time intoxicated, he had mistaken for the shop bottle

“ Printed report of the trial.
VOL. VII., NO. XXI. E

834 ESSAY ON THE RATIONALE OF

containing opium the corrosive sublimate bottle, which stood next it.
This was certainly an improbable error, considering that opium was
in powder, and the sublimate in chrystals. But it was not the only
one which he alleged that he had committed. Not long after his
wife took ill, the physician sent the prisoner to the shop to prepare
for her a laudanum draught, with water for the menstruum. When
the prisoner returned with it, the physician, in consequence of observ-
ing it to be muddy, was led to taste it, before he gave it to the sick
lady, and, finding it had the taste of corrosive sublimate, he preserved
and analyzed it, and discovered that it did contain that poison. The
prisoner stated in defence, that he had a second time committed a
mistake, and, instead of water, had accidentally used for the menstru-
um a corrosive sublimate injection, which he had previously prepared
for another patient: but this was proved to have been impossible,
since the injection contained only five grains to the ounce, while the
draught, which did not exceed one ounce, contained fourteen grains.*

James Greenacre was tried before the Central Criminal Court, at
the Old Bailey, on the 10th of April, 1837, for the murder of Han-
nah Brown. The prisoner and the deceased were to have been mar-
ried; in the prospect of which event the deceased had converted
nearly all her goods into money. On the morning of the 24th of
December the deceased left her home, stating to a neighbour that she
was going to the house of her intended husband at Camberwell, but
should return in the evening. On the 28th of December the trunk
of a female was found in the Edgeware Road, without its head or legs ;
on the 6th of January a female head was found in the Regent’s Ca-
nal; and on the 2nd of February the legs of a female were found in
an ozier-bed, at Camberwell: these several parts were clearly ascer-
tained to belong to the same body, and were identified as the re-
mains of the deceased. Upon his apprehension the prisoner at first
denied all knowledge of the deceased; but he subsequently admitted
that, on the evening of the day on which the deceased left her home,
she came to his house, and he stated that they had had an altercation,
in consequence of her duplicity in the statement of her property ; and
that, during this conversation, the deceased was moving backwards
and forwards in her chair, which was on the balance ; that he put his
foot to the chair, and_she fell back, with great violence, against a
block of wood ; and that, finding life extinct, he made up his mind,

“ Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, xxii., p. 488; and a
On Poisons, p. 61.

a

CIRCUMSTANTIAL EVIDENCE. 35

in the alarm of the moment, to conceal her death and get rid of her
remains, in order to which he had divided them in the manner stated.
This ingenious fabrication was clearly refuted by the professional
witnesses, who proved that a wound in the eye, which had occasioned
the escape of the humours, and around which there was an ecchymo-
sis, must have been inflicted during life, and deprived the deceased of
sense for a time, and that it could not have been occasioned by a
blow at the back of the head; also that, from the retracted state of
the muscles of the neck, and the emptied condition of the blood-ves-
sels, the throat must have been cut either before or immediately after
death.

The length to which this paper has extended renders it necessary
to postpone the expression of some interesting reflections which spring
from the subject ; but we may remark in general, that the rule which
has been dilated upon is one of evident wisdom and utility, and that
the rigorous application of it is essential to well-founded confidence
in the truth and correctness of judicial determinations grounded upon
circumstantial evidence.

SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY.
Goutp’s “Brrps or EuRopE.”

Parts IX. anp X.

Part IX.—The first plate contains a very pretty and spirited
representation of the Common Scops, Scops Aldrovandi,—Scops
petit-duc, Z’7.,—Kleine Ohreule, G.* This species has a very wide
geographic range, being found in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Mr.
Gould has received specimens from China. It is common in the
south of Europe, but very rare in the north and in England. “ In

“ As regards the French, German, and Italian names, we prefer taking
them from other authors, as we find them, to altering them according to our
own views. They require, however, much revision: we believe such a re-
form has been effected in Mr. C. 'T. Wood’s Ornithological Guide ; but we
have not at present a copy of that work at hand. Eps.

36 SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY.

Europe it appears to be strictly migratory, arriving late in spring,
when moths and the larger Coleopterous insects, upon which it prin-
cipally subsists, abound; but in the hotter portions of the Old
World, where such insects are always abundant, numbers of these
birds are stationary throughout the year: to these, its most common
food, are added birds, mice, and other small animals. In its manners
it is principally nocturnal, issuing forth from its hiding place on the
approach of twilight, in chase of those insects which are also roused
from their state of repose at the same time.—It breeds in holes of
decayed trees, clefts of rocks, and old buildings, the eggs being four
or five in number, of a pure white.”—The sexes resemble each other.
Our author has, of course, represented this bird of the natural size.

A male and female, rather less than the natural size, and beauti-
fully executed, of the Common Teal, Querquedula crecca,—Petite
Sarcelle, F’r.,—Anatra querquedula, Jt..—Kriek Ente, G. Widely
distributed over the Old World, but not found in America, the bird
which occurs in that country, and which has been mistaken for the
present species, being distinct. Breeds in the north of Britain, but
great flocks visit us every winter.—Selby asserts that the broods
hatched in Britain never leave us, and we have no doubt whatever of
the accuracy of the statement. “The Teal breeds,” according to
that author, “ in the long rushy herbage about the edges of lakes, or
in the boggy parts of the upland moors. Its nest is formed of a
large mass of decayed vegetable matter, with a lining of down and
feathers, upon which the eggs rest ;” these “are eight or ten in
number, and of a yellowish white.”

The Middle Woodpecker, Picus medius,—Pic mar, F’r.,—Picchio
sarto, Jt.,—Weisbunt Specht, G. The plate represents a male and
female of the natural size ; they would have been better had the atti-
tudes been less constrained—a very common fault with ornithological
painters, but one from which Mr. Gould generally steers clear.
Common in Europe, especially the southern districts. It feeds, like
its congeners, on insects procured in the usual manner of the Wood- -
peckers, but also, according to the author of the work before us, on
“various fruits and berries.” Théeggs are of a glossy white, and
laid in the holes of trees. This species is remarkable for the simi-
larity of the sexes, which can only be determined with certainty by
dissection.

The Common Jay, Garrulus glandarius,—Geai, F'r.,—Chian-
daia, Zt.,—Eichel Krahe, G. The figure, natural size, is in many
respects very good; but it wants that indescribable pertness of expres-

SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY. 37

sion so remarkable in the Jay in its natural haunts. This beautiful
and well-known bird is common in the temperate portions of Europe.

Common Ossifrage, Ossifraga albicilla,—Aigle pygargue, F’r.,—
Fisch Adler, G. Excellent figures of an adult and a young bird of
the first year, one third of the natural size. “ It is the most common
of the European Eagles, and perhaps the most widely dispersed. In
the British Islands it frequently occurs along the rocky shores of
England, Wales, Ireland, Scotland, and the adjacent islands, and
many pairs are known annually to breed in different parts of the three
last-named countries.” Its range over Europe is extensive, but it is
most abundant in the northern districts, chiefly resorting to the sea-
shore and to the margins of rivers and lakes, in pursuit of fish. It
also feeds on hares, lambs, fawns, &c., and even carrion. Builds
mostly on rocks, but sometimes on the tops of lofty trees. It. lays
two white eggs. The sexes are similar, but the young do not attain
the mature plumage—characterized by the white on the tail, and
the yellow colour of the bill—till three or four years old.

A male, natural size, of that pretty little bird the Crested Tit,
Parus cristatus,—Mésange huppée, F’r.,—Hauben Meise, G. Sir
W. Jardine assures us that this bird regularly breeds near Glasgow ;
and although it is unquestionably a very rare bird in Britain, yet no-
thing is commoner than to meet with specimens said to be British, but
which are for the most part imported from the continent, in many
parts of which it abounds. “In habits it resembles the rest of the
smaller Tits, feeding on insects, berries, and the seeds of ever-
greens.’—M. Temminck says it builds in the holes of walls or trees,
or in the abandoned dreys of Squirrels and Pies. The eggs are as
many as ten in number, of a white colour, marked on the larger end
with spots of blood red. The sexes offer no difference in plumage.

Dusky Sandpiper, Totanus fuseus,—Chevalier arlequin, Fr.
The plate represents two individuals, one in summer plumage,
the other assuming its winter dress. The figures are good, but
we do not find in them quite so much of the graceful form
Mr. Gould speaks of in his description. Abounds in many
parts of Europe and Asia, breeding in the northern portions of
the former. Resorts to the borders of lakes and morasses, and
feeds on fresh-water mollusca, insects, and worms. Nidification un-
ascertained. The sexes are similar in plumage, but the female is
somewhat superior in size, and the young birds are distinguished by
the numerous white spots on the back.

Wood Shrike, Zanius rufus—Piegrieche rousse, £7.—Velia col-

\

38 SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY.

capo-rosso, Jt—Rothképfiger Vurger, G. Very accurate figures of
the male and female, natural size, but they might have been more
spirited. Abundant on the continent, especially the warmer por-
tions, but only a straggler in Britain. In habits, observes Mr.
Gould, it resembles the Redbacked Shrike, but it differs from its
congeners in the close resemblance of the sexes, which are only dis-
tinguishable by the brighter hues of the male. Feeds on coleopterous
and other large insects, and also on young and weak birds. Builds
in the forked branch of a bush, and lays five or six whitish-green
eggs, irregularly blotched with grey.

Spotted Nutcracker, Nucifraga caryocatactes—Cassenoix, F’r.—
Ghiandaia nucifraga, Jt—Nussrabe (Nut Raven!), G. Found al-
most throughout Europe, being migratory in the northern districts ;
arare straggler with us. Its habits and food bear a strong resem-
blance to those of the Woodpeckers, and, like them, it ascends the
trunks of trees in search of insects. It also subsists on nuts and
berries. Builds in the holes of trees, enlarging the cavity if neces-
sary, and lays five or six yellowish-white eggs. The male is some-
what larger than the female, and, Mr. Gould thinks, of a slightly
brighter hue. The figure, natural size, is as good as we can desire.

Crested Grebe, Podiceps cristatus—Grébe huppé, /’r.—Colimbo
cristato, J#—-Gehaubter Steissfuss, G. We have no hesitation in
pronouncing this decidedly the best of Mr. Gould’s plates we have
hitherto criticized. The adult especially is perfect in every respect,
and is truly a model of ornithological painting. Inhabits Britain and
the temperate regions of Europe generally, and also parts of Asia
and Africa, frequenting lakes and rivers, and occasionally resorting
to the sea-coast. The nest is formed of a mass of aquatic herbage,
on the margin of the water, with the variations of which it rises or
falls. Lays three or four greenish-white eggs, stained with brown.
The young birds and the adults in winter plumage have been de-
scribed as the Tippet Grebe. Mr. Gould alludes to the circumstance
of feathers being frequently found in the gizzard of this bird. Audu-
bon speaks of a feathery substance occurring in the gizzard of an
American species, and states that it consists of vegetable matter eaten
by the bird. Some time since we expressed an opinion that the mat-
ter found in the Crested Grebe might *be accounted for in a similar
manner: but the examination of a quantity taken from the stomach
of that species, and sent to us by an Irish gentleman, convinced us
that they are really feathers from the breast of the bird. This being
the case, the circumstance is not easily accounted for. True, a few

SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY. 39

might be swallowed during the process of preening the feathers, but
not to the amount in which they appear to be commonly met with.
Besides, why should that be the case with the Grebes alone, and es-
pecially in the Crested species ? But we must pass on.

On the next plate are figured a male and female, size of life, of
that beautiful little bird the Dartford Whinling, Melizophilus pro-
vincialis—Becfin pittechou, Fr. This species is very local in its
distribution, being only found in the warmer parts of Britain and Eu-
rope. In this country it is chiefly met with near London, frequenting
furze commons, where it breeds. The nest consists of dry grass and
vegetable fibres, intermingled with wool. The eggs resemble those
of the Whitethroated Fauvet. The plumage of the female is more
dusky than that of the male. Our author’s representations are very
faithful. Montagu’s description of this species is remarkably inte-
resting, and is, we doubt not, familiar to our readers.

Baillon’s Crake, Crea Bailloniti—Poule-d’eau Baillon, Fr. An
adult and a young bird are figured ; the attitudes are not unexception-
able, but the representations are otherwise excellent. Inhabits the
southern and south-eastern districts of Europe, and has occasionally
been taken in England, though its occurrence in this country was un-
known before the time of Montagu, the indefatigable author of the
Ornithological Dictionary, a work which will always be valuable in
the eyes of the ornithologist. This pretty little bird frequents the
margins of lakes, rivers, and marshes, especially where vegetation is
luxuriant. Here it sedulously hides itself from observation, and can
rarely be induced to take wing. “It is said to be able to swim and
dive very readily, and makes its nest near the water’s edge, in which
it deposits seven or eight eggs, not unlike a large olive in form, size,
and ground-colour, but spotted with darker greenish-brown.” Feeds
on worms, slugs, insects, seeds of plants, &c. ‘A specimen in the
collection of the Rev. Dr. Thackeray, Provost of King’s College,
Cambridge, was taken, during a cold and frosty January, on some ice
near Melbourn, about nine miles south of Cambridge. To this spot,
originally fen land, the poor bird had resorted, in an inclement sea-
son, to obtain a meal, but, having wandered far from its native and
more congenial latitude, was so exhausted by want of food or the
low temperature of the season, or the combined effects of both, as to
allow itself to be taken alive by the hand.” The sexes scarcely dif-
fer at all, but the young birds want the blue-gray colour on the under
parts characteristic of maturity.

Scarlet Trascel, Brythrospiza erythrina—Bouvreuil Pallas, fr.

40 SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY.

Lovely figures of the male and female, the latter being distinguished
by the entire absence of the bright scarlet tints of the male. The
Scarlet Trascel has been confounded occasionally with Wilson’s
Fringilla purpurea, an entirely distinct species. It appears to be
very rare in many parts of Europe, and our author is in possession
of some of the few specimens existing in British collections. It is,
however, common in Russia. It frequents gardens, and its habits
are supposed to resemble those of our Hedge Coalhood, Pyrrhula
vulgaris. The young birds, as well as the female, have no scarlet
on the head and rump; and we think, with Mr. Gould, that the male
casts off its brilliant attire in winter.

Common Buzzard, Buteo vulgaris—Buse, F'r.—Mause Falk, G.
We are very well pleased with the plate, representing an adult, two-
thirds of the size of life. The sluggish and timid nature of this spe-
cies is pretty generally known. Feeds on small mammalia and rep-
tiles, and even, when pressed by hunger, on dead or putrid animal
matter. Inhabits Britain and the temperate parts of Europe, espe-
cially the well-wooded districts. “The nest is constructed of sticks
in the densest part of the wood, and it sometimes takes up with the
deserted nests of Crows, Pies, &c. The eggs are two or three in
number, of a dirty white colour, slightly spotted with reddish-brown.”
Mr. Gould informs us, from his own experience, that “the birds of
one year old are much lighter in their plumage than those of the
succeeding year,” and that they become darker each year until matu-
rity, when the colouring is considerably more uniform.

Subalpine Fauvet, Ficedula leuwcopogon—Becfin subalpin, r.—
We believe it will be found necessary to remove this species from
the genus Ficedula; probably it will stand intermediate between
that group and Melizophilus. The figures on the plate, of both
sexes, summer plumage, are very fair. The male is distinguished by
the reddish-chesnut colour on the throat and breast: the young dif- ~
fer but little from the female. The Subalpine Fauvet never occurs
in England: “the natural habitat is limited to the south of Europe,
especially Italy and Sardinia; it is also known to exist in considerable
abundance on the banks of the Nile, as far as Abyssinia. It fre-
quents bushes and underwood, living upon insects, small caterpillars,
&c. Of its eggs and nidification nothing is known.

An adult male in the spring plumage, and a young bird of the
year, three-fourths of the natural size, of the Common Cormorant,
Cormoranus carbo—Grand Cormorant, /’r.—Marangone aquatico,
JIt——Schwarze Kormoran, G. The plate is “ not bad,” but scarcely

SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY. 4l

so excellent as many of the preceding. Common on the rocky and
reedy shores of Britain and the rest of Europe. “ They occasion-
ally perch and roost on trees, towers, and rocky projections ; and al-
though the summits and ledges of rocks overhanging the sea are the
principal and favourite breeding stations, still it is known to incubate
occasionally in trees, and even upon the ground, as is the case in the
Farn Islands, and the extensive reed beds in Holland. The nest is
composed of dried sea-weed rudely put together, and often of a con-
siderable thickness ; the eggs, generally three in number, are green-
ish-white, covered with a chalky coating, and extremely small com-
pared with the size of the bird. In swimming, the body of the Cor-
morant is nearly all immersed below the surface of the water, the tail
serving as a very effectual rudder, by means of which it is able
either to dive or turn in the most rapid and dexterous manner.” Its
food consists of fish, of which it destroys immense numbers, chasing
them under the water; the dilatability of the throat enables it to
swallow with safety fishes of comparatively large bulk. The young
have the whole of the under parts dusky white, and want the plumes
on the head of the adults.

The Orpheus Fauvet, Ficedula orphea—Becfin orphée, #r.—
The bill, and, indeed, the whole body of this bird are of a stouter
make than those of the more typical members of the genus; and,
with due deference to the opinion of Mr. Gould, we should be in-
clined to remove the species from Ficedula. Common in the south
of Europe, and sometimes found in Switzerland, but never further
north. Specimens have been received from India. According
to Professor Savi, its habits resemble those of the common White-
throated Fauvet of Britain. Feeds on insects and berries, and builds
in bushes, often in company with others of the same species ; also,
according to Temminck, in the holes of old walls, or under the eaves
of deserted and isolated buildings. Lays four or five eggs, nearly
white, irregularly marked with yellowish blotches and small brown
spots. The female is distinguished by the head being of the same
colour as the rest of the plumage. These birds are not remarkable
for beauty, either as regards shape or plumage, but they are well
figured in the plate.

Ring Ouzel, Merula torquata,—Merle a-plastron, Fr.—Merla
torquata, Jt.,—Ring Drossel, G. Our author’s figures, of a male
and female, size of life, are beautiful, and so is his description, which
we shall present entire :—“ ‘ The periodical visits of this bird to our
coast,’ says Mr. Selby, ‘ are contrary to the others of the genus that

VOL. VII., NO, XXI, F

42 SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY.

migrate, viz., the Fieldfare, Redwing, and Common Thrushes, as it
arrives in spring, and immediately resorts to the mountainous dis-
tricts of England and Scotland, preferring those that are the most
stony and barren.’ Although it doubtless always breeds in the situ-
ations above described, it may not unfrequently be seen traversing
the hedgerows of uncultivated lands during its passage to and from
distant climates.—In general form and appearance it strictly resem-
bles the Blackbird (Garden Ouzel), but in its manners it is much
more shy and distrustful, rarely permitting itself to be approached.
Unlike that bird, it is not observed skulking among the bushes, &c.,
but affects more open situations, which doubtless renders it habitu-
ally cautious, as being ‘more necessary to its safety. Its voice is
somewhat harsh and powerful, consisting of a few notes, which, ac-
cording to Mr. Selby, are not unlike those of the Missel Thrush.
On the continent it is distributed through most of the northern
countries, and is very common in Sweden, France, and Germany ;
indeed, with the exception of Holland, it is universally distributed
throughout Europe, as well as the adjacent parts of Asia and Afri-
ca. In all these countries it is said to be migratory ; and we may
easily conceive the cause of this to be a failure of a supply of food
in the peculiar situations it frequents, and the consequent necessity
of retiring to a more genial climate, where berries, fruits, and in-
sects may be easily obtained.—The male differs from the female in
the greater purity and contrast of his colours. The general plu-
mage is black, each feather having a margin of grey; a broad gor-
get of pure white extends across the chest ; the bill is blackish
brown at the tip and yellow at the base; legs blackish. The plu-
mage of the female is more clouded with brownish-grey, the pecto-
ral gorget being less extensive, and tinged with dusky brown. The
young males closely resemble the adult female, but in young fe-
_males the gorget is scarcely perceptible.”

Marbled Pochard, Fuligula marmorata,—Canard marbré, Fr.
An adult, rather less than the size of life, is beautifully figured.
Inhabits the south of Europe, especially Sardinia and the Asiatic
borders.—Habits unknown ; but Temminck informs us that the
sexes are similar. The peculiar marbling of the plumage at once
distinguishes this bird. We question the propriety of classing the
Marbled Pochard in Fuligula, and our author appears to be of the
same opinion, at least judging from what he says of F. rufina, a
closely-allied species.

Foolish Guillemot, Uria troile—Grand Guillemot, Fr.—Troil
Lumme, G. The plate represents, in a very creditable manner, an

SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY. 43

adult and a young bird of the year, of the natural size. The native
habitat of this common and well-known bird “ extends throughout
the northern regions of both hemispheres.” It is a truly oceanic
species, only frequenting rocky shores during the breeding season.
It abounds on the rocky coasts of the whole of northern Europe,
“whence it migrates southwards on the approach of winter, return-
ing again with the vast shoals of fishes which pass northward in
spring.” “After breeding they undergo a partial moult,” and
“lose their primaries so simultaneously as to be incapable of flight
for a considerable period ; a circumstance of little moment, as they
easily elude pursuit by diving, in which they excel surprisingly.”

Part X.—Rock Pigeon, Columba livia—Colombe biset, Fr.—
Haus Taube, G. Mr. Gould’s figure is, in many respects, excellent,
especially as regards the feathering ; the shape is not so perfect as it
might be. The representation is of the size of life. It is tolerably
certain that this bird is the origin of the dove-cot Pigeon. Inhabits
Europe and Africa, particularly the north of the latter country,
frequenting rocks and deserted buildings on the sea-coast. Very
common along the shores of the Mediterranean, and with us in the
Orkneys ; according to the author of the work before us, it is ‘ also
to be met with wherever abrupt rocks near the sea afford it a con-
genial asylum.” Lays its two white eggs on the shelves of the
rocks, and “ is said to breed twice or thrice in the season.” Judg-
ing by the fecundity of the domesticated race, this seems by no
means improbable. Feeds on grain and seeds, also slugs, &c. The
sexes closely resemble each other, but we believe a slight variation
in the brightness of the rich metallic hues on the neck might serve
to distinguish them.

Redbacked Shrike, Lanius collurio—Pie-griéche écorcheur, Fr.
—Velia minor, Jt—Rothriickiger Vurger, G. This bird is not
known in Scotland, but is the commonest of the genus in England,
especially in the midland and southern counties, arriving at the close
of April or the beginning of May, according to the forwardness or
otherwise of the spring. Also inhabits the whole of Europe and
North Africa. It frequents downs and open pastures, singly or in
pairs, and is partial to hedge-rows. Feeds on grasshoppers, beetles,
and “the larger kinds of flies, which it often takes on the wing,”
in a similar manner to the Flycatcher. It is also “ known to at-
tack young and feeble birds, mice, lizards, slugs, &c., which,” like
most of its congeners, “it impales on a sharp thorn or spike previ-
ously to tearing them to pieces.” “ Builds its nest in sharp thorny
bushes, often at a considerable distance from the ground, construct-

44 SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY.

ing it of dried grasses and wool, with a lining of hair.” The eggs
are five or six, pinkish-white, “ with spots of wood-brown disposed
in zones, chiefly at the large end.” The female is at once distin-
guished by the absence of the grey hood and the black streak on the
face. The plate represents an adult male anda young male. Both
are good, the latter unexceptionable.

Common Ruff, Macheles pugnax—Bécasseau combattant, Fr.—
Gambetta scherzosa, Jt.—Streits Strandlaufer, G. We are pre-
sented with figures of the male in summer and winter attire, and
an adult female, all of the natural size and very good. It is much
less abundant in England than formerly, but is still common in the
marshy districts of France, Germany, and Holland. In summer it
extends northward as far as Lapland, Sweden, and Russia, where it
is ascertained to breed. It is a strictly migratory bird. The Ruff
is polygamous, and its pugnacity is well known. The flesh of the
Ruff is considered a great delicacy, and considerable numbers are
annually fattened for the table. The adult male in summer plu-
mage is at once distinguished by its superior size, by the beautiful
feathers on the neck, and by the general brightness of its tints.
The male in winter attire resembles the other sex, except that the
colour of the throat and breast is very much lighter in the former.

Penduline Lannet, Zgitalus pendulinus—Meésange rémiz, Fr.—
Beutel Meise, G. A pair of these pretty little birds, with their
nest, are figured; we do not particularly admire the plate. Inha-
bits the south of Europe, frequenting the margins of rivers and
inland lakes, especially where reeds, willows, &c., are plentiful.
Its habits much resemble those of our Bearded Pinnock, Calamophi-
lus biarmicus. Feeds on seeds, aquatic insects, and small mollusca.
We believe the Pinnock likewise subsists on all the above kinds of
food, though Mr. Gould appears to think otherwise. The nest is
“* constructed of the soft down of the willow or poplar, and this sub-
stance, which closely resembles cotton wool, is interwoven together
with admirable ingenuity, so as to form a flask-shaped nest, with a
lateral opening into the internal chamber. It is suspended at the
extremity of a drooping branch of a willow, or any similar tree,
overhanging the water.” The eggs, five or six, are pure white,
marked with a few red blotches. The colours of the female are
more dingy than those of the male ; young birds want the black
mark on the face.

An adult male, in the breeding plumage and natural size, of the
Roseate Tern, Sterna Dougalli—Terne Dougall, Fr. A very pretty
and well-executed figure in many respects. The delicate rose colour

SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY. 45

on the breast, and the slender black bill, distinguish this species
from the rest of the genus. Its flight is peculiarly buoyant.
Abounds particularly in the southern regions of the Old World.
Its cry is said to be somewhat like the word crake. “Its eggs much
resemble those of the Arctic Tern, but are a little larger, more
pointed at the small end, with the ground-colour inclining to cream
white or pale wood brown.” Food and habits similar to those of
the other Terns. Time of arrival “the same as that of the Sand-
wich and Arctic Terns, and by the end of September nearly the
whole of them have departed for warmer latitudes.” The sexes do
not differ.

Pied Woodpecker, Picus major—Pic épeiche, F'r.—Picchio vario,
It.—Bunt Specht, G. This is an exquisite plate, representing, of
the natural size, a male and female, and the young stretching their
heads out of the hole of a tree to receive the food their mother is
conveying in her bill. The female especially is admirably executed.
Common in all the wooded portions of Europe, including Britain.
Feeds on insects and their larve, which it seeks on the trunks of
trees or on moss-grown rails ; likewise “‘ commits great havoc among
cherries, plums, and wall-fruitsin general.” Flight short and rapid,
and manners brisk and lively. Lays in holes of trees, sometimes
excavating these to a considerable depth. Colour of the eggs, like
those of other Woodpeckers, glossy white. The male is only distin-
guished by the occipital band of scarlet. It is, however, a singular
and apparently unaccountable fact, that “ the young of both sexes,
for the first three or four months of their existence, have the whole
of the brow scarlet,” whereas the adult female has no scarlet at all
on the head, and the male has only the narrow occipital band above
alluded to.

Marsh Sandpiper, Tringa stagnatilis—Chevalier stagnatile, Fr.
—Teich Wasserlaiifer, G. An elegant figure of the adult male,
winter plumage and size of life. In form it resembles Totanus fus-
cus, but it is little more than half the size of that bird. Does not
occur with us, and is very rare on the continent, though it extends
“from the north of Europe, its summer habitat, throughout the
eastern provinces, as far as the Mediterranean, frequenting the bor-
ders of large rivers, but never taking up its residence on the sea-
shore.” Obtains its food in marshes and similar places. ‘The sum-
mer plumage of the male is lighter on the upper parts ; the young
have those parts brownish-black, each feather being bordered with
vellow. Total length of the adult male about nine inches.

Little Bittern, Botaurus minutus—Heron blongios, F’'r.—Sgarza

46 SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY.

guacco, Jt—Kleiner Reiher, G. Figures, natural size, of the adult
and of a young bird in intermediate plumage, are given. The same
fault is observable in this plate as in the majority of Audubon’s
drawings, namely, too great a straining after pictorial effect. Mr.
Gould considers that the Little Bittern ought to form a genus fully
as distinct from Botaurus as this latter is from Ardea. In England
it is a rare bird, but it abounds in many parts of the continent, es-
pecially the southern provinces. ‘“ From the seclusion of its haunts
and the difficulty of its access, its nest is seldom seen ; it is said to
be placed in low bushes and tufts of herbage, amongst the thickest
rushes.” The eggs, five or six, are pale greenish-white. The body
of this bird being remarkably compressed, it is enabled to elude pur-
suit with ease, by threading the interstices of the rushes, &c., which
it frequents. Like the other Herons, it frequently perches ; its
flight is short, slow, and heavy. Feeds on small fishes, frogs,
snails, insects, and the like. The sexes are similar, and the young
are distinguished by the absence of the green on the head and back ;
they pass through several stages before arriving at maturity.

Maguari Stork, Ciconia Maguari,—Cicogne Maguari, Fr. This
large and handsome bird is well figured, less than half the natural
size. It cannot be termed a typical species, being, in fact, an ap-
proximation to the form of the genus Mycleria ; but its habits
much resemble those of the White Stork. Its true habitat is Ame-
rica, and the bird is only an accidental visitor to Europe; it has
never occurred in Britain. Nidification and eggs unknown. The
whole of the body is white, except the quills, secondaries, and upper
tail-coverts, which are glossy greenish-black ; bill greenish-yellow,
passing into dull blue at the tip ; tarsi and toes red. The Maguari
Stork is “ considerably larger than the White Stork.”

Little Zapern, Zapornia pusilla, Steph.,—Poule d’eau poussin,
Fr.,—Galinella piccola, J¢t.,—Kleines Rohrhuhn, G. An adult
male and a young bird, size of nature, are represented ; the figure
of the male is exquisite. The Little Zapern has only been met with
two or three times in this country, but is common in the eastern
parts of Europe ; more rare in Holland and the north of France.
Frequents marshy tracts, but also sometimes higher grounds. It
dives with ease, and can remain under the water a considerable
time, with only the bill above the surface; it also runs with celerity
amongst the rushes, but is very difficult to rouse, even with the
assistance of dogs. Feeds on insects, slugs, seeds, and other animal
and vegetable matters. Nidificates among reeds, on the broken
stalks of rushes and various aquatic herbage, and lays seven or eight

SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY. 47

oval-shaped eggs, yellowish-brown, with elongated marks of dark
olive brown. Young birds are of a much lighter colour than adults.
Mr. Gould believes the “ Olivaceous Gallinule” and “ Little Galli-
nule” of Montagu to be identical with the present species.

Common Kite, Milvus vulgaris,—Milan royal, Fr.,—Falco colla-
coda-furcata, J¢t.,—Rother Milan, G. We must confess this plate
does not please us; nay, in the somewhat tame figure we did not at
first recognize the beautiful bird it is intended to represent. It can
scarcely be said that any of the illustrations in the Birds of Europe
are bad, and, comparatively with most other ornithological works,
very few are indifferent. The Kite is equally, but sparingly, distri-
buted over the British Islands ; but is much less common than for-
merly. On the continent it has a wide range, appearing to inhabit
all the well-wooded districts. The elegance of the aérial evolutions
of this bird must be familiar to most of our readers, either by
description or actual observation. <‘‘Its prey, which consists of
mice, rats, leverets, young gallinaceous birds, ducks, reptiles, fishes
and insects, is sought for while it is soaring in the air at a moderate
distance from the ground, and is taken by a swoop so noiseless and
rapid, that little or no warning is given of its approach ; in this
way it sometimes commits great havoc among young broods of poul-
try, pheasants, partridges, &c.” The nest is constructed, early in
the spring, of sticks, lined with wool and hair, in the densest part
of the forest. The eggs, three or four, greyish white, spotted with
reddish-brown. Sex and age effect no very remarkable changes in
the appearance of the Kite. The figure, of an adult, is three-
fourths of the natural size.

Lapland Longspur, Plectrophanes Lapponica,—Bruant montain,
Fr.,—Lerchin Sporner, G. It is not at present known whether
the adult male of this species loses its strikingly contrasted colours
in winter or not. The Lapland Lungspur breeds within the arctic
circle, but it passes southward in winter, in Europe as far south as
Switzerland, and in America visiting the northern parts of the
United States. Dr. Richardson informs us that the nest is “ placed
upon a small hillock, among moss and shrubs, and is composed ex-
ternally of the dried stems of grass, interwoven to a considerable
thickness, and lined very neatly and compactly with deer’s hair.
The eggs are usually of a pale ochre yellow, spotted with brown.”
Its food consists of the seeds of mountain plants, &c. It appears to
be an almost exclusively terrestrial species, from the circumstance
of the British-killed specimens having been met with amongst vast
quantities of Larks in the London markets. The females and the

48 SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY.

young of both sexes are destitute of the varied plumage which cha-
racterizes the adult male. The plate represents an adult male and
a young bird of the year, pleasingly executed, of the living propor-
tions.

An adult male, natural size, of the Hawk Surn, Surnia funerea,
—Chouette caparoch, Fr.,—Habichts Eule, G. A beautiful figure.
The habitat of this bird extends throughout the arctic regions of
both continents, and it occurs in France and Germany, but not in
England. The Hawk Surn is often seen abruad in the day time ;
and this, in conjunction with its habits and structure, points out the

‘ passage effected between the Harriers and the typical Strigide by
this species. It builds in trees, and lays two white eggs. The sex-
es offer no material difference.

Common Serin, Serinus flavescens, Gould,—Grosbec serin, Fr.,—
Girlitz, G. We perfectly coincide with our author in the expedi-
ency of removing the Serin from the genus Fringilla. The native
habitat of the Common Serin is limited to the south of Europe, in
many parts of which it is very abundant, frequenting the margins
of rivers and lakes, especially where the Willow and Alder abound.
* It is also common in copses and orchards, where it breeds, making
its nest, which is of small dimensions, in low trees and bushes, of
vegetable fibres and grasses lined with wool.’ The female and
young want the yellow on the forehead. Beautiful figures of this
elegant little species are supplied in the plate before us.

Common Wigeon, Mareca penelope,—Canard siffleur, Fr.,—Ana-
tra marigiana, Jt..—Pfeif Ente, G. Lovely figures of the male
and female, rather under the natural size. The Wigeon abounds in
our lakes and rivers in winter; also occurs in considerable numbers
in the lowlands of the continent. It is a vegetable feeder, nibbling
the grasses, &c., on which it subsists, near the surface of the water.
Although most of these birds take their departure for the north in
spring, a few stragglers probably remain and breed in this country.
Lays eight or ten dull greyish-green eggs. It is impossible to mis-
take the sexes.

Blackheaded Xeme, Xema melanocephala—Mouette a-capuchon-
noir, Fr. An individual is very well figured, natural size. In
winter the jet black on the head, characteristic of the species,
changes into white. Common in southern Europe, especially along
the shores of the Adriatic; also abundant in Dalmatia, in the
marshes, on which it breeds. Feeds on small fishes, slugs, and ma-
rine insects.

We next find excellent figures of a pair of Cirl Buntings, Embe-

SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY. 49

riza cirlus—Bruant zizi, Fr.—Zivolo nero, It—Zaun Ammer, G.
Hitherto, we believe, the Cirl Bunting has been supposed to be en-
tirelvy confined, in England, to the southern counties ; but we are
happy to be enabled to extend its range as much further to the
north as Doncaster, an individual having been shot, about five miles
from that town, in the spring of 1837. Inhabits the south of Eu-
rope generally, and resembles the Yellow Bunting in habits. The
nest, constructed of dried grass intermingled with vegetable fibres,
and lined with hair, is placed beneath a low bush, or at the foot of
alowtree. The eggs are of a rounder shape than those of the Yel-
low Bunting, and grey, marked with dark zigzag lines. Feeds on
grain and insects, especially grasshoppers. The female has no black
on the throat.

Green Cormorant, Cormoranus cristatus—Cormoran Jargup, Fr.
An adult in the summer garb and a young bird are figured; the
latter is especially good. This species is easily distinguished by the
intense green colour of the body. Inhabits the north of Europe,
and as far south as the shores of the Mediterranean. Frequents
rivers and rocky sea-coasts, and feeds on fish. Constructs its nest
on the upper ledge of some bold precipice, forming it of dried sea-
weed ; the eggs, from two to four in number, are “of an oblong
shape and white colour, with a rough calcareous surface. The
young are at first quite naked, but are afterwards covered with
black down. The young of the year are of a much lighter hue
than adults.

Spectacle Fauvet, Ficedula conspicillata—Becfin a-lunettes, Fr.
The plate represents, in an admirable manner, a pair of these birds,
which much resemble the Whitethroated Fauvet in appearance and
habits. Spain is the only recorded locality for its occurrence, and
the nidification is unknown. The plumage of the female is paler
than that of the male.

This Part of the Birds of Europe closes with a fine representa-
tion of the Black Cormorant, Cormoranus graculus—Cormoran ni-
gaud, Fr.—Krahen Pelikan, G. Mr. Gould is convinced that this
species has no claim to a place in the British fauna. According to
Temminck it inhabits Holland, and enjoys a wide range through
the northern latitudes of both worlds. It is migratory in eastern
Europe, but Mr. Gould has never met with specimens from the lo-
ealities assigned by the Dutch professor. ‘‘ The plate represents an
adult bird, about three-fourths of its natural size, assuming the
white dots and crest of the breeding season.”

VOL. VII., NO. XXI. G

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BOTANICAL GEOGRAPHY
OF THE SOUTH OF EUROPE.

By Proressor Link.

Tue Flora of a country constitutes one of its chief characteristics :
to ask why a plant occupies this or that locality, is to ask why the
Crow has not the plumage of the Peacock. It is not easy to find
plants which characterize the longitude of a place, as well as its lati-
tude and altitude. Those must be selected which are widely distri-
buted, viz., those which Humboldt calls social plants, which are not
readily propagated by means of their seeds—as these may be easily
conveyed from one country to another—and least of all those which
grow amongst corn. Our beautiful corn-flower (the C. cyanus ),
which ornaments our northern fields, I, however, once found in Por-
tugal. And when even the selection be made, it is requisite to have
been long or frequently in a country to define with accuracy the li-
mits of a plant.

It is a well-known fact that many, but not all, of the plants of the
northern plains are found in the south, upon the mountains; and al-
though such plants may very conveniently indicate the climatic ana-
logies of mountains, yet they cannot be applied to the determination
of the climatic analogies of plains whence, at all events, we start.
They likewise must ascend mountains by degrees, and not make the ©
extraordinary leap of the Sandthorn, Hippophea rhamnoides ; for
we can travel from Riigen to Geneva without finding it but at those
two places. It is fortunate when the characteristic plant is so well
known as not to require accurate botanical knowledge to make the
requisite determination. The Common Whortleberry, Vaccinium
myrtillus, is a plant well adapted to indicate the elevation of the sur-
face. It grows in northern Germany, in the woods of the plains.
It then gradually ascends. At Friburg, in Baden, it is found only
upon the higher mountains ; in Switzerland, which itself is much ele-
vated, it grows in the woods of the first range of Alps, and is then
again not found until we reach the high Alpe di Caporagheno, above
Fivizzans, where it grows in the meadows with Colchicum autum-
nale. It was there met with by my deceased friend, Fr. Hoffmann,
who visited the spot shortly after me. And, lastly, it is only again to
be found upon the elevated Majella, in the Abruzzi.

But we will return to the plains, and there observe the plants which

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BOTANICAL GEOGRAPHY, &c. 5]

form the vegetable line of demarcation of the south of Europe. After
having entirely left the Alps, we observe an universally-known plant,
the Lavender, Zavendula spica. It is found upon the sunny hills
around Verona ; it is very abundant beyond Coni, towards the Colde
Teuda, there following the chain of mountains. It thence passes to
the south of France and Spain, where, in Arragon, it is still abun-
dant; but lower down, in the plains of Castile, it is not found, nor
does it present itself in Portugal. It likewise terminates near Rome,
and appears only on the high mountains on the coast of the Adriatic.
It is not an eastern plant; in Istria its place is supplied by the Salvia
officinalis, which there follows the Monte Maggiore, but which in
Italy grows only on the high mountains of the Abruzzi.

The plains of Lombardy form a garden where scarcely a wild
plant grows, at all events not one that is at all characteristical. Thus,
also, the whole of the hilly Istria is covered with plantations of
Olives ; and it is only between these that it is observed that the region
of Myrtles commences. The Myrtle, hence, is the shrub which fol-
lows the south. It covers whole districts in Portugal, and by the
side of brooks, especially, it becomes a tall and beautiful plant. It
thence passes on through central and southern Spain, the most sou-
thern part of France, as far as the coasts of Genoa. It is everywhere
found in the papal states, and around Naples, and occupies the whole
of Istria, as far as Monte Maggiore. It, indeed, stretches further
south, but becomes gradually more rare; and in the north of Italy
it is only seen in solitary situations. Further towards the south, on
passing the land of Myrtles, we come into that of the Rosemary, or,
more precisely, of the Oleander. It commences near Merida, in
Spain, follows the course of the Guadraria as far as Agamonte, where
formerly the good King Jargatai reposed in a grove of Laurels ; it
then fills the valleys of Algzra with its beautiful blossoms, whilst the
Serra di Monchique is studded with the flowers of the Rhododen-
dron pontificum. It is only found in the hot valleys of Calabria and
Sicily. When along the road to the ancient Troeza, after having
wandered in the Morea for many leagues, beneath a burning sun,
over arid waterless mountains, but sparingly sheltered by solitary and
not high wild Pear trees, Pyrus cuneifolia, it refreshes the weary
and thirsty traveller to behold a long stripe of Oleanders in the dis-
tance, twining around the mountains, with solitary plaintains rising
above it; for he is sure to find there a brook to quench his thirst,
and the Plaintains promise a re-invigorating shelter. These are the
three vegetable regions of the south of Europe, in their order of suc-
cession from the north to the south. We will now turn to the lines

52 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BOTANICAL GEOGRAPHY

of demarcation from the west to the east. It is not difficult to find
plants which indicate these divisions, for the Pines and Oaks readily
supply them.

The Pinus sylvestris does not pass the alpine peaks towards the
south, nor does it present itself beyond the Rhine to the west ; that is
to say in its wild state. Plantations of it have frequently been form-
ed in France. A large and beautiful tree, which is disfigured only
by its grey green leaves, the Pinaster—Pinus pinaster, Lam.; P.
maritima, De Cand.—forms the large forest of Leira, in Portugal,
but which Don Diniz planted from indigenous seeds. It is of a very
different appearance to the German Fir—for it forms a pyramid, and
not a crown ; the branches spring at right angles from the stem, and
the leaves are very long, and dark green. It stretches itself through-
out the whole of Spain as well as the south of France in the vicinity
of the Mediterranean, as far as the coasts of Genoa, both di Ponenti
and di Levante. It is recognized by the form of its extended branch-
es ; but it soon terminates, and in its place we find the Pine of Alep-
po—Pinus halepensis—as it is called by botanists who have adopted
the very laudable principle of altering no name, however incorrect
it may be. Its long and extremely delicate leaves sufficiently charac-
terize this tall and beautiful tree. It belongs to Italy, and indeed to
its plains ; but a different and equally beautiful Pine occupies the
mountains, with which we have not been long acquainted, the Pinus
Lariccio, which is found upon the mountains of Corsica, Calabria,
and upon Etna, of about the size and height of the Red Fir, Picea
eacelsa. It was formerly found upon the lower mountains of Italy,
on the coasts of Genoa; for Strabo says wood is felled there for
masts, it is exported, and in lieu they receive oil which is not pro-
cured at Genoa: it has now become precisely the contrary. Some
few years back, when the ground was removed for the foundations of
the Carlos Theatre, at Genoa, Pine-apples were dug up, one of which
Viviani, of Genoa, showed me, and it agreed exactly with the Pine-
apple I had brought from Etna.

Further towards the east, we meet with the Grecian Pine, Pinus
maritima. This is not a high tree, but it has a beautiful crown and
long bright green leaves, and this colour distinguishes it very strong-
ly from all the other species of Pine. I have found it wild no-
where but in Greece. It is very numerous in ancient Attica. From
the Acropolis there is seen in the distance, upon the sacred road to
Eleusis, a wood consisting of these trees, but which has now become
much opened. These woods are also seen upon Hymettus, also
upon the promontory of Sunium. In going from the hilly plains of

OF THE SOUTH OF EUROPE. 53

Megara to Corinth, the road suddenly rises towards the Isthmus, and
we enter a forest of these Pines. On the right rocks rise ; and the
mountains, up which the road winds, become higher and more preci-
pitous. The narrow arm of the sea and bay is almost closed by the
island Salamis, which, now deserted and uninhabited, lifts up its in-
numerable mountain peaks. The road hangs over the sea, upon the
edge of a lofty precipice, and would create giddiness did not a friendly
hedge of Mastic protect from danger as also its apprehension, and
permit us to enjoy without anxiety the beauties of the prospect. The
traces of walls are still seen amongst the rocks. Here dwelt, in re-
mote antiquity, the bandit Pityocampos, who bound the unfortunate
wretches that fell into his hands between two Fir trees bent down-
wards together, and killed them by this dreadful death. This story
is not improbable; for those Firs are low: with ours it would have
been impossible.

In the Morea this tree is not numerous, and it is found only upon
the northern coasts. The valleys of Epidaurus are adorned with it,
as are also the mountains of Aigina. It is most beautiful at the foot
of the elevated Cellene towards the sea, and upon the rough banks of
the river Xylocastro, which falls down from the mountains, it be-
comes a beautiful tree with a broad crown. On the southern coast
of the Morea it is rare, and the western coast is occupied by the Pi-
nus halepensis.

The three Pines—P. Pinaster, P. halepensis, and P. mari-
ttma—characterize three regions of southern Europe, from east to
west: and the same is the case with three Oaks. In Spain and
Portugal is found the Oak which bears edible acorns, and which
was well known to the ancients. Desfontaines re-discovered it upon
the mountains of Algiers, and called it Quercus ballota: and Count
Hoffmannsegg and myself were the first to inform botanists that it
grows in Spain and Portugal ; but that, for the sake of its fruit, it
is cultivated near Pontelegre, in Portugal, in forests, and these acorns
are roasted with chesnuts and sold at the gates of Madrid. In Italy
a different Oak is found, with edible fruit, and which M. Zenore, sin-
gularly enough, considers a variety of our Oak, Quercus pedunculata.
And in Greece, lastly, we find the Quercus egilops, the tall, slender,
and beautiful Vellanida, the Arcadian Oak, the fruit of which the
ancient Arcadians—the aravipayn dvdess of the Pythia—eat, and the
cup of which, by the name of “ knopper,” is carried to Germany.
The last is the Oak which bears the gall-nuts, Q. infectoria. It first
presents itself on the eastern edge of Greece, and becomes abundant
in Natolia—Wu1rGMAn’s Archiv., 2, 4, 328.

54

REMARKS ON MUSICAL PRECOCITY.

ILLUSTRATED WITH CASES.
By J. L. Levison.

Ir I had the technical knowledge of music possessed by the ta-
lented writer of the article “ On the Present State of the Opera,” in
the last number of The Analyst, I might hope to render this paper
more generally interesting. I shall, however, only give a notion of
the cerebral organization of some prodigies as infantile professors,
with the intention of adding my mite to our psychological informa-
tion. In order to render my thoughts practical, I propose examin-
ing the following propositions: that, in most cases of an early ma-
nifestation of musical talent, there are larger anterior lobes than in
commonplace children ; and that, in the cases of musical precocity
which I have investigated, there have been observed two conditions,
Ist. That the parent or parents have been themselves musical ; 2nd.
That all the nervous energy, or, as it is termed by physiologists,
the sensorial power, is abstracted for the purpose of developing fa-
culties predisposed to activity, and others are deprived of the ner-
vous stimulus.

I select the three cases which follow, as illustrating my views.
1st. Master Phillips, called “The Infant Trumpeter ;’ 2. Master
Shaw, a juvenile organist ; 3. Master Manton, usually announced
as “ The Infant Paganini.”

REMARKS ON THE CEREBRAL ORGANIZATION OF
MASTER PHILLIPS.

I took the phrenological development of Master Phillips a short
time since, whilst on a visit at Hull, and previously to hearing him
perform. He is about ten years old, thin and pale, being of a ner-
yous temperament. His head is above the average size, and the an-
terior lobes are deeper than broad—that is, they possess greater
length than breadth of fibre, particularly in the reflective region.
But the lower portions of the middle lobe, and part of the posterior
lobes, have breadth as well as length; or, in other words, the feel-
ings are large which impart energy to the character and give greater
vividness to combinations of the intellectual faculties, so as to indi-
vidualize a person for any specific or particular talent. ‘The organs

“REMARKS ON MUSICAL PRECOCITY. 55

of Combativeness, Destructiveness, Secretiveness, Constructiveness,
Self-esteem, Love of Approbation, and Firmness, are very large ; as
are also most of the organs of the moral group, and many of the in-
tellectual faculties. Taking a front view of the forehead, the lower
and outer portions seem contracted, owing to the upper and lateral
portions being so much expanded ; but a profile view shews a great-
er proportion of brain before the ear than there is behind it. His
chest is rounded and full, arising from the particular action of the
pectoral and intercostal muscles, and their long-sustained activity ;
but the abdomen is small.

Having thus given some idea of the cerebral and bodily organiza-
tion of Master Phillips, we may proceed to treat of his intellectual
qualifications, which are in accordance with the former, and may be
anticipated by even the tyro in Phrenology.

He plays the trumpet with apparent ease, and seems nothing
daunted, whatever may be the number of his auditors. He takes
applause as a matter of course, but it does not seem to puff him up
with pride, although there is no doubt that the great admiration he
receives acts as a powerful stimulus to Love of Approbation, giving
him the peculiar smile which this latter feeling imparts when cir-
cumstances excite its activity. Nor must we wonder if such a child
should experience something like vanity, when we reflect that even
the matured philosopher is not proof against it, particularly when
he is made the lion of his day. Master Phillips’s performance as a
trumpet-player is astonishing, considering his age ; and he has ex-
cited surprise and admiration everywhere, not only among amateurs,
but also among professors of music. ‘The combination of the facul-
ties essential to the musician are, some of them, above the mean ave-
rage of his other perceptive powers. The organ of Time is very
large, and Melody, Order, and Number, are full ; whilst Imitation,
Ideality, and Constructiveness, are very large. There is one pecu-
liarity in the forehead of this child ; the organ of Comparison is so
very large that it imparts a singular and particular expression. And
I have observed that when any of the mental faculties are in excess,
they impart to the mind a something which indicates that they in-
fluence the character. But as the education of Master Phillips had
been neglected, if we except the culture of his musical faculties, I
confess that it puzzled me very much to conjecture how Comparison
would manifest itself in him. When, however, I heard him play a
concerto, with variations, it was no longer a marvel to me, because
the powerful influence of Comparison was indicated in the varia-
tions, which were played with great taste and discrimination, pre-

56 REMARKS ON MUSICAL PRECOCITY.

serving distinctly the original air, and never sacrificing the rules of
harmony and melody for any clap-trap temporary applause. Men-
tioning these observations to his father, he told me that, when a
mere child, he would immediately detect the resemblance of airs (if
there existed any) of different composers, and he would point out
the exact difference between them; and when his infantile mind
could not express its thoughts in words, he would whistle first the
one air, then the other, and, with a quickness of gesticulation and
pantomimic language, call attention to any actual or supposed re-
semblance between them.

MASTER SHAW,
Orcanist To St. Perer’s Cuurcu, Drypoor, Hutt.

Master Shaw is robust, but small in stature, being fifteen years
old. He has rather a large head, and his temperament is nervo-
sanguineous. At the present time he is a pupil under Mr. Skelton,
a very talented musician. He plays on the organ with taste (Ide-
ality is large) ; his execution is excellent (Imitation is large) ; his
manipulation is surprising for one so young (Constructiveness is very
large) ; and he has an excellent moral organization, with large Self-
esteem, Love of Approbation, and Firmness; and, even when sing-
ing before large audiences at the Hull concerts, he is never abashed.
Master Shaw gives evidence of the accuracy of his perception of
melody that he is quite an improvisatore, astonishing those who
hear him with the sweetness, power, and harmony he displays when
performing the voluntary.

MASTER WILLIAM MANTON,
CoMMONLY CALLED “ THE INFANT PAGANINI.”

This child is not quite six years old, of a nervo-bilious tempera-
ment, and with a head which is much malformed in the lateral and
posterior regions, but, as in other cases of precocity, the anterior
lobes are large. The sentiments and feelings are also strongly de-
veloped, particularly those which give confidence, taste, skill in exe-
cution, and the power of expressing the thoughts of a composer.
The organs of Self-esteem, Love of Approbation, and Firmness,
are very large, as are also Constructiveness, Ideality, and Imitation ;
and Order, Number, Individuality, and Eventuality, are very large:
Time is full.

Master Manton is travelling with Mr. F. A. Beverley, vocalist

REMARKS ON MUSICAL PRECOCITY. a7
a

and guitarist, and he plays on the harp and violin. I attended a
“Musical Melange,” and was delighted with the little premature
performer. He played the Cuckoo solo, and also St. Patrick’s Day
in the Morning, on one string (@ la Paganini), and an air on the
harp, with variations. It was a feeling of surprise and admiration
we experienced when watching this little boy run his puny finger
along the strings of the harp, and bring out the tones with great
skill, considering his tender age. It was, however amusing to see
this little fellow, at the conclusion of each stanza, give the Pagani-
nian shake of his bow with all the proud consciousness of superi-
ority, and with as much an air of triumph as the mighty Italian
himself, whose flourish of the bow seemed to indicate that he was
the prince of violinists and a musical magician.

I should deem it a comparatively profitless task to trouble your
readers with these little sketches of the musical triumvirate I have
named, if I did not hope to make their history a means of explain-
ing my own thoughts on musical precocity. From many observa-
tions I have made, the early development of a genius for Music or
Painting may be referred to hereditary influence imparting a ten-
dency to some organs to become more active than others, and to the
circumstances in which such supposed prodigies are placed. The
circumstances sometimes may appear to be adventitious means of
developing their innate tendencies, or certain plans may be made to
eall forth and foster any indications of particular talent. It may
further be stated, that in most instances of early genius the sensorial
power is concentrated and engrossed by a few faculties, to which it
imparts an unhealthy energy. In Master Phillips’s case, we have
seen that his mental activity is in one direction, and hence his pow-
ers of musical perception and of the relative duration and intensity of
sounds. His history confirms my opinion that his particular bias is
referable to causes preceding his birth, and from others in subse-
quent operation, which conjointly rendered him a genius. The
proofs I offer are these: his father was master of a band and played
on many instruments, having quite a passion for music :* he would
therefore impart a tendency to the faculties of Melody, Time, &c.,
and predispose them to be susceptible of being easily excited ; and
when the child “breathed the breath of life” music was used as a
means of amusement. But the discovery that the baby musician

* By passion 1 mean a very high state of excitement of particular powers,
arising from excessive activity and great stimulation.
VOL. VII., NO. XXI. H

58 REMARKS ON MUSICAL PRECOCITY.

preferred the trumpet to every other instrument may almost be re-
garded as accidental. This was ascertained by the fact that when
he was crying no other music would pacify him—that a few notes
from the trumpet would have a magical effect in stopping his un-
musical screaming ; and by this means only his sorrow or anger was
changed to joyous mirth and unrestrained expressions of pleasure.
He would listen to this instrument not only with evident satisfac-
tion, but with some symptoms of abstraction. Yes, so great was his
love for the “‘ war-stirring sounds” of the trumpet, that when tired,
cross, and nearly asleep, he would be immediately roused by its
shrill notes, and appear lively and excited. After many such expe-
riments, Mr. Phillips determined to cultivate his interesting child,
and encourage his particular predilection. For this purpose he
used to play for hours on the favourite instrument, and the young
pupil listened and smiled, and imitated as well as he could the notes
or the air. It was in this way that the child was educated for a
musician, and expended all the energy of his mind (the sensorial
power) on this one pursuit, which has rendered his organs of Me-
lody, Time, &c., active and vigorous.

In the case of Master Shaw there is similar evidence of his
receiving a musical bias from his father, who not only had a decided
taste for music, but had cultivated it to such a degree as to be con-
sidered respectable in the art, and is now principal bass singer at
the High Church, Hull. His son had, therefore, a musical ten-
dency transmitted to him by his father ; and as the boy’s taste for
music was early manifested, every opportunity was taken to culti-
vate it. I may further remark, that it does not appear to be a mere
matter of accident or caprice the choice which infantile professors
make as to the kind of instrument or the composition they show a
preference for. Phillips’s organization makes him delighted with
martial music, and Shaw’s with sacred music ; the one evinced, even
as a baby, an extreme pleasure for the trumpet, and the other for
the organ.

If the cases of Phillips and Shaw confirm my views, there is
still more coroborative proof in the personal history of Master Man-
ton. His father, I am told, is a musician, and had brought up ano-
ther son to be a public performer on the harp. But probably charm-
ed with the immense fortune which Paganini was receiving, he was
determined to make little William eminent on the violin. Be this
as it may, it is a matter of fact that little Manton, even from a
baby, was in love with “ the harmony of sweet sounds ;” and all his
mental energy was directed to this one object. William Manton is

REMARKS ON MUSICAL PRECOCITY. 59

very clever for his age, but he has been entirely neglected in his
education ; and I am informed that he has been exhibited, night
after night, at public houses and taverns. Very often, moreover,
when tired and worn out, he has been roused from his sleep and put
upon a table to play to the company resorting to the above places of
entertainment ; and his health has materially suffered from such
unnatural stimulation of the brain. To give some idea of the exer-
cise he has had, I may say that he will tell any note of any string
struck ; and such is the nicety of his perception, the accuracy of his
judgment, and his knowledge of the relative duration of musical
notation in the most complex composition, that he instantly detects
any violation of melody and the slightest discrepance in the harmo-
ny of it.

But although it is pleasing and astonishing that a young child
not six years old should play on the harp and violin with admirable
taste and correctness, we must regret that such perfection can only
be attained at the expense of health and the neglect of all or most
other intellectual pursuits—pursuits which are more important in
point of utility, and which render men useful in their generation.

In conclusion, I would observe that if any boy, with a good tem-
perament and large anterior lobes, had the musical group early and
constantly cultivated, and if care was taken to select the kind of
composition suitable to the organization of the individual, there is
no doubt but that he would manifest that degree of talent for mu-
sic which constitutes genius. Hence we arrive at data for making
musical prodigies. We have only to give exclusive attention to the
child, and concentrate the nervous energy of the brain (the senso-
rial power) to the perception of sounds, their relative duration, and
their comparative intensity ; and if our pupil is the child of musical
parents it would be so much the better, and would expedite the
results we have anticipated. It is true we admire such talented
children ; but I repeat that the distinction is purchased at a very
dear price—the loss of health and of general and useful know-
ledge.

60

UPON FOSSIL INFUSORIA.
By C. G. EHRENBERG.

M. C. Fiscuer, the proprietor of the manufactory of porcelain at
Pirkenhammer, near Carlsbad, has observed that the substance re-
sembling siliceous concrete, which occurs in the peat bogs near Fran-
zensbad, in Bohemia, consists almost exclusively of the armour of
some species of Vavicula.

Together with this information, M. Fischer sent me a piece of the
siliceous mass, about 2” long, 1” broad, and 2” high, as well as some
specimens of the peat, intreating me to ascertain the animal, and to
publish the result. Microscopic inspection immediately confirmed the
discovery of M. Fischer, that the siliceous concrete (kieselguhr) of
Franzensbad consisted almost exclusively of very well preserved Va-
vicule, with which other Bacillaria were intermixed ; and the per-
fect transparency of their siliceous armour, and its purity from all
organic matter, renders it probable that an unusually intense heat
had purified them and amassed them together. It is improbable that
they should have originated at the bottom of the sea; for the majo-
rity of the animals, both in form and the relative numbers of their
stri, correspond very accurately with those of the Nav. viridis,
which is found in all the fresh-water about Berlin, as well as else-
where. In the specimens of peat I could also recognise Navicule,
yet they were generally different, though still existing species, fewer
in relative proportion, and the prevailing forms very different.

Original specimens of the siliceous concrete (kieselguhr) of the Isle
of France and of Santa Fiora, in Tuscany, which were analyzed by
Klaproth, shewed that they likewise consisted almost exclusively of
the envelopes of infusoria of several genera of Bacillaria, yet some-
times of the same and almost all still living species, in conjunction
with rare siliceous spicula of fresh and sea-water sponges, without
any intervenient binding material. This, therefore, is an additional
confirmation of Kiihzing’s discovery, that the armour of the Bacilla-
via consists of silex.

I myself discovered, several years ago, that the ochraceous slimy
substance which sometimes covers the bottom of marshy brooks and
moats, and which appears to have been considered as a deposit of the
oxide of iron, is a very delicate Bacillaria, which, at a red heat, be-
comes red like the oxide of iron, and contains much iron, but does not

UPON FOSSIL INFUSORIA- 61

lose its form either by a red heat or upon being treated with acids,
and, consequently, possesses siliceous armour most approximating to
that of the genus Gaillonella. I therefore figured it last year as
Gaillonella ferruginea, in plate ten of my Infusorien Codes, which
will now soon appear. The above circumstances make it probable
that G. ferruginea played an important part in the formation of bog
iron, either by the direct amount of its own iron or by the attrac-
tion of all in its vicinity.

The following are the fossil species of infusoria which I have de-
tected in the above-named substances :—I. In the siliceous concrete
(kieselguhr) of Franzensbad: 1. Navicula viridis of very different
sizes, the largest 1", forming the major part of the mass; 2. N. gib-
ba; 3. N. fulva; 4. N. Librile ; 5. N. striatula ; 6. N. viridula ;
(the last two are salt-water animals, all the first are inhabitants of
fresh water); 7. Gomphonema paradoxum; 8. G. claratum ; 9.
Gaillonella varians ? all fresh-water animals—none to be distin-
guished from the living species. II. In the peat of Franzensbad:
1. Navicula granulata is the most numerous, and was hitherto un-
known ; 2. N. viridis, rare; 3. Bacillaria vulgaris? 4. Gomphone-
ma paradoxum ; 5. Cocconeis undulata ; all living forms—the last
found in the salt water of the Baltic. III. In the brugmehl of
Santa Fiora: 1. Synedra capitata, forming the chief mass—an_hi-
therto unknown form ; 2. S. ulna; 3, N. Librile ; 4. N. gibba; 5.
N. viridis ; 6. N. capitata ; 7. N. zebra; 8. N. pheeniceutron ; 9. N.
inequalis (all still living in fresh water) ; 10. N. viridula ; (found
still in salt water); 11. N. granulata ; 12. N. follis (unknown
species) ; 13. Gomphonema clavatum ; 14. G. paradoxum; 15. G.
accuminatum (all still found in fresh water) ; 16. Cocconema cym-
biforma (a still existing fresh-water animal) ; 17. Cocconeis undu-
lata (still found in salt water) ; 18. Gaillonella Italica, n. s. ; 19.
the siliceous spicula of a spongia or spongilla. IV. Klaproth’s sili-
ceous concrete (kieselguhr) from the Isle of France, exhibited, 1.
Bacillaria vulgaris? constituting the chief mass; is still found
everywhere in salt water ; 2. B. major (an unknown species) ; 3.
Navicula gibba (still living, both in fresh and salt water); 4. N.
alia (sp. undetermined) ; 5. N. bifrons: all these species are not
so well preserved as those in the former stones, and appear, with the
exception of the latter, to be salt-water animals.

The majority of these fossil infusoria are still found living near
Berlin and in the waters of the Baltic, near Wismar. The greater
number are so well preserved that they may be closely inspected.
Thus, for instance, it is not only possible to count the number of

62 UPON FOSSIL INFUSORIA.

the ribs, but also the six apertures of the armour of Navicula viri-
dis, the four apertures of Gaillonella, the two apertures of Gompho-
nema, &c. The stone of the Isle of France only appears to contain
a preponderance of salt-water animals. The few yet unknown
forms may be considered very appropriately as still existing, al-
though yet undiscovered, animals. What is most striking, is the
preponderance of individual species which thus characterize the dif-
ferent stones; for instance, the Navicula viridis in the siliceous
concrete (kieselguhr) of Franzensbad, Bacillaria vulgaris in that of
the Isle of France, and Synedra capitata in the pulverulent silica
(bergmehl) of Santa Fiora. The still existing ones are more mixed,
and live only about and upon plants, on which they feed.

Purchasable foliaceous tripel (Blatter tripel) likewise shewed that
its mass equally consisted of infusoria. The polishing slate of Bilin,
in Bohemia, which forms entire beds, I have discovered to consist
almost exclusively of infusoria, which may be ascribed to the genus
Gaillonella (G. distans). Podosphenia nana, n. sp., Navic. scal-
prum ? and Bacillavia vulgaris (the last are still living salt-water
animalcule), present themselves only occasionally ; the first alone is
sometimes in equal abundance with the Gaillonella. There are
found in the same polishing slate the impressions of plants and an
extinct species of fish—Leuciscus papyraceus of Bronn, accord-
ing to Agassiz. In the adhesive slate of Menilmontant I found but
thin doubtful traces of the altered Gaillonella distans. An indivi-
dual of this species, which forms, almost without any connecting
substance, the polishing slate, is 4,/” large ; many are smaller, and
one cubic inch of this stone contains 41,000,000,000 (! !—Enb.) of
these animals.

63

EDUCATION, AS IT IS AND AS IT SHOULD BE.

“ Phrenology is a science, without which the attempt at education must
ever be totally futile and unsuccessful, and its pretence nothing more than a
bitter satire upon human ignorance, folly, and presumption.”—TouLmMIN
SmiTHu.

Ir would be difficult to point out a subject of greater interest to
the philanthropist than education ; and, whether considered as a
duty or a pleasure, it is a subject which should occupy the foremost
place in the thoughts of every one who looks forward with delight
to the improvement of his species. It is a subject, however, which
has hitherto been left to a degree of neglect proportionate to its
merits ; and although appeals have, during the last few years, been
made to the public, these have been like a voice in the wilderness,
and there has been little apparent progress in forwarding the cause.
However, I consider it to be the duty of every one to apply himself
to the removal of the errors which compose that curious system
usually called a liberal education ; and, accordingly, I now propose
to lay before the reader a sketch of the way in which education
might be conducted with a certainty of suecessful results, and with
equal pleasure to teacher and pupil. This has been done many
times by men of note; but by various means the required impres-
sion has not been made; the books of Locke, Kames, and Pesta-
lozzi, lie on the shelf: they are praised by the tongue, but are for-
gotten in practice. This has, no doubt, in some measure, been
owing to the want of some system by which the truth of their pre-
cepts might not only be enforced, but also demonstrated. I, accord-
ingly, shall now draw an outline of “ education as it should be ;”
and as my principal object is to enforce the ideas I shall pro-
mulgate, I shall in every case, where practicable, convey these in
the words of some great author ; for I know that the organ of Ve-
neration is usually at least as active as Causality: and I have fre-
quently observed, with pain, that an idea which is scouted when
propounded in plain terms by an humble individual, will elicit ap-
plavse and gain assent when dressed in elegant or eloquent phrases,
and backed by some great authority. So much more active are the
feelings than the reflective powers in the generality of mankind !

64 EDUCATION, AS IT IS AND AS IT SHOULD BE.

All the ideas which I shall now gather I have myself expressed long
before I had access to any of the authorities which I shall have
the pleasure of quoting for the advantage of my readers.

Education may be defined, the science which teaches us to culti-
vate the faculties with the greatest advantage, to strengthen the
weak, moderate the over-active, and to combine all into one harmo-
nious whole. It was formerly a frequently-agitated question whe-
ther general education was a beneficial thing ; but the very form of
the question is founded in error ; for every human being is of neces-
sity educated; and it is as impossible to withhold education from
the mass of mankind as it would be to deprive them of air.

The word education is derived from e out and duco to lead ; and
thus simply signifies leading an organ out by exercise. One who
lives among those who habitually drink to excess has his organ of
Alimentiveness educated ; one who lives in combative company will
have his Combativeness educated, and so on; and in this way all
the forty organs are educated according to the circumstances in
which the individual finds himself. The pickpocket and the poach-
er are educated equally with the university youths, and the educa-
tion in these cases, as in every other, commences at birth. The
question, therefore, as an able writer has lately said, is not between
education and no education, but between a good education and a
bad education.

Education may be divided into two distinct heads :—lIst, the
manner of instructing, and 2nd, the matter. This distinction is
very generally overlooked, in consequence of which very disastrous
results ensue. ‘ The manner of giving instruction,’ says Mr.
Owen, “ is one thing, the instruction itself another, and no two ob-
jects can be more distinct. The worst manner may be employed to
give the best instruction, and the best manner to give the worst
instruction.” I am afraid that it is too frequently the case to find
the worst manner and matter combined. This can only be attri-
buted to the incapacity of the teacher ; and therefore, before enter-
ing on either the manner or the matter, it will be necessary to give
a few directions, indispensable for parents to attend to in the choice
of a teacher. °

‘¢Seek you to train your fav’rite boy ?
Each caution, ev’ry care, employ ;

And, ere you venture to confide,

Let his preceptor’s heart be tried ;
Weigh well his manners, life, and scope;
On these depend thy future hope.”

EDUCATION, AS IT IS AND AS IT SHOULD BE. 65

In following this advice, Phrenology will be a most effectual aid.
This science shows us the reason why some teachers succeed while
others fail, and it likewise gives us a key by which we may discover
the competent and discard the incompetent without any loss of time
or money. Philoprogenitiveness is one of the organs indispensable
to the teacher. Combe remarks on this organ as follows :—‘“ The
natural language of the faculty is soft, tender, and endearing. It
is essential to a successful teacher of children. Individuals in whom
the organ is deficient have little sympathy with the feelings of the
youthful mind, and their tones and manner of communicating in-
struction repel, instead of engaging, the affections of the scholar.
This is the cause why some persons, whose manner, in intercourse
with their equals, is unexceptionable, are nevertheless greatly dis-
liked as teachers ; and children are generally in the right in their
antipathies, although their parents and guardians, judging by their
own feelings, imagine them actuated by caprice.”

Every one who has had the slightest experience in the subject
must feel how exquisitely true to nature is the foregoing descrip-
tion. Emphatically it may be said—their tones and manner of
communicating instruction repel, instead of engaging, the affections
of the scholar. And yet the parent sees nothing of this, and the
poor pupil is obliged to toil wearily on, like the panting Hart on
the parched desert, with not even a patch of meen to refresh the
aching sight.

There are other faculties equally indispensable ies a successful
teacher. Mr. Combe enumerates them as follows :—* Individuality,
Eventuality, and Concentrativeness, are indispensable qualities to a
good teacher. JI have never seen a person capable of interesting chil-
dren and exciting their intellects who was deficient in both the first
and second. The manner of a teacher thus deficient, is vague,
abstract, and dry, and altogether unsuited to their mental condition.
These three organs large, combined with large Philoprogenitive-
ness, Benevolence, and Conscientiousness, and an active tempera-
ment, constitute the leading elements of a good teacher.”

This passage agrees with my own experience. I have known a
teacher labouring for years, quite unsuccessfully, to instruct several
pupils of excellent dispositions and good capacities, and at the end
they knew little more of the subjects on which so much labour and
trouble had been expended than at the beginning. Before I knew
Phrenology, I used to suppose, judging from the manner in which
the teacher conducted his system, that he did not in reality wish to
instruct, but to torment and irritate his pupils, and certainly he suc-

VOL. VIL., NO. XXI. I

66 EDUCATION, AS IT IS AND AS IT SHOULD BE:

ceeded in this at least: but when I became acquainted with Phreno-
logy—behold, the cause of the failure became as clear as the noon-
day sun!—he had the three first organs enumerated by Combe
deficient. Another master, with whom I was acquainted, had not
the slightest experience in teaching ; but he was completely success-
ful with the same pupils, who were always sorry to miss a lesson
with him: in him the three organs were large. Another teacher
possessed two of the organs large, namely, Individuality and Con-
centrativeness ; but the third, and most important one (Eventua-
lity), small. When he became acquainted with Phrenology, he
said he felt the deficiency ; but he added that he found that science
of great assistance to him, for he read over carefully the functions of
the deficient organ, and was thus in some measure enabied to sup-
ply its place: and, at any rate, he then saw how far he himself was
to blame for any want of progress in his pupils.

But if all the three organs are deficient, Phrenology will be of
little or no use to the individual ; he cannot become a phrenologist,
and consequently is incapable of being a teacher. Phrenology
would be to him what manure is to the stony moor, and would only
encumber what it could not enrich. If Causality is likewise de-
ficient, as in the case of the first-mentioned teacher, his case is
truly pitiable. He is as incapable of grasping the science in its
breadth and depth, as a fly would be of taking in the proportions of
St. Paul’s; and to hide the threadbare state of his mind, he would
be obliged to take refuge among the “ illicit processes” and “ undis-
tributed middles” of routine logic.

An incompetent teacher is one of the greatest curses of mankind,
and no language can be too strong to warn parents how they put
their trust in one. If an architect, or a painter, or an actor fail,
they are visited with severe criticism ; and nothing can more forcibly
show the backward state in which society yet remains, than the im-
punity with which a teacher can disgrace his calling. This will
not, however, last long: Phrenology will render it impossible. Let
every one expose any instance of the kind that may come under his
notice, and the evil will vanish. ‘‘ No effort is lost.’ Therefore
let all exert themselves in the good cause, and by degrees our island
shall be ridded of a race, compared to which the slaveholders were
harmless. Children were intended by their Creator to enjoy their
existence—

« And yet how many weary hours
Those joyous creatures know !
How much of sorrow and restraint

They to their elders owe !”

EDUCATION, AS IT IS AND AS IT SHOULD BE. 67

This leads us to the manner of the education, which we shall con-
sider before we enter on the matter. Pestalozzi has some judicious
remarks on this point. For instance: “If a mother is desirous of
taking an active part in the intellectual education of her children, I
would first direct her attention to the necessity of considering, not
only what sort of knowledge, but in what manner that knowledge
should be communicated to the mind. For her purpose the latter
consideration is even more essential than the former; for however
excellent the information may be which she wishes to impart, it will
depend upon the mode of her doing it whether it will at all gain ac-
cess to the mind, or whether it will remain unprofitable, neither suit-
ing the faculties nor being apt to excite the interest of the child.”—
This is sound doctrine ; more so than that of Mr. Owen, who exact-
ly reverses the relative importance of manner and matter. Yet here,
at the very outset, we find that the self-called Pestalozzians desert
their master ; for not a thought do they expend on the manner:
they only consider what language or science, and what grammar or
compendium the pupils shall use.

The most interesting subject in the world may be rendered dull,
tedious, and tiresome, by the manner in which it is communicated.
“ There is,” says Pestalozzi, “a remarkable reciprocal action between
the interest which the teacher takes and that which he communicates
to his pupils. If he is not with his whole mind present at the sub-
ject, if he does not care whether it is understood or not, whether his
manner is liked or not, he will never fail of alienating the affec-
tions of his pupils, and of rendering them indifferent to what he
says. But real interest taken in the task of instruction, kind words
and kinder feelings, the very expression of the features, and the
glance of the eye, are never lost upon children.” These passages
shew Pestalozzi to have been well-versed in the philosophy of human
nature. To what extent Pestalozzi was acquainted with Phrenology
[ am not aware ; he was born only ten years before Gall, and proba-
bly knew something of the greatest discovery ever made ; but, how-
ever that may have been, he must certainly have possessed an orga-
nization well-calculated to acquire name and fame in the path which
he had marked out for himself.

When many pupils have been educated together, and one or two
do uot keep pace with the rest, it is frequently said to be a most won-
derful circumstance that, although all the pupils have received exactly
the same treatment, two or three should be behind the others. Now
if all the pupils have, as is boasted, received the same treatment, this,

68 EDUCATION, AS IT IS AND AS IT SHOULD BE.

of itself, would account for some having remained behind the others ;
but I flatly deny that they have received the same education. It may
be very true that there have been the same number of hours in school,
and the same books used, and yet the mode of education in the two
instances may have been entirely different.

A pupil who has facility in acquiring that which his master
teaches will be petted, and praised, and held up asa pattern of indus-
try and good conduct, while another, whose organization happens to
be fitted for other subjects, will be scowled at, and receive unworthy
treatment; and yet the former may, in reality, have no merit at all,
and the latter may have exerted himself to the utmost. An able
writer well remarks, “ The boy’s merit must be measured by his
powers, and the greatest judgment of the teacher is here requisite.
To do well when he may do well easily is every man’s virtue.
Christ looked carelessly on while the rich Pharisees threw of their
wealth into the treasury of the temple, but the widow’s mite drew
forth his ery of admiration ; similarly, the boy’s merit must be mea-
sured by his powers. The reward is to him who labours, though
he may labour in vain ; to him who struggles, though he may be
overcome ; in short, reward is the due of merit, and more especially
of that merit which has not already met its reward in success.”

This, however, is an unknown tongue to the master, who all the
while imagines he is pursuing precisely the same plan in both cases ;
whereas, in reality, he is, in the instance of the successful boy, pam-
pering the organs of Self-esteem and Approbativeness ; while in the
other, who, in nine cases out of ten, is, in reality, most deserving of
praise, he wounds these organs, and systematically educates his Com-
bativeness, Destructiveness, Secretiveness, and Cautiousness, and at
the same time weakens the three most valuable organs, Conscien-
tiousness, Veneration, and Benevolence. This is the case with num-
bers of pupils who are thought to have received “every advantage,”
and who, though possessed of excellent organizations, are set down,
both by parents and teachers, as wilful, headstrong, and incapable.

Those calling themselves Pestalozzians appear to me to have no-
thing in common with the great educator but the name. Pestalozzi
maintains that “ every plan of education ought to be based on a con-
sideration of the nature or faculties of the child.” Which among the
Pestalozzians has acted thus? I question whether there are many
who could tell what the faculties of the child are, much less the scope
of each, and their combinations.

Again, the great educationist tells us, “ A child is a being endow-

EDUCATION, AS IT 1S AND AS IT SHOULD BE. 69

ed with all the faculties of human nature, but none of them developed,
—a bud not yet opened. When the bud uncloses, every one of the
leaves unfolds ; not one remains behind. Such must be the process
of education. No faculty in human nature but must be treated with
the same attention, for their co-agency alone can secure success.”
Which of the Pestalozzians has been Pestalozzian here? Again :-—
“ The strictest attention should be paid to the shades of individual
character and talent.” Notwithstanding this especial injunction, the
Pestalozzians make it a boast that all their pupils have received the
same treatment! It is an injunction disregarded by general consent ;
not fifty Pestalozzis could have enforced attention to it: nothing but
Phrenology could do so.

Now, however, we come to a point more important than the rest ;
one, indeed, which includes all the others. In an article of mine
which appeared some time ago in Zhe Analyst,* the following pas-
sage occurs :—“ I think it may safely be affirmed that, if a pupil does
not advance in his studies, or does not advance so quickly as he
should, the fault is never his own ;” and, after bringing proofs of
this, I conclude :—“I contend, therefore, in every case in which the
pupil remains stationary, or advances but slowly, the cause must be
referred either to the ignorance of the teacher, or to the mal-organi-
zation of the pupil’s brain.” This was stigmatized by Pestalozzians
as dangerous, &c. Judge, then, of my surprise when I met with the
following passage of Pestalozzi :—“ The interest in study is the first
thing which a teacher, and, in the instances before us, which a mother,
should endeavour to excite and keep alive. There are hardly any
circumstances in which a want of application does not proceed from a
want of interest, and there are, perhaps, none under which a want of
interest does not originate in a mode of teaching adopted by the
teacher. I would go so far as to lay it down as a rule that, whenever
children are inattentive, and apparently take no interest in a lesson,
the teacher should always first look to himself for the reason.” Here
is the same idea, in nearly the same words, by Pestalozzi himself!
He even goes further than I did, for I divided the blame between the
teacher and the organization ; Pestalozzi throws it justly almost en-
tirely on the former. I mention this to show how impossible it is
that the mere dicta of any individual, however illustrious or success-
ful, can place a subject like education on a firm foundation ; for his
followers, overlooking his precepts, will merely shelter their own ab-

* Vol. ii, p. 413.

70 EDUCATION, AS IT IS AND AS IT SHOULD BE.

surdities under his name, while a science is absolutely necessary for
the elucidation of the subject, and that science is Phrenology, without
which all systems of education must be empirical.

Education would indeed be a disagreeable and irksome occupation
if the passage which the Pestalozzians were pleased to designate as
“dangerous” were untrue. The best systems, and everything which
ingenuity could suggest, might then be thrown away, all through the
caprice of the pupil. But, no! the Creator has ordained that it shall
be otherwise ; and those who reflect at all on the matter will imme-
diately perceive that, as Pestalozzi says, the failure in education al-
most always proceeds from an absence of interest, and this, again, is
always owing to the unfitness of the teacher. And the phrenologists,
knowing this, gave unqualified praise to that which the Pestalozzians,
being destitute of all certain guide, pronounced dangerous.*

Mr. Owen, of New Lanark, goes even further than the article al-
luded to; he says, “ From the earliest ages it has been the practice
of the world to act on a supposition that each individual man forms
his own character. This error cannot longer exist, for every day
will make it more and more evident that the character of man is,
without a single exception, always formed for him; that it may be,
and is chiefly, formed by his predecessors: that they give him, or
may give him, his ideas and habits, which are the powers that govern
and direct his conduct. Man, therefore, never did, nor is it possible
he ever can, form his own character.” Mr. Owen has unquestionably
effected most admirable results in his village of New Lanark, but his
views possess neither originality nor soundness. Those who are in-
terested in this subject will find their erroneousness exposed in vol.
i. of the Phrenological Journal, by Mr. Combe, and in vol. ix. by
Mr. Holm. The former well remarks, “ Mr. Owen, like many of
his predecessors, proceeds to speculate on the modifying power of cir-
cumstances without previously ascertaining the primitive attributes of
the subject to be modified.” Such a work as the Constitution of Man,
or Gall’s immortal Fonctions du Cerveau, will benefit mankind
more than a dozen New Lanarks; for the former will put the people —
in the way of procuring these latter by their own exertions, indepen-
dent of any individual.

All the errors in education which I have named, and many others,
have been reprehended by Locke, Kames, Gibbon, Bentham, Pesta-
lozzi, and many other great men, but all has been in vain: and what

* See Phren. Journ., and Anthrop. Mag.

EDUCATION, AS IT IS AND AS IT SHOULD BE. va

does this demonstrate? Why simply, as before stated, the umpotency
of individual authority and the necessity of a science. I therefore
hope that we shall hear no longer of Pestalozzian masters and sys-
tems, and that these will give place to phrenological masters and sys-
tems. Pestalozzi himself, by the excellence of his organization, was
enabled to succeed in his profession, but he could not inspire others
with the same insight into the human mind as he himself possessed,
even by the clearest exposition of his views, while Phrenology places
a key to the mind in every one’shand. The very terms used by Pes-
talozzi were, in some instances, liable to mislead. Thus, a favourite
term of his was “the heart.” Now what is meant by this word? I
never yet heard a definition of it, and without a clear understanding
of the words we use we shall be liable to perpetual misapprehension.
The Greeks supposed the mind to reside in the heart ; hence the fre-
quent use of the word in the New Testament. The Jews imagined
that the stomach was the seat of mental manifestation, and hence we
find such expressions as “ bowels of compassion.” But the most
splendid discovery ever made has clearly proved that the mind does not
reside in the stomach or in the heart, but in the brain. It may be
said that those who use the word heart do not suppose that the mind
really resides in that part, but simply do so from thoughtlessness or
habit. But the other day, hearing some one speak of another as
~ wanting a “ bold heart,” I said that the heart had nothing to do with
boldness or timidity, when he answered, ‘“ Then how is it that the
heart beats violently when we are frightened?” This clearly shows
that he had been led away by this erroneous expression ; and I have
no doubt there are numbers who have some vague idea that the heart
is connected with various mental feelings. Again, the word is used
in very different significations. One will talk of an affectionate
heart, thus attributing to that part the functions of Adhesiveness ;
another uses the expression “a stout heart,” meaning a person with
small Cautiousness and large Combativeness ; while Pestalozzi, I
believe, used the term to designate the moral organs of Conscientious-
ness, Veneration, and Benevolence. Thus we see what an endless
confusion is caused by the erroneous use of one expression! I,
therefore, hope that the world will join with the phrenologists in dis-
carding an expression originally founded in ignorance, and which is
calculated to continue the same. Surely every one must agree that
it is a much grander and more appropriate idea that the mind is en-
throned on the top, as if marking its dignified office of commander-
in-chief of the whole body.

72 EDUCATION, AS IT IS AND AS IT SHOULD BE.

I shall conclude my sketch of the manner of teaching by the fol-
lowing excellent passage from Pestalozzi, which should be committed
to memory by every teacher, though if he does not know it intuitively
it may be questioned whether he is fit for his situation. “ Of all ty-
rants it is well known that little tyrants are the most cruel; and of
all little tyrants the most cruel are school-room tyrants. Now, in
all civilized countries cruelty of every description is forbidden; even
cruelty to animals is very properly punished, in some, by the law of
the land, and in all stigmatized by public opinion. How, then, comes
cruelty to children to be so generally overlooked, or rather thought
a matter of course? Some, forsooth, will tell us that their own
measures are wonderfully humane, that their punishments are less
severe, or that they have done away with corporal punishments. But
itis not to the severity of them that I object, nor would I venture to
assert, in an unqualified manner, that corporal punishments are inad-
missible, under any circumstances, in education. But I do object to
their application, I do object to the principle that the children are to
be punished when the master or the system is to blame. As long as
this shall continue, as long as teachers will not take the trouble, or
will not be found qualified, to inspire their pupils with a living zfe-
rest in their studies, they must not complain of the want of atten-
tion, nor even of the aversion, which some of them may manifest.
Could we witness the indescribable tedium which must oppress the
juvenile mind, while the weary hours are slowly passing away, one
by one, in an occupation which they can neither relish nor understand
the use of—could we remember the same scenes which our own child-
hood has undergone—we would then be no longer surprised at the
remissness of the school-boy, creeping, like a snail, unwillingly to
school.” This, and a great deal more that I might quote, is admi-
rable, but it will be entirely thrown away on a certain class of
teachers,

“‘ With eyes which scarcely serve, at most,
To guard their master ’gainst a post.”

This class will almost always be found to possess low heads, and with
searcely sufficient Causality to shed even a feeble glimmer in the in-
tricate paths of education. Yet they have generally a very comfort-
able opinion of themselves, owing to a large development of Self-
esteem.

We shall now turn our attention to the matter of education. This

EDUCATION, AS IT iS AND AS IT SHOULD BE. 73

is a point generally as much misunderstood as the last. The manner
chiefly relates to the education of the propensities and sentiments, of
which there are twenty-two; we now come to the treatment of the
remaining organs—the intellectual—of which there are eighteen.
These are the organs by which we acquire knowledge, about the va-
lue of which there can be little doubt, one should think, at the present
day.

Knowledge is the most valuable acquisition within the reach of
man ; it is an acquisition never barren, but ever useful and pleasant.
Man’s superiority over the rest of the animal creation consists chiefly
in his greater capacity for acquiring knowledge; and we see that,
among those nations who have made little or no progress in know-
ledge, so far from man being lord over the brutes, the brutes are
lord over man ; and likewise that the happiness of these nations is as
scanty as their power. We frequently hear of modern nations being
stronger, and more intelligent and happy, than those which preceded
them ; and if we examine the cause of this we shall uniformly find
that it consists in the comparative ignorance of former nations. The
most celebrated of the ancient nations knew little or nothing of As-
tronomy, Chemistry, Natural History, Natural Philosophy, Geogra-
phy, Physiology, or Anthropology, and their unhappiness and dis-
union was in proportion to their ignorance. Thus we may safely
adopt the assertion of Socrates, the greatest philosopher of antiquity,
when he says “ There is only one good thing, which is knowledge,
and only one evil thing, which is ignorance.”

Having thus decided on the importance of knowledge, the question
arises, How are we to set about its acquisition? Are we to take up
the first subject which presents itself, and proceed without rule and
without deliberation, as whim or fancy may suggest ? No, certainly
not, and for two reasons: Ist. The life of man is short, and his ca-
pacity limited; and 2nd. As it is thus impossible that he can have
time or ability for acquiring a knowledge of all that the Creator has
placed within his view, it is of the utmost importance that he should
direct his attention to the most useful, which, at the same time, will
almost always be found to be the most interesting. It is sometimes
said that a man should know everything ; but there never yet lived
the man who knew everything, nor will such a man ever exist. The
Creator alone knows everything ; and the more a man knows the
nearer he approaches his Creator. The widest range of knowledge
which the most talented of the human race can attain is, compared to
what remains to be known, as a drop from the ocean.

VOL. VII., NO, XXI. K

74 EDUCATION, AS IT IS AND AS IT SHOULD BE.

Knowledge comprehends an acquaintance with every created thing,
and its relationships—with our mighty globe, with the whole burden
of its people and its countries, with the stars, eighty millions in num-
ber, each of them a sun, with its retinue of plancts, to which our
globe is but a grain of sand on the field of immensity ; and, again,
with all that the microscope reveals, which shews us that in the leaves
of every forest, in the flowers of every garden, and in the waters of
every rivulet, there are worlds teeming with life, and numberless as
are the glories of the firmament. The imagination is absolutely baf-
fled with the mere attempt to picture to our minds the vast, the num-
berless tribes which every blade, nay atom, may harbour within itself,
and man is again glad to seek refuge in his own insignificance.*

It now becomes evident that some method must be pursued ; and
accordingly, in order to facilitate its acquisition, knowledge has been
divided into separate branches, each of these branches being called a
science. For instance, there is the science of the heavenly bodies,
called Astronomy ; the science of the productions of our globe, called
Natural History ; and this, again, has been divided into three other
sciences: the science of minerals, or Mineralogy ; the science of ve-
getables, or Botany; and the science of animals, or Zoology.

In determining the relative value of these sciences, Phrenology is
of great utility. The phrenologist knows that the higher and more
anterior an organ is situated in the head, the more superior is its ma-
nifestation. Well, then, we have only to determine what organs are
necessary for any pursuit to estimate its importance. For observing
objects, we know that Individuality is the principal organ necessary.
Mineralogy consists chiefly in the observation of inanimate, lifeless
objects; thus we know the organ necessary for its cultivation. Bo-
tany, again, consists very much in the observation of inanimate ob-
jects, and thus the same organ is principally necessary here too.
But then vegetables grow and reproduce, and the corolla opens and
shuts; and thus the organ of Eventuality, which is situated above
Individuality, and which takes cognizance of actions as well as objects,
is slightly called into play. Hence Botany is a higher study than
Mineralogy ; but Zoology is highest of all, for here, not only is In-
dividuality required, as in the other two, but Eventuality, too, is called
into full activity; and also an organ yet higher than this, which has
yet received no name: a short account of it will be found in the last

* The reader will find this subject beautifully dilated on in Chalmers’s
Lectures on Astronomy.

ail

EDUCATION, AS IT IS AND AS IT SHOULD BE. 75

number of Zhe Analyst, p. 345. Without Phrenology the same
conclusion might be arrived at, but tt could not be demonstrated, and
thus it would always be open to dispute. A vegetable, we may say,
is higher in the scale of created beings than a stone: the vegetable
grows and produces other beings similar to itself, neither of which
operations is the stone capable of. Thus Botany is a more interest-
ing study than Mineralogy; but Zoology is yet more interesting,
for animals not only grow and reproduce, but they also move, and
think, and act in concert, some roving through the forests, others
hunting in packs ; some sailing through the trackless air, and others
in safety ploughing the pathless ocean.

But Zoology being so very extensive a subject that any one de-
partment might engage a man during his whole life, it becomes evi-
dent that we must restrict our attention still more. Having fixed on
Zoology as the most interesting subject within our grasp, what part

of animals shall we investigate? Shall we study the bones, consti-

tuting the science of Osteology ? or the heart, called the science of

Cardiology? or the general structure, forming the science of Ana-

tomy? All these are interesting and useful; and thus, at the very
outset, we are situated like Bees in a garden of sweet flowers, each
holding out greater attractions to the industrious little honey-collec-
tors than those around.

There is one consideration, however, which will enable us to make
a profitable choice. The thought has probably already occurred, that
if knowledge is such a very interesting and useful thing, what know-
ledge can be more interesting and useful than that concerning the in-
strument by which we obtain knowledge? What is this instrument ?
It is the mind, and the science of the mind is called Phrenology, the
most interesting and important subject that can engage the attention
of man.

We thus see how the importance of a subject may be traced step
by step; and I have given this specimen to put educators in the way
of estimating the utility of the various subjects they may wish to
bring under the attention of their pupils. This is a process not at all
understood. Some say, as I have before stated, that every thing
should be learnt, but those who speak thus must either entertain a
very exaggerated idea of the capacity of man, or else a very contracted
idea of the extent of knowledge. When the propriety of teaching
such and such a subject is called in question, nothing is commoner
than to hear that the whole circle should be taken in. What does
this expression mean ? Is all knowledge intended by the “ whole cir-

76 EDUCATION, AS IT IS AND AS IT SHOULD BE.

cle?” or is it intended to convey an intimation that an outline or ge-
neral idea of every subject should be possessed? If the former is
intended, the idea is absurd; if the latter, it is very good, but can af-
ford no plea for putting one subject of comparative insignificance in a
prominent place, to the exclusion of one of importance.

Man is ever apt to branch into extremes. Formerly it was the
plan to teach only one subject, and those who came after, seeing the
absurdity of this, declaimed on the necessity of knowing every thing.
But if asked for a definition of this every thing, the supporters of
this scheme would probably be very much puzzled. No phrenologist
would hold such a doctrine. I shall quote some excellent remarks on
this subject by an able phrenologist. ‘ As man cannot cultivate all
his powers equally, it is surely better that he should cultivate those
which he can turn to some account, than, by unavailing efforts, en-
deavour to excel in something for which he was never designed by
nature. How ridiculous it would be for an individual paralytic in the
lower limbs to choose the profession of dancing ! But would it not
be equally absurd for an individual destitute of musical talent to fol-
low Music as a profession ? or an individual who could not discrimi-
nate colours, to wed himself to the profession of Painting ? When
talent is naturally weak, it may, by cultivation, be rendered strong-
er, but no education can compensate for natural deficiencies ; and
hence, when any power of the mind is very weak, the cultivation of
the power will never lead to any satisfactory result, and time will be
lost in the effort, which might have been beneficially employed in
training some of the other powers more susceptible of improvement.
As no human being can excel in every thing, why should not every
one confine his attention to that department of art or science most
congenial to his nature? But how are we to discover the talents or
genius of the individual ? In two ways:> Ist. In observing the natural
bias or inclination of the individual; and 2nd. By following the light
which Phrenology throws so broadly and steadily upon the subject.”
This is all sound and judicious. In another part of the Philosophy
of Phrenology we find the following passage :—“ It must be admitted
that the majority of mankind are possessed of partial talent. A man
who can excel equally in every department of art and science does not
exist. His existence is a physical impossibility. But, even admitting
the possibility of the case, a question arises whether it would be more
prudent to cultivate one or a few of these powers to the degree of
which they are susceptible, or to attempt to cultivate all the powers,
and attain only a mediocrity in each. Had Paganini, for example,

it or

EDUCATION, AS IT IS AND AS IT SHOULD BE. Vi

attempted to excel in Mathematics, Metaphysics, Poetry, Painting,
Languages, &c., as well as in Music, would he have stood as
pre-eminent above his compeers? He probably would not have
been known beyond his native city of Genoa. The powers of
man are limited, and it is better that he should do little, and that
well, than that he should attempt to do much, and do nothing success-
fully. Now is it a matter of little moment that Phrenology should be
able to point out what powers of the mind are capable of the most
successful cultivation in any individual? Is it nothing that whole
years of unavailing efforts should be saved? that the child, from his
earliest infancy, should be directed into the path in which his own
happiness is to be found, and in which he can most successfully pro-
mote the happiness of others? Nobody will doubt that, if Phreno-
logy can lead to this end, it is capable of effecting much good ; and
every one acquainted with Phrenology also knows that the talents of
any individual can easily be recognised, and their relative powers, con-
sequently, easily calculated.”

Having thus clearly established that the kind of knowledge placed
before each should be in accordance with his natural talents, it only
remains to be considered by the teacher what subject or subjects, out
of the numberless departments which present themselves, should be
studied by his pupils. Thus, if a pupil has large Individuality, Even-
tuality, and Causality, he will have a talent for the natural sciences,
and the teacher, knowing this, has only to make the best choice.
Phrenology we have already found to be the most important branch
of knowledge that can engage human attention : “ The proper study
of mankind is man.” Next in importance we may mention Anatomy,
some knowledge of which is as indispensable as Phrenology to the
preservation of health. To use the words of Mr. Combe, “It may
be imagined that rules for the preservation of health may be taught
without Anatomy being studied ; but all such instruction is empirical.
The rule resides rather in the memory than in the understanding ;
and the possessor has no power of modifying his conduct and adapting
it judiciously to new circumstances. When a good description of the
respiratory organs has been given to a young woman she understands
much better, feels more deeply, and remembers much longer and
more clearly, the dangerous consequences of exposing the throat and
breast to a stream of cold air or to a sudden change of temperature,

_ than if she has only heard or read precepts to avoid these and simi-

lar errors.” This seems very obvious, and yet how seldom is it acted
on! The mother or teacher is too apt to rely on mere precept, and

73 EDUCATION, AS IT IS AND AS IT SHOULD BE.

their hope, being thus based on the sand, is as unstable as the house
of the “foolish man.” Pestalozzi well remarks, “ It will be indispen-
sable to convince many a fond mother that what was well meant is
not always well done, and strongly to impress upon her mind the fact
that, by a mode of proceeding flowing from the most benevolent mo-
tives, but which would not have stood the test of matured judgment,
she may entail on her children all that misery against which it was
her only wish to protect them.”

If we continue our examination into the more important depart-
ments of knowledge, we shall find that, next to Phrenology and Ana-
tomy, which make us acquainted with the mental and bodily constitu-
tion of man, Physiology, Medicine, Zoology, Geography, Geology,
Chemistry, and Astronomy, hold out seductions tempting, nay irre-
sistible, to the pupil. But instead of entering on these noble subjects
of investigation, the teacher, with a strange perversity and blindness,
persists in directing, or misdirecting, his chief energies to the deve-
lopment of the organ of Language, which is at the base of the brain,
and the lowest of all the intellectual faculties. Disregarding the sub-
ordinate place the Creator has thus assigned it, man persists in raising
it into the highest. Verily he has his reward !

Language does not constitute knowledge: it is mere learning. A
person may know the various names a Horse has received in various
languages, and yet have no knowledge of the Horse ; and, again, he
may not know any of these names, yet if he possesses an acquaint-
ance with the natural history, the structure, the qualities, and the uses
of the animal, then he will have acquired some very interesting know-
ledge. Again, Arithmetic is not knowledge; a person may know
that 2 and 2 make 4, and even be a Bidder in Arithmetic, and yet
he may not have acquired any knowledge. But if, by the learning
he has acquired, he calculates that our globe is nearly eight thousand
feet in diameter, then he has acquired an item of knowledge. Thus
we see that learning and knowledge are very distinct, and that learn-
ing is barren and useless in itself, and only useful in so far as it en-
ables us to acquire knowledge. Hence we perceive the truth of the
.maxim that a very learned man may be a very ignorant man.

But, overlooking this distinction, teachers continue to ply their
pupils with learning, as if it were knowledge itself, instead of, as is
really the case, only a ladder to knowledge, and often an useless one,
too ; for the latter, in nine cases out of ten, can be arrived at without
the former. Thus, Greek and Latin are totally useless as a means of
acquiring knowledge, and for two reasons: Ist. ‘The Greeks and Ro-

EDUCATION, AS IT IS AND AS IT SHOULD BE. 719

mans had very little knowledge to communicate; and 2nd. That
little has already been translated into the British language. Little or
nothing was known of the mind, of the body, of the stars, of the heal-
ing art, of Natural History, of Astronomy, of Geography, of Geolo-
gy, of Chemistry, of Government, till the appearance of Gall, Hah-
nemann, Linneus, Galileo, Columbus, Lyell, Davy, Bentham—all
moderns ; and yet teachers, with a perversity unparalleled, perhaps,
in the annals of mankind, continue to toil in the same barren path,
without a single rational reason to warrant so strange a procedure !
Ihave actually known a teacher put a Greek grammar into the hands
of a pupil, in play-hours, who was reading a work on Natural Histo-
ry; and when questioned why he did so, gravely answered “ The
proper study of mankind is man!” Very learned, but not the less
ignorant for that! And thus it is that mere language has acquired
a repute above real solid acquirements in knowledge. Phrenology
will, however, dissipate this, like most other errors: this science
shows us why great linguists are, as Dr. Macnish remarks, generally
great blockheads. An American phrenologist says, “ When the doc-
trines of Phrenology come to be generally understood, the admiration
excited by the possession of a great number of dead and foreign lan-
guages will be much diminished. It will then be considered merely
as evidence of a large organ of Language, and as no evidence of su-
perior general talents.” It is owing to the disproportionate attention
that is paid to the education of this organ that style is generally
placed above matter ; and I have actually heard it maintained that if
the style was good the matter or ideas cannot be bad! It must ap-
pear obvious, however, I should think, that the worst ideas may be
conveyed in the best language, and that the worst language may be
employed to convey the best ideas. It is said that the Greek in
which some parts of the New Testament are written is almost barba-
rous, yet every one knows what the ideas are; and, again, the most
poisonous and dangerous ideas have constantly been couched in the
most sublime and eloquent language. Bentham seems to have been
aware of the propensity of the shallow-minded (phrenologically speak-
ing, those with small Causality) to be taken in by style; for he says
he has written one of his treaties to “ teach the reader to distinguish
between showy language and sound sense.” And in the course of this
treatise, speaking of Blacksone’s Commentaries, he remarks, “ Cor-
rect, elegant, unembarrassed, ornamented, the style is such as could
scarce fail to recommend a work still more vicious, in point of matter,
to the multitude of readers.”

80 EDUCATION, AS IT IS AND AS IT SHOULD BE.

One great error in which parents wreck many a fond hope uncon-
sciously, is their idea that they have only to procure teachers who
know the subject that is to be taught ; and so rooted is this idea that
nothing can exterminate it. It hangs like a mill-stone about their
necks, and renders futile all their exertions. It is in vain that it is
argued, nay demonstrated, that all the learning and knowledge in the
world is useless, or worse than useless, if the teacher has not the tact
for teaching, which is only possessed by those with a particular orga-
nization, and which, as Mr. Wood, of Edinburgh, truly remarks, no
experience can give. It is in vain, also, that it is urged that Pesta-
lozzi himself declares some of his most successful teachers to have been
those who knew nothing of the subject they intended to teach, and
that Jacatot says the same thing, and that common sense says the
same thing; the original idea clings like a leech, and the consequen-
ces we all know.

There is a village schoolmaster in my neighbourhood who knows
as much or more than he will ever have occasion to communicate to
his pupils, and yet it all lies useless in his own brain, because he has
not the tact to communicate it. He has not, during many years, got
beyond teaching his pupils to read! I have heard some of them read
at various times, and they did not read as if they understood the sub-
ject ; I accordingly questioned them. One boy came to the passage
in the New Testament, “ wearing a crown of thorns.” I asked him
what “wearing” meant: he did not know. A girl came to the
expression “dissolved :” she did not understand the meaning. I
asked her what a lump of sugar became when put into tea.
Her eyes, before expressionless, now brightened up; the mean-
ing, which was before dark, now dawned on her. In this way
I cleared up the various unintelligible words ; and the business
thus became as delightful as it must before have been irksome.
Reading and writing are not knowledge, but mere learning, and they
only exercise the organ of Form ; but if knowledge can be mingled
with the learning, it is like causing the desert to blossom as the Rose.
A valuable precept of Locke is entirely disregarded. He remarks,
«« But, under whose care soever a child is put to be taught, this is
certain, it should be one who thinks Latin and languages the least
part of education.” And after this he proceeds to shew how Latin
or other languages may be taught, as he has known from personal
experience, by one who is unacquainted with them. Let a teacher
have the manner, and the matter cannot fail to follow ; but parents,
in their anxiety for the latter, lose all.

EDUCATION, AS [T IS AND AS IT SHOULD BE. $l

With regard to Logic, it is usually attempted to be imparted in even
a worse manner than Greek and Latin. It is often taught by those
who have small “ Causality” and “ Insight into Human Nature,” and
the attempt is, of course, futile. I would recommend all those who
have been engaged in this department to peruse the Testimonials
published by Combe, in which the various eminent writers concur that
no sound system of Logic can be taught without Phrenology. One
writer says, “ Convinced as I have been that Phrenology is the true
philosophy of mind, I cannot but regard it, not only as conducive to
the successful teaching of a Logic class, but as the only foundation
on which sound Logic can be reared.” How many there are, alas !
who will be obliged to express the same sentiments as another writer—
« An old student myself in the Logic class, I can never look back
but with regret on the barren path I then found myself obliged to
tread.”

Nor is it possible to teach language as it should be taught without
an intimate acquaintance with Phrenology ; and yet how many there
are who undertake this without even knowing the names or the num-
ber of the primitive faculties of the human mind! It is ignorance
like this, conjoined with an unfavourable development, that prompts
to their insane mode of proceeding, a mode equally unsound whether
we regard the manner or the matter. It would hardly be believed,
but Ican vouch for the fact, that one-half of the time devoted to lan-
guage is not unfrequently expended on—grammar! I shall cite
the opinion of Lord Kames on this point. “In teaching a language
it is the universal rule to begin with grammar, and to do everything
by rule. I affirm this to be a most preposterous method. Grammar
is contrived for men, not for children. Its natural place is between
language and logic; it ought to close the lectures on the former, and
to be the first lectures on the latter. J¢ is a gross deception that a
language cannot be taught without rules. A boy who is forced
into grammar rules makes a shift to apply them [from rather exten-
sive observation, I should rather doubt whether even this was the
case]; but he applies them by rote, like a Parrot. Boys, for the
knowledge they acquire of a language, are not indebted to dry rules,
but to practice and observation. To this day I never think without
shuddering of Despauter’s grammar, which was my daily persecution
during the most important period of life. Curiosity, when I was
further advanced in years, prompted me to look at a book that had
given me so much trouble. At this time I understood the rules per-

VOL. VII., NO, XXI. L

82 EDUCATION, AS IT IS AND AS IT SHOULD BE.

fectly, and was astonished that formerly they had been to us words
nithout meaning, which I had been taught to apply mechanically,
without knowing how or why.”

This passage is admirably true, and had it been adopted by teach-
ers as such, the pupil might then have had a chance of that which,
under the present system, is next to impossible—learning a foreign
language within a reasonable time, and that, too, with pleasure to
teacher and pupil. Locke, Gibbon, and Pestalozzi, have expressed
the same idea in language equally forcible; and yet teachers, like
Horses in a mill, cannot quit their old round. Truly they area
stiff-necked generation !

From the hasty survey which we have now taken of some of the
leading essentials in a sound method of education, two prominent
circumstances cannot fail to impress our minds: Ist. That a parti-
cular organization is indispensable to a successful teacher ; and 2nd.
That all education that is not based on Phrenology must be empiri-
cal and unsound. Both these facts seem to me self-evident ; but,
for the sake of those with whom “ authority serves for reason,” as
Locke expresses it, or, phrenologically speaking, whose Veneration is
unguided by Causality, J shall quote the words of various writers.
The master of the English department of the High School of Glas-
gow thus expresses himself :—“ As education, properly considered,
aims at the proper development and regulation of man’s nature ; as
it is, therefore, absolutely essential to a teacher's success that he
should have a guide to the knowledge of that nature ; and as Phre-
nology appears to me not only the plainest but the most satisfactory
guide yet discovered; it is my decided opinion that he who teaches
and érains upon phrenological principles will experience a constantly
increasing attachment to his profession, will invariably secure the
affectionate esteem of his pupils, and will, as a necessary conse-
quence, succeed in giving them a thorough EDucaTIoN, moral, in-
tellectual, and physical. I write this not in a theorizing spirit, but
rom several years experience. * * In History the use of Phre-
nology is truly valuable. In fact, till I knew something of this
beautiful system of mental philosophy, J never taught History pro-
perly, or, I may add, anything else.” This testimonial is truly va-
luable, and completely conclusive, coming as it does from a teacher
of long standing. He had a fit organization for teaching, and only
wanted the guide which was furnished by Phrenology. But to
others, as I have before mentioned, Phrenology would be of no ser-
vice. The telescope is necessary to enable the astronomer to prose-
cute his studies, but the telescope would be of no service to the blind

vei

oe Set eet a

Pe

EDUCATION, AS IT IS AND AS IT SHOULD BE. 83

man; and in the same relation Phrenology stands to those whose
organization is unfit for the office of teacher.

Phrenology will, doubtless, soon be considered by society at large
as indispensable to the teacher as it is at present by the thinking
few. The science has hitherto, however, been regarded too much
in the light of a means of predicting character ; that is, the inferior
branch called Organology has been confounded with the science of
Phrenology properly so called. This has been owing to the general
preponderance of the perceptive or lower intellectual faculties over
the reflective or higher intellectual faculties. The former should
be left to professed organologists, as Deville ; while those who wish
to soar into the higher departments should follow in the steps of the
phrenologists, as Gall, Combe, and Vimont.

Mr. Robert Chambers remarks, “I have réason to know that,
with or without the Organology, the science of Phrenology is mak-
ing rapid progress amongst the more thinking portion of the middle
and lower ranks. Its progress would, in my opinion, have been’
much greater if its pretensions as a means of discovering character
from external signs (Organolugy) had not been ignorantly con-
founded with those of the false sciences of the middle ages. Were
the metaphysics presented alone, this obstacle would be, in a great
measure, overcome, and multitudes who have hitherto regarded the
science as only a new kind of divination or palmistry, would be as-
tonished to view a system calculated to throw the united labours of
Aristotle, Locke, Reid, and Stewart, into the shade ; an almost ex-
act reflection of human nature, a code of sublime morality, a means
of accelerating to an unprecedented degree the social progress of our
race.” Alluding to the different candidates for the logic chair, the
same author remarks, with equal truth and sound sense, “ Indeed,
were it not that many of the most enlightened men are still igno-
rant of the merits of the new system, the filling of the present va-
cancy with one who persists in describing the mind as consisting of
memory, judgment, and imagination, would appear to me as a sole-
cism not less great than would the appointment to the chair of Che-
mistry of one who continued to describe fire, earth, water, and air,
as the elements of matter.”

Towards dispelling the gross ignorance which prevails on the sub-
ject of the mind, no work will operate more effectually than Gall’s
unequalled Fonctions du Cerveau, which Dr. Elliotson pronounces
to be worth all the other phrenological works put together. Next
to this may be ranked Combe’s System of Phrenology, of which
Dr. Macnish thus speaks :—“ Great light has been thrown on this

84 EDUCATION, AS IT IS AND AS IT SHOULD BE.

science by Mr. Combe. His System of Phrenology is a beautiful
exposition of the phenomena of mind, and constitutes, in my humble
opinion, by far the best system of mental philosophy in the English
language.” Another work which I may mention is the Constitution
of Man, a work which, next to the New Testament, I would re-
commend to every one’s perusal. Dr. Macnish continues thus :—
** His volume on the Constitution of Man is a performance of an
equally high order of intellect, and may be justly considered one of
the most remarkable productions of the present day. Few works
have met with such a circulation ; and when we consider its extra-
ordinary merits, this fact is no way wonderful.” The Anthropologi-
cal Magazine is a periodical that should be possessed by every one
in the island.

If the time or opportunities of any one, but especially of any one
connected with teaching, are limited, the works which might be
studied with most advantage are Macnish’s Introduction to Phreno-
logy, and Combe’s Constitution of Man. These two works, to a
reflecting mind, will furnish all that is necessary to frame a com-
plete and successful system of education. And if teachers could be
persuaded to take these for their guide, they would be astonished at
the entire and radical change which would take place in their whole
manner of thinking, and the different light in which they would
view the actions of their pupils. Dr. Elliotson has, in a few words,
summed up some of the advantages which Phrenology will confer
on the human race. “ None but those,” says he, ‘“‘ who are totally
ignorant of Phrenology regard it as a means of merely discovering
natural powers and dispositions by external signs. Those who have
studied it know, indeed, that the natural powers and dispositions
are, cwteris paribus, in conformity with the size of the various parts
of the brain; but they know likewise that Phrenology unfolds the
only satisfactory account of the mind, human and brute; that it
contributes to establish the surest foundation for legislation, educa-
tion, and morals, and presents a large department of nature in the
noblest, grandest, and the only satisfactory point of view ; and that
those who reject or neglect Phrenology are lamentably ignorant of
much which they fancy they know, and deprive themselves not only
of much intellectual delight, but of much practical utility, and,
compared with phrenologists, remain as men of some centuries past.”

Man has all the capacities for reaching the topmost pinnacles of
knowledge, and fathoming its inmost depths; consequently, he
possesses the fountains of happiness and enjoyment: and yet he re-
mains ignorant, and, therefore, unhappy. Why does he not put

~.

pe » oe”

_

a

c oom

CORRESPONDENCE. 85

forth his faculties to their full extent, and treasure up the golden
hoards of knowledge which have been placed within his reach by his
Creator? Because he has not clear ideas of his own mental consti-
tution ; in other words, because he is ignorant of Phrenology. Man
will never attain that full enjoyment of which he is capable till he
acquires complete and correct ideas of his own constitution ; and till
then he may rest assured he will remain in his present wretched
state.

How, then, should we hail any science that promises to elevate
mankind from their present condition ; a science which will bring
the blessings of civilization not only to Britain but to the whole
world ; which, with powers scarcely less miraculous than those of
Moses’ rod, will cause the water to gush forth from the parched un-
derstandings of men, and unlock the inmost springs of the mind;
which will diffuse light where darkness previously prevailed, and
cause kindly feeling to bloom like an evergreen! The sons of Bri-
tain answer with one accord, and the whole world echoes the ans-
wer, “ We should gladly sacrifice everything we possess to gain so
noble, so incomparable a blessing; and no obstacle should retard
our eager footsteps while pressing forward to secure so inestimable
a boon.” Phrenology is such a science! It is a sun—human nature
the world it illuminates ; which nature, wherever existing, and
under whatever aspects seen, must feel the benign and quickening
influence of its beams.

S:-Ds0W.

CORRESPONDENCE.

To rue Epitors or “THE ANALysT.”

GENTLEMEN,
I place at your service the following geological observations, in
the hope that they may prove interesting to some of your readers.
The form of a coast, lake, valley, or mountain can often be traced
to the former prevalence of earthquakes and volcanoes in regions
which have long remained undisturbed. ‘To these convulsions the

86 CORRESPONDENCE.

fertility and sterility of the soil, land above sea, and various peculi-
arities may be distinctly referred. On the other hand, we observe
present changes slowly taking place in rivers, lakes, and shores.
Another example : we find in certain localities a substratum of coals,
the remains of vegetables, and as Mr. Lyell justly observes, ‘“ the
commercial prosperity and numerical strength of a nation may be
mainly dependent on the local distribution of fuel determined by
that ancient state of things.” On taking a general view of the
country on the Kentish side of the river Thames, we observe a rich
variety of hill and dale, cultivated in a manner calculated to excite
the most powerful emotions of the mind in admiring the beauties of
Nature. No man can behold the matchless scenery of Kent
without feelings of wonder and admiration; the fertile plain,
the barren hill, the sloping plantation of fruit trees: and in
spots where Nature parches and withers, we see the ingenu-
ity of man adorns the place with the Raspberry and the Straw-
berry. The valleys run, there or thereabouts, from east to west
—a fact which supports the theory of the earth revolving on
its poles ; as the tides would in consequence have a natural tendency
to run east and west. Some writers of distinguished talent have
gone so far as to contend that the origin of the greater number of
existing valleys was simply due to the agency of one cause, and
that it was consummated in a brief period of time. But I believe
the sinuosity of deep valleys is one among many proofs that they
have been shaped out progressively, and not by the simultaneous
action of one or many causes. In regard to the transporting power
of water, we are often surprised at the facility wherewith streams
of a small size, and which descend a high declivity, bear along coarse
sand and gravel.

It is impossible to deny that the waters of the sea have formerly and
for a long time covered those masses of matter which now constitute
our highest hills; and, further, that these waters for a long time
did not support any living bodies, that is in reference to changes
which took place in the inorganic rocks. It is also evident that the
basin or reservoir containing the sea has undergone some change at
least, either in extent or in situation, or both ; such is the result of
the very first search and of the most superficial examination.

On penetrating the different parts of this coast, the strata vary
considerably in depth, the plastic clay being deepest in the valleys
and immediately as the hill ascends. On removing the diluvial
crust or debris we come to a layer of sand, which runs from two to
eight feet from the surface. This formation contains fresh-water

at

CORRESPONDENCE. 87

shells, the Venus, Cytherea, Helices, and Cardium, and the
remains of existing animals: it is termed the new Pliocene
formation or period. Although new in comparison with the others,
it is yet of high antiquity in regard to man. The next structure is
a bed of plastic clay, varying from one foot to forty feet in thickness.
This lies upon another bed of sand, containing the remains of ani-
mals, some of which are extinct. These strata clearly demonstrate
a deposit after each action of the tide. There is a process going
on, or was in operation fourteen years ago, on the levels connected
with the river Trent, in Lincolnshire, termed warping: it was ac-
complished by means of two sluices which conveyed the tide to the
upper part of the level. Flood-gates being closed until low water,
gave time for a deposit ; upon raising up these gates clear water
passed off, leaving a coat of earth on the surface of the land. The
owners of the property continued this operation from three to six
years, according to effects, rendering land which was nearly value-
less worth from £55. to £75. per acre, consequently capable of the
higher culture. This example tends to illustrate the regular depo-
sits which are observable in all the aqueous formations. I have not
only found in this bed portions of the Mammoth or extinct Ele-
phant, the Asiatic Elephant, Rhinoceros, Lion or Tiger, Hyena,
Horse, Buffalo or Ox, Elk, Deer, and Boar or Sus scrofa, but nu-
merous shells, viz., Unio, Helix, Melania, Cytherea, Cardium, In-
fundibulum, Echinulatum, Micula, Oliva, Venus, &c. This is
termed the old Pliocene formation. Dr. Buckland, in remarking
on this period in the Bridgewater Treatise, vol. i., p. 95, says:—
“It appears that at this epoch the whole surface of Europe was
densely peopled by various orders of mammalia ; that the numbers
of the Herbivora were maintained in due proportion by the con-
trolling influence of the Carnivora, and that the individuals of
every species were constructed in a manner fitting each to its own
enjoyment of the pleasures of existence, and placing it in due and
useful relations to the animal and vegetable kingdoms by which it
was surrounded, Every comparative anatomist is familiar with the
beautiful examples, mechanical contrivance, and compensations
which adapt each existing species of Herbivora and Carnivora to
their own peculiar place and state of life, Such contrivances began
not with living species. The geologist demonstrates their prior
existence in the extinct forms of the same genera which he disco-
vers beneath the surface of the earth, and he claims for the author
of these fossil forms, under which the first types of such mechanism
were embodied, the same high attributes of wisdom and goodness,

88 CORRESPONDENCE.

the demonstration of which exalts and sanctifies the labours of sci-
ence in her investigations of the organizations of the living world.”

Under the old Pliocene formation we come immediately to the
chalk, which in this neighbourhood has not been penetrated. The
fossil remains which I have been enabled to collect, consist of the
following, viz.: Snocerami, several species ; Echini, ditto ; Plagi-
ostoma, Spinosa, Serpula, Dianchora, Pecten, Terebratula, Ventri-
culite, Pentagonaster (one of which I possess, the five sides being
complete), with numerous ossiculi, and fishes and reptiles teeth:
the fishes teeth belong to the Squalus tribe. In some parts of the
plastic clay is occasionally found a thin bed of chalk, deposited be-
tween the new and old pliocene formations. Immediately on the
bank of the Thames there is a dark-coloured bed of plastic clay,
lying over a stratum of six feet thick, containing an immense
quantity of vegetable matter, principally the remains of the Yew
tree, sufficient to answer the purpose of fuel, if treated after the
manner of making peat. The greater number of shells, both in
the fresh-water and marine formations of this tertiary series, are so
nearly allied to the present genera that we may conclude the ani-
mals by which they were formed to have discharged similar func-
tions in the economy of Nature, and to have been endowed with
the same capacities of enjoyment as the cognate molluscs of living
species.

Those geologists who are not averse to presume that the course of
Nature has been uniform from the earliest ages, and that causes now
in action have produced the former changes of the earth’s surface,
will consult the ancient strata for instruction in regard to the re-
productive effects of tides and currents. It will be enough for them
to perceive that great effects now result from the operation of these
agents in the inaccessible depths of lakes and seas ; and they will
then search the ancient lacustrine and marine strata for proofs of
analogous effects in times past. Thus we have a collection of facts,
a series of epochs anterior to the present time, and of which the suc-
cessive steps may be ascertained with perfect certainty, although
the periods which intervened cannot be determined with any degree
of precision. These epochs form so many fixed points, answering
as rules for directing our inquiries respecting this ancient chronolo~
gy of the earth.

J. GRANTHAM.
Crayford, Kent.

CORRESPONDENCE. 89

To tHE Epirors oF “THe ANALYST.”

GENTLEMEN,

BEING once more in my own quiet room, after a hurried and ha-
rassing visit to London, I take the earliest opportunity of writing to
you, for the purpose of mentioning certain things and circumstances
which afforded to me both satisfaction and improvement.

I left Hull, by the Water Witch steamer, for London, July 8th.
There were many passengers, some, of course, very commonplace,
and others highly-interesting companions. Among the latter spe-
cies may be mentioned two Anglo-African merchants. One of them
had resided some years in a colony near the river Gambia, and the
other at Fernando river. Our conversation consisted of statements
on their part, and questions on mine, on the social, moral, intellec-
tual, and commercial condition of the African aborigines. In con-
nection with the commercial information they gave me, I think the
following facts somewhat important. Firstly, that there is a great
quantity of gold, in various sized pieces, along the whole line of
coast, and which rich metal is only mechanically mixed with the al-
luvial soil ; so that it requires little capital or trouble to collect the
ore together. Secondly, that, from this and other sources, a fine
prospect is afforded for commercial speculation, particularly as Eng-
lish manufactures are preferred by the natives. Thirdly, that when
European settlers are temperate, and not addicted to sensual excesses
of any kind, they may enjoy very good health. One of the gentle-
men was a man of colour, and the other an Englishman, but both
looked extremely well, and very intelligent. They particularly
wished for a list of good elementary works on Science, Physiology,
&c.; they were also much pleased with Phrenology, and were eager
to know something about it. By the way, I found almost every
body desirous of obtaining some phrenological information. Truth
may be slow in its progress, but nothing can ultimately impede it.
Whatever the obstacles or the prejudices which have hitherto re-
tarded the philosophy of Gall and Spurzheim, they will now be
crumbled to pieces, and be dissipated like chaff before the wind ;
because the common sense part of the community begin to recognize
the importance of Phrenology for education, for criminal legislation,
and for the treatment of the insane.

When in London I called at most of the institutions, and found
them in a flourishing state; I also saw many private collections of

VOL. VII., NO. XXI. M

90 CORRESPONDENCE.

Natural History. It would be occupying too much of your space
to make particular mention of them, but I cannot resist describing
a few of the things I saw. Ina shop in the Strand, nearly oppo-
site Chandos-street, there are a number of specimens of copal, with
insects ; Moths, Spiders, and Ants, are enclosed within this transpa-
rent yellow substance, forming a beautiful contrast to the tombs
which usually receive the bodies of all things which have lived and
moved. Instead of the gloom which generally surrounds the last
habitations of animated beings, here was brightness ; and instead of
being loathsome to look upon, they were something to admire and
covet. ‘There was one thing that particularly struck me, namely,
that the Moths, Spiders, and Ants, although “ quietly inurned” in
their present magnificent sepulchres for centuries, retained their
forms and palpableness, and seem as if they were but the other day
doomed to be incarcerated in their present resinous receptacles.
How insignificant and bungling seem the vain efforts of man to em-
balm and preserve the corpse of some departed friend, by saturating
it in bitumen, and by folding it in numerous filaments saturated
with essential oils, as compared to this manner of preserving animal
bodies in a transparent, imperishable, and, when polished, elegant
substance! O Nature, thou art profound and perfect, even in what
may appear fanciful in thy works!

Whilst detained in the Strand for some models I had ordered, I
took the opportunity of visitingthe Adelaide Gallery. It was abont
a quarter before two o'clock, the time when the magnetic and elec-
tro-magnetic phenomena are exhibited. A very talented gentle-
man, whose name I do not know, gave a short lecture on these in-
teresting portions of Natural Philosophy. He showed us the de-
composition of water by the electro-magnetic agency, and its recom-
position by combustion ; and also the immense power imparted to
the magnet, to sustain very great weights, whilst a galvanic circle
was kept circulating round the copper coils which surrounded it ;
and, lastly, the brilliant experiment of inducing a succession of
sparks from a large magnet, proving to the senses that there is an
identity between electricity, magnetism, and galvanism. But what
is particularly worth your attention is this fact, that I and many
other persons took a shock from the large magnet, and remarked
that the sensation was most powerful at the elbow joints, where it
seemed to terminate. Now when a shock is received from an elec-
trifying machine, whether from a cylinder or plate, it passes through
the whole body instantaneously, and the mind is conscious of the
phenomena ; but this is not the case with the shock from the elec-

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. . 91

tro-magnetic apparatus. It then occurred to me that this phenome-
non (the shock from the magnet not being felt beyond the elbow
joints) would seem to warrant the supposition that the electric mat-
ter differed in degree and intensity according to the media through
which it is transmitted.

I am, Gentlemen,
Your obedient servant,
J. L. Levison.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Tue ordinary meeting was held on Monday evening, Mr. Ste-
phens, President, in the chair. Mr. Bowerbank exhibited some spe-
cimens of cork, which had been greatly injured by a species of
Dermestes. The vessel in which the cork was brought over to the
docks had previously contained a cargo of hoofs, horns, and bones,
from which the insects were produced. A great deal of injury had
also been done to the mast of the ship, which would have to be re-
placed ; and it was even feared that the vessel itself was destroyed.
The insects had already committed very extensive ravages in the lo-
calities of Saffron Hill and Whitechapel, where they attacked the
posts in all directions, and were also very common in Wapping. Mr.
B. suggested, for their destruction, the essential oil of almonds, the
vapour of which would probably be effectual—Mr. Bainbridge exhi-
bited a small species of Moth, which had been very injurious to Ap-
ple trees in the neighbourhood of Lambeth ; in many cases the leaves
were destroyed altogether. The cocoons are formed on the leaves,
which soon become covered with webs so strong that, in many cases,
the young leaves cannot burst through them ; but the larger leaves of
Apple trees escape, and Pears are but rarely attacked—Mr. West-
wood detailed an entomological visit lately made to Paris ; and,
amongst other subjects, he noticed a disease called muscadine, with
which Silk-worms have been very extensively attacked in France.
The malady, like a parasite, gradually envelopes the whole body in a
white fungus, and destroys the worm; the mischief being produced
by the explosion of a fungus, which is taken in by the spiracles or
pores of the skin, as has been proved by M. Audouin, who has inocu-

92 . PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

lated several worms and beetles with it. There was also a specimen
of the Scolytus pygmeus, an insect which attacks the Oak, and which
has latterly proved so destructive that 80,000 trees in the Bois de
Vincennes have been cut down, in consequence of its attacks. Mr.
Westwood, in conclusion, made some remarks on the progress of
Entomology in France, which he stated to be in advance of this
country, there being more working cultivators there, and the collection
at the Jardin des Plantes being superior to that at the British Muse-
um. M. Audouin had just completed a course of fifty lectures on
Entomology.

WARWICKSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY AND ARCHOLO-
GICAL SOCIETY.

The council of this Society read their Annual Report to the mem-
bers on the 23rd of May, 1837, at their first anniversary meeting.
This Report is arranged under three general heads, preceded by some
necessary preliminary observations. It was considered by the coun-
cil to be highly important to make the quarterly meetings interesting
to the members at large; and, during the past year, they have been
fortunate enough to obtain the assistance, on those occasions, of Pro-
fessor Buckland, of Dr. Lloyd, and of Mr. M. Bloxam, by each of
whom a very interesting address has been delivered to a large audi-
tory, with the effect of increasing the number of the friends of the
Society. At one of the quarterly meetings, Mr. Sharpe read a paper
on a curious archzological subject ; but the council regret not having
yet been favoured with communications, so much desired by them
and so easily furnished by all observant naturalists, relating to the
different branches of Natural History.

GroLocy AND MinerAtocy.—Considering that the Society’s
first year has but just concluded, the collection in Geology and
Mineralogy has attained a greater extent than could have been anti-
cipated in so short a period ; and it is a subject on which the council
congratulates the Society, more especially as the far greater propor-
tion consists of contributions from the cabinets of members and
others interested in its welfare; the sole purchase which has been
made being a series of mountain rocks, all of them illustrative of
some part of the Geology of the British Islands, collected by the
Rey. Dr. Rowley, late Master of University College, Oxford. The
cost of this interesting and well-selected collection was only ten
pounds.

Many persons, possessing private collections, are oftentimes pre-
vented from contributing to public museums from not being aware of
what things may be desired ; and others, not being in the habit of col-
lecting for themselves, and feeling but very little interest in any par-
ticular branch of Natural History, having nevertheless many oppor-

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 93

tunities, during summer excursions, of acquiring various natural
objects, would gladly do so had they but a few directions as to the
kind required. To obviate these obstacles and with a view of ena-
bling all who are disposed to add their mite to this department, as
well as of offering an incitement to indulge in an agreeable amuse-
ment which may grow into a rational pursuit, the council takes a
cursory review of the present state of the collection, and in so doing
points out those parts of it in which deficiencies are most numerous,
at the same time remarking that no part is by any means complete.
In the rocks more ancient than the coal formation, and in that divi-
sion of them called primary, viz., from the Mica Schist to the Clay
Slate inclusive, the collection is defective ; and visiters to the roman-
tic mountain scenery of North Wales, or the Cumberland and West-
moreland lakes, may have ample opportunities of obtaining examples ;
but of the series succeeding to the Clay Slate, viz., the Transition,
Upper Grauwacke, or, as it is now called, the Silurian system, the
Society possesses many rare and characteristic animal remains, from
the neighbourhood of Ludlow and from the well-known Dudley
Limestone. Of the Carboniferous system, they have numerous and
choice specimens, particularly of the vegetables belonging to the coal
formation itself; but in the animal remains of the Mountain Lime-
stone, which is found in Derbyshire and several other northern coun-
ties, in the neighbourhood of Bristol, and in South Wales, the col-
lection is deficient ; and almost any fossils, particularly Encrinites,
should, if possible, be obtained. It is well known that organic re-
mains in the New Red Sandstone have but recently been detected in
England, and at present none have been found in a good state of
preservation, so that every thing should be actively searched out and
carefully collected. The Magnesian Limestone, which belongs to
this series and is extensively distributed in some of the northern
counties, affords many and curious remains ; of these, at present they
haye not one. No part of the collection is so rich as that of the
Lias, though it may reasonably be expected that the numerous Lime-
stone quarries in this county will continue to yield new and valuable
additions. At present, scarcely any vegetable remains of the Lias of
Warwickshire have been detected; and it is greatly to be desired
that the attention of those members residing near the quarries should
be directed to that part of the subject. Any fossil specimens of the
remaining secondary rocks, from the inferior Oolite to the Chalk
inclusive, are desired. A similar remark is applicable to the tertiary
strata ; since, with the exception of a few crag fossils from Norfolk,
the collection contains no British organic remains of these strata. A
most valuable contribution of tertiary fossils, from Sicily, has been
presented by the Marquis of Northampton. The London Clay in
Kent, Sussex, and Hampshire swarms with fossils which may be easi-
ly obtained. ‘The collection of simple minerals is at present very
limited in extent. Of these, there is one which is entirely new. It
is a beautifully crystallized Salt of Alumina, and, according to Dr.

94 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Apjohn’s analysis, appears to be a sulphate of that earth with Manga-
nese. It was brought from the neighbourhood of the Bushman river,
in South Africa. In concluding this part of the Report, the council
strongly recommends those members who may in future present rock
or fossil specimens (and the recommendation is equally applicable to
all branches of Natural History), to pay particular attention to attach
the name of the place from whence each specimen may have been
derived, to the specimen itself or to the paper envelope. So import-
ant is it to attend to this, that it frequently happens that, from inat-
tention to this circumstance, specimens are worse than worthless, as it
leads to error and confusion in attempting to arrange them.
ZooLocy.—The specimens in Zoology, although daily increasing,
are not numerous. This department contains about three hundred
birds, of which sixty-eight are foreign. The curators feel extremely
anxious to complete and classify the collection of British birds and
quadrupeds, in which, it may be observed that many members of the
Society have the power materially to assist them. They gratefully
acknowledge many presents made to this branch of the museum, and
are desirous to allude more particularly to the numerous specimens
received from Sir Charles Throckmorton, who has repeatedly contri-
buted to several departments of the collection, but especially to that of
birds. Some progress has been made in the formation of a collection
of birds’ nests and eggs. Few parts of England more abound in all
the varieties of song birds than the well-wooded parts of Warwick-
shire, and with moderate assistance specimens of them all might soon
be exhibited in the museum. Specimens of sea birds are very much
wished for, and also winter birds. When rare birds are met with, it
is desirable that the locality in which they are found should be men-
tioned. The nests of birds will be rendered more valuable if sent
with portions of the branches to which they are attached. In the
entomological section a few specimens only are possessed, but this
part of the collection is likely soon to be much increased. In certain
instances, the nests of the animals belonging to this division are high-
ly worthy of preservation, as may be seen by the specimens of the
nest of the Marabunta, the Common Hornet, the Wasp, &c., already
in the museum. The collection of shells is deficient ; it contains
some good specimens. Of quadrupeds and of fishes, very few have
yet been received. The number of quadrupeds is only twenty-five,
that of fishes is still smaller ; but it is hoped that a perfect collection
of the fishes of the Avon may soon be made. Of the reptile tribes,
some have recently been presented. The council entertain hopes
that, as the collection increases, not only will the arrangement of the
different specimens in the zoological department be such as to illus-
trate the leading divisions of Natural History, but that they will be-
come more fitted for the instruction of those who feel interested in
comparing the structure of different tribes of living beings. Several
skeletons of the smaller quadrupeds and of birds are in the course of
preparation, which, added to those now in the cases, and to the col-

oo = 23 aes

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 95

lection of skulls of animals and human skulls, and the casts of skulls
of the different varieties of the human species, with the specimens of
parts of the osseous system of the larger mammalia already in the
museum, will soon be sufficient to illustrate the frame-work, or bony
structure, of vertebrated animals. The illustration of internal struc-
ture is a larger task, and demands larger resources; but no one can
doubt that it may be effected, even by a provincial society, when it is
remembered that splendid museums of comparative anatomy, and even
of Natural History in all its branches, have occasionally been the
work of single individuals.

ArcH£oLoGy.—There is one portion of the collection, apparently
devoted to mere curiosities, but which in reality illustrates no less im-
portant a subject than the natural history of man; a consideration
which gives value and utility to the specimens of the dress and manu-
factures, the weapons and instruments of chase, of the Islanders of
the South Sea, of which specimens several are deposited in the So-
ciety's museum. Much of the interest belonging to the archeologi-
cal department arises from like considerations. The building mate-
rials, the costume, the money, the armorial devices of each age, are
so many illustrations of man’s social progress, and illustrate, scarcely
less than purely literary remains, the exercise of his natural endow-
ments, in all varieties of time and circumstance. The head of a
Deer implanted in an Ash tree, the nest and eggs found in the cen-
tre of an Elm, and the portion of an Elm in which a fragment of
Sandstone is imbedded, are, to a certain extent, illustrative of botani-
cal physiology, as well as highly curious in themselves. Specimens
of dried plants were, some time ago, presented to the Society by Mr.
Leighton and Mr. J. Baly. Opportunities have not occurred of add-
ing to this department, but it is in contemplation to make a collection
of the plants of the county. Several books have been presented to
the Society, and it is expected that the library will soon be enriched
with more works relating to different branches of Natural History,
including useful manuals in each department. The council also stre-
nuously recommend the preparation of descriptive catalogues of each
portion of the collection, as calculated very greatly to add to the ad-
vantages of the Society, as soon as this is found to be practicable.

ASSOCIATION FOR EXPLORING CENTRAL AFRICA.

We have just seen and hastily perused a Catalogue of the South
African Museum, now exhibiting in the Egyptian Hall, Piccadilly,
for objects particularly entitled to the fostering patronage of natural-
ists, philanthropists, and a patriotic government. This museum con-
tains an extensive collection of new and rare quadrupeds, birds, and
reptiles from the interior of Southern Africa, with numerous speci-
mens of the arts and manufactures of the natives, and about four

96 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

hundred drawings illustrative of the character of the country and its
productions, of the manners, costumes, and social condition, and of
the religious ceremonies of the inhabitants.

This valuable and curious collection is the property of a society
which exists in South Africa, under the title of “The Cape of Good
Hope Association for Exploring Central Africa.” It was formed in
1833, by the first party sent into the interior from that Association,
soon after its institution. The collection has been sent to England,
first for exhibition and then for sale, in the hope that the proceeds
will materially add to the very small fund arising from the voluntary
contributions of a few colonists, and thereby render it practicable to
dispatch in the course of next year a second expedition to resume an
exploration of the country at lat. 23° 28’, where the investigations of
the first party were discontinued.

Having no view beyond the advancement of knowledge and the
benefit of mankind, the Association appeals to the best feelings of a
highly-intelligent nation for that degree of support which cannot be
expected from a few colonists, however zealous and liberal ; and that
they have been both the one and the other, is clearly manifested in
the fact of their having contributed, in the course of a few months,
the sum of nine hundred pounds, exclusively for the encouragement
of discovery. With this and the sum of three hundred pounds, which
was nobly placed at the Society’s disposal by Mr. M‘Queen, of Glas-
gow, so well known for his writings on colonial affairs, the directors
of the institution have hitherto been enabled to defray all its ex-
penses.

Although descriptive of a portion of the collection, this catalogue
is not intended to offer any details beyond such as it may be reason-
ably supposed will be both intelligible and interesting to visitors in
general : more important and strictly scientific remarks are necessa-
rily reserved for publication in another form. The Association can-
didly avows a special anxiety to interest the public in its proceedings,
as its objects are not likely to be accomplished without a more ex-
tended patronage. With a view, therefore, to make known the ori-
gin of the Society and its projected enterprize, with the steps already
taken for accomplishing the latter, a series of extracts from the
Records of the Association are prefixed to the Catalogue, by way of
introduction. Among others passed by a general meeting held at
Cape Town on the 19th of May, 1836, Sir John Herschell in the
chair, is the following resolution :—“ That the successful return of
the expedition holds out so favourable a prospect of future discovery,
that it is expedient that this Association should not be dissolved, but
should continue to exist as a permanent institution for the further
prosecution of its original object.”

Three hundred and thirty-nine zoological articles are specified on
the pages of this Catalogue; and of that number forty-seven were
first discovered by the expedition, and subsequently described in a
separate publication. Among these fruits of the Society’s researches

i catinns

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 97

is a new species of the Rhinoceros, with several important additions
to the winged tribes ; and as many curious observations on the habits
and other characteristics of the more remarkable and rare animals
preserved in the Society’s collection are concisely introduced into the
Catalogue, it is thereby rendered more worthy of public attention and
patronage.

Dr. Andrew Smith is preparing for publication a Journal of the
Expedition, which will comprise a great diversity of valuable infor-
mation respecting the native inhabitants, the country and its natural
productions.

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTION OF STAINES.

This Society completed its third season in the month of June last,
and the last Lecture was delivered by the Rev. Dr. Jones, Vicar of
Bedfont and Vice-President of the Institution, who had already print-
ed five discourses addressed to the same Society, and now sends this
one forth to share the fate of its associates. It is a vigorous and ani-
mated lecture, sparkling throughout with a brilliant and generous en-
thusiasm.

During the third season of the Staines Institution, which occupied
eight whole months, a lecture was delivered every week, with a few
unavoidable interruptions. In the first season eleven lectures only,
in the second sixteen were given, but in the last theyamounted to
thirty-one ; and, says Dr. Jones, who commends them, all these ex-
ertions were gratefully acknowledged by a full attendance of the
members, by their kind encouragement and warm applause.

Dr. Jones’s lecture will bé perused with intense satisfaction by all
those who cordially engage in undertakings similar to that for the
promotion of which he devotes the best energies of an active and vi-
gorous mind. Some of his powers and his principles are manifested
in the following observations :—“ We certainly live in changeful
days; but it is true philosophy boldly to meet events, and convert
them, if possible, into blessings. The general dissemination of know-
ledge is, perhaps, the most startling of the moral phenomena of our
times. Heretofore, influential individuals there have been, anxious
and active to forward the cause of popular enlightenment, but they
found few of kindred zeal to aid the noble work; nor was there
greater encouragement from the people themselves. A brighter day
has dawned upon us. Ignorance has no longer the patronage of high
authorities, and knowledge is discovered to be not only the privilege
but the happiness of a people. Not that the path is even now so
widely opened, or so freed from obstacles, as it soon will be. We
have not yet swept away all the little prejudices and fears which re-
tard the march of truth ; still, much has been done, and more bene-
volently contemplated, and this very contemplation has its use. Nor

VOL, VII., NO. XXI. N

98 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

is past success without its incentives ; it affords the best basis whereon
to rest our hopes of larger and more abundant results. A Christian,
and, consequently, a truly benevolent philosophy, carefully contem-
plates all great and fresh exhibitions of mental power, and moulds
them with gentle and plastic adaptation to produce the greatest pub-
lic good. Aided by such a philosophy, we shall not rudely and in-
sultingly attempt to sully and destroy existing establishments, but ra-
ther look for their improvement to the sure, though scarcely percep-
tible, corrections of time.”

Dr. Jones’s pages overflow with excellent and instructive precepts,
expressed with peculiar and attractive fluency. The following extract
compels us to view his objects with respect, and his endeavours with
admiration. ‘ Ignorance has had its day,” he observes, “and it has
failed: the alternative problem is now in progress of solution, The
experiment is on its trial, how far literary and scientific knowledge
will avail in raising the character of a people, and influencing the des-
tinies of a great kingdom. Say what we will, and do what we please,
the impetus cannot be stopped or impeded. We can no more arrest
its march by our narrow fears and impotent cavils, that we can roll
back the flowing tide of the sea with the palms of our hands. If this
be so, what should be our aim? Why, never to decry or oppose the
pursuit of human knowledge when this is not made an antagonist
principle to our faith as Christians, to our duties as subjects and citi-
zens. On the contrary, let us resolve to diffuse the blessings of use-
ful knowledge and to advocate its cause, not timidly or partially, but
strenuously, unsparingly, and conjointly. Faith and knowledge must
not be considered rivals, under whose banners enemies are to be en-
listed ; as representing an antipathy between the two revelations of
God, the written revelation of his holy word, and the unwritten page
of Nature—between the precepts of the Bible, and the great truths
which the science of social economy is hourly eliciting. The gospel
of salvation and human knowledge must be joint, as they are con-
fessedly gigantic, levers in the moral and mental amelioration of
mankind. Let us, then, give the Bible with our right hand, and the
volume of man’s wisdom with our left. Let us persevere with the
liberal views and cordial tempers which have hitherto guided our
councils and rewarded our zeal, and yet fuller as well as riper harvests
will follow. And, above all, let us be determined, in spite of every
difficulty and trial, to keep the unity of the spirit in the bond of

eace.
7 As a “rural philosopher,” Dr. Jones admits that a magazine, cle-
verly conducted, cheap in price, and mainly confined to reports of the
formation and transactions of provincial societies, could not fail of
being widely and influentially useful. We entertain the same opinion
to its fullest extent, and we shall continue to hold, as we have always
done, the pages of The Analyst open for the reception and recom-
mendation of reports from such institutions, when guided by the prin-
ciples which have obtained the Vicar of Bedfont’s most eloquent and

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 99

irresistible advocacy. We also join most cordially in the sentiments
of Dr. Jones when he says “I want literature and science to pene-
trate into dark, unchronicled, unexplored spots. I want to see the
great work of mental illumination active and encouraged through the
length and breadth of the land. What though the tree of human
knowledge does not yield pure or perfect fruit, we are not to abandon
its cultivation, and content ourselves with the weeds of ignorance.
Let us rather aim to graft it upon the tree of life, that thus, budding
on an immortal stock, it may gladden our earthly sojourn, and nur-
ture us, with the Divine help, for more exalted blessedness hereafter.”

CAMPSALL SOCIETY FOR THE ACQUISITION OF
KNOWLEDGE.

Amoncst the various and numerous societies whose transactions we
have from time to time recorded during the last few years, there is not
one whose establishment or success gave us such sincere pleasure as
did that of the institution now for the first time introduced to our
readers and the public. All tend either to the advancement or the dif-
fusion of knowledge (we will not say of “ wseful knowledge,” for what
knowledge is not useful?), and therefore all have our hearty good
wishes and our feeble support. But the Society of which we have
just given the title is established for the benefit and improvement of
the labouring classes. It were impossible to give more than an out-
line of its plan and objects, but these are so novel and important that,
in the sincere hope of promoting the establishment of similar institu-
tions in other parts of the country, we will present a brief account of
' what it has already effected.

The members are either ordinary or honorary; the former pay
1d. per week, the latter 7s. 6d. a year, or a composition fee of £1., all
payable in advance. The ordinary members consist of labourers, ar-
tizans, farmers, &c., the honorary of such gentlemen as choose to join
the Society with the view of promoting its objects by delivering lec-
tures, &c. The members are already upwards of forty im number.
The following are the names of the honorary members :—Charles
Thorold Wood, Esq., Willoughby Wood, Esq., Neville Wood, Esq.,
C. T. Wood, jun., Esq., William Thorold Wood, Esq., G. C. Yarbo-
rough, Esq., M. Tasburgh, Esq., Mr. Keyworth, Mr. Gillatt, Mr.
Hindle, Mr. Sykes, Master A. T. Wood, Mr. Lankester, Mr. Chi-
osso, Mr. Porter, Mr. Marschan, Mr. Barnewall. Donations of £1.
each have been presented by C. T. Wood, Esq., Willoughby Wood,
Esq., Mrs. Wood, and Mr. Lankester.

June 16th.—The first general meeting of the Society took place at
8 o'clock, p.m., Willoughby Wood, Esq., in the chair. The chair-
man, Mr. Lankester, and Mr. Chiosso, severally delivered very ap-
propriate addresses on the advantages and uses of knowledge, and on

100 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

the objects of the Society. Mr. Lankester observed that were he
asked which would be most beneficial to Campsall, the discovery of a
gold-mine in its neighbourhood, or the establishment of this Society,
he should, without hesitation, declare in favour of the latter. He
continued, “‘ You have established a society for the acquisition of
knowledge, not in this city, not in this town, but in this vllage, and,
so far as I am aware, it is the first society of the kind that has sprung
up in so small and secluded a spot.” The rules haying been propos-
ed, seconded, and passed, the names of the honorary members and
committee were read. A vote of thanks was proposed to Charles
Thorold Wood, Esq., of Campsall Hall, the founder of the Society,
which was warmly responded to, and the meeting adjourned.

June 29th.—The third meeting took place, Mr. Abson, tailor,
Campsall, in the chair. Willoughby Wood, Esq., delivered a lecture
on Knowledge, introducing, incidentally, some very appropriate obser-
vations on wages.

July 5th— Fourth Meeting, C. T. Wood, Esq., in the chair.—
Mr. Lankester delivered an extremely interesting discourse on the
Steam-engine, Electricity, Botany, Anatomy, and Chemistry, inter-
spersing the lecture with anecdotes and experiments, and illustrating
it with diagrams. The lecture appeared to excite considerable inte-
rest, and marked attention was paid throughout. At this meeting it
was agreed to admit such inhabitants of the neighbouring village of
Norton as chose to join the Society as ordinary members ; also to
take in the Penny Magazine, Chambers’ Edinburgh Journal, and
Chambers’ Information for the People. To these works will proba-
bly be added the Magazine of Domestic Economy.

July 13th— Fifth Meeting, C. T. Wood, Esq., in the chair.
The chairman recounted the heads of the discourse delivered last
week, in order to impress it on the minds of the auditors. Mr. Lan.
kester then delivered a lecture on Botany, illustrated by diagrams and
specimens of plants. The vegetable tissues, the parts of plants, and
the most familiar modes of classifying them, were explained in a po-
pular and interesting manner; though at the same time—however
fascinating Botany and vegetable anatomy may be to those accustomed
to study them philosophically—it may well be questioned whether the
subject is not somewhat dry and unintelligible to an uncultivated mind.
We must “give milk to babes;” and, despite the able manner in
which the learned lecturer acquitted himself, it cannot be denied that
the attention of at least a portion of the audience began to flag long
before the conclusion, a circumstance which cannot be too scrupu-
lously guarded against.

July 20th.— Sixth Meeting, C. T. Wood, Esq., in the chair.
The chairman commenced the business of the evening by calling upon
any of the members to rise and give an account of the lecture deli-
vered by Mr. Lankester last week. After a few minutes Mr. Proc-
ter, schoolmaster, of Norton, rose, and observed that he had waited
in the hope,that some one of his boys would have come forward and

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 101

complied with the wishes of their respected chairman ; but that, as
they were too shy, he would take the task upon himself. He then
proceeded to enumerate the heads of the lecture, in a manner which
elicited the enthusiastic applause of all present. That an individual
who had, perhaps, scarce heard the name of Botany before should be
able to give so correct a summary of Mr. L.’s lecture was certainly
encouraging, and it proved—what we never doubted—that at least
some of the members were fully competent to comprehend the lecture
of the preceding week. Mr. Wood then proceeded to give some ac-
count of the Penny Magazine, reading portions from the first num-
ber, and explaining them where necessary or desirable. The chair-
man’s observations on drunkenness were particularly good, and the
whole discourse was suited in an admirable manner to the minds of
the auditors. The chairman was frequently applauded, and the cus-
tomary vote of thanks at the conclusion was warmly responded to.

_ At the seventh and eighth meetings, on the 27th of July and the
2nd of August, familiar lectures were delivered on Phrenology, by
Mr. C. T. Wood, jun. The first of these was devoted to a brief
outline of the science, the second to a description of the uses and
abuses of the various organs, illustrated with drawings and anecdotes.
By some the very idea of lecturing on Phrenology to an audience of
labourers and farmers may be stigmatized as absurd. But surely it
is interesting and useful to every one to be acquainted with the com-
position and functions of his own mind! Every one knows that the
lower classes take the greatest interest in Anatomy where the oppor-
tunity is offered to them ; and he who believes that the study of the
philosophy of the mind would prove less fascinating to them than
that of the body is himself no philosopher. Suffice it to say that such
was the interest excited by the lectures already delivered on
Phrenology that it will probably form the subject of many future
discourses.

Hitherto the members have met together one evening in each week
to hear any lecture that may have been prepared for them, and at
each meeting books are distributed amongst the members. Those
who have witnessed the large and attentive audiences at these lectures
can easily anticipate the immense advantages which must necessarily
result from the establishment of similar societies in other parts of the
kingdom. To those who oppose the education of the lower classes al-
together, as detrimental to the interests of every party, our observa-
tions are not addressed. Such individuals are either too ignorant or
too bigoted to be worth notice. But the philosophic phrenologist
well knows that every man, except an idiot, has the same faculties,
that these differ only in relative size and quality ; he knows also that
these faculties can be cultivated to equal advantage, and with equal
pleasure, by individuals of all ranks in life, and he acts accordingly.

We can only hope that the Campsall Society for the Acquisi-
tion of Knowledge will continue to exert the same zeal which has
hitherto actuated it, and that the influential inhabitants of other vil-

102 CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

lages will follow the example of those of Campsall and its vicinity.
Extend this plan to England, Europe, and the world, and then indeed
we might, at no distant period, hope to see that glorious consumma-
tion spoken of in Holy Writ, “ Knowledge shall cover the earth,
even as the waters cover the sea.”

We shall take an early opportunity of giving a further account of
the proceedings of this institution, and in the interim wish it the suc-
cess it so well merits.

It may be observed, in conclusion, that custom appears to have re-
conciled all parties to the Mechanics’ Institutions for the benefit of
the inhabitants of towns. That the same feeling may ere long occu-
py our minds with regard to societies for the instruction of the now”
benighted dwellers in villages and the country generally, is our sin-
cere wish.*

CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

The Spas of Germany. By A. B. Granville, M.D., F.R.S. 2 vols.
8vo., pp- lxii., 946; with Tables and thirty-eight Plates. Lon-
don: Colburn. 1837.

Ever since the time when disease began to make encroachments
on the office of old age, in continuing the natural vicissitudes of hu-
man existence, the prolific ingenuity of man has never ceased to be
exercised in discovering and devising means for the conservation or
recovery of health with its universally desired accompaniments—
happiness and longevity. Among the multitude of resources usual-
ly employed for attaining these highest of enjoyments, not the least
efficacious has long been the use of mineral waters under their
saline, chalybeate, and gasiferous kinds, and at all their practicable
diversities of application and temperature.

Mineral springs are abundantly distributed over the various re-
gions of the globe, and more than two thousand of them are fre-
quented by invalids and convalescents in quest of benefit from their
medicinal virtues. Dr. Granville’s volumes are occupied with ob-
servations on thirty-six of the German watering-places; and his
account of these is both entertaining and instructive.

Having explained the general objects of his work in a concise
preface, the Doctor gives a comprehensive introduction, which con-

* The readers of The Analyst are indebted solely to Neville Wood, Esgq.,
for this communication.—Ep.

CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 103

sists of ‘‘ Popular Considerations on the Use and Power of Mineral
Waters,” and his considerations are arranged under distinct heads.
Under one of these he endeavours to expose the prevailing igno-
rance of the “most influential medical men in London” respecting
the nature and use of foreign mineral waters. His evidence in sup-
port of this simple proposition is not distinguished by anything new,
either in kind or quality: it is based on two cases and repeated ex-
amples ; and, all these being facts, the proof is a demonstration.
Dr. G. next evinces most clearly that the foreign mineral waters are
endowed with remarkable efficacy and power ; but it is not a part
of his plan to show that the British mineral springs are equally
powerful as the German ; and that some of them, by the same plea,
are greatly more efficacious. When treating of temperature, the
Doctor concludes that the heat of mineral springs would seem to be
Specific in its action, and therefore dissimilar from ordinary heat :
but whence this peculiar heat is derived, he says, no philosopher
has as yet satisfactorily explained. By some inadvertency, however,
he omits mentioning the process by which he ascertained that the
results whereon he grounds his seeming conclusion were produced
by the “ thermal or telluric heat” exclusively, and not by the gase-
ous or mineral elements held in combination by the thermal water.
Nevertheless, there are creditable reasons for imagining that there
may really be different kinds of heat ; for, in his “‘ Popular Consi-
derations,” Dr. Granville makes it plain that an excess of “ ther-
mal caloricity” may be communicated to a frigid looker through the
history of inductive sciences, for a key to unriddle the great myste-
ry of permanent heat in mineral springs. His next section unfolds
the Doctor’s views on the mode in which the mineral waters act,
and how they ought to be employed. It is his decided opinion that
these waters, when acting successfully on the human system, act as
alteratives : and whether they do so by changing the character and
composition of the fluids of the human body, or by effecting an
alteration in the solids, it is not less true that it is only as altera-
lives they have been acting. This discovery will be hailed with
grateful admiration by the most influential medical men in London,
and by the members of that society which, in England, is looked
upon as the ne plus ultra of scientific academies. The manner in
which mineral waters should be used, so as to obtain their alterative
effects, is various. The Doctor says they may be taken internally,
or they may be used externally as baths. He propounds an ingeni-
ous theory on the origin of mineral springs and the antiquity of
mud-baths. Mud mineralizes the springs; and although the ap-
plication of the mineralizing mud of a spring be itself unknown in
this country, and is of comparatively recent introduction at the
Spas of Germany, yet the use of mud-baths in disease is of great
antiquity. In one of the Gospels, the Doctor finds evidence of the
practice of using mud-baths having existed in scriptural times, for
the cure of the “ impotent folk, the blind, the halt, and the wither-
ed” or paralytic. He adds in illustratiqn that “ the angel who went

104 CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

down at a certain season into the pool to trouble the water” before
the sick could enter it, is evidently figurative of the periodical or
occasional muddy condition of the pool of Bethesda, produced by the
town-physician making the waters turbid, and thus putting them
into the best state for medicinal and sanative purposes. Dr. G. pro-
ceeds to repeat the “ popular considerations’—that the journey to the
Spas of Germany, change of air, difference in the former mode of liv-
ing, release from laborious occupation, leaving behind of every worry
and anxiety of mind, gaiety of the spas, and the constant amuse-
ment to be found there amidst agreeable society, all act as auxiliaries
to the power and virtues of mineral waters. He grants, with great
candour, that these auxiliaries act as adjuvants in the cure, but
never as principal agents ; that they serve to hasten the recovery
and render the treatment more pleasant ; and that in many cases
they seem to be essential to the development of the power (not of
the effects) of the water. Dr. G. concludes, from a perfect and
impregnable induction, that the difference between an English and
a German spa is very considerable, and that the balance is greatly
in favour of the latter: and by the same induction the Doctor im-
poses an immense debt of gratitude on the English people for the
sagacity and eloquence with which he endeavours to persuade them
that the Spas of Germany are fraught with benefits every way un-
paragoned.

Dr. Granville’s method of defining the special objects in using
mineral waters is very philosophical. If it be true, he says, that mi-
neral waters possess great medicinal powers, their use must pre-sup-
pose a serious purpose, which purpose is either to cure a present dis-
ease, or to mitigate it, or to prevent a threatening one ; and therefore
he infers that most individuals use the waters as a means of cure.
Experience has enabled him to disclose the information that, in
curing, mitigating, or preventing disease, we have often need of
more than one mode of action on the part of the agent employed
for those purposes. We require, he says, either a purely restorative
or a purely corrective agent, or both modes (he means agents) may
be necessary at one and the same time, either in equal or in diffe-
rently proportioned degrees of such agents. Hence he has ascer-
tained that three classes of mineral waters may be established at
once, founded upon these three modes of action, which shall meet
every case likely to present itself at a mineral spring; and that
between the four ends of Germany there are spas endowed with the
qualities we have need of for furnishing the three required modes of
action. The Doctor concludes this instructive branch of his “ Popu-
lar Considerations” with the pleasant intelligence that, in Ger-
many, the people enjoy as good health as in this country, and do
not die in larger numbers under ordinary circumstances.

« Rules for the Use of Mineral Waters, Regimen, and Diet” in-
volve topics of vital importance to those individuals who frequent
the Spas of Germany, where the dinners are delightful and the soci-
ety is exquisite. Dr. G.’s»‘ Rules” are extremely judicious, and

CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 105

agreeably distinguished by his characteristic originality, conciseness,
and precision. Experience and contemplation led him to the disco-
very that “a moderately-nourishing and easily-digested dinner suits
all patients.” As a finisher to the “ Popular Considerations,” their
inditer pours forth a pathetic effusion, by way of illustrating the
vivacity of his patriotism and the disinterestedness of his philan-
thropy. ‘In conclusion,” he observes, “1 would say to such as are
able and willing to try the effect of some one of the German Spas,
in hopes of casting off any disease under which they may have la-
boured at home with little hope of recovery,—haste away, and make
the trial by any means. Do not waste your life and your purse in
swallowing endless drugs, and ringing the changes of remedies and
doctors, pent up in a hot house in London during the summer
months, or in being lifted in and out of the carriage, the prey of
some chronic and insidious disorder, which baffles your vigilant phy-
sician’s skill; or in being sent from Brighton to Tunbridge, and
from thence to Leamington or Cheltenham, merely to return again
to Brighton or London exactly as you left it, having in the mean
time tried as many doctors as places to no purpose. Fly, I say, from
all these evils, proceed to some spring of health, and commit your-
self for once to the hands of Nature—medicated Nature—assisted”
[by the “ physician of the place,” and] “ by every auxiliary which
an excursion to a German spa brings into play ; and depend upon it
that either at the first, or at the second, or third,” or some other
occasion of “ visiting and using such spa you will have reason to
rejoice that you exchanged Art for Nature.”

Dr. G. believes that there does not exist, in any language, “a
work presenting the narrative of a grand tour to the most celebrated
and fashionable mineral watering-places of Germany in regular suc-
cession ; a tour in which amusement is blended with information,
and descriptive sketches of the humours and fancies of each spa are
mixed up with the accurate details, collected on the spot, of every
thing that is useful in a medical and social point of view.” He
doubts not that “a work of this nature is sought for by all those
who wish to visit the Spas of Germany ;” and he hopes that the
wishes of these amiable persons may be perfectly answered by the
benevolence of his beautiful volumes. He ‘‘ recommends this great
tour to all idlers as a summer diversion, instead of broiling, at double
the expense, at Brighton ;’ and he commences his own toils on the
13th day of August, 1836, by entering the land of Spas in an open
britschka, the best sort of machine for framing observations, for ad-
justing facts, and for arriving at medical and social or poetical con-
clusions. His narrative is luminous and sprightly ; he enlivens it
with a fair proportion of the seeings, and sayings, and doings, of an
experienced traveller ; and by means of these, still farther enlivened
with picturesque sketches of things, and places, and persons, he has
succeeded most happily in making a book well qualified, by its value
and gentility, to become a proper companion to those who follow

VOL, VII., NO, XXI. 0

106 CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

Dr. Granville’s excellent advice, and haste away to commit them-
selves to the hands of medicated nature at the Spas of Germany.

Dr. Granville descants agreeably on his Spas under four distinct
geographical groups. The first is his Baden-Baden and Wurtem-
burg group, and it includes his descriptive sketches of the Baden-
Baden, Rippoldsau, Wildbad, Liebenzell, Deinach, Cannstadt, and
Boll spas, on each of which he bestows a due share of friendly and
philosophical attention.

Baden is “ Queen of the Spas of Germany,” the second most his-
torical bathing-place in Europe. The place forms a most delightful
summer retreat of the sick and the healthy, and it lies in the bosom
of a most enchanting mountain scenery. You become almost ro-
mantic as you approach it on a road which keeps meandering into
the bosom of the valleys ; and when at length you enter the town,
through a long avenue of poplars terminating in a shaded road, the
sudden freshness is felt to be particularly delightful. By hills, the
queen of spas is sheltered from the east winds and from the westerly
gales ; and on the north side her protection is still more complete,
owing to the greater elevation of a mountain range. The place is
only a few hundred feet above the level of the sea: there are some
few degrees of thermometrical heat in the valley of Baden more
than in the flat country near and out of it. At the moderate
height of its position it enjoys a dry and very pure air, which ex-
erts, as Dr. Kramer observed, a happy influence on the moral as
well as the physical part of man. Dr. G. is disposed to think that
this representation is not one of the exaggerations which physicians
of watering-places indulge in, in behalf of their favourite spot of
residence. The climate here is exceedingly temperate, and one of
the most healthy in Germany.

Apparently a prodigious multitude of persons frequent this de-
lightful retreat during the bathing season ; “ but,” says Dr. Gran-
ville, “at Baden a little trickery is resorted to in this matter, just
to raise its character by showing that a larger number of visitors flock
thither than to any other Spa, for the benefit of its waters.” He cal-
culates, from observation of gait and countenance, that not one in a
hundred of the many people seen there can possibly have the excuse
of ill health for resorting to the place. Yet it has its patients, and
many such there are who could not stay away from it, or change it
for another place, without losing every chance of recovery.

There are eleven secondary mineral springs at Baden, besides the
celebrated Ursprung, which pours out a profusion of thermal water,
at a temperature only 58° short of the boiling point. According to
Dr. G., this scalding water is used for almost every domestic pur-
pose, including most of the culinary operations. It is, he says, per-
fectly clear, has a slight faint animal smell, a taste somewhat saltish,
and. when drunk as it issues from the spring, approaching to that of
weak broth ; but, he adds, this taste becomes less pleasant by the
mixture of cold water, milk, whey, or other ingredient. Its specific
gravity is 1.030, that of distilled water being 1.000; a pint of it

CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 107

contains nearly twenty-four grains of solid matter, comprising six-
teen grains of common salt, six grains and a half of the sulphate,
muriate, and carbonate of lime, and a small portion of magnesia,
with traces of iron and about half a cubic inch of carbonic acid gas
in addition. Its particular smeil is due to the presence of extractive
matter and of bath slime, a peculiar vegeto-animal substance, which
hot-springs deposit at the bottom of reservoirs. When employed
injudiciously, this excellent water sometimes occasions some injuri-
ous effects ; when rightly used it, in some cases, produces beneficial
results. A gay life may be led at Baden on very reasonable terms.

Travellers to the Wurtemberg Spas will be greatly exhilarated
and edified as they go by the discursive and sensible observations re-
corded by Dr. Granville on his journey to the same destination ;
they are full of interest, novelty, and importance. He promises not
soon to forget the delicious sensations for which he is indebted to
that charming excursion. In his opinion the inhabitants of the
Schwarzwald, or black forest, are ugly, and many of them are af-
flicted with goitre, or neck-wens ; but the natural scenery of that
upland region abounds with variety and loveliness. Nothing, he
thinks, can equal-the succession of beautiful changes which, at each
turn of the road, present themselves to those who ascend the river
Mourg and its enchanting valley. Like all mountain streams, this
is insignificant at its source, which is double, near the highest sum-
mits of the forest ; but it soon gains strength, and rolls onwards
through its tortuous windings, more capricious than the coils of a
great snake, or becomes precipitous, rapid, and boisterous. The
Doctor could not help admiring the valley of Baiersbroun, surround-
ed by broken masses of rocks and lofty mountains—the wild cradle
in which the romantic Mourg starts into existence.

Mineral springs abound in these regions. The Griesbach is a
medicated water, charged with a predominant proportion of glauber
salt ; the Rippoldsau is a pleasant beverage, resembling Seltzer water
in a great degree, as to taste. Both these springs are used as baths,
which are accompanied with good accommodation for visitors, in-
cluding two capital hotels and gambling-rooms. Large quantities
of the Rippoldsau water are exported in earthern bottles, but little
of it goes beyond the German frontier. Though highly sapid and
even piquante, particularly when mixed with the vin du pays, there
is in this water an after-taste of astringency, which is by no means
agreeable.

Wildbad lies amidst the wilds of the Schwarzwald, whose mighty
and columnar Firs give a sombre yet grand character to the coun-
try. On taking a hot bath at the Fiirsten, or prince’s bath, Dr.
Granville found the water wonderfully affective, and this circum-
stance led him to institute a process of inquiry and reflection con-
cerning the causes of its effects. It was a very nice bath indeed, and
having enjoyed the luxury of an immersion in its waters, he thus
describes the event in terms of grateful eloquence :—

108 CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

“ Having undressed in an adjoining room, where I found a sofa, chairs, a
table, with a mirror, a carpet, and warm linen, I entered the bath at an hour
when no other person was present. After descending a few steps from the
dressing-room into the bath-room, I walked over the warm soft sand, and I
laid myself down upon it, near the principal spring, resting my head on a
clean wooden pillow. The soothing effect of the water, as it came over me,
up to the throat, transparent as the brightest gem or aquamarine, soft, geni-
ally warm, and gently murmuring, I shall never forget. Millions of bubbles
of gas rose from the sand and played around me, quivering through the lucid
water as they ascended, and bursting at the surface to be succeeded by
others. The sensation produced by these bubbles, as many of them, with
their tremulous motion, just effleuraient the surface of the body, like the
much-vaunted effect of titillation in animal magnetism, is not to be describ-
ed. It partakes of tranquillity and exhilaration, of the ecstatic state of a de-
votee, flenddd with the repose of an opium-eater. The head is calm, the
heart is calm, every sense is calm; yet there is neither drowsiness, stupefac-
tion, nor numbness: for every feeling is fresher, and the memory of worldly
pleasures is keen and sharp. But the operations of the moral as well as the
physical man are under the spell of some tranquillizing agent. It is the hu-
man tempest lulled into all the delicious playings of the ocean’s after-waves.
From such a position I willingly would never have stirred. To prolong its
delicious effects, what would I not have given? But the Bad-meister* ap-
peared at the top of the steps of the farther door, and warned me to eschew
the danger of my situation; for there is danger even in such pleasures as
these, if greatly prolonged. I looked at the watch and the thermometer be-
fore I quitted my station. The one told me I had passed a whole hour in
the few minutes I had spent according te my imagination; and the other
marked 293° of Reaumur, or 984° of Fahrenheit. But I found the tempe-
rature warmer than that whenever, with my hand, I dug into the bed of
sand, as far down as the rock, and disengaged myriads of bubbles of heated
air, which imparted to the skin a satiny softness not to be obseryed in the
effects of ordinary warm baths.”

This bewitching water has neither taste nor smell; it is colour-
less, transparent, and brilliant. That it is of the purest softness is
evinced by the cosmetic and striking changes it readily produces on
the skin. Its chemical composition, according to Dr. G.’s judgment,
is probably one of the simplest in nature ; it contains not more than
three and a half grains of “ fixed principles” in a pint, and of these
common salt makes just one-half, the rest consisting of carbonate of
soda and glauber salt, sulphate of potass, carbonate of lime, and
the carbonate of magnesia. With regard to its gaseous or aériform
contents, there is, Ist, the small quantity of gas which is disengaged
by boiling the water; and 2nd, the gas which rises naturally from
the spring, in numerous bubbles. The chief and predominant me-
rit of the Wildbad water is its temperature, and this has continued.
the same throughout a long succession of years. After mature con-
sideration of the subject, the Doctor confesses that he has been led
to ascribe to the temperature of this and other warm mineral springs
the principal effects which they produce on the human constitution.
But it is not the thermometrical temperature to which he alludes
when he proclaims this opinion ; it is to the caloricity of the water

* The person known as the “ bath-man” in England.—Ep.

CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 109

which is not to be measured by Reaumur or Fahrenheit ; a princi-
ple imparted by nature to such springs, from sources that, as yet,
have escaped detection, but which, at no distant period, will pro-
bably be found to be connected with electrical powers, and, there-
fore, not appreciable by the ordinary instruments of thermometrical
mensuration. Altogether, the small village of Wildbad appears to
have left favourable impressions on the affectionate disposition of
Dr. Granville, and he records the kind sentiment that this pleasant
little town is equal, if not superior, to most of the principal Spas of
Germany, in the beauty and romance of its environs, the mystery
and tradition which attaches to some of them, the geology of its
neighbourhood, and the rich harvest it offers to the botanist. The
waters of Wildbad cure some affections and relieve some diseases:
its air is pure and bracing ; and, in general, its climate during the
three months of the bathing season is unexceptionable.

Another of the many “ mountain bosoms” of the Schwarzwald,
is the valley of Nagold ; and in this enchanting region stands Lie-
benzoll or love-cell, a small town which possesses a “spring of
health” whose powers and virtues have proved of essential service
where the magical waters of Wildbad were found too irritating or
inappropriate. At this lovely spot the mineral spring has a tem-
perature of about 77° F., and a pint of it contains 4? grains of sa-
line ingredients. Its taste is slightly saltish, and in appearance
the water is beautifully clear and transparent. It has performed
some very striking cures, which Dr. G. enumerates.

Deinach is situated four miles from Wildbad, in the heart of the
Black Forest: it has two kinds of mineral springs, which rise close
to each other in a sandstone rock. One of these yields an acidulous
water, pure, pellucid, and sparkling: the other supplies a turbid
water of a greenish colour ; it deposits a large quantity of oxide of
iron, and its taste is intensely styptic. ‘The temperature of these
springs is about 45° F., and it never alters under any variation of
the weather: they act beneficially in several diseases. Every
thing is moderate in this sequestered retreat ; but Dr. G. should
never make it his summer residence, even with that advantage.

Cannstadt is a neat and pretty little town, with gardens and pro-
menades which brought strongly to Dr. Granville’s mind the deli-
cious parterres and groves of Aranjuez. Sulzrairquelle is its princi-
pal spring, and sixteen ounces of this are impregnated to the extent
of forty-six grains, with common salt, Epsom and Glauber salts, the
carbonates of lime and iron, and a little carbonic acid gas: its tem-
perature is 66° F. This water is pleasantly acidulous, au premier
gout, the Doctor says ; but it leaves behind a smack of rusty iron,
with corrugation of the mouth and tongue, and a taste of common
salt into the bargain, by no means agreeable.

Dr. Granville thinks the hotel Konig von Wiirtemberg, at Stutt-
gard, might very well be made the head-quarters of an invalid de-
sirous of enjoying the benefit of the Cannstadt waters. At this
royal house of entertainment, and for four sixpences tov, he partook

110 CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

of a savoury and substantial dinner, distributed into three courses of
things with comical names, and a dessert with a pint of wine, which
was not despicable. Inspired with the exhilarating repast, he jo-
cundly exclaims, ‘‘ What cockney within the smoke of the kitchen
of the Albion or of the Freemason’s can hope to linger over, still
less to partake of, the tithe part of this long list of gustables, at the
bare name of which his mouth would water, for only twice twelve
pence of lawful British money ?”

Boll is a beauteous village: it has long enjoyed a national, and
even European, renown. It is placed on an elevated plateau, form-
ed on one of the pinnacles of the Suabian Alps: on the one side it
is flanked by a ridge of these mountains, which extends as far as the
eye can reach; while on the other side a dense forest comes down
to the very edge of the village in its rear, and forms a dark back-
ground to the place, giving it an imposing character. ‘The contem-
plation of the whole scene is full of interest, when the eye rests on
the once mighty Hohenstaufen, the cradle of the German emperors.

_The spring at Boll is sulphureous: it rises through a soil consist-
ing of bituminous mari and a species of sulphureous gravel. Its
temperature is 54° F., and its predominant saline constituents are
Glauber salt, and the carbonates of soda, lime, and magnesia, with
traces of iron and manganese, and strong indications of bitumen.
Its gaseous contents are carbonic acid, azote, and sulphuretted hy-
drogen. It proves of essential service in diseases of the skin, scurvy,
psora, and other “ deturpating complaints ;” in nocturnal pains of
the bones from ‘erotic affections ;” and in carious ulcers of the legs,
contraction of the limbs, and Jameness. It is a depurative of the
blood, when this is vitiated. Dr. G. considers the mineral water of
Boll, when taken internally, capable of producing the most happy
results.

Provisions are cheap at Bol]: it is a comfortable place : it offers
to the visiter a scene of civilization in the way of public and private
amusements, occupation of the mind, and social intercourse, which
could hardly be expected in that lofty and secluded region. A band
attends on week-days, and on every Sunday or Saint’s-day there is
dancing after dinner. The water is pumped from the spring by
means of a tread-wheel: the environs are picturesque, the roads are
good, and the main-road is excellent.

Dr. Granville offers as his reason for having purposely given a
very extended account of the principal Wurtemburg Spas, the com-
plete ignorance which prevails in this country respecting them, and
the serious loss entailed by that ignorance to many thousands who
might otherwise have found health at some of these watering-places.
He adds that they are the least expensive of all the frequented Spas
of Germany ; that every one of them is situated in the centre of
some romantic and beautiful region ; and that, on these satisfactory
grounds, they deserve and ought to command attention.

Having discharged his professional duty to the waters of Wiir-
temberg and its highland scenery, Dr. G. takes his departure for

CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. lil

the Bavarian capital. He likens the districts he passed through
during his journey to perpetual gardens: they are not limited by
landmarks, nor do their crops of wheat or barley exhibit a single
vestige of any weed or an intruding red poppy. Trees, single or in
groups, occur sufficiently often to diversify and break the monotony
of the extensive sheets of arable land outstretched before the view.
The ever-changing series of hills was often interrupted by dense
dark-green, and ancient plantations, from the small copse to the ex-
tended forest. In the valley of the Nagold, women were principal-
ly engaged in reaping with the scythe, and they seemed to get
through their task with surprising rapidity. Before arriving in
sight of Ulm the Doctor journeyed “ through a road interesting to
the geologist, and the lover of Suabian antiquities, in many parts of
which the remains of ancient feudal and baronial castles appear
planted in midway air, or on the summit of some of the most point-
ed and fantastic hills.”” He saluted the Danube, and indulged in a
soliloquy : he saw the imperial abbey of Elchingen, and it made
him contemplative. His sketches of Augsburg are brief, but gra-
phic: it is an interesting city in many respects: one of its curiosi-
ties is the hotel of the Three Moors, which must be seen to be com-
prehended. The streets are paved with small stones, without any
trottoirs, and are very unfavourable to the pedestrian ; they hurt
the Doctor’s feet. On the road to Munich he had an illustration
of the different manner in which climates affect different individu-
als, even of the same family, and all equally in health. After as-
cending the last hill by a tortuous yet excellent road, he caught the
first glimpse of the snowy Alps, and here the effect of the air upon
his spirits was suddenly marvellous, and continued through the rest
of his journey. A buoyancy and elasticity came over his feelings
which he hailed as totally new: he was evidently in a congenial
climate, and the energy of all his faculties evinced how beneficial
such a climate was to his constitution. On his two sons the effect
was neither so striking nor so decidedly favourable; and this fur-
nished him with the illustration.

Munich is the capital of Bavaria, and it is the head of Dr. Gran-
ville’s second “ geographical group,” which includes the “ Saltz-
burgean Spas ;” and on this metropolis he exercises the spirit of
topographic oratory with his usual vivacity and judgment. He gives
a sublime prescription for combining the elements best calculated to
effect the alterative process by which a city may be converted into
the “ Fair Queen” of an empire. The ingredients are these:—a
higher state of knowledge, a greater encouragement to learning, the
promotion of industry, the patronage of the liberal professions, the
foundation of institutions suited to the times, the erection of vast
and magnificent buildings, the cultivation of a pure and correct
taste in architecture, in painting, and in sculpture, and a more en-
lightened government. Munich seems to have possession of these
high requisites: at no distant period, the Doctor thinks, it will be
the capital of South Germany. It bids fair to become the Athens

112 CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

of Germany—it is a fair, a promising, a delightful capital. At this
fascinating mother city he found an opportunity of expounding to
Prince Wallenstein his most enlightened views concerning the na-
ture of oriental cholera, and the secret of its pretended contagion.
There is but one burial-place at Munich, situated outside the town ;
and, although vast, it is crowded to excess.

One fine morning as Dr. G. was journeying from Munich to
Saltzburgh, the sun rose in the east before him, above the top of
the loftiest pine ranges which intercepted its rays at its birth. The
white mist gradually dispersed, and the myriads of gossamer webs
that veiled the tips of every branch and shrub, first sparkled with
their seed-like diamonds as they caught the first rays of the cheer-
ing planet, and the next moment their fairy texture, night-woven,
was dissipated. Seeing thus the charms of morning, and feeling
their benignant influences, the Doctor forthwith discourses with
himself, and says, “‘ Who would not witness, and, witnessing, could
not enjoy, such an early morning scene; to catch Nature at her
toilet, when her most delicate beauties are unveiled to our sight ?
Have we not here a solution to a part, at least, of the secret of
health recovered and disease removed when distant mineral springs
are visited? Does not the inhaling of the purest and most balmy
air, enriched with aromas and probably with medicated effluvia from
the surrounding plants, account for a portion at least of the reco-
very of the travelling invalid? For myself, at such a conjuncture
I always felt as if my pristine vigour, impaired by a laborious life,
had been restored to me for the moment; and I would have wil-
lingly loitered for hours together to enjoy the like spectacle and
quaff the like draught of renovated vitality.” With such induce-
ments to visit distant mineral springs, the travelling invalids of
Germany and Italy will certainly hasten in hundreds to the Spas of
Brighton, Buxton, and Bath, and there obtain a portion of their re-
covery by inhaling the balmy air enriched with aromas, and probably
medicated with the effluvia of woodbines and beans.

Saltzburgh is an old archiepiscopal city, having its gigantic cita-
del seated on a calcareous rock in the very heart of the place. It is
situated in an amphitheatric basin, and offers so many natural beau-
ties of every description to the eye of the inquisitive traveller, that
it becomes quite an object of interest as well as admiration. Some
of these beauties the Doctor sketches cleverly, and then puts himself
en route for the wilds of Gastein, the road to which, he says, is both
interesting and romantic, and as little known to Englishmen as the
nature and powers of its mineral springs. His picture of a thun-
der-storm is inspiringly pathetic. He was traversing the midway
region of a mountain range, along the tortuous and giddy windings
of the impetuous Salza, and surrounded on all sides by enormous
crags with a solid screen of alp on alp unreached before him. He
was hastening onward with all possible rapidity for the bath of
Gastein, his scope and object, when, he says, “during the night a
thunder-storm burst over our heads, and the peals, echoing from

CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 113

mountain to mountain, seemed to crash on some distant headland,
only to make new echoes and to multiply the storm. The lightning
leaped, and streamed, and quivered between each bellowing of the
thunder, and seemed to threaten the stoutest rock and loftiest tree
in the surrounding forests. The deep and fearful gloom left by the
vanishing lightning was not so awful as the effect produced by its
returning momentary splendour, which showed for an instant the
dark abyss and dreadful chasms before us and by the side of us
where none had been suspected. As if to impress us with the tre-
mendous depths of these gulphs, the lightning would often, in zig-
zag lines, run along their sides, or, like the hissing snake, unfold its
coils to slide the more quickly down the bare rock. The whole
scene was awfully sublime; and the distant, scattered, broad drops
which pattered down, driven in all directions by the many gushes of
wind that came sweeping through every mountain gully, left us no
repose. Torrents of sheeted rain at last seemed by their diluvial
power to silence the roaring of the gale and to quench the light-
ning’s fire. Before the dawn of day Nature had once more lapsed
into her solemn attitude of rest.”

Gastein is seated on the highest pinnacle of one of the mountain-
ranges which slope towards the valley of the Salza, nearly three
thousand feet above the level of the Mediterranean sea. Dr. G. re-
presents this as a very wonderful village, with its gigantic moun-
tains, its roaring river, its majestic waterfall, and its mighty cata-
ract, which descends, for 650 feet, nearly vertically from a shelving
rock. Here he caught a patriarchal physician eating his noon-day
dinner, en demie chemise with part of the viands lying on his knee,
and part of them ona piece of furniture. This sedate personage
welcomed the stranger to Gastein, and “ hastened to resume his coat
and waistcoat, smiling with an ineffable grin of black-teeth demon-
stration.” The traveller protests, however, that his worthy enter-
tainer had a much better furnished cranium than was expected ; but
the good man had one fault, he had become a proselyte to the dan-
gerous heresy of I[nfinilesimophysicalism, as it stands in Dr. Gran-
ville’s neological vocabulary !

From the precipitous rocks of Gastein five different springs pour
out thermal water, at 116°, F., of temperature. This water issues
without the smallest noise, and without forming any air-bubbles: it
is as bright and as pure as the finest distilled water, and it almost
surpasses this in transparency. In the baths or reservoirs it never
deposits the smallest trace of sediment, nor does it acquire any dis-
agreeable smell. It is all but tasteless ; smell it has none: ‘‘ yet,”
says Dr. G., “on entering the deep caverns of the two principal
sources, I was sensible of a certain peculiar odour, not unlike that
which a hard-boiled fresh and sweet ecg gives out when the shell is
removed. By testing and analysis, Chemistry has detected no
fewer than twelve distinct saline ingredients in this nearly insipid
water ; these altogether amount to three grains in the pint, and of
these the glauber salt makes up the largest proportion. It is chiefly

VOL. VII., NO. XXI. P

114 CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

employed in baths, but inhalation of its steam into the throat and
lungs is considered wonderfully curative in cases of incipient con-
sumption. Dr. G. adds an ample catalogue of formidable maladies
in the treatment of which he is confident the Gastein baths, judi-
ciously and sufficiently used, will not disappoint the patient. With
a view to unriddle the mystery of thermality in mineral waters, he
risks a repetition of the ancient conjecture, that the heat developed
in hot springs is of volcanic origin.

Hof-Gastein possesses no mineral springs of its own; it receives
its thermal water from Gastein in wooden pipes, which retain more
heat in the passing fluid than is required for the purpose of bathing.
The former is a considerable village in a plain, within sight of the
latter place, where want of room for visitors gave rise to the reputa-
tion of this as a watering-place. Many people, after trying the
mountain air at the fountain-head, come down to Hof-Gastein for a
change of climate, and find the baths here equally efficacious.

Dr. Granville finishes the description of his “ second geographical
group” with an account of adventures, observations, and reflections,
as they occurred on his journey to the Bohemian Spas, and on ex-
cursions into various parts of the intervening country, including his
visit to the salt-mines at Hallein, and its dark subterranean lake of
brine. When exploring the cavern of a thermal spring at Gastein,
he collected some of the schlegm or slime which adheres to the rocks
around the source itself, where no day-light penetrates ; he culled
some specimens, also, of the slender stalactitious depositions which
hang from the same rocks, and some of the green, grassy, slippery
conferva thermalis, found at the bottom of the channel in which the
hot water flows. On his return to Saltzburg he presented these cu-
riosities to Dr. Werneck, for examination with his microscopes, one
of which is said to possess extraordinary power and distinctness.
The schlegm is a loose, fungoid, ropy deposit, formed in the dark
recesses of the hot springs, where no sun-light ever enters. Its co-
lour is sometimes white, sometimes brown ; it is not of animal ori-
gin, but of a vegetable and cryptogamic nature. When a minute
portion of it is diluted on the object-glass, it exhibits several pear-
shaped capsules, standing in groups upon a “ slimy, felty pericarp,
formed of succional vessels,” which are the real receptacles of the
seed. The thermal conferva is never found in hot mineral waters
where light has no access: it vegetates on the bottom of rills outside
the caverns, and in open reservoirs, wherever rough bodies or ob-
stacles to the water’s course enable it to attach itself. This con-
ferve might be compared to a green silk plush, the hair of which
has been pressed and smoothed down in one uniform direction. Two
classes of beings endowed with motion, and of striking and many-
varied forms, are distinguishable, in the smallest piece of this sub-
stance, by the microscope. Some of these are vegetable, others ani-
mal, infusorial animalcules: the latter find food and nest in the for-
mer, which alone gives its green colour to the conferval production.
While under observation, some of them were seen oscillating from

ae

CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 115

side to side, like a pendulum ; others were rearing one of their ex-
tremities from the prostrate to the vertical posture ; and other gi-
gantic bino-gastric creatures, disentangling themselves from the
trammels of many green fibres, advance majestically with an extra-
ordinary figure, and devour most gluttonously the monas, the ato-
mus, the guttula, and numberless other matters, as they appear
in succession. Whenever the smallest imaginable portion of the
stalactitious tubuli is broken into powder, and subjected to the-mi-
croscope, it is shown to consist of most beautiful and delicate crys-
tals, distinctly defined ; its ultimate molecules appeared, to Dr. G.’s
eye, to be endowed with movement. Neither of the experimenting
Doctors seem to have conceived the idea that the Conferve ther-
males vegetating externally to the cavern, might be the pear-shaped
capsules of the schlegm, with their felty pericarps, vegetating in ill-
aired darkness within it, but farther developed under the genial
action of light and the atmospheric air.

Carlsbad is “‘ King of the Mineral Springs.” Dr. Granville
places it at the head of his seven Bohemian Spas, forming a “ third
geographical group,” which, besides their king, includes those of
Marienbad, Egra, Pullner, Seidschutz, Seidlitz, and Toeplitz, each
with its peculiar excellencies and attractions.

Sprudel, the brudel, or bubbler, of Carlsbad, is the chief of seven
streams that burst through a calcareous crust, and launch on high a
column of hot water, which, in descending, assumes the semblance
of a liquid weeping-willow. At a very early hour of morning—
when, in these unsophisticated retreats of invalids, all the world is
up and stirring—the Doctor hurried to “that most extraordinary
phenomenon of Nature,” with al! the impatience of one who is eager
to satisfy himself, by ocular demonstration, of the truth of what
seemed almost fabulous in description. Nevertheless, at the sight
of that celebrated fountain, to which the curling vapours that ho-
vered over its colonnaded temple directed him without a guide or a
question, he felt that all the descriptions he had read of it had failed
to convey the impression he experienced. The sudden view of the
violent, lofty, constant, and prodigal out-pourings of hot water from
the bowels of the earth, foaming in the midst of its clouds of va-
pour, within forty-five degrees of the boiling point, on the very
margin of the Teple, a cold, placid, and sluggish stream—this sud-
den view rivetted him to the spot for a brief period. Although
pressed on all sides by the increasing throng of water-drinkers, he
felt himself alone, absorbed by this striking object. He stood con-
templating it for some minutes, foolishly imagining that the next
moment would reveal the secret of this natural magic. But the
crowd of eager invalids who surrounded it, keeping at a respectful
distance from its scorching spray, seemed to look for health in the
spring, without ever thinking, as he did, of the two great agents
combined—heat and water, with a sprinkling of soda—from which
they were to obtain it. Monologizing gravely, he asks himself,
“ What is it that imparts to this mysterious current that violent im-

116 CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

pulse which makes it spring from the bosom of the earth with an
upright jet of eight or nine feet of elevation, from the aperture in
the rocky crust underneath the building raised over it?” A central
fire, is the solemn response. The Sprudel, then, is the ardent off-
spring of an unquiet and relentless agent, which fills the atmosphere
with hot vapours, and impetuously over-runs all the bounds whereby
art has vainly attempted to restrain its endless throes. ‘The size,
height, and appearance of its jettings is for ever varying; and in
its upward and downward course it is accompanied by a noise com-
bining that of the splashing of a falling cataract and of the boiling of
a vast cauldron of water—a noise which, like the stream of water it
accompanies, has ceaselessly continued for numberless centuries—a
noise which, in times of darkness and superstition, would have in-
duced man to fall prostrate, offering to its cryptic cause the homage
of his amazement and adoration.

One pint of the Carlsbad thermal water contains 314 grains of
solid saline substances, and a large proportion of these consists of
g)auber and common salt, with carbonate of soda, and traces of iron
and iodine; its aériform fluids are said to be carbonic acid gas and
sulphuretted hydrogen, but this last is doubtful. It emerges from
its source at 170°, F., of temperature. This water emits an ani-
mal smell ; its first taste is saltish, its after-taste becomes alkaline.
The Sprudel spring is useful in some classes of complaints ; it dissi-
pates adhesions ; but ‘‘ it is the despondent, dejected, misanthropic,
fidgety, pusillanimous, irritable, outrageous, morose, sulky, weak-
minded, whimsical, and often despairing hypochondriac—made so by
continued indigestion, by obstinate and unremitting gout, by affec-
tions of the nerves of sympathy and of the gastric region, and by
other equally active causes—that Carlsbad seems pre-eminently to
favour.” The companion of Dr. G.’s two sons drank of all the
springs ; he attacked the Sprudel at once, and in quantities of several
goblets, and the condition of the system which followed was always
one of comfort.

Great must be the delight derived by the philanthropic spirit from
meditation on a scene of the Sprudel at the balmy hour of morn, so
favourable to the creations of ideality and devotion. By Dr. Gran-
ville a scene of this sort and the scenery are thus depictured :—

“ The eagerness with which the different people of Carlsbad, of both sexes,
rush towards the Sprudel at six o’clock in the morning, to partake of its sa-
lutary waters, is an interesting sight. In its appearance the motley throng
is quite theatrical, and the many-shaped and many-coloured costumes worn
by them form a living illustration of geography. ‘The multitudinous faces of
which that throng consists—their divers modes of drinking the hot mineral
fluid—the various effects produced by it on their countenances—the accumu-
lation of individual cases of disease concentrated under one roof, among
which the eye of the medical man detects not a few disorders that are canker-
ing their victims—all these things I saw and felt at my first visit. The
company assembled was very numerous: the colonnade in front of the source
was full. The restless multitude moved to and fro in every part and in
every direction of that covered promenade, which runs between a narrow

CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 117

parterre of flowers on the one side and the sluggish and dirty Teple on the
other. As early as five o’clock in the morning, the little nymphs of the
Sprudel—smart, lively young lasses—are in attendance to distribute, with
critical impartiality, the bounty of their spring. They are all dressed alike,
in green dresses in the morning, and in light-coloured robes in the evening.
Standing at a little distance from the boiling jet, and holding in their hands
a stick, four feet long, with a cup-holder fastened to one end of it, these dam-
sels extend the latter towards any one whom they see approaching with his
beaker, receive it in their cup-holder, and plunge it within the ad
column of water. From this it is immediately withdrawn quite full, an
presented to the same individual again, who, with what relish he may, dis-
poses of its contents.”

Falling into a philosophising mood, Dr. G. instituted an admira-
ble experiment, in the centre of a square and lofty pavillion where
the Sprudel rises. Thus, by means of accurate and diversified ob-
servations, he ascertained that there were some of the sickly who
sipped with pigeon-sips the salutary elixir, giving only a gentle
shudder as they drark it ; and these were ladies: there were others
who, more adventurous, swallowed half a beakerful at once,
with only a slight pursing up of the lips, and looked round for ap-
probation ; and these were esprits forts, the Sprudelian dandies: my
Lord A. and Sir J. L. looked grim when disposing of their dose, and
declared it had no taste: one who thought himself unseen, was de-
tected in bringing slily out of his large beniche a lump of sugar,
which he kept in his left hand ready to pop into his mouth the mo-
ment his beaker had quitted it ; and he was one of the subjects of
Mahmoud who had not yet exchanged the turban for the ugly and
tasselled red cap: another who had just received his beakerful of
the Sprudel from the fair hand of a green-mantled maiden who
eyed him with a malicious meaning, retired quickly into a corner,
and, turning his face to the wall, swallowed in secret the noxious
draught ; and he was a Polish Jew, his dress betrayed him. In
this manner the doctor watched the ever-varying modifications of
the human countenance as they were produced by the influence of
one and the same agent ; and from these observations, constituting
clear principles, he arrived at the conclusion that men are but over-
grown babies.

Without exception, every one of the Carlsbad thermal springs
deposits a large quantity of calcareous matter, which forms stalac- ~
titious concretions ; and as these depositions take place abundantly
before the very eyes of those who attend daily to drink the water,
many of them have been deterred from continuing its use, under an
apprehension that similar incrustations might take place in the
bowels or on the teeth. Dr. G., however, shows that this preju-
dice has often been combated by superior reasoning; and he adds
the reason which satisfied himself that, from drinking at the ther-
mal sources of Carlsbad, none need be apprehensive of having an
intestinal concretion.

Dr. Granville wisely takes Professor Ehrenberg, of Berlin, for

118 CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

his guide, when retailing microscopical observations on the animal-
cules of hot mineral springs. The Professor has adopted a curious
and novel view of this subject, which he has minutely and repeatedly
examined. He made experiments upon specimens sent to him from
the thermal sources of Carlsbad, and he contends that living fossil
infusoria exist in the water. In the peat-bog of Franzenbad and the
meadow-earth of Billin, he discovered the same kind of animalcules.
In all these specimens he detected eighteen different species of mov-
ing fossil bodies, belonging to the family of Bacillarie, which have
hitherto been considered as forms of plants by practical naturalists.
Professor Ehrenberg has published figures of these moving fossil
bodies, and he assigns several powerful reasons for believing them to
be fossil animalcules. It is his opinion that these creatures are con-
stantly reproduced, and form many of those stratifications of the
earth’s surface which have hitherto been looked upon as the remains
of extinct series of marine animals, left after great geological commo-
tions. He enters upon a curious calculation of the number of such
animalcules required to make up a given quantity of the fossil strati-
fications. He is firmly persuaded that these animalcules are gene-
rated every moment ; that after their death they form entire rocks ;
and that, therefore, they ought to be taken into consideration by those
who endeavour to explain the structure of the globe. He makes the
marvellous statement that twenty-three millions of such animalcules
would make up a cubic line of the rock, and actually be contained in it.
Now, as there are 1728 cubic lines in a cubic inch, the latter would
then comprize nearly forty billions of the animals, the siliceous body
of which must weigh about ;1, millionth part of a grain: and as to
the size of these living beings under a fossil shell, the Professor has
ascertained it to be just one-sixth of the thickness of a human hair.
Dr. G’s. sketches of Carlsbad are various and elaborate, and his
information concerning the place and its people is altogether very
multifarious and exceedingly instructive. It is replete with sagacious
remarks and scientific inductions, enlivened with frequent fine touches
of the gastronomic philosophy: these last are always exquisitely
brilliant and tasteful. One remark of his merits the consideration of
all true philanthropists and moralists. He understood that this Spa
had been deserted by the vicious and the mere lounger, and was be-
come a real retreat for invalids; and he also understood that this
happy change was effected by creating for such fribblers the disap-
pointment of finding little fun there and still less to eat, with the
absence of gambling and the non-existence of more private iniquities.
With respect to diet at Carlsbad, there is a medico-sprudelian dish,
which once was, and still ought to be, in great vogue with invalids
and other visiters. By throwing a little butter, flour, and salt, and
the yolk of an egg, with slices of bread, into a proper quantity of the
hot mineral water, the thrifty housekeepers cook you up a soup in
the twinkling of an eye. This is distinguished by the expressive ap-

CRITICAL NOTICES 0F NEW PUBLICATIONS. 119

pellation of Sprudel soup, and verily it must be equally delicious and
salutary. It is the duty of genuine patriots to bring the mess under
the notice of temperance societies.

Impressed with a due sense of the hospitality and comfort he ex-
perienced at the “‘ King of the Spas,” the complaisant Doctor breath-
ed a grateful aspiration for its prosperity as he set out on his journey
for Marienbad, whose salutiferous sources were first made known to
Europe about the beginning of the present century. Although this
is a watering-place but “ of the other day,” yet it already vies with
the principal Spas of Germany for the beauty of situation and embel-
lishments, the great affluence of strangers to it from all parts, and the
tried efficacy of its springs. At a distance the place exhibits the
semblance of an immense garden; as the traveller approaches it his
first impression is quite delightful. Dr. G. stopped for a few minutes
to enjoy its contemplation, and he styled it the “ Garden Spa of Bo-
hemia,” which has some pleasant distractions, but is not rich in artifi-
cial amusements. In his peregrination to the “ Temple of Health”
he was seeking, the Doctor met herds of very small cows, tended by
fine, healthy-looking peasants. These animals resemble the Welsh
enes, but they have a far prettier head, and prettier limbs; their coat
is of a uniform rich brown tint, sleek and shiny. Both men and
maidens were seen walking barefooted, although he was within a few
minutes of an assemblage of gentle blood, crowded in gay saloons, or
dispersed through groves and gladsome promenades.

Marienbad and the regions around it afford prospects of the love-
liest nature imaginable. Here, too, you expand your lungs with
freedom and elasticity : the air is light, pure, ethereal. After a sum-
mer’s shower, the renewed freshness of the atmosphere carries on its
wings a balmy fragrance from the surrounding forests ; and the deep-
er green with which the white Grecian-and-Roman-looking houses
of this lovely place are intermingled in profusion, adds to the beauty
of the scene, and almost converts it into one of enchantment. This of
itself, Dr. G. feels convinced, would cure many of those vile stomach
disorders which the London doctors strive in vain to remedy with
that eternal and never-varying blwe pill and its sable follower, with
their golden creations.

All the Marienbad waters are cold, and their sources are found on
flat ground; some of them exude from peat or a marshy soil, others
from fissures in the granite. They are all accompanied with more or
less of free carbonic acid gas, and this imparts to them a tartness
which disguises their natural saline taste. At their first issue they
are transparent, but afterwards become turbid, and deposit a yellow-
ochry sediment. Immediately after being drank they feel cold to the
stomach, and the gas rises into the head as after drinking a glass of
champagne. These springs are of two kinds, saline-alkaline aud alka-
line-chalybeate ; the latter produces tonic, the former has aperient ef-
fects, and they both operate in nearly the same way as the same kinds
of water, having the same strength, are used to do at other places.

120 CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

The resident doctor lauds the Kreutzbrunnen to the skies, and looks
upon it as a panacea. in all chronic affections, particularly those of the
digestive organs. It is his oracle, and the affection he bears it is al-
most romantic ; a clear proof that the worthy man is not without a
failing of his fellows—the weakness of waddling on hobbies. This
spring, says Dr. G., is his maitresse, although he is aware that, at the
other Brunnens, the principal physicians bear an equally ardent and
undivided love to the object of their adoration. When a glass of the
Kreutzbrunnen is drank cold, the water feels uncomfortable to the
stomach, but walking removes that sensation. Its taste is pleasant
and piquant. When mixed with an equal quantity of the same wa-
ter, treated so as to give the mixture 90°, F., of temperature, the
taste then is exactly like that of veal broth clear of fat and with a
little salt in it—very pleasant. When its heat is raised to that of the
Sprudel, at Carlsbad, the water loses its agreeable gout de bouil-
Jon, and acquires astronger, more sapid, more saltish taste, somewhat
astringent. Great emission of the gas, or eructations, follows a
draught of this spring; but the head remains undisturbed, and the
digestive organs still. Taken thus it is an invaluable remedy in
all bilious complaints, without requiring the least assistance from
mercury. The addition of warm to the cold mineral water instantly
destroys its limpidity, and gives it a gruelly appearance.

Adding descriptive observations on the properties of this and the
other springs of Marienbad, on its gas-baths, its topography, society,
and scenery, Dr. Granville concludes with the remark that, with all
its advantages and amusements, Marienbad is not.a Spa of pleasure.
It is a lovely and enchanting retreat for invalids, which offers to suf-
fering humanity, in a sequestered valley, a safe, certain, and prodigal
source of relief, away from the bustle and din of cities, as if Nature
pointed out to us that health is best obtained in seclusion.

Franzenbad is the Spa of Egra, and it has two important springs—
the Franzenquelle and the Salzequelle, whose properties coincide
greatly with those of the waters of Marienbad, from which they also
differ very little in temperature. According to Dr. G., there is a no-
table difference in the physical effect produced by each of these springs
on the constitution ; both are equally active as deobstruents, and both
are digested with equal ease. But while the first, containing a larger
proportion of iron, stimulates and excites during its operation, and is
therefore inadmissible in cases of great irritability and fulness of
blood, the second cools and tranquillizes, is less stimulating, and puri-
fies without disturbance of the nervous system.

This place also has an extensive establishment for mud-baths, and
these are represented as being specific and infallible in cases of ex-
cessive debility and prostration, particularly in paralysis of which gout
has been the cause. Dr. G. testifies that the stuff used for making
one of these baths is an agent possessing infinite, almost dangerous,
power. It is quarried in an adjacent field, by means of spades. He
saw a layer of it nearly twenty feet deep, immediately below the turf,

\

«

CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 12]

lying upon a bed of sand. The mass looked moist, and had an in-
tense as well as most beautiful jet-black colour. Throughout it are
found some curiously stratified thin plates of iron pyrites; some of
these are nearly a foot square, and upon one surface only, the other
being smooth, they have depositions resembling fossil plants of the
Reed and Broom genus, in high relief: the whole is very hard and
difficult of fracture. These masses are found, at all depths, in the
stratum of the peat or bog-earth, and at various angles of the horizon.
After exposure to the air for a few days their upper surface appears
covered with a yellowish-green efflorescence, which, when tasted, im-
parts to the tongue the sharp sensation produced by sulphuric acid ;
its smell also resembles that of the sulphurous acid gas.. When test-
ed with litmus-paper, the colour of this substance is instantly and
deeply reddened. This bog-earth, being brought to the bathing es-
tablishment, is thrown into two very large wooden vats standing un-
der cover, at the height of four feet from the ground ; and the earth
being diluted there with mineral water, steam is made to pass through
the mixture, which is stirred up constantly, until a proper degree of
heat as well as consistency is obtained. Each bathing-tap being then
pushed under one of the vats, the contents of this are allowed to es-
eape through an opening until the tub is nearly filled, when it is
wheeled into an apartment and used. At first the temperature is very
high, but it is allowed to cool down to 80°, F., the degree of heat at
which the mud-bath may be taken without causing excessive irrita-
tion. This kind of bath has the consistence and appearance of a
semi-fluid poultice of bread-crumb coloured with the blackest ink ;
and it exhales a smell not unlike that of pyroligneous acid, the taste
of which, also, is retained for many hours by the bather’s skin. On
coming out of the bath, and having the mud washed off with warm
mineral water, the surface of the body feels soft, and looks almost like
satin.

The mud-baths of Franzenbad increase the action of the skin, are
solvent as well as emollient, and stimulate the nervous system. These
effects are attributed to four principal elements found in the composi-
tion of the bath—the fatty and peaty matter, the caloric, a highly vo-
latile substance, and the metallic and saline ingredients. When the
mud is thrown away it soon exhibits superficial strata of sulphate of
iron and Glauber salt, with a large quantity of free sulphuric acid.

So profusely is gas distributed about Franzenbad that one may see
it, feel it, and disengage it, in every part of the town and country.
There are gas-baths at this place, and these have their supplies from
the gas which issues through a tnbe plunged into the ground within
the establishment, at the rate of five thousand seven hundred and
sixty cubic feet in an hour. After repeated trials, it is regarded as
being nearly pure carbonic acid gas, and its application in the form
of a bath has been attended with beneficial results.

Dr. Granville deals very compendiously with the Spas of Pullna,
Seidschutz, and Seidlitz. The first is a miserable-looking village,

VOL. VII., NO. XXI. Q

122 CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS,

and its waters are bitter; the second lies in a plain, and its water,
though intensely bitter, is an effectual purgative; and who has not
become acquainted with the name of Seidlitz, through its gentle and
pleasing aperient salt? which, in fact, the Doctor says, has nothing
in common with the chemical component parts of the genuine Seidlitz
water of Bohemia, except the name. These three springs have the
temperature of 58°, F., at all seasons ; but no patient frequents them,
because the locality would be unfavourable for the establishment of
a watering-place.

Toeplitz is a gayish place, and it occupies a situation partly on
the patrimony of the Prince de Clary, in the midst of a rich coun-
try smiling all around with Nature’s bountiful gifts. Placed outside
the bath-houses, a monumental stone records the traditionary sto-
ry of the first discovery of its hot mineral springs. Here, as Dr. G.
gives it, it was not a stag or a dog falling into the scorching stream,
which by its (the stream’s) cries called the attention of man to the
existence of a new blessing ; but they were pigs which, having fallen
into hot water before their time, proclaimed by their grunting the
existence of what has given Toeplitz a celebrity of eleven centuries,
and a seniority over every other mineral Spa of Germany. This
place has long been the venerable resort of the high-born and the
humble, the hale and the unhealthy. The influx of invalids to its
springs is numerous and brilliant ; its baths, both private and pub-
lic, are excellent ; its comforts and embellishments are worthy the
patronage of crowned heads; and the living at Toeplitz is beyond
comparison, Dr. G. declares, cheaper than in any other watering-
place he had visited. Its waters are thermal, and the hottest of them
emerges from a crevice in a rock of porphyry. Their specific virtue
lies in their power of restoring the cripple to perfect motion and elas-
ticity. Altogether they are nearly as good for every useful purpose
as those of the Beulah Spa or the springs of Strathpeffer ; so
that for this and the other reasons it may be usefully frequented by
the “travelled invalid,” for whose benefit Dr. G. consigns to his
pages the faithful and facetious observations wherewith he completes
his last ** geographical group” but one, and the last is made up of the

Bavarian and Nassau Spas, which are those of Liebenstein, Kis-
singen, Bocklett, Bruckenau, Hombourg, Soden, Seltzer, Geilnau
and Fachingen, Schlangenbad, Schwalbach, Wiesbaden, and Ems.
Dr. Granville’s narrative of his pilgrimages to and around these re-
spectable places is, as usual, exceedingly varied and animated. Two
only of their Spas are thermal ; the rest have a low temperature, and
possess but a moderate impregnation of saline ingredients. They
produce effects on the persons who employ them, internally or ex-
ternally, not very much different from those caused by the same
kinds of mineral waters in France, England, and Italy, when simi-
larly used in diseases and circumstances not essentially dissimilar.
Altogether, his pictures of this last “ geographical group” are as hap-
py and as graphic as those which impart their characteristic features

NE ae a ies

is

CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 123

to his previous labours; and, indeed, there is a generous wisdom,
significant of extensive experience, in the accumulation of particulars
enumerated by him as requisite for the guidance of “ travelled inva-
lids” as they hasten from home in the hope of being “ rejoiced that
they had exchanged art for nature” and for health at the Spas of
Germany.

Dr. Granville’s volumes have a very handsome appearance, and
are sufficiently well adapted to allure the admiration of a fashionable
patronage with its desirable results. His prints are neatly executed,
his pages are printed with a clearness that will ensure comfort in
their perusal, and the purity of his philological attainments is exem-
plified most beautifully in the liberal discretion wherewith he selects
the finest French phrases, and applies them as a remedy for the na-
tural sterility and harshness of our vulgar English tongue. May he
long enjoy the recompense of his meritorious exertions !

Excursions through the Highlands and Isles of Scotland in 1835
and 1836. By the Rey. C. Lesingham Smith, M.A., Fellow, and
late Mathematical Lecturer, of Christ’s College, Cambridge.
London: Simpkin & Co. 1837. Small 8vo., pp. 310.

ALTHOUGH much has been written on the Highlands, by travellers
of various dispositions and capabilities, the subject is by no means ex-
hausted, nor, indeed, we suspect, will it ever be. Besides the ever-
interesting scenery and other attractions of the Highlands, the intelli-
gent tourist must find, at almost every step, some things which had
previously remained unrecorded, and many others which had been
erroneously or partially represented. One of the main objects of
such works as Mr. Smith’s is to amuse as well as instruct, and if the
author succeeds in either of these particulars he has assuredly no
right to complain.

Mr. Lesingham Smith is a very pleasant fellow-traveller, and al-
though we were not in his company above a few months, yet we
learnt enough of him to discover that he is a very intelligent man,
and that his veracity may, in every respect, be relied on. He is an
enthusiastic admirer of the Highlands, praising not only the scenery
—which all travellers unite in lauding—but also the natives, being
highly delighted with their hospitality and simplicity. With regard
to this, we ought to observe that our author is one of those individu-
als who is always at peace with himself and every one else ; he makes
due allowances for the faults of others, adapts himself to all tempers,
and never picks a quarrel with a person who, notwithstanding a little
constitutional warmth of temper, may, if courteously treated, become
one of his best friends. Mr. Lessingham Smith is, in fact, exactly
fitted for making his way in the world. He would find no difficulty
in introducing himself into any circles, and, when known, would be
sure to be respected.

Now it is curious to observe what different accounts two travellers

124 CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICA'TIONS.

will give of the same country ; in many cases not so much from wil-
ful misrepresentation as from the difference in their own cerebral
organization. The one will blame every thing and every body,
while the other, falling into the opposite extreme, will see precisely
the same persons and things in a favourable point of view. Of
course the latter state of feeling is beyond comparison the more envi-
able, and, if into either, into this latter extreme is our traveller often
disposed to fall. It cannot be denied that the Highlanders abound in
that true politeness springing from benevolence, and though rough in
exterior, they are certainly far from wanting in the gentler and nobler
faculties of human nature. But, at the same time, we are occasion-
ally inclined to suspect that the reverend tourist’s affability may have
led him to overlook many faults, both in men and country, and also
that his mild deportment may have induced others to conduct them-
selves more courteously and hospitably towards him than might other-
wise have been the case. Be this, however, as it may, the volume,
which has afforded us considerable amusement in the perusal, may be
considered, on the whole, as forming a correct portraiture of the
Highlands. The style is engaging, and the manner of description
such as will be calculated to interest all classes of readers. The book
appears to consist of notes taken at the end of each day, of course re-
touched prior to publication.

Previous to presenting our extracts, we must notice one blemish
which ought not to be overlooked. It is the misplacement of the
commas in numerous places, frequently wholly subverting the sense
or turning the passage into nonsense. We would fain have believed
that the fault was chargeable to the “ printer's devil,” but the cir-
cumstance occurs far too often to admit of its bemg accounted for in
that way.

The following quotation, though not relating to the Highlands,
will interest our readers. Our author is writing at the Argyle Arms,
Inverary.

“In the evening I found the coffee-room filled with a very noisy set of
people —‘ bit Glasgow bodies, awa’ on a pleasurin’ tour.’ There was one so-
litary man with a weather-stained countenance, who, when I took my seat
near him, addressed afew ordinary words to me. I was soon after called
away to another table, where tea was placed for me, and the weather-beaten
man was again left alone. He seemed so utterly abandoned by his kind, that
I could not refrain from speaking to him again; on which he immediately
drew his chair to my table, seeming delighted to have a human being to asso-
ciate with. He said he was just returned from Canada, where he had been
residing for the last four years. The Government he described as being in a
very unsettled state, on account of the animosity existing between the Eng-
lish and French population. In their House of Assembly some of the
speeches are delivered in French and some in English. He resided within
gun-shot of the American frontier, and spoke in no very measured terms of
the American character. It is a frequent practice with them, he says, to get
into debt upon the Canada side, and then step over the frontier and defy
their creditors. Mrs. Trollope’s book is very little exaggerated, for they
have no manners and no feeling. They speak of attending an execution as
‘ taking a day’s pleasure!’ They are utterly selfish, even within the pale of

weary

CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 125

their own family ; and when the cholera raged there, many deserted their
own parents and brethren. This disease was so destructive that churchyards
were covered with dead bodies, for which neither coffins nor graves could be
provided. A friend of his was tossed with other carcasses into the general
heap, and quicklime was actually strewn over the whole, the poor man being
poriectly conscious all the while, but unable to stir: at last he contrived to
crawl out, and is now alive and well. Many persons were buried in this
horrid and premature way, for the Americans never keep any body for more
than a day—a man being good for nothing when he is dead. He told a
singular story of three Irishmen, who were seized with cholera when per-
fectly intoxicated, and were carried in a cart to the sheds erected outside the
town tor the reception of the sick. The surgeon, who was exhausted with
his day’s work, said he should not attend to men who had no respect for their
own lives; and so having administered medicines to the other patients, he
left the Irishmen to their fate. When he returned in the morning, all were
dead except the neglected Paddies, who, on seeing the doctor, immediately
exclaimed, ‘ When will your honour be ordering us a drop of drink?” One
of the victims of this pestilence was Brandt, the chief of the Huron tribe:
he was a fine young man, much beloved by his people, a captain in the Eng-
lish service, and a descendant of that General Johnson who had such great
influence with the Indians. He died as much from drinking as from Bhdleeas
and it seems that this fatal habit is destroying numbers of the red people.—
My new acquaintance stated, that, on arriving at Glasgow, he wished to see
three of his friends, who were living there when he left Scotland; but on
enquiring he found that they were all under the sod.”p. 15.

Mr. Lesingham Smith is a great stickler for the superiority of the
service of the church of England. He does not, however, once hint
that that service admits of very considerable improvement. Nor, in-
deed, is it perhaps to be expected at present that a minister of our
church should be desirous of effecting the alterations and abridgments
to which we allude. After describing the service of the Presbyterian
church of Scotland, he says :—

“ Such is the service of the Presbyterian kirk of Scotland. TI went to hear
it with a predetermination that I would not allow myself to judge hastily or
harshly ; yet my firm conviction is, that in no single respect whatever can it
bear a comparison with the service of the church of England.”—p. 19.

The following quotation is amusing. Our tourist is paying off one
of his guides, and observes—

<< « Here’s sixpence a-piece for yourself, and wife, and seven bairns, and
sixpence over for luck.’
“ If I had given him a thousand pounds he could not have been more sur-
rised or more grateful. He looked at the two half-crowns for some time
without uttering a word, and then burst out :
“*Ye’re a gentleman; a rale gentleman! Give us your hand! Tl be
up = carry your luggage the morning for nothing. Thank ye—thank ye
indly.’
<< vA then, as I turned away towards the inn, he slapped me on the shoul-
der, and once more exclaimed ‘ ye’re a gentleman !’ with a marked emphasis
on the word, as if it embodied the highest compliment which one man could
pay to another. And the Gael was so far right; but whether giving him a
crown proved me to be a gentleman is anuther matter: I know those who
will rather think it proved me to be a fool.” —p. 169.

126 CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

“July 31.—This morning I made a point of attending the Presbyterian
service in the choir of the cathedral [at Glasgow]: it differs in no respect
from the service of the humblest chapel. The contrast between the simpli-
city of their religious forms and the splendour of the edifice in which they
were assembled was by no means agreeable. O! how I longed to hear the
sacred tones of our own majestic organ, and the rich melody of our choristers
instead of the meagre notes of one poor clerk and the accompaniment of an
unmusical congregation.” —p. 180.

Although the outward forms observed in our cathedrals, the ab-
sence of which is above regretted, may have an imposing appearance,
it may well be questioned how far they tend to inspire devotion in
the hearts of the congregation. As regards the sublime harmony of
the organ, and the “rich melody of the choristers,” we can fully
chime in with our author. Music is an important and indispensable
part of divine service ; but to allow an old drowsy clerk—and what
clerks who sing solos in churches are not old and drowsy ?—to snarl
a psalm-tune through his nose, with the congregation following in his
wake (the blind leading the blind!), is in our opinion, both ludicrous.
and impious.

The journal continues as follows :—

“ Another thing which offended my English prejudices especially, was that
the men walked into the cathedral with their hats on, and never took them
off tillthey had reached their pews. The moment too that the blessing was
ended on went the hats again; as if the place were only sacred while the
voice of the pastor echoed along the aisles.

“In the afternoon I went to hear Dr. Wardlaw ; his. sermon was written
and very excellent. What a contrast to the tautological, disjointed harangue
ofthe morning! He belongs not to the kirk of Scotland, but differs, I be-
lieve, only in are, not at allin doctrine. I observed two circumstances in
which there was a departure from the rules of the national kirk. The first
was, that the congregation stood up to sing, instead of keeping their seats ;
the second, and much the most important, that a chapter from the Old Tes-
tament, and another from the New, were read before the sermon com-
menced.”—p. 181.

The following extract, and especially the sentence we have marked
in italics, is a pleasing proof of Mr. L. Smith’s enthusiastic admira-
tion of fine scenery :—

“It was the morning of Sunday ; but there being no kirk nearer than four
miles, and no road to this one except over peat mosses, I resolved to walk
to Scourie. The distance is fourteen miles: rather more, perhaps, than a
sabbath’s journey. But the most rigid disciplinarian would hardly have
blamed me for endeavouring to deliver myself from the captivity of Rhico-
nich.

“It rained, of course ; and the clouds were as condescending as ever, stoop-
ing far below the summits of the mountains. At one point, however, there
was a momentary clearing, and what a glorious landscape did the rising mist
unfold! One glance at such a scene is worth a whole week of sunshine! A stu-
pendous amphitheatre of mountains surrounded me, where crag frowned over
crag and rock was piled on rock, and where the sloping faces of the loftier
hills were scored and wrinkled by the channels of ten thousand torrents.
More conspicuous than all, the huge geometric cone of the stack arose, the

Pa

CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 127

lingering clouds still rolling fantastically about its dim and spiry peak. Be-
low me, in a vast hollow, lay the dark surface of a loch, dotted with numbers
of stony isles, whose grey rocks and blossoming heather stood in beautiful
relief over the smooth murkiness of the water.”—p. 301.

After noting the joyful appearance of animated nature one clear
calm day in September, our author makes the following appropriate
reflections, which may serve as a hint to those who would introduce
bills to enforce the better observance of the Sabbath.

“T never witness a scene like this without wondering at and pitying those
gloomy religionists who imagine they do God service by rejecting the bless-
ings which he has spread before them. When I perceive all the inferior ani-
mals of creation so busy and so gay, I can never believe that man, the lord
of all, will be accounted guilty when joyous, and that he is profitable only
when self-tormented ; or that he will advance his interests hereafter in pro-
portion as he steels his heart eeainet the sympathies which gladden this life
and disregards those prudential cares which may alleviate or remove its ills.
Virtue is not only consistent with cheerfulness, but rarely approaches per-
fection without it ; and he best serves his God who provides as largely as he
can for his own rational happiness and that of all his fellow creatures.”—
p. 304.

We shall now present our last extract, for the very good reason
that we have got to the end of the book. The journal closes with
the ensuing paragraphs, which may be taken as a kind of summary of
our author’s opinion of the Highlands.

“ Throughout this whole excursion I have been singularly unfortunate in
weather; owing partly to the late period of my visit, but principally to the
extraordinary nature of the season. Yet in spite of circumstances so adverse
to enjoyment, and of the consequent solitariness of my rambles, I have de-
rived from them no inconsiderable share of pleasure, information, and health.

“ In the Highlands a stormy sky is seldom without its peculiar charms: it
throws down upon the wild landscape contrasted light and shade, magnifies
objects which are already intrinsically vast, and exhibits the face of Nature
in alternate majesty and grace. And when at last the sun shines out with
steadfast splendour, its cheering ray seems to light up the innermost cham-
bers of the heart, dispelling all fears and anxieties, and fully reconciling us
once more to our position on the globe. We then feel mere animal existence
to be a blessing; and in the actual enjoyment of the present hour, cease for
a while to hope for the future.

“ But whether I met with bright or stormy skies, I never roamed far
without encountering scenes of surpassing beauty or of startling grandeur.
And sure am I that whoever wanders through this romantic land, will find
whatever of poetry or of philosophy his mind may possess awakened and
stirred within him. My arg too, was always cheered by the reflection
that I was among a race of men who had forgotten the ferocity, but not the
hospitality, of their forefathers, and whose urbanity to the stranger called
forth my warmest sympathies, and raised in my estimation the standard of
humanity. No one could have come among them with less claim to kindness
than I had; and no one, surely, could have met with more. I have not set
down the half of it; and could still recount many an instance of good will
for which I cannot hope to make any return: for, in all human probability,
I shall never meet those kind-hearted Highlanders again, and never more
loiter among their beautiful glens. All that now lies in my power is to
acknowledge my obligations; especially to one worthy family from whom I

128 CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

experienced the Arab’s hospitality and the Samaritan’s compassion: and if
ever this humble volume should reach a corner of the kingdom so remote as
Durness, it is a pleasure to me to reflect that its minister will find the last
sentiment recorded here is that of gratitude to him and his, for their gener-
ous treatment of a weary stranger.”—p. 310.

The volume is adorned with several highly creditable sketches of
Highland scenery, &c., apparently from drawings by the author,
lithographed by the well-known artists, Messrs. Day and Haghe.
We should not be surprised or displeased to find that our notice of
Mr. Lesingham Smith’s Journal of a Ramble in Scotland has caus-
ed some of our readers to make themselves further acquainted with
its contents, by a perusal of the whole book.

Journal of a Horticultural Tour through Germany, Belgium,
and part of France, in the Autumn of 1835; to which is added
a Catalogue of the Cactee in the gardens of Woburn Abbey.
By James Forbes, A.L.S., &c. London: Ridgway & Sons.
1837. 8vo., pp. 164.

“ Tue continental gardens and botanical collections having been rarely
visited by the British gardener, his Grace the Duke of Bedford, with his
usual anxiety for the promotion of useful knowledge, very liberally and
kindly proposed, in the autumn of 1835, that I should undertake a horticul-
tural tour through several parts of Germany, Belgium, and France, with a
view of inspecting the different collections and productions cultivated in
some of the most celebrated horticultural establishments in these countries.”
—Preface, p. v.

Mr. Forbes accordingly travelled, took his notes, and published
them ; and as the author is an intelligent man, and evidently tells us
his real opinion of what he saw, his observations are both readable and
useful. We are, moreover, glad that our author has not considered
it beneath his dignity to make a few remarks occasionally on paint-
ings, statues, &c., which proves him to be possessed of a mind both
more enlarged and more cultivated than the majority of even head
gardeners. Without further noticing the contents of this volume, we
shall extract the following conclusions, at which the author has ar-
rived on the objects of his tour.

“ Upon the whole, in regard to the general state of Horticulture in the
countries which I visited, the following conclusion must be drawn :—The
plants in the hot-houses are in most of the establishments kept in excellent
order and in a healthy state; the Succulente also appeared to be much more
extensively cultivated than they have hitherto been in England. But the
general order and neatness of the grounds (with only a very few exceptions)
were but little attended to. Nor did the gardeners appear to me to well
understand the forcing of fruits, except in one or two places in France ; nei-
ther did I perceive that nicety in the training of fruit trees that is thought
indiigycheabled England. Vegetables are, however, in large establishments,
more extensively grown; but there certainly did not appear to be such a
general spirit for horticultural improvment as is prevailing in this country.
At no period was gardening pursued with greater spirit in England than at

CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 129

this moment; insomuch that we can scarcely visit a nobleman or gentle-
man’s gardens without observing very extensive improvements and _altera-
tions proceeding in every direction. And this we cannot but regard as an
indication of application and attachment to rural improvements highly
honourable to our nobility and gentry, as superseding many of those pur-
suits that used to prevail to a great extent with gentlemen residing in the
country, which had but little tendency to the improvement of their grounds
or estates.”—p. 145.

We have only to add that another nobleman has followed the ex-
cellent example of the Duke of Bedford, in sending out his gardener
to foreign parts on a horticultural tour ; and that we hope to see the
plan, ere long, extensively adopted.

Account of the late Aéronautical expedition from London to Weil-
burg, accomplished by Robert Hollond, Esq., Monck Mason, Esq.,
and Charles Green, Aéronaut. London, 1836. 8vo., pp. 52.

Mr. Monck Mason inscribes his account, in testimony of sincere
regard and friendship, to Robert Hollond, his fellow-voyager, to whose
liberal and enterprising spirit their expedition owed its origin and suc-
cess. He then states, introductively, the principal obstacles to the
practice of Aérostation, and their removal by the happy exercise of
Mr. Green’s ingenuity and heroic perseverance.

These impediments, Mr. M. says, consisted in the uncertainty and
expense attending the process of inflation of the balloon with hydro-
gen gas; the dangers considered inseparable from the practice of
aérial navigation; the difficulties which hitherto had baffled all at-
tempts to give a direction to the machine; and the impossibility which
every previous aéronaut had experienced, of remaining in the air a
sufficient time to ensure the attainment of a sufficient distance. To
remove these obstacles, and to reduce the aérial vehicle to a more
certain issue, a vast extent of actual experience, united to an intellect
capable of turning it to account, was absolutely required ; and he em-
phatically declares that to the combination of both these high requi-
sites, in the person of Mr. Charles Green, we are indebted for the
entire results of all that is beneficial in the practice, or novel in the
theory, of Aérostation—the most delightful and sublime of all sub-
lunary enjoyments.

The first of the fore-mentioned impediments was surmounted by
Mr. Green’s discovery of the applicability of coal-gas to the purposes
of inflation. Among other important advantages gained by this dis-
covery, Mr. Monck Mason distinguishes the diminution of expense
and risk, and the superior facility wherewith the coal-gas is retained
in the balloon, owing to the greater subtilty of the particles of hydro-
gen, and the strong affinity they exhibit for those of the surrounding
atmosphere. In a balloon sufficiently perfect to retain its contents of
coal-gas unaltered in quality or amount for the space of six months,
an equal quantity of hydrogen gas could not be maintained in equal
purity for an equal number of weeks.

VOL. VII,, NO. XXI. R

130 CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

With respect to the danger usually considered as liable to occur in
the exercise of Aérostation, much is not required, in Mr. M.’s estima-
tion, to prove the fallacy of such fears. Mr. Green’s two hundred
and twenty-six ascents, undertaken at all periods of the year, without
one disappointment to the public, and without one solitary instance of
fatal consequences, or even of an accident having disagreeable results,
Mr. M. thinks, ought to be a sufficient proof of how little danger is
to be apprehended in the practice of Aérostation, when managed by
a skilful leader, with the aid of those improvements which Mr.
Green’s experience originated and successfully applied.

Mr. M. M. abstains from making observations on the state of the
aérostatic art, in respect of the power of guiding a balloon according
toa given direction; the want of which is said by him to be generally
considered as the greatest obstacle to its farther progress, and adap-
tation to the ordinary purposes of human life. As, however, the dis-
cussion of this question would extend to a considerable length, and
as it formed no part of the project in pursuance of which the late aérial
expedition was undertaken, he reserves the subject for a future and
more elaborate investigation.

Mr. Green’s previous discoveries are held, by their historian, as
yielding in importance to that whereby he has succeeded in enabling
the aéronaut to maintain the power of his balloon undiminished during
the most protracted voyage he may be required to perform. Mr.
Monck Mason describes this highly-appreciated discovery in the fol-
lowing terms :—

“ Tn order fully to comprehend the value of this discovery, it is necessary
that some idea should be had of the difficulties the late enterprize was in-
tended to obviate, and of the effects they were calculated to produce upon
the farther progress of Aérostation. When a balloon ascends to navigate
the atmosphere, independent of a loss of power occasioned by its own imper-
fections, an incessant waste of its resources in gas and ballast becomes the in-
evitable consequence of its situation. No sooner has it quitted the earth
than it is immediately subjected to the influence of a variety of circum-
stances tending to create a difference in its weight ; augmenting or diminish-
ing, as the case may be, the power by the means of which it is supported.
The deposition or evaporation of humidity to the extent, in proportion to its
size, of several hundred weight; the alternate heating and cooling of its gas-
eous contents by the remotion or interposition of clouds between the object
itself and the influence of the solar rays, with a variety of other more secret,
though not less powerful agencies, all so combine to destroy the equilibrium
which it is the main object of the aéronaut to preserve, that scarcely a mo-
ment passess without some call for his interposition, either to check the
descent of the balloon by the rejection of ballast, or to control its ascent by
the proportionate discharge of gas; a process by which the whole power of
the balloon, however great its dimensions, must in time be exhausted, and
sooner or later terminate its career by succumbing to the laws of terrestrial
gravitation. By the simple contrivance of a rope of the requisite magnitude
and extent trailing on the proud beneath, (and if over the sea, with a suffi-
cient quantity of Aiguid ballast contained in vessels floating on its surface),
have all these difficulties been overcome, and all the features of the art com-
pletely and effectually reversed. Harnessed to the earth or ocean by a pow-
er too great for her to resist, it is in vain the balloon endeavours to change

es

CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 131

the level ofher onward course: every foot she would have been otherwise
compelled to add to her elevation now only adds to her weight by her endea-
vours to abstract from the earth a further portion of that rope which is de-
pendent upon its surface ; while, on the other hand, every foot she would
have been inclined to descend, had she been at liberty as heretofore, now
only abstracts from the weight which draws her downward, by throwing on
the earth the labour of supporting an additional portion of the guide-rope,
which she would otherwise have had to sustain without relief. Fimited to
one unalterable plane, all the fluctuations above mentioned, whereby her irre-
parable stock of power became incessant waste, have thus completely been
avoided, and not only her ascensive force maintained in its full vigour
throughout a period determinable solely by her own imperfections, but at all
times and under all circumstances ; over the boundless ocean, without a land-
mark, in the densest fog, and throughout the darkest night, the exact direc-
tion of her course, as well as the very rate of her progress, determined with
the utmost facility and most infallible results.

“The progress of the guide-rope being delayed to a certain extent by its
motion over the more solid plane of the earth’s surface, while the movement
of the balloon is as freely as ever controlled by the propelling action of the
wind, it is evident that the direction of the latter when in progress must ever
be in advance of the former; a comparison, therefore, of the relative posi-
tions of these two objects by means of the compass, must at all times indicate
the exact direction of her course; while, with equal certainty, an estimate
can at once be obtained of the velocity with which she is proceeding, by ob-
serving the angle formed by the guide-rope and the vertical axis of the ma-
chine. In proportion as this angle enlarges, an increase in the rate of the
balloon may be infallibly inferred, and, vice versd, its diminution will be
found to correspond exactly with the diminished velocity of her advance.
When the rope is dependent perpendicularly, no angle of course is formed,
and the machine may be considered perfectly stationary, or at least endowed
with a rate of motion too insignificant to be either appreciable or important.

«<The main feature, however, in this discovery, is the altered aspect under
which it enables the aéronaut to regard the perils of the sea, and the conse-

uent extension it bestows upon the hitherto limited sphere of his relations.

he ocean, now no longer the dreaded enemy of the aérial voyager, becomes
at once his greatest friend, and instead of opposing his progress, it offers him
advantages more certain and efficacious than even the earth itself with all its
presumed security is calculated to contribute.”

Appended, in a foot-note to page 22 of Mr. M’s. history, is an ob-
servation which deserves to be received as both new and curious. He
represents it as a fact, that the sea, unless perhaps under circum-
stances of the most extraordinary agitation, does not in itself appear
to be the parent of the slightest sound. Unopposed by any material
obstacle, an awful stillness seems to reign over its motions. Neither
is it probable he thinks, that even under any circumstances, no matter
how violent, can any considerable disturbance arise from the conflict
of its own opposing members. The impossibility of ever having been
placed in a situation to bring this fact under the cognizance of our
senses, is no doubt the reason why it has never before been noticed.
On the shore or in the sea, no one has ever been present independent
of that material support the absence of which is necessary to the suc-
cess of the experiment : it is in the balloon alone, Mr. M. exultingly
avers, that such a phenomenon could either have been verified or
observed.

132 CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

During the night of their adventurous journey, the aéronauts per-
ceived the cold to be very intense, the thermometer ranging various-
ly from within a few degrees below to the point of congelation.
Their supplies of water, coffee, and oil were completely frozen in
their several vessels. Strange, however, as the statement may ap-
pear, Mr. Monck Mason observes, while all around bore unequivocal
testimony to the severity of the cold, the effects produced upon their
persons, although undefended by any extraordinary precaution,
were by no means commensurate to the cause, nor such as even,
under ordinary circumstances, the party might fairly have expected
to encounter. This unusual exemption from the consequences of a
low temperature is ascribed by Mr. M. to the absence of all current
of air, the natural result of their situation, and one of the peculiar
characteristics of aérial navigation. | To this intensity of cold, pre-
ceded by a long subjection to the action of a humid atmosphere, he
likewise attributes the occurrence of an incident which merits par-
ticularly to be noticed. It is thus in Mr. M’s. own words :—

“It was about half-past three in the morning when the balloon, having
gained a sudden accession of power, owing to a discharge of ballast, began to
rise with considerable rapidity, and ere we had taken the customary means to
check her ascent, had already attained an elevation of upwards of twelve
thousand feet. At this moment, while all around is impenetrable darkness
and stillness, an unusual explosion issues from the machine above, followed
instantaneously by a violent rustling of the silk and all the signs which may
be supposed to accompany the bursting of the balloon in a region where no-
thing but itself exists to give occasion to such awful and unnatural disturb-
ance. In the same instant the car, as if suddenly detached from its hold,
becomes subjected to a violent concussion, and appears at once to be in the
act of sinking with all its contents into the dark abyss below. A second and
a third explosion follow in quick succession, accompanied by a recurrence of
the same astounding effects; leaving not a doubt upon the mind of the un-
conscious voyager of the fate which nothing now appears capable ofaverting.
In a moment after, all is tranquil and serene: the balloon has recovered her
usual form and stillness, and nothing appears to designate the unnatural agi-
tation to which she had been so lately and unaccountably subjected. The
occurrence of this phenomenon, however strange it may appear, is neverthe-
less susceptible of the simplest resolution, and consists in the tendency to en-
largement from remotion of pressure which the balloon experiences in rising
from a low to a higher position in the atmosphere, and the resistance to this
enlargement pipes | al by the net-work, previously saturated with moisture
and subsequently congealed into the elliptical form which the dependent
weight of the car obliges it to assume whenever the shrunken capacity of the
sphere it encompasses will admit of its longitudinal distension. As this re-
sistance is occasioned by the intervention of a non-elastic medium—the ice—
which has bound the meshes of the net-work in their contracted form, it is
evident that the liberation occasioned by their disrupture will not take place
until the internal pressure of the balloon has reached a certain amount, and
then suddenly that liberation is accomplished, attended by those collateral ef-
fects which have already been described. 'The impression of the descent of
the car, in the above representation, is evidently a false one: the car, so far
from sinking, actually springs up: it is the unexpectedness of such a move-
ment, and its apparent inconsistency with the laws of gravitation, that occa-
sions the delusion, the reality of which the concomitant circumstances essen-
tially tend to confirn.”

CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 133

Towards the conclusion of his sketches Mr. Monck Mason com-
municates a fact which merits much consideration, from its bearing
upon an essential principle in Physiology. He affirms that, al-
though he and his intelligent companions frequently rose to an ele-
vation of above twelve thousand feet, occasionally higher, yet at no
time did they experience the slightest effect upon their bodies, pro-
ceeding from the diminished pressure of the atmosphere. Nor, from
their observations, does he believe that any such effects as are cur-
rently attributed to this diminished pressure have any actual exist-
ence, at least at any elevation to which any person has hitherto
been enabled to arrive. He concludes, also, that the impressions
experienced in the ascent of high mountains owe their effect to ano-
ther cause, and proceed from the inordinate muscular exertion and
its consequences upon the circulating system, and, he might have
added, from the great exhaustion of vital energy which every labo-
rious effort of this kind must necessarily produce.

The three intrepid aéronauts started on their adventurous expedi-
tion from Vauxhall Gardens, at one o’clock, p.m., of Monday, the
7th of November, 1836; and having traversed five hundred miles,
over the land and the sea, completed an unparalleled journey at
Weilburg, in Nassau, after remaining for eighteen hours suspended,
in their cloud-compelling flight, between earth and heaven.

A History of British Birds, indigenous and migratory: including
their Organization, Habits, and Relations ; Remarks on Classifi-
cation and Nomenclature, &c. Illustrated by Engravings. By
Wm. MacGillivray, A.M., F.R.S.E., M.W.S., &c. Vol. I.
London: Scott, Webster, and Geary. 1837. 8vo., pp. 631.

THERE are not persons wanting, even among the ranks of practi-
cal ornithologists, who will view with apathy and even with disgust
this new attempt at a history of our native Ornithology; not that
they either distrust the ability of the new candidate to their favour,
or believe the subject he treats to be exhausted. True, the works
already published on British Ornithology are both numerous and
excellent, a proposition which we need only support by mentioning
the names of Pennant, Montagu, Selby, and Mudie. Others have
also published a host of works on the same subject, as Lewin,
Graves, Albin, Donovan, Atkinson, Meyer; and various mono-
graphs ‘have been issued by Bolton, Syme, Nash, &c. The greater
part of these publications are, however, of little or no use ; and al-
though the volumes of Montagu and Selby are still classical autho-
rities, we consider that as long as our native birds continue to be
interesting to the ornithologists of this country, so long new British
ornithologies must and will continue to appear at intervals. It is
obvious that only a few are able competently to perform such a
task. Those authors who engage in the work without being fit to
carry it through will soon sink into merited oblivion ; but those, on
the contrary, who possess the requisite knowledge and ability, can-

134 CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

not fail to benefit science by directing their labours to such an ob-
ject. This being the case, it only remains to consider the plan and
character of the work before us, of which only the first volume is at
present vouchsafed to the public.

There is one feature in Mr. MacGillivray’s book which, in our
opinion, places it above all others on the same subject that have
fallen under our notice ; we allude to the observations on the inter-
nal structure of birds, minute particulars being given, not only of
the class, but of each species. By preceding British ornithologists
anatomy has been undeservedly neglected, their observations on this
topic being, in general, few and meagre. Some continental natu-
ralists, on the other hand, have erred in the opposite extreme, and
conferred an undue importance on internal organization as a guide
to classification. Cuvier’s Régne Animal may be adduced as a strik-
ing instance of this, and also, we must add, the present History of
Mr. MacGillivray. The system of the latter author does not differ
materially from those propuunded by various other writers, and long
since exploded ; and although he occasionally indulges in ridicule at
the incongruities presented, according to his ideas, by quinary and
other systematists, vet what can we say to his classing the Bee-
eaters with the Swallows and Goatsuckers, and the Dippers with
the Kingfishers? In so far as the three first-named genera may all
be termed Volitatores, they unquestionably agree, and for ought we
know to the contrary the internal structure may countenance the
arrangement ; but, taking all circumstances together, it cannot be
considered otherwise than unnatural. As regards the Dipper (Cin-
clus), its relationship to the Turdidw, but more especially to the
Ouzels, and most of all to the Garden Ouzel ( Merula hortensis), is
so striking and obvious that we cannot but wonder at their separa-
tion by our author. The Garden Ouzel, though not partial to
rocky streams, is a great lover of water; and we have seen the
young of this species, before the tail was fully grown, so like the
Dipper in form, colour, and habits, that a very slight stretch of
the imagination might have converted the one species into the other.
The tail of the Garden Ouzel, both old and young, is often cocked
up in the manner of the Dipper, and the white breast of the latter
—which, in a somewhat different shape, is found in the Ring Ouzel
—appears to be alone wanting to render the illusion complete. It
has been the common fault of nearly every author who has tried his
hand at system-making to attend too exclusively to the one particu-
lar part of a bird which he considers most important for his purpose.
Thus, Linneus fixed upon the bill, Vieillot the claws, Cuvier the
internal organs, and so on. Tolerable classifications may be, and
have been, formed from these and other characters taken separately ;
but we conceive that, to obtain anything like a “ natural system,”
every part of the bird, both external and internal, must be examined.
In our opinion the internal structure, taken alone, affords even a
less eligible foundation for a system than an exclusive attention to
the outward organs ; and certainly if the classification of Mr. Mac-

CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 135

Gillivray is sufficiently ably executed to afford a test of the truth of
our position, we should say that the attempt to systematize accord-
ing to the inward parts is a failure.

We have mentioned instances of what appear to us gross errors in
our author’s classification of the larger groups of birds. As regards
the extent of his genera, he has almost invariably followed the most
approved modern ornithologists, and in the one case in which he has
deviated from these authorities it is probable few will be found to
agree with him. We allude to the circumstance of his having
placed the Green Grosbeak (Coccothraustes chloris) in the genus
Linaria, because, says the author, the bill is not sufficiently thick
and large in proportion to the size of the bird to entitle it to the
rank of the Grosbeak. Now it su happens that in this, as in other
instance, figures of the head and bill of the Haw Grosbeak and the
Green Grosbeak are supplied. To these, the author triumphantly
refers his readers as proofs of the justness of his views. But, unfor-
tunately, the cut of the Green Grosbeak’s head and bill is anything
but correct ; the latter is much too small, and we believe no orni-
thologist would recognize the familiar physiognomy of C. chloris in
the drawing presented to him. The latter species unquestionably
stands between the Haw Grosbeak and the Linnets, but few, we be-
lieve, will doubt that it is much more nearly allied to the Grosbeaks
than to the Linnets. In making these strictures we ought, perhaps,
to notice that our author does “ not profess to add a new svstem to
the many already in partial use,” but “ merely to disclose the order
which I conceive to be best adapted for the present work,” Still,
whether or not he wishes that order to be followed by others, it
must be and is a new system, as far as we understand the import of
the word.

On the subject of nomenclature our author is not over eloquent,
but he stands up for the necessity of giving classical scientific
names, and holds that generic names should be of Greek, and speci-
fic of Latin, origin.* The former rule is important as regards the
names of new birds, the latter we consider of no practical value.

As the subject of English nomenclature has of late attracted so
much notice, the opinion of Mr. MacGillivray on that department
may not be without interest.

“As to English names, very little needs be said, further than that were
the genera positively fixed, which they cannot be for many years, if ever, it
might be well to give them vernacular names, in which case each species
ought to have a distinctive epithet or substantive name. Thus, we shall sup-
pose a genus named Corvus, to consist of five species, named coraz, corone,
cornix, Jrugilegus, monedula. ‘The English generic name being Crow, we
might name the species Raven Crow, Carrion Crow, Hooded Crow, Rook
Crow, Daw Crow. But in all cases single substantive names would be the
best : for example, the Raven, the Corby, the Hoody, the Rook, the Daw.
Some persons Eh a general meeting of British ornithologists at London,
York, or Edinburgh, for the purpose off determining the English nomencla-

* See The Naturalist, vol. ii., p. 150.

136 CRITICAL NOTICES 0F NEW PUBLICATIONS.

ture of our native birds$ but such a meeting, were it to take place, would
disperse without accomplishing the object in view, unless indeed its members
were See on the Bass Rock, and interdicted fire and food until they had
settled all their differences, and sworn perpetual friendship. Even then,
some malicious Celt, capable of subsisting a month on dulse and tangles, with
an occasional raw Limpet or Mussel, might hold out until, rather than be
starved, the philosophers should leave the birds to him to do with them as he
pleased. In sober earnest, it is impossible to remedy the acknowledged de-
fects in nomenclature, so as to render it universally acceptable. Some per-
sons who do their best to render the subject still more intricate, are extreme-
ly sensitive on the point of uniformity; but, in my opinion, however much
they who are abitious of being legislators in this matter may desire conformi-
ty to their views, there will always be more to spurn the yoke than to yield
to authority, which is gradually falling to its proper standard. In fact, no
two ornithologists have ever used the same names for five hundred birds ;
nor could two be found who should employ the same nomenclature in describ-
ing even the birds of Britain. There is really no cause of regret in all this:
were there no differences in politics, religion, and science, the world would
probably be much worse than it is. I am therefore under the necessity of
using my own discretion in bestowing English, Gaelic, and Latin names on
the birds which I propose to bescribe ; and I request that my readers scru-
ple not to reject whatever they find indicative of bad taste or bad feeling.” —
p- 10.

This being the opinion of our author, the reader would certainly
be but ill prepared to meet with the following passage, which we
are at a loss to reconcile with the above observations.

-

A reason may here be assigned for altering the common name of this bird
(the Red Grouse). The English name of T'etrao being Grouse, and that of
Lagopus being Ptarmigan, it is obviously improper to bestow the appellation
of Red Grouse on a species of the latter genus. But it may be said, the dis-
tinctive ‘ Red’ ought to be retained. I think not. Lagopus saliceti is more
properly red, ZL. Scoticus is more brown than red, L. cinerius is grey in au-
tumn, ZL. rupestris yellow in summer, and L. /eucurus has a white tail, in
which respect it differs from all the rest. Therefore I name these birds—
L. saliceti, Red Ptarmigan ; L. Scoticus, Brown Ptarmigan ; L. cinerius, Grey
Ptarmigan ; L. rupestris, Yellow or Rock Ptarmigan ; and L. leucurus, White-
tailed Ptarmigan.”

We should not have been sorry had similar reasoning been carried
throughout the volume ; but as this has not been done, part of the
above passage appears somewhat out of place. In a few instances
we find Latin names altered where the former designations were
considered faulty. In one case, however, the change seems unne-
cessary ; we allude to Coccothraustes atrogularis being substituted
for C. vulgaris, while a name, in our opinion, equally good with the
former already existed, namely, C. crategus, Blyth.

At page 7 a sneer is indulged at the doctrine of analogies of Mr.
Swainson, which appears to us much less ridiculous than Mr. Mac-
Gillivray would have us believe. Every one admits the more strik-
ing analogies between animals of different classes, but those which
are less obvious of course require much more study than can be de-
voted to them by every one.

We have expressed partial disapprobation both at the system and

CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 137

the nomenclature of the work under review, but fortunately the
book contains much that fully atones for any trifling delinquencies
in those departments ; andif it has been found difficult to add much
new matter relating to habits, the descriptions, being fur the most
part original and accurate, will be perused with considerable inte-
rest. The sections on the external and internal anatomy of the class
are evidently written by one perfectly versed in the task he has un-
dertaken. These chapters are illustrated, in a very superior man-
ner, by numerous engravings, executed from drawings by the au-
thor.

Mr. MacGillivray reprobates, and with justice, the inattention of
ornithologists to the internal anatomy of birds ; and if we are not
disposed to place so much confidence in it as a basis of classification
as we find our author doing, we may at least agree with him in re-
gretting the occurrence of such errors as the following, appearing,
too, under the auspices of undoubtedly one of the first zoologists of
the day. After describing the osseous system of birds, he says :—

“ This superficial inspection of the osseous parts of birds will suffice to
render the relations of the external parts intelligible, and prevent the stu-
dent of Ornithology from falling into those strange mistakes to which per-
sons are liable aes knowledge is not more than skin deep. I may be
allowed to adduce a few examples from the Natural History and Classification
of Birds, by William Swainson, Esq. ‘The leg,’ he says, ‘is obviously di-
vided into three parts: 1. The thigh; 2. The shank or tarsus; and 3. The
foot itself, composed of the toes. The thigh is subject to very few variations
beyond relative length, and in being more or less clothed with feathers. In
aquatic birds it is Deen ti! naked before it reaches the knee-joint.’ Never,
in any aquatic bird, is the thigh naked ; but it is obvious that Mr. Swainson
is not aware that birdshave athigh. Again, ‘ the humerus [referring to the
extremity of the cubitus] is generally termed the shoulder; the flewwm
[pointing to the wrist] is the shoulder joint ; and the azilla [reference to the
pollex] which corresponds to the cubitus, is commonly called the shoulder
margin.’ To mistake the wrist joint for the shoulder joint isa blunder which
might have been avoided by inspecting a skeleton, or even feeling for the
bones in the wing of any common bird.”—p. 33.

Our author believes that

“Tt is very doubtful whether the sense of smell be acute in any order of
birds; for it has been most satisfactorily proved by Mr. Audubon that in
the Vultures, at least in those of the genus Cathartes that occur in: North
America, which were supposed to possess it in the greatest perfection, it is so
inefficient as not to indicate to them the existence of putrid flesh in their
immediate vicinity.”—p. 51.

For an interesting instance in which some Crows were unques-
tionably directed to carrion by the sense of smell alone, we refer
our readers to The Naturalist, vol. ii., p. 34.

In the account of the Red Grouse ( Lagopus Britannicus ) occurs
an animated description of an adventure of the author’s, in return-
ing from a botanical excursion through the Hebrides and the south

VOL. VII., NO. XXI. s

138 CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

of Scotland. This we had marked for extract, but regret our inabi-
lity to graft it upon our pages, on account of its length.

“T object,” says Mr. M’G., “to the specific name mutus, given to the
Grey Ptarmigan, that the bird is not mute; and to albus, that the Willow
Ptarmigan is equally white in winter. The latter species is in summer the
only one of the three that is red, and therefore I would name it the Red
Ptarmigan ; while the species commonly called the Red Grouse, being less red
than that just mentioned, and presenting a brown mottled appearance, might
be named the Brown Ptarmigan; and the present species, being the only one
that is at any time grey, ought therefore to be called the Grey Ptarmigan.”
—p. 210.

It is to us pleasing to find that our author is not inclined impli-
citly to adhere on all occasions to the names imposed by his prede-
cessors. But it is good to observe moderation in all things, and in
nothing is it more required than in the nomenclature of so extensive
a field as Natural History. We are decidedly for expunging
glaringly erroneous names from our catalogues ; but as we conceive
it vain to attempt to obtain unexceptionable designations, either for
genera or species, in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, it certainly
is to be regretted when authors alter established names on slight
grounds. We perceive no tenable objection to Red Grouse as ap-
plied to Lagopus Britannicus, and must protest against the changes
suggested in the foregoing extract.

Our author has some pleasant chapters in his book entitled “‘ Prac-
tical Ornithology, in the style of a Dialogue.” In one of these we
find the following passage. After mentioning the best methods of
killing such birds as are not mortally wounded by the shot, his sup-
posed companion says :—

“Tt is a barbarous business this practical Ornithology of yours, and one
not well adapted for benevolent persons.

‘¢ Say not so; a surgeon is not necessarily a savage. Ladies indeed cannot
become practical ornithologists, although they make no scruples in spitting
insects; nor, I believe, Quakers, who, although they will not kill Cows, yet
eat beef: I cannot account for these inconsistencies. Botany is the best
study for ladies and other gentle beings; and Geology for the stout-hearted
rough-shod gentlemen who do not choose to stick Beetles on pieces of cork,
or fumble among piles of paper for dry blades. For my part I have tried
them all; but the study of birds and quadrupeds, with the aid of powder and
shot, is that which I prefer: and I know few occupations more delightful
than that of poring over the entrals of a rare bird until you have satisfied
yourself as to some minute points of structure.”—p. 241.

In a subsequent page our author and his ideal companion chime
in with each other, as might be supposed, very pleasantly as regards
the doctrine of analogies. Ridicule can, however, never prove the
doctrine to be ridiculous.

We admit, with Mr. Mac Gillivray, that the Columbide, as a
whole, form a very natural and distinct group. Still it must be re-
membered that there exist species which it is really difficult to
determine whether they rank properly in this or the neighbouring

1: See

CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBIJ.ICATIONS. 139

division. As regards the name “ Stock Pigeon,” we think it highly
improbable that the name was given on account of that species being
supposed to be the original of the dove-cot race ; it has been sup-
posed to be rather from the fact of the bird building in the stunted
trees termed “ stocks.”

The following passage is a good hint for those naturalists who
when they meet with any bird at large in this country, no matter
whether a Parrot or a Finch, a Honeysucker or a Wren, confidently
add it to the British fauna :—

“ These [Columba palumbus, C. enas, C. livia, and C. turtur] are all the Pi-
geons that have any claims upon our consideration. An individual of the
American Passenger Pigeon, Ectopistes migratoria, is recorded by Dr. Flem-
ing, as having been shot in December, 1825, in the neighbourhood of a
Pigeon-house at Westhall, in the parish of Monymeal, Fifeshire. The fea-
thers, according to the describer of this specimen, ‘ were quite fresh and en-
tire, like those of a wild bird.” Why not? If it had escaped from confine-
ment and resided in a dovecot for half a year, it might have its plumage as
neat as that of any other bird. Such a circumstance affords no criterion. A
beautiful specimen of the Dominican Grosbeak, Loxia Dominicana, in perfect
plumage, was sent to me fresh in the winter of 1831. It had been shot some-
where near Dalkeith, and I made a drawing of it for my collection of British
birds; but soon after it was reported to have escaped from Lady Dalhousie’s
aviary. In June, 1835, a lovely little bird, fresh and with perfect plumage,
was brought to me from Braid Hermitage, near Edinburgh, where it had
been shot when in company with another of the same species, supposed to be
the female. It turned out to be the Lozia astrilda. Its skin forms a part of
my collection; but I should no more think of assigning this species a place
among British birds than of admitting the Migratory Pigeon. Yet its claims.
are certainly equal, for its feathers ‘ were quite fresh and entire, like those of
a wild bird,’ and remain so to the present day.”—p. 294.

At page 331 it is observed that albino individuals of the Chaff
Finch sometimes occur, although the author has not met with a
British one. We have never seen one quite white, but we once
possessed a very curious specimen with as much of white as any
other colour. The individual alluded to appeared above the usual
size, though this was probably only an error of the stuffer. By the
way, this reminds us of an observation of our author’s which the
student will do well to keep in mind :—

“ As to a difference in size observed by persons visiting museums, I have
only to remark, what every collector must know, that two birds of equal size
“ipa either as skins or as stuffed specimens by two individuals, may dif-

er exceedingly in size. I knew a bird-stuffer who, in preparing Grouse,

crammed them to the utmost, to make them look fine hath birds; anda
person who has collected about a hundred skins of British birds for me, has
almost invariably made them much too short.”—p. 210.

In the description of the House Sparrow our author alludes to
what Mr. Neville Wood says relative to the supposed familiarity of
the species, and agrees with the common opinion in this respect.
We must, however, observe that the House Sparrow is remarkably
distrustful of man considering that it lives so much in the neigh-

140 CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

bourhood of our dwellings ; and that it is much less approachable
at any time—but more especially when it is abroad in the fields—
than the Chaff Finch, Hedge Dunnock, Robin Redbreast, and vari-
ous other birds of its size, we think almost every one will admit.—
We wonder when the question as to the type of the Fringillide will
be settled. Some consider it to be the Haw Grosbeak, others the
Siskin Goldwing, others—with more propriety, we think—the
Chaff Finch, and Mr. MacGillivray has added to the confusion by
raising the House Sparrow to this important station.

If Mr. Swainson’s reasoning relative to the weakness (!) of the
Haw Grosbeak’s bill is “‘ a remarkable instance of false reasoning,”
we are not a whit the less disposed to blame our present author for
his reason for separating the Haw and Green Grosbeak, but of this
we have already said enough. It may here be interesting to notice,
as there has been much disputing about the food of the Hedge Coal-
hood ( Pyrrhula pileata, MacGill.), that our author thinks, “ judg-
ing from the structure of its digestive organs, that such crude vege-
table matters as buds could not afford it sufficient nourishment.”

Our author is of opinion that Ravens and other carrion birds dis-
cover the existence of putrid food at great distances rather by the
mode of flight and general behaviour of their neighbours than by
their own sense of smell ; and the supposition is at least plausible.

In the biography of the Carrion Crow an interesting account of
the destructive propensities of this bird in the lambing season is in-
serted, from the pen of Mr. W. Hogg, shepherd, Stobo Hope, Pee-
blesshire, which we intended to have quoted had space permitted.
Another letter, from Thomas Durham Weir, Esq., Boghead, Lin-
lithgowshire, relating to the same species, is likewise supplied,
which, for a similar reason, we must pass over.

If we may be allowed to judge by the following passage, our au-
thor has not attempted to discover the dispositions of birds by the
development of their crania, which, however, the extensive collec.
tions to which he has access would give him ample opportunities for
doing :—

“Tf the brains of birds are capable of being mapped, certainly the parish of
Acquisitiveness ought to be remarkably large in these species [the Crows],
as well as those of Cautiousness and Prudence [these two faculties are syno-
nymous], for the dread of man in birds unable to cope with him is evidently
not cowardice, but a reasonable and estimable feeling.” —p. 558.

Mr. MacGillivray, we regret to say, is here beyond his depth,
From what, we would ask, can cowardice proceed but the organ
of Caution? and in that truly we can perceive nothing particularly
“reasonable and estimable.”

To sum up the merits and defects of the work before us: We are
much pleased with the plan on which the descriptions of plu-
mage, &c., are given, viz.,a general and concise character of each
species at first, with a full and detailed account afterwards. Thus
it will, in general, be sufficient to read the former when perus-

CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 14]

ing the work, and omit the rest, as often tedious and uninterest-
ing; but the full details will prove extremely useful, in many
cases, in determining species where the distinguishing characters
are few and intricate. The habits are related ina plain and un-
assuming but engaging manner ; the anatomical particulars form a
new and valuable feature of the book ; and the principal synonyms
are supplied at the head of each article. The engravings on wood
and steel, for the most part, fully equal the expectations we had
formed in this particular from the excellent drawings we have
elsewhere seen from the pencil of Mr. MacGillivray. We regret,
however, to notice that in many cases the wood-cuts of the heads—
in our opinion, the most important illustrations in the work—are
not executed with that exactitude which we could have desired.
Many of them are good, several indifferent, but certainly, we
must own, none very bad, if we except the head and bill of the
Green Grosbeak, to which we have already alluded. In short, we
only desiderate figures of the entire birds. It may be replied that
these may be had in the works of Bewick and half a dozen other
authors. But we should wish every work that is issued on British
Ornithology to be as complete as possible in itself, in order that stu-
dents whose means will not permit their purchasing more than one
work on each department of Natural History may not be disappoint-
ed when they have made their selection, as it must be obvious that
good figures, either coloured or plain, are far preferable to the most
elaborate description.

We shall feel much pleasure in laying before our readers some
account of the continuation of this work when published, and feel
assured that our author will not blame us for giving our opinion of
his first volume so freely and unreservedly.

Memorials of Shrewsbury ; being a concise Description of the
Town and its Environs, adapted as a general Guide for the Infor-
mation of Visitors and Residents. By Henry Pidgeon. Shrews-
bury: Eddowes. 1837. Sm. 8vo., pp. 225.

Shrewsbury is an interesting and important old town, and Mr.
Pidgeon has treated his subject in such a manner as to render it
acceptable to all classes of readers. The prevailing fault of the ma-
jority of our county and city memorials is their extreme dryness,
which prevents their being of the slightest value to any but the
learned few. The various topics contained in this neat little
volume are, the situation, foundation, and etymology of Shrews-
bury ; its ancient history ; castle and feudal state ; present state of
the town ; ecclesiastical buildings ; Royal Free Grammar School ;
local governments, charters, &c.; public buildings ; charitable in-
stitutions ; charity schools ; walks within and without the walls;
literary and scientific institutions ; recreations ; suburbs; Castle
Foregate ; Abbey Foregate ; trade and manufactures ; environs.

We are much pleased with both letter-press and illustrations ;

142 CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

the latter are numerous and _ highly creditable to the respective ar-
tists. We may bestow especial praise on the chapter dedicated to
the ecclesiastical buildings, which will be alike interesting to the
architect and the general reader. We could, however, have wished
—as such minute attention is paid to the interior of the churches—
that the accounts of the organs had been more detailed. The epi-
thets “large,” “small,” “excellent,” &c., as applied to this noble
instrument, give the musician a most meagre and unsatisfactory
idea of the quality of the various organs alluded to. Perhaps nine
writers out of ten would not have condescended to bestow even so
many words on this subject as Mr. Pidgeon has done ; but surely it
is as deserving of the attention of the reader as the church bells!
Of course no “true Salopian” will lack this volume on his shelf ;
and even those who are not residents in this ‘“ favoured county”
may find much to interest them in the Memorials of Shrewsbury.

Last Lecture of the Season, delivered in the Literary and Scientific
Institution at Staines, on Friday, June 30, 1837. By the Rev.
Robert Jones, D.D., M.R.S.L., &c. London: Hatchard and

Son. pp. 32.

Dr. JoneEs possesses an untiring ardour in the grand cause of
knowledge, as disseminated by provincial literary and scientific insti-
tutions, which, adequately conducted, cannot be valued too highly.
Dr. Jones appears to think that a monthly journal devoted entirely
to reports and transactions of provincial societies, similar to that of
Staines, might advantageously be started. Were such a periodical
set on foot, no one would be better qualified to preside over it than
Dr. J.; but we feel convinced it could not answer. In the first
place, those connected with the various establishments can alone be
expected to take much interest in their transactions ; and, secondly,
the members would peruse the work in their own institution, with-
out themselves taking it in. The same cause acts as a drag on the
circulation of even The Analyst in many places, though, as our
readers are aware, we have ever felt the warmest interest in the
success of those very institutions which are in some measure detri-
mental to our interests. But, with Dr. Jones, we feel convinced of
the immense importance of the Societies now everywhere arising
around us, and shall, therefore, at all times consider it our duty and
our pleasure to further their objects. The lecture before us is re-
markable for elegance of style, soundness of thought, and liberality
of sentiment.

A History of British Birds. By William Yarrell, F.L.S., Sec. Z.S.
London: John Van Voorst. Part I. July, 1837. 8vo. and
Royal 8yo.

Tuis work is a continuation of the series commenced by the
British Fishes of the same author, and the British Quadrupeds of

FINE ARTs. 143

Bell. If, on account of the numerous and excellent works already
published on native Ornithology, this work is less valuable than its
predecessors, it by no means yields to them in its general character
and execution. The principal characteristics of this publication are
the extreme beauty of the woodcuts, the accuracy of the descrip-
tions, the beauty of the “ getting up,’ and the cheapness of the
publication, which will come within the means of every student.
We must not dismiss the first part without observing that the style
of the wood-cuts has never been equalled, and that those of Bewick
really look quite coarse after them, although we still consider the
illustrations of the latter artist as valuable as when they were first
laid before the admiring public.

Supplement to the Flora Metropolitana; or, Botanical Rambles
within Thirty Miles of London. By Daniel Cooper, A.L.S.
London: Highley. 1837.

Every subscriber to the Flora Metropolitana will of course pro-
cure the present Supplement to the work, which appears to be well-
digested, and, as far as we have had an opportunity of judging, ac-
curate.

FINE ARTS.

MUSIC.—VOCAL.

An Evening Service, and a Hundred Antiphonal Chants, with Re-
marks. By the Rev. W. H. Havergal, A.M. Paine & Hopkins,
69, Cornhill.

The Gresham Prize Composition, No.6. By the same. J. A. No-
vello, 69, Dean-street, Soho.

To assist in raising the thoughts and affections to the supreme
being, and, through the medium of the higher faculties, to increase
our veneration for, and, as it were, to bring us into closer affinity
with, him in whom we live, and move, and have our being, is the
object of sacred music. As an instrument of improvement to the
human race, its influence is undoubtedly great ; great in proportion
to the power with which it stimulates into healthful activity those
faculties through which we instinctively recognize the existence of
an eternal all-creative mind, and adore that mind when recognized.
Who that has listened to the solemn roll of the pealing organ, re-

144 FINE ARTS.

verberating through the holy aisles of some time-honoured edifice,
or, perchance, to the swelling chorus of voices united in fitting
praise and adoration of the Almighty, but has felt that he is better,
we will even say greater, after what he has heard? High, then, is
the rank which we award to sacred music; and noble, nay divine,
is the mind which can exert such blessed influence on others, and, in
defiance of the lapse of time and the change of fashions, be the in-
strument of solace, of happiness, and of improvement, to the gene-
rations of men for ever. But there is a spurious kind of sacred mu-
sic, sacred in nothing but its subject ; music grave without sublimi-
ty, frivolous without ornament. Minims and semibreves are the
staple of this style ; under them does solemn dullness seek and too
often find shelter. Absence of all idea is its characteristic, correct-
ness (if that can be called correct which so lamentably fails of its
end) its only recommendation.

As a specimen of this falsely-called sacred music, the compositions
before us are every way qualified to stand. Correct without genius,
grave without grandeur, scarce a single sentiment of veneration are
they calculated to excite, even in minds the most predisposed.

The chants are good, and the idea of varying the chant according
to the character of the psalm excellent. Many an obvious absurdity
(such as singing a joyful chant to a psalm of a mournful character)
would thus be avoided.

Burn not, thou Taper, too intensely bright. The words by Sir
Thomas Lawrence, the music composed by William Thorold
Wood. T. Boosey & Co., 28, Holles-street.

In our January number we noticed with approbation some of the
earlier productions of this composer. The characteristic of these
was tenderness and simplicity. The song before us is of a more am-
bitious character. This is as it should be; the artist is never to
stand still, or even to flag, in the search after ideal perfection. And
truly delightful has it been to us to meet with the production of an
amateur (as we know the author to be) which gives evidence of re-
search into, and acquaintance with, the mysteries of art. This song
belongs to that class of vocal music which aims at producing a perfect
whole by bestowing equal attention on all the parts ; which regards
the accompaniment as an essential feature of the musical picture, as
a means of strengthening and prolonging in the mind the emotions
excited by the poetry and the vocal melody. Such is the principle
which, carried into practice, has enabled the German school to out-
strip its once invincible Italian rivals. It is needless to add that the
combination of many melodies isa higher branch of the art than
that which, neglecting the accompaniment, bestows exclusive atten-
tion on the vocal melody. A child, a peasant, may invent a pleas-
ing melody, and any one who has studied Hamilton’s Catechism of
Thorough Bass may indite an accompaniment to match ; but how
wide is the interval between such patch-work and the simplest song

FINE ARTS. 145

Mozart ever wrote! The mental exertion required in order to cre-
ate, or even to understand, a whole is greater than the effort neces-
sary to produce or comprehend a fragment. For this reason do the
generality of composers, as well as listeners, prefer that which, al-
though yielding but little credit, and gratification only faint and
fleeting, requires neither high genius nor any noticeable expenditure
of the “ midnight oil” in its cultivation. When, therefore, a com-
poser makes choice of the narrow and steep path which, though not
destitute of thorns, will, if diligently trodden, procure him a place
among those whose names pass not away with their own generation,
it is the duty of those who guard the portals of cotemporary criticism
to hold out to him every encouragement to disregard the fickle
breath of popular applause, and to hold steadily onward in the
search after ideal beauty. With this view we cordially recommend
Mr. Wood’s song to our readers, and feel assured that, on mature
examination, they will admire as much as we do the symmetry and
unity of the plan, and the accurate and, at the same time, poetical
elaboration of the details.

INSTRUMENTAL.

Grand Duet for the Piano Forte. By Miss Mounsey. J.J. Ewer
& Co., Bow Church-yard.

Wr have before had the gratification of speaking in terms of
high praise of the compositions of this lady. To her we owe a
double debt of gratitude ; first, for the delight she affords us by her
combinations of sweet sounds, and then for the pleasure we feel in
being, through her means, freed from the irksome task of always
finding fault. The rarity of true excellence gives additional charm
to its discovery, whilst the frequent recurrence of what is worthy
of condemnation by no means diminishes the pain with which we
witness it. ‘The duet before us consists of four movements, and in
its form resembles rather the instrumental symphony than the piano
forte concerto. Throughout is evinced a power and excellence of
modulation which, in a piano-forte composition of the present day,
astonishes while it delights us. The passages of fugue and imita-
tion shew that the fair composer has by no means neglected the
higher walks of the art, and (if we are not much mistaken) that she is
every way worthy of treading in them. The minuet is graceful and
characteristic ; but the slow movement which succeeds it, for the
elaborate and skilful treatment of the subject, the variety and bold-
ness of the modulations, and for the vein of true poetry which per-
vades the whole, deserves an admiration which we fear we cannot
adequately express. In taking leave of Miss Mounsey for the pre-
sent, we beg leave to assure her that we shall feel pleasure in again
and again welcoming to our critical tribunal the efforts of her ge-
nius, confident that what she is to write will be worthy of what
she has already written.

VOL. VII., NO. XXI. T

146 FINE ARTS.

The Goblin Quadrilles. Composed for the Piano-forte by Calder
Cambell (Madras army). London: T. E. Purday, 50, St. Paul’s
Church-yard.

Mr. CamBeEtt has eertainly not been inspired by the “ goblins,”
spirits of fire,” ‘water spirits,” and “elfins,’ whom he has in-
voked both singly and conjointly. Of a truth they have treated
him very scurvily. He has done all that he could to assist them in
their revels ; and lo and behold how they have rewarded him! One
might have expected, at any rate, something of the elfin character
about these quadrilles, something to make the hair stand erect, some-
thing hissing and boiling over, in consideration of the meeting of the
fire and water spirits. All this it was rational to look for, and we
accordingly did look for it. How were we astonished, then, on look-
ing over the first page, to find it flat as ditch-water, or, to use a more
savory simile, as champaigne that ought to be up. When we had a
little recovered from our first amazement: “ O, O!” said we to
ourselves, “ this must be one of your surprise concerns ; there’s
something terrible over leaf, depend on it.” In this belief, it was
some time before we mustered courage to proceed ; and when we
did so, it was something in the manner of the frogs of old approach-
ing King Log after his first splash—slowly and cautiously. Like
them, however, we soon found there was nothing to fear, and that
Mr. Calder Cambell was totally innocent of any but the most lamb-
like, simple, and every-day ideas. Really, it is not the nerves of
every one that could stand such trials often ; and we do hope that
when Mr. C. “ again doth write” he will either brush up his en-
thusiasm, if he have any, to the proper pitch, or else light upon a
rather less formidable title for his lucubrations.

Book of Musical Varieties. By Richard Sutton.

Ir each of the names on Mr. Sutton’s subscription list was avail-
able for pecuniary as well as for ostentatious purposes, he has, we
think, no reason to complain of the success of his speculation. He
is, we dare say, in condition to snap his finger at our criticism ; but
we wish to say a few words to his subscribers and to those who may
be so unlucky as to be canvassed in future. What Mr. Sutton is
pleased to call “ good feeling” is utterly inadmissible in such cases.
Consider yourselves, for the time being, as the guardians of the in-
terests of the art : let no personal motives of friendship induce you
to patronize a work which you know to be unworthy of patronage.
Or, if “ good feeling” ts to be admitted, shew yourselves really
friendly, and sincerely advise the “‘composer” to avoid committing
himself before the public, and robbing his friends’ pockets. What,
indeed, can be more impudent, more insulting, in the would-be com-
poser, than thanks to his friends for supporting his work, without
reference to the merits of that work? to speak plainly, for raising a
subscription to enrich the modest Mr. Sutton, or whoever he may

me en

FINE ARTS. 147

happen to be, for the race is numerous enough. As to the Varieties,
our opinion of them it is unnecessary to deliver, for Mr. Sutton, in
his preface, has given them condemnation sufficient, and has stated
pretty plainly that, though but poor things intrinsically, they have
served their purpose to him. We heartily congratulate him, and
hope his subscribers are equally satisfied. We fancy they will have
had enough of “ good feeling” for some time to come.

The Sacred Musical Amulet ; a Selection of Melodies from the
works of J. S. Bach, Beethoven, Cherubini, Gluck, &c., to which
are added several new compositions. By C. McHorkell. Lon-
don: R. Cocks & Co., 20, Princes-street, Hanover-square. 1837,

In a work which one sees, at the first glance, is intended for the
Sabbath evening recreation of the “serious young lady,” we ex-
pected certainly to find in abundance adaptations (as they are ironi-
cally called) of opera airs, fragments of the slow movements of sym-
phonies, and disjointed excerpts from the masses of foreign com-
posers, to verses (poetry we dare not call it) of sickly religious
sentiment, or displays of unredeemed bad taste. All this we expect-
ed, and we have found it. But there is one piece of music the dis-
covery of which in such a collection has delighted us in proportion to
its unexpectedness ; we mean the song by Sebastian Bach, by the
greatest chance in the world (as we cannot but think) standing en-
tire and unmangled, in all its native loveliness. Such a piece atunes
for many a fault in the rest of the work. Mr. Gauntlett’s song is
pretty, and with a few alterations might almost be faultless. We
will mention one: if the melody in the fifth bar from the end were
B? and C leading up to D, instead of G, the passage would be grace-
ful and original, instead of being, as it now is, bald and abrupt.
The “ vision of dry bones” might have been dispensed with, words
and all; if any one can sing it through, preserving his gravity, it is
a wonder. We have nothing to say against the outer integuments
and getting-up of the work, and only wish that the internal struc-
ture were equally excellent.

Preludes and Fugue in A Major, for the Organ, with a part for
the Pedal Obligato. By Egerton Webbe. London: J. A. No-
vello, 69, Dean-street, Soho.

Mr. Wessze comes out in his first work a learned and experi-
enced musician. He has not inflicted on the public the first crude
essays of his genius, but has studied and practised in private, striv-
ing to merit a fame lasting beyond the present hour. If he do not
obtain it he alone will be to blame ; for his present work, if it do
not deserve to live, shows at least that by patient and persevering
cultivation of his genius he may undoubtedly succeed in producing
others which may. What is most wanted in this composition, par.

148 MISCELLANEOUS: COMMUNICATIONS.

ticularly in the fugue, is the art of concealing art, a certain appear-
ance of facility, which, combined with depth of thought, is itself
the highest result and aim of study. We hope Mr. Webbe will
zealously pursue the course he has so successfully entered upon, and
never rest satisfied, whatever excellence he may attain.

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS.

THe Facutry oF Locatiry 1x Piezons.—A Liege journal gives a re-
markable instance of the activity of the organ of Locality in the Pigeon. A
Pigeon-fancier of Verviers went to Turin in 1832, taking with him a number
of these birds, which he let loose. A short time ago one of these winged
messengers returned safely to Verviers after five years absence. Whether
the return of this single bird to its old habitation was mere chance or not, is
a matter of doubt ; but be this as it may, the /aculty which enables the pos-
sessor to remember places is unquestionably strong in the Pigeon, and espe-
cially in the Carrier Pigeon.—Ep.

Destruction oF Insecrs.—At the last meeting of the Horticultural So-
ciety, a communication was read from Mr. Ingram, of Southampton, on a
simple and efficacious method of destroying the Red Spider, Green Fly
Thrip, Scale, and other insects obnoxious to vegetation, without any injury
to the plant. It consisted merely in placing the plants within a frame firm-
ly closed, and putting between the pots Laurel leaves well bruised. After
remaining in this state for about an hour it will be found that all the two
former insects are destroyed, and the plants must then be removed to a warm
place; but an exposure tothe vapour of the leaves for about eight hours is
found necessary for the removal ofthe Thrip and Scale. For a house 20 feet
by 12, two bushels of leaves are sufficient, which may be bruised inside; the
roof and sides are to be kept close with matting, and the night time is consi-
dered best for the purpose. The effects are to be attributed to the hydro-
cyanic [or prussic.—Ep.] acid evolved from the leaves, which agrees with a
recommendation made by Mr. Waterhouse, at a late meeting of the Entomo-
logical Society, for the destruction of insects in the canvass of pictures or
wood of the frames (see The Naturalist, vol. ii., p. 92), and in old books, &e.,
similar to the plan he employs in destroying insects in specimens of Natural
History. It consists in introducing a few drops of prussic acid into a box
closed as tight as possible, and placing therein the infested article, when the
destruction of insects will be very quick, as will be seen by their falling to
the bottom of the box, which has sometimes been quite covered with them,
although a small quantity only of the acid has been employed.—_Communicated
by Cuartes Liverroot, M.D., Plymouth, August 6, 1837.

Anrconauts.—The long-disputed question of whether the animal found in
the shell of the Argonauta be parasitical or not, seems as far from being set-
tled as ever, notwithstanding the observatons of Madame Power, and the
experiments of Captain Rang, of the Port of Algiers; the arguments on one

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS. 149

side being most ingeniously adopted by the contrary side in favour of their
reasons. All that appears certain is, that it swims backwards, like other ani-
mals of the same kind, and makes use of its two long palmated arms, with
which it envelopes the shell, as if holding it on. A report made to the Aca-
démie des Sciences of Paris, on the proceedings of Captain Rang, concludes
with a request to that gentleman to make the following observations, which
we extract for the sake of others who may be inclined to put them in prac-
tice :—Ist. To make the animal quit the shell, in the manner of Mr. Cranch’s
experiment, both in and out of the water, and especially in shallow places on
the sea shore; 2nd. To ascertain the sexes of the individuals provided with
shells, and whether they contain eggs; 3rd. Carefully to examine the posi-
tion of all the individuals in the shells, whether they are taken from the bot-
tom of the sea or from the surface, and see whether the position be alike in
both instances; 4th. To repeat Madame Power’s experiment, and ascertain
whether the separation made of the broken shell by the animal takes place
on the edge of the shell as well as elsewhere, and to note the duration of the
experiment ; 5th. To examine the nature of the piece of shell thus repro-
duced, with a magnifying glass and with chemical tests, and compare it with
the rest of the shell, examined in the same manner; 6th. To repeat the se-
cond experiment of Madame Power, if it be possible, and find out if (against
all analogy) the shell be not existing in the égg, whether it appears on the
animal a few days after birth, and to note all the circumstances of its appear-
ance and development.

Cuurcu Music.—It may safely be asserted that no nation can boast of so
many sterling composers for the organ as the English; and in order to sup-
port this assertion it will only be necessary to mention the names of Purcell,
Orlando Gibbons, Croft, Child, Boyce, &c. But, at the same time, in no
other civilized country is church music so shamefully neglected. It is true
that almost every parish church throughout the kingdom has a good organ;
but where is the advantage of this, when the choice of an organist and the
training of singers are almost, it may be said, left to chance? The organists
of many of our cathedrals are excellent musicians and performers, but the
singing is never what it ought to be, and the selection of music is anything
but satisfactory. Music is almost universally considered indispensable in
the service of the Church of England : why then limit it to the performance
of a few psalms, badly played and worse sung? ‘Ihe only mode of remov-
ing this stigma from our church, would be to increase the salary of the organ-
ist very considerably, and at the same time to require him to organize the
choir on week days, so as to be able to sing anthems, &c., in such a manner
that competent musicians might be able to attend divine service without
offence to their ears. That this would be a means of improving the taste of
the English, both musical and general, cannot, we think, admit of dispute.——
Ep.

Purenotocy.—At Vienna, in 1796, Dr. Gall for the first time delivered
lectures on his system. Thus, although nearly 6,000 years have elapsed
since the creation of man, the most important discovery ever made has been
known only within the last forty years. Gall will ever be regarded as the
greatest benefactor of his species. What Galileo has achieved for Astrono-
my, Harvey for Anatomy, Hahnemann for Medicine, that has Gall achieved
for a subject which eclipses them all—for the Mind: and to use the words

150 MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS.

of Mr. Combe, “ in our applause he hears not the voice of a vain adulation,
but a feeble overture to the grand strain of admiration which a grateful pos-
terity will one day sound to his name.”—From a Lecture on Phrenology, de-
livered at the Campsall Society for the Acquisition of Knowledge, by Mr. C. T.
Wood, jun.

The advance which Phrenology has made within a few years, though gra-
dual, is most striking ; and the voice of him who speaks against the science
is listened to with surprise rather than, as before, that of its advocate. The
newspapers and other public journals, moreover, no longer raise their feeble
clamor to aid in its demolition. Probably, however, it is, even now, more to
the pecuniary advantage of a magazine, whether quarterly or monthly, to
ridicule than to support Phrenology: but the majority of these pursue the
wiser course of remaining altogether silent on the subject.—Ep.

Tue Name “Garpren THRUsH,” As APPLIED To TurDUs Musicus,
Auct.—In The Analyst, No. xviii., I find the name “‘ Garden Thrush” pro-
posed to be substituted for Song Thrush. I should have given the name
Garden Thrush to the Missel Thrush: at least its habits here would warrant
such an appellation. Iknew of five nests in gardens last year, and have al-
ready found one ina similar situation this year, snowy as it is.—THomas
Autis, York, 3rd Mo. 24, 1837, in The Naturalist (No. xi., for August), edited
by Neville Wood, Esg.—t[The Missel Thrush occasionally frequents gardens,
with the view of feeding on currants, gooseberries, &c.; but it generally
breeds in small plantations near houses, and is, on the whole, not much seen
in gardens; while, on the contrary, the species which we have named the
Garden Thrush seldom occurs out of them.—Ep.]

Tueory or Mustc.—It seems very odd that school-masters and music-
masters should have hit upon the most laborious and irksome method they
could posibly have devised for imparting to their pupils a knowledge of the
“ grammar” of language and music; namely, by separating the theory from
the practice. That a pupil might write grammatically, both as regards lan-
guage and music, without having been told any one of the rules composing
grammar, is very certain, though at present seldom acknowledged. Some
eminent musicians and music-masters are for discarding theory altogether,
whether studied abstractedly or otherwise. The plan, no doubt, is feasible ;
but if theory is to be retained, let it go hand in hand with practice, the two
being included in the same lesson, and much tedious and useless drudgery
will be spared, both on the part of master and scholar.—Eb. :

TETRACNEMUS DIVERSICORNIS, Westwood._—This insect is figured in
Charlesworth’s (alias Loudon’s ) Magazine of Natural History, vol. i., n. s., p-
258, with four branches to the antennz. When I first saw it, I thought it
was the same as my Ceraphron zamicornis, being very similar as far as anten-
nz go. But mine is more like Mr. Curtis’s figure of C. Halidayi, except that
it has only three branches to the antennze, and is scarcely more than half its
size. I took my specimen on a Birch at Knighton Heath, near Dorchester,
August 11, 1832; also Mr. Westwood’s 7. diversicornis on an Oak in Coombe
Wood, July 3, 1835.—J. C. Date, Glanville’s Wootton, Dorsetshire, May 30,
1837.

Musicat CatecuismMs.—Hamilton has published various musical cate-
chisms; amongst others one on the organ. We have a great horror of com-
pilations of this nature ; and the fact that a work of more value on the organ

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS. 151

would be suffered to rot on the bookseller’s shelf only proves the benighted
state of the English with regard to this noble instrument. We had proposed
skimming the pages of this little 18mo., but when we reached the passage
where the author observes that “newt to the swell in importance was the intro-
duction of pedals,” we shut the book, observing to ourselves that no real love
of the organ could have actuated the compiler to pen his little catch-penny.
—Ep.

Errercts or Prussic Aci on a Razsgrt.—At the conclusion of a lec-
ture delivered at Maidstone, by Dr. Robinson, on poisons, the effect of
prussic acid was tried upon a Rabbit. Three drops were administered from
a glass—the surface of which most probably abstracted half the quantity—
and the animal immediately exhibited the usual symptoms of rapidly ap-
proaching dissolution. In order to give it a chance of recovery, however, a
few drops of ammonia were administered, without apparent benefit. A con-
stant stream of cold water was then poured upon the base of the skull and
along the spine, when the animal very shortly exhibited signs of resuscita-
tion. It was then wrapped in warm flannel. In a quarter of an hour it was
sufficiently recovered to walk. Dr. Robinson mentioned that this mode of
treatment had been discovered by accident. A Cat, which had been annoy-
ing to the apprentices of a chemist, was poisoned by them with prussic acid.
By mere chance, however, it fell under a stream of cold water which was
pouring from a pump, the effect of which was its gradual resuscitation. Be-
nefiting by this hint, the same means have been applied to more than one
human subject who had taken prussic acid. No instance, however, had be-
fore come within Dr. Robinson’s knowledge where an animal had been re-
stored after the symptoms this Rabbit exhibited. The Rabbit is now in full
health and vigour.

OreanizED Beines.—The reports of the Academy of Sciences in France
have been filled by the voluminous papers of M. Isidore Geoffroy St.
Hilaire, M. Moquin Tandon, and M. de Serres. The first treats of the pos-
sibility of extending our knowledge of the natural history of man by the
study of domestic animals, which, according to the author, will, from its
strong affinity [analogy 2—Ep. An.] with the subject, elucidate many impor-
tant effects. The second concerns the formation of vegetables, proceeding
either from a centripetal or a centrifugal force. The third has for its subject
the development of the genus Rotellina. One and all are based upon the
system of M. Geoffroy St. Hilaire; that is, the unity of the creation, or the
existence of but one great type.—Atheneum.

Tue Basirisx.—This reptile is of a very harmless nature, though by
some means or other inheriting a most formidable name. The application
of the fabled names of antiquity, such as the Cockatrice, the Dragon, and the
Basilisk, to the realities of modern Natural History, is not only absurd, but
must, in some instances, be attended with bad consequences. Men read with
horror, in their boyish days, of the terrible powers of Dragons and the deadly
venom of Cockatrices and Basilisks; venom so deadly that it not only killed
all else upon which the terrible creatures looked, but if they happened to
meet the reflection of their own withering glances from a mirror or a pool of
water, they could not escape the death-stroke of their own looks. These ter-
rific qualities make a deep impression upon the youthful mind; and as the
name is the index to all the terrors, the repetition of it necessarily suggests

152 MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS.

them. Thus there must be a most curious conflict between memory and
present perception when the Dragon is found to be a creature that can hurt
nothing stronger than a Fly, or that the Basilisk is a harmless and pretty
little creature—for, although peculiar in shape, it is pretty—that lives upon
small vegetable seeds, and neither hurts nor is capable of hurting a single
living creature. The reality which addresses itself immediately to the senses
must, in the end, get the victory, how hard soever the impression on the me-
mory may plead. Thus the fable is discarded, and takes along with it all
which it in any way holds linked by association. The school and scholarship,
and all that is connected either with the one or the other, come in for their
share of the doubt, disbelief, and derision ; and that which, but for the disco-
very, would have continued to afford excitement, and therefore pleasure,
becomes the foundation of self-humiliation and reproach. Either, therefore,
the fable should be given up, or the name which turns it into a mockery
should cease to be used. The fable has its use in attracting the mind at an
age at which it could not be attracted by reality. Boyhood, when the hopes
are full of the joys of years unborn, is a time of romance, and all the utilita-
rians that ever lectured will never make it otherwise. And it is well for us
that they cannot; for the reality of life is the painful portion of it, and the
romance the pleasurable. Not only so, but that which the utilitarians call
the reality is the sensual, the animal, the material part of life; and the ro-
mance is the mental or intellectual part. Ifthe former is made the sole ob-
ject of consideration, then the result is misery in this life and no hope here-
after. There is consequently an immediate and utter extinction of all that
is pleasant in life, of all that is endearing in society ; because there remains
no value but money value, and “ Thy money perish with thee” is the denuncia-
tion which takes effect both here and hereafter.

We are not pleading for fables, or attempting to recommend that which is
not true at the expense of the truth. But in “the youth of life” it is vain
to refer to that which in after life is called “ utility,” as the only or the chief
incentive to study. You cannot, at every step of a boy’s education, draw
his attention to his book, or his other study, by the allurement of the “ price
that it will bring him in ;” and if you could, what a mean and sordid crea-
ture, nay, what an immoral and dishonest creature, you would make of him !
If we labour to impress upon the young mind the idea that there is no value
but in possessions, and no reward but in pecuniary payment, we absolutely,
in express terms, teach fraud and theft, destroy all the better feelings of the
mind, and make man no better than a beast. We take the very worst view
of the worst conduct of human beings as the foundation of character; and
then we need not wonder that our pupil ripens into crime: and as the law is
not abolished, the feeling which we thus inculcate, that law and justice are
evils, because restraints upon utility, renders him obnoxious to punishment.
Little romantic extravagancies appear to be as necessary for young minds as
they are for young nations, among which they have ever been found; and
though they are only “play” in after-life, both with the one and the other,
yet the period when they cease altogether is the dotage of senility—the sad
condition from which earthly hope has for ever departed. It is, therefore,
always to be regretted when the reality spoils a fable which gives pleasure:
and the instructor who preaches truth in this wise is exactly the counterpart
of him who should go about to make a man zealous and enterprising in his

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business by disclosing to him at the outset all the failures, impositions,
frauds, and misfortunes, to which he should be subjected in the course of it-
Applying the fabulous names of the ancients to the real productions of Na-
ture is but one form of this mode of making knowledge the destroyer of hap-
piness, but it is one which brings no good to compensate the evil. It de-
stroys the marvel ot the boy, but enough of that marvel remains to turn into
ridicule and contempt the knowledge of the man. The withering power
which the eyes of the fabled Basilisk were endowed with gives point to
some of the choicest passages in poetry; and to persons of fine feelings
these passages give more abundant and exquisite pleasure than they
could purchase in “the market,” even if they had the wealth of the
Indies to lay out in the purchase of it. Now if, along with these pas-
sages, there comes always the conviction that the said Basilisk is equally
frail and harmless as a Butterfly among the flowers, there remains no more
pleasure—derision, contempt, is the natural feeling. It is of no use to plead
that it isa different Basilisk altogether, for there is identity in the name;
and if the fabled name has been bestowed upon a reality which has not the
attributes of the fable, then the bestower of that name has been guilty of a
falsehood. Any one who wishes to judge how much of poetic enjoyment
may and must be destroyed by this misappropriation of names that had their
meaning before, may turn to the second scene of Richard the Third, and
read on to this line, spoken by Lady Anne :—

“Would they were Basilisks, to strike thee dead !”
Substitute the word “ Butterflies” for ‘‘ Basilisks ;” read the line thus :—

“Would they were Butterflies, to strike thee dead !"

and feel the power of the scene if you can. Yet the Butterfly of Natural
History is quite as likely to strike one dead as the Natural History Basi-
lisk ; and thus, while the application of the fabled name destroys the force of
the fable, the memory of the fable turns the real animal into ridicule. The
application of sounding names where there is no analogy to warrant their
use, has done much mischief in all the departments of Natural History, and
also in all the other subjects from which these names are taken.

The Basilisk of antiquity (and it was gravely described by Pliny and Galen
among the ancients, and has been so by Lobo, Prosper Alpini, and Aldro-
vandi, among the moderns) was a terrible creature. Among the pools and
lakes of that land of marvels which gave source to the mighty flood of the
Nile, it reigned in terrible majesty ; but it reigned in desolation. Its name
was derived from the Greek word fasirZouer, “to reign.” It had eight feet,
two large scales for wings, was of a golden yellow, and its head

“ The likeness of a kingly crown had on.”

The taint which it communicated to the air was more deadly than that fabled
of the Upas-tree, and believed by naturalists; for no animal could breathe
the same air and live, and its glance was instant death, even to the Lion
himself. Nature could not, of course, form such a creature in the ordinary

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154 MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS.

way, but, like the Cockatrice—the dread of which has perhaps not altogether
ceased in this country—it was hatched by a serpent out of the egg of a Cock!
Though adopted by very sage and learned naturalists in the plenitude of their
credulity, and continued by their copyists, the Basilisk of the ancients was
purely a poetical creation, the emblem of regal tyranny, in short; and its
origin was made unnatural, and the scene of its dominion laid in the desert,
because to have spoken more plainly at home might not have been altogether
safe. It does not follow, however, that the ancient poet who imagined the
fable believed in the material existence of the Basilisk any more than Milton
did in that of his personifications of Sin and Death, or Shakspeare in those
ghosts which he conjured up with such matchless skill, and upon which the
poetic beauty and the moral grandeur of some of his best passages are made
so much to depend. We have deemed it advisable to notice, in this striking
instance of it, the prostitution of poetic or allegorical names to the subjects
in Natural History.—Partineton’s Natural History.

Tuer Baneer.—This is a very quiet and inoffensive animal, more so, per-
haps, than any other quadruped of the same size, for it hurts neither animal
nor plant, at least in those species in which man takes an interest, or upon
which he sets a value. Its food is understood to be fruits, roots, and grass,
and also insects and other small animals, though not any thing larger than a
lizard or afrog. It is not capable of climbing, and thus it can injure nothing
which grows or perches upon trees, bushes, or tall stems; and as it usually
keeps its burrow during the day, the live part of its food must consist only of
those creatures which come out to feed during the night, many of the mollus-
ca, and other small animals having that habit. It is thus very probable that
Badgers are of service as scavengers in those places which lie near their bur-
rows, by destroying animals which, but for them, would, in the natural state
of those rude places, become noxious from their numbers, and destructive
from their havoc upon vegetation. In some parts of the country, the Badg-
ers have been most unfairly accused of invading the mansions of the dead for
the purpose of gratifying their appetite. Their facility in burrowing and
their offensive odour may both contribute to strengthen such a prejudice on
the part of the ignorant. But it is nevertheless totally without foundation.
Badgers burrow not for the purpose of eating, but that they may have warm
and safe berths, which they render comfortable by bedding them with soft
grass ; and they would not eat the contents of graves, even if offered to them
without any trouble on their part. The writer of this article remembers,
when a boy,-being present at the extirpation of a small colony of Badgers,
which stood accused, by current report, of this species of profanation. The
surface of an upland, but rather rich district, was finely diversified by swell-
_ ing knolls along the north bank of a winding rivulet ; and as the rivulet had,

according to the custom of rivulets, “taken from the height and given to the
hollow,” there were steep and tangled banks at different places, open to the
south-west, which was the descent side of the country ; was snug and warm,
and as well adapted for both birds and Badgers, as thickets of fragrant Broom
upon sloping banks could be. The name of the Badgers operated in some
sort as a protection to the birds, as the boys seemed afraid to venture far into
the brake in their nesting excursions, lest they should slip a leg into a Badg-
er’s hole, and be drawn out minus a toe or evena foot. So Linnets, and
Blackcaps, and Whitethroats reared their broods, and sung “ round” in high

Sse oo

Sas Pee

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS. 155

glee, protected by the mighty name of the Badger.—One of these tangled

banks was immediately below an ancient place of sepulture, where, previous-
ly to the Reformation, there had been a little chapel. This place was still
the burial-ground for the barony; and it was a place not altogether free from
the suspicion of things unearthly. There was a large equisetum-tufted pool,
between the knoll of which the cemetry occupied the summit and the higher
grounds above; and égnes fatui sometimes sported on its margins, under the
suspicious name of “elfin candles.” Besides, immediately under the south-
west angle of the little enclosure, there flowed a fountain of pure and spark-
ling water, so abundant that it would have sufficed permanently to turn a
mill. This fountain abated not a jot of its quantity and altered not a degree
of its temperature, summer or winter, wet or dry ; and while all around was
coated with snow to the depth of two or three feet, this fountain not only
remained “clear in the eye,” but the stream from it flowed smoking along
an open channel, proof alike against the powdering snow and the curdling
frost. The springs of these things, fountain and all, lay deeper than the rus-
tic philosophy, and thus, as the general custom is, they were sent to the
limbo of superstition, and all who dwelt immediately thereabout along with
them. The sod upon some graves, one summer, sunk deeper than had ever
been known to proceed from the mere insatiate yawning of that “ daughter
of the Horse-leech” for the relatives of the occupant; and the suspicion of
foul play—to the brim of horror’s deep chalice—fell upon the Badgers. The
“landwehr” were summoned ; and they came girt with fierceness or with
fear, and armed with spades, mattocks, and pitchforks, to take by sap and
mine the stronghold of the grey-pates, and let the light of heaven shine upon
the den of their secret abominations. One party plied the work with mattock
and spade, while another stood with their arms prepared in case the besieged
should make a hostile sortie, or attempt escape ; and to guard against the lat-
ter some dozen of curs had been brought as auxiliaries—At length they
came to a little chamber, in which there was a small quantity of withered
grass, but not a single vestige of bone or other animal remains. Again
they worked away ; and soon the male Badger made his appearance and his
escape, the opening ranks on either side greatly contributing to speed the
latter, and one man declared, with “ecce signum” display, that the monster
had “ dinted his steel spade with only a passing snap.” Two or three griev-
ous whines from the curs gave proof that the Badger could ‘‘dint” some-
thing else, and soon a most triumphant flourish of yelping announced that
he was fairly in the next cover and the danger over.—It was now resolved to
change the mode of attack, and proceed by fire and smoke. When these
were continued till all within must be either roasted or suttocated, they be-

gan to dig anew, and after passing another chamber which contained only

grass as before, they came to a third, containing the bodies of a suffocated fe-

male and three cubs, the latter very small in size, and two of them clinging

to the teats of their mother. These bodies were not treated with that de-

corum which became a generous foe in the hour of victory. It was found

that the excavation reached no farther than the entrance and the three

chambers, so that the Badgers could have had no subterraneous communica-

tion with the graves, which rendered the sunken appearance more a matter

of alarm than ever. Throughout the whole burrow, there was not the small- ,
est vestige of any animal remains—nothing but “ beddings” of grass, rather

156 MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS.

more abundant in the chamber where the family was than in any of the
others. The result of the search did not, however, remove all stigma from
the character of the Badgers. The story is mentioned as one instance of the
means by which the characters of animals come to be misrepresented. ‘They
have one or two traits of appearance or habit which do not suit the popular
taste, and by means of loose analogies, often drawn from subjects of a totally
different character, others are added, till the truth is completely buried
under a mass of exaggeration.—Parting!/on’s Natural History.

Austrian Music anp Dancrne.—The darling passion of the Austrian
Mountainers, is for music and the dance. They appear born with a taste for
music. A violin or guitar is a part of the furniture of every cottage, and not
unfrequently a piano—each valley has its own peculiar airs, full of sweet-
ness and melody. They are similar to those which the Tyrolese Minstrels
made so popular in England a few years ago, and which are nothing more than
the ordinary songs of the shepherds and dairy-maids on the mountains. They
carol forth these lays with a peculiar intonation of the voice within the
throat, making the echoes ring with their wild notes. The talent of impro-
vising is not uncommon among the peasants of Tyrol and Styria; but it may
be supposed their verses have little claim to polish or harmony. They ge-
nerally assume the form of a dialogue ; the verses of one being taken up and
answered by another: they are mostly satirical, and the chief merits of the
composer seem to consist in a quickness of repartee; one party striving by
jests to render the other ridiculous. Sometimes the verses assume the more
tender shape of a lover’s address to his mistress, and his eloquence and skill
are exerted in attempting to soften her heart—her wit being directed to re-
pel his ardour and to Jaugh at his passion. In some parts of Tyrol, the pea-
sants compose entire plays, of which they themselves are the actors. The
subjects are usually taken from the well-known legend of a saint, or from
some incident in Holy Writ; and, in this respect, they are not unlike the
ancient ** Miracles and Mysteries”—the first theatrical performances known
in England. Their pretensions to plot and elegant versification are very
humble. The performers, in some instances, are girls, who represent both
the male and female characters. It is in the villages around Inspruck that
these plays are most in fashion. The visitor will be amused there by sucha
homely effort of the tragic muse.

No fete-day, holiday, or marriage passes off without a rustic ball. Such
entertainments afford the traveller insight into the manners and customs of
the people, and an opportunity of cbserving the varieties of costume and
amusement : those, however, who have formed their notion of a Tyrolese
dance from a ballet at the Opera, will be much disappointed. They will
find the dancers assembled in the close low room of an inn, so thronged that
it would appear impossible to move, much less to dance, among the crowd :
yet no sooner does the music strike up than the whole is in a whirl. No jos-
tling or confusion occurs, and the time of the waltz is kept with most unerr-
ing precision. Instead of the elegant costume of the theatre—short petti-
coats and flying ribands—they will find the lasses decked out in pointed hats
or round fur or woollen caps, or in handkerchiefs tied under their chin, and
with waists reaching up near to their necks. The men often wear Hessian
boots, which they strike together with great clatter by way of beating time,
every now and then uttering a shrill cry and leaping round in the air exactly

i a a

;
;
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;
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in the manner of the Highland Fling. The enthusiasm, almost approaching
to frenzy, with which the dance is kept up, in spite of the heat and crowd,
from noon till night, is truly surprising. The partners often sieze each other
by the shoulders, in an attitude not unlike hugging. They do not always
follow the same monotonous revolution; but at one time the man steps
round his partner ; at another, lifting her arm high in the air, he twirls her
round on her heel with a rapidity that makes her appear to spin, and then
quickly re-uniting they resume their circular evolutions with an agility and
perseverance truly marvellous.—Guide to Southern Germany.

AupinE PasturacE.—From the elevation of a great part of its surface
above the level at which corn grows, the Tyrol is necessarily a pastoral
country. The wealth of its inhabitants lies in cattle, which furnish milk and
cheese, their principal food. Scanty crops of Buckwheat, Rye, and Oats are
cultivated as high as the climate will allow in the secondary valleys; but in
consequence of the vicissitudes of temperature, the crop, when cut, is not al-
lowed to remain on the ground: it is either conveyed at once under roof, or,
if made into sheaves, it is stuck upon light wooden staves with branching
arms, the uppermost sheaf being spread as a roof over those below it. A line
of these stakes looks, at a distance, like an army of giants. ‘The natural mea-
dows which clothe the mountain sides furnish, even up to the verge of per-
petual snows, a short thin herbage of the most nutritious kind, very palatable
to the cattle. Inthe early spring, when the Cows are first driven out of the
stalls in which they have passed the winter, they are confined to the lower
part of the valley : but as fast as the lower meadows are exhausted and the
snow disappears from the higher pastures under the influence of the summer
sun, the cattle are driven upwards. The meadows producing the thickest
grass are set apart for a hay crop; and, when cut, this is hung to dry on racks
consisting of horizontal poles, supported between two upright posts, and
covered with a narrow roof to turn aside the rain. It is then stored in iso-
lated barns or challets, and is dealt out as wanted with the strictest economy.
In order to save it as much as possible, the cattle are sometimes fed on stalks
of maize sprinkled with salt, or upon the leaves of the ash, which are strip-
ped from the tree for this purpose. The real life of the cowherd of the Alps
differs widely from the beau-ideal of poetry and romance. For six or eight
months he is banished from the haunts of men, above the clouds, occupying
a wretched challet, perhaps half-buried in the ground to prevent its being
carried away by avalanches. He must be constantly on the alert to prevent
his charge from straggling or falling over precipices, and he must be prepar-
ed to protect them from the bear and the wolf. After such arduous labours
and anxious care, it can easily be understood that the day on which the cat-
tle return home from the Alps is a day of rejoicing both to the master and
cowherd, provided the supply of butter and cheese be large, the herd healthy,
and no casualties have diminished its numbers. Their return usually takes
place about Michaelmas, or St. Matthew’s day.—Wreaths of flowers, ribands,
and bells are sent up the mountains before hand to decorate the animals,
which make their entry marshalled in regular procession. At their head
marches the pride of the herd (the most distinguished for size and beauty),
who has invariably proved his right to precedence by combats with the rest,
which the herdsman rather promotes than checks, knowing that they will
conduce to future tranquillity as soon as the matter is once settled. The

158 MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS.

victor is entitled to wear the largest wreath and bear the most sonorous bell
attached to his neck by an ornamented belt. He shows by his steady gait
that he is fully aware of the dignity. From time to time he gazes round to
observe that none break the rank; and should some heedless bull-calf ven-
ture to press forward out of his place, he is speedily reminded of his proper
position by a poke in the side from the horns of the indignant leader. The
rest of the herd are provided, according to their pretensions, with trappings
and bells ; and the din and uproar which prevail in a town, caused by a clat-
ter of metal intermingled with the shouts of herdsmen and the lowing cattle,
when the herds of different proprietors enter at the same time, produce a
scene not unlike one of those unmusical concerts which the French call a
Charivari. Such tinklings are anything but drowsy. Behind the cattle walks
the herdsman, or senner, decked out in his best, with a bunch of gay flowers
and a sprig of rosemary in his hat. He drags after him a thick thong of lea-
ther, fifteen or twenty feet long, which ever and anon, by a strong exertion
of muscular force, he wields above his head and cracks like a whip, but with
a report as loud as a pistol, much to the edification of the spectators and to
the terror of all stragglers and loiterers inthe herd. The farmer, or propri-
etor, brings up the rear, riding in a neat small cart laden with rich butter
and cheese.—Idem.

Pass or THE StELvi0.—This very remarkable road, the highest in Eu-
rope practicable for carriages, being 2,300 feet, or nearly half a mile, perpen-
dicular above the Simplon, and 1,000 feet above the Great St. Bernard, was
constructed by the Austrian Government in order to open an additional line

of communication from Inspruck to Milan, between Vienna and the centre of

Lombardy, It was completed in 1824. Whether we consider the boldness
of the design, the difficulties of its execution from the great height and ex-
posure to storms and avalanches, or the grandure of the scenery through
which it passes, the rout of the Stelvio is the most extraordinary in Europe.
The galleries cut for miles through the solid rock, along the margin of the
lake of Como; those higher up built of massive masonry strong enough to
resist the fall of avilandhctte 3 the long causeways carried over morasses; the
bridges thrown across torrents; the long succession of zig-zag terraces carried
up with so gradual a slope that an English mail-coach might trot up on one
side, and scarce require to lock a wheel on the other, which nevertheless scale
and surmount one of the highest ridges in the Alps; these are works which,
without exaggeration, deserve to be called stupendous. But the works and
agencies of Nature with which they come in contrast reduce them to compa-
rative insignificance. This road, upon which so much labour and treasure
has been expended, is seldom passable for more than four months in the
year, from June to October. Every spring, when the snow disappears, the
ravages of the winter’s storm and avalanche are disclosed to view; wooden
galleries broken through, large tracts of the road swept away, others over-
whelmed with rubbish and fragments of rock. These injuries, annually oc-
curring, are to be repaired only at the vast expense of 11,000 florins a-year,
and after a lapse of considerable time. From June to the beginning of Oc-
tober, the passage is generally secure from all risk, except immediately after
a fall of snow. Under such circumstances it is prudent to wait twenty-four
hours. The most interesting scenes on the rout are the shores of the Como
Jake and its excavated galleries, the gorge of Spondalunga, the splendid view

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS. 159

of the range of the Orteler Spits with its snowy glaciers seen from the highest
point of the pass, and the glaciers ou the Tyrolese side which the traveller,
rolling along in his carriage, first looks down upon, and approaches near
enough to throw a stone upon them—a prospect which no other Alpine car-
riage-road presents in any other part of the world.—Idem.

ALPINE Forests.—The magnitude and number cf the Tyrolese and Sty-
rian forests forms one of the distinguishing features of those countries, when
compared with Switzerland. They cover the middle regions of the Alps, and
encroach more than the latter upon the verge of the cultivated fields, which
occupy the lower part of the valleys. The character of the forests of the
Austrian Alps has been drawn by the masterly pen of the author of Vathek.
“ There seemed no end to these forests, except where little irregular spots of
herbage, grazed by cattle, intervened. Whenever we gained an eminence it
was only to discover more ranges of dark wood, variegated with meadows and
glittering streams. White Clover and a profusion of sweet-scented flowers
clothe their banks; above waves the Mountain Ash, glowing with scarlet
berries ; beyond rise hills, and rocks, and mountains, piled upon one another,
and fringed with Fir to their topmost acclivities. Perhaps the Norwegian
forests alone equal these in grandeur and extent. Those which cover the
Swiss Highlands rarely convey such vast ideas. There the woods climb only
half-way up their ascents, which then are circumscribed by snows; here no
boundaries are set to their progress, and from their bases to their summits
the mountains display rich unbroken masses of vegetation.” At first it
might appear that these vast store-houses of timber, from their extreme re.
moteness and the difficulty of access, would hardly be of any value to man,
and that the trees would be allowed to ripen and rot, undisturbed by the axe,
on the spot where Nature sowed them. This is by no means the case.
There are many remote districts of the Austrian Alps where timber is the
sole produce, where the people draw their subsistence entirely from the fo-
rests ; and human ingenuity has contrived means by which the stately stem
of the Tyrolese Larch, which has grown to maturity close to the glaciers of
the Orteler Spitz, is transported to the arsenal of Venice or the port of
Trieste, while that which has flourished near the fountain-head of the Salza,
may be found, in the course of a few months from the time when it has quit-
ted its native forests, serving as a mast to some vessel of war or merchandise
on the Black Sea. There can be no difficulty in the transport of timber
growing on the borders of a navigable river; but it is a different thing when
it grows at the distance of many miles from any stream capable of floating a
log, or where the streams flow in a direction opposite to that in which the
wood is to be carried. The first of these obstacles is overcome by means of
slides (called riesen), which are semicircular troughs formed of six or eight
Fir-trees placed side by side, and smoothed by stripping off the bark, and ex-
tending sometimes a length of many miles. They are constructed so as to
preserve a gradual descent, are not always straight, but made to curve round
the shoulders of the mountains, being carried in tunnels through projecting
rocks, or conducted over ravines and depressions on the tops of tall stems like
the piers of a bridge, until they terminate on the borders of some stream ca-
pable of carrying them onwards. The great slide of Alpnach was construct-
ed in the same manner; it was, however, a first attempt, and did not suc-
ceed. ‘The Austrian forests are every where traversed by these contrivances,

160 MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS.

which form, in fact, the inclined plane of a rude railroad for the timber. Let
the traveller take heed in passing these slides after snow or rain has fallen.
The wood-cutter waits for such favourable opportunities, when the ground
is slippery, and the rivers are high, to launch forth the timber which has
been cut many weeks before. The logs descend with the rapidity of an ar-
row, and it would be certain destruction to encounter one in its course; so
great is the force they acquire in their descent, that if by chance a log strikes
against any impediment in the sides of the slide, it is tossed out by the shock,
and either snapped in two like wax, or shivered to splinters. The streams
which traverse a forest-district are often so shallow, and so much impeded by
rocks, that even after rain they would be insufficient to carry the wood. In
such cases a strong dam is built across the stream, at a point where its chan-
nel is narrowest, usually at the mouth of a gorge; and the waters are pent
up by sluice-gates until they have risen so as to form an artificial lake. In
this sheet of water the logs are collected from the surrounding forests. At
a given signal the sluice-gates are opened, and the pent up waters force their
way down the valley, bearing along the wood with which they are freighted,
until they reach a larger stream capable of floating it without artificial aid.
A few only of the finest trunks are formed into rafts, aud transported down
the Danube into the Black Sea, or into the Adriatic, for ship-building. The
greater part of the wood is consumed in the country where it grows for fuel,
for supplying the salt-pans and mines, or it is converted into charcoal for the
smelting and forging of iron. But it constantly happens that a ridge of high
mountains intervenes between the forests and the salt-works and furnaces 5
and that:the timber grows on the opposite side of the hills, where the stream
flows in a contrary direction to the point where it is wanted. Under such
circumstances the trees, instead of being thrown down from the height, must
be carried up the ascent, which is, of course, much more difficult. The
transport is then effected by means of a vast inclined plane, extending from
the bottom of the valley to the summit of the nearest cliff or height over-
hanging it. A number of waggons are constructed to run up and down it,

in a sort of rail-road. "When loaded they are attached by ropes to a species .

of windlass communicating with a water-wheel, which is put in motion by
turning on it the stream of a mountain torrent. By this means they are
raised to the top of a precipice many hundred feet high, and are then trans-
ported down the opposite side in the usual manner. The business of the
woodman affords occupation for a great number of persons. They set out
early in spring in gangs, and repair to the spot where the wood is most abun-
dant and of the finest growth; they build themselves rude huts of logs and
branches, and begin lustily to ply the axe. The trees are then sorted into
stems fit for masts or ship-building, which is merely lopped, and into wood fit
for fuel, which is cut into logs, split, and dried; the whole is then heaped up
in vast stacks. As soon as the winter has fairly set in, and the snow has

fallen deep, so as to fill up the hollows in the mountains, the wood-cutter -

puts the cramp-irons upon his feet, and, either by the aid of oxen or upon a
hand-sledge, conveys the wood to the borders of some neighbouring precipice,
or to the side of one of the slides above mentioned. The snow is partially
removed from the trough of the slides, and a few logs are thrown down to
smooth it and make the passage clear. Water is also poured down it, which
speedily freezes and covers it with a sheet of ice. This serves to diminish

ee ee ee ee

A

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS. 161

greatly the friction and assists the rapidity of the wood’s descent. The logs
are then discharged, and descend with the quickness of lightning into the
depth below, passing in a few minutes over a distance of several miles. The
effect of such a discharge is much heightened when the slide terminates on
the brow of a precipice overlooking a lake. The mountains around re-echo
with a report like that of thunder: vast trees, hurled forth with the ease of
a bundle of sticks, clear half the width of the lake in their leap; and, de-
scending with a splash into its waters, ruffle the surface far and wide, and
strew it, as it were, with the fragments of a wreck. The duties of a wood-
man do not end when he has thus discharged the wood ; many logs and stems
are arrested in their progress by some projecting mass of rock or tuft of
bushes, and may be seen adhering to the sides of the ravine or precipice,
looking, at a distance, like straws scattered over the hill-side. The woodman
must disengage these, and see them fairly and prosperously on their way.
At times, where the timber falls from a great height, the hardy woodman is let
down by a cord, axe in hand, in the face of a precipice or cataract, to clear
away all obstructions. In like manner he must push off and set afloat the
timber which runs aground, or is stranded in the bed of the river. For
the purpose of collecting the swimming wood, a species of barrier or grating
of wood is erected across the rivers, at the entrance of the great valleys, or
in the neighbourhood of the salt-pans and charcoal furnaces. It is here ar-
rested and sorted, according to its quality, by the persons to whom it belongs.
Different proprietors distinguish the wood belonging to each of them by cut-
ting the logs of a particular length, so that, even when several owners dis-
charge their timber into the river at the same time, it is easily sorted and ap-
propriated. A tax of a certain sum upon every stack of wood, is paid for the
use of the river and the services of the woodmen. In some of the remote
forests trees of huge dimensions may be met with, giants of the vegetable
creation. A Larch which stood near Matsch, in the Vintsehgan, was called
“The King of the Larches,” since seven men could scarcely surround its
trunk with outstretched arms. A Fir (Pinus picea) growing on the Mar-
tinsberg, in the forest-district of Zerl, measured five feet in diameter at nine
feet from the ground, and at a height of between ninety and ninety-five feet
from the ground still retained a diameter of between eight and nine inches.
The species of Fir called by naturalists Pinus cembra, which grows only on
the limits of vegetation on the borders of glaciers and everlasting snow, is
much prized in the Tyrol, as well as in Switzerland, for the facility with
which it is cut in figures, bowls, spoons, and other utensils and toys. It is
out of this wood that the inhabitants of the Grodnerthal carve the crucifixes
which are so abundantly dispersed in the Tyrol, and the pretty toys of
Berchtesgaden are made of the same material.—Jdem.

Tue Cryprocamous Prants.—Mr. W. A. Leighton, of Shrewsbury,
has published a “ Catalogue of the Cellulares, or Flowerless Plants of Great
Britain, or those included in the Linnean Class, Cryptogamia; compiled from
Sir W. J. Hooker’s English Flora, Sir J. E. Smith’s English Flora, Mackay’s
Flora Hibernica, Henslow’s Catalogue of British Plants, and other sources.”
Mr. L. is of opinion that the increased and increasing study of the crypto-
gamic tribes affords a sufficient apology for the publication of a Catalogue
which has for its sole object the facilitating an interchange of specimens, as
well as to form a convenient index to those already in the herbarium ; and,

VOL. VII., NO. XXI. x

162 MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS.

if this is interleaved, as it always ought, to be a register of the localities
where the rarer species are to be found. His arrangement, as modified from
those of the best modern British botanists, is explained in a prefatory notice.
He adds the authority for each species and variety; and for those varieties
which have not hitherto received an acknowledged name, he has framed one
as far as possible characteristic of their peculiarities, to which is appended the
name of the author who considers the plant as a variety, with a distinguishing
mark prefixed. This Catalogue of Mr. Leighton’s displays evidences of
being constructed with extraordinary attention to accuracy and usefulness;
and although his entire list of cryptogamous vegetables does not extend be-
yond thirteen pages, it constitutes an admirable approximation to perfection
in the accomplishment of its objects.

GeroLocicaL Excurston.—Professor Phillips, accompanied by several
members of the Philosophical Institution of Birmingham, with some other
friends, lately made a geological excursion along the new line of canal to the
Lime caverns at Dudley. The Basaltic columns at Rowley, the Wren’s
Nest, and the Lime caverns were the principal objects of attention in the
day’s excursion, and the Professor communicated the following observations
on the Geology of this interesting district:—Rowley Hills. The party visit-
ed a characteristic point of this undulated range of Basaltic rocks above the
Brades, where a considerable exposure of columnar rocks has been made for
the purpose of obtaining materials for mending the roads. These columns
are jointed across, and the interest of the locality is augmented by the influ-
ence of atmospheric decomposition on the surface of the stone. Professor
Phillips took occasion to notice, with regard to the structure of Pyrogenous
rocks in general, and Basaltic rocks in particular, “that the directions of the
columns or prisms was almost invariably rectangular to the surfaces within
which the rock was confined and by which its rate of cooling was influenced.
If these surfaces are horizontal, the prisms are vertical; if vertical, the
prisms lie horizontally.” The jointed structure of the prisms he referred to
that tendency observed by Mr. Gregory Watt in fused igneous masses to
solidify round centres into globular concretions ; and he pointed out the ex-
treme resemblance which these jointed rocks offer (when, under the influence
of atmospheric decomposition, the angular joints become flattened spheroids)
to the celebrated Kasekeller, which he has examined near Bertrich, in the
Eyfel—so called from the resemblance of these pillars, composed of flattened
spheroids, to heaps of cheeses.—Wren’s Nest. The rocks seen in this extra-
ordinary range compose the upper part of the Silurian system of Mr. Mur-
chison, and consist, in descending order, (as the canal penetrates them) of
Shale, called Lower Ludlow rocks,—Limestone of Dudley, and Wenlock Shale.
The Limestone of Dudley is in two divisions, separated by a good thickness
of Shaly beds, which, as well as the Limestone, are fossiliferous. Both of
the calcareous portions yield good Limestone, and as the inclination of the
strata in the hill is very steep, the entrance of the canal has afforded extra-
ordinary facilities for working these valuable rocks. The strata dip or de-
cline each way from the central line or axis of the Wren’s Nest hill, which is
nearly north and south, and thus it happens that, in perforating this hill, the
strata are found on one side dipping 70° to the east, and on the other 45° or
more to the west. Remarkably long joints were observed in the subterra-
nean works, which were measured by Professor Phillips, and explained to the

|
.
:
.

EXTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS. 163

party as of great interest in questions recently brought under discussion as
to the forces originally concerned in consolidating and subsequently in uplift-
ing the strata. He proceeded to notice numerous spar veins; and he ob-
served, “ From the information of the very intelligent managers of the
underground works, the effects of dislocations or disruptions of the rocks
were ascertained to follow a certain geometrical law, which has been often
insisted upon by myself, and admitted by Mr. Hopkins in his excellent pa-
per on Physical Geology in the Cambridge Transactions. The Wren’s Nest
hill is one of several hills, all composed of Limestone and Shale, subjacent to
the Coal formation, and directed from north to south. It appears probable,
from the appearances at the south end of the Wren’s Nest, that the elevation
of this interesting ridge was accomplished before the rocks were consolidated,
since the strata are found to bend round in a manner difficult to understand,
unless the rocks were soft at the time of the movement. The Coal forma-
tion is generally conformed to the Silurian Limestones and Shales.” The Coal
is charred near the Rowley Basalt ; and it was suggested by the Professor
that these and other interesting phenomena might deserve the special in-
vestigation of the Philosophical Institution, and ample illustration by a col-
lection of characteristic specimens.

EXTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.

METEOROLOGY.

On THE TEemreEstTs or WestERN InpIA. By Mr. W. BEDFIELD, or
New Yorx.—The object of this paper is, to prove that the violent storms
which so often visit the islands of the Atlantic do not present an erratic and
indeterminate character, but, on the contrary, that they are remarkably re-
gular. After researches founded on facts, the author announces that these
blasts of wind generally follow the same direction, namely, to the north-west
between the tropics, and at a latitude of 30° north. Near this pa-
rallel the tempest turns to the north, and subsequently its direction
is north-east, in a region occupying the elevated latitudes of the At-
lantic. The course thus pursued by the hurricane is wholly independent of
the direction of the wind which it may present in the different points it
traverses. In fact, observation points out that, in similar cases, the wind al-
ways moves like a vortex round a common centre, during the entire progress
of the hurricane, in a circuit limited by the lateral extent of the tempest,
and in a fixed direction, from left to right, that is, from west to south. Thus
the general course of the hurricanes of the Atlantic seems to be that of the
great marine current called “ gulf-stream.”—Bibliotheque Universelle de Ge-
neve.

164 EXTRACTS FROM FOREIGN JOURNALS.
CHEMISTRY.

ConcELATION oF Mercury IN THE Open Air aT GARDINER, MAINE,
Norts America. By Mr. Harzi.—lIt was extremely cold on the 28th of
January, 1817. A bed of charcoal was placed toward evening upon a quay,
three hundred feet from any habitation. A little mercury was placed in
blackened phials. The thermometer indicated — 29° ( — 27°, 1, R.) at ten
o’clock at night. At half-past three in the morning it altered to —— 32° (—
28°, 4, R.). At half-past six it was — 40° ( — 32°, R.). The mercury was
fluid in the phials, but some drops which had been placed in a hollow cavity
in the charcoal was partly congealed. When touched with a small stick, the
mercury separated into angular and evidently crystalline fragments. This
appearance, destroyed by the heat occasioned by the body of the observer,
re-appeared at seven o’clock, but soon afterwards the rising of the sun put
an end to the experiment.

Sotusmiry oF Oxme or Leap 1y Warter.—M. Bonsdorff announces
that oxide of lead, prepared by exposing the metal to a damp air, or even by
decomposing with fire nitrate of lead, is entirely soluble in water. Seven
thousand parts of water are required to dissolve one of the oxide, and the so-
lution presents a powerful alkaline re-action, colours syrup of violets green,
and is an excellent exciter of carbonic acid.

MINERALOGY.

CrysTaL of CoLUMBITE OF REMARKABLY LARGE DrmEnsrtons.—Some
years ago a new source of Columbite was discovered inclosed in a mass of
feldspath, near Middletown, U. S. The crystals found there have already
been described in Mr. Shepard’s Mineralogy, and “ are remarkable,” according
to him, “for their regularity, their brightness, and their very large size.
Some of them weigh from three to four ounces. The substances associated
with the columbite are uranite, albite, and phosphoric lime.” Very lately a
still larger mass of columbite has been found in the same locality, it weighs
6lbs. 120z.; the entire mass weighs 14lbs., but it was already much broken
when taken from the bed. This piece, although sufficiently irregular, evi-
dently forms part of a regular crystal, the incidence of whose faces might
have been determined by the goniometer, In its interior are fixed pieces of
feldspath and quartz, and some of the faces of fracture are berdered with
uranite. The specific weight of this specimen is 5,4.—S1LLiMan’s American
Journal, July, 1836.

BOTANY.

On SriruLes.—Stipulz are sometimes considered as distinct organs from
the leaves, sometimes as accessories of the true leaves. The following pas-
sage, extracted from the second edition (London, 1835) of Dr. Lindley’s In-
troduction to Botany, may tend to settle this question. “Nothing is common-
er than to find (in Roses) a leaflet accompanying a stipule ; and in a specimen
of Rosa bracteata, which I have examined, there were no stipules, but in their
place two pennate, exstipulate leaves. Consequently, stipules should be
considered as leaves in a rudimentary state.— Bibliotheque Universelle de Ge-
neve, February, 1837.

OBITUARY. 165

CoMPARATIVE EsTIMATE OF THE METEOROLOGICAL CIRCUMSTANCES
UNDER WHICH Corn, MaizE, anD PoTaTOES, VEGETATE AT THE Equa-
TOR AND UNDER THE TEMPERATE ZoNE.—In comparing the results which
he has collected, M. Boussingault* arrives at this conclusion: The number
of days which separates the commencement of the vegetation of an annual
plant is, in each climate, in inverse ratio to the mean temperature under the
influence of which the vegetation takes place; so that the product of this
number of days by the temperature is constant. This result, says M. B., is
not only important as proving that the same aunual plant receives through-
out, during its existence, an equal quantity of heat, but it may also enable us
to foresee the possibility of acclimating a plant in any country of which the
mean temperature of the months is known.—Compte rendu de l’ Academie des
Sciences, January 30, 1837.

OBITUARY.

Mr. Edward Donovan, F.L.S., author of works on British Birds, British
Insects, British Fishes, and on the Insects of India and New Holland, all
splendidly illustrated, died February 1, 1837, leaving behind him a large fa-
mily in destitute circumstances.

Henry Adolph Schrader, Professor of Botany at Gottingen, author of Spi-
cilegium Flore Germanice, 1794, and Flora Germanica, vol. 1st, 1806, and of
various essays on exotic plants, has recently departed for another world.+
His Flora Germanica has a high reputation, but it only extends through the
class Triandria. There is an elaborate and very useful list of the botanical
writers of Germany at the commencement. The Flora Britannica of Smith
is spoken of in Germany as inferior only to the Flora Germanica of Schrader-

Adam Afzaleus, Professor of Botany at Upsal, and the Nestor of scientific
men in Sweden, died January 30, 1837, aged 86. He was the last pupil of
Linneus, and distinguished, like all the pupils of that great man, for his ex-
act botanical knowledge. Heis~. vrated for his travels in Asia and Africa,
and contributed two papers to te Transactions of the Linnean Society, “On
the Botanical History of Trifolium alpestre, T. medium, and T. pratense, in
1798. Professor Afzaleus resided in Sierra Leone for several years, and
published his principal work, Genera Plantarum Guincensium, in 1804. He
also wrote several dissertations on the medicinal plants of Sierra Leone, be-

_ sides some other works. His African herbarium is now in the British Mu-
seum. His younger brothers, John and Peter—the former devoted to Che-
mistry, the latter to Medicine—are both distinguished for their talents, and
have, for nearly half a century, occupied chairs in the University of Upsal.

* In the Bibliotheque Universelle de Geneve—an excellent monthly miscellany—an inte-
resting table of the results obtained by M. B. are given, to which we refer our readers for
further particulars —Eps. An.

+ We should be glad if any correspondent could favour us with the exact date of the
demise of Schrader.—Eps. An. ;

LITERARY INTELLIGENCE.

WORKS IN THE PRESS.

Memoirs of the Life of William Wilberforce, with portraits, by his Sons.

Life of Admiral the Earl Howe; from authentic manuscripts never before
published ; consisting of between four and five hundred letters in the Earl’s
own hand-writing, his private journal while at sea with his flag, several let-
ters of his late Majesty, George III., to his family, and various communica-
tions from living Flag-officers who served under the Admiral’s command, by
Sir John Barrow, Bart.

Moore’s Letters, Journals, and Life of Lord Byron; with notes, por-
trait and frontispiece.

Account of the Private Life, Manners, Customs, Religion, Government,
Arts, Laws, and Early History of the Ancient Egyptians, derived from the
study of hieroglyphics, sculpture, paintings, and other works of art still ex-
isting, compared with the accounts of ancient authors; illustrated by many
hundred engravings in wood and stone, from original drawings copied by the
author from tombs, during ten years residence, in Egypt, Thebes, &c. ; by
I. G. Wilkinson.

Remains of the late Lord Viscount Royston, with a Memoir of his Life;
by the Rev, Henry Pepys, B.D.

Moorcroft and Trebeck’s Travels in the Panjab, Ladakh, Kashmir, &c.,
countries, either imperfectly explored by European Travellers, or never be-
fore visited by them; with illustrations anda map: prepared for publication
by H. H. Wilson, Professor of Sanscrit in the University of Oxford.

Travels in Arabia—in the Province of Oman, in the Peninsula of Mount
Sinai, and along the Shores of the Red Sea; with maps and illustrations; by
Lieutenant Wellsted, F.R.S.

The “Silurian System of Rocks,” as developed in the Counties of Salop,
Hereford, Montgomery, Radnor, Brecon, Caermarthen, and Pembroke ;
with sketches of all the accompanying formations, a large geological map,
sections, views, and other illustrations ; by R. I. Murchison, Esq.

Education in Holland, with special reference to the Schools for the Work-
ing Classes ; translated from the French of Victor Cousin, by Leonard Hor.
ner, Esq., F.R.S.

The Plays of Sophocles, with Notes selected from the best Commentators,
and abridged for the use of Students, with a Life of Sophocles; by the Rev.
G. Woods, M.A.

A Flora of Jamaica; or a Dissertation on the Plants of that Island, ar-
ranged according to the natural Orders; with an Appendix containing an
enumeration of the Genera according to the Linnean System, and an Essay
on the Geographical Distribution of the Species; by James Macfadyen,
M.D.

We believe Dr. Curie has in the press a work entitled The Practice of
Homeopathy.

j

167

SELECT LIST OF NEW PUBLICATIONS,

From May 8th to September 8th, 1837.

Alexander’s Voyage to Western Africa, 2 vols. 8vo., 32s.

Arundale’s Tour of Jerusalem and Mount Sinai, 4to., 25s.

Babbage’s Ninth Bridgewater Treatise, 8vo., 9s. 6d.

Bardwell’s Temples, Ancient and Modern, royal 8vo., 21s.

Bateman’s Orchidacez of Mexico, folio, part i., 42s.

Bivouac (Maxwell’s), or Stories of the Peninsular War, 3 vols. post 8vo.,
31s. 6d.

Bell’s History of British Quadrupeds, 8vo. 28s., royal 8vo. 56s., imperial
8vo. 84s.

Bosworth’s Scandinavian Literature, royal 8vo., 4s. 6d. ; Germanic and Scan.
dinavian Languages, royal 8vo., 20s.

Britton’s and Wild’s Lincoln Cathedral, 4to. 25s., large paper, 31s. 6d.

Browne on Insanity and Asylums, post 8vo., 5s.

Brydges’ Moral Axioms for the Young, 18mo., 3s. 6d.

Bushnan’s Philosophy of Instinct and Reason, feap 8vo., 5s.

Caveler’s Specimens of Gothic Architecture, 4to. 63s., large paper, 105s.

Cherubini’s Course of Counterpoint and Fugue, by Hamilton, 2 vols. 8vo.;
42s.

Cochrane’s Wanderings in Greece, 2 vols. 8vo., 24s.

Cogswell’s Essay on the Properties of Iodine, 8vo., 5s.

Coverdale’s (Miles) Letters of the Martyrs, 1564, 8vo. 10s., large paper,
14s.

Cowper’s Works, by Southey, 15 vols. feap 8vo., 75s.

Dana’s System of Mineralogy, royal 8vo., 21s.

Drury’s Exotic Entomology, by Westwood, 3 vols. 4to., £6. 16s. 6d.

Earl’s Eastern Seas; or Voyages and Adventures in the Indian Archipelago,
in 1832-3-4, 8vo., 12s.

Evans’ (Head Master of Bosworth School) Copies for Writing Greek in
Schools, 4to.. 5s.

Fairholme’s Geology of the Mosaic Deluge, 8vo., 16s.

Falle’s History of Jersey, by the Rev. E. Durell, 8vo., 15s.

Fawckner’s Travels in Western Africa, 12mo., 4s.

Fearn on Demonstration of Vision in the Brain, 8vo., 1s. 6d.

Gall’s Physiological Works, 6 vols. 12mo., 32s.

Giffard’s Visit to the Ionian Islands, Athens, and the Morea, 8vo.

Gleadall’s Beauties of Flora, vol. 2, royal 4to. 50s., coloured 60s.

Graah’s Expedition to Greenland, translated from the Danish by G. G.
Macdougall, with the Original Chart, 8vo., 8s. 6d.

Granville’s Spas of Germany, 2 vols. 8vo., 32s.

Gray’s Works, by the Rev. J. Mitford, 4 vols. feap, 20s.

Gray’s Bard, with Illustrations, by the Honble. Mrs. Talbot, post 8vo., 7s.

168 SELECT LIST OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

Gully’s (Dr.) Exposition of Neuropathy, or Nervousness, 8vo., 6s.

Gurwood’s Wellington Despatches, 8vo.; Supplement to vols. 1, 2, and 3,
7s. 6.3 vol. 9, 20s.

Hall’s Theory and Practice of Medicine, 8vo., 16s.

Hamilton’s (Lady) Secret History of the Court of England, 2 vols. 8vo.,
42s.

Hand-Book for Travellers in Southern Germany, 12mo., 9s. 6d.

Heraud’s Voyages up the Mediterranean, post 8vo., 10s. 6d.

Hippisley’s Chapters on Early English Literature, post 8vo., 9s.

Hooper’s (Dr.) Observations on the Topography, Climate, and Prevalent
Diseases, of Jersey, 8vo., 6s.

Hoskins’ Visit to the Great Oasis of the Libyan Desert, 8vo., 21s.

Hunter’s (John) Works, edited by Palmer, with a Life of that celebrated
Physiologist, 8vo., vols. 1, 2, and 3.

Jackson’s Lives of Early Methodist Preachers, vol. 1, 12mo., 5s.

James’ Memoirs of Celebrated Women, 2 vols. post 8vo., 21s.

Jamieson’s Mineralogy, according to the Natural History System, post 8vo.,
6s.

Jardine’s Naturalist’s Library, vol. 18 (Foreign Butterflies), 12mo., 6s.

Ingram’s Memorials of Oxford, 3 vols. 8vo., 58s., 4to. 110s., India, 160s.

Jumps’ Views in Calcutta, 4to., 10s. 6d.

Laird and Oldfield’s Expedition to Central Africa, 2 vols. 8vo., 28s.

Lee’s Translation of the Book of Job, with Notes, 8vo., 18s.

Lewis’s Illustrations of Constantinople. folio, 84s.; Sketches from Claude’s
Drawings, folio, 63s., proofs, 105s.

Lindley’s Ladies’ Botany, vol. 2, 8vo. 16s., coloured 25s.

Lockhart’s Life of Sir Walter Scott, Bart., post 8vo., vols. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5,
10s. 6d.

Lowe on the Soil and Agriculture of Penang, 8vo., 12s.

Luther’s Commentary on the Psalms, translated by Cole, feap 8vo., 5s.

Macarthur’s New South Wales, small 8vo., 8s.

Macvicar, on the Beautiful, the Picturesque, and. the Sublime, small 8vo.,
7s.

M’Kenney and Hall’s Indian Tribes of North America, part I., 35s.

Marigny’s Voyages in the Black Sea to the Coast of Circassia, with plates
and a map, 8vo., 10s. 6d.

M‘Carthy’s Narrative of the Storming of Badajos, in 1812, 8vo., 5s.

Macreight’s Manual of British Botany, 12mo., 7s. 6d.

Mayo’s Remarks on Infant Education ; 12mo., 3s. 6d.

Nichol’s Views of the Architecture of the Heavens, 8vo. 10s. 6d.

Palgrave’s Truths and Fictions of the Middle Ages, fcap. 8vo., 8s.

Reid’s History of the Presbyterian Church in Ireland, vol. ii., 8vo., 12s.

Rhind’s Elements of Geology, 12mo., 3s.

Robinson’s Travels in Syria and Palestine, 2 vols., post 8vo., 21s.

Schroder’s Turkish Grammar for Travellers and Merchants, 8vo., 6s. 6d.

Shaw’s Specimens of Ancient Plate and Furniture, from the Colleges of Ox-
ford, 4to., 10s. 6d., folio, 42s. half-bound |

Shepherd’s Life of Paggio Bracciolini, 8vo., 13s.

Southey’s History of the War in the Peninsula, vols. v. and vi., 8vo., 21s.

Slade’s Turkey, Greece, and Malta, 2 vols., 8vo., 31s. 6d.

METEOROLOGICAL REPORT. 169

Spencer’s Travels in Circassia and Krim Tartary, 2 vols. 8vo., 31s.

Standish’s Shores of the Mediterranean, 8vo., 8s.

Stoddart’s Angling Reminiscences, fcap., 5s.

Thornton, on Diseases of the Ear, 8vo., 8s.

Tiler’s Natural History, ]2mo., ds. 6d.

Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, vol. xvii, 4to, 29s. 6d.

Transactions of the Provincial Medical Association, vol. v-, 8vo,, 20s,

Transactions of the Philosaphical and Literary Society of Leeds, vol. i.,
part i., royal 8vo., 10s. 6d.

Transactions of the Linnean Society, vol. xvii, part iv., 4to., 24s.

Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature; vol. iii., part i., 4to., 42s.

Vogan’s Bampton’s Lectures for 1837, 8vo., 12s.

Wach’s Historical Antiquities of the Greeks, by Woolrych, 2 vols. 8vo., 36s,

Walker’s Philosophy of the Eye, small 8vo., 10s. 6d.

Webster’s Elements of Physic, 12mo., 9s.

Whewell, on University Education, post 8vo., 5s.

METEOROLOGICAL REPORT.

JUNE.
1837 | Barometer. | Thermometer. Remarks.

June. | Morn. | Even. | Max. Min. Day. Nicht. Wind,
1 | 29.480 | 29.580| 64 50 Sun, clouds, wind Showers W.N. W.
2] 29.518} 61.5 | 46 | Fine, cloudy
3 29.500 | 29.551| 57 Cloudy, showers Northerly
4 | 29.566 | 29.646| 67 40 Fine, jight showers evg.| Fine S. W.

5 | 29.664 | 29.628| 64 53 Fine, distant thunder Fine, cloudy | Westerly
6 | 29.664 | 29.714| 62 47 —_| Hot sun, cool breeze Fine N.N.E.
7 | 29.694 29.549| 458 43 All sun, cool breeze Fine N. E.
8 29,449 | 29.348] 56 38 | Chilly breeze, fine Cold Easterly
9 | 29.300 28.988} 63 Heavy rain afternoon Swk;
10 | 29.038 | 29.014| 62.5 | 50 Fine, windy Showers S. W.
11 29.292 | 29.352) 62 51 Fine, sun, clouds High wind Westerly
12 | 29.380 | 29.266| 60 51 Steady rain a!l morn. S. W.
13 | 29.260 29.200) 64 56 Cioudy, dark, showers Cloudy S.W.
14 | 29.278 29.450| 67 57 Fine, hot sun Cloudy W N.W.
15 | 29.488 | 29.464] 69 50 Hot sun, coo) airs Fine Northerly
16 | 29.442 | 29.352| 74 55 | Fine, thnd. storm aftrn. | Fine S. W.
17 | 29.404 29.388} 67 51 Cloudy Cloudy W.S.W.
18 29.268 29.378| 66.5 | 53 Fine, cloudy Wind Westerly
19 | 29.412 | 29.394] 67.5 | 54 Fine, sun, clouds Cloudy S. W.
20 29.354 29.440] 66.5 55 Cloudy S.W.
21 | 29.736 52 Fine, clouds, sun
22 | 29.802 20.854] 72 52 Fine, all sun Fine Southerly
23 | 29.830 29.822] 74 58 Hot sua Calm, vble.
24 | 29.780 29.668) 73 57 Hot sun
25 | 29.644 | 29.686 71.5 | 58 Hazy, clouds and sun _ | Fine N. E.
26 | 29.684 29.744] 65 Fine, sun E. N. E.
27 | 29.730 29.696 | 62.5 | 47.5 | Fine, sun Clouds & stars} Easterly
28 | 29.686 29 672| 68 48.5 | All sun, hazy Fine Light, vble.
29 | 29.656 29.644) 74 53.5 | Hot sun Fine Calm
30 | 29.820) 71 55 Fr. brz., sun, cls. & bze| Fine N. E.

Mean Max. 66.8

51.0 Mean Min.

ges

170 METEOROLOGICAL REPORT.

JULY.
| 1837{ Barometer. | Thermometer. Remarks.
Joly ; Morn. | Even. | Max. } Mia. Day. Night. Wind.
1 | 29.838 | 29.824 | 63 48 Fine, sun Sang: fine Easterly
2 | 29.780 | 29.768} 69 45 Fine Fine N. E.
3 Fine Northerly
4 | 29.686 69 55 Hazy, hot sun Fine Northerly
5 29614 55 Fine Cloudy Calm, Wrly
6 | 29.660 | 29.718 | 71 Fine Northerly
a 29.720 | 74 60 tazy, hot Fine Calm, S.
8 | 29.706 | 29702] 75 59 | Fine, hot Fine Easterly
9 29.546 | 65 53 Fresh breeze, sun Fine N. E.
10 | 29.462 70 46 Fine, sun Fine N.E.
ll 29.472 | 72 52 Fine, sun Fine Ss. Easterly
12 | 29.458 | 29.362 | 69 53 Fine, sun Fine Variable, lgt.
13 | 29.290 | 29.260 | 72 58 Fine, sun Light showers | Westerly
14 29.330 | 72 58 Wind, cool
15 | 29.322 | 29.400} 69 58 Fine, shower Showers Variable
16 29,550 | 68 52 Fine, sun N. W.
7 Fine, and showers Showers Westerly
18 | 29 320 | 29.330 | 68 54 Fine, and showers Showers Westerly
19 | 29.328 71 52 Very fine Showers Westerly
20 Showers
2) 29.622 | 67 Hazy Northerly
22 | 29.600 | 29.580 | 70 53 Fine, clouds, sun Fine Westerly
23 | 29.652 | 29.566 | 72 58 Fine Showers Westerly
24 | 29.616 | 29618 | 70 53 Fine, showers Light showers | W.N. W.
25 | 29.600 | 29.570 | 72 58 Fine, sun Fine, stars W.N. Wz.
26 | 29.544 | 29,526 | 72 58 Fine Showers CalmW.N.W.
27 | 29.462) 29.290 | 73 58 Very fine S. W.
28 29118) 71 58.5 | Very fine Ss. W.
29 | 28.654 | 28.704 | 64 55 Windy, showers Heavy showers| S. W.
30 | 29.020) 29.326 | 63 53 | Clouds and sun Rain N. W.
31 | 29.390 | 29.340! 665 | 50 | Showers, clouds Fine S. W.

Mean Max. 69.5 54.5 Mean Min.

AUGUST.
| 1837, Barometer. Thermometer, Remarks.
| Auz.| Morn. , Eve. | Max. | Min. Dav. | Night. Wind.
1} 29.234 | 29.200} 69 | 52 | Cloudy, damp, rain | Rain a E.
2 | 29.088 | 29.072} 63 | 58 Heavy rain ! Rain a NV
3 | 29.020 | 29.200} 66 54 | Heavy showers, | Showers, wndy s Ww.
4 | 29354 63.5 | 51 | Fine | Fine Westerly
5 29748 | 64 46 | Cloudsand sun
6 | 29.784 | 29.860 | 64 48 | Cloudy Fine Easterly
7 | 20.874 | 29.914 66.5 | 46 | Clear, fine, sua | Fine S. Easterly
8 | 29.914 | 29.840} 66 | 46 Hot sun, fresh breeze | Fine, wind NE.
9 | 29.696 | 29.5380 | 67 50 Fine, fresh breeze Fine, wind Easterly
10 29.440 | 73 52 | Calm, fine | Light showers | Southerly
11 | 29.410 | 57 Sun, rain, clouds Calm
12 29.480 | 70 56 ‘| Fine, clouds, sun | Westerly
13 | 29.644 29.704) 72 | 53 Fine, clouds, sun Ss. W.
14| 29.780 70 =| 56 | Fine, hot sun Fine Southerly
15 | 29,806 | 29.802 | 72 57 Fine, hot sun Fine Northerly
16 | 29.696 | 29.610 | 73 54 Fine, sun, clouds | Fine Easterly
17 | 29.584 | 29.582} 72 | 59 | Showers, thunder Fine Northerly
18 | 29.660 | 29.700 | 72 61.5 | Sun, clouds, haze | Fine Calm, N
19 | 29.668 | 29.402 | 73 57.5 | Fine, clondy | Fine
20 | 29:380 | 29.478 | 70 61 | Cloudy | Shrs. & lightn. Eg Ww
21 | 29 434 | 29.578 | 69.6 | 56 | Pine, wind, and rain Fine Ss. W.
22) 29.660 | 29.630; 65 | 53 | Rain Cloudy
| 28] 29.570 69 61 Rain in showers Showers Calm, BE. /
24] 29.760 | 29.780 | 60 48.5 eines and sun | Heavy Rain N. E.
25 | 29.735 | 29.560 | 65 48 ry fine ;Clear aurora |S. E.
26) 29.420 | 29.586 | 62 54 Line & th, hvy. rain | Clear Calm
27 |: 29.732 63 47 | Fine Clear, fine
| 28) 99,520 63 Fine, sun Rain S. W.
| 29] 29.084 | 29.060 | 60 51 | Clouds, calm, rain Rain S. W.
| 30) 29.030 | 29.036 49 | Clouds, light showers | Cloudy Northerly,
31/28 980 | 28.924 | 5 44 | Heavy showers, cold Fine Southerly

Mean Max. 66.6 52.9 Mean Min.

PROFESSIONAL AND DOMESTIC SUPERINTENDENCE OF
4 STUDENTS.

TO PARENTS AND GUARDIANS.

N experience of eleven years, as a recognized lecturer in the metropolis, on the

branches of CHEMISTRY, MATERIA MEDICA, and BOTANY, has convinced
that the student does not, in the majority of instances, realize the full amount of benefit
nich the opportunities for obtaining information, afforded in London, present.

he reasons for this non-attainment are several. Three may bestated :—

' The first is, That the student, after paying the fees to the various lecturers and the officers
the Institutions which he proposes to attend, is too often carried away by the novelties of
don, and becomes launched in a series of dissipations, destructive both to his bodily and
tal health. The tone of mind requisite to a successful prosecution of the studies essential
is qualification as a medical practitioner, is not possessed: and at the end of the session
rents receive, too frequently, at the family residence, the object of their solicitude worn
not with the arduous pursuit of science, but of vice—fnformed, not in medical knowledge,
in the dissipations of London. ?

he second reason is, That the student being led to believe by his companions, that, as to
ss the court of examiners, either at Apothecarie’s Hall or at the College of Surgeons, or
th, is all that is necessary to constitute him a Jegal practitioner, he can put off his studies till
bout the time when he is to appear for his examination; being encouraged further in the
eglect thus produced by the existence in London of a class of gentlemen, technically called
rinders, who, being aware of the general and even particular characters of the examinations
dopted by the EXAMINING BODIES, are enabled to supply the student with the amount and
ie kind of information necessary to enable him to pass the ordeal. x

'A third reason is, That the number of students entering to the larger schools and the larger
spi is so great, that it is impossible that the lecturer can teach the whole: indeed it is a
ell-known fact that, in the hospitals and the schools, many of the students are not personally
iown to the lecturers and the officers. No supervision can, under such circumstances, pos-
ly take place: and it happens that, though the instructions themselves may be excellent,
‘student loses the realization of their value because he has no one to solve those difficulties
lich, in the course of these instructions, may arise. ,

_ Such means, used in producing a medical practitioner, must necessarily be ineffectual. The :
dical practitioner requires a mature and sound judgment. To gain this, he must have the
ts of medical science well grounded in his mind : they must not be heaped up merely, but
ist be carefully stored and scientifically arranged in his memory, so as to be always at his
ervice. He must be taught to draw deductions from these facts, applying the principles of
le Baconian system of induction to the examination of the various hypotheses and theories
hich have been and are promulgated in connection with the nature, and which influence so
ywerfully the treatment, of disease. : ;

To realize, therefore, the proper use of the medical student’s time—to make him, in other
words, an enlightened and successful practitioner, I beg to offer my services to parents and
guardians, and to undertake the performance of those duties in reference to the student whic
Lhe parent or guardian would perform if having the student under his own eye,

In <p these duties, I will superintend the medical education during the whole period
his medical studies, and not for a shorter term, ascertaining every week the progress of the
ident, obtain a place of abode where inducements to neglect his studies will not be placed in
ay, and will communicate monthly with the parent or the guardian who may confer this

‘he particulars under which this superintefidence will be undertaken can be learned of me,
ny residence, 89, Great Russell-street, between @ and 12 in the morning, and 5 and 7 in
@ evening ; and by letter, directed as above. I may here add, that my residence is situated
favourably in regard to the London University College, that parents who may have fixed
sending their sons thereto will find the position favourable to the superintendence required,

ig within five minutes walk of that institution, also of the Middlesex and the Notth Lon-

: JOHN EPPS, M.D.
9, Great Russell-street, Bloomsbury-square.

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CONTENTS.

Divi Botanici; Sketches of Botanists whose Names are commemorated in the Appel-

lations of Plants—Article L.......... 0... ccceececcuceneeeeeeeens PORCELAIN Boe re, 171
General View of the Subjects of Natural History ........ 0.00. .ccccscscccesecceeeeneecsteuseecntens 188
Loose Thoughts on the Cause of Beauty, &c., in Axchitectures..¢.ccososhakits ye ates 200
The Birmingham Musical Bestival ..........c6.-cccssssessseesseseccseaesesecsvseseneeeestsenteees eset 207
Abstract of a Paper on the Fossil Ichthyosaurus lately purchased for the Birmingham

Philosophical Institution «ii... 12 pi0i\-n-s¢--r oq stvoncntcecccarscstsvarnar seas toabonns¥enpee 233
An Intellectual Monstrosity, by J. L. Levison..... Pe RM SAN RIDER cases ctl Rear e e aa 240
Observations on the Geology and Mining of the South Staffordshire Coal-field.. Be Sar ae 247
Sketches of European Ornithology,—“ Gould’s Birds of Europe”..............-.-..seseeeesee00e+ 253
Two Chapters illustrative of the Character and Conduct of James I... .....0. veceeeeetesee 267
Critical Notices*of:- New Publicdtions:(s2-45 a-rarer esc ts toc orate ss cae: dares cau ouehes s kuege eae, 292

The New Botanist’s Guide to the Localities of the Rarer Plants of Britain, by H.C.

Watson; The Literary Beauty of the Bible, by the Rev. R. Jones, D.D.;
The Spirit of the Woods, by the author of The Moral Flowers; On the Natu-
ral History and Classification of Birds, by William Swainson, A.C.G., E.RS.,
F.L.S., &c. ; a Lecture on Education, by W. B. Hodgson.

Fine ‘Arta oie ceeh es Ua Ree Pc raame emmaraioeu.tedaanc: cae mes tee athe en nu neae 306

Music, Vocal—Funeral Anthem on the Death of the late Charles W esley, by

Samuel Wesley : Instrumental—Chefs d’CEuvres de Mozart, edited by Cipri-
ani Potter; Studio for the Organ, by Samuel Wesley; Three Romances for
the Piano-forte, and Three Musical Sketches fer the Piano-forte, by William
Sterndale Bennett ; L’art de la Fugue, par Jean Sebastien Bach.

Proceedings of Societies

PRS OM SA re OAR ORI ates ae GE PRE SNS a PER BRS Anh BOS
St. James’s Ornithological Society ; Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society.

Miscellaneous Communications .............. scothpipahabeztsav inaracrersoocisesbesssteeaekenttsaeqndenanas 336

Notices ‘of Books (Gate. Grusvescikachess eons cecil csnaenees Re Ae i Sic ASE Te eB RANIR i 22, 347

Metegrolopical Reports :7.\. hice tsar inaosvxcee thas akouat hs ois nana Seg nokta ek rh Cea 350

NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS.

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*," The First and Second Volumes of “ The Analyst? ( with Index '), in cloth boards, price 10s., an
the Third, Fourth, Fifth, Sixth & Seventh Vols., price 9s. each, may be had of all Booksellers
raf ’

171

DIVI BOTANICI;

SKETCHES OF BOTANISTS WHOSE NAMES ARE COMMEMORATED
IN THE APPELLATIONS OF PLANTS.

ARTICLE THE First.

Immortatiry of Fame as well as of Existence has ever been an
object of intuitive aspiration in the Mind of Man; and it is this
fondly cherished solicitude for attaining an everlasting celebrity that
naturally assists in fostering motives to emulation in the exercise of
his moral and intellectual powers.

With consciousness of possessing the innate sentiment which en-
courages an individual to hope that he himself may yet acquire an
enduring reputation, or with the benevolent aim of strengthening
in others the incentives to meritorious exertion, the Heads of Sects
and the Rulers of Nations have usually displayed a generous
promptitude to foster the desire of excellence by conferring the
meed of a superlative glory on the wisest and the best of their ad-
herents and compatriots, according to their estimate of worth and
their judgment of dignity. Hence, from this source, erewhile arose
the rite of Deification, whereby the primeval mythologists made
gods of their sages and heroes; and, in after-times, with an object
not essentially dissimilar, the process of producing saints began its
course, and the work continues to be designated a Canonization.
With a purer taste, however, and a sublimer gratitude, by devoting
the names of discoverers to things discovered, the Naturalists create
a more exalted renown for those enlightened Spirits who are fortu-
nate in contributing to the advancement of their disinterested and
truly philanthropical investigations.

Natural History includes many fair systems within its extensive
domain: among the most fascinating of these, and the most inno-
cent, is Botany: and the method of honouring the distinguished im-
provers of this divine Science, by appropriating their names to be
appellations of Plants, is an object of virtuous competition, alike de-
sirable as a reward of the excellencies it immortalizes, and venera-
ble for the tendencies of its principle and the antiquity of its es-
tablishment.

Tradition associates with History in perpetuating the beneficence
of those ancient Simplers who were thus rewarded for their succese-

VOL, VII., NO, XXI. Z

172 DIVI BOTANICI.

ful employment of the vegetable energies, as the means of healing
injuries and diseases, in the days when Knowledge and Experience
were but entering on their interminable career. With notes on the
most remarkable of these illustrious personages, and on the salutary
virtues of the herbs which are their emblems, an Introduction may
be framed for the Sketches of Botanists whose names are comme-
morated in the appellations of Plants.

ArtemisiA.—This celebrated female was the daughter of Heca-
tomnus, king of Caria, a country of Asia Minor, whose inhabitants,
from their wealth and fortitude, were long distinguished as a very
powerful nation, the metropolis of which was Halicarnassus, the
birth-place of several philosophers renowned in the history of patri-
otic wisdom. Having conceived an ardent and sincere affection for
her brother Mausolus, who was famous for his personal beauty, the
princess afterwards became his wife, in conformity with the custom
which sanctioned the union of brothers and sisters in marriage—a
custom that necessarily obtained among the primitive occupiers of
the earth, and thus was a chief cause from which the distinct Races
of Men derived their origin.

Mausolus succeeded to his father’s throne, and the prosperity of
an industrious people made his reign fortunate, while his own hap-
piness was enhanced by the purity of his queen’s devoted attachment.
But, like most other earth-born pleasures, this: scene of comfort,
though fair, was transitory. It closed with his death, which took
place in the three hundred and fifty-third year before that wonder-
ful event from which the Christian epoch dates its commencement.
By this overwhelming bereavement, his widow was rendered for-
lorn and inconsolable ; and, when his body had been consumed on
a funeral pyre, she drank of his ashes suspended in a fluid potion.
Resolving to erect an everlasting memorial to the name of her fond-
ly bewailed husband, she engaged the emulation of learned men in
promoting this aim of her conjugal piety, by the announcement of
high and honourable rewards for the best elegiac eulogy on his cha-
racter and attainments. In this strife of panegyric, the successful
competitor was Theopompus of Chios: he acquired the reputation
of an exact and eloquent historian ; but, with the exception of some
detached fragments, his compositions, including the pathetic funeral
oration, have all perished from the records of literature. At the
same time, and with the desire of preserving for ever from oblivion
the object of Artemisia’s affection, as well as the intensity of her
own enduring sorrow for his dissolution, the widowed mourner con-
structed one of the grandest and noblest monuments of antiquity ;

DIVI BOTANICI. 173

and, having designated it a Mausoleum, she consecrated the magni-
ficent structure to his memory. It was a four-sided edifice, sur-
mounted by a pyramid, having its summit adorned with a chariot
and four horses ; and, for ages, it was venerated as one of the won-
ders of the world.

Immediately on the demise of Mausolus, his munificent queen
undertook the arduous offices cf sovereignty ; and, while thus dis-
charging the duties of her high destiny, she displayed extraordinary
wisdom, energy and patriotism, in promoting the welfare of her
people, and in strengthening the resources of their country. But
her spirit did not cease to be inly deadened by the gnawings of
grief ; and, in two years from the decease of her husband, she es-
caped from the cares of life and the fatal repinings of sorrow.

ArtemistA the Plant.—Considered as a generic term in Botany,
the Artemisia comprises more than twenty species of vegetables,
most of which are distinguished for their bitterness and strengthen-
ing properties. Five of these are indigenous to this Island,. but
good reasons may be found for believing that the common Mugwort
was the plant which the Carian “ queene adopted for her own
herbe,” and administered it, with beneficial effects, as a remedy for
diseases, particularly for such as are incident to the female constitu-
tion. The restorative powers of this plant appear to have been as-
certained at an early stage in the practice of applying natural re-
medies ; but, during the lapse of ages, many extravagant represen-
tations of its virtues were made by fanciful and credulous prescrib-
ers for the cure of sickness and wounds.

Originally this herb seems to have been known under the name
of Parthenis, the virgin-flower, with reference to its efficacy in fe-
male affections. Afterwards, however, when it had obtained its
existing appellation, this was speculatively regarded, by certain of
the botanical historians, as betokening the patronage of Diana who,
as the goddess Artemis,* received the adoration of her Grecian vo-

* According to Pliny, the prince of naturalists, “not men only and great
kings, but women also and queens, haue affected this kind of glory—to giue
names vnto herbes: thus queen Artemisia, wife to Mausolus, king of Caria,
eternized her owne name by adopting the herbe Mugwort to herselfe, calling
it Artemisia, whereas before it was named Parthenis. Some, there be who
attribute this denomination vnto Diana, whom the Greeks called Artemis
Ilithyia, because the plant is of speciall operation to cure maladies incident
to women.” He says, in another place, that “the Mugwort will preserue
all those who haue it about them from witchcraft, sorcerie, and poison, from
danger by venomous beasts, yea, and from the hurtfull and maligne aspect

174 DIVI BOTANICI.

taries. This notion may be set aside as gratuitous; but, whether
the Plant derived its name from a deified maiden or a virtuous and
enterprising matron, it might unquestionably be employed as an ex-
cellent medicinal agent, although now neglected, like many other
valuable British vegetables, for no better apparent reason than the
circumstance of its being readily obtainable and abundant.

Cuiron the Centaur—When divested of the fantastic imagery
under which he was mystically represented by the inventors of
ethnic Mythology, this person appears as a munificent though un-
polished patriarch among a pastoral people whom he essayed to be-
nefit by the exercise of an acute natural sagacity, enlightened by
high endowments of the perceptive and reflective powers. Having
observed the salutary efficacy of a bitter herb upon the lower ani-
mals, he rightly inferred that it might determine equally favourable
results in man. He instituted a trial, and the wisdom of his fore-
drawn conclusion has been established by experience, both various
and.manifold. His name ranks high in ancient story, for his skill
in music, archery, medicine, astronomy, and most of the polite arts ;
and, in these departments of science, he liberally communicated in-

of the very sun, The same, if it be taken in wine, helpeth and saueth those
that are poisoned with opium: being either drunk, or worn about the neck,
or but tied to any part of the body, it hath a peculiar vertue against the ve-
nom of todes.”"—Historia Naturalis, lib. xxv, cap. vii, x; folio, Venetiis,
1469: also The Natvral Historie of C. Plinivs, by Philemon Holland, M.D.,
folio, London, 1634; vol. ii, p. 222, 231-2. Marvellous and manifold are
the powers imputed to the Mugwort : a copious enumeration of them is ex-
hibited in Dr. James’s Medicinal Dictionary, under the plant’s botanical
name. Bartholomew Glanville, who composed his work about the middle of
the fourteenth century, observes, with characteristic quaintness, that “ Ar-
temisia is called moder of herbes, and was sometyme halowed by men of na-
tions to the goddesse Diana that hyght Arthemis in Grece, for that the
goddesse founde out the vertuous therof and taughte theym to mankynde ;
it driueth away fendes and withstondeth euyl thoughtes, and abateth feete
ache that cometh of trauaile of goynge.”—Bartholomej Anglicj de Proprieta-
libus Rerum, libri xix; folio, Lugdunj, 1480; lib. xvii, cap. xvi: Bertholo-
meus de Praprietatibus Rerum, translated into English yy John de Trevisa;
folio, London, 1535, p. 149. “'To make a chylde mery, hange a bondell of
Mugwort tagant, or make smoke thereof under the chylde’s bedde, for it tak-
eth away anoy for (fro) then. Agaynst payne of the heed called mygreyne
or cephale, gyve some hot opiate in the decoccyon of Mugwert, and he that
bereth it on hym in walkynge weryeth not. It is also good agaynst yll
thoughtes, and stopeth the eyes that harmes, and all deuyllysshnesse fleeth
fro the place where it is."—The Grete Herball, whych gyveth parfyt know-
ledge and ynderstandyng of all maner of Herbes; folio, London, 1529, cap.
NIX,

EOE

a ee eee

a’

DIVI BOTANICI. 175

struction to many eminent disciples ; but, beyond all the rest,
Achilles, Hercules, Peleus, Jason, Aristeeus, Theseus, Ulysses, Ma-
chaon, Podalirius, Aineas and sculapius, were the most illustrious.

Poetic history first recognizes the countrymen of Chiron as a
tribe of herdsmen sojourning among the romantic uplands of Thes-
saly. By whatever name this people was designated in the Thessa-
lian dialect, it has been immemorially known to the scholar skilled
in Hellenic lore as a tribe of Centaurs* or bull-prickers, wo hunted
wild bulls on horseback, and tamed them to rural purposes, using
goads as the instruments with which these powerful animals were
subdued, and directed in the operations of pasturage and husbandry.
Equally famous were this ingenious people and its chieftains for
being the first to undertake the arduous enterprize of training war-
horses and of managing them in battle, with terrible and destruc-
tive advantage over their antagonists. While they formed a new
and distant object, the athletic Centauric archer and his steed would
appear, to the fears or the fancies of alien tribes, as one prodigious
animal; and, thus excited by amazement, the wild enthusiasm of
Ideality in their painters, sculptors and poets, forthwith engendered
the formidable Monster, half-man half-horse, which constituted an
expressive mystification of the dexterity and courage that should
justly elevate the Centaurs of Thessaly to the praiseworthy dis-
tinction of having been the earliest equestrian knights, the intrepid
Fathers of Chivalry.

Chiron was styled the “ Herbipotent” and “ Aacide Doctor,”
from his practical acquaintance with the properties of herbs, and his
judgment in their administration ; for his love of justice and hospi-
tality, he was revered as “‘ Senex Observalissimus Aqui,” the most
upright and generous of his cloud-begottent kindred : and, after his
death, from a wound accidentally inflicted by a poisoned arrow, his
proficiency in the astronomical mysteries was gratefully acknow-
ledged by his translation into one of the zodiacal signs, in the figure

* Centaurs, Kévraugn, 80 named rage ro xevreiv ros THUGOUs from their prac-
tice of pricking or goading bulls when training them for labour, or managing
them on their pasture-grounds. They were worsted, in a drunken squabble,
by the Lapithze, a clan of their countrymen ; and, having insulted Hercules,
they were exterminated by that hero as he was going to hunt the Eryman-
thian Boar.

+ Nephele means a cloud, literally : it was a mountain of Thessaly, where
the Centaurs resided; and, being an upland pastoral region, it was often
enveloped in clouds. Hence, from this natural feature of the climate, the
Fable was fabricated—that the Centaurs were the progeny of Ixion by Juno,
who admitted his embraces under the form of a cloud !

176 DIVI BOTANICI.

of a centaur, as Sagillarius—the bowman. Many of the Grecian
states instituted divine honours to his memory ; the Magnesians
adored him with peculiar rites; and Hesiod composed an ode in
praise of Chiron, the benefactor of mankind.

Curronia Cenlaurium the Plant.—Here, the most instructed
Man among the first men of a regenerated world, and the instructor
of Men immortalized in the annals of primeval nations, Chiron the
Centaur retains a two-fold tribute of veneration from being held in
honourable remembrance by the generic and specific names of an
Herb whose useful qualities have long been extensively recognized.
This herb is the Common Centaury, the “ Sanctuairie” of those
simpling curers who make it efficacious, in a stomachic tea, for re-
viving the exhausted energies of digestion. Nature is bountiful in
providing an abundance of native remedies in every habitable re-
gion of the globe, and in adapting them to the necessities of its in-
habitants.

From the strength of the Bitter Principle which imbues it, the
Centaury acts as a mild tonic medicine, producing favourable re-
sults in cases of debility or derangement of the functions of nutri-
tion, and in some feverish affections. It also promotes the expul-
sion of worms from the bowels, and it has entered as an active
ingredient into certain fashionable compositions for preventing or
moderating attacks of the gout* in persons who are predisposed, by
descent or habit, to suffer fits of this inveterate disease. Were the
facts furnished by popular experience to receive the attention due to
its value as a conservative of health, this well-approved Bitter
would supersede most of the more expensive, but Jess efficient, drugs
of the same kind, whose chief importance accrues from their exotic
growth.

* Centaury forms the basis of the celebrated Portland Gout Powder, but
in this state it should neither be taken in large doses, nor continued through
a lengthened course. “ Centauria is a ryghte bytter herbe, and hight,
therfore, the gall of the erthe; for one that hight Achironecentaurus founde
and knewe fyrste the vertue therof.”—Glanville. ‘Centorie was called in
Greeke Centaurion and Chironion, after the name of Chiron the Centaure,
who first of all founde out the herbe and taughte it to #sculapius. The
decoction of Centorie the lesse dronken, killeth wormes and driueth them
foorth by siege. The small Centorie greene, pounde and layde to, doth cure
and heale freshe and newe woundes, and closeth up and sodereth olde malig-
nant vicers that are harde to cure.”—Lyte’s Nievve Herball ; folio, London,
1578, p. 327. “The drynke that Centory is soden in, with sugre to delaye
the bytternesse, is good agaynst opylacyon, or stoppynge of the lyver, of
the mylt, of the reynes, and of bladder.”—Greie Herbal.

7
;
}

DIVI BOTANICI. 177

Nowadays, although it had obtained for centuries, the Chironia
has been transformed, by the spirit of neological glossography, into
an Erythrea, the redling, for reasons the propriety of which is un-
apparent. Many are the red-blossomed vegetables that make more
conspicuous Redlings than the plant which has ever been held in
hallowed estimation as the Herb of Chiron, since the days of old.

Metampus.—Thirty-three centuries and more have completed
their irremeable courses since the times when Melampus “ the Pro-
phet” overawed and benefited the early Peloponnesian tribes with
wonders produced by the applications of his skill in moral and me-
dicinal knowledge. Like the kings, priests and physicians of his
days, he was a shepherd, and employed the leisure afforded by a
pastoral life in pondering the system of terrestrial nature, and in
contemplating the sublime economy of the “ Host of Heaven.”
While thus devoted to the noblest intellectual exercises, favoured
by seclusion and tranquillity, he regained that of the patriarchal
wisdom by what he was qualified to sustain, the venerated character
of a sage and a seer, and to secure for his name a glorious homage
in the gratitude of after-generations.

This extraordinary personage appears, in ancient history, as the
son of Amythaon the son of Cretheus, who was king of Iolchos at
the period when Moses began to “keep the flock of Jethro his fa-
ther-in-law,” amid the mountains of the Arabian wilderness. Re-
presented allegorically, Melampus had his dwelling-place at Pylos ;
and, while residing there, a knowledge uf Poetry and Augury was
imparted to him by the Divinity, through the instrumentality of
serpents.* He descanted pathetically, in harmonious numbers,t on

* According to the apologue, Melampus had his ears gently licked by two
serpents, while he was asleep during his infancy ; and, by means of this mys-
tical process, he received the gift of prophesying and that of interpreting the
“ Janguage of birds.” ‘This allegorical legend originated in the widely pre-
vailing belief, that these reptiles, which “ were more subtle than any beasts
of the field,” possessed the faculty of presaging the atmospheric changes and
the accessions of epidemical maladies. Hence it came, that the men of Argos
revered the serpentine race as the “natural masters of the divinatory sci-
ence,” and never suffered one of them to be destroyed.

+ Melampus was one of those primeval Melodists, whose names have sur-
vived “ the wreck of ages and the spoils of time :” the “divine” Homer re-
members him with marks of approbation. He composed many thousand
verses on the Sorrows of Ceres, on the Eleusinian Mysteries, and on other
themes; but all these have disappeared from the records of human action.
Irom Apollo he derived an unequalled insight into the secrets of Physick ;
and, among the fooleries of modern ‘ phisiognomers,” there is a tract of

178 DIVI BOTANICI.

the lamentations of Ceres over the adventure of her daughter Pro-
serpine, who was “rapped” by Pluto from the beautiful plain of
Enna, while botanizing there with her attendant nymphs ; and, by
the institution of didactic rules, the Pylian sage instructed his dis-
ciples in the art of prognosticating the issues of disease, and of mak-
ing their treatment prosperous.

Melampus retains the undisputed honour of having been the first
to prescribe a mineral remedy, and to treat with perfect success that
mode of “ Melancholy without Fever” which is now designated
Monomania or partial insanity whereby, from its insidiousness, the
purest filial, parental or conjugal affection, too often has been incon-
sciously destroyed. He was no adept in the trade of ‘ sending out
the draughts ;” but, notwithstanding this happy ignorance, he had
discovered the value of so disguising natural means with a veil of
mystery as to procure for them the co-efficiency of a superstitious
‘reliance on their powers. His “ method of treatment” is exempli-
fied in the “ case” of Iphiclus, a Phylacian prince. With a view to
this end, he made the sacrifice of two bulls his preparatory opera-
tion ; and, having divided their entrails into right portions, he con-
gregated the birds, in order to execute an augury. Among the rest
came a Vulture, and its omened flight revealed to the diviner that
on a long-past occasion, when immolating an oblation of rams, the
prince’s father laid down the sacrificial knife near his son who,
being yet a boy, beheld the weapon with dread, and hastened to de-
posit it in the cleft of a consecrated Chestnut-tree, where it became
inclosed by successive layers of the bark ; and that, on the knife
being reproduced and the rust* collected from its blade, if the invalid
should drink of this in wine for ten days together, his acquisition of
the desired energy would be certain. Iphiclus delayed not to enter
on the course prescribed for him ; and, in due time, he was enabled
to rejoice in the possession of vigorous manhood.

his on congenital discolourations of the skin, which is altogether spurious
—the fiction of a delusive imagination. This piece, which nevertheless is a
curiosity, has been several times printed both in Greek and Latin. It was
translated into English by Thomas Hylle, and is appended to his “ Contem-
plation of Mankinde,” with the title “A Treatise of the Signification of
Moles, seene in any part of man or woman, written by a Greeke Autor
named Melampus ;” 12mo., London, 1571.

* This is the first recorded instance of the carbonate (sesquiowide) of
iron being exhibited as a tonic medicine. To this day, it continues to main-
tain its celebrity as a remedy for nervous disorders and debility. In the
case of Iphiclus, the wine would co-operate with the iron, and facilitate the
efficacy of its invigorating virtues.

DIVI BOTANICI. 179

Pretus held the sovereignty ef Argos at the time when the Poet
of Pylos was meriting an immortal eminence among the neighbour-
ing nations, by his manifold endeavours to mitigate the sufferings
and to enlarge the comforts of mankind, through the influences of
beneficence and wisdom. ‘This prince had three daughters, who
were affected with an inveterate cutaneous eruption ;* and, on its
being accidentally, repelled the disease took a determination to the
brain, and so deranged its functions as to induce a partial insanity.
Affected thus by a strong mental delusion, the princesses enter-
tained the monstrous fancy that they themselves were Cows ; and,
escaping from society, they scampered away to the woodlands,
where they filled the plains and forests with their wild lowings and
their cries.

Melampus undertook the cure of these delirious damsels ; and,
for this purpose, he began with administering Black Hellebore,} as
the best means, in his mind, for purging the bowels and the brain.
He then subjected them to violent and protracted exercise,§ with

* Hesiod describes the affection of the Argian princesses by symptoms
which distinctly indicate a case of leprosy. In them, he says, the head was
covered with disgusting scabs, which caused an intolerable itching; the hair
fell off in various places, producing patches of baldness ; and over all their
persons the skin was covered with lentil-shaped blains.—Eustathii, Schol. in
Odyss., V, p. 1746; folio, Rome, 1549.

+ When Hercules was absent, at the performance of his labours, his wife
Megara sustained an attack of personal violence by Lycus a Theban exile ;
and the matron must have been overpowered in the outrage if her husband
had not returned at the moment, and punished the ravisher with death.
This dreadful occurrence rendered Hercules so delirious that he killed his
three children and their mother in a fit of madness, thinking them to be
wild beasts. Another illustration of partial insanity results from the facts
in this episode of the hero’s history. This affection is prone to become in-
fectious ; sometimes it spreads epidemically among women having a sensi-
tive and nervous constitution.

+ Blacke Hellebor, taken inwardly, prouoketh the siege or stoole vehe~
mently, and purgeth the neather part of the belly from grosse and thicke
fleme and cholerique humours: also it is good for them that waxe mad or
fall beside themselues, and for such as be dull, heauy, and melancholique.—
Lyte’s Nievve Herbal, p. 352. With Helleborum is a Watyr made that
restoreth youth: such a one saw I my father haue: but such watyrs vexe
the bodyes, and make a fallible image of youth.—Peter Morwyng’s Treasure
of Evonymvs, p. 176, 4to ; London, 1559.

§ Melampus has the credit of attaining this object by a contrivance which
has probably never been imitated. He sent a number of robust boys who,
by jumping and shouting, frightened the princesses and chased them as far
as Sicyon, a distance of three leagues—a manceuvre well-calculated to re-

VOL. VII., NO. XXII. AA

180 DIVI BOTANICI.

the effect of determining a profuse perspiration: and, last of all, to
complete their recovery, he enjoined a course of bathing in the
Thessalian fountain,* whose waters were long held in high estima-
tion for their property of removing the scurfy, leprous and other
sordid impurities of the skin. By this process of salutary discipline,
the frantic maidens regained their health and equanimity ; and the
*‘doctor’s honorarium” was the fairest of his fair patients, with a
fair inheritance in her father’s kingdom.

Me.ampopium the Plant.—Anciently this herb had the name
Hellebore, expressive of its deleterious qualities on being inordinate-
ly employed. When the daughters of Preetus were delivered from
their melancholy delusions by the agency of its evacuating energies,
the name of their benefactor was bestowed upon the plant, as a tri-
bute of grateful respect from the herbarists for his discernment and
humanity. It continued for many ages after that event to be re-
cognized as the Melampodium ;+ but, for reasons which satisfied
Linneus, the term now distinguishes a genus of exotic vegetables
having characters every way dissimilar. ‘The plant administered by
Melampus was the Black Hellebore whose root, according to its
proportions, has immemorially been regarded as capable of acting
beneficially in dropsical, asthmatic, hysterical, epileptic, maniacal,
and other nervous maladies, when these are unattended with fever,
debility, inflammation or spitting of blood.

Pliny expatiates with amusing minuteness on the Melampodium,}
giving an enumeration of its names, kinds, habitats and uses, both
mystical and medicinal. Speaking through an English version, the
naturalist commences with the inquiry “ Who hath not heard of
Melampus, the famous diviner and prophet? He it was of whom
one of the Hellebores tooke the name, and was called Melampodion.
And yet some there be who attribute the finding of that herb vnto

open the cutaneous pores, and thus to withdraw the causes of insanity from
the brain.

* This was the source of the river Anigrus, to whose springs the qualities
ofa mineral water are ascribed. ‘The Centaurs washed with it the wounds
they received from the arrows of Hercules, in the reckless broil which led
to the loss of Chiron’s exemplary life.

+ It was also called Eutemon and Polyrrhizon, sometimes Veratrum, but
this last term generally denoted the white hellebore ; and it is worthy of re-
mark that the Veratria, a modern vegetable alkali, prepared from this plant,
has precisely the same virtues attributed to it as those which were found to
exist in the herb itself, according to the earliest records of the healing
art.

+ Natvral Historie of the World, Tombe ii, p. 217-20.

DIVI BOTANICI. 181

a shepheard* or heardsman of that name, who, obseruing well that
his she-goats feeding thereupon fell a scouring, gaue their milk vnto
the daughters of king Proetus, whereby they were cured of their
furious melancholy, and brought again to their right wits. The
black Ellebore is a very poison to horses, kine, oxen, and swine, for
it killeth them; and therefore naturally these beasts beware how
they eat it. It commeth up euery where, but the best is in Heli-
con, a mountaine much renowned and praised for other herbs beside
it, wherewith it is well furnished. The blacke Ellebore is called
Melampodium, wherewith folk vse to hallow their houses for to
driue away ill spirits, by strewing or perfuming the same, and vsing
a solemne praier withall: it serueth also to blesse their cattell after
the same order. But for these purposes they gather it uery de-
voutly, and with certain ceremonies:t for, first and foremost, they

* Although the grandson of a king, Melampus was a shepherd and herds-
man, superintending the management of his flocks and herds in person, as
did Abraham, Lot, Laban, Isaac, his sons and grandsons, whose trade had
been with cattle from their youth, both they and also their fathers.

+ According to the same industrious collector, nearly similar observances
were practised by the Celtic Druids, in preparing the Selago, Samolus, Ver-
vain and Mistleto, for religious and salutary purposes. “Many ceremo-
nies,” he says, “‘are to be obserued in the gathering of this herbe, Selago
(Lycopodium Selago, wolf’s-foot, wolf’s-claw, fir-leaved club-moss), which is
much like unto Sauine. The party who is to gather it must be apparelled
all in white; go barefoot he must, and have his feet washed in fair water.
Before he commeth to gather it he ought to do sacrifice unto the gods, with
bread and wine: moreouer no knife or yron toole is to be’vsed hereabout ;
neither will any hand serue but the right, and that also must do the deed
not bare and naked, but by some skirt or lappet of his coat between, which
was done off with the left hand, and so closely, besides, as if he came to steal
it away secretly. Last of all, when it is gathered, wrapped up it must be,
and carried in a new linnen napkin or towell. The Druids of France haue a
great opinion of this herbe thus gathered, and haue prescribed it to be kept,
as the only preseruative against all hurtfull accidents and misfortunes what-
soever ; saying that the fume thereof is singular good for all the infirmities
and diseases of the eies. The Druids also make great account of another
herb growing in moist grounds, which they name Samolus (Samolus Valeran-
di, round-leaved water-pimpernel, or brook-weed); and forsooth if you did
well you should gather it fasting, with the left hand in any wise; and in ga-
thering not look back howsoeuer you do. In Gaule the Druids vse the
Vervaine ( Verbena officinalis, vervain, simpler’s joy) in casting lots, telling
fortunes, and foresheuing future events by way of prophesie. ‘They giue ex-
presse order that it be gathered about the rising of the great dog-star, but so
as neither sun nor moon be at that time aboue the earth to see it ; with this
especial charge besides, that before they take up the herbe they bestow upon
the ground where it groweth, honey with the combes, in token of satisfac-

182 DIVI BOTANICI.

make a round circle about it with a sword or knife, before they go
in hand to take it forth of the ground: then the party who is to
cut or dig it vp turneth his face into the east, with an humble
prayer vnto the gods, T’hat they would vouchsafe to give him leaue,
nith their fauor, to do the deed ; and with that he markes and ob-
serueth the flight of the Egle ; for lightly while they be cutting vp
of this root, ye shall see an Egle soring in the aire: now in case
the said Egle flie neere vnto him or her that is cutting vp Elle-
bore, it is a certain presage and foretoken that he or she shall surely
die before that yeare go about. It is wel known that Carneades
the philosopher, purposing to answer the bookes of Zeno, prepared
his wits and quickened his spirits by purging his head with Elle-
bore ; and Drusus, one of the most famous and renowned tribunes
of the commons that were ever knowne at Rome, was perfectly
cured of the falling sickness by this only medicine. It is good for
the palsie, for those that be lunatick and bestraught of their wits,
for such as be in a dropsie so they be cleare of a feuer, for inueterat
gouts, as well of feet and hands as other joints. Physitians forbid
the giuing of Ellebore vnto old folk and yong children, to such as
be of a foeminine bodie ; as also to those that be in mind effeminate ;
likewise to those who are thin and slender, soft and tender ; least of
all vnto those that spit or reach up blood ; no more than to sickly

tion and amends for the wrong and violence done in depriuing her of so wor-
thie an hearbe. ‘They inioine them also who are to dig it vp, for to make a
circle round about the place with some instrument of yron, and then to draw
and pluck it vp with the left hand in any wise, and so to fling it aloft ouer
their heads vp into the aire: which done, they appoint precisely that it be
dried in the shade, leaues, stalkes, and roots, euerie one apart by themselues.
‘They add, moreouer, that if the halle or dining-chamber be sprinckled with
the water wherein Veruaine lay steeped, all that sit at the table shall be
very pleasant, and make merrie more jocundlie. Of all other hearbes, there
is none more honoured among the Romans than Hierobotane (the sacred
plant, Vervain), called in Greek Peristerion, but which in Latin we name
Verbenaca: it is that hearbe which our Embassadors vse to carry with them
when they go to denounce war, and to giue defiance ynto our enemies.
With this hearbe the feastivall table of Jupiter is wont to be swept and
clensed with great solemnitie; our houses also be rubbed and hallowed for to
driue away ill spirits. Concerning the Misselto ( Viscum Album, missel, all-
heal), the principall and best is found upon the Oke; it will work the better
and with more eflicacie in case it be gathered from the Oke the first day of
the new moon ; also if it be not cut downe with any bill, hooke, knife, or
edged yron toole. Moreover they do hold that, if it touch not the ground,
it cureth those who are troubled with the falling sickness.”—Natvral Histo-
rie, ii, 178, 193, 228.

DIVI BOTANICI. 183

and crasie persons who haue some tedious and lingring maladie
hanging vpon them.” Here is a selection from the curious and in-
structive notes of Pliny in his natural history of the Melampodium,
as it was esteemed for a medicine by the ancients. He shows very
clearly that, from observation and experience, the fathers of primi-
tive families possessed much information concerning the nature and
virtues of herbs ; and, with many evidences, he also shows how soon
the first tribes, misled by their patriarchs, degenerated from the
simple worship of Him who created the Universe, while they
brought debasement on the higher elements of Mind by the institu-
tion of fantastic and mystical rites as excitements to a spurious de-
votion. So prone is Man to invent superstitious observances,
through a misuse of the intuitive sentiment that naturally disposes
him to be religious.

Trucer.—Legendary tradition prefers some claims to consistency
when it uniformly selects the reputed disciples of Chiron the Cen-
taur from among the cotemporary chieftains, notwithstanding the
simple personal history of these unforgotten naturalists is densely
encumbered with the ornaments of mythological and allegorical po-
etry. Like the rest, Teucer was fortunate in having “ the wise and
just man of Emonia’” for his instructor ; and, profiting by the
Centaur’s precepts, he acquired a predilection for the exercise of his
observant faculties in the examination of vegetable productions, so
as to make them applicable to useful ends. With his parents, origi-
nated one of the first causes, and he himself was a high-spirited pro-
moter, of that disastrous struggle which, “ in the olden time,” in-
volved so many nations in misery, and occasioned so many heroes to
be sacrificed at War’s ensanguined shrine—the siege and extinction
of Troy.

Teucer was the son of Telamon king of Salamis,* an island in the
/Egean sea, with a capital bearing the same name. His mother
was Hesione, the daughter of Laomedon king of Troy, whose faith-
lessness and ingratitude led to the first overthrow of that ill-fated
city. He built its walls, and made vows with his supplications for
divine assistance in the undertaking; but, when the work was com-
pleted, he stubbornly abstained from performing fairly his solemn

* Colouri is the modern name of this island, so famous for one of the most
eventful naval conflicts recorded in ancient history. Ajax Te/amon and his
half-brother ‘Teucer, who earned the highest reputation for valour and enter-
prize in the last 'l'rojan war, were the sons of its sovereign. It lies opposite
the southern coast of Attica, from which it is only a few miles distant: it is
about fifty miles in circumference.

184 DIVI BOTANICI.

acknowledgment of the help he had received from heaven. For
this impiety, his territories were laid waste by inundations of the
sea, and his people suffered grievously from an epidemical pestilence.
Penitential sacrifices were then ostentatiously offered, by the royal
transgressor ; but, like the constrained abasements too often dis-
played by a justly chastised hypocrisy, they added mockery to the
guilt of perfidiousness: they proved unavailing, and the calamities
of his devoted nation increased. He was overmastered by the forces
of an assailant* from the ocean, who demanded the annual tribute
of a marriageable virgin, as the evidence of her people’s subjuga-
tion to his power. For several years, this odious exaction had been
endured, when the lot determined that Hesione, the king’s daugh-
ter, should be the next victim. This fatal decision overwhelmed
her hapless parent with consternation and wretchedness ; and while
with a natural reluctance he was hesitating to resign his tenderly
beloved child to a destiny so cruel, he accepted the proffered aid of
Hercules to liberate her country, and to punish its inexorable op-
pressor, engaging to recompense her deliverer with a stipulated
number of the finest Trojan horses. Without delay the lady’s he-
roic champion fulfilled his engagements, by achieving the monster's
destruction ; but, with the infatuation of a deceiver foredoomed to
ruin, the false-hearted father refused to observe his part of the so
lemn compact, by withholding from his chivalrous ally the meed so
entirely due to the saviour of his people from an intolerable degra-
dation. Incensed most reasonably by the king’s baseness, the ill-re-
quited hero enforced his rightful claims by turning his power
against the Trojan city which he captured, on the discomfiture of
its army. He then put the insincere monarch to death, and esta-
blished his son Priam on the dishonoured throne ; and, having
gained the princess Hesione among the spoils of war, he bestowed
her on Telamon his trusty associate, who made her his queen, to
share with himself the homage of his faithful Salaminian islanders.
Priam entered, with persevering energy, on the restoration of the
‘Trojan metropolis, and he soon made it the admiration of many na-
tions, for its extraordinary strength and beauty. But his prosperity

* With the poets this savage enslaver of the Laomedontiade is mysti-
cally pourtrayed under the symbol of a sea-monster, by whom the destined
Trojan maidens were mercilessly devoured. When divested of his emblema-
tic horrors, this monster would be a barbarian pirate or ‘“reafere,” like the
brutal Scandinavian “ Se-kingr,” who were long formidable to islanders and
dwellers on the sea-shore, from the sternness of their valour and the ferocity
of their vengeance.

DIVI BOTANICI. 185

proved unfavourable to his virtue, by undermining its supremacy in
the economy of mind: it betrayed him into an attempt at injustice
and ingratitude. His pride reminded him that his sister had been
given to a hostile stranger, by the man who had desolated the in-
heritance of his fathers, and massacred the chiefs of its kingly race.
Excited inly by this ungenerous feeling, he conceived a desire to
re-demand the princess from her husband, with disregard of her
affection for her children and their sire ; and, with a senseless un-
concern about consequences, he dispatched his son Paris with a fleet
so powerful as to render certain the indulgence of a solicitude alike
unwise and unholy. This effeminate adventurer was kindly receiv-
ed by the Grecian princes ; but, encouraging an hereditary disposi-
tion to selfishness and profligacy, and neglecting the injunctions he
was commissioned to execute, he did not perceive depravity in sub-
verting the happiness of his august entertainer by an outrage on
the rights of hospitality, which are sacred even among savages,
on the laws of moral intuition, which are divine and immutable.
By a stealthy crime he perpetrated the “‘ Rape of Helen,” which
kindled the flames of a pitiless warfare ; and, in this, it was the hard
fate of Teucer, the son of a Trojan princess, to have his prudence
and fortitude exerted for the extermination of a people over whom
his progenitors had long exercised a splendid and patriotic sove-
reignty.

When Teucer returned to Salamis from the Trojan expedition, his
father would not receive him into his court and family, for the
reason that the prince had not avenged the death of his half-brother
Ajax,* who was killed in battle. In consequence of this unkind-
ness, he repaired to Cyprust where, on acquiring wealth and in-
fluence, he built a town, and conferred on it the name of his native
island. After the death of Telamon his father, Teucer essayed to

“ When Achilles was slain, Ajax and Ulysses supported opposing claims
for the hero’s arms; and, on the dispute being submitted to the decision of
Menelaus and Agamemnon, the pretensions of Ulysses were preferred. By
this award, the son of Telamon was so enraged that he fell into a fit of mani-
acal fury ; and, during the paroxysm, he slaughtered a whole flock of sheep,
imagining them to be the arbiters who had given him a position of gallantry
inferior to that of his rival. This scene affords a melancholy illustration of
partial madness occasioned by that disturbance among the mental faculties
which awakens the passions of anger and pride.

+ After the descendants of 'Teucer had continued to govern the Cyprian
Salamis, and to guard the peace and prosperity of its inhabitants for more
than eight hundred years, the town was destroyed by an earthquake. It was
rebuilt and named Constantia in the fourth century.

186 DIV! BOTANICI.

vindicate his birth-right and to gain the throne ; but, on finding
that his attempt would be ineffectual, he retired to his Cyprian Sa-
lamis, and there ended a life full darkly checkered with adventure
and peril.

Trvucrium the Plant.—This herb’s name prolongs the distinction
of Teucer, as an honoured and original distributer of remedies which
depend on the virtues of this vegetable for their effects. Recently
arranged systems of Botany make the term represent a family of
shrubs, under-shrubs and herbs ; and in this many kinds are in-
cluded. Few of these grow spontaneously in this island ; they are
the Germanders* and Wood-sages, to which the Ground-pine is an
intimate ally. If Teucer took his medicines from plants comprised
in this family, they would act as cordial and bitter restoratives
adapted to the cases of persons suffering from loss of appetite, weak-
ened digestion, nervousness and rheumatic gout. Sage-germander
or Wood-sage possesses the bitterness, and has much of the flavour,
of hops: it is sometimes used in brewing, and is not unwholesome ;
but it imparts too dark a colour to the liquor. When, from neces-
sity or accident, the Water-germander has been eaten by cows, their
milk acquires the odour of garlick.

Although, in these latter days, the Teucrium denotes extensively
the group of plants above-mentioned, yet the fitness of its applica-
tion may be questioned, at least with respect to its originality.
Pliny particularizes the herb which had its name in honour of the
Prince of Salamis under the subsequent description ; and therefore,
this being faithful, the evidence is conclusive that the naturalist
speaks not of a Sage or aGermander. He says,t “In the same age
wherein Achilles liued, prince Teucer also gaue the first name and

* All the sorts of plants comprehended vnder the title of Teucriwm, are
doubtlesse kindes of Germander. They are not altogether without force or
power to open and clense: they may be counted among the number of them
that do open the liuer and spleen: when boiled in water and drunk, they de-
liuer the bodie from all obstructions and stoppings. There be Empiricks or
blind practitioners of this age, who teach that with this herbe, Asplenium,
Ceterach, or Spleenwort, not onely the hardnesse and swelling of the spleene;
but all infirmities of the liuer also may be effectually and in a short time re-
mooued, insomuch that the sodden liuer of a beast is restored to his former
constitution againe, that is, made like ynto a raw liuer, if it be boyled againe
with this herbe: but this is to be reckoned among the old wiues fables.—
Gerarde’s Herball, or Generall Historie of Plants, p. 657, 1141; folio, London,
1633. All this is a servile transcription from Lyte’s Nievve Herball, p. 25,
113, and 408, with exception of the concluding judgment.

+ Holland’s Natvral Historie of C. Plinivs, ii., 216.

DIVI BOTANICI 187

credit to one speciall herb, called after him Teucrion, which some
-nominat Hemionium. This plant putteth forth little stalks in ma-
ner of rushes or bents, and spreadeth low: the leaues be small: it
loueth to grow in rough and yntoiled places: a hard and vnpleesant
sauor it hath in tast: it neuer floureth, and seed it hath none.
Soueraigne it is for the swolne and hard spleene: the knowledge of
which property came by this occasion, as it is credibly and con-
stantly reported. It fortuned on a time, when the inwards of a
beast killed for sacrifice were cast vpon the ground where this herb
grew, it took hold of the spleen or milt, and claue fast vnto it, so as
in the end it was seen to haue consumed and wasted it cleane : here-
vpon some there be that call it Splenion,* or spleen-wott: and
there goeth a common speech of it, that if swine doe eat the root of
this herbe they shall be found without a milt when they are opened.
Some there be who take for Teucrium, and by that name do call,
another herb full of branches in maner of hyssop, leafed like vnto
beans; and they giue order that it should be gathered whiles it is
in floure, as if they made no doubt but that it would floure.”
Teucrium is neither mentioned nor described by Theophrastus,
who was the friend of Aristotle, succeeded Socrates in teaching phi-
losophy, and composed his History of Plants almost nine hundred
years after Teucer had retired to the peaceful government of his
Cyprian territory. In his days, therefore, this herb apparently had
not yet become known to botanists by the name that honours its dis-
coverer. Dioscorides flourished more than nine centuries after
Theophrastus, and his Books on the Materia Medica bear a date an-

* This is retained asa generic term in the nomenclature of modern bota-
ny, With a slight but improving variation. It is the Asplenium or miltwaste,
so designated with allusion to its reputed properties. Vitruvius describes
the origin of the name in these terms; and, though founded on a fable, his
deduction is instructive. “That we are beholden to the soil,” he says, “ for
the wholesomeness of provisions both for man and beast, is demonstrable
from the lands of the Cretans, which lie along the river Pothereus : sheep and
black cattle graze on the right and left of this stream ; but those which feed
on the one side are not without a spleen, while those that pasture on the
other side have no appearance of any. Hence physicians were led to investi-
gate into the cause of this phenomenon; and they discovered an herb which
the cattle had eaten, and which, by its virtue, had wasted away their spleen.
They gathered this herb, and used it to very good purpose in disorders of
the spleen. For this reason the Cretans called it Asplenion. Now,” he con-
cludes, “this example shews us that the natural salubrity or insalubrity of a
place may be ascertained from the vegetables and water it affords.”—De Ar-
chitecturé, lib. i, cap. 4; folio, Amstelodami, 1649.

VOL. VII., NO. XXII, BB

188 A GENERAL VIEW OF THE

terior to that of Pliny’s Natural History ; but, during a part of their
lives, these venerable Naturalists were cotemporaries. Each of
them recognizes Teucrium as the established appellation of a plant
which their predecessors had delineated, and also administered as a
medicine. Very little difference occurs in their accounts of its cha-
racters and properties: of the two, the Greek physician discourses
on his subject with the greatest brevity. His vegetable is not ob-
scurely made a Germander: with Pliny, as has been noted previ-
ously, it is either a Germander or a Spleenwort: he abstains from
proposing a distinction between them, as if his own views had been
undetermined. Even through the veil of this uncertainty, however,
the fact may be discerned, that an efficacious wild vegetable has
been valued as the Herb of Teucer for more than three thousand
years ; and it is a good taste whereby that Exquisite Sagacity which
affects to know all things, and would reform every thing, has hi-
therto been restrained from out-stretching its desecrating hands to
eradicate from the rolls of phytological glossography the name of an
herb whereby the student of Nature’s excellencies is reminded that +
the Son of Telamon was endowed with a disposition to promote the
advances of humanity and intelligence.

A GENERAL VIEW OF THE SUBJECTS OF
NATURAL HISTORY.“

In commencing this Lecture, which is to include “ A General
View of the Subjects of Natural History,” I may remark that Na-
ture is a term comprehending all that exists so as to be perceptible
by the human senses, without being planned by human contrivance
or executed by human labour ; and in this its general meaning Na-
ture stands opposed to Art.

The lessons of Nature abound every where: they come to us in
the beams of the sun, in the cloud, and in the shower; the ground
we tread upon, the sky, the ocean, and the gentle air which fans the
cheek, are all pregnant with instruction. Before any addition can
be made to the accommodation or comfort of mankind, we must go

* Being a Lecture delivered before the Worcestershire Natural History
Society, on the 3rd of October, 1837, by W. Addison, Esq., F'.L.S.

a eee

SUBJECTS OF NATURAL HISTORY. 189

to Nature for the materials, and to a knowledge of Nature for the
methods of using them. All the most masterly combinations of the
painter and the sculptor are but selections from the vast field of na-
tural products. If he succeed in bringing together such an assem-
blage as no individual was ever known to exhibit, yet must the se-
lection, in all its parts, follow the great outline and manner of Na-
ture, otherwise, instead of a Venus or an Apollo, he would embody
a monster.

Were I to bring before you any work of art in which genius had
done its utmost, I could only shew you that the most perfect speci-
men of human ingenuity is but a faint and imperfect reflection of
Divine Wisdom. The highest and noblest inventions of man can
never stand the test of a comparison with the works emanating from
the source of perfection. No parallel ought to be attempted between
the works of Nature and the works of man. What are pyramids,
that chronicle scarcely less than forty centuries, to your own neigh-
bouring hills? What the most brilliant tints of the palette to the
colours of the rainbow or the varied tints of autumn? What are
the mausoleums of the east to the rocks and mountains that pre-
serve the remains and memory of an extinguished world ?

The works of Nature are so many and so varied—they include
objects so beautiful and exquisite in their structure, and so perfect
in all their adaptations—they are based upon principles so simple,
yet so powerful, efficient alike upon the atom and the mass, now de-
termining the orbits of comets and the career of planets through space
to which we can assign no bounds, and again giving colour to the
rainbow and the flower. The vast extension of Natural History,
and its endless application to the wants of man, raises it so high in
the scale of our inquiries and pursuits, that every attempt to impart
its facts and conclusions in an easy and persuasive form is desirable
and praiseworthy. To this end the building in which I am speak-
ing, placed in the centre of your city, has been devoted; for this
purpose its museum is stored with materials of interest, which can-
not fail of imparting a feeling of surprise and admiration to those
who visit them. Do not be disappointed if you cannot make out the
object or uses of all you see; to understand any department a pre-
vious acquaintance with the labours of others is necessary. The
energy of many minds has been exerted in the study of Natural
History ; and the limits of former discovery should be the starting-
post for you.

Among the primary elements of education is the acquirement of
the art of imparting to others all that may be passing in our own

190 A GENERAL VIEW OF THE

minds, our thoughts, our wishes, and our wants. The organs of
speech are limited to personal communications ; they cannot convey
our ideas to persons at a distance from us, much less are they able
to transmit them to those who may come after us. But man has
succeeded in establishing a permanent channel of communication. I
take up my pen, and in a few minutes can exhibit in intelligible
characters 1o all around me every thing that has been passing in my
mind. The results of years of laborious research, of long and weary-
ing thought, can at once be placed before thousands by the press.
Thus every new view—every new discovery in Natural History—
every inquiry that has occupied the attention of a life—is submitted
to the world, where it is canvassed, verified, or corrected. Cotem-
poraries and posterity, instead of reeoommencing the investigation,
begin where it terminated ; every step is secured, and the thoughts
and actions of a man’s life, become beacons for the guidance of his
successors. Without these means a knowledge of the various pro-
ductions of Nature could not have extended far ; as it is, they have
given a vast impulse to the study in this country : to the publications
in France, and to those of the immortal Cuvier especially belong the
credit of this impulse in the departments of recent and fossil Zoo-
logy.

It does not fall within the scope of the present lecture to enter
into the details of Natural History ; but I shall endeavour to bring
before you the primary divisions of the subject, and to exhibit some
of the interesting objects they severally embrace.

At the head of animated beings stands man. Observe him in his
social and in his uncivilized state: mark the effects produced by the
activity of his reasoning powers ; his habits from infancy inclining
him to look to others of his species for his pleasures, consolation,
and support ; thus impressing on his character the feelings of pa-
rental love and the desire for social intercourse. His passions tem-
pered by civilization: and the curious contemplations of an aspiring
intellect subdued and harmonized by religion. From man turn your
attention to the several tribes of animals with habits and instincts
often superior to his own, with senses in no way inferior ; capable
of enjoyment, of attachment, and dislikes; sensible to pleasure and
amenable to pain; but devoid of those intellectual powers which
add the delights of contemplation and hope to the love of life.

From quadrupeds pursue the stream of vitality through birds of
every size and every hue, from the Eagle soaring above the tops of
the mountains, and the gigantic Crane stalking upon the arid plains
of India, to the Humming-bird fluttering from flower to flower, sip-

;
i

SUBJECTS OF NATURAL HISTORY. 19]

ping their sweets ; from the Vulture to the gentle Wren. Between
these extremes, what beauty in form and plumage! What variety in
song and habits! The air is often filled with the warbling tribe ;
the groves and thickets on every side resound with their notes of joy
and affection.

The waters, again, are full of activity. The ocean teems with
life: fish of every kind—the Whale, the Lobster, and the Shrimp.
Every reef is bristling with corals and sponges, and every tide-
washed rock is carpetted with fuci, or studded with Actiniw and
Molluscs. (Then, again, the insect tribe, with their wonderful me-
tamorphoses. From insects, the simpler forms of animal life are
found in Worms, Infusoria, and Entozoa ; until at last we are con-
ducted to the confines of another scene, where the organisms of ani-
mal life are hardly to be distinguished from vegetable structures.
This boundary passed, we ascend upon another scale to forms far
different, but singularly beautiful, and quite as varied—the stately
Oak, the Palm, the Mushroom, and the Lichen. Every blade of
grass, every weed, exhibits a structure maintaining the functions of
vegetable life, by which the materials of nourishment are drawn up
from the ground, sent through millions of little pipes or tubes into
the leaves, and in returning promote the growth of the individual,
and secure the further propagation of the species by perfecting the
seed.

To such an endless assemblage of living forms, you may well sup-
pose that a great deal of learning, a great deal of observation, and
an immense amount of’mental labour has been devoted, for the pur-
pose of their arrangement and classification ; and as a system of
classification is essential to the study of Natural History, I must
detain you with a few remarks upon the matter. Naturalists, in
the present day, are actively engaged in studying all the minute
parts of animals and plants, both internal and external ; so that
their affinities and alliances in the great connected chain of Nature
may be determined, and their true place in a natural system fixed.
In this way the habits of animals and the sensible properties of plants
are best associated, and their organization elucidated with the
greatest accuracy. But this, which is the natural method, requires
great industry and an extensive knowledge, and, I may say, is yet
in its infancy. A vast deal has been done, but much remains to be
accomplished ; many links in the chain are wanting, and, unfortu-
nately perhaps for amateurs, a host of hard names derived from the
Greck are employed as terms of designation, and they haye not given

192 A GENERAL VIEW OF THE

an inviting aspect to the study. All this, perhaps, may be im-
proved.

The Linnean methods of classification are undoubtedly the easi-
est ; but, based upon insufficient data, and looking chiefly to isolated
facts, they have not that bearing or dependence upon those general
views which are now taken of the kingdom of Nature. These me-
thods have, therefore, been called artificial schemes; but this is not
an appropriate term to bestow upon a system of classification which,
however imperfect onr increased knowledge of Nature may shew it
to be, has done, and will yet do, a great deal in promoting a taste
for Natural History, by presenting an easy and inviting introduc-
tion to a wide and difficult study. But Linnzus was the first to
point out the desirableness of the natural method, indicating it as a
pursuit worthy of a philosopher, though he thought it would be too
difficult for the young scholar, because it depends upon such an ex-
tended series of mutual relations as can be understood only by a
comprehensive view of the whole of the animal, vegetable, and mi-
neral creation. The interpretation of Nature in her innumerable
forms is, indeed, no easy task ; and even now—as will always be
the case in so vast a field—differences of opinion exist, controversies
and discussions are going on upon many points ; so that to the young
naturalist there appears to be great difficulties in the study. All
these, however, are more apparent than real. It must be remem-
bered that as yet a part only of a great system has been discovered ;
therefore, discussions and differences of opinion are the means—the
necessary means—for finding out that which is not, and for stamp-
ing a true value upon that which is, known.

I mention these things that you may not be discouraged by en-
tering upon the study of Nature at a period of excitement and
great change, while the workmen are all variously engaged upon
detached points, and while, as yet, little seems securely settled.
Remember that the proportions and beauty of a structure are hardly
to be made out while surrounded by a mass of materials, and before
those which are not wanted have been cleared away.

The great truths of progressive development throughout ail or-
ganized beings, and the very gradual transition of the simple into
the more complex forms, are now firmly established and agreed to
on all sides: the difficulties lie in separating and characterizing par-
ticular groups, for the purposes of classification, from those which
stand on either side in the extended chain of being.

A system of Natural History will include Zoology, Botany, and

——e—

SUBJECTS OF NATURAL HISTORY. 193

Geology or Mineralogy.—Zoology embraces the whole animal
kingdom ; and, looking to the organization of every species, it is
naturally divided into four great divisions. The first division ( Ver-
tebrata) includes all those animals which have a vertebral column
or spine, supporting an internal bony skeleton. The second (Moi-
lusca) have no internal bony structure ; on the contrary, they are
clothed externally with a shell or dense tunic, and are chiefly inha-
bitants of the ocean. The third division (Articulata ), so called be-
cause the different portions of their body are composed of moveable
pieces articulated to each other, differ from Mollusca in generally
possessing a skeleton, and from Vertebrata by the skeleton being ex-
ternal, and not internal. The fourth division (Radiata) differ from
the three preceding in the greater simplicity of their structure,
and in the almost total absence of any thing like a nervous sys-
tem.

Botany embraces the whole of the vegetable kingdom ; and refer-
ring to the organization of every species, it is naturally divided into
two great divisions, Vasculaves and Cellulares. Vasculares have a
vascular and cellular structure, with delicate spiral vessels in their
tissue ; they have a sexual apparatus, and are propagated by seed.
Cellulares have a cellular structure only, are destitute of spiral ves-
sels, without any sexual apparatus, and the plants included are not
propagated by seeds. If we proceed to investigate the structure of
the great division Vasculares, it is found distinguished, by a truly na-
tural character, into two sub-divisions; the one including plants
which grow by the addition of new matter on the outside of the old
( Exogenx ), and the other those which grow by the addition of new
matter in the centre of the old (Endogenx). Exogenous plants
have a structure composed of a central pith, an external cellular or
fibrous ring or bark, and an intermediate woody mass, well-illus-
trated in a young shoot of Elder. Endogenous plants, on the other
hand, have neither bark, nor pith, nor wood, but are made up of
tubes and fibres imbedded in cellular substance, as in the Palm, the
Cane, and Bamboo. Again, in Exogenex the seed is dicotyledonous,
and the veins of the leaf are variously netted; in Endogenz it is mo-
nocolyledonous, and the veins of the leaf are parallel. It is thus we
look to structure and physiology for the first lines of a natural me-
thod of classification, both in animals and plants ; and you will find
all the standard works upon Natural History which have been late-
ly published adopting these views.

I now refer you to the following classification of the several
tribes of animals; and, commencing with the simplest forms, shall

194 A GENERAL VIEW OF THE

endeavour to illustrate my remarks by reference to various speci-
mens from the museum.

Radiata.—Polygastrica, Poriphera, Polypiphera, Acalepha, E-
chinoderma.

Articulata.—Entozoa, Rotifera, Cirrhopoda, Annelida, Myriapo-
da, Insecta, Arachnida, Crustacea.

Mollusca.—Tunicata, Conchifera, Gasteropoda, Pteropoda, Ce-
phalopoda.

Vertebrata.—Pisces, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, Mammalia.

If we place a drop of any decayed infusion of animal or vegetable
matter under a powerful microscope, and pass a ray of light through
it, we discover in that drop various forms of living beings : some of
a rounded, some of a lengthened form ; others exhibiting various
ramifications; but all apparently of a soft transparent texture.
These singular animals abound in the stagnant waters of rivers and
lakes, and are found in every drop of the ocean. They are called
Polygastrica, because, under a very high magnifying power, they
are observed to have several internal cavities or stomachs. Although
crowded together by thousands, their motions seem to be regular
and methodical ; and they are seen to advance, recede, and stop at
pleasure.

Inhabiting the shores of the sea, covering the rocks, and some-
times hanging in branches from the cliffs, are the sponges and vari-
ous sponge-like bodies. They are termed Poriphera, from the in-
numerable pores, canals, and tubes, of which the firmer textures of
the body consist, and through which the salt-water is found con-
stantly circulating. When these sponges are torn from the rocks
the softer parts of the animal run down like oil. If at this time
we cut the sponge in pieces, the salt water may be seen, under the
microscope, rushing through the pores and canals of each separate
piece, although we can observe nothing in the structure to explain
the motion. The strongest stimuli fail in exciting the slightest
movement ; strong acid or a hot wire does not cause the slightest
trembling: vet the usual currents still go on.

The Polypiphera inhabit the sea in every clime. These beauti-
ful varieties of coral and corallines now before me are the skeletons
of polypipherous animals, which ramify and branch out in masses
from the bottom of the sea. Sometimes covering these elegant
masses are thousands of little carnivorous animals ; sometimes in the
interior there is a soft fleshy substance, which is the body of the
animal. These polypiphera are an exceedingly interesting group,
well worthy your attention.

~

SUBJECTS OF NATURAL HISTORY. 195

The Acalepha are, for the most part, gelatinous animals, inhabit-
ing all parts of the ocean. They are generally transparent, and of
a very simple structure ; for instance, the Medusa and Physalia.
They all excite a tingling or stinging sensation when they touch the
skin of man: hence the name of the family. Among the Acalepha
are many animals of great size, swimming freely through the sea
by their own exertions, possessing a complex digestive apparatus,
and having, for the most part, numerous long and exquisitely sensi-
tive tentacula. There are others, as the Actiniz, which are fixed.

The Echinoderma are also marine animals. The Asterias (Star-
fish), Echinus (Sea-egg), and Cidaris are types of this curious family,
specimens of which are before you, many of them with their natural
spiny covering. The large fossil tribe Crinoidea (Encrinites, Penta-
crinites, and others), which you may study hereafter in the muse-
um, is composed of fixed individuals belonging to this family.

With regard to the anatomical structure of these simple Radiate
animals, we find a homogeneous more or less transparent body ;
sometimes, as in Polygastrica, divided into distinct little sacs or sto-
machs ; sometimes (in Poriphera) supported upon a flexible elastic
sponge ; at others (Polypiphera) upon a hard calcareous skeleton :
but we find nothing like nerves—the peculiar characteristics of a
higher order of development—in any of these animals. Nerves first
begin to appear in Acalepha: and in the Echinoderma we observe
a distinct nervous filament, and the first appearance of muscular fi-
bre.

Frequently found in the interior of the best-protected organs of
the higher animals—in the liver, the muscles, the alimentary canal,
and even in the substance of the brain—are various species of para-
sitic worms, belonging to the class Entozoa. Upwards of fifteen
distinct kinds are known to infest the human body, where many of
them give rise to well-marked symptoms of disorder—for instance,
the Ascarides, Tape and Guinea Worms. A very minute Entozoa,
enveloped in acyst, has been lately discovered in the dissecting-room
of St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, existing in astonishing numbers,
imbedded among the fibres of the voluntary muscles of the human
body. They appear to breed and exist in the living flesh, without
giving rise to any symptoms yet known. Classed with these Ento-
zoa is a singular, long, hair-like animal, inhabiting ditches, called
the Gordius aquaticus, from the complicated knots they are capable
of forming with their long slender body. I notice it particularly
because many persons, not versed in Natural History, think it is
merely a horse-hair animated by being steeped in water ; and some

VOL. VII., NO. XXII. cc

196 A GENERAL VIEW OF THE

will tell you that they have seen the hair grow into a Jiving worm.
It is a curious fact that many fish are infested with various forms of
Entozoa, which attach themselves upon the lips, eyes, and other
tender organs, by means of a little hook developed near the mouth.

The Rotifera are minute microscopic animals found with the Po-
lygastrica, but removed from them in the classification we have
adopted, because their organization is more perfect and complex.
The Cirrhopoda are inclosed in shells of carbonate of lime ; all tim-
bers exposed in the sea, and the broken utensils and instruments
thrown out from vessels at anchor, are soon covered with them.
Many Cirrhopoda are found adhering to the backs of Whales and
Porpoises. The Common Barnacle and several species of Lepas now
before me, will serve to illustrate this curious family.

Inhabiting the soils of all continents, and burrowing by millions
into the sands of the sea shore, are various species of worms, con-
stituting the class Annelide. The beauty of the forms, the struc-
ture, and the colours of many of these worms are not exceeded by
those of any other animals ; and their astonishing numbers render
them important in the economy of Nature: they display as much
the hand of the Great Artificer and are as perfect for their objects
as man himself. The time is now past for ignorance to sneer at the
anatomy of a worm: to overlook any of the links in the great chain,
or to attach insignificance to any particular stage in the general
process of vital development, would betray a gross indifference to
the more interesting and philosophical parts of Natural History.

If you examine the Common Earth-worm, which may be taken
as the type of the Annelide, you may see that it is surrounded by
rings extending from one extremity of the body to the other, and
you may detect by a close examination eight very short, pointed,
tubular feet attached to each ring or segment: by the naked eye
they can hardly be perceived, but you may feel them with the fin-
ger ard see them by the aid of a lens. In the next class, Myriopo-
da, the legs are much more developed and the segments of the body
more conspicuous ; for example, in the Centipede. Insecta is a very
large and interesting class, including all those animals which under-
go metamorphosis from a caterpillar to the chrysalis, and from that
again to the perfect form: Moths and Butterflies, Wasps and Bees,
are sufficiently familiar examples: Allied to insects are the Arach-
nide—Spiders, Scorpions, &c. These are distinguished from insects
by being destitute of antennz, they have no wings, and are not
subject to any metamorphosis.

Fossil Myriapoda, Insecta, and Arachnida occur in great numbers

ae

SUBJECTS OF NATURAL HISTORY. 197

in bituminized vegetable resins or amber, in the tertiary calcareous
slates, and in gypsum ; many fossil insects are found in the brown
coal and bituminous marl slate. The accordance of these extinct
forms with those now existing, and the narrow limits of their vari-
ations, shew in an extraordinary manner the unity of plan which
pervades every department of the animal kingdom. We find just
the same system and harmony in the laws which regulated the form-
ation of these beings thousands of ages ago as are now manifested.

The Crustacea may be called the spiders of the sea: the Lobster,
Crab, and Shrimp are sufficiently known to you. Many of the spe-
cies in this class are very agile and sprightly: and although the
mode of progression in the Lobster and the Shrimp is tail foremost,
still they are capable of taking an extensive spring, the former
bounding to a distance of thirty feet by one or two sweeps of the
tail. Perhaps the most interesting fact I can mention respecting
these crustaceous animals is that of their periodically casting off
their shelly covering. The old shell is removed in detached pieces,
the animal escaping from it with a soft newly-formed epidermis,
which soon secretes the earthy matters to form a new shell, thin
layers being deposited in succession until the animal has formed for
itself an entire jointed sheath, corresponding with the increased
magnitude which it assumes at each fresh casting of the shell.
Many interesting forms of fossil Crustacea are found in the London
clay. The crustaceous animals complete the second grand division
of the animal kingdom.

The simplest family of the molluscous animals is the Tunicata ;
so called from their soft transparent external covering. These ani-
mals are closely allied in their structure to those inhabiting bivalve
shells. They are often found thrown upon the shore by the agi-
tated states of the sea. The Twunicata frequently cover themselves
with an adventitious solid earthy matter formed of particles of gra-
vel, shells, or mud. The beautiful little Pyrosoma, myriads of
which contribute to illumine the ocean at night, especially in tropi-
cal regions, is one of the class Tunicata.

The Conchifera include all the inhabitants of bivalve shells. In
the study of Zoology, as now pursued, these shells and their archi-
tects must be considered together; and Conchology, as formerly
understood, can hardly be considered as forming any part of Natu-
ral History, unless we allow that it embraces what the French call
Malacology—that is a history of the animals which the shells inclose.
The Linnzan Conchology may be very useful to persons collecting
shells ac hoent'*-* shjects of creation ; but when we wish to study

198 A GENERAL VIEW OF THE

Nature, we cannot overlook the animal which is their sole archi-
tect. The shells of the more abundant species of Conchifera some-
times form the entire line of beach along the sea shore for miles,
and in many places they are burnt for lime. The Teredo navalis
bores by means of its shells into the hardest timber, and the genus
Pholas buries itself in the hard rock. Many shells of Conchifera
are here before you, and they display great beauty in their forms
and colour. The recent, waved, and inner layers of the shell are
generally more pellucid, have greater lustre, and are more transpa-
rent than the exterior layers, which have been longer acted on by
the water and by the sand and gravel which wash over them.
Upon removing the outer layers, we often obtain the remaining
inner portions of a beautiful pearly lustre, constituting in fact mo-
ther-of-pearl.

Pearls are formed by conchiferous animals. <A little particle of
sand, perhaps, gains access between the mantle of the animal and
the last formed layer of the shell, the irritation it creates causes the
nacrious matter to be thrown out, and successive layers being depo-
sited a pearl is formed. The Chinese have a practice of forcing the
Swan Muscle to make pearls by throwing into its shell, when open,
three or four very small mother-of-pearl beads: in the course of a
year or two they are found covered with a crust perfectly resem-
bling pearls.

Animals inhabiting univalve shells are termed Gasteropoda, be-
cause, like the Common Snail, for example, they creep upon a mus-
cular disc which extends along the lower surface of the body. Gas.
teropodous shells are, many of them, very splendid and exceedingly
varied in form and size. Immediately beneath the shell is the man-
tle of the animal by which it is secreted, and when the shell is
broken the mantle has the power of repairing it.

Closely allied, in many respects, to the three last tribes are the
Pleropoda, small delicate animals, swimming together near the
calm surface of tropical seas by means of curious wing-shaped mem-
branes, from which they derive their scientific appellation.

The Cephalopoda approach nearest to fishes. The name is deriv-
ed from the circumstance of the feet of the animal closely surround-
ing the head. Several of the Cephalopoda inhabit a pecular kind
of shell, composed of a series of chambers, and constituting a multi-
locular or polythalamous shell ; for instance, the Argonaut and the
Nautilus. The Sepia officinalis is a very remarkable cephalopod
animal. The family is an extensive one, and will prove highly
interesting to those who have opportunities of studying it. Among

SUBJECTS OF NATURAL HISTORY. 199

the fossil shells which formerly belonged to animals of this descrip-
tion, the Ammonite is the most remarkable. Here are several fine
specimens of fossil Ammonites: all the connecting calcareous mat-
ter has been removed from the septa, and the different chambers
have been filled by an infiltrated stony material, with serrated and
dovetailed margins. Upon looking at them in this loose detached
condition, they look very like vertebre, and they have by some
been taken for the vertebral columns of Serpents. The animals to
whom these shells belonged are entirely extinct. Although four
hundred distinct fossil species are described by naturalists, and
more than one hundred of these are met with in our own strata—
although they sometimes occur in such abundance that whole rocks
are composed of little else—yet not one living individual is now
known to exist on the face of the earth. Large specimens of Am-
monites are sometimes built into the front of houses, particularly
in Somersetshire and Yorkshire, and they are looked upon by the
peasantry as petrified Snakes. You are not to conceive that in
these enormous remains of the Ammonite you are looking upon the
testaceous covering of the animal: this has been entirely removed,
and you observe a cast of the interior of the shell only.

We are now arrived at the inportant division, Vertebrata. The
first class is the Fishes; the next the Amphibia, comprehending
Frogs, Toads, &c. This is a deeply interesting family, embracing
beings changing, in all their internal machinery, from their aquatic
condition, to beings which live and breathe in the atmosphere—
undergoing a metamorphosis which affects their osseous, vascular,
nervous, and even their digestive systems—changing, in fact, their
whole structure.

Reptilia comprehends the different kinds of Serpents, Crocodiles,
Lizards, and Tortoises. These are the last of the cold-blooded ani-
mals ; they do not undergo any metamorphosis—a character so pro-
minent in the preceding class. Many of the secondary rocks, espe-
cially the Lias Limestones, abound with remains of extraordinary
and gigantic reptiles, which appear to have abounded in the former
seas and estuaries of the globe.

The next class, Aves, is the first of the hot-blooded animals.
Here is a beautiful and interesting department of Natural History :
we all derive pleasure from reading an account of any observations
on the habits, migrations, and plumage of birds; and you will be
gratified to learn that Ornithology is likely soon to boast of an asso-
ciation of naturalists who will pay particular attention to every
thing relating to it. The London Ornithological Society propose

200 LOOSE THOUGHTS ON THE CAUSE OF

forming extensive gardens, in one of the public parks, for the dis-
play of foreign and indigenous birds of all kinds.

The class Mammalia is too well known to require from me any
examples. I will now ask you to pause for a moment, to connect
the various objects presented to your notice, and the whole animal
kingdom is before you, forming a grand and harmonious picture.
Extend your mental vision to the Heavens, and what another glo-
rious scene! The imagination here may wander through endless
realms of space, occupied by masses of matter, in magnitude and ra-
pidity of motion surpassing the powers of our finite comprehension.
If you ask their size, or try to measure them by magnitudes within
your reach, the attempt is hopeless. All the animated beings on
the earth, its forests, and its mountains, bear no greater relation to
its size, than the bloom upon a plum. And then, again, the globe
itself, with all it bears upon it, is lost in the greater immensity of
the heavenly bodies. If you ask of what materials these bodies are
composed, with what forms of living beings they are peopled, rea-
son, philosophy, and science, return no answer. Your imagination
may picture from analogy the purposes for which they were created,
and may people them with myriads of living forms ; but how poor,
how insignificant, is your attempt to scan or comprehend the works
and designs of Infinite Power, exerted with endless duration in in-
finite space !

LOOSE THOUGHTS ON THE CAUSE OF BEAUTY,
&ec., IN ARCHITECTURE.

In this enlightened age there is something eminently ridiculous
in a person (fancying himself in advance of his fellows in intellect
and knowledge) publishing his ]ucubrations with all the solemnity
of an oracle, and appearing ready to burst with the magnitude of
his discoveries, when, in fact, all his sublime thoughts are shared by
thousands.

When we reflect on the great number of public buildings which
have pretensions to beauty and design, but which are so various in
form, and so diametrically opposite in the principles of their compo-
sition—even in those intended for similar purposes, which ought
certainly to have some similar expressions—we must perceive the

BEAUTY, &c., IN ARCHITECTURE. 201

want of some analytical principles to guide the architect in design-
ing public buildings, and the public in judging of them. That a
great many men have the same views with myself, and infinitely
surpass me in their researches, is very true ; but it is equally as true
that the greater number have what appears to me a very erroneous
idea of the subject.

Artists, by the very nature of their occupation, are accustomed to
think more of the causes or things which produce the emotions of
taste than of the nature of the emotions themselves. From this ha-
bit they are apt to imagine that there is, in the constitution of man,
some one sense, with its organ, by which beauty is perceived and
felt ; this brings along with it the idea that certain forms of matter
are intrinsically and inherently beautiful in themselves. On the
contrary, men of retired habits and philosophic minds resist the idea
of any such particular sense; they suppose the foundation of the
emotion of taste to reside in some general law of our constitution.
Such were the theories, a thousand years ago, of St. Austin, who
attributes these emotions to our perceptions of order or design ; and
of Mr. Hume, who attributes them to our sense of utility. These
were the kinds of theories which prevailed until Mr. Alison, in the
year 1790, published his Essays on Taste, in which quite a new
theory is submitted.

The foundation on which the former systems were raised was the
supposition that the emotion of beauty was a simple emotion: Mr.
Alison supposes it to be a complex one. And after a very minute
and careful examination, most plentifully illustrated, he comes to
the conclusion that, ‘‘ whenever the emotions of beauty or sublimity
are felt, that exercise of imagination is produced which consists in
the prosecution of a train of thoughts ;’ and that the difference be-
tween such trains and our ordinary trains of thought “ consists, Ist.
In the ideas which compose them being, in all cases, ideas of emo-
tion ; and 2nd. To their possessing an uniform principle of con-
nexion through the whole of the train.” So that the pleasure aris-
ing from the emotions of taste results from the conjunction of the
pleasure of simple emotion with that which, by the constitution of
our nature, we feel when our imagination is exercised ; with this
proviso, that such exercise is employed in the prosecution of a “ re-
gular train of ideas of emotion.”

Although I think Mr. Alison has, in his Essays, proved his the-
ory to be correct, he has failed in applying it to the examples he il-
lustrates in several instances. His division of the kinds of lines
which bound objects, and in which their expression is supposed to

202 LOOSE THOUGHTS ON THE CAUSE OF

exist, is certainly incorrect. He divides them into even, uneven,
angular, and waving or winding ; and each of these kinds he sub-
divides into fine and strong. Fine and strong have nothing at all
to do with the question, although he makes it a great consideration ;
for the outline of an object is, to all intents and purposes, a mathe-
matical line, ‘‘ length without breadth.” He supposes fine and
waving lines the most beautiful, because they are expressive of de-
licacy and ease. It is just possible the cause arises from the mecha-
nical action of the muscles of the eye.*

As beauty lies not in any inherent quality of the object itself, but
in the power of its combined expressions to excite the imagination
to the prosecution of a regular train of ideas, the first thing to be
considered, in investigating the causes of the beauty of a building,
must be the nature of these expressions.

The expressions of which a work of Architecture is susceptible,
may be divided into—First, The physical or natural expression of
the material. Although no great source of beauty in itself, this ex-
pression is certainly a concomitant, and one which cannot be over-
looked : for instance, a building of stone has a much greater expres-
sion of strength and durability than one of cement ; and one of
cement has a more cheerful and finished expression than one of
brick. With the progress of science and philosophy the mode of
construction and our ideas of durability will be gradually changed
in proportion to our advance in the knowledge of the nature of ma-
terials ; therefore this expression is not a lasting one. Thus, in

* “ Reasons why Arcs of Ellipses or Circles are pleasing to the Eye.—Profes-
sor Miiller, of Berlin, has, in a late course of lectures, offered a simple and
mechanical explanation of the universal admiration bestowed on these
curves. ‘The eye,’ he observes, ‘is moved in its socket by six muscles, of
which four are respectively employed to raise, depress, and turn to the right
and to the left, the other two having an action contrary to one another, and
roll the eye on its axis, or from the outside downwards and the inside up-
wards. On an object being presented to the eye for inspection, the first act
is circumvision, or going round the boundary lines so as to bring consecutive-
ly every individual portion of the circumference upon the most delicate and
sensitive portion of the retina. Now, if figures bounded by straight lines be
presented for inspection, it is obvious that but two of three muscles are re-
quired ; and it is equally evident that in curves of a circle or ellipse all must
alternately be brought into action. The effect, then, is that, if only two be
employed, as in rectilinear figures, these two have an undue share of labour,
And by repeating the experiment frequently, as we do in childhood, the no-
tion of tedium is instilled, and we form gradually a distaste for straight lines,
and are led to prefer those curves which supply a more general and equable
share of work to the muscles.’ ”—Mechanic’s Magazine, Feb. 4, 837. :

BEAUTY, &c., IN ARCHITECTURE. 203

the present day, we know that a building of hard bricks covered
with cement is stronger and more durable than one of our modern
stone buildings, because the bricks, forming one homogeneous mass,
will sink or settle equally, but, in the stone erection, more mortar
being used on the inside than on the outside of the walls, the inside
will sink the most. When this fact becomes generally known and
acted upon, a cement building will be more expressive of strength
than a stone one.

Secondly, The expression of fitness as regards construction. Of
this we will speak presently.

Thirdly, The expression of design. Of this there are two kinds:
the first, and least lasting, may be simply but correctly defined as
novelty of form. The second kind is a sort of improvement on Na-
ture, and is the setting a marked difference between the work of
genius and art and a mere imitation. A good imitation of Nature
is always curious, but, to sensitive persons, frequently painful. No
one thinks of comparing the beauty of a statue of stone or marble
with that of a wax figure. In statues especially the artist has the
power of preserving the unity of expression in every limb, feature,
and muscle, which in Nature is seldom the case. Flowers and foli-
age should always have an artificial arrangement, and should look
(as Mr. Loudon expresses it) “ sculpturesque” to partake of this
expression.

Fourthly, The expression of fitness in the parts to attain the end in
view, or to produce the expression of character.

Fifthly, The expression of character, without which there can be
no permanent beauty. It is an expression very difficult to explain,
and one that applies to an edifice considered as a whole. The build-
ings of the ancients and the middle ages have this expression in a
very great degree ; but I imagine much of it arises from the fact of
each age having had its own peculiar style of Architecture ; so that
in addition to the character they originally expressed, all our asso-
ciations connected with the characters of their respective ages are
vividly recalled. This expression and the preceding one are inti-
mately connected. Beauty exists in proportion to the unity of
the expression of character in all the parts.

Sixthly, The accidental expression, which may last for years or
but for an hour—may be caused even by the particular state of the
atmosphere or our particular state of mind at the time a place is
viewed. This expression is the cause of much difference of opi-
nion: some particular feature of a building may accidentally recall
peculiar associations of pleasure or pain, and cause a person to like

VOL. VII., NO. XXII. DD

204. LOOSE THOUGHTS ON THE CAUSE OF

or dislike the structure ; whilst another in company, having diffe-
rent associations, would quite differ in opinion. It is impossible for
the utmost art to invest a building with this expression, and quite
as impossible to guard against its ill effects.

It is too commonly the case that Architecture is considered
merely as an art of detail or of parts. If it is viewed in its proper
light—that is as the poetry of building—the end of the art will at
once be perceived. Style or order has nothing to do with it, further
than as a means of preserving a unity of expression which is indis-
pensable ; but styles or orders do not preserve this unity of them-
selves. The reason and imagination of the artist has as much la-
bour to perform now as if there existed none. I have observed
builings in which some example of the ancients has been executed
with very great exactness, perfectly devoid of character.

Perhaps the term most used with regard to architectural compo-
sitions is proportion. It is often used in a wrong sense, as if there
were some particular proportions abstractedly beautiful. Propor-
tions I conceive to be of two kinds: first, where each particular
part seems to do its service towards supporting the fabric, and to be
essential to that end: such is the meaning of the second expression,
viz., fitness, with regard to construction. The second proportion is
when the spaces or masses are so equally and justly balanced that
no part or member intrudes itself on the view, but all the members
are seen without tiring the sight. In such a case the eye takes in
the large spaces first, and then the smaller, until all are perceived,
without the mind or the eye being cloyed or fatigued.

The principal examples of Grecian Doric seem to have attained
the perfection of both kinds of proportion ; and as these qualifica-
tions are productive of a very quiescent pleasure without much ex-
citing the imagination, they render this order very appropriate for
churches and chapels. Keeping the primary expressions always in
view, proportion may be called the distinctive marks of beauty. A
building, to be beautiful, should not be of a vast size, rather sparing
of ornament, which should be quite devoid of intricacy, with the
contrasts not too marked or glaring. In fact the chief causes of
beauty are proportion with just as much variety as will prevent
tameness and monotony without injuring the unity of expression or
the regularity. 1 will just observe that it has been customary to
ascribe beauty to uniformity and variety, which ts, what it appears
to be, a contradiction. Regularity and variety is the more correct
term.

When we see three or four men employed in hoisting up and set-

BEAUTY, &c. IN ARCHITECTURE. 205

ting one moderate-sized or comparatively small stone, the means
appear so very inadequate to the end of raising a large building
that we seldom or ever think of how many large buildings (such, for
instance, as our old cathedrals) were erected. We look at them
with a sort of religious feeling, as if they were indigenous to the
soil. Any thing large or massive is so connected with our ideas of
superior power that it is impossible to throw together a large quan-
tity of materials without a certain stateliness or grandeur of appear-
ance. So it is that many large buildings which, from their size,
look grand, are very popular, and are said to be sublime, although
in reality they are but indifferent designs. Witness St. Peter’s at
Rome, of which Prince Puckler Muskau says, “ The vast multitude
of pillars, vaultings, chapels, niches, altars, and raonuments—all,
for the most part, overloaded with innumerable badly designed and
badly executed ornaments, consisting of arabesques, zig-zag flourish-
ings, symbols, and coats of arms, or of bas-relief, doves, angels, and
popes, together with saints and patriarchs of all dimensions—all
this constitutes such a cut up and confused ensemble that it is im-
possible it should impress the beholder with that feeling of unity
and grandeur as does the first view of the Pantheon in a manner
perfectly irresistible!” The lavish profusion of ornament and the
modern appearance the church derives from it, combined with its
prodigious size, frequently lead those who are astonished by it to
exclaim in a tone of enthusiasm that it is as sublime as it is elegant!
Yet if we ask ourselves what is meant by elegant sublimity or su-
blime elegance, we are tempted to regard such a compliment as
nothing else than a sarcastic epigram.” Large buildings, although
they may be grand from their size, can only be made sublime by the
genius of the artist.

Perhaps a degree of uniformity is as necessary in large buildings
as (after the original expressions) any other quality. By extraor-
dinary richness and intricacy of detail, a bewildering magnificence
may be raised: yet it will not satisfy the man of taste, and will
soon fatigue even the vulgar. But uniformity excites the imagina-
tion by producing almost the idea of infinity ; it does not tire the
sight, it assists the mind in comprehending the whole, and displays
the various beauties and remarkable phenomena of perspective to
the greatest advantage.

It is a common thing with architects to pronounce a building
good or bad merely from the correctness or incorrectness of mould-
ings, ornaments, &c., without considering the more noble and im-
portant ends of design. It is this practice, together with certain

206 LOOSE THOUGHTS ON THE CAUSE OF BEAUTY, &c.

other mystifying expedients, which has made the name of architect
almost synonymous with charlatan.

In a well-designed building the original expressions, or rather the
expression of character, will be the most apparent. And on a first
view no part ought to be so conspicuous as to attract the notice of
the observer before he has had time to comprehend the whole ; after
which the proportions ought to be such that he can transfer his at-
tention from the greater to the less in a regular gradation, without
any difficulty.

With regard to the different kinds or styles of Architecture, I
imagine the genius or rationale of them is not sufficiently studied.
The Grecian is too severe to be used with much propriety in the
present age ; in fact, a very great degree of its beauty lies in the
effect of light and shade, to which our smoky towns and humid cli-
mate are not very advantageous. Besides, the simplicity of form
which is so essential a character of it is not suited to our conveni-
ence. The ancient Roman or modern Italian are much more suit-
able to us; they are susceptible of any shape and degree of richness,
and have several bold features which other styles have not. But
Gothic Architecture is the wide field for improvement ; its capabi-
lities of form or character have no bounds. The chief fault of mo-
dern Gothic lies in its meagreness ; and in costly buildings, the not
preserving a regular gradation of enrichment, from the bold project-
ing base to the pierced battlement and crocketed pinnacles. In
plain or cheap buildings massiveness ought to be the character, and
they ought to look as if considerations of strength and durability,
and not poverty, had caused ornament to be overlooked. It is es-
pecially adapted to very large buildings, such, for instance, as the
Houses of Parliament. In such a case it would, perhaps, be better
not to have too much regularity, but to have the appearance of a
pile of buildings, rather than one large building.

Nothing would tend more towards the advancement of Architec-
ture than for architects to bear in mind the following opinion of
Mr. Addison :— Music, Architecture, and Painting, as well as
Poetry and Oratory, are to deduce their laws and rules from the
general sense and taste of mankind, and not from the principles of
those arts themselves ; in other words, that the taste is not to con-
form to the art, but the art to the taste.”

207

THE BIRMINGHAM MUSICAL FESTIVAL.

Previous to entering on the consideration of the last Birming-
ham Festival, it is the intention of the writers of the following re-
marks to lay before the readers of The Analyst certain general
reflections concerning the legitimate purpose and scope of such
meetings. To this course we have been irresistibly impelled by the
conviction that principles of no mean importance to the welfare of
mankind are involved in the question, Whether musical festivals
are deserving of encouragement from the reflecting and the consci-
entious? or whether they are an evil against which it is the duty
of the pious and the virtuous to make a vigorous stand? The task
which we have undertaken is rendered the more necessary from the
circumstance that while the opponents of musical festivals have
boldly and in tangible terms urged serious accusations, their asser-
tions have hitherto rather been evaded than fairly met, rather set
aside than satisfactorily refuted. Whilst we admit that, in the pre-
sent state of the controversy, the objectors have the best of the ar-
gument, it nevertheless appears to us that the notions of both par-
ties are erroneous, or at best shallow and one-sided. When, on the
one hand, we hear these meetings extolled for the assistance which
they render to charitable institutions, and on the other inveighed
against, in no measured terms, as fostering impiety, as introducing
the profane thing into the “holy of holies,” and as gratifying the
flesh at the expense of the immortal spirit, we conceive that both
praise and blame are attributed where they are least of all due, from
the confused notions of right and wrong possessed by both parties,
and from the substitution of those notions for the broad and immu-
table principles which reason, properly employed, is capable of de-
ducing from the word and works of the Creator. Thus will men
ever pursue an erratic and devious course, so long as they allow
themselves to be tossed by conflicting opinions, without the compass
of reason to warn them off the shoals and sand-banks on which
their feelings, passions, and prejudices, are but too apt to strand
them. How long will they keep their eyes rivetted on the surface,
neglecting the things which lie hid from immediate view, ignorant
that precisely these are the most worthy of examination? How
long will they prize the letter above the spirit, the expression above
the thought which it clothes? When will their eyes be opened to
the fact that the errors, the vice, and the misery, caused by igno-
rance, exceed a hundred fold the sufferings produced by wilful mis

208 BIRMINGHAM MUSICAL FESTIVAL.

deeds? Let the grand principle be once acknowledged, that every dis-
puted point can only be properly decided when the reasoning facul-
ties, holding the observing powers and the feelings in due subordina-
tion, use them as their servants; that outbreaks of feeling, however
genuine, will, if allowed the supremacy, only, like the lightning’s
flash, render more palpable the darkness which conceals from us the
face of truth. Let this be once acknowledged, and we may rest as-
sured that the sun will presently rise to guide us in our search, and
reveal to our view features glorious in their grandeur and their
simplicity, to behold which is our best reward after our greatest
difficulties, our greatest trials.

It is stated that the main end of a musical festival is charity ; its
object to relieve the distresses, and alleviate the unavoidable misery
of our indigent fellow-creatures. Supposing the end to be good,
does this sanctify the means? Decidedly not : yet this is the prin-
cipal plea on which the supporters of these performances have rested
their defence. Let us examine somewhat minutely into the nature
of the good work to forward which we are invited to join heart and
hand. Let us recollect that although we may intend to do good,
yet if the means we employ are productive of evil, intentions will
not exculpate us. If to will the good of others be a duty incum-
bent upon all men, it is clearly no less obligatory to discover and put
in practice the best means for accomplishing the desired end. If,
through mental indolence or self-esteem, we refuse to apply our rea-
son to so noble a purpose, the evil which we occasion will lie as
clearly at our doors as if we refused to stretch out an arm to save a
drowning fellow-creature.

It may, perhaps, tend to set the present question in a more strik-
ing light if we put a hypothetical case. Suppose a nation were to
institute a festival for the purpose of attracting foreigners to sub-
scribe funds for the maintenance of the poor, the aged, and the sick:
in what terms would an enlightened stranger describe so extraordi-
nary a custom? He would conclude, and justly, that there must be
something fundamentally wrong in the policy and institutions of that
state, and that such make-shifts must lead to a ten-fold aggravation
of the evil. The absurdity of one nation appealing to another is, in-
deed, palpable to the meanest understanding. Supposing England to
contribute £10,000. towards the maintenance of the French poor,
France would, for the moment, have the means of procuring in
greater abundance the necessaries of life; and this circumstance
might, toa short-sighted French patriot, appear cause for congratu-
lation. The Frenchman would, in some measure, be excusable if,

BIRMINGHAM MUSICAL FESTIVAL. 209

while exulting over the temporary accession of wealth to his own
country, he was indifferent to the corresponding impoverishment of
his insular benefactor. But no one can pretend that in any given
country (England, for example) the slightest good is effected by de-
priving one set of men of their daily bread, in order to support ano-
ther in idleness. As the distress in this country is caused by the
supply being insufficient for the population, it is evident that no al-
teration in the distribution either of bread or of the means of pro-
curing it can have the slightest effect in removing the evil, and that
the only remedy lies in increasing the aggregate capital by so ex-
pending it as to produce an adequate return; the effect of which
would be to raise the value of labour in proportion to that of the
necessaries of life, thus putting it in the power of every industrious
map not merely to enjoy comforts to which he is at present a
stranger, but to lay by a fund for the season of scarcity or sickness.
It lies not within our province to indicate the means by which every
human being may be placed above the humiliating necessity of de-
pending for subsistence on the exertions of his fellow creatures ; suf-
fice it that we record our conviction that to apply the intellectual
powers to the discovery and comprehension of the laws which regu-
late the inmost recesses of the social fabric, and by fearlessly apply-
ing them when discovered ; to use our utmost exertions in forward-
ing that glorious consummation, “the greatest happiness of the
greatest number,” is the only true charity, the best fulfilment of the
Christian precept, ‘Do unto all men as ye would that men should
do unto you.”

We next proceed to examine whether the festivals themselves are
amenable to the serious charge of being an idle and sensual plea-
sure affording no profit to the soul, but rather tending to foster
impiety and irreverence for the Deity ; or whether, on the contra-
ry, they do not rather afford delight and cultivation to some of the
highest faculties of the human mind. It is on this ground that, in
the estimation of all thinking men, they must stand or fall. If we
can prove that performances of sacred music on a grand scale are a
legitimate source of pure, extended, and ennobling pleasure, the con-
clusion will be inevitable that they cannot be too widely diffused
nor rendered too easy of access, and that to the furtherance of this
object ought the receipts to be exclusively dedicated.

The readers of The Analyst ave, in all probability, generally ac-
quainted with the language of Phrenology ; we shall, therefore, in
future, make no scruple of employing it in illustration of our ideas

210 BIRMINGHAM MUSICAL FESTIVAL.

on Music. That it is a duty to cultivate every faculty, that each is
in its own nature good, only becoming hurtful when allowed undu-
ly to preponderate, that the exercise of each is a source of pleasure,
are axioms of phrenologists which few, we hope, will controvert.
Although, however, all the faculties are good, and, if used aright,
productive of happiness, they nevertheless differ widely in the rank
which they hold in the mental scale. By the wise and benevolent
arrangement of the Creator, the exercise of the higher faculties
affords a greater degree of pleasure than that of the lower. Hence
the pursuit, art, or science which employs the greatest number of
the highest faculties is calculated to impart the greatest portion of
happiness. Let us apply this test to Music. The two primitive
faculties essential to the cultivation of this art are Time and Tune,
the latter giving the perception of the relations of sound with regard
to pitch, the former with regard to duration and rhythm. These we
maintain to be common to the whole human race, and the assertion
is strongly corroborated by the existence of a taste for music of some
kind among the most savage, as well as among the most civilized,
nations. Now, as God has endowed all men with the faculties
which render music pleasing, and as he has, moreover, presented
them with the most perfect mechanical means of gratifying those
faculties—namely, the human voice—it seems self-evident that this
beautiful adaptation between the desire and the power of satisfying
it was intended to lead to a certain result, and that result was the
art of Music. It seems equally evident, that he who cultivates
these faculties fulfils a part of the intentions of his Creator, while
he who neglects them is like the slothful servant who buried his
talent under ground.

It may, perhaps, be objected by those who have no faith in Phre-
nology, that music is an artificial and factitious taste—a morbid and
unnatural excitement—an art of man’s devising only. For the be-
nefit of such cavillers, laying aside for awhile phrenological lan-
guage, let us state a few elementary facts, which satisfactorily
prove that however music may have been improved by the art of
man, it has its origin in Nature; and which, by shewing that Mu-
sic, equally with Painting, Sculpture, and Poetry, is derived from
the immutable laws of Nature, and the constitution of the human
mind, place it on the same basis as one of the fine arts. Sound is
the effect of the vibrations of matter upon the atmosphere. When
these vibrations succeed each other at regular intervals a done or
musical sound is the result ; when at irregular intervals, a noise.

a es

BIRMINGHAM MUSICAL FESTIVAL. 211

Every tone gives rise to an indefinite number of others, produced by
the aliquot* parts of the sonorous body. ‘The principal sound is
termed the fundamental note, those caused by it, being much softer,
harmonies. Since, then, a fundamental note with its harmonies
form a common chord, there is, properly speaking, no such thing in
Nature as a simple sound. Now with every sane human being the
power of distinguishing, and deriving pleasure from, sounds thus
produced, is equally innate with that of calculating numbers and
discriminating differences of form. On this ground we are no way
afraid of contradiction from those whom experience has qualified to
decide.

The art of Music, then, having Nature and the constitution of the
human mind for its foundation, has been gradually brought to its
present state of complication by following out the principles which
regulate sounds, and by taking advantage of the properties possessed
by their combinations to excite the imagination and the feelings.
The arithmetician investigates the properties of numbers, the geo-
meter those of lines, and the chemist explores the qualities of mat-
ter ; and although each effects combinations not to be met with in
Nature, their pursuits have never been stigmatised as unnatural.
To bring the analogy yet closer to our subject—the painter, in com-
bining forms and colours, light and shade, employs materials fur-
nished by Nature, yet scruples not to apply them in a manner far
from identical with hers: they are but the instruments, with
which, working out the imaginings of his own mind, he produces a
work of art. Even so it is with the composer. He is the poet, not
of words, forms, or colours, but of sound. If his art is to be con-
demned as unnatural, on the same principle ought every other art
and every science which effects new combinations to be blotted out
from the book of human attainments. Leaving the defence of other
branches of knowledge in the hands of those who are both able and
willing to ward off the feeble attacks of the lovers of darkness, be
it our task to explain the grounds on which Music rests its claim to
rank as one of the noblest arts vouchsafed to man for his happiness.

The oscillations of a sonorous body cause vibrations in the atmo-
sphere, which, in their turn, acting upon the external and internal
mechanism of the ear, affect that portion of the brain whose func-
tion it is to judge of their pitch: each set of vibrations gives rise
simultaneously to innumerable others, which, by the spontaneous
action of Nature herself, afford the mind exquisite delight. When

“ Parts related to each other in the ratio of 1, 2, 3, 4, &e.
VOL. VII., NO. XXII. EE

212 BIRMINGHAM MUSICAL FESTIVAL.

we contemplate this chain of contrivances, so perfect in all its parts
—when we consider that, by further study and more intimate ac-
quaintance with the properties of sound, we have been enabled to
vary and extend the simple accords of Nature,

“ Untwisting all the chains that tie
The hidden soul of harmony”—

when we behold this admirable mechanism and its splendid results
—what shall we say to the vain, short-sighted man who would fain
persuade us, not only that so much skill has been lavished in vain,
but that to employ the means which the Creator has placed within
our reach is actually sinful ?

The two faculties already enumerated may be said to constitute
the foundation on which the splendid fabric of the musical art rests.
We now proceed to the consideration of those loftier mental powers
which contribute to the beauty and grandeur of its superstructure.

Tdeality is the soul of art. Without its ethereal spirit Poetry de-
generates into mere rhyme, Painting and Sculpture into a slavish
imitation of Nature, and Music into a mechanical series of sounds
incapable of affording the soul higher pleasure than the cowherd’s
horn or Ranz des Vaches to the flocks which browse on Alpine pas-
tures. Ideality raises up before the mind’s eye visions of beauty
surpassing far the cold representations of corporeal sense; it wafts
to the ravished soul harmonies inconceivably more pure and more
lovely than mortal ear has ever heard. It is the fairy-land of the
soul; enchanted ground, where realities have no place, and grovel-
ling ideas find no entrance ; where the enfranchised spirit revels amid
forms exquisitely beautiful, and mazes of sound which never weary,
never cloy. Such feelings are the noblest proof that man is destined
for a higher sphere of action than that in which he here moves ; for
it is inconsistent with the wisdem and benevolence of the Creator to
suppose that he would have implanted in him aspirations so ardent
after excellence unattainabie here below, had he not been created
with reference to a state in which those aspirations will be fully
satisfied. And thus we are enabled to comprehend that, although
these feelings may exist and have full scope in the soul, they can
never be adequately expressed or made palpable to the corporeal
senses. While Ideality ever soars towards perfection, the material
media through which its impressions must be conveyed, being neces-
sarily imperfect, intercept its loftiest flights, and force the half-en-
franchised fancy back to earth. The two antagonist principles, the

BIRMINGHAM MUSICAL FESTIVAL. 213

ideal and the material, thus maintain a continual struggle : and al-
though neither can ever gain the victory, whether in minds the
least or the most imaginative, yet by a compromise, a kind of tacit
agreement that the one shall be carried no farther than is consistent
with the essence of the other—that each shall waive a certain por-
tion of its claims to supremacy—much that is excellent may be
achieved, much which, if it reach not, may yet be supposed to give
some idea of, perfection. In art, the more the principle of ideality
or perfection is fostered and brought to bear upon real existences
the better is the purpose attained for which all art exists. Science
searches out realities and the mode of their application, art strives
unceasingly after ideal perfection ; the observing and reasoning fa-
culties may, therefore, be said to be the soul of the former, Ideality
—the intuitive presentiment of an eternal and perfect state—that of
the latter.

Constructiveness, the next faculty to be noticed, is common to all
animals. Among the lower animals the Beaver, the Bee, and nu-
merous species of birds, afford striking examples. With man in a
savage state the erection of the log-hut is, perhaps, its first manifes-
tation ; but with the increase of civilization it finds scope for more
varied action than in erecting shelter against the elements. Manu-
factures, aris, sciences, are all indebted to this faculty for much
which, without its aid, they could not accomplish. In Music it
produces and takes delight in contrapuntal difficulties for their own
sake, heedless of the good or bad effect produced by their elabora-
tion. Of this false taste the sacred works of the fifteenth and part
of the sixteenth centuries afford striking examples ; whose sole merit
consists in the mathematical exactness with which they solve musical
problems. When the true nature of art became better understood,
difficulties of construction were no longer regarded as an end, but as
a means; and Constructiveness, when thus limited to its proper
sphere, and co-operating with the other faculties, not only affords
them material assistance, but may fairly be said to produce a plea-
sure of itsown. Thus, in listening for the first time to the sublime
chorus “Cum sancto Spiritu” in the Hohe Messe of Sebastian Bach,
we receive intense gratification ; but on a second hearing, after hav-
ing studied the vocal and instrumental score, our pleasure will be
greatly augmented by the insight which we have obtained into the
construction of the piece, although in both instances our ears have
received the same impressions. It appears, then, that this faculty,
acting in proper combination with the others, gives rise to a gratifi-

214 BIRMINGHAM MUSICAL FESTIVAL.

cation sui generis, and not, as is the case with them, to one arising
from the stimulus afforded by Tune, as the fundamental faculty.

The four faculties already enumerated are so essential to Music
that, by taking away any one, scarcely any thing remains worthy
of being called a composition. We now come to others which, how-
ever they may elevate, refine, and delight, are rather to be viewed
as producing differences of style than as contributing to the compo-
nent parts of music.

At the head of these stands Veneration, whose function it is to
produce respect and reverence towards any being, person, or thing,
superior, or supposed to be superior, to ourselves. It has impelled
men, in all ages and in all countries, to seek objects of worship, too
often without subjecting to the scrutiny of reason their claims to
adoration. In those benighted lands where the Creator was un-
known it drove them to prostrate mind and body before some physi-
cal existence, whose qualities seemed to render it his most fitting
representative. Even among the chosen people of God, such was
the over-activity of this feeling that, not content with the peculiar
privilege of direct communion with their Maker—not satisfied with
rendering homage where alone it is due—they were ever relapsing
into the idol worship of surrounding nations. The abuses of mis-
directed veneration meet us at every step in perusing the records of
ancient history ; nor have modern times escaped the evils conse-
quent upon excessive and misapplied devotion. As the Jews were
dissatisfied with a pure theocracy, so were Roman Catholics with
the simple religion of the New Testament. They, too, must have
their images; the Virgin and the saints were invested with super-
natural powers; bread and wine were deified ; and the pope was
gifted with infallibility! But, while we point out the mote in our
brother’s eye, let us beware how we remain unmindful of the beam
in ourown. Are we, in our age and country, free from the re-
proach of idolatry? Alas! though under a different aspect, it still
prevails among us. We no longer bow the knee before a golden
calf or carved image, but we prostrate the spirit before opinions,
forms, and observances, in reverencing which we fondly imagine we
are rendering to the Almighty acceptable service. The legitimate
object of the faculty of Veneration is the adoration of the Supreme
Being, and when directed into this pure channel it can scarcely be
carried to excess.

Again, when we are told that musical festivals are displeasing to
God, and that all who attend them are breaking his laws, while

BIRMINGHAM MUSICAL FESTIVAL. 215

every one staying away performs a laudable act of self-denial ; if,
instead of examining by the test of our own reason whether the ac-
tion reprobated may not only be innocent, but even praiseworthy,
we take its sinfulness for granted ; if, instead of trying the ques-
tion on its own merits, we seek for palliations, excuses, or benefits,
which may, in some measure, counterbalance the supposed evil; we
then suffer human authority to usurp the power to which no man
ean justly lay claim—that of arbitrarily enforcing on others his own
standard of right and wrong. Lest our readers should suppose that,
in the instance of festivals no one could be found to follow so imbe-
cile a course, we can assure them that we have perused more than
one notice of the Birmingham meeting in which the writers, while
professing to be friendly to music, regret that an object so pure as
the charity should be forwarded by means partaking of sin! Our
opinion of charities we have already stated ; let us now show that
the opponents of sacred music are, through their ignorance of hu-
man nature, actually opposing their own avowed object, the spread
of true religion and piety.

For the benefit of such cavillers, we beg to state that a large pro-
portion of the pleasure derived from sacred music is caused by the
operation of Veneration and Wonder (the faculties which give the
instinctive knowledge of the Deity and the desire to worship him) ;
and if Ideality throw her glowing mantle over the mingling vibra-
tions, what reason can be adduced why those to whom the talent is
given should not impress upon tones the same attributes which awe,
and at the same time delight, the soul in the Psalms and the Book
of Job? Who was ever absurd enough to maintain that the sub-
lime poetry of the sacred volume withdraws the attention from the
simple idea? and that, in perusing the Bible, we are delighted, not
with the truths it inculcates, but only with its figurative language
and lofty imagery? The example of the inspired writers should
teach us that the surest means of diffusing religion and piety among
the mass of mankind is to press each vagrant feeling into the service
of the Creator, and thus fan the too often dormant spark into an
enduring flame not to be quenched with this mortal existence, but
destined to burn with ineffable splendour through the vista of eter-
nity. How many who repair to the house of worship with spirits
harassed by the troubles of the world or deadened by its cares, feel,
through the soothing and elevating influence of sacred harmony,
their souls attuned to prayer and praise? And what if the “high
embowed roof,” underneath which we assemble to partake of the in-
tellectual banquet, belongs to a building unconsecrated by man ?

216 BIRMINGHAM MUSICAL FESTIVAL.

We are told that “God dwelleth not in temples made with hands,”
and that times and seasons are alike to him. On what ground,
then, shall weak and erring man arrive at the conclusion that the
intense and varied emotions which agitate the bosoms of assembled
multitudes as the mighty wave of sound bursts over their awe-struck
souls, are polluted in themselves and unpleasing to the Deity?

We have already mentioned Tune, Time, Constructiveness, and
Ideality as essential to the production and enjoyment of music ; we
have dilated on Veneration and Wonder as giving rise to the high-
est walk of the art, to that which is alone worthy to be employed
in the praise of the Creator, as forming the broad line which sepa-
rates sacred from secular music; we may now add Adhesiveness,
Cautiousness, Combativeness, and Destructiveness to the list of fa-
culties which find exercise and gratification in music. On these we
shall not now enlarge, since in sacred and secular music they are
at best only of secondary importance.* We think, however, we
have satisfactorily demonstrated either that the Creator has endow-
ed matter with several superfluous properties, and man with nume-
rous unnecessary faculties (a supposition too much at variance with
reason and experience to be for a moment entertained) ; or that it
is incumbent upon man to take advantage of those properties, and
employ those faculties for his own improvement and happiness.
And, to revert to the principle from which we started (that an art
is worthy of cultivation in proportion to the faculties it employs),
we have also proved that Music is entitled to rank among the no-_
blest pursuits which can engage the refined and the intellectual.
It only remains, then, to consider the means best calculated to dif-
fuse musical knowledge among the people.

The late celebrated phrenologist, Dr. Macnish, was of opinion
that England would never produce composers equal to those of
other countries—never acquire that enthusiastic admiration for
works of genius which distinguishes the inhabitants of Germany
and Italy. We think that he, in common with many other phre-
nologists, underrates the influence of cultivation on the fine arts.
Whatever natural talent for Music or for Painting an individual
may possess, he can neither excel in those arts himself, nor duty
appreciate the works of others, without long-continued study of
their principles and familiarity with their practice. No one is born

* It is proper to mention, however, that Cautiousness is thought, by some
phrenologists, to have part in producing the feeling of the sublime: with
what justness we are not at present prepared to decide.

BIRMINGHAM MUSICAL FESTIVAL. 217

with a taste for Handel’s choruses or Raphael’s Cartoons: the pro-
perties which have led the world to admire them are not to be dis-
cerned without deep reflection and sedulous cultivation. Here,
then, we at once perceive the advantages which Italy, Germany,
and France enjoy over England. In Germany, especially, the peo-
ple live, as it were, in an atmosphere of music. Every child being
taught the notes at the same time with the alphabet, with a view
to singing at sight, or playing so as to take part in a quartet, it
may naturally be conceived that the expense and trouble of getting
together an orchestra and chorus capable of performing a grand
work is there comparatively trifling. Hence, what in England
costs a gigantic effort to accomplish, is in Germany an every-day
occurrence. Whilst, at our festivals, the performance of the Mes-
siah affords a never-failing source of self-satisfaction and self-gra-
tulation, every German town containing above 20,000 inhabitants
has its Sing Akademie, which, without any foreign assistance, pro-
duces the master-pieces of Bach, Handel, Mozart, Spohr, &c.
Thus, while our ideas of art are confined to a few hacknied compo-
sitions, our neighbours become familiar with its whole range. Un-
til we attain to this familiarity, our judgment and our taste will
continue as they at present are, narrow, prejudiced, and one-sided.
With this view let music be rendered as cheap and as widely diffu-
sed as possible ; let the prices of admission to musical festivals be
lowered, and let them occur much more frequently. The present
charge of from 15s. to £1. 1s. for a single performance is exorbitant,
considering that 5s. would be amply sufficient to cover all reason-
able expenses, besides leaving a surplus for future contingencies.
The benefits resulting from such an arrangement are more nu-
merous than might at first sight appear. In the first place, the im-
portant admission would be gained that Music is worthy of culti-
vation for its own sake ; that, being in itself pure and holy, it needs
no apology, no palliating accessories, and no shuffling excuses in
justification of the pleasure it affords. The reduction of the price
would make it answer to hold the festival annually, and thus enable
the directors to bring before the public a far wider range of excel-
lence than is practicable or judicious in a triennial meeting. Those
who object that the public would thus become “satiated with mu-
sic,” take for granted one of two untenable propositions; either
that music is only attractive while new, or that, if intrinsically
pleasing, it becomes less so on familiarity with and knowledge of
its effects. With persons holding such opinions it were waste of
time to argue. We recommend them to go forth into the world,

218 BIRMINGHAM MUSICAL FESTIVAL.

and “lighten their darkness” by observation, before they thus ven-
ture to expose their ignorance. Were the performances annual, it
would not only be allowable, but proper, to admit the works of se-
cond and third-rate composers. Cherubini, Schneider, Ries, and
Neukomm would then meet with a verdict far more proportioned to
their merits than can be the case whilst they are occupying the
time which ought to be devoted to Bach, Handel, Mozart, and
Beethoven. Thirdly, It would enable those of moderate fortune to
cultivate the sense of the sublime and the beautiful without incur-
ring an expense inadequate to their means. Lastly, The community
would become more conversant with the higher walks of music,
would form far juster conclusions of what art really ought to be,
would estimate the petty accomplishment which now passes for
Music at its proper value. The wretched songs, waltzes, and varia-
tions, now the staple commodity of music-shops, would be discarded
with disgrace, from a conviction that the pleasure they yield is
derived from inferior faculties only. Men would look back on the
fashionable favourites of the present day with the same contempt
with which they now regard the toys and the recreations of their
childhood. When the true meaning of a work of art begins to
dawn on their minds, they will bestow their admiration on the geni-
us of the composer, instead of gazing in stupid astonishment at the
harliquinades of the performer.

In criticising the late Birmingham festival, the first point upon
which we shall animadvert, is the disproportion between the vocal
and instrumental talent and the music which they were assembled
to perform. No expense was spared to render the band and chorus
as complete as possible ; the principal singers were among the first
which the world can produce ; in short, as far as regards the mate-
rial arrangements, we have but little fault to find* But where
were the great works, the poetical creations, the mind, whose ex-
pression might worthily employ this great multitude? With the

* We cannot, however, allow the non-engagement of Braham to pass
without a few words of comment. It has been rumoured that the terms
demanded by this unrivalled master of sacred song were exorbitantly high.
That the amount might be large we can easily conceive ; but we are at the
same time convinced that his services would have outweighed those of Grisi,
Albertazzi, and Tamburini; and surely he would have been satisfied with a
recompense more moderate than the united salaries of these three distin-
guished singers. In an oratorio, the latter are, from their training, compa-
ratiyely inefficient ; they contribute but little to the artist-like production of
a great work: Braham, on the contrary, is unrivalled in bringing out the
mind of the master.

BIRMINGHAM MUSICAL FESTIVAL. 219

exception of the Messiah, we seek in vain for the splendid manifes-
tations of genius which have from time to time appeared above the
musical horizon. For what purpose do we attend musical festivals?
Surely not merely to listen to the symphonious accordance of num-
berless instruments: if so, why ridicule the taste of the Turk who
thought the tuning the best part of the concert? Neither is it to
lower our standard of excellence by listening to works of second and
third rate merit, when we might be drinking in with our ravished
ears the highest productions of genius. Is it not, rather, for the
opportunity they afford of holding communion with minds superior
to our own—minds so pure, so exalted, so imbued with the spirit of
poetry, that, to use the expression of Sir J. Reynolds, “ we feel a
kind of self-congratulation in knowing that we are capable of the
feelings which they are intended to excite ?” But when we com-
mence the descent—when we begin to allow common mortals to
appear heroes in our estimation, we shall find ourselves, ere long,
groveling in the regions of mediocrity, and regarding with astonish-
ment the performance of pigmies. Onwards and upwards should be
our motto; superlative, not comparative, excellence our desire. Such
considerations would appear to have had no influence with the direc-
tors of the Birmingham festival: their aspirations seem to have been
after novelty, not after excellence. With regard to the Ascension, it
might have been supposed that the fate of David would have operated
as a sufficient warning against ever again admitting an oratorio by
Neukomm, even to those utterly incapable of forming a correct
estimate of the work from their own judgment. In bringing for-
ward the J'riumph of Faith, had the occasion been less serious, one
might have imagined that the directors had been desirous of playing
off a joke upon both the performers and the audience.

Upon works such as these, detailed criticism is thrown away, for
no one will read an analysis of what no one admires, and the beau-
ties are too few, the defects too numerous to render the task either
pleasing or profitable. Let us speak, then, of Mendelssohn’s Si.
Paul, which, in the absence of a greater work, may be regarded as
the principal feature of the festival. This oratorio has been likened
by some critics to those of Handel ; by others, equally without rea-
son, to the sacred works of Sebastian Bach. With neither of these
great men has Mendelssohn, so far as we can perceive, much simi-
larity, either as regards the grandeur and originality of their con-
ceptions, or the mode of carrying those conceptions out The gene-
ral characteristic of Handel’s style is massive simple grandeur. In-
stead of employing a number of smaller impressions to produce one

VOL. VII., NO. XXII. FF

220 BIRMINGHAM MUSICAL FESTIVAL.

great homogeneous whole, he takes the hearer, as it were, by storm.
His pre-eminence consists rather in his entire and instantaneous
command over the feelings and emotions, than in the power of
keeping them enchained at will during any considerable period.
In his choruses he seldom adheres long to any particular idea, but
makes each derive a great part of its effect from contrast with the
preceding. In this contrast—in this intuitive knowledge of what
and where to contrast—lies one principal cause of the immense hold
which these compositions have maintained, and ever will maintain,
on the public mind. It is disagreeable to the greater part of man-
kind long to follow out one idea, and to develope all its capabilities ;
any new idea, therefore, which prevents the necessity of doing this,
is hailed with greater delight than if presented simply on its own
intrinsic merits. And, undoubtedly, the composition where each
idea is good in itself—where each is so placed as to stand in striking
contrast with, and to afford agreeable relief to, the succeeding—and
where their combination fulfils our conceptions of musical symmetry,
is a high achievement of art. But it is to the master-works of Se-
bastian Bach that we must turn, would we contemplate excellence
far surpassing this both in kind and degree. Bach is, perhaps, the
only composer who has never submitted to the smallest compromise
with the public taste—to the slightest modification of his own ex-
alted ideas to suit the fancy of the impatient and uninstructed mul-
titude. To him, therefore, are we indebted for the only true fore-
taste of what art is destined to produce when its capacities and
ends are better understood than, at the present day, they unfortu-
nately are. For an account of some of his works and an analysis of
his style, we may refer the reader to the last number of The Analyst.
If the estimate there formed be just, and if Handel be the
« giant” the world imagines him, then have the critics of Mendels-
sohn awarded him higher praise than they perhaps intended, in
pronouncing him “imbued with the spirit of Sebastian Bach,” and
in declaring that he is “ often Handel himself.” No assertions can
be more contrary to truth.

On the other hand, it would be extremely unfair to make a com-
poser’s first great work the test of his abilities, or of the excellence
to which, by study and experience, he may hereafter attain. We
know not which is the more injurious to the interests of art—to
expect a young composer at once to reject all previous models, and
burst forth to the world with innate originality, or to place his
first necessarily imperfect efforts on a level with works which have
passed triumphantly through the ordeal of time. Take three of

BIRMINGHAM MUSICAL FESTIVAL. 921

the greatest musical inventors—men who have explored paths
previously unknown or untrodden—Bach, Haydn, and Mozart.
Bach’s early compositions for the clavichord were formed on the mo-
del of those of Couperin, a fashionable French composer of that
day, whose works have long since perished, and whose name would
probably have fallen into similar oblivion but for the accidental
honour of having assisted in calling forth the latent energies of the
mighty master. The first symphonias of Haydn are scarcely to be
distinguished from the writings of Emanuel Bach, and Mozart’s
two first operas were mere essays in the prevailing Italian style of
that period. We may, indeed, safely lay down the general rule,
that before any man can worthily give utterance to original concep-
tions, he must first be able to do well what others have done before
him. From such preliminary training the highest powers afford no
exemption.

To form a perfectly just estimate of a cotemporary production
professing to be a candidate for immortality, is, of all the labours of
the critic, the most difficult properly to fulfil. Hard, indeed, and
requiring no ordinary discernment, is the task of determining how
far a work of art is indebted for present popularity to its conformity
with existing tastes and prevailing modes of thinking, and how
much to the forcible appeal which it makes to the eternal feelings
and passions of the soul, in contradistinction to their temporary and
accidental modifications. In criticising arecent work, we may avail
ourselves of our acquaintance with the master-pieces of former times,
and compare the means by which they attained to excellence with
those employed in the present instance: it is evident, however,
that this mode of judging must (from the nature of the fine arts,
and more especially of Music) be extremely defective, and become
liable, in the hands of the bigoted and pedantic, to act as a drag on
further progress. Genius spurns the shackles of precedent ; it pursues
its course, heedless and independent of other men’s ideas ; it dwells
not on the memory of the past, but penetrates into the mysteries of
futurity, and is, therefore, beyond the comprehension of ordinary
minds, ever prone to cling to the trivial forms and conventionalities
of the petty sphere in which they move. In forming, then, an opi-
nion of cotemporary works, we should eschew with equal care an
over-reverence for the past and that narrow-mindedness which
dwells only with complacency on the productions of the present ;
and should endeavour to hold the scales with impartial hands, attri-
buting merit where merit is due.

All great composers—all who, in their ideas and their manner of

222 BIRMINGHAM MUSICAL FESTIVAL.

expressing them, advanced beyond the age in which they lived—
have displayed their greatness in vocal as well as in instrumental
writing. Many there are, doubtless, of respectable merit, who have
confined themselves to the one or the other of these departments ;
such, however, it will be found, are not entitled to rank as inven-
tors in the highest sense of the word. They are either polishers,
or else mere followers. In the first class we would place Correlli
among the instrumentalists, and among vocal writers Sacchini ; in
the second Geminiani and Tartini, together with the host of glee-
writers and many of the compilers of anthems, whom English pride
regards with affection more fond than judicious. If we try Men-
delssohn by this test, we shall be compelled to refuse him that ex-
alted rank to which his admirers would persuade us the oratorio in
question entitles him. Throughout the whole of St. Paul we per-
ceive with regret an almost total want of that vocal excellence, that
luxuriance of melody, that “linked sweetness long drawn out,”
which, in the works of the three great composers above-named, so
forcibly arrests the attention and enchains the soul, and which, even
in their instrumental writings, forms, perhaps, one of their greatest
charms.

The overture to this oratorio is, perhaps, that part which is most
complete as a whole, and most calculated to give satisfaction to those
who desire unity of design and treatment in a musical composition,
It opens with a very solemn and impressive slow movement on the
subject of the choral, “ Wachtet auf, ruft uns die Stimme,” in the
body of the work. This is followed by a fugue in triple time, on a
very elegant subject (taken from the same choral), treated in a
manner much more masterly than those which are made the foun-
dation of any of the subsequent choruses. Indeed, it is on this over-
ture, as well as on his other instrumental works, that we princi-
pally rest our hopes of seeing an oratorio by this composer the vocal
excellence of which shall far surpass that displayed in the present,
and the want of which is, in our opinion, its great, its overpowering
defect. Thus, in the song “ Jerusalem, Jerusalem !” the interest
lies entirely in the instrumentation and modulation, while the notes
given to the voice form a mere apology for a melody without the
slightest pretensions to air, or even to novelty. The same is the
case with the bass solos “ Vertilge sie” and “ Gott sei mir gnidig ;”
in a remarkable degree, with the duet “So sind wir nun Botschaf-
ten” and “ Dann also hat uns der Herrgeboten,” with the difference
that the sterility of melody communicates itself, in these two in-
stances, to the accompaniment, which is bald and commonplace.

BIRMINGHAM MUSICAL FESTIVAL. 223

The triviality and want of dignity in the subjects of the fugues is
seldom compensated for by a full display of their capabilities, or
even by an ordinary skilfulness of treatment ; and the winding-up
is effected, not by their complete development, but, on the contrary,
by a return to the plain, note-against-note counterpoint, to which
this composer seems so devotedly attached : witness the choruses
« Mache dich auf, werde Licht,” ‘O welch eine Tiefe des Reich-
thums,” “Denn alle Heider,” in which, even in what may by cour-
tesy be termed the fugued parts, the composer often relapses into his
darling plain counterpoint, and the concluding chorus “ Nicht aber
ihm allein,” in which a pitifully mean subject is handled in a man-
ner very different from what is expected from one “imbued with
the spirit of Sebastian Bach.” The chorals so plentifully inter-
spersed throughout the oratorio are good, but not Mendelssohn’s, as
any one may satisfy himself by glancing over any collection of
psalm-tunes used in the continental Lutheran church. We have
hitherto only spoken of what we consider the defects of this work :
its beauties are neither few nor difficult of discovery. The instru-
mental writing is, in general, as rich and characteristic as the vocal
is meagre and commonplace, and displays considerable knowledge of
orchestral effect, as well as boldness and freedom of fancy. We
may mention as examples the choruses “ Herr du bist der Gott,”
“ Wir preisen selig,” “ Ich danke dir Herr,” and “ Wie lieblich sind
die Boten.” he recitatives are, in general, well-declaimed, and
provided with appropriate and often bold harmonies. But hardly
any degree of excellence in other points can atone fur a general po-
verty—we had almost said absence—of melody, the necessary ele-
ment of all harmony worthy of the name. Our opinion of this
work, then, taken as a whole, is that its want of individuality, of
the marks of true genius, inventive power, grandeur and elevation
of thought, and more especially of original and flowing melody, will
effectually debar it from enduring fame, perhaps even from tempo-
rary popularity ; that, although displaying far higher genius than
such works as Lhe Ascension and The Triumph of Faith, it never-
theless falls short of that magnificent power which moves at will
the passions and the feelings of men, and holds them willing cap-
tives in the regions of ideal beauty or superhuman sublimity ;
which is as mighty to-day, to delight and to awe, as it was ages
ago, and as it will be for ages to come, so Jong as human passions
and human feelings remain to bear witness to, and bow before, its
sovereignty.

We consider the total neglect of Spohr a by no means venial er-

224 BIRMINGHAM MUSICAL FESTIVAL,

ror of the festival directors. Why should they not have produced
the entire Crucifixion, in order to give the public an opportunity,
for the first time, fairly to judge of and appreciate its undeniably
great beauties? The production of such a work would have re-
dounded equally to the credit of the festival and to the gratification
of the public.

But of the treatment of Sebastian Bach, we can scarcely think
or speak with any degree of patience. It was alluded to in the
last number of T'he Analyst in terms of strong animadversion, but we
never expected to witness anything half so injudicious as the man-
ner in which this great man was for the first time introduced to
the public as an oratorio composer. When are we to see the end
of these eternal selections—of this tearing out a leaf in order to
give an idea of the scope and tendency of a book—which, when ap-
plied to a great work of art, which must be heard and studied as a
whole in order to understand in all their grandeur the sublime concep-
tions of the master, are in the highest degree absurd? We do not
disapprove of selections in every case, provided they are made with
judgment and in a spirit congenial to that of the author. Indeed
(considering the rarity of musical festivals), they are absolutely ne-
cessary, unless we would restrict ourselves to the works of one or
two masters. But there are some works of which the most judi-
cious selection can never give an adequate idea; and such, if they
cannot be performed entire, should not be performed at all. Such a
work is the Passions-musik, which we fear, even if done ample
justice to in the performance, would not meet with a responsive
echo in a Birmingham festival or in any English audience equally
large and equally promiscuous. Every one can admire the simple
and massive grandeur of Handel’s “ Hallelujah” chorus: to a few
only is as yet revealed the true meaning of the glorious conceptions
contained in Bach’s gigantic and eternal harmonies. It behoves,
then, those who cater for and, at the same time, by producing the
works of a great composer, hitherto unknown, desire to improve, the
public taste, to use great discretion in their choice. They must not
rest satisfied with indolently confining their researches to the works
of which common report speaks the most highly; they must not
present a disjointed fragment (and in a minor key, too!) as a spe-
cimen of the whole, or of the composer’s powers ; nor must they be
astonished, or impute it to the bad taste of the public, when their
injudicious and abortive efforts utterly fail of attaining their end.
This, however, was the course pursued at Birmingham: on those
who follow it rest the blame and the disgrace. At the next festi-

BIRMINGHAM MUSICAL FESTIVAL. 225

val, as some atonement for their past misdeeds, we suggest the pro-
priety of giving Bach a “ fair trial.” Let them produce the Hohe
Messe (Grand Mas) in B. minor entrrE. If they can once bring
up their courage to the “ sticking pitch,” if they can once throw
aside slothfulness and foolish fears, they may, by so doing, earn for
themselves the sincere and heartfelt gratitude of all real lovers of
music. Or, if such an effort be too great for them, they may pro-
duce one of the numberless motetts and sacred cantatas of this com-
poser ; and thus, if unmindful of the glory of being the first to
bring forward one of his great works, may at least escape the dis-
grace of again mutilating them.

It will not do here, to plead in excuse that the piece selected was
only by way of experiment, that a longer work might have disgust-
ed the public, and that, if successful, it would be time enough at
the next festival to produce something more complete. The result
of such an experiment every one not blinded by self-interest and
prejudice must have foreseen. It was like trying an accused per-
son with a predetermination to condemn him ; bringing up all the
Witnesses against him, keeping back those on his side, and listening
only to the counsel for the crown. In the present instance the sub-
ject of ‘experiment, say rather of condemnation, was a piece in a
minor key, severed from its connection with the rest of the master-
work in which it stands, one of whose many transcendent merits
consists in the intimate, though not at first discoverable, relation in
which all its parts stand to one another, in the beautiful binding to-
gether of each piece, so as to form one perfect and indivisible whole.
Those who, in thus mangling the works of genius, show that they
have no higher notion of art than as a momentary gratification of
sense, who would convert an oratorio into a selection of favourite
airs and choruses, who can see no link of connexion between music
separated by double bars, and who would bring others down to their
bounded ideas of excellence, are unfit for their responsible office.

But a truce to fauit-finding. Let us suppose the directors will-
ing to attend to any suggestions which may have the effect of rais-
ing the character of the meeting whose interests they wish to ad-
vance. Suppose they put the question to us, What steps would you
take to advance the art whose welfare you so warmly advocate ?
We answer, Seek out excellence where most it abounds ; heed not
whether a composer be celebrated or unknown, ancient or modern ;
suffer not yourselves to be dazzled by the false glare and ephemeral
excitement which attends the production of a foreign work in pre-
sence of its author ; satisfy yourselves, by diligent research, when

226 BIRMINGHAM MUSICAL FESTIVAL.

and where the high style, which it is your duty to bring before the
public, prevailed ; and having formed your conclusions fearlessly
carry them out into practice.

The oratorio is the highest walk of the art. This epic branch
seems to have arrived at perfection about the end of the seventeenth
and the beginning of the eighteenth centuries. Previous to that
era it was not sufficiently dramatic, and subsequent to it became too
secular. In the masterpieces of that period we find the sublime,
the beautiful, and the ornamental styles, each in due proportion ;
the sublime taking the precedence of its humbler rivals. We have
here another proof that the feeling of the sublime is intrinsically
the same with that of devotion. Religion was still the main mov-
ing spring of the age: no longer, indeed, the religion of cowled
monks, chanting solemn requiems in the long-drawn aisle or lonely
convent ; no longer the religion of penitent hermits or pilgrims,
seeking heaven in a renunciation of the world ; no longer a religion
of feelings and impressions ; but one of thought, argument, and
conviction, present with the statesman in his cabinet, accompanying
the warrior into the battle-field, sending whole tribes into voluntary
exile for conscience sake, and hurling princes from their thrones.
Similar was the change which came over the spirit of music. The
unearthly and purely sublime strains of Palestrina, Bird, Tye, and
Tallis, gave way to the “Te Deum” exulting over the fallen foe,
and to the oratorio embodying, in the form of a religious drama, the
stern martial and political temper of the age.

In accordance with these views, we find that cotemporaneous
composers in Germany, Italy, and England, produced works which
bear the impress of colossal grandeur. Whatever might be the
stamp of their individual genius, the influence of the school in which
they studied, or the character of the people for whom they wrote,
they never descended from that commanding elevation which has
earned for them an enduring name.

Among the writers of this period, then, must we seek for the
fittest offerings at the shrine of Veneration, Wonder, and Ideality.
And truly that we know but the names of some of the greatest, and
of those with whom we are more familiar, only such works as chance
has thrown in our way, heedless whether those we neglect be not
yet nobler, are facts which say but little for our love of art, cf ide-
. ality, of proportion. Of Bach, towering far above all rivals, we
have already spoken. But Handel, that name “familiar as a hous-
hold word,” what apology shall be indited for his treatment by “the
general?” Has he written only one great work? ‘ Where is

BIRMINGHAM MUSICAL FESTIVAL. 227

“Israel in Egypt?” where “Judas Maccabeus?” where “ Debo-
rah?” where “Sampson?” where “Solomon?” Slumbering in
oblivion, buried under the neglect of ignorance and self-satisfaction.
Leo, too, whom Handel himself pronounced the greatest composer
of his day, and whose glorious pedal-points stand unrivalled for
massive grandeur, must he give place to Neukomm and Hiser ?
Let us hope that at some future period, distant though it be, we
may be permitted to enjoy the tender accords of Hasse in his Betu-
lia Liberata, and the pathos of Jomelli in his Requiem and Passione.
On turning to the German school, the name of Graun rises up to
reproach us for the neglect of his Tod Jesu (Messiah), which in
Berlin enjoys a popularity equal to Handel’s work on the same sub-
ject in England. The solo songs, if given by a performer capable
of estimating the mind of the composer, would produce a splendid
effect. This work abounds in admirable chorales ; and we lLesitate
not to pronounce the fugue “ Christus hat uns Vorbild gelassen” su-
perior to any thing which Handel ever wrote in the same style.
Greatly would it rejoice us to see this work well-adapted to English
words, and to hear it worthily performed by a band like that em-
ployed at Birmingham. The 7’e Deum of the same author, com-
posed at the command of Frederick the Great, is replete with gran-
deur and beauty. The movement “tu rex glorie” is remarkable
for the bold and sublime employment of double discords ; and the
whole composition belongs to a class worthy of being produced at a
great festival. With regard to Pergolesi, who excels all other
masters, except, perhaps, Purcell, in pathetic expression, we should
delight to hear his Mass for Five Voices, f which the “ Gloria in
excelsis” is so well known. We throw it out for the consideration
of the directors, whether it might not be possible to give it with the
Latin words. We are fully aware that this is delicate ground ; but
as the fragment already mentioned of this work has always been so
performed at the Ancient Concerts under archiepiscopal sanction,
we think the experiment might fairly be tried on a larger scale
without wounding the conscience of orthodoxy. We are convinced
that the mediocre success of many foreign oratorios which have been
lately introduced into this country is attributable, in great measure,
to the forced character which must ever attend even the most skil-
ful adaptations. In the mass above-mentioned, we meet with a fu-
gue (immediately preceding the popular “ Gloria’) to the words
« Kyrie Eleeison,” and which, for stern solemnity, will scarce find a
rival elsewhere. How much more conspicuously will the power
and versatility of the composer stand forth, if an opportunity be al-
VOL. VII., NO, XXII. GG

228 BIRMINGHAM MUSICAL FESTIVAL.

lowed of hearing these two masterly efforts in juxtaposition than by
constantly repeating the last only, as if what preceded was unwor-
thy of notice: With regard to the words, we are at a loss to ima-
gine in what manner “ Kyrie elecison” or “ Benedictus qui venit”
can give offence to the tenderest consciences.

On the sacred works of Haydn and Mozart we may be expected
to say a few words. The readers of T’he Analyst must be aware
that we belong to the number of those who for the highest of all
subjects require the highest style of art. To term music sacred
which excites no veneration, is a palpable misnomer. In vain do the
words invite to lofty contemplation if the music, in wanton dalli-
ance and sportive fancy, twines, with spell more potent, round the
soul its alluring blandishments. If such be its character, the great-
er the skill of the composer, the more effectually does he frustrate
the object for which sacred music is ordained. If there be any truth
in the theory we have already laid down and partially illustrated—
namely, that music is a mirror which faithfully reflects the charac-
ter of the age—in the (so called) sacred music of the latter half of
the eighteenth century our ideas receive ample confirmation. The
papal power, long since divested of its physical terrors, had with
them lost its influence over the minds of the greater part of the
Christian world. The eyes of those who had blindly confided in
the infallibility of the church now began to be opened ; intellect
once more asserted her rights, reason submitted no longer to be
trampled upon by force. But as men are ever prone to fall from one
extreme into its opposite, so in the present instance: when the enor-
mous abuses ard egregious follies of priestcraft were laid bare, with
powerful and unsparing hand, by the French philosophers, so re-
plete with moral deformity, so supported by wilful deception, did
the whole fabric appear, that religion herself was pronounced an
imposture and cunning device of the learned, to acquire wealth and
power by working on the fears of the credulous and the ignorant.
The goddess of reason was proclaimed supreme—Alas ! that fanati-
cism should assume that noble name! Aye, fanaticism ; for no cru-
saders ever pursued with more unrelenting hate their infidel foes,
than did these reasonable men strive to bury, in one common ruin,
the noble principle of Veneration and the abuses which the crafty
and the designing had wrought under its rame. In times like
these, when a scofling demon was let loose upon the earth, when
men either abjured all religion or else only professed an adherence
to it from motives of self-interest or political expediency, it were idle
to expect an art to give utterance to feelings of which the heart

BIRMINGHAM MUSICAL FESTIVAL. 229

was destitute. In proportion to the contempt into which religion
had universally fallen, did the church music of Germany, Italy, and
England, degenerate in all which distinguishes the sacred from the
secular. Instead of sublimity we find prettiness, playfulness and ef-
feminate sentimentalism, or, if anything higher is aimed at, that
dulness which is ever the result of pretence taking the place of rea-
lity, as the constant characteristics of the productions of this period.
As instances, take Vinci, Galuppi, and Guglielmi, in Italy; Nau-
man, Himmel, and Weigl, in Germany ; Kent, Worgan, and Nares,
in England. As choral writers, these are all pigmies compared to
their predecessors. Haydn and Mozart, though possessing immea-
surably greater powers, escaped not the influence of their age. The
Creation will live for ever, but its charm lies rather in the freshness
of its melodies, and the playful brilliancy of its instrumental accom-
paniments, than in the sublimity of its choruses; and even these
would probably never have been written had not Haydn, during his
visit to this country, become acquainted with the works of our
church composers and of Handel. His Seasons, also composed sub-
sequently to his sojourn here, is not an oratorio, but a dramatic-pas-
toral cantata, and, considered as such, is excellent.* His masses
contain some beautiful quartetts and solos ; but the choruses are on
two petty a scale, and their whole character is secular, not sacred.
As to the productions called Mozart’s masses, we are convinced that
they are either not his, or else that they are early and hasty effu-
sions, giving no juster idea of his style and genius than does Titus
Andronicus of Shakspeare’s. We are the more inclined to this be-
lief as, in the Requiem, we see no indistinct traces of the greatness
to which this mighty master might have attained in the sacred
style had he been spared time fully to realize his conceptions. We
are surprised that the admirers of Mozart have not made more stre-
nuous efforts to obtain the performance of this extraordinary pro-
duction.

Of subsequent composers, with the exception of Spohr, we recol-
lect only one grand work on a religious subject which deserves to live.
When we reflect that that work is the production of an Englishman,
we blush for the neglect which its author has suffered at the hands
of his countrymen. We allude, of course, to the Palestine of Dr.
Crotch. While numberless critics are enaged in the contemptible
task of magnifying mole-hills into mountains, they seem by com-

* This charming production would, if given in the evening, afford a treat
worthy of an intellectual audience.

230 BIRMINGHAM MUSICAL FESTIVAL.

mon consent to suffer the man who, without loosing his individu-
ality, is truly imbued with the spirit of ancient times, to live for-
gotten and unappreciated by his cotemporaries. Palestine is im-
measurably superior to most of the foreign novelties which have
been so carefully fostered by ridiculously exaggerated commenda-
tions. No crude or hasty production, it owes none of its attractions
to clap-trap accessories, the commonplace substitutes for genius.
The sublimity of the choruses and the beauty of the sextetts, quar-
tetts, and solos strike the mind as forcibly when played on the
piano-forte as when rendered by countless voices and instruments,
or warbled by the most finished vocalists. Let us not be told that
the price demanded by the author is exorbitant. If the plodding
labourer is worthy of his hire, if selfish intrigue too often attains
its ends, shal] genius always be expected to lavish its benefits on
mankind and receive no return ?

A word concerning the evening performances. If in the morning
the riches of the ecclesiastical composers of former ages have (or
should have) awed and elevated our souls ; in the evening we ex-
pect to be enchanted with the varied beauty and grace of those who
have chosen the opera, the symphony, and the instrumental solo as
the channels in which to pour forth their ideas. We lose all pa-
tience when we reflect on the miserable jumble which selections—
not only at Birmingham, but at almost every festival—present.
Ignorance and bad taste here reign triumphant. What excuse can
the directors, with unlimited national means at their command,
bring forward for so deplorable a failure? Their justification may
be comprised in three words—they please their audience. This la-
mentable fact it is vain attempting to deny: let us, then, boldly
look the truth in the face. It appears that a selection in which a
dull glee follows a trashy song, which, in its turn, gives way to va-
riations on the concertina, attracts a larger audience than a succes
sion of the loftiest master-works of Music’s most favoured sons. A
more lamentable instance of the lower faculties triumphing over the
higher it is difficult to conceive. To us, however, far from present-
ing anything surprising, it only appears a necessary consequence of
the present wretched state of musical instruction. As, to the clown,
the sign-painting creaking before the alehouse in his native village
seems a transcendent specimen of art, so, to the flimsily-educated
young ladies and gentlemen honouring these concerts with their
presence, do The Light of other Days and Wandering Willie fulfil
their utmost ideas of excellence. So painfully low is their stand-
ard, so utterly devoid of ideality are they, that, provided Grisi be

BIRMINGHAM MUSICAL FESTIVAL. 231

the singer, it is to them immaterial whether the song be Son’ Ver-
gin’ or Non Piu di Fiori. Of such, the endeavour to improve the
taste is, we fear, useless. The best seed here falls into barren
ground, or is blown away by the wind before it reaches it. Let us
not, then, throw away our words in the idle attempt: let us rather
address ourselves to those who really feel their deficiencies and de-
sire to see the rising and future generations enjoying the benefits
of which they know only the want.

From our thorough conviction of the high rank which Music
holds among human attainments, from our knowledge that the
power to obtain a certain degree of proficiency in the art is common
to all men, we form the conclusion that it is at present far from ef-
fecting the good and diffusing the happiness of which it is capable.
How few know what Music is! how many accept the dross for the
ore! how many set a higher value on the manual dexterity of the
performer than on the mind of the composer! Lamentable, indeed,
is the thought that, for the majority, Bach, Mozart, and Beethoven,
have hitherto lived in vain; that their brightest conceptions and
noblest combinations speak no more pregnant meaning than a suc-
cession of chords without connection. It will not, cannot, always
continue so; the many have slumbering within them the power to
appreciate genius ; but few only, under existing circumstances, are
allowed the opportunity of cultivating the faculties they have re-
ceived from their Creator. On this universal capacity we found
our hopes. From that musical establishment, the profession, we
expect little. Its members have their own ends to serve; and
as far as their private interest coincides with that of the art by
which they live, they will doubtless exert themselves for the im-
provement of the latter. Beyond this they will not go; nor is it to
be looked for. But the gains of the few must not be suffered to
oppose the happiness of the many ; and we perceive cheering tokens
that these are at length beginning to understand their own in-
terest.*

We hope to see the time when the love for the sublime and the
beautiful shall triumph over personal vanity and mercenary selfish-
ness—when the meaner feelings which have so long clung to and
disgraced the fair fabric of the arts shall no longer bring opprobri-

* We hope, through the medium of The Analyst, at some future time, to
return to this important subject, and endeavour to point out the means by
which the imperatively called for improvement in the public taste may be
brought about.

932 BIRMINGHAM MUSICAL FESTIVAL.

um on Music—when it shall have been discovered that for the
many themselves to waken the slumbering mind of the mighty mas-
ter, is better than to pay hired labourers for rendering that which
when rendered is not understood. We feel that our words will not
be wasted; we write with certainty that we shall touch a respon-
sive chord in the bosoms of thousands who, spurning petty vanity
and sordid selfishness, actuated solely by a love for art, are applying
their energies to its diffusion, and by their exertions affording the
best proof that we advocate no idle fancies, no Utopian dreams.
The Sacred Harmonic Society, from an humble beginning, has
risen to an eminence which the most sanguine among its founders
can scarcely have anticipated. The performance of Israel in Egypt,
Handel’s most stupendous work, filled us with hopes for the cause
of Music in England. In the vocal department they undoubtedly
surpassed the paid chorus singers whom, three years before, we had
heard perform the same work at Birmingham. How striking, too,
was the contrast between that evening’s achievement and the
threadbare selections and meagre execution of the once-famed An-
cient Concerts. Triumphs glorious as these will ever be the result
when the many unite their sympathies and their powers. Neither
money, nor rank, nor the narrow spirit of exclusiveness can “prevail
against cordial co-operation. The Sacred Harmonic Society stands
on the secure basis of principles stable as the laws of Nature and of
mind. We beg its members to accept this tribute, in return for the
pleasure they afforded us. They are on the right road. May their
prosperity be in proportion to their deserts !

Cheering, indeed, is the prospect that the period is approaching
when ali shall labour in the vast field of art with a view to their
own intellectual and moral improvement, where now a few coldly
and inadequately toil to obtain a scanty pittance. The powers of
mind and of voice requisite to give an air with effect, may ever,
perhaps, remain confined to a few; but the interest derived from
even the finest of such exhibitions shrinks into insignificance, com-
pared with that inspired by the choral union of countless voices roll-
ing through the mazes of endless fugue. And when mankind shall
have become acquainied with its higher walks—with the deep
truths of which it is a “fit embodyment”—how different will be
the emotions suggested by the word Music, from those raised by the
compound of frivolity and pedantry with which it is now synony-
mous. When a longing for, and admiration of, the noble and the
grand shall have replaced that eager and restless desire for trifles
which disgraces our age, then will the now hidden treasures of for-

ON THE FOSSIL ICHTHYOSAURUS. 233

mer times be fully explored and appropriated: Bach, Handel, and
their cotemporaries will supersede on every piano-forte the wretch-
ed collections of harmonized aids, miscalled Psalm-tunes ; and Sun-
day evening, instead of being the last refuge of dullness, will re-
sound with strains worthy of the object they commemorate, and
which will assist in raising the soul to a contemplation of that pure
and happy state where beauty transcending far the poet’s dream,
and harmony more exquisite than minstrel ever wrought, shall re-
ward us for temptations resisted and difficulties overcome.

Y. D. ann T. W.

ABSTRACT OF A PAPER ON THE FOSSIL
ICHTHYOSAURUS

LATELY PURCHASED FOR THE BIRMINGHAM PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTION,
READ ON THE Ist or May, 1837.

Tue Lias, from which the interesting specimen we are going to
describe was taken, is one of the members of the secondary strata in-
termediate to the oolites and new red sandstone, upon which it lies
unconformably, to use.a geological phrase—that is, it does not fol-
low, in the planes of its stratification, the elevations and depressions
of the upper surface of the sandstone, but fills up the latter, and
rests upon the former, in a way that proves that the deposition of
the Lias took place long after that of the sandstone. It extends in
a broad curve laid across the kingdom diagonally from Lyme in
Dorsetshire, through the counties of Somerset, Gloucester, Worces-
ter, Warwick, Leicester, Nottingham, and York, to Whitby. It
consists of nearly horizontal beds of white, blue, or blackish lime-
stone, occasionally hardening into marble, and of various thickness,
alternating with layers of stiff argilaceous shale or blue clay.
Sometimes the beds of limestone contain nodules of the same sub-
stance imbedded in clay, that separates them from the surround-
ing stone ; and it was in one of these nodules that the present spe-
cimen was enclosed, in a manner to which we shall have occasion to
revert hereafter. The stone contains from sixty to ninety per cent.

234 ON THE FOSSIL IiCHTHYOSAURUS,

of lime, the residue being alumina and oxide of iron, which give the
mortar prepared with this lime the important property of hardening
under water. It is a marine formation ; and, besides the bones of
Ichthyosauri and of other saurian animals, it abounds in the re-
mains of fishes, crustaceous animals, and mollusca, particularly of
gryphee and ammonites; and fragments of carbonized and pyritous
wood are frequently found, both in the stone and clay. Parts of
the strata constituting the Lias are much impregnated with bitu-
men, so as to have led to their being worked for coal ; and where
this occurs in conjunction with pyrites, as at Whitby, vast quanti-
ties of alum are procured from the decomposition, by spontaneous or
artificial combustion, of these substances. From the great regularity
and evenness of the beds of stone and clay, whose inclination is not
more than forty feet in a mile towards the south-east, as well as
from their nonconformity with the new red sandstone, it is evident
that this was in a quiescent state at the time that the Lias was de-
posited over it; and the general absence of fragments of rocks or
stones in the Lias strata would lead us to the conclusion that this
formation also was the result of causes acting, not with violence,
but continuously, did not certain circumstances connected with the
distribution and state of preservation of the organic remains, tend
to induce a belief that catastrophes, of sufficient force not only to
cause the death of the inhabitants of the deep, but also to produce
their speedy interment in the mud and oose at the bottom, were
not of unfrequent occurrence at this period.

The Lias at Barrow-upon-Soar, in Leicestershire, where the pre-
sent specimen was found, presents a remarkable regularity and cor-
respondence in the thickness of the layers of limestone and clay, the
former being usually ten inches, the latter eighteen inches, thick.
The dip is but slight, amounting only to an inch ina yard to the
east, although Mount Sorrel, a sienitic rock and the first of a range
of primary rocks extending over the forest of Charnwood, is in the
immediate vicinity, being only separated by the little stream of the
Soar and the meadows through which it flows, from the out-crop of
the Lias on the opposite bank.

The nodule that contains the Ichthyosaurus, however, did not lie
in one of these beds of stone, but in a stratum of reddish clay above
them. When entire, it was nearly six feet long and two feet wide,
and about seven inches thick, having the general form of a fish
deprived of its tail. It was broken into several portions by remov-
ing it from the quarry, and the parts containing the end of the nose
and part of the tail were lost. It is formed of a series of concentric

ON THE FOSSIL ICHTHYOSAURUS. 235

layers of limestone, increasing in hardness and crystallization, from
hardened clay on the surface to perfect marble at the centre. When
brought to Birmingham, a stone-mason was employed to chip off
the stone from one side, so as to bring the enclosed skeleton into
view ; and then it was discovered that portions of the paddles, and
the extremities of some of the ribs were wanting, in consequence
of their passing quite through the stone. Mutilated, however, as it
is, it is one of the most perfect specimens of the Ichthyosaurus as yet
discovered, and is a very valuable addition to the collection of the
Institution.

As now displayed, the animal is lying on its right side, with the
paddles extended laterally, and the head, dislocated from the neck,
resting on its upper part. But the description of the injuries
it has sustained is better reserved for the place where we shall at-
tempt to explain their cause ; at present our object is to describe
the peculiarities of the structure of this class of animals by their
analogies among still existing races. In external form the Ichthy-
osaurus partook of the appearance of the Crocodile and Lizard tribes
and of the Whale ; of the former in the shape of the head, body,
and tail, and of the latter in the form of its anterior paddles, that
closely resemble the fius of the Whale, and in the want of scales or
any external bony defence. But in imposing the name Ichthyosau-
rus, or Fish-Lizard, Mr. Koenig seems to have fixed his attention
upon the form of the vertebrz, which closely resemble those of the
fishes. In size the Ichthyosaurus far exceeded the recent Croco-
diles, being sometimes thirty or forty feet in length, of which the
head forms a very variable proportion, from the difference in the
length of the jaws in different species.

Dr. Buckland, in his Bridgewater Treatise, has given a plate
of the petrified skin of the animal ; but though we have not
been able to discover any thing exactly similar in the present
specimen, yet there is a thin film of carbonaceous matter that
pervades the stone in such situations as we should expect to
find traces of this membrane. Between the ribs a large sur-
face of some thickness of this matter is apparent, having a la-
mellar and crystalline structure, that we may, with some reason,
conceive to be the remains of the flesh and viscera. There is also a
white calcareous substance lying upon the ribs, on their abdominal
surface, and near the carbonaceous matter last described, that, with
still more probability, may be referred to the excrements, which,
consisting chiefly of the indigestible portions of the bones of the fish-
es and other matters that served for its food, would not be unlikely to

VOL. ViI., NO. XXII. HH

236 ON THE FOSSIL ICHTHYOSAURUS,

contain a large proportion of lime, in the form of phosphate and car-
bonate. The rarity of coprolites at Barrow, and their abundance
at the mouth of the Severn, may be referable to certain differences
in the nature of the food of the Ichthyosauri in these localities,
that which contained the greatest proportion of bone and calcareous
matter, affording, of course, the largest quantity of coprolite.

The structure of the head, teeth, and jaws, closely resembles that
of the true Crocodiles, as distinguished from the Alligators. These
are piscivorous, and, like the Porpoise, have their lower jaw in a
single piece; but the Crocodiles, being bolder animals, and attack-
ing their prey either on land or in the water, require a stronger
construction of the two lower jaws, which, in order to fulfil this de-
sign, are composed of six bones on each side, so spliced together as
to give the greatest degree of lightness and firmness combined. The
number of teeth, which is about one hundred and eighty, is greater
than in the Crocodile ; and they are not enclosed in sockets, but lie
in a groove of the jaw. As this structure renders them insecure,
and liable to be displaced, in order to replace those that are broken
or torn out, a constant succession of teeth is provided, that lie in a
depression in the side of each of the old ones, which they push out
by their growth, unbroken ; whereas the new tooth of the Croco-
dile, being contained within the old one, splits it before it expels it
from the jaw. The teeth and jaws form, at present, the specific
distinctions of the Ichthyosauri ; thus, we have the Platyodon and
the Tenuirostris, &c.; but Mr. Hawkins and Mr. Owen consider
that the paddles present more unfailing characters for the establish-
ment of species. The nostrils, being placed almost immediately in
front of the eyes, indicate that, like the Pike, the Ichthyosaurus
fished by sight rather than by scent, and was probably equally vora-
cious as that fish. Indeed, if we may reason from the size of the eye,
which is very large in most predacious animals, it must have been the
tyrant of the deep ; for these organs are larger, in proportion to the
head, than in any other of the finny tribes, except in a few of the
smaller fishes. The sclerotic coat of the eye was composed, as in
birds and crocodiles, of bony plates, that, ranged in a circle like the
staves of a barrel, and being movable over each other, by their con-
traction and expansion increased or diminished the axis of the eye, and
altered its range of vision from near to distant objects in air or water,
according as the huge monster floated on the surface or remained sub
merged ; when, by the immense quantity of light admitted through
the enormous pupil, the deepest recesses of the ocean, or its most
turbid water, were subject to its ken. Although the structure of

——

(eos thet E*

a ees

ON THE FOSSIL ICHTHYOSAURUS. 237

the jaws and teeth indicate great strength and voracious habits, yet
this voracity must have been confined in its exercise to preying upon
marine animals ; for the remarkable flexibility of the skeleton of its
body deprived it of the power of moving upon land, except in a very
limited degree. First, the head was fixed to the neck by a ball and
socket joint, the most movable of all articulations ; next, the verte-
bre, or joints of the back bone, were from forty to fifty in number,
and instead of being connected together by broad flat surfaces, as in
land animals, only touched at their edges, like those of fishes ; and
the spinous processes, instead of forming a single piece with each
vertebra, were jointed by their bifid roots into two holes, one on
each side of the groove down which the spinal marrow ran. The
paddles, also, consisting of numerous flat polygonal bones, ranged in
a tesselated manner, were quite inadequate to the support of the
Ichthyosaurus on land, though most powerful organs of motion in
the water.

The ribs, equal in number to the vertebre of the body, extended
from the head to the pelvis, as in certain Lizards ; and about twenty
of the upper ones were lengthened by what Mr. Conybeare terms
the sterno-costal arcs, which were a set of bones, five in number, at-
tached to each pair of ribs, that, in a manner resembling the stretch-
ers of an umbrella, enabled the animal to extend and contract the
dimensions of its chest to a degree to which we see nothing analogous
among existing races of animals. In the Crocodile, however, whose
sternum is prolonged to the pelvis, there is a set of intermediate
bones, between the true ribs and their cartilages, that are connected
to the sternum, which probably answer the same purpose.

The Ornithorhynchus, while seeking its food among the weeds at
the bottom of the streams in which it dwells, is frequently obliged
to rise to the surface to respire: it also burrows in the banks, like a
Water Rat ; and hence, in order to increase the strength and elas-
ticity of its fore legs, a bone, similar in form and function to the
furcula or merry-thought of birds, is introduced between the breast
and shoulder bones, to which it forms a most elastic point d’appui,
while it keeps them apart, and antagonizes the powerful mus-
cles that move the anterior extremities. Sir E. Home, in his Lec-
tures on Comparative Anatomy, has given a representation, which
Dr. Buckland, in his Bridgewater Treatise, has copied, of this pecu-
liarity both in the Ornithorhynchus and Ichthyosaurus: but in the
specimen we are describing, the flat central portion of the furcula is
wanting, which arises, probably, from the bone having retained its
cartilaginous state at the time of the animal’s death—a supposition

238 ON THE FOSSIL ICHTHYOSAURUS.

that is supported by the want of the rounded knuckle in the hume-
rus or arm-bone to fill the deep socket in which it was lodged.

The hind paddles are of the same shape, but are much smaller
than the fore, and their terminal bones are lost. Of the tail, there
are only a few joints remaining: but, judging from the increasing
size of the vertebr from the head to the pelvis, and by comparison
with other specimens, we may conclude that the tail, when entire,
was nearly as long as the body and head together. Its transverse
processes are jointed to the spine, and the spinous processes are very
broad and strong, indicating great power in this organ, as is observ-
ed in the Crocodile, with considerable extent of lateral motion, as in
fishes.

The specific characters of the present specimen do not correspond
to those of any of the species hitherto described. In the paucity of
its paddle bones it resembles the Ichthyosaurus platyodon of other
geologists, and to the I. chieroligostonus of Hawkins; but it differs
from it in the pointed form of its teeth, and in the number of its
dorsal yertebre, that amount to forty-eight or fifty, whereas the
vertebre of the J. platyodon are only forty-four. It must, there-
fore, be considered as a new species ; and we would suggest the
name of J. macrorachis, as indicating its peculiar length of spine.

Besides the loss of the tail, and of the extremity of the nose,
paddles, and of some of the ribs, the specimen presents the following
injuries :—the crown of the head is crushed flat, the bony plates of
the eyes are separated and dispersed, the jaws are pushed in contra-
ry directions, and one of the bones constituting the right side of the
lower jaw is broken. In the neck and back, the vertebra are turn-
ed upon their axes, so that every rib is dislocated from its attach-
ment, the ribs of the left side of the neck being thrown in a bundle
forwards, while those of the body are very regularly disposed over
the spine, with their heads in contact with the spinous processes,
and their shafts lying diagonally across the right ribs that remain in
contact with, though disjointed from, the spinal column. Wherever
one bone has rested upon another, the superincumbent pressure has
been sufficient to crack and break the upper one at the point of con-
tact. This is the case with most of the ribs of the left side, the
furcula, the coracoid processes, and the thigh bones.

The hollow cup-like interstices of such of the vertebre as still
remain in contact, are lined with dog-tooth crystals of carbonate of
lime ; but wherever they are at all displaced, the interval is filled
up by the surrounding substance, now converted into limestone ;
and this is the case even with the most minute cracks and fissures

.

BATT

a, gn

ON THE FOSSIL ICHTHYOSAURUS. 239

in the bones, proving beyond a doubt that the bones were broken
while the enveloping matter was in a soft state, and that the flesh
or skin was in a great measure, if not entirely, removed. The com-
pressing force that produced these numerous dislocations and frac-
tures must have been considerable, and, supposing the animal’s
body to have lain on its back or right side, passed in a direction
from right to left.

As the present state of our knowledge of the mode in which the
Lias clays and limestones were formed, amounts to little more than
conjecture, it is not possible to give a satisfactory account of the
cause of the death of the Icthyosauri and other animals whose re-
mains are found in such a remarkably perfect state in that stratum;
but it is rather probable that, at Barrow at least, it may have been
owing to sudden changes in the temperature and other conditions
of the water, in consequence of volcanic action in the immediate
vicinity of that part of the primeval ocean.

With regard to the nodular concretional form of the stone in
which the petrifaction is imbedded, an explanation may perhaps be
found by a reference to what has been observed to occur in the
mixture of Silex and Alumina with some Oxide of Iron, that forms
the potter’s paste, which, when allowed to settle, begins to form
into lumps by the attraction of aggregation that the particles of
Silica have for each other. This circumstance has been applied to
explain the formation of flints in chalk; and with the knowledge
of the property that the mortar made from Lias lime has to harden
under water, and of the tendency to form the same kind of concen-
tric nodules round any organic nucleus, so striking in the ironstone
beds of the coal measures, it need not be a matter of surprise that
similar nodules are developed in the Lias where the same ingredi-
ents meet together.

The following analysis by Mr. Southall of this town, of the vari-
ous substances found in the fossil, shows decidedly that the process
of petrifaction has not entirely removed their animal matter. The
matters analyzed were the bones, the black matter that lay between
the ribs, and the white substance supposed to be coprolite. The
bones contain 75 per cent. of matter soluble in diluted nitric acid,
and the residuum, which resembles ivory-black, yields, when heated,
an empyreumatic oil, and when a strong red heat is applied, the
greater part is consumed. Mixed with oxymuriate of potash, the re-
siduum deflagrates in the same manner as a mixture of oxymuriate
and carbon. Ammonia added to a solution of the bones threw
down a copious precipitate ; and the nitrate of silver threw down

240 AN INTELLECTUAL MONSTROSITY.

a flocculent precipitate from the same solution. The black matter
contains about 22 per cent. of carbon, nearly 60 per cent. of carbo-
nate of lime, and about 5 per cent. of other solid matter, which is
composed of oxide of iron, some silex, and a trace of copper. The
rest, viz., 13 per cent., appears to be water. The white matter
contains phosphate of lime, or bone earth, and carbonate of lime,
besides a dark substance left on the filter, which swells and burns
like animal fibre when placed on hot iron.

AN INTELLECTUAL MONSTROSITY.
By J. L. Levison.

In designating any person an intellectual monstrosity, the terms
would seem at first to be so contradictory, that I can fancy many of
the orthodox Jiteratt would ask what I mean by them; and, previ-
ously to the explanation, suppose that we intend describing an
individual with very decided talent, but who is deficient in worldly
sense. Yet such is not altogether the kind of character I intend
sketching : and, in order to make peace with readers of all kinds, I
will candidly confess that I adopted the terms intellectual monstro-
sity, because they convey to my ideas the tangible representation of
just what I wish to treat of, without being under the necessity of
either a circumlocutory mode of expression or of useless and minute
descriptions. Besides, the terms convey in a forcible manner the
notions entertained upon the subject by the generality of mankind.
Still, the object of the present article would be misunderstood, un-
less I give a more definite meaning, and explain that my definition
is something different from its strict and literal sense. I intend,
then, to express, by the words intellectual monstrosity, a being who
is generally regarded as a moral phenomenon—one of those extraor-
dinary personages who is looked upon with awe or derision by vul-
gar minds, and with admiration or envy by the more cultivated
classes. In short, an eccentric compound of wisdom and simplicity,
who, like many others, has received the title by common consent of
being a genius! Yet our intellectual monstrosity is of a different
species from the mad-cap erratic persons who shield themselves

ee A DES Er ERS

AN INTELLECTUAL MONSTROSITY. 241

under the above title ; for it does not follow as a philosophical neces-
sity, that he must do anything either injurious to others or annoy-
ing to himself. He may be harmless, kind, considerate ; or energe-
tic, irrascible, or dogmatic: but, whatever his temper, he is dis-
tinguished by one trait—he ventures to think for himself! ’Tis
true, he may be indebted for his acknowledged mental superiority
to an original and vigorous cerebral organization (as is the case of
those persons who are called geniuses), or to his having concentrated
his mental powers to one specific pursuit, which has enabled him to
arrive at excellence in some art or science. It is very likely, how-
ever, that he may be less pleasing to a commonplace associate than
if he had a superficial acquaintance with many subjects ; but if we
look to the advancement of science, then his value is incalculably
greater. If such a person investigates any science, he gives up
every thing that may distract his attention, and the whole of his
thoughts are concentrated for the attainment of the object. He dif-
fers from the dilletanti in the sciences, as he does not allow any ulte-
rior pursuit to interfere with his fixed purpose ; hence he becomes
the discoverer of new truths, or he is led toa clearer and more
perspicuous view of those already known. And if utility is to be
estimated, such a person is not only entitled to respect for his use-
fulness, but he merits esteem for his many privations and personal
sacrifices. But it is a palpable truism, at which the heart sickens,
that individuals who have been benefactors to their species, are, too
often, victims of unmerited neglect, and very often, in days of yore,
were punished instead of being rewarded. Even now, in our own
boasted days of liberality, it is too often the case that men of talent
suffer from poverty and unmerited neglect. Pensions are lavished
on the destroyers of their species; but he who exercises his mental
powers for the benefit of the common-wealth must be satisfied with
the scantiest fare. It must be confessed, that if an intellectual
monstrosity is needy, he is ill adapted to guide his vessel safely o’er
the stormy seas of life ; but, should his bark be wrecked, he is still
less able to buffet the waves of adversity and disappointment, and
his modest and noble spirit sinks in the unmerited struggle. If such
a being should escape the ills of poverty or the insolence of the con-
tumacious, it seems more than probable that he has a balance of hap-
piness in his favour: for, if deprived of a well-earned reward for
his various labours, he consoles himself for his many privations with
the fond hope of posthumous fame! This one thought compensates
for every present difficulty, and cheers him on the thorny road of
existence, even though his feet are bleeding and his body is wearied

242 AN INTELLECTUAL MONSTROSITY.

from excessive fatigue. Let sordid men sneer at what they term
ill-judged notions—let them compare their own wealth with his
indigence, and their substantial and present comforts with his ideal
and dreamy anticipations—the sum total is not in their favour.
The intellectual monstrosity has not any tedium vite, nor is his body
the rendezvous of diseases ; and if we compare the moments of plea-
sure by their endurance, the balance is in his favour ; for never can
things of a mere sensual nature be compared to the pure and hal-
lowed emotions experienced from the exercise of our moral and in-
tellectual attributes.

The object of this essay is not so much to point out the weak-
nesses of men of talent, but to deprecate the contumely with which
they are often treated by the possessors of wealth. The man of
refined intellect who is poor, is still rich in mental lore, and he not
only derives pleasure from the continual acquisition he can make to
his stores, which are, in one point of view at least, more secure than
the riches which the worldling prizes: intellectual wealth is impe-
rishable.

But much depends on the spirit which stimulates a philosopher.
If he is feverish for the applause of his cotemporaries, and if he mis-
takes their occasional attention to him as respect for his talent, he
will find himself miserably deceived. It often happens that when a
man of genius is invited to the tables of the wealthy, instead of its
being from motives of esteem it results from a most unworthy and
selfish motive. He is expected, for such condescension, to repay his
host with compound interest, by the delivery of an oral lecture on
his most favourite subject ; and all this because he has the honour
of an invitation to dine: hence, he not only teaches the master of
the feast, but instructs or amuses the whole party, who obtain in
this manner much valuable information without any of that perso-
nal fatigue which even the most gifted minds must experience dur-

ing the laborious period of study. What annoys us most is, that ~

often the ephemeral patrons of talent mistake their own selfish mo-
tives and confound them with the hallowed sensations of Benevo-
lence. If this noble sentiment really influenced their conduct, they
woulJd show it by a different bearing. We have often been disgust-
ed at witnessing the tyranny and insolence with which an intellec-
tual monstrosity has been treated on such occasions of mis-called
hospitality. Whatever may have been his favourite pursuit, it is
attacked on all sides ; some part of the company affecting to admire
it, whilst others express their doubts as to its relative or positive
importance. The stranger being thus unpleasantly annoyed or ur-

AN INTELLECTUAL MONSTROSITY. 243

gently importuned, is in the predicament of a sensitive and noble
animal under the stings of a number of busy insects ; for as soon as
they discover his vulnerable parts, they contrive to suck him of all
they want ; and when their curiosity is satisfied, it is not an un-
frequent occurrence that the talented being is left to unmerited
neglect, particularly if some butterfly of fashion flutters about,
decorated with an extrinsic garb of superiority. And this arises
because the intellectual monstrosity has soared too high for their
weak mental vision. They gazed for a short time, but could not
continue to do so, as their heads felt confused and dizzy. But if
good manners shield our monstrosity from such impertinence, he is
sure to be forgotten, or, what amounts to the same, uncared for as
soon as the company separates.

What is worthy of remark, is the fact that, when an intellectual
monstrosity visits the tables of the great, it is not a matter of choice
with himself as to whether he will lecture or not. He is expected
to use his best endeavours, for his hospitable host assures him that
“the party anticipate the pleasure of hearing him,” &c. It is,
however, of some importance, that the philosopher thus forcibly
exhibited should have knowledge of human nature ; for although
he is expected to display his particular talent, yet should he be
so deficient in worldly tactics as to begin to communicate his
subject before any of the party have had their usual skirmishes,
they become restless and inattentive, because it is obvicus that
‘the curious creature” has been made acquainted with what would
be expected from him, and they experience a kind of moral degra-
dation, from a consciousness that they are acting improperly and
unjustly toa man of worth. There is nothing so humiliating as
being detected in some intentional act of insincerity: it is like the
sudden exposure of heartless hypocrisy ; and as in the one case the
blush is no surety of any subsequent moral consistency, se in the
other the self-reproof which those of a party may feel does not in-
duce them to treat such a person with marked kindness and atten-
tion. The probability, however, is that the intellectual monstrosity
will have roused their indignation at the assumed discovery of their
using him as a convenience, or as a something to amuse them for a
time from his newness—that they may, under the effects of their
curdled passion, spurt poison on the innocent offender, and charge
him with an over-weening vanity, or, with impotent anger, declare
him to be deficient in that elevated intelligence which enables a
possessor to communicate knowledge without making it appear
anything like an obligation.

VOL. VII., NO. XXII. LE

244 AN INTELLECTUAL MONSTROSITY.

It also very often happens that an intellectual monstrosity is
not gifted with a fluency of speech, which causes him at times to
hesitate, and thus his communications may be inelegant and disor-
derly, but still intelligible. Some specimens of this species are
extremely modest, and they shrink from the gaze of the mere curi-
ous—the lovers of wonderful sights, and have a great repugnance
to receive applause, however they may feel assured that they have
merited it. But individuals of a common cast of mind can ill ap-
preciate such a nobility of sentiment. Vulgar persons, judging
from their own thoughts, cannot believe it possible that any one
can act from a refined benevolence—a species of high morality
which delights in communicating to others, without reward, the
information which labour may have enabled the philosopher to ob-
tain on those subjects of practical rather than speculative advantage,
and which are important from their usefulness. The true lover of
his species would use some effort to benefit, not only the unfortu-
nate, but also such persons as are the victims of the lower feel-
ings, whether they rank with the class of the wneducated or the ill-
educated.

Yet, in imparting mental wealth, there is as much delicacy re-
quired as in dispensing the money of our country to the needy: the
manner should be, in both instances, kind and ingenuous. For, if
pride and coarseness are substituted, more pain is inflicted and more
humiliation endured than even greater gifts could compensate.

It also often occurs that an intellectual monstrosity is of so retir-
ing a nature that it is painful to him to be shewn up as a lion in any
company ; and if he is importuned to give the usual expected oral
lecture, his greatness of soul shrinks from an intercourse with per-
sons so devoid of moral delicacy. He therefore sits silent, chagrined
and uneasy, and reminds us of some humble but fragrant field-flower
transported to a gaudy bed of tulips; it is more likely to stand the
severity of the storm and the tempest than its more showy compa-
nions, who were useless when perfect, and without the redeeming
fragrance which the less decorated one possessed.

Among the instances of rather an amusing kind, we may relate
the following, as corroborative of some of the above statements.
Mr. Stone was very fond of Natural History, and being an en-
thusiast, with a clear and easy mode of conveying his information to
others, he was in the habit of receiving very frequent invitations.
His love of talking was, however, quite a fault with him, and he
indulged in it to excess. He knew that he had the honour of a card
for the purpose of lecturing to the party, and therefore he engrossed

AN INTELLECTUAL MONSTROSITY. 245

all conversation* himself. Although his auditors were satisfied
that he was well acquainted with the subjects he spoke upon, they
could not help feeling annoyed at his being too communicative.
Hence, instead of leaving a party who had friendly feelings towards
him, he provoked their criticism, and called forth unfair ridicule to
detract from his actual merit. Had he been more judicious, and
allowed others to talk as well as himself, even although he displayed
less varied knowledge, he would not have pained their Self-esteem,
and he would have won their nominal and conventional esteem.
People feel insulted if any thing like an invidious comparison can
be made. The poor man does not feel gratitude when he is shown
the splendour and luxury of the lordly domain ; nor do the super-
ficial in mental acquirements entertain gratitude or respect when
any one submits his intellectual stores in such profusion that their
own poverty of ideas is thus unpleasantly forced into an unpalatable
contrast. There are some persons, who may be regarded as excep-
tions, who, from an easy conversational manner, will frequently con-
vey much information without making it seem any obligation.
Mendelssohn says that such was the case with the author of Nathan
the Wise, the illustrious Lessing.

I have been imperceptibly ea to these ‘lengthy remarks from a
circumstance which occurred to me some years since. During a
temporary residence in Norwich I was invited to a dinner party, to
meet a great personage—a celebrated Chinese traveller—and great
was my anticipation of the refined pleasure I should receive from his
lecture or conversation (terms, under such circumstances, merely sy-
nonymous) on the manners and customs of the nations of the east.
As soon as possible I hurried to the party, and quickly found myself
in the drawing-room in a goodly company, and saw with mine own
eyes the “lion of the day,” and, what is more, the worthy master of
the feast formally introduced us. The traveller rose in a dignified
manner, and with a graceful bow he returned my respectful saluta-
tion ; then he resumed his seat with much ease and propriety, and,
bending his eyes oa the carpet, gave himself up to his own cogita-
tions.

Now I flattered myself on my physiognomical tact, and silently
felicitated myself on a richer mental banquet than I had even anti-
cipated. Dinner was at length announced, and a silent meal it was ;
it might have passed for a Chinese repast, and would have done ho-

* This might appear a genuine bull, but I mean that he asked questions
and answered himself.

246 AN INTELLECTUAL MONSTROSITY.

nour to the renowned taciturnity of the Bonzes. The cloth was
removed in due time, and the general gravity was slightly relieved
by a simultaneous smile on the appearance of the wine and dessert.
Still silence continued ; we sat in mute expectation, and at least
one quarter of an hour had passed, and yet the stranger remained
quiet ! he had the rudeness not to give us a lecture “on the man-
ners, customs, and language of the Chinese people!” We looked at
each other and winked significantly to our host, who appeared some-
what disappointed. We knit our brows: some of us eat of various
things, to vent the accumulated feeling of irritation ; whilst others
drank their wine quicker, and all looked angry at the traveller for
his seeming indifference. In this way we were all under great ex-
citement, and every one of us skirmished a little, partly to vent our
spleen, and partly to induce the stranger to correct our apprehen-
sions ; but all hints were thrown away, as he continued to sip his
weak wine and water, apparently perfectly unconscious of the per-
turbation he occasioned us. What annoyed us the more was the
fact that he occasionally smiled most provokingly (no doubt at some
of his own reminiscences) ; but we could not opine whether he did
so at us, or at his own mental associations. There was not an indi-
vidual present who did not consider his conduct as an open defiance
of an established custom, an infringement of a conventional rule es-
tablished by long usage. What was more, we had actually been
invited to meet the celebrated Chinese traveller, who would, in all
probability, amuse us with his numerous adventures. But in spite
of all this he had disappointed us, and appeared only a commonplace
kind of personage; and on our leaving we unanimously passed a
sentence upon him “ that he was a great bore !”

I subsequently discovered that this opinion was a very unjust one,
and I now regard such conduct as was manifested by the party as a
violation of true politeness and moral good breeding ; for we consi-
der it as the acme of insolence to expect or ask a stranger to lec-
ture to a large party because he has been invited to a dinner! We
were ourselves the real bores, by not paying attention and respect
to a worthy and talented man for his own sake, instead of that un-
mollified selfishness which prompts an individual, with something
like a feverish anxiety, to treat such a talented stranger as a mental
monstrosity, who ought to be exhibited to the gaze of the curious.
It was, however, a lesson of some importance to myself; for a few
days after the above occurrence I had the privilege of dining with
him at the house of the Jate talented and learned William Taylor,
and it was indeed an interesting day—an epoch in my life! for we

a

eer

ON THE GEOLOGY AND MINING oF, &c. 247

unsolicited received information on the state of China, its literature:
its arts, government, morals, &c. ; and from that time I have felt
a great veneration for an Intellectual Monstrosity, particularly
when, like the traveller I have written of, he combines with great
talent high and exalted moral perceptions.

Hall Gate, Doncaster,
October 19th, 1837.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE GEOLOGY AND MINING OF
THE SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE COAL-FIELD.*

Tuess lectures were rather of a descriptive than a scientific cha-
racter, as they contained many curious details respecting the mining
and manufacturing operations, and the topography, of the district.
The first was in great part devoted to a sketch of the facts observ-
ed by geological inquirers, and recorded as illustrative of the forma-
tion and progress of a coal basin. The probably heated and fluid
condition of the earth at its first creation was assumed ; and the
gradual hardening of its surface, the movements of the crust,
through the expansive force of gases and vapour, the disintegration
of the elevated portions, and the deposition of their elements, under
new combinations, by the agency of water, explained. Fire, there-
fore, might be termed the disturbing, water the tranquilizing pow-
er; and the action of both, proceeding through uncounted ages,
alternately caused new elevations, and formed new compounds in the
silent operation of deposition.

In the course of the long period of time thus occupied, the gra-
dations of animal and vegetable life, suited to the progressive con-
dition of the earth, were called into existence ; and thus a study of
the remains and of the preserved forms of organized matter present-
ed, to a certain extent, an historical record of the relative ages of

* Being the substance of two lectures lately delivered at the Atheneum,
in Worcester, by Mr. W. Hawkes Smith, of Birmingham. ‘These lectures
were attended by numerous audiences, who received them with marked sa-
tisfaction. Discourses of this kind are well-calculated to promote the spirit
of generous emulation and inquiry.—Ep.

248 ON THE GEOLOGY AND MINING OF

different deposits ; and these remains had received the appropriate
designation of “ medals of creation.”

Similar was the process in a confined area like that under consi-
deration. It must be conceived of as covered by the waters of a
deep ocean, extending indefinitely on every side, and of which the
floor of limestone and other inferior strata, was gradually covered
with deposits of various rocky materials, carried down from distant
and previous elevations. The accumulated strata, with the solid
limestone on which they rested, were themselves elevated at certain
points, till high ridges rose above the waters. The debris from these
hills was, by continued aquatic operation, carried into the concavity
or trough ; and the hills themselves became, in due course, clothed
with luxuriant vegetation, vast accumulations of the matter of
which, in different stages of decomposition, were perpetually washed
down, and took their place as definite deposits, which, buried under
successive earthy layers, and subjected to the chemical and mechani-
cal action of heat and pressure, took the form of that which we now
call coal. Among other beds deposited in this trough or basin were
also clayey sediments, charged with metallic particles, which, in
process of time, took their present form of strata of iron ore, or, as
it is commonly called, ironstone, which occur at different depths in
the coal formation. The vegetable origin of coal was abundantly
proved by the prevalence of carbonaceous matter in its depositions,
and by the numerous remains which pervade every part of its mass ;
and the existing high temperature of the earth’s crust was also in-
ferable from the nature of the plants discovered, which were at once
pronounced, by the botanist, to bear a distinct relation to those now
known to belong to tropical climates. Thus, the once deep sea or
lake was gradually filled up with sedimentary washings from high
lands. But it was not in this evenly disposed form that the suc-
cessive layers offered themselves to the miner. A series of move-
ments, similar to those of the earthquake and the volcano, broke up
the accumulated strata to an unknown depth; placed contiguous
portions of the same deposits at the most discordant levels, and ex-
hibiting the ocean beds of thick limestone, in highly inclined posi-
tions, as the principal constituents of abrupt and lofty eminences.
That these movements took place after the deposition of all the cha-
racteristic strata had taken place, was clear, from the circumstance
of the same measures being successively reached, in the same order,
in places where they lay at extremely different distances from the
surface.

The lecturer illustrated his subject by reference to several effec-

eS Se

a

|
:
4

|
i
:

THE SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE COAL-FIELD. 249

tive drawings, some of which were contrived, by means of moveable
parts, to exhibit the gradual progress of the changes of which he
spoke ; one of the most striking of these was a map of part of
South Staffordshire, which anticipated one of the suggestions of Mr.
Wyse for facilitating the comprehension of geological topography.
It exhibited at first a uniform colouring, expressive of the red
sandstone with which the surface is covered ; and several layers were
successively removed from the part indicative of the coal field, co-
loured so as to give an idea of the coal, the rock measures, the iron-
stone, the clays, &c., down to the prevalent bed of limestone ; por-

tions of the layers being cut out, in order to exhibit, in their proper

situations, the coal, the basalt, and the lime, which are occasionally
seen at the surface.

The second lecture was commenced by reference to a large and
elaborately-constructed section, formed on careful observation and
inquiry, and presenting a general idea of,the condition of the strata
through the coal field, could they have been examined immediately
after the great elevations and depressions of their parts. A remov-
al of a portion of the drawing exhibited afterwards to the eye, in a
lively manner, the new line of surface, shewing the result. of the
gradual operation of air and water, in reducing the rough and pre-
cipitous ridges, filling up deep cavities, and producing the undulat-
ing line which now prevails.*

The relation of such a spectacle to the evenly deposited strata of
a coal basin, in its original form, was pointed out, and the numerous
interesting geological facts included within the range of the section
adverted to ; shewing instances of dislocations or “ faults,” by which
the corresponding measures were thrown to a difference of level,
amounting, in some instances, to a hundred yards; fissures or
« dykes,” filled up with injected veins of originally fused matter,
now bearing the form of hard and closely-grained rock, interrupting
the work of the miner, and occasionally bursting through the entire
strata, and forming hilly protuberances on the surface ; the eleva-
tions of the solid ribs of limestone into the anticlinal position, or
sloping each way, at the Wren’s Nest and Dudley Castle Hills,
where these ocean beds are raised to angles of thirty, fifty, and eighty
degrees; the coal measures, uniformly prevalent over the cavity of
the basin, but broken and dispersed at the elevated ridges, dividing

* This magnified section was, in fact, with more of detail, generally simi-
lar to the one which is given by Mr. S. in his Birmingham and its Vicinity,
and which will be found in our number for April, 1837, accompanying a
notice of that work.—Eb.

250 ON THE GEOLOGY AND MINING OF

and becoming of considerable magnitude towards the south-west,
and cropping out and losing themselves on the north-east side.

The lecturer then proceeded to describe in succession, the valua-
ble deposits and the mode of working them in different situations.
Of the limestone, two beds, of twelve or fourteen yards thick appear
to prevail beneath the coal formation It is of the period termed
by Buckland ¢ransition, and abounds in the forms of Trilobites,
Encrinites, and a variety of Crustacea and Zoophytes. Jt appears
at the surface near Walsall ; forms a range of considerable hills
from Sedgely to Dudley, and is again seen at the Hayes, near
Stourbridge. Its elevation and its excavated quarries afford many
strikingly picturesque points of view, which were illustrated by
large drawings; one of which, presenting the present aspect of the
Wren’s Nest, was adapted, by a removable piece, to exhibit a sec-
tion of the hill, shewing the workings of the strata, their position,
and the line of subterraneous canal constructed by the proprietor
for facilitating the transit of the heavy material. The limestone is
detached from its bed by the gunpowder blast, and is, in some situ-
ations, worked, like coal, by means of deep pits or shafts.

Above the lime, at a considerable distance, lie the Coal Measures,
of which the following table gives the total thickness of the getable
beds, or those which pay for working :—

Y. F
Brooch Coase see es 1
Thichkicoalities <8. Seat 10

Heathen coal .............0s0sse% 1
ING W, IIE! eee us, Peecainencsae aac 8

wmwoocs
-_
So ee eae

Yards 21 0O

—

Of these, the most important is generally known by the descrip-
tive title of “Ten Yard Coal.” This is composed of numerous
beds of varying qualities, separated by thin “ partings” of sand or
clay, and it is worked by the miner in five or six sections or stages,
commencing with the lowest ; large quantities, however, are left in
the mine, as pillars for supporting the roof, and as heaps of unsale-
able slack.

The thinner beds are more nearly cleared away ; the superin-
cumbent earth being supported by conical pillars, or “cogs,” of
refuse and waste. In all cases, a series of small passages for venti-
lation, called “air-heads,” is carefully formed: these follow the en-

THE SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE COAL-FIELD. 251

tire extension of the work, they are about three feet square, and
various contrivances are adopted to promote the circulation of a
stream of pure air through the cavities of the mine, both for the
purpose of ventilation, and for the extrusion of the deleterious gases
and vapours, which so frequently, in spite of all precautions, cause
tremendous and destructive explosions. Another enemy of the
miner is the water which is generally found in mines. This is
carried by channels or passages, to a general reservoir, or “ sump,”
from whence it is raised to the surface by a steam-engine.

The ironstone is found in beds of three to five feet thick ; some-
times in the form of continuous strata or ‘ flats,’ but most frequently
as nodules of different sizes embedded in matrices, of coarse clay.
It is entirely cleared ; a plentiful supply of matter for supporting
the roof being found in the stony and earthy refuse. In the mines
both of coal and ironstone, the “ gate-roads,” or passages of access,
are driven, al first, to the extremity of the proposed area, and the
work then proceeds “ homeward,” thereby avoiding the difficulty
and danger attendant on keeping open and continually re-entering
the cleared parts.

Another mineral substance, of less value, but still of considerable
importance, is the Fire Clay, which abounds in various situations,
but is procured of the best quality in the neighbourhood of Stour-
bridge. Its superiority consists in its almost entire freedom from
admixture with oxide of iron, and its consequent power of resisting
extreme heat. This property renders it highly useful for the lining
of smelting furnaces, and for crucibles and other vessels used in the
making of glass, and in melting of metals for the founder. The
mode of clearing out the clay is similar to that of the ironstone.

The iron-ore is an aqueous combination, in which the metallic
particles are mixed with large quantities of argillaceous matter, and
the science of the chemist is appealed to, in order to discover a sub-
stance which, uniting itself with the clay, should set free the metal.
Such a substance, possessing the desired affinity, is the limestone,
which is accordingly thrown into the furnaces with the coal and
ironstone, when the metal runs off below, and the mixed matters
form a species of imperfect glass, which is suffered to escape by pas-
sages contrived for the purpose.

The lecturer here introduced a detailed account of the operations
of the iron-furnace, the forge, and the mill, to which, however, we
can only thus allude. He then adverted to the remarkable features
presented, in certain situations, by the pyrogenous rock already
mentioned, which forms a line of hills commencing where the lime-

VOL. VIIL., NO. XXII. KK

252 ON THE GEOLOGY AND MINING, &c.

stone hills terminate, near Dudley. This is a species of basaltic
larva, and takes various forms according to the mode in which it
was cooled after ejection from its deep sources. The only purpose
of utility to which it has been applied, is that of paving-stone ; and
having bsen usually procured from the quarries near the village of
Rowley Regis, it has received the vernacular denomination of
Rowley Rag. When met with in the form of dykes and veins, it
is called by the miners “green rock.” It is extremely hard, is
slightly affected by the magret, and consists of about five parts of
silex, three of alumina, and two of oxide of iron. At Rowley, and
Barrow-hills near Dudley, it occasionally exhibits the vertical
columnar form; and at Pouck-hill, near Walsall, the columns are
singularly well defined, but their position is nearly horizontal. The
present state of the basaltic hills presents many picturesque group-
ings, of which the lecturer was able to point to some striking in-
stances in large coloured views of scenery at Barrow and Pouck-
hills. q

In reference to the probable continuance of the supply of coal, he
ventured to offer some calculations on the state of the mines ; infer-
ring from the immense quantities consumed—probably not less than
the entire produce of an acre per week in the mining and iron
works alone ;—from the separated position and inconsiderable thick-
ness of the “ten yard” measures in certain situations, and from the
problematical result of the bold experiments now carrying on by
Lord Dartmouth at Westbromwich, that the coal basin is in reality
circumscribed, and its contents not so inexhaustible as some writers
have deemed it to be, or as, from the present unrestricted, perhaps
wasteful, consumption of an unrenewable store, would seem to be
expected.

In conclusion, the attention of the auditors was briefly called to
the reflections naturally suggested by the examination of such a
page in the volume of Nature as had been opened in these lectures,
and in which the observer could not fail to perceive that, by the
operation of what are called laws of Nature and natural causes,
several useful materials, closely allied in their adaptation to the
service of man, have first been successively deposited within a pre-
scribed area, and then removed and disturbed so as to render them
accessible to human industry ; thereby, as in every section of the
works of Nature, exhibiting proofs of benificent intention, as well
as design, intelligence, and power on the part of the creating mind.

253

SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY.
Goutp's “ Birps or Evurops.”
Parts XI. any XII.

Part XI.—This plate contains a good representation of a queer-
looking bird, the Ural Surn, Surnia Uralensis—Hibou de ’Oural,
Fr.—being a male, figured somewhat under the natural size. It is
a very scarce bird, and one about which little is known. Mr. Gould
believes that its general habits entitle it to a place in the genus Sur-
nia ; but an inspection of the plate before us, and especially the
great development of the facial disk, makes us but ill satisfied with
that arrangement. If it is to be a Surnia, assuredly it is a most
aberrant species ; but we cannot reconcile ourselves to classing it in
that genus at all. Occurs, though sparingly, in the northern re-
gions of Lapland, Siberia, Sweden, and Norway ; is somewhat
more plentiful in Hungary and Livonia, but is every where scarce,
and is supposed to be confined to the Old World. Feeds on Leve-
rets, Rats, Mice, Ptarmigan, &c. Builds in the holes of trees, and
lays two white eggs. The sexes are similar, but the ground colour
in young birds is lighter than in adults.

Little Plover, Charadrius minor—Petit Pluvier a-collier, Fr.—
Kleiner Regenpfeifer, G. An adult and a young bird of the first
autumn are very well figured. Science is indebted to Mr. H. Dou-
bleday, of Epping, for the addition of this little species to the Bri-
tish fauna, a specimen having been taken at Shoreham, in Sussex.
“From the extreme youth of the individual transmitted to us, it is
clear that it must have been bred on the spot ; and it is worthy of
notice that the person who killed it affirms that he has long sus-
pected the present bird to be a resident on that part of the coast,”
having noticed a peculiarity in the note of the species. It is abun-
dant in the south of Germany as far as Italy, frequenting large
rivers. Mr. Gould positively states that the American specimens
he has examined are specifically different. Resembles the Ring
Plover in habits, and constructs its nest among shingles on the wa-
ter’s edge; lays four or five yellowish-white eggs, blotched with
black and brown. The sexes do not differ, but young birds want
the black collar. This species is easily distinguished from the Ring
Plover by its small size.

An adult, natural size and well-figured, of the Dalmatian Nut-

254 SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY.

hatch, Sitta rufescens, Temm. Mr. Gould introduces to the public
the Dalmatian Nuthatch as a new European species, being now for
the first time figured. ‘‘ The Dalmatian Nuthatch is an inhabitant
not only of the country from which it takes its name, but also the
whole of the south-eastern portion of Europe generally ; indeed, to
this section of the globe it appears to be strictly limited. In its ge-
neral style of colouring, as well as in its form, habits, and manners,
it exhibits a striking resemblance to the Sitta Europwa.” Of its
nidification nothing is ascertained. The magnitude of this bird, as
our author justly observes, sufficiently distinguishes it from the rest
of the genus. The sexes are similar.

Knot Tringa, Tringa canutus—Bécasseau canut, F'r.—Chiurlo,
Tt—Aschgraue Strandlaufer, G. Adults in summer and winter
plumage are given; we do not admire the plate so much as many
we have seen, but still we perceive no radical fault in it. Mr.
Gould, on the authority of Cuvier, separates this species from T'rin-
ga, without, we think, sufficient grounds for so doing. The Knot
Tringa is not resident in Britain, but abounds with us at certain
seasons, Frequents the sea-shore or the fenny parts of the country,
where it breeds. Common in the arctic regions of both worlds,
ranging throughout the circle. In England the Knot is much
sought after, by the epicures, for the table. The seasonal changes
are remarkable, the whole of the reddish tint which adorns both
upper and under parts of the summer attire giving place, in winter,
to a plain ash-gray and white tint, whence the German appellation
of Aschgraue Strandlaufer. The sexes differ little; but what is
curions, and what was previously unknown to us, is that, according
to Mr. Gould, “ the,female is the finest in colour and the largest in
size.”

Fantail Reedling, Salicaria cisticola, Gould—Becfin cisticole, Fr.
Mr. Gould places this bird, provisionally, in the genus Salcaria,
but we believe it will not long remain there. The design of the
plate, representing the female in her nest among the tall herbage,
on a stalk of which her mate is perched, is admirable. Inhabits the
southern and eastern parts of Europe, and the adjoining portions of
Asia and Africa. ‘It frequents low and swampy places covered
with tall grasses, and,” like the Marsh Reedling, “ constructs a
nest pre-eminently curious and beautiful, excelled by none of a si-
milar character. Although incapable, from its small size, of entwin-
ing the larger reeds, it avails itself of the tall blades and stalks of
grass, among which it places its nest ; these it does not draw toge-
ther” in the manner of the Marsh Reedling, ‘‘ but by piercing each

ol

SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY. 255

blade, and drawing the whole together by means of cottony threads,
secured at each perforation by a knot so ingeniously executed as to
appear the work of reason.* Between the grasses thus secured it
places the body of the nest, which is composed of vegetable fibres
lined with a kind of flocculent down, collected from various plants.”
The eggs are four or five, and of a bluish flesh-colour. ‘‘ When dis-
turbed it takes long flights, chirping all the way with a remarkably
loud and shrill note ; and when in motion it erects the tail and
spreads it in a circle, which appears very beautiful.” The male
only differs from the female in having the tail somewhat more elon-
gated,

Ash-colored Harrier, Circus cineraceus—Busard Montagu, Fr.—
Falco rossiccia, Jt—Halb Weyhe, G. Splendid representations, na-
tural size, of the male and female. This bird is easily distinguished
from the Hen Harrier by the superior length of its wings. Tole-
rably abundant throughout Europe, including Britain, but especi-
ally the southern districts. Feeds on small mammalia, Snakes,
Frogs, Lizards, &c. Nidificates on the ground, among any kind of
shelter suited to the purpose. Its flight is peculiarly buoyant and
graceful. The female wants the ash colour of the other sex, and
the young birds are of a more uniform plumage than adults. It is
well known that the discovery of this bird as a distinct species is due
to the zeal of our countryman, the late Colonel Montagu.

Hedge Alp, Pyrrhula vulgaris—Bouvreuil commun, Fr.—Roth-
brustiger Gimpel, G. Mr. Gould figures the male and female, na-
tural size. We really must, in this instance, withhold all com-
mendation from the plate lying open before us. The Hedge Alp,
or Bull Finch, is too familiar to need any description.

Stone Thicknee, @dicnemus crepitans—CEdicnéme criard, F'r.—
Gran Piviere, Jt-—Graue Regenpfeifer, G. Of five or six known
species of Cidicnemus, this is the only one that inhabits Europe. It
arrives in Britain in spring, frequenting stony moors ; it is found in
similar localities in the south and east of Europe, and the adjacent
portions of Asia and Africa. Makes no nest, but lays two eggs

-amongst loose stones; the young run as soon as they are hatched.
Feeds on Slugs, Worms, Mice, reptiles, &c. The Thicknee runs
very swiftly. ‘The sexes are similar, and the young birds soon as-
sume the adult plumage. The figure, of an adult, natural size, is
excellent.

Egyptian Neophron, Neophron percnopterus—Catharte alimoche,

* But being in fact the work of Constructiveness.—Ev.

256 SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY.

Fr.—Avoltojo aquilino, Jt. The representations, of an adult and a
young bird, half the natural size, are exceedingly good. One indi-
vidual has been met with in this country, in Somersetshire, and
another bird was observed with it. But, as Mr. Gould justly ob-
serves, “ the circumstance of this individual coming so far north,
must be attributed entirely to accident, its native habitat being ex-
clusively the southern provinces of Europe, and the adjoining dis-
tricts of Asia and Africa. Like the rest of its family, it is one of
Nature’s scavengers, being ever on the search for carrion and putrid
offal, upon which it greedily feeds, seldom, if ever, attacking living
prey.” Builds in the loftiest pinnacles of rocks ; of the eggs no-
thing is known. The sexes are similar, the whole plumage, except
the greater quill-feathers, being white. The young, on the contra-
ry, which only attain the adult livery after various gradual changes,
are almost entirely black.

Fork-tailed Petrel, Thalassidroma Leachti—Pé¢trel de Leach, Fr.
The discovery of this bird in Europe is due to Mr. Bullock, who
found it breeding in St. Kilda in 1818. It has since been found on
various parts of the British coast. Its habits, food, and nidification,
strictly resemble those of the Stormy Petrel. It differs, however,
from the rest of the genus in being one of the largest, in having a
forked tail, and remarkably short tarsi.

Stormy Petrel, T'halassidroma pelagica—Pétrel tempéte, Fr.—
Ungewilter Sturmvogel, G. A figure of the adult of this species
and the preceding are given on the same plate, of the natural size.
Both are excellent. This bird is “abundant over the whole of the
northern seas of Europe, especially in the rocky islands of Scotland,
where it breeds in the crevices of rocks, generally laying a single
egg, of a pure white.” It is a considerable time before the young
are able to follow their parents.

Redpoll Linnet, Linaria minor—Grosbec sizerin, Fr.—Monta-
nello minore, Jt.—Berg Zeisig, G. An adult male and female are
represented, with a very happy effect. This bird is a native of the
northern portions of Britain, and of all the higher latitudes of the
continent ; in autumn it migrates to the south of England and Eu-
rope generally. It is gregarious, being often found in company
with Siskins and other Linnets. It subsists entirely on seeds, espe-
cially those of the Alder, Hazel, and Willow, resorting, in search of
these, to low swampy grounds, and the borders of lakes and rivers.
“The song, though not loud, is, nevertheless, simple and agree-
able.” The Redpoll breeds in abundance in Scotland and the north
of Europe. The nest, which is neat and compact, is situated in any

-_-w, angie

SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY. 257

of the above-named trees, or even in Furze. We have seen the
nest in Derbyshire, and once, we believe—but are not certain—in
Yorkshire. It consists of grass and moss intermingled with the
down of the Willow-catkins ; the eggs, four or five, are very small,
and pale bluish-green, spotted with orange. The young of both
sexes, the adult female, and the adult male in winter, want those
beautiful red tints which render the full-grown male, in summer
plumage, one of the most beautiful of the native Fringillide.
These tints soon disappear, never to return, in confinement ; “a cir-
cumstance,” observes Mr. Gould, with great justice, “ which should
render us cautious in drawing any conclusions respecting the changes
of plumage of birds from those that are kept in confinement.”

Mealy Linnet, Linaria canescens, Gould. The London bird-
catchers have no doubt as to the distinctness of this species and the
preceding. They assert that it differs from the Redpoll Linnet in
habits and haunts, and that in some winters it is extremely scarce,
while in others hundreds are seen. ‘ Whether this species is truly
a native of Europe, or whether those which occur in our island are
arrivals from the northern portions of the American continent, is 2
matter of doubt; true it is, that the specimens brought home by
Dr. Richardson, which furnished the descriptions in the Fauna Bo-
reali-Americana, are strictly identical with the bird before us.” We
believe it is now quite certain that the Mealy Redpoll is a distinct
species. The figure, natural size, of an adult taken in the month of
October, is beautifully executed.

The Hen Harrier, Circus cyaneus—Busard St. Martin, Fr.
—Falco albanella, Jt. The plate contains remarkably fine repre-
sentations, natural size, of the male and female. This bird has
a wide range over Europe, India, and Africa, but the ill-directed
zeal of our game-keepers has rendered it a very rare bird in Britain.
It is light and buoyant on the wing, hovering at no great distance
from the ground, and making but little noise in flight. Feeds on
Mice, Leverets, Snakes, Lizards, Frogs, and young birds, darting on
its prey with the most unerring precision. Frequents flat moor-
lands, furze commons, and the vicinity of lakes and morasses, where
it breeds. The nest is built on the ground, amongst any kind of
herbage, and the eggs are of a dull unspotted white. The adult
female, and the young of both sexes, are entirely destitute of the
delicate grey hue of the adult male.

Marsh Bunting, Emberiza palustris, Savi. The male and fe-
male are figured, of the size of life: the former is very well exe-
cuted. In plumage this bird bears a close resemblance to our well-

258 SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY.

known Reed Bunting, but the beak, being considerably stronger,
points it out as an aberrant member of the genus. Inhabits the
marshes of Tuscany, and its habits are said to be similar to those of
E. scheniculus ; nidification unknown. The sexual and other
changes of plumage are also the same as in the above-named
species.

White-headed Undine, Undina leucocephala, Gould—Canard
couronné, Fr.—Anatra diverno, Jt.—Weisskopfige Ente, G: We
do not find the freedom of Nature in the plate before us, represent-
ing an adult male, size of life. We perfectly agree with Mr.
Gould as to the propriety of instituting a new genus for the recep-
tion of this singular species, which could not even be included in
Hydrobates, Tem. The White-headed Undine is abundant in, and
almost confined to, the eastern countries of Eurupe, where it inha-
bits salt waters, and arms of the sea. So entirely aquatic are the
habits of this species—whence the generic name, both Latin and
English—that the nest is so constructed as to float on the water ;
and, although the facts are not ascertained by actual observation,
the structure of the bird, as our author very properly observes,
leaves no doubt but it is an expert diver, and that it swims with
the body almost entirely submersed. Feeds on molluscs and insects.
The female only differs from the male in having the general hue of
the plumage of a duller tint.

Laughing Xeme, Xema ridibundus—Mouette rieuse, Fr.—Gabbi-
ano moretta, Jt—Lach Meve, G. It is a native of Holland, where
it is always abundant, but is a bird of passage in France and Ger-
many ; also common in Britain. Frequents marshy islands in the
neighbourhood of the sea coast and similar localities. Subsists on
insects, mollusca, small fishes, &c., and resembles the Gulls in its
habits. The nest is placed on the ground, on flat lands, and often
at a considerable distance from the sea. The sexes are similar, and
the winter plumage resembles that of summer, but young birds
only attain the adult attire after the moult of the second autumn.
The plate represents an adult and a young bird, natural size, and
few of Mr. Gould’s figures surpass these before us in truth and
beauty.

On the next plate are given figures of the Coal Tit, Parus ater—
Mésange charbonniére, Fr.—Cinciallegra minore, J¢—Tanne
Meise, G.; and Marsh Tit, Parus palustris—Mésange nonnette,
Fr.—Cinciallegra cinerea, Jt-—Sumpf Meise, G. The latter much
the best. These two species are widely distributed over Europe,
and are abundant in Britain. The Coal Tit is distinguished by the

tect ——

SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY. 259

white patch at the back of the head. Both these birds possess a
monotonous song, although the circumstance is not mentioned by
Mr. Gould or any other ornithologist.

Common Ptarmigan, Lagopus mutus—Tétras ptarmigan, Fr.—
Pernice Alpestre, Jt.—Hasenfiissige Waldhun, G. The figures, of
adults in summer and winter plumage, though good, are not quite
what we could have wished. It is well known to the majority of
our readers that this bird becomes wholly white in winter, and of a
mottled brown in summer, the plumage in the former case assimi-
lating with the snow of its native mountains, in the latter with the
moss and heath which it frequents. Abounds in the mountainous
districts of central Europe, and is also found in the northern dis-
tricts ; likewise occurs in North America, and the mountainous
parts of Scotland. It incubates early in spring, laying fifteen white
eggs mottled all over with purplish brown. The young resemble
the female. The male is somewhat larger than the female, and has
the black streak on the cheek more intense.

White-winged Tern, Sterna leucoptera—Hirondelle-de-Mer leu-
coptére, F'r.—Sterna nera, Jt. A beautiful figure, natural size, of
an adult. Confined to the south of Europe. “ In habits, size, and
structure, it strictly resembles the Black Tern; the pure whiteness
of its tail, and the greyish white of its wing, will, however, serve
at once to distinguish it from that species.” Feeds on insects,
worms, and small fishes. The sexes are similar, but young birds
have less white on the wing.

Little Xeme, Xema minutus—Mouette pygmée, Fr. Two very
good figures are supplied; representing an adult in winter attire,
and a young bird, of the natural size. This little species is very
rare in Britain, its true habitat being the east of Europe. Mr.
Gould affirms that it never occurs in America. In summer the
adults have the head black, and the young resemble the full-grown
individuals in winter, but the red of the beak and legs is less in-
tense. “ Its flight is as light and buoyant as can well be imagined,
and its general actions and form resemble those of the rest of the
genus.”

Parr XII.—Common Nuthatch, Silta Europea—Sittelle torche-
pot, Fr.—Picchio grigio, [t—Kleiber, G. Mr. Gould’s figures of
a pair of these birds, natural size, are good, but rather too robust.
Inhabits Europe, over which it has a wide range. In many of its
habits the Nuthatch closely resembles the Woodpeckers, but it dif-
fers from them in being able to run up and down the stems of trees,
during which process it may often be approached with ease. ‘The

VOL, VII., NO. XXII. LL

260 SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY.

position with the head downwards appears to be the most easy and
natural. It not only assumes this attitude when alighting on the
trunk or limb of a tree, but hammers at the bark or splits a nut in
the same position. * * Insects, nuts, and various berries consti-
tute their food. Their incubation is performed in the holes of
decaying trees.” The nest consists of dried leaves, and the eggs,
seven in number, are greyish white with reddish spots. ‘The fe-
male is assiduous in her task, and defends her nest with her bill
and wings, hissing at the same time in token of anger.” In winter
the Nuthatch frequents orchards and gardens in quest of food. The
sexes, and also young birds, are similar.

Black-throated Diver, Colymbus arcticus—Plongeon lumme, Fr.
—Polar Taucher, G. Fine representations of a male in full plu-
mage, and a young bird of the year, three-fourths of the size of
life. Extends throughout the arctic circle, frequenting inland wa-
ters and small lakes. This bird was first discovered to breed in
Britain by our indefatigable countrymen, Sir W. Jardine and Mr.
Selby, in the wilds of Sutherlandshire. Feeds on fish, crustacea,
&c. The nest is placed close to the water ; the eggs, two in num-
ber, are dark olive-brown, blotched with black. ‘“‘ When the inland
lakes of the northern climes become frozen, the adults retreat to the
ocean, where they brave with impunity the coldest winters. Their
power of diving is remarkable, not more for swiftness than for the
long time they are capable of continuing submersed: it is this

amazing power that enables them to avoid with the greatest ease’

every artifice of man to capture them on the open sea or large
lakes.” The sexes do not differ, but young birds are of a much
plainer hue; they “ undergo three moultings before they attain
their full colouring.”

Hooded Crow, Corvus cornix—Corneille mantelée, F'r.—Corhac-
chia mubachia, Jt—Nebel Rabe, G. Common in all the moun-
tainous portions of the continent, but especially Scandinavia.
Abundant in many parts of England, and resident in Scotland.
* It frequents the shores of the sea, the banks of large rivers, exten-
sive downs, and such arable lands as are devoid of hedge-rows. It
is seen in pairs, or three or four together. Feeds on almost every
thing that comes in its way, including carrion, insects, &c. ** Is
abundantly dispersed along the banks of the Thames, and all such
rivers as are under the influence of the tides. During the period of
incubation they are said to be very destructive to the eggs and
young of the Red Grouse, and will even attack lambs and Sheep.
The eggs are four or five in number, of a greenish ground colour,

—

~

§
§
*
i

SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY. 261

mottled with dark brown. The sexes are alike in plumage, and the
young attain at an early age the colouring of their parents. The
plate represents, in a beautiful and faithful manner, an adult male,
natural size.

Dalmatian Kinglet, Regulus modestus, Gould. “ A single spe-
cimen of this interesting little bird has been sent to us by the Baron
de Feldegg, of Frankfort, to whom our acknowledgments are due,
not only for this instance of his liberality in consigning to our care,
at the risk of loss and injury, a bird probably unique in the collec-
tions of Europe, but for many similar instances of disinterested
generosity.—The only history of this bird which we have been able
to collect, was that written on the label attached to it by the gen-
tleman above mentioned, and is as follows:—‘I shot this bird,
which on dissection proved to be a male, in Dalmatia, in the year
1829.’ Its most conspicuous characters are the three yellow stripes
which ornament the head ; the brighter and most highly coloured
of these marks, contrary to what obtains in any of the other Regult,
being that over each eye, while the coronal stripe is palest, and
consists of feathers similar in length to those which cover the rest
of the head.” ‘The same bird is, very judiciously, figured in two
different attitudes, “to exhibit more clearly its characters and
colouring.” The lower figure is a perfect gem.

Common Coot, Fulica atra—Foulque macroule, Fr.—Schwarzes
Wasserhuhn, G. The Coot is abundant in every part of Europe,
but especially in Britain, Holland, France, and Germany, residing
on large sheets of water abounding with Irises and other herbage.
The nest is generally built just above the surface of the water,
among the rushes, and is formed of the above-named and other
plants. The eggs, from seven to ten in number, are of a chocolate
colour, spotted with dark brown. The young take to the water
almost immediately they are hatched; they are covered with black
down, and have a red sealing-wax-like substance on the head.
“ When winter covers the ponds, lakes, and canals with ice, thus
cutting off every needful supply, the Coot leaves its secluded quiet
haunts of summer, and seeks the wide stream of the larger rivers,
venturing even as far as their embouchures in the sea.” This bird
runs and dives with facility, but is rarely seen on wing. Feeds on
Worms, Slugs, aquatic insects, seeds, &c.; we have also known it
eat small fish. There is little or no difference of sex or season.
We are very well pleased with the figure, of an adult, rather under
the natural size. We think Mr. Gould might have managed to
represent it of the size of life.

262 SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY.

Bramble Finch, Fringilla montana Grosbec d’Ardennes, Fr.
—Fringillo montanino, /t.—Berg Fink, G. The figures, of an
adult male and female, are faithful portraitures. The Bramble
Finch is abundant in all the elevated districts, being resident in
some countries, migratory in others. In England it is not a com-
mon bird, and is only met with in winter. British specimens may,
however, be seen in every collection, and we have met with several
individuals in Yorkshire and the midland counties. ‘‘ They appear
to evince a decided preference to woods of Beech, on the mast of
which they for a time subsist, feeding also on various seeds and the
shoots of tender vegetables. Although it is very probable that a
limited number remain to breed in the northern parts of this island,
yet we have never been able to verify the fact. It is said to incu-
bate in forests of lofty Pine and Spruce, the nest being composed of
moss and wool, lined with feathers and hair. The eggs are white,
spotted with yellowish brown, four or five in number.” The
colours of the female are less bright than those of the other sex, and
the parts which in winter are brown in the male become black in
summer.

Peewit Lapwing, Vanellus cristatus—Vanneau huppé, F’r.—Pa-
oncella commune, Jt.—Gehaiibte Kiebitz, G. Abundant through-
out Europe, frequenting swampy places, wide moors, and stubble
lands, and being at once distinguished by its peculiar cry and ele-
gant and varied evolutions on the wing. Also occurs in India and
Africa, but is restricted to the old world. We are a little?surprised
to find Mr. Gould characterizing the flight of this bird as “ heavy,
flapping, and apparently performed with considerable exertion.”
Surely the author cannot be speaking from personal observation.—
Lays four eggs, olive colour and blotched with black, on the bare
ground, Feeds on Worms, Slugs, and insects. The young birds,
which are hatched early in spring, make a noise greatly resembling
the well-known peewit of the adults. The male is brighter than
the female, and his black throat changes in winter to white. The
young attain the adult plumage in the second year. ‘The figures,
representing a male and female in summer and winter plumage, are
rather too green, but otherwise good.

Citril Siskin, Carduelis citrinella—Grosbec venturon, F7.—Citro-
nen Fink, G. Very pretty figures of a pair of these elegant birds.
Never seen in England, but common in the mountainous districts of
southern Europe, building on the branches of the Larch and Fir.
Lays four whitish eggs, with numerous brown blotches of various
sizes. Feeds on the seeds of Alpine plants. It is reported to be a

x

<3

SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY. 263

fine songster, Its habits bear a considerable resemblance to those
of the Green Siskin (Carduelis spinus). ‘The female is rather
less in size, and her colours are not so vivid as in the male.”

Willow Ptarmigan, Lagopus saliceti—Tétras des saules, Fr.—
Weisse Waldhuhn, G. Easily distinguished from the Common
Ptarmigan by its superior size, and the rufous tinge of the summer
plumage. The changes of plumage are as in the other species. The
figures, of adults in different states of attire, size of life, are quite to
our liking. Inhabits the north of Europe, becoming gradually less
abundant towards the south, frequenting the mountainous districts.
Feeds “during summer on the tender shoots and buds of Heath,
together with berries of Alpine plants: in winter, when the face of
the country is covered with snow, it burrows beneath the surface,
and feeds on the scanty herbage, the buds of the dwarf Willow, and
whatever vegetable food it can obtain.” Builds on the ground,
among tufts of herbage ; the eggs, from six to ten in number, much
resemble those of the Common Ptarmigan, but are, as might be an-
ticipated, larger. The sexes resemble each other : the first plumage
of the young is coloured, which at the autumn moult is exchanged
for white.”

Rock Swallow, Hirundo rupestris—Hirondelle de rocher, Fr.—
Hirundo cauda-non-furcata, Jt. The representations, of a male and
female, appear to be very good. Abundant in the south of Europe.
It is larger than our Sand Swallow, which in plumage it much re-
sembles. The tail of this bird, as the Italian synonym we have
quoted attests, is not forked. It builds in the holes of rocks; the
eggs, five or six, are white, with minute dots. Its food and general
habits are similar to those of H. riparia. The sexes do not differ.

Pied Chat, Saxicola leucomela—Traquet leucoméle, Fr. Is abun-
dant in the north of Europe, and although little is known of its
habits, these are probably similar to those of its congeners. “ Tem-
minck informs us that so exclusively boreal is this species, that it is
never seen in temperate climates; which leads us to infer that Si-
beria, Upper Tartary, and the most northern portions of Asia, will
prove to be countries of which Nature has destined this bird to be a
native.” Those parts which are black in the male are brown in the
female. A very fair figure of an adult male, natural size, is given.

Glossy Ibis, Jbis falcinellus—Ibis falcinelle, F'r.—Chiurlo, [t,—
Sichelschnabliger Nimmersat, G. This is the only Ibis occurring
in Europe, where it inhabits the southern and temperate regions, but
is very rarely found in England or Holland ; is abundant along the
course of the Nile, and in the adjacent provinces of Africa. Feeds,

264 SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY.

like its congeners, on Worms, Slugs, Lizards, fresh-water mollusca,
and aquatic vegetables. ‘The graceful proportions of this bird, the
elegance of its actions, together with the resplendent lustre of its
plumage, render it one of the most interesting of the Waders; and
we regret that our knowledge of its habits and manners is so imper-
fect that of its nidification and eggs we can give no certain informa-
tion.” The sexes are similar; the young birds are dusky before the
second or third year. A very fine figure of an adult male, three-
fourths of the natural size, is given.

Lesser Woodpecker, Picus minor—épichette, Fr.—Picchio mi-
nore, It.—Kleinste Specht, G. Pretty figures, natural size, of an
adult male and female. This bird, as our author justly observes, is
the smallest of the European species, but is superior in size to some
found in other portions of the globe. The appellations lesser, mi-
nor, minore, and kleinste (least), are, therefore, erroneous, though it
would scarcely be worth while to alter the name. Is confined to
Europe, over the whole of which it extends, being found in parks,
woods, and orchards, where it climbs the trunks and branches of
trees with great agility. Mr. Gould says it is much commoner in
England, especially the south, than is generally supposed. In
spring it utters an oft-repeated single note, resembling that of the
Wryneck. Lays, in the holes of trees, four or five pure white eggs.
The crown of the head, which is scarlet in the male, is white in the
females. Young birds resemble the adults.

Tufted Pochard, Fuligula cristata—Canard morillon, Fr.—Ana-
tra col-ciuffo, Jt—Rheier Ente, G. The plate represents a pair of
these birds, rather less than the natural size. Mr. Gould is pecu-
liarly successful in his illustrations of water birds, more especially
the Anatide, and the plate before us yields to none we have seen in
truth and beauty. The Tufted Pochard is a regular winter visitor
in Britain, distributing itself over our lakes, arms of the sea, &c.,
being mostly seen in pairs, ‘‘ repeatedly diving in search of food,
which is obtained exclusively at the bottom of the water, and con-
sists, for the most part, of various fresh-water shell-fish, crustacea,
Worms, and mollusca ; to this food it occasionally adds vegetables.
On the approach of spring it retires northward to breed, and makes
the morasses and the unfrequented regions of the arctic circle an
asylum in which to rear its young. The range of its migrations
southward is very considerable. The Tufted Duck is brought to
the London market in considerable numbers during the winter.”
_ The colours of the female are more dusky than those of the male ;
the young have no tuft on the head.

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SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY. 265

Alpine Chough, Fregilus pyrrhocorax. The plate contains a
very spirited representation of an adult, natural size. In general
appearance this species bears a remarkable resemblance to the Gar-
den Ouzel (Merula vulgaris). Inhabits the precipitous elevations
of the Alpine districts of Central Europe. “‘ During summer it sel-
dom descends far below the line of perpetual snow, but in severe
winters it is sometimes driven to the lower mountain ranges, more,
perhaps, in order to obtain food, than to avoid the severity of the
cold. Berries, grains, insects, Worms, &c., constitute its food ; it
is, indeed, almost omnivorous.” Builds in fissures of rocks or holes
in old walls; the eggs, from three to five, are dull white, blotched
with yellowish-brown. The sexes are similar, but the black is less
pure in young birds, and the bill, orange in adults, is blackish.

White-fronted Goose, Anser albifrons—Oie 4-front-blanc, Fr.—
Oca Lombardella, J#—Blassen Gans, G. The figures, of an adult
and a young bird of the year, are faultless. This bird passes the
summer in the northern latitudes of both worlds, where it also
breeds ; migrates southwards in autumn, great numbers passing
into Holland, Germany, and France. Not uncommon in England,
especially the midland and southern counties, frequenting low fenny
districts. Feeds on aquatic vegetables, Snails, &c. Its flesh is said
to be finely-flavoured and tender. Mr. Gould is not aware whether
the black markings on the breast are only assumed during summer,
or whether they are confined to certain individuals. We think it
probable that they are never found in young birds.

White Pelican, Pelecanus onocrotalus—Pélican blanc, F7.—Peli-
cano onocrotalo, /t-—Grosser Pelekan, G. An adult male is well-
figured, one-third of the natural size. ‘Strictly confined to the
old world, over a great portion of which it is plentifully distribut-
ed.” Temminck states that the bird found in Europe and South
Africa is the present species. Feeds on fish, which it catches with
extreme agility, notwithstanding the cumbrous appearance of its
bill. It is unable to dive, and therefore frequents shallow water.
Builds on the ground, constructing the nest, about a foot and a half
in diameter, of coarse herbage, lined with soft grass; lays two or
more white eggs. The pouch under the bill can be contracted or
extended at pleasure. The first year’s plumage is wholly brown,
the complete adult attire—white, with rosy tints—not being ac-
quired till the fifth or sixth year, from which we infer that the bird
is long-lived.

Razorbill Auk, Alca torda—Pingouin macroptére, Fr.—Tord’
Alk, G. An adult and a young bird are figured, of the size of life.

266 SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY.

The plate is remarkably pleasing. ‘Generally distributed through-
out the seas of the arctic circle, never extending its migrations be-
yond the temperate latitudes of Europe in the old world, and the
southern portions of the United States in the new. Inhabits the
wide expanse of the ocean, the severities of which it braves with in-
difference ; indeed, it appears to rejoice in the agitation of the bil-
lows, that bring around it multitudes of small fish, which constitute
its only support.” Lays a single egg on the barren ledges of rocks.
In winter adults lose the dusky colour on the throat, aud the old
and young birds, at that season, closely resemble each other. The
sexes offer no external difference.

Little Nightling, Noctua nudipes, Gould—Chouette chevéche,
Fr.—Civetta gialla, Jt—Kleiner Kauz, G. This bird is not the
Strix passerina of Linnzus, although modern authors have termed
it Noctua passerina, and therefore we are glad to find Mr. Gould
has restored Nilsson’s designation, nudipes. The plate represents
an adult, natural size, very well. Abundant over nearly the whole
of temperate Europe, but only a straggler with us. Preys, in the
evening, on Mice, Moles, small birds, and large insects. The eggs,
four or five, are deposited sometimes in trees, but more commonly
in old walls and ruined towers. The sexes and young are similar.

Bernacle Goose, Anser leucopsis—Oie bernache, Fr.—Weisswan-
gige Gans, G. Common in Holland, France, and Germany, and,
in winter, on the whole of the western coast of Britain and the
north of Ireland, frequenting marshy localities. Feeds on vegeta-
bles, seeds, and grain. “ Breeds in the regions of the arctic circle,
but we have no correct information as to its eggs or its peculiar
habits of nidification, in which, however, we conceive it agrees
with its congeners.” The sexes are similar, but young birds have
the face more clouded with black. Mr. Gould’s figure of an adult,
three-fourths of the size of life, is as good as we could desire.

eM ee TA ed

267

TWO CHAPTERS, ILLUSTRATIVE OF
THE CHARACTER AND CONDUCT OF JAMES I.

“Tv is scarce hyperbolical to say, that this prince has been the original
cause of a series of misfortunes to this nation, as deplorable as a lasting infec-
tion in our air, our water, or our earth would have been.” —BoLINGBROKE’S
Dissert. upon Parties.

“ Maximus in folio, minimus in solio.”

“ The reading of histories may dispose a man to satire; but the science of
history studied in the light of philosophy, as the great drama of an ever un-
folding Providence, has a very different effect.”—-CoLERIDGE, On the Church
and State.

On a fly-leaf in the octavo edition of Bevil Higgons’s works, de-
posited in the British Museum, a late distinguished president of the
Royal Society, Sir Joseph Banks, has thus expressed himself :—
« In contemplating his character, which seems eccentric, his style
is, in my opinion, though unequal, the most distinct and easy to
comprehend in his best passages that I recollect ever to have met
with.”* That this author should have been so praised by any mo-
derately competent appreciator of a felicitous selection of expres-
sions—by any one who pretends to have paid the least critical atten-
tion to those qualities of style which put the reader at once into
possession of the whole sense, is to us as startling a thing as if
we had found a defence of popery among the writings of John
Knox, or from the pen of John Wesley a eulogy of calvinism :
for he who will be at the trouble of comparing a few pages of Hig-
gons with our writers admired for perspicuity of style, must pre-
sently discover that a most undeserved compliment has been paid
to him, since “he draweth out the thread of his verbosity finer
than the staple of his argument.” At first sight, it would seem to
be a paradox that the fame of Higgons should stand so high among
our foreign literati, that translations, we are told, of his Historical
and Critical Remarks on Bishop Burnett’st “ History of his own

“ This note is addressed to Sir William Musgrave.

+ Of this fierce opponent of the bishop, who so perseveringly flourishes
his metaphorical sword the pen against him, we know but little, and that little
is not calculated to excite the reader’s respect. In the Biographie Universelle,

VOL. VII., NO. XXII. MM

268 TWO CHAPTERS ILLUSTRATIVE OF

Time” have lately appeared in German and Italian. But “ we
would entertain the conjecture” that this never would have hap-
pened, if Higgons had not been the devoted champion of those poli-
tical vitalities which are still warmly fostered in the bosom of many
an absolutist on the continent, “ with whom the original taint
transmitted down from King James the First remains still in the
full strength of its malignity.”*

To be duly qualified for his censorian task, Higgons should have
been possessed of a great fund of historical knowledge, conjoined
with a discriminating judgment. In both these requisites he is
strikingly deficient. 'There may be shrewdness in some of his ob-
servations, and the truth of the inference he has drawn from some
insulated facts is, perhaps, not to be questioned. Yet no impartial
man can look into his pages without perceiving that, under the
semblance of truth, he is an artful bigotted partizan, and one who
acts the sophist rather than the fair enquirer; so that a person
would no more be able, by perusing his volume, to form a correct
estimate of the History of his own Time, than he would of the
meridian splendour of the sun by seeing it under an eclipse. We
reiterate our opinion, then, that his strictures would have been con-
signed to the land of forgetfulness, if he had not been more eager
to excite or aid the ambition of despotic power, than to damp and
discourage it. And because, in Burnett’s account of James, there
is not that blindness to the manifestation of truth and duty which
would entirely overlook his most palpable acts of mis-government—
his most glaring iniquities and errors—the bishop is arraigned by
Higgons in a strain of vituperation suited only to the abettors or
zealots of the grossest corruption. An impartial recital of facts
thus assumes in the eyes of this most malignant of traducers the
aspect of an invective. We shall, however, bring a supplementary
set of them to show—and facts, according to the proverb, “ are
stubborn things’—that Burnett had no desire to throw a cloud of
detraction over the imputed merits of James, but was more inclined

par une Société de gens de lettres 4 Paris, chez Micaud, 1817, we are in-
formed that Higgons was born at Kelso in 1670, and early distinguished
himself for his attachment to James II., whom he accompanied to Paris, and
remained with him till his death in 1701. After this he returned to
England, and to propitiate the government of William, he published “ The
Generous Conqueror.” This political trimmer then became Professor of
History at one of our Universities, and gave to the public, beside this
tirade upon the History of his own Times, an abridgment of the History of
England.
* See Bolingbroke’s Dissertation upon Parties, vol. iii, p. 132.

peep llega te
: é

THE CHARACTER AND CONDUCT OF JAMES I. 269

to give his misdeeds a modified form, than to mark them with an
honest and undaunted reprobation.

Now some writers, regarding the reign of James as one of the
most disgraceful epochs in the English annals, have, with the best
intentions, though certainly not with the best judgment, rapidly
glanced over it, thinking that its transactions might be wisely sent
to oblivion. But it has been well observed by Von Raumer that
«the attractive period of the Rebellion is as little to be understood
without an accurate knowledge of the history of James, as the
French Revolution without a knowledge of the history of Louis
XV.”* Unquestionably the British king, with all his affected po-
litical sagacity, was not a “ discerner of the signs of the times.”
He knew not that each age developes principles, the conception of
which has been the work of a preceding age; and therefore he ima-
gined not that by saying, and acting upon the conviction, that the
prerogatives of the crown were an indefinite trust, and not held for
the benefit of the governed, he was laying a mine whose explosion
would rend into pieces the throne of his successor. What composed
investigator of that forcible shock or movement the Great Rebellion,
does not perceive that the fiery excesses of popular passions thereby
called forth, are as much derivable from James’s want of inferring,
from an expansion of intellect among the ascendent classes of the
community, a proportionate advancement in the love of civil and re-
ligious freedom, as from his actual faithlessness and misrule. A
reign, therefore, so especially remarkable, by leading to those great
struggles and changes which ended in the abolition of the regal
name and power, and the prostration of the episcopate, inglorious as
it may be in itself, must ever hold a prominent place in the philoso-
phy of history.

We assert, then, without any qualification or restriction, that
the national troubles of the seventeenth century are clearly trace-
able to certain speculative notions of James, upon unlimited
regal power and upon the doctrine of passive obedience, which,
however they might exist in books,t could never be brought into
practical working without the fatal assumption of “ the right divine
to govern wrong.” Surely his open and distinct declaration to

“See History of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, illustrated by
original documents, vol. ii. p. 191.

+ In Cowell’s singular work, entitled the Interpreter of Words and Forms
in Common and Statute Laws, Lond. 1701. fol. we find descriptions of an
English king which faithfully represent the feelings and doctrines of James
on this particular point.

270 TWO CHAPTERS ILLUSTRATIVE OF

Beaumont, the French ambassador, that his master and he were
«absolute monarchs, and in no respect dependent on the counsels or
consent of their people,’* must have early led those who possessed
elevated and energetic sentiments to ponder upon the conflicting
duties of subjects and free men ; while, from his entering upon his
high office with these fundamental principles upon the prerogative
royal, “from his mistaking the weight for the strength of the scep-
tre,” it is no wonder that, in a subsequent despatch, Beaumont
should have expressed this deliberate and sagacious opinion upon the
royal infatuation :—‘ I recognize so many seeds of unsoundness in
England, so much is brewing in silence, and so many events appear
to be inevitable, as to induce me to maintain that, for an hundred
years to come, this kingdom will hardly misuse its prosperity to any
other purpose than its own injury.” But still, as so much scepti-
cismt prevails, even in the present day, respecting the real charac-
ter and conduct of James, we purpose here a lengthened discussion,
the main object of which is, however, not controversy, but instruc-
tion.

One of Higgons’s first furious diatribes is directed against Bur-
nett, for presuming to say that James sent the pope a letter of re-
conciliation. There is plausibility enough in his endeavours to es-
tablish the point that the bishop has intentionally falsified history in
advancing this charge ; but, luckily, available materials exist com-
pletely to vindicate the accuracy of our historian on the subject.
Higgons’s strictures are given in his most characteristic manner.
He thus commences them :—* Not content to injure private per-
sons, he judges with the same rashness of princes; he first charges
positively king James with writing a letter to the pope, and then
comes off with a general belief of that matter.’ }

Now it is a fact as notorious as any in our history, that James,
with a view to secure his accession to the English throne, earnestly
sought to engage in his interests those foreign powers who were
most attached to the Romish see; and for the furtherance of that

* See Von Raumer’s History of the XVI. and XVII. Cent. p. 197—199.

+ “In the course of study, and with a more enlarged comprehension of
the age,” says Mr. D’Israeli, “ I was frequently struck by the contrast of his
real with his apparent character, and I thought I had developed those hidden
and involved causes which have so long influenced modern writers in ridi-
culing and vilifying this monarch.” See an Enquiry into the literary and
political character of James I. by the Author of the Curiosities of Literature,
p. 7. London, 1816.

+ Remarks on Bishop Burnett, p. 11.

aor

THE CHARACTER AND CONDUCT OF JAMES I. 271

object a letter, with his signature, had been sent to Clement VIII.
Elizabeth had obtained some insight into this affair, but was deceiv-
ed into a belief of her successor’s innocence by his steadfast denials.
Peculiarly cireumstanced as James was, his motives for conciliating
not only the pontiff, but the chief princes of Europe,* cannot but
be obvious to the shallowest politician. If we are to place confi-
dence in the letters of Cardinal d’Ossat, there was a settled plan
formed by the popish princes, and which had the sanction of the
pope, to exclude a heretic from the throne of England. The hostile
spirit manifested by Henry the Fourth towards the succession of
James, which arose from the belief that the union of the two
crowns would advance England, in power and influence, above the
chief continental states,t is well known. James also was apprized
that cabals had been formed in support of the titles of the Lady
Arabella Stuartt and the Earl of Hertford ; nor was he unapprized
of the intrigues carrying on in favour of the Infanta,|| the daughter
of Philip II., who had given broad hints that, if the English would
co-operate with him in wresting the sceptre from Elizabeth’s hands,
a free parliament should elect any Roman Catholic sovereign, not
doubting that its choice, under such circumstances, would fal] upon
the Infanta, especially as he had also thrown out to the merchants
the tempting lure of a free trade to the Indies.§ This affair, per-
haps, would not have so much alarmed James, had he not been well

* See his instructions to his ambassadors in Birch’s Memoirs, vol. ii.,
p- 510—514. Miss Aikin observes, “ There was not a petty protestant
prince allied to him by his marriage, to whom he did not deem it requisite
to direct a solemn embassy for the purpose of explaining his right.” See
her very able work, Memoirs of the Court of King James I., vol. i., p. 38.

+ See Winwoo0d’s Memorials of Affairs of State, vol. i, p. 352.

+ Mr. Townshend in his Accusations of History against the Church of Rome,
is mistaken when he asserts that Arabeila was a Romanist; predisposed no
doubt she was to that party, but had never professed the Roman Catholic
Religion. So late as 1610, she incurred “ some suspicion of being collapsed.”
—Winwood’s Mem., vol. ii, p. 117.

|| The writings of Father Persons or Parsons the Jesuit, prove him a man
of great talents, but his principles were detestible ; for they sought to infuse
a distrust of all power which did not lead to the establishment of the most
complete Papal Despotism. In his celebrated work, entitled Doleman’s
Conference on the next succession to the Crown of England, he advocates most
powerfully the claims of the Infanta, deriving her descent from John of
Gaunt, and thus making her the right heir of Lancaster. Many a learned
genealogist will admit that several of his proofs, premises and conclusions
are founded upon weighty and sufficient reasons.

§ Vor this fact, see Birch’s Memoirs, vol. ii., p. 308.

272 TWO CHAPTERS ILLUSTRATIVE OF

aware that he reigned over a people, at that time, hated by the
English ; and therefore, however averse they might be to the domi-
nion of strangers, yet it was possible the national prepossession
would run strongly against his pretensions. Another serious cause
of apprehension was, that the will of Henry VIII., which had been
ratified by act of parliament, seemed to exclude the Scottish line.
For, after entailing the crown upon his own children, he settled it,
in default of their issue, upon Frances Brandon, Marchioness of
Dorset, and Eleanor, Countess of Cumberland, daughters of his
younger sister, Mary. In failure of their posterity, it was to go to
the next lawful heir, under which words must be implied the reign-
ing family of Scotland, descended from Margaret, wife of James
V., and eldest sister of Henry. As the descendants of Mary were
living at the decease of Elizabeth, political asperities, personal ani-
mosities, and local dissensions, might have operated powerfully to
prevent the scion of the house of Stuart from obtaining the sove-
reignty of England, had not sound policy determined that concord
between the two kingdoms, and their ultimate consolidation, were
most likely to be secured by the elevation of James to the British
throne.“ It is not wonderful, then, that, to countermine the ma-
chinations of Philip and his other Roman Catholic opponents, James

* Higgons’s unqualified invective here against Burnett is not likely to
have much weight with critics of sounder judgment and more candid dis-
positions, when they are reminded that the Bishop in his History of the
Reformation, with a view to support the lawful claims of the House of Stuart,
seems favourable in a high degree to the opinions of Secretary Lethington,
the Bishop of Ross, and Sir James Craig, who deny the genuineness and autho-
rity of Henry’s will. Assuming their reasoning to be correct on this point,
still it is quite clear that James ascended the throne of England in direct
contradiction to the order of succession appointed by several Acts of Parlia-
ment. In the Act, however, which recognised him, it is expressly said, such
was then the servile state of feeling towards him on the part of the popular
branch of the legislature, that “immediately on the dissolution and decease of
Elizabeth, late Queen of England, the imperial crown of England did, by inhe-
rent birth-right and lawful and undoubted succession descend and come to the
said King James.” This bill for his recognition was read three times on the
same day in the House of Commons. See the Journal of that House Ist
Jacobi. His Majesty must have been highly flattered by this unprecedented
compliment. It is not generally known, that for nearly twelve months after
James’s accession, the statutes then in force vested the legal right to the
throne in Lord Seymour, eldest son of the Earl of Hereford, by Lady Cathe-
rine Grey (sister of Lady Jane Grey), as heir of Mary, Duchess of Suffolk,
the youngest sister of Henry the Eighth.—For this curious fact, see Sir
Harris Nicholas’s Literary Remains of Lady Jane Grey, p. exxvi—cxlviii.,
note.

THE CHARACTER AND CONDUCT OF JAMES I. 273

should have secretly entered into a political union with the pope ;
for though there was religious intolerance on both sides, yet that
was not allowed to present a fatal obstacle to a good understanding
between them, when they found their interests, in so many impor-
tant respects, to be the same.

The following statement, however, of Burnett, has exposed him
to a storm of invective from his reviewer :—* A letter* was also
written to the pope, by him, giving assurance of this, which, when
it came to be published, by Bellarmine, upon the prosecution of the
recusants, after the discovery of the Gunpowder Plot, Balmerinock
did affirm that he, out of zeal to the king’s service, got his hand to
it, having put it into a bundle of papers that were signed in course,
without the king’s knowing any thing of it. Yet when that dis-
covery drew no other severity but the turning him out of office, and
the passing a sentence condemning him to die for it, which was pre-
sently pardoned (and he was, after a short confinement, restored to
his liberty), all men believed that the pretended confession of the
secretary was only collusion to lay the jealousy of the king’s fa-
vouring popery, which still hung on him, notwithstanding his writ-
ing on the Revelations,t and his affecting to enter, on all occasions,
into controversy, asserting in his book that the pope was antichrist.t
An evil concupiscence of theological controversy will ultimately in-
volve the peace and respectability of the individual who indulges in
it. If James, in one of his polemical treatises, had not said what

* History of his own Time, vol. i., p.14. Oxford Edition.

+ In reference to this composition, Boderie the French Ambassador says,
that it was “ le plus fou, s’il m’est loisible d’ainsi parler, et le plus pernicieux
que se soit jamais fait sur tel suject.”—t. iv. p. 302. Scaliger remarks, that
Calvin was wise, because he did not write upon the Revelation. “Calvinus
sapuit, quia non scripsit in Apocalypsin.” But it was the spirit of James to
deem himself wiser than all the world besides, and therefore he so often
made himself the laughing-stock of Europe. “ La presumption seule,” says
Boderie, “ qwil ade s¢avoir plus en théologie que tous les docteurs du
monde, en est unique cause.” Ibid iv. p.319. A young Prince, for James
had not then attained his twentieth year, writing a Latin commentary on the
Apocalypse, was an undertaking so preposterously strange and even ludi-
crous, that we might almost anticipate the reply of his illustrious tutor
Buchanan when reproached for making his Sovereign a pedant—* that it was
the best he could make of him.”

$ In his eager desire to purify the theology of Rome, lest his own should
be brought under a suspicion of orthodoxy, he thought it proper to sof-
ten down his interpretation by saying, that the Pope was Antichrist only
while he clothed himself with temporal authority in other states, besides his
own.

274 TWO CHAPTERS ILLUSTRATIVE OF

offended that formidable champion of the Roman Catholic cause,
Bellarmine, his letter to the pope would, in all probability, have
been forgotten ; but, under the name of Matthzus Tortus, the ex-
asperated cardinal published it, and, further to annoy his royal an-
tagonist, accused him of abandoning the good policy of toleration
which he had professed to Clement VIII., and of disappointing the
hopes which he had held out of speedily relinquishing the protestant
religion. Sir Ralph Winwood positively asserts that, in the year
1596, James despatched a Scottish baron of the name of Ogilvie to
Spain, to assure his catholic majesty he was then ready to turn pa-
pist, and to propose an alliance with that king and the pope against
the queen of England ; but, for reasons of state, the affair, he adds,
was hushed up.* Elizabeth must have found it difficult to stifle her
suspicions of his vacillating spirit in his religious creed, when she
enjoins Sir Richard Wigmore, among other topics of instruction, to
“induce the king resolutely to profess himself a protestant,t and to
relie and depend upon the amitie of Queen Elizabeth and England,
rather than that of any other potentate.”

To make a safe passage through the perils of this direct and un-
expected attack—to get rid of the high moral and political misde-
meanour of a protestant monarch carrying on a correspondence with
him, who was then deemed the very personification of the Anti-
christ, the Man of Sin—and in that correspondence not only solicit-
ing the dignity of cardinal for a Scottish papist, Drummond, Bishop
of Vaison, but even subscribing himself ‘‘ Beatitudinis vestre obse-
quentissimus filius,{ J. R.”—the king had no alternative but that of
throwing the odium of the letter upon his secretary, E!phinston,

* See Winwood, vol. iii., p. 55, 56.

+ “It appears,” says Burnett, “ that Walsingham thought that the king
was either inclined to turn Papist, or to be of no religion.” Hist. of his own
Time, vol. i. p. 13.

+ See Rushworth’s Hist. Collec. vol. 1, p. 166. And yet we have him
afterwards parading forth his consistency of religious belief to Buckingham,
who had no religion at all, telling him, “ I am not a Monsieur who can shift
his religion as easily as he can shift his shirt when he cometh from Tennis.”
See Hardwick’s State Papers, vol. i., p. 412. To the same effect did bis son
afterwards express himself. And yet he too wrote a letter to the Pope,
which so scandalized the protestantism of Clarendon, that he openly hints
his feelings of dissatisfaction at it to his confidential friend, Secretary
Nicholas. “ The letter to the Pope is by your favour more than compli-
mentary, and may be a warning that nothing is to be said or done in that
nice argument but what will bear the light.” See Clarendon’s State Papers,
vol. ii., p. 337.

eS ee

THE CHARACTER AND CONDUCT OF JAMES I. 275

afterwards created Lord Balmerino, who confessed, as tt is said,
that James affixed his name to this paper, among other official in-
struments, without any knowledge of its contents. If we enquire a
little further into the history of this curious transaction, it will
appear evident to those who like to have things reported just as
they are,* that James had acted towards Balmerino as Elizabeth
did towards her under secretary, Davison, respecting the despatch
of the warrant for the execution of Queen Mary.t Now, Cle-
ment’s former assurances to James, that, as the son of his virtuous
mother, he had prayed for his temporal and eternal welfare, and his
ordering public thanksgivings and processions at Rome to celebrate
his accession, are circumstances which assuredly will not be thought
to form exceptions to the tenor of the above remarks, since they
must produce a strong impression of James’s early leaning to popery,
independently of the grand fact that his very first speech in parlia-
ment, according tc a remark of that keen observer, Professor Hee-
ren, “ declares in such plain words that catholicism (excepting the
doctrine of the papal supremacy, which was detestable to him from
its limiting the regal power), was the religion of his heart, that it
could not but destroy once and for ever the confidence of the nation
in their king.}”

There would seem no room for doubt, in the judgment of
Sir John Scott, that Balmerino was the person selected to res-

cue the king from his hapless predicament: for this writer round-

ly asserts the entire knowledge and direction of James in this
affair. ‘‘ Balmerino,”’ says he, “was in such fayour with King
James, that he craved the reversion of Secretary Cecil’s place
at the king’s coming to the crown of England, which was the be-
ginning of his overthrow ; for the said Secretary Cecil wrought so,
that he procured a letter which had come from King James, where-
in he promised all kindness to the Roman see and pope if his holi-
ness would assist him to attain to the crown of England. This
letter the said Secretary Cecil shewed in the king’s presence in the
council of England ; whereupon King James, fearing to displease
the English nation, behoved to disclaim the penning of this letter,
and lay the blame thereof on his secretary, whom, a little before
that, he had made Lord Balmerino, to whom he wrote to come to

* See Caldewood’s printed History, 426, 427, 604. Howell’s State Trials,
and Ambassade de M. de la Boderie, t. iv., p. 66.
+ For her treachery and hypocrisy in this whole affair see Life of Davison,
by Sir Nicholas Nicolas, p. 14, and art. Davison, Biog. Brit.
$ See Historical Treatises, from the German of A. H. L. Heeren, p. 232.
VOL. VII., NO. XXII. NN

276 TWO CHAPTERS ILLUSTRATIVE OF

court, where being come, for exoneration of the king, he behoved to
take upon him the guilt of writing that letter.* It is also asserted
by Balfour, that he (Balmerino), confessed simultatly, as was
thought by thesse, that he wnderstood the courte, and how matters
then went, to liberat the king of such grossness.”t+ Let us now
hear the declaration of the ill-treated secretary himself :—‘ Next
followed my conviction in St. Andrew’s, wherein I was the only
actor myself, to give his majesty satisfaction, following in every
point the Earl of Dunbar’s direction, brought to me by my Lord
Burley or the Lord Scone.”{ If suspicions still remain that James
was a stranger to this letter, these additional remarks may be
thrown out, to put an end to every doubt :—That Lord Home, who
was himself a papist,|| had been entrusted with a secret commission
to the pope; that the king, in his reply to the cardinal, as carefully
avoids all allusion to the letter of Balmerino or his confession as he
would the bite of a Rattlesnake; and that, after this unfortunate
secretary had been convicted of treason, and had undergone a slight
imprisonment, his sentence, as stated by Burnett, was remitted, and
he was restored alike to his estate and blood.§ These facts are a
volume of argument.

In the following passage, Higgons affirms that Burnett’s words
mean to convey the infamous insinuation that James was the au-
thor of his son’s death. His object, however, was simply to state
that Prince Henry died by poison, according to his belief, and that
Somerset, the king’s unworthy favourite, had caused it to be admi-
nistered to him :—‘ Prince Henry was a prince of great hopes, but
so little like his father that he was rather feared than loved by him.
Whether his aversion to popery hastened his death or not I cannot
tell. Colonel Titus assured me, that he had from King Charles
the First’s own mouth, that he was well assured that he was poi-
soned by the Earl of Somerset’s means.”** In the first assertion,
Burnett is supported by the most satisfactory authority, since, both

* See the Staggering State of the Scots Statesmen, by Sir John Scott, p. 60.

+ See General Hist. of Scotland, vol. ii., p. 29.

+ Caldewood, p. 600, 604, 605.

|| Winwood’s Mem., vol. xi., p. 57.

§ “ Balmenoche deyed of a fever and waikness in his stomache some few
monthes after the death of his arch enimey and competitor Cicill Earle of
Salisburney (after quhom if aney tyme he had survived as well talked by
them that best knew the Kyngs mynd) he had beine in grater crydit with
his master than ever.” Balfours MSS. as quoted by Guthrie, vol. ix.,
p- 53, 56.

** FHistory of his own Time, vol. i., p. 18, 19.

THE CHARACTER AND CONDUCT OF JAMES I. 277

at home and abroad, the prince’s death was considered as a great
national loss ;* but so little did the king seem to be affected by it,
that, after a short interval, all persons were forbidden to appear
before him in mourning; and special directions were also issued
that the preparations for the Christmas festivities should meet with
no interruption—while, three days after Henry’s demise, Rochester
had orders to direct Sir Thomas Edmonds, at Paris, to open over-
tures for a marriage between Prince Charles and Christine, the se-
cond daughter of the late King of France ; but a sense of decency
and a sense of general reproach prevented the ambassador from com-
plying immediately with these instructions.

The following letter of the Earl of Dorset to the same ambassa-
dor is particularly deserving of remark :—‘ That our rising sun is
set, ere scarcely he had shone, and that with him all our glory lies
buried, you know and do lament as well as we; and better than
some do, and more truly, or else you are not a man and sensible of

* Few eyes were dry, few hearts untouched, if we are to believe the
Secretary of Sir Thomas Edmonds, at the loss “ of the flower of the house,
the glory of his country, and the admiration of all strangers, which in all
places had imprinted a great hope in the minds of the well affected, as it has
already stricken terror into the hearts of his enemies.” So writes M. Bu-
lieu to Mr. Trumbolt, then President at Brussels. The Universities la-
mented the Prince in sermons and Latin orations. Chapman, Webster,
Heywood, Withers, Maxwell, and other poets of his day, sang his praises.
One, however, of the tribe, was silent on the occasion—“ the rare Ben
Jonson.” A circumstance which will contribute to justify the general
belief, that James was more willing that England’s darling, as the Prince
was styled, should be decried than extolled; for though Jonson was not
appointed Laureate, yet he was the Court Minstrel. The following strains
for extravagant conceptions out-top all that we have met with in poetic
commendation of Henry.

“ See where he shineth yonder
A fixed Star in Heaven
Whose motion here came under
None of the planet’s seven.
If that the Moone should tender
The Sun her love and marry,
They both could not engender
So sweet a Star as Harry.”

Verses written upon Prince Henry’s death by Hugh Holland, Fellow of
Trinity College, Cambridge, apud Laud, M.S. For the same prodigal use
of laudatory superlatives in prose, see a Funeral Oration entitled “ Lacryme
Tumulo nunquamsatis laudatis Heroes Henrici Frederici Stuarti a Gualtero
Deraldsono Scoto.” Brit. Sedani, 1613,

278 TWO CHAPTERS ILLUSTRATIVE OF

this kingdom’s loss.”* Sir Robert Naunton, the avowed partizan of
Rochester, likewise clearly demonstrates that all was not right be-
tween the father and son ; for these are some of the mysterious sen-
tences of that secretary of state in his letter to Winwood:—
“Touching our palladium which we have lost, I hold it neither fit
to write what I conceive, and less fit to be written to your lordship.
It is given out by his confidant, that he had a design to have come
over with the palsgrave, and have drawn Count Maurice along with
him with some promises, and done some exploit upon the place
which shot the palsgrave’s harbinger, and happily to have seen the
landgrave’s daughter, or I know not what. That this he meant to
have done, whatsoever it was, ‘clam patrem et senatum suum,’ un-
known to his father and the council, and hatching some such secret
design, which was made subject to misconstruction, it is now become
abortive, like that of Henry IV. of France.”t None of the cordia-
lities of affection existed between Henry and James, as may be easily
collected from the angry manner in which the proceedings of the
latter were arraigned by his immediate heir. For thirteen years
Sir Walter Raleigh had been shut up a prisoner in the tower by
order of the king ; “ and what other king,” was the indignant ex-
clamation of the prince, “ would have shut up such a bird ina
cage.”’{ Opon other occasions, Henry pertinaciously differed from
his father, finding many practices in the conduct of affairs which he
would not approve, and some of which he could not forbear to op-
pose.|| Tutored, also, by his mother, the prince openly ridiculed
the follies and weaknesses of James, which, joined with his high
daring, his warlike propensities,§ his hatred of popery,** and his
desire to reform the Reformation itself,++ were all so many estrange-
ments from paternal love.

* See Birch’s Life of Prince Henry, p. 405.

+ Winwood, vol. iii., p. 410, &c.

+ See Coke’s Detection, p. 37.

|| See Carte’s History of England, vol. iii., p. 747, and Birch’s Life of
Prince Henry, p. 405.

§ In a letter which Henry addressed to the Prince de Joinville, he ob-
serves that he had sent him a present of the two things he loved best,
arms and horses, and when asked by the French Ambassador if he had any
message for his royal master, the reply was, “‘ Tell him what I am now doing,
tossing the pike.” Birch’s Life of Prince Henry, p. 75.

** Tn the plenitude of his Protestant zeal, we are told by Sir Henry Nevil,
he had vowed that never idolatry should come in his bed, and that he consi-
dered his sickness as a deserved punishment upon him, for having opened
his ears to admit the treaty of a Popish match. Winwood, vol. iii., p. 416.

++ His Governor, Sir Thomas Chaloner, was supposed to be a great favo-

THE CHARACTER AND CONDUCT OF JAMES I, 279

«When the expectancy and rose of this fair state expired,” the
feeling gradually stole upon the people, and at last came to be au-
dibly expressed, that he was cut off by the arts of Somerset.* That
great light of the law, Coke, even proceeded to throw out this signi-
ficant hint whilst presiding at the trial of the favourite :—“ God
knows what went with the good Prince Henry, but I have heard
something.” From such a man, a suspicion of this kind was almost
a sentence or judgment. We are not, therefore, to be surprised that
the impression became so prevalent, not only among the people, but
among many of high station, that the prince had fallen a victim to
the treachery of Somerset ; and as James had many more enemies
than admirers, even his reputation was not spared in their conjec-
tures.t It is no reproach, then, to Burnett, to have said that which

rite of the Puritans. But he wanted neither ability nor moral courage to
discharge his duties ably as well as honestly to the Prince. “ All parties
placed great confidence in him.” See Short Account of Sir T. Chaloner,
Governor to Prince Henry, p. 3. He had a great turn for Natural History
and Chemistry. The alum works at Gisborough which were established by
him, show that his scientific researches were productive of real utility.
Harrington, in reference to the prince’s supposed leaning to the church views
of Knox and Calvin, says in his Nuge Antique, vol. iii, p. 3, that this
couplet was common with the people :—

« Henry the Eighth pulled down the abbeys and cells
But Henry the Ninth shall pull down bishops and bells.”

* The depth of infamy into which that minister had sunk, may be esti-
mated from the queen’s venturing on the extravagant monstrous charge,
that he intended to poison her, Prince Charles, and the elector palatine, in
order to marry the electress to Lord Suffolk’s eldest son. See Carte’s His-
tory of England, vol. iv.,p. 33. This circumstance also, it was said, made
great impression upon her mind, that when Raleigh was applied to for a
much talked of prescription of his, during the last illness of the king, he sent
it with this message, “ that it would certainly cure him or any other of a
fever except ina case of poison.” See Welwood’s Notes on Wilson, vol. ii.,
p- 714. It is worthy of remark, that a far more renowned Prince had re-
course to this medicine just before his decease, and that it served to prolong
his existence for a short time. ‘“ Yesterday morning his majesty (King
William the Third) expired in the arms of Mr. Sewell, one of the pages of
the back stairs. He had been kept alive for five or six hours merely by the
help of Sir Walter Raleigh’s cordial, and was sensible to the last.” Seea
particular relation of the sickness and death of his last Majesty, &e. London,
1702, p. 14.

+ When Whitelocke repaired to Sweden as the English Ambassador,
Christine spoke of Prince Henry’s death in that way, as if she inferred a

judgment upon the House of Stuart for it. See Embass. Ays. MSS., No. 49,

p- 206.

280 TWO CHAPTERS ILLUSTRATIVE OF

all mouths, at the same time, were open to declare. But though his
implied suspicions were made less invidious by the corroborative
misgivings of many others, yet it must be admitted that he has here
overlooked the important distinction between the truth of opinion
and the truth of fact. What Hume has remarked on this subject
appears to be founded on such sentiments as both nature and reason
must approve. “If Somerset,” he sagaciously asks, “ was so great
a novice in this detestable act that, during the course of five months,
a man who was his prisoner, and attended by none but his emissa-
ries, could not be despatched but in so bungling a manner, how
could it be imagined that a young prince, living in his own court,
surrounded by his own friends and domestics, could be exposed to
Somerset’s attempts, and be taken off by so subtle a poison, if such
an one exists, as could elude the skill of the most experienced phy-
sicians ?”* The only thing, indeed, which can furnish any plausi-
ble pretext for the idea that Henry was poisoned by the minion of
the king, is to be found in the following story related by Sir
Charles Cornwallis, treasurer to the prince, and is to this purpose:
That Rochester had addressed a letter to the prince, in which he
had signed himself “ yours before all the world.” Henry directed
Cornwallis to reply to this epistle, but, perceiving, when he was
about to fix his signature to it, that his treasurer had concluded in
a very complimentary form, he ordered the whole letter to be re-
composed, declaring that Rochester (for though he does not actually
name him, yet it is beyond all question the reference is made to him
only) had dealt with him unfaithfully and falsely, and that his hand
should never attest what his heart did not dictate. In opposition,
however, to these surmises, and others that are discoverable in the
secret histories or memoirs of the time, respecting the death of this
prince, there exists the most positive and authentic evidence, col-
lected from the journal of his last sickness, and from the reports of
the surgeons who opened his body, that he died of a malignant fe-
ver,t a disorder which probably would not have been fatal, had the

* History of England, vol. vi., p. 71.

+ It is singular that Mr. Fox, if he had perused the discourse of Sir
Charles Cornwallis on the life and death of Prince Henry, which contains
a minute detail of all the symptoms of the prince’s case, extracts from
which may be found in Birch’s Life, should have stated it as his opinion
that he was poisoned. See letter from him to Lord Lauderdale in the
preface to his History by Lord Holland. A high authority, the French
ambassador, Spifame, in one of his dispatches to the Minister Puysieux says
speaking on this subject, “I hold the death of Prince Henry to have been
natural.” Raumer History of the XVI. and XVII. Cent., vol. ii, p, 222.

THE CHARACTER AND CONDUCT OF JAMES I. 281

science of medicine, in those days, been sufficiently advanced to have
treated fevers by cold affusion ;* instead of which, “ Sir Theodore
Mayerne, a French physician, and in great esteem, would have let
blood.” These continual bleedings, therefore, destroyed a prince
** whose sun went down while it was yet day.”

Higgons again grossly calumniates the bishop in the following
sentence :—‘ I should not have laid so much stress on this matter
if the author had been speaking of any other person but King
James, against whom he had so inveterate a malice, as is evident by
the barbarous, unjust character which he gives of that prince.”t
But if this were the deep and abiding feeling in the mind of the
bishop, we must find it altogether impossible to reconcile ourselves,
among other remarkable omissions in support of James’s reputation,
to his silence respecting the prosecution of Peacham, a clergyman in
Somersetshire, which, above all this king’s iniquitous acts, breathes
the odious principles of pure, unmingled despotism. Here was
the happiest opportunity presented to our historian of showing, what
sounds like a monstrous and shocking exaggeration, that the British
Solomon had a heart as weak as it was obdurate and wicked. A
more wily tactic could not have been attributed to the most eulo-
gistic biographer of “the pedant reign,” { than to have treated that

* See Dr. Currie’s Medical Reports on the effects of Water, cold and warm, as
a remedy in Fever; a performance which is strikingly indicative of the
general ability of this eminent man in his profession.

+ Remarks, p. 23.

+ Bolingbroke has justly observed, “ that his pedantry was too much even
for the age in which he lived,” and perhaps it would have been almost found
repugnant Academice Discipline. Lord Dartmouth on the information of
the Earl of Mar thinks proper to assert, ‘‘ that King James’s pedantic edu-
cation was designedly given him to make him contemptible both at home and
abroad.” Notes upon Burnett’s History of his own Time, vol.i., p. 12. But
this opinion does not harmonize with our convictions. It was one of the
chief concerns of the Scottish state to provide suitable preceptors for their
future monarch. Under that highly gifted man, George Buchanan, the
young king was instructed in the liberal studies, rhetoric, logic, history, par-
ticularly modern history; also in the learned languages, and in geography
and astronomy. Moreover, to inspire his royal pupil with views and senti-
ments fitted for his exalted station, and to enable him to play a higher part
than “the wisest fool in Europe,” as he was styled by Sully, Buchanan
endeavoured with emphatic enforcement to make history one continued
comment and exemplification of this now acknowledged principle, that princes
govern not for their ownadvantage, but for that of their people. Seehis famous
treatise De Jure Regni apud Scotos. Uf there had been, then, the disgraceful
project to dwarf the intellectual growth of James, to stunt his energies, to
disable his understanding, Buchanan could never be fairly accused of becom-

282 TWO CHAPTERS ILLUSTRATIVE OF

worst of his proceedings, as Burnett has done, as matter exciting no
attention, and therefore to be passed over as never to be known;
whereas, from the publicity and interest given to Peacham’s case, in
consequence of the Chief Justice Coke’s dispute with the king and
Bacon, then attorney-general, respecting extrajudicial questions to
the judges, he must have felt that he was swerving from the line
drawn by historical justice, in not presenting his readers with a full
and fair account of this abominable transaction. A manuscript ser-
mon had been found in the study of Peacham, which he had not
preached, and which, we learn from Judge Coke, he had never in-
tended to preach. In this discourse he complained of the kings’s ex-
penses ; of his keeping divided courts for himself, his queen, and his
son ; of his gifts for dances, feastings, and maskings ; and of the
frauds of his officers. For these censures, which, had they been
published, might have amounted to a seditious libel, the puritan
minister was tried for high treason, under the statute of Edward
III. The old man—for he was above sixty—was put to the rack,
and examined upon various questions, says Winwood, then secretary
of state, before the torture, under the torture, between the torture, and
after the torture, by express command of ‘the mild and gentle
prince,” for so he is styled by Sir Symonds d’Ewes, in his Diary.
Yet Mr. D’Israeli, departing from his usual acuteness and love
of historical truth, tells us that “ he exercised his power without an
atom of brutal despotism adhering to it.”*

Now, aware, that any attempt to convert the overt act of
writing a libel into compassing the king’s death would be to
flounder in absurdity, but determined to wreak his vengeance on
the prisoner, James directed Bacon to procure the opinions of the
judges, separate and apart, previously to the trial, and for the direct
purpose of influencing their decision in behalf of the crown. With
this unconstitutional command Bacon had the baseness to comply.

ing particeps criminis, however true it might be that the benefit of his in-
structions was defeated by James’s sub-tutor, Young. Subtle, insinuating,
penetrating, and tinctured with all that pedantic learning so much affected
afterwards by James, this bad man soon found out that his young sovereign
loved those only who were accustomed to humour and flatter him. Accord-
ingly he connived at all his faults, paid a blind servile obedience to all his
whims and wishes, and injured the best interests of his country by secretly
cherishing in James that love of absolute monarchy which ultimately
proved the destruction of his race. See Sibbaldi’s Comment. in Vitam G. Bu-
chanani, p. 20. Irving’s Memoirs of Buchanan, p. 160, and M’Cries’s Life of
Melville, second edition, vol. i, p. 251—257.
* See Inquiry into the Literary and Political Character of James I., p. 128.

THE CHARACTER AND CONDUCT OF JAMES I. 283

The profligate logic employed by this master of official responsibi-
lity in the following letter to the king, and his disgusting indiffe-
rence to every principle of our free constitution, require all our re-
verence for his great name to keep us, in this instance, from execrat-
ing it. “Truly by this time the English law would have been made
a tradition,” if there had not been a Coke to stand forth in defence of
it. “We did first find an encounter in the opinion of my Lord Coke,
who seemed to affirm that such particular, and, as he called it, auri-
cular, taking of opinions, was not according to the custom of this
realm ; and seemed to divine that his brethren would never do it.
But when I replied that it was our duty to pursue your majesty’s
directions, and it were not amiss for his lordship to leave his bre-
thren to their own answers, it was so concluded; and his lordship
did desire that I might confer with himself, and Mr. Serjeant Mon-
tague was named to speak with Mr. Justice Crook, Mr. Sergeant
Crewe with Justice Houghton, and Mr. Solicitor with Justice Dod-
dridge. This done, I took my fellows aside, and advised that they
should presently speak with the three judges before they could
speak with my Lord Coke, for doubt of infusion ; and that they
should not, in any case, make any doubt to the judges, as if they
mistrusted they would not deliver any opinion apart, but speak re-
solutely to them, and only make their coming to be to know what
time they would appoint to be attended with the papers. He
[Coke] moreover said, which I noted well, that his brethren were
wise men, and that they might make a show asif they would give
an opinion as was required, but the end would be that it would
come to this, they would say that they doubted of it ; and so, pray,
advise with the rest. But to this I answered that I was sorry to
hear him say so much, lest, if it came to pass, some that loved him
not might make a construction that that which he had foretold he
had wrought.”*

We must observe with concern, that the practice of converting
the judges into counsel for the crown, so detrimental to the free
uninfluenced and independent judgment of these high legal func-
tionaries, was not the point against which Coke remonstrated: but
it was the experiment of innovation in consulting them apart and
in private, which produced his murmurings and complaints. And

*“ Upon Peacham’s frightful case, and the legal discussions it originated,
consult Lord Bacon’s Works, vol. v., p. 336, Dalrymple’s Memorials and Let-
ters relating to the Reign of James I., vol. i., p. 62, 64, and Howell’s State
Trials, vol. xi., p. 870, 877.

VOL. VII., NO. XXII. 00

284 TWO CHAPTERS ILLUSTRATIVE OF

yet James, who was here so intent in degrading the judges into the
abject characters of the mere instruments of the crown, could, in a
speech to his parliament in 1601, assert in the most unequivocal
terms—and the assertion was highly just and proper—that “ the
doing any act that may procure less reverence to the judges, cannot
but breed a looseness in the government and a disgrace to the whole
nation.” Surely, if James had not flattered himself that he had
succeeded in his design of reducing the people at large, as well as
the judges, into so complete a servitude that they had ceased to per-
ceive the distinction between despotism and monarchy, he would
not have ventured to utter such a public declaration as the above,
and then, in the face of it, to insist upon the judges doing
those acts whereby the law of the land was grievously infring-
ed. But, that he never sincerely contemplated to render the
judges anything but obsequious tools in their official capacities,
may be clearly inferred from his employing the common law judges
in acts of prerogative ; upon which Lord Clarendon has pronounced
the following manly and unanswerable sentence of reprobation :—
“The damage and mischief cannot be expressed,” says he, “ that
the crown and state sustained by the deserved reproach and infamy
that attended the judges, by being made use of in acts of power :”
and in the next page of his immortal work, he observes :—‘ In the
wisdom of former times, when the prerogative went highest, never
any court of law, seldom any judge or lawyer of reputation, was
called upon to assist in an act of power. The crown, well knowing
the moment of keeping those the objects of reverence and venera-
tion with the people, and that though it might sometimes make
sallies upon them by the prerogative, yet the law would keep the
people from any invasion of it, and that the king could never suffer
whilst the law and the judges were looked upon by the subject as
the asylum for their liberties and security.”*

Now, if it were so notorious that Burnett had passionately pledg-
ed himself to aggravate the royal failings, as he is charged by Hig-
gons, whenever he speaks of James, would he have been content to
omit the above-mentioned striking instances of scandalous and intol-
erable abuse of kingly power, which, when we calmly and impar-
tially consider, must be regarded with a shuddering sense of abhor-
rence? What else, too, could be demanded in the most thorough-
paced and unprincipled partizan of the degenerate monarch of
Whitehall, than to drop all pointed reference to his systematic at-

“ History of the Rebellion, vol. i., p. 124, 125, Oxford Edition.

THE CHARACTER AND CONDUCT OF JAMES I. 285

tempts to controul and subvert the law, which would have our con-
stitution, as the dying Brutus said of virtue, an empty name—to
his forced loans and benevolences*—to his numerous oathst and
profane allusions—to his attachment to the cock-pit{—to his deep
potations at the table||—to his indecent caresses of his minions|—
to his womanish** fears and credulitytt—to his low curiosity{{—to

* To take a single instance, “ The Benevolence goes on. A merchant of
London had been a cheesemonger, but now rich, was sent for by the Council
and required to give the king £200 or to go into the Palatinate and serve the
army with cheese, being a man of eighty years of age.” See Ellis’s Original
Letter. Second series, vol. iii., p. 240.

+ So notorious were his habits of cursing and swearing, that even the
players made them the subject of comment on the stage.—Boderie, tom. iii.,
p- 190, 197. The consequence was, that they were for a time expelled the
capital. Winwood, vol. ii., p. 54.

+ “Il vit combattre les cocqs, qui est un plaisir qu’il prend deux fois la
semaine.—Boderie, t. i., p. 156.

|| In the entertainment given by Cecil at Theobald’s when Christian IV.
of Denmark visited this country, his Britannic Majesty was so inebriated,
“ that when he got up and would dance with the queen of Sheba, he fell
down and humbled himself before her, and was carried to an inner chamber,
and laid on a bed of state.”—See Harrington’s description of this disgusting
scene, Nugew Antig., vol. i. p. 348, &c. His wet nurse was a drunkard. Nu-
tricem unam habuit ebriosam, so says Sir Theodore Mayerne, Memoranda of
King James, M.S., Sloane, 1679. This, with some, will constitute an apology
for his indulgence in this vulgar vice.

§ Upon this most disgusting subject, see Harrington, Weldon, Osborne,
and Raumer’s History of XVI. and XVII. Cent., vol. ii., p. 261, 266, and this
short but decisive note of his noble Translator.—< It is difficult to read the
passage without deriving the worst opinion of his habits and those of his
favourites.”

** The following instance of pusillanimity is perfectly ludicrous. “The
gentlemen of Grayes Inne to make an end of Christmas on Twelfe night, in
the dead time of the night, shott off all the chambers they had borrowed from
the Tower, being as many as filled four carts. The king awaked with the
noise, started out of his bed, and cried out treason, treason, &c., and that the
cittie was in an uprore, in such sort (as is told), that the whole Court was
raised and almost in armes, the Earle of Arundeil running to the bed
chamber with his sworde drawn as to rescue the king’s person. These are
such things as I heard from Londoners, and so I leave them. Yours to
commande, Joseph Meade.”—See Ellis’s Original Letters, vol. iii., p. 119.

++ “By the Demonologia” and “Counter-blast,” observes Grainger,
James lost as much reputation as he had gained by his Basilicon Doron.
One of the first of his English statutes was an extension of the penalties
against crimes of sorcery and witchcraft. “ ‘The arguments of tyranny,” says
Burke, “ are as contemptible as its force is dreadful.” It constitutes a spec-
tacle equally absurd and horrible, that above an hundred persons should
have fallen victims to the superstition of James.

+t Nursery secrets as well as state ones were equally committed to the

986 TWO CHAPTERS ILLUSTRATIVE OF

his familiar correspondence with Buckingham,* which, upon most
occasions, was so loose and full of gross buffoonery, as more fitted a
jester or mountebank than the successor of the great Elizabeth—and
to a court which was a general agglomerate of all licentiousness ?+
Upon these several subjects, mostly of moral antipathy and rebuke,
Burnett manifests either a shyness in speaking, as if he were step-
ping out of his province by so doing, or a heartless assent, in the place
of godly intrepidity of censure. One might have reasonably imagin-
ed that each and all of these striking facts would have disgusted him
excessively ; so that he could not have even glanced at them with-
out the true sparks of indignation “kindling as he ran.” To
affirm, then, that he ever yields to the suggestions of malice at the
mention of James—that he is here ready deliberately to sacrifice
truth, honesty, and candour at the shrine of his dislikes and malig-
nities—is to give as unfair a representation of our historian, as the
artist would of his personal appearance who should represent him as
a negro with a black face and woolly hair.

But if the cloven foot of malice were so unblushingly apparent,
why, also, has Burnett omitted some important historical materials,
which would further demonstrate the justice of his opinions on the

ears of this inquisitive king. See the ridiculous letter of the Duchess of
Buckingham to him concerning “ the weaning of Mall.”—Dalrymple’s Leé-
ters, &c., vol. i., p. 179.

* This sovereign of the sovereign whom Sir Edward Coke blasphemously
called our Saviour, says Clarendon, could not have paraded with all his irre-
ligion, the utterance of so many blasphemies in his correspondence with
James, if he had not been pretty certain that his epistolary effusions, with-
out being seasoned with a touch of them, would have been dull and taste-
less to the royal palate. Why a man in these days would be hooted down
for a fool or atheist even in the purlieus of St. Giles, if he were to express
himself in the manner in which Buckingham did to James respecting the
Father, Son and Holy Ghost, and the fruits of Paradise.—See Hardwick
Papers, vol. i., p. 464, 468, In the dispatches of Count Tilliers, the French
Ambassador in London, whose general representations of the Court affairs
do great credit to his acuteness and accuracy, the “ fiery Duke” is thus
alluded to. ‘ His will and pleasure pass for statute and prescription, and in
place of his influence soon decreasing, as was expected, it increases daily to
that degree that several (in the absence of a sufficient solution), believe
that the king has been bewitched.”—See Raumer’s History of the XVI.
and XVII. Centuries, vol. ii., p. 268.

+ For the honour of royalty we could heartily wish that that celebrated
woman Mrs. Hutchinson were chargeable with dealing in exaggerated lan-
guage in that part of her description of the Court of James in which she
says, “ the generality of the gentry of the land soone learnt the Court fashion,
and every greate house in the country became a stye of uncleanliness.”—See
Memoirs of the Life of Col. Hutchinson, p. 59.

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THE CHARACTER AND CONDUCT OF JAMES I, 287

character of James? He would have expatiated triumphantly
upon them, it may be said, if he had been acquainted with these
facts. Admitting this to be the case, we shall exhibit them to the
notice of the reader, not merely because they help to deepen the
chorus of testimonies against James, but because this truth becomes
in a ten-fold degree more perspicuous that Burnett has not trans-
gressed the bounds of moderation and charity in judging of the king.
In the height of his admiration for the “ sovereign author,” Mr.
D’Israeli would have us believe—for he really seems disposed to re-
present him as the almost faultless model of a king, one of the deli-
ci humani generis—that all the sentiments of his hero were most
lofty and philanthropic—that there was a thoughtful humanity—
that he sat enthroned in goodness as in power—and that when com-
pelled to launch the state thunder, mercy always tempered the bolt.
“ His platonic conceptions,” he says, “inspired the most exalted
feelings ; but his gentle nature never led to one act of unfeeling
despotism. His sceptre was wreathed with the roses of his fancy ;
the iron of arbitrary power only struck into the heart in the suc-
ceeding reign. James only menaced mith an abstract notion ;* or,
in anger, with his own hand would tear out a protestation from the
journals of the commons. And when he considered a man as past
forgiveness, he condemned him to a slight imprisonment, or moved
him to a distant employment ; or, if an author, like Coke and Cow-
ell, sent him into retirement to correct his works.”t We, however,
are greatly mistaken, if we have not in James's conduct positive
proof that the praise thus claimed for him is not his right.

In a collection of criminal trials of Scotland, recently given to
the public by Mr. Pitcairne, the reader will find some statements
relative to James VI. of Scotland, in which there is despotism in
its worst form. ‘“ His conduct,” observes an acute historical critic,
“was an uniform system of tyranny, prosecuted according to his ta-
lents.”{ Judging, then, from facts, we are necessitated to infer,
that, whatever indifference or neglect the Scottish monarch might
have shewn to the rights of others, when his own person or under-

* This assertion will surely not be deemed quite correspondent with facts,
when it is remembered, that at the very commencement of his reign, James
sentenced a thief to the gallows without trial or defence. “ T hear our new
king” says Sir John Harrington, “‘ has hanged one man before he was tried ;
it is strangely done—now if the wind bloweth thus, why may not a man be
tried before he is hanged.”—-Nuge Antiq., vol. i., p. 180.

+ See Inquiry into the Character of James, &e., p. 128.

+ See Millar’s Historical View of the English Government, vol. iii., p. 176.

288 TWO CHAPTERS ILLUSTRATIVE OF

standing was reflected upon, he was, while affecting horror of
blood, as prompt and resolute in his criminal undertakings as others
were in the pursuit of virtuous objects. On such occasions, the law
which carries water down a descent was not more irrevocable and
fixed than James in his determinations. Upon these three men,
John Dixon, John Flemyng, and Francis Tennant, he wreaked his
vengeance on account of offences for which, if there had been one
elemental particle of generous feeling in his breast, an appeal to it
for pardon would have been irresistible. We will detail the case of
the last person, as it proves that James, in his eager desire of re-
venge, was quite as regardless of public disapprobation as they are
who, having nothing to lose, are indifferent to the consequences
of their actions:—Francis Tennant, merchant, burgess of Edin-
burgh, was indicted on the 10th of October, 1609, for writing
slanderous pasquils against the king. What these pasquils were, it
has baffled the indefatigable researches of Mr. Pitcairne to discover.
We are instructed, however, to believe they were of a very culpable
nature, as the lord advucate refused to name them in process,
although he demanded a verdict for these pasquils without the facts
of the case being even known to the judges. From these offensive
papers being addressed to Mr. Robert Bruce and Mr. John David-
son, ministers in Edinburgh, Mr. Pitcairne conjectures they had
reference to the proceedings on the part of James to force the clergy
of that capital to avow their belief that his majesty was in imminent
peril from the Gowrie conspiracy. ‘Tennant’s sentence was death,
and a warrant was signed by James, declaring that the delinquent
was to be taken to the market cross, his tongue cut out, a paper fix-
ed on his brow, setting forth his crime, and then he was to be hang-
ed :—* He shall be takyn to the mercat crose of Edinburgh, and his
toung cuttit out at the rute ; and that thair sall de ane paper affixit
upon his brow, bearing that he is convict for forging and geveing
out of certaine vyld and seditious pascallis, detracting us and our
maist nobill progenitouris ; and thairefter that he sall be takyn to
the gallous and hangit, ay quhill he be dead.” This warrant, how-
ever, is rescinded by the merciful king, and, by a rare stretch of his
clemency, the culprit is allowed “to be hanged with his tongue in
his mouth.”

With respect to Higgons’s assumption that Burnett is totally un-
worthy of belief when he asserts James’s ardent attachment to the
doctrine of the divine appointment of kings, we need only appeal to
the writings and speeches of that monarch in testimony of this as-
sertion. How complete was the conviction of the English Justi-

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THE CHARAOTER AND CONDUCT OF JAMES I. 289

nian, as some of his admirers have absurdly styled James, that as
kings reigned by the appointment of heaven, so to resist their
commands, just or unjust, was opposition to the divine will, is
evidenced in almost every page of his singular performance, The
Law of Free Monarchies. The whole treatise is, indeed, an un-
varnished and elaborate exposition of the duty of passive obedience
on the part of the subject, without any qualification or restriction
whatever on the part of the prince, and a claim to absolute uncon-
ditional power. Never was the title of a book more calculated to
mislead the reader, since it conveys a meaning quite different from
that which we are accustomed to annex to the foregoing precepts ;
it being the drift and scope of the royal author to give the English
people a clear idea of a government directed by the sovereign, re-
leased from every check or controul, or, as James aptly desiguates
him, “a free and absolute monarch,” such as he appears in the con-
stitution of England, as is laid down in the writings of prerogative
lawyers,* where he is an ideal king above law, and not a real king
subject to law.

This monarchical theory of James, in which he communicates to
his own person a legal and religious character at once despotic and
divine,t was made by him so much the idol of his affections, that he

* In reading Blackstone’s Description of the Powers of the Royal Prerogative,
yol. i., p. 160, 162, one fancies that we are perusing those dicta of the ancient
lawyers which make the king of England an absolute sovereign.

++ The extremes to which James pushed his ultra monarchical ideas, has
led the Republican Historian Harris to say, “ that he entertained notions of
his prerogative amazingly great, and bordering on impiety.” But in adorn-
ing his person “ with some sparkles of divinity.” it must in justice to James
be remembered, that under the Norman, Plantagenet and Tudor line, we
have the same pretensions of reigning by divine right, and therefore of being
accountable to none on earth. True also it is, that Bracton and the author
of Fleta, represent the king as the vicar of God and substitute of Christ upon
earth; but then lest flattery should draw improper influences from these
titles, they again tell us, when they speak of a real king, and not of the theo-
retical prerogative of an ideal one, that the law is superior to him, and by
which he is madeaking. ‘ In populo regendo,’ says the last writer, supe-
riores habet (rea) per quam factus est rex.” —Lib. i., cap. 5. It ought never to
be forgotten indeed, that these two most learned, and as Warburton justly
observes, “ almost the only learned of the ancient lawyers.” (See Letters to
Hurd, p. 193). So far from allowing Despotism to find favour in their eyes,
give a decisive evidence for our free and limited government, and deduce
what some with extreme deficiency of information have stigmatized as a
modern theory, and others, though versed in legal lore, have contemplated
with a sort of horror as haters of Democracy, the origin of civil power from
the people.

290 TWO CHAPTERS ILLUSTRATIVE OF

sought to palm this belief upon the intellects of his subjects, that
next to the knowledge of their God, it was necessary for them to
know the things contained in his book ; while so numerous are his
allusions to this topic in his speeches, that, in making choice of the
following examples, we are guided chiefly by the shortness of the
passages :—‘ The power of kings,” he told the parliament, ‘was
like the divine power ; for as God can create and destroy, make and
unmake at his pleasure, so kings can give life and death, judge all,
and be judged by none.”t And in a speech made in the Star
Chamber he asserts, “It is atheism and blasphemy to declare what
God can do; good Christians coxtent themselves with his will re-
vealed in his word: so it is presumption and contempt in a subject
to dispute what a king can do, or say that a king cannot do this or
that.”t A more undisguised picture of a love of absolute sovereign-
ty cannot well be placed before the eyes of the reader than in these
sentences. Nevertheless Higgons will step in and beg him not to
infer so and so, because he can assure him that the fact is otherwise.

The essence, we would say, of James’s inordinate love of arbitrary
authority is concentrated in this striking fact, that, during twelve
years of his reign, we have two hundred and fifty proclamations
without a single statute. True it is that James, in his speech to
parliament, April 5th, 1614, designated, from its surprizing kind-
liness and concession, ‘‘ Flowers of Grace,” disclaims the doctrine
of giving the strength of law to his proclamations. ‘ As touching
proclamations, which, in the last parliament, were excepted against,
as he is a traitorous subject that will say a king may not proclaim
and bind it, so did I never intend proclamations to have force of law,

“ To demonstrate to his people, that justice emanated from him really as
well as theoretically, James actually sat with his judges in Westminster
Hall; but subservient as they all were to his arbitrary will, with the excep-
tion of Coke, he was told by the ermined sages, he could not deliver an
opinion.—See Blackstone, vol. iii., p. 41. “ It is a remarkable fact,” observes
Mr. Allen in his admirable work, An Inquiry into the Rise and Growth of the
Royal Prerogative, p. 98, “ that the same reign which for the last time exhi-
bited a king of England interposing in his own person in the administration
of justice, should also be the last during which he could be sued like a subject
in the courts of law.”

+ See King James’s Works, p. 557. The patriots of the day, in conse-
quence of James having drawn a veil for awhile over liberty, began to be ap-
prehensive they should not leave to their successors that freedom they re-
ceived from their forefathers, “nor make account of any thing longer than
they listed that governed.” Winwood, vol. iii, p. 175. And well indeed
they might.

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THE CHARACTER AND CONDUCT OF JAMES I, 291

but to prevent sudden mischiefs arising wherein the law hath not
provision, until a parliament can provide.” But what was this sen-
timental talk? A mere gilding of the greater grievance of his set-
ting up the civil above the common law—of prohibiting that which
was not prohibited—of making no difference “‘ between Middlesex
and Morocco”—and, as Clarendon pointedly remarks, of “ urging
reasons of state for elements of law.” Little did James think how
indignantly, in the next reign, this kind of distinction would pass
for a thing to be loathed by one half of the peers who then, per-
haps, assented to it, being a thing so hateful to the common law.
“Sergeant Ashley was committed to the Tower,* by the House of
Lords, only for asserting in argument that there was a law of state
different from the common law: and the “ ship-money judges” were
impeached, first, for conceiving it might be fitly and safely held,
that state necessity would justify the raising money without consent
of parliament, and secondly, that the king was judge of that neces-
sity ; while the article against Sir William Berkeley was for saying
there was a rule of law and a rule of government.’t

In his very first parliament, indeed, James showed himself to be
utterly indifferent to the policy and justice of maintaining a consti-
tutional government, by attempting to over-rule the electors of the
Commons. But this house was not so controllable by his will, or
subservient to his designs, as he fondly anticipated, since they were
fast progressing in political knowledge. Sir Francis Godwin had
been chosen member for Buckinghamshire. His fitness, however,
for a legislator, not assimilating with the pattern for that function
given by James in his proclamation, the Court of Chancery declared
his seat vacant, and, in obedience to its fiat, the county selected
another representative. But James, though he may have bowed the
spirit of his subjects, had not broken it. For his sturdy Commons
set at nought the mandate of the Chancery Court, and persisted in
the eligibility of Sir Francis; while, in return for his majesty’s
most absurd and illegal proclamation, they sent hima remonstrance,
the following sentences of which should have served as a beacon and
warning to James that their eyes were not so easily to be hood-
winked as he imagined, in matters pertaining to their constitutional
rights and privileges. “‘ That, until the reign of Henry the Fourth,
all parliament writs were returnable into parliament ; and that,
though Chancery was directed to receive returns, this was only to

* 3, Carol. I.
+ See Rushworth’s Collect., vol. ii., p. 609.
VOL. VII., NO. XXII. Aaa

292 CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

keep them for parliament, but not to judge in them ;” that the in-
convenience would be great if the Chancery might, upon sugges-
tions or sheriff’s returns. send writs for new elections, and those not
subject to examination in parliament: for so, when fit men were
chosen by the counties and boroughs, the lord chancellor or the she-
riffs might displace them, and send out new writs until some were
chosen to their liking—a thing dangerous in precedent for the time
to come.”*

M.R.S.L.

(The Second Chapter will be concluded in our next Number. )

CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

The New Botanists’ Guide to the Localities of the Rarer Plants of
Britain. By Hewett Cotterell Watson; 8vo. London, 1837;
Vol. ii. pp. xxiv, 267.

This Volume completes Mr. Watson’s New Botanists’ Guide, and
also the execution of his self-imposed undertaking which must have
been as laborious as its accomplishment is happy and commendable.
It comprises the Localities of the Rarer Plants of Scotland and the
adjacent Isles, and an ample Supplement to the first portion of his
Guide already published. Eighty-one plants with their localities
are assigned to the Isle of Man, on the authority of lists communi-
cated to Mr. W. by two friendly correspondents. One of these
transmitted, with his catalogue, a small ‘“ botanico-geologic chart”
on which the island is thus described.

“The Isle of Man is thirty miles long, by about twelve at its broadest
part. The greater portion of the island is composed of clay-slate, which at
the sea-coast, is overlapped by greywacke and transition-slate. At its north
point there is a large tract of sandy marl: this is almost flat, and its central

* Parliamentary History, vol. 5. Mr. Hume’s ipse dixit may be very safely
discarded, when he says, ‘‘ there was reason to believe that this measure be-
ing entered into so early in the king's reign, proceeded more from precipita-
tion and mistake, than from any serious design of invading the privileges of
parliament,” since he must have learnt from the Basilicon Doron that he took
possession of the English crown with the resolved purpose to maintain the
most absolute principles of monarchical power.

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CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS 293

part is covered by peat bogs. Sandstone appears at Peel, and the peninsula
of Langness is partly composed of sand. At Castleton, the coast is formed
of a bed of transition-limestone, the only example of that rock in the island.
Beds of peat are interspersed amongst the clay-slate, presenting the same
botanical characters as those on the sand. The greatest elevation to which
the slate rises is that of Snaefel, which towers to the height of two thousand
and seven feet above the level of the sea. The mountainous district gene-
rally presents elevations of from one thousand to sixteen hundred feet. but
it is unproductive of botanical treasures. There are several species of plants
which are common in most places, but which are wanting altogether in this
island: these are, the Lamium album, Galium cruciatum, Veronica hederi-
folia, Alchemilla vulgaris, Geum urbanum, Linaria vulgaris, and others.”

After the plants set down for Scotland, come those for the Ork-
ney and Shetland Isles; and, at the end of these, Mr. Watson
requests the assistance of botanists in enlarging the catalogue of
Shetland plants, so as to render it more complete. Then follows a
list of Scottish Species, with reference to the counties under which
they are mentioned. It occupies nineteen pages and contains a dis-
tinct enumeration of six hundred and sixty-five plants drawn from
two hundred and ninety-eight genera whereof an alphabetical index
is subjoined. Next in order, stands the Supplement for England
and Wales, and this is fraught with much additional and valuable
information. The number of species in each county list, for Great
Britain and the Islands, amounts to considerably more than twelve
thousand, as exhibited in a curious analytical table. It will remain
for practical Botanists to estimate the extraordinary amount of
mental concentration, exercised on a stock of patience almost inex-
haustible, which Mr. W. must have devoted to the preparation of
the separate constituent articles of his Guide. If they do not re-
ward, with the highest meed of praise at least, their instructor
who has shown himself so zealous, they will incur the charge of
being reprehensibly ungrateful. As to his accuracy and faithful-
ness, let these be tested by experience: valuing highly the autho-
rity of two respected and indefatigable botanists often quoted, we
ean rely on the lists for Leicestershire and the adjacent districts,
with unbounded and thankful confidence.

In the Introduction to his first volume, Mr. Watson professed
distinctly that he entertained two objects, in publishing his work.
His first and most desired object was—to ascertain the mere areal
distribution of the vegetable species, by making a series of local
lists from such materials as were placed within his reach: his second
aim was—to render his compilation or more justly his composition,
an accurate and convenient guide-book to the localities of the least
common plants; while, in being fitted to combine easily with the
former, it would add considerably to its usefulness. This arrange-
ment created the necessity for his repeating the names of plants in
the lists for counties in which ‘they are abundantly frequent, and
also for mentioning such vague localities as Somerset, Bristol, Nor-
folk and the like ; but, though useless indications to mere collectors,
such notices are very properly intended by him to regord the fact of

294 CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

the plants being found in the county or vicinity pointed out—a fact
which will prove exceedingly advantageous to any one investigating
the distribution of the species. Besides, since the New Botanists’
Guide was designed to shew both the localities and the areal distri-
butions of all species entitled to be called Rare, with reference to
Britain in general, it became necessary that the author should men-
tion them in ail the counties within which they were certainly
known to grow, although they might be common in some particular
county. The propriety and advantages of this plan are sufficiently
obvious, and it is equally manifest that Mr. W. has succeeded in
working it up to an astonishing stage of perfection.

Although the method may not be altogether unobjectionable,
Mr. Watson has preferred that of selecting a certain set of species
according to a fixed test, and then tracing them through the whole
of Britain ; and, with unquestionable justice, he claims for this pro-
cess the merit of a decided improvement, inasmuch as it affords the
negative evidence available to the botanical geographer. Another
peculiarity of his plan, is the exclusion of all the cryptogamic plants.
As some persons may regard this as a defect, he wishes them to bear
in mind that scarcely one in six of our botanical collectors feel
equally interested in the eryptogamian tribes as they do in the
others, unless it be for the ferns; but, he suggests, the defect or
omission can be remedied by any one who is anxious to have it done,
and is willing to bestow on it the requisite time and trouble. Let
us hope that the recommendation may be adopted.

With regard to a line of distinction between Rare and Common
plants, that adopted by Mr. Watson is sufficiently determinate; and,
in the present extent of our acquaintance with the intricacies and
anomalies of Local Botany, it appears clearly to be the best. He
remarks judiciously—that, between the least rare of the rarer plants
and the least common of the commoner plants, there can only be a
shade of difference, and any adopted test will fail of extreme preci-
sion ; but, in cases where the rarity or commonness of a plant is in-
distinguishable, it becomes a question of small moment whether it
be admitted or rejected, for a distinction. For the Test in his
guide-book, Mr. W. has adopted the comparative frequency of a
plant in the Local Floras he has consulted: it is the substitution of
the average observation of several good investigators in different
places, for the partial observation of one individual. As yet, the
local catalogues are insufficient, in number and extent, for the at-
tainment of complete precision ; and therefore, so long as this defi-
ciency remains unsupplied, it is not too much to aver, that the New
Botanists’ Guide will continue to afford the most faithful test for
the plants which it enumerates.

Finding that he might be required to answer the question what
useful result is to ensue from such investigations into the distribution
of plants, Mr. Watson tenders his reply in the following instructive
and pertinent observations.

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CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 295

“ The ultimate tendency of Botany, as of any other science worthy of
cultivation, should be found in some beneficial results to the human race,
equivalent to the cost of time and money expended on the pursuit. Unless
some such results be in prospect, however distantly, it is difficult to conceive
what adequate advantges are to be derived from our sedulous efforts to de-
scribe and give names to every peculiarity, form and proportion in plants ;
from our voluminous collections of specimens, dried and living, including the
productions of nearly every clime and country; from our intense devotion to
the devising of systems and classifications ; and from the great expense of
time and money necessarily made in effecting all this. Unless there be some
prospect of an equivalent return, some reasonable hope of thereby eventually
adding much to the stock of power and enjoyment which mankind at present
derives from the vegetable world, it will be the duty of political economists
to stigmatize botanists as the unproductive consumers or supernumerary
drones of society. Now, mere descriptions, mere classifications, mere inven-
tion of names, howsoever complete and ingenious, produce nothing to the
human race. They only consume time and labour: and, although such oc-
cupation may be an agreeable amusement to the parties personally con-
cerned in it, yet, taken alone, it is as valueless to the world as would have
been their occupation for an equal length of time at a card-table. We can-
not make the earth yield a greater quantity of food and clothing, through
means of its vegetable productions, merely by knowing their names, resem-
blances and structure. After learning these things, which are not to be
undervalued as a groundwork for something more, we must still take other
steps, by studying the relations existing between vegetables and the rest of
the creation. ‘One set of these relations is found in the connections estab-
lished between vegetation on the one hand, and the physical conditions of its
existence on the other; that is to say, the influence of climate, soil and the
other external circumstances determining the vegetation of the globe, whe-
ther general or special. —The more we come to un erstand these connections,
the greater will be our power of modjfying them for our benefit. Hitherto,
almost all our applied knowledge on this subject has been purely empirical ;
having been left to farmers and gardeners, who have derived little assistance
from technical botanists. Experiments and accidental observations, with
some aid from chemistry and mechanical inventions, have enabled practical
farmers to augment and improve the vegetable produce of Britain ; but, it is
hardly saying too much, to suggest that a scientific knowledge of the laws of
vegetation, though it will be slowly acquired, must place a future race of
cultivators as much above the present workmen, in skill and power, as the
scientific chemist of to-day is superior to the cooks and the drug-vendors
who were the chernists empirically in the by-gone centuries. The collecting
and arranging of facts, such as appear likely to bear upon one department of
a study which may become so important to mankind has been my aim
hitherto, as it has been the aim of others. No one has yet advanced a step
beyond this preliminary labour, in so far as that one department is con-
cerned; and no one can go beyond it, at present. An attempt to do so,
would be only a leap from twilight into utter darkness. Even Humboldt .
himself, so deservedly honoured with the highest reputation as a phytolo-

ist, he only collected facts together, and those chiefly the facts ascertained

y others, and made an imperfect generalization of them. He could do no

* more than this, and most assuredly he built no system ; for, how can a system

be built, before the constituent materials are half of them procured? Here
then, is the answer in reply to the question of usefulness, construing this
in a moral or public sense; but, if it were designed to have only an indivi-
dual application, the reply must be put on the same ground, by reference to
individual tastes. One class of minds derive their intellectual gratification
from direct or re observation almost exclusively: a second class of minds
are more pleased by occupying themselves with the relations between
objects or events. If plants become objects of interest, the former minds
describe and classify them; while the latter may feel little interest in

296 CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICICATIONS.

descriptions and classifications, yet derive much pleasure from tracing the
relations established between plants and animals, or between plants and
their geographical positions. For one of these classes to decry the studies of
the other, would be as sensible a proceeding as it would be for the historian
to find fault with the moral philosopher, or for the anatomist to censure the
physiologist, each because the other had a different taste and_ pursuit ;” for,
he might have added, the constitution of men’s minds are as distinct and dis-
tinguishable as the shapes of their heads.

These excellent observations of Mr. Watson’s are followed by a
train of admirable suggestions, the result of experience and reflection,
offered to the consideration of any future writer on the typography
of our native plants. The high practical value of these suggestions
will be readily and fully appreciated by those who may have endea-
voured to exercise their ingenuity in perfecting the arrangement of
even a limited botanical cabinet and its description. But Mr. Wat-
son will prove nnfaithful to his own reputation, and he will mate-
rially impede the advancement of his second most favourite science,
if he shall now withdraw his improving hand from the “ Botanists’
Guide,” for any reason save an unsurmountable necessity. By far
the most laborious and difficult part of his undertaking is now tri-
umphantly accomplished: let him, therefore, cease to contemplate
an inglorious retirement: far rather, let him be persuaded forthwith
to commence an easy and gradual distribution of the articles of his
Supplement into their proper positions; and thus, with the contri-
butions of all generous British botanists, he will be enabled ulti-
mately to elaborate a “ new edition carefully revised and greatly aug- .
mented,” and printed on writing paper with very “ large margins”
for the insertion of MS. notes and observations. One more sug-
gestion—Watson began the suggestions—might be offered ; and it is
this—that, if at ali practicable, the British should receive an en-
graftment of the Irish phytography, beginning with the meritorious
gleanings of Caleb Threlkeld* “ that good man,” and extending to
the fruits of more fortunate researches, in later times.—There is not
a book in our native language, better calculated than Mr. Watson’s
work to ensure the comfort and facilitate the success of an intelli-
gent Naturalist, throughout the progress of a social or solitary bo-
tanical excursion.

* As Threlkeld’s book was “ the first essay of the kind in the kingdom of
Ireland,” and has now arrived at the honourable distinction of a place among
the Rare Books, a brief notice of the author and his volume may be accept-
able.—Caleb Threlkeld was born in 1676 at Keiberg, in the parish of Kirk-
oswald in Cumberland. In 1698, he took his degree of “ Master of Arts,”
at the university of Glasgow, where he first experienced a predilection for
physic and botany. Having completed the regular course of studies in 1712,
he then obtained the degree of ** Docter of Medicine” at Edinburgh; and,
in the following year he removed to Dublin where he practised as a physi-
cian, during the remainder of his respected and exemplary life. His death
took place in 1728, at his house in Frances-street, Dublin, and his remains
were attended to the grave by the children of an Institution to which he had
acted as physician. He was greatly regretted. by the poor to whom he had
been, both as aman and as a physician, a most kind and considerate bene-

ee a a eeeeeeeeelrlc esl rrr rr"’®S~w~™~S

|

CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 297

factor.—Dr. Threlkeld’s book is intituled Synopsis Stirpium Hibernicarum
alphabeticé dispositarum : sive Commentatio de Plantis Indigenis presertim
Dublinensibus instituta : being a short ‘Treatise of Native Plants, especially
such as grow spontaneously in the vicinity of Dublin; with their Latin,
English, and Irish names, and an abridgement of their vertues ; with several
new discoveries; with an Appendix of Observations made upon Plants, by
Dr. Molyneux, physician to the State in Ireland: the first Essay of this kind
in the Kingdom of Ireland: auctore Caleb Threlkeld, M. D.—Est quiddam
prodire tenus, si non datur ultra:” small 8vo. Dublin, 1727. Dr. T. describes
five hundred and thirty-five species alphabetically arranged according to
their Latin names, unaccompanied by a regular paging. The appendix is
paged, and has the sub-title “Plants growing in Ireland not yet described,” with
the prefatory note—“ there are more kinds of marsh and aquatic plants in
Ireland, as also mosses, mushrooms and such imperfect plants, than there
are in England, and in far greater plenty.” Eighty-eight articles are inserted
in this list, and it is interspersed with a variety of important and curious ob-
servations. Those on the Henbane, Winter-Barley, and Wood-Sorrel, de-
serve attention. Dr. T. affirms that “ what some have suggested, that the
Elm is a foreigner in England, and that it is not found northward of Gran-
tham, is trifling and false; for, near the small river of Croglin in Cumber-
land, from the place where it disembogues itself into the Eden, up to the
very Fells, I have seen the Elm grow, some of which are large trees, without
any art or culture, and I dare say were never planted by man; it grows often
so ips the river that the boys could come at its bare roots to peel off the
bark.”

The Literary Beauty of the Bible, a Lecture delivered in the Lite-
rary and Scientific Institution at Staines, Tuesday, November
7th, 1837, being the commencement of its fourth season ; by the
Rev. Robert Jones, D. D., Vicar of Bedfont, and Vice-President
of the Institution ; 8vo. London, 1837; pp. 36.

Dr. Jones makes the title-page of his printed Lecture announce
the time and place of its delivery : its object is explained in his in-
troductory observations. He commences thus—

“It is the object of this lecture, to solicit for the Sacred Scriptures a
ee at least—if not the highest rank—in literary pursuits. The Bible has

itherto been considered too much in a single view—too distinct from liberal
enquiries. But, is it instruction only in doctrine and in morals that can be
found there? Surely, it merits a larger and more dignified treatment. May
it not rank with literature, science, and the arts? May it not extend its
empire from the heart to the understanding,” in other words, from the af-
fections to the intellect, “and assist in furnishing and embellishing the mind
with those powers and graces which crown the philosopher and the scholar ?
It is for superstition to take refuge in wonders and tradition, or to seek the
aid of arms; rather to constrain than persuade. It is for pagan idolatry,
conscious of fraud and imposture, to bow down in silence at the feet of sci-
ence and learning. But Revelation fears no comparison, and shrinks from
no tests. As it is the beacon of our immortal hope, and the example of our
daily conduct, let it be also the grand basis of our intellectual taste—the rich
treasury to us, of all that is beautiful.”

Instead of wandering into generalities, Dr. Jones marks out, with
much clearness and accuracy, the grounds on which these claims
are founded. For this purpose, he arranges his Enquiry under the

298 CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

three heads—Sentiment, Diction and Style, and Regularity of Plan
—and, in adopting this division, he follows the canons of sound
criticism, as being applicable to every work possessing any preten-
sions to the name of literature.

I. Sentiment.—Under this term, according to Dr. Jones, may be
comprehended the principles and opinions of an intelligent being,
respecting himself and others. Such sentiment abounds in the
wisest and most learned works of all ages and countries ; but, how-
ever recommended by novelty, excellence or beauty, it cannot have
that weight which the sentiments expressed in the Holy Volume
so justly and so imperatively claim. The reasons of this superio-—
rity are obvious,—the veracity on which human sentiments are
rested, and the sanctions by which they are enforced, are infinitely
inferior ; they cannot have the infallibility which pertains exclu-
sively to the Word of God. Mankind, therefore, are constrained to
pay immediate and implicit obedience to Scriptural sentiment, be-
cause it emanates from wisdom that is perfect and never errs.

Dr. Jones evinces with many apt and conclusive illustrations—
that, for its exquisite adaptations to expand the mind, refine the
taste, improve the understanding and judgment, beautify the life,
purify and exalt the nature of man, the Scriptural Sentiment is
supremely excellent, in all respects, over the highest and best in-
stances of pathos or sublimity to be found in the stores of polite
literature. He concludes this first branch of his lecture, with the
observations ;

“ T conceive that this review of Scripture Morality comes within the legi-
timate range of my subject. If that which is pure and becoming in senti-
ment runs, like a-golden thread through the philosophy of an Aristotle, or a
Cicero, with what a more heavenly grace and dignity are the ethics of the
Gospel clad. Classic philosophy may tell us to worship God, but Christia-
nity adds—‘ in spirit and in truth” If that would enjoiti us to love our neigh-
bour, how is the precept spiritualized and ennobled by the gospel-rule—‘ to
do good to them who hate us and despitefully use us.” Let us suppose ourselves
the auditors of the Sermon on the Mount, that practical summary of uni-
versal motive and duty. It furnishes, not merely an outward shew of good-
ness, often assumed from a sheer regard to respectability, but it tries the
very thoughts and the conscience. With what sublime simplicity, with what
homely allusions yet winning eloquence, with what an evident and ardent
concern for man, are its precepts addressed. The instances of the true sub-
lime and beautiful are not prized by us as they deserve to be; but were those
adduced now for the first time disclosed, I should have little trouble in the
enforcement of my thesis—The Literary Beauty of the Holy Scriptures.”

II. Diction and Style-—Dr. Jones manifests a vigorous activity of
the faculty of language and its organ, while descanting on the ex-
cellency of biblical diction, and shewing this by reference and illus-
tration. His transition from sentiment to style comes in these
words ;

“ The very spirit of literary beauty depends so mainly upon the external
form and dress of language, that words become things. So intimate and har-
monious is the bond, that the very strength and beauty of the thought con-

CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 299

br hy arise from the mode of expression. The difficult, secret and happy
effect of style consists in adapting the expression to the exact sentiment or
sense intended to be understood. Herein centres the highest merit in speak-
ing or writing—‘ to describe humble things with delicacy ; great things with
gravity; and such things as are alike removed from both, with equability and
ease.’ The Holy Scriptures are a wide and fertile field, in which all this
variety may be found; and where else are they treated so strictly and so
beautifully, in obedience to this rule? If the minutiz of the Jewish law
solicit our attention, they are related in a familiar Mire and yet without the
least approach to coarseness: but, if the subject be lofty, with what thrilling
solemnity is its diction clothed: and, if a plain history of facts demands our
attention, perspicuity of statement and artless eloquence invest the narra-
tion with an identity which no embellishment can command: vividly and
graphically it comes before our view. The Scripture diction, moreover, is
graced and diversified with remarkable peculiarities of style. If we select
the great Apostle of the Gentiles; in his epistles, are united the concise and
the beautiful: they are distinguished by a condensed and energetic expression,
by a short but most impressive turn of sentence, wherein there is no dryness,
or wearying sameness. St. Paul’s style of writing is every way worthy of
the greatness and diversity of his subject. At times, he seems to combine
the separate excellencies of all the other sacred writers—the majesty of
Isaiah, the devotion of David, the pathos of Jeremiah, the vehemence of E:ze-
kiel, the sublimity of St. John, the noble energy of St. Peter. Unambitious
of ornament, his style is as varied as his discursions. He is, by turns, vehe-
ment and tender, didactive and impassioned: now, pursuing his argument
with logical precision, and then disdaining the rules of which he was so com-
plete a master—thus making his noble neglect more impressive and convinc-
ing than the most elaborate elocution. In his diction, the mass of thought,
the mournful yet touching examples, the deep feeling, the holy melody of
the language, breathe the very loftiness and fortitude they would inspire.
Nothing can be more illustrative, and yet apposite, than his allusions
and metaphors: he enforces on the Hebrews the doctrine of salvation
through Christ, by a reference to the rites, ceremonies and economy of the
Jewish dispensation. To the inhabitants of Achaia, how apt and beautiful
is his illustration and how impressive is his moral when alluding to the ab-
stinence required by competitors in the Isthmian games, he gives it a spirit-
ual comment by insisting on the subjugation of unruly passions in the
Christian combatant. The close of his analogy is eminently apposite and

’ new, when he compares the value and duration of the frail and fading gar-

land worn by the victorious Greek, with the incorruptible crown of the Chris-
tian conqueror. There is scarcely a beauty in style or expression with
which Scripture diction is not enriched. With the most precise and logical
brevity, it sometimes appeals to the judgment ; again, it rises in dignity,
and arrayed with all the gorgeous plenitude of imagery, it wins the fancy.
While, in its didactic precepts, it stoops to the humblest mind, it delights
and rewards the most cultivated taste, not merely of a Christian taught and
schooled to admire and magnify what it loves and prizes, but the taste even
ofa pagan—and yet more, the taste of an infidel. Even the unbelieving
Rousseau confesses that Socrates, the beloved idol of his insane devotion,
fades into insignificance and nothingness, before the awful dignity, the
matchless purity, the love, the charity, the humility, the holiness, the god-
head of Jesus Christ. The fine imagination of this gifted writer was fixed
with the Sublime of Christianity. And herein are exemplified its power and
attractiveness; here is the influence of the Scripture style, arranged with
all the grandeur of truth, the magnificence of reality. There is nothing so
likely to win the heart as the dinlcaige of stupendous veracities; it needs,
it employs no embellishment. Coarseness or want of taste has no affinity
with piety: there is a severity, a solemnity, more subduing than wordy elo-
quence.”

VOL. VII., NO. XXII. QQ

300 CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

If. Regularity of Plan.—This last division of Dr. Jones’s lec
ture is opened with some general remarks on the advantages of or-
der and system in composition. Evidently expressing intuitive ex-
perience, he observes :—

“Though method and arrangement may be the more retired and secret
fund of literary beauty, and known as well as prized by those whose large
comprehension enables them to take wide and therefore accurate views, still
order is ever pleasing, even to the humblest minds that cannot comprehend
its symmetry and its rules. At the same time, the highest because the most
intellectual pleasure does await him who can discover and value the various
well-apportioned and adjusted sections of a system or a treatise, and observe
with what adaptation and evidence each part conspires to develope, illustrate
and confirm the main whole. Hence we find the admiration of critics, both
ancient and modern, warmed indeed by the sentiment and diction of Homer,
yet stimulated to a degree of enthusiastic admiration when their attention is
turned to the identity of character, the consistent plan, the transparent me-
thod to be found in his two immortal poems. If plan and arrangement, the
offspring of mere human talent, be attended with such a power, what may
we not expect from the Divine mind? Let us therefore inquire, if this
source also of literary beauty and delight is not to be found in the Hol
Scriptures, which contain a mine of wisdom and of mercy ; and, the further
and deeper the search, the richer and more abundant -is the reward. Can
there then be any subject better qualified at once to satisfy and sanctify in-
quiry, than to trace out the mighty and mysterious clue of the Divine eco-
nomy ?”

With this most interesting inquiry Dr. Jones completes the last
head of his lecture ; and, like the rest, this abounds with observa-
tions well-calculated to secure the respect and improvement of the
simple and the wise, of the unlearned and of them who excel in
knowledge. Thus, he says :—

“ We shall find the Bible to be the work of one Divine author, with its
great and ultimate design carried on, through different dispensations, but
still through human agencies and national events. That design commences
with the beginning of time, and ends when time shall be no more. Natu-
rally therefore, may we look for that unity of intention and specific purpose,
which as the unerring proof of high intellect among men cannot but be ex-
pected in the perfect councils and word of God. What then do we absolutely
find? We find, in the writings of Moses, that after a short but most im-
pressive detail of Adam’s primitive happiness and of his fall from that state
of bliss and purity, the grand, the gracious object of all the succeeding deal-
ings of God with man, is at once proposed—the promise of pardon to fallen
man and his restoration to his Creator’s favour. This, as the well-spring of
life immortal, diffuses its healing streams through every page of the sacred
volume: it hallows all its precepts, and evangelizes all its prophecies. Still,
human means and agencies were called forth, under the divine guidance.
The first step taken to accomplish this glorious end, was the selection of the
Jews from the midst of an idolatrous and pagan world, sunk in vice and ig-
norance. Laws were ordained, and services appointed to preserve this people
a peculiar and chosen race. The rites and ceremonies enjoined, had at once
the effect of signifying better promises to come, while their observance kept
up a civil and national distinction—a total identity. If again, we look to the
prophecies, we shall see the designs of divine mercy gradually and more
clearly developing, growing stronger and more explicit, on the approach of
that glorious event which they predicted. If we carry the mind further, and

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CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 301

contemplate the actual advent of Him, ‘ the Desire of all Nations,’ with awe
and admiration, we shall behold the means verified and lost in the fulfilment;
prophecy completed ; the shadow vanishing before the substance; the time,
the place, the character of the Messias distinctly marked; the page of the
Old Testament visibly and literally fulfilled in the New; the attestation of
miracles ; the calling in of the Gentiles; the out-pouring of the Holy Spirit ;
and the triumphant spread of the Gospel. Each and all of these circum-
stances contribute to prove the connexion, the harmony, the wisdom of de-
sign, and regularity of plan, which evince a wholeness, a oneness in the Holy
Scriptures. Thus has my purpose been accomplished, in establishing the
Literary Beauty of the Bible. Its two Testaments unite harmoniously to
form one grand Epic; they concur in one transcendent uniform view; and
come equally from the same divine intelligence. The Sentiment accordingly
is of such wisdom and purity, the Diction is so varied and well-suited, the
Plan so consistently conducted, and the Object so glorious and momentous in
its fulfilment, that they cannot but be prized by every mind alive to lite-
rary perfection. Yet this is not the only excellence or the best fruit of
sacred studies. ‘Taste and beauty do not here, as on other subjects, merely
satisfy the judgment, soften the manners and delight the imagination: here
it is, that the heart is led captive to virtue, the weightiest motives are sup-
plied, the life is made holy, the hope becomes immortal, the elegances of
literature and the graces of religion go hand in hand, the man of science is no
longer deceived by ‘ philosophy falsely so called,’ and the scholar is completed
in the Christian.”

With a most praise-worthy discretion, Dr. Jones has carefully
and successfully, throughout his eloquent and persuasive Lecture,
avoided the discussion of an exclusively theological subject ; he has
imeddled with no sect; he has touched upon no doctrines except
those which constitute the foundations of general christianity. In
his own words—

;
“ He has led you to the Scriptures, as unto a fount of pure and livin
water, to cheer and recruit you in your pilgrimage through this weary wont
Our courage does become holier, and our intellects do become brighter from
a daily study of the divine page. O, he fervently exclaims, “ it is a paltry
earth-born ambition which urges us on if, in Literary and Scientific Institu-
tions, we seem ashamed of naming the name of God and of tracing up to one
sole good and perfect Cause, the wonders, the mercies and the wisdom, cling-
ing and clustering around our path, at every fresh step into the phenomena
of Nature. Let us hurl back, with holy denial, the imputation—that this
Institution must, in time, become a school of infidelity ; that literature and
science infallibly deaden the mind to sacred studies and the life to pious
deeds and gentle charities. Let us then, in refutation of the charge, make
Christianity the basis of all our endeavours to diffuse mental illumination.
Knowledge, without religion, is power; but it is power which may be, and
too often has been, employed banefully and ruinously. Let us remember,
and justify, and courageously avow our Conviction, that ‘ righteousness ex-
alteth a nation,’ and that ‘ the fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom.’
We are not afraid of facts, or the science which developes them; but we do
resist and deprecate every unfair treatment of Holy Writ. Be as scientific
as you please, but leave Scripture to its own evidence. Christianity is the
Queen of Knowledge, the nursing-mother of all that is great and good.
Wherever the Gospel, in its purity, is realized, there do learning, science
and the arts take root and flourish.” Let us not deify reason, for our idol will
not avail us. Was a motto to be placed over this rostrum, I should choose,
Fear Gop anp Honour tHE QueEen.—On the subject of Popular Enlight-
enment, I am perfectly convinced that it is easily and delightfully practicable,

302 CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

to be most true and faithful to the Church of England, and yet to be the
zealous Champion of an outspread of knowledge, fenced and sanctified by re-
ligion, through the length and the breadth of the united kingdom.”

There is not—assuredly there is not—a liberal heart within the
limits of our own beloved Island, that will not respond with gener-
ous acclamation to the wise and philanthropic principles so earnestly
as well as happily advocated in Dr. Jones’ Lecture; and, at the
same time, that will not offer up the most devout aspirations
to the Supreme Source of all true knowledge and happiness, for
increasing prosperity to the Staines’ Institution, with the highest
reward of philanthropy to its devoted and venerable Vice-president.

The Spirit of the Woods, illustrated by coloured engravings. By
the author of The Moral of Flowers. 1 vol. 8vo. London,
1837.

“ With gentle hand,
Touch—for there is a spirit in the woods.”

Sucu is the advice of Wordsworth, which assuredly we will
follow ; not only because the work is the production of a lady, and
therefore deserves to be handled gently, but because it is executed
in a style to disarm the most ungallant critic who recognizes no sex
in a printed volume. Yet we cau scarcely understand how this can
be ; for cold must be the heart, and dull the eye, that feels not, sees
not, at a first glance, and on the perusal of a single page, that we
are indebted for this most elegant volume to the soft pencil and finer
pen of a lady. How great is our privilege to be allowed to walk
through the forest glades in company with one so deeply skilled
in

“that language
Which flowers can speak—
Each hue a word, each leaf a thought”—

To which utterance is given in divers comments on the form, foli-
age, and effect, as regards the picturesque, the beautiful, and the
sublime, of each tree we may encounter ; the whole summed up in
verse, tuned to the music of a thankful heart. And thus the
strains which the children of the forest are made to breathe are
more grateful to a rational spirit than when ancient poets spoke
the language of the fabled dryads. With such an instructive guide
would we wish to traverse field and holt, either

“in the youthful hour
Of spring, when every little flower
Its timid eye was closing ;”
or
“when the stormy winds of winter
rouse

——— ee

———

CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 303

The wide old wood from his majestic rest,
Summoning from the innumerable boughs
The strange deep melodies that haunt his breast.”

Without further preface, we will introduce the fair writer to our
readers, in the following just remarks on trees in general :—

“« Trees are full of moral associations, regarded under which impression,
they possess even ‘something than beauty dearer.’ Many of them are rich
in historic interest, and chronicle events of national importance; others con-
fine themselves to a more limited range of observation, and recalling the
memory of some renowned individual, fead us beneath their shade to ‘ hold
converse with the mighty dead.’ But where this pecular charm is wanting,
imagination bodies forth scenes and stories of its own creating, and ‘ gives
to airy nothing a local habitation anda name,’ An aged tree points to the
past—a sapling to the future; and whilst the mind is exercised in these
remote contemplations, we feel the force of Dr. Johnson’s well-known ob-
servation :—‘ Whatever withdraws us from the power of our senses—what-
ever makes the past, the distant, or the future predominate over the present
—advances us in the dignity of thinking beings.”

In working out her plan, she has freely levied contributions from
other writers on trees, and assimilated many choice allusions of the
poets to the subject under treatment. Something is, in this way,
provided to suit every taste. Ample as are these quotations and
the legends which they sometimes introduce, we could have wished,
when speaking of the Aspen and the superstitions indulged in by
rude nations as to the origin of its perpetual motion, she had no-
ticed that prevalent in the north of Europe, viz., when Christ en-
tered Jerusalem amid hosannas, every tree bowed its head but the
stately and haughty poplar, which was, therefore, condemned to
shake and tremble till the second coming of its Lord. This super-
stition has been adopted in a poem by Aehlenslager, which was ably
translated in The Foreign Literary Review several years ago.

However willing we may be to indulge in extended quotation,
our limits compel us to take the following on the Scotch Fir, not
for its superiority over other passages, but for its shortness :—

But a higher and more honourable distinction belongs to the tribe in the
frequent attains made to it in Holy Writ; the Fir, along with the Cedar,
was used for the planks and beams in the erection of the glorious temple of
Solomon. And in many passages it is also associated with that noble tree in
conveying images of prosperity and sublimity. From the sonorous quality
of its wood, it is chosen, almost before any other, for musical instruments.
Even in the early ages its adaptation to such uses was recognized ; for we read
when David brought up the ark from the house of Abinadab, he ‘ and all the
house of Israel played betané the Lord on all manner of instruments made
of Fir-wood; even on harps, and on psalteries, and on timbrels, and on cor-
nets, and on cymbals.’ It is still used in our days for similar purposes; and
in a fanciful view, there is a strange but beautiful anomaly in this braver of
_ tempest administering to the devotional and tender emotions of the
neart.”

“ Thy throne a rock! thy canopy the skies!
And, circled in the mountain’s dark embrace,

304 CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

’Mid what stern pomp thy towering branches rise !
How wild—how lonely—is thy dwelling place !
In the rich mead a God of love we trace,
We feel His bounty in the sun and shower ;
But here His milder glories shun our gaze,
Lost in the one dread attribute of power.
I cannot chuse but wish thou hadst a fairer bower.

** Yet, to the scene, thy stately form doth give
Appropriate grace; and in thy mountain hold,
Like flowers with zephyrs, ‘at the shut of eve,’
Thou with the storm hast dallied from of old.
But stateliness of form and bearing bold
Are not thy only boast: there dwells in thee
A soft, sweet spell (if we be rightly told),
Which waiteth but the touch of harmony,

To soothe the brow of care, and make e’en sorrow flee.

“ Thus be’t with me! When storms of trouble rise—
Which all of woman born, alas! must know—
Built on a rock, and looking to the skies,
Like thee, undaunted may I meet the blow.
Not so when called to hear of others’ woe :
Then may soft pity touch some chord within,
Prompting the tear of sympathy to flow,
And words ofthealing, such as gently win
The mourner’s stricken heart, and pour soft comfort in.

The volume, which, in its outward embellishments, displays great
taste, contains twenty-six coloured engravings of trees, from draw-
ings by the accomplished authoress. Of these it is but justice to
say that the outline of the foliage is most strikingly correct. Re-
luctant as we are to

“ Hint a fault, or hesitate dislike,”

we cannot speak in the same unqualified terms of the colouring,
since we have heard those to whose judgment we must bow in this
point question its truthfulness. This fault, however, lies not with
the authoress, and is easy of correction in the future copies and edi-
tions.

On the Natural History and Classification of Birds. By William
Swainson, A.C.G., F.R.S., F.L.S., &c. Vol. Il. London:
Longman & Co., and John Taylor. 1837.

Arter the critical notices which we have from time to time
given of Mr. Swainson’s works, and considering the long acknow-
ledged ability of that gentleman as a scientific zoologist, we shall,
on the present occasion, confine ourselves to a few words ; indeed, a
considerable portion of the volume scarcely admits of analysis.

The early part of the book is dedicated to a continuation of the
explanation of the orders and other larger groups of modern Orni-

CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 305

thology, the Dentirostres, Rasores, Grallatores, and WNatatores,
being respectively and fully treated of in the most satisfactory man-
ner. That a reviewer should coincide in all the views of his author
is a thing not to be expected ; we, accordingly, taking advantage of
the undisputed privilege of our craft, had marked several passages
whereon to comment. But the faults—if such they be—to which
we allude are of minor importance.

The volume concludes with the characters of the various genera,
briefly and concisely written. The illustrative wood-cuts are fre-
quently less accurate than we could wish. Although they might
** pass muster” with the generality of readers, they are, in many in-
stances, not executed with that attention to minute particulars so
desirable in a scientific work, and one intended to be standard.
There are, likewise, several typographical errors, some of considera-
ble importance.

On the whole we consider this volume by no means inferior in
-value to its predecessors. We will conclude by recommending that
a little wholesome admonition be given to the engraver and to the
*¢ printer’s devil,” and by observing that our author’s descriptions of
new species will appear in a future volume of his admirable series.

A Lecture on Education, delivered in the Freemasons’ Hall, at
the Opening of the Second Session of the Edinburgh Association
of the Working Classes, for their Social, Intellectual and Moral
Improvement; Monday 16th October, 1837; by W. B. Hodgson;
8vo. Edinburgh, 1837 ; pp. 48.

Mr. W. Lectures with becoming dignity ; his manner is very seri-
ous; his enunciations quite didactic; his logic not distinctly antiquated,
being a‘sort of liberal induction. He takes permission, at page 6,
“ to assume—that education ought to aim at attaining the objects of
existence, and that the objects of existence are the enjoyment and
diffusion of happiness ;’ and, at p. 13, he lays down “ the great prin-
ciple—that no system of education is complete, which fails to commu-
nicate a connected view of science, that is, of the nature of man, and
the objects with which he is surrounded in this world.” At p. 14,
he repeats his opinion, previously expressed regarding “ the inefficacy
of moral and religious training through the medium of the memory :”
he had said at p. 7, “ if we wish to excite the moral sentiments, we
must not commit moral, principles to memory, for these exercise
merely the intellect which retain them, and leave the heart untouched ;
we must furnish them with their corresponding objects.” On the
same page he affirms that “ mind consists of a number of various
powers,” and he views it as composed of the Propensities, Moral
Sentiments, the Immaginate Powers, and the Intellectual Faculties :
all these,” he adds, “ must be comprehended in every perfect system
of education.” So say we explicitly ; but we blame the lecturer for
inconsistency in that he discourages education of the very highest

306 CRITICAL NOTICES OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

“ moral sentiments,” in that he abstains from making education in
religion—in Revealed Religion—the foundation and paramount prin-
ciple of his “ perfect system.” é

He professes the phrenological philosophy: and this maintains
the doctrine that the “ Supremacy of the Moral Sentiments,” in all
mental exercise and government, is a distinct and eternal institution
of the Supreme Creator. Now, the most exalted, from their being
the most responsible, of all the “‘ moral sentiments”—of all the men-
tal faculties—are those which dispose man to worship a deity, to do
justice, to practice mercy, and to hope for immortality. Wherefore,
instructed by Phrenology, we do affirm, and are fully prepared to
shew, that no system of education can be a “ perfect system,” un-
less it includes a predominant and special provision for educating
the innate “ moral sentiments,” which. intuitively and naturally
dispose Man to be a religious Being, desirous of being led, through
virtue, to the reception of everlasting happiness.

FINE ARTS.

MUSIC.—VOCAL.

A Funeral Anthem on the Death of the late Charles Wesley. By
Samuel Wesley. London: J. A. Novello, 69, Dean-street,
Soho.

WE have yet to discover the proofs of Samuel Wesley’s greatness
as acomposer. From what we have already seen of his works, we
suspect that his pretensions have been greatly exaggerated by a cer-
tain party in this country, that through the trumpet-blasts of this
party he has, in the present day, acquired a celebrity which pos-
terity, far from raising, will considerably lower ; and that, what-
ever may have been his merits as a performer on the organ, or even
as a sound musician, he will never take his stand amongst the mas-
ter-minds who have advanced the art by the invention of a new
style, and by bringing new and untried resources to bear upon the
latent emotions of the soul. His temporary celebrity we attribute
rather to the exceeding dearth of talent among his contemporaries
in this country than to any intrinsic greatness of mind ; rather to
the force of favourable circumstances, than to the possession of that
power which controuls and overcomes the most adverse. An ordi-
nary mortal, he lived amid a race of Lilliputians; what wonder,
then, that these should regard him as the great “ man mountain”

ess

ere

FINE ARTS. 307

capable of performing wonders and (to them) impossibilities? It is
this comparison with a low, an exceedingly low standard, that, for
more than a century, has been the bane, as it has been the pride, of
English musicians. They have rarely looked beyond their own li-
mited sphere, rarely enlarged their minds by an extended survey of
what was going on in other lands, and of the discoveries which were
every day being made by those who infinitely surpassed them in
research as well as in native power. To this unfortunate and nar-
row-minded tendency must we, in great measure, look for an expla-
nation of the inferiority of our composers, since the time of Purcell,
as compared with the bright luminaries who so thickly bestudded
the musical firmament of our continental neighbours. The time
was, indeed, when the works produced by our countrymen, instead
of suffering by a comparison with those of the continent, received
rather additional lustre from the juxtaposition. Witness, amongst
others, the names of Tye, Tallis, Bird, Orlando Gibbons, and
Henry Purcell, whose works, unfaded by time, still live, and ever
will live, to attest their greatness, and to bear witness that in Mu-
sic, as in other things, England may lift up her head amid her
proudest rivals without a blush. We hope to see the time when
she will again assert her equality, if not her superiority, and regain
with honour the position she once so nobly held. The power, we
doubt not, is present, and, once more directed into the proper chan-
nels, will manifest itself the more conspicuously from its temporary
misdirection and inefficiency.

Of the anthem at the head of the present article but little need
be said. It isthe commonplace production of-a commonplace mind ;
enlivened by no single spark of genius, it drags its weary length
along ; as it begins so it ends, in solemn unmitigated dullness. The
only wonderful point about it is the ingenuity with which so many
notes are strung together to so lamentably little purpose, and the
extreme dexterity with which all feeling, all enthusiasm, is banish-
ed, in order to preserve the whole in unmeaning uniformity and
frigid inanity.

INSTRUMENTAL.

Chefs d Euvres de Mozart, a new and correct edition of the piano-
forte works (with and without accompaniments) of this celebrated
composer. Edited by Cipriani Potter. Nos. 2, 3, 12, 13, and
14. London: Coventry and Hollier, 71, Dean-street, Soho.

Tue republication of classical music by some of the first houses,
and edited by eminent musicians, is a sign of the times which augurs
well for the prospects of art in this country. The assertion that
the English feel no enthusiasm for music, is contrary to fact : wit-
ness the time and money expended in the pursuit. But their efforts
are too often wasted on trifles intrinsically incapable of yielding an
adequate return of pleasure. It is a fallacy to regard bad taste as

VOL. VII., NO. XXII. RR

308 FINE ARTS.

something inherent in an individual, as forming a part of his na-
ture; it were more correct to consider it as that partial and imper-
fect cultivation of the mental powers which is the necessary conse-
quence of employing them upon the mean, the frivolous, and the
insignificant. Men naturally take as their standard of excellence
those productions of art with which they are acquainted ; and, if
informed of higher efforts, believe the evidence of their own senses
in preference to the report of others. Hence, to lay before the pub-
lic really good music is more conducive to the improvement of their
taste than the most eloquent declamation. It were unreasonable,
indeed, to expect that a solitary specimen of sublimity or beauty
should suffice to counteract long-established usage and firmly-rooted
tastes ; but we have too much confidence in the powers of genius to
doubt its capability of overcoming dulness, provided a fair field be
allowed for the fight. Were it made the rule, instead of the ex-
ception, to place before the pupil classical music, as soon as she has
acquired (by means of exercises) execution sufficient to prevent me-
chanical difficulties from interfering with the requisite attention to
the meaning of the piece, then would bad taste become powerless by
being confined to the few whose intellectual powers are unequal to
the perception of beauty. And when we consider that the greatest
masters, from the time of Sebastian Bach to the present day, have
composed for the instrument most commonly learnt by amateurs,
it seems, at first sight, incomprehensible that the majority should
have neglected works akin to inspiration, and devoted themselves to
the worship of mediocrity and commonplace. With the causes
which have induced the preference of fourth and fifth-rate writers
to those powerful minds who seem to have grasped the whole range
of art, we have at present no concern. Suffice it that Bach, Han-
del, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and Weber, who all attained their
fame in the higher walks of the art, have condescended to write
for that miniature orchestra, the piano-forte. So all-pervading, too,
was their genius that their piano-forte works alone would have suf-

ficed to rank them as the most inventive and original of com-'

posers.

Truly delightful, then, is it to find that Mozart, whom Dr.
Crotch has justly termed the greatest of modern composers, has now
a fair chance of receiving his due share of admiration from that nu-
merous class, the piano-forte players of this country. It would
seem that in England no composer can become generally known
who does not favour us with his bodily presence. On other grounds
it would be difficult to account for the neglect of Bach, Leo, Graun,
&e., among church composers, and of Mozart as an instrumental
writer. Had not his premature death prevented the fulfilment of
his engagement to Salomon, his admirable flights of fancy would
have been found on every piano. While, however, his cotempora-
ries, Dussek, Clementi, Steibelt, Pleyel, and Woelfl, all immeasura-
bly his inferiors in creative power, though each possessing some ex~
cellence peculiar to himself, attained, during their respective life-

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FINE ARTS, 309

times, to the zenith of their popularity, the claims of Mozart as the
originator of a new style for the piano-forte were totally neg-
lected.

That Mozart was the true founder of modern piano-forte music
will hardly be doubted by those acquainted with his works for that
instrument, as well as with those of his predecessors and cotempo-
raries. Haydn’s adagios might be taken for songs divested of their
words, and his allegros partake largely’ of the character of his pre-
decessors. He was no performer himself, and his sonatas exercised
little more influence over the style of writing for the instrument
than if they had been only adaptations from the orchestra. With
regard to Clementi, who has been styled “ the father of modern pi-
ano-forte music,” a reference to dates will show that, at the time
when he was yet a mere performer, Mozart had delighted the Ger-
man public as well with the richness and novelty of his ideas as by
the brilliancy of his execution. When Clementi came to England
he was well acquainted with the compositions of Mozart, with
whom he had often played in public. But if Jittle direct benefit
was derived from Mozart’s piano-forte works, much was gained in-
directly by their influence on those of other composers. Cramer,
whom the English have long looked up to as the head of the true
piano-forte school, adopted the great German as his model. We
confess we are not of those who delight in setting up forms and
modes in array against each other. We care not for the style, the
manner, or the form, so long as genius, idea, or mind, is present ;
and if the eloquence of Mozart’s soul-absorbing phrases cannot rea-
son piano-forte players into the same way of thinking, then, in-
deed, may we despair of their taste. We despise while we pity the
affected exclamation of the fashionable world, that Mozart is passé ;
and they need hardly be offended if we declare that with minds like
his they never have felt sympathy. Fifty years ago they delighted
in Pucitta and Von Esch; let them now applaud Herz and Doni-
zetti.

To the daily increasing number of art’s lovers we must, notwith-
standing the brevity of our space, say a few words on the charac-
teristics of Mozart’s writings for the piano-forte. To the trite ob-
servation that “melody is the soul of music” we fully subscribe,
although we feel inclined to differ from many who make the asser-
tion as to what shall properly be called melody. Assuredly not the
threadbare motivi of most modern composers, which owe their slen-
der attractions to the jingling consonances afforded by the funda-
mental bass. Would you learn what melody is, ask of any great
master, of Sebastian Bach, of Handel, of Mozart, of Beethoven ;
they will give you a better idea than any critical definition is capa-
ble of imparting. Suffer not yourselves to be misled by the notion
that the ancient masters cultivated harmony at the expense of me-
lody : such is the shallow conceit of those who, being incapable of
comprehending their thoughts, endeavour to fasten on the composer
the blame in reality attached to themselves. The florid counter-

310 FINE ARTS.

point of the ecclesiastical composers is rich in melodies simultane-
ously progressing and leading to one common end ; it has been re-
served for modern times to produce graceful melodies which the ac-
companiment only serves to sustain and relieve. It is the combina-
tion of the two styles which constitutes the charm of Mozart’s writ-
ing. He begins with a theme accompanied with the simplest har-
monies, but his fertile fancy soon suggests other melodies fascinating
as the first, with which they are artfully interwoven, and which
lead him naturally and gracefully into the most distant keys. Now
they are bedecked with all the luxuriance of modern ornament ;
now subside into choral-like gravity. Does any one thought seem
to usurp precedence, others speedily assert their claim to admiration.
Above all, whether he revels in chromatic intricacy, whether his
mood be’ plaintive or joyous, he is ever easy, natural, and uncon-
strained. Every note bears the impress of flowing from the heart ;
nothing is laboured, nothing constrained.

Of the compositions before us, beautiful as they all are, our space
only permits us to notice three. No. 2 in Bb consists of a largo, an
allegro and andante, and an allegretto, each excellent in their way ;
but the andante, with its mysterious modulations, is our favourite :
the violin part (obligato) is admirable, and within the compass of a
moderate performer. We know of no greater inducement for ama-
teurs to cultivate this wonderful instrument than the enjoyment
which, in domestic performance, they may give and receive by con-
tributing their share to the production of these charming composi-
tions. No. 3 is a fantasia and sonata, both in C minor, and in the
sombre and plaintive style peculiar to their author. Familiar as we
have long been with these compositions, every successive perusal
developes new beauties. No. 14, a rondo in A, is a complete no-
velty to us; it is not to be found in our foreign edition (Simrock,
at Bonn), and we believe it has never before been published.
Sparkling, gay, and brilliant, it forms a striking contrast to the
work just noticed, and serves still farther to illustrate the extraor-
dinary versatility of the composer. ‘The mechanical difficulties
which it contains will easily be surmounted by any one who has
played Cramer’s studio.

We must now reluctantly conclude our notice, but not, however,
without sincerely thanking the spirited publishers and the talented
arranger for the pleasure they have afforded us. Messrs. Coventry
and Hollier will be immortalised in the annals of musical art, by
having dared to outstrip public opinion in the publication of Sebas-
tian Bach’s sublime organ studies. They have now increased their
claims on our gratitude by presenting to the world, in an elegant
form, the chefs d’ceuvres of one of the greatest of piano-forte com-

posers. That their efforts may be repaid by success, and that these

enchanting works may find a place on every piano and resound in
every drawing-room in the land, must be the sincere wish of all
true friends of music.

FINE ARTS. 311

A Studio for the Organ, exemplified in a series of exercises in the
strict and free styles, intended as voluntaries for the use of orga-
nists. By Samuel Wesley. No. 1. London: D’Almaine &
Co., Soho-square. /

To call that a “studio for the organ” which any one capable of
performing Bach’s works for that instrument could play at first
sight, is, to say the least of it, an amusing piece of self-conceit.
Such, however, is the case with the present Studio, in which, if
there is nothing for even an ordinary performer to study, there is
still less for the scientific musician to admire. An introduction,
consisting of passages exceedingly simple and not very new ; and a
fugue such as any one acquainted with the rules of composition
might produce by the dozen without any remarkable stretch of
thought, and as any one who has got over the first mechanical diffi-
culties could play at sight: such is the composition of the first
number of this studio by the “‘ English Sebastian Bach.” Unless
what is to follow be infinitely more worthy of admiration and of
study, how woefully have the public been deceived by those who
have—we cannot conceive for what reason—endeavoured to raise
the reputation of this composer so greatly above its just level !

Three Romances for the Piano-forte. Composed by William Stern-
dale Bennett.

Three Musical Sketches for the Piano-forte, entitled the Lake, the
Mill-stream, and the Fountain. By the same. London: Co-
ventry & Hollier.

TueEsE are the only works of this young composer that we have
as yet seen, and they make us desire a further acquaintance with
the products of his genius. The character of both is nearly the
same—romantic and tasteful, perhaps even poetical, without any
particular display either of originality or force of thought. Sketches,
as a title, appears to us inappropriate. They are rather highly-po-
lished miniatures, betraying something of labour in their composi-
tion, and hence, perhaps, wanting in that vigour and breadth of
effect which should distinguish the sketches of the master. Mini-
atures or sketches, however, they are pleasing, and at the same time
give promise of higher achievements.

L’art dela Fugue. Par Jean Sebastien Bach. ‘A Paris: chez
Richaut, Boulevard Poissoniere.

WE regret sincerely that it is out of our power to notice an Eng-
lish edition of this unique master-work, but none such, we shame
to say it, exists. Asa practical treatise on the art of fugue it is
worth all the theoretical that ever were written, and contains finer
specimens in this style than have ever been given to the world by
any other composer. We cannot do better than describe it in For-

312 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

kel’s words :— This admirable work did not appear till after the
author’s death in 1752, but was, for the most part, engraved by one
of his sons during his life-time. Marpung, then at the head of the
musical writers in Germany, accompanied this edition with a pre-
face, which contains many just observations on the utility of works
of this kind. This work, however, was too high for the world in
general ; it was forced to withdraw into the narrow circle occupied
by a few connoisseurs. It consists of variations, on a great scale.
The intention of the author was to show clearly what can possibly
be done with the theme of a fugue. The variations are all com-
plete fugues upon the same theme, and are here called counterpoints.
The last but one has three subjects, and in the third the composer
Giscovers his name by Bacu.* This fugue was, however, inter-
rupted by the disorder in the author’s eyes, and, as the operation did
not succeed, was not finished. It is said to have been his intention
to take in the last fugue four themes, to reverse them in all the four
parts, and thus to close his great work. To make up for what is
wanting to the last fugue, there is added to the end of the work the
four-part choral,t Wenn wir in hichster Nothen sind. Of the
art displayed in this choral I will say nothing ; but the expression
of pious resignation and devotion in it has always affected me when
I have played it: and I can hardly say which I would rather miss,
this choral or the end of the last fugue.”

We hope that our notice of this sublime work will induce some
enterprising and patriotic publisher to bring out an edition of it,
and to give English musicians an idea of what a fugue really is in
the hands of a great master.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

ST. JAMES’S ORNITHOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Tux first general meeting of this Society for the present session
was held at the rooms of the Society, 57, Pall Mall ; N. A. Vigors,
Esq. M.P., in the chair. The minutes of the last meeting having
been confirmed, the secretary proceeded to read the report, which
was highly satisfactory and unanimously adopted. On the motion
of Mr. Macleay, seconded by the Rev. John Jennings, Charles

* The note which with the Germans is called H, is the B of English nota-

tion.
+ This choral is omitted in the French edition, and we have never been

so fortunate as to see a copy of it. How much have we yet to learn of this
mighty ruler of tones.

ve ae ee ee ee ee es

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 3138

Lucien Bonaparte, Prince of Musignano, Mons. Temminck, and
John James Audubon, were elected foreign members of the So-
ciety. Mr. Blyth having been called upon-by the chairman, de-
livered a conversational lecture on the uses of certain peculiarities
of structure, and premised his observations with the statement, that,
having recently been engaged in a work on general Ornithology
(now in a forward state), wherein he had disclosed some entirely
new views on the mutual affinities of birds, founded upon the ag-
gregates of their agreements and differences, in anatomical, as well
as in external characters, he had necessarily examined very mi-
nutely the structure of the various types, in doing which he had
observed several curious coincidences not hitherto remarked, which,
in some instances, he thought had led to the solution of interesting
problems in Ornithology. He would commence, however, by call-
ing the attention of naturalists to an interesting particular which
he had now for the first time noticed in the magnificent specimen
of the Snowy Owl before him: he alluded to the presence of
aigrettes, which were indeed so obvious that he was astonished that
they had never previously been remarked. He was gratified, how-
ever, rather than surprised at detecting their presence, for it beau-
tifully corroborated and confirmed the views which he had before
entertained, and often expressed, regarding the systematical position
of its genus. Mr. B. then proceeded to comment on a singularity
of habit, rather than a peculiarity of structure, observed in the
Motmot genus (Prionites), with which all naturalists at all con-
versant with exotic Ornithology are familiar: he alluded to the
unaccountable habit of self-mutilation practised by those birds, or
the nibbling off of a small portion of the vanes of their two long
middle tail-feathers, immediately beyond the extremities of the
next pair, leaving, however, the tips barbed and untouched, as also
the entire remainder of their plumage. Specimens were exhibited
of the bird in moult, wherein the new feathers were entire, and
others displaying more or less of the truncation of the web. Mr.
B. offered an hypothesis in explanation, but pointed out a similarity
of habit noticeable in an Indian group of Magpies—the Dendrocitta
of Mr. Gould—to the discovery of which he was, curiously enough,
led by remarking the resemblance, in general aspect and propor-
tions, of the Motmots to the Cocindeus genus in question. This in-
duced him to examine a specimen of the common Dendrocitta vaga-
bunda, when he found, to his surprise, that, although the unserrated
mandibles of the Pie were inadequate to cut through the web as
was done by the Motmots, yet that the same feathers were so ex-
tremely worn by constant nibbling that they might be read through
with the utmost facility, which was quite impossible in the other
parts of the feather. A specimen was handed round. Mr. Blyth
thought that co-observation of the two genera might possibly lead
eventually to the discovery of the object of so very anomalous a
practice. The protuberance on the beaks of the Hornbill constitut-
ed the next subject of consideration. After briefly describing its

314 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

elevation, and commenting on the singular exception formed by one
species, wherein it attained a medium size, was quite solid, and con-
sequently very weighty, Mr. B. called attention to the presence of
eye-lashes in these birds, which, he stated, though of course analo-
gous in use to those of quadrupeds, yet were different in structure,
being nothing more than barbless feathers, which were developed
and annually moulted like other feathers; and the same, he re-
marked, held true with the rictorial and supra-nasal vibrisse of
birds, as might easily be seen by examining their condition in a
nestling. He affirmed that their presence was of extremely rare
occurrence in the class Aves, existing only (so far as he was aware)
in the Strigidew, and in the Ostrich and Rena, besides two genera of
Insessorial birds, the Buceros (or Hornbill, examples of numerous
species of which were exhibited), and in the Crotophage (or Ani), a
South American and West Indian genus, both of which, he remarked,
possessed a protuberance on the ridge of the upper mandible. Now
it was very clear that the purpose of eye-lashes was to defend the eye
from falling particles of dust, &c.; and the only reason he could dis-
cern, therefore, why these two Insessorial genera should possess the
structure in question, to the exclusion of all others, was that the ros-
tral prominence must be employed for some purpose liable to detach
such particles ; whence he derived the conclusion that the excrescence
was not merely ornamental, as some have supposed, but decidedly
subservient to some definite object in the bird’s economy. What,
however, that use might be, must be left to observation to determine;
and it would require, it was added, rather nice discrimination to dis-
cover what the intent might be of the various modifications of form
which the protuberance underwent in different species. Mr. Blyth
added a few remarks on the geographical distribution of the Horn-
bills, which were restricted to Asia, Africa, and the Oriental Archi-
pelago, to which last-mentioned locality, he asserted, those with a
large protuberance were principally confined; which circumstance
had given rise to an ingenious prima facie suggestion by Mr. Mudie,
in the article Buceros in Partington’s Cyclopedia of Natural His-
tory, to the effect that, subsisting, as the members of this genus do,
to a considerable extent, on fruit, and the luxuriant forests of those
exuberantly fertile islands (the Indian Archipelago) being inter-
tangled in a manner that those of Africa affords no parallel or even
approach to, it might be that the prominence in the bills of these
birds was designed to divide the flexible vegetation for them, so that
they might see and reach those substances on which they feed, which
is nearly the same conclusion to which Mr. B. had arrived on reflec-
tion upon the co-existence of the protuberance with eye-lashes.

Mr. Blyth remarked on the habit reported of the Ani ( Crotopha-
ga), to alight on the backs of cattle, and feed in the manner of the
Buphage, as extremely remarkable as occurring in a genus inhabit-
ing a locality where no large ruminants recently existed until intro-
duced by Europeans. He then proceeded to call attention to the

ee

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 315

gall-tufts of the Heron and Bittern groups, a tuft of unelastic cottony
down, occupying their breast and flanks, the use of which, he be-
lieved, had never been explained, but which was sufficiently apparent
on a little observation of the habits of the group. A Heron, he
stated, might not uncommonly be seen standing, as far as the bare
part of its tibia would allow, in water, and it would often strike at a
passing fish at such a distance that none but those who had witnessed
it could form an adequate conception of ; in doing which the body,
turning forward as upon a pivot, immersed the breast in water,
whence, were the part in question to be bare, as usual in the fea-
thered race, the water would, of course, come extremely cold upon
the bird’s chest ; to prevent which Nature had bountifully provided
it with a structure perfectly impervious to moisture, an example of
which, taken from the breast of a Bittern, was handed round ; and
the lecturer remarked that beneath the skin were situate a number
of peculiar glands, secreting a powdery substance, which was plenti-
fully diffused over the plumage by merely-shaking it, but more es-
pecially on the cottony down, which covered the site of its formation ;
and it was remarked that on rubbing the hand in this down, and then

_ immersing it in water, the latter would roll off without wetting. The

pectinated claw formed the next subject, which was treated of at con-
siderable length, and shown, from actual observation, to be subservi-
ent to two purposes—one direct, the other, as it were, contingent, or
merely arising from the circumstance of its possession. The former
was the cleaning of the corners of the mouth (not vibrisse) from
Beetle claws or fish scales; the latter the cleansing of the plumage,
to which the analogous but merely expanded and somewhat keen edge
of the same claw in numerous other birds was likewise employed in
effecting. The suggestion of Mr. Owen (in Cycl. Anat. Physiol.)
was noticed, supposing that the parasites of those species which were
furnished with pectinated claws might possibly possess superior
powers of adhesion to those which infest other species. This subject
was entered into at considerable detail, as involving a deeply interest-
ing inquiry respecting the mutual relations of the preyer and
the prey, the former of which were stated to be particular, the
latter general. If, remarked Mr. B., we take a comprehensive sur-
vey of both kingdoms of organised nature as they now exist, it is un-
questionably true that the nectar of ‘the flower would appear to be
designed, not only to furnish food for insects (which is, of course, a
secondary and, as it were, contingent object), but primarily for the
purpose of attracting them to settle (to which the glare of the corol-
la, and perhaps perfumery likewise, seem subservient), that by doing
so, and traversing the blossom, they might unconsciously distribute
the fertilizing pollen over the stigma; the benefit, in this instance,
being clearly reciprocal. To advance another grade ; certain other
flowers, which do not absolutely require the assistance specified (as
the Antirrhinum, or Snapdragon), have their blossoms closed against
such extraneous interference ; yet we perceive that Bees are, seem-
VOL. VII., NO, XXII. ae

316 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

- ingly in direct reference to these, provided with the means of cutting
through these tubes. In this instance, therefore, the adaptation is as
obviously not mutual; the structure of the flower displays no refer-
ence to the insect, whereas the insect is, consequently, expressly mo-
dified to rob the flower by violent means. Other instances were then
brought forward, which led to the conclusion that just as we ascend
(in this instance) to more particular cases, the relation of the prey to
the preyer becomes more vague and general, while that of the preyer
continues equally explicit ; till at length we arrive at preyers such as
the Buphaga (or Oxpecker), the entire adaptative structure of which
appears to be expressly designed for clinging firmly to the hides of
ungulate mammalians, while the beak is employed in penetrating to,
and drawing forth, the larve of Ostuda, which infest them.

The parasites of all animals, it was contended, may be regarded,
of course, as preyers ; and consequently, in the degree of their spe-
ciality, the probability increases of their subsequent introduction to
that of the species on which they occur ; and, so far as I can judge
(remarked Mr. B.), we have at present no reason to assume that
species have ever been created in reference to future circumstances,
however exquisitely, to the very utmost minutiz, they unquestionably
were to the actually existent: for most undoubtedly the ever-pro-
gressive changes in the condition of the earth are the appointed
means of bringing about their successive extermination, when a new
state of things having been gradually superinduced, their presence
becomes no longer needed, new races being called into existence to
supply their places, more appropriately adapted. Wherefore it was
deduced, we may justly conclude that no species is provided with ex-
press means of ridding itself of its parasitic annoyances, although in-
struments that it may possess for quite another purpose may be like-
wise employed with that intent, of which the pectinated claws which
had given rise to this course of argument afforded an example. An
amusing speculation of M. Geoffroy St.-Hilaire was then referred to,
on the philosophy of final causes, originating in the circumstance of
a monstrous Calf, furnished with an additional jaw, situate at the
extremity of the under jaw, and the grinders of which occupied its
sides and were directed outwards, employing this anomalous structure
with great dexterity as a cleaning instrument, insomuch that the ex-
hibitors stated that it was provided with a pair of combs, skilfully
combined and marvellously adapted for its use.

Mr. Blyth then launched out into the consideration of such ob-
jections as he supposed might be advanced in opposition to the forego-
ing course of argument, aud particularly one to the effect that the
adherence of Beetle claws and fish scales to the corners of the mouth
was as much a future contingency as the being infested by pa-
rasites ; which objection he did not conceive to be difficult to meet,
as, admitting the axiom that every creature is perfectly adapted for
its appointed mode of life and such contingencies as might be sup-
posed to arise necessarily therefrom, the adaptation would, of course,

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 317

be less perfect than every analogy would lead us to pre-suppose, had
they not the means of guarding against such contingencies ; and as a
specimen of the sort of contingencies which were provided against,
he instanced the beautiful cleaning apparatus of the larve of the
Glow-worm, a creature that subsists on viscid slimy snails.

With regard to Mr.Vigors’s commentary on the use of the aigrettes
of the Owl family, which was precisely that bold sort of generaliza-
tion calculated to advance the science of Ornithology, Mr. B. was not
prepared to acquiesce in that naturalist’s views, and proceeded to point
out some anomalies that led to the inference that aigrettes and ears
had no mutual relation. He stated that a specimen of the Scops
Owl, formerly in his possession, had the aigrettes extremely worn,
even to the shaft, which, of course, led to the supposition that they
were subservient to some use liable to rub them down. He did not,
however, at all comprehend what that use might be. He was not in
the least surprised that the often-repeated statement of the Ani set-
tling on the backs of quadrupeds was erroneous, as comparison of its
adaptive structure with that of of the Buphaga led to the same result.
But as these genera had been appropriated, he would mention one
particular wherein they agreed, which was the extreme rankness of
their flesh, sufficiently perceptible on relaxing their preserved skins,
the aroma arising from which was not only equally disagreeable, but
exactly similar. Mr. B. subsequently remarked that Mr. Vigors’s
views of the purport of the caruncles of the Vultures, and also the
analogous one of Mr. Bell on the facial membrane of the Horseshoe
Bats, did not appear to him to be quite feasible, as he suspected that
the senses of smelling and tasting required in every instance a wet or
lubricated surface. He suggested this, however, with all deference
to the opinion of those naturalists who thought differently.

Mr. Vigors, M.P., having congratulated the Society on the great
accession of talent it had gained, alluded to the interesting obser-
vations which had been made by Mr. Blyth. He rejoiced that such
a Society had been formed, as it would doubtless lead to inquiries
highly interesting to ornithologists. Matters in themselves appa-
rently trifling, had conduced to the illustration of great and impor-
tant results. A hundred times he had found that a research after
minor characters which were calculated to escape the eye of com-
mon observation, carried out truths highly interesting. The clump
of feathers on the head of an Owl, the claw upon their feet, had led
to serious investigations, pointing out the aim and end of the func-
tions thus developed, and shewing their adaptations to the great
objects of their Creator. The aigrette for instance, in the modifica-
tion of the greater number of Owls, and the disk of the eye, are
peculiarities assigned to them to direct them in their nocturnal re-
searches for their prey. He then commented on the peculiar features
of the Toucan and Caprimulgus group, and pointed out the great
analogy that existed between raptorial birds and carnivorous qua-
drupeds. ‘The Vulture preys by its scent, and is furnished with a

318 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

fleshy caruncle, which is subservient to its sense of scenting. The
Falcon secures its prey by sight, and the organ of vision is accord-
ingly powerful ; the Owl by hearing, and that bird is equally re-
markable for the complicated structure of its ear, to which the
aigrette is designed to collect and confine the sound.

The Canine and Feline race of quadrupeds, Mr. Vigors remarked,
also presented similar faculties by which they secured their prey.
The next analogy alluded to, was that between the bills of the
Snipes and Toucans, the former using it for probing the soft mud;
and the latter likewise employing it for probing, but in a differeut
manner. The majority of birds who were cohabitants with the
Toucans in the South American Forests, had the elongated pensile
nests, suspended from the extreme branches of trees, beyond the
reach of Snakes and Monkeys. Nature had however appointed the
Toucans to regulate their number, by providing them with a bill
adapted for the purpose of inserting in those nests and dragging
forth the eggs or callow young. Mr. Vigors then adverted at some
length to Mr. Blyth’s observations on the pectinated claws of birds,
and concluded with an eulogium on that gentleman’s valuable infor.
mation, more particularly as regarded the connection between the
eye-lashes and rostral-protuberance of the Hornbills and the Cro-
thophagee, and requested Mr. Macleay to communicate his own per-
sonal observations on the latter.

Mr. Macleay then rose and remarked it would be presumptuous
in him, after the interesting discussion which had taken place, to
add any observations. From his long residence in the West Indies,
he had frequent opportunities of studying the habits of Ani: it was a
bird extremely sensitive of cold, and does not live in captivity, even
in that climate, unless kept by a fire; they usually congregated in
considerable numbers, like the Tit, and thus obtained additional
warmth. On dissecting the bird and closely examining the stomach,
he found it contained a portion of animal food. He considered the
eye-lashes protected the sight (in the manner stated by Mr. Blyth)
when passing through the briars. He then called attention to a
highly interesting fact, which he had lately discovered, and which
furnished an exclusive definition to the great order of Insessores or
Perching birds, allowed on all hands to be a natural group, but
which had hitherto baffled the ingenuity of naturalists to define sa-
tisfactorily.

The character to which Mr. Macleay had alluded, was one com-
mon and peculiar to the Insessorial order, viz. that their young are
hatched naked or callow.

Mr. Blyth again rose and stated, the same character had also
occurred to him, as Mr. Yarrell and many other naturalists were
aware, but he pointed out certain exceptions to exist, as the Capri-
snulgide on.the one hand, among the Insessores and the Cormorants
on the other, which were hatched quite naked, not being Insessores.
In the first case, the reason that the Caprimulgide were excluded
covered with down was sufficiently obvious, when we remember

\

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 319

that the birds were hatched on the bare ground without any prepa-
ration or nest, in consequence of which no care of the parent could
suffice to prevent them from perishing, were they excluded other-
wise. Mr. Vigors thought that the Caprimulgide scarcely consti-
tuted an exception at all, as they stood at the extreme limit of the
Insessores.

A general meeting was held on Friday, December the Ist. ;
Harry Chester, Esq., in'the chair. The report of the council an-
nounced that the Hon. W. T. T. Fiennes has most liberally offered
to place in the custody of the Society during his life, at his own
risk, the whole of his very valuable collection of birds; five hundred
specimens, mounted in cases. The council had accepted this very
liberal offer, and hope that this collection will shortly be exhibited
in the rooms of the Society, where they cannot fail to prove highly
valuable to the Society by furnishing it with the means of promoting
efficiently many of its important objects.

Viscount Boyne, Thomas Barrett Lennard, Esq., the Rev. J.
Jennings and F. B. Long, Esq. have been elected Members of this
Society.

During the last month the council have not been able to obtain
any new specimens for the collection of live birds in St. James’s Park.
Already, however, it contains a very valuable and full collection of
British Anatide. The birds are generally in a healthy condition, and
the extent of the water on which they are located enables them to
be seen in a natural state; all the more ordinary Anatide, being al-
ready procured, the council are anxious to make exertions for obtain-
ing an addition to their stock of rare and unique specimens, and trust
that the support of the public will enable them to meet the expences
necessary for the purpose.

Mr. Bartlett then made some observations respecting the two species
of Gull, viz. the Glaucous Gull and the Iceland Gull, having recently
obtained two specimens very much differing in size yet agreeing in
every other particular. Mr. B. had in consequence been led to exa-
mine a great number of specimens, and found them vary from thirty-
four inches in length to twenty-five inches with intermediate speci-
mens, so that it was impossible in many instances to decide which was
the Glaucous or Iceland Gull. This being the case, he was inclined
to believe the whole of those specimens he had seen, to be Glaucous
Gulls, and the bird named Iceland Gull, was in reality a small
Glaucous Gull.

Mr. Blyth then proceeded to make some remarks on the close affi-
nity of particular species of the Mealy Linnet, and at the conclusion
the meeting adjourned to January 5th. The attendance was more
numerous than on any former occasion, including Charles Lucien
Bonaparte, Prince of Musignano, Dr. Horsefield and other distin-
guished naturalists.

320 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

LEICESTER LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

WE have always strongly advocated the importance of provincial
scientific associations, as means highly calculated to diffuse more
widely the advantages of knowledge, and also to bring to light and
develop many a flower that might otherwise “blush unseen.” It is,
therefore, with the greatest pleasure that we record the establishment
of any such institutions and report their success. The proceedings
of the Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society, which has been
very recently originated, are now for the first time laid before our
readers, and the spirit and liberality with which this institution has
hitherto been conducted we hope may stimulate other large towns to
follow so excellent an example. The environs of Leicester abound
in much that is interesting to the scientific inquirer. The insulated
granitic and trap rocks of Charnwood Forest, with the vast marine
and lacustrine deposits of the carboniferous series lying to the north
and west of its anteclinal line, and comprising the extensive coal-
fields of Coleorton, Snibson, and Ashby-de-la-Zouch, with the
limestones of Ticknall and Breedon, present to the geologist a wide
field, both for practical illustration and interesting conjectures. The
botanist, too, will find an ample storehouse in the numerous varieties
of flowers that adorn the broad meadows of the Soar, or bloom in
wild luxuriance on the bolder ridges of Charnwood. The antiquary
may find ground for extensive research in the many relics of times
gone by, and the spots commemorated for some mighty deed achieved.

The Rev. A, Irvine, B.D., F.G.S., president of the Society, a
gentleman to whose zeal and exertions the institution is indebted for
much of its prosperity, delivered an Inaugural Address, the substance
of which we are happy in being able to submit to our readers, as also
some important information communicated by Mr. Lawrance, relative
to fossil-remains of the tertiary and secondary formations. During
the past session, several valuable papers have been read by Dr. Shaw,
and we regret that our space will not now permit their insertion. An
interesting lecture was also delivered by Mr. Wood, on Phrenology,
and many other useful communications upon general science were
furnished by different members of the institution. We hope fre-
quently to notice the proceedings of the Leicester Literary and
Philosophical Society, and wish it every success.

Inaugural Address, delivered to the Literary and Philosophical
Society of Leicester, by the Rev. A Irvine, B.D., F.G.S., and Presi-
dent of the Society :—

It is a trite remark that man is naturally formed for society.
Scarcely is it too much to say that all his powers, pleasures, and pur-

suits, are essentially connected with its interests. Living by himself, .

a solitary individual upon earth’s wide surface, he would necessarily
become ‘a dumb and vile creature,’ scarcely more intelligent than the
beast of the field. I speak not of the first father of mankind, who

—

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 321

was a distinguished exception, having come perfect from his great
Maker’s hand, with his bodily form in the fulness of its strength, and
his spirit radiant with divine intelligence; but I speak of a man
reared from his birth in a lonely desert, though that desert were a
paradise ; and there is every reason to believe, from the nearest ap-
proaches made to such actual experience, that he would be little, if at
all, superior to the Ourang-outang of the woods—a pitiable specimen
of humanity.

If we turn to the consideration of such forms of society as have,
at different periods, existed in the world, it is not a little remarkable
that the first great scheme attempted after the flood, by a combina-
tion which then embraced the whole human race, was an absolute
defiance of the Divine Majesty ; for it was an effort to establish their
union upon a solid basis, and record it on a lofty tower reaching to
the height of the heavens, and defying the power of that Omnipotent
Avenger who had destroyed the whole world by water. Their de-
signs were impious, and impiety, in any social body, is ever the har-
binger of evil ; for it stands as a mark to the vengeance of that All-
ruling Power whose laws it has broken, whose authority it has con-
temned, and who hath declared of the righteous man that “all that
he doeth shall prosper; while the ungodly are not so, but are like
the chaff which the wind driveth away.”

But where the objects of any society are such as those which we
profess to pursue, there is good reason to hope that “ dew of heaven
may fall thick in blessings on it.” Those objects are legitimate and
good which tend to extend our knowledge and strengthen our under-
standing, to refine the taste, and improve the heart ; and wherever
they have been steadily kept in view their pursuit has been generally
crowned with success, a generous emulation being excited among the
members, aiding one another in their different inquiries, eliciting ob-
servations by which mutual information is attained, each contributing
his portion to the general fund, and thus accumulating intellectual
treasures beyond their most sanguine hopes. Where such societies
have sprung up, that region which was formerly as a desolate wilder-
ness has been often seen to flourish like a fruitful field, civilization
and refinement being fostered by the breath of genius, learning, and
philosophy [as the president amply proves and illustrates by the
happy results produced by the operations of the ancient Select Soci-
ety of Edinburgh, the Royal Society of London, and the Geological
Societies of the metropolis and country towns ].

. Fostered, and strengthened, and animated by mighty minds, Geo-
logy has extended her researches far and wide. Into that “ reign of
chaos and old night” she has urged her daring course, dragging forth
to the light, from the secret recesses of remote ages, and from the
dark bowels of the earth, the wrecks of former worlds, plants of un-
known growth, with animals that have lived and moved in earth, in
ocean, and in air, at periods beyond the reach of human calculation ;
all bearing with one unanimous voice this harmonious testimony—

322 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

“ the hand that made us is divine.” *Hence have arisen interminable
myriads of proofs of the wisdom, power, and goodness of the great
Creator and Governor of the universe : and thus it is that, even from
the remotest ages, every thing in Nature, when rightly interpreted,
accords with the language of Revelation, impressing the mind with
ever-new delight, in contemplating the wondrous works of Him who
“ made the heavens, and the earth, and the sea, and all that is there-
in.” If, then, there be any truth in the prediction, that the future
progress in science will henceforth be effected by the joint operation
of many, not by the towering genius of one, surely that conviction
should incite every one of us to bring hither his voluntary contribu-
tion—to cast his small pebble on the hill of science—to supply one
little drop to the ocean of its immensity.

It is with such a hope that I would now more particularly refer
to the establishment of this Philosophical and Literary Society ; and
you will bear with me, I trust, while offering a few observations upon
our own particular case, that we may thus not only have our minds
cheered with the anticipation of many advantages likely to accrue,
but may likewise be zealous in gaining proselytes to the cause of
science, by communicating our views to others, striving to enlist them
in the same pursuit, soliciting them to the delightful task of co-ope-
rating in the advancement of truth, and feeling, also, that the genu-
ine philosophic spirit is ever that of the pure philanthropist. Know-
ledge, when imparted, is then only enjoyed, and enjoyed in propor-
tion to the extent to which it is imparted.

The two principal advantages, then, are, first, the formation of a
better taste in a town devoted chiefly to mechanical pursuits, little
connected with either literature or philosophy in general ; and then,
the diffusion of a more friendly feeling among all classes and
sects, who have, at present, no common bond of union, but are too
much separated from each other, both by political and religious differ-
ences.

1. The formation of a literary taste, in a town so little accustomed
to cultivate either literature or philosophy, strikes us at first sight as
extremely difficult. But because it is difficult, let us not, therefore,
desparingly regard it as impossible. “It would be easy,” says Poly-
bius, “to shew by instances, that many things, which appear in the
beginning to be not only difficult but absolutely impracticable, are,
in the course of time, and by continued use, accomplished with the
greatest ease. Among numberless instances, the art of reading may
be mentioned as one of the clearest and most convincing proofs of
this remark. Take a man who has never learnt to read, but is other-
wise a man of sense; set a child before him who has learned, and
order him to read a passage in a book. It is certain that this man
will be scarcely able to persuade himself that the child, as he reads,
must consider distinctly, first, the form of all the letters ; in the next
place, their power; and thirdly, their connection with one another—

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 323

for each of these things requires a certain portion of time. When he
hears him, therefore, read four or five lines together, without any he-
sitation and in a breath, he will find it very difficult to believe that
the child never saw the book before. But if to the reading some
gesture should also be added—if the child should attend to all the
stops and observe all the breathings, rough and smooth, it will be
absolutely impossible to convince the man that this is true. From
hence, therefore, we may learn never to be deterred from any
useful pursuit, by the seeming difficulties that attend it; but to en-
deavour rather to surmount those difficulties by practice and habit.”
The practical lesson thus suggested to us is of the very highest
importance, and is calculated to inspire us with new confidence and
vigour in the acquisition and cultivation of intellectual habits. A
taste for refined mental exercises, even where it may not exist in the
individual mind itself, may be powerfully influenced and strengthened
by instruction, by imitation, by friendly intercourse, and by various
other adventitious circumstances. Again, there are numberless
minds in which the seeds of such taste, though abundantly sown,
never germinate ; partly through unconscious indifference, and partly
also from a total want of opportunity to cultivate the habits by which
it is to be matured, or of an attention entirely devoted to other occu-
pations. Now, in instances such as these, much may be done to
awaken those dormant powers, and to remove the obstacles which
check their expansion. By an amicable collision of ideas between
man and man it may be found possible to attract the attention of the
man of uninformed mind to a new class of pleasures, to allure him
into that track of observation and study which may terminate in the
refinement of his taste, and enlargement of his views, and expansion
ot his understanding. Instances have frequently occurred of indivi-
duals in whom, even at an advanced period of life, this improvement
has been wrought to a wonderful degree. In such men, what an im-
mense accession is made to their best enjoyments! Awaking as if
from a trance, they luxuriate in a new existence. Those intellectual
objects which they had utterly disregarded now call forth the utmost
energies of their mental powers, and they feel a double transport,
while, looking back upon the blank region of the past, they partake
of the present with as keen a relish as they anticipate with delight the
distant and the future. Such are the high gratifications experienced
by the man who, after having consumed in low occupations and gro-
velling amusements the prime of his days, is at length enabled to
shake off the shackles with which he was bound, and walk forth in
all the blissful sensation of a renewed existence.

As excursions into foreign climes animate the attention, excite the
curiosity, and improve the taste of the traveller, so do these surveys
of the regions of intellect spread a brightness and a beauty over the
scene of our contracted duty and our daily toil. Without some such
awakening cause, how many slumber on through the whole of life,
and go down to the grave with faculties unimproved ; having wasted

VOL. VII., NO. XXII. cr

324 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

all those diviner powers which would have exalted them in the scale
of thinking beings, and would have stored their minds with choicer
treasures, and conferred upon them far higher happiness, than all
that riches or grandeur can bestow. I speak not here of that portion
of the humblest classes which is utterly devoid of education, with all
its refinements ; to them such enjoyments must necessarily be rare
indeed, being, in general, far beyond their reach. They, therefore,
indulge their appetites with avidity; and, unless impelled by the
ennobling influence of pure religion, they seek no higher happiness.
A remedy for such defectshas been attempted by establishing, for the
improvement and instruction of those whose situation in life has pre-
cluded them from the attainment of such advantages, Mechanics’ In-
stitutes ; which, by a strict adherence to their object, under wise re-
gulation and judicious management, can hardly fail of accomplishing
their purpose, and conferring essential benefits upon an extensive
class of the community. But I am now speaking of men destined
for the higher and more independent walks of life, who are too often
led, by ignorance of their own possible attainments, to cultivate only
a small corner of the mental field, and to abandon, as an unprofitable
waste, “by far the most valuable portion of that intellectual inheri-
tance to which they were born.” ‘They thus lose all those expanded
views of Nature and Nature’s charms which, to the eye of the unin-
structed, are wrapt in thickest darkness, but rise prominent and con-
spicuously beautiful to the view of him whose intellectual vision is
“purged of its film,” and who, by the aid of physical science, discerns,
as it were, all the secret but perfect mechanism by which she pro-
duces such astonishing effects. Such was the heightened charm im-
parted to that most splendidly beautiful object in the inanimate world
—the rainbow, by the new and clear comprehension of the Newtonian
theory of light and colours, so exquisitely described by the most phi-
losophical of poets, Akenside, as the result of his own personal
experience.

From proofs, such as these, we may, therefore, fairly conclude,
that whatever tends to diffuse these sun-beams of intellectual delight
over our existence as a town, is a blessing, an inestimable blessing.
And if such be the possible or rather probable effect of this Society
upon its members, and upon all who come within the sphere of its
influence,—if, by the endeavour to instruct others we improve our-
selves,—if, by an amicable collision of opinion, we sharpen intellect
or refine taste,—if we gain the valuable habit of contemplating, with
patient care, any interesting object presented to our observation, and
are enabled not only to view it in a philosophic light, but also to
pourtray it in clear and faithful colours, we shall thus have acquired
that which will give vigour to our conceptions, perspicuity to our
language, and throw over the whole of life a polished grace and inex-
pressible charm. For we thus learn insensibly to view the objects
whether of nature or art, with the eye of perfect intelligence, spon-
taneously though unconsciously, blending with what we see “ all that

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 325

we know and all that we feel,” incorporating all the beauties of exter-
nal nature with the very essence of the soul, thus rendering the mate-
rial world subsidiary to the spiritual, while it contributes to the power
of the imagination and to the improvement of the heart.

Leicester, hitherto, has possessed no such advantages. It has, in-
deed, occasionally numbered some distinguished individuals among its
inhabitants, but “ few and far between.” To associate with enlight-
ened men is indeed a singular luxury. Never shall I forget the in-
tense interest with which, for several years immediately before my
coming to Leicester, I frequented the monthly assemblage: of the
Geological Society of London. In the midst of my laborious scho-
lastic occupations, I hailed that meeting as a rest and refreshment,
where I could for some hours enjoy the converse of men of enlarged
and cultivated minds, and hear “ their speech distilling as the dew,”
with thoughts calm and copious, bright and new as the fast-falling
snows of winter, while elucidating subjects, dark indeed and impene-
trable to inferior minds, but open as the day to their penetrating
glance, and by them expanded also to the view of others, at the touch
of their magic skill.

If here we can, even at a long distance, follow their steps, it will
be a delightsome consummation. Heaven grant, that this our Society
may become an honor, a blessing and a delight to all that frequent
it! This fervent wish affords some better hope of accomplishment,
now than heretofore, if you reflect upon the widely increasing pros-
pects of a liberal education that have opened upon the town within
the space of the last year. Two large Proprietary Schools have been
projected, of which one is in process of erection, the other is already
built, and flourishing beyond our most sanguine expectation. Doubt-
less these large establishments will not only send forth many young
candidates for admission to our Society, richly imbued with classic
lore and mathematical science, but one of them has already brought
within our circle men eminent for their attainments both in literature
and philosophy, two of whom, I rejoice to say, have already enrolled
themselves amongst us, and will doubtless prove themselves most
able and efficient members of our body. Under all these auspicious
circumstances, are we not justified in hailing the approach of a far
brighter day than has ever yet. dawned upon us? or rather, may we
not turn our hopes for the future into exultation at the past, and
congratulate ourselves on the light of taste and intellect so recently
diffused through this town and neighbourhood, by the Essays that
have been read in this Society, and of which those that have been
given to the public, have been welcomed with the warmest approba-
tion.

2. The other peculiar benefit likely to be derived from the estab-
lishment of this Society, is the extension of a more friendly feeling
among all classes and sects, who at present have no common bond of
firm union, but are too much separated from each other both by poli-
tical and religious differences. It is our happiness to live in a land,

raipite tis

326 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

where Civil and Religious Liberty sits triumphant on her throne.
Long may that throne be established in wisdom and supported by
prudence! Never may its foundation be subverted, or moderation,
its best support, withdrawn! Never may it be levelled in the dust,
either by the despotism of one, or the licentiousness of many! May
it be lasting and immovable as our island itself, baffling the storms of
faction, as Britain “ baffles with her hoar cliffs the loud sea-wave.”

Allow me for a few moments more, to make an observation con-
nected with the future welfare of our Society. In the term Philoso-
phical, is legitimately denoted not only Moral but likewise Natural
Philosophy, including also Natural History, which comprises some
choice treasures that address themselves not to the ear, but to the
eye. Do you then think that it is possible for us, by our combined
energies, to form a collection of such treasures? The soil on which
we daily tread is not quite devoid of minerals. Witness the beautiful
mines of Gypsum, quite in our neighbourhood. The Coal-mines are
near, and no stratum is richer in geological treasures than the carbo-
niferous limestone. Barrow is also within a few miles; and we have
abundant evidence, that there, in the olden time, have been “ creeping
things innumerable ;” while that splendid antediluvian the Ichthyo-
saurus, has disported himself abundantly with his fellows, in the quiet
waters which then surrounded it. Burrow Hill is also rich in stores
of another stratum; and I might point out many other productive
spots quite within our reach. But above all, our own beautiful Fo-
rest, modestly rearing, with primitive dignity, its granite-crowned
head from the centre of the earth, abounds in geological interest; and
I scarcely know a more exquisite luxury, than to inhale the healthful
air, on a bright sunny day, while engaged in scientific research, on
the summits of those breezy hills.

Shall we then begin a collection? That is the point which I would
now earnestly press upon your attention. If you are convinced, that
such a concentration of materials would be of no less ornament than
use to our district, I would add with pleasure, that my own very
limited collection of specimens, mineralogical and geological, shall
be most cerdially presented to this Society, in the hope that it may
form a nucleus, round which a variety of interesting and more va-
luable stores may be collected. The gift will be really no sacrifice
tome. For, I had immense pleasure in making the collection many
years ago; but except the gratification of shewing its contents to an
occasional friend, with me they are actually useless; and my impera-
tive duties leave me so little time to attend to them, that their very
names are fading from my memory. If you thus kindly accept them,
and they should generate in any individual a love of inquiry, or
stimulate research, I have my recompense.

There is only one other remark that I would add, namely, that if
we would harmonize, refine and adorn our philosophy, particularly
if we would successfully extend our researches to Botany, or some
other departments of Natural History, we must pay our court to

9

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 327

the softer sex. Assistance has been often no less graciously afforded
than thankfully received by most distingushed philosophers ; nor is
it presumptuous to hope, that it may in a similar manner, be kindly
accorded to us, should we strive earnestly and faithfully to shew
ourselves worthy of their protection. Should this eventually prove
to be the fact, whilst we are ever ready, as individuals, gratefully
to acknowledge the salutary influence which they shed over every
condition of life, whether of prosperity or adversity, heightening all
our joys, and soothing all our sorrows ; as a Society, devoted to the
contemplation of whatever is found to be interesting, excellent, or
wonderful, throughout the regions of universal nature, we shall
here tender our united homage of respectful admiration to “ the
fairest and best of all God’s works.”

A most interesting communication was made by Mr. Laurance
upon some remarkable specimens of fossil fruits and plants, recently
found in the coal formation of Lancashire. After a few prelimina-
ry observations, Mr. L. proceeded to describe the specimens which
he said formed the most interesting illustrations of a delightful
branch of the study of those extraordinary changes which the earth,
its climate, its inhabitants, and productions have from time to time
undergone at remote periods of its history, They tell a tale (he
continued) of novel and astonishing import—a tale which, until
these latter times, would have challenged universal incredulity—
that the earth abounded with fruits—

“ Herb yielding seed,
And truit-tree yielding fruit after her kind,”

which man too fondly regards as created solely for his sustenance,
a thousand ages ere he became its denizen—a tale told in Janguage
so unequivocal that it could not be mistaken. The whole mass of
the earth, in fact, or at least that portion of it which comes under
our observation, the outer crust of our planet, may be regarded as a
vast hortus siccus, of which every stratum is a page. We drain a
stagnant lake, and find in its bed, where the water had rested for
ages, timber still rooted and undecayed. We excavate the peaty
soil of fens, and turn up a venerable Oak, or nuts, or leaves, or
acorns, or some other vestige of timber where no wood now adorns
the surface of the country. The sea recedes, and exposes beneath
its beach a sub-marine forest ; or an extraordinary tide sweeps out
an estuary, and from its sandy bed majestic trees thrust out their
scathed arms, or exhibit their branchless trunks in the attitudes in
which they vainly resisted the overwhelming felement. Now we
delve into a sandstone quarry, and our operations are impeded by
the interposition of the siliceous stem of some patriarch of the pri-
meval woods—a gigantic Pine laid prostrate in the quarry ; or per-
haps, enclosed between the sandy lamina, we discover some delicate
specimen of its foliage, the anatomy of its leaves preserved and im-
printed upon the unyielding stone with a precision and beauty which

328 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

the most skilful herbalist vainly attempts to imitate. Or, again, an
incoherent cliff on the banks of the Medway, undermined by its ac.
tion, has slid into the water, and behold! the face of the dissevered
mass of clay is hung with clusters of fossil fruit, of which the cele-
brated terteary beds of Sheppey are so prolific. The date of Africa,
the cocoa-nut of the tropical islands, the bactris of America, the
areca of Asia, and a hundred species of aromatic and other inter-tro-
pical fruits are here seen with a semblance of reality which, like the
celebrated painting of Protagoras, might invite the birds to taste.
But we are about to penetrate into the dark recesses of the earth in
search of Coal. Here is a vast homogeneous red rock, composed of
minute atoms of silicious matter, closely compact, and almost crys-
talline, through which to pass: though deposited slowly and with-
out violence, it has enclosed no relic of the vegetation the flora or
the sylva, of an adjacent continent or island, from the waste of
which its mass is derived. Here and there a group of vegetable
forms is met with; but they are “ few and far between,” like oases
in the sands of Egypt. The red sandstone is, indeed, a great Saha-
ra in Geology—it is a blank in Nature’s fossil Herbarium. Having
traversed this, by a sudden transition we arrive at the coal forma-
tion—a mass of consolidated mud, vegetable debris, and oceanic
land, of an extent and aggregate thickness which almost exceeds be-
lief, yet throughout regular in its alternations, uniform in charac-
ter, and rich in fossil treasures, every layer enclosing some. relic,
more or less perfect, of a vegetation to be sought now in more geni-
al climes. Here our herbarium is truly rich indeed. Lastly, we
visit the slate quarries, or the limestone rocks adjacent, which be-
long to the transition period in Geology ; and here misshapen vege-
table forms, to which the eye is not accustomed, attract attention
and invite speculation. They are the Algw and the Fuci—the ve-
getation of the “‘ hoary deep.”

“The dark illimitable ocean without bound,”

whose heated and turbid waters at this early period were replete
with organized forms resembling those now existing in the equato-
rial seas. This is the last page in our hortus siccus ; but the rapid
glance we have taken of its contents will hardly suffice to render
intelligible and interesting the facts which the specimens under re-
view elucidate.

It is to three distinguished naturalists, pursuing simultaneously
their labours in this novel domain of science in different countries,
that we owe the rapid advancement of our knowledge on the subject
of fossil Botany—Adolphe Brongniart in France, Count Steinberg
in Germany, and Professor Lindley in England. Each succeeding
publication of the respective authors embodies some fact unknown
before, and exhibits occasionally some phenomenon at variance with
the pre-existing theory, and upon minor points the authors some-
times differ in their conclusions: but this is a leading generaliza-

PROCKEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 329

tion from their discoveries, in which they all agree, and which each
succeeding fact tends to confirm—every specimen brought to light
to illustrate ; that a law, corresponding with that which character-
izes the animal remains entombed in the earth, marking successive
and distinct races adapted to the climate and condition of the earth
at different geological epochs, prevails throughout the vegetable
relics dispersed through the various strata of which its crust is com-
posed. Not indeed that there is established a progressive develop-
ment of organised forms in the vegetable kingdom, from simple to
complex structure, from acotyledonous to monocotyledonous and dy-
cotyledonous plants, from the humble Lichen to the lords of the
forest—* a gradual perfection of organization going on from the
remotest period to the latest geological epoch,” as M. Brongniart
and others have contended—but simply this, that certain tribes of
vegetables are found to characterize certain strata, either exclusive-
ly or in greater abundance than other strata, indicating the preval-
ence of those races on the spot at the period of the formation of the
rock in which they are embedded. Moreover, and this is the result,
singular though it be, which might have been anticipated from the
discoveries of Cuvier in fossil Zoology, that the types of the existing
vegetation are to be found only in the higher or more recent strata,
and that in proportion as we recede from the newer to the older
formations, the fossil vegetables assume less and less the form of ex-
isting species. But although numberless species, genera, and even
whole tribes of plants, which have long since ceased to exist in any
part of the world, are found in succession as we penetrate the earth,
it must not be inferred from hence that monstrous and anomalous
forms present themselves, with which the botanist is unable to grap-
ple, exhibiting a departure from the laws manifest in the existing
creation, disturbing the harmony and upsetting the order found to
prevail in every department of Nature’s works. Every specimen,
however eccentric its species, however misshapen and uncouth its
form, may be referred to some of the recognised families of the ve-
getable kingdom, although now, perhaps, for the first time exhum-
ed from the depths of the earth, and ten thousand ages have elapsed
since it saw the light of day which gave it life and luxuriance.
As the traveller who cireumnavigates the earth or explores lands
hitherto untrodden by human feet, finds everywhere the same order
of things, though under a different aspect ; so the geologist, how-
ever deeply he may penetrate into the earth, discovers only new
proofs of the uniformity of the laws pervading Nature. He turns
over, in fact, only another leaf of the volume of the Great Author.

Now, the specimens of fruit on the table, which have been disin-
terred from a sandstone quarry in Lancashire (near Bolton), are
evidently very dissimilar to any production of the soil and climate of
the district whence they were obtained, at the present day : but the
most uninitiated will at first sight discover in them some resem-
blance to the fruits which he has seen imported from the West In-
dies or South America: and the first inference which he would na-

330 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

turally draw would be a correct one—namely, that in the environs
of Liverpool once grew the fruits which her ships now bring from
the tropics, although he may be unable to account for the cireum-
stance. Thus our proposition is illustrated. There is, perhaps,
nowhere existing upon the earth fruit of precisely similar species to
those under review, and until within a very recent period they had
never been seen in a fossil state: but Professor Lindley pronounces
them at once to be the fruits of some species of Palm analogous to
the Date. The species is probably extinct, but with such confi-
dence is their family alliance recognised, that they become the basis
of very important conclusions.

One of the proofs of the high temperature of the earth at the
period of the formation of coal, was supposed to be the occurrence of
this tropical plant among the vegetable relics which accompany it
in such profusion: but this appears to have rested merely upon the
assumption that two or three doubtful species of leaves belonged to
the tribe of Palms. Indeed Brongniart entertained the opinion that
no decided trace of the palm-tree had been discovered in this forma-
tion. Abundance of specimens of this class of vegetation, be it ob-
served, are found in the strata of later periods. They pervade, in-
deed, all the rocks in greater or less number, from the ancient carbo-
niferous series to the latest tertiary deposits. Like the Pelasgi in
human history, you find them at the early periods ewisting every-
where but springing from nowhere. ‘The discovery of these most
interesting specimens will, it is supposed, clear away the obscurity
in which their origin was involved, and this circumstance whilst it
adds to their interest and value, illustrates in a curious manner the
progress of science which had anticipated nature and stole a march
upon discovery. It was so with another very remarkable order of
fossil relics belonging to this period—the tree ferns, whose existence
had been suspected and predicted long before it was established.
When Lindley and Hutton published the first volume of their
** Fossil Flora,” ‘‘ there had not been described a single genuine
tree-fern-stem from the coal of any part of the world ;” now the
existence of three English species has been demonstrated.

Singular as it may appear, the analogy between the grouping of
the existing vegetation of the earth and the dispersion of these inert
organic ferns beneath its surface—between the geographical and
geological distribution of plants is so obvious and striking that these
conclusions, established by subsequent discoveries, were strictly
within the limits and in accordance with the spirit of inductive
science.

But to those unaccustomed to the reception of this species of evi-
dence, the inference deduced from these fossil fruits will appear to
be unsatisfactorily established, and the palm-groves of our hyperbo-
rean regions will not spring up without a considerable effort of the
imagination. This tribe of plants, the palmares of botanists, none
of which range more than thirty or forty degrees on each side of the
equator (thirty-eight degrees in the southern and forty-three de-

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 331

grees in the northern hemisphere), and most of which flourish only
within the tropics, is among the noblest and most splendid produc-
tions of the vegetable kingdom—early known and esteemed by the
ancients its very name became synonymous with plenty and exu-
berance, and attaches still to the city of Zenobia, whilst the majesty
of their form and the supassing grandeur of their port, obtained in
modern times from Linnzus the title of princes and patricians of the
vegetable kingdom. A well-known palm of Ceylon (the Talipot)
is described to be as big and as tall as a ship’s mast, the leaves, some
of which are capacious enough to shelter thirty or forty men, form
a magnificent capital to the trunk, a stately column rising one hun-
dred feet in height. Until the last year of its life it is said to bear
no fruit, when, as if the perpetuation of its species appeared to be
the end of its creation all the energies of the plant are developed in
a crown of glorious flowers—succeeded by fruit, and the tree, as if
exhausted by the effort, dies.

Again, the date-palm of Arabia and Upper Egypt, (Pheenix dac-
tylifera from Phcenicia having produced the best dates, and dactyli-
fera, from the group of dates bearing some resemblance to the shape
of the hand,) to which our fossil fruit are allied—a tree of so much
value to man that, Gibbon tells us, the Eastern poets have celebrated
its 360 uses—has a woody stem, sometimes of considerable thickness
and of great length, surmounted by enormous masses of foliage, and
for 200 years will continue to bear fruit with the unabated vigour
of maturity.

If this, then, were the character of the vegetation of the period
of our coal formation—if the earth were then planted with the ar-
boreous trunks, penetrated by the roots and shaded by the massy
foliage of the remarkable trees, why, it may with propriety be asked,
do we not produce better evidence of their existence, more substan-
tial relics than these the most insignificant, and it might be inferred,
the most perishable portions of their gigantic forms?

Were we to turn over the sands of the desert which now sur-
rounds Palmyra, or dig into the alluvium of some neighbouring
stream, we might reasonably expect to find many relics of the palm
forest, which probably once embosomed that city, overthrown and
buried by the tornado or borne down by the torrent. And, indeed,
this is the sort of evidence of which we have abundance at the later
geological epochs. But up to this moment no palm wood—no leaves,
except the doubtful specimens before alluded to—and no other ves-
tige of the palm tree has ever been discovered connected with the
coal strata, except the interesting relics upon the table. We may
naturally expect, however, that the progress of discovery will fur-
nish us ere long, with more solid evidence, at present its absence is
one of the puzzles which geology so often presents.

Now the mass of sandstone from which the fruit was extricated
abounds in relics of the contemporary vegetation, vestiges of the
most perishable living forms, converted into imperishable rock, their
succulent stems now metamorphosed into an unyielding sandstone,

VOL. VII., NO, XXII. uu

332 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

their delicate leaves and soft integument, once painted with ver-
dure, now blackened and replaced with inflexible carbon. The spe-
cimens now submitted with one exception, are all common coal
plants, but as no palm tree has escaped to tell the tale of their times,
they may, although not related, prove useful allies to the fruit with
which they were associates, and help to elucidate the obscure ques-
tion of the origin of coal.

We have here then the Calamites (nodosus, I believe), a plant
which from its universal prevalence may almost be said to characte-
rize the coal-formation. Whether the coal-measures be sandstone
or shale—that is to say whether the deposits be sand or mud the ca-
lamites is always present—sometimes standing upright, perhaps in
the very mud from which it derived sustenance when living, in
which case the stem is cylindrical, but general prostrate and flat-
tened as in the specimens before us. It is usual to refer this plant
to the living order Equiseta, and to identify it with the horse-tail of
this country, and contrasting its superior size with that of its puny
prototype, the horse-tail never exceeding half an inch whilst cala-
mites fourteen inches in diameter have been discovered, it affords a
striking illustration of the more-than-tropical luxuriance of the
vegetation of the period to which it belongs.

The next specimen is a portion of a flattened and partly decorti-
cated stem of the lepidodendron, a genus of extinct plants most re-
markable, as constituting a link in the vegetable kingdom which in
the existing creation is wanting. Although branched and furnished
with bark it was not of the coniferous or fir tribe, having no woody
axis The lycopodiace to which it is supposed to bear the greatest
resemblance, luxuriates in a hot and humid climate, and hence the
occurrence of these lends force to the inference suggested by the
calamiles—that these plants were produced under those conditions.

The other specimens are casts and portions of the stem of the
sigillaria or tree ferns, about which there has been so much discus-
sion between Professor Lindley and A. Brongniart. Suffice it to
say, however, that they are most decisive proofs of an equatorial cli-
mate: and that the fossil specimens sometimes infinitely surpass in
size their living types under the most favourable circumstances of
humidity and climate.

The last is a very remarkable and novel specimen to which the
title of Halonia regularis has been given, which I believe is all that
can be said about it. Anuninitiated eye would recognize in it some
resemblance to the Cacti or Eupborbiz of our hot-houses, but it has
probably no precise counterpart in the flora of the present times.

There is also a specimen of a striated stem which corresponds with
nothing hitherto described.

I could find no specimens of stigmaria so common in other dis-
tricts—as in Derbyshire, for instance, where it is the predominating
fossil, and where, singular as it may appear, this cactus-like plant
furnishes, in some places, the chief material for the repair of the
roads. Nor did I discover any traces of the foliage of ferns in which

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 333

other members of the coal-series are so prolific. The aluminous and
ferruginous shales (the mud of the coal-formation) appear to have
been more favourable to their conservation than the sandy deposits.

Now from these vegetable relics the associates and contempora-
ries of our fossil fruit (meagre as is the collection) do we not gather
important information as to the state of things then existing on the
surface of the earth! Is it possible to resist the cumulative evidence
which we have here of the high temperature of the earth and the
air at that early period in these latitudes?

It would be idle to assert that these enormous accumulations of
vegetable debris extending over a surface of many hundred square
miles, were floated into these northern regions by ocean-currents
from their native soil and climate. Masses of timber and other re.
lics borne upon the waves and wafted by the breezes of the Atlan-
tic, will sometimes travel to a vast distance, and thus the produc-
tions of the West India islands have been known to reach our
shores ; but the relics under review are not of these vagrant character.
The plants exhumed from the coal formation lived and died in the
neighbourhood where they are buried. They flourished and perished
(if immutable forms like these can be said ever to have perished) in
their maturity, uprooted by the torrent and enclosed in the mud of
a lake or estuary, or the sand of a sea, ere their fragile stems could
decompose or the living fruit had time to germinate. And this pro-
cess going on throughout a long succession of unaccounted ages (so
long and so vast indeed that we are lost in the contemplation of the
phenomena which constitute their chronology) produced among
others the coal-formation, which alone is sometimes as in the locality
to which these specimens belong, 2000 feet in thickness, whilst
every member of the series is complete in its fossil character and
identity.

Whether these enormous deposits were the effect of river-currents,
and floods, and the quiet alternations of sea and land such as we
witness in existing nature, or the effect of violent and hostile inroads
of old ocean upon ferra, firma, we are not in possession of sufficient
data to determine, but the active agency of water, “ water every-
where,” is manifest in these vast accumulations. The regularity of
the strata has been sometimes disturbed by the ejection of molten
rock from beneath, and occasionally, as in the instance of the coal.
formation under consideration, the whole series has slid down per-
haps a thousand feet, the base of the mass having been displaced by
some disturbance below in what Sedgwick calls Pluto’s kitchen, but
to Neptune and his fraternity, the river gods, we owe exclusively
the construction of our coal-fields. And yet how few of the spoils
of either are discoverable! A single bed of shells, perhaps a few
inches in thickness, or a solitary skeleton of a fish may be the only
vestige of the watery domain throughout an extensive coal-field.
The general absence of marine and fluviatile remains from this for-
mation is indeed remarkable. We know that the water was not
destitute of these organized beings, for at anterior, and subsequent

334 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

epochs it teemed with life. Some chemical condition unfavourable
to their preservation must have operated in the earthy matter which
enveloped them :—a strange condition indeed which permitted solid
matter to be dissipated and not an atom of the soft and succulent
vegetable to perish. The carbonate of lime of the shell—the phos-
phate of the skeleton—and even the silex of cercalia and grasses
alike yielded to the solvent—the imperishable carbon alone sur-
vived. So with the fruits, the shelly envelope has vanished and the
destructible portion remains. It may be, as has been imagined, that
the succulent plants imbibed the conservative principle from the at-
mosphere, and there are many circumstances which favor the hypo-
thesis that it was the office of the vegetation of that period to ab-
stract from the atmosphere the excess of carbon, and thus whilst the
air was being made respirable for man and the animal races who
were in aftertimes to inhabit the earth, inexhaustible supplies of
that invaluable treasure, coal, were laid up for our use in the latter
ages of the world.

These, hovever, it is evident, are secrets of Nature’s Laboratory
which may never be revealed to us. Science may attempt to imi-
tate, human ingenuity speculate in vain.

There is another circumstance to which I must briefly refer, viz. ;
the remarkable coincidence observable between the geological distri-
bution of fossil plants and the geographical range of the existing
vegetation—a result perhaps the most singular that has attended
the study of this subject. It may be thus popularly illustrated,
without going into details :—Suppose a traveller to journey from
the equator to the polar regions of the earth, he might thus charac-
terize the different scenes of vegetation which distant parallels of
latitude, or, better, the isothermal zones would present. Heis now
under the tropics, surrounded by dense and interminable forests of
gigantic evergreens and ever-blooming trees of a hundred species of
Palm, Bamboos, Tree-ferns, and Bananas, beneath whose refresh-
ing shade a thousand Cacti and Euphorbie bristle the earth, aroma-
tic shrubs give out clouds of perfume, and high in air hangs the epi-
phitic Orchis, whilst Cable Canes, hundreds of feet in length, trail
along the ground. But he leaves the torrid zone, and grassy meads
succeed to tropical jungles ; the forests of columnar branchless trees
with leafy crowns peering almost to the clouds, and forming so re-
markable a feature in the landscape of intertropical climes, diminish
into shrubs and gradually disappear, whilst the picturesque forms
of the Oak, the Elm, the Chesnut and the Pine—the forest-trees of
Europe—now meet his eye. Corn and wine, instead of the bread-
fruit and olive, supply his wants; and where the soil is saturated
with humidity, instead of Bamboos and Canes, Grasses, Sedges, and
Reeds prevail. The Tree-fern has dwindled into an insignificant
herb, and other trees, whose foliage yields so delicious a shade be-
neath a tropical sun, by degrees become dwarfish shrubs and eventu-
ally puny herbs. ‘The Orchis leaves its abode in the air, and clings
to the soil for support. In higher latitudes the scene undergoes a

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 335

still greater change: not only is the luxuriant growth of the warm-
er regions no longer visible, but the number of species of plants is
greatly diminished, until, arrived at the circum-polar regions, the
only representatives of the glorious forests of the tropics are the
Mosses which vegetate in the swamps, the Lichen which clings to
the icy rocks, or the Protococci which discolours the eternal snows !

In the fossil world, the latter scenes have no counterpart, for Ge-
ology knows no icy period: but in every other particular the geolo-
gist recognizes an epitome of the phenomena which we have des-
cribed. Beginning with the productions of the temperate climate
of Europe, of our own country and times, we trace in succession
their gradual disappearance with the animals which have browsed
upon the pastures or roamed in the forests. We mark the first ad-
vent of the Palm-tree in these latitudes, or rather the last, for we
are going up the stream of time ; the herbaceous Ferns give place
to the more noble tree, and ere we leave the tertiary rocks the Palm-
tree is predominant. In the secondary rocks some new forms meet
the eye: the Cycas connects the Palm with the Pine, and the Cac-
tus tribes abound—here, indeed we may repose in imagination be-
neath umbrageous Palm-groves and Bananas, or grope our way
through tropical jungles until we are lost in the dense forests of
Sigillaria and Lepedodendra, or swamped among the gigantic Equi-
seta of the marshes of our coal-formation—the rankness and exces-
sive luxuriance of whose vegetation distances all analogy drawn
from the present productive powers of the earth!

And it is not through the medium of the imagination alone that
this remarkable coincidence may be made palpable to the under-
standing. A numerical estimate of the relative proportions of pre-
vailing species of plants at different geological epochs, compared
with a similar computation of the relative number of species exist-
img under similar circumstances (the same conditions of temperature
and humidity being assumed), gives a result which approximates as
nearly to the assumed hypothesis as can well be hoped for in the
limited state of our knowledge. In reference, however, to this, it
must not be forgotten that 50,000 living species of plants are recog-
nized by botanists, whilst only 500 fossil species are at present
known to geologists.

In contemplating the wonderful phenomena with which the sub-
ject and specimens before us are connected, it is hardly possible to
resist the temptation to speculate upon the cause and the object of
these apparent vagaries of Nature: for strange indeed—“ stranger
than fiction”—are the mighty secrets inscribed in her portentous
volume. Perhaps all speculations as to the means employed in the
production of these phenomena, may be vain; but the end accom-
plished is clear—so clear that it cannot be mistaken. Although
these Palm-fruits grew when there was none to eat—although the
earth was adorned with beauty when there was no eye to admire,
and waste and desolation ‘“ joint empire ruled” through many an
age whilst ‘Chaos umpire sat’—has not a great and noble end

336 MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS.

been effected? Is there no connection between the triumphs of
civilized man and the agency by which our fossil specimens were
hermetically sealed up in the sandstone rock? Can we see our
streets at- midnight illumined with noon-day splendour—our seas
traversed by ships in defiance of contrary winds—man outsoaring
the eagle in his flight above the clouds, or moving on terra firma in
cars fleeter than the wind—our comforts and our luxuries minis-
tered to, and our energies multiplied in a thousand ways—and for-
get that it is to Coal we owe all this?

It may be a marvel to us that the earth should have required all
this fashioning, and that such a long and elaborate process should
have been necessary in the construction of our abode; but the con-
summate skill of the Great Architect who has so admirably adapted
it to our use and convenience, we can never sufficiently admire.

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS.

AccouNT OF SOME CRANIA FOUND IN THE ANCIENT Movunps or Nortu
Amertica.— Whatever relates to the lost nations of North America is inte-
resting. The fate of a people which occupied the richest part of that coun-
try, for an extent of more than a thousand miles, is involved in the deepest
obscurity. Nothing remains of their history, and we can gather no ideas of
what they were and what they did but from the constructions existing in the
territories they inhabited. These works are numerous, and scattered over
the country, from the Jakes of Canada to the Gulf of Mexico. They consist
of regular lines, having considerable elevations and great extent, of mounds
or pyramidal eminences, and of spacious platforms of earth. These different
works were adapted for fortifications, for places of worship, and for cemete-
ries. Within the last two years, reports had reached the Atlantic States of
very extensive remains of structures, indicating the existence of one or more
considerable cities in the territory ot Onisconsin, formerly a north-west ter-
ritory of the United States. The antiquity of some of the numerous works
alluded to was great ; there are circumstances which would lead one to refer
them toa period eight hundred or a thousand years back. The circular and
pyramidal eminences seem to have been destined for two purposes—for
places of worship and for cemeteries. Some of them contain immense heaps
of bones thrown together promiscuously, as after a bloody battle; in others
the bodies are regularly arranged, and in some there are only one or two
bodies : the bones in the last are usually accompanied by silver and copper
ornaments, some of which are extremely well wrought. ‘The crania found
in these mounds differ from those of the existing Indians, from the Caucasian
or European, and, in fact, from all existing nations, as far as they are known.

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The forehead is broader and more elevated than in the North American In-
dian, less broad and elevated than in the European ; the orbits are small and
regular. The jaws sensibly prominent, less so, indeed, than in the Indian,
more so than in the European. ‘The palatine arch is of a rounded form, and
its fossa less extensive than in the Indian or African, more than in the Euro-
pean, owing principally to a greater breadth of the palatine plate of the os
palati. But the most remarkable appearance in these heads is, an irregular
flatness on the occipital region, evidently produced by artificial means
These peculiarities, with others more minute, give a character to these skulls
not found in any living nations. Dr. Warren also stated that he had receiv-
ed other crania, which, at first view, he believed to be of the same race and
nation, for they resembled them, in all their peculiarities, more nearly than
one Caucasian head resembles another He exhibited drawings and a cast in
proof of the exactness of this resemblance; but these latter, he observed,
were species of ancient Peruvian heads. Now the cemeteries of the ancient
Peruvians are distant from the Ohio mounds more than fifteen hundred
miles; yet the facts stated above rendered it certain, in his opinon, that
these nations were connected by blood, and rendered it probable that the
northern race, being driven from their country by the ancestors of the exist-
ing race of North American Indians, retreated, after a long resistance, to
South America, and gave origin to one of the nations which founded the
Peruvian empire. Anatomy, also, he observed, showed that there was much
resemblance between the crania spoken of and those of the modern Hindoos.
And instruments, ornaments, and utensils, have been discovered in the
mounds, which bear a great resemblance to articles of the same description
seen in Hindostan. The facts stated above lead him to the following infer-
ences :—1. The race whose remains are discovered in the mounds were dif.
ferent from the existing North American Indian ; 2. The ancient race of the
mounds is identical with the ancient Peruvian. To these conclusions might
be added others tending to support existing opinions, but which are hypo-
thetical :_1. That the ancient North American and the Peruvian nations
were derived from the southern part of Asia; 2. That America was peopled
from at least two different parts of Asia, the ancient Americans having been
derived from the south, and the existing Indian race from the northern part
of the same continent.—Dr. Warren, British Association.

Retative Size or THE YorK and BirmincHam Orcans.—Can the
Editors of The Analyst, or any of their correspondents, inform me positively
which is the largest organ, that in York Minster, or the instrument in the
Town Hall, Birmingham? I have heard both of these magnificent instru-
ments, but am not myself capable of deciding the matter.—C. Briancuarp,
Walsall, Nov. 3, 1837. [Much nonsense has been circulated relative to the
point forming the subject of the above query. We feel little inclined to add
to the confusion already existing concerning these instruments. A question,
in our estimation, of infinitely more moment, is the quality of the organs.
In this respect we consider the Birmingham organ to be superior to its nor-
thern rival. We may add that the inhabitants of York and Birmingham re-
spectively contend, with more vehemence than wisdom, for the supremacy of
their own idol.—Ep.]

Tue Cini Bunrinc.—The geographic range of the Cirl Bunting (£m-
beriza cirlus ) extends to Asia Minor, where, according to Mr. Strickland, it

338 MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS.

would seem to replace the yellow species, and to frequent the borders of
streams and rivulets, which I have never observed it to do in this country-
As before remarked, I have constantly found it to affect umbrageous Elms,
evincing so marked a predilection for this particular tree that the species
might have been named very appropriately the Elm Bunting. I have re-
peatedly met with it, indeed with several individuals, singing from the tops
of a clump of Elms surrounding a farm-house, which, throughout the south
of England, is a very likely situation to meet with it.

It is rarely noticed but within a few miles of the sea, and appears to be
most abundant in certain districts of the Isle of Wight. Near Chichester,
and again at Alton, it is not uncommon: and lately, while enjoying the view
from the summit of Selborne Church, I noticed two of them singing in the
vicar’s garden beneath me, though the species was unnoticed by Gilbert
White. Proceeding inland it rapidly disappears, and at Godalming is ac-
counted a rare bird. Now and then a specimen is taken, mostly in winter,
by the London bird-catchers, who seem to consider it a prize; but it can only
be considered as a straggler near the metropolis. It is sparingly diffused
over the greater part of Hampshire, and also, I should suspect, Dorsetshire ;
but I cannot speak from personal observation to the westward of Hants. It
is popularly known in the Isle of Wight by the name “ French Yellowham-
mer,” and partially, both there and elsewhere, by the term “ Blackthroated
Yellowhammer,” which are the only provincial epithets I have heard applied
to it. The young appear to be extremely hardy ; for, during a pedestrian
tour, I carried one ina box in my coat-pocket for several days, feeding it on
what various fare I could pick up by the way. This bird is now alive and
healthy. I captured it near Yarmouth in the Isle of Wight.—Naturalist
Sor October, No. XITI.

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS. 339

APPARATUS FOR WITHDRAWING ATMOSPHERIC PressuRE.—Sir James
Murray, of Dublin, has invented an apparatus for the purpose of withdraw-
ing atmospheric pressure, partially or wholly, from the surface of the body.
The first of his machines was for the whole body, and resembled, in form, a
slipper bath, with the addition ofa separate part to cover the upper portion
of the body, the head only being free. The upper portion was luted to the
lower by means of a composition (used in making printer’s rollers for inking
the types), and fixed in a groove; and, if necessary, the patient’s face and
head could be contained in a glass case, luted to the machine in the same
manner, and respiration carried on by a tube. The air from the machine was
removed by an exhausting syringe, screwed on towards the bottom part of
this apparatus. He had tried this machine in the collapsed cases of cholera,
and exhausted the air from the body, taking off one ton of atmospheric pres-
sure. The consequence was, that the vessels became full and turgid, and
the body, previously shrunk, was rounded and red. He had tried it repeat-
edly, and the same results followed. The process might be reversed, and
pressure of air made on the body, even to the amount of 100 tons without
damage; but beyond this it would not be safe. He had tried it repeatedly
in asthma. The principle was applicable locally, and parts of the body could
be submitted to the action of the machine modified so as to be suitable to
them. He exhibited a contrivance of a long tin tube, made air-tight, and
with a piece of wet bladder round one end, which was open, and at the other
end, which was closed up, a small exhausting air-pump was placed. A pa-
tient with a paralytic wrist, put his arm into this; the wet bladder was tied
round his arm at the top, to make it air-tight, and the atmosphere was then
pumped out of the tube. The atmospheric pressure being taken off, the
limb became turgid, the circulation was increased, and the part affected was
soon cured. There was another adaptation of the same contrivance to the
limbs, to draw off the effect of congestion of the brain; and one to stop he-
morrhage in an injured hand, limb, or other extremity. An exhausting
pump was fixed to the end of a bladder, the limb was put into the bladder,
and the neck then tied round to make it air-tight. The air was then com-
pletely exhausted by means of the pump, which compressed the bladder so
close to the skin as effectually to stop even the pores of the skin. The same
contrivance of a bladder and exhausting pump was also applied for the cure
of ulcerated legs, by preventing evaporation of the ulcers by exhausting the
air and making the collapsed bladder adhere tightly all round. For irre-
gular surfaces he thought the instruments of particular value, since no dry-
cupping could be used there. If this plan had been known when those
melancholy deaths from dissection cuts took place in Dublin, and dry-cupping
could not be had recourse to, it would have been fortunate. The machine
would be particularly advantageous in withdrawing blood from particular
parts to others more remote. Thus, in cases of congestion of the blood in
the head, when bleeding had been carried to such an extent that it would
not be safe to carry it further, owing to the great general loss in the circula-
tion, blood might be made to accumulate in other parts, as in the legs. The
case of a well-known brewer in Dublin was treated on this principle, and he
recovered. Sir James has enumerated the kinds of cases where the appa-
ratus might be used; asthma, defective external circulation, aneurism, tu-
mors, and paralysis.

VOL, VII., NO. XXII. Xx%

340 MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS.

Tue Common KinerisHEer ( Alcedo ispida, Linn.).—We have never yet
seen a good figure of this bird, and trust that the engraving we now present
—executed by an eminent artist—may be considered a faithful representa-
tion. All the other figures we have seen of it err in the too great bulkiness
of the body ; for, although a thick bird, it is not so dumpy as ornithological
draughtsmen would have us believe.

A very general opinion prevails as to the scarcity of the Kingfisher in
England. This, however, is owing to the shy nature of the bird, and to the
small attention paid to Natural History by the majority of our countrymen.
The assertion of some, that it is extremely common, is, on the other hand,
equally erroneous. The fact is, that it is equally, but rather sparingly, dis-
tributed throughout the country, that it may, perhaps, not often be noticed,
save by the observing ornithologist. That a bird equalling in the splendour
of its plumage the brightest ornithological gems of tropical climes should
be indigenous in our comparatively northern regions, is certainly not a little
remarkable. The majority of British birds, as almost every one knows, are
plainly attired; but the plumage of many of them is, nevertheless, extreme-
ly handsome.— The Naturalist, vol. ii., p. 386-7.

Mecuanism oF THE Morion or Gracrers.—Mr. Mallet, at the Bri-
tish Association, made it evident that many phenomena of these singular
masses had been hitherto overlooked; and, although described by many emi-
nent observers, no solution had been given to the question of their move-

ment but that of their weight, which he showed could have only a partial

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS. 341

operation, as they often rest on rugged beds, and these not always of much
inclination. He proposed a very ingenious explanation of their movement
by means of hydrostatic pressure, arising from the fact of the lower part of
the glacier being of a higher temperature than the upper: this causes a melt-
ing of the under part, and a consequent raising of the mass in a perpendicu-
lar direction to the earth’s surface, while its descent was at right angles to
the inclined surface: a progressive motion downwards ensues, following the
law of the resolution of forces. He then spoke of certain causes of the rents
and fissures in glaciers, these being often convex downwards, owing to the
operation taking place in the middle part of the mass, which descends soon-
est, while the whole is held in its place by the upper and lower extremities :
also tubular fissures are formed by blocks of stone sinking by degrees in the
glacier, owing to their higher temperature gradually melting the surrounding
ice. He then alluded to the singular accumulations of detritus on the gla-
ciers, which are locally termed moraine, and are formed by éboulements in win-
ter, and covered by the snow. These he found to assume linear directions
parallel to the axis of the glacier; and, from the regularity of their arrange-
ments, he conceived it possible to discover the site of old glaciers from the
moraine which had remained on the ground after their destruction.

EncroacHMENTs oF THE Sea.—It is well known that the Baltic Sea,
generally speaking, makes inroads upon the surrounding shores; but there
was an idea that Prussia resisted these. The researches of M. Domeyko, a
Polish gentleman, have, however, proved that this country has shared the
general fate to such an extent as to lose a whole province on the borders of
the Gulph of Konigsberg. Woight, a German writer, and other still more
ancient authors, all record that, at the time when Prussia was occupied by
the Teutonic order, the province of Vitlandia was granted by them to the
inhabitants of Lubeck. But every trace of this territory has now disappear-
ed; it was situated between Billau, Brandebourg, and Balga. Pisanski, in
his work on the Baltic Sea, says that the waters constantly advance on the
western coast, as well as on the northern coast of Samland; and there is a
tradition among the people that some long strips of land, formerly covered
with forest, have been thus buried. In fact, the waves still throw up trunks
and roots of trees which evidently came from their own soil, now at the bot-
tom of the sea. The ruins of the chapel of Saint Adalbert, formerly six miles
from the sea, are now scarcely one hundred paces distant.

Grorocy.—M. Tournet has presented a long memoir to the French Aca-
demy of Sciences, containing his geological observations in the neighbour-
hood of Arbresle; in these he establishes some well-determined affinities
between the nature of those rocks which are known to have pierced through
the upper crusts at various periods, as well as their direction, the soil which
covered them, and their degree of fusibility, as connected with the period of
eruption. M. Tournet thinks that the true and only primordial sedimen-
tary rock is composed of clay slate, and that this rock, which contains the
element of mica, being altered or modified in different manners, has been
transformed into gneiss, mica slate, and other substances. He admits four
modes of alteration: one is calcination, a second trituration, a third the
changes produced by penetration and cementation, and the fourth is the in-
fluence of the granite, which transforms it into gneiss by introducing its
feldspath when in a state of fusion.

342 MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS.

VEGETABLE PuysioLocy.—Mr. Nevan, in February, 1836, instituted
some experiments on the physiology of vegetables: they were performed
on Elm trees, forty years of age; and the results were the following :—1.
The stem of the tree was denuded, in a circle, of its cortical integument
alone, leaving the alburnum beneath uninjured. In the May following, the
denuded part was filled up by the exudation of bark and wood from the up-
per surface of the wound, and the tree had not suffered in growth.—2. The
bark and cambium were removed in the same manner. In August, 1837, this
tree sickened, and there was no formation of wood or bark in the wounded
part. Two developments, however, took place, one above the other, from
below ; the former having the appearance of roots, the latter were branches
with leaves.—3. The bark and two layers of alburnum were cut away. The
tree was at the time unhealthy: it, however, put forth its leaves in that and
the ensuing spring, but shortly after died. Nosap was observed above or
below the wounded part. Roots were developed from the upper, and
branches from the lower part of the section.—4. The bark and six layers of
alburnum were taken off. The tree became much less vigorous, but did not
die, and otherwise presented the same appearance as the last.—5. The bark
and twelve layers of alburnum were stripped. ‘The consequences were
similar to the last two; the alburnum above and below the cut being dry :
but an accidental cut that penetrated into the heart-wood exuded sap.—6é.
This was a repetition of the experiment of Palisot de Beauvais, by cutting
away a circular ring of bark around a single branch. The branch continued
to grow, and roots sprouted from the under surface of the isolated bark and
branch.—7. In this the whole of the wood of the tree was cut away, except
four pillars, composed of bark and sap-wood. In this case, the sap first ap-
peared from above, descending by the pith, and then from the heart-wood,
the alburnum being dry. In this case the sap must have passed up the al-
burnum, and horizontally through to the heart-wood.—Mr. Nevan inferred
from these experiments, 1. That the life of the tree does not depend on the
liber or cambium, the inner bark or nutritive fluid.—2. A descent of sap
takes place before the development of leaves.—3. That new matter arises
from below, which had not previously been allowed. He thought there
were two distinct principles in the tree; one the ascending or leaf principle,
the other the descending or root principle. He had also performed some
experiments on the conversion of roots into branches, and came to the con-
clusion that buds or branches might be developed from any part of the root
above its extreme end, from which point it was impossible for buds to be
developed.

Fosstz Remains.—M. Azéma has found some fossil bones of Mastodons
and the Rhinoceros, reptiles, and some well-preserved fruits, in the parish of
Sauveterre, near the district explored by M. Lartet, whose discoveries we
announced some time back. It would be interesting to ascertain whether
the skeleton of the new and remarkable Rhinoceros brought from behind the
Cape, by the expedition under Dr. Andrew Smith, presents more affinity to
the recent or to the fossil species. It seems that the new fact concerning
fossil quadrumana has been succeeded by a similar discovery in the Himma-
laya mountains, but which is not so curious as the circumstance of finding
these animals in Europe ; and what is still more extraordinary, the compara-
tive anatomists have determined that European species to be similar to those

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS. 343

Gibbons which inhabit the remotest parts of Asia. M. Lartet’s discoveries
have given rise to much discussion in the French Academy of Sciences, the
members of which body do not assign all the remains sent to them to Quadru-
mana, but ascribe some of them to Carnivora and Pachydermata. Among
other questions, it has been debated whether or not the Gibraltar Monkeys
are indigenous to that rock, or whether they are brought by sailors from Af-
rica and then let loose. It would be a remarkable proof of inattention, if,
after so many years possession, the English could not solve this problem.

Sra Grare.—M. Arago, having expressed a desire for further informa-
tion respecting the place whence the floating banks of sea-weed, seen off the
Azores, originally came, M. Bonnet communicates his observations, all of
which tend to the opinion that this weed, which is called the Sea Grape, and
is supposed to have been brought by a current from the Bahamas, grows in
the place where it is found. He says that, when becalmed and the water
has been clear, he has seen detached pieces rise from the bottom in a fresh
condition, which may be easily distinguished from those which have been
some time on the surface: and M. Bonnet is convinced that, with proper
materials, the bottom of this part of the ocean might be reached. This gen-
tleman states that, in one of his voyages, when in 23° 26’ north latitude, and
44° west longitude, the water became quite muddy, and formed a turbid line
north-east and south-west, which was half-a-mile broad.

AwnaLysis oF Metuops ror DETERMINING THE FUNCTIONS OF THE
Brain.—What are the functions of the brain? The object of the present
inquiry is to analyze the several methods tried for the solution of this pro-
blem, and to pass a judgment on each. The first method employed was the
anatomical : the brain was dissected and its structure examined, in order to
determine its functions. But the mere anatomical examination of an organ
in the body is inadequate to reveal to us its functions or uses) We may
thus acquire a knowledge of its component parts, or some insight into its
structure; but something more than merely dissecting the dead is required
before we can divine the uses of any part in the living: suffice it to say,
that dissection has not revealed to us the functions of the brain. This organ
is every day dissected; its functions are still a matter of dispute. Some
other method of investigation, then, was necessary, and another was tried,
which might still be looked upon as an anatomical mathod; but in this in-
stance the dissection was performed on the brain in the living animal, and
hence may be denominated the method by vivisection ; this was a step in
advance. The effect of injury or removal of certain parts of the brain was
compared with the influence thus excercised on the manifestation of func-
tion. When a part was cut out, its function could no longer be exercised ;
and it was agreed that by removing each part in succession the use of each
would be discovered. This sounded speciously enough; but the results
have demonstrated it to be wholly inadequate. To be able to remove each
part separately, we should first know what these parts were ; and, then, was
it possible to remove one part of the brain without injury to any other part,
or such a shock to the whole system as must materially derange every mani-
festation offunction ? Besides this method could throw no light on the uses
of those parts of the brain which are peculiar to man, and therefore the
most interesting and important; but which, not being present in the lower
animals, could not be made the subject of such experiments. Accordingly,

344 MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS.

we find, that such experimenters not only disagree among themselves, but
different experiments performed by the same physiologist contradict each
other. Some of the more particular points which have been thus attempted
to be established are a relation between injuries of certain deep-seated cere-
bral parts, and the disturbance of equilibrium in muscular motion. Thus
Fodera found that removal of part of the cerebellum was followed by motion
backwards, but removal of the whole cerebellum caused the total disap-
pearance of the power of motion. Magendie, however, found that a duck
deprived of its whole cerebellum could still swim, but only backwards; while
division of one crus of the cerebellum in an animal, was attended by the
curious phenomenon of a constant rotatory motion of the body on its axis
towards the side wounded. Flourens, who was one of the earliest investi-
gators in this line, details many such experiments, and acknowledges a very
curious and unexpected result, which, in fact, at once exposes the liability to
fallacy in attempting to draw conclusions from such experiments. He found
that division of the semicircular canals in the ears of birds (or rather the
membranes lining these canals) was followed by abnormal motions, resemb-
ling those consequent on dividing certain of the deeper seated parts of the
brain; so that the conclusion was irresistible, that these canals had the same
right to be regarded as regulators of muscular motions as any parts of the
brain, a conclusion obviously absurd, and which could not have followed had
the method of investigation been correct. Bouillaud, in instituting experi-
ments of this description, has devoted a particular series to investigating the
functions of the anterior lobes of the brain, and although the result at which
he has arrived is too vague and general to advance our knowledge much, still
it is so far satisfactory as to lead to something like a determinate result, and
one that is in accordance with results obtained by other modes of investiga-
tion. According to Bouillaud, ablation of the anterior part of the brain was
always attended by a state resembling idiotcy, the power of discriminating
external objects being totally lost, although the faculties of sensation seemed
still to exist; and hence the conclusion that the anterior part of the brain is
the seat of the several intellectual faculties. Bouillaud was so far fortunate
in this experiment, that in removing the anterior lobe of the brain he sepa-
rated a part which possesses a distinction of function ;—but how vague the
information imparted—no attempt to locate a single one of “the several
intellectual functions,” the seat of all of which is placed in this anterior part.
Such attempt, however, must have been vain by such a method, and the
amount of information obtained by vivisection must after all be allowed to
be but smallindeed. Accidents occurring in the human subject, occasionally
afford a rude specimen of the result of such method as applied to investi-
gating the functions of the brain in man—but here the result is not only
curious, but somewhat startling; for the loss of large portions of brain from
the anterior lobes is recorded to have occurred without any disturbance of
the intellectual powers. Some remarkable cases, indeed, of injury of the
brain are on record, which at present appear inexplicable upon any view of
the subject, for they would go, not only to disprove the uses of particular
parts of the brain, but the utility of brains at all; but in thus proving too
much, they obviously prove nothing. Farther and more careful observations
are necessary; in particular, attention should be directed to ascertain whether
both hemispheres of the brain be alike injured, as we know that one side

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS. 345

is able to carry on its functions independently of the other. The inadequacy
of the vivisecting method being thus made manifest, we turn to consider
another and more popular mode of inquiry among medical men, and that is
the pathological method, or rather the study of morbid anatomy as regards
the brain. The pathologist considered that by watching the effects of disease
as well as injury, and awaiting the result, he would meet with a sufficient
number of cases in which particular parts of the brain were diseased, and
hence their functions deranged, to be able to tell, by comparing the symptoms
during life with the morbid appearances after death, what relation subsisted
between the several parts and the functions exercised by those parts. But
here again we are met by difficulties somewhat analogous to those which
we have seen beset and embarrass the mode of investigation by ablation of
parts. There is perhaps a greater chance that morbid action would be set
up in one part of the brain, and be confined thereto, than that we should
light upon a single organ in our attempts to cut out parts separately, and
succeed in removing that part singly, neither more nor less: but how sel-
dom in disease have we its ravages so strictly confined, or an absence of
general or sympathetic disturbance involving neighbouring or distant parts
more or less. Again, it must depend on the nature of the morbid action,
whether the function, even when disturbed, be exalted, diminished, or
altogether suppressed ; while how difficult is it to determine respecting
any individual labouring under severe illness, especially disease of the
brain, to what degree any of his mental or moral powers be affected
beyond the information to be obtained from his giving rational answers
or not, to a few common-place questions. Morbid anatomy is useful in
prosecuting the enquiry now proposed, it like everything else, has its
proper time and place. Some light had, however, been thrown on these
subjects by pathological investigation; and the continued prosecution of
the inquiry, with due precaution, would doubtless add still farther to
our knowledge. On reviewing, however, what had been as yet actually
done by pathology in the way of connecting derangement of function
with disorder of particular parts of the brain, but two points seem to
have been with any certainty established ; and these were the relation be-
tween loss of power of utterance and an alteration of the anterior lobules of
the hemispheres, and between derangements of the generative system and
alteration of one of the lobes of the cerebellum. These statements were
originally made by a French author of note. Other relations were said to
exist between affections of the extremities, upper or lower, and some of the
deeper-seated parts of the brain; but these had nothing to do with the higher
functions attributed to the brain, and which he was more particularly consi-
dering; while even these relations between the parts alluded to were con-
tradictory of the result obtained by those who experimented on the same
parts in living animals. As yet, then, it did not appear that much light had
been thrown on the subject by pathological inquires. The two conclusions
pointed out, however, were in accordance with the result of observation
made by an altogether different method, and, as far as they went, corrobo-
rated the existence and situation of the organs of language and amativeness.
New facts of course would be thus made out, but as being in itself an ade-
quate method for discovering the functions of the brain, doubts might rea-
sonably be entertained of the efficiency of mere morbid anatomy.

346 MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS.

Another set of inquirers now entered the field, who, seeing the disadvan-
tages of attempting to investigate the functions of the brain, by examining
that organ in an unnatural or unhealthy condition, proposed to investigate it
only in its healthy and natural state ; and, by considering its developement,
to determine its functions. Perhaps this may be denominated the physiolo-
gical method; or that, which, by comparisons regarding the size of the organ
in man and other animals, sought thus to determine in what man’s intellec-
tual superiority consisfed. ‘ Man has absolutely the largest brain of any
animal in creation, and hence man’s intellect is superior.” This was a plau-
sible dogma, and had the support of some great names, and much apparent
truth; but, unfortunately for those supporting this opinion, it did not prove
to be absolutely true, and so, necessarily fell to the ground. Man, in fact,
has not the largest brain of all animals—the brain of the elephant and whale
being larger ;—hence man’s superiority to these animals consisted not in the
superior size of the brain: well, said others, we see this, and give up that
test ; but, though man’s brain be not absolutely the largest, it is surely the
largest in proportion to his body—and this is the reason of his superior intel-
ligence. But this test was less fortunate than the former; for the wren, the
sparrow, the canary, and many monkeys, have been found to possess brains
larger, in proportion to the size of their bodies, than man; but it has not
been proved, though each may be clever enough in his way, that any of them
surpass man in intelligence. This mode of comparison not answering, the
brain was next compared in size to the spinal marrow, and man was said to
surpass in intellect, because in him the brain exceeded the spinal marrow
more than in any other animal. Sommering, in particular, supported this
opinion, but it is not tenable as matter of fact; there are exceptions, and
Cuvier points out the dolphin as one.

The next mode of comparison adopted, was that of comparing the brain
with the size of the bones of the face. The larger the brain was in compari-
son to the face, the greater would be the intellectual power; and hence the
superiority of man over all other animals, and even of one man over another;
because the size of the brain compared with that of the face was the largest.
This sounds silly enough; and yet this is, in truth, neither more nor less
than an enunciation of Camper’s celebrated “ Facial Angle”—one of the
most popular, and apparently successful, tests of this kind that has been’
proposed; and which continues in favour with many physiologists. This
angle (as all know) was formed by a line drawn horizontally from the roots
of the incisor teeth of the upper jaw, to the opening of the ear, which, being
intersected by a line drawn perpendicularly from the same incisor teeth to
the most elevated part of the forehead, constituted an angle, the capacity of
which was to be taken as the measure of intellect. Now, it happened that,
in this mode of comparison, there accidentally existed an element of truth,
which accounts for its apparent success in many cases. The perpendicular
line, in fact, gave a rude measure of the degree of projection of the forehead,
or development of the anterior lobes of the brain, which are agreed upon by
all observers, as more particularly connected with the intellectual powers.
The more the forehead projected, the larger the angle would become—hence
the apparent truth of the test ;—but, ona closer view of the subject, it will
not bear examination. The facial angle of the infant is greater than that of
the man, (as 90° to 86°, according to Cuvier)—hence the infant should have

NOTICES OF BOOKS. 347
superior intelligence. The facial angle, in nearly three-fourths of the lower
animals, is, according to Blumenbach, the same; yet how different are these
animals in their various degrees of intelligence! But it is unnecessary to
dwell upon the incompetency of methods of investigation, which took the
whole brain for a single organ, and made that the organ of intellect as a sin-
gle mental power, and then attempted to establish the relation between the
two, by comparing the brain with something between which and the brain no
necessary relation existed. ;

A new observer now appeared in the field—a man rarely endowed with
the power of observing facts and thinking for himself—a close interrogator of
nature, and a strict adherent to the inductive method of investigation. This
was the celebrated Dr. Gall. In attempting to investigate the functions of
the brain, he did not look upon it as a single organ exercising a single func-
tion ; but, regarding it in its natural condition as a congeries of organs, or
collection of parts, he endeavoured to determine the use or function of each,
by comparing the developement of one part with that of another, in the same
brain, taking size as a measure of power. he result of his observations was,
to lead him to the conclusion, that the intellectual organs, or the parts of the
brain by which our intellectual powers are manifested, have their seat in the
anterior lobes of the brain: the organs of the moral powers are situated in
the superior parts; while the lower propensities or passions, which we share
in common with the inferior animals, have their seat below and behind.

The line of investigation pursued by Dr. Gall, in endeavouring to discover
the functions of the brain, was free from many objections that held against
other methods ; and, being in itself good, could not but lead to good results.
This was a physiological, not a phrenological question.

NOTICES OF BOOKS.

1.—Views of the Architecture of Arrangements, and of the Origin and

the Heavens; in a series of Letters
to a Lady; by J. P. Nichol, LL.D.,
F.R.S.E. Professor of Practical As-
tronomy in the University of Glas-
on: 8vo. pp. xij., 226; Edinburgh,

ndon and Dublin, 1837. Dr. Nich-
ol’s object, in these Views, is—“to
state what recent times have evolved
concerning the vastness of the Uni-
verse,” in simple popular language.
This subject is properly distributed
into three distinct parts under which
he treats successively of—the Form
of the Existing Universe, of the
Principle of the Vitality of Stellary

VOL. VII., NO. XXII.

probable Destiny of the present Form
of the Material Creation. He then
adds Notes on the planetary system,
on the orbits of double stars, on the
geological changes, and on the exact
places of the more important objects
represented in his plates. These are
thirty-two in number, and their exe-
cution is so perfect that, in most
cases, they will amply compensate
for the want of powerful telescopes.
Dr. Nichol’s Views, in aim and ac-
complishment, merit the highest com-
mendations: their “ Nebular Hypo-
thesis” will conduce effectually to the
RS

348

solution of not a few hitherto unsur-
mountable difficulties both in Astro-
nomy and Geology.

2.—The Tourist in Spain and Mo-
rocco, by Thomas Roscoe ; illustrated
from Drawings by David Roberts ;
8vo. London and Paris, 1838; pp. xij.
292; embellished with twenty-one
engravings. This volume constitutes
Jennings’ Landscape Annual for 1838;
it closes the series upon Spain, and
embraces some views in Morocco—
two countries closely associated in
their history and vicissitudes, and
their influence upon other nations:
and, in addition to former recommen-
dations, it contains a greater variety
than its predecessors, both in regard
to country and to the character of the
plates, as well as to the costume,
manners and grouping of the sub-
jects. It concludes with an exceed-
ingly graphic view and description of
Constantina, so lately the bloody scene
of battle and brutality. Those who
relish this sort of Literature, will be
gratified with the vivacity of Mr.
Roscoe’s descriptions and philosophy.
The Gate of the Hospicio at Madrid,
the Interior of the Cathedral of Se-
ville, and the Vestibule of the Trea-
sury, at Tangiers, may be specified
as picturesque illustrations of genu-
ine Landscape scenery. Portugal, un-
der new arrangements, will form the
next volume of this “ Annual :” the
present rivals all the former ones;
and it is equally deserving of the li-
beral patronage, with which the work
has invariably been received.

3.—The Oriental Annual for 1828;
or Scenes in India, by the Kev. Ho-
bart Counter, B.D. with twenty-two
engravings from drawings by William
Daniell, R. A. 8vo. London, 1838;
pp- 242.—This volume is of a more
miscellaneous character than those of
the “ Oriental” which have preceded
it. The Tales in the Text are well
told: the Plates are beautiful; they
are distinguished by an uncommon
softness, richness and individuality.
Among them, the Zoologist will find
the “ Fretful Porcupine” for a sub-
ject on which to ponder: the portrait
of a Malabar Hindoo, with an “ im-
mense expansion of forehead beto-
kening a mass of brains,” might form
a fair theme for phrenological con-

NOTICES OF BOOKS.

templation; and, in the Mausoleum
of Humayoon or the Minar at Fut-
tepoor, or the Mausoleum of Nizam-
ud-Deen Oulea, the architect will dis-
cover a “ Study” admirably calcu-
lated to create a spirit of emulation
and wonder. ‘There is a fine fresh
“ Scene” representing a Female Pea-
sant of Ceylon, the heroine of a Tale
replete with romantic horrors. The
Scenery, outside and inside, of this
“ Annual” is exquisite.

4.—A Dissertation on the Causes
and Effects of Disease, considered in
reference to the Moral Constitution
of Man, by Henry Clark Barlow,
M.D. 8vo. A. & C. Black, Edinburgh;
Longman, London, 1837; pp. viii. 79.
This is a new verson of the author’s
Inaugural Dissertation, set forth at
the time of his obtaining the doctor-
ate. It was then received in a “ very
flattering manner” by the Medical
Faculty of the Edinburgh University,
and it is now published in the hope
that “ by thus endeavouring to point
out the true Philosophy of Disease,
some addition might be made to the
great argument for the power, wis-
dom and goodness of God, as mani-
fested in the creation. The spirit of
this dissertation is modestly indicated
in its motto from Lord Bacon, “ Thy
creatures have been my books, but
thy Scriptures much more.” We like
Dr. B.’s principles for the most part,
and greatly respect the object of his
essay : we may examine them analy-
tically, on a future occasion.

5.—The Transactions of the Pro-
vincial Medical and Surgical Associa-
tion, instituted in 1837. Part I., Vo-
lume vi.; 8vo. London, 1837; pp. xij.
122._This volume comprises an ac-
count of the meeting and proceedings
of the Association at Cheltenham, in
July 1837; the Retrospective Ad-
dress by Dr. Bardsley of Manchester,
and Observations introductory to a
Plan for the Reports of Hospitals,
by Dr. Cowan of Reading, to which
the Objects and Laws of the Associa-
tion are subjoined. Prefixed to this

Jivst part, is a coloured figure of a

monstrous child: the second will be
published in the spring. Let this
Association persevere in pursuing its
objects, as these are every way ex-
cellent ; and, in succesfully attaining

NOTICES OF BOOKS. 349

these objects, it will extinguish the
inflammatory efforts of all those fire-
brands who may exert a malicious ac-
tivity in struggling to kindle the
flames of dissension among its mem-
bers, as the sure means of consum-
mating the degradation of an honora-
ble and benevolent profession.

6.—A First Grammar of the Latin
Language, designed for Schools or
private tuition; by the Rev. W.
Butler, M. A. Head-Master of the
Grammar School, Nottingham: 12mo.
Nottingham and London, 1837; pp.
128.—Mr. Butler’s object, in this lit-
tle work of his, is to supply what he
considers to be a desideratum both
with schoolmasters and private teach-
ers—a “ First Grammar of Latin,
at once plain in language, accurate and
precise in definitions and rules, and
sufficiently comprehensive in its plan,”
to guide the pupil in translating,
parsing, and scanning, as_ usually
practised in schools. Mr. B.’s book
will supply the Desideratum indicated
by him: his plan is good, its execu-
tion highly meritorious.

7.— Recreations in Retirement; by
an Old Tradesman; 12mo. Notting-

_ ham and London, 1837; pp. 348.—

These are very agreeable Recrea-
tions: their characteristics are mo-

desty, sincerity and benevolence: they
shew a considerable range of reading,
well chosen and well digested. The
author has evidently cultivated li-
beral principles, through the right
process of observation and reftection:
he is an intelligent friend of civil and
religious liberty ; he execrates slavery
as an intolerable and inhuman abo-
mination ; and he denounces republi-
can government as an unnatural sys-
tem, tending inherently to practice
the worst kinds of cruelty and des-
potism. The Old Tracesman’s sub-
jects are forty-one in number, and
deserye every encouragement, both
on account of their objects and their
intrinsic merits.

9. A History of British Quadru-
peds, including the Cetacea, illustrat-
ed by nearly 200 wood-cuts, by Tho-
mas Bell, F.R.S., 8vo., London, 1937;
No. xi., pp. xviii, 526—Mr. Bell’s
History of British Quadrupeds is
now complete, and it forms a contri-
bution to British Zoology wherein
the graphic fidelity of the figures, the
beauty and aptness of the vignettes,
and the perspicuous accuracy of the
history, have never been surpassed.
An analytical account of this admira-
ble volume shall have a place in a fu-
ture No. of this journal.

METEOROLOGICAL REPORT.

OBSERVATIONS.

Oct. 19.—An aurora borealis seen at half-past seven p.m., the air very
soon afterwards clouded over.

Oct. 20.—A very remarkable sunset large and broad rays extending from
the west to near the zenith.

Nov. 5.—64 p.m. A deep blue sky on the N. and N.E. with some cloud
and patches of a very yellow light. 11 p.m. a very brilliant steady and
large aurora lighting up every thing ; dark clouds towards the N. E.

Nov. 12.—65 p.m. A very beautiful display of aurora, but overpowered
by the full moon, quickly changing, large red patches, and streams reaching
to the zenith.

Noy. 14.1] p.m. Light clouds driving past from the North, occasional
breaks in them, through which the moon is visible, it is clear in the west, a
few stars can be seen, and several patches of a broad diffused fiery red,
changing about and forming an interesting auroral appearance.

SEPTEMBER.
1837 | Sarometer. | Thermometer. Remarks.
Sep. | Morn. |Even.| Min. | Max. Day. Night. Wind.

1 | 28.940 45 59 Fine, showers Westerly

2 | 29.070 | 29.186} 48 60 Showers N. E.

3 | 29.244 | 29.420| 45 | 57 | Cloudy, rain Rain Northerly
4 | 29.472 29.363) 46 57 Cloudy, fine, sun Cloudy Northerly

5 | 29.392 | 29.392] 44 60 Fine, sun, clouds Fine N. Easterly
6 | 29.560 | 29.490 44 65 Fine, fog below, sun Fine Westerly

7 | 29.384 54 65 Clouds, sun, rain eyng.| Cloudy Ss. W.

8 | 29.466 | 29.422] 48 64 Fine Showers Southerly
9 | 29.360 | 28.116) 48 60 Cloudy, heavy showers | Cloudy Vbte. S. W.
10 | 29.384 | 29.370 | 50 63 Cloudy, fine Westerly
1] | 29.206 55 60 Rain S. W.

12 | 2Y 252 | 28.928] 46 60 Fog, fine, rain p. m. Southerly
13 | 28.600 | 28.676 | 50 60 Clouds, sbhrs., hvy rain | Showers Southerly
14 | 28.932 | 29. 48 60 Sun, showers, & wind | Rain Wstly., fresh
15 29.160 29. 42 56 Fine, sun Clear, fine W.N. W.
16 | 29.450 29. 45 60 Rain, fine p. m. Fine S.W.

17 | 29.520 | 58 | 65 Cloudy, mild Fine Westerly

18 | 29.458 2 60 65 Showers Cloudy, fine S. W.

19 | 29.648 54 68 Fine, cloudy, damp) Clondy, fine S.W.
20 | 29.482 | 2 60 67 Very fine Cloudy Southerly
21 | 29.480 | 2 51 59°5 | C,ouds, fog, fine Fine Sly. & Estly.
22 | 29.616 | 52 625 | Clouds and sun, fine Fine Easterly
23 | 29.648 | 50 61 Fine, sun Fine Easterly
24 | 29.786 | 29.850] 46 56.5 | Fine, sun Fine Easterly, fr.
25 | 29.376 | 29.880] 44 53 Fine, clouds, sun Fine Easterly, fr.
26 | 29.812 | 29.708| 46 57.5 | Fine, clouds, sun Fine Calm, vble.
27 | 29.682 | 29.660| 43 53 Cloudy, light showers Fine N. E.
28 | 29.634 | 29595} 47 54.5 | Cloudy, fine Cloudy, fine N.E., light
29 | 29,582 | 29.520] 48.5 60 Fine, fog early, sun Fog early E. 8. E.
30 | 29.478 cing 45 64 Fine, sunandcloud | Fine Easterly, lgt.

\

Mean Min. 48.75 6058 Mean Max.

METEOROLOGICAL REPORT.

351

OCTOBER.
1837 | Barometer. | Thermometer. Remarks.
Oct. | Morn.| Even. | Min. ) Max. Day. Night. Wind
1 | 29.390 | 29.516 | 55 60 Cloudy, fog, rain Calm
2 | 29.664 | 29.696 | 52 67 Clouds, sun, fine Fine Ss. W.
3 | 29.608 | 29.472 | 54.5 68 Fine, sun, rain p.m. Fine S. W.
4 | 2.540 | 29.664 | 56 65 Fine, sun Rain s.W
5 | 29.730| 29.652 | 50.5 | 65 Sun’and clouds Fine Westerly
6 | 29.564 | 29.720 | 50 62.5 | Fine, sun, clouds Rain West
7 | 29.768} 29.750 | 48 62 Fine Fine N. W.
8 | 29.684] 24.768 | 54 61 Clouds, showers, fine | Fine N. W.
9 | 29.846 | 29.846 | 45 58 Fine, sun Fine W.N. W.
10 | 29.854] 29.860 | 50 62 Fine, clouds Fine Ss. W.
11 | 29 890} 2.970 | 49 62 Fine, cloudy Fine Westerly
12} 30.040 59 Fine, cloudy
13 | 30.135) 30.156 | 42 55 Fine, all sun Fine, eclipse
14 | 30.228) 30.200 | 38.5 | 51.5 | Very fine, sun Fine Northerly
15 | 30.166 | 30.086 | 40 53.5 | Very fine, clouds Fine Northerly
16 | 30.006 | 29.900 | 40-5 | 54 | Cloudy, fine Fine Westerly
17 | 29.810| 29.678 | 46-5 | 56 | Cloudy, fine Westerly
18 | 29 626| 29840 | 47 60 Very fine Light rain W.S. W.
19 | 29.930} 29.984 | 41.5 | 54 Very fine, aurora Fine Calm,vble.
20 | 30,074 | 30.150 | 44:5 | 61 Very fine Fine Northerly
21 | 30.150 | 30.034 | 50 61 Very fine, all sun Fine, cloudy Southerly
22 | 29 942 | 29.784} 48.5 | 63 | Very fine, showers p.m. | Fine Westerly
23 | 29.558 | 29.268 | 50 59 Cloudy, showers & rain | Rain W.& S. W.
24 | 29.094| 29060 | 47 50 ‘| Showers, thunder, fine | Cloudy W.N. W
25 | 29.326] 29.588 | 32.5 | 45 | Fine, cloudsandsun | Haze N.N. E
26 | 29.516} 29.260 | 37 54.5 | Fine, windy, cloudy Fine S. W.
27 | 29.000} 29.165 | 46 46 Rain and wind High wind Westerly
28 28.860 | 39 49 | Fine, showers p, m. Ss. W.
29 | 28.940} 28,992 | 35 48 | Showers Fine Southerly
30 | 28.838) 28.860} 42 57 Wind and rain Ss. W.
31 | 28.828| 29000 | 39 48 | Wind and showers Windy Westerly
Mean Min.457 57.3 Mean Max.
NOVEMBER.
1837 , Barometer. Thermometer Remarks.
Nov. | Morn. Eved-. | Min. | Max.’ Day. Night. Wind.
1} 28.450 | 28.584] 40 54 | Constant rain West
2 | 28.582 | 28,634 | 37 43 | Windy and showers Showers West
3 | 28.760 | 29.020} 32.5 | 44 | Fine, sun, showers Fine Light, wstly.
4 | 29 260 | 29.570) 33.5 | 46 | Fine, showers Fine Ww. N. W.
5 | 29.588 | 29770 | 37 51 Fine, aurora Fine, clouds Ss. W.
6 | 29.848 | 29.910 | 40 50 | Fine Calm, Wrly.
7 | 29,930 | 29.882 | 42 51.5 | Fiue, cloudy Fine Ss. W.
8 | 29.832 | 29.740 | 37 48 Clouds, fine, sun Fine, clear Ss. W.
9 | 29,632 | 29.566 | 39 52 | Fine, cloudy Fine Light, soly.
10 | 29.542 | 29.506 | 47.5 | 555 | Cloudy, fine Rain Westerly
11 | 29,551) | 29568 | 47 52 | Fine N. W.
12 | 29.636 | 29.760 | 38.5 47 Fine, red aurora Fine N. W.
13 | 29.664 | 29.360 | 38 49 | Fog and misty rain Fine Calm, soly.
14 | 29.144} 29334] 39.5 | 44.5 | Rain, red aurora Rain Variable
15 | 29,600 | 29.676 | 34 42 | Fine, aurora Cloudy Northerly
16 | 29,596 | 29.510 | 35 42 | Fine, cloudy Fine N.E.
17 | 29,590 | 29.684 | 28 37 | Very fine Fine Northerly
18 | 29.636 | 29.688 | 29 44 |Clouds,lightshowers | Fine Westerly
19 | 29,480 | 29.390 | 40 53 | Cloudy, rain S. W.
20 | 29,374 | 29.390 | 39 48 Fine, clouds, showers Cloudy Northerly
21 | 29 372 | 29.530 | 35 44 | Windy and showers WN.W.
22 | 29,400 | 29.366 | 43 54 | Cloudy, light rain Rain S.W.
23 | 29.220 | 29.330} 50 | 52 | Rain, fine in evening | Clouds & wind) S. W.
24 | 29,492 | 29550) 39 | 46 | Fine Calm, wstrly.
25 | 29.684 | 29.790 | 35 43 | Very fine, all sun Fine Northerly
26 | 29.500 | 29.086 | 33 48 5 | Wind and showers Fine S. W.
27 | 29.126 | 29.988 | 35 44 | Fine, showery Southerly
28) 99,900 | 29.842 | 39 42.5 | Cloudy, light rain Fine W. N. W.
29) 29.146 | 29.268] 32 | 38 | Fine, sun Fine Northerly
30) 29.172 | 28.090 | 32 S. W.

Mean Min. 37.5

| 49.5 | Cloudy, rain

47.1 Mean Max.

INDEX,

Adam Afzelius, 165

Addison’s Lecture on Natural His-
tory, 188

/Eronautical Expedition, 129

Alpine Forests, 159

Alpine Pasturage, 157

American Pigeon, 139

Amonites, 199

Anatomy, knowledge of, necessary
for the preservation of health, 77

Anecdote of Bach’s perseverance, 6

Angus, Charles, murder of Miss
Burns, 31

Apparatus for withdrawing Atmos-
pheric Pressure, 339

Architecture, beauties of, 200

Argonauts, 148

Artemisia, Queen of Caria, 172

Artemisia, the Plant, 173

Association for exploring Central Af-
rica, 95

Bach, Vart de la Fugue,

and his Works, 3

Baden-Baden, its Situation and Ther-
mal Springs, 106

Badger, The, 154

Basilisk, The, 151

Bible, the Literary Beauty of, 297

Birmingham Musical Festival, 237

Boll, with its sulphureous Spring, 110

Botanical Geography of the South of
Europe, 50

Botanists whose Names are comme-
morated in the Appellations of
Plants, 171

Botany, its Divisions, 193

Boughton, Sir T., case of Poison, 23

Burdock, M. A., convicted at Bristol,

28
Buswell, Judith, Murder of, 30
Blyth’s Ornithological Lecture, 312

Caloricity of Mineral Waters, refera-
ble to Electrical Causes, 108

Campsall Society, 99

Cape of Good Hope Association, 96

Care in the choice of a Preceptor for
Youth, 65

Carlsbad and the Bohemian Spas, 115

Carnstadt Waters, 109

Chiron the Centaur, 174

Chironia Centaurium, the Plant, 176

Church Music, 149

Circumstantial Evidence, Essay on,19

Cirl Bunting, the 357

Classification of Birds by different
Ornithologists, 134

Coal Gas used in inflating Balloons,
130

Coal Basins, Origin of, 248

Combe’s System of Phrenology, 84

Corpus delicti, Cases difficult to as-
certain, 2]

Crania of Birds, 140

Crania, found in the Ancient Mounds
of North America, 336

Critical Notices of New Publications,
102, 292

Development of Musical Genius at-
tributed to Hereditary Influence,
57

Divi Botanici, 171

Distress of this Country, Causes of

209
Dorset, Earl of, Letter from, 277
Donovan, E. (F.L.S.) 165
Downing, Case of Mrs., poisoning, 26

Education, as it is andas it should be,
63

aot fe

—————_— cannot compensate for
Natural Deficiencies, 76

Eflect of Climate on different Indivi-
duals, 111

Effects of the Expansive Power of
Balloons at suddenly increased ele-
vations, 132

Ehrenberg, upon Fossil {nfusoria, 60

Elliotson’s, Dr., Remarks on Phreno-
logy, 84

Encroachment of the Sea, 341

Entomological Society, 91

Erroneous Conviction, Cases of, 20

Excursions through the Highlands
and Isles of Scotland, 123

a

INDEX.

Expression in Architecture, 202
Extracts from Foreign Journals, 163

Flora Metropolitana, 143

Fossil Infusoria, 60

Franzenbad, with its Gas and Mud
Baths, 121

Fossil Remains, 342

Gall’s Discoveries, 149

Garden Thrush, 150

Gastein, its Warm Baths, 113

Geological Excursion by Professor
Phillips, 163

Geology, 341

Glaciers, Mechanism of the Motion
of, 340

—_——_- Observations the
Structure of Kent, 85

Genius, with its Results, 10

Gould’s “ Birds of Europe, 135, 353

Granville on the Spas of Germany,
102

Griesbach and Rippoldsau Mineral
Water, 107.

on

Harmony and Melody combined, 12

Heart, The, erroneously supposed
the Seat of the Mind, 71

Helebore, 180

Henry, Prince, Son of James I., sup-
posed murder of, by poison, 280

Ichthyosaurus, fossil, found at Bar-
row, 233
Ideality the soul of Art, 212
Infusoria, variety of, 61
41,000,000,000 (!) ina cubic
inch, 62
in the Waters of Carlsbad,
118
Insects, destruction of, by means of
bruised Laurel leaves, 148
Intellectual Monstrosity, 240
Irvin’s Inaugural Address to the Lei-
cester Society, 320

James I., Character and Conduct of,
267

Jones’s Lecture at Staines, 142

Journal of a Horticultural Tour
through Germany, &c., 128

King Fisher, The Common, 340
Kingly Power, Abuse of, by James I.
284

Lawrance’s Lecture on fossil Fruit,
327
Language not Knowledge, 78

353

Leighton’s Catalogue of Cryptogam-
ous Plants, 161

Levison’s Letter, 89

Lias, its geographical position, 234

Lienbensall, 109

Link’s Contributions to the Botanical
Geography of the South of Europe,
50

Literary Intelligence, 166
Leicester Literary and Philosophical
Society, 320

MacGillivray’s “ British Birds,” 133

Man cannot Cultivate all his Powers
equally, 76

Manton, Master William, the Infant

Paganini, 56

Marten, Maria, Murder of, 32

Marine Animals in the Stone of the

Isle of France, 62

Melampsus the Prophet, 177

Melampodium, the Plant, 180

Marienbad, 120

Meteorological Report, 169, 350

Microscopic experiments on Confer-
vee thermales and Schlegm, (bath
slime) 115

Mineral Waters act as Alteratives,
103

Mode of regulating the Altitude of
Balloons, 134

Monk Mason’s rial Expedition,
129

Mounsey, Miss, Duet by, 145

Mourg, Valley of the, 107

Mr. —, case of attempting to Poison
his Wife, 33

Mud Baths, The Antiquity of, 103

Munich, 111

Musical Education, Present state of,
18

Musical Precocity, 54

— Festivals, sources of the
highest mental gratification, 210

Music, Instrumental, 145, 307

ee) Bennett sae
mances for the Piano-forte 311

Vocal, Chants by Havergal,

143

Catechisms, 150

derived from Nature, 210

— calculated to promote deyo-
tion, 215

Natural History, General View of
the Subjects of, 188

Nassau Spas, 122

New Publications, 167

Nodules, Probable Cause of Forma-
tion of, 239

354 INDEX.

Oats, Variety of with edible Fruit, 53

Obituary 165

Organology confounded with Phreno-
logy, 83

Organised Beings, 151

Ornithology, European, Sketches of,
35, 253

Ornithological Society of London, 199
312

Observations on the South Stafford-
shire Coal-field, 237

Pass of the Stilvio, 159

Pearls, Formation of, 198

Phillips, the Infant Trumpeter, 54

Phrenology, System of, 84

Pigeons, and their Faculty of Locali-
ty, 141

Pineapples at Genoa, 152

Pine, Grecian, 53

Pinus halepensis, 52

——- pinaster, 53

Pityocampas, the Bandit, 53

Plants bodieuting difference of longi-
tude, 52

Popular Considerations on the Use
and Power of Mineral Waters, 103

Poriphera, Structure of, 194

Powers of Man limited, 77

Practical Ornithology not cruel, 138

Proceedings of Societies, 91, 312

Progress of the Pupil mainly depend-
ent on the Teacher, 78

Prussic Acid, Effects of on a Rabit,
151

Rules for the Use of Mineral Wa-
ters, 104

Radiata, 194

Sandstone at Rugen and Geneva, 50
Schrada, H. N., 165

Sea Grape, 343

Seb. Bach and his Works, 3

Shaw the Organist, 56

Shrewsbury, Memorials of, 141

Silence on the Ocean, 132

Siliceous Concrete of Franzenbad, 60

Sketch of Bach’s Life, 6

Smith’s Excursions in the Highlands,
123

Sprudel, 115

Staine’s Literary and Scientific In-
stitution, 97

South Staffordshire Coal-field, 237

Teal, Common, 36

Theory of Music, 150
Teucer, 183

Teucrium, the Plant, 186
Threlkeld, Dr., Notice of, 296

Vasculares, 193

Vocal Works of Bach, 13
Vegetable Physiology, 342
Vertebrata, 194, 199
Veneration, Misdirected, 214

Warping Land in Lincolnshire, Me-
thod of, 87

Warwickshire Natural History and
Archeological Society, 92

Webbe’s Fugues for the Organ, 148

Whortleberry well adapted to indi-
cate the elevation of the Surface, 50

Wildbad Baths, 107

Watson’s “ Botanical Guide,” 292

Wesley’s “ Funeral Anthem for the
Organ, 307

Wills, On Circumstantial Evidence,
19

Yarrell’s “ British Birds,” 141
York and Birmingham Organs, Rela-
tive size of, 337

Zoology the most Interesting Sub-
ject, 75
» its four Divisions, 193

END OF VOL. VII.

BARLOW, PRINTER, BIRMINGHAM.
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Specimens of the Wood-Engraving in the Volume for 1837, of the
New Series of the Magazine of Natural History.

1. Cut illustrating the paper of Mr. Yarrell and Dr. Clarke, on the capture of the genus
Hemiramphus, on the Suffolk coast.

2. Rey. W. T. Bree’s observations on the Lunar Hornet Sphinx.

8. Communication of Viscountess Sidmouth, on a Fossil Crocodile.

4. Memoir of M. Leon Dufour on the Tarantula.

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1. Mr. Harvey, on the animals of some Corals.
2 Mr. Charlesworth, on a form of Fossil Cephalopodous Shells, connecting the genera
Nautilus and Ammonites.
3. Mr. Sowerby, on the proposed genus Cyprecassis.
4 Mr. Charlesworth, on the power which the animal
in its shell.
A 2

of the Argonaut has of repairing breaches

Specimens of Wood-cuts. 5

Mr, Charlesworth, on a gigantic Fossil T'erebratula from the Coralline Crag.

Sieh baa? anes

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The i

This day is published, No. VII. of

2

Oe

Grounds; and the Management of the Villa Farm, including
ole adapted for Grounds from one Perch to fifty Acres and ce
and Rura

ent; and intended for the instruction of those who know
irs the use of Ladies. Illustrated by numerous ngravings. +

em and Furnishing of the House: the Laying-out, Plantin
ani i ing the Dairy and

al designs for laying-out and planting grounds, of various degrees of extent,
th analytical and critical remarks on each design,

will be given of some of the most ce ebrated small places in the neighbourhood
‘ the Mode of Management, the more remarkable Plants fs &c.; and in-
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jomas Williams at Hendon Rectory ; :
mgman, Esq., at Hampstead ; of the Duke of Bedford at Camden Hill; of W. Wells,
iq-, at Redleaf, &c.; and, as a conclusion to the whole, will be gi

re remarkable Suburban Gardens within ten miles of London, pointing out their character-

+

» By the same Author,

lecently published, in one thick 8vo. Volume, Price £3., a new Edition, corrected, and with
p above a hundred of the Plates re-engraved,

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the great mass of Society in
roduce a popular work

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The main object of this Work is to improve the Dwellings of

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‘PHE ARCHITECTURAL MAGAZINE, ann Journar
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or ImPpROVEMENT IN AR-
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¥ 4 5 ee ares a:
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“To. MR. CHARLESWORTH, er
EDITOR OF LOUDOW’S “ MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HIST ‘ORY.

1R,—Mr. Neville Wood having determined (and peak oligkss"
pages of The Naturalist with any “communication of a controversial chara
your name is connected, I am compelled to resort to this mode of” contradicti
you have made in your critical notice of The Naturalist, in the October numb;
- cine.of Natural History.
The anxiety you evince in this article to. promote your own pecuniary i
gesting the suppression of all periodicals devoted to the illustration of Nat
ept, of course, the publication of which you are the Paiva) ae already ex
« eand contempt as to require no farther comment ; and I have no wishiwh
question the good taste you have displayed, in your editorial capacity, u
you haye, however, also thetight proper, in your virulent abuse of The
that I am still connected with that publication, I do not hesitate to state th
assertion, you have wilfully and deliberately advanced what you KNow to be FALSE
You are perfectly well aware that I have had no interest whatever in
since the appearance of the sixth number in January last, as you commence one 4
netic commentaries on that work, in May last, by observing, ‘‘ The late conductors
turalist, Messrs. Holl and Maund, pee thought it expedi jent to resign the edite
publication, its continuation has been undertaken by Neville Wood, Esq.”
This extract eleary, proves that when you wrote your critical (?) notice in sia
you were Conscious of the fact that I had long sinceceased to edit the work ; but in ¥
iety to gratify your vindictive spirit you lose sight of the degradation you incur ‘by
assertions totally at variance’ with truth.
ill close this communication by recommending your perusal of an extract
Sheffield Iris, which appears on the cover of The Natur alist for November ast
evident proof of the estimation in which your conduct is held by the public press
T remain, Sir,

“Yours iently, 2%.
ov TLLIAM.

' This day is published, price 2s. 6d—No. £ ofa ; ss ie
N “EW SERIES. of the PHRENOLOGICAL JOURNAL ; ‘being No. i]

in _ Continuation of the former se

Contents :—Strictures on- “the ’ Fallacy of Tiedeman’s Coryari son’s of.
European Brain, by ANprew Compe, M.D.—Letters on the ‘State of Plirenolog :
many, by GeorcE “Comur, Esq.On the Function of the orgen of Tune.—On
ments in the Phrenological ‘Bust, by Mt. E. J. Hyrcu.-—Case tending to show ih “Existe
of distinct organs of oncentrativeness and Inhabitiveness.—Cases of peculiar Reviv
Memory.— Case of Spectral Illusions.—Case of Musical Monomania.—Critical Noti
New Books.—Various Short Communications, from Mr. Hewerr Watson, Mr. R
Com &c.— Miscellaneous Intelligence touching the progress of Phrenology, ee a? ,

London : Surin, Manswatt, and Co. a”

“ae NATURALIST; a Monthly Journal, illustrative of the hae Veg
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Vol. II., just completed, in green cloth, Price 18s., with beautiful Engravings on Indi
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No. XVI., commencing Vol. III., is published this day, Jan. 1, 1838. 3
All communications to be addressed to the care of the Publishers ; wor to Ne
Fsq., ioe oat Hall, near Dente '

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