ene i " * 4 Py 4 , . rw w™ -er on | f , No Ba FRAN ¥ go % j x 4 PAN A TF Ga PIVE TE A ii A I } AS A KINA OA * ‘RAUL LK Bs : > p laa iy () FB a y = : = . ee ee eg —— y M cM y ¥ 7" ri | i" —_ = A i » I 4 y \ f Y Haigh, | ADL | ¥ 4 we a. A 2 44 én : Greenish and Collin x. ‘ : ;- 4 j a. : y A, by | | pa i 2 : ¢ fox 4 \y ce See « : | . - e ee en Pe us t) FE i} | | . * ie” 2 ee oe = yi ' . | ” | | i = | | a ‘ ‘ La 7 i agi dis I | . “4 2 a | « f rt, | : 4“ = . ) | | . a: ~ . | . { 3 b I ts Z 3 oe ta ee i Se — elle ee os) ~~ 7 Oe < : a . - * ‘ ’ ‘ - * ~ . - 4 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from Microsoft Corporation AN Anatomical Atlas OF Vegetable Powders. BY. THE SAME .AUTHORS. 4: THE Microscopical Examination . of Foods and Drugs. AZPractical Introduction to the Methods Adopted in the Microscopical Examination of Foods and Drugs in the entire, crushed, : and powdered states. ~ BY Sap ewaveae HENRY GEORGE GREENISH. Lonpox: J. & A. CHURCHILL, tos. 6d. net. Precis de Matiére Médicale. Comprenant Povigine, les cavactéres extévieures, la structure anatomique, la composition chimique, les usages et les falsifications des Sia Sep rts @’ovigine végétale ou animale. ~ BY -M. EUGENE COLLIN. Paris: OCTAVE DOIN, EpitTevr, 12 francs. Pa ee ar? AN Anatomical Atlas Vegetable Powders Designed as an Aid to the Microscopic Analysis of Powdered Foods and Drugs. By Henry George Greenish, F.1.C., F.L.S., Professor of Pharmaceutics to the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain and Director of the Pharmacy Research Laboratory, . and Eugéne Collin, Pharmacien ; Lauwréat de l Academie des Sciences de Paris; Hanbury Gold Medallist (1903). With 638 Original Illustrations. London : / 8 Jj. & AsCHURCHILI, 7, Great Marlborough Street. 1904. PRINTED BY CLEMENTS PRINTING WORKS, LTD., NeEwsPAaPER BUILDINGS, ‘ PortuGAL STREET, Lonpon, W.C. PREFACE. URING the past few years the anatomy of drug and the microscopical characters of powdered drugs and food- substances have attracted constantly increasing attention in this and other countries; and such studies now occupy an important place in the educational curriculum of pharmacists and analysts both in Europe and in America. The works that deal with these subjects are few in number, and differ considerably in their treatment of the matter and in the character of the illustrations that form an indispensable accom- paniment, but an atlas dealing with vegetable powders from an essentially practical point of view, provided with clear and accurate illustrations, and published at a price within the means of every student, was still a desideratum. We therefore willingly accepted the invitation of the Editor of the PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL to prepare a series of articles on the subject for insertion at intervals in the Journal. These articles have formed the basis of our ** Anatomical Atlas of Vegetable Powders,’’ which, however, has been rendered more complete by the addition of a number of drugs not treated of in the PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL. Our thanks are due to the Council of the Pharmaceutical Society, and to the Editor of the PHarMACHUTICAL JOURNAL, not only for permission to reprint the articles published, but also for the unfailing courtesy which has been extended to us. } The subject matter has been divided into convenient sections, each of which is preceded by a brief discussion of the general structure of the drugs belonging to it. The anatomy of each individual drug is described, and the description followed by the enumeration in italics of the principal dingnostic characters. On the opposite page there will be found an illustration, in which the anatomical elements of the powder, especially those that serve to distinguish it from other powders, are reproduced with the greatest possible accuracy. The letters, etc., used in the illustration, together with their explanations, are arranged below it in alpha- betical order. We have endeavoured to figure only such tissues or elements, fragmentary or intact, as by their distinctive features or constant occurrence offer important and easily detected characters. We have avcided the reproduction of the various minute particles which, being found in many powders, do not assist in distinguish- ing one from the other. If the illustrations lack the artistic appearance of those in other similar works they are at least clear and accurate. Most of the drugs described are official in the British Pharmacopoeia; those that are not, together with various starches, flours, etc., have been introduced to make the work more generally useful. We trust that students of this fascinating subject will appreciate the object we have had in view, and welcome a work designed to guide them in one of the most intricate of their studies, HENRY G. GREENISH. EUGENE COLLIN. Contents. PAGE Er teeg tation As aiitys cate eo ah eee > a ieee dake PEPE SECTION I. STARCHES. LP WREEE cc Sec reres ies 6 1? Dioscorea, :isisccsss cs 16 eS aay oie ns kate SUNG 6 12 Banana (or Plantain).. 16 MIBEIOY ¥.a'0's vss de wrens 8 ROOM ARAUOE cosas oes vce ss 18 BABI Succ bes Tiere 8 Ee PEMDIOOR 555,05 shee ws > vis 18 PAIGE oo. s atten eaineeten 10 BP ADORGE soi ee ca kscs 8s s 18 GO WuCOs Fs ecwtkns ae beeen 10 OR PREEN EY g's cg wx ete wiase. oie’ s 20 Wie ORME © Monat clues come 12 ESE. fad kle'e- 6 sink betes 20 S Maranta niente. 12 PMI Eien a's)» Win tiers a s,< s 22 9 Oproume ss. s.ccvesss 14 Po PeGrl Sag0. sa. cc ess 22, 10 Tous les Mois’ ........ 14 SECTION II. FLOURS. Introduction ...... 003% 25 PETG IUO? 6 i ce kines dep anes 36 MPU WE TORE: bls n usa ore Ses 26 26 Buckwheat .......7:. 38 ON NR Ae ce eee 48 er MENT wal vv.s cs waex ee Ree 40 BP DOOLIOY i osx a5 feseekeus 30 LPB a sis rissie Sones Sas os 42 ME SS Oe slcck oso hig SA 32 MOM Pde Wica cei de dg ee ad e's 44 DR ICG 6 i ice Sowell 34 SECTION III. LEAVES. PBtVORRSON. OF. tas doses 47 MEGANE oir eS 5 adie o no 0-63 70 30 Bearberry ............ 52 40 Jaborandi ............ 72 81 Belladonna .......... 54 EN ee od ccalgtwe.e 8. ats.8 74 SS. Betony . ores casce avec 56 42 Orange ....2s.eeeeee- 76 BS BOldO? 33s ss seeks gee. 58 ORIN a his as sxe ep ew ey 60s 78 Bas DUCRU + Av osiieeey aes 60 44 Sage... .cvevsccenevess 80 BO NOOOR. bso bas'eas abaeas's 62 GB BaWiRhe coe nis.miamean eben 82 36 Foxglove ............ 64 BD ROAD 5500.0 Cable ene 5h al 84 WURPOTMIOOR: © ic keisuhin wos 66 47 Stramouium.......... 86 SO TIGMDONE ....06k 5 cninatee 68 Fa: ROE Sis sedans Visto woe 88 SECTION IV. FLOWERS AND FLOWERING TOPS. EUMtPORUCHION oe Giese ks 92 54 Insect Flowers........ 102 50 Chamomile Fiowers .. 94 55 Lily of the Valley .... 104 DL OUOWs sbi ieee pe dae 96 SO Hares .taviaiste ee 106, BR OREO cie-si cares a hee Pe.» 98 57 Santonica ..... v.66... 108 10 CONTENTS. SECTION V. SEEDS AND FRUITS. IntrOGUCHOR vnc. ok n5's ko wie 110 78 Anise Fruig-.. etna ta oe are.cc 204 | Colchicum autumnale ...... 272, 120 » passafras’ Root .......... 206 Colchicum Corm ”.....0.0...... 272 Seu IMMEOUOAY oie cay cata ocsiag 208 Colchicum Seeds ...... ...... 120 SR MESURKGEY, 25.5 xb Dactiee oe’ Saicale 8 Colocynth Frait. ...55 00.3. .5. 156 MUN cs etele TEU b Lie niles via iS oe 181 Condurango Bark.............. 196 RRP VOTER: A. > c's o'er Sos ow nin ee 30 Conium maculatum .........45. 66 Barosma betulina .............. 60 Convallaria majalis ..........4. 104 ESO NEENGUD Aiotoruivivie Aas vis <-csc vara 40 Convolvulus Turpethum ........ 266 Beans, Ignatius... ............. 126 Woriander Drs hos ess cee 150 Bearberry Leaves.............. 52 Coriandrum sativum ............ 150 Belladonna Leaves ............ 54 CLOCUS BATIUUS BOD oa isc es 106 si OOURiaacule eek cae 218 Croton Elateria .......... 188 14 INDEX. GUDBBS) wee cs eecewa shies seeeas 158, Cuminum Cyminum ........e00 152 Cimamin Prarie: «5s )s)csie< cos 152 Curcuma angustifolia .........- 14 » LEMCOITRIZA oi ieee 39.0 14 =A LORGD cat toe aa xe cee ais 264 Curcuma Starch .........-.... 14 Curcuma Zedoaria .........+4.- 270 CREDATIA BIBLE SS 6. od cea siete. 198 GHSEO INOWGER: aon 56s aes ows 98 Datura Stramonium .. 86 Delphiniwm Staphysagria ...... 140 Digitalis purpurea .........066 . 64 Dioscorea alata ........022..00- 16 Dioscorea Starch ........-..... 16 Elecampane Root........ 224 Elettaria Cardamomum .. ..... 148 WOE G astarcta pte siaiain oor itieidicra tale ate 276 Erythroxylon Coca ......-+++4+- 62 Eugenia caryophyllata .........+. 96 Fagopyrumesculentum 38 HMenuGLU Twit VS su.acccsceess case 154 WONT, NBAPIGY 3k wre hua sion ha siemisis.e 30 = WAGRITS Saisie nado ents « 40 ° BHO wheats ices «200% 38 és AVOUT 7s suis rie «. 42 a WMSIRG couse accesses 36 4 OBES cote ncismnade cutee aoe 32 a POR i suis ties scape mitonere 44 y FRAGCE- Ro ca sis se noes easels 34 - RVC carbene al brelea pind sik 28 ‘5 WHER cee cceess ieee 26 BOUTS! <). ee ik wiesanmecauineds 25 Flowers and Flowering Tops .. 92 Blowers, Cusso .<.csscusnce asses 98 % Dalmatian Insect .... 102 53 Lily of the Valley .... 104 Feniculum capillaceum ........ 154 Foenugreek Seeds ............ 122 Foxglove Leaves............ xin, MOe PETS, AMIGO 6 85 voce acs vine 142 pee NAS URRY 'o op vino: 5 aye al acsts ae 144 a5) RU BROWIY bois hore bis,cerccarsocn 146 ss | MRA AMON) oso ck ocho’ 148 is OOGINED. ..2:55 6s 50 Hs 156 a COTIANGEL | 6 s5.55 0550080 150 5 COMMIT ini eg a acess 152 56. SOBRE) ores he dosent oe 154 * PIMONCO” 5 dase ocak 162 4) Sten Anise: o/.decgedenck 164 yl EDEN inet 16 APUIN GG voted tie aiaaiae oe meet 276 Galipea officinalis ...... 198 Galangal Rhizome ............ 228 Crass oss cies dav sicte neta Ase 286 Gentian Rook, =...2:.¢. ¢senn ecko 230 Ginger Rhizome .............. 232 Glycyrrhiza glabra ............ 244 Gonolobus Condurango..........- 196 Guaiacum officinale ...........- 172 Guaiacum Wood ............ secahe GOarPANs 5 fiw sock ahs Seeman 124 Hemlock Leaves.......... 66 Hemp, Indian 3.2222. ase hae 100 Henbane Leaves .............. 68 Henna ea yes: '2:2i23 iis esees ee 70 Hordeum distichon ............ 8 Humulus Lupulus ...........-5. 282 Hydrastis canadensis .......... 236 Hydrastis Rhizome ............ 236 Ignatius Beans............ 126 Ilex Paraguayensis ............ 74 Tiltetum verum. 6.5 225 Fa. Sees 164 Indian: Hemp. <5 .2...e.s eee 100 Insect Flowers, Dalmatian .... 102 Inula Helenium ...... em eae 222 Ipecacuanha Root ............ 238 Ipomoea Batatas..............4.- 18 oy PUNO, | oes. aIeOR A oe eats 242 Tris flovrentina sé. iaastvvesvasiens 250 Jaborandi Leaves........ 72 Jalap, ROOG. . 68 os Wena \scssae ciceie ce esman 70 5 JAbDOTANGL v,6<000s5004 72 " Mateé..22../. octet 88 ee Orange. <.<2 cannes peek 76 35 RUG: 5 esis: hes wearer 78 % SaGen cack: tes wenwecter 80 “ BevUG ices Sores 84 7 Stramonium .......... 86 at POG inncasccesene eee 88 Ledger Cinchona Bark ........ 192 Lentil Mlour:s ssc anseee sen a2 Ae INDEX. 15 Dens esculenta... es es 42 Lily of the Valley Flowers .... 104 BMseed: SW edvcwacwet shares oss 128 Linum usitatissimum ........-- 128 Diquorice: Roots 55300-06000. 244 PHPUl Seven cee eee ate 282 Lycopodium clavatum .......-.- 280 WER RG ence ata ae Cacase neta 130 Winise: FIOM eee ccccs st ences 36 Sond = SIGEGING ois eist6 5. bi ssncle a's a) 8 Male Fern Rhizome .......... 246 Mandioc Starch . ............ 18 Manihot Starch................ 18 Maranta arundinacea ........-- 12 Maranta Starch..............-- 12 Marshmallow Root ............ 248 WEL eles vate cee aiviettiepieters s 74 Metrowylon Say... ........2s00% 22 Musa sapientum ........250+250 16 Mustard Seeds, Black.......... 132 es White ss ose os 134 Myristica fragrans .........-. 130, 136 INWEMOER 55 oo. ben ioe es 136 Wire VOMMGR clos dota cesiewains 138 On ic BA ne ce ven steerer: 200 SNA MONAT 2 Ne stage wig sar Star a's 32 ee OAR OI cca nie eid clei as 10 Orange Leaves: 2... 608-5 00d 76 SIPORAB ODE cits ie Caries esse OS ters 258 Orris Rhizome: 3.25 e653 dines 250 PPUAE BOON. osc ne end == 55s oe 10 Paraguay Tea.............. 74 Paullinia Cupana .............- 124 POG PlOuw is vasa ccle ges Aree eee qa PeRrl SOO Sas dic aracd ss eeae pee 22 Pellitory Root.................. 252 POHPSE, BUAOK va. oc ase ns. 3 2 1€0 Phaseolus vulgaris .............. 40 Picrana excelsa..........0.00- 174 Pilocarpus Jaborandi .......... 72 PIAOHtO PLUG o creagewcne ees s 162 Pimenta officinalis .............. 162 Pimpinella Anisum.............. 142 PUDOE CADE ON, vies wo wos6'a:5:3 v0 5 «05's 158 GPUS siny't oes Tek eee ese 160 PiSUM .SGHOUM. 2.6.02 ee cee ies ay Plantain Starch................ 16 Preumus Boldo. . 2... 2.50 00c cscs 58 Polygala Senega................ 262 Polyporus officinalis ............ 280 Pomegranate Root Baik ...... 202 Potato: Starch... fo ecesews 12 Psychotiia Ipecacuanha ........ 238 _Pterocarpus santalinus.......... 178 Punica Granatum .............. 202 Quassia Wood ............ 174 QUuereUs TODUT 6 6.65556 5-8-5 0,5 808 200 Quillaia Bark........... Fates wid 204 Quillaja Saponaria ............ 204 Red Sanders Wood ...... 178 Rhamnus Frangula...........++ 184 PS DUTERAQND. vers ook ee oa 186 Bhatany Roots. s secs onesies ese 254 POUNE BPs os aie wince saat or in sisaera a 256 Rhizome, Galangal ............ 228 . Giger sic. ssc: cen 232 - Hydrastis: s.s%cins'2s 236 ‘i Male Hern .......... 246 BS OPTS havea cen aiden 250 3 RRUDSED sh e ah SSE LOE Fig. 25.—Oat Flour. (x 240.) a, Starch grains, some of which are irregularly rounded, more often angular fusiform, or with sharp edges. a’, Compound starch grains, mostly entire, sometimes more or less broken up. ap, Aleurone layer. lb, Brown layer; the cells are fusiform, and very irregular in direction. e, Epidermis of the pericarp with thin cell walls, sometimes with, sometimes without pits. es, Epidermis of scutellum. ip, Point of insertion of hairs. m, Débris of the hypoderma. Pp, Protective hairs, often geminate, and often much longer and narrower than those shown in the illustration. pi, Pigment layer. r, Fragments of raphe, t, Tubular cells. 34 FLOURS. (24) Rice Flour. In the rice flour of commerce there is only.a very small proportion of the seed-coats of the grain, and the chief characters are there- fore to be found in the size and shape of the grains of starch of which it almost entirely consists. These are as follows:—(1) Small simple polyhedral grains. (2) Large or small compound grains, oval or rounded in shape, and varying in size according to the number of constituent grains. (3) Fragments of the above of vary- ing shape. (4) Masses of starch from the cells of the endosperm, or masses of several cells together. The vegetable débris to be found in rice flour are only a few very narrow tubular cells closely attached to a layer of very small elongated cells. A knowledge of these characters is very desirable asthe adulteration of wheat flour with rice flour is frequent at times. FLOURS. 35 PLATE XIV. .C, AV Ses ie Fig. 24.—Rice Flour. (x 240.) a, Starch, very small simple grains. a’, Compound starch grains. al, Aleurone. ap, Aleurone layer. ct, Transverse cells. e, Outer epidermis of pericarp. ga, Masses of starch, composed sometimes of simple grains, sometimes of simple and compound grains. t, Tubular cells, very delicate and numerous and close together. p2 ~ J 36 FLOURS. (25) Maize Flour. The anatomy of the grain of maize is analogous to that of the fruit of other cereal grasses; it is characterised by the follow- ing particulars :~-Below the epidermis of the pericarp are two layers of cells that exhibit marked differences, those of the» one having pitted and relatively slightly thickened walls, those of the other being smooth and relatively strongly thickened. Within these layers is one of irregular cells with lacune (transverse cells), and next to this the tubular cells that form the inner epidermis of the pericarp. The tubular cells are smaller, more numerous, and closer together than they are in wheat. During the ripening of the grain the seed-coats disappear almost entirely. ; Maize starch is well characterised by the shape and size of the grains, those from the outer horny part of the endosperm being polyhedral and angular, whilst those from the inner mealy part are rounded. The details given under “ Maize Starch” (see before) allow of this flour being easily distinguished from that of other cereals. The diagnostic characters of maize flour are :— (a) The characteristic starch grains. (b) The hypoderma. (c) The nwmerous small tubular cells. FLOURS. PLATE XV. Bees atte panne ss CCR Se) )_\ ro ry T 4 i$ TY remy 007 Tans: af {\ fA) Re : \] ee vd aies Air it) y) | Fig. 23.—Maize Flour. (x 240.) a, Rounded grains of starch from the mealy part. a’, Angular starch from the horny ‘part. ap, Aleurone layer; the cell walls readily swell in water, more readily still in caustic potash. co, Cotyledon, ct, Transverse cells, often irregular, separated from one another and resembling the tubular cells which they cross at right angles. e, Outer epidermis of pericarp. ec, Scutellum. ge, Masses of starch from the horny part. gi, Masses of starch from the mealy part. me, mi, Layers next to the epidermis. pa, Branching cells with lacune. t, Tubular cells, very nwmerous. 38 FLOURS. (26) Buckwheat Flour. The fruit-of the buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum, Moench) is an achene, The pericarp is composed of (1) An epidermis con- sisting of a single layer of prismatic cells with thickened walls. (2) A fibrous hypoderma consisting of four or five layers of polygonal cells with thickened walls. (3) A layer of brown cells. (4) An inner epidermis of very long, flattened cells. The seed is enveloped in three coats:—(1) An outer coat com- posed of cells with very sinuous walls. (2) A middle coat of cells with lacune. (3) An inner coat of elongated cells. Within these coats isan aleurone layer consisting of a single row of cubical cells; then the endosperm filled with starch. The grains of starch are simple, and either isolated or ag- glomerated into masses. The isolated grains are bluntly or some- times sharply angular, or often rounded. They may attain 10 or 12u in diameter, but average abcut 4 to6u. They possess a small distinct hilum, and exhibit a tendency to agglomerate. Buckwheat starch always contains a number of abnormal grains larger than the others; they are irregularly enlarged, often bearing some resemblance to an hour-glass. The diagnostic characters of buckwheat flour are :— (a) The characteristic starch grains. (0) The epidermis of the seed-coat, the cells of which have very sinuous walls. -. (c) The middle layer, the cells of which exhibit lacune. « j i SS FLOURS. 39 PLATE XVI. yi rj sg B | o ha Qf ae B50GS 9g ey Fig. 26. a, Starch grains. a’, Abnormal grains. ap, Aleurone layer. co, Cotyledon. e, e’, Outer epidermis of pericarp. en, Inner epidermis. ga, Masses of starch. h, Hypoderma. m, Middle layers of pericarp. t, t’, Middle seed-coat. te, t’e’, Exterior seed-coat. ti, Inner seed-coat. tr, Vessels. 4) FLOURS. (27) Bean Flour. The haricot bean, Phaseolus vulgaris, Linn., possesses an anatomi- -cal structure resembling that of other leguminous seeds. In the seed-coat the following layers can be distinguished:—(1) An epi- dermis consisting of prismatic cells, radially arranged, like palisade cells ; the walls of these cells are much thickened and possess slit- like pits. (2) A layer of nearly square, or rectangular cells, each containing a large prismatic crystal of calciwm oxalate. These cells are often called ‘bearer cells,’’ and are found in all varieties of beans, but in many other leguminous seeds they are contracted in the middle (in transverse section), and free from calcium oxalate. (3) A layer of parenchymatous tissue. The cells of the cotyledons are polygonal and exhibit at their angles either a collenchymatous thickening or more or less con- ‘spicuous intercellular spaces. The starch of the haricot bean is in ovoid grains, seldom rounded, sometimes reniform, or exhibiting one or more protuberances. ‘The hilum, which is usually very distinct, is elongated or fissured. In size the large grains vary from 30 to 754; many smaller ones are, however, to be found. The concentric striz are usually distinct. Bean flouris often made from the decorticated beans, but, in spite of that, a few fragments of the seed-coat can generally be found. ; The diagnostic characters of the flour of the haricot bean are :— (a) The remarkable palisade cells. (b) The bearer cells with crystals of calcvwm oxalate. (c) The cells of the cotyledons. (d) The characteristic starch. i EEE ee —eEeeeEEE——E—E FLOURS. 41 PLATE XVII. a, Starch grains with fissured hilum. a’, Cell filled with starch and aleurone grains. co, Cells of the cotyledons (sometimes pitted). Pp, Spongy parenchyma. pa, Surface view of palisade epidermis. p’a’, Sectional view of palisade epidermis. pco, Walls of the cells of the cotyledons (the black spaces are due to included air). s, Bearer cells each enclosing a large prismatic crystal of calcium oxalate. 42 FLOURS. (28) Lentil Flour. The lentil (Lens esculenta, Moench) resembles most leguminous seeds in structure. The seed-coat is composed of the three following layers :— (1) An epidermis consisting of a layer of palisade cells (about 40u. by 10u) with a lumen that gradually tapers towards the cuticle; towards the upper part the wall is thickened by nearly vertical bars, the sections of which are distinctly seen in the sur- face view. The outer end of the cell is not flat but shortly and bluntly conical. (2) A layer of parenchymatous cells (about 15u by 15u); these are contracted in the middle, and hence assume the shape of an hour-glass; they differ from the hypodermal layer of the bean in not containing calcium oxalate crystals. (3) A layer of irregular parenchymatous cells with thin walls; this layer varies very much in the extent to which it is developed The cotyledons are covered with an epidermis consisting of polygonal cells, all of which are elongated in the same direction. The cells of the cotyledons themselves are polygonal, their walls are thin and occasionally exhibit small pits. They are filled with starch and aleurone grains. The former occupy a position that is intermediate between bean and pea starch as regards their shape and appearance. Many are ovoid but less regularly so than bean starch; many exhibit a fissured hilum and distinct concentric strie, but in others the hilum is not to be seen nor are the strie distinct; size of the larger grains, 30u to 40u. The diagnostic characteristics of lentil flour are :— (a) The palisade cells with conical ends. (b) The hour-glass cells uithout canelan oxalate. (c) The nearly parallel epidermal cells of the cotyledons. (d) The thin-walled cells of the cotyledons. (e) The starch intermediate in character between pea starch and bean starch. FLOURS. 43 PLATE XVIII. Fig. 28.—Lentil Flour. (x 240.) a, Starch grains. co, Cells of the cotyledon, some empty, others’ filled with starch and aleurone. cu, Cuticle. p, Parenchyma. pa, Palisade cells, surface view. p’ a’, Palisade cells, sectional. view. sa, Hour-glass cells. s’ a’, Bearer cells (sectional view). t, Epidermis of cotyledon. 44 FLOURS. (29) Pea Flour. The pea (Pisum sativum, Linn.) much resembles the lentil in structure, but differs in the shape of the palisade cells, which are square at the apex instead of conical. These are thickened by similar bars visible in surface sections viewed from above, but not when viewed from below (size of the cells, 604 or more in length, 12u-154 in width). The parenchyma of the seed-coat is com- posed of cells similar in shape to those of the lentil, but exhibiting conspicuous intercellular spaces. The cells of the epidermis of the cotyledons are elongated, but in varying directions instead of parallel to one another as in the lentil. The starch grains are rather larger than those of the lentil (30% to 47u), and many of them bear rounded protuberances. The hilum is comparatively seldom fissured, and even then the fissure is not branched as it is m bean starch; the concentric strie are less regular, and often indistinguishable. The diagnostic characters of pea flour are:— (a) The palisade cells with square ends. (b) The characteristic hypodermal cells. (c) The epidermal cells of the cotyledons not parallel. (d) The starch grains with rounded swellings, less distinct wn- branched hilum and less evident striae. FLOURS. 45 PLATE XIX. Fig. 29.—Pea Flour. (x 240.) a, Starch grains. co, Cells of cotyledon. cu, Cuticle. p, Parenchyma. pa, Palisade cells, surface view. p’a’, Palisade cells, sectional view. sa, Bearer cells. s’a’, Bearer cells, sectional view. t, Epidermis of cotyledon. LEAVES. 47 SECTION III. POWDERED LEAVES. The chief diagnostic characters of powdered leaves are to be found in:—(a) The shape and appearance of the cells of the epidermis and mesophyll ; (b) the stomata, ther distribution and relation to the surrounding cells; (c) the presence or absence of secretory tissue, its nature if present; (d) the presence or absence of simple or glandular hairs and their nature, if present ; (e) the presence or absence of crysta's; (f) the presence or absence of pericyclic fibres ; (g) the elements of the midrib. Epidermis. The epidermis presents certain anatomical features that are constant in all the leaves furnished by the same species growing under normal conditions. It is covered by a cuticle that is usually thin in the leaves of herbaceous plants (hemlock), but thicker in the leaves of shrubs (jaborandi). The cuticle is for the most part smooth, but it is sometimes furnished with more or less prominent ridges (belladonna), or even with pro- tuberances (coca). In transverse section the cells of the epidermis usually exh smaller than the others. . (c) The cells jilled with sandy crystals. (d) The absence of pericyclic fibres. LEAVES. 55 PLATE XXI. Fic. 31—Powdered Belladonna Leaves (x 240). c.cr, Cells with sandy crystals. co, Collenchymatous cells from cortical tissue of midrib. ei, Epidermis of under surface. en, Epidermis over the veins, with striated cuticle. es, Epidermis of the upper surface, with striated cuticle and occasional stomata. } I, Bast. me, Branching cells of spongy parenchyma. nv, Fragment of small vein. pa, Palisade cells, surface view. p'a’, Palisade cells, in longitudinal section. pg, Glandular hairs, long and short, with unicellular and _pluricellular- glands. st, Stomata, surrounded by three or four cells, one of which is smaller than. the others. : tf, Cortical tissue of the midrib. tr, v, Tracheids and vessels. 56 LEAVES. (52) Betony Leaves. The leaves of Betonica officinalis, Linn. (N.O. Labiate). The cells of the interneural epidermis are smooth, and have slightly wavy walls; on both surfaces there are stomata ‘and simple as well as glandular hairs. Each stoma is enclosed between two cells, the long axes of which are at right angles to the ostiole; this arrangement is common amongst labiate leaves. The simple hairs are long, pluricellular, and conical; they are composed of from three to five cells arranged in a single series; these cells have strongly thickened walls. The hairs are enlarged at the base, and are deeply inserted between the epidermal cells, leaving a very conspicuous scar when they fall off. The glandular hairs vary in shape and structure. Some are very small with rounded or oval bicellular glands borne upon a conical pedicel, others are larger, sessile, and quadricellular. The mesophyll is heterogeneous and asymmetrical. The midrib is concave above, convex below, and covered bya striated epidermis. The wood is crescent-shaped; there are no jidres in either bast or ‘pericycle. Betony leaf contains no crystals. The diagnostic characters of powdered betony leaves are :— (a) The thick-walled conical hairs. (b) The stomata enclosed between two cells at right angles to the «stiole. (c) The glandular hairs. (d) The absence of crystals. fe) The absence of pericyclic fibres. f LEAVES. oT PLATE XXII. Ml ys" “Ty f \ ((((( (Ce (étMit (Ui (7, (( tts (Cd( Cd Fic. 32.—Powdered Betony Leaves (x 240). ei, Epidermis of under surface, smooth. en, Epidermis over the veins, striated. es, Epidermis of upper surface, smooth. ip, Scar of fallen hair. I, Bast. me, Mesophyll. pa, Palisade cells, surface view. p’a’, Palisade cells, longitudinal section. pg, Glandular hairs with bicellular glands. p’g’, Glandular hairs with quadricellular glands. pt, Simple hairs with thick walls, some entire, some broken. ‘tf, Cortical tissue of midrib. tr, v, Vessels, Xe. 58 ‘LEAVES. (53) Boldo Leaves. The leaves of Pnewmus Boldo, Mol. (N.O. Monimiacez). The upper epidermis is composed of polygonal cells with rather thick and wavy walls. Below the epidermis there is a hypoderma. consisting of a single or sometimes double layer of cells resembling those of the epidermis, but with rather thicker walls. The lower epidermis alone is furnished with stomata; these are slightly raised and surrounded by four or five cells, of which one or sometimes two are smaller than the others. Both upper and lower epidermis bear simple hairs which are usually stellate, although here and there a very long unicellular hair can be found. The mesophyll is heterogeneous and asymmetrical; it is well characterised by the presence of large oil-cells. The midrib is concavo-convex. Below the wood there is a soft bast and a fibrous pericycle; above it there is a fibrous tissue in which two small inverted lateral bundles are sometimes to be found (near petiole). The cortical portion of the midrib contains. numerous oil-cells. The diagnostic characters of powdered boldo leaves are — (a) The epidermis and hypoderma. (b) The very characteristic hairs. (c) The presence of large oil-cell _ iggggl jal LEA 59 PLATE XXITI. Fic. 33.—Powdered Boldo Leaves (x 240). ei, Lower epidermis. en, Neural epidermis. ep, Epidermis of petiole. es, Upper epidermis. e’s’, Upper epidermis with scar of hair f, Lignified cells. go, Oil-cells. lh, Hypoderma. m, Spongy parenchyma. Pp, Stellate hairs, entire or broken. p’, Fragment of a one-celled hair. pa, p/a’, Palisade cells. v, Vessels. 60 LEAVES. (34) Buchu Leaves. The leaves of Barosma betulina, Bart. and Wendl. (N.O Rutacez). The epidermis of the upper surface consists of polygonal cells, nearly every one of which contains spherocrystalline masses or feathery tufts of hesperidin ; these dissolve in caustic potash with the production of a yellow colour. The cells also contain mucilage which is deposited on the inner side of the inner tangential wall. The epidermis of the under surface is composed of similar cells, which also contain hesperidin, but less mucilage. Both surfaces -are glabrous save for the occasional occurrence of a short, one-celled, thickwalled conical hair near the midrib. The mesophyll is heterogeneous and asymmetrical; it contains rosette crystals of calcium oxalate and here and there a large -oil-gland. The midrib is concavo-convex in section. The wood is fan shaped; below the bast there is a crescent of pericyclic fibres which vary in the extent of their thickening and lignification. In ‘the cortical tissue, which contains but little collenchyma, there is -often a large oil-gland. The diagnostic characters of powdered buchu leaves are :— (a) The polygonal cells of the epidermis with crystalline masses -of hesperidin. (b) The abundance of mucilage. (c) The presence of pericyclic fibres. {d) The calciwm oxalate in rosettes. LEAVES. 61 PLATE XXIV. Fic. 34.—Powdered Buchu Leaves (x 240). cr, Calcium oxalate in rosettes. ei, Lower epidermis with crystals of hesperidin. en, Neural epidermis, ep, Epidermis of petiole. es, Upper epidermis. f, Pericyclic fibres. f’, Lignified cells from veinlets. hh, Hesperidin. m, Mesophyll. P, Protective hairs. pa, p/a’, Palisade cells. tf, Cortical tissue of midrib. v, Vessel. 62 « LEAVES. (35) Coca Leaves. The leaves of Hrythroxylon Coca, Lam. /N.O, Linez), The epidermis of the upper surface is composed of polygonal -cells covered with a rather thick, smooth cuticle; they meastre from 30 to 45u in length, and from 15 to 30u in breadth. The lower surface is well characterised by the papillose develop- ment of the epidermal cells. This peculiarity imparts a sinuous outline to the lower epidermis when seen in transverse section, ‘but in surface view the papille appear as not very sharply defined circles. Each stoma is accompanied by two cells, with their long -axes parallel to the ostiole; these cells are not papillose. The leaves are quite glabrous on both surfaces. The mesophyll is heterogeneous and asymmetrical; the spongy ‘parenchyma is composed of stellate cells, some of which contain ‘prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. The midrib is bi-convex. Under the epidermis of both surfaces ‘there is a rather thick layer of collenchymatous tissue. The wood -of the meristele is curved, and below it is the bast beyond which -again there is an arc of lignified pericyclic fibres; there are also two groups of similar fibres above the wood, one near each extremity. The cells next to the pericyclic fibres contain prismatic crystals -of calcium oxalate, as do also some of the cells of the cortical parenchyma. The diagnostic characters of powdered coca leaves are :— (a) The polygonal papillose cells of the lower epidermis, — (b) The stomata accompanied by two cells with their long axes parallel to the ostiole. (c) The presence of pericyclic jibres. (d) The absence of hairs. 4e) The prismatic crystals of calciwm oxalate. | | 7 I ] LEAVES. 63 PLATE XXY. Fic. 35.—Powdered Coca Leaves (x 240). -cr, Prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. ei, Lower epidermis with surface view of papillose cells (pr). e'i/, Lower epidermis in section. -en, Epidermis over veins, surface view, -e'n’, Epidermis over veins in section. “f, Pericyclic fibres, -ffv, Fragments of vessels from midrib. if, Bast. me, Spongy parenchyma. ya, Palisade cells with crystals, surface view. yp’a’, The same in section. st, Stomata, with two cells parallel to the ostiole. ‘tc, Crystal cells. “tf, Cortical tissue of midrib. “tr, Small vessels. No hairs either simple or glandular. €4 LEAVES. (36) Foxglove Leaves. The leaves of Digitalis purpurea, Linn. (N.O. Scrophularinez).. ‘The epidermis of the upper surface is composed of polygonal — cells from 30 to 60u long with slightly wavy walls and a smooth cuticle; that of the lower surface is similar, but the walls of the cells are more wavy. Both surfaces bear stomata and simple as well as glandular hairs. The stomata are surrounded by three or four cells, which exhibit no regularity in either shape or arrangement. The simple hairs are pluricellular and conical; they consist of from three to five cells with thin walls, the latter being sometimes smooth, sometimes slightly warty. These cells sometimes collapse. and present alternately a narrow edge and a flattened surface to the observer. The glandular hairs are shorter, and composed of from one to three cells with a wicellular or bicellular gland. The mesophyll is heterogeneous, asymmetrical, and destitute of crystals. The midrib, which is very strongly convex below, is also furnished. with simple and glandular hairs. The wood is crescent-shaped, and neither bast nor pericycle contain any lignified elements. The diagnostic characters of powdered foxglove leaves are :— (a) The characieristic hairs. (b) The sinwous epidermal cells with aa stomata. (c) The absence of pericyclic fibres. (d) The absence of calcium oxalate crystals. LEAVES. 65 PLATE XXVI. f /, efi! MeL AME eer (iii eee J s Yism—( S Tf 2 Ly KC —\ ‘% Ake o x aa i } Tie A 4 Fic. 36.—Powdered Foxglove {Leaves (x 240) co, Collenchymatous cells of the midrib. ei, Lower epidermis, cells with sinuous walls. en, Neural epidermis. es, Upper epidermis. ip, Scar of fallen hair. I, Bast. me, Spongy parenchyma. Pa, p’a’, Palisade cells. pg, Glandular hairs. pt, Simple hairs. st, Stomata. tf, Cortical tissue of midrib. tr, v, Vessels, &c. 66 LEAVES. (57) Hemlock Leaves. The leaves of Conium maculatum, Linn. (N.O. Umbelliferz). The epidermis is glabrous and bears stomata on both its surfaces, but much more abundantly on the under than on the upper. The cells of the upper epidermis are from 60 to 90u long, and 30 to 45u wide; they have somewhat wavy walls, whilst those of the under epidermis, which are rather smaller, are sinuate and slightly striated. Towards the extremities of the ultimate divisions of the leaves the epidermal cells of the margin become papillose and bear well-marked striations. The stomata are surrounded by four cells which do not present any constancy in their arrangement. The mesophyll is heterogeneous and asymmetrical; the cells of the spongy parenchyma are stellate. The midrib is concave on the upper surface, and strongly convex on the lower; the epidermis of the latter is striated and covers a layer of collenchyma. The meristele contains but little wood, and there are no fibres in either the bast or pericycle. Immediately below the endodermis, and opposite the centre of the crescent- shaped bast, is a small secretory canal. There are no crystals of calcium oxalate, but the cells of the upper epidermis contain sphero-crystalline masses of unknown nature which are soluble in caustic potash, but insoluble in solution of chloral hydrate. The diagnostic characters of powdered hemlock leaves are :- (a) The papillose epidermis of margin with striated cuticle. (b) Absence of crystals of calcium oxalate. (c) Presence of sphero-crystals in epidermis. (d) Absence of pericyclic fibres. LBAVES. 67 PLATE XXVII. AUC \ | ATI Fic. 37.—Powdered Hemlock Leaves (x 240). co, Collenchymatous cells. eb, Epidermis of margin, strongly striated. ei, Lower epidermis, striated. en, Neural epidermis, striated. es, Upper epidermis, smooth. ffv, Fragments of fibrovascular bundles. I, Bast. | me, Spongy parenchyma. pa, p’a’, Palisade cells. st, Stomata. tf, Cortical tissue of midrib. tr, Small vessels. 68 LEAVES. (58) Henbane Leaves. | The leaves of Hyoscyamus niger, Linn, (N.O. Solanacese). The epidermis of both surfaces is composed of cells with very wavy walls and smooth cuticle; they vary from 40 to 100u in length. Both surfaces bear simple and glandular hairs, as well as stomata. The latter are broadly oval, and surrounded by three or four cells, one of which is smaller than the others; this arrangement is commonly met with in solanaceous plants. The stomata average about 23-27. in length. The simple hairs are wniserial and conical, and have thin walls. The glandular hairs are usually long, uniserial, and terminated by a small bicellular gland, or by a large ovoid pluricellular one. The mesophyll is heterogeneous and asymmetrical; the cells of the spongy parenchyma often contain prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. The midrib is biconvex. The wood is curved, and has bast both above and below it, bicollateral bundles being constant in the natural order Solanaceze. Neither bast nor pericycle contains any lignified elements. The diagnostic characters of powdered henbane leaves are:— (a) The remarkable glandular hairs. (b) The calciwm oxalate, mostly in prisms. (c) The exidermal cells with wavy walls. (a) The stomata surrounded by three or four cells, one of which is larger than the others. (e) The absence of pericyclic fibres. - —_ LEAVES. 69 PLATE XXVIII. ull fe = = J y On eA: 4 CU iCOUC HCCC Fic. 38.—Powdered Henbane Leaves (x 240). ccr, Crystal cells. cr, Crystals of calcium oxalate. ei, Lower epidermis. es, Upper epidermis. ffv, Portion of fibrovascular bundle of midrib. ip, Scar of fallen hair. m, Spongy parenchyma. pa, p’a’, Palisade cells. pg, Glandular hairs. pt, Simple hairs. st, Stomata. tf, Cortical parenchyma of midrib, ttr Tracheids and vessels. 70 LEAVES. (39) Henna Leaves. The leaves of Lawsonia alba, Lam. (N.O. Lythrariez). The epidermis of both surfaces is provided with stomata, which are surrounded by four or five cells; these cells, however, exhibit no regularity in their arrangement. The cuticle is thin on the under surface and, especially above the veins, striated. The mesophyll is heterogeneous and symmetrical. There are two rows of palisade cells on either surface, and the lower part of the spongy parenchyma, which is composed of ellipsoidal, rounded or cylindrical cells, is very rich in large cluster-crystals of calcium oxalate. The midrib is plano-convex. . The wood is curved, and exhibits a layer of bast above as well as below. Between the bast and the lower epidermis there is a well developed arc of pericyclic fibres. The cortical tissue of the midrib is also rich in large cluster-crystals of calcium. oxalate. The powder often contains the débris of twigs, etc. The diagnostic characters of somdaees henna leaves are :— (a) The cuticle, striated over the veins. (b) The nwmerous large cluster-crystals of calciwm oxalate. (c) The pericyclic fibres. LEAVES. 71 PLATE XXIX. Fic. 359.—Powdered Henna Leaves (x 240). cr, Crystals of calcium oxalate. ei, Lower epidermis. en, Neural epidermis. e’n’ Epidermis of midrib. ep, Epidermis of petiole. es, Upper epidermis. f, Lignified cells of larger veins, ffv, Débris of midrib. fp, Fibres from petiole. mer, Spongy parenchyma. Ppa, p/a’/, Palisade cells, tr, Tracheids. 72 LEAVES. (40) Jaborandi Leaves. The leaves of Pilocarpus Jaborandi, Holmes (N.O. Rutacez). The cells of the upper epidermis are polygonal with straight or slightly undulating walls and are covered with a very thick and strongly striated cuticle. The cells of the lower epidermis are similar, but at most’ only slightly striated. The stomata, which occur on the under surface only, are surrounded by four or five tangentially arranged cells. Hairs are also occasionally to be found on the under surface ; they are unicellular, conical, and have thick, smooth walls. Here and there a group of epidermal cells may be found that are distinguished by their smaller size and thinner walls ; these mark the insertion of external glands, the walls of which, however, are thin and not conspicuous. The mesophyll is heterogeneous and asymmetrical; the spongy parenchyma is composed of irregular cells, many of which cons tain cluster crystals of caicium oxalate. In this tissue there are numerous internal oil-glands. The midrib is nearly flat on the upper surface, but strongly arched below. There are two bundles of wood; the upper and smaller is nearly straight, whilst the lower and larger is nearly semicircular. Outside the wood is the bast, containing cluster crystals of calcium oxalate, and beyond the bast an interrupted circle of lignified pericyclic fibres. The diagnostic characters of powdered jaborandi leaves are :— (a) The characteristic stomata . (b) The upper epidermis strongiy striated. (c) The lignified pericylic fibres. (d) The otl-glands, which, however, are seldom found intact in the powder. (e) The length of the palisade cells (30 to 45y). LEAVES. 73 PLATE XXX, Fic. 40.—Powdered Jaborandi Leaves (x 240). ccr, Crystal cells. cr, Calcium oxalate crystals. ei, Lower epidermis with stomata; an internal oil-gland can be seen below the epidermal cells. ens, Epidermis of secondary veins. es, Upper epidermis, strongly striated. f, Pitted lignified cells from veinlets. ffv, Portion of fibrovascular bundle of midrib. fp, Lignified cells of pericycle. I, Bast. m, Spongy parenchyma. Pp, hairs. pa, p’a’, Palisade cells. ps, Internal oil-gland. st, Stomata surrounded by four or five tangentially arranged cells. to, Crystal cells in rows. tf, Cortical tissue of midrib. tr, Tracheids. 74 LEAVES. (41) Mate, or Paraguay Tea. The leaves of Ilex paraguayensis (N.O. Ilicinez). The upper epidermis is composed of small polygonal isodiametric cells (15 to 30u), covered with a very thick striated cuticle;,it is devoid of stomata and hairs. The lower epidermis is composed of cells resembling those of the upper epidermis in shape, but of smaller size. It bears very numerous stomata, as well as a few water pores. The former are surrounded and partially overhung by a circle of four or five sur- rounding cells; the water pores are larger than the stomata. There are also a few unicellular, thick-walled hairs on the lower epidermis. Above the veins the cells of the epidermis are nearly rectangular and very regularly arranged. The mesophyll is heterogeneous and asymmetrical; some of the palisade cells contain crystals of varying form and size. The spongy parenchyma is composed of very irregular stellate cells. The midrib is bi-convex. Next to the epidermis of both upper and lower surface is a layer of collenchymatous tissue. The cells of the cortical parenchyma contain numerous prismatic and cluster crystals of calcium oxalate. The wood is composed of a large, lower crescent-shaped portion, above which are two smaller slightly radiating upper portions; the whole is surrounded by bast and by . lignified pericyclic fibres. The diagnostic characters of powdered maté are :— (a) The small epidermal cells. (b) The thick striated cuticle. (c) Occasional unicellular conical hairs. | (d) The presence of pericyclic fibres. (e) The numerous crystals of calcvwm oxalate. (f) The stomata surrounded by a circle of cells. LEAVES. 75 PLATE XXXI. ann rt (tl UY = = ag. Ry } WARS, eK Fic. 41.—Powdered Mate, or Paraguay Tea (x 240). cor, Crystal cells containing both cluster crystals and prisms. cr, Calcium oxalate crystals. co, Collenchymatous cells. ei, Lower epidermis. en, Neural epidermis. es, Upper epidermis. _ ffv, Fragments of fibrovascular bundles. fp, Pericyclic fibres, lignified. I, Bast. m, Stellate ceils of mesophyll. Pp, Unicellular conical hair, pa, p’a’, Palisade cells. st, Stomata, surrounded by a circle of cells. s't’, Water pore. tf, Cortical tissue of the midrib with numerous cells. tr, Tracheids and vessels. 76 LEAVES. “a Pe ne oe (42) Orange Leaves. Orange leaves are obtained from the bitter orange tree, Citrus vulgaris, Risso (Citrus aurantiwm, var. Bigaradia, Hook. f.), © belonging to the natural order Rutacez. The epidermis is glabrous and covered with a rather thick cuticle ; it is composed of polygonal cells, and is free from hairs of any kind, simple or glandular. Stomata occur on the under surface of the leaf only, and each one is surrounded by from four to six cells rather smaller than the other epidermal cells. The mesophyll is heterogeneous and asymmetrical. The upper part is composed of two or three rows of palisade tissue, some of the cells of which are conspicuous by reason of their larger size; each of these cells contains a large octohedral crystal of calcium oxalate; this is a distinguishing feature of leaves belonging to the genus Citrus. The spongy parenchyma of the leaf is composed of Cells of varying shape, and contains large internal oil glands. In transverse section the midrib appears nearly flat, or slightly convex towards the upper surface of the leaf, but strongly convex towards the lower surface. The wood, which has a similar shape, is covered with a layer of bast, and this again by a pericycle consisting of strongly lignified and thickened fibres. The cells next to the pericycle (endodermis) contain octohedral crystals of calcium oxalate, and similar crystals are also found in the cortical tissue of the midrib. The diagnostic characters of powdered orange leaves are to be found in :— (a) The large crystals of calciwm oxalate. (b) The absence of hairs. (c) The characters of the epidermis. LEAVES. 77 PLATE XXXII. RUUed cd tUctcGet(Y Mi i} “fy, Wk . > itd WAC ucecey Ct ( vee == —F Q — a Fic. 42.—Powdered Orange Leaves (x 240). _ c.cr, Cells with crystals (from the palisade tissue). cr, Crystals of calcium oxalate, ei, Epidermis of under surface. en, Epidermis over the veins. es, Epidermis of upper surface. f, Lignified pericyclic fibres. f’, Fibrous cells from small vein. ffv, Fragments of fibrovascular bundles. I, Bast. me, Cells of spongy parenchyma. p’a’, Palisade cells, st, Stomata. t, Tracheids. toc, Cells with crystals (abutting on the lignified fibres of the pericycle). tf, Cortical parenchyma of midrib. 78 LEAVES. (43) Rue Leaves. The leaves of Ruta graveolens, Linn. (N.O. Rutacee). The epidermis of the upper surface is glabrous, and composed of large cells with wndulating delicately pitted walls. The cells of the lower epidermis, which is also glabrous, have simwous walls. Stomata are to be found on the lower epidermis only; they are surrounded and partially overhung by four or five surrounding cells which exhibit no regularity in shape or arrangement. The cells of the epidermis of the-midrib also have pitted walls. The mesophyll is heterogeneous and asymmetrical ; the spongy parenchyma contains numerous cluster crystals of calcium oxalate, and in this tissue internal oil-glands are to be found. The midrib is concave on the upper surface, convex on the lower ; the wood is crescent shaped and there are no fibres in either bast or pericycle., The diagnostic characters of powdered rue leaves are :— (a) The wpper epidermis with pitted cell-walls. (b) The stomata. (c) The cluster crystals of calciwm oxalate. (d) The ow-glands. (e) The absence of hairs and pericyclic fibres. LEAVES. 79 PLATE XXXIII. <<) SAMs iy) ) Ss Y Ee we a me Fic. 43.—Powdered Rue Leaves (x 240). cr, Large cluster crystals, ei, Lower epidermis, en, Neural epidermis. es, Upper epidermis with pitted cell-walls. I, Bast, m, Spongy parenchyma. Ppa, p’a’, Palisade cells. st, Stomata surrounded and partially overhung by four or five cells. tf, Cortical tissue of tne midrib. tr, v, Tracheids and vessels. No hairs, either simple or glandular. 80 LEAVES. (44) Sage Leaves. The leaves of Salvia officinalis, Linne (N.O. Labiatz). The upper epidermis is composed of cells with slightly undulating walls; on the lower surface they are rather more sinuous. Both . surfaces are provided with stomata as well as with simple and glandular hairs. The stomata are enclosed between two crescent-shaped cells at right angles to the ostiole; this arrangement is common in labiate leaves. The simple hairs are usually long and undulating; they are composed of two or three cells, the terminal one gradually tapering to a whip-like point. The glandular hairs vary in structure. Some consist of a unicellular rounded gland, supported upon a unicellular or bi- cellular pedicel; in others the gland is large, octocellular and sessile. The mesophyll is heterogeneous and devoid of crystals ; the midrib is concavo-convex, and there are ro lignified element in either bast or pericycle. The diagnostic characters of powdered sage leaves are :— (a) The position of the stomata. (b) The characteristic hairs and glands, (c) The absence of calcium oxalate crystals. (d) The absence of pericyclic fibres. LEAVES. 8l PLATE XXXIV. 4 ce 2 eas Sa 5 t - Se s_ SS ES Ce St a Fic. 44.—Powdered Sage Leaves (x 240). ei, Lower epidermis. en, Neural epidermis. e’p’, Epidermis of petiole. es, Upper epidermis. fv, Vessels from midrib. go, Unicellular gland. g’o’, Octocellular gland. ip, Scar of hair. Pp, Simple hairs. pa, p’a’, Palisade cells. st, Stomata with the ostiole at right angles to the walls separating two cells from one another. tf, Cortical tissue of midrib. tr, Tracheids. 82° LEAVES. (45) Savin. The young twigs of Juniperus Sabina, Linn. (N.O. Conifers). The young twigs of savin are dogmely covered with minute thick, imbricated, opposite leaves, which are appressed and frequently adnate to the stem for a considerable portion of their length—on | the dorsal surface of each leaf a large depression (oil-gland) may be observed. The transverse section of the leaf is nearly semicircular in outline and exhibits a centric structure. The cells of the epidermis are nearly square in section and provided with a thick cuticle. In surface view they have pitted walls, and in the lateral portions of the leaf are nearly isodiametric, whereas in the central they are axially elongated. Stomata occur only in the lateral portions, and are characterised by the little recurved projections at each extremity, as well as by being lignified. Below the epidermis there is a hypoderma of thickened more or less lignified fibres. The mesophyll consists of polygonal, rounded or elongated cells ; near the dorsal surface there is a large oil-gland. The wood of the midrib is composed of tracheids, and below it is the bast, the cells of which are arranged in the regular rows characteristic of coniferous plants. On each side of the midrib there may be observed a group of lignified cells with areolated pits. The diagnostic characters of powdered savin are :— (a) The characteristic stomata which even in young leaves are lignified. (b) The epidermis with fibrous hypoderma, the latter not always easily seen. (c) The lignified cells with areolated pits. Notr.—The thickened lignified cells, sc, shown in the illustration, are characteristic of J. phenicea, Linn., which is often sold in France in powder in the place of J. Sabina. LEAVES. 83 Fic. 45:—Powdered Savin (x 240) ca, Cells with areolated pits. cg, The same, viewed longitudinally. ed, Lower epidermis surface view. e’d’, Lower epidermis in profile. e’d”’, Lower epidermis with fibrous hypoderma. ev, Upper epidermis. fa, Reticulated fibrous cells. fi, Bast fibres (of stem). m, mesophyll. pc, Cortical parenchyma. sc, Sclerenchymatous cells of J. phenicea. st, Stomata. tr, Tracheids. 84 LEAVES. (46) Alexandrian Senna. The leaflets of Cassia acutifolia, Delile (N.O. Leguminosz). The, epidermis of both surfaces is furnished with stomata and simple hairs. The cells of which it is composed are polygonal, averaging about 45u in length, but attaining 70; they have straight walls, and are covered by a rather thick cuticle. The stomata are usually surrounded by two, three or four cells, of which two are parallel to the ostiole. The hairs are one-celled and conical; they may be straight or curved, and are sometimes erlarged towards the middle and slightly contracted at:the base; their walls are moderately thick and warty. The mesophyll is heterogeneous and symmetrical, there being palisade tissue on both stirfaces; the spongy parenchyma is much reduced, and consists of oval or rounded cells. Both these cells and those of the palisade tissue contain cluster crystals of calcium oxalate. The midrib is biconvex. There is a layer of collenchyma both above and below the meristele. There are no fibres in the bast, but there is a well-developed arc of lignified pericyclic fibres, both above and below the wood. The parenchymatous cells next to these contain prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. Indian senna closely resembles Alexandrian in its structure ; it differs in having fewer hairs and larger epidermal cells. The diagnostic characters of powdered senna are : (a) The characteristic hairs. (b) The stomata accompanied usually by two cells parallel to the ostiole. (c) The fibrous pericycle, accompanied by crystals. (d) The isobilateral structure. LBAVES. 85 Fic. 46.—Powdered Alexandrian Senna (x 240). co, Collenchymatous cells. cr, Prismatic and cluster crystals. ei, Lower epidermis. e’i’, Lower epidermis, sectional view. en, Neural epidermis. es, Upper epidermis. f, fp, Lignified pericyclic fibres. ffv, Débris of fibrovascular bundles. ip, Scar of hair. I, Bast. P, Hair, one-celled, conical and warty. pa, p/a!, Palisade cells. st, Stomata with two cells parallel to the ostiole. tc, Rows of cells with prismatic crystals. tf, Cortical tissue of midrib. 86 LEAVES. (47) Stramonium Leaves. The leaves of Datura Stramonium, Linn. (N.O. Solanacez). The epidermis of the upper surface of the leaf closely resembles that of the lower surface. Both are composed of cells with undulating or sinuous walls and bear stomata and simple as well as glandular hairs. The stomata are surrounded by three (or sometimes four) cells, one of which is smaller than the others, an arrangement that is common in solanaceous leaves. The simple hairs are wniserial, and conical; they are composed of from three to five cells, the walls of which are warty and not very thick. The glandular hairs are short; the gland is oval, pluricellular, and borne upon a little pedicel. The mesophyll is heterogeneous and asymmetrical. Both the palisade tissue and the spongy parenchyma contain simple pris- matic crystals as well as cluster crystals of calcium oxalate. The midrib is convex above and very convex below; the wood is strongly curved and there is a layer of bast above as well as below it. Neither bast nor pericycle contain any lignified elements. In addition to prismatic and cluster crystals of calcium oxalate the cortical tissue of the midrib zontains cells filled with sandy crystals ; these cells are large and often superposed. The diagnostic characters of powdered stramonium leaves are :— (a) The characteristic hairs. (b) The very numerous cluster crystals in the internewral mesophyll. (c) The stomata of solanaceous type. (d) The absence of pericyclic fibres. LEAVES. 87 PLATE XXXVII. TT Nine ACHE _ Brees i Jf Fic. 47.—Powdered Stramonium Leaves (x 240). cr, Crystals. cor, Crystal cells. ei, Lower epidermis. en, Neural epidermis. es, Upper epidermis. ffv, Débris of fibrovascular bundles. I, Bast. me, Spongy parenchyma. pa, p’a’, Palisade tissue. pg, Glandular hairs. po, Pollen grains. pt, Simple hairs. tf, Cortical tissue of midrib. tr v, Tracheids and vessels. 88 LEAVES. (48) Tea. The leaves of Camellia Thea, Link. (N.O. Ternstroemiaces). The upper epidermis is composed of cells with undulating walls and covered with a rather thick cuticle. The lower epidermis consists of smaller cells and is alone provided with stomata; the latter are surrounded by three or four tangentially elongated cells. Simple hairs occur on both surfaces of the leaf, but they are more abundant on the lower; the number, however, varies with the variety of tea, and with the age of the leaf; they are unicellular, tapering and rather thick walled, varying very much in length, but often attaining 500-700... The mesophyll is heterogeneous and asymmetrical. It is characterised by the presence of a large number of sclerenchymatous idioblasts. These are more or less branched and warty and often extend transversely from the upper to the lower epidermis. They vary very much in shape and in the thickness of the walls. The cells of the spongy parenchyma contain cluster crystals of calcium oxalate. The midrib is biconvex. Under each epidermis there is a layer of collenchyma of varying thickness. The wood is arched and the bast contains crystals of calciwm oxalate. The meristele is sur- rounded by a pericycle consisting of slightly lignified cells arranged in circle. The cortical tissue contains idioblasts which are usually rather larger and more branched than those of the mesophyll. The little fragments of the stems, which are often to be found in ordinary tea, have a slightly different structure. The wood in them forms a circle within which there is a pith containing branched idioblasts; these have comparatively thin, pitted walls. The diagnostic characters of powdered tea are :— (a) The characteristic hairs. (b) The sclerenchymatous idioblasts, especially im petiole and midrib. (c) The stomata surrounded by tangentially elongated cells. (d) The calcium oxalate in eluster crystals. | | LEAVES. 89 PLATE XXXVIILI. ni SYPAN NI Eps -* Gy Hayynyitee LON GIS SE HT) NY ERS q eas : ‘4 ae 0 Jes A°> ex 2? AG me Ud qiuiindii| = es 5 Fic. 48.—Powdered Tea (x 240). , cr, Crystals. ei, Lower epidermis. en, Neural epidermis. ep, Apex of marginal tooth. es, Upper epidermis. ffv, Debris of fibrovascular bundles. 1, Bast with cluster crystals. m, Spongy parenchyma. Pp, Simple hairs. pa, p’a’, Palisade cells. per, Pericycle, slightly lignified. sc, Idioblasts from the mesophyll and cortical tissue. s'c', Idioblasts from the pith of the stem. tf, Cortical tissue. tr, Tracheids. vi, Vessel. 90 LEAVES. (49) Tobacco Leaves. The leaves of Nicotiana Tabacum, Linn. (N.O. Solanacez). The epidermis of both surfaces is furnished with simple and glandular hairs and also with stomata. The cells of the upper epidermis are polygonal and have slightly wavy walls, whilst those of the lower epidermis are sinu us. The stomata are surrounded by three cells, one of which is smaller than the others. The simple hairs are wniserial and conical. The glandular hairs vary in appearance. Some are long, uniserial and ter- minated by a wnicellular, bicellular, or pluricellular gland ; others are shorter and consist of a very large pluricellular gland borne upon a one-celled pedicel. The mesophyll is heterogeneous and asymmetrical; the cells of the spongy parenchyma are oval or polygonal, and some of them are filled with sandy crystals of calcium oxalate. The wood of the midrib is arched and the bundles bicollateral. The diagnostic characters of powdered tobacco leaves are :— (a) The characteristic hairs. (0) The cells with crystal sand. (c) The absence of pericyclic fibres. LEAVES. 91 PLATE XXXIX, Fic. 49.—Powdered Tobacco Leaves (x 240). £.C. cer, Cells with sandy crystals. ei, Lower epidermis. en, Neural epidermis. es, Upper epidermis with stomata. ffv, Fragments of fibrovascular bundle. me, Cells of spongy parenchyma. 2," p38, Long pluricellular hairs with unicellular or pluricellular glands. p4, p>, Short glandular hairs. pS, Conical, pluricellular simple hair Pa, p’a’, palisade cells. st, Stomata surrounded by three cells, one of which is smaller than the others. tr, Tracheids v, Vessels. 92 FLOWERS. SECTION IV. FLOWERS AND FLOWERING TOPS, The anatomical characters presented by powdered flowers and flowering tops will depend in the first place upon the number of different organs that are present in the drug. If the latter con- sists simply of petals the chief diagnostic characters will be found in the shape of the stomata, and in the papille which are generally met with on the surface of these delicate organs. Some petals are furnished with simple and glandular hairs in which case these, of course, may be utilised in establishing the - identity of the powder. By such means as these the presence of calendula florets in powdered saffron may be detected; the former bear pluriserial hairs near the base of the corolla, and these are easily recognised in the powdered drug. The presence of secretory ducts may also sometimes be of service in deter- mining adulteration, as for instance that of saffron with safflower, for the florets of the latter contain oleo-resin ducts that can be detected in the powdered drug. Pollen grains are also often present on the corolla of the flower, and their presence, shape and size may afford informa- tion that should not be under-estimated. The pollen grains of the saffron-crocus are of considerable size and nearly smooth, whilst those of composite plants are usually furnished with numerous spiny projections. An abundance of pollen grains in powdered cousso indicates the presence of the staminate in- florescence which is inactive, and is excluded from official use. FLOWERS. | | 93 If all the organs of which the flower is composed are present in the powder then the number of elements that may be made available for its determination is largely increased. In addition to the pollen grains the cellular tissue of the anthers will be present. The calyx almost always contains sclerenchymatous elements, and the receptacle often exhibits structural recu- liarities that are of distinct value, as is the case with insect flowers. The powders of aromatic flowers and flowering tops are generally characterised by the presence of particular oil-glands which render them comparatively easy to recognise. In addition to the flower itself flowering tops usually con- tain bracts, peduncles, and portions of the flowering stem. Such drugs exhibit when powdered a distinct increase in the débris of fibro-vascular bundles, whilst in some cases particular sclerenchymatous cells may be introduced, as such elements are frequently present in considerable number in the stem and its branches. The presence of palisade tissue generally indi- cates the presence of leaves or leafy organs. 94 FLOWERS. (50) Chamomile Flowers. The double or nearly double flower-heads of cultivated plants of Anthemis nobilis, Linn. (N.O. Composite). The florets of the ray and the majority of those of the disc are white and furnished with ligulate corollas, which are lanceo- late and terminate in a truncate three-toothed apex. In the centre there are usually a few inconspicuous, yellow, tubular florets to be found. The florets spring from the axils of lanceo- late, obtuse pales inserted upon a conical receptacle. The pales are scarious at the margin, and often fringed near the apex. The epidermal cells of the ligulate corollas vary in shape and appearance according to their position on the ligula. Those on the tubular part near the base are elongated and slightly striated; at this point the epidermis bears numerous pluri- cellular glands possessing the structure common to the oil glands of plants belonging to the order Composite (go, g’o'). Towards the apex the epidermis of the upper surface is destitute of glands, but is provided with a number of papille, and these produce considerable variation in its aspect in different posi- tions; the lower epidermis is composed of sinuate, striated cells, amongst which numerous stomata, glands, and simple pluricellular hairs are to be found. The epidermal cells of the involucral bracts vary accord- ing to their position on the bract. At the apex and on the margins they are long and fusiform with but slightly thickened walls; near the median line and over the fibro-vascular bundles they are elongated and provided with thickened pitted walls; near the base they are polygonal and isodiametric. Towards the base the epidermis also bears numerous stomata; hairs and glands. In the receptacle at the point where the bracts are inserted there are sclerenchymatous cells. The style is composed of small cells rich in rosette-crystals of calcium oxalate; the stigmata are provided with characteristic papille. The diagnostic characters of chamomile flowers are :— (a) The cells of the lower epidermis of the ligulate corolla ; they have wavy walls and striated cuticle. (b) The papillose upper epidermis of the same. (c) The characteristic oil glands. . d) The elongated cells of the scariows margins of the tracts. FLOWERS. 95 PLATE XL. Fic. 50.—Powdered Chamomile Flowers (x 240). ebl, Epidermis of tube of ligulate floret. e’bb’I, The same with gland in profile. ei, Epidermis of involucral bract (margin). e’i, The same (median portion). eilb, The same (near base). eil, Lower epidermis of ligula. esl, Upper epidermis of ligula (néar the apex). e’s'l, The same (middle). e’s"I, The a: (near the base). go, Oil gland (surface view). g’o’, Oil gland (in profile). p, Pluricellular hair. pa, Parenchyma from corolla. pe, Epidermis of peduncle. po, Pollen grains. se, Sclerenchymatous cells from receptacle. sti, Débris of stigma with papille. sty, Débris of style. v, Vessels, etc., from peduncle, 96 FLOWERS. (51) Cloves. The dried flower-buds of Hugenia caryophyllata, Thunb. (N.O. Myrtacez). Each clove consists of a somewhat quadrangular stem-like portion slightly contracted at the base; this part is sometimes interpreted as a calyx-tube, sometimes as the solid lower part of the ovary. It is crowned by four thick, divergent, suboval calyx-teeth in the centre of which there is a small rounded body consisting of four imbricated petals enclosing the dried stamens and style. The transverse section of the lower part of the stem-like portion exhibits the following characters:—The epidermis is composed of polygonal cells covered with a rather thick cuticle, and provided with stomata. Below the epidermis is parenchy- matous tissue well differentiated into three layers, viz., an outer one with radially elongated cells, and numerous internal oil- glands, a middle, collenchymatous layer traversed by numerous fibro-vascular bundles in which thick sclerenchy- matous fibres are conspicuous elements, and an inner, lacunous layer. In the centre there is a moderately large fibro-vascular bundle. Both the teeth of the calyx and of the petals consist chiefly of parenchymatous tissue in which there are numerous oil-glands. The anthers are composed of small cells with pitted walls, and larger cells with spiral thickenings. The powder also contains numerous pollen grains as well as pericyclic fibres derived from the bundles in the lower part of the clove. Powdered cloves possess no well-marked diagnostic characters ; the following features may, however, be mentioned :— (a) Epidermis of lower part of ovary, with thick cuticle. (6) Epidermis of calyx-teeth and corolla. (c) Fragments of the oil-glands. (d) Parenchyma of the corolla with numerous rosettes of calcium oxalate. _ Powdered cloves should not con- tain sclerenchymatous cells (clove stalks) or starch (mother-cloves). FLOWERS. 97 PLATE XLI. To / ee Seo Ber ed NAVY By yj Ways OY a! =eS = —_ ee oe we AF N =~ ‘ . ee aE A) fe Ce ae Fic. 51.—Powdered Cloves (x 240). i ae a an, a’n’, Cells from the anthers, sur- face view and in profile. col, Collenchymatous layer. cor, Crystal cells. cr, Rosette crystals of calcium oxalate. eca, Epidermis of calyx-teeth. ef, Epidermis of filament. eico, Lower epidermis of corolla. esco, Upper epidermis of corolla. etc, Epidermis of lower fortion of clove. fp, Fibres f:sm the pericycle, pco, Larenchyma of the corolla wich numerous calcium oxalate crystals. Pe, Cells of outer layers of parenchyma, pf, Parenchymatous cells from fila- ment. pl, Cells of lacunous portion of parenchyma. po, Pollen grains. ps, Oil-glands. toc, Crystal cells. tr, Vessels, etc., from calyx-teeth and corolla, 98 FLOWERS. (52) Cusso Flowers. The pistillate inflorescence of Brayera anthelmintica, Kunth. N.O. Rosacez). This inflorescence consists of a panicle of shortly stalked, purplish-red flowers. Hach flower bears on its pedicel two rounded bracts. The calyx consists of two whorls of greenish sepals, a caducous, white corolla, abortive stamens, and two monocarpellary ovaries enclosed in the tube of the calyx. fter fertilisation the inner sepals bend over the young fruit and shrivel; the outer grow larger, and become deeply veined with purple, hence the pistillate inflorescence is characterised by its purplisb-red colour. The branching floral axis is covered with shaggy brown hairs. The staminate flowers are distinguished by their greenish colour; the outer sepals as well as the inner are small, and the calyx-tube encloses only a rudimentary ovary. The organs of which the pistillate inflorescence consists are characterised by the presence of a great number of hairs, both simple and glandular. The former are always unicellular, long, and conical; their lumen is very narrow, or even linear, but is enlarged into a bulb-shaped cavity at the base. Three forms of glandular hairs are present. Some are small and unicellular others are larger, oval and pluricellular, others again are very large, unicellular, and rounded ; the latter are specially numerous on the sepals. The diagnostic characters of powdered cusso are :— (a) The very abundant, long, unicellular hairs. (0) The characteristic glands, of which three varieties are to be found. (c) The parenchyma of the floral axis, rich in crystals. —s ——————— ———— FLOWERS. | 99 PLATE XLII. PYYLYE REIN DDD \) LIEBE D Dom Peas Yh) DD )) - Fia. 52.- Powdered Cusso Flowers (x 240), ca, Epidermis of inner sepal. c’a’, Margin of inner sepal. c’a", Epidermis of inner sepal, with fragment of mesophyll. cal, Epidermis of outer sepal. cal’, The same with three forms of glandular hairs. cal’, Margin of outer sépal. cr, Rosette crystal of calcium oxalate. er, Inner epidermis of calyx tube. f, Lignified fibre. g, Small unicellular gland. g’, Pluricellular gland. - g”, Large unicellular gland from outer calyx. - 1, Bast tissue. ~ p, Unicellular, simple, conical hairs, entire or broken very nume- rous in this powder. pc, Cortical parenchyma from floral axis, with numerous crystal . pe, Epidermis of a petal. tr, Tracheids from the veins of flowers. v, Vessels from floral axis, 100 FLOWERS. (53) Indian Hemp. The flowering tops of pistillate plants of Cannabis sativa. Linn. (N.O. Urticacez), cultivated in tropical districts of India. In the flattened masses of which the drug consists, the following organs may be distinguished :—Stems, leafy bracts of a greyish-green colour, small bracteoles, filiform stigmata of a reddish-brown colour, and here and there fruits approaching maturity. Stems.—The stems of the flowering tops are distinguished by long cystolithic hairs, and by the presence of numbers of rosette-crystals of calcium oxalate in the cortical parenchyma. The bast contains laticiferous vessels and tubular cells with calcium oxalate; the wood-parenchyma consists of polygonal cells with slightly thickened, pitted walls. Leafy Bracts.—The upper epidermis is striated and furnished with very short, conical hairs which are inserted between the epidermal cells ; the bases of these hairs are much enlarged, and contain cystoliths of considerable size. The lower epidermis is smooth, and provided with stomata and with simple as well as glandular hairs. The stomata are very numerous; they are surrounded by five or six cells which exhibit little regularity in their arrangement. The hairs are most abundant over the veins ; they are cystolithic, but are longer and much less en- larged at the base than those of the upper surface. The glands are large and sessile like those of labiate plants; they are divided by vertical walls into several cells. The veins are characterised by the presence in the bast of laticiferous vessels containing a brown latex. Bracteoles.—These bear numerous glands, some of which are sessile, but others of which are supported upon long pluri- cellular and pluriserial stalks. Below the lower epidermis of the bracteoles there is a layer of cells, each of which contains a rosette of calcium oxalate. Stigmata.—These are covered with long papille. Fruits.—The presence of these in the powder is indicated by the large sclerenchymatous cells derived from the hard layer of the pericarp. The diagnostic characters of powdered Indian hemp are :— (a) The remarkable curved hairs with cystoliths at their base. (b) The secreting glands and their pluricellular pedicels, often much broken. (c) Fragments of parenchyma with numerous small rosettes of calcium oxalate. (d) Laticiferous vessels of the bast with brownish, granular zontents, FLOWERS PLATE | XLD1II. =I o -. - * 2" *, - - '- of o* , fe Ay by) ¢ in ie eB Fic. 53.—Powdered Indian Hemp (x 240). Cc #. bef, Epidermis fronrmargin of go, Oil-gland, psc, Stalked glands, bract. I, Bast, rich in calcium oxa- pgdy, Stalk deprived of gland. eb, Epidermis of bracteole. late. ' Pgs, Sessile glands. eif, Lower epidermis of bract. me, Mesophyll of bract, with pta, Simple hair from stem. esf, Upper epidermis. crystals. ‘ pl, Lignified parenchyma of e’s'f’, Upper epidermis ofbract, pa, p’a’, Palisade. stem. with palisade, p’a’,in profile. pas, Papille of stigma. st, Stigma with papille, esfn,Neural epidermis of bract. po, Cystolithic hairs. toc, Crystal tubes, ffv, Portion of fibro-vascular pca, Cortical parenchyma of tr, Vessels, etc. bundle from bract. tem with crystals. vl, Laticiferous vessels. 102 FLOWERS. (54) Dalmatian Insect Flowers. The unexpanded flower-heads of Chrysanthemum cinerarie- folium, Vis. (N.O. Composite). The following are the organs that should be present in Dalmatian insect powder; they are arranged in order of importance, and the particular distinguishing features are appended to each :— Fragments of the Bracts.—The epidermis is striated and pro- vided with numerous stomata, T-shaped hairs, and oil-glands; under the epidermis of the central part there is a .very characteristic fibrous hypoderma; the margins are very thin and bear numerous T-shaped hairs. Corolla of the Ligulate Florets.—This is characterised by. the upper (inner) epidermis, which is papillose over the whole sur- face, and by the sinuous striated cells of the lower (outer epidermis. Corolla of the Tubular Florets—The epidermis is papillose near the apex, but smooth over the remainder of the corolla, the latter portion consisting of regular cells Cone it, rosette crystals of calcium oxalate. Calyx of the Tubular Florets——The tissue of the calyx is strengthened by the presence of numerous elongated, lignified cells; at the junction of the calyx with the ovary there is a disc composed of large, very irregular cells, with thick lignified pitted walls. Very many of these cells contain a prismatic crystal of calcium oxalate, one in each. Ovary.—The epidermis of the intercostal depressions is characterised by the presence of a multitude of oil-glands and clino-rhombic crystals. There is a lignified hypoderma similar to that of the lower part of the calyx. The walls of the ovary contain very large ducts filled with a brown, granular secretion, Anthers.—The filaments consist of regularly arranged square cells ; the pollen grains are tubercular and exhibit three pores. Style.—The cells at the apex are papillose; those of the stigma present a scale-like arrangement. Receptacle.—Characterised by large, rounded, pitted cells. Peduncle.—Débris of this are furnished with T-shaped hairs and glands. In addition to these, numerous fragments of fibro-vascular bundles may be found, large secretory ducts from the bracts, ovary, etc., as well as detached oil-glands and hairs. The principal anatomical features that allow of the false insect ftowers. being distinguished from the genuine Dalmatian are the size and sinuous shape of the epidermal cells of the ligulate corollas and the absence of oil-glands from the lower part; the paucity and smaliness-of the oil-glands at the base of the tubular corollas; the deep colour and charscteristic appearance of the secretory ducts of the ovary ; the characteristic cells of the walls of the ovary, and the shape of the hairs on the brac FLOWERS. 103 PLATE XLIV. — — — == = > SSS iD —=— \ \) i] { i { \ 1 H (} ( hy (a in | LCC CUE ‘Fia 54.—Powdered Dalmatian Insect Flowers (x 240).! A, Outer epidermis of central portion of bract. B, Tissue of bract. ©, Margin of bract. D, Upper epidermis of ligulate corolla. E, The same, in profile, near the apex. F, The same, surface view, near ths base. G, Lower epidermis of ligulate corolla. HM, The same, near the apex. I, The same, tubular portion. J, Epidermis of tubular corolla near the base. K, Similar part of calyx of tubular floret. L, Lignified celle at the junction of calyx and ovary. M, Parenchyma of tubular floret. N, Epidermis of ovary; intercostal portion. QO, Oil-gland in profile. P, Parenchyma from wall of ovary. Q, The same, nearthe base. R, Tissue of the receptacle. S, Papillose apex of style. ST, Stigma. T, Pollen grains. U, Débris of thece of anthers. V, Upper portion of anther. X, Filament. Y, Connective. Z, Striated epidermis. Z’, Vessels from peduncle 104 FLOWERS. (55) Lily of the Valley. The inflorescence of Convallaria majalis, Linn, (N.O. Lili- ace), The lily of the valley produces a graceful unilateral raceme of fragrant flowers with white campanulate corollas, each of which bears on its inner surface six stamens with large anthers. The ovary is trilocular, and is crowned with a short, thick style. The inner epidermis (e7) of the perianth is composed of poly- gonal cells with smooth cuticle, and is provided with stomata, each of which is surrounded by four or five cells. The outer epidermis (ee) is striated, and consists of smaller cells. The parenchymatous tissue between these two layers is traversed by numerous fibro-vascular bundles, and contains aggregations of acicular crystals in some of the cells, which are distinguished from the neighbouring ones by their larger size. The thece of the anthers are largely composed of spirally, thickened cells (an). The stigmata are covered with a striated cuticle, and provided with numerous papille. The powder of this flower contains in addition numerous débris derived from the peduncles, pistils, ovaries, etc., as well as vessels derived from the veins, acicular crystals of calcium oxalate and pollen grains. The diagnostic characters of powdered lily of the valley flowers are :— (a) Cells from the perianth with acicular crystals. (6) Striated surfaces of the stigmata and papille. (c) The epidermis of the peduncl2 with elongated cells. (dq) The cells of the perianth, with acicular crystals of calcium oxalate. enol FLOWERS. 105 PLATE XLV. reele AEN Via as Wh Fic. 55.—Powdered Lily of the Valley (x 240). an, Cells from the thece of anthers. cer, Crystal cells from perianth. cr, Acicular crystals. cu, Débris of cuticle. ee, Outer epidermis of perianth. ei, Inner epidermis of perianth. en, Neural epidermis of perianth. ep, Epidermis of peduncle. fp, Pericyclic fibres. gy, Débris of pistil. ov, Débris of ovule. pas, Papille from stigmata. pa, Parenchyma from perianth. pe, Cortical parenchyma oi peduncie. po, Pollen grains. stm, sts, Striated epidermis of stigmata. tr, Vessels from perianth v, Vessels from peduncle 106 FLOWERS. (56) Saffron. Saffron consists of the stigmata and upper parts of 5 a styles o Crocus sativus, Linn. (N.O. Iridee). It forms a loosely matted mass of dark, reddish-brown flattened threads, amongst which a few narrower yellow ones can be distinguished. The upper, enlarged part of the flattened threads is the stigma of the flower, the lower narrower portion is the style. The stigma is composed of polygonal or rounded, thin-walled, parenchymatous cells containing mucilage and an orange-red colouring matter, crocin (polychroite). This tissue is traversed by small fibro-vascular bundles, which appear rounded in trans- verse section. It is covered by a slightly thickened, easily de- tached cuticle, which on the upper surface of the stigma bears small protuberances (pr.). Near the apex the stigma is furnished with large papille. The yellowish lower part of the threads of saffron is provided with an epidermis con- sisting of slightly sinuous cells, and is traversed by a small .fibro-vascular bundle. The diagnostic characters of powdered saffron are:— The orange-red colowring matter in the cells; it is soluble in water, but insoluble in fixed oil. The upper epidermis of the stigmata with small papillose protuberances. The large pollen grains. a a ai ———— a ) Fic. 68.—Powdered White Mustard Seeds (x 240). am, Large mucilaginous cells of epidermis in surface view, showing concentric striation ap, Isodiametric cells of proteid layer, containing aleurone grains. a'p’, The same, with membranous layer of seed-coat adhering. cm, Membranous layer. co, Cells from outer part of cotyledons. c’o’, Cells from inner part of cotyledons. col, Collenchymatous cells. ec, Epidermis of cotyledons. ra, Tissue of radicle. sc, Sclerenchymatous layer, surface view, s'c’, The same in profile, 136 SEEDS. (69) Nutmegs. The kernel of the seed’of Myristica fragians, Houtt. (N.O. Myristicacez). It consists of a ruminate endosperm covered by a thin brownish perisperm, which also penetrates the endosperm and produces the ruminations. The outer layer of the perisperm (primary perisperm, #e) is made up of a loose tissue consisting of irregular, colourless cells, often containing crystals of myristic acid. The tissue of the inner layer of the perisperm (secondary perisperm, ¢z) is denser, the cells are more regular and dark brownin colour. It is traversed by fibro-vascular bundles, and contains an occasional oil-cell. That part of the perisperm that penetrates into the endosperm retains its character at the margins of the rumina- tions, but the remainder consists of loose parenchymatous tissue, containing numerous oil-cells, which are sometimes isolated, but more often aggregated into groups. The endosoperm consists of polygonal isodiametric cells con- taining starch embedded in a fatty mass. The starch grains are simple or compound; the former are rounded; the latter are composed of from five to eight component grains, which are more or less angular when isolated. Many of the cells of the endosperm contain in addition a large rhombohedral crystalloid (cr), acicular crystals of fatty matter and small aleurone grains. Here and there cells may be found in which the grains of starch are imbedded in dark brown oleo-resinous mass. The diagnostic characters of powdered nutmeg are cae (a) The dark brown cells of the immer layers of the perisperm. oy (0) The small starch grains. (c) The presence of oil-cells. SEEDS. 137 PLATE DIX. F'ta. 69.—Powdered Nutmeg (x 240). a, Starch grains; the rounded ones are simple, but the angular are the isolated components of compound grains. a’, Compound starch grains. aa, Agglomerations of simple and compound grains. alb, Cells of endosperm. cpa, Brown cells in endosperm. cr, Crystalloid. fa, Brown ruminations in endosperm (infoldings of perisperm) ffv, Fragments of fibro-vascular bundles. go, Oil-cells, very abundant in brown ruminations. te, Outer layer of perisperm. ti, Inner layer of perisperm, surface view. t'i’, The same, in profile. T, Outer andinner layers of perisperm adhering together, tr, Vessels, etc. 138 SEEDS. (70) Nux VYomica. The seeds of Strychnos Nux-vomica, Linn. (N.O. Loganiacez)- The seed-coat is very thin, and consists simply of an epider- mis, the cells of which have developed into hairs, below which there is a narrow layer of brown, collapsed parenchyma. The cells of the latter are thin walled; in surface view they appear polygonal (fi), but in profile they are so much collapsed as scarcely to allow the lumen to be detected. The hairs which form the greater and more important part of the seed-coat are of very remarkable structure. The base of each is very thick walled, and often bears protuberances from the lower portion which fit into corresponding depressions in the neighbouring hair-base. It is marked with oblique pits, and passes above into a long tubular hair, which is bent nearly at right angles at a short distance from the base, so that the upper part of the hair lies nearly parallel to the surface of the seed. This upper part bears longitudinal rod-like thickenings, separ- ated by narrow intervening thin-walled portions. These hairs are arranged in the same direction—viz., radiating from the centre of the seed, and impart to it its silky appearance. They are abundant in powdered nux vomica, but during the process of pulverisation the base becomes separated, and the upper por- tion is split into rod-like fragments by the fracture of the inter- vening thin portions of cell-wall. The epidermis of the endosperm is composed of radially elongated cells with moderately thick walls. The cells immedi- ately within are rather smaller, but they gradually increase, not only in size, but also in the thickness of the wall towards the interior of the seed. The embryo is very small and forms but a very small propor- tion of the powder. The diagnostic characters of powdered nux vomica are :— (a) The hairs; the bases are generally intact, but the prolongations are usually broken up into rod-like fragments of the thickened portions. (b) The cells of the endosperm with very thick walls, SEEDS. 139 PLATE LX. Fic. 70.—Powdered Nux VYomica (x 240). ae, Outer part of endosperm. al, Inner part of endosperm. ap, Fragments of cell walls of endosperm. bp, Bases of hairs, surface view. bb'p’, Bases of hairs, in profile. p, Rod-like thickened portions of hair, isolated. ps, Apex of hair. t, Inner portion of seed-coat, in profile. t’, Inner portion of seed-coat, surface view, 140 SEEDS. (71) Stavesacre Seeds. The seeds of Delphinium Staphisagria, Linn. (N.O. Ranuncu- laces). The seeds are provided with a dark brown coat, which is marked with reticulations and minute prominences, In the seed-coat three very distinct layers can be distin- guished. The outer layer (te) is composed of a single row of brown cells, varying very much in dimensions as well asin shape. All the walls of these cells are strongly thickened, the outer more so than the radial or inner. The outer wall is also cha- racterised by the ridges or tubercles that project from it. In surface view the cells are polygonal or irregular ia shape, one side being sometimes rounded. The middle layer (tm) is made up of several rows of polygonal, flattened cells with thin, smooth, straight or slightly. wavy walls. The inner layer (¢t) consists of a single layer of cubical cells, with slightly thickened walls. In surface view these cells are very characteristic in appearance. They are polygonal, and all elongated in the same directions; their walls exhibit remark- able wrinkles, which take the form of very distinct linear projections. | The cells of the endosperm are polygonal and isodiametric ; they contain granular proteid matter and fixed oil. In the powdered seeds occasional fragments of vessels from the raphe may be found. The diagnostic characters of powdered stavesacre seeds are :— (a) The characteristic cells of the epidermis. _ (b) The elongated, wrinkled cells of the inner layer. (c) The endosperm cells with oily contents. 141 SEEDS, PLATE LXI. i Fic. 71.—Powdered Stavesacre Seeds (x 240). allo, Endosperm. te, Tubercular cells of the outer layer. t’e’, Fragments of same. ti, Elongated wrinkled cells of inner layer. tm, Polygonal cells of middle layer. Vessels. tr, 142 FRUITS. (72) Anise Fruit. The fruit of Pimpinella Aniswm, Linn. (N.O. Umbellifere). The transverse section of the fruit exhibits the following structure :— (1) An outer epidermis composed of flattened cells and provided with stomata as well as with numerous simple hairs In surface view the epidermal cells appear polygonal and strongly striated; the hairs are short, conical, thick-walled warty, and usually one-celled. (2) The parenchymatous tissue next to the epidermis is made up of polygonal cells, and is traversed by secretory ducts. The number of the latter is variable, but always considerable, and they are placed close together. This tissue is also traversed by a number of fibro-vascular bundles surrounded by scleren- chymatous tissue of varying extent, the cells of which are polygonal and have thickened, pitted walls. (3) An inner epidermis, consisting of a single row of cells, all of which are elongated in the same direction. (4) A seed-cvat, which is represented by a single row of brown flattened cells; in surface view these appear polygonal and jsodiametric. (5) An endosperm, composed of polygonal cells containing fixed oil and aleurone grains; in the latter a globoid or a rosette of calcium oxalate may be found. The diagnostic characters of powdered anise fruit are:— (a) The short, stout, conical hairs. (b) The numerous, narrow, brown oil-ducts. (c) The sclerenchyma of the pericarp. (d) The coutents of the endosperm cells. ae FRUITS. 143 PLATE LXII. Fic.£72.—Powdered Anise Fruit (x 240). alb, Fragments of the endosperm. cs, Fragments of the narrow, brown, oil-ducts. e, Outer epidermis of pericarp. end, Inner epidermis of pericarp. f, Sclerenchymatous fibres of fibro-vascular bundles. ffv, Fragments of fibro-vascular bundles. m, Parenchymatous tissue of pericarp. pt, Hair. pti, Point of insertion of hair. sc, Sclerenchymatous tissue! of pericarp. t, Seed-coat. t AM? AGG DPM MAI GG 144 FRUITS. (75) Capsicum Fruit. The fruit of Capsicum annuum L. (N.O. Solanacez). The pericarp is composed of the following tissues:— _ An epidermis of tabular cells, which are seen in surface view to be polygonal and to have thickened, pitted, yellow walls. Next to the epidermis is a hypoderma consisting of four or five rows of tangentially elongated cells with collenchymatous and suberized walls ; these cells contain red chromoplasts and droplets of oil. The hypoderma is followed by parenchymatous tissue made up of thin-walled, polygonal cells, and traversed by numerous bicollateral*bundles. Lastly, an inner epidermis composed of cells with thickened and pitted walls, which in surface view are seen to be irregularly sinuous. These thick-walled cells are interrupted at intervals by bands of polygonal thin-walled cells, the whole forming an extremely characteristic tissue. The calyx possesses on its lower surface an epidermis bearing stomata, and composed of rectangular cells, which in surface view are polygonal and elongated. The epidermis of the upper surface is formed of irregular polygonal cells with pitted walls, and bears short uni cellular conical hairs as well as bi cellular and pluri cellular stalked gland of varying size. The epidermis of the seed-coat is very characteristic.. In surface view the cells of which it is composed are seen to be very large and provided with very thick sinuous walls} but’ in transverse section the outer wall is thin, whilst the radial and inner walls are thickened ; immediately below the epidermis is a layer of parenchymatous tissue made up of polygonal cells with thin, pitted walls, next to which there is a thicker layer of polygonal, isodiametric cells. The cells of the endosperm are polygonal and contain small aleurone grains. The placenta is covered with an epidermis of polygonal cells with pitted walls. Below the cuticle of these cells oily drops are secreted in which the active constituent, capsaicin, is con- tained; the latter may sometimes be observed in lamellar crystals. Next to the epidermis is a parenchymatous tissue composed of smaller irregular cells and traversed by fibro- vascular bundles. . The diagnostic characters of powdered capsicums are :— (a) The imner epidermis of the pericarp with thick-walled cells interrupted by bands of thin-walled ; (b) The epidermis of the seed-coat with large, thick-walled, sinuous pitted cells ; (c) The droplets of yellow or orange-coloured faced oil ; (d) The thickened cells of outer epidermis of the pericarp. FRUITS. 145 Fic. 73.—Powdered Capsicum Fruits (x 240.) alb, Cells of endosperm of seed. co, Collenchymatous hypoderma of pericarp, surface view. c’o’, The same, in profile. e, Outer epidermis of pericarp, surface view. e’, The same, in profile. eic, Lower epidermis of alyx. esc, Upper epidermisof alyx. PLATE LXIII. * \ AN a em, Tissue of embryo. end, Inner epidermis of pericarp. et, Epidermis of placenta. ffvc, Fibro-vascular bundle from calyx ffvp, Fibro-vascular bundle from pericarp. mes, Parenchymatous tissue of pericarp. €o pg, Glandular hairs from calyx. pt, Simple hairs from calyx, sc, Sclerenchymatous epidermal cells of seed-coat, surface view s'c’ The same, in profile stc, Stoma from calyx. tp, t’p’, t’p’”, Parenchymatous tissue of seed-coat tr, Vessel. L 146 FRUITS. (74) Caraway Seeds. The fruit of Carwm Carvi, Linn. (N.O, Umbellifere). The fruit exhibits the following structure :— (1) An outer epidermis, composed of axially elongated cells with striated cuticle and pitted walls; here and there a stoma is visible, but it offers no remarkable features. (2) A narrow layer of parenchymatous tissue, consisting of irregular polygonal cells; this tissue is traversed by fibro-vascular bundles, which are situated in the ridges of the fruit, and are supported by strands of sclerenchymatous cells; the latter possess pitted walls, but vary greatly in size and shape. Six large brown vittz also occur in this tissue. (3) An inner epidermis, composed of polygonal, thin-walled cells, which are all tangentially elongated and exhibit a v regular arrangement. (4) The seed-coat, consisting of a single layer of small polygonal cells of a rather dark brown colour. (6) The endosperm, made up of rather thick-walled cells containing aleurone grains and fixed oil. The diagnostic characters of powdered caraways are :— (a) The abundant sclerenchymatous tissue. (b) The absence of huirs and of spiral and reticulate cells (c) The striated epidermis. (d) The large cells of the inner epidermis and their regular arrangement. (e) The small aleurone grains. FRUITS. 147 PLATE LXIV. CCC io cca (Udi (( (At (adi ((( ( ca ACH UEC A CCCECCUdCar CAC ay H(t Fic. 74.—Powdered Caraway Fruits (x 240). alb, Endosperm. cs, Vitta. e, Outer epidermis of pericarp. end, Inner epidermis of pericarp. fp, Sclerenchymatous fibre. m, Parenchyma of pericarp. ” se, Sclerenchymatous cells. te, Seed coat. v; tr, Vessels, etc., from fibro-vascular bundles, L2 148 FRUITS. (75) Cardamon Fruits. The fruits of Hlettaria Cardamomum, Maton (N.O. Scita- mine), The pericarp of the fruit presents the following tissues :— (1) An outer epidermis consisting of a single row of irregular polygonal cells with straight, smooth walls. (2) A rather thick layer of parenchyma traversed by numerous fibro-vascular bundles, and containing scattered cells filled with brownish oleoresin, The fibro-vascular bundles are sup- ported by a mass of fibres, most of which have thickened, pitted walls. (5) An inner epidermis, resembling the outer in structrue but usually more or less collapsed. The arillus is very thin and composed of several rows of elongated, yellowish, more or less collapsed, cells, containing small rounded or oval droplets of oil. The seed is composed of the following tissues :— (1) An epidermis, consisting of cells which appear rectangular in transverse section, but in surface view are seen to be much elongated and taper towards the ends; they are furnished with slightly thickened, undulating walls. (2) A single row of smaller cells, also elongated in shape bat crossing the cells of the epidermis at right angles. (5) A single row of large rectangular oil-cells. (4) A narrow layer composed of several rows of cells, the structure of which is not distinctly visible. (5) An inner epidermis, consisting of a single row of brown or yellowish-brown, radially elongated cells with very thick walls, the cavity being shallow and almost entirely filled with a nodule of silica. (6) A largely developed perisperm, the cells of which have thin walls, and are packed with minute starch grains; in the centre of each cell there is a prismatic crystal of calcium oxalate. (7) An endosperm and embryo, the cells of which contain proteid matter. The diagnostic characters of the powdered pericarps are :— (a) The parenchyma with empty cells and scattered resin cells. (0) The fibres from the bundles. Powdered seeds are identified by (c) The characteristic epidermis. (d) The sclerenchymatous layer. (e) The fragments of perisperm with pitied starch grains and calcium oxalate crystals, FRUITS. 149 : PLATE LXV. A ===z Ay = ear 33 Se, ce REED oe aay 2 A} \ i ft t i INK Fie. 75.—Powderei Cardamom Fruits (x 240). a, Starch grains. co, Oil-cells from seed-coat, surface view. _ G’/o’, The same, in profite. cr, Crystals of calcium oxalate from cells of peris;e m. ct, Transverse calls of seed-coat. e, Epidermis of seed-coat. ep, Outer epidermis of pericarp. ffv, Fragment of fibro-vascular bundle of per‘carp. fp, Sclerenchymatous fibres from bundles. mes, Parenchymatous tissue of pericarp. ol, Oleo-resin cells in same. Pp, Parenchymatous tissue of seed-coat, s nace view. p’, The same in profile. per, Cells of perisperm. sc, Sclerenchymatous cells of seced-coat, surface view. _ s’c’, The same in profile, but without siliccous nodulcs. v. Vessel from fibro-vascular bundle of pericarp. 150 FRUITS. (76) Coriander Fruit. The fruit of Coriandrum satwum, Linn. (N.O. Umbellifere). The dorsal portion exhibits in transverse section :— (1) An outer epidermis composed of tabular cells whith} in surface view are seen to be polygonal, and have slightly thickened, pitted walls. It is often partially thrown off, espe- cially from the intercostal regions; it is provided with stomata, and in some of the cells a prismatic crystal of calcium oxalate may be observed. 2) A tissue, corresponding to the mesocarp, which has under- gone considerable differentiation, and in which the follow:ng layers can be distinguished :—(a) an outer layer of tangentially elongated parenchymatous cells; (b) a well-developed layer of sclerenchyma, traversed by fibro-vascular bundles, and forming a continuous and very thick protective tissue throughout the entire dorsal portion of the mericarp; the cells of which this layer is composed are elongated, have thick, pitted walls and cross in different directions; (c) one or two rows of flattened thin-walled cells; (d) two or three rows of large, irregular polygonal cells with very thick, pitted walls. (3) An inner epidermis of flattened, tangentially elongated cells which in surface view are seen to be rectangular, four or five times as long as they are broad, and all elongated in the same direction. (4) A seed-coat consisting of a’ single layer of pale yellow; a polygonal cells with slightly wavy walls. (5) An endosperm made up of thick walled sierotiid célls containing aleurone grains, fixed oil, and small rosette-crystals of calcium oxalate. The structure of the scudiiaibal portion of the fruit is slightly different from that of the dorsal portion ; the scleren- chymatous layer is absent, and the mesocarp is traversed by two large secretory ducts (vittz). The diagnostic characters of powdered coriander fruit are :— (a) The epidermal cells with prismatic crystals. (0) The fibrous sclerenchymatous layer of the pericarp. (c) The large sclerenchymatous cells in the inner part of the pericarp, to which . (d) The inner epidermis is often attached. (e) The large secretory ducts. (f) The minute rosettes of calcuum oxalate in the endosperm. The last two characters are found in other umbelliferous fruits. e FRUITS. 151 PLATE LXVI. Fia. 76.—Powdered Coriander Fruits (x 240). all, Endosperm. cp, Large sclerenchymatous cells of inner part of pericarp. cr, Crystals of calcium oxalate from epidermal cells. cs, Fragment of secretory duct. e, Outer epidermis of pericarp. end, Inner epidermis of pericarp. ffv, Fragments of fibro-vascular bundle. fp, Sclerenchymatous fibres. p;, Parenchymatous tissue from pericarp. sc, Fibrous sclerenchymatous layer of pericarp. st, Stomata. t, Seed-coat. 152 FRUITS. (77) Cummin Fruit. The fruit of Cuminum Cyminum, Linn. (N.O. Umbellifere). The fruit exhibits the following structure :-— (1) An outer epidermis composed of polygonal cells and provided over the secondary ridges with conical, pluricellular, pluriserial hairs. (2) A tissue, corresponding to the mesocarp, traversed by five fibro-vascular bundles situated below the primary ridges. This tissue also contains six vitte,four of which are placed below the secondary ridges and the remaining two on the - commissural surface. In this tissue and near the fibro-vascular - bundles sclerenchymatous cells of varying shape are to be found ; some are polygonal and elongated, others sinuous, etc., but all of them have thick, pitted walls. The bundles themselves are accompanied by sclerenchymatous fibres with lignified walls. — (5) An inner epidermis composed of tolerably regular polygonal cells all elongated in the same direction. (4) A seed-coat consisting of brown polygonal cells. (5) An endosperm with thick-walled cells in which alenrone... grains, fixed oil and small rosette crystals of calcium oxalate are contained. The diagnostic characters of powdered cummin fruit are :— (a) The pluricellular, pluriserial hairs. (b) The sclerenchymatous cells from the mesocarp. (c) The large oil-ducts. (d) The contents of the cell; of the endosperm. 153 FRUITS. : PLATE LXVII. Ganeenrs mn in Fruits (x 240). —Powdered Cummi 77 Fia. alb, Endosperm. cs, Fragment of oil-duct. e, Outer epidermis of pericarp. ffv, Fragments of the fibro-vascular bundles. ep, Pluricellular, pluriserial hairs. fp, Sclerenchymatous fibres. end, Inner epidermis of pericarp. p, Large, polygonal, parenchymatous cells of mesocarp. sc, Sclerenchymatous cells of mesocarp. t, Brown seed-coat. v, Vessels. 154 FRUITS, (78) Fennel Fruit. The fruit of Feniculwm capillaceum, Gilib. (N.O. Umbelli- fers). The transverse section exhibits the following characters :— (1) An outer epidermis, composed of polygonal cells with straight walls and furnished with stomata. (2) Parenchymatous tissue (mesocarp), composed of irregular polygonal cells; many of these are characterised by their reticulate or spiral thickening; they are either isolated or form groups in the ridges of the fruit, near the fibro-vascular bundles. There are six large vitte, easily distinguished by the brown colour of their walls; four are situated on the dorsal surface of the fruit, and two.on the commissural. The bundles are composed of tracheids with a few bast cells, supported by a mass of sclerenchymatous fibres with pitted walls. (3) An inner epidermis, composed of a single layer of narrow, elongated cells; these cells are arranged in groups of some six or more, with their long axes parallel to one another, but at right angles or obliquely to the long axes of the cells of other groups. (4) A seed coat; this consists of a single layer of brown polygonal cells. (5) An endosperm made up of rather thick walled polygonal cells, containing aleurone grains, fixed oil, and protoplasm. Some of the aleurone grains contain a rounded globoid, others a small rosette of calcium oxalate. The diagnostic characters of powdered fennel are :— (a) The spiral and reticulate cells of the mesocarp. (0) The narrow cells of the inner epidermis and their characteristic arrangement. : (c) The absence of hairs. (d) The thick-walled endosperm cells. FRUITS. 155 PLATE LXVIII. LGM OG iflatl WH IN NAN a 5 3 seas torn ce > ox4 > «f ° Fic. 78.—Powdered Fennel Fruit (x 240). alb, Endosperm. cs, Vitta. end, Inner epidermis of pericarp. fp, Fibres from the fibro-vascular bundles. “my, cells of mesocarp. sp, Spiral and reticulate cells. s’p’, The same isolated, some intact, others broken. te, Seed-coat. tr, Tracheids from the bundles in the mesocarp. v, Vessels, etc., from the carpophore and pedicel of the fruit. 156 FRUITS. (79) Colocynth Fruit. The fruit of Citrullus Celocynthis, Schrader (N.O. Cucurbitacez). The pericarp presents the following structure :— (1) An outer epidermis composed of polygonal cells with strongly suberised outer walls. (2) Several rows of parenchymatous cells ; these are sometimes collapsed, sometimes tangentially elongated, and thickened at the angles to form a collenchymatous layer. (3) A layer of several rows of sclerenchymatous cells with thickened pitted walls; the inner cells of this layer are radially elongated. (4) A parenchymatous tissue composed of large polygonal, rounded, or oval cells, on. some of which pitted areas are very distinct. This parenchymatous tissue, of which the pulp of the fruit is composed, is traversed by numerous bicollateral fibro- vascular bundles, some of which are accompanied by tubular idioblasts containing the active principle. The seed exhibits the following layers :— (1) An outer hyaline layer consisting of a single layer of flat- tened cells which swell in contact with water. (2) A layer of palisade cells, the walls of which exhibit bar-like thickenings ; these cells often contain a brown granular substance (in ripe seeds). (3) A highly developed sclerenchymatous layer, the cells of which vary greatly in size and shape. Some have moderately thick pitted walls, but in most of them the walls are so thick as almost to obliterate the lumen, and are traversed by branch- ing pits. : . (4) A layer composed of a single row of coarsely pitted or reticulate cells which exhibit dome-like projections towards the interior of the seed; this layer is very characteristic. (5) A layer of two or more rows of parenchymatous cells which in surface view are elongated ; the cells of one of these rows are spirally thickened, giving the tissue a very characteristic appearance. (6) The cotyledons are composed of thin-walled cells containing fixed oil and small aleurone grains in which a globoid is easily visible ; the epidermal cells of the cotyledons have smooth, straight walls. The diagnostic characters of the powdered pericarp are :— (a) The epidermal cells, especially im section. (6) The sclerenchyma of the rind with mod ‘aie thick walls. , (c) The large empty “parenchymatous cells, often with distinct pitted areas. Of the powdered seed :— (d) The very characteristic palisade cells. (e) The sclerenchymatous ring. (f) The reticulate cells. (9) The spirally striated cells. FRUITS. 157 PLATE LXIX. , ; ? a 1} ] ve “s : : Se ‘S q 2 Fic. 79.—Powdered Colocynth Fruit (x 240.) es co, Cotyledon. col, Outer parenchyma of rind, often collenchymatous. e, e’, Outer sclerenchymatous layer of mesocarp of rind. ftv, Fibro-vascular bundle from pericarp. ‘1, Bast tissue of bundle. me, Outer portion of mesocarp. mi, Inner layer. m’i’, Ceils of the latter, isolated. Pa, Palisade cells of seed. scm, Sclerenchymatous cells of mesocarp. tc Epidermis of cotyledons. tsc, Sclerenchyma of seed-coat. 1t’s’c', The same, outer rows. tp, Reticulated and spiral cells of seed-coat, in section, t’p’, The same, surface view. tr, v, Vessels, tracheids, etc, 158 FRUITS. (80) Cubebs. The fruit of Piper Cubeba, Linn, (N.O. Piperacee). A transverse section of the fruit exhibits the following structure :— (1) An outer epidermis, consisting of a single row of brown cells. . (2) An interrupted outer sclerenchymatous layer, sometimes one sometimes two cells thick; these cells are irregular in shape and have thick, pitted walls. ' (3) Parenchymatous tissue, composed of polygonal cells, con- taining a few starch grains; large oil-cells are scattered throughout this tissue, which often exhibits a differentiation into an inner and an outer layer (compare black pepper) ; near the middle it is traversed by fibro-vascular bundles. (4) An inner sclerenchymatous layer, consisting of an unin- terrupted single or sometimes double row of sclerenchymatous cells ; these are radially elongated and have very thick, pitted walls; they are larger than the cells of the outer sclerenchy- matous layer, and exhibit in surface view considerable regularity. — (5) An inner epidermis, composed of a single row of small cells, with thin, finely-pitted walls. (6) The seed-coats, in which the following layers may be dis- tinguished :—(a) An outer layer consisting of elongated cells with brown, thickened, wavy walls; near the hilum the walls of these cells are very sinuous; (0b) a central layer, consisting of large, polygonal cells, with straight, colourless walls; (c) an inner layer of small, brown polygonal cells. (7) A perisperm, of which nearly all the kernel consists; the cells are large, polygonal, thin-walled and packed with small starch grains. This tissue contains large rounded oil-cells. The diagnostic characters of powdered cubebs are :— (a) The outer sclerenchymatous layer. (b) The inner sclerenchymatous layer. (c) The perisperm packed with small starch grains. (d) The blood-red colour produced by concentrated sul- phuric acid. (e) The oil cells, many of which are broken, FRUITS. 159 PLATE LXX. Fic. 80.—Powdered Cubebs (x 240). e, Outer epidermis of pericarp. end, Inner epidermis of pericarp. ffv, Fibro-vascular bundle. fp, Pitted fibres supporting the bundles. go, Oil-cell. m, Parenchyma of pericarp. per, Fragments of perisperm. sce, Cells of outer sclerenchymatous layer. scl, Cells of inner sclerenchymatous layer. scp, Sclerenchymatous cells of stalk. te, Outer layer of seed-coat. t’e’, Outer layer of seed-coat near hilum. ti, Inner layer of seed-coat. tm, Middle layer of seed-coat, 160 FRUITS. (81) Black Pepper. The fruit of Piper nigrum, Linn. (N.O. Piperacez). A transverse section of black pepper exhibits the following structure :— (1) An outer epidermis consisting of small cells with brown contents and a rather thick cuticle. In surface view these cells appear polygonal, and here and there a stoma may be seen; many of them contain small prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. (2) An outer sclerenchymatous layer abutting upon the epidermis or sepatated from it by a single row of parenchyma- tous cells. This layer is not continuous, but is interrupted at intervals by thin-walled parenchymatous cells. The scler- enchymatous cells vary somewhat in shape, but most of them are radially elongated, and contain a brown substance; their walls are thick and pitted. (3) Parenchymatous tissue corresponding to the mesocarp, and constituting the bulk of the pericarp. The outer layers of this tissue consist of large polygonal cells, amongst which an occasional still larger oil-cell may be seen; the former contain a few small starch grains, the latter globules of volatile oil. The inner layers of parenchymatous cells have lignified walls and are more strongly tangentially elongated or even flattened so as to present a well marked line of demarcation, which is ~ accentuated by the presence of fibro-vascular bundles. Oil-cells are more numerous in this inner part of the parenchymatous tissue than they are in the outer. (4) An inner sclerenchymatous layer consisting of a single row of cells thickened on their radial and inner tangential walls ; in surface view these cells are seen to be isodiametric, polygonal, and to have moderateiy thick, pitted walls; their cavities are colourless and larger than those of the outer layer of sclerenchy- matous cells. This layer of cells is generally adherent to the brown seed-coat. (5) A brown and a yellow layer of collapsed cells to which is firmly attached (6) A colourless layer of collapsed cells ; these last three Jayers 7 constitute the seed-coat. The kernel of the seed consists almost entirely of perisperm. The outer two or three rows of cells are polygonal and contain aleurone grains, but the others are elongated and are packed with minute grains of starch. Scattered throughout the peris- perm are cells containing yellowish volatile oil. The diagnostic characters of powdered black pepper are :— (a) The outer epidermis, together with the ed acent inter- rupted sclerenchymatous layer. (b) The inner sclerenchymatous layer. (c) The starch grains, often in compact masses. (d) The oil-cells, the contents of hich are colowred red by sulphuric acid, FRUITS. 161 PLATE DXXI. VED iS. eo XY A 7, ous orn CARBS a PSG o0f09 65 ese CNY S i % 3 #6 op0d * 0 (e595 ‘00, 60 fe » ie NJ thy 6 a0 es) - ., 8. =. 2. Fic. 81.—_Powdered Black Pepper (x 240). a, Starch grains. ca, Outer layers of perisperm containing aleurone. e, Outer epidermis of pericarp. ffv, Débris of fibro-vascular bundle. fp, Pitted fibrous cells from bundle. go, Oil-cells. me, Outer portion of mesocarp. mi, Inner portion of mesocarp. mi’, The same in longitudinal section. mm, Cells from central part of mesocarp. per, Cells of perisperm containing starch. sce, Cells of the outer sclerenchymatous layer. sci, Cells of the inner sclerenchymatous layer, in surface view. s'c’i’, The same in profile. toc, The brown layer of seed-coat, in surface view. t’'c’, The same in profile. M 162 FRUITS. (82) Pimento Fruit. The fruit of Pimenta officinalis, Lindley (N.O. Myrtacez). The fruit possesses the following structure :— The outer epidermis of the pericarp is composed of small polygonal cells covered with a rather thick cuticle ; it is provided with stomata surrounded by several cells, and bears one-celled, conical, thick-walled hairs. Below the epidermis is a mass of parenchymatous tissue differentiated into two layers, and traversed by fibro-vascular bundles. The outer of these two layers is characterised by the presence of a large number of oil-glands, which are often close together and so near to the epidermis as to raise it, thus im- parting a roughness to the surface of the fruit. The inner part of the parenchymatous tissue contains numerous sclerenchy- matous cells, either isolated or in groups. These cells vary very much in size, in outline, and in the thickness of their walls, which are traversed by branching pores; they contain a brown substance. The imner epidermis of the pericarp (and of the dissepiment that divides the cavity into two cells) consists of delicate colourless elongated cells. The seed-coats are thin and adherent to the seed. They comprise several layers. The outer of these is composed of polygonal colourless cells, all of which are elongated in the same direction; the middle layer is made up of rather large irregular or rounded brown cells exhibiting intercellular spaces. The inner layer resembles the outer one. The cotyledons are composed of polygonal cells containing starch grains ; the latter are mostly compound, the component grains being rounded on one side and flat or angular on the other according to their number (two, three, or four). The dissepiment consists of a tissue of brown polygonal cells covered on either side with an epidermis similar to the inner epidermis of the pericarp; it contains numerous prismatic and cluster-crystals. The diagnostic characters of powdered pimento are :— (a) The starch grains. (6) The haus. (c) The sclerenchymatous cells. (d) The small cells of the outer epidermis. (e) The otl-glands. FRUITS. 163 PLATE LXXII. TTTVITITT TH RECHT (tat tee 2 Fic. 82.—Powdered Pimento Fruits (x 240). a, Starch grains from seed. cli, Dissepiment. cr, Crystals. e, Epidermis of pericarp, surface view. e’, The same, in profile. ffv, Fibro-vascular bundle. fp, Fibrous cells from bundle. go, Glands. me, Outer layer of parenchyma of pericarp, surface view. me’, The same, in profile. mi, Inner layer of parenchyma. Pp, Hair from epidermis of pericarp. sc, Sclerenchymatous cells of pericarp. te, Outer layer of seed-coat. tm, Middle layer of seed-coat. M2 164 FRUITS. (83) Star Anise Fruit. The fruit of Illicitwm veruwm, Hooker f. (N.O. Magnoliacee). The pericarp of the fruit exhibits the following structure :— (1) An outer epidermis composed of a single row of tabular cells, which are covered with a thick cuticle bearing prominent ridges. In surface view these cells are polygonal, brown, and strongly striated. it ag, . (2) A'tissue corresponding to the mesocarp and differentiated into an outer looser and inner denser portion. The outer portion is characterised by the presence of a large number of | oil-cells, which are more numerous towards the outside than they are towards the interior; the latter region is traversed by fibro-vascular bundles. _ The inner portion of the mesocarp is parenchymatous throughout nearly the whole of its extent, but at the margins, which form the ventral suture, it lignifies and forms a strongly developed mass of polygonal, thick-walled, pitted stone cells. (3) An inner epidermis, which varies in structure according to the position it occupies; that part of it that lines the loculus of the carpel consists of elongated thin-walled cells, which, in surface view, appear hexagonal. As the sutures by which the carpel dehisces are approached the cells become shorter, the radial and inner tangential walls become thicker, but the outer tangential wall remains thin. The seed is covered by several layers of cells :— (1) An epidermis of radially elongated cells with pitted walls and small cavities ; in surface view they are seen to have sinuous walls. (2) A central tissue differentiated into two layers, the outer of which is composed of very large parenchymatous cells with lignified, slightly thickened, pitted walls; the inner layer consists of smaller thin-walled cells. (5) An «mer epidermis, the cells of which are strongly axially elongated and contain crystals of calcium oxalate. The endosperm is built up of polyhedral cells containing aleurone grains. The stalks, which are often attached to the fruits, are characterised by the presence of a multitude of sclerenchymatous cells of varying shapes, many being provided with more or less prominent projections. The diagnostic characters of powered star anise fruit are :— (a) The palisade epidermis of the seed. (b) The inner epidermis with calcium oxalate crystals. (c) The lignitied parenchyma of the mesocarp. (d) The inner epidermis of the pericarp. (e) The outer epidermis of the pericarp, with striated cuticle. FRUITS. 165 PLATE DXXITLIi. ae EEA SATA, 7 7 ‘I a x Ay Sg Ne a Gee ee ral Pokies iy. EF) EA mae fe — ES ws. = ¥ = .. eS Fic. 83.— Powdered Star Anise Fruit (x 240). al, Aleurone grains. all, Endosperm. cr, Prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. end, Inner epidermis of pericarp, lining the cavity; surface view. end’, The same in profile. end”, Inner epidermis from sutural portion of pericarp. ffv, Débris of fibro-vascular bundle. go, Oil-cell. m, Tissue of mesocarp. sc, Sclerenchymatous cell from same. s’c’, Sclerenchymatous cells from stalk. scm, Sclerenchymatous cells near dorsal suture. s’c’m’, The same, longitudinal aspect. tc, Outer epidermis of seed-coat. ti, Inner epidermis of same. ts, Sclerenchymatous tissue of same. tp, Parenchymatous tissue of sam v, Vessels. 166 FRUITS. (84) Wanilla Fruit. The fruit of Vanilla planifolia, Andrews (N.O. Orchide). A transverse section of the pericarp exhibits the following structure :— (1) An epidermis composed of a single row of flattened cells covered with a rather thick cuticle. In surface view, these cells are polygonal and either isodiametric or axially elongated ; they have slightly thickened pitted walls, and contain octohe- dral and prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate, together with little rounded bodies also of calcareous nature. Here and there a small stoma may be observed. (2) A hypoderma consisting of a single row of axially elon- gated cells with thickened, pitted walls; some of these cells. also contain crystals of calcium oxalate. (3) A collenchymatous layer made up of two or three rows of cells with smooth walls, which are thickened at the angles. (4) A tissue corresponding to the mesocarp ; this is composed of large polygonal cells, wich smooth or pitted walls, containing traces of chlorophyll, sugar and oily protoplasm. In some vanillas (Mexican) a parenchymatous tissue of strongly reticu- ~ lated cells is found in the outer part of the mesocarp, but in others this tissue is represented by a few reticulate cells near the bundles. In addition to octohedral crystals of calcium oxalate the mesocarp contains a considerable quantity of very large raphides either in isolated cells or in rows of cells placed end to end. The bundles that traverse the mesocarp are com- posed of spiral, annular or pitted vessels, together with bast tissue, and are surrounded by fibrous cells with strongly thick- ened, pitted walls. Towards the base of the fruit the paren- chyma of the mesocarp exhibits lignification at various points. (5) An inner epidermis, the cells of which near the median part of the carpellary leaf are prolonged into long, tubular papille containing protoplasm and globules of oil; the latter substance is also contained in the cavity of the fruit. In the placentz elongated, slightly lignified, pitted cells occur. The seed exhibits the following layers: * (1) An outer layer of radially elongated cells, with very thick, brown walls; the cavity of these cells has the shape of an inverted T. In surface view the cavity appears linear, and the walls very thick. (2) An inner layer composed of several rows of polygonal cells, The embryo is made up of polygonal cells containing aleurone grains and fixed oil. The diagnostic characters of powdered vanilla are :— (a) The outer epidermis of the pericarp, with calcvum oxalate crystals and small stomata. (b) The outer epidermis of the seed-coat.. (c) The parenchymatous mesocarp with large raphides. (a) The reticulated cells. (ce) The oily contents of the papille and many of the cells of the mesocarp. FRUITS. 167 PLATE LXXIV. hee => J vv Ox: Wh quji tY 4 UZ M Fic. 84..-Powdered Vanilla (x 240). A, Outer portion of the pericarp comprising the epidermis (e) with adherent hypoderma (h). ccocr, Cells containing raphides. col, Collenchymatous cells. cot, Cotyledon. ep, Pitted cells distributed through the mesocarp. cr, Prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate from the epidermis. e, Cells of the epidermis with crystals and rounded calcareous bodies, FFV, Fragments of bundle. fp, Fibrous cells. h, Hypoderma. I, Bast. M, Mesocarp with raphides entire (ra) and cut transversely (r’a’) pa, Papillez of inner epidermis. ra, Raphides, intact; r‘a’, the same cut transversely. sc, Sclerenchymatous cells from base of fruit. scp, Sclerenchymatous cell from the placenta. te, Brown, outer layer of seed-coat. t’e’, Cell of same, in profile. ti, Brown, inner layer of seed-coat. ter, Rows of crystal-cells. 168 FRUITS. (85) Juniper Berries The fruit of Juniperus communis, Linn. (N.O. Conifere), Each of the three fleshy bracts which enclose ‘the seeds exhibits the following structure :— (1) An outer epidermis, consisting of a single row of brown polygonal cells with thickened pitted walls. (2) A hypoderma, composed of two rows of brown collen- chymatous cells, the radial walls of which are thickened, particularly in the angles. (3) A tissue corresponding to a mesocarp; this is built up of irregular polygonal cells with intercellular spaces, and contains large ovoid oil-glands. It is traversed by fibro-vascular bundles, which, like those of most coniferous plants, exhibit tracheids» bast tissue, and areolated cells and fibres. (4) A well-developed sclerenchymatous ring, composed of seven or eight rows of rather large cells, with very thick, pitted walls and narrow cavities, in many of which there is a single prismatic crystal of calcium oxalate. That part of this tissue which is directed towards the epidermis is bordered by a single row of oval or elliptical cells with slightly lignified pitted walls. Within the ring is a rather thick dense, brown layer of collapsed cells. (5) An inner epidermis of elongated cells. The seed-coat consists of polygonal cells; the endosperm contains aleurone grains; the cells of the embryo have very thin walls. The diagnostic characters of powdered juniper berries are :— (a) The sclerenchymatous cells with crystals of calciwm oxalate. (b) The brown, pitted cells of the epidermis and the subjacent _ brown, collenchymatous layer. (c) The large parenchymatous cells of the pulp. (4} The areolated cells and fibres which, however, are not numerous. FRUITS. | 169 PLATE LXXYV. Fic. 85.—Powdered Juniper Berries (x 240). alb, Endosperm of seed. ca, Areolated cells. col, Brown collenchymatous hypoderma. or, Prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate in cells of sclerenchymatous ring. e, Outer epidermis of bract. em, Embryo. end, Brown inner epidermis of bract. ep, Seed-coat. fa, Areolated fibres and fibrous cells. mes, Mesophyll of bract. pi, Brown layer within the sclerenchymatous ring. sc, Cells of latter. scl, Large cells on outer margin of ring. scl’, Fragments of same. ta, Epidermis of endosperm. tra, Tracheids. 170 WOODS. SECTION VI. POWDERED WOODS. The structural elements of which the official woods are com- posed are limited in number, and also in the extent to which they vary in size, shape, etc. ; in studying them, therefore, it is necessary to pay particular attention to the minute details of each of these elements. Diagnostic characters must be sought not only in the shape and size of the wood-fibres, vessels, wood parenchyma, and medullary rays, but also in the thickness of the walls of the various elements, in the nature and distribution of the pits, and in the nature of the cell contents. Wood Fibres. These, together with the vessels, make up the bulk of the official woods, and are therefore the most numerous elements met with in the powder; the chief differences they exhibit are in the thickness of the wall, the number and nature of the pits, and the nature of the contents. They exhibit their length to the observer far more often than their transverse section, and are usually more or less broken by the pulverisation to which they have been subjected, fragments from the central part of the fibre being from this cause not unfrequently lacerated or frayed at the broken ends. Sometimes they are isolated, but more frequently they are in groups associated with vessels, wood parenchyma, or portions of medullary rays. They may also differ in colour, those of guaiacum, for instance, are of a greenish-grey or brown colour, whilst those of red sanders wood are red, and those of quassia are colourless. The last-named contain only the remains of protoplasm, whilst the fibres ‘of guaiacum contain resin, and those of yellow sandal wood contain oil. WOODS. 171 Vessels. All the official woods contain vessels, but as these elements are comparatively fragile, pieces of them only are to be found in the powder. Isolated fragments of vessels are always small, but larger portions are often t> be found surrounded or supported by wood parenchyma or fibres. Vessels may vary considerably in sizein one and the same wood, but the structure generally remains constant for the same species. The thickness of the wall, and more particularly the nature of the pits are often characteristic features, thus the vessels of guaiacum wood are easily distinguished from those of red sanders wood, or yellow sandal wood by their very numerous small pits. If the vessels are large, small fragments showing the transverse section and the thickness of the wall are some- times to be found. Wood Farenchyma. Wood parenchyma is found in all the official woods. In width the cells of this tissue closely approach the wood-fibres, but in longitudinal sections they are seen to be much shorter than the fibres. They also differ in having square ends and thinner walls with numerous, simple, circular pits, the pits of the wood-fibres being usually few in number, cleft, and arranged in a left spiral. Medullary Rays. These are also present in all official woods. In the powder they may present their transverse, tangential, or radial section. In the first of these which is comparatively rare the cells are rectangular, elongated, and arranged in one, two, or three rows. In radial section the appearance is somewhat similar, but the rows of cells are generally attached to wood-fibres, wood parenchyma, or vessels. In tangential section they form oval groups of cells inserted usually between the wood-fibres, the groups varying in size according to the number of cells in the height and width of the ray. In the powder fragments only of these groups are usually to be found. The contents of the cells and the pits on the walls may furnish useful information as to the identity of the powder. Calcium Oxalate. Asin all drug powders the presence or absence of calcium oxalate crystals, their shape, size, and distribution must be taken into account. In some cases they areirregularly scattered through the cells of the medullary rays or wood parenchyma in others they occur in regularly superposed rows of cells. 172 WOODS. (86) Guaiacum Wood. The heartwood of Guaiacum officinale, Linn. (N.O. Zygophyl- lez). Microscopical examination shows that there is but little difference in structure between the sapwood and the heart- wood; in the latter the fibres are more strongly thickened and lignified. The wood exhibits the following structure :— The medullary rays are closely approximated, one cell wide and contain a yellowish or brownish resin, The vessels are numerous, large, mostly isolated, and often filled with resin. They are often wider than the distance between two medullary rays, and the latter therefore diverge to allow room for the vessels. In longitudinal section the walls are seen to bear numerous small pits. The wood parenchyma forms narrow lines running transversely to the medullary rays; some of the cells contain prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. Both the medullary ray cells and those of the wood parenchyma bear numerous simple rounded pits. : The wood-fibres are long, tapering, and often oblique in direction. They are very strongly thickened and lignified, and contain yellowish-brown or reddish resin ; the pits are numerous and arranged in a left spiral. The diagnostic characters of guaiacum wood are :— (a) The yellowish, brown, or red resin, with which most of the elements are filled. (b) The one-celled medullary rays. (c) The vessels with numerous small pits. (d) The calcium oxalate crystals. WOODS. 173 PLATE LXXVI. Fic. 86.—Powdered Guaiacum Wood (x 240). ¢ ; cr, Prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. fi, Wood-fibres. pl, Wood parenchyma. pv, Walls of vessel. rm, Medullary ray in radial section. wm’, The same in tangential section. v, Pitted vessels in radial section. v’, The same in transverse section. v”, The same in oblique section. 174 WOODS. (87) Jamaica Quassia Wood. The wood of Picraena excelsa, Lindl. (N.O. Simarubez). The wood exhibits the following structure :— It is traversed by medullary rays mostly two or three cells wide, the constituent cells being radially elongated, and having slightly thickened, pitted walls. The tissue between the medullary rays is composed of wood- fibres, vessels, and wood parenchyma. The wood-fibres have moderately thick walls and, when isolated, are seen to be very long, tapering gradually fo a fine point, and bearing scattered, left-spiral, cleft pits. The vessels are usually in groups of two or three, and frequently extend from one medullary ray to the next. Their walls are moderately thick, and bear numerous small pits which careful observation will show to be bordered. They often contain an amorphous yellow substance. The cells of the wood parenchyma are usually axially elongated. In transverse section they appear square or polygonal with moderately thickened, pitted walls. They often contain large crystals of calcium oxalate usually in superposed cells, each containing a single crystal. This tissue is distributed in irregular concentric rings throughout the wood. The wood of Quassia amara, Linn. (Surinam quassia) is similar in structure, but the medullary rays are usually one cell wide, and the calcium oxalate crystals are much less abun- dant. The diagnostic characters of powdered Jamaica quassia wood are :— ' (a) The medullary rays, two or three cells wide. (b) The presence of calcium oxalate. (c) The long, moderately thickened fibres. (d) The numerous small bordered pits of the vessels. WOODS. 175 PLATE LXXVII. Fic. 87.—Powdered Jamaica Quassia Wood (x 240). ecr, Crystal cells. cr, Prismatic or rhombohedral crystals. fi, Wood-fibres. pl, Wood parenchyma, longitudinal aspect, Pv, Wall of vessel. ; rm, Medullary rays in tangential section, ram’, Medullary rays in radial section. tor, Superposed crystal-cells. v; Portion of vessel. wv’, The same with frayed wall. 176 WOODS. (88) Yellow Sandal Wood. The heartwood of Santalum album, Linn. (N.O. Santalaces). The wood exhibits the following structure :— The medullary rays are one or two cells wide, the cells having pitted walls and containing yellowish globules of volatile oil or oleoresin. The vessels are rather large and usually isolated or forming at most small radial groups. Their walls bear numerous small bordered pits. They also contain yellowish oleoresin, which is most abundant in the vessels nearest the centre of the stem. The wood-fibres, which with the vessels constitute the bulk of wood, have thick walls and obliquely pointed ends. They bear scattered cleft pits, and also contain a little oleoresin readily seen when the fibres are isolated. The wood parenchyma is small in amount. The cells of which it is composed have moderately thick, pitted walls, and ace distributed in tangential rows one or two cells wide, often forming irregular concentric rings. Some of them contain oleoresin, others well-formed crystals of calcium oxalate. The diagnostic characters of powdered yellow sandal wood are :— (a) The volatile oi? or oleoresin which is found in all the elements. ; (b) The medullary rays one or two cells wide. (c) The vessels which are mostly isolated. (d) The wood-fibres with obliquely pointed ends. WOODS. 177 PLATE DXXVIII. Fic. 88.—Powdered Yellow Sandal Wood (x 240). cr, Prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. fi, Wood-fibres. pl, Wood parenchyma. rm, Medullary rays cut radially. rm’, The same cut tangentially. tor, Superposed crystal cells. v, Vessel, longitudinal aspect. v’, The same, cut transversely. 178 - WOODS. (89) Red Sanders Wood. The wood of Pterocarpus santalinus, Linn.f. (N.O. Legu- minose). The wood exhibits the following structure:—The medul- lary rays are mostly one, sometimes two cells wide; the cells ‘have moderately thick walls, and are strongly radially elon- gated ; they often contain droplets of red resin. The wood-fibres are polygonal in section, and have very thick reddish yellow walls, with few pits; they are more or less regu- larly distributed in tangential bands. The wood parenchyma cells have thin pitted walls, and are filled with droplets of red resin; they are grouped in tangen- tially extended bands, about four or five cells wide. The vessels are very large, and have very thick walls; they are mostly isolated, or in small radial groups of two or three; like | ‘the wood parenchyma cells they contain red resin. In surface view the walls are seen to bear numerous, large, areolated pits. Prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate are found in superposed -cells of the wood parenchyma, usually abutting on wood- fibres. The diagnostic characters of powdered red sanders wood are i— (a) The red resin im the vessels and parenchymatous cells, and the reddish colour of the wood-fibies. (b) The swmerous, large, areolated pits on the walls of the vessels. (c) The very thick walls of the wood-fibres which bear only scattered pits. WOODS. 179 PLATE LXXIX. Fia. 89.—Powdered Red Sanders Wood (x 240) cr, Prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. fl, Wood-fibres, longitudinal aspect. pl, Wood parenchyma cells. rm, Medullary rays in transverse section. rm, The same in tangential section. tor, Superposed crystal cells. v, Vessel cut longitudinally. wv’, Vessel cut transversely _ e ‘Dae! e da -. = ag e. BARKS. 181 SECTION VII. POWDERED BARKS. The cells and tissues contained in barks exhibit, as a rule, “much less variety than those contained in leaves, flowers, seeds, or fruits, and, consequently, in powdered barks there are fewer -diagnostic characters available for the purpose of dis- tinguishing such powders from one another or from other powdered drugs.. In studying this section, therefore, the -student must pay particular attention to the details exhibited by the various elements present. It is desirable, first of all, to point out the difference that -exists in the definition of the term “ bark.” Modern botanists -apply the term bark to those tissues of the stem that are cut off by successive phellogens, and consequently become dried up, forming a layer of varying thickness, composition, and character ~on the outside of many stems. Pharmacognosists, on the other “hand, understand by bark all the tissues of the stem exterior to the cambium, and include in the term, therefore, bast, pericycle, -endodermis, cortex and epidermis, together ‘with any tissues that may be formed in these. Should secondary growth have taken place, then the tissue8 thus produced, in so far as they are -exterior to the cambium, are included in the term bark. Older barks will therefore contain secondary bast in addition to primary, secondary cortex in addition to or in place of primary, -cork in place of epidermis, and possibly also outer bark (the ~“ bark’ of botanists). 182 BARKS. Neither vessels nor tracheids are to be found in barks except in those few instances in which the bark contains abnormally” developed bundles. These elements therefore would, if found in a powdered bark, indicate adulteration, but care must be taken in drawing such a conclusion, as commercial barks sometimes retain small portions of the wood of the tree yielding them, from which they can with difficulty be separated. Amongst cell contents starch and calcium oxalate are perhaps the most- important. Starch has already been alluded to, and the student will be well acquainted with the means by which starches may be distinguished from one another. Calcium oxalate may be entirely absent (sassafras bark), or itwmay be present in one or more distinct crystalline forms (prismatic, rhombohedral, rosette, acicular, sandy, etc.). In some barks it assumes only one form, but in many there is more than one present ; the rosette and the prism are most. commonly found in the same bark, but in cusparia the prism is associated with bundles of acicular crystals (raphides) ; the latter are generally agglomerated into bundles and enclosed in large oval cells. Usually the crystals are irregularly scattered through-- out the parenchyma of the bark, but in some instances they are- restricted in their distribution. Thus, in canella bark, each cell of the medullary rays contains a rosette crystal of calcium oxalate, while the bast parenchyma is free from it; in the pomegranate similar crystals are arranged in regular concentric: lines in the bast, but are not found in the medullary rays. When two forms of crystal, such as the rosette and the prism,. occur in the same bark, the rosettes are generally scattered through the parenchyma, but the prisms are restricted to the cells abutting on the sclerenchymatous cells or bast fibres ; these- crystal-cells are often superposed so as to form long, axial rows. Sclerenchymatous tissue is sometimes absent, sometimes pre- sent in considerable quantity ; in the latter case the size, shape and thickness of the wall may afford valuable indications of identity. Secretory tissue of any kind is characteristic ; suffi-- cient reference to tissue of this kind has been made wher dealing with leaves. The presence or absence of sclerenchymatous fibres (bast. fibres) is important. They are more generally found in stem- barks than.in root-barks. If present, the details of the elements, their thickness, the thickness of the wall, the number and shape- of the pits should be observed. The following are the chief tissues met with in barks :— (1) Cork.—The cells of which this tissue is composed are usually rectangular in transverse section, taugentially elon- BARKS. | 183 gatejd, and arranged in radial rows. In surface view they are- polygonal and isodiametric. Their walls are generally thin, but sometimes they exhibit a thickening on one or :nore sides; they are often brown, and sometimes contain a brown amor- phous substance. (2) Cortex.—The cortex consists of parenchymatous tissue in which groups of collenchyma are sometimes developed on the- outer margin, that is abutting on the phellogen from which the cork has developed. The remainder of the cortical paren- chyma is composed of rounded or fangentially elongated cells which are readily distinguished from the cork-cells by their larger size and more rounded shape, as well as by the absence of suberisation. This tissue often exhibits distinct in- tercellular spaces. It frequently contains groups of sclerenchy- matous cells, usually in greater number and larger size than the bast ring. Secretory tissue of various kinds is also often found in this region. (3) Bast—The bast ring is composed of medullary rays alternating with bast rays; the latter consist of bast parenchyma and sieve tissue, with which there may be associ- ated bast fibres, sclerenchymatous cells, and the varying forms: of secretory tissue. The cells of the bast parenchyma are usually smaller than. those of the cortical parenchyma, and more regularly arranged. The bast fibres.may be isolated or grouped. They vary in size, shape and thickness of wall, as well as in other details. The: sieve-tubes, which are present in every bark, also exhibit differ. ences in size as well as in the size, number, and position of the- sieve-plates. They require special treatment to enable them to be well observed, but may, under certain circumstances, prove: useful in the identification of a bark. The tissue of the medullary rays is usually found in the powdered drug in the form of plates of parenchymatous cells, which are all elongated in the same direction, and transversely to the long axes of the bast fibres or bast parenchyma. They may contain starch, colouring matter, calcium oxalate, etc. 184 BARKS. (90) Alder Buckthorn Bark. The bark of Rhamnus Frangula, Linn. (N.O. Rhamnez). The bark presents the following structure :-— (1) Cork, varying in thickness atcording to the age of the bark. It is composed of a number of rows of flattened cells with thin walls and bright, purplish-red contents; in surface view the cells are polygonal. (2) Phelloderm, usually very narrow; the cells resemble those -of the cork in shape but they do not contain any red substance and the walls are not suberised. (3) Cortex, the cells of which are mostly tangentially elon- ‘gated, those abutting on the phelloderm being collenchyma- tously thickened. This tissue is characterised by the presence of numerous cavities containing mucilage, and by the absence of sclerenchymatous cells (compare cascarasagrada bark). Many of the cells contain rosette crystals of calcium oxalate, (4) Bast Ring, containing numerous tangentially elongated groups of bast fibres, and traversed by medullary rays one or two cells wide, The bast fibres have very thick walls and are surrounded by cells containing calcium oxalate in very uniform prismatic crystals. The sieve-tubes are large, and have large sieve-plates on oblique walls. — The diagnostic characters of powdered alder buckthorn bark ‘are :— (a) The cork cells with characteristic red contents. (6) The bast fibres with crystal cells. (c) The absence of sclerenchymatous cells. (d) The presence of mucilage. (e) The bright purplish colour yielded by the conients of the parenchymatous cells in contact with caustic alkali. ~ a BARKS. 185 PLATE LXXX, & AC, Fia. 90.—Powdered Alder Buckthorn Bark (x 240): col, Collenchyma of the cortex. cr, Prismatic and rosette crystals. fl, Bast fibres with pitted walls. 1,V, Bast in longitudinal-and transverse section. pc, p’c’, Cortical parenchyma, in longitudinal and transverse section. ; ph, Phelloder:a. rm, r’m’, Medullary ray in tangential and radial section. s,s’, Cork, in tanzential and transverse section. toc, Rows of crystal cells. ‘ (91) Cascara: Sagrada. The bark of Rhamnus purshiana, D.C. (N.O. Rhamnez). The bark presents the following structure A aa ( Cork, composed of several layers of small, flattened cells with brown contents ; in surface view these cells are polygonal. (2) Cortex, the cells of which are tangentially elongated. Near the cork these cells are collenchymatous in.character, forming a more or less continuous band of thickened cells. This tissue contains numerous large groups of sclerenchymatous- cells, the individual cells of which are of irregular shape, and have very thick, striated, pitted wails. The parenchymatous. cells abutting on these groups of sclerenchyma often contain prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate, whilst in the remainder of the cortical parenchyma numerous rosettes of calcium oxalate are to be found (3) Bast Ring.—This tissue is traversed by medullary rays. from one to four cells wide. It contains numerous, narrow,,. tangentially elongated groups of thick-walled bast fibres upon which parenchymatous cells containing prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate abut. These latter cells are arranged in long vertical rows, and their contents are very conspicuous in longitudinal sections. The sieve-tubes are mostly wide, and bear large sieve-plates on oblique walls; they can by suitable treatment be detected in the powder. The bast ring contains in addition smaller groups of sclerenchymatous cells and numerous rosettes of calcium oxalate. The diagnostic characters of powdered cascara sagrada are :— (a) The conspicuous bast fibres accompanied by calciwnv. oxalate crystals. (b) The groups of sclerenchymatous cells, or fragments of such groups. (c) The small cork cells with reddish-brown contents. (d) The large sieve-twbes with oblique plates. } (e) The purplish colour produced when the powder is- treated with a caustic alkali. BARKS. PLATH LXXXI. f? ‘ke $e pe “i Ove OS = HA Fic. 91.—Powdered Cascara Sagrada Eark (x 240) col, Collenchyma of the cortex. cr, Prismatic and rosette crystals. f!, Bast fibres. I, I’, Bast in longitudinal and transverse section. pc, p’c’, Cortical parenchyma in longitudinal and transverse section. : ph, Phelloderm. rm, Medullary rays, tangential section. r’m’, The same, transverse section. r’m”, The same, radial section. s, s’, Cork, in surface view and section. sc, Sclerenchymatous cells. tc, Rows of crystal cells. 183 BARKS. (92) Cascarilla Bark, The bark of Croton Eluteria, Bennett (N.O. Euphorbiacesz). The bark presents the following structure :— (1) Cork.—This tissue varies considerably «in extent, and the cells of which it consists exhibit a very remarkable -structure. They arestrongly thickened and lignified on the outer tangential walls, and the thickening extends over part of the radial walls, the cells thus assuming, in transverse section, a horse-shoe shape ; the inner tangential walls and part of the radial walls contain innumerable minute crystals of calcium oxalate em- bedded in them, and present therefore a granular appearance. In surface view the cells appear polygonal, and uniformly thickened when the outer wall is focussed or thin walled, and filed with a granular substance when the inner wall is focussed. (2) Phelloderm, consisting of several rows of radially arranged cells, containing prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate, colouring matter, or droplets of oleo-resin. (3) Cortex, usually narrow, and composed of polygonal or rounded cells, containing prismatic or rosette crystals of calcium oxalate, sometimes of very large size, and droplets of oleo-resin. (4) Bast Ring, generally of considerable extant, and traversed by numerous, narrow, medullary rays containing a brown sub- stance or prismatic or rosette crystals of calcium oxalate. The bast rays contain numerous secretion cells and also bast fibres. The latter are either isolated or in small groups; they have very thick walls which, in surface view, often exhibit de- pressions. The secretion cells are rounded or polygonal; in longitudinal section they are rectangular, or bluntly conical, and are often superposed to form a transversely septate tube. They contain either. a reddish-brown substance insoluble in alkali, or droplets of oleo-resin. The cells of the bast parenchyma contain small grains of starch, or prismatic or rosette crystals of calcium oxalate. In radial sections the cells containing the latter are arranged in vertical rows. The diagnostic characters of powdered cascarilla bark are :— (a) The characteristic secretion cells. (b) The bast fibres. (c) The cork cells with their remarkable thickening and calcium oxalate crystals. BARKS. 189 PLATE LXXXII. \ J 4s se} $ +95 RY < — mabe: he ®. % > l ec i * ~ 1 ———— Se _ woes = ee a Ee 2} ole s <0 eo Fic. 92.—Powdered Cascarilla Bark (x 240). a, starch grains. cp, Prismatic or rhombohedral c-ystals. cr, Rosette crystals. cs, Secretion cells. fl, Bast fibres. fl’, The same, in transverse section. 1, , Bast, radial and transverse section. pc, cortical parenchyma, longitudinal section. p’c’, The same, transverse tection. ph, Phelloderm. rm, r’m’, Medullary ray, radial and transverse section. s, Cork cells, showing surface view of the inner wall with granular calcareous deposit. s’, Phelloderm cells in transverse section. si, Cork cells showing surface view of the outer thickened wall. s’'i’, The same in section. : is, Superposed secreting cells vg, Sieve-tubes li 190 BARKS. (93) Cassia Bark. The bark of Cinnamomum Cassia, Blame: (N.O. Laurinez). The bark presents the following structure Sa (1) Cork, in which layers of thin-walled, tabular cells alter-.” a nate with layers of cells with thickened, brown walls. (2) Cortex, which is moderately wide and characterised by the abundance of sclerenchymatous cells contained init. -Some of these cells have very thick walls with branching pits; others . ss have comparatively large cavities and walls that exhibit a more or less conspicuous one-sided thickening. They occur either isolated or in small groups in the primary cortex, and also form . a sclerenchymatous ring, which is interrupted at intervals by - small groups of Nan NE ts cells, and bears on the outer margin scattered bundles of pericyclic fibres. (3) Bast Ring, constituting the greater part of the bark. It is traversed by medullary rays two cells wide, and contains numerous secretion cells as well as bast-fibres and sclerenchy- matous cells. The secretion cells are mostly larger than the cells of the bast parenchyma, and are axially elongated; they may contain either mucilage or volatile oil, or a mixture of both. The bast fibres are either isolated, or occur in groups of two or three; they are larger but less numerous than those of cinnamon bark. ~The sclerenchymatous cells are also either isolated or in small groups. The cells of the bast parenchyma contain starch grains which are considerably larger. than - those of cinnamon bark. Many cells, especially those of the medullary rays, contain numerous minute prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. The sieve-tubes are narrow, and have small, transverse sieve-plates. The diagnostic characters of cassia bark are :— (a) The cork, some of the cells of which are thick walled. (0) The tsolated bast fibres. (c) The sclerenchymatous cells, many of which are more strongly thickened on one side than on. the nther. (d) The secretion cells, containing oil or mucilage ~~ (c) The minute prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. Typical specimens of cassia bark may be distinguished from ‘typical specimens of cinnamon bark by the presence of cork, by the larger, thicker, bast fibres, and by: the larger starch-grains, but the lower grades of cinnamon neti are ‘often difficult to distinguish from cassia. tye eetts ve be BARKS. 191. cr, Crystals of calcium oxalate. fl, Bast fibres, entire or broken. go, Secretion ‘cells, LF, Bast, in longitudinal and transverse section. po, Cortical parenchyma. ph, Phellogen): 6.005 G0, m Us rm, rm’, Medullary rays in longitudinal and transverse section. eae SR re ee inden ikea s,s’, Outer layers of cork, in surface view, and in profile. sc, Sclerenchymatous cells. a -se, s’e’, Inner, thickened layers -of- ‘cork, in ‘surface view and in profile. 192 BARKS. (94) Cinchona Bark (Ledger). The cultivated bark of Cinchona Ledgeriana, Moens (N.O. Rubiacez). The bark presents the following structure :— (1) Cork, composed of several layers of thin-walled tabular cells filled with adark-brown, amorphous substance; in surface view the cells are polygonal. (2) Phelloderm, consisting of several rows of cells with dark- brown walls. (3) Cortex, composed of tangentially elongated polygonal cells, some of which are filled with sandy crystats of calcium oxalate, while others contain small, simple starch grains. (4) Bast Ring, comprising the major part of the bark. The medullary rays traversing this tissue are usually two or three cells wide, and the cells have very thin walls. The bast-rays contain numerous scattered bast-fibres which vary somewhat in width (30 to 80 u), but are usually rather large and fusiform in shape; their walls are very thick, conspicuously striated, and traversed by funnel-shaped pits. In the powdered drug the bast fibres are more or less broken, but the fragments are easily recognisable by their characteristic pits. The sieve-tubes are very narrow, and the sieve-plates are usually transversely situated. The powder of cultivated cinchonas always contains frag- ments of very dark-brown cork and of foliaceous lichens; they usually exhibit but few sclerenchymatous cells, but the botanical source cannot be accurately determined by means of the microscope. The diagnostic characters of powdered cinchona bark are :— (a) The dark colour of the parenchymatous tissue. (b) The very characteristic bast fibres. (c) The small sieve-tubes. BARKS. 193 PLATE LXXXIV. _Fic. 94—Powdered Cinchona Bark (Ledger) (x 240). a, Starch grains. cr, Cells with sandy crystals of calcium oxalate. fl, f’l’, Bast-fibres, entire and broken. I, Bast. lic, Débris of lichens. Pc, Cortical parenchyma. rm, Medullary ray in long tudinal section. s, s’, Cork in surface view and profile. ph, Phelloderm. 194 BARKS. (95) Cinnamon Bark. The bark of Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Breyne (N.O. Lau- rine). The bark, which is deprived of the cork and of the majority of the cortex, presents the following structure :— (1) Cortex, represented by two or three rows of tangentially elongated polygonal cells. (2) Bast Ring, separated from the remains of the cortex bya continuous ring of sclerenchymatous cells, with thickened pitted walls, the thickening being often more strongly developed on one side than on the others. On the outer margin of this ring bundles of pericyclic fibres may be detected at ntervals, as in the case of cassia bark, but the sclerenchymatous ring of cinnamon differs from that of cassia in being continuous instead of interrupted. The bast ring is traversed by medullary rays, Which are very narrow near the cambium, but enlarge towards the periphery. It contains secretion cells similar to those of cassia bark, and bast fibres that have very thick walls and are mostly isolated. The sieve-tubes are arranged in tan- gential groups, which in the outer portions of the bast ring are collapsed and exhibit traces only of cavities; they are narrow and have transverse sieve-plates. Many of the cells of the cortical parenchyma and medullary rays contain small starch grains or numerous minute crystals of calcium oxalate. The diagnostic characters of cinnamon bark are :— (a) The absence of cork. (b) The sclerenchymatous cells, sometimes thickened on one side more than on the others. (c) The secretion cells containing oil or mucilage. (d) The minute crystals of calcium oxalate. (e) The small sieve-tubes with transverse plates. Typical cinnamon bark is distinguished from cassia bark by the absence of cork, by the bast-fibres, which are smaller and narrower, and by the starch grains, which are also smaller. BARKS. ~ 195 PLATE LXAXYV. Fic. 95.—Powdered Cinnamon Bark (x 240). a, Starch grains. cr, Minute crystals of calcium oxalate. fi, Bast fibres with very thick walls, entire or broken. go, Secretion cells. 1, l’, Bast in longitudinal and transverse section. pc, Cortical parenchyma. rm, r’m’, Medullary rays in radial and tangential section. sc, Sclerenchymatous cells. vg, Sieve-tubes, collapsed. 02 196 BARKS. (96) Condurango Bark. The bark of Gonolobus Condurango, Triana (N.O. Asclepiadez). The bark presents the following structure :— (1) Cork, of moderate thickness, composed of flattened, brown, tabular cells, which in tangential section are polygonal in outline. (2) Phelloderm, also of moderate thickness, characterised by the presence of an abundance of prismatic or octohedral crystals of calcium oxalate. (3) Cortex, the outer layers of which, abutting on the phello- derm, are collenchymatous. The cells of the cortical parenchyma are irregularly polygonal and contain small starch grains and rosettes of calcium oxalate measuring mostly from 8 to 20u in diameter. The cortex also contains numerous laticiferous cells filled with a brown latex. (4) Bast Ring, which, especially in young barks, is separated from the cortex by a ring of rounded bundles of thick-walled pericyclic fibres (primary bast fibres). The bast ring is traversed by narrow medullary rays, some of which are abruptly enlarged towards the cortex. The bast rays contain numerous laticiferous cells and sieve tubes, as well as large, irregular groups of sclerenchymatous cells, the walls of which are very thick, and have branching pits; these groups are bordered by cells with moderately thick pitted walls. The sieve tubes are rather large and have oblique sieve plates. The bast parenchyma is rich in starch grains and rosette crystals of calcium oxalate. The diagnostic characters of condurango bark are :— (a) The laticiferous cells with brown latex. (b) The sclerenchymatous cells. (c) The pericyclic fibres. (d) The ubuniane caicium oxalate in single crystals or roseites. (e) The large sieve tubes with oblique plates. (f) The starch grains. ase BARKS. 197 PLATE DXXXVI. 8 “B.C Fic. 96.— Powdered Condurango Bark (x 240). a, Small, simple starch grains. col, Collenchyma. cp, Prismatic and octohedral crystals from the phelloderm. cr, Rosette crystals. fi, Pericyclic fibres. I, Il’, Bast, in transverse and longitudinal section. pc, Cortical parenchyma. pd, p’d’, Phelloderm, in transverse and tangential section. rm, p’m’, Medullary rays, in transverse and radial section. s, s’, Cork, in tangential and transverse section. vg, Sieve-tubes, in longitudinal section. vi, wv’'l’, Laticiferous cells, in longitudinal and transverse section. 198 BARKS. (97) Cusparia Bark. The bark of Galipea officinalis, Hancock (N.O. Rutacez). The bark exhibits the following structure :— (1) Cork.—The characters of this tissue vary considerably in different specimens, Frequently there is on the outside s more or less extensive layer of thin-walled cells, and towards the in- terior a layer of thick-walled cells; or these conditions may he reversed, or the thin-walled cork may be almost entirely absent. In surface view the cork cells are polygonal in outline. (2) A narrow layer of phelloderm, the cells of which, in sur- face view, also appear polygonal. (3) Cortex, composed of tangentially elongated parenchymatous cells containing small, rounded starch grains. This tissue con- tains large oval cells, in each of which there is a bundle of acicular crystals of calcium oxalate ; it also contains oil glands, and not unfrequently small groups of polygonal parenchyma- tous cells with moderately thick, pitted walls. (4) Bast Ring, in which oil glands and small groups of bast fibres can be distinguished. In this tissue crystal cells are also pre- sent, but the cells themselves are not larger than the neighbour- ing parenchymatous cells, and the calcium oxalate takes the form of long, pointed, prismatic crystals. The bast fibres have very thick walls, and are grouped together in bundles of mode- rate size. The sieve-tubes are arranged in tangential bands, which alternate with similar bands of bast parenchyma; they may he distinguished by having rather thicker walls, and in the older parts of the bark are often collapsed. The medullary rays are two cells wide, near the cambium, but enlarge towards the cortex. When a section is moistened with dilute solution of ferric chloride a bright red colour is developed, especially near the oil cells. The diagnostic characters of cusparia bark are :— (a) The presence of acicular and prismatic crystals of calciwm oxalate. (6) The oil glands. (c) The bast fibres. (d) The characteristic cork. (e) The red coloration with ferric chloride (not always well defined in the powder). BARKS. 199 PLATH BXXXVILI. Fic. 97.—Powdered Cusparia Bark (x 240) a, Starch grains. cr, Prismatic crystals. cra, Acicular crystals. fl, Bast fibres. go, Oil glands. I, Il’, Portions of the bast in longitudinal and transverse section. pc, Cortical parenchyma. ph, Phelloderm. ra, Raphides. rm, rm’, Medullary rays in tangential and radial section s s’, Cork, in surface view and section. sc, Sclerenchymatous cork cells. sp, Sclerenchymatous cells from the cortical parenchyma vg, Sieve-tubes. 200 BARKS. (98) Oak Bark. The young bark of Quercus robur, Linn. (N.O. Cupulifere). The bark presents the following structure :— (1) Cork, composed of a number of rows of moderately thickened, brown cells; in tangential section they are seen to be polygonal. (2) Phelloderm, which is generally only slightly developed, and presents the usual characters. (3) Cortex, the outer portion of which has developed into a collenchymatous tissue, containing brownish chloro- plastids. The remainder of the cortex is composed of irregular polygonal cells amongst which there are scattered numerous isolated or grouped sclerenchymatous cells; these vary very much in size; some have very thick walls traversed by branching pits, but others have only moderately thick smooth walls. The parenchymatous cells of the cortex contain chloro-. plastids, tannin, and rosette crystals of calcium oxalate. (4) Bast Ring, which in young bark is of moderate thickness, and traversed by narrow medullary rays. The bast rays contain numerous tangentially elongated groups of bast fibres with very thick walls upon which cells containing prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate abut. Many of the cells of the bast parenchyma are brown in colour, and nearly all of them as well as of the cells of the medullary rays contain tannin. The diagnostic characters of the bark are :— (a) The presence of abundant tannin. (6) The nwmerous sclerenchymatous cells of the cortex. (c) The numerous thick-walled bast fibres. (d) The characteristic cork. BARKS. 201 PLATE DXXXVIII. Ben * el a A a ; 2D : fe kan See ED, ‘s or EES Yee RS FoNS ees 4.07 Fic. 98.—Powdered Oak Bark (x 240). ccr, Cells containing rosette crystals. col, Collenchyma. cp, Prismatic crystals, free or enclosed in cells, abutting on the bast fibres. cr, Rosette crystals from the parenchyma of the cortex and bast. fl, Fragments of bast fibres. f'l’, The same, in transverse section. I, l’, I’ Bast, in radial, transverse, and tangential section. pc, Parenchyma of the cortex. ph, Phelloderm. rm, r’m’, Medullary rays in radial and tangential section. sc, Sclerenchymatous cells. tor, Rows of crystal cells. 202 BARKS. (99) Pomegranate Root Bark. The root bark of Punica Granatum, Linn. (N.O.Lythrariez). The bark exhibits the following structure :— (1) Cork.—The outer layers of this tissue are often much flattened and in process of exfoliation ; the inner layers are composed of flattened, tangentially elongated cells, the inner tangential walls of which are thickened and pitted. In surface view these cells appear polygonal, isodiametric, and pitted. (2) Cortez. — The cells of the cortical parenchyma are tangentially elongated, and contain a little chlorophyll, together with starch grains, and occasional prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. Here and there, especially in old barks, large scleren- chymatous cells are to be found; they are usually isolated, seldom in couples, very irregular in shape, and have very thick, pitted walls. (5) Bast Ring.—The bast ring is divided -by one-celled medullary rays into very distinct bast rays, which are characterised by the great number of rosette crystals of calcium oxalate contained in them. These crystals are contained in the cells of the bast parenchyma, and, in transverse section are arranged in parallel tangential lines, sometimes single, some- times double, alternating with rows of similar cells containing small starch grains. In longitudinal section the crystal cells are seen to be in vertical rows, The root bark is distinguished from the stem bark more particularly by its greater disposition to form an outer bark by the production of secondary phellogens in the cortex. The stem bark also bears lenticels; these are filled with layers of thick-walled cork cells, between which there are numerous rounded cells with unequally thickened pitted walls (Tschirch’s choriphelloid cells). The diagnostic characters of powdered pomegranate root bark are :— (a) The large number and regular arrangement of the rosettes of calcium oxalate. (6) The very large, thick-walled, pitted sclerenchymatous cells. (c) The inner layers of cork cells, thickened and pitted on one side. (a) The small isolated starch grains. BARKS. 203 PLATH LXXX1xX, Fic. 99.—Powdered Pomegranate Root Bark (x 240). a, Starch grains. cr, Crystals of calcium oxalate. I, I’, I’, Bast ray, in radial, transverse and tangential section. le, le’, Choriphelloid cells of lenticels. Pp, Prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate (from the cortex). pc, Cortical parenchyma with prismatic crystals. Ph, Phelloderm cells. sc, Sclerenchymatous cells. se, Outer layers of cork, surface view. s’e’, The same in profile. si, Inner layers of cork, surface view. s’i’, The same, in profile. 204 BARKS. (100) Quillaia Bark. The secondary bast of Quillaja Saponaria, Molina (N.O. Rosacez), to which portions of the dark-brown, outer bark are sometimes attached. The bark presents the following structure :— (1) Outer Bark, consisting of bands of cork cells alternating with bands of brown parenchymatous tissue containing numerous groups of bast fibres and large prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate, (2) Bast Ring, completely traversed by medullary rays, usually three or four cells wide, in which prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate are occasionally to be seen. The bast rays -contain numerous bast fibres, both isolated and grouped, together with prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate, many of which are of very large size (up to 1,000u, or even more in length), and axially arranged. The groups of bast fibres are very irregular in shape, and only occasionally stretch from one medullary ray to the next. The individual fibres. vary very much in appearance, being often cut obliquely. In transverse section they may be small (10-12u) or large (40%) and rounded or angular, or they may be oval (60x); the cavity may be a point or a slit. When isolated they have a very characteristic irregular outline, exhibiting remarkable enlargements; they taper to a fine point and near the apex are often forked; with dilute mineral acids they assume a reddish colour. The sieve-tubes are comparatively wide, the sieve-plates large and oblique. The diagnostic characters of powdered quillaia bark are:— (a) The very large prismatic crystals of calciwm oxalate. (b) The abundance of large bast-fibres of wrregular shape. c) The large sieve-tubes. BARKS. 205 PLATE XC; 29000 *™ Ts Ow. cay Fia. 100.—Powdered Quillaia Bark (x 240). ec a, Starch grains. ccr, Crystal cells. cr, Crystals of calcium oxa'ate, fi, Bast fibres. I, l, Bast. rm, r’'m’, r‘m’, Medullary rays in longitudinal, transverse, and tangential sections. s, s’, Cork. sc, Sclerenchymatous cells. 206 BARKS. (101) Sassafras Root Bark. The root bark of Lawrus Sassafras, Linn. (N.O. Laurinez). The bark presents the following structure :— (1) Cork, composed of large polygonal cells, with slightly thickened, yellowish brown walls. (2) Phelloderm, the cells of which resemble those of the cork, but are colourless and not suberised. (3) Cortex, consisting of polygonal celis with intercellular spaces. These cells contain starch grains, which are either simple or compound; the former are oval or rounded, and possess a very distinct stellate or fissured hilum, the latter are com- posed of two, three, or four grains which, when separated, exhibit one or more flattened surfaces. The cortex also con- tains large oil-cells filled with yellowish volatile oil. 4) Bast Ring, which comprises the majority of the bark, and is traversed by medullary rays one or two cells wide. Most of the cells of the bast parenchyma have smooth walls, but many are pitted. The bast rays contain numerous large oil-cells and large, isolated, fusiform bast fibres, the walls of which are so thick as to leave but very small cavities. The sieve tubes are arranged in tangential bands, and in the outer part of the bast ring are collapsed. The diagnostic characters of sassafras root bark are :— (a) The oil-cells. (b) The large, thick-walled, isolated bast fibres. (c) The starch grains. (d) The parenchymatous cells, with pitted walls. BARKS. 207 PLATE XCI. Fic. 101—Powdered Sassafras Root Bark (x 240). a, Starch grains. cp, Pitted cells from the bast ring fi, Bast fibres. go, Oil-cells. I, I’, I’, Bast in radial, transverse, and tangential section. pc, p’c’, Cortical parenchyma in transverse and’ longitudinal section. ph, Phelloderm. rm, r’'m’, r’m", Medullary rays in radial, transverse, and tan- gential section. s,s’, Cork in surface view and profile. vg, v’s', Sieve tubes more or less collapsed, in longitudinal and transverse section. 208 BARKS. (102) Simarouba Bark. The root bark of Simarouba officinalis, D.C. (N.O. Rutacez). The bark presents the following structure :— (1) Cork, if present, consisting of brown, flattened, tabular cells, | (2) Cortex, composed of irregular, tangentially elongated, polygonal cells, and containing resin cells and rather large -sclerenchymatous cells either isolated or in groups; these cells are very irregular in shape and have rather thick, lignified walls. The cortex also contains an abundance of prismatic or rhombohedral crystals of caicium oxalate. (5) Bast Ring, comprising the major part of the bark and traversed by numerous medullary rays which are mostly two to ‘four cells wide and widen somewhat abruptly towards the -cortex. The bast rays contain numerous bast fibres arranged in tangential bands which alternate with thicker tangential bands of bast parenchyma and sieve tubes. The bast fibres are often accompanied by groups of sclerenchymatous cells. The individual fibres are rather large, irregularly flattened, and provided with moderately thick, lignified walls. The -bast rays are also rich in prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. The number of sclerenchymatous cells and of crystals varies, how- -ever, greatly in different samples of bark. The diagnostic characters of simarouba bark are :— (a) The characteristic bast fibres. (6) The sclerenchymatous cells. (c) The crystals of calcium oxalate in the cortical parenchyma. BARKS. 209 PLATE XCII. an = Fic. 102—Powdered Simarouba Bark (x 240). cer, Cells containing calcium oxalate. cp, Pitted cells, cr, Prismatic and rhombohedral crystals of calcium oxalate. fi, Bast fibres. 1,1’, Bast in longitudinal and transverse section. pc, Cortical parenchyma, rm, r’m’, Medullary rays in radial and tangential section. s,s’, Cork in surface view and profile. sc, Sclerenchymatous cells, isolated and in groups. 210 RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. SECTION VIII. POWDERED RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. Rhizomes and roots often exhibit great similarity in appear- ance as well as in structure. Some drugs consist of rhizomes with roots attached to them (valerian), others of separate pieces of rhizome and root which, however, are often with difficulty to be distinguished (liquorice), whilst others, again, though generally styled roots, are really rhizomes (rhubarb). For these reasons it is desirable to deal with them together, although such a classification may not be altogether scientific. Most of such as are used in pharmacy are derived from mono- cotyledonous or dicotyledonous plants, only one—viz., male fern —hbeing obtained from a fern. As the general structure varies according to the class to which the plant yielding the drug belongs, these classes may be considered separately. 1. Ferns. The epidermis is succeeded by a tegumentary tissue consisting of the suberised and dark-coloured outer rows of the cells of the cortical parenchyma (metaderm). The steles are arranged in a ‘diffuse ring and surrounded by a parenchymatous tissue that is continuous with, and may be considered part of the cortical parenchyma, the cells of which contain small starch grains, chlorophyll, etc. Each stele is surrounded by a distinct endo- ‘dermis within which there is a single row of pericyclic cells containing starch grains. Within the pericycle is a ring of bast tissue, the centre of the stele being occupied by the wood. ‘The bast tissue is composed of small parenchymatous cells and large sieve tubes, while the wood contains narrow spiral, together with larger scalariform and reticulate, vessels. RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. 211 2. Monocotyledons. From this class numerous official rhizomes are derived. The . epidermis is usually succeeded by a rather thick layer of cork, within which there is a parenchymatous cortex traversed ongitudinally by fibrovascular bundles (leaf traces), and _ Separated from the stele by the endodermis. The stele is com- posed of parenchymatous tissue, throughout which numerous fibrovascular bundles are distributed. These bundles are usually more closely approximated to one another near the endodermis forming a more or less dense ring, while towards the centre of he stele they are scattered. Although one bundle may fuse with another, they do not all unite to form a single ring of wood Aundles surrounded by a ring of bast as they do in dicotyledo- -nous rhizomes, nor is any merismatic layer (cambium) produced. Monocotyledonous roots also have a distinctive structure. Within the outermost layer or epiblema there is a cortex com- posed of parenchymatous cells often filled with starch; the ..endodermis is usually distinct and often coloured; the stele -contains a number of fibrovascular bundles so closely approxi- mated to one another as to form within the pericycle a con- tinuous ring which is not traversed by regular bands of parenchy- matous cells analogous to medullary rays. Within the ring of -fibrovascular bundles there is usually a more or less well de veloped pith. ; Dicotyledons. Dicotyledonous rhizomes commonly exhibit a tegumentory tissue comp dsed of several layers of cork: cells within which is -@ parenchymatous cortex traversed longitudinally by fibrovascular bundles (leat traces). The endodermis is some- times distinct, but sometimes it is difficult to identify. The : tele differs from the stele of monocotyledonous rhizomes in the nature aud distribution of the fibrovascular bundles it contains; in dicotyledonous rhizomes these are u:ually arranged in a single circle and often closely approximated, being separated by regular strands of parenchyma (medulla'y rays). Between each wood bundle and the pericycle there is a _ group of bast tissue, and between the bast and the wood a layer of merismatic tissue which ultimately forms a complete .tambium ring. During the earlier stages of their growth, dicotyledoncus hizomes may easily be distinguished from roots, as the forme possess the primary structure characteristic of stems and th latter that characteristic of roots. As the age of these organ. . increases, it becomes increasingly difficult to distinguish wi h certainty between them, for the primary structure becomes _.more and more obscure until it is finally undiscerni»le. Th’'s P2 212 RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. is the case with most drugs, and it is often anything but an easy task to distinguish the one from the other. Rhizomes, however, generally possess a well-marked pith whichis absent from roots, and they often exhibit also scars of leaves with buds in their axils from which roots are free; in transverse sec- tion it is usually easy to discover the leaf traces that proceed from the stele obliquely through the cortex to these leaves. Principal Tissues of Roots and Rhizomes. Before reviewing the principal tissues that are present in roots and rhizomes it may beobserved that hairs, both simple and glan- dular, stomata and palisade tissue, all of which are commonly present in leaves, are almost wholly absent from roots and rhi- zomes and their powders. The sclerenchymatous and coloured layers that are characteristic of seeds are not found in roots, which may also bedistinguished from seeds by the absence of aleu- ronegrains. The presence of pitted and other vessels are sufficient to distinguish powdered roots from powdered barks, with the exception of those few of the former that contain abnormal vascular bundles. Monocotyledonous roots and rhizomes do not possess medullary rays, whilst in most dicotyledonous roots and rhizomes they are present and may be found in the powdered drugs in fragments, exhibiting typical appearances according as they present their transverse, tangential or radial section. In some few cases it is possible to distinguish an admixture of powdered rhizome with powdered root, but generally speaking this is difficult, if not impossible. Gentian or liquorice rhi- zome, for instance, cannot be distinguished from the root when powdered, but an admixture of ipecacuanha or valerian rhizome with the root can easily be detected, as the rhizomes contain certain sclerenchymatous elements which are not found in the roots. The following are the principal tissues that may be found in powdered roots or rhizomes: epidernvis or cork, phelloderm, collen- hyma, cortical parenchyma, endoderniis, bast, wood, and pith. They are not, however, all of the same diagnostic importance ; thus, for instance, the phelloderm and collenchyma are almost valueless from a diagnostic point of view, whereas sclerenchy- matous cells, fibres, etc., are extremely important, as are also such cell contents as starch, inulin, calcium oxalate, ete. RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. 213 Epidermis or Cork. In some monocotyledonous rhizomes (sweet flag) the epi- ‘dermis is persistent and no cork is formed, but in others (ginger) it may be thrown off comparatively early, and an abundant development of cork may take its place. In some drugs the cork cells of the root offer certain points of distinction from those of the rhizome (white hellebore). In dicotyledonous rhizomes the epidermis is usually replaced by a varying number of layers of cork cells. Occasionally the epidermis both of rhi- zomes and roots is found to be provided with hairs; these may be numerous and persistent (valerian root) or scattered and often broken off (zedoary rhizome). Phelloderm. The arrangement of the cells of this tissue is the same as that of the cells of the cork; they may be distinguished by their walls, which are not suberised. Collenchyma. Several rhizomes contain a layer of collenchyma abutting upon the epidermis (or cork) ; it presents the usual characters. Cortical Parenchyma. In most roots and rhizomes the cortical parenchyma consists of tangentially elongated cells; sometimes, however, these cells are axially elongated. The cortex of rhizomes is usually tra- versed by leaf traces, and may contain sclerenchymatous cells secretion cells, etc., of considerable diagnostic value. Bast. The arrangement of the bast in monocotyledonous rhizomes differs materially from that which obtains in dicotyledonous. In the former this tissue usually consists of a few small elon- gated cells, closely adherent to the vessels of the vascular bundle, which may be supported or surrounded by a crescent-shaped bundle of fibres. In dicotyledonous rhizomes the bast forms a much more considerable portion of the drug and of the powder. In many dicotyledonous roots the bast ring contains no sclenchy- matous fibres, but in others such may be present, and they then constitute a valuable diagnostic feature. Endodermis. Most monocotyledonous rhizomes and roots contain a very obvious endodermis, the cells of which may furnish an impor- tant means of identifying the powder. In dicotyledonous rhizomes it is usually of little importance, and among the _dicotyledonous roots those of aconite and valerian are the only drugs in which this tissue is to be detected. 214 RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. Wood. The stele of monocotyledonous rhizomes is usually composed © of a parenchymatous tissue resembling that of the cortex, - traversed by a number of collateral or concentric bundles; the latter are usually composed of a few vessels, together with a small column of bast, the whole being often supported by a sheath of sclerenchymatous fibres. The parenchymatous cells, - the vessels, and the fibres may all afford valuable diagnostic evidence. In monocotyledonous roots the vessels are generally very large and accompanied by numerous thick-walled, pitted fibres. The wood of dicotyledonous rhizomes and roots is usually divided by medullary rays into wedge-shaped masses. These masses may consist of thin-walled parenchymatous tissue, in which vessels are scattered either singly or in small groups: (gentian), or the parenchymatous tissue may lignify partially (liquorice), or completely (rhatany). In the centre the remains of the primary wood may often be found and recognised by its spiral vessels. Sometimes true vessels are entirely absent, as, for instance, they are from the wood of ipecacuanha root, which consists entirely of tracheids, wood fibres and wood parenchyma. Medullary Rays. These are found in dicotyledonous but not in monocotyle- donous roots or rhizomes, and form, therefore, an important diagnostic feature. They are generally narrow in roots that have a completely lignified wood, but much wider in those that have a wood consisting largely of thin-walled parenchymatous. tissue. They have been described, and their importance ~ indicated, in the section dealing with woods. Secretory Tissue. Tissue of this kind is by no means of uncommon occurrence. - As already pointed out, its presence or absence, and in the former case its nature, are of great importance. Sometimes - two kinds of secretory tissue are present, as, for instance, in ginger and allied rhizomes. Here the cortex and stele contain oleo-resin cells, while the bundles contain narrow elongated cells, in which a dark brown substance is secreted. Bryony root contains elongated cells, analogous to laticiferous cells. The remarkable glandular hairs that occur in the inter- cellular spaces of male fern rhizome and secrete a resinous sub- stance may also be found whole or broken in the powdered » drug. RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. ne Starch. Some rhizomes and roots, as, for instance, gentian, senega and those derived from composite plants, are free, or practically free, from starch; others, such as golden seal, contain but little. It is, however, more usual to find considerable quantities of starch, to the characters of which particular attention must be directed. In theillustrations that accompany this section of the Atlas, we have endeavoured to retain as accurately as pos- sible the relative size of the various starches, for this often ~ constitutes the most conspicuous difference between them. Inulin. The rhizomes and roots of composite plants contain this: substance asa reserve material in the place of starch. It is. generally found in the parenchymatous cells of the bast ring and wood in the form of amorphous or indistinctly crystalline masses. Examined in a mixture of ulcohol and glycerin these often exhibit a spherocrystalline structure; they dissolve. without swelling when heated in water. Calcium Oxalate. This substance may be entirely absent or it may be present, and then, as usual, in various distinctive forms. Thus bella- donna root contains sandy crystals, gentian root minute needles, orris rhizome very large prisms, rhubarb enormous. rosette crystals, ipecacuanha raphides, and so on. In some drugs (orris), these crystals occur in intercellular spaces and are enclosed-in_ delicate suberised membranes; in others they are contained singly or several together in the interior of certain of the cells. 216 « RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. (103) Aconite Root. The root of Aconitum Napellus, Linn. (N.O. Ranunculacez). The root presents the following structure :— (1) Tegumentary Tisswe (metaderm), composed of brown tabular cells which in surface view are polygonal and of variable size and shape. (2) Cortex, consisting of polygonal parenchymatous cells filled with starch ; mamy of the cells also contain the brownish remains of protoplasm. Numerous sclerenchymatous cells, occasionally strongly 2longated, with thickened, pitted walls, are scattered throughout this tissue. (3) Endodermis, which is very conspicuous. It consists of a single row of rectangular, tangentially elongated cells with slightly thickened and often brownish walls. (4) Bast Ring. This tissueis rather largely developed. Towards the exterior it is composed_of irregular polygonal cells that do not exhibit any definite arrangement, but as the wood is approached they become more regular, isodiametric and-assume -a radial arrangement. It contains numerous groups of sieve tissue but no bast fibres. (5) Wood, separated from the bast ring by a stellate cambium with about seven angles in which there are fibrovascular bundles of varying dimensions, those in the angles that project into the bast ring being larger than the others. The wood consists principally of parenchymatous tissue, the cells of which contain an abundance of starch in simple and compound grains; the former are rounded; the constituent grains of the latter vary in shape according to the number in the compound grain, and are usually rounded on one side and angular on the other. There is no calcium oxalate present. The diagnostic characters of aconite root are :—- (a) The starch grains. (6) The presence of sclerenchymatous ceils, but absence of bast fibres. (c) The brownish contents of many parenchymatous cells. (d) Absence of calewwm oxalate RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. * 217 i PLATE XCIII. Fic. 103.—Powdered Aconite Root (x 240). a, Starch grains. : ca, c’a’, Cambium in longitudinal and transverse section. e, Tegumentary tissue, surface view. I, I’, Bast in longitudinal and transverse section. m, Débris of parenchyma of the pith. pc, Cortical parenchyma. Pce, Outer part of the same. pl, Wood parenchyma. sc, Sclerenchymatous cells. tr, v, Pitted vessels, ete. 218 RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. (104) Belladonna Root. The root of Atropa Belladonna, Linn. (N.O. Solanacez). The upper part of the root is an erect rhizome and differs somewhat from the root in its structure. A root of moderate size presents the following structure : (1) Cork, composed of tabular, tangentially elongated cells which in surface view are polygonal and isodiametric. (2) Cortex (secondary), consisting of parenchymatous cells with rather thick walls and distinct pits; near the cork these cells are tangentially elongated, but towards the cambium they become nearly isodiametric. In the cells of this tissue, as well as those of the parenchyma of the bast-ring and wood, starch grains and sandy crystals of calcium oxalate occur. The starch grains vary usually from 5 to 20u in diameter, but may attain 30u; they are mostly compound and contain from two to four constituent grains; the simple grains are rounded or oval. (3) Bast Ring, which is not sharply delineated from the cortex and contains radially elongated groups of sieve-tissue, but no bast fibres. (4) Wood, consisting largely of thin-walled parenchyma, throughout which radially elongated vascular groups are distri- buted, the centre of the root being occupied with the primary wood. The vascular groups contain a few pitted vessels, accompanied by tracheids and fibres. The rhizome differs considerably from the root in structure. The wood is much more developed and usually forms one or more dense rings enclosing a distinct pith, and traversed by well marked medullary rays. Between the pith and the wood perimedullary bast bundles may be found. The diagnostic characters of belladonna root are: (a) The starch. (b) The sandy calevum oxalate. (c) The cRaricbortatie tracheids and wood fibres. RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. 219 PLATE XCIV. Fic. 104.—Powdered Belladonna Root (x 240). a, Starch grains. cer, Cells with sandy crystals. fi, Wood fibres. I, Bast. m, Cells of pith (of rhizome). pc, p’c’, Cortical parenchyma in longitudinal and transverse section. pl, p’l’, Wood parenchyma (from rhizome) after treatment with potash. rm, Medullary ray. v,. Vessels. vg, Sieve tube. 220 RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. (105) Bryony Root. The root of Bryoma dioica, Linn. (N.O. Cucurbitacez). The root presents the following structure : (1) Cork, composed of several layers of cells with yellow walls ; im surface view these cells are either axially elongated or poly- gonal and isodiametric. (2) Cortex, which is very narrow, consisting of parenchymatous cells containing starch and sclerenchymatous cells with slightly thickened walls. The stareh is chiefly in simple oval or rounded grains with a very distinct hilum, but occasional com- pound grains, with two or three component granules, may be found. The cortex also contains small straight or branched laticiferous vessels. (3) Bast Ring, in which laticiferous vessels are also found, together with sieve tubes, the latter being distinguished by their larger size. (4) Wood, consisting principally of parenchyma, in which there are numerous radially arranged groups of vessels. These groups consist of large pitted and reticulated vessels surrounded by “tracheids. ; The diagnostic characters of powdered bryony root are (a) The starch grains. (b) The large vessels. (c) The large-celled cork. (d) The absence of bast fibres and crystals. 221 RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. XC V. PLATE: .—Powdered Bryony Root (x 240). Fie. 105 S C) 3B S) oO wm a , 22 S rg sD rege ea aESG sa B ome et Da eee 2 R aScSaeoa oD BP 3) > HP n a 3 SH 2g m Sa ee bp . oO QAao eH # n>ees ~ Pl aspadgrato Sad on eon ap Sen ays Sere a spaeaotiaggso'g eo o2#o 9 > 2 -REESOks .O8 2¢58 .a0SH ES? 5 S MPa er VAS J] Agesrr2EUSSs ae ” — ss ~On »~We Se QBkhQaennw rds d 222 RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. (106) Calumba Root. The root of Jateorhiza Columba, Miers (N.O. Menispermacez). % . The root presents the following structure :— (1) Cork, consisting of several rows of brown, tabular cells, which in surface view are polygonal and isodiametric. (2) Cortex (secondazy), the cells of which are polygonal and tangentially elongated; they contain large starch grains (20 to ‘70”) which are mostly simple, irregularly ovoid, rounded or pearshaped and exhibit a very conspicuous cleft or steliate hilum. There are also compound grains with from two to six constituent grains, measuring about 8-20u in diameter; these constituent grains are rounded on one side and angular on the others. Towards the periphery the cortex containslarge, scattere d, thicked-walled, sclerenchymatous cells either isolated or in groups; the cavities of these ceils are large and contain one or more prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate; the walls are bright yellow in colour and often exhibit a one-sided thickening. (5) Bast Ring, containing very long and narrow bast rays destitute of fibres. (4) Wood, largely composed of parenchyma, traversed by scattered fibrovascular bundles. These bundles are narrow and radially elongated; they are composed of large pitted vessels surrounded by a layer of more or less thickened but cnly very slightly lignified fibrous cells. The diagnostic characters of powdered calumba root are :— (a) The yellow colour of the sclerenchymatous cells and vessels. (6) The sclerenchymatous cells with calciwm oxalate crysials. {c) The characteristic starch grins. RHI OMES AND ROOTS. 225 PLATE XCVI. Fic. 106.—Powdered Calumba Root (x 240). a, Starch grains. cr, Calcium oxalate crystals. , I’, Bast in longitudinal and transverse section. m, Parenchyma of wood. pe, p’c’, Cortical parenchyma in transverse and longitudinal section. rm, Medullary ray. ( s, s’, Cork, in surface view and transverse section. sc, Sclerenchymatous cells. ~v, tr, Vessels, tracheids, etc. 224 RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. (107) Elecampane Root. The root of Inula Helenium, Linn. (N.O. Composite). The root presents the following structure :— (1) Cork, consisting of several rows of brown flattened cells, . which in surface view are polygonal and axially elongated. (2) Cortex, the cells of which are polygonal and tangentially elongated ; in this tissue oleoresin ducts occur. (3) Bast Ring, traversed by wide medullary rays and containing large oleoresin ducts. (4) Wood, divided by medullary rays of varying width into. wedge-shaped bundles, each of which contains radially elongated groups of vessels, embedded in parenchymatous tissue, and numerous oleoresin ducts. Some of the bundles are supported by fibres with thickened lignified walls. The parenchymatous cells of cortex, bast ring, and wood, contain an abundance of inulin in colourless angular masses which dissolve without . swelling when heated in water. The diagnostic characters of powdered elecampane are :— (a) The abundance of inulin. (b) The absence of starch and of calciwm oxalate. (c) The abundant parenchymatous tissue. RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. 225 PLATE X@CVII. ae ( ff Wh fp y ——_— ey, \@ N =) Sa 2 oO o Ga (Cae i é\ ¢) ‘ SS /, ‘ Fic. 107.—Powdered Elecampane Root (x 240). fi, Wood fibres. in, Inulin. ; 1, I’, Bast in longitudinal and transverse section, pe, p’c’, Cortical parenchyma in longitudinal and transverse section pli, Parenchyma of the wood. rm, r’m’, Medullary rays in longitudinal and transverse section. s,s’, Cork, in surface view and profile. v, Vv’, ws, Vessels. weg, Sieve tubes. 226 RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. (108) Sweet Flag Rhizome. The rhizome of Acorws Calamus, Linn. (N.O. Aroidez). The rhizome presents the following structure :— (1) Epidermis, consisting of a single row of cells covered by a rather thick cuticle. In transverse section these cells appear square, but in surface section they are axially elongated. (2) Cortex, of which the layers abutting on the epidermis are - collenchymatous and contain chlorophyll. The collenchy- matous tissue passes into a dense parenchyma and this again into a spongy parenchyma, the air-spaces in which are large and * separated from one another by a single layer of polygonal or rounded slightly pitted cells containing minute grains of starch. In this tissue there are numerous oil-cells commonly situated at the point of intersection of the rows of cells. The cortex is traversed longitudinally by a number of fibro- vascular bundles which are often accompanied by prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate in the cells abutting on the sclerenchymatous fibres. (3) Endodermis, consisting of a single row of quadrilateral cells. (4) Stele, similar in structure to the cortex. The wood of the: fibrovascular bundles consists of spiral, reticulated and scalari- form vessels; there is a distinct sheath of fibres with thickened pitted walls... The diagnostic characters of powdered sweet flag rhizome» are :— (a) The abundant thin-walled parenchyma. _ (b) The very numerous minute starch grains. ' (c) The numerous oil cells. (d) The paucity of fibres. (ec) The numerous scalariform vessels. RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. 227 PLATE XCVIII Fee . 4 ‘ . ° ey y ’ im) eee uh A Py ‘ a vt ue te Fic. 108.—_ Powdered Sweet Flag Rhizome (x 240). a, Starch grains. col, Collenchymatous cells. cr, Crystals of calcium oxalate. end, Endodermis. ep, Epidermis. f, Fibres. fl, Fibrovascular bundle from stele. fvc, Fibrovascular bundle from cortex. go, Oil cell. la, Intercellular lacune. pc, p’c’, Cortical parenchyma in longitudinal and transverse section. PC, P’'C’, The same after treatment with chloral hydrate or potash. to, Crystal cells, : tr, v, Vessels, etc. - ; Q 2 228 RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. (109) Galangal Rhizome. The rhizome of Alpinia officinarum, Hance (N.O. Scitaminez). The rhizome presents the following structure :— (1) Epidermis, the cells of which are tabular in transverse section, but polygonal and straight walled in surface view. (2) Cortex, the cells of which have thickened, pitted, brown walls and are tangentially elongated in the outer part of the cortex but irregularly polygonal near the stele. It is tra- versed by scattered fibrovascular bundles containing spiral, annular and pitted vessels supported by a sheath of thickened pitted fibres. In each bundle a narrow tube filled with a brown secretion may be observed. (3) Stele, which is separated from the cortex by a distinct endodermis, The stele is composed of rather thick-walled parenchymatous tissue traversed by fibrovascular bundles. The parenchyma of both cortex and stele contains an abun- dance of starch grains and scattered rounded or polygonal cells containing brown oleoresin. The starch grains vary from 18 to 30uin length and from 7 to 154 in width; they are simple and elongated oval or flask-shaped ; both hilum and striations are very distinct. The diagnostic characters of powdered galangal rhizome are :— (a) The starch grains. (0) The reddish brown oleoresin. (c) The sclerenchymatous fibres. (d) The absence of caletum oxalate. RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. 229 PLATE XCIX. my} Ml i Hl Fic. 109.—Powdered Galangal Rhizome (x 240). a, Starch grains. ; ep, e’p’, Epidermis in surface view and section, f, Sclerenchymatous fibres. go, Oleoresin cells. I, Bast. mil, Parenchyma of stele. peo, Parenchyma of cortex. pcc, Outer layer of same, surface view tr, v, v’, vr, Vessels, etc. vg, Sieve tubes. 230 RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. (110) Gentian Root. The root of Gentiana lutea, Linn. (N.O. Gentianacez). The commercial drug consists of rhizome as well as root. The root presents the following structure :— (1) Cork, consisting of several rows of tabular cells which in surface view are polygonal and have slightly wavy walls. (2) Collenchyma, the cells of which are rounded, have rather thick walls and contain an amorphous substance, very minute crystals, and small oily globules, (3) Cortical Parenchyma, very narrow and composed of tan- gentially elongated polygonal cells, each of which contains a distinct nucleus and minute crystals, the latter being often collected in one of the angles of the cell. There is no sclerenchyma in the cortex. (4) Bast Ring, the cells of which are small; it contains scattered groups of sieve tissue. (5) Wood, consisting principally of parenchymatous tissue and traversed by medullary rays seven or eight cells wide. The vessels are scattered and isolated or in small groups; the wood parenchyma is not lignified, and closely resembles that of the bast ring, the cells containing minute crystals and oily globules. ‘The root contains at most an occasional small starch grain. The diagnostic characters of powdered gentian root are :— (a) The absence of starch. (b) The presence of minute crystals and oily globules. (c) The brownish colour. (a) The large reticulated or scalariform vessels. (e) Absence of sclerenchymatous cells or fibres. Deli \ ‘\ RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. 251 PLATE C. @) 7@ y = ° 5 4 - — ih) — it Fie. 110.—Powdered Gentian Root (x 240). col, Rounded collenchymatous cells. cr, Minute crystals. h, Oily globules. I, I’, Bast in longitudinal and transverse section. n, Nucleus. pc, p’c’, Cortical parenchyma in longitudinal and transverse section. pl, p’l’, Parenchyma of wood. rm, Medullary ray. s, s’, Cork, in surface view and section. tr, v; wv’, Vessels, etc. wg, Sieve tubes. 232 RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. (111) Ginger Rhizome. The rhizome of Zingiber officinale, Roscoe (N.O. Scitamine). The rhizome presents the following structure, but the epi- dermis, hypoderma, cork and part of the cortex are often removed by peeling ; this is particularly the case with Jamaica ginger. (1) Epidermis, the cells of which are pclygonal and thin- walled. (2) Hypoderma, subjacent to the epidermis and consisting of a few rows of polygonal cells. (3) Cork, of which there are usually several rows; the cells are rather large and thin-walled. (4) Cortex, composed of polygonal, thin-walled, parenchy- matous cells, most of which are filled with starch grains, but some contain yellowish-brown oleoresin, and these have suberised walls. (5) Stele, resembling the cortex in structure. Both cortex and stele are traversed by numerous fibrovascular bundles which contain a few reticulated vessels, and are supported by a crescent-shaped mass of sclerenchymatous fibres, some of which are chambered. Narrow, axially elongated cells, containing a dark brown secretion, are occasionally to be seen abutting on the vessels. The starch grains are very characteristic. They are simple and of considerable size, measuring 12 to 30u in length; they are somewhat, but not strongly, flattened, and exhibit an ovoid, trapezoidal or sack-shaped outline ; the striations are faint but frequently discernible. Most of the oleoresin cells are broken during pulverisation. and their contents escape ; a few, however, remain intact, The diagnostic characters of powdered ginger are :— (a) The starch grains ; their number, size and shape. . (b) The oleoresin cells. (c) Lhe scierenchymatous fibres. (d) The thin-walled parenchymatous cells. RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. 233 PLATE Cl, Fic. 111.—Powdered Ginger Rhizome (x 240). a, Starch grains. ep, Epidermis. fp, Sclerenchymatous fibres. go, Oleoresin cells. h, Hypoderma. I, Bast. ml, Parenchyma of stele. pc, Cortical parenchyma, the walls somewhat swollen by treatment with potash. p’c’, The same in longitudinal section. s, s’, s’, Cork, in surface view, transverse and longitudinal section re- spectively. , - ts, Elongated secretion cells Vv; VP, Vessels. 234 RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. (112) White Hellebore. The rhizome and roots of Veratrum album, Linn. (N.O. Liliacez). The rhizome presents the following structure :— (1) Tegumentary Tissue, consisting of several layers of dark brown, slightly thickened, suberised, parenchymatous cells which in surface view are irregular, polygonal and provided with wavy walls. (2) Collenchyma. Subjacent to the tegumentary tissue is a layer of collenchymatous cells exhibiting the usual characters. (5) Cortical Parenchyma, composed of rounded-polygonal cells with intercellular spaces. Most of these cells contain starch in small, simple and compound grains; the former are rounded, the latter consist of three or four angular component grains. Some of the cells are filled with a large bundle of acicular crystals of calcium oxalate. This tissue is also traversed by a number of fibrovascular bundles (leaf traces). (4) Endodermis, the cells of which are yellowish brown in colour and thickened on their inner and lateral walls. (5) Stele, consisting of parenchymatous tissue resembling that of the cortex. and traversed by fibrovascular bundles. The latter contain principally pitted vessels and are supported by a sheath of lignified thickened fibres. The structure of the root is different. The cells of the epidermis have thickened brown walls and are strongly axially elongated. The cells of the cortical parenchyma are also axially elongated; they contain starch grains and acicular calcium oxalate crystals. The cells of the endodermis are likewise strongly elongated ; their walls are thickened, pitted, and of a brownish colour. The stele contains wood bundles alternating with bast bundles and supported by sclerenchy- matous fibres which extend to the centre of the root. The diagnostic characters of white hellebore are :— (a) The starch grains. (b) The cells of the endodermis. (c) The abundant raphides. (d) The red colour gradually produced by the action of sulphuric acid. RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. 235 PLATE CII1 ON; h Ph it DISTT ATT cf Was cds sel >= Te A) \ ze iN fe any TY pe. Bae af i oeate! ST ontinn'l it; Bll | W\ OY M4 I i Hi Sym Oy Fic. 112.—Powdered White Hellebore (x 240). a, Starch grains. cer, Cells with acicular crystals. col, Collenchyma of rhizome. col’, Collenchyma of root. END, Endodermis of rhizome. ‘ end, Endodermis of root. EP, Tegumentary tissue of rhizome, surface view. ep, Epidermis of root, surface view. f, Sclerenchymatous fibres of root. L, Bast of rhizome. PC, Cortical parenchyma of rhizome. pc, Cortical parenchyma of root. PL, Parenchyma of stele of rhizome (after treatment with potash). V, Vessels of rhizome. w, Vessels of root. 236 RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. (113) Hydrastis Rhizome. The rhizome of Hydrastis canadensis, Linn. (N.O, Ranun- culacez). The commercial drug usually consists of the rhizome to which a number of wiry roots are attached. The rhizome presents the following structure :— (1) Cork, composed of several layers of brown, tabular cells which, in surface view, are polygonal and isodiametric. (2) Cortex, the cells of which are rounded, thin-walled, and exhibit intercellular spaces. In longitudinal section these cells are axially elongated. They are filled with small starch grains, either simple or united three or four together into com- pound grains. (3) Bast Ring, traversed by wide medullary rays and almost. always destitute of fibres. (4) Wood, consisting of radially elongated wood bundles sep- arated by very wide medullary rays. Each bundle is composed of pitted vessels and tracheids, often filled with an amorphous substance, narrow wood fibres and non-lignified thin-walled parenchyma. (5) Pith, the cells of which are rounded and full of starch. The structure of the root is different. The epidermis is com- posed of axially elongated cells; the cortex is separated from the stele by a conspicuous endodermis, the cells of which have- sinuous walls. The wood is represented by a ring of pitted vessels which encloses a pith and is surrounded by groups of bast tissue as well as by the pericycle. Most of the elements of both rhizome and root are character- ised by a more or less pronounced yellowish colour. The diagnostic characters of powdered hydrastis rhizome are :— (a) The pervading yellowish colour. (6) The minute starch grains. (c) The absence of caleium oxalate crystals. (d) The nature of the elements of the wood. (e) The absence of sclerenchymatous cells. RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. 257 PLATE CIIi. LID, 4 erie ch alae Ze Fic. 115.—Powdered Hydrastis Rhizome (x 240). a, Starch grains. -e@, Epidermis of the root, surface view. end, Endodermis of the root. ‘ffv, Portion of fibrovascular bundle of root. I, Bast. ; : = Pc, p’c’, Cortical parenchyma of rhizome in longitudinal and transverse section. scr, peor’, The same of the root. )pl, Wood parenchyma of rhizome. s', s’, Cork in surface view and profile. “tr, Tracheids from rhizome. “w, ws, Vessels. 238 , RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. (114) Ipecacuanha Root. The root of Psychotria Ipecacuanha, Stokes (N.O. Rubiacez).. The root presents the following structure :— (1) Cork, composed of several rows of very narrow tangentially elongated cells which, in surface view are polygonal and. isodiametric. (2) Cortex, which is very largely developed and consists of tangentially elongated cells, most of which contain starch, but a few are filled with acicular crystals of calcium oxalate. The starch grains are either simple or compound; the former are oval or rounded, the latter are composed of from two to five constituent grains, each of which usually exhibits one rounded surface and one or more flat ones. The single grains occasionally reach 12u in length but never exceed 15y. The cells of the cortex diminish in size as they approach the- (5) Bast Ring, in which there are groups of sieve tissue but no bast fibres. (4) Wood, composed of tracheids, wood fibres and wood. parenchyma, It is remarkable for the absence of vessels. The -a cheids have moderately thick walls, very distinct areolated pits, and often near the pointed extremities a large perforation,. which is not always easy to see, The diagnostic characters of powdered ipecacuanha are:— (a) The starch grains. (0) The acicular crystals of calciwm oxalate. (c) The absence of vessels, presence of perforated: tracheids. (dq) The absence of sclerenchymatous cells or bast fibres.. ——_ =~ RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. 239 PLATE CIV. Fic. 114.-Powdered Ipecacuanha Root (x 240). a, a’, a”, Starch grains, simple and compound. cer, Cells with calcium oxalate. fl, Fibrous cells. I, Bast. pc, p’c’, Cortical parenchyma in longitudinal and transverse section. Ph, p’h’, Phelloderm in surface view and section. ra, Raphides. s, s’, Cork, in surface view and profile. tra, Tracheids. (115) Undulated Ipecacuanha. The root of Richardsonia sp. (N.O. Rubiacex). - It is occasionally substituted for the root of Psychotria Ipecacuanha, but may be distinguished by the abundance of ‘starch grains, most of which are larger than those of Brazilian Ipecacuanha and differ a little in shape. The wood is charac- terised by the presence of pitted vessels and wood fibres, both of which are absent from the genuine drug. By these means the ie presence of undulated ipecacuanha in the genuine drug may be , detected without difficulty. : r RHIZOMES AND ROOTS, 241 PLATE CV. . Fic. 115.—Powderei Undulatei Ipecacuanha (x 240) a, Starch grains. cr, Acicular crystals. fi, Pitted woo] fibres. I, Bast. Pc, Cortical parenchyma. Ph, Phelloderm. Ss, S’, Cork, in surface view and section. v, Pitted vessels. 242 RHIZOMES AND ROOT (116) Jalap Root. The root of Ipom@a Purga, Hayne (N.O. Convolvulacez). The root presents the following structure :— (1) Cork, composed of a rather thick layer of flattened, brown,,. tabular cells which, in surface view, are polygonal and isodia-. metric. (2) Cortex, of moderate extent, the cells of which are polygonal and contain starch and calcium oxalate. The starch occurs in both simple and compound grains; the former are rounded and have a stellate hilum, the latter vary very much in size and shape, according to the number of the component grains. This tissue also contains numerous resin cells. These appear rounded or oval in transverse section; in longitudinal section they are seen to be axially elongated and superposed: in vertical rows ; they contain a brownish resin. The cortex also contains. sclerenchymatous cells with thick, pitted walls. (3) Bast Ring, narrow and rich in resin cells and stellate crystals. (4) Wood, which is contained within the cambium, and is of very abnormal development. It contains a large number of bundles.~ developed from abnormal merismatic tissue. The vascular por-. tion consists of pitted vessels and tracheids. The parenchyma contains starch, resin cells and calcium oxalate crystals. The starch grains, both of this tissue and the cortex, are often gelatinised by the heat t2 which the drug has been subjected.” In the powdered drug there are but few intact resin cells, but numerous globules of secretion that have been liberated. during the pulverisation. The diagnostic characters of powdered jalap root are :— (a) The starch grains, many of which are gelatinised. (b) The secretion cells and the droplets of resinous emul- sion that have escaped from them. (c) The sclerenehymatous cells. (d) The rosette crystals of calcium oxalate. RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. 243 PLATE CVI. Fie. 116.—Powdered Jalap Root (x 240). a, a’, Starch in simple and compound grains. ca, Cambium cells. cor, Crystal cells. cr, Crystals of calcium oxalate, f, Fibrous tracheids. gr, Droplets of resinous emulsion. I, Bast. pc, Cortical parenchyma. pl, Parenchyma of inner portion. s, s’, Cork in surface view and profile, sc, Sclerenchymatous cells. v, vp, Vessels and débris of vessels. 244 RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. (117) Liquorice Root. The root and subterranean stem of Glycyrrhiza glabra, Linn. (N.O. Leguminosz),. The root presents the following structure :— (1) Cork, the cells of which are brown in colour and flat- tened; in surface view they are polygonal and isodiametric, their walls are slightly thickened and wavy in outline. (2) Cortex, composed of tangentially elongated polygonal cells with intercellular spaces. The cells are filled with small simple starch grains. This tissue does not contain any sclerenchyma- tous cells, but near the periphery there are numerous cells containing prismatic or rhombohedral crystals of calcium oxalate. ; (5) Bast Ring, characterised by the presence of numerous bun- dles of bast fibres arranged in concentric circles. Each bundle consists of a number of fibres with very strongly thickened walls, and is surrounded by small cells containing crystals of ca'cium oxalate. The bast consists of bast parenchyma traversed by numerous groups of sieve tissue, many of which are nearly obliterated. (4) Wood, divided into wood bundles by medullary rays three or four cells wide. The wood bundles consist of vessels of varying size, but often wide (1004), wood parenchyma and wood fibres, the latter closely resembling the bast fibres and like these accompanied by calcium oxalate crystals. The diagnostic characters of powdered liquorice roo’ are :— (a) The abundant, very thick-walled, growped, yellowish bast fibres. (b) The abundant calciwm oxalate crystals. (c) The snall starch grains. (d) The characteristic vessels, especially the larger. RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. 245 PLATE CVII. 2 0 00@-. 0000 00°0 000 dod Fic. 117.—Powdered Liquorice Root (x 240). a,Starch grains. cer, Crystal cells, from cortex. _ 1, Sclerenchymatous fibres, from wood and bast. I, l’, Bast, in longitudinal and transverse section. Pc, Cortical parenchyma, in transverse section. ~ p’c’, The same after treatment with potash. p’c”, The same in longitudinal section. pd, Phelloderm. ; pl, Pitted cells of wood parenchyma. rm, rm’, Medullary rays in longitudinal and transverse section. s, s’, Cork in surface view and section. tor, Crystal cellsin rows. _ tg, t’a’, Sieve tissue in longitudinal and transverse section v, v’, Vessels in longitudinal and transverse section. 246 RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. (118) Male Fern Rhizome. _ The rhizome of Aspidium Filix-mas, Swartz (N.O. Filicinesx together with the adherent bases of petioles. Both rhizome and petiole-base present the following structure :— (1) Epidermis, the cells of which are thin-walled and dar brown in colour; in surface view they are polygonal and elongated. (2) Hypoderma, composed of five or six rows of cells, which are rounded in transverse section and very dark brown in colour. In surface view they are seen to be strongly axially elongated and provided with thick pitted walls. (3) Cortex (ground tissue) consisting of large, polygonal, paren- chymatous cells with distinct intercellular spaces. These cells contain a considerable quantity of starch in small simple grains, which are often compacted into little masses in the centre of the cell, or more commonly near one of its walls. Distributed throughout this tissue are large, axially elongated, intercellular spaces, in which one or more small oval or rounded oleoresinous secretion cells may be found, attached to cells of the parenchyma by a narrow neck. (4) Steles—The ground tissue is traversed by a number of steles of varying diameter. These contain a wood consisting of scalariform, pitted and spiral vessels, a bast in which there are numerous sieve tubes, a non-lignified pericycle, and an endodermis, the cells of which are also not lignified. The cells of the ground tissue bordering on the steles usually have pitted walls. The brown scales attached to the rhizome consist of long fusiform cells with pale brown walls, which are free from pits and only slightly thickened. The diagnostic characters of powdered male fern rhizome are:— (a) The large parenchymatous cells with small starch grains. (0) The oleoresin cells. (c) The fibrous hypoderma. (d) The abundant scalariform vessels. (e) The fragments of the scaly hairs. (f) The absence of crystals. RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. 247 PLATE CVIII. *- ane Ram Speccrveuceceu if LEY EB ER AVA > \] VAN, 09 i vA a Ni AN YG | OD: ; C Fie. 118.—Powdered Male Fern Rhizome (x 240). a, a’, Starch. e, Epidermis. ec, Fragments of scales. end, Endodermis. go, Oleoresin cells. h, Hypoderma. I, Bast. la, Lacune in ground tissue. pa, p’a’, Ground tissue in longitudinal and transverse section. . per, Pericycle, tr, vs, Vessels, etc. 248 RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. (119) Marshmallow Root. The root of Althea officinalis (N.O. Malvacez). The root presents the following structure :— (1) Cork, composed of several rows of flattened cells which, in surface view, are polygonal and isodiametric. . This part of the root is often removed by soraping; the finer qualities of powdered marshmallow root do not therefore contain any cork, but in the lower qualities, such as are used for veterinary medicines, it is almost always to be found. (2) Cortex, the cells of which are polygonal and contain starch, together with an occasional rosette of calcium oxalate. The starch grains are mostly simple and oval or elongated in shape, measuring from 4 to 15u in length; here and there compound grains with three or four component grains may be detected. Distributed throughout the cortex, and, indeed, through all the parenchymatous tissue of the root, are numerous cells filled with mucilage; these cells are rather larger than the surround- ing parenchymatous cells, and the mucilaginous contents may be detected by examination in alcohol or by staining with solution of ruthenium red in lead acetate. (3) Bast Ring, which is particularly characterised by the pre- sence of numerous tangentially elongated groups of bast fibres. These fibres are very long, and their walls, which are not very thick, are only slightly lignified. (4) Wood, in which the parenchymatous tissue is largely deve- loped. The vessels are not numerous, they are either single or in small radially elongated groups, accompanied by a few thin- walled tracheids and surrounded by wood fibres. The parenchy- matous cells contain either starch grains, or rosettes of calcium oxalate, and, as already observed, numerous mucilage cells are scattered throughout this tissue, as also throughout the cortex and bast-ring. The diagnostic characters of powdered marshmallow root are :— (a) The numerous mucilage cells. (6) The small starch grains. (c) The long bast fibres with moderately thick walls. RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. 249 PLATE CIX. Fic. 119.—Powdered Marshmallow Root (x 240). a, Starch grains. cm, Mucilage cells. cr, Crystals of calcium oxalate. , f, Sclerenchymatous fibres from bast ring and wood. I, Bast. pc, p’c’, Cortical parenchyma in longitudinal and transverse section. pl, Parenchyma of the wood in longitudinal section. rm, rm’, Medullary rays in longitudinal and tangential section. s, s’, Cork in surface view and profile. tra, Pitted tracheids. v, vs, Vessels. 250 RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. (120) Orris Rhizome. The rhizome of Jris florentina, etc. (N.O. Iridez). The rhizome presents the following structure :— (1) Cork, consisting of numerous layers of thin-walled cork cells, followed by (2) Collenchyma, of which there are several rows. Both of these tissues are, however, removed from the rhizome by peeling before it is sent into commerce. The outermost layer of the commercial drug is therefore (3) Cortex, part of which is also usually removed by the peel- ing; the cells are irregularly polygonal in shape and exhibit intercellular spaces; the walls are thickened and conspicuously pitted. (4) Endodermis, the cells of which are tangentially elongated. (5) Stele, composed largely of parenchymatous tissue, re- sembling that of the cortex, traversed by numerous concentric fibro-vascular bundles, which are closely approximated near the endodermis. The parenchymatous cells, both of the cortex and the stele, are filled with starch grains of very characteristic appearance. They are mostly simple and vary from 25 to 50u in length, and from 10 to 25u in width. Many are elongated, oval or elliptical in outline, or rounded at one extremity and flat at the other; sometimes slightly curved or with irregular protuberances. The hilum is distinct, eccentric and stellate or branching. Here and there compound grains are met with. Conspicuous also in both cortex and stele are very large prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. These crystals attain a length of 2504 and a width of 30u. They occur in intercellular spaces and are enclosed in suberised membranes. Sometimes more than one crystal may be found in the same intercellular space. Yhe diagnostic characters of orris rhizome are :— (a) The starch grains. (b) The large prismatic crystals. (c) The thick-walled parenchymatous cells. (d) The absence of sclerenchymatous cells or fibres. 251 RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. PLATE CX. > ZEN) Fr ee SS > Oe Fic. 120—Powdered Orris Rhizome (x 240). a, Starch grains. cr, c’r’, Whole and broken crystals of calcium oxalate. end, Endodermis. ffv, Débris of fibrovascular bundle. pc, Cortical parenchyma. pl, Parenchyma of stele. ppc, ppl, Débris of same. tr, v, Vessels, etc. 252 RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. (121) Pellitory Root. The root of Anacyclus Pyrethrum, D.C. (N.O. Composite). The root presents the following structure :— (1) Cork, composed of several rows of brown tabular cells, which, in surface view, are polygonal and do not exhibit any definite arrangement. (2) Cortex, the cells of which are tangentially elongated near the periphery of the root, but become isodiametric towards the wood. In the outer portion of this tissue, which is often of small ex- tent or even absent, there occur sclerenchymatous cells, the walls of which are thickened in varying degrees, and also small oleoresin ducts. (3) Bast Ring, which is divided into bast rays by very wide medullary rays, in which there are distributed numerous large oleo-resin ducts; the bast rays are destitute of bast fibres. (4) Wood, which is traversed by rather wide medullary rays in which there are numerous oleoresin ducts. The elongated wedge-shaped vascular bundles contain pitted and reticulate vessels, which are often grouped together. In the centre is the primary wood surrounded by thick-walled fibres. The root con- tains an abundance of inulin in the shape of irregularly angular transparent masses in the parenchymatous cells of cortex, bast ring, and wood. It does not contain any calcium oxalate. The diagnostic characters of powdered pellitory root‘are :— (a) The abundance of inulin. (0) The absence of fibres and of caleiwm oxalate. (c) The presence of sclerenchymatous celis. RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. 253 PLATE CXI1. ] / o— — = = = Fic. 121.—Powdered Pellitory Root (x 240). ca, Cambium. in, Inulin. ' I, !', Bast n longitudinal and transverse section, with and without inulin. Pc, p’c Cells of outer and inner parts of the cortex, with and without inulin. pl, p’l’, Parenchyma of the wood in longitudinal and transverse section. rm, rm’, Medullary rays in longitudinal and transverse section. s, s’, Cork in surface view and section. sc, Sclerenchymatous cells. tr, v, vs, Vessels, etc. 254 RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. (122) Rhatany Root. The root of Krameria triandra, R. et P. (N.O. Polygalez). The root presents the following structure :— (1) Cork, consisting of a number of cells with dark brown walls; in surface view they are polygonal. (2) Cortex, the cells of which are polygonal and tangentially elongated; they have reddish-brown walls and contain colouring matter and starch. The starch grains are either simple or compound ; the former are sometimes rounded, some- times conical or pear-shaped; the compound grains contain from two to four constituents—the shape varying with the number and often stellate when there are three or four com- ponent grains. The cortex is narrow and iree from sclerenchymatous elements. (3) Bast Ring, characterised by the presence of numerous radially elongated bundles of sclerenchymatous fibres, with moderately thick walls ; in transverse section these fibres appear. flattened. Some of the cells of the bast parenchyma contain several small prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate; the others contain starch grains resembling those of the cortex. (4) Wood, traversed by medullary rays one cell wide. The wood bundles consist chiefly of wood fibres with which are associated scattered pitted vessels and wood parenchyma. The cells of the latter, like those of the medullary rays, are a ks by containing starch grains and colouring matter. The diagnostic characters of powdered rhatany root are :— (a) The reddish-brown colour. (0) The characteristic starch grains. (c) The bast fibres. (a) The crystals of calcium oxalate. RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. 255 PLATE CXII. V " . in eB : SA iB) Cy ) ‘ \) YASS J OgO 8 bogogte o,% te to of og teats ot p 0808 Fic. 122.—Powdered Rhatany Root x (240). a, Starch. flo, Wood fibres. fi, fi’, Bast fibres in longitudinal and_transverse section. I, I’, Bast in longitudinal and transverse section. pc, p’c’, Bast parenchyma. p’’c”, The same accompanied by bast fibres. rm, Medullary ray in radial section. s, s’, Cork in surface view and section. v, v’, Vessels in longitudinal and transverse section. 256 RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. (123) Rhubarb Rhizome (Chinese). The rhizome of one or more species of Rhewm (N.O. Polygonez) deprived of its cork and of the greater part of its cortex. Tre rhizome presents the following structure :— (1) Cortex,of which at most only a very narrow layer is left, the majority or sometimes the whole of it having been removed by peeling. It consists of polygonal cells containing starch and calcium oxalate. The starch is in simple and compound grains; the former are rounded, hive a very distinct hilum and measure from 10 to 18u in diameter; the compound gra‘ns contain from two to five component granules. The calcium oxalate usually assumes the form of large rosettes, sometimes attaining as much as 60u in diameter. The cortex also contains large mucilage cells. (2) Bast Ring.—Towards the cambium toe cortex passes im perceptibly into the bast ring, which is traversed by medullary rays from three to five cells wide. These cells are filled with reddish-brown substances, and hence the rays are visible under the lens as reddish-brown lines. The bast parenciyma contains starch ; the sieve tubes are mostly obliterated and there are no bast fibres. (3) Cambiwm, which is visible to the naked eye as a dark line very near the periphery of the rhizome, is formed of five or six rows of cells which are free from starch and calcium oxalate. (4) Wood, forming a very narrow ring within the cambium ; it is traversed by dark yellow medullary rays, between which numerous vessels of varying size are scittered, either isolated orin groups. Abutting on the inner margia of the wood is a circle of abnormal bundles which constitute the remarkable stellate spots visible on a transverse sectio:; these bundles have their bast in the centre and wood at the periphery. (5) Pith, which is largely developed and is irregularly traversed by stellate bundles which pursue various course»; the medullary rays of these bundles are filled with reddish-brown colouring matt r which gives rise to the characterist c marbled ap ear- ance of the rhizome; the white portions between these rays are parenchymatous tissue filled with starch and zalcium oxalate. The dia znostic characters of powdered rhubarb are :— (a) The very large rosettes of calcium oxalate. (b) The starch grains. (c) The vessels. (d) The medullary ray cells with reddish-brown contents. a anil RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. 257 PLATE CXIII, : v3 (cepa) x ¢ 9,8 Fia. 123.—Powdered Rhubarb Rhizome (x 240). a, Starch grains. ca, Cambium cells. cr, Crystals of calcium oxalate, I, Bast. m, Pith, .pc, Cortical parenchyma. pl, Parenchyma of wood, rm, rm’, Medullary rays in transverse and tangential section. v, Vessels. .vg, Obliterated sieve tubes’ 258 RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. 124) Salep. Salep consists of the enlarged roots of Orchis mascula, L.; O. militaris, L.; O. morio, L.; and other species (N.O. Orchidez). | The root exhibits the following structure :— (1) Epiblema, to which root-hairs are sometimes attached. (2) Cortex, which is very narrow. (3) Hndodermis, of axially elongated cells with thin, wavy walls, (4) Stele, traversed by a number of bundles. The parenchyma: of the stele consists of polygonal cells, most of which contain starch that has been gelatinised by the boiling to which the root is subjected; some of the cells are much larger than the others, and contain mucilage in which acicular crystals of calcium oxalate are often embedded. The diagnostic characters of powdered salep are :— (a) The abundance of mucilage. (b) The gelatinised starch. (c) The acicwlar crystals of calcium oxalate. RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. 259 PLATE CXIV. Fig. 124.—Powdered Salep (x 240). a, Gelatinised starch. ca, Cells filled with the same. cm, Mucilage cells. cr, Acicular crystals of calcium oxalate. 260 . RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. (125) Wera Cruz Sarsaparilla. The root of Smilax sp. (N.O. Liliacez). The root presents the following structure :— - (1) Exodermis, composed of several rows of cells, which exhibit in transverse section very strong thickening on the lateral and outer tangential wall, the cavity keing small and situated near the inner tangential wall. In longitudinal sections these cells are strongly elongated axially and pitted. Exterior to the exodermis the broken remains of root hairs may sometimes be found. (2) Cortex, the cells of which are also axially elongated, and contain either starch or bundles of acicular crystals of calcium oxalate. The starch is in either simple or compound grains ; the former are ovoid or rounded; the latter contain three, four, or five component grains which, when isolated, exhibit one rounded and one or more flat surfaces. (3) Hndodermis, which is rather conspicuous; the cells are radially elongated, and their lateral and inner tangential walls rather strongly thickened, so that they exhibit a horse-shoe thickening in transverse section. In longitudinal section they are seen to be strongly axially elongated, and one of the longitudinal walls is somewhat conspicuously thickened. (4) Stele, composed of numerous, closely approximated fibro- vascular bundles, which are surrounded bya lignified pericycle ; the pith in the centre is also lignified. The vessels ara mostly pitted, and are surrounded by fibres with thickened walls. The pericyclic cells exhibit a similar structure. The cells of the pith are rounded in section,.and their..walls are slightly thick- ened; they contain starch. Jamaica Sarsaparilla closely resembles Vera Cruz in structure, but may be distinguished by the cells of the exodermis and endodermis, which are nearly square in tranverse section and less strongly but almost uniformly thickened. The diagnostic characters of powdered Vera Cruz Sarsaparilla are :— (a) The very remarkable cells of the exodermis and endodermis. (0) The bundles of acicular crystals of calciwm oxalate. (c) The starch grains. RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. 261 PLATE CXV. —ar er eo ay "| eo Doetse? wi) ‘ r Vay. 0,0 905008 e 0990 6,0,6 09%" 0490.0 ay! 0040 On WL 4.4 000 0 Ite Fic. 125.—_Powdered VYera Cruz Sarsaparilla (x 240). a, Starch grains. cor, Crystal cells, cr, Calcium oxalate crystals. end, end’, Endodermis in radial and transverse section. ep, e’p’, Exodermis in radial and transverse section. fi, Sclerenchymatous fibres of stele. fp, Pericyclic fibres. I, Bast. m, m’, Cells of the pith in longitudinal and transverse section. pe, p’c’, Cortical parenchyma in longitudinal and transverse section. v, Ve™™ls. 262 RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. (126) Senega Root. The root of Polygala Senega, Linn. (N.O. Polygalez). The root is sometimes normal in structure, but more fre- quently it exhibits abnormalities due partly to the irregular activity of the cambium and partly to the development of parenchymatous tissue in place of normal wood, The trans- verse section of a normally developed root exhibits a circular wood, composed of vessels and tracheids, surrounded by a rather thick ring of bast and cortex. In abnormally developed roots, semi-circular or wedge-shaped portions of the wood consist of parenchymatous tissue, and the bast ring and cortex are so strongly developed on one side, usually that opposite to the parenchymatous wood, as to form a projecting ridge. The cork is composed of cells, which, in surface view are either elongated (root) or polygonal (crown of the root). The cortex is narrow in the ridge, but a little wider on the opposite side of the root ; it is composed of parenchymatous cells with rather thick walls. The bast ring is wide and usually very strongly developed on he side opposite to the abnormal part of the wood. The wood is composed normally of pitted vessels and tracheids, but does not exhibit medullary rays. The abnormal wood consists of parenchymatous cells. The parenchymatous tissue of both wood and bast contains minute droplets of oil, but neither starch nor calcium oxalate. The diagnostic characters of powdered senega roo are :— (a) The absence of starch and calcium oxalate. (0) The presence im the parenchymatous cells of minute droplets of oil. (c) The abundant tracheids and parenchymatous (a) The absence of sclerenchymatous cells and bast fibres. RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. 263 PLATE CXVI. AeA Hi mh) LZ) Tenet quieted Fia. 126.—Powdered Senega Root (x 240). i, I’, Bast tissue in longitudinal and transverse section. pc, p’c’, Cortical parenchyma in transverse and longitudinal section. pl, Parenchyma of wood. s,_s’, Cork of root, in surface view and section. ss, Cork of crown of root. tr, Pitted tracheids. Ec. -" wv, vs, Vessels. 264 RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. (127) Turmeric Rhizome. The rhizome of Curcwma longa, Linn. (N.O, Scitaminez). The rhizome presents the following structure :— (1) Epidermis, of flattened cells, which are polygonal in sur-- tace view, and exhibit not very conspicuous pits on their side’ walls. It bears stomata and rounded scars of fallen hairs. (2) Hypoderma, consisting of several layers of tangentially elongated polygonal cells, amongst which scattered oleoresin: cells may be seen. Occasionally this tissue is absent. (3) Cork, consisting of three or four rows of cork cells. (4) Phelloderm, of the usual character. (5) Cortex, of considerable extent, composed of polygonal’ parenchymatous cells, filled with starch and permeated with yellow colouring matter. The latter is changed to a deep crimson red with concentrated sulphuric acid; if alcohol is present the crimson substance dissolves in it. Much of the- starch has been transformed by heat into gelatinised masses, but some intact grains may usually be found; they resemble ginger starch in outline, but are more strongly flattened (com- pare Fig. 9,p.15) The cortex also contains numerous oleoresin cells, the secretion in which may be granular, or form droplets or irregular masses. It is traversed by vascular bundles (leaf traces), consisting of vessels and bast, but destitute of any sheath of fibres. Starch grains that have escaped gelatinisation may also be- found; they resemble those of Fig. 9 (p. 15). (6) Hndodermis, of rectangular suberised cells. (7) Stele, composed of parenchymatous tissue, similar to that- of the cortex and traversed by similar vascular bundles. The diagnostic characters of powdered turmeric rhizome are :— (a) The yellow masses of gelatinised starch. (6) The presence of an epidermis (c) The characteristic vessels. (d) The presence of oleoresin cells. (e) The sulphuric acid reaction. RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. 265 PLATE CXVII. — I (I NU —— ee ry STU ————— .. ——=— Fic. 127.—Powdered Turmeric Rhizome (x 240). a, Gelatinised starch, cs, Secretion cells accompanying the bundles. ep, e’p’, Epidermis in surface view and section go, Oleoresin cells. h, h’, Hypoderma in surface view and section. ip, Scar of hair. 1, Bast. mil, Parenchyma of stele. ol, Masses of oleoresin. pc, Cortical parenchyma. Ph, Phelloderm. s, Cork. st, Stoma. Vv, vp, Vessels. 266 RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. (128) Turpeth Root. The rhizome and root of Convolvulus Turpethum, R. Brown (N.O. Convolvulacez). The commercial drug consists of both rhizome and root. The rhizome presents the following structure :— (1) Cork, composed of several rows of tabular cells which, in surface view, are polygonal and isodiametric. (2) Cortex, the cells of which are polygonal and contain starch and calcium oxalate. The starch grains are either simple or compound ; the former are rounded; the latter often contain a considerable number of component grains, which vary in shape, according to the position they occupy in the grain. The calcium oxalate occurs in rosette crystals of variable size, some- times singly, sometimes several together in a cell. (3) Bast Ring, which is largely developed and contains nume- rous rounded resin cells, as well as an abundance of calcium oxalate. The outer part of this tissue is characterised by the presence of sclerenchymatous pericyclic cells with moderately thick walls. (4) Wood, which is divided into two bundles by two wide medullary rays. It is composed of thick-walled pitted fibres pitted and reticulate vessels and wood parencbyma. Old rhizomes are characterised by the presence of abnormal bundles in the cortex; in these the wood is surrounded by a wide bast ring in which there are numerous resin cells. The root differs from the rhizome in the fact that the bast ring is free from sclerenchymatous cells, and that the wood is divided into five bundles by as many rather wide medullary rays. The diagnostic characters of powdered turpeth root are: (a) The-resin cells. (6) The starch. (c) The rosette crystals of calcium oxalate and their distribution. (d) The pitted wood fibres. 2 a > ee ae ta a 267 RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. CXVIII. PLATE Fia. 128 -—Powdered Turpeth Root (x 240). y Cortical parenchyma in longitudinal and transverse a SB r=) o on b= 3 . * = Lom = re E 3 < n q ® 3° 7 4 [el = =] oe re ~ mH a ee te ee ra =I us) 3 Seek ae Cd | = . BSEaS a — 0 OT oe a ere Baro ga e 2 aw 2 a9 BBS » ol rT) ae, ) Seas Pn wo oo oe si) - a 2 oF fg Babes gos a92 aH AH pBPae Fh wee eert ee GS Soka weia Ev 6 & Se2esSogesSsogr samc arc' &* wns eee. s ~@e 8»? ~af£n ~Q9 Zot ~JO -» SV00TFTa Af one 268 RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. (129) Walerian Rhizome. The rhizome and roots of Valeriana officinalis, Linn. (N.O. Valerianez). The rhizome presents the following structure :— (1) Tegumentary tissue, composed of large polygonal cells which are slightly suberised. (2) Cortex, the cells of which are rounded or oval, exhibit inter- cellular spaces, and are filled with starch. (3) Endodermis, consisting of a single layer of tangentially elongated cells containing volatile oil. (4) Stele, in which a pericycle and a bast ring surround acircle of wood-bundles within which there is a very large pith. The 1 ericycle is narrow, the bast parenchyma is collenchymatous and in the pith there are scattered groups of sclerenchymatous cells with thickened pitted walls. The structure of the root is as follows :— (1) Epidermis, the cells of which are rectangular in tangential section and axially elongated. (2) Hypoderma, consisting of large cells containing volatile oil. (3) Cortex, which is comparatively wide and contains in its cells an abundance of starch in simple or small compound grains; the innermost row of cells (endodermis) contains vulatile oil. (4) Stele, in which the wood bundles form an almost con- tinuous ring enclosing a large pith, the cells of which also contain starch. The pith of the root does not contain sclerenchymatous cells as that of the rhizome does. The diagnostic characters of powdered valerian rhizome and roots are :— (a) The cells containing volatile oil. (b). The abundant starch. (c) The epidermis of the root, with hairs. (d) The sclerenchymatous cells. RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. 269 PLATE CXIX. Fic. 129.—Powdered Valerian Rhizome (x 240). a, Starch. end, Endodermis. ep, Epidermis of root. e’p’, Tegumentary tissue of rhizome. h, Cells of the hypoderma of root. 1, I’, Collenchymatous bast tissue, in longitudinal and transverse section. pc, Cortical parenchyma. per, Pericycle. pm, Parenchyma of pith. pt, Hairs on root. sc, Sclerenchymatous cells of rhizome. tr, vp, Vessels, etc. 270 RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. 130) Zedoary Rhizome, The rhizome of Curcwma Zedoaria, Roscoe (N.O. Scitaminesze). The rhizome presents the following structure :-— (1) Epidermis, the cells of which are flattened in transverse section, but in surface view are rather large ; sometimes they are polygonal and isodiametric, sometimes axially elongated; the walls are thin. Here and there rounded cells with thickened pitted walls are to be found; these are the bases of large, uni- cellular, conical hairs, which ‘have been broken oft. (2) Hypoderma, which is often absent. (3) Cork, usually of considerable extent ; the cells are large, and, in surface view, appear polygonal. (4) Cortex, comparatively narrow and traversed by small fibro- vascular bundles, some of which are accompanied by yellowish thin-walled fibres. The cells of the cortical parenchyma are mostly polygonal or rounded and contain starch, but a few contain yellowish oleoresin. The starch grains are large and simple, strongly flattened, and generally ovoid or sack-shaped ; the hilum is close to the pointed end, and many grains exhibit distinct striations. They are considerably larger than either ginger or galangal starch. (5) Endodermis, the cells of which are flattened and not. lignified, (6) Stele, of large dimensions; the parenchymatous tissue resembles that of the cortex. The diagnostic characters are (a) The starch grains. (0) The epidermis with scars of hairs. (c) The oleoresin cells. > (a) The abundant, thin-walled parenchyma. RHIZOMES AND ROOTS. 271 PLATE CXX, 040 90°0 gubngoott ie Wein th ) 0do0eobio Fic. 130.—Powdered Zedoary§Rhizome (x 240). a, Starch grains. e, Epidermis. end, Endodermis. ffv, Fragments of vascular bundles. go, Oleoresin cells. ip, Scar of hair. I, Bast. ml, Fragments of stelar parenchyma (after treatment with potash). or, Masses of oleoresin. Pc, Cortical parenchyma. pt, Hairs, entire or broken. s, s’, Cork, in surface view and section. v, vr, Vessels, 272 CORMS AND BULBS. SECTION IX. CORMS AND BULBS. This~section forms a natural sequence to the previous one dealing with rhizomes and roots. It contains but two official representatives—viz., colchicum corm and squill bulb. The former is a contracted hypogeic stem, the latter is composed of a number of fleshy, modified leaves, enclosing a comparatively small axis. 131) Colchicum Corms. Colchicum corms are obtained from Colchicum autumnale, L. (N.O. Liliacez). The corm exhibits the following structure :— (1) Epidermis, composed of a single layer of flattened cells which in surface view are seen to be very irregular in outline and arrangement ; they have brown, pitted, more or less wavy walls. (2) Ground tissue, consisting of polygonal parenchymatous cells with distinct intercellular spaces and filled with starch. Thejlatter occurs mostly in compound grains; these usually have three—rarely four—components, which, when separated, are curved on one side and angular on the others; they have a conspicuous stellate hilum; the simple grains are rounded. This tissue is traversed by numerous bundles, each consisting of a group of vessels surrounded by a ring of soft bast. The diagnostic characters of powdered colchicum corm are:— (a) The starch grains. (6) The abundant parenchyma. (c) The absence of sclerenchyma and of crystals. 273 CORMS AND BULBS. PLATE CXXI1. SI OVS LAX ares ~~ ‘ES SO) Fic. 151—Powdered Colchicum Corm (x 240) a,a’, Starch in simple and compound grains. e, Epidermis. I, Bast. pa, Parenchyma. pe, Fragment of cell wall. tr, Fragments of vessels. 274 CORMS AND BULBS. (132) Squill Bulb. The bulbs of Scilla maritima, L. (N.O. Liliacez). The scales of which the bulb almost entirely consists exhibit the following structure :— (1) Epidermis, composed of rectangular cells covered with a rather thick striated cuticle ; in surface view the epidermal cells are polygonal and axially elongated. The epidermis is furnished with rather large stomata. 2. Parenchyma, between the two epidermises. This tissue corresponds to the mesophyll of the leaf, and is composed of parenchymatous cells which are polygonal and irregular in the centre, but axially elongated in the layers near the epidermis. Most of the cells contain mucilage, and some of them calcium oxalate in addition; the latter occurs sometimes in very large prismatic crystals of rectangular section, sometimes in delicate acicular crystals, which may be arranged in bundles or may be irregularly disposed. In the red variety of squill cells filled with red colouring matter are also: present. The parenchymatous tissue is traversed by numerous vascular bundles. The diagnostic characters of powdered squill are :— (a) The abundant mucilage. (b) The very characteristic calciwm oxalate. (c) The occasional stomata. (d) The absence of starch. CORMS AND BULBS. 275 PLATE CXXII. AQUI PAPA SLES Fic. 152,—Powdered Squill Bulb (x 240). cer, Crystal cells. cp, Cells filled with reddish pigment. e, e’, Epidermis, in surface view and section. I, Bast. Pa, Parenchyma. pr, Long prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. r, Raphides st, Stoma. tr, Vessels, etc. 276 * FUNGI. SECTION X. FUNGI, There are two officinal drugs derived from this class that are from time to time employed in pharmacy in the state of powder, viz., ergot of rye and white agaric. These drugs differ very markedly in structure from those that have been hitherto dealt with. They consist of long, narrow, tubular cells (hyphe) which interlace with one another, exhibiting scarcely any definite arrangement, but becoming more or less compacted together so as to form a spongy (sgaric) or even dense (ergot) mass. They are devoid of a true epidermis, of vascular bundles, of chlorophyll, and of starch. Marks of distinction are, however, not wanting, as will be seen from the followi ng descriptions :— (133) Ergot of Rye. Ergot of rye is the compact mycelium of the fungus Claviceps purpurea, Tulasne (sub-class Ascomycetes). It occurs in slender, curved tapering masses about 1 inch in Jength, dark violet or almost black externally, nearly white internally. The outer dark-coloured portion consists of flattened, elongated cells with very dark walls. The rest of the drug is composed of a dense mass of hyphze which appear rounded in transverse but oval in longitudinal sections, thus exhibiting a slight tendency to an axial arrangement. These hyphz contain an abundance of fixed oil intimately associated with protoplasm. Treatment with ether removes the oil and makes the cells more distinct ; chloral hydrate dissolves the protoplasm, and the oil thus liberated rapidly forms globules. The cell walls are also readily seensafter warming a section with acetic acid. There are no crystals of calcium oxalate present, nor any spores. The diagnostic characters of powdered ergot are : (a) The characteristic structure. (b) Lhe abundance of oil. (c) The dark outer layer. (d) The absence of crystals and spores. Te 277 FUNGI. PLATE CXXIII, Fic, 133.—Powdered Ergot of Rye (x 240). e, Portions of the dark brown outer layer. (134) White Agaric. White or larch agaric is the fungus, Polyporus officinalis, Fries (sub-class Basidiomycetes). It is found in masses varying in size from that of the fist to that of a child’s head. Externally it is reddish or yellowish ; internally, white and spongy. The outer portion is often removed, and the remainder cut up into smaller, irregular pieces. The tissue of which it is composed consists of a mass of loosely agglomerated, interlacing tubular hyphe, which may often be rendered more easily visible by gently warming the preparation in acetic acid. Accompanying the hyphe are crystals of calcium oxalate, small calcareous masses of varying size and irregular shape and numerous minute spores. The diagnostic characters of powdered white agaric are : (a) The interlacing tubular hyphe. (6) The presence of calciwm oxalate. (c) The presence of spcres. FUNGI. 279 PLATE CXXIV. P once a on 2. ie Qe oe ZS “oO Fic. 134.—Powdered White Agaric (x 240). co, Calcareous concretions. cr, Crystals of calcium oxalate. h, h’, Hyphe. sp, Spores. \ 280 SPORES AND GLANDS. SECTION XI. SPORES AND GLANDS. The pharmacist employs three drugs that come under this heading, viz., lycopodium, lupulin, and kamala. The struc- ture of all of these is simple, and as the individual spores or glands are of very small size, they are usually entire. Adultera- tion, intentional or accidental, is very readily detected. (135) Lycopodium. Lycopodium consists of the spores of Lycopodium clavatum, L., N.O. Lycopodiacez, and probably other species. Each spore has the shape of a low, broad, triangular pyramid resting upon a convex base, and is covered by a delicate network consisting of colourless, raised, transparent ridges. The walls are composed of an outer membrane bearing these projections anda thin uniform inner one. The spores contain fixed oil which can be made to exude by crushing them, and can be identified by appropriate reagents. SPORES AND GLANDS. 281 PLATE CXXV. Lae Fig. 135.—-Lycopodium (x 240). 282 SPORES AND GLANDS. (136) Lupulin. Lupulin consists of the glands obtained from the strobiles of the hop, Humulus Lupulus, L. (N.O. Urticacez). Each gland consists of a hemispherical layer of cells, the common cuticle of which has been raised, dome-like, by the secretion of oil between it and the cell walls. When fresh, the gland is pale yellow or golden yellow in colour, and filled with a yellowish oily emulsion ; this, by keeping, gradually darkens in colour, and contracts to form a rounded, brownish mass. The glands measure from 140 to 200u in diameter. SPORES AND GLANDS. 283 PLATE CXXVI. Fic. 136.—Lupulin (x7240). gd, Débris of gland, gi, Gland viewed from below. gp, Gland viewed from side, gs, Gland viewed from above. ol, Oil, 284 SPORES AND GLANDS. (137) Kamala. The glands and hairs that cover the fruit of Mallotus philippinensis, Mill. Arg. (N.O. Euphorbiacez). The heterogeneous nature of kamala is visible even to the naked eye. Under the microscope it is seen to consist of minute, dark red, rounded glands, and groups of thick-walled hairs. Grains of sand and portions of vegetable débris are often also present. The glands have the shape of flattened spheres. Hach of them consists of a delivate membrane, enclosing a number of elongated cells that radiate from a common centre, and are enlarged at their free extremities. The red colour of the con- tents of the gland is often so deep as to obscure the structure, but it can be removed by solution of caustic potash. The appearance of the gland varies somewhat with the position in which it is viewed and with the plane that is focussed. Viewed from the side the cells assume a fan-like arrangement; from above or below they appear to radiate from a centre. The hairs are usually grouped in tufts; they are thick- walled, bluntly-pointed, and divergent. SPORES AND GLANDS. 285 PLATE CXXVII. Fic..137.—Kamala (x 240). gc, Gland viewed from side. gi, Gland viewed from below. gs, Gland viewed from above. P, Pp’, pe’, Hairs and portions of same. 286 GALLS. SECTION XII. (138) GALLS. The official galls are abnormal developments on the twigs of Quercus infectoria, Olivier, resulting from the puncture and deposition of the eggs of Cynips Galle tinctorie, Olivier. The drug exhibits the following structure :— (1) Epidermis, consisting of one or two rows of tabular cells with brown, slightly thickened walls; in surface view these cells are polygonal and isodiametric. (2) Parenchyma, which is differentiated into three distinct layers, viz., an outer, middle and inner layer. The outer layer is somewhat hard and dense and made up of rounded or polygonal cells with rather thick walls and intercellular spaces; it is traversed by fibro-vascular bundles, and many of the cells contain chlorophyll, or thin, colourless, trans- parent, angular fragments of tannin. The middle layer is less dense and more or less pulverulent. It is composed of large, rounded, polygonal cells with large intercellular spaces, the cells thus easily separating from one another; they contain numerous fragments of tannin, which give them a characteristic appearance. The inner layer consists of axially elongated, firmly adherent cells; they also contain tannin, but many contain single crystals or rosettes of calcium oxalate. Towards the interior this tissue forms a sclerenchymatous ring of irregularly polygonal cells with thick pitted walls. Within. the sclerenchymatous ring is a parenchymatous tissue rich in starch, the grains of which are rounded and exhibit a stellate hilum. The diagnostic characters of powdered galls are :— (a) The abundance of tannin. (b) The sclerenchymatous tisswe. (c) The starch grains. GALLS. 287 PLATE CXXVIII. Fic. 138.—Powdered Galls x 240). a, Starch. ccocr, Crystal cells. cr, Prismatic and rosette crystals. e, Epidermis, surface view. ffv, Fibro-vascular bundles. pa, Starchy parenchyma, Pe, p’e’, Cells of the outer layer in surface view and transverse section. pi, Cells of the inner layer. pm, Cells of the middle layer, with fragment of tannin. sc, Sclerenchymatous cells. ta, Tannin. v, Vessels. a ~: oo a 4 , ‘- ; Poy : ae. y eg eee ne a, a ee oi ed ., ie te en aa pag , Pt ee appt 3 > + Tee io > a o ‘ ey ce re Otis. | thle” : a - . 7 , 4 pe A, a’ . * oe - ‘ “% Ag ' . bu. z - ‘ ‘ ‘ _ = \ . * ’ 4 «3%a aS oe is : cu Ra 2 ’ - : 7 * in ay oe * “! a , a5 ~ = oe £ aed 2S ee oe : ; a . . & i 4 a tt « “* aad ‘ae a dame | Se Sete oon SE Sore HET OS UN => - > yay = ee ee ee Seow at hi = << ss Sf SS et te ef ee Ss my wn i Dace POE oe oF 18 Se - IPs ae Beet aa Fert cerns 07