THE LIBRARY

OF

THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA

LOS ANGELES

BRITISH WILD FLOWERS

FLOWERS OF THE HOGS AND MARSHES

PLATE I.

I. Great S}H.-urwnrt (Ranunculus Lingua, L.) 2. Marsh Marigold (Calttia paliistris, L.) 3. CIrass of Parnassus
(fitrnassia fafustrfs, L.) 4. Sundew (/V.wnz rotuntiifolia, L. ) 5. Water Droj.wort ((Enanthe fsltilosa, L.)

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No. i. Great Sf

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kVchene. *, Upper stem-
k-.if, and upper part of plant
with sti-m-Jraf, with

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xMarigold
((^altka j>alus*ris, U

a, Gi^oup of 8 follicles, with
seeds, b, Seed, c, Upper
part of plant, with stem-leaf,
flowers in various stages,
\iexpanded, showing* $ petal-
old sepals and stamens (in-
definitS~with ceritral follicles. ,

No, 3-
(Pamassia palu$lris% L.)

at Flower, on long peduncle,
showing 5 petals; 5 stamens
with 5 scales between, and
central pistil. The 5 sepals
alternating with petals can
be just seen. ^, Scale, with
glands enlarged, c, Seed.
4 Capsule, with valves and
recurved persistent sepals.
e. Flower, with upper sfem-
leaf, showing 5 sepals. /
Rootstock, with radical
leaves (compare these, with
those of VaUriana dioiia}.

f --J . 4. Sundew
(Drosfi^ rotundifblia, L.)

. ffflW1"., f st

gyna-cium, witb, pieyil ^th 5

Tentacle from Icaf-margiV <:, , „.„.

some tentacles bent down, imprisoning
an in^ec t captiver other tentacles in the
art of bemfcng. .>* Capsule dehiscing by
valves, f, Seed.^ / PJairt, with rosette <l
of radicle leaves with glands, and a scapes,
wiih powers in various stages in scorpioid
cyme.

^s^rMV \sA \ / IP

a, Flower (enlarged), from above, Row-
ing irregular ptials, notched, inflexed,
5 stamens, and pistil />. Partial umbel,
with p«stils, showing 2 divergent styles.
c, Flower, with calyx ^elth, ^jptals fallen,
and pistil with spreading Nstyles. ^jf
Urnbel of 5 rays, with leaf sheathed a^
f, Leaf, with narrow dis-'
tant sogu

A

BRITISH FLORA

BRITISH
WILD FLOWERS

IN THEIR NATURAL HAUNTS

described by A. R. HORWOOD
IVith Sixty-four T^lates in Colour
Representing 350 ^Different ^Plants
From 'Drawings by J. N. FITCH
and ^Many I/lustrations from
^Photographs

VOLUME V

THE GRESHAM PUBLISHING COMPANY, LTD.
66 CHANDOS STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON

1919

3 ok

CONTENTS

VOLUME V

PAGE

SECTION X.— FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES - 3

GREAT SPEARWORT (Ranunciilus Lingua, L.)- - - - - 7

MARSH MARIGOLD (Caltha palustris, L.) - 9

GRASS OF PARNASSUS (Parnassia palustris, L.) - - - - 12

SUNDEW (Drosera rotundifolia, L.)- 14

WATER DROPWORT (CEnanthe fistulosa, L.) 16

VALERIAN (Valeriana dioica, L.) - -18

CRANBERRY (Oxycoccus palustris, Pers. = O. quadripetala, Gilib.) 20

WILD ROSEMARY (Andromeda polifolia, L.) 23

BOG PIMPERNEL (Anagallis tenella, Murr.) 25

WATER VIOLET (Hottonia palustris, L.) - - - - - 27

BOG BEAN (Menyanthes trifoliata, L.) - - - - 29

BOG SPEEDWELL {Veronica scutellata, L.) - - - - 31

MARSH RED RATTLE (Pedicularis palustris, L.) - - - 33

BLADDER WORT (Utricularia vulgaris, L.) 35

BUTTER WORT (Pinguicula -vulgaris, L.) - 37

GOLDEN DOCK (Rtimex maritimus, L.) 40

BOG MYRTLE (Myrica Gale, L.) - 41

WHITE WILLOW (Salix alba, L.) ------ 43

HELLEBORINE (Helleborine longifolia, Rendle and Britten = Epipactis

palustris, Crantz) .-. — -----4,5

BOG ASPHODEL (Narthecium ossifragum, Huds.) 47
COMMON JOINTED RUSH (Jiincus articulatus, L. = J. lamprocarpus,

Ehrh.) - - 49

GALINGALE (Cyperus longus, L.) -51

COMMON SPIKE-RUSH (Eleocharis palustris, Roem. and Schult.) - 52

COTTON GRASS (Eriophorum angustifolium, Roth) - - - - 53

908804

vi CONTENTS

PAOB

PRICKLY TWIG RUSH (Cladium Afartscus, Br.) - - - 55

HUMMOCK SEDGE (Carex paniculata, L.) - 57

GREAT PRICKLY SEDGE (Carex vulpina, L.) - - - 60

SECTION XI.— FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS - 65

MILK WORT (Polygala vulgar is, L.) - - - - - - 69

GRASSY STITCH WORT (Stellaria graminea, L.) - - - - 71

PRETTY ST. JOHN'S WORT (Hypericum pulchrum, L.) - - 73

FURZE (Ulex europceus, L.) 75

BROOM (Cytisus scoparius, Link.) 79

TORMENTIL (Potentilla erecta, Hampe = P. Tormentilla, Scop.) - 82

HEATH BEDSTRAW (Galium saxatile, L.) 84

CAT'S-FOOT (Antennaria dioica, Gaertn.) 87

COMMON HAWKWEED (Hieracium vulgatum, Fr.) - ... 88

SHEEP'S BIT SCABIOUS (Jasione montana, L.) - - - 90

HAREBELL (Campanula rotundifolia, L.) 92

WHORTLEBERRY (Vaccinium Myrtillus, L.) 95

LING (Calluna vidgaris, Hull) -97

CROSS-LEAVED HEATH (Erica Tetrah'x, L.) 100

CRIMSON HEATH (Erica cinerea, L.) - 103

DODDER (Cuscuta europcea, L.) ....... 105

EYEBRIGHT (Euphrasia nemorosa, H. Mart. = E. officinalis, L.,

in part) - - - - - - - - - - -107

RED RATTLE (Pedicularis sylvatica, L.)- no

COW-WHEAT (Melampyrum pratense^ L.) 112

PENNYROYAL (Mentha Pulegium, L.) 114

CREEPING WILLOW (Salix repens, L.) - - - - - 116

GREAT WOOD RUSH (Luzula sylvatica, Gaud. = L. maxima, D.C.) 118
MEADOW WOOD RUSH (Luzula campestris, D.C.) - - - -119

EARLY SEDGE (Carex caryophyllea, Latour. = C. verna, Chaix) - 121

GREEN-RIBBED SEDGE (Carex bincrvis, Sm.) 123

SMALL BENT GRASS (Agrostis canina, L.) 124

HEATH HAIR GRASS (Deschampsia flexuosa, Trin.) - - - - 126

MAT-GRASS (Nardus stricta, L.) 127

SECTION XII.— FLOWERS OF THE ROCKS, WALLS, STONY

AND GRAVELLY PLACES - 131

YELLOW WALL FUMITORY (Corydalis lutea, D.C.) - - - 135

WALLFLOWER (Cheiranthus Cheiri, L.) 137

CONTENTS vii

PAGE

VERNAL WHITLOW GRASS (Erophila verna, E. Meyer) - - - 139

CHEDDAR PINK (Dianthus glaucus, Huds.) - - - - - 141

FIELD MOUSE-EAR (Cerastium arvense, L.) - - - - - 142

SAND SPURREY (Spergularia >rubray Pers.) 144

BIRD'S-FOOT (Ornithopus perpusillus, L.) -146

HORSESHOE VETCH (Hippocrepis comosa, L.) 148

RUE-LEAVED SAXIFRAGE (Saxifraga tridactylites, L.) - - - 150

MEADOW SAXIFRAGE (Saxifraga granulata, L.) - - - - 151

PENNYWORT (Cotyledon Umbilicus -Veneris, L.) - - - - 154

ORPINE (Sedum Telephium, L.) - - - - - - -156

BITING STONECROP (Sedum acre, L. = S, Drucei, British plant) - 158

HOUSELEEK (Sempervivum tectorum, L.) - - - - - - 160

GOLDEN ROD (Solidago Virgaurea, L.) 162

MOUSE-EAR HAWKWEED (Hieracium Pilosella, L.) - - - - 164

WALL LETTUCE (Lactuca muralis, Gaertn.) - - - - - 166

RAMPION (Campanula Rapunculus, L.)- - - - - -168

IVY-LEAVED TOAD FLAX (Linaria Cymbalaria, Mill.) - - - 170

WALL SPEEDWELL (Veronica arvensis, L.) - - - - -171

PELLITORY-OF-THE-WALL (Parietaria ramiftora, Moench) - - - 173

SILKY WIND GRASS (Apera Spica-venti, Beauv.) - - - - 175

SILVERY HAIR GRASS (Aira caryophyllea, L.) - - - - - 176

FLAT-STALKED POA (Poa compressa, L.)- - - - - -178

SAND FESCUE (Festuca Myuros, L.)- - - - - - - 179

SOME GENERAL HINTS AND NOTES 183

SECTION X: FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES - - - 183

SECTION XI : FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS - - - 187

SECTION XII: FLOWERS OF THE ROCKS AND WALLS - 193

APPENDICES:—

APPENDIX I : ANGIOSPERM^: (SUMMARY OF NATURAL ORDERS) - - 201

APPENDIX II: THE GENERA OF BRITISH FLOWERING PLANTS - - 207

APPENDIX III: BIBLIOGRAPHY -------- 223

APPENDIX IV : GLOSSARY 229

PLATES IN COLOUR

FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

PLATE PAGE

L. GREAT SPEARWORT; MARSH MARIGOLD; GRASS OF PARNASSUS;
SUNDEW; WATER DROPWORT - - Frontispiece

LI. VALERIAN; CRANBERRY; WILD ROSEMARY ; BOG PIMPERNEL ; WATER

VIOLET 18

LII. BOG BEAN; BOG SPEEDWELL; MARSH RED RATTLE; BLADDER-
WORT; BUTTERWORT ______ - - 28

LIII. GOLDEN DOCK; BOG MYRTLE; WHITE WILLOW; MARSH HELLE-

BORINE; BOG ASPHODEL; COMMON JOINTED RUSH - - - 40

LIV. GALINGALE; COMMON SPIKE RUSH; COTTON GRASS; PRICKLY

TWIG- RUSH ; HUMMOCK SEDGE ; GREAT PRICKLY SEDGE 50

FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

LV. MILKWORT; GRASSY STITCHWORT; PRETTY ST. JOHN'S WORT;

FURZE; BROOM; TORMENTIL ------ - 68

LVI. HEATH BEDSTRAW; CAT'S- FOOT; COMMON HAWKWEED; SHEEP'S

BIT SCABIOUS; HAREBELL; WHORTLEBERRY 84

LVII. LING; CROSS-LEAVED HEATH; CRIMSON HEATH; DODDER; EYE-
BRIGHT; RED RATTLE _._g6

LVIII. COW-WHEAT; PENNYROYAL; CREEPING WILLOW; GREAT WOOD-
RUSH; MEADOW WOOD-RUSH; EARLY SEDGE - - - 112

LIX. GREEN-RIBBED SEDGE; SMALL BENT GRASS; HEATH HAIR GRASS;

MAT GRASS 122

x PLATES IN COLOUR

FLOWERS OF THE ROCKS AND GRAVELLY PLACES

PACE

LX. YELLOW WALL FUMITORY; WALLFLOWER; VERNAL WHITLOW

GRASS; CHEDDAR PINK; FIELD MOUSE-EAR - - - - 136

LXI. SAND SPURREY; BIRD'S-FOOT; HORSESHOE VETCH; RUE-LEAVED

SAXIFRAGE; MEADOW SAXIFRAGE 144

LXI I. PENNYWORT; ORPINE; BITING STONECROP; HOUSELEEK; GOLDEN

ROD 154

LXI 1 1. MOUSE-EAR HAWKHEAD; WALL LETTUCE; RAMPION; IVY-LEAVED

TOAD FLAX; WALL SPEEDWELL 164

LXIV. PELLITORY-OF-THE-WALL; SILKY WIND GRASS; SILVERY HAIR

GRASS; FLAT-STALKED POA; SAND FESCUE - - - - 172

PLATES IN BLACK-AND-WHITE

PAGE

BROAD AND SHALLOW LAGOON WITH AQUATIC VEGETATION 5

HUMMOCK SEDGE 59

HEATHLAND, WITH THE COMMON FURZE ------- 77

GULLY IN THE RIVER WHARFE AT BOLTON (The Strid) - - - - 133

Section X
FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

63

FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

Marsh plants, or Helophytes as they are called, are unlike aquatic
plants in that though their roots grow in water-logged soil in which
there is 80 per cent of water, yet their stems are never quite sub-
merged and are usually erect, many aquatic plants being submerged
and lying on the surface of the water. They usually grow in shallow
water, if submerged at all, and in still or but little disturbed water.

Most of the marsh plants are perennials, and a large number have
creeping rhizomes, such as Phragmites or Reed, Reed Mace, Iris,
Yellow Flag, Flowering Rush, Bulrushes, Cotton Grass, Bur Reed,
Sedges, &c. Some are tufted, as Purple Loosestrife, Water Plantain,
also members of aquatic vegetation, and they build up a layer of dead
stems growing from the topmost aided by the capillarity of the dried
stems and water, as in the case of the Tussock Sedge. They contain
air-spaces as in Rushes. Many have the mesophytic habit, and others
are Xerophytes. The seeds contain air-spaces, which assist in dis-
persing them by water.

Two types of formation may be recognized at least, and there are
probably others. Many indeed are amphibious, growing half on land
half in water. The two recognized formations are the Reed formation
and the Bush Swamp formation.

In classifying the marsh and water plants, we have regarded
as belonging to the latter all the plants which grow in or by the
sides of lakes, rivers, streams, and ditches, and have reserved for
the marsh plants those that grow mainly in true bogs or marshy
tracts that are separate or can be distinctly marked off from the
latter. In this way, while Reeds are included in Section VIII (and
some others here mentioned which occur in Section VIII), they are
equally marsh plants. The grouping by Lakes, Rivers, Streams, &c.,
is partly artificial (just as in the case of roadside plants), for the benefit
of the touring botanist, who can better follow such classifications than
the cut-and-dried divisions into Hydrophytes, and, as here, Helo-

4 FLOWERS OK THE BOGS AND MARSHES

phytcs. With the Reed in the Reed formation one finds Bulrush,
Reed Mace, Flowering Rush, Iris, Galingale, Hummock Sedge,
Water Plantain, Arrowhead, Bur Reed, Great Hairy Willow Herb,
Great Yellow Loosestrife, Sweet Flag, Buckbean, Purple Loosestrife,
Great Spearwort, Water Dropwort, &c.

Zones can be recognized, moreover, in this formation named after
the dominant species or genus, such as phragmiteta, scirpeta, heleo-
chareta, cariceta, typheta, equiseteta. The Hydrophytes are tall,
slender, and upright, usually un branched. As will be seen some of
those that grow in true bogs, requiring acid humus, must also be
considered Oxylophytes, and high- or low-moor plants. Some parts
of marsh and bog land are covered or interspersed with shrubs or trees,
one or more of which give to each type a character of its own. Such
are Alneta, where one finds Purple Loosestrife, Meadow Sweet, Buck-
bean, Sedges, Willows, Guelder Rose, and the Nettle.

Saliceta, on banks of swamps, are characterized by the Crack and
White Willows, Great Yellow Loosestrife, Great Hairy Willow Herb,
Valerian, Meadow Sweet, &c., with Reecls, and higher up, Bittersweet,
Great Bindweed, and Hop. In other places, Betuleta and Pineta are
characterized by the dominance of Birches and Pines with their own
ground flora.

Out in the midst of the pools rises the tall, graceful, and stately
Great Spearwort. Its yellow chasubles shine like melted gold in the
sun. Down by the sides of the meres, and in wet marshy meadows,
Kingcups play a kindred part. Here, too, the lovely white, veined
petals of the Grass of Parnassus, with the scale-like honey glands, spot
the meadows in autumn, where the Bog Bean and Marsh Helleborine
lie hid amongst the mulchy sedges and moist undergrowth. In the
little bog-pools the insectivorous Sundew glistens like sparkling drops
of dew in the sun, to attract its insect prisoners, rare viands for a
plant!

Diminutive forests are formed by the Water Dropwort, which
grows, like Valerian, in low-lying meadows, forming dense undergrowth,
with flowers pure and white. On the moors or in wet bogs the Cran-
berry and Wild Rosemary, in less upland morasses, are found here and
there, the first being sought after eagerly for its fruit in autumn. Bog
Pimpernel, with its choice pink blossoms, trails in the moist hollows
close by where Water Violet swims in the quiet pools, anchored only
by its webwork of foliage. Crouching low down amid the sedges and
rushes the Bog Speedwell is a true marsh species, and Marsh Lousewort
grows on the borders of moist meadows where Bog Bean flourishes.

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GREAT SPEARWORT 7

The shiny leaves and uncommon flowers of the Butterwort are a
peculiar feature in the same habitat as Sundew. In upland pools,
quite immersed save for the erect flower-stalks, grows the quaint
Bladderwort, which, like Sundew, is insectivorous. In favoured spots
the Bog Bean flowers, but not everywhere. Golden Dock invades
many an inland marsh with its tall golden panicles of yellow flowers.
Bog Myrtle grows in upland bogs with Asphodel, which makes the
moors bright golden-red in autumn here and there. White Willow
lines the sides of the marshes with its silvery foliage glistening in the
sun. Amongst wet sedges and herbage Marsh Orchis rises with its
pink blooms, encircling the green expanse with its choice colour. The
sedges and rushes, &c., include common Joint-rush, Galingale, Common
Spike Rush, Cotton Grass, Prickly Twig Rush, Hummock and Great
Prickly Sedge.

There are about 250 paludal plants, and we have described twenty-
eight in this series.

For further general notes on Marshes and Bogs, see Heaths and
Moors, and " Hints and Notes" on both sections; and also Section I,
Vol. I, where an alternative grouping is considered.

Great Spearwort (Ranunculus Lingua, L.)

This fine plant has been recognized by its achenes in deposits of
Interglacial, Neolithic, and Roman age. It is found in the W^arm
Temperate Zone, in Temperate Europe, N. and W. Asia, as far as the
Himalayas. It is absent in East Cornwall, South Wilts, Gloucester,
Worcester, Carmarthen, Cardigan, Montgomery, Denbigh, Mid Lanes,
Isle of Man, Peebles, Selkirk, Haddington, Stirling, Kincardine,
Banff, Westerness, Cantire, S. and Mid Ebudes, W. Ross, Sutherland,
Caithness, and the Northern Isles. It is local in Ireland, and is found
in the Channel Islands.

The Great Spearwort is an aquatic Hydrophyte or water plant, or
Hygrophyte or moisture-loving species, living in the middle of pond
or lake, half-submerged, and being also a typical marsh plant, occurs
also in swamps and ditches. Usually it grows some distance from the
margin, and in this way is hard to reach, unlike its congener the Lesser
Spearwort, which is found on the ground surrounding a pond or in
marshes and wet ground. With the Greater Spearwort grow Frogbit,
Bur Reeds, the Sweet and Yellow Flags.

Though aquatic it is erect, and grows out of the water in the same
way as the Flag or Reeds. It grows in a group of some extent, usually

8

FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

not in deep water, or in wet, peaty soil. It is tall, erect, and graceful,
and the flowers being largely terminal and bright yellow form quite a
golden patch in the otherwise green marshes. The stem is hollow.

Perhaps from the long, entire, spear-shaped, aerial leaves, giving
the English name its significance, one can best recognize this handsome
species. They are half-clasping, and the radical leaves are stalked,
while the rest are not, and have a semi- rather coarsely-toothed edge.

The lower, sometimes
submerged, leaves are
tongue - shaped (hence
Lingua] or heart-shaped,
blunt, 3 in. broad, 8-9 in.
long. The carpels are
pitted and have a sword-
like beak.

The flowers are large,
yellow, nearly 2 in. in
diameter, in a sort of
panicle. The glands of
the petals have a small
scale. The achenes are
pitted. The style is broad.
Great Spearwort

varies from 2 to 4 ft. in
height. Mowers can be
found from June to August.
It is a perennial, decidu-
ous, herbaceous plant.

Pollination is as in
the Lesser Spearwort,
where the flowers are

scarcely expanded when the anthers open outwards, covering the sides
towards the petals with pollen; but in this case the stigma is mature
first. Insects in the case of the former feed on the abundant honey in
little scales at the base of each petal, and so dust themselves with
pollen at the same time. The stigmas are concealed by the stamens
and undeveloped. As the stamens open they bend out, and turn their
pollen-covered sides outwards. The outer stamens develop before the
innermost stamens join the others, and the stigmas becoming dusted
with pollen, can be pollinated with their own pollen or that brought from
other flowers. All visitors alighting on the middle, bearing pollen,

GREAT SPEARWORT (Ranunculus Lingua, L.)

MARSH MARIGOLD 9

cross-pollinate some stigmas, those alighting first on petals touching
the anther and stigmas, either causing cross- or self-pollination. The
flower being half-drooping may also be self-pollinated from this reason.
The visitors are Flies, or Diptera, Syrphidse, Syritta, Cheiiosia, Meli-
threptus, Muscidse, Scat op hag a, AntJwmyia\ Hymenoptera, Apidse,
Halictus\ Lepidoptera, Satyrus, Pamphilus.

Spearwort is dispersed by its own agency. The achenes are aggre-
gate, and dispersed around the parent
plant.

This handsome species is a Hydro-
phyte or water plant and aquatic, or a
Helophyte or marsh plant.

A fungus, sEcidium ranunculaceannn,
forms orange-yellow groups of " cluster-
cups " on the leaves.

The specific name (once a genus)
Lingua was bestowed by Pliny, and means
a tonofue, and was used in allusion to the

o

shape of the leaves. Possibly Pliny's plant,
however, was the Hart's Tongue.

It is called also Spear Crowfoot and
Sparrow Weed. The Lesser Spearwort
was used under the name "flame" as a
cure for "cankers" or ulcers. It is a
poisonous plant, and the Lesser Spearwort
is of the same nature.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

6. Ranunculus Lingua, L. — Stem-
leaves entire, subserrate, sessile, stem erect,
flowers large, yellow, carpels pitted, style broad with ensiform tip.

GREAT SPEARWORT
{Ranunculus Lingua, L.)

Marsh Marigold (Caltha palustris, L.)

This is an Arctic plant found in Pre-, Inter-, and Late Glacial,
Neolithic, and Roman deposits. It is a plant of the Cold Temperate
and Arctic regions, found in Arctic Europe, North and W. Asia, as
far as the Himalayas, and in North America. So widely distributed a
plant occurs in every part of Great Britain, and in Scotland grows at
3400 ft. in the Highlands. It is found in Ireland.

The Marsh Marigold is hygrophilous, i.e. fond of moisture, always
confined to marshy tracts, where there are some lime salts in the soil. It

10

FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

is associated in spring with the early-flowering sedges, and sallows, and
osiers, and with it grow the marsh-loving Horse-tail, and the pale lilac-
tinted Cuckoo Flower or Lady's Smock. In such marshy tracts it forms
big clumps which cover the water-meadows as with intertwining chains
of gold. It prefers the damp hollows where it is half-rooted in spongy,
watery ground. It is found also by stream-sides and in swampy woods.
The Marsh Marigold has a prostrate or somewhat erect habit. The
plant is dark-green, rank, hairless, forming conspicuous clusters with

MARIGOLD (Caltha palustris, L.)

attractive blooms. The rootstock is horizontal, short, the stem not
rooting at the nodes. The stem may be erect or ascending. The
radical leaves are long -stalked, rounded, heart-shaped, with two deep
lobes at the base, and a narrow sinus, scalloped, toothed, glossy. The
stipules are membranous, entire in bud, and enclose the leaf. The
flowers are few, terminal, regular, large. Sepals of a bright yellow
colour take the place of the petals. They are overlapping and close,
unequal, round to egg-shaped. The follicles are spreading, with a very
short beak, and many-seeded.

Marsh Marigold is i-i^, ft. high. Flowers may be found from
March to May, and this is a perennial plant.

The flower is rendered conspicuous by the petaloid yellow sepals.
There is an abundance of honey, which is secreted in two shallow

MARSH MARIGOLD n

depressions below the ovary, and is protected, as there are no petals,
by a fold which helps to retain it. The plant is homogamous, that is to
say the stigma and the pistil ripen at the same time, and in the ordinary
course, as they are more or less on a level, self-pollination would
result. But the flowers are much visited, and hence they are fre-
quently cross-pollinated. Furthermore, the anthers open away from
the centre or pistil, i.e. outwards, the outer series first. There are in
some countries flowers which have no pistil, a further reduction of
the floral axis, along with the ordinary type.

The flowers are 40 mm. in diameter, and hence attractive. The
visitors are Diptera (Stratiomyidse), Odontomyia, (Syrphidae), Cheilosia,
Ascia, Rhingia, Eristalis, (Muscidse), Scatophaga, Anthomyia; Cole-
optera (Nitidulidae), Meligethes; Hymenoptera (Apidse), Andrena,
Osmia riifa, Bombus terrestris, Apis melli/ica, &c.

The seeds are dispersed by the wind. The aggregate fruits con-
sist of many follicles, with many seeds which are blown out by the wind
when the follicle is ripe and dry.

The Marsh Marigold is a peat-loving plant, being dependent on
a more or less peaty soil, or acid humus, such as that afforded by
a bog, or when alkaline by a marsh.

Puccinia calthce is a fungus which infests it, as does Pseudopeziza
caltha.

The beetles Donacia dentipes, D. lemnce, Prasocuris hannoverana
feed on it, and the Homopterous insect Dorthesia urticce.

Caltha, given by Pliny, is the Latin name of some plant, probably
the Pot Marigold, and palustris refers to its marshy habitat. The
English name is from Mary (i.e. Virgin Mary), and gold, in allusion
to its colour.

This plant is called Bassinet, Blob, Boots, Bullflower, Butter-blob,
Big Watercup, Great Butter-flower, Carlock-cups, Chirms, Claut, Crow
Cranes, Crazy, Dandelion, Drunkard, Fire o' Gold, Water Goggles,
Golden Cup, Gollin, Halcups, John Georges, Johnny Cranes, King-
cob, Marsh Mallow, Mare-blob, Mayflower, Meadow Bouts, Moll-blob,
Publicans and Sinners, Soldier's Buttons. In Oxfordshire Marsh
Marigolds and Buttercups are called Publicans and Sinners.
"The wild marsh marigold shines like fire." — Tennyson:

alluding to the name Will (Wild) fire. It is called Open Gowan from

its open flowers, as opposed to the closed flowers of the Lockin Gowan.

It is said in Iceland that if the Marsh Marigold is taken with

certain ceremonies and carried about it will prevent the wearer from

12 FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

having an angry word spoken to him. It is very acrid and poisonous,
and those who have eaten it have been affected by it. The buds are
salted and pickled in the same way as capers. From the "petals" a
yellow dye is extracted, after boiling with alum. It is not eaten by
cattle unless there is a lack of other herbage. Children use it for
making garlands on May Day. The "petals" are often eaten by a
beetle ( Ckrysouicla ).

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

ii. Caltlia palustris, L. — Stems numerous, erect, leaves reniform.
large, shiny, sepals yellow, large, petals wanting, follicles with short
beak.

Grass of Parnassus (Parnassia palustris, L.)

There are not any instances of the occurrence of Grass of Par-
nassus in early beds. It is confined to the North Temperate Zone of
Europe, N. Africa, Siberia, Western Asia, as far east as N.W. Hima-
layas, E. and W. North America. It is found generally in Great
Britain, but not in the Peninsula province in Dorset; and in S. Hants
only in the Channel province; not in Kent or S. Essex in the Thames
province; throughout Anglia; not in W. Gloucs, Monmouth, Here-
ford in the Severn province. In Wales it occurs only in Carnarvon.
Denbigh, Flint, and Anglesea; in the Trent province; throughout the
Mersey, Humber, and Tyne provinces; and in the Lakes province
generally, except in the Isle of Man. It is found in the whole of
the W. Lowlands; not in Peebles or Selkirk in the E. Lowlands;
or Stirling, N. Perth in E. Highlands; throughout the W. Highlands,
except in N. Ebudes; and in the N. Highlands, except in W. Ross;
in the North Isles, except in the Hebrides. It is found at 2700 ft. in
the Highlands.

This beautiful plant is one of the features of bogs in the autumn,
when its white flowers are scattered in profusion over the flat water-
meadows around more truly boggy tracts. It is found in such places
as the Great Spearwort, Sundew, Bog Pimpernel, Water Violet, Bog
Speedwell, Marsh Lousewort, Butterwort, Bladdervvort, Bog Bean,
Marsh Helleborine, Marsh Orchis, Cotton Grass, and other hygro-
philous or helophilous plants frequent.

This is not a grass, but a delicate herbaceous plant, with few
flowering stems, slender, erect or wavy, angular, bearing a single,
clasping, stalkless leaf halfway up the stem. The radical leaves are
stalked with a heart-shaped form. The plant has the rosette habit.

The flowers are of a beautiful cream or white colour, with free,

GRASS OF PARNASSUS 13

blunt sepals. The veined petals have a short claw, and the honey
is contained in fringed petal-like yellow scales or nectaries. There are
4 stigmas. The flower in sunshine is sweet-scented, but loses its scent
at night. The Grass of Parnassus is about 10 in. high at its best. It
is a late-flowering plant, blooming from August to October. The
plant is a deciduous, herbaceous perennial, increased by division.

Only 5 anthers are borne on the 10 stamens, the others are melli-
ferous at the bottom, and are crowned by as many as 17 yellow
globular glands, resem-
bling honey, but dry.
They may serve to attract
flies. The immature an-
thers lie near the conical
ovary, which rises up in
the centre and overtops
them. They ripen first
successively, and elongat-
ing come to just above the
top of the stigma, with the
back to it, and open away
from it, and as each does
this another follows each
day, and afterwards the
stigmas on the sixth day
develop. The nectaries
are just opposite each petal,
alternate with the stamens,
and each is shortly stalked,
with a broad, fleshy disk,
secreting honey in two
hollow depressions, or on the inner side, and they leave it fully ex-
posed. The yellow-knobbed glandular bodies or staminodes surround
the base of the ovary, and render the nectaries conspicuous, but
they are dry though they look like drops of liquid, and flies are
deceived by it, the smaller travelling round the flower, the larger
resting in the middle, dusting their sides with pollen in younger
flowers, cross-pollinating older ones if they pass out to them. The
visitors are Eristalis, Helophilus, Syrphus, Melanostoma, Mclithreptus,
Syritta, Sarcophaga, Pollenia, Tipula, Tenthredo, Ichneumonids, Pem-
p/iiltts, Gorytes, Coccinella.

The capsule is many-seeded, and is membranous, allowing the

Photo. Flatters & Garnett

GRASS OF PARNASSUS (Parnassia pahistris, L.)
(probably var. condensata, Wheldon and Travis)

i4 FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

seeds to be emptied out by the wind. The seeds are minute and
weigh only .00003 of a grain.

Grass of Parnassus is a peat-loving plant and requires a humus or
peat soil, which is to be found only in moist situations on a variety of
rock soils.

A cluster-cup fungus, Uromyces parnassicc, attacks the Grass of
Parnassus.

Parnassia, Linnaeus, is from the Mount of Parnassus, and was called
gramen parnassium by Dodonaeus. The second name (also Latin)
refers to its paludal habitat.

Grass of Parnassus is called White Buttercups, White Liverwort.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

in. Parnassia palustr is, L. — Stem erect, short, radical leaves petio-
late, cordate flowers solitary, white, large, petals veined, with claw,
with scales or nectaries fringed with hairs, and yellow glands.

Sundew (Drosera rotundifolia, L.)

This interesting plant is found to-day, and not earlier, so far as we
know, in the North Temperate and Arctic Zones in Arctic Europe,
Siberia, Western Asia, East and West North America, from the Arctic
Circle to Florida. In Great Britain it is absent from North Wilts, East
Gloucs, W. Gloucs, Cardigan, Carnarvon, Flint, Mid Lanes, Linlith-
gow, Stirling; and in the Highlands is found at 2300 ft.; but in many
counties where it once grew it has disappeared owing to drainage, £c.

\Vherever the Sundew is found it is a certain sign of the existence,
now or formerly, of a typical bog. It is a plant of the bog or heath,
living the life of a Xerophyte, and is associated with such true bog
plants as Grass of Parnassus, Cranberry, Rosemary, Bog Pimpernel,
Lousewort, Butterwort, Bladderwort, Bog Myrtle, Bog Asphodel, &c.
It prefers a shallow pool or wet ground in the middle of some upland
bog, where it grows on spongy peat.

The interest attaching to this peculiar plant refers not to its habit
of growth so much as to its habit of capturing and assimilating its food,
which in this case is organic. It is, in other words, insectivorous,
attracting and imprisoning flies in, and by aid of, its glandular sticky
leaves (hence the first Latin and English names), which close up when
touched, being highly sensitive. The juices secreted1 in the hollow of

1 The secretion, which is shiny, giving the plant its name, is at the base of the glandular tentacles
which enable the plant to capture its prey. Sir Francis Darwin found that plants fed on meat were more
vigorous than those kept without animal food. See also Charles Darwin, Inuttivorous Plants.

SUNDEW 15

the leaf are able to digest the flies, just as food is digested by gastric
juices in the stomach.

The Sundew is not a tall plant, having long-stalked, rounded leaves
(as broad as long, hence the second Latin name), fringed with
glands and tentacles. The general shape is spoon-shaped. The
racemose flower-stalks, with flowers all turned one way, are more or
less erect. The flower-stalk is without leaves. The flowers are small

SUNDEW (Drosera rotundifalia , L.)

Photo. J. H. Crabtree

and white, only opening in sunshine. In the autumn stoles with bulbs
are put forth.

This " plant-animal " is about 6 in. high. The flowers bloom in
July and August. It is perennial. The flowers are cleistogamic. The
stamens are numerous, and united with the petals, which do not fall.
The anthers open outwards, and cross -pollination is thereby en-
couraged. The flowers are in two series. The styles are bent
inwards, and the stigmas are club-shaped. The anthers and stigmas
ripen together. Insects, usually flies, are attracted to the glandular
leaves, and imprisoned and slowly digested, and pollination may be
assisted by the miscarriage of such efforts to utilize insect prisoners
for food by their being attracted instead to the flowers.

The capsule splitting opposite each loculus allows the seeds to be
dispersed to some distance around the parent plant.

r 6 FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

Sundew is a peat-loving plant, and can only subsist in a peaty soil,
which is obtained in certain moist hollows on hills and lowland ground.

Drosera, Cordus, is from drosos, dew, and the second Latin name
refers to its rounded leaves.

Sundew is called Lust-wort, Moor-grass, Moor-wort, Red Rot,
Rosa Solis, Youth- wort. It is called Red Rot because " Sheephercls
do call it the Red Rot because it rotteth sheep ".

The name " Rosa Solis " is also the name for a liquor prepared
from it. In regard to the name Sundew Lyte says: " This herbe is of
a very strange nature and marvellous, for although that the sunne doe
shine not, and a long time thereon, yet you shall finde it alwaies moist
and bedewed, and the small haires thereof alwaies full of little drops of
water, and the hotter the sun shineth upon this herbe, so much the
moyster it is, and the more bedewed, and for that cause it was called
Rosa solis in Latine, which is to say in English, the dewe of the sun,
or sun Dewe ".

The Italian liqueur Rossoli is prepared from it in part. It is acrid
and caustic, and curdles milk. The Sundew was supposed to remove
warts and corns, and to take away freckles and sunburn, presumably
in the last case by Doctrine of Signatures! This plant produces a
stimulating spirit when distilled with wine. It was once used as a
tincture.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

1 1 6. Droscra rotundifolia, L. — Leaves obovate, flat, with red
glands, radical, petioles hairy, flowers small, white, on long stalks, seeds
chaffy.

Water Dropwort (CEnanthe fistulosa, L.)

In spite of its tender character this plant has been found and identi-
fied from seeds in Interglacial beds at West Wittering in Sussex. It
is found in the North Temperate Zone at the present clay in Europe
and N. Africa. In this country it is found throughout the Peninsula,
Channel, Thames, Anglia, and Severn provinces, except in the last in
Monmouth; in Wales only in Glamorgan, Brecon, Carnarvon; Trent
provinces; in the Mersey province, except in Mid Lanes; in the H umber,
Tyne, and Lakes provinces; and in Dumfries, Kirkcudbright, Ayr,
Renfrew, Berwick, Mid Perth, or from Ayr southwards. It is rare in
Scotland, but common in Ireland.

\Y;iter Dropwort is a hygrophilous or moisture-loving species which
is found in most marshes, and in wet places where a marsh may once
have existed formerly. It is also found in ditches, and on the borders

WATER DROPWORT 17

of rivers, lakes, ponds, and other tracts of water; but most profusely in
water meadows, in hollows once (or now) forming part of a marsh.

As the second Latin name denotes, the stem and the leaf-stalks
of this plant are fistular or hollow. It is freely stolon iferous, with

Photo. Flatters & Garnett

WATER DROPWORT (CEnanthe fistulosa, L.)

creeping stems or shoots, and forms extensive beds where it grows for
that reason, and being tall and erect they dot the wet meadows in
summer over a wide area. The stem leaves have thread-like pinnae.
The stalks exceed the leaves in length, these last being 2-3, pinnate,
with leaflets divided into three nearly to the base.

The flowers are white, in small umbels with few rays, stout flower-

64

1 8 FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

stalks, and no bracts or leaf- like organs. The fruits are numerous,
crowded, angular.

The plant is 2-3 ft. high, and flowers from July to September. It
is perennial, increased by stolons.

As the first Greek name implies, the Water Dropwort (and others)
has a smell like wine, which helps to make it attractive to insects.
The outer flowers are male, and the plant is polygamous. The petals
are inflexed or turned inwards, the styles are long, erect, and armed
with points. It is arranged so that insects can cross-pollinate it. The
visitors are Stratiomys, Empis livida, E. rustica, Antkerix, Syritta
pipiens, Eristalis nemorum, E. arbustorum, E. sepulcralis, Luc ilia,
Trichius fasciatus, Macropis, Ileriades. The anthers and stigma
ripen together in some flowers which are complete in the centre.

The fruits are flattened, angular, and furrowed, and so the more
readily dispersed by the wind, and being but slightly attached are easily
detached by it or by passing animals.

This is one of the peat-loving plants that require a peaty soil in
which to flourish, and where the conditions are more or less perpetually
moist.

A beetle, Lixus paraplecticus, a moth, Dcpressaria newosa, and a
fly, Simulium reptans, feed upon it.

CEnanthc, Theophrastus, is from the Greek oinos, wine, anthos,
flower, and the second Latin name refers to its fistular character. It
is called Water Dropwort and Hemlock Dropwort. It is a poisonous
plant like Wild Celery, Fool's Parsley, and other umbellifers.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

128. CEnanthe fistulosa, L. — Root fibrous, slender, with runners,
stem hollow, leaves pinnate, shorter than the petioles, which are fistular,
the lower ones flat, flowers white at first, pink, in few-rayed umbels,
fruit with rigid divergent or spreading styles.

Valerian (Valeriana dioica, L.)

Widespread as a marsh plant Valerian is found throughout the
North Temperate Zone in Europe generally. In Great Britain it is
found in Cornwall and S. Somerset in the Peninsula province;
throughout the whole of the Channel, Thames, Anglia, and Severn
provinces; in Glamorgan, Brecon, Montgomery, Carnarvon, Denbigh,
Flint, and Anglesea in Wales; in the whole of the Trent and Mersey
provinces, except in Mid Lanes; and in the H umber, Tyne, Lakes pro-
vinces, except in the Isle of Man. In Scotland it is found in Dum-

KEY TO PLATE LI

No,4V ViJerian
(Valerian* <iiou-«, L.)

a, Staniinate floret, with 5
petals, tubular below, and
stamens in centre. A, Pis-
tillate floret, showing corolla,
with pistil, and inferior ovary. -
ct Fruit, crowned by pappus.
X Upper^t of pi Lit,
pinnatifid stem-leav s in op-
posite pairs, with

cyme in various tages.

No. 2. Cranberry
(Oxy coccus palustris, Pj

No. 3. Wild ^

a, Flower,

lobes cut back, showing
mens and style. £, Flower,
with ovary and style. c,

Stamen, with purple filament ,. and frowers drooping, with
y>nd yellow anthers, d, Berry. re volute corolla Jobes, and

Plant, showing creepi
rooting stem,

a, Stamen, ^rt&^wned an-
thers. i>, Ovatry, with style,
corolla i^irioved.' f^Tart of
with; leaves,

stages.

m opening, showing seeds, with
and style above.
> with

featheffljament and dmfersy^i d,
showing creeping habit, ^opposite leaves,
and flolee%»ith MM^A 5 "

j \I__^f\ — \*r ^*>~- t^r^T***"**** «»v*«rM^Da,

" bt Pistil, wint^apiute stigmafc-'-^C^gsjjle^-

broefged, pectinate,
with_wh^ls
flowers m raceme, ehowing^ftowers in

• '

IJ 3TAJS OT

-,-wwoR,* f

mM

Hfil/UBjiUII il|< ,ll

^q^Sw

al-fTf*'*

-/i

urish, and whp

Wfrr J,

'

FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

PLATE LI

I. Valerian ( I'aleriana dio ica, L. ). 2. Cranberry ( Oxycoccits palnstris, Pers. ). 3. Wild Rosemary
(Andromeda polifolia, L. ). 4. Bog Pimpernel (Anagallis tenella, Murr. ). 5. Water Violet (Hotlonia palitstri s, L.).

VALERIAN 19

fries, Kirkcudbright, Ayr; in E. Lowlands in Roxburgh, Berwick,
Haddington, Edinburgh, Linlithgow, Fife, Stirling, and W. Suther-
land; and up to 2000 ft. in Northumberland. It is absent from
Ireland.

Valerian grows in moist places such as wet meadows, marshes, and
bogs. There it is as common as Water Dropwort, Marsh Marigold,
Joint Rush, Marsh Arrowgrass, Common Spike Rush, and many other
paludal types of vegetation. Tall and graceful, Valerian has simple
stems with egg-shaped, stalked, radical leaves, spoon -shaped, and

Photo. Flatters & Ga

VALERIAN (Valeriana dioica, L.)

undivided. The stem -leaves are pinnatifid, or with lobes divided
nearly to the base, few, obtusely and coarsely toothed. The stem is
square in section.

As the second Latin name suggests, the plants have stamens and
pistils on different flowers. The first as well as the second has an
inconspicuous calyx, with a prominent rim round the top of the ovary
in the female. The flowers are tetramorphic. The corolla is mono-
petalous, with small tube, and has either rudimentary or no anthers,
or the corolla may be large or smaller, with no pistil or a very rudi-
mentary one. There are 3 stamens, which protrude from the flesh-
coloured petals. The flowers are panicled. The fruit is small, ribbed,
and smooth.

20 FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

The Valerian is 1-2 ft. high. It flowers in May and July. It is
a deciduous, herbaceous plant increased by division.

The honey is secreted in a small pouch with a green, fleshy ring
£ mm. from the base of the tube. The flowers are dioecious, stamens
and pistils being on different plants, and are usually cross-pollinated.
The male flowers are larger than the female, and are the first to
be visited; but the female open first according to Kerner. The tube
in the male plant is 2^ to 3^ mm. long, wider above; the female is only
i mm., and the honey is accessible to short-lipped insects. The
capitulum or head of the flower is not as conspicuous as in V. offici-
nalis. It flowers so early that the plant is exposed to much less
competition. Insects are numerous but not varied. There are 4 kinds
of flowers: i, male flower without rudiment of pistil and large corolla;
2, male flower with rudimentary pistil and smaller corolla; 3, female
flower with traces of anthers and still smaller corollas; 4, female flower
with scarcely any trace of anthers and very small corollas. It is visited
by Apis mellifica, Andrena albicans, Eristalis arbnstornm, Rhingia
rostrata, Tipula, Pieris napi, JMeligethcs.

The calyx of the fruit is provided with feathery hairs which aid in
wind dispersal.

This Valerian is addicted to wet land, and a peat-loving plant, re-
quiring a more or less peaty habitat, such as that of a marsh or bog.

Two little fungi may be discovered parasitic upon it. They are
Uromyces Valerians and Synchytrium aureum. A Thysanopterous
insect, Phltfothrips albipennis, and a moth, Depressaria pulcheriuiclla,
feed upon it.

Valeriana may be from the Latin valerc, to be powerful or well,
because of its medicinal effects, and the second Latin name refers to its
dioecious character.

This plant is an ornamental plant. It has been used for hysteria.
Cats are fond of it, and rat-catchers also employ it.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

145. Valeriana dioica, L. — Stem erect, radical leaves ovate, petio-
late, stem-leaves pinnatifid, with terminal lobe, plants imperfectly
dioecious, flowers white or rose-coloured, staminate flowers larger.

Cranberry (Oxycoccus palustris, Pers. = O. quadripetala, Gilib.)

Though an Arctic plant the Cranberry has not been found in any
early deposits. At the present day it occurs in the North Temperate
and Arctic Zones in Arctic Europe, but not in Turkey, in N. Asia, and

CRANBERRY 11

America. It is local in Great Britain, found only in Somerset in the
Peninsula province; the Isle of Wight, N. Hants, and Sussex in the
Channel province; Surrey, S. Essex in the Thames province; E.
Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridge, Hunts in Anglia; but does not occur in
Gloucs or Hereford in the Severn province; not in Radnor or Pem-
broke in S. Wales; and in N. Wales, not in Montgomery or Merioneth;
in the Trent province, not in Leics; in the Mersey province, not in Mid
Lanes; in the H umber province, not in S.E. Yorks; but throughout

CRANBERRY (Oxycoccus pahistris, Pers. = O. quadripetaln, Gilib.)

the Tyne and Lakes provinces, except in the Isle of Man ; in the West
Lowlands, not in Wigtown; in E. Lowlands, not in Peebles, Selkirk,
Haddington, or Linlithgow; in the E. Highlands generally, except in
N. Aberdeen and Elgin; in Dumbarton, Cantire, North Ebudes, and
E. Ross. It ascends to 2700 ft. in the Highlands. It is native in
Ireland.

Cranberry is a true bog-loving plant, growing at high elevations in
spongy peat-bogs where Sphagnum and other bog-mosses grow. It is
associated with Grass of Parnassus, Sundew, Wild Rosemary, Bog
Pimpernel, Bog Speedwell, Butterwort, Bladderwort, Bog Myrtle, Bog
Asphodel, and many others.

22 FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

The acid nature of the fruit is referred to in the first Greek name.
The plant is a trailing evergreen, with a rooting angular stem, slender,
and creeping. The leaves are egg-shaped, lance-shaped, coarsely-
toothed, with turned-back margin, entire, and bluish-green below.

The flowers are pink with a wheel-shaped corolla, and the flower-
stalks are i -flowered, terminal, slender, long, and simple. The seg-
ments of the red corolla are turned back.

The stem is 3 in. high at most. Flowering is in full swing in June,
right up to August. The flower is in bloom for nearly three weeks.

It is a shrub, perennial, propagated by layers, and worth culti-
vating for the fruit.

The flowers are as in the Whortleberry, but the corolla is wheel-
shaped, and the anthers, which are broad, are awnless. The stamens
form a tube and are projecting, the anthers being yellow, and the
filaments purple and pubescent. The corolla lobes are narrow and
linear. The style is filiform, the stigma blunt. The stamens on the
outside are closely ranked, and insect visitors must penetrate to the
stigma between the anthers. The berry is edible and red when ripe,
and is eaten and dispersed in this way.

The Cranberry is a peat-loving plant which grows only in a humus
or peaty soil, and is confined to certain woods and hilly moors.

A beetle, Chailocnema sahlbergi, two moths, Manchester Treble-bar
(Carsia imbntata\ Mesotype virgata, are found upon it.

Oxycoccus, Cordus, is from the Greek oxys, sharp, coccus, fruit or
berry, because of its acridity, and Cranberry is given because it is ripe
when the cranes (as they call herons) appear. The second Latin name
refers to the 4 petals.

The names by which it is known include Bog-berry, Corn-
berries, Cramberries, Cranberry, Craneberry, Cranna-berries, Craw-
berry, Crawnberries, Crone, Crones, Fenberry, Fen-grapes, Marsh
Berries, Marsh Wrorts, Moonog, Moor-berries, Moss-berries, Moss
Millions, £c.

The berries are sharp, and used in tarts and preserves. This rare
heath is capable of cultivation.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

191. Oxycoccus quadripetala, Gilib. — Shrub, stem prostrate, filiform,
rooting, leaves small, glaucous below, margins revolute, evergreen,
flowers rose, terminal, corolla rotate, segments reflexed, berries scarlet.

WILD ROSEMARY

Wild Rosemary (Andromeda polifolia, L.)

Though not found there at the present day this typical bog plant
has been discovered in Late Glacial beds at Hailes and Corstorphine
near Edinburgh. At the present time it is found in the North
Temperate and Arctic Zones in Arctic and Alpine Europe (not in
Greece or in Turkey), Siberia, N. America. In Great Britain it is
found in N. Somerset, W.
Norfolk, Hunts, Stafford,
Salop, Glamorgan, Cardigan,
N. Wales, except in Mont-
gomery, Merioneth, and Angle-
sea; Derby; in the Mersey
province except Mid Lanes;
in the Humber province except
in S.E. and N.W. York, Nor-
thumberland; in the Lakes
province except in the Isle of
Man; in the E. Lowlands ex-
cept in Wigtown, Roxburgh,
W. Perth, Edinburgh, Stirling,
and Ebudes. It is local in
Ireland.

Wild Rosemary is a bog
plant which is at home only in
those few tracts where peat
bogs still exist. It is owing to
drainage that they are becom-
ing more and more scarce year

by year. Wild Rosemary is found in the same habitats as the Sun-
dew, Butterwort, Bladderwort, Bog Myrtle, and the Asphodels.

The plant is an evergreen shrub, with a trailing, slender, leafy stem,
which is woody, and rooting at the base. The leaves are lance-shaped,
alternate, rolled back,1 bluish-white beneath, smooth, and stalked.

The flowers are in terminal clusters, drooping, pink, the flower-
stalks much longer than the flowers, which have 4 sepals, and a rounded
corolla with 5 lobes, turned back. The capsule is erect, with egg-
shaped seeds, which are made up of 5 lobes. The berries are edible.

The plant is not usually more than, and usually much less than, 2 ft.

1 This is an adaptation to the physiologically dry conditions, as in other heath plants, and to prevent
the stomata on the under side from being filled with water and so prevent respiration or breathing.

Photo. A. R. Horwood

WILD ROSEMARY (Andromeda polifolia, L.)

24 FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

high. It is in flower from May to September, the berries maturing
late in the autumn. It is a shrub which may be propagated by layers.

With its drooping flowers, which are small and purple, it is not very
conspicuous. The stamens are ten in number, and not longer than the
corolla, the filaments are bearded, and the short anthers are awned.
The style is not divided into lobes, but the stigma is blunt or dilated,
and the floral mechanism is much like that in I \iccin in HI and Oxycoccus.

The capsule splits up into 5 valves, and the seeds fall out and are
blown away also by the wind.

Like other heath and bog plants this is a peat-loving plant, and
grows in a peat soil.

The fungi Rkytisma andromecUe and Exobasidium andromedee attack
Rosemary.

Andromeda, a name given by Linnaeus, is from Andromeda, a
beautiful woman in mythology, daughter of Cepheus, king of Ethiopia;
and the second Latin name refers to the polished leaves.

This rare plant is called Marsh Holy Rose, Moor- wort, Marsh and
Wild Rosemary. The name Rosemary is given because it was for-
merly placed with the Rosemary group.

Many legends, &c., cluster around it. In Sicily they say it is
beloved by fairies. An old Spanish proverb connects it with love,
and has been thus rendered:

" Who passeth by the rosemarie
And careth not to take a spraye,
For woman's love no care has he,
Nor shall he though he live for aye".

On St. Agnes' Eve it was used as a love charm. There is a proverb:
" While rosemary flourishes the lady rules".

It was used in the bridal crowns, and at the ceremony was dipped in
scented water. Beaumont and Fletcher in the Scornful Lady ask:
" Were the rosemary branches dipped? " Sprigs of it were once
carried at funerals:

" To show their love the neighbours far and near
Follow'd with wistful look the damsel's bier;
Sprigg'd rosemary the lads and lasses bore,
YVhile dismally the parson walked before ".

Gay writes of Rosemary sprinkled on graves. Formerly it was much
used at funerals and weddings, and garlands of Rosemary were laid on
the biers of unhappy lovers.

BOG PIMPERNEL 25

It was superstitiously held to assist memory, and regarded as the
symbol of remembrance :

" Rosemary is for remembrance
Between us day and night,
Wishing that I may always have
You present in my sight ".

Ophelia in Hamlet, addressing Laertes, says (Act IV, Sc. 5):
" There 's rosemary, that 's for remembrance ".

At Christmas a decoction of it was said to make the old young
again. The following was said of a gouty, crooked, old queen :

" Of rosemaryn she took six pounde
An grounde it well in a stownde";

"and they mixed it with water in which she bathed three times a day,
taking care to anoint her head with ' gode balm ' afterwards. Soon
her old flesh came away, and she became so young, fresh, and tender
she soon began to look out for a husband ". Probably many of these
refer to Rosmarinus.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

192. Andromeda polifolia, L. — Small evergreen shrub, stern fili-
form, woody, rigid, branched, leaves lanceolate, acute, alternate, margins
revolute, glaucous below, flowers rose-purple, in drooping raceme, ter-
minal, tufted, fruit a dry berry.

Bog Pimpernel (Anagallis tenella, Murr.)

Though a true bog plant it belongs rather to southern types (not
northern), and has not been discovered up to the present in any
ancient deposits. In the North Temperate Zone it occurs in Europe,
south of Belgium, except in Russia, E. Siberia, N. Africa, and Tem-
perate S. America. In Great Britain it is found in every part of the
country except Middlesex, W. Gloucs, Roxburgh, Stirling, Perth,
Forfar, W. Ross, E. Sutherland, more particularly in the west. It
is native in Ireland.

Bog Pimpernel, like many other paludal plants, has become scarce
on account of agricultural improvements owing to drainage and cultiva-
tion. It is a typical bog plant, growing on spongy, peaty wastes, as
well as in less peaty tracts or marshes richer in lime, and in wet
meadows and damp places caused by perpetual springs or the overflow
from lakes and rivers.

26

FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

The stems are prostrate, ascending at the tip and rooting at
intervals, creeping, numerous, round or square, smooth, branched
with purplish joints. The leaves are opposite, nearly stalkless or but
shortly stalked, small, egg-shaped, entire, smooth. The flowers are
pink, large, borne on simple, erect, finally turned-back flower-stalks,
i -flowered, in the axils of the leaves. The flowers are bell-shaped,
large, with dark veins. The calyx is shorter than the corolla and
clotted with red. The corolla is wheel-shaped or funnel-shaped. The

BOG PIMPERNEL (Anapa

ella, Murr.)

Photo Hinkins St Son

anther-stalks are connected below. The capsule opens by a transverse
fissure in the centre. The cells where the capsule opens are linear and
loose, but larger, more rounded elsewhere. The seeds are brown,
flattened on one side, and toothed.

Bog Pimpernel flowers from August to September. The height is
about 3 in. It is perennial, propagated by division, and worth culti-
vating.

The flower is similar in form to that of Scarlet Pimpernel, but red
or pink with darker veins. The anther-stalks are united at the base
forming a cylinder, the flower campanulate, and rather large, the corolla
is wheel-shaped and erect, and the anther-stalks are very hairy, filling
the corolla, to prevent the honey from being spoilt by rain. The

WATER VIOLET 27

anthers are yellow, the style tapers, and is longer than the anthers, and
the stigma is simple. It is not likely to be self-pollinated owing to the
projection of the stigma.

The capsule splits up transversely allowing the seeds to fall out
around the parent plant.

The Bog Pimpernel is a peat-loving plant, and requires a peaty soil.

The second Latin name refers to its slender trailing or creeping
stems. It is known by the name of Bog Pimpernel and Moneywort.
It is a pretty flower and quite worthy of a place in our rock-gardens
and bog-pools.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

206. Anagallis tenella, Murr. — Stem procumbent, leaves round,
shortly stalked, ovate, not dotted, flowers pink, in the axils, solitary,
filaments united below, corolla infundibuliform.

Water Violet (Hottonia palustris, L.)

This local, but widely -dispersed aquatic, once known in the
London area, is generally found in the Northern Temperate Zone
in Europe, except in Spain, Greece, and Turkey, and Western
Siberia. In Great Britain it is found in the Peninsula province in
Somerset; in the Channel province, in S. Wilts, Dorset, N. Hants,
Sussex; throughout the Thames province and Anglia; in the Severn
province, not in Gloucs, Monmouth, Hereford; in Wales, only in Car-
narvon, Denbigh, Flint, Anglesea; but throughout the Trent, Mersey,
and Humber provinces; in Durham and Westmorland, from which last
it ranges to the south coast. It is found in Down in Ireland.

Water Violet is an aquatic plant, which is local but uniform in its
habitat, frequenting the larger tracts of water in England and Wales,
especially where still but not stagnant pools exist. It used to be found
in Battersea Meadows, but is extinct there owing to drainage, and its
occurrence is much more restricted than formerly. It is also a marsh
plant, growing in wet, peaty hollows. There is no doubt that it was
originally terrestrial, and that it has but recently adopted an aquatic
habitat.

Water Violet is a floating plant, with fine, white, capillary roots,
which penetrate deep into the mud. The aerial stem is a scape, and
leafless. The leaves are not perfect whorls, submerged, with leaflets
each side of a common stalk, in tufts, and prostrate.

The flowers are white, lilac, or pale-purple, and borne in whorls,
stalked, growing on a long-stalked scape, which is naked and smooth.

28 FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

The flowers are in spikes. The corolla greatly exceeds the calyx, and
is salver-shaped, the petals being notched at the extremity. The ob-
long anthers are yellow. The raised aerial flower-stalks indicate the
plant's former terrestrial origin. The seeds are oval, inserted in a
receptacle within the capsule.

The plant is i ft. in height, and flowers from July to August. It is
perennial, propagated by seeds, and worth cultivating.

The flower is dimorphic. The stamens and pistil are relatively in

***

,

WATER VIOLET (Hottonia palustris, L.)

the same position as in Primula. The flowers of the Water Violet
may be cleistogamic. Honey is secreted by the ovary. The tube is
4-5 mm. in both forms, the male and female organs standing, in one
in the entrance, and in the other projecting 3-4 mm. When damp the
pollen-grains in the long-styled form are spherules .on to .014 mm.
broad, and in the short-styled form they are .018 to .023 mm. The
stigma is rough and velvety in the former, and the papillae are larger
than in that of the latter, which is fairly smooth. Organs of equal
height are touched by the same parts by insects seeking honey, cross-
pollinating the flower legitimately. Those which feed on pollen do not
thrust the head into the flower in short-styled forms, and do not touch

KEY TO PLATE LIT

Red Rattle
•s/ris, L.)

X,Upner ^-ap»UJe,r^l Upper part
h ipDixwte. ^—o-^T plant, with^, upper stem-

\ » ^ • > . ^fc . .

wers with

v-tMh; f>eJb-.v. c, axillary i^cVfceSfWh tyac/s^ ^ W»Q^ ^i^ef Ifl^ind lobed
iesl. JT, Haceir.e, and flowers%M' fruit With

^-^"J rw

•-via. C^

VJ ;,;-,. ,V

a, Flower, wit
calyx, with st
, Capsule
valves.

iderwort

L.)

MMKand.,

:;iu5= . ,-. '-^ Capsule

wilh i^rsisteir , Section ?

Sectio

rxternp -bristles,
80 Iming of tentac e
and follow <^^ty,j the whole resembli i|
a water^le* -f, "Scape, with bracts, a i< I
(lowers with perVcfnale labiate corolJa(,
and calyx-lobes t\ Pvpotstock, with leaves
(multifid},>and bladders and aerial
J >vc.

showing

ndi piitil within,
in cahrx, |6pening by
with r^Bettj^ of radical
leaves, an^ sca&es witk/flow^s showing
• spur/jv jj

C

ftsq

k

noittq

secreted
id fer

other projecting
m are

-•"Y v.

'

I f\ ,1

fw< w

FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

PLATE LII

I. Bog Bean (M,'.nyanllies trifoliata, L.). 2. Bog Speedwell (I'crotu'ca sciitellata, L.). 3- Marsh Red Rattle
(J'cdicularis palustris, L.)- 4- Bladderwort (Ctricularia -•iilgaris, L.). 5. Buttenvon (ringuicitla I'tifcaris, L.).

BOG BEAN 29

the stigma, which they touch only in long-styled forms, where they
have to thrust the head to reach the pollen, and visits to several of
these running cause illegitimate cross-pollination; and where it is more
effective than in short-styled forms, because probably the latter are
fe\ver and the former alone useful. It is visited by a Hymenopterous
insect, Pompilus^ and the flies Empis, Eristalis, Rhingia.

The capsule is 5-valved and many-seeded, and opens below, allow-
ine the seeds to fall out, and fall in the water to sink or float.

t>

As an aquatic plant it is not dependent on soil, but as a marsh plant
requires a peat soil.

Hottonia, Boerhaave, was named after Pierre Hotton, a professor
at Leyden (d. 1709), and the second Latin name refers to its marshy
habitat.

Water Violet is called Bog Featherfoil, Featherfoil, Water Gilli-
flower, Water Milfoil, Water Yarrow. The first name is in reference
to its feathery leaves.

The roots consist of white capillary fibres, which strike deep into
the mud, and the leaves grow in tufts below the water, while just the
upper part of the stem rises above it. Water Violet is attractive
enough to be planted in ponds as an ornament.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

198. Hottonia palustris > L. — Flowering stem a scape, leafless, erect,
leaves submerged, in whorls, pectinate, finely divided, flowers pink, lilac,
whorled, in racemes, terminal, corolla salver-shaped.

Bog Bean (Menyanthes trifoliata, L.)

Being strictly paludal this plant is one of those widely preserved in
ancient deposits, as in Preglacial beds in Norfolk, Early Glacial beds
in Norfolk, Interglacial beds at West Wittering, Late Glacial and
Neolithic deposits. To-day it is found in Arctic Europe, Siberia,
Dahuria, N. and W. India, N. America, in the North Temperate and
Arctic Zones. It is found in every county of Great Britain except
Hunts, and it grows at 1800 ft. in the Lake District.

The Bog Bean is a typical bog plant, growing only in the last
resorts of the wild-fowler to-day, and not rarely surviving the drainage
of its habitat wherever it growrs. Damp hollows at the side of hills,
wet meadows bordering streams, and true bogs or marshes are the
places in which to search for this plant.

The habit is more or less prostrate. The rootstock is matted,
stout, creeping. The stem is ascending, leafy, round in section. The

30 FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

leaves are ternate or 3-lobed, trifoliate (hence trifoliata). The leaflets
are blunt, entire, with very short stalks, equal, inversely egg-shaped or
oblong, wavy, the ultimate nerves having the tips free within the larger
areoles. The sheath of the leaf-stalk is long and narrow, and not so
long as the many-flowered scape.

The flowers are in a raceme with a leaf opposite it, white or pink,
or flesh-colour, the upper surface of the corolla clothed with beautiful
whitish filaments, or densely fringed within or bearded. The flower-

-

<&i»±{j* .

Photo. B Hanley

BOG BEAN (Menvanthes trifoltata, L.)

stalks are long, the ultimate ones short, stiff, spreading. The bracts
are short, blunt, and broad. The sepals are oblong, blunt. The
stamens are reddish. The capsule is blunt-pointed, many-seeded, the
seeds small, polished.

The plant is i ft. high. It flowers, when it does flower, which it
does not always do, in July, but I have seen it in bud in April. The
plant is perennial, propagated from cuttings, and worth cultivating.

Honey is secreted by the base of the ovary. The flowers are
usually heterostylic or dimorphic, a long-styled and a short-styled form
being found; but not everywhere, for in West Greenland plants of
homomorphic type occur, with the pistil and stamens of the same

BOG SPEEDWELL 31

length. No doubt the flower is rendered more conspicuous by the
bearded surface of the corolla. The stamens, with purple anthers, are
inserted on the tube, and the style is very slender, the stigma 2-lobed.
The tube is somewhat funnel-shaped or bell-shaped, and accessible to
most insects. The bearded filaments serve to keep out flies and pro-
tect the honey from the rain. The papillse of the stigma in the long-
and the short-styled forms differ. So does the pollen, as in the
Primrose. Few insects visit the flowers, as they grow in rather
secluded spots, and are hidden under herbage, &c.

The capsule contains many seeds, dispersing them on opening
partly by aid of the wind.

Bog Bean is a peat-loving species, growing on peat soil or watery
wastes overlying clay.

The leaves are attacked by a fungus, Protomyces menyanthii. Two
moths, Spilosoma urticce, the Light Knot Grass (Acronycta menyan-
thidis\ adopt the Buckbean as their food plant.

Menyanthes, Dioscorides, is from the Greek men, month, anthos,
flower; and the second Latin name refers to the trifoliate leaves.
Buckbean is from buckerbeane, Dutch bocks boonen. It is called Bean
Trefoil, Beckbean, Bogbean, Bog Hop, Bog-nut, Brookbean, Buck-
bean, Marsh Claver, Marsh Cleever, Marsh Clover, Doudlar, Three-
fold, Bog, Marsh or Water Trefoil. It is called Bog Trefoil because
of its clover-like leaves, and Bog Hop because of its well-known bitter
properties and place of growth.

Bog Bean was said to be a tonic and febrifuge, or cure for fever. It
has been used in place of Hops, and was formerly used for dropsy and
rheumatism, whence its rarity in some districts. In Lapland they eat
the powdered roots.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

212. Menyanthes trifoliata, L. — Stem ascending, terete, leaves tri-
lobed, leaflets obovate, flowers pink, fringed.

Bog Speedwell (Veronica scutellata, L.)

Though an Arctic plant no seeds of this common bog plant have as
yet been discovered in peat or other deposits yielding such remains.
It is found in Arctic Europe, N. Africa, N. and W. Asia, N. America
in the Arctic and N. Temperate Zones. It occurs in every part of
Great Britain except Merioneth, Linlithgow, northward to the Shet-
land Isles. In Yorks it is found at the height of 2200 ft. It is found
in Ireland and the Channel Islands.

32 FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

Hog Speedwell is a hygrophyte, or moisture-loving plant, which
grows in damp places, and was probably once more frequent, but owing
to drainage is now local. It grows in marshy tracts and bogs with
I',..- Pimpernel, Asphodel, &c., and is found by the margins of pools,
lakes, as well as in ditches, brooks, and rivers, where the ground is
flooded.

The habit is that of a trailer, the plant being seldom more than
suhrrrct. It gives off young shoots above the surface; the stem is

subangular, smooth, and
branched. A character-
istic feature is to be found
in the long lance-shaped-
linear leaves, slightly
toothed along the margin,
opposite, stalkless, and
smooth. In a variety the
stems and leaves are
hairy.

The flowers are borne
on alternating racemes,
which are axillary, loose,
wavy, and many-flowered.
The bracts or leaflike
organs are lance-shaped.
The flower-stalks are pen-
dulous. The calyx is
deeply cut. The corolla
is wheel-shaped, white or
pinkish, with purple veins.
The capsule consists of
with rounded, flat, yellow

oto. A. K Horvrood

Hoc; SPKKIUVELL {Veronica scutellata, L. )

two rounded lobes, which are flattened,
seeds.

Bog Speedwell is often 2 ft. long. The flowers open in June,
July, and August. The plant is perennial, propagated by division.

The floral mechanism is like that of Ivy-leaved Toadflax, but the
flowers are in axillary racemes, and the plant grows in boggy places
where it is obscured by herbage, which helps to support it, and little
likely to be cross-pollinated by insect agency very frequently. The
corolla is white or pink, wheel-shaped, the 2 filaments are thicker in
the middle, and the anthers are white. The style is drooping and
white, the stigma also turned back and yellow.

MARSH RED RATTLE 33

The capsules on turned-back flower-stalks are margined and fringed
with hairs, and adapted mainly for wind dispersal.

The Bog Speedwell is a peat-loving plant, and requires a peat soil.

The second Latin name refers to the shape of the capsule, shield-
like or salver-shaped.

This plant is distinguished from other species by the narrow, usually
smooth leaves. The leaves are slightly toothed, and the flower-stalks
loose and straggling, turned back in fruit.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

236. Veronica scutellata, L. — Stem slender, glabrous, leaves toothed,
linear-lanceolate, sessile, flowers white or pale-pink in alternate racemes,
axillary, capsule of two flat, rounded lobes, fruit-stalk deflexed.

Marsh Red Rattle (Pedicularis palustris, L.)

As an Arctic plant the occurrence of this plant in Neolithic beds
in Edinburgh and Renfrewshire is quite what one would expect. It is
general throughout the Arctic and Temperate Zones in Arctic Europe
(but not in Spain or Greece) and N. Asia. It is found in all parts of
Great Britain, except N. Somerset, as far north as the Shetlands up
to 1800 ft. in the Highlands. It is native in Ireland and the Channel
Islands.

Marsh Red Rattle is a typical hygrophile, growing in wet marshy
ground at the sides of pools where thick reed-beds are formed. It is
also common to the sides of streams which have overflowed. Growing
in true bogs with bog species it merges into the marsh and wet-
meadow type of plant. It is a hemi-parasite living on grass roots.

This plant is bushy, erect, and compact, with several ascending
branches springing just above the base. The leaves have lobes each
side of a common stalk, and the leaflets are deeply and regularly much
divided nearly to the base, giving the plant very much the appearance
of a bracken fern. The branches are purple-tinged, a feature of marsh
plants. The whole plant is smooth.

The flowers are large and reddish-purple or crimson. The calyx
is much inflated, downy, ovate, egg-shaped, and divided into two
deeply-cut lobes. The upper part of the corolla has a short, blunt
beak, with a triangular lobe each side. The capsule is curved and
longer than the calyx.

The plant is 2 ft. in height very frequently. It flowers in June
and July. It is annual, and propagated by division. It is quite worth
placing in the bog-garden.

34 FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

The flowers are like those of P. sylvatica, but the tube is shorter.
They contain honey secreted at the base of the ovary. The corolla
has a cylindrical tube with an enlarged throat into which insects thrust
the head. The upper lip is 3-toothed, narrow; the lower, 3-lobed,
serving as an alighting-place. The 4 stamens are concealed by the

upper lip. The two posterior
anther-stalks are hairy, and
serve to protect the honey
from the rain and flies, and
the anthers are adherent by
the close-set hairs near the
base in Common Red Rattle,
but not in this plant, as they
are close together.

The seeds, contained in
a capsule which splits open
above, ure dispersed around
the plant automatically or by
the wind.

Marsh Red Rattle is a
peat - loving plant, and will
only grow on a peat soil, or
where there is clay with
humus.

A cluster-cup fungus, Puc-
cinia paludosa, attacks the

Photo. Flatters & Garnet!

MARSH RED RATTLE (Pediciilaris paluslris, L.)

leaves. A beetle, L

sus holsaticus, infests Marsh

Lousewort.

Pedicularis, Gerarde, is
from the Latin pcdiculus,
louse, because it was said to
produce a lousy disease in
sheep. The second Latin
name refers to the marshy habitat.

This plant is called Cock's - comb, Cow's - wort, Dead Men's
Bellows, Rattle-grass, Lousewort, Moss Flower, Red Rattle, Suckies.
The name Rattle-grass, according to Gerarde, is explained because the
dry, somewhat inflated calices rattle audibly when shaken. Lyte
explains Lousewort as follows: " In Latine Pcdicnlaris, that is to say
Louse herbe, in high Dutch Leuszkraut, by cause the cattell that

BLADDER WORT 35

pasture where plentie of this grass groweth become full of lice". But
this is due to their poor condition.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

240. Pedicularispalustris, L. — Stem erect, solitary, purple, branched
throughout, leaves pinnatifid, flowers crimson, calyx hairy, ovoid,
2-lobed.

Bladderwort (Utricularia vulgaris, L.)

Though paludal, there is no record of Bladderwort in early seed-
bearing beds. The present range is Europe, N. Africa, Siberia, N.
America, or the N. Temperate Zone. In Great Britain it is found
in the Peninsula, Channel, Thames, Anglia, and Severn provinces; in
the last in E. Gloucs, Warwick, Stafford; in Wales in Glamorgan,
Radnor, Carnarvon, Flint, Anglesea; in the Trent province; in the
Mersey province, except Mid Lanes; in the Humber, Tyne, and Lakes
provinces, except in the Isle of Man; in the W. Lowlands, E. Low-
lands, except Peebles, Selkirk, Linlithgow; in the E. Highlands, except
in Stirling, S. Perth; in the W. Highlands, except in Cantire, Ebudes
(S., Mid, and N.); and in E. Ross and the Northern Isles. It ascends
to 1500 ft. in the Highlands. It is a native in Ireland and the
Channel Islands. Probably few persons that have not made syste-
matic botanical surveys, or visited special stations for certain plants,
have had the good fortune to discover the elusive Bladderwort.

Though typical of bog and marsh formations it is also found, more
seldom now than formerly, in pools and ditches, and may also occur
here and there in ponds, but its chief habitat is the bog-pools on the
side of moist mountains. In this way it is common to either formations.

The bladders are on short stalks. They are about one-tenth of an
inch long. The green translucent utricles,1 as they are called, consist
of two layers of cells, the outer large, and forming many-angled cells,
with smaller rounded cells in the angles. The inside of the bladder is
filled with absorbent processes in groups two long and two short.2

The lower side is straight, the upper arched, and in general form it
resembles a water flea. Two sets of processes surround the entrance,
two long and branched above, others straight in groups around the
mouth, which has a collar within, with a flap which closes the cavity,
and can be easily pushed aside by a minute aquatic insect or crustacean
entering, but effectually closes it once the insect is within. The walls

1 Hence the first Latin name, and also the English name. The utricle or bladder in this plant must
not be confounded with the utricle or fruit in sedges (also bladder-like in form externally).

2 See Charles Darwin, Insectivorous Plants.

FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

are contracted in the entrance, and the flap is semicircular so that
it cannot be pushed aside.

This is a floating plant, with much-divided leaves as in nearly all
aquatic submerged plants, the branches and segments thread-like, and
attached to them are numerous egg-shaped bladders or pitcher-like
bodies assisting in floating and also in obtaining insectivorous matter
for food. There are no roots.

The flowers of this originally terrestrial plant are single, borne on

BLADDERWURT (lT/ri<-n/nria vii/ifiirix, I..)

an erect scape, the corolla yellow, large, with a conical spur, in which
is the nectary, the upper lip entire, equalling the palate, and the lower
lip is rolled back. When the plant has flowered the bladders fill with
water and sink. The calyx is divided into two segments nearly to
the base. There are only two stamens.

The scape may be 6 in. long. The flowers bloom in June and
July. It is a perennial plant propagated by division. In autumn the
plant dies down, except the terminal part, and a bud is formed.

An insect alighting on the lobes of the lower lip, visiting the flower,
thrusts its proboscis beneath the upper lip to reach the honey. This is
secreted in the spur in the lower lip, which is in 3 parts, the spur part
fitting into the upper lip and lateral lobes, and the insect touches with

BUTTERWORT 37

its back first of all one of the lobes of the stigma which project beyond
the anthers. Their papillose surfaces are at first directed downwards
and stand near the upper lip. The insect then touches the anthers,
which open downwards, and is dusted with their pollen. The stigma is
irritable, and capable of folding upwards immediately it is touched, so
that pollen from the same flower cannot be applied to the stigma, and
rows of hairs on its edge brush the pollen from the insect's head as it
draws back. The flower is closed and accessible only to flies.

The globular capsule opens by 2 valves, bursting irregularly, and
allows the seeds to be dispersed in the water and to sink or germinate
in the mud at the margin.

Bladderwort is aquatic, and more or less independent of soil, though
addicted to more or less upland peaty districts as a helophyte or marsh
plant.

A beetle, Phyllobrotica quadrimaculata, feeds upon it.

Utricularia, Linnaeus, is from the Latin utricuhis, a little bladder,
from the bladder-like pitchers or floats, and the second name (Latin)
suggests that it is of common occurrence, which, however, is not the
case.

It is known as Bladder-snout, Bladcler-wort, Hooded Water Mil-
foil. The latter name was applied because of the hooded flowers and
finely-divided leaves.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

244. Utricularia v^tlgar^s, L. — Stem submerged, floating, leaves
pinnate, with filiform segments, flowers yellow, spur half as long as
the lip, conical, upper lip equal to palate, margin of lower lip reflexed.

Butterwort (Pinguicula vulgaris, L.)

Butterwort is found in the Arctic and North Temperate regions in
Arctic Europe, N. Asia, and N. America, but it is not found in any
early deposits like other members of its association. In Great Britain
it is absent in the Peninsula province from Cornwall, and in the
Channel province occurs only in Dorset and N. Hants; in the Thames
province only in Herts, Berks, Oxford, Bucks, Anglia; in the Severn
province not in W. Gloucs; in S. Wales not in Radnor, Pembroke,
Cardigan; in N. Wales not in Montgomery; in the Trent province
not now in Rutland; in the Mersey, Humber, Tyne, and Lakes
provinces; W. Lowlands; E. Lowlands not in Selkirk; E. High-
lands; in the W. Highlands not in Mid Ebudes; N. Highlands and
North Isles. It is rare in the south of England, and ascends to

38 FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

3000 ft. in the Highlands. It is a native of Ireland and the Channel
Islands.

When bogs were more numerous Butterwort was to be found in
many different parts of the country, but chiefly, as now, in the north.
It is fond of spongy pools amongst the wild morasses of the north, on
the sides of hills, as well as at lower levels. It is associated with
Sphagna, Drosera, Rosemary, Bog Pimpernel, &c.

The plant has a rosette of 8 radical leaves, ij in. long, | in. broad,
which are thick, greasy (hence the first Latin name), and fleshy. They

are entire, coated with crystalline
points and pale-greenish in colour,
blunt, egg-shaped, succulent, pros-
trate, the central hollow, with a short,
broad stalk. The older leaves are
flat or convex, rosette-like in form.
The margins are curved inwards.

The flowers are purple, large,
nodding, with an awl -like spur,
straight, as long as the petals, the
upper lip divided into two, the lower
into three. The scape is smooth
and dilated. The corolla is gaping.
The capsule is subglobose.

The glandular hairs on the upper
surface of the leaves are of two
kinds; the larger glands are circular
in outline from above, thick, finely
divided by radial divisions into 16

cells containing a light-green secretion. They differ in size and in the
length of the stalk. The fluid is sticky, and can be drawn out into
threads 18 in. long. A leaf may bear as many as 500,000 glands.
Insects that alight upon them are at once caught. The leaf margin
curls over, bringing the insect so imprisoned to the centre, where the
glands are more numerous. Not only are insects caught, but pollen,
seeds, &c., adhere to the leaves. The insects are slowly "digested"
by the aid of the fluid secretion. The plant is thus insectivorous.

Butterwort is 6 in. in height. Flowers should be sought in May.
The plant is a perennial, increased by division.

The flowers are open, conspicuous, and visited by bees. The
stigma, which is not sensitive, i.e. does not move, is pushed up by the
insect when it draws out its proboscis. A fly which enters the flower

Photo. Flatters & Carnett

Bl'TTERWORT (Pin^iiicttla vulgaris, L.)

BUTTERWORT 39

rubs against the stigma with its back, and dusts it with pollen from
another flower, so bringing about cross-pollination. When it retreats
it pushes back the stigma. The capsule splits open, and thus allows
the seeds to be dispersed around the parent plant.

This curious plant, the Butterwort, is a peat -loving plant, and
requires a peat soil.

Pinguicula, Gesner, is from the Latin pinguis, fat, because the
leaves are thick and unctuous; and the second Latin name indicates
that it is common, which is true only relatively, i.e. where bogs exist.

Butterwort is also known as Beanweecl, Bog Violet, Butter Plant,
Butter-root, Clowns, Earning-grass, Eccle, Rot Sheep, Thickening
Grass, Yorkshire Sanicle, Sheep-root, Sheeprot, Steep-grass, Marsh
Violet, White Rot. It is called Sheep-root " because when turned up
by the plough sheep greedily feed on it ", and Sheeprot because it was
supposed that it caused the liver- rot in sheep, a disease common on
wet land where the plant grows, and caused by the Liver Fluke,
Distomum hepaticum.

A writer says: "They call it white Rot, and not white roote, as
Gerard saith, for the country people doe thinke their sheepe will catch
the rot if for hunger they should eate thereof, and therefore call it the
White Rot, of the colour of the herbe, as they have another they call
the Red Rot, which is Pedicularis Reel Rattle ". Beanweed was given
it because it comes up like a bean in the spring.

It is called Butterwort from the greasy feel of its leaves, as if melted
butter had been poured on them. The name Earning Grass alludes to
its property of acting as rennet, to "earn" meaning to curdle. Rot-
grass is another name based on the supposed power of the plant to
cause rot in sheep. Steep-grass refers also to the curdling property,
"steep" being rennet in Lancashire and Cheshire, and Thickening
Grass alludes also to the curdling property.

Gerarde says the juice was rubbed in cows' udders when cracked.
In the north in the time of Linnaeus they put fresh leaves in reindeers'
milk and strained it, and after a day or two it became tenacious, as
the whey and cream do not separate. It does not act on cows' milk
in the same way.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

245. Pinguicula vulgaris, L. — Flowering stem a scape, leaves
radical, in a rosette, oblong, fleshy, with recurved margins, with crystal-
line points, flowers purple, corolla gaping, petals oblong, distinct.

40 FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

Golden Dock (Rumex maritimus, L.)

This is one of those marsh plants that commonly occur in ancient
deposits, being found in Preglacial, Early Glacial beds in Norfolk,
Interglacial beds in Suffolk, and Late Glacial beds in Suffolk. To-day
it is found in the North Temperate Zone in Europe, N. and W. Asia,
N.W. India, N. America. In Great Britain it is found in Somerset,
Dorset, Sussex, Kent, Surrey, S. Essex, Middlesex, Berks, Oxford, in
Anglia except W. Suffolk, in Worcester, Warwick, Stafford, Salop, the
Trent province, the Mersey and H umber provinces except in S.W.

GOLDEN DOCK (Runic,

Yorks, or from Northumberland to Kent and Somerset; and in Ireland
and the Channel Islands.

Native in marshes but rare, the Golden Dock has within recent
years become widely distributed, in ballast and otherwise, around the
shores of reservoirs and other tracts of water, as well as in waste places
here and there. In the past it was dispersed doubtless with other
plants by wildfowl.

The stem is tall, erect, branched, reddish, furrowed, and rough.
The radical leaves are stalked, oblong-lance-shaped, narrowed at the
base, bluish-green, flat, wavy, scalloped, the upper leaves linear-lance-
shaped, incurved upwards.

The flowers are yellow, in a panicle with spreading branches, with
3 enlarged petals, with hair-like bristles on each side of a tubercle, as

KEY TO PLATE LIII

with 3 styles, rf, Upper i
of plant, &h.owt|Vg' ubpei5

o, 6. Common Jointed

ffe

«j ariic\Mtus, LJ

No. 5. Bog Asphodel

(tfelleborine

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V

FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

PLATE LIII

I. Golden Dock (Rumex inaritinnis, L. )• 2. Bog Myrtle (Myrica Gale, L.). 3. White Willow (Salix alba, L.).

4. Marsh Ilellehorine (Helleborine longifolia, Rendle and Britten). 5. Bog Asphodel {Nartheciitin

ossifragum, Huds.). 6. Common Jointed Rush (Juncus articulatus, L.)-

BOG MYRTLE 41

long as the petals, in dense whorls often running together. The nut is
small, with elliptic sides and 3-sided.

Golden Dock is 2 ft. high. Flowers may be looked for in July and
August. The plant is perennial, and propagated by roots.

The flowers are pollinated by wind. The stamens are six in number,
with anthers fixed by their base, 3 thread-like styles, and large penicil-
late stigmas. The flowers are hermaphrodite. The stigmas and anthers
ripen together. The nuts are winged, and when they fall they are
carried to a distance by the wind.

Golden Dock is a helophyte or marsh plant growing in saline soil,
and a sand-loving plant growing also in sand soil.

Rumex, Pliny, is Latin for sorrel, and the second Latin name
refers to its habitat, by the sea.

Golden Dock is also called Small Water Dock.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

269. Rumex maritimus, L. — Stem erect, branched, leaves lan-
ceolate, narrow at the extremities, flowers perfect, petals rhomboidal,
in crowded whorls.

Bog Myrtle (Myrica Gale, L.)

Though unknown in a fossil state in England Bog Myrtle is found
in the Oak Zone in Gothland and elsewhere. In the N. Temperate
Zone it is found in W. and N.W. Europe, N. Asia, and N. America.
In Great Britain it is absent in the Peninsula province in Somerset; in
the Channel province in N. Wilts; in the Thames province in Essex,
Herts, Oxford, Anglia, but not in Northants; in S. Wales it is absent
in Brecon and Radnor; in N. Wales; in the Trent province not occur-
ring in Leics, and Rutland, or Derby; in the Mersey province not in
Mid Lanes; in the Humber province not in N.W. York; in the Tyne
province not in Durham; in the Lakes district; W. Lowlands; in the
E. Lowlands only in Edinburgh; in the E. Highlands not in Stirling;
W. Highlands, N. Highlands; in the North Isles, except in Shetlands,
or from Caithness to Cornwall; elsewhere in the Highlands it is found
at 1800 ft. It is a native of Ireland.

Bog Myrtle in name indicates its habitat, which is essentially paludal,
and the plant is a decided xerophyte, adapted to drought like other bog
plants; as with other bog species, too, it is frequent also on moors
where there is less moisture.

The plant is shrubby, small though it be, usually smooth and erect,
with lance -shaped, inversely egg-shaped, smooth leaves, which are

42 FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

more or less coarsely-toothed, and bitter in taste, shortly stalked,
downy beneath.

The flowers are in spikes, with bracts, the male ones in spikes
crowded and erect, with broad, egg-shaped, hollow, leaflike organs,
and red anthers, the female having red styles. The berry, a drupe,
is 2-winged, small, and lens-shaped.

The plant is 2-4 ft. in height. The flowers bloom in May, June,
and July. Bog Myrtle is a deciduous shrub, propagated by layers.

The plant is usually dioecious, but the flowers may be complete.

Photo. Dr. Somcrnlle Hastings

BOG MYRTLE (Myrica Gale, L.)

The flowers are in short catkins. The male has 2 bracteoles and
4 stamens, and the female has 4 bracteoles, 2 syncarpous carpels, and
i orthotropous ovule. The flowers are pollinated by the wind. The
styles are stigmatic all over. The anthers open outwards, and are
fixed by the base. The pollen is powdery, held by the catkin scales till
it is blown away. The drupe, containing a i -seeded stone, may be
dispersed by birds or by the wind, being enclosed in a winged
perianth.

Bog Myrtle is a peat-loving plant, requiring essentially a peat soil.

A beetle, Orchestes iota, several Lepidoptera, Light Knot Grass
(Acronvcta menyanthidis), Sweet Gale Moth (A. myrictr], Rosy Marvel
(Noctua subrosea], Antithesia dimidiana, Tortrix vibnrnana, Anchy-
hpera siculana, Perontra lipsiana, Euchromia arbittella, Scricoris poli-
tana, Powdered Quaker (Orthosia gracilis). Argent and Sable (Cittaria

WHITE WILLOW 43

hastata], Coleophora orbitella, and a Heteropterous insect, Lygus
spinolce, are found on it.

Myrica, Theophrastus, is the Greek name for tamarisk, and the
specific name is the same as an English name of the plant.

Sweet Gale is called Candleberry Myrtle, Devonshire Myrtle,
Dutch Myrtle, Gale, Gales, Gall, Gall -bushes, Gaul, Gawan, Gold,
Golden Osier, Golden Withy, Gole, Goule, Gow, Goyle, Moor Myrtle,
Moss Wythan, Myrtle, Burren Myrtle, Scotch Gale, Stinking Willow,
Wild Sumac, Sweet Willow, Withwind, Withwine. As to Gale, there
is a place called Gale moor, from the prevalence of the plant, near
Whitchurch, Salop. It is called Sweet Gale from its sweet aromatic
odour. Gall is so called from the plant having been supposed to be
the gall in Scripture. Gerarde says as't&'-the name Gaul: " This gaule
groweth plentifully in sandy places of England, as in the Isle of Elie,
and in the Fennie countries thereabouts, whereof there is such store in
that country, that they make fagots of it and sheaves which they call
Gaule sheaves to burne and heate their ovens ".

The leaves are bitter and used in place of hops, but fragrant, and
yield an essential oil. The catkins boiled are suitable for making candles.
If not boiled a long time Bog Myrtle causes a headache. Calf-skins
used to be tanned with it. It dyes wool yellow. It was used in Sweden
to kill bugs and lice, and to cure the itch, and in Wales branches were
laid under the beds for this purpose. It was used as a vermifuge.
They use it as a garnish in Islay and Jura, and lay it between linen to
perfume it and keep away moth. It has been used for besoms.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

281. Myrica Gale, L. — Bushy shrub, leaves lanceolate, obovate,
serrate, catkins reddish, sessile, fruit with resinous glands, small.

White Willow (Salix alba, L.)

As with the Crack Willow there have been no traces of this tree
preserved in early leaf or seed deposits. It is found in the N. Temp-
erate Zone in Europe, N. Africa, N. and W. Asia, N.W. India. In
Great Britain it does not grow in N. Devon, E. Kent, Monmouth,
Glamorgan, Cardigan, Carnarvon, Flint, Derby, Mid Lanes, S.E.
Yorks, Isle of Man, Kirkcudbright, Haddington, Linlithgow, Mid
Perth, N. Perth, Banff, Easterness, Westerness, Mid and N. Ebudes,
N. Highlands, North Isles, but generally elsewhere. It is planted in
Sutherland and the Hebrides. In Ireland and the Channel Islands it
is perhaps never native.

44

FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

As with the Crack Willow the White Willow is a sure indication of
moist conditions, and its favourite situation is by the waterside, what-
ever shape that may take, whether a stream, a lake, a marsh, or a
ho^. Hut it is also a lowland plant, and is absent from dry conditions
generally.

The White \Villow is less lofty than the Crack Willow, with (in

WHITE WILLOW (Salix alba, L. )

proportion) a stouter stem and the branches ascending, but tapering
and spreading, the twigs olive-coloured, silky, and hard. The bark
is fissured. The leaves are long, lance-shaped, finely toothed, bluish
below, downy or silky both sides, and glandular. The leaves are
arranged in spiral whorls. The stipules, or leaHike organs, are egg-
shaped, and fall. The lowest teeth are glandular.

The flowers are in slender lax catkins, with hairy stamens and
deeply-cloven stigmas. The capsule is sessile. The scales of the catkins
are linear, and not so long as the stamens. The plant is dioecious.

HELLEBORINE 45

The tree is 80 ft. high. It flowers in April and May. It is a
deciduous tree propagated by seeds.

The flowers are adapted, as in S. fragilis, to visits by insects, and
are also pollinated by the wind, having been derived from such
ancestors (see S. fragilis). The honey is half-concealed.

The seeds are fringed with white silky hairs, and are thus blown
to a distance by aid of the wind. The hairs help to fasten the seed
also when it has come to rest on the ground.

Like other willows White Willow is a humus-loving plant growing
on a peat soil, but is also a clay-loving plant (pelophilous) and will
grow on clay soil.

The margins of the leaves are galled by Eriophyes marginatus
and Cecidomyia clausilia. A beetle, E later sanguineus (rufipennis)\
several Hymenoptera, Cimbex variabilis, Nematus caprece; Lepidop-
tera, Camberwell Beauty ( Vanessa antiopd}, Red-tipped Clearwing
(Trochilum formicceformis}, Striped Twin-spot Carpet (Cidaria sali-
catd}; several Homoptera, Idioceris adustus, I. cupreus, I. herrickii,
visit it.

The second Latin name refers to the white colour of the tree, due
to the pubescence of the leaves. This tree is called Duck Willow and
White Willow.

It is used for fencing-poles, crates, fuel, being pollarded like the
Crack Willow, and the bark is used for tanning.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

285. Salix alba, L. — Tree, spreading, twigs pliable, leaves lanceol-
ate, silky both sides, catkins lax, erect, capsule subsessile.

Helleborine (Helleborine longifolia, Rendle and Britten
= Epipactis pahistris, Crantz)

There is no trace of this Orchid in a fossil state. It is found at the
present day in Europe and Siberia in the North Temperate Zone. In
Great Britain it is found in the Peninsula province, but not in W. Corn-
wall; in the Channel province, except in W. Sussex; in the Thames
province, except in S. Essex; in Anglia, except in Hunts; in the
Severn province not in Gloucs, Monmouth; S. Wales in Glamorgan
and Carmarthen; N. Wales not in Montgomery or Merioneth; in the
Trent province; in the Mersey, H umber, Tyne, Lakes provinces,
except in the Isle of Man; and in Berwick, Haddington, Edinburgh,
Fife, N. Ebudes. From Fife and Perth it is general elsewhere to the
south coast; being local and rare in Ireland and the Channel Islands.

46 FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

This orchid is almost entirely confined to watery places, being a
typical hygrophyte, growing in wet reed beds by the side of pools, as
well as in true marshes and bogs. It is associated with the Bogbean,
Marsh Orchis, Grass of Parnassus, Cotton Grass, and other typical
paludal plants.

It has a slender but rigid, suberect flowering stem, slightly downy.
The leaves are lance-shaped, acute, the upper ones terminated in

a sharp point, clasping. The
bracts or leaflike organs are not
so long as the flowers.

The flowers are in a loose
spike, with green and purple
flowers, and slightly drooping.
The lip is scalloped, oblong,
longer than the perianth, white,
with reddish streaks. The calyx
is purplish-green, with pale lance-
shaped sepals, the petals white,
with pink streaks. Marsh Helle-
borine is about i ft. high. It
blooms in July and August. The
plant is perennial, and propagated
by division.

There are two staminodes
each side of the terminal lobe.
The single anther is stalkless
and hinged to the top of the
column. The lip has a hinged
terminal portion, which by a re-
bound causes an insect to fly
upward when it leaves the flower
and rub the rostellum, which exudes a sticky fluid and cements the
pollinia or pollen-masses to the insect. It is visited by the honey
bee, flies, Sarcophaga, Ccelopa, and Crabro. The lip is long, in two
parts, with a narrow connecting hinge. The outer part closes the
flower, but an insect on alighting presses it down.

The capsule is pendulous, and, being light, the seeds are liable to
fall out and be dispersed by the wind.

This beautiful orchid is a peat-loving plant growing in an essentially
peaty soil.

Helleborine is an old name applied in allusion to the supposed

MARSH HELLEBORINE (Helleborine longifoli
R. and B. = Epipactis palustris)

BOG ASPHODEL 47

resemblance to Helleborus, and the second Latin name refers to the
length of the leaves.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

290. Helleborine longifolia, Rendle and Britten.— Stem tall, leaves
lanceolate, bracts shorter than the flower, flowers green, lip white and
red and purple, label blunt, crenate calyx purplish-green.

Bog Asphodel (Narthecium ossifragum, Huds.)

Though a northern bog plant no trace of it occurs amongst the
remains of Arctic plants found in North Britain and other parts. It is
distributed generally in
the North Temperate
Zone north of the Alps,
Pyrenees, N. Asia, N.
America. In Great Bri-
tain it is not found in
N. Wilts; in the Thames
province only in Kent,
Surrey, Berks, Bucks;
and not in Suffolk,
Northants, in Anglia ;
but elsewhere in E.
Gloucs, S. Lines, Notts,
Mid Lanes, S.E. Yorks,
Hacldington, Stirling, as

BOG ASPHODEL (Narthecium ossifragum, Huds.)

far north as the Shet-
lands, and up to 3200 ft.
in the Highlands. It is found also in Ireland very generally.

Bog Asphodel is a characteristic bog plant growing at high eleva-
tions in wild morasses on mountain-sides, as well as in more lowland
stations. As Watson says: "The drainage and enclosure of bogs and
marshes no doubt must gradually banish this plant from many of its
localities". It is rare in the south-eastern counties, abundant in
Scotland.

The flowering stem, at first prostrate, is then erect, surrounded at
the base with many sword-like leaves, and so having the grass habit.
The leaves are half as long as the stem, and have marked ribs.

The flowers are a rich golden -yellow or deep-orange, large and
spreading, with woolly anther-stalks. The slender flowering stem has
one bract at the base, and is tapering; the flowers have very short

48 FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

stalks, with 6 perianth segments, longer than the stamens, in which
i In- anthers are deep -orange. The capsule is red, oblong, smooth,
with 6 ridges and furrows, and longer than the perianth.

Bog Asphodel has a stem 6-10 in. long. It is in flower in July
and August. It is a perennial, propagated by division.

There is no honey, but the flowers are conspicuous and scented.
There are 6 stamens, 3 below the ovary, 3 on the perianth segments.
Tlu- anther-stalks are woolly and awl-shaped. The anthers open
inwards at the same time as the stigma, and are linear, deep-orange,
on white anther-stalks. The style is short and the stigma blunt. The
flower is adapted for cross-pollination by pollen-collecting bees and
flies.

The seeds are pale-yellow, very small, and the testa is 8 mm. long.
The seeds are provided with hairy outgrowths, which aid in their dis-
persal by the wind.

Bog Asphodel is a peat -loving plant, and requires a peat soil,
growing in bogs and marshes.

Narthecium is from the Greek nartliex, the name of a tall umbel-
liferous plant, and ossifragum, from os, bone, frango, I break, refers to
reputed properties. The plant is called Bog Bastard or Lancashire
Asphodel, Yellow Grass, Knavery, Maiden Hair, Move Grass, Rosa
Solis.

As to the last, Ellis says: "This moor-grass, in the parish of Wing
(Bucks) they call Rosa Solis, as it is distinguished by shepherds from
other grasses, who know it by its three-square leaf rapier-like; for the
blade, like that, is thickish and shaped somewhat in the flag kind,
bearing a yellowish flower, like that of a daffodown-dilly, and seldom
runs above a handful high in a spongy soft substance ". The names
Lancashire Asphodel and Maiden Hair are to be explained thus: " In
Lancashire it is used by women to die their haire of a yellowish
colour ", Gerarde says. Parkinson says his friend Anthony Salter of
Exeter told him they called it Knavery there.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

304. Narthecium ossifragum, Huds. — Flowering stem a scape with
few leaves, erect, decumbent, leaves ensiform, ribbed, rigid, flowers
yellow, racemose, capsule red, triangular.

COMMON JOINTED RUSH

49

Common Jointed Rush

(Juncus articulatus, L. = J. lamprocarpus, Ehrh.)

This common marsh plant is known to us from its present distribu-
tion alone, which covers the North Temperate Zone in Europe,
N. Africa, N. and W. Asia, Himalayas, N. America. In Great Britain
it is found everywhere, except in Berwick, as far north as the Shet-

Photo. C. R. Mapp

THE HABITAT OF THE COMMON JOINTED RUSH (Juncus articulatus,
L. = J. lamprocarpus, Ehrh.)

lands, and up to 2400 ft. in the Highlands, being a native of Ireland
and the Channel Islands.

The Common Jointed Rush is a semi-aquatic plant which grows
near water, either in wet places, such as ditches, or by the side of
brooks and rivers. It is also to be found on the margins of lakes and
pools. But a more constant and certain habitat perhaps is marsh land
where there is a continuous humid atmosphere. A favourite spot is
a mountain bog, where it grows profusely in the streaming moisture of
the mountain-side.

This is a tall, erect, slender, and graceful plant, the stem flattened
lengthwise. The .leaves are jointed, hollow, with septate divisions
internally, the pith not being continuous.

5o FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

The flowers are apetalous, without a corolla, borne in a much-
branched panicle, which is erect, forked, the branches long, and flowers
4-8, clustered, and suberect. The 6 perianth segments are not so long
as the shining erect capsule [hence the second (Greek) name], which is
beaked and dark-brown. The inner segments are blunt. There are
6 stamens. The capsule is 3-chambered, and opens by 3 valves, alter-
nate with the walls. The pericarp has woody layers which contract.

The stem is 2 ft. high. The flowers open in June, July, and
August. It is a perennial plant, propagated by seeds.

Jointed Rush is proterogynous, and pollinated by the wind, like
all rushes. There are 6-12 flowers, with 6 stamens. Each flower lasts
a day. It is female in the morning, and later hermaphrodite.

The capsule contains many seeds, splitting by 3 valves when ripe,
and letting the small seeds fall around the parent plant or be dispersed
by the wind.

The Jointed Rush is a peat-loving plant and grows in peaty soil,
being also a clay-loving plant and addicted to clay soil.

It is attacked by a fungus, Entorrhiza cypericola\ several Homop-
tera, Liburnia quadrimaculata, L. reyi, L. lepida, and Cicadula fascii-
frons\ Lepidoptera, Bactra lanceolata, Argyrolepia baremanniana\
Colcophora ctespitella.

The older specific name refers to the jointed stem. Jointed Rush
is called Spart, Gloss Spart, Strit. The name Rish is an early variant,
and is found in Percy's Reliques:

" All the wyves of Tottenham

Came to see that syzt
With wyspes, and kexis, and ryschys there lyzt ".

In Cornwall Rish means a list or tally. " I'll begin a new rish " is
the same as " I'll turn over a new leaf".

There is a superstition that they turn into horses as soon as you
bestride them. The following is a cure for thrush in Devonshire.
Three rushes are taken from any running stream, passed separately
through the mouth of the infant, and then thrown back into the water.
As the current bears them away, so it is believed will the thrush leave
the child.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

306. J 'itncns articulatus, L. — Stem erect, glabrous, compressed,
leaves jointed within, hollow, flowers in terminal clusters, 4-8, inner
perianth segments blunt.

KEY TO PLATE LIV

No. I. Galingale
* ton jus, ±.)

* now**, with \gluLe, 3
stamens, and pistil with 3
stigmas and long style, b,
Spikelet, with glumes,
anthers ripe. c, Flower
ing stem, with spikelets in
clusters of 3-8, with bracts
in an umbellate cyme,
sbractsatt*

and I pistil
r sljjgmas.

briitles.

enla^gtd. % Plant,/
roots^pk, and tufted stems,
with

3. Cotton Crass

jlume, 3 sta-
3-fid stigmas
and bristles.

Nut, with long cotton -like
sties. <r, Leaf, sheathed
below, 3-angied abore. 4
with alternate leaves,
and spi' 1<L£*'

No. 4, Prickly Twig Rush
(Cladium Mariscus, Br.)

a, Andrcecium and gynae-
cium, 2 stamens, and pistil//
with 2 stigmas, b, Glume./ j

Spikelet with glumes and
ripe anthers exserted. d,
Upper part of stem, with
leaves, and spikelets in cyme.
f, Leaf, showing rough edges,
and 3-angled section.

Ill

flower, |tith>dlujjibe,

stamens ri

<f», pstih^W^udBt V
with fc stigmas and style
in perigynium. >, Spike of
flowers with bracts below
each duster, in male condi-
tion, or showing all males.
As a rule only top spikelets
are male, and not bisexual
</, Spike, with bracts, and
spikelets in axils in fruit.
*, Rbotstock, with sheaths,
and 3-angled leaves above,
alternate, an^ sheathing—
VAU fch.

perigynium forming, and beak
with 2 stigmas, with glume
with bristly beak. £, Spike,
with large bract below, and
small dusters of spikelets
with smaller bracts in fruit-
ing stage. 4 Stem rough,
3-angled, with sheathing
leaves (alternate). *, Spike,
in male condition, or with
males above, and bisexual
flowers below in male stage,
with bracts, large one Below,
and smaller below each
cluster of spikelets. The
figure as drawn approximates
in length of spikelets t >[&ej
hybrid CAxMaru/l In male
condition or when immature
it should typically have the
form

VIJ 3TAJ«I OT Y3X

ho* ajungtie t rfJiw bnt;

rfjiw frri9te "K> Mfcq
^myo ni «»b5liq« bfL

S riJhr

•RW

bflfi .wolxf Jocid 9^i«l dliw woixf

la eroteifb lUme -tbaoo slcm ni ,i9Ktfb
-nird ai elond istUaiz dJiw . ^sUnr IU yuwodz 10

ytoo sin

dliw «b^9nji-t Ittnftrirf joa bac ,?Ifir

Xstetrtdtlc) tev£»f ixw ,«lwnd dliw ^atiqE Jw])d[js^
Hliw TO tno{)ih«oD stem ni Jifnl ai *Iuu a*

dliw ,JDolzJoo«

Stem

g|

•fTtr A9dW 10
*

i 1^ J '

FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

PLATE LIV

I. Galingale (Cyperus loiigzts, L.). 2. Common Spike Rush (Eleocharis pahtstris, Roem. and Schult.).

3. Cotton Grass (Eriophoriitn angnsti folium, Roth.). 4. Prickly Twig Rush (Claditiin A/arisctis, Br. ).

5. Hummock Sedge (Carex panicttlata, L.). 6. Great Prickly Sedge (Carex vulfina, L.).

GALINGALE

Galingale (Cyperus longus, L.)

This maritime sedge is not represented in any of the early deposits
in Great Britain. To-day it is to be found in the North Temperate
Zone in Europe, South of France and
Germany, and in North Africa. In
Great Britain it is found on the coasts
of West Cornwall, N. Somerset, South
Wilts, Dorset, Isle of Wight, East
Kent, Pembroke, and the Channel
Islands.

This plant is a maritime species,
which is very rare, and only found in
the above counties growing in marshes
by the sea, and not ever far inland.

Galingale has a characteristic ap-
pearance from its umbelled spikes.
The rootstock is creeping. The stems
are erect, few, slender, 3 -sided, with
many leaves below. The leaves are
not numerous, spreading. There are
3 bracts below the rays of flowers,
like the leaves but unequal, thickened
below.

The flowers are borne on a twice-
compound umbel, with linear rays
again becoming umbellate, both general
and partial involucres, or whorls of
leaflike organs, being long and un-
equal. The spikelets are linear-lance-
shaped, curved, in two rows, flattened,
with reddish-brown glumes, with green
keel or midrib, and paler margins.
The stigmas soon fall.

Galingale is 2-3 ft. high. Flowers
are open in July. Galingale is a
perennial, propagated by means of Photo. H.

Suckers. GALINGALE (Cyperus longus, L.)

The flowers are bisexual. There

are 1-3 stamens, the styles deciduous, not swollen at the base, and
there are 2-3 stigmas. The embryo is embedded in endosperm. The

52 FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

flowers, like other Cyperaceae, are anemophilous, but insect visits are
not excluded.

The fruit is a 3-sided nut, which falls to the ground when ripe,
being indehiscent.

This handsome sedge is a peat-loving plant growing in peat soil.

Cyficrus, Theophrastus, is from the Greek for a kind of rush, and
the second Latin name means long. Galingale is called Cypress,
Cypress- root, Galangal.

The roots are eatable, aromatic, bitter, and were formerly used as
a medicine.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

318. Cyperus longus, L. — Stem triquetrous, tall, leaves lanceolate,
flowers in umbels, lax, glumes red with a green keel.

Common Spike-rush (Eleocharis palustris, Roem. and Schult.)

The antiquity of this plant is shown by its occurrence in the Pre-
glacial deposits of Pakefield, Suffolk, early Glacial beds at Beeston,
Norfolk, Interglacial, Late Glacial, Neolithic, and Roman deposits at
Silchester. At the present day it is found in the Arctic and N. Tem-
perate Zones in Arctic Europe, North Africa, N. Asia, N. India, and
N. America. It is found in every county in Great Britain, except
Montgomery, as far north as Sutherland, and up to i 200 ft. in York-
shire, as well as in Ireland and the Channel Islands.

This is a typical marsh plant, growing along the margins of watery
wastes, and covering large areas, with Arrowgrass, Sedges, and other
paludal species. It is also common in wet meadows, bordering streams,
and around ponds and pools. Common Spike-rush is a true hygro-
phyte.

The root is creeping, giving forth several leaves and stems in a
clustered manner, and the plant has a tufted grass-like habit. The
stems are stout or slender, flattened at the margin, with numerous
leafless sheaths, the glumes beardless, lance-shaped and acute at the
base, membranous and blunt transversely.

The flowers are in terminal spikes, round, reddish -brown, oval,
naked, with lance-shaped, acute bracts or leaflike organs at the base,
the lowest glume half-clasping the spike, with anthers which come to a
point. The nut is inversely egg-shaped, plano-convex, the margins
smooth, with style egg-shaped below, shorter than the 4 bristles.

Common Spike-rush is 8 in. in height. The flowers are in bloom
in July. The plant is a perennial, propagated by suckers. The flowers

COTTON GRASS

53

are pollinated by the wind, bisexual. There are 3 stamens, the style
is deciduous, and there are 2 stigmas. The anthers are apiculate,
coming to a point. The fruit is a nut flattened on the border and
finely furrowed, which falls to the ground when ripe, not opening.

This Spike-rush is a peat-loving plant, and addicted to a peat soil.

Eleocharis, R. Brown, is from the Greek kelos, marsh, and chairo, I
delight, and the second Latin name refers to the habitat, marshy. It
is also called Aglet-headed Rush.

Photo. Hat

COMMON SPIKE RUSH (Eleocharis palustris, Koem. and Schult.)

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

319. Eleocharis palustris, Roem. and Schult. — Root creeping, leaves
and stems tufted, csespitose, the latter sheathed, glume surrounding the
spike, fruit swollen at the top.

Cotton Grass (Eriophorum angustifolium, Roth)

This Arctic plant is found in Preglacial deposits in Norfolk and
Suffolk, and at Hoxne, Suffolk, in Interglacial beds. To-day it is to
be found in N. Temperate and Arctic Europe, except N. Asia, N.
America. In Great Britain it is found in every part of the country
except W. Gloucs, Montgomery, Mid Lanes. It is commonly dis-
tributed elsewhere from the Shetlands to Cornwall and Sussex, and

$4 FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

up to 3500 ft. in the Highlands, as well as in Ireland and the Channel
Islands.

The upland bogs are characterized in some parts by the prevalence
of Cotton Grass giving rise to a typical botanical association. Not
only does this one grow at high elevations, but also in more lowland
situations, and in marshes with sedges and orchids of a less special
nature. The waving tufts of cottony bristles, borne on long, slender,
drooping stems give this a peculiar habit of its own.

The habit of the Narrow-leaved Cotton Grass is like that of the
others, sedge- or grass-like. There is a long, stout rootstock. The
stem is wiry, solid, rigid, bluntly 3-angled or nearly round in section,
stout, smooth, leafy, not tufted. The leaves are nearly all radical, and
variable a good deal in breadth, and are flat, and triangular above for
more than half the length, channelled below, smooth, linear.

The flowers are in a cyme, with solitary (or more) heads. The
bracts are 2-3. The glumes are lead colour, egg-shaped, oblong,
lance-shaped, with a broad membranous margin. The fruit-stalks are
smooth. There are 4-12 spikelets, and the bristles are i to 2 in. long,
three or four times as long as the spikes. The nuts are inversely egg-
shaped, blunt-pointed.

This Cotton Grass is 18 in. high. The flowers bloom in May
and June. The plant is perennial, propagated by division.

The Cotton Grasses are all pollinated by the agency of the wind.
The flowers are perfect or bisexual. There are 3 stamens, and the
style is as long as the perianth, which is represented by the bristles,
and is not enlarged below, at length falling. There are 3 turned-back
stigmas. When pollination has taken place the perianth or bristles
get longer, and together form the cotton so characteristic of this group,
which, owing to the crowded flowers in this form, are very conspicuous
when full size. The nut is provided, moreover, with this light, silky
cotton, a fringe of hairs, as a means of dispersal by the wind.

The Cotton Grass is a peat-loving plant requiring a peat soil, rarely
growing on clay soil, when it is a clay-loving plant.

A beetle, Cryptocephalus biguttatus, Lepidoptera, Elachistcs clco-
chariella, E. rhynchosporiella, Marsh Ringlet, Coenonympha typhon,
Glyphipteryx haworthana, Haworth's Minor (Celana haworthii), are
found on it.

Eriop/wrum, Theophrastus, is from the Greek erion, cotton, and
phero, I bear or carry, from the cottony heads, and angustifolium
(Latin) refers to the narrow leaves.

It is called Cat's-tails, Sniddle Flock, Moor Grass. The second

PRICKLY TWIG RUSH 55

name is from its resemblance to flocks of wool. Sniddle is a generic
name applied to sedges generally and to allied plants.

The hairs have been used for pillow-linings since Pliny's day, as
well as for cushions. The cotton is of too brittle a texture to weave,
but it has been used for articles of dress in Germany, and for paper.
The country folk once used the cotton as wick for lamps.

COTTON GRASS (Eriophorum anji<s/z/otiuw, Roth)

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

323. Eriophorum angusti folium, Roth. — Stem rigid, rounded, leaves
linear, flat, triangular above, peduncles smooth, spikelets corymbose
bristles three times as long.

Prickly Twig Rush (Cladium Mariscus, Br.)

Though unknown in a fossil state in Great Britain, this sedge is
found in Prussia in the Birch, Pine, and Oak Zones, and in Gothland.
To-day it ranges in the N. Temperate Zones from Gothland southward,
N. Africa, Siberia. In Great Britain in the Peninsula province it
grows only in W. Cornwall and N. Somerset; in the Channel province
only in Dorset, Isle of Wight, S. Hants; in the Thames only in

56 FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

K. Kent; in Anglia not in Bedford; in the Severn province only in

Worcester, Warwick, Stafford, Salop; in S. Wales it grows only in

Glamorgan and Pembroke; in N.
Wales in Carnarvon, Flint, Angle-
sea; in the Trent province in
Lines; Chester in the Mersey pro-
vince; in the H umber generally,
except in N.W. Yorks; in the Tyne
province, except in Northumber-
land ; in the Lakes province, except
in the Isle of Man; W. Lowlands,
except in Renfrew and Lanark; in
Berwick in E. Lowlands; Forfar
in E. Highlands; in the W. High-
lands it does not occur in Main
Argyle, Dumbarton; W. Ross and
W. Sutherland in N. Highlands.
It is local in England from the
Border southward. It is found
also in Ireland.

Prickly Twig Rush is a char-
acteristic bog plant which grows
especially in lowland districts near
the sea, and most uniformly in E.
Anglia.

The first Greek name suggests
(as does the English one) the rigid
prickly character of the head of the
plant. It has rounded stems, which
are erect, stout, leafy, and smooth,
with leaves which are long, rigid,
3 -angled at the tip, rough on the
margin.

The flowers are borne in a
dense corymb-like compound cyme,
axillary or terminal, which is con-
tracted, the flowers being collected

in dense spikes, 3 flowers in each. One nut only is fertile.

Prickly Twig Rush is 3 ft. in height. The flowers are in bloom in

July and August. The plant is perennial, increased by division.

The flowers are pollinated by the wind, bisexual, or the lower male.

Photo. 11. Irving

PRICKLV TWIG RUSH (Cladiurn Mariscus, Br.)

HUMMOCK SEDGE 57

There are about two flowers, with one fertile above. There are 2
stamens, with anthers coming to a point. The style is swollen at the
base, and falls eventually. There are 2-3 stigmas.

The fruit is a nut, which is 3-sided and does not open, when ripe
falling into the water or upon the ground quite close to the plant.

This handsome sedge is a peat-lover, lingering only in peat soil
at Wicken fen.

Reed Tussock (Lcelia ccenosa), a moth, is found upon Prickly Rush.

Clad^^lm, P. Br., is from the Greek dados, a twig, and mariscus is
Latin for a kind of rush.

The plant is also called Shere- or Shear-grass, Lesch, Sedge, and
Twig Rush. Turner says as to the name Shear-grass: " The edges of
thys herbe are so sharpe that they will cut a mannis hande and have
a certaine roughness which maketh them to cut the sower, of which
propertye the Northern men call it Sheregres. It hath a long stalke
and thre square, and in the top of that is a sort of little knoppes instede
of sedes and floures much like unto oure gardine gallingal. The people
of the Fenne countreys use it in for fother and do heate ovens with it."
It was used for lighting fires at Cambridge. In the East it was said to
have formed the Crown of Thorns.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

324. Cladium Mariscus, Br. — Stem half round, smooth, leaves long,
rigid, serrate, triquetrous above, flowers in a panicle of 1-3 spikelets.

Hummock Sedge (Carex paniculata, L.)

The Hummock Sedge is found in the North Temperate Zone
south of Sweden to the Canaries, and in W. Siberia. It is not found
in any early plant beds. In Great Britain it is absent in the Peninsula
province from N. Devon, but occurs throughout the Channel and
Thames provinces; not in Hunts in Anglia; is general in the Severn
district; in S. Wales it does not grow in Radnor; in N. Wales only in
Carnarvon, Denbigh, Anglesea; in the Trent province; in the Mersey
it does not grow in Mid Lanes, but is general throughout the Humber
and Tyne provinces; Lakes province in Cumberland; in W. Lowlands
it does not grow in Renfrew; E. Lowlands, not in Peebles, Selkirk,
Roxburgh; not in Mid or S. Perth in E. Highlands; in W. High-
lands not in Mid or N. Ebudes; in N. Highlands not in E. Ross,
E. Sutherland, but occurs in the Hebrides and Orkneys, and also in
Ireland and the Channel Islands.

The Hummock Sedge is a paludal type of sedge, growing in large

58 FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

clumps in wet places or by the sides of rivers, in damp woods, and also
in marshes, amongst other common types, such as the Great Prickly
Sedge and others.

It has a clustered, bushy habit, with 3-sided stems, which are
leafy and stout, rough above. The root is densely aggregated
together, forming a tufted surface. The leaves are rough, long,
and flat.

The spikelets of the flowers are in a panicle with wide branches,
the sterile male flowers at the top. The panicle is three times com-
pound. The fruit is broad, egg-shaped, coming to a sharp point,
swollen below, with nerved perigynia, the beak deeply cleft, and the
glumes margined. Hummock Sedge is 3 ft. in height. The flowers
expand in June and July. The plant is a perennial, propagated by
suckers.

The spikelets are bisexual, and male at the top only; the base
of the style is swollen. The bisexual flowers are proterogynous,
the stigma ripening first, and are pollinated by the agency of the
wind.

The fruit is a nut, which falls when ripe into the water or upon
the ground.

Like other sedges this is a peat-loving plant, growing in a peat
soil.

Two beetles, Cercus pedicular ius, C. bipustulatus, and a moth,
Elachista paludum, are found on it.

In bogs it forms solid patches which serve as stepping-stones do on
moist ground.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

326. Carex paniculata, L. — Stem thick, triquetrous, with many long,
rough, tufted leaves, spikes in a panicle, pale-brown, fruit many-veined,
bracts setaceous, nut ovoid.

Great Prickly Sedge (Carex vulpina, L.)

This common sedge is found throughout the N. Temperate Zone
in Europe, N. Africa, Siberia, and N. America. It is not known in
any early deposits. In Great Britain it does not grow in Cardigan,
Isle of Man, Dumfries, Kirkcudbright, Roxburgh, Stirling, Mid and
N. Perth, Easterness, Westerness, Main Argyle, E. Ross, E. Suther-
land, Caithness, Orkneys, Shetlands, but elsewhere generally, and in
Ireland and the Channel Islands.

The Great Prickly Sedge is a common object wherever damp

GREAT PRICKLY SEDGE

61

ground occurs. It grows in moist hollows by the roadside, around
ponds, pools, and in ditches, as well as more generally and profusely in
wet meadows, marshes, and bogs.

The stems are few, 3-angled, with sharp, rough edges and convex
sides, from a tufted base, and stoloniferous, with creeping runners.
The leaves are rather broad and flat, glossy, and fairly long.

The flowers are in a
more or less cylindrical
compound spike with
many crowded flowers,
the male ones above,
spreading, with bristle-
like bracts which are
longer than the spike, and
suberect. The fruit is
egg-shaped, coming to a
sharp point, plano-convex,
pale-green, with an egg-
shaped, brownish nut.
The glumes are pale-
brown, with a roughish
awn. This tall sedge is
i-ii ft. or more in height.
Flowers are found in May,
up till August. The plant
is a perennial, propagated
by suckers.

This common sedge
has a floral mechanism
similar to C. paniculata,
and is likewise proterogyn-

ous and pollinated by the wind. The fruit is a nut, and when it
is ripe it falls to the ground close to the parent plant.

Great Prickly Sedge is a peat-loving plant growing in a peat soil,
or pelophilous and flourishes on clay soil.

Beetles are commonly found on this and allied sedges, e.g. Dronmts
longiceps, D. sigma, Donacia obscura, D. thalassina, D. impressa, D.
vulgaris, D. affinis, Chastocnema Sahlbergi. Several Lepidoptera are
fond of sedges, such as Smoky Wainscot (Leucania impura), Small
Wainscot (Nonagria fulva), Hydrelia incana, Gold Spot (Phisia
festucce). Elachista gleichenella, E. kilmunella, E. rhynchosporella, E.

Photo. Flatters & Garnett

GREAT PRICKLY SEDGE (Carex vulpina, L.)

62 FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

eleochariella. The Homoptera Liburnia pullala, L. lugubrina, Dicra-
neura flavipennis, D. aureola also frequent them.

The second Latin name means fox-coloured, in allusion to the
colour of the flowers.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

327. Carex vulpina, L. — Stems numerous, rough, tufted, broad,
spikelets in a compound spike, cylindrical, bracts long, setaceous.

Section XI
FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS1

The plants which are found on heaths and moors are those that
require humus in a sour (or acid) and free state. The soil is barren
and not rich in nitrogen that can be readily assimilated, and conse-
quently unsuited for cultivation. The soil is not rich in lime, and in
this respect differs from some marshes, but is similar to that of bogs,
which indeed are usually interspersed amongst heaths and moors. But
there are in some cases upland marshes which are comparatively rich in
lime and peat. The soil of a bog or fen on deep peat, however, is
acid, not alkaline in reaction.

The raw humus covers a sterile subsoil of diverse character. Of
ericetal species there are about 80, of which we describe 29 here.
More than all other plants, even on wet soils, heath plants are xero-
philous, and we see in them adaptations to physiologically dry con-
ditions. Heaths are exposed to the wind like halophytic vegetation,
and few trees grow on such tracts, except in the low moors. Many
marsh plants grow there also. The adaptations to xerophytic conditions
include a felt of hairs on the under surface of the leaf, as in the
Creeping Willow, and this serves the purpose of keeping open the
pores or stomata on the leaves, and at the same time depresses trans-
piration. Papillae surround or project over the pores for the same
reason in sedges. A coating of wax covers the leaf in the Rosemary
and Cranberry (see last section). Many stems and leaves are excep-
tionally thick, and the above are also sclerophyllous. Filiform or
threadlike leaves are developed. Heaths, Ling, and Cotton Grasses
are comparatively all but leafless. Some leaves present their edges to
the light, as in Iris and Asphodel.

The adaptation to dry conditions is connected with the soil char-
acters. The soil is physiologically dry. There are, however, some
genera which include marsh or bog species, and others that require a

1 Cf. Section X, where moors are dealt with in some detail in discussing bogs and marshes also. It
is the wetter types of moors that are specially referred to there.

VOL. V. 05 67

66 FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

medium supply of moisture, that do not grow in dry places, with the
broadest leaves, which is not what one would expect. Galium palustre
has narrower leaves than G. Aparine, a mesophilous species. More-
over, some heath plants can grow on dry warm soil and on cold wet
soil, as Ling. Crowberry, &c. This suggests that there is some corre-
spondence between the two types of soil, and that some of the factors
of life in the case of marsh plants necessitate an economy in the use
of water. There is a transpiration optimum, and marsh plants may
have to depress their transpiration.

A wet soil is cold, the roots can absorb no water if the temperature
of the soil sinks below a certain degree, and the soil is thus what is
called physiologically dry. This is seen in the later character of heath
and moor or marsh plants, and in the fact that the flowers are in bloom
much later than on dry soils. The plants are clothed with hairs, there-
fore, to prevent an excess of transpiration over absorption, and this is
accelerated by high winds. Respiration is affected owing to the soil
being badly aerated or lacking in oxygen, so that the activity of the
aerial parts must be the less, owing to the less amount of oxygen
absorbed by the roots by marsh plants. Hence the ability of Heaths
that grow on heaths and dry warm soil to grow on moors, as a heath is
just as badly aerated, with often periodically soaked raw humus or dry
peat. Peat retains water more than other soils except clay. The cause
of physiological drought here may also be clue to the abundance of
humous acids, &c., in moor soil or peat, which affect the roots and pre-
vent or deter absorption, so that the plants wilt if transpiration is rapid.

Though many plants of heaths and moors exhibit the above xero-
philous characteristics, others are hydrophilous in character, and so
are the adaptations to which they give rise in the flora.

Transitional from marsh associations is the low-moor formation,
which is characterized by humous acids in the soil containing vegetable
accumulations, forming peat with Reeds, with much nitrogen. The
water contains calcium and potassium compounds, and is thus like a
marsh, often enclosing a marsh or adjoining it.

Sedges grow in tufts, giving rise to sedgemoor, and other plants
are Cotton Grass, Rushes, Arrowhead, Helleborine, Angelica, Bog-
bean, Marsh Bedstraw, Marsh Willowherb, Grass of Parnassus, and
Willow, Birch, Alder, Heaths, &c.

Several associations can be recognized, as amblystegiata (from a
moss), cariceta, eriophoreta, molinieta, junceta, &c. There are usually
herbaceous perennials and a ground flora of mosses forming two layers
below the former. Few are ligneous, and only a few are annuals, as

FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS 67

Rhinanthus. The flowers bloom late because of the cold atmosphere.
Most plants are dense, tall, and tufted, a few are runners, such as
Sedges and Bogbean, and Mosses may predominate.

Grass-heath may be formed by Matgrass, Molinia, Sedges, Sweet
Vernal Grass, Bents, and Ling. The soil is dry and not deep.

The high-moor or heather-moor formation is characterized by the
occurrence of bog mosses, and it is here that bogs are distributed amid
the drier-soil Oxylophytes. The soil is moist and the air damp, and
the moisture of the sphagnum moor is derived largely from this last
and dew. The high-moor may follow a low-moor formation. Like
some bogs the high moor is poor in lime salts, and the peat contains
little assimilable nitrogen, phosphorus, or potassium compounds, Sphag-
num not being calciphilous.

A sphagnum moor contributes to the steady descent of water, the
mass exhibiting great capillarity. The plants die and fresh layers arise
above it, forming a thick layer of spongy peat below, acid in nature.
Peat is encouraged only by the presence of moisture. The moss rises
high in the middle, and gradually grows at the margin.

The soil formed is loose, and the species it nourishes have travelling
shoots. Typical of this formation are Sedges, Cotton Grass, Silvery
Hair Grass, Bog Asphodel, Arrowhead, Whortleberry, Cranberry,
Rosemary, Cross-leaved Heath, Ling, Cloudberry, Sundew, Red
Rattle, Dogwood, Bog Myrtle, Creeping Willow, and Sedges, Cotton
Grass, Ling, Birch, &c., form special associations.

The plants that produce peat are chiefly Bog-moss, Hair-moss,
Bulrushes, Cotton Grass, Heath, Ling, &c.

Forest moors originated from pools or lakes in forest regions, and
exist now where the forests have disappeared as high-moor formations,
and contain clay formed during the Ice Age.

Following a tundra formation open forest arose, and moors were
formed, with Birch and Pines, and Oak came to form high forest, then
Beech.

There are notable differences between the low and high moors.
The former have the surface covered with water, in the latter the plant
subsists on moist soil or above water. Low moors have a flat, high
moors a convex surface. The former is characterized by Sedges,
Grasses, Rushes, Hypna; the latter by Bog-moss and Heath. A low
moor is relatively rich in lime, a high moor is poor in lime. The peat
of the low moor is black, and one cannot recognize the included
remains; that of a high moor is light, and animals and plants in it are
well preserved. While the peat in the former is heavy, rich in mineral

68 FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

salts, the latter is light, with few mineral salts. Low-moor peat is
greasy and wet; high-moor peat is dry, and conducts acid salts well.
On a low moor the soil is rich in flood material, on a high moor it is
poor; and there are few fungi in the first, many in the latter. Myco-
rhixa and carnivorous plants are rare on low moor and common on high
moor. The high moor is obliged to depend for moisture on the
atmosphere.

A sort of lichen-heath develops in which Empctrum, Birch, Heath,
Juniper, £c., occur, and Carex, Hair-grass, Mat-grass, and Rushes
also occur, and in their absence Lichens.

The dwarf-shrub heath is treeless, with dwarf evergreen shrubs,
mainly ericaceous and small-leaved, stunted, and xerophilous. The
temperature is usually low, and the atmosphere not dry. The soil is
a quartz-sand mainly reconstructed during the Ice Age. Over this
there is a layer of humus where Ling and Whortleberry form a thick
dense scrub of not more than i ft. high, forming heather-peat or raw
humus, acicl and inimical to ordinary forest mild humus plants.
Heather is the dominant plant, and is associated with lack of nutrient
substances and a low temperature.

Many plants are decumbent or prostrate, being frequently wind-
swept, and the shoots are curved and brittle. Ling, Empetrum,
Cross-leaved Heath, Broad-leaved Whortleberry, Thyme, &c., and of
the pinoid type Juniper (deciduous, thin-leaved plants), Broom, Furze,
are typical. These plants form the chief food of game, whose distri-
bution is regulated by their occurrence.

Several associations are made up by the dominant species, as
Callunetum, Ericetum Ericae Tetralicis, Myricetum, Myrtilletum.

On the heaths and moors we find the pretty deep-blue Milkwort
growing in tufts, as radiant as some alpine flower. Grassy Stitchwort
links its life with Furze or Broom. Tormentil, with its straggling
flowers, forms tufts amid the tussocks. Spread over the turfy sward
the creamy flowers of Heath Bedstraw betray the sterile soil. Cat's
F"oot is rare, and found on the lonely heath. \Vall Hawkweed, with
many another of this group (of which there are some 200 species),
grows on the bare patches near the woods. Sheep's Bit Scabious on
rocky heaths or hills chooses a hollow, in which its blue tassel-like
blooms, with the graceful pendent bells of the Hare-bell, reflect the
colour of the sky. The heaths, too, are clad in a wide mantle of
Whortleberry, Cross-leaved Heath, Crimson Heath, and Ling. Where
Furze grows the Dodder trails on it, sponging as a parasite, as do
Eyebright and Red Rattle, and Common Sylvan Cow-wheat on roots

KEY TO PLATE LV

No.

(Polygata vulgaris,

a, 8 stanifeos, with connate fil- ^
aments forming soiit sheath.

_, Pistil, stylp, and-stigma.
c, Flower, with 2 petaloid
inn*- clsas-1- — ^' petals^ 2

lower

inner
outer

with ^sSamiA^L, sheath. d,
Upocjrjpirt oft plant with
alternate SfcertPteaves and

N^.2. Grassy, Stitch wort
(Stellaria gratmnea, L.)

, Flower, with gamosepa-
^us calyx, and capsule open-
ig ^bpve by teeth. 6,
ef phnt with
, in opposite pairs,
icence, wjtfc flow-^^,
/ dichotomous
2-fid petals,
with "i sepals, 10

and pistil //

Na 3.

St John's Wort

Pistil,

3 stigmas,

in calyx, with 5 glandular
sepals. *, Tj-ansverse section
of capsule, with > carpels,
opefticg ty septa, c, Upper
part of plant with; opposite
rfeaves and /flowe>» in ter-
^ '/rymes,

ing petals twisted in
5, distinct, with stamens

Yd^ojp^ie flant, with
cotyledons, aiid early 3-foiiate
leaves, later transformed /

into spines. 3, Branch, -with- No. 5. B

spines, and papilionaceous (Cytisu* scofarius, Li

flowers,- showing: standard, „ / \

mgs, and keel, and 'fcne
rtilized, showing the stigma,
and column of stamens.

> F1<>wer, with calyx, gi
sepalous, with "unequal t<
corolla >etnoved^ ^p show
stamens in column, with
united filaments and stigma,
with incurved style.- A, Le-

J^anb-lil.
with TorigA^tyfes, on convex
^i'^Se^ion of

acheneV,
with roots,

Upper parr^of
sessile 3-folioIate l
flowers in cymef
tinct petals, and
also

VJ 3TAJ1 OT

;

.

|MmB,}« t d, w

i*{qU

T>lt«P'I T ^r'

••

Unim

oi tullMi I *UHq a»i»*trtt

aoofflOJoriDib M
,«UMq ba-C ^
01

mslq

bns

qq'J

i ft hMh.vjprming

y^u*^*A - -w-

i;A frf

™ -Jm^'.tJ

FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

PLATE LV

Milkwort (Polygala vnlgaris, L. ). 2. Grassy Stitchwort (Stellaria graminea, L. ). 3. Pretty St. John's Wort
Hypericinn pnlfhriim, L.). 4- Furze ( Ulex eiiropaits, L. ). 5. Broom ( Cytisits sfoparius, Link.).
6. Tormentil (PotcntiUa erecta, Hampe.).

MILKWORT 69

of grass. In the hollows and moist places on the heaths a strong
aroma is scattered by Pennyroyal. Creeping Willow, like the Heath
and Ling, spreads far and wide. Wood-rush sometimes strays here
from the woods. All over the moors and heaths the nodding heads of
the Meadow Rush wave in the vernal breeze. Here the skylark is
singing overhead, the sky is blue or grey, and all conspires to raise the
soul to the tune of Heaven's high caroller. The early Sedge, with its
scent of musk, and green-ribbed Sedge, Small Bent Grass, Heath Hair
Grass, all wave their slender, graceful panicles backwards and forwards
with the infinite rhythm of the wind, and here and there dense tufts are
formed by the Matweed.

Milkwort (Polygala vulgaris, L.)

Milkwort has never been found fossil. To-day it is met with in the
Temperate and Arctic Zones in Arctic Europe, North Africa, Siberia,
Western Asia. It is absent in Great Britain from North Devon, South
Wilts, South Hants, Essex, Herts, Bedford, Stafford, Salop. In South
\Vales it is found only in Glamorgan and Brecon; in North Wales only
in Carnarvon and Anglesey; in the Mersey province it is absent from
Mid Lanes; it occurs in Durham; in the West Lowlands not in Ren-
frew or Lanark; in the East Highlands it is found only in Mid Perth,
Forfar, South Aberdeen; in the West Highlands it does not occur in
the Clyde Isles, Cantire, and not in the Orkneys. It ascends to 3000 ft.
in the Highlands.

The Common Milkwort is a plant of the meadows and heaths, and
always thrives best on high or rising ground; and though in the moist
meadows of more lowland pastures laid to grass it luxuriates in a moist
habitat along with Heath Bedstraw, Furze, and Broom, and the Hare-
bell, yet as a rule it prefers, as do the majority of ericetal species, a dry
atmosphere, even stony surfaces, and there it is undoubtedly xero-
philous, or adapted to drought.

Milkwort has a trailing habit, very similar to the Rockrose, having
numerous simple, unbranched stems, which are semi-erect, not ligneous
or woody, as in the Rockrose. The leaves are distant, linear-lance-
shaped, acute, the lower more oblong. It is thus a wiry plant with a
semi-erect habit.

The flowers are deep-blue or pink, in terminal racemes, with sepals
with branching veins and wings nearly as long as the corolla. The
capsules are inversely heart-shaped and notched, the lobes being equal,
the seeds with arils.

7o FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

The plant is seldom 6 in. high, and is usually hidden away in the
grass. It is in flower in May and June. The Milkwort is perennial,
and can be propagated by division.

The flower has 5 sepals, the inner two petaloid, three small, linear,
and the 2 alai large and coloured, making the flower conspicuous.
The corolla is tubular, the petals combined below with the staminal
sheath, the median forming a hood, and inside are digitate processes

on which an insect visitor is supported. The short stamens are attached
to the tube in two groups, and bear hairs directed downwards. The
pistil is in the middle, and bears a spoon-shaped stigma with a clammy
stigmatic lobe bent downwards, which touches the proboscis when
inserted and covers it with pollen. The short anthers lie in the con-
cavity of the corolla just over the stigmatic lobe, shed pollen upon it,
ami withdraw to the side. The insect clings to the digitate processes.
The visitors are Hymenoptera (Apidae), Lepidoptera, Polyommatus.
Behind the hollows is a clammy disk which is thus touched by an
insect searching for honey, and, being thus sticky, when the proboscis
is withdrawn it carries away pollen to another flower, and there this

GRASSY STITCHWORT 71

is cleared off by the disk. When insects do not visit it the stigmatic
lobe bends down, and self-pollination usually results.

The fruit is dispersed by the agency of the wind. The capsules are
flattened, notched and margined, and light, so that they can be blown
by the wind, while the seeds are downy.

Milkwort is a sand-loving plant and flourishes mainly on a sand
soil, but may be found also where some amount of humus has collected,
and, like other ericetal species, is partly a peat-loving plant.

The Lepidoptera Penipelia palumbella, Protkymia viridaria feed
on Milkwort.

The name Polygala, given by Dioscorides, from the Greek polus,
much, gala, milk, was given in reference to a supposed property it had
of increasing milk as a meadow plant, and the second (Latin) name in
reference to its universal occurrence.

Milkwort is called Cross-flower, Four Sisters, Gang Flower,
Procession Flower, Robin's Eye, Rogation Flower. Gerarde says it is
called Milkwort on account of its " vertues in procuring milke in the
brests of nurses ". It was carried in processions on Rogation Days
(hence names), and Gerarde says: "The maidens which use in the
countries to walke the procession do make themselves garlands and
nosegaies of the Milkwort".

It has been used to promote expectoration, as a bitter infusion it
was used for coughs, and the root when powdered has been applied in
cases of pleurisy. The plant is ornamental, and some varieties bloom
in winter. Some are greenhouse plants, and all free-flowering and
handsome in colouring.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

45. Polygala vulgaris, L. — Stem ascending, simple, leaves scattered,
radical, smaller, oblong, upper linear-lanceolate, flowers blue, pink,
white, in raceme, lower petal crested calyx wings with veins branched.

Grassy Stitchwort (Stellaria graminea, L.)

The Grassy Stitchwort has been found in deposits of Roman age.
At the present day it is found in Arctic Europe, Siberia, Western Asia,
as far as the Himalayas. It is common in every county in Great
Britain except North Ebudes and the Hebrides. In Yorkshire it
grows at an altitude of 1500 ft.

The Grassy Stitchwort is to be found on dry pastures and hedge-
banks, usually where there is or has been a heath, for it is a strictly
ericetal species, associated with such plants as Furze and Broom, Tor-

72 FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

mentil, Wood Betony, and other xerophilous species. Here the grass
habit is most pronounced, enabling the plant to clamber up between the
chcran.\--dc-frisc of a furze bush under the best conditions. Without
some such support this tall but graceful, though spreading, plant
would be unable to hold itself erect. It has a square and smooth
suberect stem, jointed and grooved. The leaves are linear-lance-
shaped, opposite, distant, and few, smooth, but fringed with hairs and
stalkless.

The flowers are numerous, small, panicled, and borne on spreading,

GRASSY STITCHWORT (Stellaria graminea, L.)

forking flower-stalks, with leaflike organs with membranous margin.
The petals are narrow, as long as the 3-nerved sepals, and divided into
two nearly to the base. The sepals are acute, the stamens numerous,
the anthers red. The capsule is longer than the calyx, oblong, and
the Mower-stalks are turned down in front at first, then at right angles.
The whole plant is dark-green and shining, not bluish-green. Grassy
Stitchwort is i to 2 ft. high. The flowers last from April till August.
It is a perennial plant, increasing by division.

The 5 nectaries surround the base of the 5 outer stamens. The
plant is pollinated in three stages. First of all the 5 outer stamens
curve toward the centre, the anthers open first and are smothered
in pollen, then they curve out and down. The inner stamens bend
outwards and take their place, the anthers being still closed, and the

PRETTY ST. JOHN'S WORT 73

style immature, and it is curved inwards, with the papillar surfaces
turned outwards. The 5 inner stamens open before the other outer
5 have withered, but remain bent outwards. In the second stage the
inner stamens wither and shrivel, the style lengthens, becomes erect,
and spreads out, turning the papillar surfaces up and the curves of
the papillae outwards and downwards. In the third stage, insects, if not
too small, settle in the middle of the flowers, and thus are bound to
touch the pollen in young flowers to reach the nectaries, or the stig-
matic papillae in older ones. If insects do not visit the flower, the
stigmas in curving outward touch the anthers enveloped in pollen.
Volucella bombylans is a regular visitor. Whilst most plants have
complete flowers, in some the stamens are not properly developed.

The seeds are dispersed by the plant itself, for the 6-valved cap-
sule, when ripe, opens and allows the seeds to fall first round the
parent plant, hence it is usually found growing in clumps like the
Greater Stitchwort.

Grassy Stitchwort is a sand-loving plant and requires a sand soil,
or barren ground such as that derived from granitic rocks or sandy
formations.

The plant is infested by the fungi Melampsora cerastii and Ustilago
violacea, and it is galled by Brachycolus stellarice.

The second Latin name refers to the grass-like habit of the plant.
Its only other English name is Starwort.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

56. Stellaria graminea, L. — Stem quadrangular, smooth, leaves
sessile, narrow, edged with cilia, flowers small, white, petals deeply
cleft, as long as the sepals, in forked panicles, bracts ciliate, rough.

Pretty St. John's Wort (Hypericum pulchrum, L.)

This plant is not found in seed-bearing beds. It is a plant of the
Northern Temperate Zone, found in Arctic Europe, eastwards to
Lithuania and Turkey. In Great Britain it is generally common, but
does not occur in Hunts, Radnor, Montgomery, Merioneth, Peebles,
Selkirk, Stirling, Mull, or West Ross, and ascends to a height
of 2 200 ft. in the Highlands.

The Pretty St. John's Wort, a plant not belying its name, is an
ericetal species, which is found on high ground in copses and along
hedges, where the soil is more or less dry, for it is practically xero-
philous. But another and more typical habitat is heathland or common-
land, where it grows in company with Grassy Stitchwort, Sheep's Bit

74 FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

Scabious, Red Rattle, Common Sylvan Cow-wheat, and Heath Hair
Grass.

This is an erect, slender, tall-stemmed plant, smooth, with similar

branches, which are few and distant, the stem-leaves heart-shaped to

egg-shaped, shining, rigid, clasp-
ing, perforate, the upper ones
not so long. The plant gene-
rally grows in isolated patches.
The flowers are in loose
cymes, yellow, tinged with red,
of a beautiful golden colour,
with 5 petals and 5 broad, blunt,
entire sepals fringed with black
glands or black glandular teeth,
half as long as the petals, which
are glandular and fringed with
black glands. The anthers are
red, the styles 3. The filaments
(36) are united below in three
bundles. The capsule is 3-
chambered, subconical.

This plant is often 18 in.
high. It flowers in July and
August. It is perennial, and
a deciduous, herbaceous plant
increased by division of the
root.

The flowers are more con-
spicuous than in Perforate St.
John's Wort, and cross-pollina-
tion is more assured than in the
latter. Otherwise the two plants
have a very similar floral me-
chanism adapted to the same
end. There is no honey, but
much pollen.
Seeds are dispersed by the plant's own agency. The capsule is

septicidal, and the seeds are dispersed by breaking up of the valves,

aided by the wind.

Pretty St. John's Wort is a rock-loving plant and addicted to a rock

soil, which is derived from older rocks.

Photo. Flatters & Garnett

PRETTY ST. JOHN'S WORT (Hypericitm
pulchrum, L. )

FURZE 75

The beetles Libia cyanocephala, Cryptocephalus morcei, Chrysomela
hyperici feed on St. John's Wort.

The flowers are prettier than those of some of the other species
(hence the Latin name pule -krum), and are tinged with red.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

62. Hypericum pulchrum, L. — Stem erect, single, terete or round
in section, glabrous, leaves cordate, clasping, smooth, the upper
oblong, flowers golden -red, sepals and petals also obtuse, fringed
with stalked glands.

i

Furze (Ulex europseus, L.)

Though ubiquitous in certain habitats, no traces of Furze occur in
Glacial deposits. The present range is from Denmark to Italy, the
Canaries, and Azores, or the Warm Temperate Zone. Furze is found
in every part of Great Britain northward to Scotland, and though rarer
in the North it ascends to 2100 ft. in Wales. It is found in the Channel
Islands.

There is not a heath in the country which lacks a patch, however
small, of the dry-soil-loving Furze, unless it has been rigorously under
cultivation for a long time. But even then a bit here and there will
keep cropping up to indicate the former state of the country before the
universal enclosure, and consequent obscuring of the native flora, 100
years (or in some cases 200, or even 300 years) ago.

F^urze is a dense, much-branched, stunted shrub, with no leaves in
the older stages, when they take the form of long thread-like spines,
which are straight and furrowed or branching. The stem is hairy and
spreading. The cotyledons are succeeded by trifoliate leaves with egg-
shaped leaflets which soon disappear.

The flowers are golden -yellow, lateral, with egg-shaped bracts, free,
borne upon the spines, the teeth of the calyx coming together, yellow,
with black hairs, and shaggy. The wings of the flower are larger than
the keel, the petals shortly clawed. The pods are black, and clothed
with brownish hair, and on maturity burst and scatter the seeds to
a distance.

The plant is 6 ft. high usually. The flowers bloom in April right
up to August in different parts or even later, and as early as January
in some seasons. Furze is an evergreen shrub, and propagated by
seed.

The calyx is larger and coloured, the alae are longer in proportion,
and project beyond the keel, being locked at the base with it. When

76 FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

pressed down the flower bursts open. It has thus an explosive motion,
much as in Dyer's Greenweed.

Furze is dispersed by ants, and also by the plant itself, the seeds
being thrown out of the pods by a catapult movement.

It is a sand-loving plant, requiring a dry, sandy soil; but it is also
a humus-loving plant, needing a humus soil to some extent.

It is galled by Asphondylia ulicis. Pseudococcus aceris and Placop-
t horns rhododactylus also attack it.

The Thysanoptera Thrips ulicis, Sericothrips staphylinus, and the

FrRZE (Ulex euro/Hens, L.)

moths Grapholitha ulicetana, Butalis grandipennis, Anarsia spartiella,
Gelcchia malvella, the Homoptera Live Ha ulicis and Aphis ulicis feed
on it; and so do the beetles Philorkinum sordidum, Micrambe vini,
Timarcha violaceonigra, Luperus nigrofasciatus, the Homoptera Delto-
cephalus coronifer, Livilla ulicis, and A. ryttrna, the Heteroptera
Piczodorus lituratus, Heterogaster urtictf, Dictyonota crassicornis,
I fypsitylns bicolor, Asciodema obsoletum, &c.

Ulex is Pliny's name, but what he intended for it is wrapped in
obscurity; the second name applies to its European distribution.

Furze is called Prickly Broom, Firsun, FYench Furze, FYez, F"ur,
Furrys, Great Furze, F"urzen, Furzen- bushes, Fuzz, Gorse, Gorst,
Goss, Gost, Ling, Lwyce, Ruffet, Thorn, Broom, Vuz, Whin, and
Whins.

BROOM 79

In Northants it is said:

" When Gorse is out of bloom
Kissing is out of season ".

A spray of Gorse was inserted in the bridal bouquet in allusion to
this. According to Pliny, Furze was used in the collection of gold, the
plant being laid down in water to catch any gold-dust brought down
by the water. Furze was used for fuel in bakers' ovens and in soap-
making, when burnt containing much alkali. It was also crushed and
given to horses as fodder, as also to cows and sheep.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

74. Ulex europczus, L. — Shrub branched, spreading, with close
thorns or spines, leaves small, lanceolate, few, calyx hairy, bracts ovate,
flowers yellow, borne on spines, calyx teeth united.

Broom (Cytisus scoparius, Link.)

As with Furze, commonly distributed as it is this shrub is not found
in any early deposits. Its present range is from Gothland southward,
but it is absent from Greece and Turkey, occurring in N. Asia, Canaries,
and the Azores. In Great Britain it is found in every county except
Cardigan, Flint, and the Northern Isles, from Caithness southward, up
to a height of 1000 ft. in the Highlands. It is found in Ireland and
the Channel Islands.

Broom is everywhere a sign of heath-land or common-land, equally
as much as Furze; but to-day Broom bears much more evidence of
having been planted than Furze does, being much employed for
forming fox-coverts and plantations, where Furze is used in its natural
state. Railway embankments are frequently lined with clumps of
Broom, and it grows in many recent woods.

Broom is a typical switch plant, with the shrub habit. The plant
is more or less hairy, but not spinose, as in Furze, to the habit of
which it more or less conforms, both being dry-soil heath plants. The
stems are erect, much branched, bright- or dark-green, angular, and
furrowed, the branches silky. The leaves are shortly stalked, ternate,
3 in a group, or solitary. They are small or absent, and the stems
perform their function to a great extent. The leaflets are inversely
egg-shaped, silky.

The flowers are papilionaceous, large, bright-yellow or white, the
flower-stalks short, in the axils, solitary or paired. The styles are
spiral. The pod is black, with hairs along the borders, and many
seeds. After opening, the valves are twisted.

80 FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

The height of a Broom plant is about 6 ft. It is in flower in
April, May, and June. The plant is an evergreen shrub, increasing
by seed.

The flowers are, as in Genista, explosive. There is no honey.
The 5 short stamens first explode and dust the insect's abdomen, the 5
longer stamens then dust it above, and the pollination of the stigmas
not covered up ensues. When bees settle they grasp the alse with
their mid and hind legs, and thrust their forelegs and head below the
middle of the vexillum or standard.

The alae and carina are forcibly pressed down, and the united upper
margin of the keel splits from behind forwards by the pressure of
an insect's foot. A fold catching in the angle between the upper edge
of the carina and the sharp pouched protuberance at its mouth con-
nects the alse with the carina. When the split extends to the middle
the shorter stamens spring out. They open in the bud and now press
the pollen against the closed upper edge of the carina, and force the
pollen against the bee's abdomen. The shock is not sufficient to drive
off the bee, which only pauses and resumes its work. The split
extends still further, and has barely reached the tip of the style, closely
pressed against the keel, when a second more violent explosion takes
place. Before this the style lay along the side of the carina, and the
flattened end lies in the apex of the carina above the longer anthers,
which have already opened. It curls inwards being now rendered free,
and forms more than one complete spiral turn. As soon as it extends
to the end of the carina the style springs up, and strikes the bee's
back with the stigmatic tip, and the bulk of the pollen carried away
by the enlarged style falls on the bee's back. The long stamens curl
inward and emerge from the flower. When the bee is held, and the
stigma cannot slip sideways, it remains as if stunned, and then, turning
round, forces itself away from the style, and begins to gather pollen
from the anthers. When the vexillum is erect, and the alse are still
enclosed by it, humble bees force it open and cross-fertilize it. The
visitors are Hymenoptera (Apidse), Diptera (Syrphidse), Coleoptera
(Staphylinida,-, Niticlulidse).

Broom is dispersed by its own agency. The fruit is a dry pod,
which jerks its seeds by an elastic movement, to a distance, opening
suddenly with a jerk. It is also myrmecochorous, or dispersed by
ants, which find nutriment in the elaiosomes.

Broom is a heath plant requiring a sand soil, and is thus a sand-
lover, but some degree of humus soil is also a necessity, and it is like-
wise partly a humus-lover.

BROOM

81

It is galled by Asphondylia sarothamni. Other insects infesting it
are Placophthorus rhododactylus, a beetle, and also the beetles Sitones
regens, Philorhinium sordidum, Exochomus qnadripustitlatus, Meli-
gethes lumbaris, Lcemophloeus ater, Micrambe vini, Dryophilus anobi-
oides, Bruchiis villosus, Phytodecta olivacea, Liiperus nigro-fasciatus',

BROOM (Cytisus scopariits, Link.)

the moths, &c., Long-tailed Blue Butterfly {Polyommatus bceticus], Pale-
shouldered Brocade (Mamestra thalassina], Straw Belle (Aspilates
gilvaria\ The Streak (Chesias spartiata), Depressaria assimilellct', the
Homoptera, Gargara genista, Psylla spartii\ the Heteroptera, Piezo-
dorns lituratus, Dictyonota strichnocera, Anthocoris sarothamni, Ortho-
tylus adenocarbi, O. concolor, O. chloropterus, Heterocordylus genista,

82 FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

//. tibialis, slscodema obsoletum, and Megachile versicolor, a Hymenop-
terous insect.

L Y//.V//.V, Pliny, is an old Greek name for a kind of clover. Scoparius
is from the Latin scojxe, a broom.

Broom has been named Banadle, Bannal, Basam, Beesom, Bisom,
Bizzom, Breeam, Greem Broom, Green Broom, Brownie, Brum, Genest.
Basam, Bassam, or Bisom were names given in reference to the habit of
making brooms from it. Breeam tea was an infusion used as a diuretic.

If Broom has many flowers it is a sign of plenty. In Germany
it is used in decorating at Whitsuntide. When Joseph and Mary were
fleeing into Egypt it bristled and cracked.

" If you sweep the house with blossomed Broom in May,
You are sure to sweep the head of the house away."

The water from Broom flowers was drunk by Henry VIII to pre-
vent disease from surfeits. The bark shaved was used to stanch
blood in the fourteenth century. An unguent was made from the
blossoms. It was the badge of the Plantagenets.

The tops of Broom were put in beer to give it a bitter taste. The
stem is fibrous, like Spanish Broom. The seeds have been used to
adulterate coffee. Containing much alkali, it is the Sal genista of the
pharmacopeia. It has been used successfully for thatching, and is
planted for fences and coverts. It serves also as food for cattle. The
flowers in bud are pickled like capers. The woody part was once used
for tanning leather, and the old wood for veneering. Cloth has been
manufactured with the fibre. It is cathartic, and the seeds emetic.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

75. Cytisns scoparins, Link. — Shrub, branches slender, erect, angu-
lar, leaflets small, scattered, ternate, upper simple, flowers yellow, large,
pods hairy, black, styles coiled.

Tormentil (Potentilla erecta, Hampe = P. Tormentilla, Scop.)

This is one of the Arctic plants which have been detected in early
deposits, e.g. Interglacial, Late Glacial, Neolithic, and Roman deposits.
The range to-day is Arctic Europe, W7est Siberia, the Azores, or the
Northern and Arctic Temperate Zones. Commonly dispersed through-
out Great Britain, it is found as far north as the Shetlands. In the
Highlands it is found at the height of 3300 ft. It is a native of Ireland
and the Channel Islands.

Tormentil is essentially an ericetal plant, being found on most of

TORMENTIL 83

our commons and heaths, where Furze or Broom occurs along with
Tussock Grass, and Grassy Stitchwort, Lesser Spearwort, &c. It is
xerophilous, loving best dry pastures, where Milkwort, Heath Bed-
straw, Heath, Whortleberry, Eyebright, Woodrushes, Heath Hair
Grass, and Matweed are usually found.

All herbalists know the red woody rootstock of Tormentil, for it is
a favourite plant with them, and those who study botany will not
neglect to collect it in preserving their specimen of it. The stems,
which are numerous, are suberect, the lower leaves being quinate,

TORMENTIL (Potentilla erecta, Hampe)

Photo. B. Hanley

divided into five, and stalked, the others stalkless, the leaflets being
wedge-shaped, lance-shaped, coarsely toothed at the end, clasping the
stem, and downy both sides.

The flowers are smaller than in most of the Cinquefoils, and there
are 4, not 5, petals, drooping at first, then erect (hence the second
Latin name, applying equally to the stem). There are 8 sepals, which
are downy. The seeds are naked, yellow, and net-veined. The re-
ceptacle is not fleshy as in Fragaria.

The plant is usually 6 in. high. It flowers during June and the
intervening months up to September. Tormentil is like other decidu-
ous, herbaceous plants, reproduced by seeds.

The floral arrangements are similar to those in P. verna, but the
secretion of the honey is more evident, and as a thin layer. The

84 FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

anthers spread out in a flat disk and open along their margins as in
Fragaria, and they are coated with pollen only along their edges. The
plant is visited by Apiche, Andrena, Bombylidae, Syst(?ckus, Syrphidae,
C/irvsoto.\'inw, Mclithrcptcs, Cheilosia. The* anthers and stigma ripen
at the same time.

The fruit consists of achenes, which are dispersed when dry by
falling away from the parent plant, and so the plant is dispersed by iis
own agency.

Tormentil requires a sandy soil, and is therefore a sand-loving plant.
It is also found commonly on rock soils derived from granitic and older
aqueous rocks, which are more or less barren.

A fungus, Phragmidium tormentillte, infests it, and it is galled by
Xcstophancs brevitarsis. A beetle, Meligethes erythropns, a Hymenop-
terous insect, Andrcna ana/is, a moth, Teras caspersana, feed upon it.

The second Latin name refers to its relatively erect habit. It is
called Biscuit, Blood-root, Earthbark, Ewe Daisy, Five-fingers, Flesh-
and-bloocl, Sheep's Knapperty, Sept-foil, Set-foil, Seven-leaves, Shep-
herd's Knot, Shepherd's Root, Thormantle, Tormentil, Turnmentille.
Sept-foil refers to the seven leaves, though there are often only five.
It is called Earthbark in the Shetlands. As it is very astringent it is
used for oak-bark in tanning. The name Blood-root arose from its
red root, and by Doctrine of Signatures it was used for dysentery.
Flesh-and-blood has the same origin.

The plant was an old cure for ague. Because it was used to cure
toothache it was called Tormentil. It was also early used for stone.
The rootstock is woody, and yields a red colour to leather and wood in
Lapland. For tanning leather the roots have been boiled in water, and
the leather steeped in the liquid when cold. A dye of a red colour has
been obtained from it. It is used for a gargle, and lotion for ulcerated
mouths and for sores.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

99. Potentilla crecia, Hampe. — Rootstock woody, stem ascending,
radical leaves quinate, petiolate, leaflets acute, 3-5, flowers small, cy-
mose, yellow, petals 4, carpels wrinkled.

Heath Bedstraw (Galium saxatilc, L.)

This lowly but widespread plant is found in the North Temperate
Zone in Europe and West Siberia, but not in any early deposits. In
Great Britain it is found in all parts except in Hunts, Cardigan, Mid
Lanes, Stirling, and it ascends to a height of 3700 ft. in the Highlands.

KEY TO PLATE LVI

No. .fr Heath Bedstraw

No. a. Cat's Foot
(Antentwtria

a, v (enlarged), with
4 petals-jind 4 sepals^ alternat-
ing, .4 epipetalous stamens
and pistil with 2 styles. £,
Fruit, didymous, with rough
surfaces, c, Upper part of
plant, with leaves 5-6 in a
whorl, and flowers,jjn axillary
and terminal cymes, with
some in fruit V;

/

No. 3, Common Hawkweed
(Hienxium vulgai»m, Fr.)

-<^ •- ''

of Mowerhead with

a, Female tubular floret with
style, and with filiform corolla
lirnb, and ach|er/e with pap-
pus. A, Tubular floret, with
dilated limb, and achene with
pappus, undivided styles. ct
Plant, with barren shoots,
leaves cottony below, scape
with flowerheads

ill

lai, follow receptacle, in-
vtoucrf, and ligulate floret
VxRoritsfock, creeping, with
roots, and radical leaves, c,
Upper part of stem with
bracts and flowerheads in
ith florets all lig-

No. 6. Whortleberry
(Vacdnium M

\ calyx,-with
Wmoved to
short
tigmas on

,

LfZs- /long style, j^, Lower part of
stem with \Vadical/$af. <•',
Upper part of stein,' with
flowers in raceme, with beH-
k shapdl oorollas.

and persistent stylet ^Up-
per part bLpiasS^ sffowihg
stem -leaves, and flowers,
solitary, drooping, with pink
bell-shaped corolla, and one
in fruit with persistent calyx

, >d •"*

stods-\vit& r
~~

,|and//

- 7

a 'iwSetteJv, Upper part /Of,* .... .,
stem>>»?tth.flofets M<$gMw/
1 - ' with ' '

we^4W(W\

.

too? -

•j»jrrJ«b»0 dtfi'^H .1 o/

,-» MVHol U-'ihii b

rti *ix*to**9A bf.

-jil li* ewoft djiw (drayiCD

»\»K)

-jfiimil»j<bi|M
alb-103 onoiifftriJiw bru f»I\^ <. *«^iJ*^ Rboicwqiqv
-<j*q dliM stdrfjK bn£ ,dmil ' .«•-

rfjhv ,)9iofi wuduT /i .«oq ri^voi.^fjtw, ,?oorrr(h.:
riiiv -»o-j£t>fi htu .drnil bj*»*l^> ^° "**! i^qqU- 1^ wofibuz
bsbivibntJ ,^oqq«q * ni d-? e->vj.3< dXw Vn«*q
»n«d rfnn ,»n«fH yi*>

,vrobd tnoiXX* t9V6»l dJiw <«iMDt3 I&nirai9) bnfi
.»«uil at 9€noe

w torntt

JW5>', Mve-h

[JjR St-w

feW1 '

«

I

(.J' ,lM\\*¥\'^fcJk. wmv
r.i"t ^oof \ dtrw ,ao

Ity

:/n9J* lo tusq

jbiw ^mafi ni mwoft

tit! etyo.

FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

PLATE LVI

I. Heath Bedstraw (Galinin saxatile, L.). 2. Cat's Foot (Antennaria dioica, (ia;rtn.). 3. Common Ilavvkweed

(Hieracinm viilgatiini, Fr. ). 4. Sheep's Bit Scabious (Jasione Montana, L. ). 5. Harebell (Campanula

rotiindifoUa, L. ). 6. Whortleberry ( Vacciiiiitin Alyrtillus, L. ).

HEATH BEDSTRAW 85

Heath Beclstraw is a plant which is more or less confined to open
heaths and moors, or high ground of a rocky, stony character, being
a typical moorland plant. It is associated with Grassy Stitchwort,

HEATH BEDSTKAW (Galium saxatile, L.)

Photo Flatters & Garnett

Tormentil, Harebell, Whortleberry, various Heaths, Ling, Red Rattle,
Cow- wheat, and other heath and moor plants.

Unlike most of the Bedstraws, which are more or less erect, climb-
ing up stronger stems in the hedgerow, this species is usually prostrate,

86 FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

and covers the ground in a matted manner. The stems grow in tufts,
but are short and weak. They are quite smooth, and angular. The
leaves are whorled, 46, inversely egg-shaped, acute, blunt with a
sharp point, rough at the margin, with prickles directed forward, Hat.
with a slender midrib.

The flowers, which are white, numerous, and closely associated, are
in a cyme, and rather small. The petals are acute. The fruit is
granular, not stiffly hairy, and the flower-stalks are erect to spreading.
When dried the plant turns black, unlike the Rough Marsh Bedstraw,
which retains its colour when dried, and has bristles at the angles of
the stem turned back. The plant is 6 in. high at most. It flowers
freely from April to September. Heath Bedstraw is a deciduous,
herbaceous perennial increasing by division.

The flowers, though small, are white and conspicuous, grow-
ing in a compact cyme, and contain honey, which is not concealed.
There are 4 stamens and 2 short styles close together. The stigmas
are capitate. Being sweet-scented and growing in the open, the
plant is accessible to insects, and liable to be cross-pollinated.

The fruit is rough, and adapted to dispersal by animals, clinging
to the wool of sheep.

This Bedstraw is a humus -loving plant to some extent, growing
on heaths where there is humus, or on rocks where, though the rock
soil is stony, humus has collected.

On its leaves one may find a diminutive fungus, sEcidium valatititr.
Beetles such as Meligethes cor acinus, Thnarcka tcncbricosa, T. riolacco-
nigra, Sermyle helensis\ Lepidoptera such as Beech Green Carpet
(Larcntia olivata), Satyr Pug (Eupithecia satyrata), Small Argent and
Sable (Mclanippe tristata), Wood Carpet (M. rtva/a), J\I . birii'iala,
Royal Mantle (Anticlea sinuata], Eubolia, Lygris, &c.; a Homopteron,
Trioza gcilii\ and the Heteroptera Pcecilocytus gyllcnhelii, 1\ ni grit us,
P. nnifasciatus, and the Hymenopterous insect Halictus Intcicollis feed
upon Bedstraws generally.

Ga/iiim, Dioscorides, is from the Greek gala, milk, referring to the
property of coagulating milk characteristic of another species; and the
second Latin name refers to its habitat, rocky places.

This species is also called Lady's Bedstraw, Our Lady's Bedstraw,
a name which refers to the habit of using dried plants as bedding, and
is associated with the Blessed Virgin from her having given birth to
our Saviour in a stable.

Heath Bedstraw was said to induce love. It was reputed to have
filled the manger in which the infant Jesus was laid.

87

CAT'S-FOOT

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

Galium saxatile, L. — Stem prostrate, twisted, smooth, without re-
flexed bristles, leaves obovate, 6 in a whorl, flowers white, in a dense
panicle, fruit granular.

Cat's-fbot (Antennaria dioica, Gaertn.)

The Cat's Foot is found at the present day in the North Temperate
and Arctic Zones in Arctic Europe, N. and W. Asia, East and West
North America, and so far this is all our knowledge of its age and
dispersal. In Great Bri-
tain it is absent in North
Devon and Somerset in
the Peninsular province,
but is found in N. Hants,
Surrey, Herts, Berks, Ox-
ford; throughout Anglia,
except in E. Suffolk and
Bedford; only in E. Gloucs,
Stafford, Salop in the
Severn province ; while
in N. Wales it does not
occur in East Radnor, and
in S. Wales not in Mont-
gomery; and in the Trent
province it is not found in
Rutland, but in the Mersey
province generally (though
not in S.E. Yorks); in

the Humber, Tyne, and

Lakes provinces. In Scot-

land it is found in the Lowlands, but not in Selkirk or Linlithgow
in East Lowlands; elsewhere it is found in every part of Scotland,
ascending to 2000 ft.

The Cat's -foot is a local plant, found, however, on most sandy
heaths in the counties north of the Thames, and throughout Scotland.
It is also found on dry sandy pastures, as well as true heaths and
moors. With it one may find Furze, Ling, Penny Royal, Creeping
Willow, Small Bent Grass, &c.

The aerial stems are flowering stems, and erect and simple, the
shoots are prostrate or procumbent, with inversely egg-shaped, spoon-

CAT'S-FOOT (Antennaria dioica, Gaertn.)

88 FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

shaped, radical leaves which arc dark-green, and smooth above, cottony
Ix-low. The stem is woody, and the leaves are in dense tufts.

The flowerheads are male or female, the plant being dioecious, the dif-
ferent sexes being in separate involucres, or whorls of bracts, on sepa-
rate plants. The first Latin name was given in allusion to the awns of
the pappus (like Antenna;). The flowerheads are pink. The inner scales
of the involucre are blunt and coloured. The pappus hairs are silky.

Since it is a prostrate plant it is scarcely more than 3 in. high.
Cat's-foot flowers in June and July. It is perennial, and multiplied by-
division.

The plant is dioecious, the flowers tubular, the female ones narrow
and thread-like, the male tubular and dilated above. The anthers
slightly project, and the style is simple. The flowers are adapted
to cross-pollination if insects visit them.

The achenes are provided with a pappus, being i -seriate, and
adapted for wind dispersal.

Cat's-foot is addicted to a sand soil in which some humus occurs,
and is partly a sand-lover or arenophilous, partly a humus-loving plant.

Neither fungal nor insect pests are known in connection with this
rather uncommon plant.

The name Antcnnaria is from the Latin antenna, because the
pappus hairs of the barren florets resemble the antenna; of an insect.
'Hie second Latin name refers to its dicecious nature. It is called Cat's-
ear, Cat's-foot, Moor Everlasting.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS:—

153. Antcnnaria dioica, Gaertn. — Plant dicecious, stem prostrate,
woody, with procumbent shoots, leaves tufted, radical leaves woolly
below, spathulate, stem-leaves appressed, linear-lanceolate, flowerheads
white or rose, in a corymb.

Common Hawkweed (Hieracium vulgatum, Fr.)

The present distribution of this Hawkweed is Arctic Europe, N.
Asia, and N. America, or the Northern Temperate and Arctic Zones.
It is found in every county in Great Britain except E. Cornwall, \\Yst
Kent, Suffolk, Bedford, Hunts, Pembroke, Flint, Mid Lanes, Isle of
Man, Dumfries, Linlithgow, Stirling, N. Aberdeen, Orkneys, that is
from Ross southwards, and it ascends to 3500 ft. in the Highlands.
In Ireland it is rare.

The Common Hawkweed is a plant of the heaths and moors,
growing at a high altitude, and being ericetal it is also more or less

COMMON HAWKWEED

a xerophyte. It is, moreover, found on banks and in copses, usually
in hilly country, like the majority of species, and in this case where the
ground is rocky or covered with a debris of loose stones.

Unlike the Mouse-ear Hawkweed this has a tall stem. The leaves
are green or bluish-green, and oblong, the radical leaves stalked, in a
rosette, toothed in the middle or lower half, the stem-leaves stalk-
less. The leaves are often spotted.

The flowers are yellow, as in
all Hawkweeds, and arranged in a
corymb, or panicled, with ascend-
ing flower-stalks, with few hairs.
The phyllaries or scalesare equally
narrowed, and the involucre or
whorl of bracts cylindrical and
subacute. The styles are livid.

The stem varies in height
from 1 8 in. to 2 ft. Flowers are
to be sought between June and
September. This plant is per-
ennial, and can be propagated by
division.

The flowers are rather larger
than in Hierac^^l'^n Pilose lla, and
the flower-stalks are not pros-
trate, but the flowerheads borne
on erect and longer scapes. They
usually occur in shaded districts,
so that the visitors to the flowers
are different. They are Bombus^
B. terrestris, B. silvarum, An-
dre na, A. denticiilata, Halictus
cylindriciis, Panurgus, Lepidop-
tera, Rhopalocera, Lyccena.

The achenes are provided with a pappus of simple hairs, and dis-
persed by the wind when the seeds are ripe.

This handsome Hawkweed is a peat-loving plant, living on soils
in which there is a fair amount of humus, or the plant may be a rock
plant and grow on rock soil of different types.

Two fungi, Puccima kieracii, Entyloma calendula, attack the leaves.

The second Latin name refers to its wide distribution, but the name
refers to an aggregate which has since been split up.

COMMON HAWKWEED (Hieracium
vulgatum, Fr.)

9o FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS:—

1 80. Hicraciniti rn/gatitw, Fr. — Stem erect, tall, leaves oblong-
lancrnlate, radical leaves alternate, with forward teeth, purplish below,
flower-heads large, yellow, in a panicle or corymb, peduncles straight,
phyllaries attenuate.

Sheep's Bit Scabious (Jasione montana, L.)

This plant is known only from its present distribution in the North
Temperate Zone in Europe, N. Africa, and W. Asia. In Great
Britain it is not found in W. Kent, Hunts, Gloucs, Mid Lanes, S.E.
Yorks, Cheviotland, E. Lowlands, except in Peebles and Selkirk, and
only in Kincardine and Elgin in the E. Highlands. It is not found in
Westerness, Mid or N. Ebudes, nor in the W. Highlands, and only in
Shetland in the Northern Isles. It is found in Ireland and the Channel
Islands.

Sheep's Bit Scabious grows on heaths and moors at a high elevation
in rocky districts, cliff sides or quarries, or natural escarpments where
the soil is light. It is indeed a rupestral species, or rock plant, occurring
where Hawkweeds of various kinds and Wall Lettuce, as well as heaths
and ericetal species, grow.

It is a dwarf plant, with suberect stems, branching near the base,
and tufted. The leaves are linear-lance-shaped, narrow at the base,
wavy or sinuate, curled, crisped, hispid, stiffly hairy, numerous, the
radical leaves forming a rosette. The plant may be smooth or roughly
downy, with long stiff hairs.

The blue flowers are small, in small heads, terminal, on the smaller
branches. The bracts are smooth or hairy, the inner narrower. The
petals meet below with narrow lobes. There are 5 anthers, oblong,
which meet below at the base, forming a tube, a feature which separates
it from the Scabious. The corolla is regular.

The plant may be i-ij ft. in height. It is in bloom in July.
Sheep's Bit Scabious is annual, and propagated by seeds.

Having 100-200 large blue florets, it is attractive to many insects,
and the plant is cross-pollinated simultaneously in the case of the main
Stigmas. The honey is easily reached by insects, being secreted in the
upper part of the ovary. It is fully exposed, and surrounded by the flat
limb of the calyx. The corolla is cleft down to the base, where it meets
together into 5 narrow linear lobes, so that insects with short proboscis
can penetrate the tube. The stamens meet together at the base, form-
ing a ring round the style, and protect the honey from the rain, allowing

SHEEP'S BIT SCABIOUS

insects to insert their tongues between the anther-stalks. The hairs
are excluded from the base of the flowers by the shrivelled anthers,
which point obliquely upwards, and the anther-stalks. Pollination of
many flowers by large insects is possible because the flowers are small
and crowded, and an insect touches several flowers together. The
styles lengthen till they are longer than the corolla lobes, and the
flower is proterandrous, the anthers ripening first. Self-pollination is
rendered difficult. The style
at first bears a brush covered
with pollen, and after the
pollen and hairs have disap-
peared displays a 2-lobed
stigma. The small size of
the florets is counterbalanced
by the number of insect
visitors. It is visited by
some 50 Hymenoptera, 30
Diptera, 30 Lepidoptera, in-
cluding Hawkmoths, and
Beetles.

The capsule is 2-valved
at the top, and contains
numerous seeds, being aided
in dispersal by the wind, the
seeds falling out above.

Sheep's Bit Scabious is
a sand-loving plant growing
on sand soil, and is a rock
plant also, growing on gra-
nitic and slaty rocks.

A moth, Homceosoma nimbella, and a Heteropterous insect, Strongy-
locoris luridus, are found upon it.

Jasione, Theophrastus, was a Greek name applied to one of the
Campanulas; and the second Latin name indicates its montane habit.

Sheep's Bit Scabious is called Blue Bonnets, Blue Buttons, Blue
Daisy, Iron Flower, Sheep's Scabious, Sheep's Bit.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

1 86. Jasione montana, L. — Stem short, branched, leaves radical, in
a rosette, oblong, hairy, alternate, flowerheads lilac-blue, in a terminal
stalked head, anthers united, corolla 5-fid.

Photo. Dr. Somerville Hastings

SHEEP'S BIT SCABIOUS (Jasione montana, L.)

92 FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

Harebell (Campanula rotundifolia, L.)

The Harebell is known to us as a plant of the Northern Temperate
and Arctic Zones, found in Arctic Europe, North Africa, N. Asia,
N. America. It is found in every part of Great Britain, except the
Orkneys, as far north as the Shetlands, and ascends to 3500 ft. in
the Highlands. It is native in Ireland.

The Harebell is the Bluebell of Scotland, and is a typical ericetal
plant, indicative of heath or moorland generally. Barren, dry upland
tracts are made gay with its delicate bluebell-like flowers in autumn,
and it is one of our commonest hill-side wild flowers, growing side by
side with Furze, Broom, Heaths, Ling, and Heather.

The leaves are smooth, the radical leaves oblong, kidney-shaped,
seen at their best before the plant matures. They are usually coarsely
toothed. The stem-leaves are linear-lance-shaped, and entire.

The flowers are blue or rarely white, bell- shaped, on spreading
flower- stalks, drooping, and the flower- stalks may be simple or
branched. The arrangement of the flowers is racemose, the corolla
regular (or almost), and the calyx is 5-fid, the calyx segments linear,
awl-shaped, and remain with the fruit. The anther-stalks are swollen
below, concealing and protecting the honey. The anthers are quite
distinct. There may be 2, 3, or 5 styles.

The plant may be 6-9 in. or i ft. high. The blooming of the
Harebell takes place between June and August. The plant is peren-
nial, and propagated by division. It is, and ought more generally to
be, cultivated.

When the flower opens, the anthers and upper part of the stalks
wither, the lower swell and partly cover the honey. The hairs on the
pistil are drawn in, and the honey then lies more or less exposed, and
is accessible to honey-seeking insects. When the hairs are withdrawn
the stigmas open out and are dusted with pollen. If insects do not
visit the flower, the stigmas bend over and are dusted with pollen from
the anthers.

The flowers are large, blue, bell-shaped, tubular, with 5 lobes, bent
back. The anthers are distinct and not united into a tube, the anther-
stalks being expanded at the base to form triangular valves, dilated
and broad, which protect the honey. The style is club-shaped, divided
into 2 or 3 or 5 thread-like stigmatic lobes crowned with hairs. The
anthers shed pollen on the stigma before the flower is even open, and
are close to the pistil. The honey is abundant, and the plant is much

HAREBELL

93

visited by insects, viz. Honey-bee, Bonibus, Cilissa, Andrena, Halictus,
Halictoides, Chelostoma, Diptera, Bombylidse, Systcechus, Empidae.

HAREBELL (Campanula rotundifolia, L.)

Rhamphomyia, Lepidoptera, Ino statices, Staphylinidae, Anthobium,
Curculionidse, Gymnetron, Otiorhynchus.

The capsules open at the base, being pendent. The seeds remain
in the capsules and are blown out by the wind. The inner face of such

94 FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

hanging capsules is thick and woody, the thick part is egg-shaped and
drawn into a blunt neck, with a long sharp point which extends into
the capsule, the broader end being at the base, constituting the outline
of the valve. There is a shallow groove in the centre, and, when ripe,
this is convex on the inner face, hollow on the outer, breaking away
from the rest of the capsule, and the thin edges turn outwards.

The seeds are large, oblong, broader at the end opposite the hilum,
biconvex, with a thin narrow margin. The testa is bright brown,
polished, and smooth.

The capsule is perforated at the bottom or base, so that the seeds
are scattered by the wind. It is 3-celled.

The Bluebell is a peat-loving plant, luxuriating in a humus soil on
moor, heath, and wayside, on various rock soils.

The fungi Puccinia campanula, Coleosporium campanula occur on
it, and it is galled by Cecidomyia campanula and Miarus campanula.

Two Hymenoptera, Cilissa hamorrhoidalis, Cheilostoma campanu-
larum, and the moths Large Ranunculus (Hadena flavocincta\ Ash-
worth's Rustic (Agrotis ashworthii], are found upon it.

Campanula, Dodonseus, is from the mediaeval Latin campana, church
bell (a diminutive of it), and the second Latin name refers to the round
radical leaves.

It is called Air-bell, Aulman's, Hare or Hare's, Heath Bell, Bell-
flower, Witch Bells, Blawort, Blue-bell, Blue Blauers or Blue-blowers,
Blue -bottle, Gowks Thumbs, Milkwort, Lady's Witches, Thunble,
Thimble. Aulman's Bell is a Scottish name, the plant being regarded
with a sort of dread and commonly left unpulled. The name Lady's
Thimble was bestowed because of the bell -shaped corolla which
children gather and fit on their fingers. It was called Witches'
Thimble, because it was commonly supposed witches decorated their
fingers with it.

The Harebell was dedicated to St. George (April 23), people
wearing blue coats.

" On St. George's Day, when blue is worn,
The blue harebells the fields adorn."

This, no doubt, refers to the Bluebell, Scilla nutans. Our Lady's
Thimble was another name. It was a plant of ill-omen in Scotland
(see Aulman's Bell). The roots have a milky acrid juice, and the
plant has been used in dietetics. Linnaeus says a blue pigment is
prepared from the flowers. It is an ornamental flower and has been,
and is, used in gardens.

WHORTLEBERRY 95

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

187. Campanula rotundifolia, L. — Stem erect, slender, smooth,
radical leaves ovate-cordate, shorter than the petioles, stem-leaves
linear-lanceolate, flowers i or more, blue or white, campanulate, in a
raceme, lobes of the corolla turbinate.

Whortleberry (Vaccinium Myrtillus, L.)

Seeds and other parts of this plant are known from Neolithic
deposits in Renfrewshire. Hence it is a fairly ancient species. It is
found in Arctic Europe, N. and W. Asia, and N.W. America. In
Great Britain it is absent from N. Wilts, N. Essex, Bucks, Suffolk.
W. Norfolk, Cambridge, Mid Lanes, Main Argyle, northward to the
Shetland Islands, but is general elsewhere. It ascends to an altitude
of 4000 feet. It is native in Ireland.

Whortleberry is a typical heath plant, growing as a rule at a con-
siderable altitude, but always under ericetal conditions. Hill-sides,
woods, and copses are similar stations for this plant, which loves a
subsoil or soil rich in humus, like that of a wood or heath. Whole
botanical districts are made up of this species, so that it gives its name
to a certain type of association.

This is a short, shrubby plant, with the stem at first prostrate, then
ascending and branched. The stem is smooth, angular, green, rigid.
The leaves are egg-shaped, coarsely toothed, falling in autumn, the
nerves net-veined. The stems as well as the leaves are capable of
assimilation.

The leafless flower-stalks are i -flowered, the flowers solitary, and
pinkish, waxy, greenish, nodding or drooping. The corolla is swollen
below, narrow above, with a narrow entrance. The anthers have two
bristles or horns on the back. The fruit is a berry, nearly black or
dark-blue, with a greyish bloom, or bluish-green. The calyx-tube is
conical.

The height of the plant is at most 18 in. It is flowering in April,
May, and June. The plant is a shrub increased by layers, and worth
cultivating.

It is slightly proterandrous, the anthers ripening first. The pollen
is dry and dust-like. Honey is secreted by an annular ridge resting
on the ovary which surrounds the style, which is never moist, and not
so smooth as most honey-glands. Honey drops are found on the out-
side of the base of each stamen, passing between the anther-stalks and
the wall of the corolla. The honey is secreted in abundance in the

96

FLOWKRS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

WHORTLEBERRY ( Vai

Photo. Flatters & Ga

itint Myrtillns, L.)

globular corolla by the epigynous disk. The aperture is so small that

only long-lipped insects are able
to reach it, such as hive-bees and
humble-bees. The flowers re-
semble those of the Heath; but
the anther-cells are close to the
style, resting against the openings.
and so retained until the insect
visitors disturb it, when pollen
falls on the back. The stigma is
slightly projecting, and each visitor
touches the stigma before it re-
ceives the pollen with which the
anthers cover it. It is visited by
the honey-bee, Bombiis agronnn,
/>'. lapidarins, />'. tcrrcstris, />'.
scriiushiranits, and Audrctia.
I 'fs/>a rufa is a frequent visitor
also.

The berry is blue or bluish-
green or black, and is eaten by birds, and the seeds are thus dis-
persed.

WHORTLEBERRY (Vaccinimn Myrdllus, L. )

KEY TO PLATE LVII

serted),

awned anthers, the

ing by slits, c,
4-celled ovary,

, and swollen stigma.
</, Upper part of plant, with
stem, wuh lineaf. teaVes,
gibbous below, and 3-angled,
and flowers in i -sided

I. Ling
(Caft^ta iiulgaris, Hull.)/!,

ea out, shJ/- n
ing 4-fid Ifmb,f4 epipetalous
stamens, and pistil with z--
ceiled ovary with 2 styles.
b, Corolla (pitcner-shapedji.
in 4-fid calyx, c, Pistit, |p
calyx with ovary, and 2 styles', ,
d, Section of stem of topst- L
plant, with .pegs from siem
entering it. e. Dodder plant,
with twining stems and
flower dusters, on grass and

No.

No. 3.

a, btamgn, *ntltailed an-
thers. r$ PTstiVwith 4-celled
ovary, >l4ng style, and capi-
tate

involute margin, and glands.
#1 Upper part of plant, with
leaves, 4 in a \vh0rl, and
flowers in terminal^ umbels,
with belhshaped fcOrollas,
with 4-fid lobes, and 4-fid

^, Stamen, with 'long rila-
j4Cttt,.-and tailed a»Qi^. . r,
Pistil, with 4-ceHed, pvary,
long style, and capitate stig-
ma. dt Upper part of plant,
with Imear leaves 3 in a
whorl, irregularj and flowers
ing whorie/iJracemes,

Ha

and calyx, the former labv.te.
tlic latter gamosepalous anci
4-fid, bell-shapeU^/7^Pjstil,
ovary

Part

!./J^\J A

Uon of corolla, showing
4 epipetalous stamens,, pistil,
with ovary. Song style, and
^^cipnau^ A Pj&terior stamen.
enlarged, with hairy filan*ef|t,
and blunt anther '

ss r\ Iv3*5-
Cf^ort stamens.

rs>p^mg by 'J V^ve^£^nd
^eed/ jy5jpb£t /with^roots

parasitic on grass), squareX^^.
stem, glandular, « -opposite srem-leaves (pinnate),' and

leaves, and flower^ui spike flowers with labiate corolla

with bracts^ in axifsV 'Mfli ^Sell-shaped

calyx, with unequal teeth and

v \T"C1 X\ tf*rtf»ctAsf ^^^ —

v/:/| li u i/uereu, i*. ;.

• 5^Jty««agw — ....,..,,<, II. r Mart.).

6. Red Rattle ( Pedicularis sylratica, L.).

IIVJ 3TA.H OT YSX

brt-t Hirw
•-TqB*?.IW 10 iKlu*USr*a£'_

•mi «Ht^ .'

. .^Mm .. MI:'.' <**!!P9S

. .vrvo MMsi-A. riJi* Jfifctt :

FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

PLATE LVI1

i. Ling (Callnna vulgaris, Mull). 2. Cross-leaved Heath (Erica Tetralix, L.). 3- Crimson Heath

(Erica anerea, L. ). 4. Dodder (Cusctita enropaa, L. ). 5. Eyebright (Eiiphrasia itemorosa, II. Marl.).

6. Red Rattle (Pedicnlaris sy/7-atica, L.).

LING 97

Like other heath plants it is a peat-loving plant, and limited largely
to hills where humus soil abounds, or woods.

The fungi Guignardia vaccinii, Calyptospora goeppertiana, Conifer
cluster-cup disease, Exobasidium vaccinii, Vaccinium leaf blister, and
Melampsora vacciniorum attack Whortleberry. It is a food plant for
many moths, amongst which are Small Lappet (Gastropacha ilicifolia},
Beautiful Yellow Underwing (Anarta myrtilli}, Grapholitha vaccini-
cum, Scarce Dagger (Acronycta auricomd], Golden - rod Brindle
(Cloantha solidaginis), and many others.

Vaccinium, Pliny, is the Latin name for the plant. Myrtillus is
from the Latin myrtus, myrtle, because of the form of the leaves.

This upland shrub is called Bilberry, Bilberry Whortle, Blackberry,
Blackheart, Black Whort, Black Whortle, Blaeberry, Bleaberry,
Blueberry, Brylocks, Bullberries, Crow-berry, Fayberry, Fraghan,
Hartberries, Horts, Huckle-berry, Hurtle-berry, Hurts, Whinberry,
Whortleberry, Whorts, Winberry, Windberry. Blaeberry is bestowed
on it because blae or blea refers to the blue colour of the fruit, hence
"you're blae with cowl". Under the name Fraghan the berries are
gathered in autumn, and women cry them out for sale.

The berries were used as "rob" and boiled till thick, honey and
sugar being added. They have been used to make tarts in Scotland
and the North. Grouse feed largely on the berries. They are eaten
in Devonshire with clotted cream. A purple stain for paper or linen is
derived from the juice. The berries are astringent. They are used in
cases of dysentery. In the Highlands they are eaten with milk and
used for jellies, and in the latter are mixed with whisky to give it
a good flavour.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

190. Vaccinium Myrtillus, L. — Shrub, stem angular, woody, leaves
ovate, serrate, deciduous, flowers greenish-red, drooping, globular, waxy,
solitary, corolla globose, berries black, with grey bloom.

Ling (Calluna vulgaris, Hull)

Though it is so widespread to-day Ling is not known from any
early deposits. It is found in the North Temperate and Arctic Zones
in Arctic Europe, not in Greece or Turkey, W. Siberia, Azores,
Greenland, N. America. It is found also in all vice-counties of Great
Britain as far north as the Shetlands, ascending to 3300 ft. in the
Highlands. It is native in Ireland and the Channel Islands.

Ling is essentially a heath and moorland plant, contributing so

98 FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

largely to those formations as to constitute, like Whortleberry, an asso-
ciation of its own. With it one finds Whortleberry, various Heaths,
Furze, and Broom, and it is more widely distributed upon the high
ground or hills in the British Isles, but in the south and elsewhere
covers as well many lowland moors and heaths over wide areas.

Heather is a low-branched shrub, erect, downy, with reddish stems,
with small, threadlike, stalkless, opposite, erect leaves, overlapping,1 in
4 rows, and arrow-shaped. The leaves are smooth, small, and hoary,
and hollow below. The stem is woody. A variety with downy stems
and leaves occurs.

The flowers are purple, and are more or less turned one way, in
racemes, numerous, drooping, bell-shaped, on very short flower-stalks,
and the calyx is double, erect, i.e. in an inverted position, hairy on the
margin, red or green and purple. The corolla is small, enclosed in the
inflated calyx, persistent, with 4 lance-shaped bracts at the base giving
the red colour. There are 8 anther-stalks, the anthers nearly united,
being orange, and bearing two horn-like projections covered with rough
hairs.

The plant is from 1-2 ft. high. The flowers bloom from February
to July. Ling is an evergreen shrub propagated by cuttings, and
worthy of cultivation.

The flower is bell-shaped and horizontal, the stamens and pistil
are curved upwards, and insects press the proboscis under them, so
that less pollen is wasted than if they were in the middle. The corolla
is 2-3 mm. long, cleft, 4-fid near the base. Alternating with the
stamens are 8 black glands which contain honey, and can be reached
by short-lipped insects. When large bees cling to the flower with the
foreleg they weigh it down until it is vertical, and hanging on below
they suck the honey and dust themselves with pollen on the back.
Small bees thrust their head or proboscis down from the front, and the
upward bend of the stamens causes them to enter the lower half, and
thus dust themselves also with pollen. As the bud opens, the anthers
open, and the appendages, set with spreading hairs at right angles, are
so far apart that they are sure to be touched by the insect's proboscis,
and when the anthers are touched pollen falls. After the flo\v< r is
open the style, which is longer than the stamens, grows, and only com-
pletes its growth after the anthers have opened. Then the 4-fid stigma
is mature. The projection of the stigma before the opening of the
anthers ensures cross -pollination. It is not self- pollinated. The
visitors are Honey-bee, Bombus, Diphysis, Saropoda, Andreiia, Vespa,

1 In damp places they are more spreading.

LING

99

Ckrysotoxum, Melithreptus, Syritta, Sericomyia, Cheilosia, SyrpJms,
Thysanoptera, Thrips.

The capsule is divided into septa, and when dry these break off
and the seeds fall out or are blown away.

Ling is essentially a peat-loving plant growing on a humus soil.

Three beetles, Ceuthorhynchus erica, Stenus lustrator, Liiperus
ftavipes-, Thrips erica, a Thysanopterous insect; Lepidoptera, Emperor

LING (Calluna vulgaris, Hull)

Moth (Saturnia carpini), True Lover's Knot (Agrotis porphyrea],
Narro\\r- winged Pug {Eupithecia nanata), Feathered Footman (Eulepia
grammica), Speckled Footman (E. cribrum\ Light Knot - grass
{A crony eta menyanthidis], Beautiful Yellow Underwing (Anarta
myrtilli\, Heteroptera, Camptobrochis pustulatus, Eroticoris rufescens,
Sehirus biguttatus, Capsus scutellaris\ Homoptera, Alopa reticulata,
Thamnotettix stridulella, Dicraneura aureola, feed on Heather.

Calhina is from the Greek calluno, I cleanse, as with the brooms
made of it; and the second Latin name refers to its common occurrence.

Ling is also called Basam, Bend, Bent, Bream, Broom, Cat-heather,
Dog-heather, Gowlins, Grig, Griglans, Hadder, Hather, Heath, Dog,
Long, Red, and Small Heath, Heather, He Heather, Heth, Black

ioo FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

or Crow Ling, Ling-berry, Moor. It is called Broom from its
use iii making brooms. There was an Act of Parliament, 4 and 5
William and Mary, Cap. 23, which forbade anyone to burn on any
common or waste between Candlemas and Midsummer any Grigg,
heath, &c., and if they did they would be punishable with whipping
and imprisonment. In modern times Ling is protected, as at Croydon.
Laws still exist as to when moors may be burnt. It was called Ling
Heath to distinguish it (as being taller) from the shorter heaths. The
name He Heather was bestowed from its superiority as a fodder, for
sheep have an aversion to other heaths because of their bitter taste.

It covers a great part of the North, and affords good fodder, when
there is nothing else, for sheep. The milk of cows is supposed to be
coloured red by it. It is used with earth to make Highland cottages,
and for thatching and bedding. Leather was formerly tanned with it,
and it was used for yellow and orange dyes. Brooms, brushes, and
baskets are made from the shoots. Ale was brewed from the young
tops. It was used for mending roads and heating ovens. The honey
from the flowers is dark in colour.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

193. Calluna vulgaris, Hull. — Shrub, tufted, stem wiry, procumbent
or ascending, leaves imbricate, small, downy, sessile, in 4 opposite rows,
flowers lilac, rose, in drooping racemes, corolla bell-shaped, calyx rose-
coloured, with 4 bracts.

Cross-leaved Heath (Erica Tetralix, L.)

This common heath is found to-day (we have no earlier records)
in the North Temperate Zone in N. and W. Europe, as far east
as Russia. It is common in all parts of Great Britain, except E.
Gloucs, as far north as the Shetlands, and ascends to 2400 ft. in the
Highlands. It is a native of Ireland and the Channel Islands.

The Cross-leaved Heath is nearly as widely dispersed as Ling,
growing in the same habitats, but does not form such extensive patches
as the latter. It does not reach so high an altitude as Ling, but
occurs generally in the same districts, and principally on high ground.

The Cross-leaved Heath is a shrub, and has the typical heath
habit. The plant is often downy and glandular. The stems are
branched below, and again just above the middle, simple above,
densely leafy below, with more distant whorls above, with a leafless
space just below the flower. The stem is wiry, the branches irregular,
slender. The young shoots are green at the tip, and much eaten by

CROSS-LEAVED HEATH

101

game. The leaves are in whorls of 4, and are lance-shaped, linear,
spreading, blunt, the old leaves hairless, the young leaves fringed
with hairs, downy above and on the midrib below, the margins rolled
back to the midrib — an adaptation to drought.

The flowers are in a sort of terminal umbel, drooping, rose-coloured,
darker above, the parts in fours. The sepals are linear, oblong-lance-
shaped, downy. The corolla is regular, egg-shaped, the mouth scarcely
oblique. The flower-stalks are short, with bracteoles in the middle.

CROSS-LEAVED HEATH (Erica Tetralix, L.)

J. H. Crabtree

The anthers are spurred, with awl-like awns, and are included. The
ovary is downy, with hairs tipped with glands.

The height of this Heath is about i ft. It flowers in June up till
August. It is an evergreen shrub, propagated by cuttings, and worth
cultivating.

The flower is bell-like in form and drooping, so that honey and
pollen are amply protected from rain. The mouth of the clapper is
2 mm. wide, nearly taken up by the long style and stigma, and the
tube is contracted in the middle, and i mm. wide. A dark glandular
honey-ring surrounds the base of the ovary, and the style stands in the
centre and fills up the mouth, bearing a black, moist, sticky stigma
which is slightly exserted. An insect clinging to the flower touches
it and is covered with a sticky secretion.

102 FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

There are 8 anthers on long filaments springing from the base of
the ovary. At the end of each are two cells, which are spreading,
with an oval aperture below, which, however, does not allow the pollen
to escape, as each cell at the aperture rests against the next anther
cell, which acts as a sort of cap, the whole series forming a ring round
the corolla. The anther-cells are also armed with two horn-like pro-
cesses which stick out like the spokes of a wheel. The anthers reach
just below the sticky stigma. When an insect visits the flower for the
honey it rubs against the stigma first with its head, which in a previous
flower was dusted with pollen, and it also, in pushing its proboscis
down the tube, pierces the chevaux de frise of anther processes, and
these release the pollen in the boxes and shower it upon the visitor's
head, ready for the next visit as it were. But if insects do not visit
the flower the pollen, when discharged from these boxes, falls on the
stigma, which is in the fall line.

Amongst the insect visitors are Honey-bees, Bombus, Nomada,
Volncella.

The capsule splits open from above, allowing the seeds to fall out
or be blown away by the wind.

Cross-leaved Heath is a humus-loving plant, and almost confined
to a humus soil.

Several beetles live upon it, Harpalus discoideus, Coccinella kiero-
glyphica, C. distincta, Byrrhus murinus, Elater sanguinolenta, Haltica
criceti, and several Hymenoptera, Miscophus concolor, Colletes succincti,
Halictus punctatissimus, Andrena fuscipes, A. argent at a, A. luce us \
Lepidoptera, Fox Moth (Lasiocampa rubi), Saturnia pavonia, Heath
Rustic (Agrotis agatkina), True Lover's Knot (A. porphyrcd), Gray
Rustic (Noctua neglecta\ &c.; several Heteroptera, Myrmus miri-
formis, Berytns crassipes, Nysius lineatus, Ischnorhynchus geminatus,
Ischnocoris angiistulus, Macrodema micropterum, Scolopostcthus deco-
ratus, &c.; Homoptera, Cixius similis, Ulopa reticulata, Athysanus
russcolus, Rhinocola erica9.

Erica, Dioscorides, is from the Greek ereike, heath, and Tetralix
from the arrangement of the leaves in fours.

The Cross-leaved Heath is called Bell-heath, Bell-heather, Broom-
heath, Cat-heather, Crow Ling, Grig, Hather, Heath, Bell, Besom,
Broom, Father-of- Heath, Heather Bell, Carlin, Ringe Heather, HOIK y
Bottle, Ling. This plant was called Ringe Heather because it was
used for making rings or wisps made of Heather. Though called
Besom Heather in Ray's day it was not used for besoms, "that ever
I saw, nor is fit for such a use ".

CRIMSON HEATH 103

It was especially burnt on the eve of All Saints' Day as a bonfire.

" On All Saints' Day bare is the place where the heath is burnt,
The plough is in the furrow, the ox at work."

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

194. Erica Tetralix, L. — Shrub, stem branched below, simple
above, leaves 4 in a whorl, fringed, lanceolate, downy above and on
the midrib, flowers rose colour, drooping, umbellate, terminal, sepals
linear, downy, ovary downy.

Crimson Heath (Erica cinerea, L.)

Generally distributed throughout Western Europe as far east as
Germany and N. Italy in the North Temperate Zone, there are no
records of the occurrence of this plant in any ancient deposits up to
the present. In Great Britain it is absent from Bedford, Hunts,
Northampton, E. Gloucs, Mid Lanes, S.E. Yorks, as far north as the
Shetlands. It is found at a height of 2200 ft. in the Highlands, and
is native in Ireland and the Channel Islands.

Crimson Heath is an ericetal species like the Cross-leaved Heath
and Ling, and more widely distributed than the former. Both extend
sufficiently to give their name to the Heath formation, which is to
some extent of lower elevation than that of Ling, which reaches
generally a higher altitude. Both Cross-leaved Heath and Crimson
Heath are found on commons, heaths, and moors in the south as well
as the far north.

The Fine-leaved Heath has a similar habit to the Cross-leaved
Heath and Ling. But in this species the leaves are three in a whorl
not four. The stem is shrubby, the plant as a whole bushy, with
woody, wiry stems, the bark being ash-coloured, and branched. The
branches are opposite, bearing linear, spreading leaves, smooth above,
transversely wrinkled, with a keel below and a furrow beneath, and
smooth.

The flowrers are deep purple, in dense racemes, in verticillate or
whorled clusters, and terminal. There are 4 sepals, lance-shaped acute,
and keeled, spurred. The corolla is monopetalous or tubular. It is
remarkable for the fineness and smooth green of the leaves, and the
deep purple spikes of flowers.

The Crimson Heath is about i ft. high, and is in flower from
June to September. It is an evergreen shrub increased by means
of layers.

io4 FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

The flower is similar to that of E. Tetralix, but sometimes hori-
zontal, and the anthers have toothed appendages and not awl-shaped
awns. The flowers are normally whorled.

The capsule splits open along the 4 valves, and contains many
small seeds which fall out or are dispersed by the wind.

As a heath plant it is a humus-loving plant, and grows only on
humus soil.

A moth, Gelechia longicornis, and several other Heteroptera, besides
those that visit E. Tetmlix, are found on E. cinerea, such as Serautliia

:

CRIMSON HEATH (Erica cinerea, L.)

•

Photo. H. Iivinj;

tot a, Nabis boops, N. ericetorum, Allodapus rufescens, Ortkotylus
ericetorum.

The second Latin name refers to its greyish appearance. The
names Bell-ling, Bent, Carlin-heather, Cat-heather, Crow-ling, Hather,
Heath, Black Heath, Heather, She Heather, and Ling are applied
to this plant.

As to the name She Heather, it is said, "This is the She Heather
of the herds, who thus ungallantly indicate their opinion of its in-
feriority to the Ling ".

It is much sought by bees for honey, which is of a peculiar flavour.
Beer is made from it in the Hebrides, and malt is added to the heath-
tops. It is astringent, but is not now used in medicine.

DODDER 105

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS:—

195. Erica cinerea, L. — Shrub, bushy, stem wiry, upright, branched,
leaves 3 in a whorl, keeled below with glabrous furrows, flowers crim-
son in dense whorls, raceme irregular, ovate, ovary glabrous.

Dodder (Cuscuta europsea, L.)

A parasite and sporadic in its occurrence, this curious form of plant
life has left no trace of its occurrence in ancient deposits. Its present
distribution in the North Temperate Zone is Europe, N. Africa, and
Siberia. In Great Britain it is found in S. Devon, Somerset, N. Wilts,
Dorset, the Isle of Wight, N. Hants, Sussex, the Thames province
except E. Kent, Middlesex, Anglia, E. Gloucs, Worcester, Warwick,
Leicester, Chester, Westmorland.

Dodder is a parasitic plant which grows on nettles and vetches and
other plants, and is as a rule found on heaths and commons, being
frequently found upon Furze. But its occurrence is extremely sporadic,
and it cannot be said to be common anywhere, though it is more
especially characteristic of ericetal tracts in the south of England.

Interesting in its mode of subsistence, aerial, and not issuing from
the ground, adhering to the upper parts of other plants, from which it
draws its support, as in the case of Bartsia, Euphras'ia, Orobanche, &c.,
it is also remarkable in not turning like most climbing plants from right
to left with the sun. If planted in earth it will not grow.

The seeds after falling on the ground germinate in the soil, develop
a slender root and a thread-like stem. There are no cotyledons. By
the aid of the twining habit or circumnutation it later twines itself upon
a furze stem, which forms its host, and tendril-like twines round it.
Suckers are developed, and these bore into the woody layers of the
stem of the host plant, and henceforward serve as the organs of absorp-
tion. The root no longer necessary dies, and the plant is therefore
now a true parasite. The stems are thread-like, reddish, branched,
leafless, twining.

The flowers are white, streaked with red, clustered, stalkless, with
an erect calyx, shorter than the corolla, with spreading, blunt segments,
fleshy at the base. At first cylindric the tube of the corolla, which
equals the short, broad lobes, is spreading and swollen, with closely-
pressed scales within. The seed does not open by lobes, but the
embryo is spirally coiled.

The plant grows to a length of 2 ft. It flowers in August and
September, and is annual.

io6

FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

The anthers and stigma ripen simultaneously, self-pollinating the
plant. The flowers are cleistogamic. The corolla is spreading, with
a ring of appressed scales below the stamens, which are included, and
inserted on the corolla tube. The styles are also included. The
flowers are small and globular, and unattractive to insects. Honey
is secreted at the base of the ovary, protected by 4 scales.

Photo. Flatters & Garnett

DODDER (Cttscnta Epithymum, L.), to show the habit of C. europcea

The capsule splits open, allowing the seeds to fall around the parent
plant.

Dodder is a parasitic plant growing on heath plants after the seed
has germinated in the soil, usually a humus-loving plant and rich in
humus.

A beetle, Smicronyx jungermannia, is found on it.

Cuscuta, Mathiolus, is from the Arabic Chasntk, and the second
Latin name indicates the distribution of the plant.

It goes by the name of Beggarweed, Bind, Devil's Guts, Hailweed,
Hairweed, Hale, Hell, or Hairy-bind, Hale-weed, Fodder, Scald, Scald-

EYEBRIGHT 107

weed, Strangle Tare. The name Scald is from the scalded appearance
it gives to bean crops. The name Devil's Guts is derived from the
thread-like stems which wind round other plants and strangle them.
" Hell weed grows upon tares more abundantly in some places, where it
destroyeth the pulse or at least maketh it much worse, and is called of
the country people Hellweed because they know not how to destroy it."

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

222. CiLSciUa europ&a, L. — Stem yellow, filiform, branched, leafless,
flowers whitish-yellow, clustered, corolla longer than the calyx, scales
appressed, stamens included.

Eyebright (Euphrasia nemorosa, H. Mart. = E. officinalis, L.,

in part)

There are no traces of Eyebright, which is a northern type, in any
ancient deposits. It is found in the Arctic and N. Temperate Zones
in Arctic Europe, N. and W. Asia, the Himalayas, and N. America.
As an aggregate the old E. officinalis occurs in every county except
Cardigan, Stirling, Main Argyle, but the segregate is found in only
47 vice-counties. It ranges as far north as the Shetlands, and in the
Highlands up to 3600 ft. It is native in Ireland and the Channel
Islands.

Eyebright is an upland species as a rule, and is found in meadows,
as well as frequent on heaths, moors, and commons. It is a xero-
phyte. Associated with it are Milkwort, Grassy Stitchwort, Furze,
Broom, Tormentil, Heath Bedstraw, Harebell, Red Rattle, and many
other ericetal and pratal species.

The stem is large, robust, without any glands, branched, with
deeply coarsely-toothed and folded leaves, spreading, egg-shaped to
lance-shaped, acute, with curved teeth, the bracts spreading, curved
back, with broad and short and acute teeth.

The flowers are white, with a blue upper lip, and yellow on the
lower lip, borne on a long spike, terminal, with triangular sepals. The
corolla is small. The fruit is inversely egg-shaped, notched at the end,
fringed with hairs, and longer than the calyx.

This plant may be i ft. high, but is usually about 6 in. It flowers
in July up till September. The plant is annual, propagated by seeds.

It is a hemi-parasite on the roots of grasses, penetrating by nodular
suckers into the host. Possibly some nutriment is returned to the
latter on the death of the Eyebright.

The honey is secreted by the lower part of the ovary, which is

io8

FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

smooth and swollen in front, concealing the honey, and hairy above,
and so protecting it. The corolla tube is 4-6 mm., and enlarged below.
Short-lipped insects can get at the honey by thrusting their heads into
the wider part. The upper lip is a vaulted roof which shelters the
honey and pollen from the rain, and an insect's proboscis cannot be
thrust in above the 4 stamens (with 8 anthers). The lower lip is 3-
lobed, and small insects alight on it, while larger ones place their fore-
legs on it. There is an orange spot or honey-guide on the inner lip
and at the entrance, and the violet lines converging to the centre also

X

•"xS u

'•>

-+ •"*» X

•fs4-'

Photo. J. H. Crabtrce

EVEBRIGHT (Euphrasiu nemorosa, H. Mart.)

serve the same purpose. The lengthening of the corolla brings the
stigma and anthers closer. The anthers are behind at first in some
flowers. The anthers meet together, the 2 lower chambers of each
upper or outer pair uniting with the upper of the inner or lower stamens
on the same side. The lower surface of the anther is produced into
a sharp point, which the bee touches with its proboscis as it passes
down the tube, and it serves as a lever, shaking the pollen from the
anthers upon the insect. It is visited by Honey-bees, Bovibns, Nomada\
Diptera, Systaechus, Syrphus, Melithreptus. This large-flowered form
is proterandrous and cross-pollinated. There are forms in which the
stigma matures first. The smaller-flowered plants are self-pollinated.

The lower chambers of the upper anthers, which are outer, unite
firmly with the inner and lower anthers. There is a stiff-pointed
process on the lower surface. The lower points exceed the upper,

EYEBRIGHT 109

projecting into the mouth, the upper terminating in a brush of hairs,
and these prevent the pollen from being scattered at the side. A bee
touching them disperses the hairs, and pollen falls upon the insect.

The capsule opens above, and the seeds are dispersed around the
parent plant.

Eyebright is a humus -loving plant, a heath plant, parasitic on
grasses, and requires a humus soil.

The leaves are attacked by the fungus Plasmopora densa and
Coleosporium euphrasies.

A moth, the Pretty Pinion (Emmelesia blandiata], feeds upon it.

Euphrasia, Fuchs, is Greek for gladness. It was formerly called
Euphrosyne from its reputed cure for eyes. The second Latin name
indicates the woodland habitat. It grows on grassy slopes. Eyebright
is also called Adhib, Euphrasy, Ewfras.

Coles says: "Divers authors write that goldfinches, linnets, and
some other birds, make use of this herb for the repairing of their own
and their young ones' sight. . . . The purple and yellow spots and
stripes, which are upon the flowers of Eyebright, doth very much
resemble the diseases of the eyes as bloodshot, by which signature it
hath been found that this herb is very affectual for the curing of the
same." It was supposed (and is now) to be good for the eye, owing to
the black pupil-like spot in its corolla, by Doctrine of Signatures.
Milton represents the Archangel clearing the vision of Adam and Eve

by its means:

" Then purged with euphrasy and rue
His visual orbs, for he had much to see";

and Spenser writes:

" Yet Euphrasie may not be left unsung,
That gives dim eyes to wander leagues around";

and Thomson also:

" If she, whom I implore Urania, deign,
With Euphrasy, to purge away the mists
Which humid dim the mirror of the mind".

In Chaucer's day it was held a cure for all eye diseases, and
described as

" Precious water to clear a man's sight and destroy the pin " (a sty).

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS:—

238. Euphrasia nemorosa, H. Mart. — Stem branched, without glands,

no

FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

leaves ovate-lanceolate, dentate, upper with recurved teeth, flowers
white or blue with yellow spots, small, fruit obovate, exceeding the
calyx teeth.

Red Rattle (Pedicularis sylvatica, L.)

Unlike the Marsh Red Rattle this is not an Arctic plant, and does
not occur in any ancient deposits. The range is throughout Europe,

RED RATTLE (Pedicularis sylvatica, L.)

except Greece and Turkey or the N. Temperate Zone. It is found in
every part of Great Britain, as far north as the Shetlands, up to
2000 ft. in the Highlands. It is native in Ireland and the Channel
Islands,

Red Rattle is an extremely local plant, though uniformly dis-
persed. It is an ericetal species, few heaths being without it. It aiso
grows on commons, moors, and upland slopes of hills. It is associated
with Tormentil, Heath Bedstraw, Harebell, Ling, Eyebright, Cow-
wheat, and a hundred other upland wild flowers.

The stems are smooth, tufted, clustered, unbranched except at the

RED RATTLE in

base, decumbent or prostrate, so differing markedly in habit from the
Marsh Lousewort. It has a low, tufted, leafy stem. The leaves have
lobes each side of a common stalk, with acute pinnae, and are divided
nearly to the base.

The flowers are rose-colour, irregular, large, with an oblong,
inflated, smooth calyx, which is unequal, 5-cleft, with leaflike lobes.
The corolla has a slender tube (10-14 mm.), flattened lengthwise,
and the upper lip is 2 -dentate. The capsule exceeds the calyx, and
is blunt.

Red Rattle is not more than 3 in. in height, being prostrate. The
flowers bloom in May, June, and July. The plant is perennial and
propagated by division.

Opposite pairs of the 4 anthers are contiguous along the inner
edge, forming a box, and their outer edges adhere to the top of the
tube or hood. The honey lies at the base of the ovary, 10-14 mm.
from the mouth of the corolla, and the latter is compressed or flattened
lengthwise, hence a humble-bee can only insert part of its head. To
reach the honey the insect has to stretch the lips, and so opens the
anther-cavity, and releases a shower of pollen on the fringe of hairs on
the lower edge of the anthers, which thus falls on the head of the bee,
when it has but just touched the projecting stigma, and is ready to be
applied to the stigma in the next flower. The edge of the upper lip is
rolled back, the inner armed with projecting teeth.

The flowers are visited by the Hymenoptera, Anthophora and
Bombus.

The capsule splits open and allows the seed to fall out, or be
blown by the wind, around the parent plant.

This pretty little heath and marsh plant is a humus-loving, parasitic
plant, and grows only on heaths on humus soil.

The second Latin name suggests a woodland habitat, but it is
addicted to open heathland or wet spongy tracts on hill-sides.

Red Rattle is also called Cock's-comb, Dead Men's Bellows,
Honeysuckles.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS:—

241. Pedicularis sylvatica, L. — Stem prostrate, branched below
only, leaves pinnatifid, segments ovate, flowers rose-colour, calyx
glabrous, oblong, angular. 5-fid.

in FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

Cow- wheat (Melampyrum pratense, L.)

Another of those Arctic plants not found in early deposits is Cow-
\\lu-at. To-day it is found in the Arctic and N. Temperate Zones in
Europe (except Spain, Italy, Greece, Turkey), and in Siberia. Cow-
wheat is widespread in distribution, growing in all the counties (except
Hunts, Cardigan, Isle of Man, Shetlands), as far north as the Orkneys,
and up to 3000 ft. in the Highlands. It is a native also of Ireland.

One has to look in the exact habitat of Cow-wheat to come across
it, a remark almost a truism and applicable to every other plant in
some degree, but especially here. That is to say it is local, choosing
a peculiar type of station. Common Sylvan Cow -wheat, while an
ericetal species, is more often to be found in damp localities occurring
in woods and copses, and sometimes on ground surrounding streams or
other tracts of water.

Cow-wheat has a sub-erect, square, weak, wavy stem, which is
provided with more or less spreading branches issuing from the base.
The leaves are narrowly lance-shaped, in opposite pairs, stalkless,
smooth, or downy with two rows of hairs, dark-green, the base heart-
shaped sometimes, the margin entire.

The flowers are pale-yellow, large, and spreading. They are borne
in the axils of the leaves and in pairs turned all one way. The bracts
are toothed below, spear-shaped. The corolla is irregular, four times
the length of the calyx, and closed, with a projecting lower lip. The
calyx is smooth, and the teeth equal the tube. The capsule is egg-
shaped and depressed, like wheat, hence the first Greek name. It is
said to turn bread black.

Cow- wheat is about I ft. to 18 in. high. The flowers bloom in
June and up to September. The plant is annual, propagated by seeds.

The four anthers lie close together, and form a pollen reservoir,
which is opened by touching the pointed appendages or teeth at the
lower end of each anther-lobe, unlocking the reservoir. The honey
lies at the base of the ovary, opposite the lip, which is expanded into a
round, fleshy body with grooves each side. The honey rises 2-3 mm.
in the tube, which is 14-15 mm. long, and is protected by hairs from
the rain. Without inserting its head an insect needs a proboscis
14-15 mm. long, but at the anterior end the corolla is expanded
and admits a bee's head, except the hive-bee, Bombns tcrrcsfris, and a
few others.

The flowers are visited by Honey-bees, Bombus, Mcgachilc, Oxyccra.

KEY TO PLATE LVHI

No.

, L.)

NoM/Pennyroyal
,(M*6fi$itegium, L.)

^

a, Corolla, opened out to
show epipetalous stamens,
(filaments cut). 6, Pistil,
with ovary, style, and stigma.
v', Four stamens, meeting
Rootstock of

4-

ens and

exsertV- //*, Pistil,
with ova^ry witk^&jjfe, style,
and 2-n<i stigma.
part of plant, w
— ^- '(

^-3. Creeping Willow

' '•*%
a, Staminatah^ flower, with

scale, and ^fd^men^Vi i>,
Capsule opening, showing

%>tiets
thV rootlets
attached to
Junction of
WheatWith
f, UppeiN^art
square

posite pairs, and flowers with
toothed bradts', beJKshaped^
>iate \

let of Coyf/f
let of grass.
K

with

>~,' r- V ~ '

catkin 'Wim^^capsules \ rjp
and ^p$h^D opemi^.S / ^-,CP £'

itock,«-ubibo\-\
sranch wit^Jsta-y-^ %
minate- catkins— anthers ripe

9

Flower, with 6 v
sigrnfe^s, o\^amen*;an(
exceeding tj>* filaments,

a, Y\o^sf^m^ perianth-
segments, 6Y Stamens, and
pistil with 4 stigmas.

pisti! with i -celled ovaVC^V:<- Capsule enclosed in perianth
style, and .3 sugmas. b^ Ga^^ i^ segments, wi$i brafcts below,
sule, enclosed in penjs^th1- '. c, Rootstockilwit^ rootlets,
its with bracts^cW. | radical leav-^4 fad barren

ciliate suttee 3%^t- ^ fijo/'png /|>tem,

(chanrilp^ed^ «/, Flowering

upper leaves.

in compound

bracts be^owi
s bearing

Early Setig

,Latoi5f
Jacq.) I

3°

gluK^ _

, %Wlh pistn^ith / '
v ihoii stylfe r^

ST^T r> it^*'

n hefted I: a1...
petjfgynium. j fa

3d sten» >r..i
scapV/jfitl-
•Mta '

[M
mj:

- ' "^d

{.5<rt//.r ;v/(.7/.r, L. ). 4. Great \Yoocl KusR {Luziila sylvatita, (*TM\<\.}. 5. Meadow Wood Rnsli (f.nztila
cam pest ris, D.C.). 6. Early Sedge (Carex caryophyllea, Latour).

1I1VJ 3TAJ1 OT Yaa

(J,>

,*Ikno:> .1,

bar

-.i no—^ftigj.i •

-8?-KIX t" '-JIJOOT rili*

•

fai>

boqcrfg-U ; • -jd>ooJ

- /frX
^

V7

';

j

.^ -o*
. uci'V,">ita-V •

,<S 4«ai>.ii<: t rfj'w ^'
c^dteiH liUiw ^jrtrv

FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

PLATE LVIII

I. Cow Wheat (Melainpyntin fratense, L. ). 2. Pennyroyal (Aleufha Pitlegitun, L. ). 3. Creeping Willow

(Salix reftnis, L. ). 4. (Ireat Wood Rush (Luzii/a sylvatica, Gaud.). 5. Meadow Wood Rush (Liizitla

cainpestrh, D.C. ). 6. Early Sedge (Carcx caryophyllea, Latour).

COW-WHEAT 113

Large bees have to push into the upper part of the corolla to insert
the proboscis between the anther-stalks above and touch the hairs.
The latter catch the pollen on the way. The bees touch the stigma,
and cross-pollination may result. Bees bite the base of the tube to get
at the honey. When they do not visit the flowers the anther-stalks
become limp, the an-
thers separate, and
the style now bent
down is touched with
pollen. Ants cause
honey to be secreted
after the flower fades,
contrary to the usual
rule.

The capsule when
ripe splits open, allow-
ing the 4 seeds to
fall out, and to be
blown by the wind a
short distance, but the
plant usually grows in
patches. The seeds
mimic the chrysalis of
the ant in size and
colour, having a black
spot at the end. The
ants disperse the seeds,
considering them to
be chrysalises.

Cow-wheat is fond
of peat, requiring a
peaty soil. A moth,

Lead-coloured Pug (Eupithecia plumbeolata], and two beetles, Meli-
gethes cewimis, M. kunzei, feed on it.

Melampyrum, Theophrastus, is Greek for black wheat, because it
resembles wheat, and the second name refers to its habitat, moist
meadows. Black Corn is another name for Cow-wheat.

The seeds when used for bread (as they have been) colour it black.
The plant affords good fodder for cattle, and Linnaeus says butter
from cows fed on it is very rich and deep yellow. It used formerly
to be cultivated in Holland and by the Flemish.

Photo. Flatters & Ga

COW-WHEAT {Melampyrum pratense, L.)

r i4 FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

243. M dampy nun pratense, L. — Stem erect, branched, leaves
lanceolate, paired, flowers yellow, distant, paired, axillary, lower lip of
the corolla projecting, corolla four times as long as the calyx.

Pennyroyal (Mentha Pulegium, L.)

As a southern type we have no record of the occurrence of Penny-
royal in early deposits. Its present distribution is Europe, N. Africa,

and N. and W. Asia,
or the North Temperate
Zone. In Great Britain
it grows in the Peninsula
and Channel provinces,
except in E. Sussex; in
the Thames province,
Anglia, except in Bed-
ford; in the Severn pro-
vince, except in Mon-
mouth and Hereford; in
S. Wales only in Gla-
morgan; in N. Wales in
Carnarvon, Flint, and
Anglesea; in the Trent
province, except in S.
Lines; in S.K. Yorks,
S.W. Yorks, N.W. Yorks,
Durham in the Tyne pro-
vince, and Lakes district.
In Scotland it is found
only in Ayr and Berwick,
south of which it is gen-
eral. It is a native of

Ireland and the Channel Islands. In some counties it is only an escape.
Careful search upon a stretch of heath-land or common-land, in
which are scattered numerous little ponds and pools, will reward the
botanist who is searching for Pennyroyal. It is rather local, but a
common constituent of ericetal formations, and is usually to be found
by pools in such areas.

It is a much smaller, less erect, terrestrial form of mint. The stem
is more or less prostrate. The leaves are egg-shaped, acute, notched,

PENNYROYAL (Mentlut Pulegium, L.)

PENNYROYAL 115

bent back, with no flowers in the upper axils, smooth in England, in
S. Europe densely hairy, a protection against too rapid transpiration.

The flowers are lilac, in the axils, round, distant, many in a whorl.
The regular calyx and the flower-stalks are downy each side, and the
teeth are fringed with hairs, the throat being defended by hairs, and
tubular. The nearly regular corolla is smooth inside. Complete
flowers are less numerous than small female flowers.

Pennyroyal is 6 in. to i ft. high. It flowers late in August and
September. The plant is perennial, propagated by division.

The flower is arranged on much the same plan as M. arvensis, and
it is likewise prostrate, and less visited by insects. The flowers are
proterandrous or proterogynous the anthers or stigma ripening first.
The corolla is smooth within and hairy on the exterior. The throat is
closed with hairs. The equal stamens are erect.

The nutlets are free, and are dispersed when ripe around the parent
plant. It is a humus-loving plant, and requires a peaty soil.

The name Pulegium, Pliny, is from pulex, a flea. Pliny says that
fleas are killed by the odour of the burnt blossoms.

Pennyroyal is called Brotherwort, Churchwort, Pudding Grass,
Hill-wort, Lillie-riall, Lurkey Dish, Flea Mint, Organ, Organy,
Pudding Herb, Pulicall. It is called Pudding Herb because it was
used for flavouring black-puddings, and Pudding Grass because it was
used in hogs' puddings. Coles says: " Penniroyall chopped and put
into a bag-pudding giveth it a savoury relish ".

Pennyroyal is aromatic and pungent in taste, and flavoured like
camphor. It contains a volatile essential oil, obtained by distilling it.
It was used as an expectorant and diaphoretic, for hysteria, whoop-
ing-cough, asthma, and is in use now. It was used as smelling salts
in cases of fainting by the Romans. The blossoms, according to Pliny,
killed fleas, as above. The use of it in puddings has not entirely
ceased. In Chaucer's day it formed an ingredient of the almighty
drug "save", and was employed to sharpen the eyes.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

247. Mentha Pulegium, L. — Stem prostrate, leaves ovate, sub-
glabrous, crenate, flowers purple, in distant whorls, throat of corolla
closed with hairs, calyx tubular.

n6

FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

Creeping Willow (Salix repens, L.)

A typical upland plant, Creeping Willow is found in Late Glacial
beds at Edinburgh and in Perth, and in Neolithic deposits at Cam-
bridge and in Renfrew. It is found in the N. Temperate Zone in
Europe, Siberia. The Creeping Willow occurs in Great Britain gene-
rally, except in Somerset, N. Wilts, W. Kent, Northants, M on mouth,
Hereford, Cardigan, Flint, Derby, Mid Lanes, Isle of Man, Dumfries,

Photo. H. Irving

CREEPING WILLOW (Sa/fx re pens, L.)

Roxburgh, Haddington, Linlithgow, Stirling, Main Argyle, Dum-
barton, E. Ross, but elsewhere, or from Shetland southwards. It
grows at 2500 ft. in the Highlands, and is a native of Ireland and
the Channel Islands.

One of the peculiar signs of a heath or moor, especially in upland,
barren, stony regions, is the occurrence of the Creeping Willow, which
grows profusely on wide open commons and heaths. It also occurs on
the sides of stony slopes of hills and mountains, usually in a dry situa-
tion, being ericetal rather than paludal.

As the second Latin name suggests (and the English also), this
willow has a creeping habit, seldom attaining any height, but is
branched and bushy. The leaves are loosely and softly hairy, small,

CREEPING WILLOW

117

elliptic, lance-shaped, straight, subacute, subentire, nearly naked above,
bluish-white, and below silky.

The catkins are cylindrical, oblong, with spoon-shaped scales. The
ovary is egg-shaped, stalked, smooth, or even silky. The anthers
becoming black at length, are at first golden.

The plant is 2 ft. high. It flowers in May. The Creeping
Willow is deciduous, propa-
gated by seeds.

The flowers are unisexual ;
the plant being dicecious, pol-
linated by the wind, and also
adapted to the visit of bees,
which cause cross-pollination.
Creeping Willow is visited by
the Honey-bee, Bombus ter-
restris, Andrena, Tenthredi-
nidae, Dolems, Diptera, Bom-
bylius, Myopa, Lepidoptera,
Vanessa. The honey is half-
concealed and abundant.

The seeds are fringed
with hairs, which assist in
dispersing them by the wind.

This Willow is a humus-
loving plant, and requires a
peat soil or humus soil.

A fungus, Melampsora
repentis, attacks the Creep-
ing Willow.

Several Lepidoptera are found upon it. Tortrix viburnana, T.
dumetana, Gelechia lentiginosella, Lithocolletis quinqueguttata.

The second Latin name refers to its creeping habit.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

286. Salix repens, L.— Shrub, straggly, branches upright, leaves
lanceolate, with recurved margin, glaucous, silky below, catkins sessile,
style short.

Photo. Dr. Somerville Hastings

CREEPING WILLOW (Salix repens, L.)

n8 FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

Great Wood Rush (Luzula sylvatica, Gaud. = L. maxima, D.C.)

This is a woodland arctic type which is known to us only from
its present distribution in N. Temperate and Arctic Europe (except

Greece) and Russia. In Great Britain it
is found in every county except Suffolk
and Hunts, both lowland districts; as far
north as the Shetlands, up to 2300 ft. in
the Highlands, and in Ireland and the
Channel Islands.

The Wood Rush, that is to say, here,
the largest of the species, is a typical wood-
land plant, forming a definite feature in cer-
tain types of wood, oak woods, growing in
the shade, which it loves more than all the
other wood rushes, and forming big clumps
over a wide area, but it also grows on
heaths.

This plant is a tall, graceful wood rush
with a grass -like habit. The leaves are
clothed and fringed with hairs, which spring
from the sides of the long, flat leaves,
which taper to a graceful point, and are
mainly radical. They are channelled. The
few stem -leaves towards the top of the
stem are short, drooping, and bract-like.

The flowers are in clusters of three
in a densely compound cyme, with long
flower -stalks; the perianth -segments are
awned or bristle-like and as long as the
capsule, with small anther- stalks. The
capsule is tuberculate, beaked, egg-shaped,
acute, and 3-seeded.

The stem towers gracefully to a height of 18 in. Flowers may be
found in May. The plant is a perennial, propagated by seeds, and is
suited to plantation in woods and shrubberies.

As in the case of the Rushes the flowers are pollinated by the wind,
and self-pollination is rendered impossible as the stigma matures first,
this condition lasting 4-5 days. The perianth is only partly open, and
then expands for a few hours. The flowers are in clusters of 3-4,

Photo. Flatters * Ga

GREAT WOOD RI'SH (Luzula
sylvalica, Gaud.)

MEADOW WOOD RUSH 119

pale, like Juncoides generally, but the anthers are longer than the
anther-stalks.

The capsule splits open, allowing the seeds to fall around the
parent plant, which is dispersed by its own agency.

The Great Wood Rush is a humus-loving plant, and confined to
a humus soil.

The leaves are attacked by a cluster- cup fungus, Puccinia oblongata.

Luzula, Smith, is from the Latin luceo, I shine, from the shining
leaves and fruits (it was spelt Liiciola at first); sylvatica refers to the
woodland habitat.

Wood Rush is called Wood Grass, Shadow Grass, Wood Blades.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS:—

307. Luzula sylvatica, Gaud. — Rhizome woody, stem tall, leaves
radical, lanceolate, hairy, flowers 3, in a compound cymose panicle.

Meadow Wood Rush (Luzula campestris, D.C.)

Widespread and growing at high elevations, the only knowledge
we have so far of this common meadow plant is to be gained from its
present distribution in the North Temperate Zone in Europe (except
Greece), and all temperate and cold regions in general. It is found in
every part of Great Britain, except Glamorgan, Cardigan, Selkirk, as
far north as the Shetlands, and up to 3200 ft. in the Highlands and
Wales, being found also in Ireland and the Channel Islands.

The Meadow Wood Rush is a very common component of our
higher pastures and meadows, growing usually at high elevations, and
is common to heaths and common-land, where it is very abundant. It
is also found in rides in woods, and in meadows which slope down from
the hills, and even in valleys.

Like the tall Wood Rush on a smaller scale in habit, having the
grass habit, it has several simple stems, which are erect, leafy, smooth,
and thickened below. The leaves are hairy, linear, not so long as the
stems, and flat, with hairs on the margin. The tips are reddish, not
membranous. The bracts below the spikes are unequal.

The brown flowers are apetalous, without a corolla, in terminal
cymes, in compact heads or close clusters, 3-4, dense, the spikelets
egg-shaped, and stalkless or stalked, the flower-stalks arising from a
sheath, edged with hairs. The perianth-segments exceed the capsule,
which is blunt, beaked, 3-sided. The anthers are light-yellow.

The Meadow Wood Rush is about 6-8 in. high. It flowers in April
and May. This common plant is perennial, and propagated by seeds.

120

FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

The flowers, as in all the Wood Rushes, are pollinated by the wind.
There are 6 stamens with very short anther-stalks. The style is short.
The 3 stigmas are wavy, and softly and loosely hairy. When the
flower-bud expands the 3 stigmas elongate and wither very quickly.
After five to nine days the flower is completely expanded, and after
a further interval of a day the anthers are ripe. The flower is open for
a day and a half. The plant is thus incapable of self-pollination.

Photo. Flatt

)OD RfSH (Luzula campeslris, D.C.)

The capsule splits open, the seeds when ripe falling out to the
ground.

This little Wood Rush is a humus-loving plant growing in a humus
soil, but also able to grow in sand soil.

The plant is attacked by two cluster-cup fungi, Fuccinia obscura,
P. oblongata. The Lepidoptera Double-line (Leucania tttrca\ Colco-
phora ccpspitella, C. murinipennella, are found on it.

The second Latin name indicates that it is found on pastures usually
dry and heath-like.

The names by which it is known are Sweet Bent, Blackcaps,
Chimney-sweeps, Crow-feet, Cuckoo-grass, Davie-drap, God's Grace,
Good Friday Grass, Black-head Grass, Peeseweep, Hair-beard, Smuts,
Sweeps, Sweep's Brushes. The name Smuts was applied in reference
to the black appearance of the flower-heads, and the name Chimney-
sweeps has the same origin, and children on first seeing it in spring
say:

EARLY SEDGE 121

" Chimney-sweeper, all in black,
Go to the brook and wash your back ;
Wash it clean or wash it none,
Chimney sweeper, have you done? "

In the North they are called "ewe-knots". When it appears the
ewes are likely to have plenty of milk for the lambs, as it indicates
that the new grass is growing.

Chambers relates that the children of Galloway play at hide-and-
seek with a little black-topped flower which they call Davie-drap,
saying:

" Within the bounds of this I hap
My black and bonny Davie drap;
Wha is he, the cunning yin1,
To me my Davie drap will fin'?"

Peeseweep-grass is applied because it grows where lapwings resort
(peesweep).

As it is one of the harbingers of spring, and generally making its
appearance in mild, genial weather, it has originated in the following

prophetic adage:

" When the hair beard appear
The shepherd need not fear ".

It is usually indicative of a dry and not very luxuriant pasture, but
when growing in boggy ground of moist and rich soil.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS:—

308. Luzula campestris, D.C. — Stem short, leaves linear-lanceolate,
downy, pilose, flowers in a dense panicle, of 3-4 clusters, anthers longer
than the filaments,

Early Sedge (Carex caryophyllea, Latour. = C. verna, Chaix)

The Early Sedge is found in Europe, N. Asia, in the N. Tem-
perate Zone, and has been introduced into N. America. It is unknown
in Glacial beds. In Great Britain it is absent in N. Devon, Pem-
broke, Cardigan, Mid Lanes, Roxburgh, Stirling, Banff; in W. High-
lands it only occurs in Main Argyle, Dumbarton, Clyde Islands; but
it does not occur in N. Highlands, nor Hebrides in the Northern Isles.
Elsewhere it ranges as far N. as the Shetlands, and up to 2300 ft. in
the Highlands, as well as in Ireland and the Channel Islands.

The Early Sedge is a local but widely dispersed ericetal species
which grows on elevated ground, such as upland pastures, where it
seeks the highest parts, heaths and moors. It may also be found

'One.

122 FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

in meadows in more lowland districts in less dry situations, but it

is usually xerophilous.

This is a short, leafy sedge, with an erect stem, with many leaves,
three-angled, usually smooth, dark-green, and shiny, leafless above.
The leaves are large for the size of the plant, tufted, keeled, curved
backwards. The bracts are leafy and clasping.

The spikes of the flower are of different sexes, i male, 1-3 female,
the latter stalkless or nearly so, oblong egg-shaped. The male are

erect. The glumes are
spreading, with a green
midrib, egg-shaped with a
long point. The perigynia
are inversely egg-shaped,
3-sided, acute, and downy.
The nut or utricle is obo-
void, inversely egg-shaped,
narrow below.

This sedge is 6 in. high.
The flowers are early, ap-
pearing in April. The plant
is perennial, propagated by
roots.

The floral mechanism
is similar to that of sedges
generally, the male spike-
lets are slender and erect,
the female inclined, oblong,
crowded. The flowers are pollinated by the wind.

The nut is 3-sided, and when it is ripe it falls close to the parent
clump, being dispersed to no distance.

The Early Sedge is a humus- loving plant, growing on humus soil.
The fungi, Puccinia sylvatica and Ustilago caricis, are found to
infest it.

The second Latin name refers to the scent, which is like cloves.
Early Sedge is called Pink Grass and Iron Grass.
ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

328. Carex caryophyllea, Latour. — Stem short, leaves flat, curved,
i male spikelet, 1-3 female, oblong, glumes ovate, fruit obovoid.

A. R. Horwood

EARLY SEDGE (Carex caryophyllea^ Latour.)

FLOWE1

KEY TO PLATE L1X

X

No\i. Green-ribbed Sedge
\ \ ^jfrqrex binervis, Sni.)

a. M^le flow^, with 3 stamens (trian-
drous) and glun^e, £, Glume of pistillate /
flower, 2-nerved.\ t, Perig|ynium, with
cuspidate beak, and 3 stigmas, and nut to
the right. d, Spikelet, (pistillate, wkh
stigmas ripe, e, Flowering stem, with
^ng bract&| and axillary spfkelets, ^pper-
mb« maletU/ RootstodLiwitX/ roots,
sheaths, barten shoots, / (foil //dternate

No. 2. Small Bent Grass
(Agrostis cattina. I*),

a, Flower, with outer glume, flowermg
glume awued, excurrent awn from above
the base, palea, and within 3 stamens
and pistil (last hardly seen), b, Flower,
with palea, stamens, and pistil with
feathery stigmas, and flowering glume,
showing awn attached above the middle.
c, Stoloniferous stem and shoots, with
rootstock and ibets. X-Stem, with upper
stem-leaf shewing sheath, and panicles
expanded in flowef (contracted in fruit).

«, Flower, showing- paiea, a-.vned flowering \
glume, 3 sta/T!en«v arid feath.ery stigmas.
£, Flower, showing outer 'etnpty glumes, C
flowering gjlam^- pal'e^'/^i^o^ns, and
scales. ^ CK-a: vr, with i j£a|hery stigmas.
fft Rootstock with root^^&l Mth tufted
leaves, barren shoots/*?, Flowejijing stem,
with l

Mat Grass
'us stricta, L.)

wned fWwerii^
_ mens. tyl Leaf margin,
, royjgh, enlaVgc^i. <:, .Spike,
ral, with ijtflow^ed s^ikelets,

. . r, Plant, with root-
Mi s&^thed bcjow, with long
leay«>T arid flowers in spikes, ,/

wM^antljersliipe,/ //'

1

?n-.riblieil Sedge (i

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;

,y/

FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

PLATE LIX

I. (keen -rib bed Sedge (Carex binervis, Sm.). 2. Small Bent Grass (Argostis canimi, L.)- 3- Heath Hair Grass
(Deschaiiipsiafextiosa, Trin.)- 4- Mat Grass (Nardus stricta, L. ).

GREEN-RIBBED SEDGE

123

Green-ribbed Sedge (Carex binervis, Sm.)

This tall, graceful sedge is found in the North Temperate Zone in
W. Europe, N. Asia, and N. Africa. It is not found in any early
plant-beds. It is found in all parts of Great Britain, except Northants,
Glamorgan, Notts, S.E. Yorks, Linlithgow; as far north as the Shet-
lands, up to 3200 ft. in the
Highlands, and in Ireland.

The Green-ribbed Sedge
is an ericetal species found
in dry habitats, and it grows
in upland stations on the
borders of woods, on stony
hills, on heaths and moors,
as well as in fields, in wood-
land districts, and on sandy
soil by the roadside, up to
high elevations.

This is a tall, erect, fin-
ally drooping plant, with a
slender, graceful stem, with
a creeping rootstock. The
stems are 3-angled, smooth,
with numerous leaves, which
are not very long, rigid,
keeled, and curved back, flat.
The bracts are leaflike.

The spikes are stalked,
cylindrical, distant, and the
male and female are on dif-
ferent stems. The male flowers are solitary, the female are short,
stalkless, or nearly so, distant, the lower ones stalked, the upper
included. The sheaths are not so long as the flower -stalk. The
spikes are cylindrical, with perigynia with green ribs, and 3-angled,
longer than the glumes, which are oblong and compound. The beak
is rough along the margin, and divided into two nearly to the base.
The nut is rough and inversely egg-shaped.

This sedge is 1-2 ft. high. The flowers are in bloom in June. The
plant is a perennial, propagated by division of the rootstock.

The floral mechanism is that typical of sedges with more numerous

'lioto. Horwood

GREEN-RIBBED SEDGE (Carex binervis, Sm.)

i24 FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

and longer female spikelets. There is no doubt that some of the
sedges can be pollinated by insects, though usually, as here, by the
agency of the wind.

The nut is indehiscent and falls to the ground close to the plant,
or it may be swung on the slender drooping flower-stalks by the wind
to a short distance.

Green-ribbed Sedge is a humus-loving plant, and grows in a rich
humus soil on heaths or woodland tracts.

The second Latin name refers to the ribbed perigynia.

The plant is often infested by a fungus, Puccinia caricis, one of
the " rusts ".

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

329. Care.v binervis, Sm. — Stem tall, triangular, slender, leaves
flat, female spikelets brown, remote, perigynia with two green ribs,
nut obovoid.

Small Bent Grass (Agrostis canina, L.)

Seeds of grasses are so small that they are liable to be overlooked
in plant beds, and so far this plant has not been found. It grows
to-day in N. Temperate and Arctic Europe, N. and W. Asia, Hima-
laya, N. and S. America, Australasia. It is found in every county
of Great Britain, except Salop, Mid Lanes, S.E. Yorks, as far north
as the Shetlands, up to 1500 ft. in Derby, and in Ireland and the
Channel Islands.

The Small Bent Grass is strictly an arenophilous species, growing
where Aira prcecox-A.^ Sheep's Sorrel are found. It is mainly ericetal,
being frequent on commons, heaths, and moorland, where also Furze,
Broom, Tormentil, Harebell, and other heath plants grow.

This is a tall, erect grass with a slender stem, unbranched, often
putting forth stolons or trailing shoots, with the lower part of the stem
prostrate at first. The leaves are mainly radical, and narrow, with
inrolled flat margins. The lower leaves are bristle-like and tufted.
The shoots are leafy and trailing. The ligule is oblong and acute.
The sheaths are smooth.

The flowers are in a long panicle, which is narrow before it opens,
then spreading almost at right angles, slender and wavy, with rough
flower-stalks, and purple to green in flower, and contracted in fruit.
The branches are slender and hair-like.

The glumes above are empty, shorter than those below, which are
blunt. The awn is bent like a knee, twisted, and above the base of

SMALL BENT GRASS

125

the spikelet. The lower palea is jagged above, the upper absent or
very small.

This graceful grass is 18 in. high. The flower is in bloom in
July and August. The plant is perennial, and may be propagated
by division.

The flowers are bisexual, and pollinated by the wind. The flowers
open at 1 1 a.m. There are 3 stamens, the styles are short, and the
stigma is feathery.

The seed is a caryopsis or achene, united to the pericarp, and the

SMALL BENT GRASS (Agrostis canina, L.)

fruit is enclosed in a glume, which assists it in being blown to a dis-
tance by the wind.

Small Bent Grass is a sand-lover, and addicted to a sand soil.

Agrostis, Theophrastus, is from the Greek agros, field, and canina,
Latin, refers to the silvery-whitish appearance.

It is attacked by a fungus, Tilletia decipiens, which dwarfs the
host-plant, and such plants were once known as A. pumila.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

330. Agrostis canina, L. — Stem tall, leaves narrow, involute below,
sheaths glabrous, panicle erect, diffuse in flower, glumes 2, unequal, no
inner palea.

126 FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

Heath Hair Grass (Deschampsia flexuosa, Trin.)

This Arctic plant is found in the North Temperate and Arctic
regions in Arctic Europe, N. and W. Asia, N. America, Fuegia. It is
unknown in early plant beds. In Great Britain it is found in every
county except in Hunts, Mid Lanes, Haddington, as far north as the

Shetlands, and up to 3700 ft.
in the Highlands, as well as
in Ireland and the Channel
Islands.

Heath Hair Grass is
commonly distributed in the
upland regions of the country,
especially in dry stations, the
borders, for instance, of rocky
woods, where on sandy knolls
it is a common plant. It is
characteristic again of heath
and common-land, as well as
moors, up to very high elev-
ations.

This plant is similar in
general habit to the Sil-
very Hair Grass. The stem
is erect, slender, glossy, and
leafless above. The leaves
are bristle-like, short, curved,
blunt, grooved, and glossy.

HKATH HAIR GRASS (Deschampsia flexuosa, Trin.) The Upper leaVCS have long

sheaths, and are rough.
The ligule is short and blunt, or truncate.

The flowers are apetalous (without a corolla), in panicles which are
spreading, wavy, or flexuose (hence the second Latin name), divided
into three branches. The spikelets are purple, glossy, with long-
pointed empty glumes, and long-twisted awn, half as long as the
rounded spikelet, and coming from the base of the palea.

The plant is 6-8 in. or even 2 ft. high. The flowers may be found
between June and August. Heath Hair Grass is a perennial, propa-
gated by division.

There are 2 flowers in a spikelet, and sometimes a male flower is

Photo. Flatters & Garr

MAT-GRASS 127

produced on the rachilla. There are 3 stamens, with bluish-black
anthers, distinct styles, and feathery stigmas. The flowers are pollin-
ated by the wind. The stigma and anthers ripen together. The
flower opens between 5 and 6 a.m.

The fruit is light and easily blown away by the wind.

The Heath Hair Grass is turfophilous, growing on humus soil.
The name Deschantpsia, Beauv., is in commemoration of a French
chemist, M. H. Deschamps. The second Latin name refers to the
wavy panicle.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

334. Deschampsia flexuosa, Trin. — Stem smooth, erect, leaves fili-
form, solid, terete, upper sheaths roughish, panicle spreading, wavy,
the spikelets exceeding the awn.

Mat-grass (Nardus stricta, L.)

Though an Arctic type of grass this species is not met with in early
deposits, but is found in Temperate and Arctic Europe, the Azores,
and Greenland. In Great Britain it is found in every county except
Hunts, Northampton, E. Gloucs, as far north as the Shetlands, and
up to 3300 ft. in the Highlands, as well as in Ireland and the Channel
Islands.

Mat-grass is one of the most typical of heath grasses. It forms
patches, as the English name suggests, of wide extent, to the exclusion
of all else, on heaths and commons, in the south as well as the north,
and on various formations. It grows also at different elevations, and
is prevalent not only on stony but also on sandy and even peaty for-
mations.

The plant is densely caespitose, or tufted, with a cushion of close,
rigid, radical leaves, and stems which are erect, rigid, finely furrowed,
angular, with long sheaths. The leaves below are nearly horizontal.
The sheaths are smooth, and the ligule is short.

The spike is bristle-like, solitary, straight, and turned one way,
with a slender rachis. The spikelets are distant, the flowering glume
is purple and slender, the lower palea has a rough awn, and is short.
The flowering glume is rough after flowering.

Mat-grass is 6-8 in. in height. The flowers are at their best in
July. The grass is perennial, propagated by roots.

The spikelets are arranged in a single row, and turned one way.
There are 3 stamens, the stigma is hairy and does not fall, slender and
thread-like, and the spikelets somewhat distant. The plant is anemo-

128

FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

philous, pollinated by the wind. The flowers open between 12 and
i a.m. The stigma is mature first. The spikelets open at the top for
the stigma and the stamens to protrude.

The fruit, slightly attached to the panicle and adhering to the
palea, is readily blown away by the wind.

This grass is a peat-loving plant growing in a humus soil.

MAT-GRASS (Xardus stricta, L.)

Nardus, Theophrastus, is a Greek name nardos, for sweet-smelling
ointment, and it is unknown why it is applied to this grass. Mat-
grass is known by the names of Black, White, or Wire Bent, Ling,
Mat-reed, Nard.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

344. Nardns stricta, L. — Ceespitose, stem erect, rigid, leaves the
same, slender, spike unilateral, close, awn short, palea purple.

Section XII

FLOWERS OF THE ROCKS, WALLS, STONY
AND GRAVELLY PLACES

VOL. v.

FLOWERS OF THE ROCKS, WALLS, STONY
AND GRAVELLY PLACES

We have already alluded, under Section VI on Mountains, Hills,
and Dry Places, to certain Lithophytes, chiefly surface plants, which
were grouped together primarily on a physical basis- — their altitude.
In this section we include not only the surface plants (Exochomo-
phytes) but true Lithophytes. Rock plants may be called Petrophytes,
and include Lithophytes and Chomophytes. Here, also, as a sub-
division of the latter, are some crevice plants growing in vertical
fissures in rocks, or Chasmophytes.

As the group is kindred in character to, but diverse in origin from,
the plants found on walls with the rupestral plants, a number of
purely mural plants are included, and a few found on sandy or gravelly
fields, of a local character, allied to those growing on rubble or shingle,
but not identical. Several features characterize the existence of
vegetation on rocks.

The plants are lovers of dry soil, and may be called in general
rupestral or saxicolous. There are about 180 of these, and of that
number 120 are alpine, 60 lowland species. Those here alluded to
chiefly belong to the latter. About a dozen prefer wet rocks, and
twenty are distinctly calciphilous or lime -lovers, and so on. Much
depends on how far the rocks are exposed in relation to sunlight.

The slope of the surface is of importance, as horizontal surfaces
accumulate detritus, whilst vertical rocks do not. Of paramount im-
portance is the composition of the rock chemically, or looked at in
a different way, to what geological formation it belongs. If it is
siliceous and hard, it nourishes a certain flora quite distinct from that
found on calcareous rocks. The porosity, again, is of great importance.

The true Lithophytes are chiefly Cryptogams, such as Algse,
Lichens, and Mosses, which are all typically Xerophytes. Upon the
same rocks, where humus has accumulated, grow Biting Stone Crop
and Ling. Chasmophytes are those plants that grow with their roots

1 32 FLOWERS OF ROCKS, WALLS, ETC.

attached to humus, such as collects in the vertical or horizontal clefts
in exposed rocks. The clefts caused naturally by alternate heat and
cold, frost, disintegration, rain or chemical action are not inconsiderable,
and support a typical plant formation, which varies according to the
exposure, size of cleft, position, &c. Chasmophytic vegetation may he
found in other situations, as where Orpine grows under hedge-banks,
though its true position is in the clefts of rocks.

Chasmophytes develop rhizoids, and have flattened rootlets and
tap-roots. They are usually tufted, and many are rosette plants.

They are xerophylous as a whole, such as Sedum or Stone Crop,
Saxifrages, Sempervivum, and Draba. Many species of Chickweed,
Sandwort, Speedwell, Lady's Mantle, Saxifrage are white and woolly.
Most of them are perennials, and while most are Xerophytes, some are
Mesophytes, and along the shore Halophytes.

If we take the flowers that grow on older rocks we have here
an example in Sandwort Spurrey, which is found on granitic and
slaty or schistose rocks, where also, if there is some detritus, another
Chomophyte, Bird's-foot, grows. The Field Mouse-ear and Silvery
Hair Grass grow on similar sand-rock soil, and may also be found on
marlstone on little detritus; and in the hollows of the slopes from the
escarpment of the latter one finds the White Meadow Saxifrage, which
prefers clay soil derived from the Middle Lias clays. Limestone rocks
with little soil are the only habitat on which Cheddar Pink grows.
The chalk, which forms but a thin rubble, or has otherwise a sandy,
gravelly subsoil, affords support for Horseshoe Vetch, with its pretty
horseshoe-like pods, and Yellow Centaury is found there or on lime-
stone, but usually in wetter stations.

The Chasmophytes include such rupestrals as Navelwort, Orpine,
Golden-rod, the last growing in tufts, tall and graceful, with rich golden
blooms. Golden-rod is either a Chasmophyte or a Mesophyte, growing
in chalky districts along the roadside in hedge bottoms.

Mouse-ear Hawkweed sometimes covers exposed rocks growing
in the crannies on the faces of exposures, and extends above vertically
on a sand-rock soil or a lime-rock soil, or it may also be found on wall-
tops. Out of the crevices in the Marlstone Rock-bed, or on older
detrital rocks such as slate, one may see Wall Lettuce growing in the
shade sheltered by overhanging herbage.

Walls have a typical flora, but this mural habitat is an entirely
artificial one, originated within the historic era. Here, in towns and
villages throughout the country from Land's End to John o' Groats,
one may find the Yellow Fumitory in gardens or on greenhouse walls

Photo. L. R. J. Hor

GULLY IN THE R. WHARFE AT BOLTON (THE STRID)
Natural rock-habitats for rupestral plants.

YELLOW WALL FUMITORY 135

or terraces, wallflowers on ruins of castles or old houses, on a mud-wall
top, and Rue-leaved Saxifrage, which also grows on mole-heaps, its
natural habitat. Then on thatched roofs there is Live-long, and as a
Chasmophyte rooted in crevices (but artificially introduced) Ivy-leaved
Toadflax, while other mural plants are Great Snapdragon, Field
Speedwell, Pellitory, especially on church towers, castles, and Flat-
stalked Poa on mud-walls. The luscious-rooted Rampion is fond of
gravel, while Silky Wind Grass and Sand Fescue love sandy fields.

Yellow Wall Fumitory (Corydalis lutea, D.C.)

No trace of this plant has occurred in ancient deposits. It is found
south of Belgium throughout Western Europe. The Yellow Fumitory
is found throughout England, Wales, and Scotland, where it is
naturalized, and without exception an escape from cultivation. Almost
entirely an escape from gardens it is likely to be found wherever it is
grown in or near gardens. Its actual distribution as a naturalized
plant has not been ascertained.

This plant has a predilection for walls, and is usually grown with
other rock or mural plants in a garden or on the stone walls of a
glass-house, or at the foot of the wall of a house. But it flourishes
best, like the Ivy-leaved Toadflax, with which it grows, in old moated
enclosures, where the bricks have fallen into decay, and a suitable
substratum has thus been created for it. This is also the case with the
Wallflower, Stock, and other mural denizens.

Unlike the Earth Smoke, Yellow Fumitory is a compact, many-
branched, spreading plant, whose stems are less tall, and clustered
together in a fastigiate manner, giving the plant, with its luxuriant
foliage and rather abundant flowers, an ornamental character lacking
in the latter.

The yellow, rarely white, flowers are in racemes, with a leaf
opposite each, and the seeds are in 2-valved pods and numerous, while
the bracts are small, oblong, shorter than the flower-stalks, and the
seeds, which are granular, have a crest. The upper of the 4 petals
has a short, thick, incurved spur. The foliage is more like that of
an Adiantum, with inversely egg-shaped leaflets on long petioles.
The whole plant is less bluish-green than Earth Smoke, but equally
tender and brittle. The base of the stem and roots is yellow.

The stem is not more than i ft. high. Flowers extend from May
to August. The plant is a deciduous, herbaceous perennial, increased
by division.

136

FLOWERS OF ROCKS, WALLS, ETC.

When the hood is bent down it does not rise again, but the stamens
and pistil fly upwards, becoming concealed in the hollow of the upper
petal, and the flower can only be visited once. The under side of the
bee is dusted with pollen, heaped upon the stigma. Pollen is brought
to the stigma if the bee comes from another flower. Bombus agrorum,
with proboscis 12-15 nun., is the main visitor.

In Corydalis cava the flowers are larger and more conspicuous than
in Fumaria, and have no power to self-pollinate, being sterile with their
own pollen, and not perfectly fertile with pollen from another flower,

Photo. Flatters & G.irn

YELLOW WALL FUMITORY (Corydalis lu/ea, D.C.)

but only so with pollen from a different plant. The tube is 12 mm.
long, and hive-bees with proboscis 6 mm. cannot get at the honey, but
only the humble-bee with proboscis 7-10 mm., though even they
cannot easily get at it. The insect bites a hole at the base of the tube
to reach the honey, and the visitors are Andrcna, Sphecodes, Noinada,
and Hive-bees (pollen-seekers).

The plant is dispersed by its own agency. The capsule is oblong,
2-valved, and swollen, and disperses the seeds, which are small, around
the plant.

This is a humus-loving plant, requiring a mild humus soil, which it
obtains in the habitats it frequents in woods and shaded spots.

The name Corydalis given by Galen is the Greek Corydalis for

KEY TO PLATE LX

No. i. Yellow Wall Fumitory

(Corydalis lutea, D.C.11

-

<z, Flov/er, dissected to show
parts, green sepal at side,
petals, 4 in pairs, 2 outer
larger gibbous spurred, one
shown in position, one be-
low, inner 2 smaller, I shown
below, stamens in tvvo
bundles, and style with 2-
lobed stigma. (>. Capsule,
2-valved. *r/Seed. d, Upper
part of piarit, with pinnate,
2-3-ternate leaves,,-and *fc
ceme of flowers opposite. <

rc-^ 1&&

• No. 2. Wallflower
(Cfoirantkus Cheiri, L.)

^ar, - Andrcecium, wi th^# sta-
mens, 4 long, 2 short, honey-
glands at base, gynaecium
with long ovary and 2-fid
stigma. >, Pod, witji mjves

:-6pefttng'from below upwWcls,
sesds

WteantJ wi
an

show
fiT ^ ).yx,

'*•*?

0

No. 3. Vernal Whitjjbtf Grass
(Erophila verna^ fit/Meyer)

«, $ic&fer (enlarged), with
4-fid^C^lyx, and corolla with
4 2-fid petals. ^, Siliqua, with
valves opening frO|(n below
upwards,' Nseeds attached to
dividing s^ptu^i. ,// c, Plant,
with root, '.Vo^ptter of radical
ig stems vrith

No. 4. Cheddar Pink
(Dianthus glaucus, H ads. — ccesiu j, Sm.)

«, Androecium, with 10 stamens, and gy-
naecium, with i -celled ovary, and 2 styles.
f>, Petalj wkh long claw and toothed limb.
c, Pistil, ^irith globular ovary, and 2 styles,
papillose! within, d, Barren shoot, witfr
linear leaves, rough at edges. £, Ejch^e^ -^'7
ing stenl^ with opposite leaves, and flmvw -
bud, wi^h gamosepalous qklyx, and brajc(6
\ //

No. 5. Fi^ld Mouse
(Cerastin arvense,

Andrcecium, vf|th ring of i^sfiwnens,
ntrorse, and gyifc^cHim, with oVaiy/and 5
styles. 3, PistiV\MiJth globular oV^y, and
5 styles, papillose jwithin (when ffifere are
5 styles they^arlpl cmposite the) /sepals).
c, Capsule, d^'^teft, with 8 te*th, and
seeds within. ^jLje, Flowering stems,
showing oppositeljfeaves and flowers, with
5 2-fid petab^fid ca^c, 10 stamens, one

Vernal Whitlo-.v

XJ HTAJ1 o?

(.J ,«**3 XVI* V

-A > '

.

Yioiuiiui UK'// woilsY

,9bi<i JK !/q»rf 09313 ,?fisq
S ,n,sq ni 4. .-
1

CK| ni nwoHe

01 to sinn dliw .otuouTibaA ,u .

fan* ,«» vtol e)i«dqqo dJrw '^rn|9» y

S< 6 111 n i .aolte s
J^» f*

,«fnaM aawo ^, .nidJiw
dim ^t^wof) bnfi e>v*a&ti«x|qo ^diwoiie

iiswoh fij--'
tLtjrn, .^.r^^

>*"— T / ~**\ I ^

AOs \i

v.

;-

FLOWERS OF THE ROCKS AND GRAVELLY PLACES PLATE LX

I. Yellow \Vall Fumitory (Corydalis littea, D.C. ). 2. Wallflower (Cheiranthns C/ieiri, L.)-

3. Vernal Whitlow (Irass (Erophi/a venia, K. >feyer). 4. Cheddar Pink (Dianthtis glanrus, Iluds.).

5. Field Mouse-ear (Ccmstiiim arrense, L.).

WALLFLOWER 137

Fumitory, and lutea is Latin for yellow, in allusion to the colour of the
flowers. The English names are Lady's Pincushion, Mother of
Thousands, Pincushion.

The plant is commonly grown in gardens, being an easily-cultivated
plant, covering bare walls, and very prolific, the ordinary loamy garden
soil being suited to it.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

21. Corydalis lutea, D.C. — Stems erect, angular, leaves 3-ternate,
lobed, bracts oblong, flowers large, in racemes, spur incurved, short,
pods compressed, many-seeded.

Wallflower (Cheiranthus Cheiri, L.)

Long cultivated as it has been no seeds of the Wallflower have
been discovered in early beds. It is confined to the North Temperate
Zone in Central and North Europe. Everywhere it is only naturalized,
being an alien plant which has become established solely on account of
being a garden plant, easily propagated by seed, the amount of which,
as in most Cruciferse, is enormous.

Like the yellow-flowered Wall Fumitory, the Wallflower, too, is
a rock plant. Its occurrence on old ruins may sometimes mark the
only remnants of a former domestic use of such buildings. Castle walls
and enclosures are a frequent stronghold of the so-called Wild Wall-
flower. With it one may find the Martagon Lily and the Star-of-
Bethlehem, these last being fond of humus but not rock habitats.

The plant is shrubby, having a smooth, stout main stem, or with
a few hairs, with numerous ascending branches forked from the base.
The leaves, which are entire, lance-shaped, and having appressed forked
hairs, which are numerous, help to give it this shrub-like character.
The hairs protect the plant from loss of moisture or from the sun.

The flowers are large, in racemes, the sepals erect, i in. across,
fragrant, and in cultivation many-coloured. The stigma is bilobed with
bent-back lobes, the pods are long and not transversely divided, but
square. The pod opens by 2 valves all the way, and is divided by
narrow compartments. The seeds are oblong, have a membranous
oval border, and are in a single row in each cell. The valve of each
pod has a rib in the centre. The embryo fills the seed, and the coty-
ledons are egg-shaped, flat, and pressed face to face.

The Wallflower reaches a height of i-i^ ft. It is in flower from
April to June or July. It is an evergreen undershrub, perennial, and
propagated by seed.

138

FLOWERS OF ROCKS, WALLS, ETC.

The flowers are large and conspicuous, sweet-scented and attractive
to insects, and the stigma is provided with spreading lobes to assist
insects to alight upon it and cause cross-pollination. There are 2
honey-glands at the base of the 2 stamens.

The seeds are dispersed by the wind or the plant's own mechanism.
The seeds are flattened, and this assists in their dispersal by the wind
when the pod has opened or dehisced lengthwise.

The Wallflower is largely a rock plant or saxicolous, and grows on

a variety of rocks — gran-
ite, sandstone, and oolite.
It is also a sand plant,
favouring a sand soil de-
rived from sandy forma-
tions.

It is infested by a
fungus, Peronospora para-
sit ica. The beetle Bari-
dins laticollis, and the
Lepidoptera Large Yellow
Underwing {Tripkczna
pronubd), Angle Shades
(Phlogophora meticulosa),
Phitella cruciferar nut y P.
porrectella, visit it.

The name C/ieirz, or
Keir in . Arabic, was
adopted by Linnaeus, who
added anthos, Greek for
flower. Cheiros means a
man's hand, and it was
called hand-flower. Gerarde (1597) called it Well Gilloflower.

The English names are Banwort, Bee Flower, Bleeding Heart,
Blood Wall, Bloody Warrior, Chevisaunce, Churl, Geraflour, Gilli-
flower, Heartsease, Jacks, Jeroffleris, Jilliver, July Flower, Keyry,
Sweet William. It was called Winter Flower and July Flower be-
cause it flowers in winter and is more or less dead in summer. In
Palestine it was called "Blood-drops of Christ". A legend is told of
a maiden held captive on the Tweed banks, having plighted her troth
with a member of a hostile clan. The rival chiefs fought and shed
blood between each other. The lover at last gained admission as
a troubadour and planned escape, he agreeing to wait for her:

WALLFLOWER (Cheiranthus C/iein, L.)

VERNAL WHITLOW GRASS 139

" Up she got upon a wall,
Attempted down to slide withal;
She fell, and bruised, she died.
Love in pity to the deed,
And her loving luckless speed,
Turned her to this plant we call
Now the Flower of the Wall."

The Wallflower is much cultivated, and many varieties of colour —
yellow, white, orange, blue, purple flowers — are produced, both double
and single. It has been grown in pastures with parsley, thyme, &c.,
for its acrid properties as a remedy for sheep rot.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

23. Cheiranthus Cheiri, L. — Stem shrubby, leaves linear-lanceolate,
acute, with appressed hairs, flower yellow or red, calyx spreading, pod
tetragonal, stigma 2-lobed.

Vernal Whitlow Grass (Erophila verna, E. Meyer)

There is no record of this in beds containing fossil remains of recent
plants. It is distributed throughout temperate Europe, Asia as far as
the Himalayas, North Africa. This little plant is known in every
district in Great Britain except Cardigan, Mid Lancashire, Stirling,
N. Hebrides, Orkneys, ranging from the west of England to the
Orkneys and throughout the south. It is found also in Ireland and
the Channel Islands.

Vernal Whitlow Grass, as the name implies, is a spring flower
which adorns our mud walls or stone walls and roofs in the majority of
English and Scottish counties. It is also found on mole-heaps and
other dry spots which are raised above the general level at a distance
from houses in the open fields. It is a xerophyte, and occurs also on
gravel-walks, cinder-paths, terraces, in the cracks of walls and similar
spots.

The habitat of this plant is associated with its habit. For its
leaves, which are lance-shaped, acute, and are hairy and narrowed
below, are arranged in a regular rosette at the base of the plant, which
in its usually exposed position help to prevent it from being uprooted.
The short aerial stem is a scape, leafless, and bears few flowers. Many
of these little plants grow together like little mats scattered over the
surface.

The petals of the flower are deeply cloven, white. The pods are
oblong, rounded, and the flower-stalks are longer, spreading, alternate.

1 40

FLOWERS OF ROCKS, WALLS, ETC.

The style is not marked, the stigma pin- headed. There are numerous
seeds. When it is wet and at night the flowers hang down.

This is a diminutive plant, the scape not being more than 3-5 in.
high. The first Latin name was given in allusion to its early flower-
ing, viz. March to April. It is an annual.

Between the base of the short and long stamens, which are ad-
jacent, there are 4 small, fleshy, green honey-glands. Anthers and
stigma ripen together. The longer stamens reach the level of the
stigma, and closely surround it, opening towards it and dusting it with
pollen, and the shortest stamens also, but they are below it. The

Photo Flatters & Garnett

VERNAL WHITLOW GRASS (Erophila venia, E. Meyer)

insect's head is placed between the stigma and shorter stamens, and
is covered with pollen, and in transferring it to another flower cross-
pollination follows. Cross-pollination is brought about by the short
stamens, and the four longer regularly cause self-pollination, which is
effective. The flowers are not conspicuous, and insects seldom visit
it. The visitors are the Honey-bee, Andrena panmla^ Halictiis.

The plant is dispersed by its own agency. The pods wrhen dry be-
come tense, and disperse the numerous small seeds to no great distance.

Vernal Grass is a sand-loving plant, and requires a sand soil with
no humus.

A beetle, Ceuthorhynchus hirtulus, causes galls, but there are no
other insect pests.

Erophila is derived from er, spring, phileo, I love; and vcma is
Latin for vernal or spring.

CHEDDAR PINK 141

The English names are Faverel, Whitlow Grass, Nailwort. White
Blow. The flowers droop at night and in wet weather. In Sweden
they sow their rye when the Whitlow Grass is in flower.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

28. Erophila verna, E. Meyer. — Stem (flowering) leafless, leaves
radical, lanceolate, acute, dentate, hairy, petals white, deeply cloven,
capsule a compressed oval pouch, many-seeded.

Cheddar Pink (Dianthus glaucus, Huds.)

This plant is quite unknown except from its present-day distribu-
tion, which is from Belgium southwards to Lombardy and Hungary.
It is native in these islands only at its single locality in North Somer-
sets, on the rocks of Cheddar Gorge, and it is only introduced in
Oxford and Edinburgh; and in Northampton, W7est Gloucester, South
Lines, and Westmorland it is erroneously recorded as native.

Cheddar Gorge, which is a valley cut through Carboniferous rocks
and calcareous, is the only locality for this charming pink, called from
its single British station the Cheddar Pink. In the minds of the
country traveller and the botanist this locality is thus rendered doubly
famous, first for the reputed Cheddar Cheese, and last, but not least,
for the Cheddar Pink. Over the limestone rocks at this place it grows
in patches like Thrift at the seaside; but this plant is eminently a lime-
loving plant, the other sand-loving.

Like other pinks and carnations, e.g. the Common Clove, the
Cheddar Pink grows in tufts on the rocks, having a woody rootstock
and numerous stems. The leaves are linear, blunt, with rough edges,
bluish -green, and the barren stems are much branched.

The flower-stalks are usually single, in panicles or solitary. The
petals are rosy, inversely egg-shaped, notched, downy. The calyx
scales are roundish, blunt, only \ as long as the calyx and pressed
close together, and the flower is scented.

The plant is not more than 3 in. high when barren, the flowering
stems are 6-8 in. It is in bloom in June and July. Like others of
the group it is perennial, and increased by cuttings.

Honey-glands in D. deltoides, the pollination of which is similar
to that of this plant, are formed by the union of petals and stamens
at the base. The stamens and pistil nearly close the narrow tube,
making it impossible for any but moths to get at the honey. Other
insects, such as flies, are pollen-seekers. The flower is conspicuous,
being flattened above. There are 10 stamens. Five project, and

I42

FLOWERS OF ROCKS, WALLS, ETC.

the anthers open when the flower opens, and ripen, and after the pollen
is shed the other five do so. After they have all opened, the pistil,
previously concealed, emerges, and the 2 long stigmas elongate. In
this way it is necessary for Lepidoptera to convey pollen from anthers
of young to the stigmas of old flowers. The plant is not self-pollinated.
It is sweet-scented. Some plants produce only female flowers.

The seeds of the Cheddar Pink are dispersed by the wind. The
capsule opens to form a series of apical teeth and allows the seeds

to be dispersed by the wind,
the stem swaying backwards and
forwards.

A fungus, Ascochyta dianthi,

-.^ infests several members of the

Clove and Pink tribe. The
beetle Phytonomus polygoni feeds
on it.

This is a lime-loving plant,
and saxicolous, requiring a lime
soil and growing on rocks.

Dianthus is the name given
by Linnaeus, Greek Dios anthos,
Flower of Jove, and glaucus
means bluish -grey or glaucous,
in allusion to its colour.

Cheddar Pink is called Cleve-
pink, Cliff-pink. Cleve-pink is
given in the same sense as
Cliff- pink, both indicating its
habitat, and the first its only
locality.

It has been cultivated as a flower in the garden for the rock-border.
ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

46. Dianthus glaucus^ Huds. — Leaves linear, with rough margins,
flowers solitary, rose-pink, petals bearded, jagged, bracts shorter than the
calyx.

Field Mouse-ear (Cerastium arvense, L.)

This plant has not been discovered in any early deposits containing
seeds. It is distributed at the present time throughout Arctic Europe,
North Africa, Siberia, West Asia to the Himalayas, North America,
Fuegia, Chili. In Great Britain it is absent from Cornwall. North

CHEDDAR PINK (Dianthus glaucus, Huds.)

FIELD MOUSE-EAR 143

Devon, N. Somersets, Dorset, I. of Wight, Monmouth, Worcester, from
S. Wales; and it occurs in N. Wales only in Carnarvon, Denbigh,
Flint, Anglesea; and is absent from S. Lanes, Westmorland, Ayr,
Renfrew, Peebles, Selkirk, Mid and N. Perth. In England it is not
uncommon, in Scotland it is rarer in the West and N. Highlands.

The Field Mouse-ear turns up here and there over a wide area in
England upon the stony heights of the Midlands, and on sandy fields
and waste places in the south and east. It is a saxicolar xerophyte,
and may be found, on walls and rocks, in situations similar to the

Photo. Kev. C. A. Hall

FIELD MOUSE-EAR (Cerastium arvense, L.)

Cheddar Pink, Sandwort, Bird's -foot, White Meadow Saxifrage,
Mouse-ear Hawkweed, Musk Thistle, and other dry-soil-loving species.

This plant is very rigid, and generally prostrate, with numerous
barren shoots which make a kind of turf where they grow, but the
flowering shoots are ascending. The leaves are deep-green, linear-
lance-shaped, blunt, and fringed with hairs at the base. The stem is
brittle owing to jointing.

The flowers are larger than in the Common Mouse-ear, the petals
being twice as long as the calyx, which has membranous margins and
tips. The capsule is longer than the calyx, and the seeds are acutely
tubercled, numerous, and reddish-brown.

The plant in flower is usually at most 6 in. in height. It flowers
from April and May till August. It is perennial, increasing by division.

144 FLOWERS OF ROCKS, WALLS, ETC.

The honey-glands are situated as in the Greater Stitchwort. The
stamens and pistil develop in the same manner. A similar opportunity
for cross-pollination is presented when insects visit it, and of self-
pollination in their absence. The flowers are large and widely open
and conspicuous. The insects that visit it are numerous: Diptera,
Stratiomyidie, Empidae, Pepidae, Syrphidae Eristalis, Syritta, Platy-
cheirus, Syrphus, Melanostoma, Muscidse, Hymenoptera, Apidae, Cole-
optera, Staphylinidae, Thysanoptera, Tkrips, Lepidoptera, Polyom-
matits phlceas. Besides complete flowers there are some with more or
less rudimentary stamens.

Field Mouse-ear is mainly dispersed by the wind. The seeds
(acutely tuberculate) are blown out of the capsule, the plant growing
in exposed positions.

It is a sand -loving plant growing on a sand soil, but is also lime-
loving, and will subsist on a lime soil.

A fungus, Melampsora cerastii, lives upon it. It is galled by
Cecidomyia cerastii. The beetle Adimonia tanaceti, and the moths,
Coleophora chalcogrammella, C. olivacella, (Small Yellow Underwing),
Heliodes arbuti, Heliaca tenebrata, feed on it.

The second name, arvense, refers to a reputed prevalence for culti-
vated land.

Though found in the eastern counties in cornfields, it is found on
dry banks, sand-banks, and on walls, as well as on hilly ground. It is
distinguished from all other species by its large flowers, prostrate habit,
the deep-green, not light or yellow leaves, its brittle-jointed stem, and
its powerful creeping root.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

53. Cerastium arvense, L. — Stem prostrate, wiry, tufted, leaves
linear-lanceolate, downy, petals longer than the calyx, white, bracts
membranous on the margin and at the tip.

Sand Spurrey (Spergularia rubra, Pers.)

No instance of the occurrence of this plant in Glacial, earlier or
later, beds is known at present. To-day it is found in the Temperate
Northern Zone in Europe, North Africa, Siberia, Western Asia to
India, North America. In Great Britain it is common, but absent in
West Suffolk, Montgomery, Flint, Roxburgh, Westerness, Cantire,
South Ebudes, Mid Ebudes, North Ebudes, Sutherland, Caithness,
and the Northern Isles. In Ireland it is quite rare.

Sand Spurrey is a plant of rocky districts where there are accumu-

KEY TO PLATE LXI

No. r. Sand Spurrey
(Spergularia rulva, Pers.)

a, Stae^^wjp lon^f 4»ament and introrse
anthers. ^ Petal, f, Seed, d, Capsule,
by calyx with 5 -fid sepals, e,
irt of pla^ with branched stem

\*

No. 2. Bird's Fp^;^?^ c^J
(Ornithopus perpusitlus, L.)

a, Flower, showing

papii^ceous corolla, wit.. ^-.^^
&riped)f wings, and keel, b, /Ropis?
tp|>prc^e (with nitrogen-fd^jii^hg\ barae^ia).
<r.T?la*U, with root, rootlets, an<J tubercles,
:hed stem, pinnate alternate leaves,
[in umbels, and jomtfed pods,
up at joints,\inW i -seeded

c, Plant,
rosette of j-fid
branched
and flowe
lower

lerminffl^w'gamosepaoys i
calyx,^S-rTa, bell-shaped c6 J

-''

(TAJ 4 OT

r\i, jpol e'b-iifl . .

> ,- i -.-..

A.^f

ac-rtixfig WotraM .j .oM«/>-
. .

9

Wrawofi

•vKii rii.

bfi>
:o Jisq

ad it i^L quite

FLOWERS OF THE ROCKS AND GRAVELLY PLACES

PLATE LXI

i. Sand Spurrey (Spergularia rnbra, Pers. ). 2. Bird's-foot {Oniithopus perpnsilhts, L. ). 3. Horseshoe Vetch

(Hippocrepis co/nosa, L.). 4. Rue-leaved Saxifrage (Saxifraga tridactylites, L.). 5. Meadow Saxifrage

(Saxifraga grannlata, L.).

SAND SPURREY 145

lations of sand or gravel. Thus it will grow in the Midlands on
the Pennines, where igneous and volcanic rocks have by disintegra-
tion produced an arenaceous subsoil, or on rocks and walls. Along
the maritime tracts of the coast counties it will be found where there
are wide stretches of sandy heath.

No plant could be more prostrate in habit than this humble species,
which spreads its flexible stems over the surface in the manner of a
club moss on land or some stalkless seaweeds in the water. The stems
are hairy and numerous, nearly round, with linear, flat, or thread-like

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Photo. A. R. Horwood

SAND SPURREY (Spergularia rubra, Pers.)

leaves, shorter than the joints of the stem ; and the stipules are large,
united at the base, silvery and torn, membranous at the margin, not
falling, inserted just below the leaves, enclosing them entirely in bud,
covering the base when fully developed.

The flowers are like those of Common Spurrey, but pink or purple,
the petals equalling the calyx, and the capsule is the same length,
shorter than the fruit-stalk, the seeds egg-shaped, wedge-shaped, and
bordered.

The plant never rises to a height of more than 2 in. It can be
seen in flower from June to September. It is annual or biennial.

The flowers are like those of Spergula, but are more conspicuous,
and the plant is not hidden away amongst corn, but is prostrate on
rocky soils. It is in this way less driven to self-pollination than
Spurrey.

VOL. V. 72

146 FLOWERS OF ROCKS, WALLS, ETC.

The seeds of Sand Spurrey are dispersed by its own agency.
The capsule is split into valves, and the seeds are scattered when ripe
close to the plant; but they may be wind -scattered, the bordered
margin facilitating this.

The plant is saxicolous or a rock plant, and requires a rock soil,
growing on volcanic, igneous, and granite rocks which are more or less
barren.

The fungus Urowyces sparsus infests it.

From the general similarity between it and Spurrey the Latin name
is a diminutive of Spergnla, and rubra, red, refers to the flowers.

This is one of those plants that serve to make up a floral index,
flowering only at certain hours of the day.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

59. Spergularia rubra, Pers. — Stem branched, prostrate, leaves
linear, flat, with a bristle, stipules triangular, chaffy, flowers purple,
capsule not exceeding the calyx, shorter than the pedicels, seeds not
winged.

Bird's-foot (Ornithopus perpusillus, L.)

Nothing is known of the distribution of this plant except from its
distribution to-day in the Northern Temperate Zone in Europe and
North Africa. In Great Britain it is absent from Radnor, Carmarthen,
Montgomery, Merioneth, Northumberland, Cheviodand, Renfrew,
occurring in the East Lowlands only in Edinburgh, not in Kincardine
or Aberdeen or Easterness in the E. Highlands, and elsewhere only in
Dumbarton. From Moray and Dumbarton it ranges, however, to the
extreme south elsewhere. It is very rare only in S.E. Ireland. It
occurs in the Channel Islands.

Bird's-foot is found on bare sandy or gravelly places, which may
form parts of mountainous or hilly districts, or the lowlands, or parts of
heaths or commons, where it is most frequent along the side of wide
alluvial river valleys. But it may also be found on stony ground in
wooded tracts, and also on walls and rocks generally.

The stems are numerous, prostrate, simple, downy, with leaves with
lobes each side of a common stalk, the radical leaves prostrate, from
6-12, with a terminal larger leaflet.

The flowers are white with red veins, in a capitate head, on short
flower-stalks, the calyx tubular, hairy, with 5 teeth. The pods are
jointed, with curved valves, and the first name is given in allusion
to the resemblance of the clustered pods to a bird's foot, hence the
English and generic names.

BIRD'S-FOOT 147

Bird's-foot is at most about 3 in. high. Flowers may be seen in
May up till August. The plant is perennial.

The type of flower is like the general Leguminous flower, but is
very small, and the plant is prostrate, so that insect visits are restricted
to smaller insects. The upper stamens are free. The stigma is pin-
headed, with an inbent style, while the keel is very short, so that
self-pollination is more frequent or possible. There is moreover no
honey.

As in Lotiis the pod, a schizocarp, breaks up into single joints of
i cell each, and the seeds are thus dispersed separately around the

. Dr. Somerville Hastings

BIRD'S-FOOT (Ornithopus perpusillus, L.)

plant, or blown by the wind when half-loose. They are also liable to
be fractured by animals underfoot.

The Bird's-foot requires a sand soil, and is a sand -loving plant.
It also favours barren and stony ground, and can be found on many of
the older Precambrian, schistose, and granitic formations.

No fungi or insects infest this plant.

Ornithopus, Gesner, from the Greek ornis, bird, pous, foot, is so
named from the similarity of the fruits to a bird's foot, and the second
name refers to its diminutive character. The plant goes by two
names, Bird's-foot, Fowl-foot.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

86. Ornithopus perpusillus, L. — Stem decumbent, spreading, leaves

I48 FLOWERS OF ROCKS, WALLS, ETC.

downy, pinnate, leaflets elliptic, in 5-12 pairs, flower white, veins
crimson, with a small leaf at the base, pods jointed, curved, moniliform.

Horseshoe Vetch (Hippocrepis comosa, L.)

This plant is found at the present day (not in any earlier beds) in
Western and Southern Europe and North Asia in the North Temperate
Zone. In Great Britain it is found in South Devon and Somerset in
the Peninsula province; in the whole of the Channel province, except
in S. Hants; and in the Thames province, except in Middlesex; in
Anglia, except in Hunts; in the Severn province, except Monmouth ;
only in Glamorgan and Carnarvon in Wales; and in the Trent pro-
vince; in Mid Lanes; in the Humber province, not in N.E. York;
elsewhere northward in Western Ireland, Ayr, and Kincardine, and it
ascends in Yorkshire to 1800 ft.

The Horseshoe Vetch is especially prevalent in the chalk districts,
where it is a conspicuous hill-side plant, growing on stony and rocky
pastures. It is accompanied by Mountain Flax, Rock Rose, Man
Orchis, Pyramidal Orchis, Viola ca/carea, Polygala serpyllacea and
P. ca/carea, Field Mouse-ear, Snapdragon, &c.

This plant has the Lotus habit, not growing very tall, but sub-
erect or prostrate, then ascending, with inversely egg-shaped, blunt
leaflets, 4-13, the leaves with lobes each side of a common stalk, with
an odd one.

The flowers are yellow on short stalks, and the slender flower-
stalks exceed the leaves. The 2 upper teeth of the calyx are united
below, and the petals have a long claw or stalk. The pods are stalked
in clusters, bent in a circle, and in shape like a horseshoe (hence the
names, Hippocrepis and English name above), the hollow margin con-
tinuous, the convex margin wavy. The pod does not break up at the
narrow part, but across the middle of the broader part. Each segment
contains two seeds, but one is sterile.

The plant is usually about 6 in. high. The flowers are in bloom
from April to August. Horseshoe Vetch is a perennial, deciduous,
herbaceous plant.

The Horseshoe Vetch has a flower in general like that of Lotus, in so
far as the method of pumping out the pollen is concerned. The vexillum
or standard has a narrow stalk or claw, and is curved, enabling one to
distinguish it between the vexillum and the stamens. Underneath it
bears a flat, irregular process which fits exactly upon the nectaries, and
serves to close them very effectually. The vexillum is employed by

HORSESHOE VETCH 149

a bee visitor as a long lever by which to raise this lid and then insert
its head beneath the vexillum, a procedure which leads to effectual
cross-pollination. It is visited by bees and Lepidoptera.

The pod breaks up into several joints, which are dispersed with
the contained seeds to a short distance, aided by the wind, as the plant
is semi-erect in habit.

It is one of the typical chalk plants needing a lime soil, which

Photo. A. R. Horwood

HORSESHOE VETCH (Hippocrepis comosa, L.)

it obtains also from oolitic rocks. No fungi or insect pests infest this
plant.

Hippocrepis, Linnaeus, is from the Greek hippos, horse, and crepis,
shoe, from the form of the joint, and comosa means hairy.

The only common name is Horseshoe. It is called also " Unshoe
the Horse ", because its seeds resemble a horseshoe, and by Doctrine
of Signatures (!) it was therefore said to unshoe horses.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

87. Hippocrepis comosa, L. — Stem branched, woody below, pro-
cumbent, leaves pinnate, leaflets narrow, obovate, 6-12, flowers yellow,
in umbels, 5-8, pod jointed, curved, like a horseshoe.

150

FLOWERS OF ROCKS, WALLS, ETC.

Rue-leaved Saxifrage (Saxifraga tridactylites, L.)

Small-seeded as it is there is nothing to prevent its occurrence
in Glacial beds, but the minuteness of the seeds would seem to prevent
their detection. The Northern Temperate Zone of Europe, N. Africa,
N. and W. Asia, is the region in which this little plant is found. In

Great Britain it is present
throughout the Peninsula,
Channel, Thames, Anglia, and
Severn provinces; but not in
Radnor or Cardigan in S.
Wales, Montgomery, or in N.
Wales; in the Trent province;
not in Mid Lanes in the Mer-

M sey province; generally in the

H umber and Tyne provinces;
not in the Isle of Man; in the
Lakes province; and only in
Haddington, Edinburgh, and
Linlithgow in the East Low-
lands; in Fife, W. and Mid
Perth, Forfar, Aberdeen, in
the E. Highlands, and in
Easterness, N. Ebudes, E.
Ross, E. Sutherland, and Caith-
ness; elsewhere from E. Scot-
land, that is from Caithness, to
Cornwall and Kent, it is other-
wise general. It is found in

Yorkshire at 1800 ft. It is native in Ireland and the Channel Islands.
The Rue-leaved Saxifrage is a familiar wall plant, growing abun-
dantly on the tops of mud walls or on rocks, rarely on the ground, with
Whitlow Grass, and Stonecrop of various kinds. Thale Cress is simi-
larly addicted to this same type of habitat.

This pretty little Saxifrage, so familiar on wall tops, is an erect
plant, with usually a reddish single-branched stem, and with leaves
wedge-shaped, 3-5-lobed or divided, alternate. The stem-leaves are
covered, like many other xerophytes, with absorbent, stalked, sticky
glands, which capture insects. The plant may be insectivorous. The
lower leaves are entire and spoon-shaped.

Rl'E-LEAVED SAXIFRAGE (Saxifraga tridaclylites, L.)

MEADOW SAXIFRAGE 151

The single white flowers are borne on flower-stalks, with 2 bracts
at the base, and longer than the fruit. The petals are only slightly
longer than the calyx. The capsule is 2 -chambered, with numerous,
minute, blackish-brown seeds.

This plant is about 3-6 in. in height. The flowers follow on after
Whitlow Grass, from April till July. Rue-leaved Saxifrage is annual.

The flowers yield honey and are proterandrous. The stamens
move singly in succession towards the centre of the flower, which,
however, is proterogynous, the stigma ripening first. The male
flowers are larger and more conspicuous than the female. The
anthers ripen one after another and bend inwards towards the centre.
After they open they bend out again and cross-pollinate the flower.
It is visited by bees, flies, and beetles.

The capsule is many-seeded and opens above, and having short
spreading beaks the seeds are scattered around, being aided by the
wind which sways the rigid stems, or by being touched by passing
animals.

Rue-leaved Saxifrage is a sand-loving plant loving sand soil, but
will also grow on lime found in the mortar of walls, calcareous rocks,
and elsewhere.

The only fungus that infests it is Puccinia saxifraga, one of the
cluster-cups.

No insects feed upon it.

Saxifraga, Pliny, is from the Latin saxum, stone, frango, break,
meaning stone-breaker; and the second Latin name means three-
fingered in Greek, alluding to the trifid lobes of the upper leaves.

The plant is called Whitlow Grass, Nailwort, White Blow.
Gerarde uses the first name in allusion to a supposed property it had
of healing disease of the nails called Whitlow, and the same reason
explains the second name. The Saxifrage was said to reveal witches.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

109. Saxifraga tridactylites, L. — Stem leafy, branched, leaves
cuneate, trifid, flowers small, white, terminal on a separate stalk, with
2 bracts below.

Meadow Saxifrage (Saxifraga granulata, L.)

As with the Rue-leaved Saxifrage, we have no evidence as to the
antiquity of this plant. It is found in the North Temperate Zone in
Europe, W. Africa, Western Asia as far east as the Himalayas.
It is found in Great Britain in Somersets; in the Channel province,

152

FLOWERS OF ROCKS, WALLS, ETC.

except in the Isle of Wight; in the Thames province, Anglia; in the
Severn province, except in Monmouth and W. Clones; in Wales, only
in Brecon, Denbigh, Carnarvon, Flint, and Anglesea; in the Trent,
Mersey, Tyne, and Lakes provinces, except in the Isle of Man; in W.

MEADOW SAXIFRAGE (Saxifraga grannlata, L.)

Lowlands; in E. Lowlands, except in Easterness; and in E. Ross,
from Elgin to Somerset and Kent, ascending to 1500 ft. in Yorkshire;
and it is rare in Ireland.

The White Meadow Saxifrage grows on the sides of hills in moist,
shady hollows, where in the earlier part of the year it looks like Grass

MEADOW SAXIFRAGE 153

of Parnassus at a distance, when numerous plants grow together in
association. It is a pelophilous plant.

Common enough, this has the habit of a bulbous plant with granu-
late tuberous roots. The stems are erect, the lower radical leaves
kidney-shaped, with stalked, rounded lobes, scalloped, the leaf-stalks
channelled. The stem -leaves are nearly stalkless, divided nearly to
the base into 3 or 5 lobes, and the bulbs are downy and reddish.

Panicles of flowers of this plant have a pearly silvery effect. The
petals are white, at right angles, rounded externally, narrowed below.
The 10 anther-stalks bear awl-shaped yellow anthers. The seeds are
numerous, small, black, in inversely egg-shaped, pale-brown capsules.

The Meadow Saxifrage is i ft. high. It flowers in May. This
plant is a perennial, increasing by division.

The flowers contain honey, and the anthers mature before the
stigmas. The general form of the flower and its chances of self- or
cross-pollination are precisely the same as in S. tridactylites (which see).

The short-beaked capsule opening above causes the numerous
seeds to be upset around the parent plant by the jerking caused by the
wind or by browsing animals.

This is a clay-loving plant which subsists on a clay soil, or rarely a
sandy loam.

It is found on many different rock soils of Triassic and Liassic age,
as well as on earlier granitic or volcanic rocks.

The only fungi that infest it are Puccinia saxifrage? or C&oma
saxifrages.

The Yellow-winged Carpet feeds on it.

The second Latin name has reference to the small granular knobs
of the roots or bulbs.

It is called Billy Button, Cuckoo-flower, Fair Maid of France, First
of May, Thirlestane Grass, Lady's Pincushion, Pretty Maids, Sas-
sifax, Saxifer, Saxifrage, White Saxifrage, Sen-green, Stonebreak.
Pretty Maids refers to the double garden form, which may be:

"Mary! Mary! quite contrary,
How does your garden grow?
Cockle shells and silver bells,
And pretty maids all of a row."

The First of May refers to its time of growing. By the Doctrine of
Signatures it was formerly used for stone, because the plant growing on
rocks was thought to break them. It is cultivated and forms a pretty
garden flower, especially when double.

i54 FLOWERS OF ROCKS, WALLS, ETC.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

110. Saxifraga granulata^ L. — Stem erect, leafy below, roots bear-
ing granular bulbs, radical leaves stalked, reniform, crenate, lobed,
stem-leaves sessile, lobed, flowers large, white, in a cyme, calyx half-
inferior.

Pennywort (Cotyledon Umbilicus- Veneris, L.)

Known only from its distribution to-day in the North Temperate
Zone, Pennywort is found in Europe from France southwards, W.
Asia, the mountains of N. and Tropical Africa. It is found in Great
Britain throughout the Peninsula province, and in the Channel pro-
vince except in N. Hants, in Kent; in S. Wales except Radnor; N.
Wales; in the Trent province only in Leicester and Derby; in S. Lanes,
S.W. and N.W. Yorks, the whole of the Lakes; in Scotland in Kirk-
cudbright, Ayr, Renfrew, Argyle, Clyde Islands, Cantire, Mid Ebudes,
especially on the west coast. It ascends to 1000 ft. in Wales. It is
native in Ireland.

Moist, dripping, flat-surfaced, perpendicular walls, intersected by
numerous crannies and fissures, are the special habitat of Navelwort,
which is a shade-loving rock plant, found wherever Orpine, Stone
Crops, Goldenrod, Wall Lettuce, and many ferns, such as Wall Spleen-
wort and others, grow.

Pennywort has much the same habit as Grass of Parnassus, but the
stems are more numerous and prostrate at the base, while the flowers,
too, are in a raceme. The stems are succulent, stout, rounded. The
leaves are thick, shield-like, the leaf-stalk being central below the leaf,
which is hollow (hence the first Greek name and the second Latin
name), scalloped at the margin, smooth, fleshy, and shiny. All the
leaves are stalked, and chiefly radical. From the round, flat nature
of the leaves they are known as pennies, hence the English name.

The bracts are simple, towering gracefully above the characteristic
leaves. The greenish -yellow drooping flowers are arranged in a
simple raceme, alternate. The flower-stalks are very short. The
corolla is cylindrical. The seeds are contained in follicles.

Pennywort reaches a height of 6 in. to i ft. or more. The flowers
are in bloom in June and July. The plant is a perennial plant,
which may be propagated by cuttings.

The green flowers are not attractive to beetles, and though large
and bell-shaped they grow in situations where insects are not likely to
reach them readilv, and from the adnate stamens, which are included

KEY TO PLATE LXII

™ \

^ywort \
(Ctiyt&dnT&^bilicus- <~V

a, Comrav ^yt^dricalf^S- .
iobed,ywi^5ncluded, epi-
petatous^nWns. b, Pistitp-^

w. X

with^' hdney - glands below,
and 5 styles. «:, Inflorescence,
in terminal raceme, with
Jeaflike bract below each
cluster, flowers drooping,

2. Orpine

hed nK. ,_-^
below, calyx, corolla,
stamens removed. ^, Carpel,

h short 'stxJf and capUatfe/^/
stigma furrowed on back. ^"7
*, Upper part of stem, with ^^\
sessile alternate leaves, ar
flowers in axils,
in

, !~SUtotstock, with
rootlets, and ,pej£a<e stacked

5 petal$, -and *oj stamens, /^
with 5 carpus Ripening into

''dOrymbose
calyx, with 12 sepals, 12 pslahrTz

,^fid> cai^ek ./, Basal rosette °T \/'

n^cns, and carpels. J, Basal ros
NrdUic^l leaves, fcinged with hai

achene and pappus, <,, Achenc.

^ VitU
with flowcrheads wirh ir\\-plu

%

/' ^ / C

»l«WV

_i ^uoft^y,

• •
' d»w

A iJjwmjlJ.

*J dbrutfe /-.:•

,9on95»ioftrrl .-«

#T

o» bn*. ,^BJ»I c

f x»H

wyviv^.

LI in Scotland u
o ^>

V M?

,.

.'

.' <98oe bt&a*r TC\_i!ya A

•"r1, in Wales.

woi^d aWxWhi ^K.^AL ,/S! A

i

'• ' -l-ptf '

i

,. v M-

...

Ill* .

••

fitted abqddt*
yiiq*-

'

FLOWERS OF THE ROCKS AND GRAVELLY PLACES PLATE LXII

I. Pennywort (Cotyledon Umbilicus, veneris, L.)- 2. Orpine (Seduin Telcphium, L.)- 3- Biting Stonecrop
(Seduin acre, L. ). 4. Houseleek (Senipervivnin tectornm, L. )• 5- Golden Rod (Solidago Virgaiirea, L. )•

PENNYWORT I5,

in the corolla, and the many short ovules, the plant is more liable to
be self- than cross-pollinated. Thrips visits but does not pollinate
the flowers. The anthers ripen first.

The follicle when ripe contains many seeds, which are shaken out
by the wind, and this causes dispersal over a wide area.

Pennywort is entirely a rock plant, growing on rocks, largely harder
granitic or siliceous rocks, and slates and hornstones. Rarely it is
found in the hedgerow.

A cluster-cup fungus, Puccinia umbilici, is to be found upon it.

Cotyledon, Dioscori-
des, is from the Greek
cot^^,le, cup, in allusion
to the hollow form of
the leaves, and the
Latin umbilicus also re-
fers to their shape and
character.

Pennywort is also
called Bachelor's But-
tons, Corn-leaves, Cups-
and-saucers, Cut-finger,
Penny Grass, Wall-
penny Grass, Hip wort,
Jack-in-the-bush, Kid-
ney-wort, Lady's Navel,
Lover's Links, Maid-in-
the-Mist, Milk-the-cows,
Money -pennies, Navel -

wort, Venus Navelwort, Pancakes, Penny Caps, Penny-cake, Penny
Hat, Penny Leaves, Penny Pies, Penny -plates, Penny Wall, Great
Stonecrop, Wall wort. The plant is called Corn -leaves because it
was once applied to corns and warts, and Hipwort "for that it easeth
the paines of the hippes ", and Kidney-wort "because it helpeth the
kidneys ".

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

112. Cotyledon Umbilicus -Veneris, L. — Stem succulent, erect, short,
leaves radical, peltate, crenate, orbicular, flowers greenish-yellow,
pendulous, in clusters or simple racemes.

PENNYWORT (Cotyledon Umbilicus -Veneris, L.)

i56

FLOWERS OF ROCKS, WALLS, ETC.

Orpine (Setlum Telephium, L.)

Orpine is known entirely, as far as age and distribution go, from its
occurrence to-day in the North Temperate Zone in Europe, Siberia,
as far as Kamschatka, W. Asia. It is found throughout the Peninsula
province, except in S. Somerset; throughout the Channel and Thames
provinces, except Hants and in Anglia; in the Severn province, except

in E. Gloucs. In Wales
it is found in Glamorgan,
Carnarvon, Denbigh,
Flint, and Anglesea. In
the Trent province it
occurs in Leicester and
Derby; not in Mid Lanes
in the Mersey province;
throughout the H umber,
Tyne provinces ; in the
Lakes district, except in
the Isle of Man. In
Scotland, in the West
Lowlands, except Wig-
town ; the E. Lowlands,
except in Peebles, Sel-
kirk, Forfar, Kincardine,
and S. Aberdeen. In
Yorks it is found at a
height of 1 200 ft. It is
found in Ireland in Deny.
Orpine is often a garden
escape.

Orpine has doubtless

been planted in many districts, but in the western counties is quite
native, growing in glens and dales, on rocks and walls, or even in
stony hedge-banks and woods. For it is a lover of the shade, and
may be found most luxuriantly in the same station as the Navelwort
and the Spleenworts.

The tufted growth of the erect, unbranched stems of the Orpine,
with flat, coarsely-toothed leaves, egg-shaped, oblong, nearly stalkless,
give it a characteristic appearance.

The second name has reference to the long oeriod during which

Photo. J. J. Wa;d

ORPINE (Sei/um Telephium, L.)

ORPINE 157

the plant can subsist removed from the soil. Its root is large and
tuberous, not fibrous. The purple colour is also characteristic. The
calyx and corolla have the parts in fives, the former acute, the petals
white below. The ovaries are furrowed.

Cultivated, this plant may reach 3 ft. in height, but is usually
less, or about 2 ft. The period of flowering is between July and
September. The plant is perennial.

The flowers are proterandrous, small, but bright and conspicuous, and
visited by numerous insects. The flower possesses honey, which can
be obtained by short-lipped insects. The stamens open inwards. The
first five alternate with the petals, and the inner series is soon covered
with pollen. The styles are acute, and stigmatic papillae are developed
upon them after the stamens have withered. The petals and the
stamens become widespread. Self-pollination does not occur without
insects' visits, even when the anthers are stored with pollen when the
stigmas ripen. The nectaries are at the points of the long scales,
hidden under the ovaries at the base of the petals. Insects touch
either the stamens or stigmas of many flowers, and cross-pollinate
them by their proterandrous condition.

Self-pollination occurs only in old flowers with pollen on the anthers
when the stigmas ripen. Owing to the flowers being closely packed
the plant can dispense with self-pollination. It is visited by Bombus
campestris, B. sylvarum, B. agrorum, B. tapidarius, Halictus zonatiis,
Allantus, Echinomyia.

The follicle is many -seeded, and the seeds are dispersed by the
wind when the fruit is dry and opens above.

This plant grows on rocky slopes, and is partly rupestral like
Cotyledon, but is also a sand-loving plant, and flourishes on a sand
soil.

A moth, Hyponomeuta viginti-punctatus, and abroad Parnassius
Apollo feed on it.

Sedum, Pliny, is from the Latin sedeo, I sit, from its squatting on
rocks. Telephium, Dioscorides, is from Telephus, son of Hercules,
King of Mysia. Orpine is a contraction of orpiment, a yellow
mineral.

Orpine is also called Alpine Broklimbe, Arpent or Arpent-weed,
Harping Johnny, Jacob's Ladder, Lib-long, Livelong, Midsummer
Men, Orphan John, Orpies, Orall, Solomon's Puzzles. Arpent, &c.,
is a variant of Orpine, and Harping is probably a corruption of the
same. As to the name Livelong, Lyte says: "The people of the
country delight much to set it in pots and shelles on Midsomer even, or

158 FLOWERS OF ROCKS, WALLS, ETC.

upon timber slates or trenchers daubed with clay, and so to set or hang
it up in their houses, whereas it remayneth greene a long season, and
groweth if it be sometimes over sprinckled with water ". And hence
the name Midsummer Men. Orpies is a contraction for Orpine, and
Orpy leaves were said to be good for wounds. The name Orpine was
given first of all to yellow -flowered species, hence its origin. In
Chaucer's day they called it Ornal.

Orpine was used as a charm against lightning. With St. John's
Wort it was hung over the doorways to scare away witches. Formerly,
too, it was employed as a love-charm.

This plant is astringent, and was used for intestinal disorders. It
is also mucilaginous. It is cultivated and highly suited to rockery or
rock-gardens, growing to a height of 3 ft. when well grown.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

113. Sedum Telephium, L. — Stem tall, erect, green, with red spots,
leaves large, ovate, oblong, upper sessile, rounded below, lower narrow
below, flowers purple, in a corymbose cyme, dense, ovaries furrowed
dorsally.

Biting Stonecrop (Sedum acre, L. = S. Drucei (British plant))

Stonecrop is found in the North Temperate Zone in Europe,
North Africa, Siberia, but only at the present day. In Great Britain
it is absent in Hunts, Cardigan, Mid Perth, Shetlands. It grows in
Yorkshire at a height of 1500 ft.

Biting Stonecrop, or Wall Pepper, occurs wherever there are suit-
able ledges of rock, natural or otherwise. In wild hilly regions it
grows on the shelving ledges of steep precipices, covering their angular
edges like a green carpet turned golden-yellow in flower. It is also
common on walls near villages, &c., being often planted, and on the
ground where sandy stretches occur, being rather prevalent near the sea.

Rather dwarf compared with Orpine, this Stonecrop differs in other
ways. It is a straggling plant with a small root, and several prostrate
then ascending stems branching from a central one, with thick fleshy,
cylindric leaves, egg-shaped, with a spur below, closely overlapping,
alternate, swollen, and stalkless or sessile. The leaves are very
numerous, and the second Latin name means bitter in reference to
their taste, while the first has reference to their squat habit, seated as it
were cushion-like on a rock.

Wall Pepper is distinct, in having yellow flowers, from the purple-
and white-flowered Stonecrops. They are in 3-fid cymes, with blunt,
swollen sepals, and petals twice as long, and spreading.

BITING STONECROP 159

Three to six inches is the usual height for this pretty but diminutive
species, which flowers in June and July. It is perennial, attractive,
and suited for cultivation, and can be increased by division.

The plant is short, but the flowers are conspicuous on barren
ground where it grows. It is proterandrous and contains honey,
accessible to short-lipped insects, whence it is much visited. The
honey is secreted in 5 yellow scales at the base of the flowers between
the anthers and carpels. The flowers are cross-pollinated. When the
flower opens and the petals spread into a star, 5 outer stamens alter-

BITING STONECROP (Sedum acre, L.)

nate with the petals, and are erect, and now open in the middle of the
flowers, and the 5 others are inclined outwards while the petals remain
closed, and the stigmas are still immature. As the first stamens wither
and turn outwards, the others rise up into the centre and open. Before
the second ring withers and turns outwards, the stigmas ripen and
stand in the centre. Insects remove the pollen before the stigmas are
mature, but in dull weather the anthers are stored with pollen till the
stigmas are ripe and may self-pollinate the flower.

Insects touch the stamens and stigmas whether they settle in the
centre or on the edge of the flowers. The flowers are visited by
Bombus, Cilissa, Andrena, Sphecodes, Nomada, Prosopis, Megachile,
Ammophila, Oxybelus, Eristalis, Pyre Ilia.

The follicle is many-seeded and opens above, and the seeds are
dispersed by the wind.

160 FLOWERS OF ROCKS, WALLS, ETC.

Biting Stonecrop is a rock plant growing on barren rocky soil, or
where there are stretches of sand or gravel derived from the more
ancient granitic or schistose rocks.

A moth, Glypkypteryx cqnitclla, is the only insect which feeds upon
it, and no fungus attacks it, perhaps from its acrimonious properties.

The second Latin name refers to its bitter taste.

The plant is called Bird's Bread, Creeping Charlie, Creeping Jack,
Creeping Jenny, Creeping Sailor, Crowdy Kit o' the Wall, Ginger,
Gold Chain, Gold Dust, Golden Moss, Houseleek, Little Houseleek,
Jack-of-the- Buttery, Moss, French Moss, Mouse-tail, Country Pepper,
Poor Man's Pepper, Wall Pepper, Pepper Crop, Pig's Ears, Pricket,
Prick Madam, Rock Crop, Rock Plant, Stancroppes, Stonecrop,
Stone-hot, Stonnord, Wall Grass, Wall Moss, Wall wort. It was
called Country Pepper and Ginger from its pungent flavour.

Biting Stonecrop was planted in gardens and used as a pot-herb.

Pliny said it produced sleep, for which purpose it was wrapped in a
black cloth, and put under the pillow unawares. In the early days of
herbals it was considered good for dropsy. It is emetic and has been
used in scorbutic complaints.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

114. Sedum acre, L. — Stems in tufts, leaves blunt, imbricate, fleshy,
sessile, spurred or gibbous at the base, flowers yellow, in a 3-cleft cyme,
sepals gibbous below.

Houseleek (Sempervivum tectorum, L.)

Europe and Western Asia are the regions in the North Temperate
Zone in which alone to-day this plant is known. The Houseleek is
not a native, and its existence depends largely on the former use to
which it was put as a source of ointment. In every village where
there still remain old-fashioned thatched cottages, especially in the
west, one may be sure to find one or more with some traces of a roof-
garden, made up of Houseleek or Stonecrop. Indeed it is quite a
feature of the village community, and affords evidence of the pictur-
esque nature of our country places, in spite of many drawbacks, caused
by poverty or the lack of an artistic sense in constructing the dwelling
of the labourer.

The perennial nature of this plant is indicated by the first, and the
usual roof habitat by its second Latin name. It is an erect plant, very
succulent (assisting water storage), with thick, fleshy leaves, fringed
with a ring of hairs, of a reddish tint, the radical leaves arranged in

HOUSELEEK

161

a rosette, stalkless, wedge-shaped, flat above, white below, and smooth
or glabrous.

The flowers are numerous and close, turned all one way, usually
erect, and reddish or pink. The calyx is i2-partite, sticky, fringed with
hairs, purple above. The corolla has 12 petals, which are twice as
long as the calyx, of a purplish colour. There are 12 stamens with
purple anthers. The capsules are numerous, flattened at the border,
and open inwards, in the
form of follicles with many
seeds.

The plant is tall, reach-
ing a height of 12 in. or
more. It flowers from June
to August. Houseleek is
perennial or biennial, and
reproduced by division.

The colour of the
flowers, which are purple,
depends on their adapta-
tion to a narrow or wide
circle of visitors. The
honey lies hidden, and
the flowers are visited by
bees, Lepidoptera, and
long-tongued flies. Whilst
there are 10 stamens in
Sedum, in Sempewivum
there are 1 2-40. The an-
thersopen first, butself-pol-
lination is not impossible.

The follicle splitting open allows the numerous seeds to fall over
a wide compass around the parent plant when shaken out by the
wind.

Houseleek is a mural or roof plant, and requires for its growth
a certain amount of humus.

Endophyllum sempervivi, a cluster-cup fungus, noteworthy since it
is sunk in the surface of the leaf, is found upon Houseleek, and also
a mould Phytophthora omnivora. No insect makes a food-plant of it.

Sempervivum, Pliny, is Latin for livelong, and tectorum alludes to
its roof habitat.

Houseleek goes by the following names: Aye-green, Bullock's-eye,

VOL. V. 73

HOUSELEEK (Sempervivum tectorum, L.)

1 62 FLOWERS OF ROCKS, WALLS, ETC.

Cyphcl, Fews, P'oos, Fouets, Fow, Fuit, Full, Healing Blade.
Hockerie-topner, Homewort, House-green, Huslock, Imbreke, Jo-
barhe, Jubard, Jupiter's Beard, Jupiter's Eye, Poor Jan's Leaf, Sel-
green, Scngrcrn, Sigrim, Sil-green, Simgreen, Singreen, Sinna-green,
Sungreen, Suphelt, Thunder-plant. Homewort was the Saxon name
for it. Cockayne says planted on a roof it protected from thunder and
lightning. Because associated with the evil one it was called Devil's
Beard.

Houseleek was used in Italy as a love charm. There are locally
antipathies against uprooting and even allowing it to bloom. It was
used in heny greyne, i.e. megrim, used for neuralgia. An ointment
for scalds and burns is prepared from it. The plant is astringent. It
is planted on roofs and walls as an ornament.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

1 1 5. Sempervivum tectorum, L. — Leaves fleshy, succulent, fringed
at the margin, tufted, flowers purple, petals 1 2, ciliate.

Golden Rod (Solidago Virgaurea, L.)

This common rupestral plant is found in the North Temperate and
Arctic Zones to-day in N. Temperate and Arctic Europe generally.
It is unknown earlier than this, and is found in Asia eastward to the
Himalayas, and America. In Great Britain it is absent from East
Suffolk, Hunts, Carmarthen, S. Lanes, Mid Lanes, Stirling, North
Aberdeen, and ascends to 2800 ft. in the Highlands.

Golden Rod is confined to wooded districts where there are per-
pendicular faces constantly covered with a stream of running water.
This is its special stronghold, but it is to be found in the south in
ditches by the roadside.

Golden Rod is a tall, graceful plant, erect, with few branches, with
angular edges, rather rough. The leaves are lance-shaped, those at
the base shortly stalked, elliptic, coarsely-toothed, with acute or blunt
tips. Several stems grow in a clump, forming a fair sight when in
bloom.

The beauteous golden bloom is abundant with the flowers arranged
in panicled racemes, which are crowded and upright. The involucre
is oblong, with several rows of bracts overlapping, with lance-shaped
phyllaries. In the ray there are 10-12 florets, 10-20 in the disk —
the former ligulate, the latter tubular. The bracts are linear-acute
with membranous margins. The fruit is downy, with numerous ribs,
and the pappus hairs in more than one row, rough.

GOLDEN ROD 163

Tall and slender, Golden Rod reaches a height of 2 ft. The
flowers are in bloom in July up to September. It is a deciduous,
herbaceous, perennial plant, propagated by division of the roots.

The disk florets are
like those of Ckrysocoma,
in which several capitula
combine to form one sur-
face, and so do not need
ligulate marginal florets.
Here they are placed on
an elongated axis. The
disk of each capitulum
is 4-5 mm., and 5-7
golden marginal florets
render it conspicuous,
making it broader, or
14-19 mm.

The marginal florets
have an enormously de-
veloped corolla, while the
stamens are reduced or
absent. The branches of
the style have the sweep-
ing hairs also reduced as
useless, bearing stigmatic
papillae on the inner sur-
face along each margin
throughout. There are
female and complete
flowers on the same
plant. Pollen may drop
from the upper flowers
on those below. The
Golden Rod is polli-
nated by Apis inellifica,
Bombus rupestris, B.

campestris, B, terrestris, Andrena, Eristalis arbustorum, E. nemorum,
Thecla.

The fruit is provided with pappus, and the achenes are downy
and many-ribbed, and adapted for wind dispersal.

Golden Rod is a rock plant, which may be found growing on

Photo. Ma

GOLDEN ROD (Solidago Virgaurea, L.)

164 FLOWERS OF ROCKS, WALLS, ETC.

granitic or schistose rocks with little soil, or it may be found growing
on lime soil in the south, upon chalk or Oolite.

A little fungus, Puccinia virgaurecp, infests it. Lepidoptera fre-
quent it, such as The Cudweed (Cucullia gnapkilii) and The Star-
wort (C. Asteris], The Golden-rod Brindle (Cloantha Solidaginis],
Botys terrcalis, Homoeosoma nirnbella, Coleopkora virgaurea, Lyc&na
virgaurec?, GueneVs Pug (Eupitkecia pernotatd], Common Pug (E.
vulgata], Wormwood Pug (E. absyntkiata], Pteropkora tetradactylus,
Dark Brocade (Hadena adusta).

Solidago, Brunfels, is from the Latin solidare, make whole or
sound. Virgaurea, Mathiolus, is from the Latin virga, stem, aurea,
golden.

Golden Rod has a few other names, such as Aaron's-rod, Banwort,
Woundwort. The first was bestowed because it has a tall, straight
stem, and is connected with Aaron because his rod, like his beard, is
familiar from its mention in Scripture history.

This plant was formerly employed as a vulnerary. It is now-
planted in our gardens.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

151. Solidago Virgaurea, L. — Stem erect, sub-simple, sub-angular,
leaves lanceolate, lower petiolate, serrate, flowerheads yellow, in ter-
minal racemes, small, disk florets tubular, ray florets ligulate, fruit
downy.

Mouse-ear Hawkweed (Hieracium Pilosella, L.)

Widely dispersed on hilly ground this pretty Hawkweed was quite
an old-established species in the British Islands in the Glacial period.
It is found in Interglacial beds at West Wittering, Sussex, and it is
the only species of this large and polymorphic genus found in Britain
so early. At the present day it occurs in the North Temperate Zone
in Europe, N. Africa, North and West Asia. Mouse-ear Hawkweed
occurs in all parts of Great Britain except the Shetlands, ranging else-
where as far north as the Orkneys, and ascends to 2400 ft. in
Yorkshire. It is native in Ireland and the Channel Islands.

This common Hawkweed is a xerophilous plant, growing usually
on dry ground, at a more or less high altitude on hills and mountains,
on sandy soil. It is fond of growing on rocky ledges, or where rocks
crop out at the surface and are exposed by denudation. Similarly,
walls are another suitable and frequent habitat. This Hawkweed is
associated with Bird's Foot, Vernal Grass, and other rupestral types.

KEY TO PLATE LXIII

Mouse -ear
acium <Pilosella> L.)

late „

ped corollaV >lfnb,
arms, and Lthene C
(cypset^ with pappuk b,
RootstoCk. with roof root-
lets, radial leaves (Kibous)
ao*A with flovi >rhead
ba

style, and I^Hm stigma

Corolla,
sepals
mens

showing epi
wit
Plant,

stalked lower leaWs, Dipper
n\ axils o
ceme. some

elfo™

fiOSffUU

ad V

FLOWERS OF THE ROCKS AND GRAVELLY PLACES

PLATE LXIII

I. Mouse-ear Hawkweed (llie.raciuin Pihsella, L.). 2. Wall Lettuce (Lacfuca muralis, Gaertn.). 3. Rampion
(Campanula Rapnnculiis, L.). 4- Ivy-leaved Toad Flax (Linaria Cymbalaria, Mill.). 5. Wall Speedwell

( Veronica arvensis, L.).

MOUSE-EAR HAWKWEED Z65

This wild flower has no real aerial stem, the flowering stems being
scapes. It is stoloniferous, and except for the scapes prostrate or
decumbent. The leaves are stalked, entire, egg-shaped, downy be-
neath, dark-green, rough, hairy both sides, the offsets branching out
from the centre of the leaves and creeping, leafy and stiffly hairy or
with a felt of long stiff hairs, and stellately downy below. In dry
weather the leaf rolls up, the downy under side being uppermost

The flowerheads are
pale or sulphur- yellow,
the outer ones purple be-
low, the petals fringed
and reddish-flecked. The
phyllaries are unequal and
imbricating. The scapes
are one-flowered.

The plant is rarely
more than 6 in. high (the
scapes). It is in flower
from May to July and
even later. It is a peren-
nial propagated by divi-
sion, and worth cultivating.
The flowers open in
fine weather between 7
and 8. The capitulum is
made up of 42-64 florets,
which increase in size
centrifugally. The tube
is 3-6 mm., and the limb
4-8 mm. The capitulum

opens in the sun and measures 20 mm., and being bright lemon-yellow
is, though small, conspicuous and attractive to insects. When it is wet
the petals close up. Insects' visits are not so abundant, and by means
of the involution of the stigmas the plant is self- fertilized. It is visited
by Panurgus, Andrena, Halictus, Ceratina, Diphysis, Nomada, Cephus,
Bombylius, Helophilus, Holly blue (Cyaniris argiohis), The Mother
Shipton (Pieris brassicce], Large White Butterfly (Euclidia mi)\
Coleoptera, Leptura livida, Cryptocephalus.

The pappus is slender, but assists in the dispersal of the fruits by
the wind.

Mouse-ear Hawkweed is a rock plant, and is addicted to a sand

alters & Garnett

MOUSE-EAR HAWKWEED (Hieracium Pilosella, L.)

1 66 FLOWERS OF ROCKS, WALLS, ETC.

soil when it is a sand-loving plant, or a lime soil and is a lime-loving
plant.

The plant is common on the Marlstone and Oolitic rocks.

A cluster-cup fungus Puccinia hieracii attacks the leaves, and it
is galled by Cecidontyia pi lose I la,

Several beetles feed on Hieracia, e.g. Olibrus liq nidus, Meligethes
umbrosus, M. cxilis, Psilotkrix nobi/is, Cryptoccpkalus aureolus, C.
hypoch(cridis\ two Hymenoptera, Prosopis mason i, Andrcna august ior;
Lepidoptera, Pterophora parvidactylus, P. pilose the, Broad -barred
White (Hecatera serena), Meliteea cinxia, Six-spotted Burnet (Zygtena
filipendulcc}; a Heteropterous insect, Hoplomachus tkunbergii; and a
fly, Pephritis ruralis also feed on it.

Hicraciuui, Dioscorides, is from the Greek hierax, hawk, because
birds of prey were said to improve their sight by its means. Pilosflla,
Mathiolus, is a diminutive of pilosus, hairy.

This pretty plant has been named Erswort, Fellon-herb, Ling
Gowlands, Mouse Ear. The name Spear Hawk is like Hawk weed,
of which Gerarde says: "These herbes tooke their name from a
Hawke, for they are reported to cleere their sight by conveying the
juice heere of into their eies". (See ante.} Another name for it is
Devil's Bit. The plant is astringent and was used medicinally in
former days.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

179. Hieracium Pilose Ha, L. — Stoloniferous, creeping, leaves hairy,
entire, scape i -flowered, leafless, flowerheads yellow or lemon, fruit
striate, pappus hairs equal, styles yellow.

Wall Lettuce (Lactuca muralis, Gaertn.)

There is no trace of Wall Lettuce in ancient deposits. It is found
in the North Temperate Zone in Europe and Western Asia. In
Great Britain it is found in the Peninsula, Channel, Anglia provinces,
except in Bedford, and Hunts in the Severn province; in S. \Yulcs.
except in Radnor; in N. \Vales, except in Merioneth and Mont-
gomery; in the Trent province; in the Mersey province, except in
Mid Lanes; the Humber and Tyne provinces, except in Cheviotland;
the Lakes province, except in the Isle of Man; in Scotland, in Ayr,
E. and W. Perth, Easterness, Westerness, Argyle. In England it is
rare, ascending to 1300 ft. in Yorks. It occurs in Wicklow and Louth
in Ireland.

Wall Lettuce, as implied by the name, is a mural species which

WALL LETTUCE

167

grows on walls and rock ledges. It is found in the crevices of per-
pendicular faces of damp rocks in woods, well sheltered by overhanging
trees or vegetation, or on stony banks. It has an erect stem, with
peculiarly delicate leaves, with lobes larger upwards, runcinate, with
lobes each side of a common stalk, with a channelled leaf-stalk clasping
the stem, with angles and fine teeth, the terminal lobe the largest, five-
angled. The keel is smooth.

The flowerheads are pale-yellow, and very small, having only
5 florets growing in erect
panicles, which are spread-
ing. The beak of the fruit
is shorter than the fruit.

The plant is about 2 ft.
high. It is in bloom in
July. Perennial it can be
propagated by division, and
is really worth growing in
a garden.

The flowerheads are
yellow, rather small and
distant, and the plant grows
in the shade, and is little
likely to be visited very
largely by insects. The
florets are few and herma-
phrodite. The stamens are
hair-like and short, and the
anthers, which are yellow,
form a cylinder. The style,
longer than the stamens, is
thread-like, with a stigma
with 2 lobes, which is turned back. Thus the structure is quite
like that in most Composites, but self-pollination is more likely to

occur.

The silky, simple, white pappus is light, and the achenes are

dispersed by the wind.

Wall Lettuce is a rock plant growing on rock soil. The type of
rock varies, but is largely sandy, and not usually calcareous. Thus
it grows on Precambrian slate and on arenaceous marlstone of the
Middle Lias.

The plant is infested by a fungus, Puccinia prenanthis.

WALL LETTUCE (Lactuca nmralis, Gaertn.)

i68

FLOWERS OF ROCKS, WALLS, ETC.

RAMPION (Campanula Rapunculus, L.)

Lactuca, Pliny, is from lac,
milk, in allusion to the milky
juice it secretes. Wall Lettuce
is the only name by which it
is known.

The eagle was said to
pluck the Wild Lettuce, with
the juice of which it smoan-d
its eyes.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHAR-
ACTERS : —

183. Lactuca muratis,Ga.ertn.
— Stem slender, branched,
smooth, leaves lyrate, dentate,
terminal lobe larger, 3-angular,
panicle diffuse, flowerheads yel-
low, 5 florets, equal, fruit black,
compressed beak shorter, pap-
pus pilose.

Rampion (Campanula
Rapunculus, L.)

This plant is known entirely
from its distribution at the pre-
sent day in the North Temp-
erate Zone, where it ranges
from Denmark southward (ex-
cept in Greece), in Europe
generally, N. Africa, W. Siberia.
In Great Britain, Rampion is
hardly native in every county in
which it is found, but it occurs
in W. Cornwall, S. Somerset,
N. Hants, W. Sussex, the
Thames except in East Kent,
Oxford, E. Suffolk, Norfolk,
Cambridge, Northampton, Here-
ford, Worcester, Warwick, Staf-
ford, Carnarvon, Denbigh,
Anglesea, Notts, S.E. Yorks,

RAMPION 169

N. and E. Yorks, S.W. Yorks, Durham, Fife, Kinross. It is
doubtfully wild.

Rampion is found on gravelly pastures, on roadsides, and along
hedge-banks, especially in the south of England. While not con-
fined to chalky districts it is more common in such areas.

The name Rampion and the second Latin name (from rapiim,
turnip) refers to the character of the root. The stem is simple or
branched, tough. The leaves are stalkless, smooth or hairy, wavy,
the radical leaves lance-shaped, oval, scalloped, having- a narrow leaf-
stalk.

The small pale-blue flowers are in an erect, long, terminal raceme,
or clustered panicle, which is narrowed, with awl-shaped calyx segments
which are entire. The capsules are erect, stalked. Pores occur just
below the calyx segments.

The stem is 3 ft. high. The flowers are at their best in July and
August. The plant is biennial, cultivated for the roots. It is sown
in the spring for autumn gathering.

The flower is similar to that of the Harebell, but is much larger,
and the plant is more local. It is quite adapted to cross-pollination.
A doubt as to its being native deprives it of some interest in this
connection (but cf. Bluebell or Harebell).

The capsule is perforated at the top, and the seed is scattered by
the wind.

Rampion is largely a sand-loving plant growing on sand soil,
but it flourishes best on gravelly soil.

It is infested by the fungi Pseudopeziza radians and Puccinia cam-
panula. A moth, The Shark (Cucullia umbratica), feeds upon it.

Rapunculus, Lonicerus, is from Latin rapum, turnip, a diminutive
of it, from the shape of the roots.

This beautiful bell-flower is called Rampion and Ramps. By
Gerarde it was called Rapuntium paruum.

The root was once eaten as a salad, and the plant cultivated. The
root was eaten raw or boiled. In France and Italy it has been much
cultivated. It may be eaten hot with sauce or cold with vinegar or
pepper.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

1 88. Campanula Rapunculus, L. — Stem tall, rough, angular, leaves
crenate, radical leaves lanceolate, elliptic, stem-leaves linear-lanceolate,
flowers pale-blue, erect, clustered, in a small panicle, calyx-segments 5,
subulate.

170

FLOWERS OF ROCKS, WALLS, ETC.

Ivy-leaved Toad Flax (Linaria Cymbalaria, Mill.)

The comparatively recent introduction of this plant into the British
Isles precludes its being ancient in this region. It is found to-day in
the N. Temperate Zone from Holland southwards, except in Turkey.
It was introduced into England from abroad to the Chelsea Botanic
Gardens, whence it has spread all over the kingdom. As an alien its
distribution is uncertain, but the plant is generally distributed.

Ivy - leaved load
Flax has now been in-
troduced long enough
to have established it-
self in many places.
It is fond of growing
on walls, especially
garden walls or ter-
races. It hangs down
from the interstices
between the stones of
church towers, and
covers the sides of
houses, often trailing
over the ground but
always near houses.

The root is thin
and fibrous, with a
knack of finding its

way into the crevices of walls and other inaccessible places. The
stem is very characteristic, being trailing, tufted, limp, purple and
stringy, rooting at intervals. The leaves are ivy -shaped, round, on
long terete leaf-stalks.

The flowers are light-blue, axillary, and solitary, on long, smooth
flower-stalks. The lobes of the calyx are lance-shaped, and do not
fall. The corolla is gaping, with a short tube, and yellow palate
which closes the tube. The mouth is yellow and hairy. The nectary
is purple, as long as the calyx. There are 4 anther-stalks, with white
anthers. The capsule is globose, with black, ridged, wrinkled seeds.
The plant grows to a length of 2-3 ft., but is only some 3 in. high.
It flowers in May right up till November. The plant is perennial,
freely multiplying spontaneously by division of the root.

IVY-LEAVED TOAD FLAX (Linaria Cymbalaria, Mill.)

WALL SPEEDWELL 171

The stamens and pistil mature at the same time. The corolla-
tube is spurred. There are four fertile stamens, one absent or
abortive. The anthers are oblong. The stigma is notched. The
flowers are often cleistogamic. It is visited only by bees. The
palate nearly closes the throat and does not project. The nectary
is purple and as long as the calyx. When in flower it pushes itself out
into the light and sun, but when the seeds are mature it buries the
capsules in the cracks between stones on which it grows, so that the
seed is dispersed by an automatic psychic motion of the plant itself.

Ivy-leaved Toad Flax is a rock plant growing usually on an arti-
ficial rock soil or wall, being a modern introduction, not native.

Linaria, Tournefort, is from the flax-like foliage, Limim. The
application of toad arose from the name bubonium being changed
to bufonium. Cymbalaria, Mathiolus, is from the Latin cymbalum,
cymbal.

This graceful plant is called Aaron's Beard, Climbing Sailor,
Creeping Jenny, Ivy-wort, Mother of Millions, Mother of Thousands,
Oxford Weed, Pedlar's Basket, Penny Wort, Rabbits, Rambling
Sailor, Roving Jenny or Roving Sailor, Thousand Flower, Wander-
ing Jew, Wandering Sailor. Parkinson's reason for calling it Ivy wort
is stated thus: "We may call it in English either Iviewort or the
Ivie-like leaf as it is in the title ".

It is eaten as a salad, being acrid or pungent like Cress, and it was
endowed with antiscorbutic properties. It is a common garden flower
planted on rockeries, &c.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

227. Linaria Cymbalaria, Mill.- — Stem long, trailing, purplish,
leaves cordate, lobed, glabrous, flowers blue, axillary, on long pe-
duncles.

Wall Speedwell (Veronica arvensis, L.)

A Southern plant, Wall Speedwell is found in the N. Temperate
Zone in Europe, N. Africa, N. and W. Asia, Himalayas, and has been
introduced into America. It is unknown in early deposits. This
plant is found in all parts of Great Britain as far north as the Shet-
lands, and ascends to nearly 2000 ft. in Yorks. It is found in Ireland
and the Channel Islands.

Wrall Speedwell is an arenophilous plant, which grows on wall-tops,
at the sides of paths, on sandy, open ground, as at the seaside, on
gravel drives, and other dry habitats, being xerophilous. With it

I 72

FLOWERS OF ROCKS, WALLS, ETC.

grows Vernal Grass, Sandwort Spurrey, Rue-leaved Saxifrage, Mouse-
ear Hawkweed, and other plants,

A small, erect, sometimes branched plant, Wall Speedwell has a
rigid habit which marks it off from others of the group. It is a
downy plant with the lower 5 leaves stalked, heart-shaped, purplish
below, blunt, flat, notched. The upper leaves are stalkless and twisted.
When it grows on walls the leaves at the base are purple. The hairs
are jointed, and arranged on the lower part of the stem in two rows.

The numerous flowers are slightly stalked, in a spiked raceme, with

WALL SPEEDWELL (Veronica arvensis, L.)

long, linear bracts exceeding the flowers. The flowers are deep blue,
and fall at the least touch. The calyx has lance-shaped sepals, oval,
hairy, covered with glands; the corolla is wheel-like, with a short white
tube. The limb is divided into 4 segments. The capsule is flat, in-
versely heart-shaped, pale-brown, and the seeds are oval, flattened at
the border, with a depression down the middle.

The stem may be 3-9 in. high. The flowers open in April, and
flowering continues till July. The plant is annual, propagated by seeds.

The floral mechanism is closely similar to that of V. hedcnrfolia,
but the corolla is very small and pale-blue with a white eye. The
style is very short, and the flowers are in a terminal raceme.

The capsule is winged, and dispersed by the wind, and the seeds,
being flat, are also adapted for this.

KEY TO PLATE LXIV

No. i. Pellitory-of-thc-Wall
(Parutan'a ramiflora, Mcench = P.

«, Male flower, shoeing 4- partite perianth
with 4 stamens, with jointed filaments,
and reversed anthers, b, Pistil, with j<&g
hairy ovary, and . tassel-like stigmas arra
short style, r, Fruit, one-seeded. «/,
Upper part of plant, with alternate, 3-
nerved, lance -shaped ieaves, flowers in
"; clusters in cyme.

a, Pistil, with giobobe ovary am! feathery
stigma .scales beicw. 6, Spikefet, with
empty glumes, «w;ie,d Jteiry fiowenng
giume. ]3alea, and 3 stainens. r, flower,
with palea,- flowering gi««r.e; stamens and
stigmas just protruding, awn of flowering
glume nearly terminal. d, Rootstock,
with Uifted erect sterns, Mat
r, Flowering stem with stprn-
and panicle with whoried

and pistil with
and feathery
Ovary and stigmas whh lodi-
cujes. r, Empty jiglumes,
ari^K.pedicel. <^\pi^(nt, with
stem, -bent below,'; branched,
with J^aves, with sheath, long
liguleV panicles

o. 5. Sand
(Fcstuta ftfyuros.

No. 4. Flat-stalked P/ia
(Poa compressa, L.)

Lodicule-s, swollen below.
. Flower, with palea, 3
pistil with feathery
stigma, and awnless flower-
ing gJume. c, Spikelet, with
empty glumes, enclosing
parts m A </, Stem, de-
cumbent below, with roots,
ieaves with broad sheaths,
short liguitj. *, Flowering
pstem,<;>ith lekf^ and fl
a branched panicle.

a, Lower empty gl
Pistil, with scMi'
and stigmas imh i
r, Flower, with awned
ing glume, paljjj 3
and pistil, d. iSttlke

awn^d flowering
shorter empty

g sterrfflmh
-leafed njrers
Stem,!; with
upper stem-Leaves

PelUtory-of-the-WaH ;.'
Srlvcry Hair Cra» 4

«/.-«>*», L.). 5- Sar,'!

3TA.H OT Y3X

'!« Sai

1:

•i " • " v

WOW
t ,B»l«l dllW

1W / F

7

w .

bnc ,

fiorfz

FLOWERS OF THE ROCKS AND GRAVELLY PLACES

PLATE LXIV

I. Pellitory-of-the-Wall (Parietaria rannflora, Moench). 2. Silky Wind Grass (Apera Spica-venti,
3. Silvery Hair Grass (Aim catyophyllea, L.). 4- Flat-stalked Poa (Poa compressa, L.). 5. San

(/''estnca Afyttt'os, L. ).

Beauv.).

Fescue

PELLITORY-OF-THE-WALL 1 73

Wall Speedwell is strictly a sand-loving plant, growing on sand
soil, on walls, and on gravel.

The second Latin name refers to a supposed preference for arable
land, but this should be applied rather to V. agrestis.

The plant is called Corn Speedwell, which is equally a misnomer.

This species is distinguished from V. agrestis by its erect stem,
nearly stalkless flowers, smaller seed capsules, forming a spike when ripe.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

235. Veronica arvensis, L. — Stem erect, leaves cordate, crenate,
lower petioled, upper bract-like, flowers in a terminal, lax, spiked raceme,
pale-blue, tube of corolla short, capsule obcordate, seeds flat.

Pellitory-of-the-Wall (Parietaria ramiflora, Mcench)

This is a rupestral plant, not found earlier than the present day,
ranging in the N. Temperate Zone in Europe, N. Africa, and Western
Asia. In Great Britain it is not found in the Isle of Man or the
following Scottish counties: Dumfries, Kirkcudbright, Roxburgh, Lin-
lithgow, and in the E. Highlands, not in Fife or S. Perth, Forfar, not
in W. Highlands, N. Highlands, Northern Isles, except as an escape,
but from Ross southward elsewhere. It is a native of Ireland and
the Channel Islands.

Pellitory-of-the-Wall is fond of growing on old walls, such as those
of ruins, or on walls generally. A favourite habitat is the tower of
a church. It may be found also in hedge -banks, but it is largely
rupestral. Clustering round the base of a tower in clumps the stems
are numerous, erect, brittle, herbaceous, reddish, branched, downy,
rounded, finely furrowed, with curled hairs, the branches alternate,
spreading. The leaves are hairy, oblong, lance-shaped, with a long
point each end, with transparent dots on slender leaf-stalks.

The flowers are in the axils of the leaves, small, bisexual, in an
involucre of 3-6 lobes, and stiffly hairy and stalkless. The calyx is
flat or bell-shaped, or tubular, hairy, erect. There is no corolla. The
fruit is small and enclosed in the perianth, the seed being single.

Pellitory-of-the-Wall is 1-2 ft. high. Flowers may be found any
time between July and September. This is a deciduous, herbaceous,
perennial plant, propagated by division.

The flowers are generally proterogynous, and when so mainly
hermaphrodite, or of three forms — complete, male, and female— the
stamens develop after the stigma has protruded from the bud, and
they explode as in the Nettle, when the stigma cannot be pollinated,

I74 FLOWERS OF ROCKS, WALLS, ETC.

and the style has dropped. The flowers are anemophilous. The
male flowers are like those of the Nettle, the female with a brush-like
stigma and 4-lobed.

The fruits are small, and fall when ripe at once to the ground, or
are blown away to a distance by the wind.

This is a rock plant, growing on rocks or walls, or arenophilous
on a sand soil.

Two beetles, Throscus carinifrons and T. e later aides, and a moth,
Siniffthis fabriciana, feed on it.

Parietaria, Pliny, is from the Latin paries, a wall, from which came

PELLITORY-OF-THE-\VALL (Parietaria rami flora, Moench)

perritory, the r's being changed into /'s, and the old second Latin
name officinalis refers to its use as a medicine; ramiflora refers to
the flowers being on the stem or branches.

Pellitory-of-the-Wall is also called Billie Beatie, Hammerwort,
Lichwort, Parietary, Peletir, Peniterry, Wallwort. As to the name
Peniterry, we read of "a weed called locally at least, Peniterry, to
which the suddenly terrified (schoolboy) idler might run in his need,
grasping it hard and threateningly and repeating the following ' Words
of Power':

" ' Peniterry, Peniterry, that grows by the wall,

Save me from a whipping, or I pull you roots and all.'"

The name Lichwort was applied because " it grows neere to old wals

SILKY WIND GRASS

'75

in the moist corners of churches
and stone buildings ", according to
Gerarde. The plant was used in
mediaeval times for broken limbs
and tightness of the chest. It was
considered diuretic and used for
dropsy. It was laid in corn in
granaries to drive away weevils.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHAR-
ACTERS : —

2 80. Parietaria ramiflora,
Mcench. — Stem erect, pinkish,
hairy, tufted, leaves lanceolate, ellip-
tic, flowers green or red, in clusters
in the axils, filaments elastic.

Silky Wind Grass (Apera
Spica-venti, Beauv.)

This graceful but rare grass is
found in the N. Temperate Zone
in Europe, N. Africa, Siberia, but
not in any early beds. In Great
Britain it is found in W. Cornwall,
N. Hants, W. Sussex, throughout
the Thames province, Anglia, ex-
cept in Hants and Northants in
Salop, N. Lincoln, Derby, S.E.
York, or from York to Kent, and
Hants in S.E. England.

The Silky Wind Grass grows
in the lowlands, in fields liable to
inundation at no considerable dis-
tance from the sea. It is areno-
philous, preferring a sandy habi-
tat, and is a submaritime ericetal
species. It is also common to rocky
mural habitats in the same way as
some other sand-loving grasses.

This is a tall, graceful, elegant
plant, with a slender stem which is

SILKY WIND GRASS (Apera Spica-
Beauv.)

176 FLOWERS OF ROCKS, WALLS, ETC.

prostrate at the base, and then erect and tufted. The leaves are rough
along the margin and below, flat, and either smooth or downy. The
ligule is short and torn.

The flowers are in whorls, in a large spreading pyramidal panicle,
which is both light (hence the Latin name since every wind sets it
blowing) and graceful, with branches at right angles. The slender
awn is long, being 3-4 times as long as the palea, which is surrounded
by a tuft of hairs below, and silky, giving the plant the English name.
The anthers are linear and oblong, and the glume is hairy.

Silky Wind Grass is 2-3 ft. high. The plant flowers in June and
July, and is annual, propagated by seeds.

This graceful grass is bisexual and anemophilous. There are
3 stamens in the male flowers, and the anthers are linear. The styles
are short and distinct, and as in other grasses the stigmas are feathery.
The flowers open about 6 a.m.

The fruit, which is a caryopsis, is light and blown to a distance
by the wind, or falls to the ground close to the parent plant.

This grass is a sand-loving plant growing on sand or loam.

Apcra< Adanson, is from the Greek aperos, undivided, in allusion to
the flowering glume; Spica-venti, Lobel, is Latin for spike of wind,
because the panicle is constantly agitated by the wind.

Silky Wind Grass is also called Corn Grass and Windlestraws.
Gerarde explains the second name thus: "Some in English, much
agreeable to the Latine name, call these windle straws. Now I take
this to be the grasse with which we in London do usually adorne our
chimneys in summer time. And we commonly call the bundle of it
handsomely made up for use by the name of Bents." Corn Grass
he explains thus: " Gramen segetalc, either of the likenes it hath
with corne, or that it groweth among corne ".

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

331. Apera Spica-venti, Beauv. — Stem tall, flowers in spreading
panicle, slender, awn three times as long as the palea, with hairs on each
side.

Silvery Hair Grass (Aira caryophyllea, L.)

This slender, graceful grass is found throughout the North
Temperate Zone in Europe, N. Africa, and has been introduced into
N. America. It is unknown in early plant beds. It is absent in
Great Britain only in S.E. Yorks, and ranges as far as the Shetlands,
up to 1400 ft., in the Highlands. It is native in Ireland and the
Channel Islands.

SILVERY HAIR GRASS

177

The Silvery Hair Grass is a rupestral species, growing on rocky
pastures or barren moorlands, being a xerophyte, and partly ericetal.
With it one will find Harebells, Eyebright, and other lovers of dry
soil.

It has a very loosely-rooted fibrous root. The stem is erect, terete,
striate, with 2-3 joints, tufted, decumbent at the base, rough above.
The leaves are bristle-like, short, blunt, rough, rigid, the edges in-
volute and narrow. The ligule is long, rough, and striate, with a
white membrane.

The flowers are in a panicle, which is widely branched, with single

SILVERY HAIR GRASS (Aira caryophyllea, L.)

flower-stalks, and divided into three parts. The spikelets are small,
egg-shaped, shining, rounded, purple below, the lower empty, egg-
shaped, and longer than the flowering glume. The awn is longer
than the glume, jointed, dorsal, twisted, originating from the middle of
the palea, which is divided into two nearly to the base.

This grass is 6-8 in. high. The flower is in bloom in May,
June, and July. It is annual, propagated by seed.

The flowers are anemophilous. There are 3 stamens, and the
stigmas are feathery, as in other wind-fertilized flowers. The anther-
stalks are capillary. The anthers are oblong and forked at each end.
There are 2 styles. The fruit is light and attached to the glume and
palea, and is blown away readily by the wind.

Silvery Hair Grass is a sand-loving plant and requires a sand soil.

74

1 78 FLOWERS OF ROCKS, WALLS, ETC.

The Butterfly, The Grayling (Satyrus seme/e), and two moths, The
Slender Clouded Brindle (Xylophasia scolopdsina\ Elachista eleochar-
cllay are found on it.

Aira, Theophrastus, from Greek airo, I destroy, was the name of
a in-ass — probably Darnel — which was poisonous. The second Latin
name is given in allusion to the scent of cloves, which makes it attrac-
tive to Lepidoptera. It is called Mouse-grass.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

333. Aira caryophyllea, L. — Stem erect, leaves setaceous, short,
narrow, sheaths rough below, panicle spreading, awn silvery, twisted.

Flat-stalked Poa (Poa compressa, L.)

This more or less local mural grass is found in the N. Temperate
Zone in Europe, N. and W. Asia, and is possibly native in America,
there being no trace of it in early plant beds. In Great Britain it does
not grow in the Peninsular province in W. Cornwall, but throughout
the Channel and Thames, Anglia, and Severn provinces, except in
Stafford; in S. Wales, only in Carmarthen and Pembroke; in N.
Wales, in Denbigh, Anglesea; in the Trent province; in the Mersey,
not in Chester; throughout the Humber, Tyne, and Lakes pro-
vinces, except in the Isle of Man; and in the W. Lowlands, only
in Renfrew and Lanark; in the E. Lowlands, only in Roxburgh, Ber-
wick, Edinburgh; in the E. Highlands, in Fife and Forfar; in N.
1 lighlands, in E. Ross. From Ross it ranges southward, but it is rare
in Ireland and the Channel Islands.

The Flat-stalked Poa is not so common as some others, on account
of ils restricted habitat. It prefers a dry soil, and largely affects a
mural habitat. Thus it grows commonly on walls with Vernal Grass,
Mouse-ear Hawkweed, &c., and its natural habitat is a dry bank.

Slightly prostrate at the base, the stem is finally erect, oblique,
flattened (hence the second Latin name), from a creeping rhizome
which produces long soboles. The leaves are flat, rough or smooth.
The upper leaf is longer than the sheath, with the upper knot near the
middle of the stem. The ligule is short and blunt.

The flowers are in a secund (one-sided) branched panicle, which is
narrowed. The spikelets have 5-7 flowers, and are oblong, egg-shaped,
bluish-purple, with hyaline flowering glumes, with 3 hairy veins, and
webbed, blunt, and smooth.

Flat-stalked Poa is 1-2 ft. high. The flowers are in bloom in
June and July. The plant is perennial, propagated by division.

SAND FESCUE

179

There are from two to many
flowers in the spikelet. The low-
est glumes are empty, the rest
flowering. There are 3 stamens
and 2 styles, which are short and
terminal, and the stigmas are
feathery. The flowers are anemo-
philous.

The fruits are enveloped in
the glume, and may be partially
wind-borne or fall to the ground.

This grass is a sand plant and
addicted to a sand soil.

Poa, Theophrastus, is the
Greek for grass, and the second
Latin name refers to the con-
tracted panicle. The plant is
called Squitch Grass.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARAC-
TERS : —

338. Poa compressa, L. — Stem
compressed, geniculate, leaves in-
volute, panicle secund, ligule pro-
minent, palea downy-veined.

Sand Fescue (Festuca
Myuros, L.)

The distribution of Sand Fescue
to-day is the N. Temperate Zone
in Europe, and N. Africa, and
it has been introduced into N.
America. In Great Britain it is
found in the Peninsula province,
except in N. Devon; the Channel
province, except in N. Hants;
Thames, Anglia provinces, except
in W. Suffolk; Severn province;
in S. Wales, only in Glamorgan,
Radnor, Carmarthen ; in N. Wales,
in Carnarvon, Denbigh, Anglesea;

Photo. H. Irving.

FLAT-STALKED POA (Poa compressa, L.)

i8o

FLOWERS OF ROCKS, WALLS, ETC.

in the Trent province, in Lines; in the
Mersey province, only in Chester; in
the Humber province, in N.E. and
N.W. Yorks; and in the Lakes pro-
vince, only in the Isle of Man. In
Scotland it is only found in Dumfries
and Kirkcudbright. It is a native in
Mid and S. Ireland and the Channel
Islands.

Sand Fescue is so essentially areno-
philous that its distribution is limited to
some inland and many maritime counties
where sand is a dominant formation.
It is found where Silky Wind Grass and
Flat-stalked Poa are prevailing grasses.

The stems are slender, smooth, with
many bristle -like leaves below, keeled,
very short, with long upper sheaths,
which are furrowed, rounded, smooth,
and almost or more than reaching the
panicle. The ligule is short, with round
auricles or lobes.

The panicle is one-sided, nodding,
elongate, interrupted, the lowest branch
a quarter of the whole, and is either
straight or wavy, glossy. The lower
glume is one-third less than the upper.
The spikelets have awns which are
wedge-shaped when expanded. The
awn is slender.

This plant is 12-18 in. in height.
It flowers in June and July. Sand
Fescue is annual, propagated by seeds.

The spikelets contain three or more
flowers, there is i stamen, the terminal
style is short, and the stigma is feathery.
Here, again, the flower is anemophilous
and proterogynous.

The long, light fruit is enclosed in
the glume, and is admirably adapted
for wind dispersal.

I'll.. ic.. II Imng

SAND FRSCUE (Festuca Myuros, L.)

SAND FESCUE 181

This is a sand plant, growing on sand soil and gravel.

Festiica, Dodonaeus, is from the Latin festuca, which means a stalk,
stem, or strand, and Myuros is from the Greek mus, a mouse.

Fescue is from the Celtic fest, food or pasturage. This grass
is also called Capon's-tail Grass.

ESSENTIAL SPECIFIC CHARACTERS: —

340. Festiica Myuros, L. — Stem slender, tall, leaves setaceous,
panicle long, unilateral, nodding, compressed, awn longer than the
palea, terminal, slender, glumes unequal.

SOME GENERAL HINTS AND NOTES

SECTION X

FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

Bogs and Moors.1— Bog and moor both owe
their origin to the clearing of forests from
regions which became waterlogged, and thus
established conditions suitable for the forma-
tion of peat. A fen resembles a bog, but in-
cludes marsh, with lowland vegetation, and
contains very little peat. In the case of
bogs and moors the peat is thick. They are
developed upon the higher parts of the hilly
tracts in the north and west; but a bog is
essentially a wetter type of formation than a
moor. Moors occupy in fact more convex
portions of highlands than the bog or fen,
which have a concave basis, or lie in hollows.

The moor also is similar in some respects
to a heath in being drier, and the peat is the
subsoil for similar types of Ericaceous plants.
But the subsoil of the moors does not, as in
the case of heaths, affect the vegetation, the
sand and gravel underlying a heath with thin
peat or humus being confined to particular
districts. The moor and the bog or fen then
are characteristic of the more humid parts of
the British Isles.

Local Character of Bogs and Moors.— Owing
to the necessity for the development of peat on
a large scale and the dependence on more or
less moist conditions, bogs and moors are not
widely dispersed in the British Isles; and in-
deed the plants which are characteristic of
these types of formation are of very rare occur-
rence for the most part. This is partly due to
the universal cultivation and drainage of the
country after the cutting down of trees. But
it is also due to more natural causes. These
are the requirement of a considerable altitude,
and the constant replenishment of the peat,
which is normally developed only in regions
of great rainfall.

1 See also Section IX, where dry moors are treated with
heaths. The two divisions overlap to some extent.

Bogs and moors are, in fact, confined to
the lofty mountains or hilly regions which are
based upon the distribution of the older rocks
in this country. These are found for the most
part in the west of England, in Wales, in
the Lake District, and in Scotland generally.
Yorkshire also is mainly composed of lofty hills,
covered by moorland vegetation. In Ireland
peat is widespread in the whole of the north-
west, and along the western half of the country.
Thus moorland and fen are developed in the
regions of the greatest rainfall and altitude.

Marsh Plants and Aquatic Plants. — Since
marshes are areas where plants are in various
stages of submergence, it is not unnatural that
they should show various degrees of connection
with plants that are entirely submerged, or
aquatic plants. Marsh vegetation and aquatic
vegetation are, in fact, intimately connected.
The former is often marginal to the latter,
and the plants of the one are frequently com-
mon to the other; thus a river or lake with
aquatic vegetation may give rise to a marsh
at its edge. The difference again between
marsh formations and fen or carr vegetation
is less marked than the difference between
the former and moorland vegetation, the alka-
line nature of the water of the second resem-
bling that of a marsh. Marsh vegetation
may, on the other hand, become transitional
to wet meadows by drainage. Marsh plants
are also largely common to salt marshes
where the conditions are suitable.

Peat and its Characteristics. — Peat is the
result of the accumulation of vegetable matter
in such a state that it has preserved its original
character to a very great extent. It is rela-
tively dry at the surface, and owing to oxida-
tion browner, whilst below it is much wetter
and black. The lowest layers may be amor-
phous, and exhibit no traces of the original

1 84

HINTS AND NOTES

types of plants. Thus it is similar in character
to coal, but much younger, and therefore phy-
sically different.

I Vat is formed in stagnant water, and is
charged with humous acids, which tend to
preserve the constituent plants. There is very
little foreign matter (3 per cent) in it.

Generally speaking there is upland peat and
lowland peat, or hill peat and bog or marsh
peat. The plants that respectively make up
each layer, form distinctive types of peat, and
from sections it is possible to determine the
origin of the different peat beds, and to denote
the changes in the flora.

Thus in the Lake District one may find the
following succession, above lacustrine ooxe and
shell marl, vix. : amorphous peat ; Ilyptnini
peat, made up of moss stems; lower sedge and
reed peat, with drifted tree stumps occasionally;
upper sedge and reed peat ; wood peat, with
Birch; a mixed brown peat, with Cotton
Grass, Sedges, and bog moss (Sphagnum) ;
and finally an upper grey spongy Sphagnum
peat.

IVat beds vary from a few feet to as much
as 30 ft. or more. In Ireland peat is cut into
turves and used for fuel, paper-making, &c.

Ancient Peat Deposits. — As a whole peat
deposits are not older than the Glacial epoch,
and a great proportion of them belong to the
Recent or present period coeval with the for-
mation of the alluvium of our modern rivers.
But the upland peat formed upon the high-
lands of England and Scotland, as shown by
F. J. Lewis, may be said to be older, or of
Glacial age. Thus in Kirkcudbrightshire and
Ayrshire the succession is as follows : Recent
peat, chiefly with Scirpus and Sphagnum, an
Upper Turbarian or Sixth Glacial stage, an
Upper Forestian bed with Pinus syh-estris,
then Sphagnum, then Eriophorum, Lower Tur-
barian or Fifth Glacial stage, Arctic Willow
and Empetrum, then Eriophorum, followed by
Sphagnum, a Lower Forestian bed with White
Birch, and below Willow and Ling, the Afeck-
lenburgian or Fourth Glacial stage with coarse
sand and morainic material.

Thus forest beds alternate with peat beds.
This is similar to the sequence of Pine, Oak,
and Spruce in Sweden. The plants of the
peat beds are arctic plants, and have travelled
southward with the ice.

Lowland and Upland Moors.— Moors as a
whole, being based upon a peat soil, are de-
veloped in regions that are humid, and it is
natural that they occur most frequently in the
uplands. But there are lowland moors also,
which usually occur in association with estu-
aries or lakes, where they are formed above
silt or alluvium or lacustrine mud. When

there is much lime the first stage has been
a bog.

The estuarine lowland moors are formed
upon extensive beds of silt, as in North Lanca-
shire, and are called Mosses, and occupied
old filled-up upland valleys. Cotton Grasses,
Tufted Bulrush, Ling, Cross-leaved Heath,
Rosemary, Bog Mosses, Beak Sedge, Cran-
berry, Bog Asphodel, and Sundews are char-
acteristic of these estuarine moors. In the
lacustrine moors there are in the peat succes-
sive layers with Bog Mosses, Cotton Gras^e^,
Prickly Twig Rush, Reed, Birch, Ling, &c.
The valley moors of the New Forest show Bog
Moss, Purple Moor Grass, Reed Swamp asso-
ciations, and Alder tliickets.

The upland moors lie on the slope of the
hills, e.g. Pennines, between 1000 and 2000 ft.,
and in Scotland are found up to 3000 ft. They
are distinctly drier, and trees are absent as in
the original condition. The following associa-
tions occur: Bog Moss, Cotton Grass (1200-
2200 ft.), Tufted Bulrush (1250-2000 ft.), Bil-
berry Moor (up to 3000 ft. in Scotland), Heather
Moor (700 ft. or 1000 ft. to 2200 ft.). Elsewhere
Rush societies and others of stagnant hollows
occur. Grass Moor takes the place of these
associations in some parts of Scotland.

Lowland and Upland Bogs. — As there are
lowland and upland moors, so there are low-
land and upland bogs or tracts of fen. But
the greater portion of the fen formation, which
is made up of fen and carr (or wooded fen),
is lowland, being developed chiefly in East
Anglia. There the fen is very little above
sea-level along the coast, and in fact may be
continuous with salt marshes at the margin.

The plants that are most distinctive of the
fen are Grasses and Sedges, such as Reed,
Prickly Twig Rush, and Juncus obtusijlorns;
Purple Moor Grass also occurs on a wide
scale, and Sphagnum and Cotton Grass,
whilst other plants are Sweet Gale, Bog
Orchis, Sundew, Winter Green, and else-
where Glycerin aquatica, Reed Grass, Rough
Meadow Grass, Ragged Robin, &c.

Fen associations pass into moorland, and
where the peat rises above alkaline waters
moor with acid water may occur. The upland
fen tracts are probably akin to low land moors,
and consist of Cotton Grass, Sedges, Rushes,
&c., with Ragged Robin, (Enanthe Lachenalii,
Orchis incaniata, Scirpus rufits, £c. These
have been so far little investigated, and a
field lies open for their special study.

Xerophytic Types. — The submerged parts of
bog and marsh plants are exposed to the same
conditions as aquatic plants, but the water in
which they grow is deficient in some salts,
especially nitrates, though rich in lime. Their

FLOWERS OF THE BOGS AND MARSHES

185

aerial parts above water are also exposed to
drought, and the bog- plants have xerophil-
ous adaptations, absorption of water being
difficult.

Marsh plants are similarly protected and
enabled to withstand drought, though less
liable to alternations of wet and dry con-
ditions than bog plants. Moorland plants
show the most marked contrivances for re-
sisting drought, and the vegetation is almost
entirely xerophytic.

Vestiges. — Many causes have contributed to
the disappearance of the wet-soil types of vege-
tation such as bogs and marshes. The moor-
lands, which are drier, and situated mainly
above the zone of cultivation, have, however,
largely escaped, and they are probably of far
greater extent than the bog or fen type and
marshes.

The fen type, since it is largely lowland,
and developed upon soil which is valuable
for agricultural purposes, has been most
largely affected. But in spite of this there is
a good deal of country in the original state
of the Fens.

Bogs, lowland or upland, however, have
been greatly reduced in extent. The lowland
types now only survive in an altered condition,
having by artificial agency been transformed
into marsh or wet meadow. In some cases
they are to be discovered only by a careful
survey of the country yard by yard, or field
by field. The same applies also in a great
measure to heaths and similar vegetation
developed upon peat or ground with stag-
nant water, liable to be removed. When wet
peat is drained it may become a moor, or a
wet or dry meadow or grass heath.

We have ventured to call such traces of
former bog or heath "vestiges", since they are
now merely an indication of natural vegeta-
tion almost obliterated. Marshes are similarly
liable to become lost or completely altered by
kindred causes.

Drainage and its Effects. — For agricultural
purposes a soil must be drained of superfluous
moisture. Hence practically all land below the
altitude of 1000 ft. has been subjected to re-
peated drainage, after tree-felling, followed by
cultivation and the enclosure of land.

All the causes at work too, in diminishing
rare plants, accentuate this effect of drainage.
The Fens are an illustration of the extent to
which drainage has gone on within the last
two centuries. All the tract from Peterborough
and parts of Lincoln to Bedford and Hunting-
don, and most of East Anglia, has undergone
the most radical alteration. Where the Bittern
boomed and the Ruff once bred, will be found
acres and acres of potato fields. The reed

swamps are gone, and so too is the marsh and
bog vegetation.

The Lowland Character of Marshes. -The
marsh plants as a whole are of Arctic origin,
a large proportion of them being of northern
type. They are ascending species, which,
owing to the milder conditions since the
Glacial epoch, have gradually tended to reach
a higher altitude more suited to their primitive
or original requirements.

The marsh flora in its unaltered phase de-
mands a lowland habitat, where water of a
stagnant character may rise to a certain
level, so that the plants may be more or less
submerged. The water is, however, not as
in aquatic vegetation able to circulate freely.
The marsh vegetation is thus largely above
the river level, and may rest upon a certain
amount of peat.

Tree Associations of Marshes. — That the
marsh vegetation is a more or less natural for-
mation is shown by the usual occurrence of a
certain tree association, which gives it a dis-
tinctive character. The tree flora of the moors
is deficient in this country, and only the Pine
and Birch are found at high altitudes in peaty
soils. In a marsh formation the Alder is
usually the dominant tree. The fen or fen
carr is also made up of Weeping Willow and
Sweet Gale forming a scrub, which merges
into an Alder and Willow wood; Ash, the
pedunculate Oak, the hoar}- and black Pop-
lars, and the small-leaved Elm also occur
frequently.

The shrubs forming the scrub layer are
made up of the smaller WTillows, Guelder
Rose, Birch, Field Maple, Hawthorn, Sloe,
Elder, Gooseberry, Currant, and Brambles
and Roses, with such climbers as Honeysuckle
and Ivy.

But trees may be absent, in which case
marsh approaches the bog formation more
closely.

Marshes and Wet Meadows.— The margin
of a marsh usually shows the wet-meadow
type of vegetation that results when marshes
are drained. The characteristic tree associa-
tion may remain to some extent, and Al-
ders and Willows are often found bordering
streams and rivers, or growing in hedges with
deep or wide ditches, flanked by meadows,
which have lost their most characteristic herb-
aceous marsh flora.

There may be in such wet meadows relics
of the former marsh flora, denoted by the
general distribution of Marsh Marigold, Lady's
Smock (Cardamine amara), Ragged Robin,
Great Water Stitchwort, Meadow Sweet, Gol-
den Saxifrage, Marsh Willow Herb, Marsh
Bedstraw, Valerian, Marsh Thistle, Money-

i86

HINTS AND NOTES

wort, Scorpion Grass, Water Figwort, Skull-
cap, Marsh Woundwort, Great Water Dock,
Marsh Orchid, Yellow Flag, Hummock Sedge,
Tussock Grass (Calabrosa aquatica), Manna
Grass, Horsetail, «.Vr.

Wet and Submerged Character of Marshes.—
Marsli vegetation is distinctly hydrophilous, or
made up of plants that require a considerable
amount of moisture; in the marsh the soil is
saturated with water, but owing to the close
association of the plants and the absence of
channels, the water is stagnant, and peat is
formed on a small scale.

Relatively the same conditions are thus
obtained by the marsh plants in the lowlands
that are seized upon by bog or moorland
plants in the uplands. But there is an essen-
tial difference in the resulting soil conditions
or water content. In the marsh the soil may
be peat or silt, the water if rich in mineral
salts is alkaline. In the bog the water is also
alkaline, but more so, and the peat thick, and
in the moor the water is acid, whilst the water
is derived from aerial sources.

A marsh is an aquatic formation of a closed
character in which there is not a free circula-
tion of water. In aquatic vegetation the plants
are submerged beneath the water-table, and as
a rule 80 per cent of their surface is covered.
In a marsh the percentage may be between
5 and 20 per cent.

Habitats of Bog and Marsh Plants.— A com-
mon characteristic of both bog and marsh
plants is the moist nature of the habitat. The
flora of a bog is exposed to wind and insola-
tion, and sunshine for long periods, and it
shows adaptation to these conditions. Little
shade is afforded for the bog plants, except by
the few shrubby types for the smaller plants,
e.g. trailers.

The bog or fen vegetation may be extensive,
and afford habitats for a number of different
plants; or consist of a few plants, as Cotton
(irass, making up a wide association.

Trees and scrub are much more frequent in
a marsh than in an upland bog, and the marsh
flora in any case exhibits a greater diversity
as it merges into aquatic vegetation, which
is very diversified.

The Habits of Bog and Marsh Plants.—
Hog plants as a whole are strikingly homo-
geneous in their habit of growth. The domin-
ant habit is the grass habit, as in the case of
the Sedges, Cotton Grass, &c. But the rosette
habit is also not uncommon, as in Butterwort,
(irass of Parnassus, &c. The trailing habit is
met with in the case of the Bog Pimpernel,
common also to the marsh flora. The shrub
habit is found in the case of Cranberry, Wild
Rosemary, and Bog Myrtle. In all cases

there is a marked reduction in leaf and stem
owing to the xerophytic adaptations which the
bog plants have acquired.

The marsh flora is more or less similar in
general characteristics to the bog flora, as far .1^
the dominance of the grass type is concerned,
but contains numerous other types less usual
in the bog flora.

Some plants are procumbent types, such
as the Bog Bean. Non-glumaceous plants
adopt the grass habit when associated with
Grasses, e.g. Bog Speedwell, Bog Asphodel,
and Great and Lesser Spearworts. The in-
versely pyramidal habit is found in .Marsh
Marigold and Marsh Lousewort.

Height of Bog and Marsh Plants. — Bog
plants are perpetually exposed to wind, and
are as a whole not tall. The development of
the grass habit, in fact, establishes a more or
less uniform height, which is from 9 in. to
i ft. or 18 in. The necessity for adaptation
to dry conditions also prevents upward growth.

The marsh flora containing tree types con-
sists of much loftier types, and again, wind is
less influential in a marsh than in an upland
bog. The marsh flora is altogether less sub-
ject to dry conditions, hence the ground flora
is more luxuriant, and the plants are generally
more robust.

The Flowering Seasons of Bog and Marsh
Plants. — As might be expected in the case of
plants which flourish only where there is some
degree of moisture, the flowering seasons of
bog and marsh plants are as a whole rather
late.

The earliest plant to flower amongst those
especially selected for description is the Marsh
Marigold, which blooms in March. The
White Willow comes next, and flowers with
others in April.

In May, Valerian, Rosemary, Butterwort,
Bog Myrtle, Cotton Grass, and Great Prickly
Sedge, with other Sedges, commence to bloom.

The plants that flower for the first time in
June are Great Spearwort, Cranberry, Bog
Speedwell, Marsh Red Rattle, Bladderwort,
Jointed Rush, and Hummock Sedge.

When July opens, a number of others just
commence to flower, and but few plants linger
till August and September before they bloom,
such as Sundew, Water Violet, Bog Bean,
Golden Dock, Marsh Helleborine, Bog Aspho-
del, Galingale, Common Spike Rush, Prickly
Twig Rush, Bog Pimpernel, and Grass of
Parnassus.

The Duration of Bog and Marsh Plants.—
Bog and marsh plants are amongst the most
truly native of our wild plants. The vegeta-
tion they make up is essentially primitive, de-
rived very largely from arctic or northern

FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

187

regions, where few or no annual plants are
known. As has been seen the period of flower-
ing is indeed very late, and the interval between
this period and winter is relatively very short;
the uniformly perennial character of bog and
marsh vegetation is therefore a natural char-
acteristic. A few, as Cranberry, Rosemary,
Bog Myrtle, are shrubs, and the Alder and
the Willows are trees. The only annual
is Marsh Lousewort, a hemi-parasite on Grass
roots.

The Pollination of Bog and Marsh Plants.—
As might naturally be expected in the case
of habitats so essentially moist as bogs and
marshes, insects that get their livelihood in
the imago stage are not conspicuously abun-
dant. None the less many bog- and marsh-
plants rely upon insect agency for effective
crossing.

Such are Great Spearwort, Marsh Marigold,
Grass of Parnassus, the Sundew, Water Drop-
wort, Valerian, Cranberry, Rosemary, Water
Violet, Bog Bean, Bog Speedwell, Marsh Red
Rattle, Bladderwort, Butterwort, Marsh Helle-
borine, Bog Asphodel; the Bog Pimpernel,
which grows almost covered up by other
plants, making it difficult to discover it, is
normally self-pollinated.

Golden Dock and Bog Myrtle are pollinated
by the agency of the wind, as are all the Rush,
Sedge, and Grass types that occur.

The Dispersal of Seeds of Bog and Marsh
Plants. — The uniformity of the bogs and
marshes as a whole is a factor in the mode
of dispersal of the seeds, the wind playing an
important part generally.

The Great Spearwort, Sundew, Bog Pimper-
nel, Marsh Red Rattle (in part), Butterwort,
Jointed Rush, Galingale, Common Spike Rush,
Great Prickly Twig Rush, Hummock Sedge,

Great Prickly Sedge rely upon their own
special mechanisms for the dispersal of the
seeds at no great distance from the plant.

Animals, especially birds, disperse the berries
of the Cranberry and the Bog Myrtle. Water
is responsible for the dispersal of the seeds of
the Water Violet and the Bladderwort.

The Fungal Pests of Bogs and Marshes.—
As has been noted elsewhere, a damp habitat
is not, as a whole, conducive 'to attack by
fungi. There are some few paludal types of
fungi, but they are not of frequent occurrence;
and though moulds attack the tissues of plants
in moist situations, when they have been al-
ready subjected to adverse conditions, plants
in a healthy state are not usually infected.
The fungi that infest bog and marsh plants
belong chiefly to the smaller parasitic types,
mainly rusts, smuts, mildews, and moulds.

Methods of Survey.— In some respects the
bog and marsh are difficult to study on a sys-
tematic plan ; for the peaty soil and wet condi-
tions render both inaccessible for a large part
of the year, and the vegetation is so close and
tall, that anything like the detailed survey
recommended for meadows, woods, the corn-
field, coast, &c., is rendered difficult. But
the frequent arrangement of the plants in
wide associations is a feature which renders the
survey less formidable than at first appears.

Attention ought to be paid especially to the
soil, depth of peat, nature of the water, &c.,
and these conditions should be correlated with
the adaptations of the plants to xeromorphic
conditions. Otherwise surveys may be made
as in the case of a meadow.

In the marsh the tree associations may be
noted first, and then the scrub. The dominant
types and larger associations should be mapped
out on a broad basis.

SECTION XI
FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

Heaths and Moors. — In Section VIII some
remarks have been made as to the similar
character of Bogs, Heaths, and Moors, and
the natural passage of one of them into the
others has been pointed out in Sections I-III
and V-VIII. Heaths in the usual sense are
lowland, and drier than moors, and are usually
developed upon a sandy or gravelly soil. Even
in the uplands a heath only merges into moor-
land vegetation where the surface forms hollows

and thick peat accumulates. A moor requires
no surface soil of a particular character, but
it does demand a certain sort of water, acid in
character.

The peat of a heath is also acid, but relatively
dry. Occasionally there is a thick impervious
layer of sand and gravel (moor pan), which
is cemented together by mineral solutions
derived from the peaty soil. In the case of
a wet heath there is a deeper layer of peat,

i88

HINTS AND NOTES

often associated with a bog, where there is
a resemblance to the moor formation. On the
other hand, heathland, as will be seen, often
passes into grassland.

Dry and Wet Heaths. --Though heaths, as
a rule, are dry compared with moors or bogs,
they vary sufficiently to cause a difference in
the flora according as they are dry or wet,
relatively speaking.

On the typically dry acid peaty soil, in the
lowlands of England especially, the dry heath
is characterized by the predominance of the
Heather or Ling, Hell Heather, and in some
parts by Cross -leaved Heath and Cornish
Heath. The Whortleberry is also a common
constituent. These plants form wide associa-
tions, and make up a large proportion of the
vegetation altogether. But with them may also
be found Milkwort, Pretty St. John's Wort,
Purging Flax, Broom, Furze, Tormentil,
Heath Bedstraw, Saw Wort, Harebell, Dod-
der, Red Rattle, Eyebright, Cow Wheat,
Wood Sage, Juniper, various Sedges (e.g.
Early Sedge), Bent Grasses, Matweed, Purple
Hair Grass, &c.

The wet heath developed in hollows, where
water lies, may closely resemble the moor, and
the peat is then usually thicker. In such
places may be found Marsh Violet, Sundew,
Cranberry, Ling, Cross-leaved Heath, Butter-
wort, Lesser Skullcap, Gentian, Creeping
Willow, Sweet Gale, Bog Orchid, Heath
Rush, Spike Rushes, Bulrush, Cotton Grass,
Beak Sedge, Flea Sedge, Purple Hair Grass,
Matweed, Royal Fern, Club Moss, and Bog
Mosses.

Ericaceous Plants and Heaths. — One of the
chief characteristics of the heath is the pre-
dominance of the plant which gives its name
to this type of formation. Such plants as Ling,
Bell Heather, Cross-leaved Heath, Ciliate
Heath, Cornish Heath, Mediterranean Heath,
all have the characteristic Heath habit. They
are all adapted to resist the effects of drought,
to which heaths, especially on stony or gravelly
soils, are much subject.

In some cases Ling itself is the principal
plant ; on damper soils the Cross-leaved
Heath may take its place, or the Whortle-
berry, which is also adapted to dry-soil con-
ditions. The dominance of the Heath plants
excludes all but a few plants that in the
main have the grass habit, and so can exist
side by side with the Heaths, and main-
tain their struggle successfully where others
would be crowded out. Where there are a
good number of other species present, the
heath merges into a grass heath. One reason
for the dominance of the heath plants is the
periodic burning of Ling and Heath each

spring to encourage the growth of new shoots,
largely done where grouse are preserved. This
destroys the other plants. A few, however,
recover, even before tin- Ling, as Whortle-
berry, Sheep's Fescue, Matweed, Cotton ( ..
&c.

Distribution of Heaths.- The heaths of the
British Islands occupy certain well -dt -lim-d
areas, where there is a considerable rainfall, on
more or less sandy or gravelly soils. Thus they
occur in the south and west of England, and in
Scotland, and in the Midlands, and elsewhere
on a lesser scale. The rainfall in Scotland,
which may amount to 40 or more inches of
rain annually, exceeds that in the English
areas named by at least 15 in.

The heaths of the Eastern Counties have not
more than 25 in. of rain per annum, and peat
is not formed to any great extent. In the
south of England it is much less. In Norfolk
and Suffolk the Ling-covered areas may be
transitional to grass heath, and also develop
the flora of the chalk pasture.

In the Cornish area the Cornish Heath,
Dwarf Furze, Ciliate Heath are characteristic.
In the Midlands the heaths are ill developed.
Yorkshire has great regions of heather, called
moors. There is 35 in. of rain per annum,
and both wet and dry heaths occur.

Degenerate Woods and Heaths. — From the'
frequent association of certain tree associations
with heaths, it is probable that in some cases,
at any rate, the heath is a degenerate type of
woodland, as where Oak, Birch, and Pine
occur, and form a scrub with heath plants.
But in many cases, especially on coarse sand-
stones and sands, the heath was itself origin-
ally developed.

In any case, when a heath occurs it trans-
forms the soil characteristics, for a layer of peat
is formed, which at once affords a home for cer-
tain types of plants, and excludes others that
cannot grow in humus. It has been found on
the Continent that the cause of the degenera-
tion of woodland into heath is due to the leach-
ing out of the sand from the soil. It is pro-
bable that in the same way the leaching out of
humus from a soil originally rich in this has
been responsible for the disappearance from
certain districts of such humus-loving plants as
Dog's Mercury and Lords and Ladies. In
place of the mild humus of a woodland re-
quired by such plants, an acid humus is formed
suitable for heath types. The consolidation of
sandy, gravelly soil by humus acids similarly
affects the growth of trees, and renders the
persistence of woodland impossible and the for-
mation of heaths possible.

Grass Heath.— Where the soil is sandy there
are frequently wide tracts of uniform so-called

FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

189

heath which are made up of a characteristic
type of vegetation. They are more or less
ancient pastures that have not, owing to the
sandy, rather sterile nature of the soil, been
cultivated or turned into arable land. Conse-
quently they are distinguishable from ordinary
pasture or meadow.

Though typical heath plants are found upon
the grass heath, they may be entirely absent.
As the name denotes, this type of association
is largely characterized by the predominance
of Grasses. The following plants are also typi-
cal of the grass heath : Climbing Fumitory,
Whitlow Grass, Teesdale's Cress, Dog Violet,
Milkwort, Field Chickweed, Sand Spurrey,
Pearhvort, Grassy Stitchwort, Pretty St. John's
Wort, Perforate St. John's Wort, Purging
Flax, Jagged-leaved Crane's Bill, Stork's Bill,
Furze, Broom, Creeping Rest-harrow, Sub-
terranean Trefoil, Hare's Foot Trefoil, Bird's
Foot, Narrow - leaved Vetch, Silvery - leaved
Tormentil, Parsley Piert, Burnet Saxifrage,
Ladies' Bedstraw, Heath Bedstraw, Least
Cudweed, Heath Ragwort, Hawkweeds, Au-
tumnal Hawkbit, Carline Thistle, Sheep's Bit
Scabious, Harebell, Ling, Bell Heather, Cen-
taury, Dwarf Forget-me-not, Eyebright, Wood
Sage, Wild Thyme, Knawel, Sheep's Sorrel,
Field Spike Rush, Vernal Grass, Bent Grass,
Sheep's Fescue, &c.

Vestiges of Heaths. — Indications of heath or
grass heath are occasionally to be found amidst
meadow and pasture of a less special type, or
purely neutral grassland. It may be that the
one has invaded or obliterated the other owing
to induced or artificial conditions. This is an
interesting problem for the pupil, and will
show how one type of formation may influence
another.

The flowering plants that may be found as
vestiges of former heathland or grass heath
are more likely to be discovered, and are easier
to distinguish than cryptogams. Such vestiges
may, however, as in the case of bogs, be indi-
cated by the occurrence of certain ericetal
mosses or other cryptogams that are perhaps
the only indication that is left of the former
occurrence of a heath flora.

Furze itself, may in some cases indicate
heath conditions, especially when associated
with Grassy Stitchwort, Heath Bedstraw,
Water Pepper, Procumbent St. John's Wort,
Sieglingia decumbens, &c.

Commonland, Furze, and Heaths. — A feature
that may be pointed out in studying the con-
ditions of heath vegetation is the association
of commonland with a certain type of soil
which is suitable for the latter, and which is
largely colonized by Furze, and the plants
that usually grow with it.

Commonland is not only land that has been
devoted to the general needs of the community,
but has other characteristics which cause it to
be left uncultivated and unenclosed. It is usu-
ally poor, sandy, or gravelly soil, which is
suitable only for grazing. Commonland is
also largely developed upon the slopes or
summits of hills, where the ground is littered
with stones, and unfit for cultivation. In
this way it is especially favourable to the type
of heath vegetation where Ling, Furze, Pine,
and the usual ericetal plants occur.

Furze frequently grows on the sides of
paths, where also ants may be found. Indeed,
it is an interesting fact that ants to a great
extent disperse the Gorse, finding nutriment
in the elaiosomes or oily appendages of the
seeds. Amongst the Furze will be found many
plants common to the grass heath, and a
common may, in fact, be made up largely of
grass heath.

Wooded Heathland.— Though heaths most
often are open treeless tracts, they may be
wooded, or have a scrub association. Much
of the heathland in the south-east of England
in fact is wooded, and elsewhere wood and
heath are found to alternate.

The type of wood associated with heath con-
ditions is the dry Oak Wood, and a scrub may
also develop made up of Sloe, Gorse, Haw-
thorn, Rose, Bramble, &c. The heath flora
occurs in open parts of the dry Oak woods,
with Whortleberry, Ling, and Heath Hair
Grass.

Oak and Birch are the prevalent trees, but
sometimes Beech or Pine, associated with
Bracken and Ling, or White Beam, may be
dominant. There is generally a good deal of
light, so that the ground flora may be rich and
made up of large associations, as Holcus mollis,
Bluebell, Wood Sorrel, Wood Anemone.

The ground flora in the dry Oak wood con-
sists of heath plants, in addition to members
of the true dry Oak wood formations, many
Grasses, and plants of the grass heath. There
may elsewhere be a Birch heath characterized
by a dominance of Birch with Bracken.

Open Character of Heaths.— The heath, ex-
cept where dominated by trees, is, as a rule,
a very open association. The wide stretches
of Ling, Heath, or Whortleberry are frequently
unvaried by a single bush or tree over wide
areas. The same may be said relatively of a
Furze common, but it is often studded here
and there with a scrub of taller shrubs or trees,
as Hawthorn, &c. The grass heath also is of
a very uniform open type.

This openness of the heath exposes it to
severe conditions, which cause the ericetal
plants to be modified accordingly. In the first

1 9o

HINTS AND NOTES

place, tin* absence of shade causes the plants
to adapt themselves to dry conditions. The
leaves are leathery, rigid, narrow or linear,
the margins inrolled, and the plants are often
hairy. The exposure of heath plants to the
wind is also a characteristic feature, and they
have a typical habit correlated with this
factor.

The open heath again lends itself to the
successful pollination of the chief ericaceous
types by insects. In the case of grass heath,
on the other hand, the dominant Grasses are
enabled to disperse their pollen, and later
their seed, by the aid of the wind.

Dry-soil Types. — The heath flora is especially
exposed to dry-soil conditions. The conditions
upon a heath further involve dry air, intense
illumination, heat, and wind exposure. As a
consequence, heath plants display very marked
xerophytic adaptations.

Extensiveness of Heath Plants. — A special
feature of heaths is the well-marked continuity
of the association of such dominant plants as
Furze, Broom, Ling, Heath, Whortleberry,
&c. This is partly due to the uniformity of
the conditions. The heath is developed upon
a particular kind of soil, hence it is natural
that certain plant types, as Ling, &c. , are char-
acteristic of such a soil. Heath is a stable
association, and as such not liable to invasion
by or migration into other types.

Where Ericaceous types cover wide areas,
other plants cannot grow, or become dwarfed.
If the formation is open, however, grass heath
develops, and the grass type becomes equally
prevalent or even entirely dominant.

Game and Moors and Heaths. — An interest-
ing feature of the moorlands and the heaths
is the close association between gamebirds and
Kricaceous types of plants. It is the game-
birds, of course, that are dependent, and there
is no reason to think that Ericaceous plants
are in any way dependent upon the agency of
game for their dominance, unless it be that
in modern times the popularity of sport has
tended to conserve heaths and moors as the
special habitat of game.

Upland Heaths and Lowland Heaths.— As
intimated in Section XII, there are two alti-
tudes at which Ling and Heath, or the chief
components of a heath, occur. Though these
two levels are not uniform, they serve to indi-
cate the particular zones at which the heaths
in different areas are found.

The English heaths of the South of England
and the East Counties are more or less of the
lowland type, and the same may be said of the
Irish heaths, excluding the west coast moors
and heaths. Of this type are Exmoor, Dart-
moor, and numerous heath -clad commons.

Such heaths normally occur between 300 and
500 ft. above sea-level, but many of them come
right down to the sea.

The upland heaths are developed in the
hilliest parts of the country in the west, Wales,
Gloucestershire, the Pennines, Lake District,
Yorkshire, Scotland. They go by the name
of moors in many districts, especially in York-
shire. The height to which Calltina and
Erica extend, respectively, differs, and upon
this fact zones have been based. Ling ascends
the highest (2000 ft.), and the Cross-leaved
Heath next, Purple Heath the least of the
three.

Transition to Pasture. — The similarity between
the true heath and the grass heath sugg< >ts
that a heath may ultimately pass into pasture.
Heaths may, in fact, at their margin, grade
into dry pastures without Ling or other heath
plants. This is merely the illustration of a
natural law of succession. The transition of
heath into pasture in this manner, however,
must not be confused with the existence of
vestiges of true heath or grass heath amongst
neutral grassland, for in this case cultivation
has been the determining factor. It is true
that the result is largely the same, but the
originating cause (and process) is dissimilar.
This fact may be illustrated by the study of
a heath locally and its marginal transition to
pasture or grass heath, and the comparison
between this type and the possible representa*
lion of a vestigial heath in the same area.

In the transition from heath to pasture it
is interesting to note the elimination of the
Ericaceous dry-soil types, and the persistence
or appearance of ordinary meadow types.
Once the Ling and Heath, or Furze, or Oak,
or Pine are removed, a new flora comes into
existence. The transition from grass heath
which thus results is very easy, into a normal,
dry pasture. Indeed, many dry pastures may
be found to retain a few traces of their former
condition, including some dry-soil types, as
Mountain Everlasting, &c. By drainage, the
wet-heath types also disappear, and there may
then be little left to indicate the former char-
acter of the vegetation.

The Habitats of Heath Plants.— Owing to
the uniform type of soil, rich in acid humus,
demanded, heath plants as a whole exhibit a
marked similarity in their choice of habitat.
In this connection must be considered tin-
relation between the true heath, grass heath,
and pasture, on the one hand, and the moister
types of habitat of the wet heath, moor, and
bog on the other.

There are thus dry habitats and wet habi-
tats, depending upon the altitude to some ex-
tent. Wet heaths may also be developed upon

FLOWERS OF THE HEATHS AND MOORS

191

a thin peaty or humus soil in hollows in lowland
areas, so that the lie of the ground must be
considered. Except where pools occur, the
heath is more or less homogeneous; but where
it is wooded, new conditions are introduced,
and shade and sun plants both find a foothold
in such areas.

The Habit of Heath Plants. — No type of
natural vegetation, perhaps, exhibits so marked
a habit of growth on a wide scale as ericetal
vegetation.

The most obvious character in open associa-
tion, where trees are absent, is the dwarfing
of the vegetation. This is due not only to
the necessity of a reduction of parts such as
leaves, &c., and a certain stem habit, but
also to the need for meeting the exposure to
the wind. An inland heath in this respect is
similar to the vegetation of the sea-coast where
wind plays a constant and important part. The
type of growth is typically ericoid, as in the
heath plants, with whorls of linear, erect leaves,
and fastigiate or closely grouped branches, de-
veloped much on the lines of the tufted foliage
and stems of grasses. Owing to this close habit
of the dominant types of heath plants other
plants have to adapt themselves accordingly,
and even where Ling, &c., is discontinuous,
and where there is an alteration of conditions,
there are few types except the grass type. But
amongst the heath types a few others manage
to survive in locally open spots, and these have
usually the trailing habit, or else they have
the erect rigid habit of St. John's Wort, with
few branches and short, not very broad, leaves.
Some are rosette plants, as Hawkweeds,
Sheep's-bit Scabious. Here and there on rocks
or ledges plants having a mat' or cushion habit
occur. Many others have a sort of grass habit,
as Harebell, Cow-wheat, &c.

The Height of Heath Plants.— There is so
little variation in the height of the dominant
heath plants that the whole flora might be
considered to range between a few inches and
2 ft. in height on the average. But in some
places the Ling itself is abnormally developed,
whilst elsewhere it is equally dwarf and pros-
trate.

The chief factor regulating the height of the
heath plants is the wind. The heath formation
is open, as a whole, and exposed to strong
air-currents, hence, as on the sea-coast, the
plants adapt themselves to this in their stunted
growth. Furze and Broom first, then Ling
and the Heaths may be said to form the next
highest type of association. There are plants
of intermediate height that struggle upwards
amidst the closely branched Ling or Furze,
as Heath Bedstraw and Grassy Stitchwort,
whilst, as a rule, the Milkwort and the Tor-

mentil, both grass-heath types also, are trailers
that form a third or lowest zone.

The trees are stunted, and the Birch has on
the Birch heath often a more erect habit with
reduction of the branches. The Creeping
Willow is a dwarfed type also, stunted or
bent over owing to the wind.

The Flowering of Heath Plants. — The excep-
tionally dry conditions of most heath vegeta-
tion have a noticeable effect upon the flowering
seasons of the plants. A heath is exposed to
intense illumination, a dry atmosphere, and
hot sun, with little shade. Hence the thermal
constants of the plants that grow on the sandy
soil or acid humus of a typical heath are
attained more quickly in the main, and the
plants are not so backwar.d as those that grow
upon hills or in wet places. Here, again,
however, altitude plays its part, and when
Ling and Heath grow at high altitudes, the
plants flower later.

A considerable number of the plants described
in detail in Section IX commence to flower as
early as April, as Grassy Stitchwort, Furze
(which blooms more or less all the year
round), Broom, Heath Bedstraw, Whortle-
berry, Meadow Rush, Early Sedge. In May,
Milkwort, Red Rattle, Creeping Willow, and
Wood Rush are first found in flower. Tor-
mentil, Cat's Foot, Common Hawkweed,
Harebell, Cross-leaved Heath, Crimson Heath,
Cow-wheat, Green-ribbed Sedge, and Heath
Hair Grass first bloom in June. Not until
July do Pretty St. John's Wort, Sheep's-bit
Scabious, Eyebright, Small Bent Grass, of
Matweed bloom. Dodder and Pennyroyal
linger till August before they open their
flowers.

The Duration of Heath Plants. — It is of
advantage to plants that are exposed to dry-
soil conditions to continue their activities from
year to year. By this means, with a rest
period in winter, they are enabled with the
renewal of their vigour in spring to cope with
the more disadvantageous conditions of the
summer. The possibility of the germination,
growth, and development of an annual is
remote, as a rule, upon heath land. It is, of
course, necessary that such hemi-parasites as
Eyebright and Cow -wheat should come up
from seed each year and attach themselves
to the Grasses upon which they grow.

It is also of advantage to the dominant types
of heath vegetation that they are shrubs and
evergreen in many cases. This enables them
to cope the more easily with the conditions, as
they have not to renew the shoots each year.

The Pollination of Heath Plants. — Heath
vegetation may be either open or closed in
character, woodland in the latter case alter-

192

HINTS AND NOTES

nating with more open conditions. But every-
where it is never so protected or sheltered as
in a true woodland.

In the first case the heath is exposed to the
full glare of the sun. The flowers that bloom
in the open association are not usually large
and conspicuous, but they are frequently sweet-
scented, e.g. Furze and Broom, and Ling,
Heather, Hawkweed, Sheep's-bit Scabious,
and Harebell are also attractive to insects. The
masses of Ling and Heath, Broom or Furze
together form a conspicuous feature; hence by
association they attain the same end that indi-
vidually conspicuous flowers do in the matter
of attracting insects. On a small scale the
Blue Milk Wort, Starry White Grassy Stitch-
wort, Pretty St. John's Wort, Tormentil, Heath
Bedstraw, Eyebright, Red Rattle, Cow-wheat,
are also attractive.

In the case of the tree types and the Spike
Rushes, Sedges, and Grasses, as a rule the
flowers are proterogynous, the stigma is
feathery, and the plants are pollinated by aid
of the wind. The flowers of the Creeping
Willow are also resorted to by bees. Thus
the vegetation of the heath is adapted equally
to cross-pollination by insects and to wind
pollination, its open character being advan-
tageous in both respects.

The Dispersal of Seed of Heath Plants.—
Undoubtedly wind plays a great part generally
in the dispersal of the seeds ef ericetal plants,
on account presumably of the extensiveness of
the dominant types, and of the need for dis-
persal to a distance. Thus Ling, Heath,
Milkwort, Cat's Foot, Hawkweed, Sheep's-bit
Scabious, Harebell, Red Rattle, Cow-wheat,
Creeping Willow, in addition to the Spike
Rushes, Sedges, and Grasses, have their small
seeds scattered by the agency of the wind.

Two plants have an interesting mode of
dispersal, viz. Furze and Broom. The elaio-
somes afford an attraction to ants, which carry
them away, and feed upon the nutritive matter
they contain. The seeds are also dispersed by
an elastic movement, the crackling of the gorse
being a well-known feature in spring and early
summer. Some of the heath plants rely on
other animals for dispersal, as Heath Bed-
straw, the fruit bearing hooks ; Whortleberry,
the fruit being edible and eaten by birds.

The Soil.— There is one feature of heath
vegetation which makes it more uniform than
most formations; this is the nature of the soil,
which is always of the same character. The
plants that grow upon heaths are thus unable
to grow elsewhere, and attempts to transplant
them without a considerable thickness of the
soil, as the gardener well knows, are usually

fruitless. This is largely due to the association
of a mycorhiza or fungal mycelium with the
roots of the plants, especially in the case of
the Heath proper.

Peat is an organic soil derived from the
remains of plants which accumulate and form
a thick deposit above the subsoil. It differs
from the mild humus found in woods — which
is neutral or alkaline, and well aerated and
dry — in being acid or deficient in lime, more or
less damp, and poorly ventilated. The passage
from humus to peat is largely regulated by the
water-content, or state of humidity, and the
depth of the deposit. In the last stage a heath
passes into a moor.

The soil upon which this organic deposit is
formed is usually sandy or gravelly, or of a
similar nature. Moorpan is formed by the
cementing of gravel by humous acids, and
where this is the case trees will not grow.
The type of soil of a common or grass heath
is usually sandy, and there is at most a very
thin layer of humus.

Method of Survey. — A heath presents a
more or less uniform type of formation. There
is no zonation, save at the periphery of a
region of wood (or scrub), and except where
it is wooded it presents a series of dominant
associations or societies, which can be studied
on a broad basis, and mapped as in the case
of moors and bogs. Apart from the lines
formed by the extent of the Ling, Heaths,
Furze, Broom, W'hortleberry, &c., there are
the lesser societies that endeavour in more
open spots to maintain an existence. These
should be carefully studied, as in the case of
meadows and pastures, by staking out squares,
and the plants counted, or put down on squared
paper. The dominant plants in these cases
should be noted, and their percentage esti-
mated.

Where there is woodland, this should be
studied as in the case of woods (Section IV).
The influence of the tree growth on the heath
types should be noted, as also the form of the
wood or the alternation of wood and heath.

The openness and extensiveness of a heath
makes it especially adapted to the study of the
plants from the ecological point of view; for
there are no barriers, and a base line for the
squares to be studied can be laid down almost
anywhere.

The particular conditions of soil, the effect
of light, wind, &c., should all be studied in
relation to the adaptations of the plants to
meet the special conditions in each case.
Advanced students may make pot cultures,
make observations on the rainfall or light in-
tensity, water-content, &c.

FLOWERS OF THE ROCKS AND WALLS

SECTION XII

FLOWERS OF THE ROCKS AND WALLS

Lithophytes. — The plant formations hitherto
considered have been either aquatic or terres-
trial, and in the latter case made up of plants
that grow upon soil derived from underlying
rocks, often of considerable thickness.

The rupestral or rock plants differ in grow-
ing upon the rock itself or in clefts. In general
they are called lithophytes. One condition
affecting such lithophytes is the slope of the
surface, which when steep has no loose soil or
detritus, but when little inclined is covered
with the latter. The composition of the rock
is important, determining the distribution of
plants that prefer lime or not, and so on. The
hardness, cleavage, specific heat, and water-
bearing capacity or porosity are also important
factors. Owing to the irregularity of the sur-
face, lithophilous plants are of variable char-
acter as regards their adaptation to dry or
moist conditions. The formations are thus
not generally continuous, but like a patch-
work quilt, occurring in small societies or
florulas.

The plants included in this section, which
embraces artificial habitats such as walls,
sandy and gravelly fields, &c. , are also found
upon soils derived from rock surfaces in some
cases.

Chomophytes and Chasmophytes. — Litho-
phytes (or petrophytes) form the vegetation,
including cryptogams, on the surface of rocks
or stones, which can colonize steeply inclined
or bare rock.

Chomophytes are plants that can colonize
rocks where detritus has accumulated, whether
on the surface or in crevices. In this country
chomophytes are developed upon the detritus
formed at high altitudes, in Scotland and else-
where, at altitudes of 2000-3000 ft. or more,
and in ravines or corries at 3000 ft. or more,
where arctic-alpine vegetation occurs. The
plants are generally the highland species of
Watson. The mountain-top detritus is largely
of Glacial origin, and the plants are northern,
perhaps Preglacial. The rocks vary in different
districts in composition. Owing to the fre-
quent displacement of rock the surface is con-
tinually being recolonized. It is in the corries
that the chomophytes occur, such as many
arctic Saxifrages, Saussurea, Gentiana nivalis,
Erigeron alpinum, Veronica saxatilis, Arenaria
rubella, Draba rupestris, Carex atrata, &c.
Others not arctic-alpine occur, as Globe Flower,
VOL. v.

Hairy Bitter Cress, Wood Sorrel, Northern
Bedstraw, &c.

Chasmophytes are crevice plants in fine sand,
&c., which accumulates, with particular con-
ditions depending on water content. The true
chomophyte vegetation is thus almost entirely
upland, though lowland plants occur at high
elevations amongst the others. Some of these
have already been mentioned in discussing the
flora of hills and dry places, including Silky
Mountain Vetch, Oak-leaved Mountain Avens,
Wild Thyme. There are certain other types
that at lower elevations may be considered as
chomophytes or chasmophytes of the more
lowland rocks, as Biting Stonecrop and Mouse-
ear Hawkweed (chomophytes), Navelwort, Or-
pine, Golden Rod, Wall Lettuce, and Ivy-
leaved Toad-flax (chasmophytes).

Walls. — Walls are the artificial counterparts
of rock habitats, and are dispersed uniformly
over the country in the lowlands, as well as
at higher altitudes. In the neighbourhood of
villages and towns they are composed of a
variety of materials. Where natural exposures
of hard rocks do not occur, walls are largely
composed of brick. The upper surface forms
a habitat for a number of plants, where some
detritus has accumulated, and here one may
find Rue-leaved Saxifrage ; but as it is a lime-
loving plant to a great extent, it is more fre-
quent in the interstices of the mortar, where
Ivy-leaved Toadflax also grows.

There were formerly a large number of mud
walls in differents parts of the country, a sur-
vival from the days when houses were similarly
constructed of mud ; barns and outhouses are
frequently built of mud to-day, having in
many cases a top or roof of thatch. This
latter is a favourite habitat for Vernal Grass,
Rue-leaved Saxifrage, Thale Cress, Biting
Stonecrop, Houseleek, Field Speedwell, and
Flat-stalked Poa.

Whilst walls vary in composition, the habitat
is resorted to by the plants that occur upon it,
not so much because of such differences, but
because it is uniformly a dry habitat. Upon
old walls, especially in less-frequented dis-
tricts, a large number of plants may be found.
Sometimes Furze establishes itself, whilst in
sheltered, moist spots Navelwort may grow in
the crevices, Shining Crane's Bill, Wall Rue,
and many ferns.

Artificial Character of Walls, &c.— The

75

i94

HINTS AND NOTES

artificial character of walls requires emphasis
in the recording' of the rarer plants that are
found upon them. The Wallflower is a plant
which is seldom found anywhere but on walls
outside gardens, and was certainly introduced
in comparatively recent times. But its per-
sistence on certain places upon old ruins, &c.,
is an interesting feature biologically. The part
played by walls in the retention of seeds or
spores is of importance. The direction of the
prevailing winds and the orientation of the
walls are points that should be studied in this
connection.

The influence of walls, and of boulders
which are dispersed by glacial action up and
down the country north of the Thames, as
well as of the numerous blocks of stone used
to mark the boundaries of roads, is responsible
in many areas for the sole persistence of some
interesting plants. There are some doubtfully
native British plants, as the Oxford Ragwort,
which in this country are to be found as a rule
only upon walls.

Conditions of Alpine Rock Habitats.— Alpine
plants, as has been seen, are largely confined
to regions where there are accumulations of
mountain-top detritus, or where, as in the
case of chomophytes, corries or ravines occur;
they are generally found above the limits of
tree-growth at altitudes of 2000 ft. and up-
wards.

As a rule there is a decrease in temperature
as one ascends, and this is the reason presum-
ably for the retreat of the alpines to the moun-
tains of this area; in the Ice Age they occurred
at lower levels, owing to the lowering of the
level of the snow-line, &c. The conditions are
therefore much colder, and though the rainfall
may be excessive, as at Satterthwaite, in the
Lake District, the plants suffer from physio-
logical drought, or in many cases transpiration
is easy, so that the conditions are similar to
those of dry soil.

The exposure of such elevated tracts to
the wind also demands a rosette habit, or a
grass habit, whilst other plants form mats or
cushions, approximating to the habits of
lichens, mosses, &c. The viviparous condi-
tion, a vegetative mode of reproduction, is
frequent amongst such forms.

It is extraordinary that amongst the numer-
ous rare specialized alpine forms growing at
very high altitudes many lowland plants occur,
and these must be regarded as descending
species. The upright Meadow Crowfoot is
found at 3980 ft., Marsh Marigold, Red Cam-
pion, Coltsfoot, and Hogweed at about 3500 ft.,
Bird's-foot Trefoil at 2800 ft., and Bog Violet
ranges to 4000 ft.

In more lowland areas similar dry-soil con-

ditions are encountered by plants growing
upon sub-alpine hills, such as Rock Cress,
Alpine Thale Cress, Rue-leaved Saxifrage,
Orpine, Rock Rose, Wall Lettuce, &c.

Siliceous Rocks and Soils. — The type of rock
termed siliceous is characterized by the close-
ness of the texture, as opposed to the open-
ness and porosity of sandstones. The rock
is denser, in fact, and when wet is pasty.
Though plants do not favour bare rock sur-
faces, yet some are to be found upon siliceous
rocks where there is but little soil formed, or
nothing but detritus, and in the clefts of sili-
ceous rocks some crevice plants do grow, such
as the Rowan Tree, Holly, Ash, Birch, Oak,
and occasionally even Willow.

Many shrubs, especially Brambles, Roses,
Hawthorn, Hazel, may be found growing also
on siliceous rocks in damp situations, as
around slate pits or natural exposures. Of
other types may be mentioned such plants in
the ground vegetation as Columbine, Carda-
mine impatient, which I have observed on
talus slopes of older Palaeozoic rocks in Shrop-
shire, Bush Vetch, Wild Strawberry, En-
chanter's Nightshade, Woodruff, Wall Let-
tuce, Wood Loosestrife, Epipactis latifolia,
Lusula maxima, Carex pendula, and many
ferns in the clefts.

Where the conditions are drier, Heath Bed-
straw, Mouse-ear Hawkweed, Foxglove, Wood
Sage, Sheep's Sorrel, Bluebell, &c., are found.
Navelwort, Orpine, grow as crevice plants,
and so does Golden Rod, and on slopes with
little soil Field Mouse-ear (the latter also on
marlstone).

Sandstones.1 — Siliceous soils are fine-grained,
whereas sands and sandstones are much
coarser and looser, more porous. They are
consequently drier than the former. Very
little humus is formed upon them, and the
soil is deficient in mineral salts as a rule.
Such soils are characterized by woodland and
heath formations. The woodland is domi-
nated by the Oak, both pedunculate and sessile
types. The occurrence of Rowan and Birch
is characteristic, and also of Bluebell, Bracken,
Yorkshire Fog, Tormentil, Foxglove, &c.
This is the typical succession where a sandy
soil is developed, but frequently such areas
may exhibit the rocks themselves in natural
exposures, and some plants may be found to
grow on the all but bare surfaces, or in
crevices, as Orpine, Golden Rod, Sheep's
Sorrel. Where flowering plants do not
colonize such bare rocks, cryptogams are
abundant.

Limestones. — Limestones, as a rule, form
bold massifs or hills, and they are not covered
i Cf. al«o Section IV.

FLOWERS OF THE ROCKS AND WALLS

'95

by a great thickness of soil. Indeed, large
areas are denuded of soil, forming pavements,
and upon these plants grow as upon the slopes
where detritus has accumulated.

The natural type of woodland upon lime-
stones is Ash wood, which ranges up to an
altitude of icoo ft. Associated with the Ash
are the Wych Elm and Hawthorn, the former
at lower elevations in damp situations, the
latter higher up in dry situations, and either
may replace the Ash locally.

Juniper and Yew are also found on calcare-
ous soils. The Hazel is common, but the
Alder is local. In some areas the Birch is
found. Other members of tree or scrub
zones are Lime, Buckthorn, Spindle Tree,
Scotch Rose, Eglantine, White Beam (as
on chalk), Cornel, Wayfaring Tree, Privet,
Spurge Laurel. Heaths and Ling are absent.
In damp spots the herbaceous types are
Marsh Marigold, Meadow-sweet, Water Avens,
Valerian, Butterbur, Melancholy Thistle,
Jacob's Ladder, Scorpion Grass, Bur Reed,
Reed, &c.

On dry soils Dog's Mercury and Moschatel
are very characteristic types, and in damper
places Yellow Archangel, Ransoms, Bellflower.
Ground Ivy, and, where the ground is stony,
Hairy St. John's Wort, Nettle, Wood Sage,
Lily-of-the- Valley, Melic Grass.

Rocky knolls occur where there is little or
no soil and bare rock, with cryptogams, Sand-
wort, Whitlow Grass, Rue-leaved Saxifrage,
Biting Stonecrop, Thyme. The woodland
ceases where the rocks outcrop, except on the
pavements. The screes and cliffs, when damp,
are colonized by the vegetation of the Ash
wood itself.

Chalk. — Limestone, in the last section, refers
to the Palaeozoic limestones, which are de-
veloped in the moister west and north of Eng-
land. The chalk and oolites, also limestones,
which are not so compact or altered, are more
porous, and, being confined to the southern
and eastern parts of the country, are drier,
and many of the chalk plants are therefore
xerophiles.

The typical woodland is Beech, but Ash
woods also occur. They occur on the slopes
or hangers (a name familar to readers of
White's Selborne), growing often on the rock
itself, or where the soil is merely a shallow
layer of mild humus. With the Beech grow
Ash and Wrhite Beam, and, locally, Box (as on
Boxhill) and Cherry. The Yew is also a char-
acteristic tree, native here. In the Beech
wood there is little scrub, but on calcareous
pastures or the margins of the chalk, White
Beam, Cornel, Buckthorn, Wayfaring Tree,
Spindle Tree, &c., are found.

The scanty ground flora consists of Wood
and other Violets, Wild Strawberry, En-
chanter's Nightshade, Sanicle, many Orchids,
Bird's-foot, Belladonna, Butcher's Broom.

In addition to Beech, Ash, and Yew woods
upon the chalk, there is a scrub association
and a chalk pasture. In the last case the soil
is often not more than i in. in depth, but an
extensive flora occurs upon it, with a turf of
Sheep's Fescue, or, in other cases, of Bromus
erectusy Trisetum flavescens, Brachypodium
sylvaticum. Occasionally the soil disappears,
and here the plants are subjected to intensely-
dry conditions in a hot summer.

These gradations of soil thickness, again,
show that between rocks pure and simple and
rock soils there is very little difference, especi-
ally in this case. But where a non-calcareous
soil is formed above the chalk, as frequently
happens, this is not the case.

Other Rocks (Maritime). — In addition to in-
land rocks and rock soils there are the rocks
along the coast, forming cliffs of some height,
with bare faces and surfaces covered by grass
or heath, &c. The proximity of the sea and
the regular occurrence of sea breezes, gales,
mists, &c., tend to obliterate the effect of
the chemical composition of the rocks them-
selves, and to transform the vegetation
into a halophytic type of formation. And the
conditions upon the cliff face resemble those of
mountain-tops, the sides of the cliffs being
often spray-covered and moist; whilst innu-
merable caverns exist where moisture-loving
ferns are especially at home, and, fortunately
for their existence, inaccessible.

On such rocks (cf. Section VII) occur many
maritime species, as Wild Paeony (Steep
Holmes), Welsh Poppy, Wild Cabbage, Woad
(Severn estuary), Sea Stock, Tree Mallow,
Scurvy Grass*, Sand Spurrey, Pearlwort,
Stonecrop, Samphire, Lovage, Golden Sam-
phire, Sea Plantain*, Buckshorn Plantain*,
Cotoneaster (Great Orme's Head, now pro-
tected), Thrift*, Sea Lavender, &c. It is a
noticeable fact that some of these (marked
with an asterisk) occur also upon inland rocks
at high altitudes, thus showing the influence
of a rupestral habitat.

Sandy Fields. — In many areas there are
tracts of sandy ground, derived from sand-
stones or sands, especially in the east and
south of England, where the rainfall is small
(under 25 in.). Reference has already been
made to the probable occurrence of steppe con-
ditions in this country following the glacial
phase. The following plants are found on
sandy areas at Mildenhall : Silene Ofttes, S.
conica, Holosteum umleUatum (on walls, be-
coming rare), Medicago fakata, M. syh-estris,

i96

HINTS AND NOTES

Artemisia campestris, Veronica verna, I'. Iri-
phyllos, Afuscari racemosum, Ornithogalum
umbellatum, Carex ericetorum.

F. Arnold Lees, in a delightful old volume,
was one of the first to recognize the im-
portance of soils in determining the distribu-
tion of plants, and enumerates the following
among others as being especially confined to
sandy strata: Tillcea muscosa, Turritis glabra,
Teesdalia nudicaulis, Silene anglica. Arenaria
pcploides (maritime), A. (Spergularia) rubra,
Radiola millegrana, Erodium cicutarium, Tri-
folium sujfbcatum, Jasione montana, Centun-
ctilus minimus, Lamium amplexicaule, Scler-
anthus annuus, Phleum arenarium (maritime),
Festuca Myurus, Elymus arenarius, Carex
arenaria (the last two maritime).

Sandy fields generally are characterized by
such plants as Little Bur Medick, Rough
Clover, Rigid Hare's Ear, French Cudweed,
Cut-leaved Speedwell, Biennial Knawel. The
connection between such tracts and rocks of a
sandy composition is shown by the occurrence
of plants common to both. Other plants found
here are Silky Wind Grass, Silvery Hair Grass,
Sand Fescue.

Gravelly and Stony Places. — Gravelly soil
is in general characteristic of heaths in the
north and west of England, but in the south
may be replaced by sand or clay. It is con-
nected in the first case with the formation of
moorpan, and trees will not grow on such
tracts; but the Pine grows, where the gravel
is not cemented together in this manner, on
gravelly heaths in East Anglia and elsewhere
in the south of England.

Gravelly commons, as indicated by F. A.
Lees, have a characteristic flora, which is
common also to trap, serpentine, syenitic and
granitic rocks, including Trifolium repens, T.
fragiferum , T. minus, T. Jlliforme, Ornithopus
perpnsillus, Plantago coronopus (also mari-
time). He points out that similar species
occur whatever be the age of the gravel, the
same plants occurring even to the Chamomile
(Anthemis nobilis) and Bupleurum tenuissi-
mum. And much depends on the relative
moisture or occurrence of pools. Here are
found Starwort, Forget-me-not, Bur Marigold
(Ridens cernua), and Pulicaria vulgaris, like the
Chamomile now very rare, and more or less
confined to commons in the south of Eng-
land.

In marshy spots occur Ranunculus flammula,
R. hederaceus, Nasturtium terrestre, Carda-
mine hirsuta, Montia fontana, PepUs Portula,
Epilobium palnslre, Helosciadium nodtflorum,
H. repens, PedicuJaris sylvatica, Lycopus euro-
pants, Mentha hirsuta, M. piperita, M. Pu-
legium (the two latter now very local or rare),

Polygonum minus, Blysmus compressus, Ileleo-
charis, Carices.

Others on village greens and dry com-
mons are Polygonum airiculare, Nardus sh /, A/,
Chenopodium, A triplex (in waste places),
Cerastium, Sagina, Filago, Polygala vulgaris,
Hypericum huinifusum, Linum catharticum,
Potentilla anserina, P. tormeniilla, Carlina
vulgaris, Chrysanthemum inodorum (Matri-
caria inodora}. Rampion, described here, is
also a characteristic plant of gravelly soil.

Altitudes of Arctic-alpine or Boreal Plants.—
The lowest limit of the arctic-alpine vegeta-
tion in Scotland is the 2ooo-ft. contour, but in
Ireland and elsewhere it is not so high. It
is above the tree. limit in this country. Ling
and Whortleberry, or moorland vegetation,
disappears, and a sort of grassland, with dwarf
vegetation, takes its place at higher levels,
made up of Alchemilla, Grasses (often vivi-
parous), Carex, Juncus, Luzula, Draba, Ceras-
tium, Potentilla, Saxifraga, Sedum.

The types of plants are Scottish, or High-
land at higher altitudes, the latter chiefly in
Scotland. On Highland hills, e.g. on Ben
Muic Dhui (4300 ft.) the following occur:
Silene acaulis, Saxifraga stellaris, Salix her-
bacea (typically arctic), Luzula spicata, L. ar-
cuata, Carex rigida, Festuca ovina (viviparous
form). Elsewhere these plants occur on alpine
rocks in arctic and sub-arctic latitudes.

The altitudes attained by some of these
arctic-alpine plants is illustrated by the follow-
ing list of plants on high mountain-tops,
many of which are rare or restricted to certain
localities, viz.: Draba rupestris (3000-3980 ft.),
Saxifraga cernua (3800 ft.), 5. rivularis (3500-
3900 ft.), Arenaria rubella (2700-3800 ft.),
Sagina nivalis (3100-3900 ft.), Astragalus
alpinus, Oxytropis campestris, Erigeron al-
pinum (2500-3500 ft.), Gnaphalium norvegicum,
Menzesia ccerulea (2350-2460 ft.), Gentiana
nivalis (2400-3450 ft.), Myosotis Pyrenaica
(2400-3450 ft.), Veronica fruticans (1200-3600
ft.), Salix arbuscula, S. lanata (dwarf willows),
Juncus biglumis, Carex alpina, C. rupestris,
C. atrofusca (2600 ft.) A number of lowland
types also occur at high altitudes (see ante).
In this group of arctic plants we see the influ-
ence of altitude and insolation in a marked
degree.

Talus Slopes or Mountain -top Detritus.—
The accumulation of talus slopes on sloping
hillsides forms a transition between bare rock
and rock with a thick layer of soil, the lime-
stone pavement, and sandy and gravelly soils,
being other transitions between them.

In the case of arctic-alpine vegetation, dis-
integration owing to alternation of heat and
cold, landslips, erosion by water or by sand,

FLOWERS OF THE ROCKS AND WALLS

197

&c.. play a considerable part in the accumu-
lation of talus, as does rain-wash against verti-
cal cliffs, whilst in the past glacial action has
produced a considerable scree or detritus at
higher elevations.

Rock debris is formed and is colonized by
lichens and mosses, which provide a layer of
humus and pulverized grit or sand, &c., for
higher plants. Indeed, a large part of it is
colonized by Rhacomitrium , forming an open
association with bare patches of rock between,
which lower down becomes closed and includes
higher plants, and still lower is succeeded by
heath.

It is exposed to wind, to intense heat, and
drought, owing to the thin soil and steepness
of the slopes, and is subjected, also, to insola-
tion and the prolonged influence of a snow
covering. The intensity of the struggle for
existence under such conditions is shown by
the paucity of species.

Habitats of Plants of Walls and Rocks.—
Rock plants are affected by a variety of
factors, which in different areas and circum-
stances help to render the habitat diverse.
The vegetation of the arctic-alpine rocks is
typically of a dwarf habit, owing to altitude
and exposure and the poverty or thinness of
the soil layer. It varies in respect of the
derivation of the latter. The mountain-top
detritus forms layers on the surface. Else-
where, in corries, &c. , there are crevices with
deeper soil and wetter conditions. At lower
altitudes the rocks and soils vary in com-
position.

There are siliceous soils with a characteristic
vegetation which is found in some cases on
bare rocks of this type or in crevices. Sand-
stones and sands have an equally characteristic
flora.

On limestone the soil is thin, and the flora
may be regarded as petrophilous to a great
extent, limestone pavements in particular
illustrating this point. The soil of the chalk
is markedly deficient, and many chalk plants
are petrophytes. Along the coasts on cliffs
and rocks a halophytic rupestral flora is found.
Sandy fields and gravelly commons are special
types of sandstone or loose sand formations, but
of newer date. Walls have a particular flora of
their own, and many plants are confined to
them and to old ruins. The plants found
upon rocks are also common to mural habitats,
owing to the occurrence in both cases of dry
conditions and a thin soil layer.

Habits of Plants on Rocks and Walls.—
The outstanding feature of plants growing in
these habitats is the adaptation (generally
speaking) to dry conditions. Practically all of
them are xerophytes. Mural plants are in

other habitats largely mesophilous, but on
walls develop xerophytic adaptations.

Upon the summitsof loftymountains the main
feature of the vegetation is the dwarfed nature
of all the plants. This is more or less what
might be expected, since the vegetation merges
into, or follows upon, the lichen and moss
zone, which is dwarf in an extreme degree.
Many of the plants have the cushion habit, e.g.
Silene acaulis, Arenaria sedoides, Saxifraga
hypnoides. Others form mats, as Azalea pro-
cumbens, Potentilla Sibbaldi, Empetrum ni-
grum, Saxifraga umbrosa, S. oppositifolia, Lu-
zulaspicata, Carexrigida, Vaccinium myrtillus ,
Salix herbacea. The rosette habit is exhibited
by Ranunculus acris, &c. Many plants ara
viviparous.

The trees that occur are mere bushes. The
Juniper on Snowdon is only an inch or two in
height, and on Great Orme's Head the Cotone-
aster is similarly dwarfed, owing to the ex-
posure to wind. Hairs, &c., are developed
which act as screens from the wind, and
help to retain moisture. The dwarf character
may be assigned to the effect of intense
sunlight. The mat, cushion, and rosette
habits are largely due to wind exposure, and
to the ready evaporation, and generally dry
conditions.

The Height of Rock and Wall Vegetation.—
Altitude is largely responsible for the dwarf
habit of alpine plants. When these are found
at lower altitudes, or in moist situations, they
are taller. The plants that grow on rocks are
in general not very tall, nor are the crevice
plants in exposed situations, but in lowland
districts in wooded areas Orpine may be
luxuriant and grow to a height of 2 ft. The
habit of the plants is intimately connected with
their height; and mat, cushion, or rosette
plants are consequently more or less dwarf.
Thus Vernal Whitlow Grass is rarely more
than 5 in. in height even in flower; Cheddar
Pink, 8 in.; Field Mouse-ear and Sandwort
Spurrey, both trailers, are 6 in. and 2 in. respec-
tively; Bird's-foot is 2 in.; Horse-shoe Vetch,
6 in.; Rue-leaved Saxifrage 6 in.; Meadow
Saxifrage and Navelwort, growing in more
sheltered situations, reach a foot or more in
height.

Dry conditions limit not only the height
but also the extent of the branching or size
of leaves.

The Flowering of Rock and Wall Plants. —
The principal factors that regulate flowering
are, in the case of terrestrial plants, excessive
rainfall, increased altitude, exposure to wind,
insolation, or interrupted sunlight. The dura-
tion of the plant also influences the flowering,
and to some extent size enters into these

1 98

HINTS AND NOTES

factors. The lying of snow upon alpine
heights, which are also wind-swept, poor in
soil, and subject to insolation, retards the
flowering of alpine plants.

The effect of size upon flowering is shown
by the earliest months of flowering of some of
the plants here included. Thus Vernal Whit-
low Grass, an annual, blooms in March. Field
Mouse-ear, Horseshoe Vetch, and Field Speed-
well bloom in April. Bird's-foot, also prostrate
and perennial, blooms in May. The annual
Rue-leaved Saxifrage, a mural plant, also
found on thin calcareous soils, flowers early in
April, whilst its taller relative, Meadow Saxi-
frage, blooms in May, on colder clay soils.
Mouse-ear Hawkweed, Mother of Thousands,
and Silvery Hair Grass flower in May.

June is the month when numerous flowers
first open, viz. Cheddar Pink, Sandwort Spur-
rey, Navel wort, Biting Stonecrop, Houseleek,
Silky Wind Grass, Flat-stalked Poa, Sand
Fescue. Not a few, however, defer their
flowering till July, e.g. Orpine, Golden Rod,
Wall Lettuce, Rampion, Pellitory-of-the-wall,
and these are largely plants that grow in
crevices or walls, where the soil is poor or
thin, and nutrition a slow process.

The Duration of Rock and Wall Plants.—
The duration of plants that are found upon
rocks and walls is regulated by various causes.
The arctic-alpine vegetation is exposed to such
adverse conditions that it is normally peren-
nial. But a few annuals are found even
amongst this group of plants, or of those that
range as high, e.g. Vernal Whitlow Grass and
Rue-leaved Saxifrage. Sandwort Spurrey
may be either annual or biennial, and House-
leek is perennial or biennial. The Rampion
is also a biennial. Grasses are usually peren-
nial, but some are annual, e.g. Silky Wind
Grass, Silvery Hair Grass, Sand Fescue.

The remainder of the plants here considered
are perennial. This corresponds largely with
an increased stature or size, or with a diurnal
habit or late flowering period.

The Pollination of Rock and Wall Plants.—
Growing in exposed areas, the arctic-alpine
chomophytes and chasmophytes are not char-
acterized by large or conspicuous or brilliant
flowers. But in sheltered positions the alpine
flora of Switzerland at much greater altitudes,
as is well known, is characterized by the
wealth and beauty of the flowers. It is true
that in such sheltered habitats in Scotland,
upon a small scale, the same thing is to be
noticed, but the hills are not blue with the
flowers of Gentiana acaulis (erroneously re-
corded for Britain), or yellow with alpine
Wood Anemones, &c. Still, the arctic types
of Pinks, Stitchworts, Saxifrages, Primulas,

&c., reflect in a lesser degree the grandeur of
the alpine flower garden.

As a whole the flowers of the plants here
enumerated are not large or conspicuous. The
bulk are cross-pollinated by insect agency, but,
as is inevitable with small-flowered plants,
many are equally adapted to self-pollination.
Some, indeed, such as Vernal Whitlow Grass
and Ivy-leaved Toad -flax are specially fitted
for the latter, the stigma and anthers ripening
together. In the case of Cheddar Pink, Rue-
leaved Saxifrage, and Orpine the anthers
mature before the stigma, and in the case of
Pellitory-of-the-wall, Sand Fescue, &c., the
stigma is developed and receptive before-
hand.

Cleistogamy occurs in the case of Ivy-leaved
Toadflax. Pollination by the assistance of the
wind is exemplified by such Grasses as Silky
Wind Grass, Silvery Hair Grass, Flat-stalked
Poa, and Sand Fescue, and by the Pellitory-of-
the-wall.

Dispersal of Fruits and Seeds of Rock and
Wall Plants. — Amongst the rock and wall
plants there are few if any plants, at least
amongst those enumerated here, that are
adapted to dispersal of fruit or seed by the
agency of animals. The absence of aquatic
conditions, also, is marked by the entire ab-
sence of water-dispersed fruits or seeds.

In the exposed habitats in which a large
bulk of this class of plants grow, it is, more-
over, quite natural that the majority of plants
growing upon rocks and walls should be
adapted to dispersal by aid of the wind.
It must be remembered, however, that it is
necessary for plants, growing upon such
limited areas as the specially suitable rocks
or walls usually are, to be dispersed at no very
great distance from the plant. The following
are wholly or partly dispersed by the agency
of the wind, viz.: Wallflower, Cheddar Pink,
Field Mouse-ear, Bird's-foot, Horsevetch, Rue-
leaved Saxifrage, Meadow Saxifrage (censer
fruits), Navelwort, Orpine, Stonecrop, House-
leek (small seeds), Golden Rod, Mouse-ear
Hawkweed, Wall Lettuce (with hairy pappus),
Rampion (censer fruits), Field Speedwell,
Pellitory-of-the-wall, Silky Wind Grass, Silvery
Hair Grass, Flat-stalked Poa, Sand Fescue.

The rest, e.g. Yellow Fumitory, Whitlow
Grass, Sandwort Spurrey, Ivy-leaved Toad-
flax (which buries its fruits in the crevices of
the wall), have mechanisms or methods of
dispersal of their own.

The Soil of Rock and Wall Plants. — In the
case of petrophytes or plants that grow upon
rocks, or rock debris, or in crevices, the com-
position of the rock is of importance in deter-
mining distribution. But since the highest

FLOWERS OF THE ROCKS AND WALLS

199

rocks in this country are as a whole the oldest
rocks, and are mainly siliceous or sandy, the
factor that plays the greatest part is apparently
altitude. There are, in fact, no alpine chalk
plants, and limestone plants do not range as
high as 2000 ft. Hence the arctic-alpine vege-
tation more or less monopolizes the most
elevated siliceous or sandstone (or volcanic)
rocks.

In the more lowland areas the modified
petrophytic vegetation is dependent more es-
pecially upon soil or rock characters. Thus
there are plants that grow on siliceous rocks,
sandstones, limestone, chalk, along the coast,
where the conditions of soil or rock are modi-
fied by halophytic conditions, or on the shallow
soils of sandy or gravelly areas.

The characteristic limestone types here de-
scribed are Rue-leaved Saxifrage, Horseshoe
Vetch, Cheddar Pink, Golden Rod (in part),
Mouse-ear Hawkweed. A few need clay, as
Meadow Saxifrage, whilst some humus is
needed by Yellow Fumitory and Houseleek,
and gravel is required by Rampion and Field
Speedwell. The rest, when not rupestral or
crevice plants, are typically found upon sandy
or siliceous soils.

The wall plants are found upon rock or
brick, or on sandy, loamy, or gravelly soil.

Methods and Objects of Survey.— The pro-
gressive or retrogressive character of the
vegetation of mountain-tops, where the soil
is constantly changing its position, demands
a close study of the ground, so that the order

of succession of the colonizing plants, whether
initially cryptogams or not, may be elucidated.
The open or closed nature of the formation
requires a similar method in either case, and
a survey of the surface in detail is essential.
The special adaptations of the plants, owing
to the particular conditions, such as wind,
slope, soil, depth, sun, rainfall, snow-line, in-
solation, &c., are only to be determined by
such methods.

The exact altitudes attained by each species,
and the aspect and extent of the formation,
association, or society, are other factors that
are of especial interest. As a rule, the study
of highland vegetation is open only to the
favoured few who live in the vicinity of such
areas. But it is suggested that an attempt
be made to study a typical area, by visiting
one of the mountainous areas in summer or
autumn.

In the more generally accessible lowland
areas the relation of the vegetation upon bare
rocks to the more stable vegetation upon the
deeper soils derived from them may be studied
in the same way and with greater ease.

The flora of a wall, as it is artificial, requires
rather different treatment; it need not be merely
a floristic study or enumeration of species upon
particular walls, but may also be studied from
the wider ecological standpoint. The position
of mural plants upon the wall, their relation to
aspect, the extent of each society, the adapta-
tions to dry conditions, are some of the points
that should be considered.

VOLUME V.— APPENDIX I
ANGIOSPERM^;

(Summary of Natural Orders)

Seed-plants (Spermatophytes). Ovules enclosed
in an ovary. Perianth well-developed.

CLASS I.— DICOTYLEDONS

Embryo containing- 2 or more (rarely i) coty-
ledons, opposite or in a whorl. Leaves net-
veined. Stem perennial, with pith, wood, and
bark; with medullary rays, and increased by rings
of wood on the outside yearly. Perianth of 4 or
5 or 2 divisions.

SUB-CLASS I. — POLYPETAL/E

Perianth of 2 whorls, calyx and corolla; petals
distinct as a rule.

Division A. — Thalamifiorce

Petals distinct, rarely absent, not united with
the sepals, stamens free, hypogynous.

Order i. Ranunculaceae. — Herbaceous plants,
rarely shrubs or woody, a few climbing-. Leaves
usually alternate, without stipules. Flowers usu-
ally reg-ular, sepals 3-6, sometimes petaloid, petals
5 or more, rarely absent. Stamens many, inde-
finite (rarely 5); anthers adnate, opening- longi-
tudinally; carpels numerous, apocarpous or syn-
carpous; fruit ag-gregate, achenes, follicles, berries;
seeds albuminous.

Order 2. Berberidaceae. — Shrubs, leaves trans-
formed into spines, usually without stipules; sepals
in 2 series, 3 or 4; petals 3 or 4 or 6 or 8; stamens
4-6, opposite the petals; anthers valvate; carpels i,
i-celled; fruit, drupe or berry; seeds fixed by base
or on lateral placenta, albuminous.

Order 3. Nymphaeaceae. — Aquatic plants; stems
submerged; leaves floating, peltate; flowers regu-
lar; sepals 4-5; petals many, indefinite, on the
disk, surrounding the ovary; stamens indefinite;
stigma peltate; ovary syncarpous, io-2O-locular;
ovules numerous; seeds many, surrounded by an
aril.

Order 4. Papaveraceae. — Herbaceous plants ;
stems with milky juice; leaves alternate, without
stipules; flowers regular; sepals 2, soon falling;
petals 4; stamens indefinite, distinct; stigmas
simple or lobed, sessile; ovary syncarpous, free,
i-locular; ovules numerous, on parietal placentas;
fruit a capsule; seeds albuminous.

Order 5. Fumariaceae. — Herbaceous plants,
slender, often climbing; leaves alternate, pinnatifid
with no stipules ; flowers irreg-ular ; sepals 2, soon
falling or wanting; petals 4, one or more spurred
below; stamens 2, 3-partite, lateral i -celled ; stigma
with one or more points; ovary i-celled, syncar-
pous, free; ovules on 2 parietal placentas or i basal
ovule; fruit a capsule or nut; seeds albuminous.

Order 6. Cruciferae.— Herbaceous plants; leaves
alternate, with no stipules ; flowers regular; sepals
4; petals 4, cruciform; stamens 6 (4 long, 2
short) or 4; stigmas 2, alternate with the pla-
centas; ovary syncarpous; 2 carpels with dividing
septum which unites the 2 parietal placentas;
valves opposite shorter stamens; fruit a siliqua or
silicule, usually dehiscent.

Order 7. Resedaceae. — Herbaceous plants;
flowers irregular; sepals 4-8, persistent; petals
4-8, entire or lobed; stamens indefinite (10-24),
seated on a i-sided hypogynous disk; ovary syn-
carpous, i-locular, 3- or 6-lobed ; ovules many on
3-6 parietal placentae; fruit, a capsule.

Order 8. Cistaceae. — Herbaceous plants or
undershrubs; leaves opposite, entire; stipules small,
or wanting; flowers regular, sepals 5, outer 2
smaller, or wanting; petals 5, crumpled in bud,
falling; stamens numerous; stigmas 3; style
simple; ovary syncarpous, 3-carpellary, i-locular;
fruit a capsule, 3-, 5-, or lo-valved.

Order 9. Violaceae.— Herbaceous plants; leaves
alternate, with persistent stipules; flowers irre-
gular; sepals 5, overlapping; petals 5, irregular,
lower spurred; stamens 5, filaments swollen, con-
nective membranous; stigma hooded; ovary syn-
carpous, 3-carpellary, i-locular; ovules many, on
3 parietal placentas; fruit a capsule, 3-valved.

Order 10. Polygalaceae. — Herbaceous plants;
leaves simple, alternate, without stipules; flowers
irregular, in racemes; sepals 5, irregular, over-
lapping; 2 interior, larger, petaloid; petals 3,
unequal, i larger, anterior, united to staminal
tube; stamens 8, united below in 2 equal bundles;
anthers i-celled, opening by apical pores; style i ;
ovary syncarpous, 2-carpellary, 2-locular; ovules
solitary on axile placentae; fruit a capsule; seeds
pendulous, enclosed in an aril below.

Order n. Frankeniaceae. — Herbaceous, pros-
trate plants; leaves small, slender, opposite

101

APPENDIX 1

without stipules, the margins turned back, as in
Heaths; flowers regular, axillary, small; sepals
4-6; calyx persistent; petals 4-6, clawed, with
limb-appendages; stamens 4-6, distinct, 2-celled,
opening by apical pores or longitudinally; style
simple or 3-fid; ovary syncarpous, 2-5-carpellary,
i-l.M-ul.n-; placentation parietal; fruit a capsule;
seeds numerous, very small.

Order 12. Caryophyllaceae. — Herbaceous plants
with swollen nodes, leaves opposite, entire; rarely
with stipules; flowers regular, in dichasial cymes;
sepals 5 or 4, distinct, or tubular below; petals
5 or 4 clawed, or absent; stamens 10 or 8, or
5 or 4, free or united below ; anthers opening
longitudinally; stigmas 2-5, sessile, slender; styles
2-5; ovary syncarpous, i-locular; often stalked;
ovules on central placenta; fruit a capsule, open-
ing by teeth, or valvular, i- or 2-5-celled, seeds
albuminous.

Order 13. Portulaceae. — Herbaceous plants;
leaves succulent, smooth; stipules membranous;
flowers regular; sepals 2, or 3-5, united below,
overlapping in bud; petals 5, united, or not, below;
stamens indefinite, or 3-5; inserted on, or oppo-
site the petals; filaments not united; styles 3;
stigmas several; ovary syncarpous, i-celled;
ovules 3, placenta central, basal; fruit a capsule,
3-valved.

Order 14. Tamaricaceae. — Evergreen shrub;
branches slender, feathery; leaves very small;
flowers regular, in racemes; sepals 4-5, persis-
tent, overlapping in bud; petals 4-5, soon wither-
ing; stamens 4-5, or 8-10, on margin of disk (pel-
tate); styles 3-4; ovary syncarpous, 3-carpellary;
ovules several; fruit a capsule, rarely developed,
i-locular, 3-valved; seeds many, crowned with
tuft of hairs.

Order 15. Elatinaceae. — Plants aquatic; leaves
opposite, stipules very small; flowers regular, very
small; sepals 3—4, distinct, or united below; petals
3-4; stamens 6-8, free; styles 3-4; stigmas capi-
tate; ovary syncarpous, 3~4-celled; ovules on
axile placentae; fruit a capsule, 3-4-celled, 3-4-
valved; seeds many.

Order 16. Hypericaceae. — Herbaceous plants or
shrubs; leaves opposite, entire, without stipules,
with oil glands; flowers regular, yellow; sepals 5,
distinct, persistent, overlapping, with glandular
dots; petals 5, twisted in bud; stamens indefinite,
in bundles; anthers versatile; styles several, usu-
ally distinct; ovary syncarpous, 3~5-locular, ovules
on axile placentae; fruit a capsule or berry, dry or
fleshy, many-celled, many-valved; seeds small,
many.

Order 1 7. Malvaceae. — Herbaceous plants ;
leaves alternate; stipules falling; flowers regular,
axillary; sepals 5, valvate, persistent; epicalyx of
3-9 segments; petals 5, twisted in bud; stamens
many, connected into a tube below; anthers i-
celled, opening transversely, kidney-shaped; styles
free above; ovary syncarpous, many-celled; ovules
i in each cell; fruit a schizocarp, with numerous
i -seeded cocci.

Order 18. Tiliaceae. — Trees, deciduous; leaves
alternate; stipules falling; flowers regular, in

cymes; flower-stalk adnate to bract; sepals 5,
valvate in bud; petals 5; stamens indefinite, dis-
tinct or united; anthers 2-celled; style simple;
ovary syncarpous, 5-locular; ovules 2 in each cell;
fruit a nut, i-2-seeded.

Order 19. Linaceae.— Herbaceous plants; leaves
alternate, small; no stipules; flowers regular;
sepals 4-5, persistent, overlapping; petals 4-5,
twisted in bud, falling, with a claw; stamens
8 or 10, on a ring; anthers versatile; styles 4-5;
stigmas capitate; ovary syncarpous, 4~5-celled;
ovules 2 in a cell, on axile placentae ; fruit a cap-
sule, tipped with hard base of styles; seeds i in
each spurious cell.

Order 20. Geraniaceae. — Herbaceous plants;
leaves simple, with or without stipules; flowers
usually regular; sepals 5, persistent, overlapping;
petals 5, with a claw, twisted in bud; stamens
5-10; style i; ovary syncarpous, 5-locular; fruit,
a schizocarp, of 5 cocci, beaked, on stylophore;
seeds solitary.

Division B, — Calycifloree

Petals distinct; stamens perigynous or epigy-
nous.

Order 21. Aquifoliaceae. — Shrub, evergreen;
leaves spinose, leathery; stipules small, falling;
flower regular, unisexual, in cyme, axillary; sepals
4-5, inferior, overlapping; petals 4-8, united below;
stamens 4-5, adnate to petals; disk absent; ovary
syncarpous, free, 4-locular; ovules solitary; fruit
a drupe with four stones, fleshy; seeds stony 2-6.

Order 22. Celastraceae. — Shrub; stipules very
small, falling; flowers regular, in cyme, axillary ;
sepals 4-5, overlapping; petals 4-5 on margin
of fleshy disk; stamens alternating with the petals;
ovary syncarpous, 3~5-locular; cells i-2-seeded;
ovules erect ; fruit a fleshy capsule ; seeds en-
closed in aril.

Order 23. Rhamnaceae. — Shrubs, deciduous;
leaves alternate; stipules minute; flowers regular,
small; sepals 4-5; valvate in bud; petals 4-5, dis-
tinct, on throat of calyx; stamens 4-5, epipetalous;
ovary syncarpous, 3-locular, generally superior;
fruit a drupe; seeds erect, 2-4.

Order 24. Aceraceae. — Trees, deciduous; leaves
opposite; no stipules; flowers regular, in raceme
or corymb; sepals 4-9, overlapping; petals 4-9,
on hypogynous disk; stamens 8, on disk; style i;
stigmas 2; ovary syncarpous, 2-lobed; 2-locular;
ovules 2 in each cell; fruit a schizocarp; mericarps
(samaras) 2, winged, i -celled, i-2-seeded.

Order 25. Leguminosae. — Herbaceous plants,
or shrubs, some evergreen; leaves alternate, com-
pound ; stipules to leaves and leaflets ; flowers
irregular, papilionaceous; calyx inferior; sepals 5,
combined, i anterior; petals 5, odd one posterior;
stamens in i bundle of 10 or 2 bundles of 9 and i;
ovary i-celled, free; fruit a legume; placenta on
upper suture.

Order 26. Rosaceae. — Herbaceous plants, shrubs,
trees (deciduous); leaves alternate, simple or com-
pound; with stipules; flowers regular, perigynous
as a rule; sepals 4-5 or 8-10 in 2 rows, free or
adhering to and enclosing the ovary, odd one

ANGIOSPERM^

203

posterior; petals 4-5, equal, perigynous; stamens
indefinite, perigynous; styles distinct, often lateral ;
carpels 1-4, or many, usually apocarpous; ovules
1-2 in each; fruit an achene, drupe, pome, &c. ;
seeds mainly without albumen.

Order 27. Saxifragaceae. — Herbaceous plants,
or shrubs (deciduous); no stipules; flowers regular,
epig-ynous or perigynous; sepals 4-5; petals 4-5
or none; stamens 5 or 10, free, perigynous or hypo-
gynous; styles 2, free, diverging, persistent; ovary
superior or inferior; i-locular, with placentae 2,
parietal, or 2-locular with axile 'placentae; fruit a
capsule, or berry; seeds many, with fleshy albumen.

Order 28. Crassulaceae.— Herbaceous plants;
stem fleshy; leaves fleshy, tufted; no stipules;
flowers regular, slightly perigynous; sepals 4-12,
united below; petals 4-12, sometimes united, in-
serted at base of calyx; stamens 8-24, sometimes
epipetalous ; carpels 5, opposite the petals, free
as a rule, i -celled; fruit aggregate, follicle; seeds
with some albumen.

Order 29. Droseraceae. — Herbaceous rosette-
plants; leaves insectivorous, glandular, with
circulate vernation; flowers regular; sepals 5,
overlapping; petals 5; stamens 5, hypogynous
or perigynous, free; styles 3 or 5; ovary free,
syncarpous, 3-5 carpellary, i-locular; ovules many
on 2-5 parietal placentae; fruit a capsule, 2-5-
valved with seeds on margin of valves; seeds
without an aril.

Order 30. Haloragaceae. — Aquatic plants, her-
baceous ; no stipules ; flowers unisexual, apetal-
ous; calyx adnate to ovary, limb minute; sepals
2-4 or none; stamens 8, 4, 2, or i; styles equal
to, or half as many as, cells; ovary inferior, i-car-
pellary, or syncarpous and 4-locular; ovule i in
each loculus; fruit dry, crowned with rim of calyx;
seeds pendulous, with fleshy albumen.

Order 31. Lythraceae. — Herbaceous plants; no
stipules ; flowers regular ; calyx tubular ; sepals
4-6, valvate in bud; petals 4-6, between sepals,
twisted in bud, falling; stamens 8-12, on tube of
calyx, below petals; style i; ovary superior, syn-
carpous, free, 2-celled ; fruit a membranous cap-
sule, 2-valved, i -celled; seeds many.

Order 32. Epilobiaceae v%l Onagraceae.— Her-
baceous plants; leaves alternate or opposite, not
dotted; no stipules; flowers regular, epigynous;
calyx tubular; sepals 2-4, valvate in bud; petals
2-4, twisted in bud, at top of tube; stamens 2-4,
or 8, inserted with petals; style i; stigma capitate;
ovary inferior, syncarpous, 4-locular; placentae
axile; fruit a capsule, many-seeded.

Order 33. Cucurbitaceae. — Herbaceous succulent
tendril-climber; plant monoecious or dioecious; no
stipules; calyx 5-partite, tube attached to ovary;
corolla 5-partite, bell-shaped, with netted veins;
stamens 3, cohering ; anthers wavy ; style short ;
stigmas lobed; ovary 3-5-celled; placentae parie-
tal; fruit a berry; seeds flat, in an aril.

Order 34. Umbelliferae. — Herbaceous plants;
leaves much divided, sheathed below; flowers
regular, as a rule in a compound umbel; calyx
5-partite, teeth very small, or absent, adhering
to the ovary; petals 5, turned inwards; stamens

5, inserted with petals; styles 2, disk fleshy; ovary
2-celled ; fruit a schizocarp, of 2 mericarps, adher-
ing by the commissure ; seeds solitary, pendulous.

Order 35. Araliaceae vtt Hederaceae. —Shrub,
evergreen, root-climber; leaves alternate; stipules
none; flowers regular, in simple umbels; sepals 5,
adnate to ovary; petals 5, or wanting, valvate in
bud; stamens 5, alternate with petals, inserted
below disk (epigynous); styles 5; ovary inferior,
5-locular; fruit a drupe, with 5 stones, succulent
or dry; seeds solitary, pendulous.

Order 36. Cornaceae. — Herbaceous plants, or
shrubs ; leaves opposite ; stipules none ; flowers
regular; sepals 4-5, adnate to ovary; petals 4-5
inserted on top of calyx-tube, valvate in bud;
stamens 4; style slender; ovary 2-celled; fruit a
drupe, with 2 stones, crowned with remains of
calyx; seed solitary.

SUB-CLASS II.— GAMOPETAL.E

(= COROLLIFLOIUe).

Perianth, of calyx and corolla, petals united,
stamens epipetalous.

Order 37. Caprifoliaceae.— Shrubs (deciduous),
twiners, or herbaceous plants; leaves opposite;
stipules in some cases ; flowers regular or irregular;
calyx 4-5-fid, adnate to ovary; corolla 4~5-fid,
lobes twisted in bud ; stamens 4-5, epipetalous,
alternate with corolla-lobes; stigmas 1-3; ovary
i-5-locular, fruit fleshy, i or many-celled.

Order 38. Rubiaceae. — Herbaceous plants; stem
square ; leaves opposite, apparently in a whorl ;
stipules leafy; flowers regular; calyx very small,
superior; corolla lobes 4-6; stamens 4-5, alternate
with corolla lobes; style i, 2-fid sometimes; ovary
i or 2-locular; fruit indehiscent.

Order 39. Valerianaceae.— Herbaceous plants;
leaves opposite; stipules none; flowers usually
irregular; calyx superior, rudimentary, like pappus;
corolla 5-lobed, tubular, gibbous or spurred ;
stamens i or 3, epipetalous, free; ovary, with i
fertile cell; ovule solitary, pendulous; fruit dry.

Order 40. Dipsacaceae. — Herbaceous plants;
leaves opposite; stipules none; flowers forming a
head, each floret with an epicalyx; calyx superior,
of 5 bristles surrounded by an outer calyx; corolla
4-5-fid, lobes unequal; stamens 4, epipetalous,
free; style i; stigma simple; ovary i-celled; ovule
pendulous; fruit crowned with pappus-like calyx.

Order 41. Compositae (Asteracece).— Herbaceous
plants, often forming rosettes; no stipules; in-
florescence forming a capitulum ; flowerheads sur-
rounded by involucre of bracts or phyllaries; calyx
superior, absent or hairy pappus; corolla ligulate
or tubular, former usually in ray, latter in disk,
or either may predominate; stamens 5; anthers
united in a cylinder; filaments free; ovary i-locu-
lar; ovule erect; fruit a cypsela, i-seeded.

Order 42. Campanulaceae.— Herbaceous plants;
leaves alternate, entire; no stipules; flowers re-
gular or irregular ; calyx superior, entire, or 5-fid ;
corolla gamopetalous, inserted on calyx; 5-lobed;
stamens inserted with corolla, alternate with lobes;
anthers distinct or united, 2-celled, opening longi-
tudinally; ovary 2-5-locular; ovules numerous;

204

APPENDIX I

placentae axile; fruit a capsule, opening by valves
or fissures, many-seeded.

Order 43. Vacciniaceae.— Shrubs, deciduous or
evergreen; leaves alternate; buds clothed with
scales; flowers regular, solitary; calyx 4-5 lobed;
corolla campanulate, urceolate or rotate; stamens
epigynous, 8-10; anthers with appendages; ovary
inferior, 4-s-locular ; fruit a berry.

Order 44. Ericaceae.— Shrubs and undershrubs,
evergreen, rigid; leaves in whorls or scattered,
alternate or opposite; buds naked or scaly; flowers
regular or irregular; calyx 4~5-fid; corolla cam-
panulate orurceolate, tubular; stamens hypogynous
5, 8 or 10; anthers opening by apical pores; pollen
in tetrads ; ovary superior ; fruit, a berry, drupe or
capsule.

Order 45. Monotropaceae.— Saprophyte; leaves
scale-like; stem with scales; flowers solitary, in
spikes and racemes; sepals 2-6; petals 3-6; sta-
mens hypogynous, 6-1 2 ; ovary 4-6 lobed, style
simple; capsule membranous; seeds leathery.

Order 46. Plumbaginaceae. — Herbaceous plants;
leaves mainly radical, entire ; no stipules ; flowers
regular, in spikes or heads; calyx 5-cleft, inferior;
corolla s~fid; stamens hypogynous, 5, opposite the
petals; styles 5, ovary i-celled; ovule i, basal;
fruit a utricle; seeds inverted.

Order 47. Primulaceae. — Herbaceous plants ;
leaves radical or cauline; no stipules; flowers
regular; calyx inferior, 5-cleft; corolla hypogy-
nous, 4~7-fid; stamens epipetalous; ovary i-celled,
free; ovules numerous; placenta free central;
style i ; stigma capitate ; capsule i-celled.

Order 48. Oleaceae. — Trees or shrubs, decid-
uous ; leaves opposite ; no stipules ; buds scaly ;
flowers in trichotomous cymes ; calyx gamosepa-
lous, inferior, 4-cleft, or absent; corolla 4-partite
or absent; stamens 2, hypogynous or epipetalous;
ovary 2-celled ; style simple or none ; ovules 2-3 ;
fruit a berry or samara; seed pendulous.

Order 49. Apocynaceae. — Undershrubs, pros-
trate, evergreen; leaves opposite or in whorls,
entire; flowers regular, solitary; calyx 4-5-fid;
corolla hypogynous, 5-cleft; stamens 5, epipetal-
ous; pollen granular; carpels 2, united by styles;
stigma i ; fruit 2 follicles.

Order 50. Gentianaceae, — Herbaceous plants;
leaves entire, opposite, or whorled, or alternate;
no stipules; flowers regular, solitary or in cymes;
calyx 4-8-cleft, inferior; corolla 4-8-cleft, hypogy-
nous, rotate, campanulate or funnel - shaped ;
stamens 4-8, epipetalous; anthers versatile; ovary
incompletely 2-locular; placentae parietal ; capsule
i-2-celled; seeds very small.

Order 51. Polemoniaceae. — Herbaceous plants;
leaves pinnate, alternate or opposite; no stipules;
flowers in terminal cymes; calyx inferior, 5-lobed;
corolla hypogynous, 5-lobed; stamens 4-8, un-
equal, epipetalous; ovary 3-locular; stigma 3-fid;
ovules, i or more in each cell; fruit, a capsule,
3-celled.

Order 52. Boraginaceae. — Herbaceous plants,
rough or hairy; leaves alternate; no stipules;
flowers regular or sometimes irregular, in scor-
pioid cymes; calyx s-lobed, inferior; corolla hy-

pogynous, 5-lobed, rotate, bell-shaped, tubular
or salver-shaped; stamens 5, epipetalous; ovary
deeply 4-lobed; style simple; fruit of 4 i-seeded
nutlets.

Order 53. Convolvulaceae. — Herbaceous twin-
ing plants ; leaves alternate (none in Cusctt/a) ; no
stipules; flowers regular; calyx inferior, 5-lobed;
corolla hypogynous, 5-lobed; stamens 5, epi-
petalous; anthers sagittate; ovary 2-locular, 2
ovules in each cell; style 2-4-fid; capsule 1-4-
celled; seeds erect.

Order 54. Solanaceae. — Herbaceous plants or
shrubs; leaves alternate, or in unequal pairs; no
stipules; flowers regular, in cymes; calyx inferior,
5-cleft ; corolla hypogynous, 5-lobed ; stamens 5,
epipetalous, alternating with corolla lobes ; anthers
often cohering by tip; ovary 2-locular; ovules
numerous; fruit a capsule or berry.

Order 55. Scrophulariaceae. — Herbaceous plants,
leaves alternate or opposite, or whorled; with
stipules; flowers irregular ; calyx inferior, 4-5-
lobed; corolla often personate, 4-5-Iobed; stamens
4, in pairs, 2 or 5, epipetalous; ovary 2-celled;
ovules numerous; placentae axile; fruit a capsule,
many-seeded, 2-celled.

Order 56. Orobanchaceae. — Herbaceous para-
sitic plants ; leafless, with scales ; flowers irregu-
lar, in terminal spikes or racemes; calyx 4~5-fid,
inferior; corolla hypogynous 2-lipped, 4~5-fid,
gaping; stamens 4, in pairs, didynamous, epipet-
alous; ovary i-locular, of 2 carpels; ovules many;
fruit a capsule, i -celled.

Order 57. Lentibulariaceae. — Herbaceous aqua-
tic or marsh plants; leaves radical, entire, some-
times with bladders on multifid leaf-segments;
no stipules; flowers irregular, solitary, in raceme
or corymb; calyx inferior, persistent, 2-lobed or
5-partite; stamens 2, hypogynous or epipetalous;
anthers i-celled; ovary i-celled, of 2 carpels, free;
stigma of 2 lamellae; fruit a capsule, i-celled;
seeds many.

Order 58. Verbenaceae. — Herbaceous plant;
leaves opposite or in whorls; no stipules; flowers
irregular, in cymes; calyx inferior, tubular, per-
sistent; corolla tubular, hypogynous, 2-lipped;
stamens 4, in pairs, unequal, or 2; epipetalous;
anthers 2-celled ; ovary 4-locular, rounded ; style
terminal, i; ovules 4; fruit of 4 nutlets; seeds with-
out albumen.

Order 59. Labiatae (Lamiacetz). — Herbaceous
plants; stems square, leaves in opposite pairs,
decussate; no stipules; flowers irregular in whorled
cymes; calyx inferior, 5-cleft, 2-lipped; corolla
2-lipped, hypogynous, upper lip entire or 2-fid,
lower regular or 3-fid; stamens 4, in pairs, un-
equal, epipetalous; ovary 4-lobed, 4-locular; fruit
of 4 nutlets.

Order 60. Plantaginaceae.— Herbaceous plants,
scapigerous; leaves radical, forming a rosette,
or alternate; flowers regular, in spikes; calyx
4-lobed; corolla hypogynous, membranous; sta-
mens 4, epipetalous, rarely hypogynous; anthers
versatile; ovary 2-4-celled, free; style and stigmas
slender; fruit a capsule, circumsciss, membranous;
seeds peltate.

ANGIOSPERM^:

205

SUB-CLASS III. — APETAL/E

Perianth in a single whorl, as a rule, corolla,
and frequently calyx absent. Flowers in catkins,
or not ; ovary superior or inferior; stigmas 2-3, or
single.

Order 61. Illecebraceae. — Herbaceous plants;
stems branched; leaves entire; stipules membran-
ous; flowers in cymes, bisexual; sepals 4-5, per-
sistent, enclosing fruit ; petals small or absent ;
stamens hypogynous or perigynous; ovary i-celled,
free; ovule i.

Order 62. Amarantaceae. — Herbaceous plants;
no stipules; flowers unisexual; perianth 3~5-partite,
membranous ; stamens 3-5, opposite perianth
lobes, hypogynous; ovary i-celled, free; ovule i;
stigmas 3.

Order 63. Chenopodiaceae. — Herbaceous plants;
leaves alternate ; no stipules or sheaths ; flowers
i-2-sexual, with or without bracts, perianth 3-5-
partite, persistent ; stamens 5 or 3, opposite the
perianth lobes; anthers 2-celled; ovary i-locular;
i ovule; stigmas 2; fruit a utricle enclosed in
perianth.

Order 64. Polygonaceae. — Herbaceous plants;
leaves alternate, with sheathing membranous
stipules (ochreae) ; flowers bisexual ; perianth 5-6-
partite, petaloid or not; persistent; stamens 5-8,
from base of perianth, opposite the perianth lobes;
ovary i-celled, free; styles 1-3; ovule i, erect;
fruit a hard nut.

Order 65. Aristolochiaceae. — Herbaceous plants
or shrubs; leaves alternate; no stipules; flowers
bisexual, solitary or axillary, regular or irregular;
perianth superior, 3-lobed, bell-shaped or trumpet-
shaped; stamens 6-12, epigynous; ovary 6-locular;
styles 6; ovules many; fruit a capsule or berry.

Order 66. Thymelaeaceae. — Shrubs, evergreen,
or deciduous; leaves alternate, entire; without
stipules; flowers bisexual; perianth inferior, tubu-
lar, petaloid, 4~5-fid; stamens 8, in 2 series;
anthers 2-celled; ovary i -2-celled, free; ovules
1-3, pendulous; fruit a drupe or berry.

Order 67. Elaeagnaceae. — Shrub, deciduous,
spinous; plant dioecious ; leaves alternate; male
flowers in axillary clusters; perianth 2-lobed;
stamens 4; female flowers solitary, perianth tubu-
lar, style short; stigma long; nut i- seeded, en-
closed in calyx-tube.

Order 68. Loranthaceae. — Shrub, evergreen,
parasitic; stem jointed; leaves opposite, without
stipules; plant dioecious; flowers small, green;
perianth superior, 4-partite; stamens 4, adnate
to perianth lobes; anthers sessile; stigma sessile;
ovary i-locular; fruit a berry, i-seeded.

Order 69. — Santalaceae. — Herbaceous plants,
hemiparasitic on roots; leaves alternate; no
stipules; flowers bisexual; solitary, or in cymes or
racemes; perianth 5-lobed, persistent, with tuft
of hairs on face of lobes, adnate to ovary; stamens
5; filaments short; ovary i -celled; style short;
stigmas 1-5; ovules 2-5, placenta central; fruit
i-celled, i-seeded.

Order 70. Euphorbiaceae. — Herbaceous plants
or shrubs, with or without milky latex; leaves

alternate; stipules present sometimes; flowers
1-2 sexual; perianth lobed or not; male flowers
with i or more stamens; anthers 2-celled; female
flowers with superior 2-3-lobed, 2~3-celled ovary;
stigma simple or compound. Capsule 2-3-celled,
opening by elastic mechanism; 1-2 seeds in each
cell.

Order 71. Ulmaceae.— Trees, deciduous; leaves
alternate; stipules soon falling; flowers 2-sexual,
not in catkins; perianth inferior, 4-8 cleft, bell-
shaped ; stamens 4-8 on perianth and opposite
lobes; ovary i-2-celled; ovules solitary; styles 2;
fruit a samara.

Order 72. Urticaceas. (Plants monoecious or
dioecious as a rule.) — Herbaceous plants, some twin-
ing; leaves opposite or alternate, often with sting-
ing hairs; stipules present; flowers i-sexual, male
inflorescence in a panicle, female inflorescence in
catkins; perianth inferior, 4-5 partite; stamens 4-5;
inflexed in bud; on perianth; ovary i -celled, free;
ovules solitary ; fruit an achene.

Order 73. Myricaceae. (Plant dioecious or
monoecious.) — Shrub, deciduous, aromatic ; leaves
alternate; no stipules; flowers in axillary catkins;
bracts overlapping; stamens 6-8, ovary i -celled;
styles 2 ; fruit a drupe, with waxy coat.

Order 74. Amentaceae (Cupuliferce). — Trees or
shrubs, deciduous ; leaves alternate ; with stipules;
plants monoecious; bracts forming a 3-5-lobed
scale ; male flowers in spikes ; stamens 2-20 ;
anthers 2-celled ; female flowers with calyx adnate
to ovary, or absent; ovary inferior, 2-3-locular,
ovules 2-6; fruit a nut, winged or not, free or
enclosed in cupule.

Order 75. Salicaceae. — Tree or shrubs, decidu-
ous; leaves alternate; with stipules; plants dioe-
cious or monoecious; flowers in catkins, before
leaves ; bracts simple ; no perianth ; stamens i or
2 or more; ovary i -celled, superior; ovules many;
placentae parietal; styles 2; stigmas 2; fruit a
capsule, 2-valved ; seeds many, with tuft of hairs.

Order 76. Empetraceae. — Shrub, heath-like,
leaves alternate; no stipules; flowers regular,
bisexual or plant dioecious ; perianth of 6 scales,
hypogynous; stamens 3-4; anthers 2-celled;
pollen compound; ovary 3-9-celled; i ovule in each
cell ; fruit a drupe.

Order 77. Ceratophyllaceae.— Aquatic plants,
submerged; leaves in whorls, multifid; spinose;
no stipules; plants monoecious; flowers axillary;
perianth or involucre 8-12 partite; stamens 6-12;
ovary i -celled; ovule i, pendulous.

CLASS II.-MONOCOTYLEDONS

Cotyledon i (if more, alternate) ; leaves parallel
veined; usually alternate, sheathing; parts of flower
in 3*s or 6's or 9*8, &c., rarely in fours; wood in
scattered bundles, not in rings ; no medullary rays.

SUB-CLASS I.— PETALOIDE^
Orders 78-84, 88-90.

Flowers usually bisexual, perianth in 2 rows,
inner or both petaloid, hypogynous ; ovary inferior
or superior.

206

APPENDIX I

Series MlCROSPERME^B

Order 78. Hydrocharidaceae.— Aquatic plants,
floating; or submerged; flowers regular, i-sexual;
perianth 6-partite, in 2 series, inner petaloid;
stamens 3 or more, epigynous; ovary inferior;
i- or 3 6-locular; styles free; fruit a berry.

Order 79. Orchidaceae. — Herbaceous plants;
roots tuberous ; flowers in spikes, 2-sexual, irregu-
lar; sepals 3, reversed; petals 3, 2 above, i below,
spurred as a rule; stamens i or 2, adnate to style;
ovary i-locular; ovules many, placentae 3, parietal;
fruit a capsule; seeds numerous, minute.

Series EPIGYNE^E

Order 80. Iridaceae.— Herbaceous plants; with
rhizome or corm; leaves equitant, ensiform, &c.;
flowers 2-sexual, regular; perianth tubular, 6-
partite, petaloid, in 2 rows as a rule; stamens 3,
epigynous ; anthers extrorse; ovary 3-locular;
ovules numerous; placentas axile; stigmas 3,
sometimes petaloid ; fruit a capsule.

Order 81. Amaryllidaceae.— Herbaceous plants,
bulbous; leaves narrow; flowers regular, bisexual;
perianth superior, 6-partite, petaloid; stamens 6,
distinct on base of perianth-tube; with corona
sometimes; anthers introrse; ovary globose, 3-
celled; ovules many; placentae axile; fruit a cap-
sule, 3-valved.

Order 82. Dioscoreaceae.— Herbaceous plant,
twining; plant dioecious, leaves alternate, net-
veined; flowers unisexual, in axillary racemes;
perianth petaloid, superior, 6-partite ; stamens 6,
on perianth-segments; anthers introrse; ovary
inferior, 3-celled; styles 3; fruit a berry; seeds
few.

Series CORONARIEJE (and see Order 90)

Perianth in 2 series, petaloid or not; ovary
superior, syncarpous ; seeds albuminous.

Order 83. Liliaceae. — Herbaceous plants, rarely
evergreen undershrubs; flowers bisexual as a rule
and regular; perianth petaloid, inferior, 6-partite;
stamens 6, hypogynous, or on the perianth; anthers
introrse; ovary 3-celled, superior; ovules several
in each cell; styles i or 3; fruit a capsule or berry.

Order 84. Juncaceae. — Herbaceous plants, with
grass habit; leaves narrow, slender, flat or chan-
nelled; flowers bisexual; perianth 6-partite, seg-
ments membranous, sepaloid, glumaceous; stamens
6, on base of segments; anthers 2-celled; ovary
i -3-locular, ovules 3, or many; placentae axile,
parietal, or basal; fruit a capsule, 3-valved.

SUB-CLASS II. — SPADICIFLOR^E {Nudiflorci)

Perianth rudimentary or wanting; ovary supe-
rior, syncarpous or i-carpellary; flowers unisexual,
in spadix with or without spathe.

Order 85. Typhaceae. — Plants aquatic or marsh
plants, herbaceous; leaves linear, rigid; sheathed
below; flowers in spadix without spathe; plants
monoecious; perianth of scales or hairs, or absent;
stamens 3 or 6; filaments long; anthers wedge-

shaped, basifixed; ovary i-2-celled, superior; style
pi-i sisti-nt; ovule i, pendulous; fruit a utricle or
drupe.

Order 86. Araceae (Aroidece). — Herbaceous
plants; leaves net-veined, broad; flowers in spadix,
with spathe; flowers i-2-sexual; perianth 6-partite,
hypogynous, scale-like, or none ; stamens 6 or
fewer; filaments short, or none; anthers extrorse;
ovary superior, i- or more celled; fruit a berry;
seeds few or many.

Order 87. Lemnaceae. — Plants aquatic, floating,
leafless, frondose, proliferous, small, cellular;
flowers in hollow of frond; plants monoecious;
flowers in spathe, 1-3; perianth none; stamens
1-2, distinct; ovary i-celled; style short; stigma
simple; fruit not opening; carpel i.

SUB-CLASS I. — PETALOIDE^E (and see Orders
78-84

Series APOCARPE^E

Order 88. Alismaceae. — Aquatic or marsh plants;
leaves mainly radical, net-veined ; flowers usually
bisexual; perianth 6-partite, wholly or in part
petaloid; stamens 6 or more, hypogynous; ovary
superior, 3-6 or more, distinct carpels; fruit
aggregate of achenes or follicles.

Order 89. Naiadaceae. — Aquatic or marsh
plants, herbaceous; leaves floating or submerged,
parallel-veined ; hermaphrodite, monoecious or
dioecious; perianth of 4 scales or none; stamens
1-4, hypogynous; ovary superior; carpels 1-4,
apocarpous; ovule i; fruit i-celled, i-seeded.

Series CORONARIE^E (and see Orders
83 and 84)

Order 90. Eriocaulonaceae.— Herbaceousplants;
leaves linear, with grass habit; flowers i -sexual,
small, in head, with involucre; perianth of 2-6
scales, 3 inner, 3 outer; stamens 2-6; anthers
2-celled; ovary 2-3-celled, superior; ovule i, pen-
dulous; stigmas 2-3; fruit a capsule, 2-3-valved.

SUB-CLASS III. —GLUM ACE^E (Ghtmiflorce in part)

Flowers in spikes, with glumes ; perianth of
scales or absent; ovary i-celled; ovule i; styles
2-3; stigmas 2-3.

Order 91. Cyperaceae. — Plants herbaceous, with
grass habit ; stem 3-angled, solid ; leaves in 3
ranks; sheaths entire; flowers i -2-sexual, in axils
of glumes of spikelets; perianth of hypogynous
scales or 3-6 bristles; stamens 1-3; ovary i-locu-
lar; style i; stigmas 2-3; ovule i; fruit a nut or
achene.

Order 92. Graminaceae. — Plants herbaceous,
grass-like; stem hollow between nodes; leaves
in 2 rows; sheaths split; flowers 2-sexual as a
rule, sessile, in spikelets; enclosed in glumes and
paleae; perianth of scales or none; stamens 3;
anthers versatile; ovary i-locular; stigmas 2,
feathery; style none; ovule i ; fruit a caryopsis
or false achene.

APPENDIX II

THE GENERA OF
BRITISH FLOWERING PLANTS

In the following- summary 520 genera are in-
cluded. A few must be regarded as British, only
because the species have become established here
in various ways. The European flora includes a
far larger number of genera; and of the British
genera none can be regarded as peculiar, so in-
timately allied is the British insular flora to that
of the mainland. Had one included all the genera
noticed in this country, embracing a large number
of species (1000 or more) whose occurrence is
more or less accidental, sporadic, or ephemeral,
the list would have been considerably extended.
(See Druce's List of British Plants, Oxford.) But
many of the plants that have found a place here
are little removed from the garden, their place
of origin, or similar habitats, and one cannot in-
clude here many species that figure in horticultural
lists, since they may persist spontaneously for but
a year and then disappear. As, however, such
plants come, from time to time, to establish them-
selves widely and tenaciously in these islands, one
can no longer ignore their claim to a place in our
flora, cosmopolitan and adventitious as a large
part of it must be considered. This is the line
adopted here.

Order i. RANUNCULACE^E

1. Clematis. — Climbing shrub; leaves opposite;
sepals valvate, 4-6; fruit an achene; styles
feathery, persistent, many ; stamens many.

2. Thalictrum. — Herbaceous plants; involucre
o ; sepals imbricate, 4-5, petaloid ; fruit an achene,
without awns ; styles and stamens many.

3. Anemone. — Involucre of 3 leaves; sepals, 5-
20, petaloid; carpels in head, not bursting, tipped
with persistent styles; styles and stamens many;
fruit an achene.

4. Adonis. — Involucre o; calyx of 5-8 sepals;
petaloid; petals 5-16; no honey glands; carpels
awnless, not bursting; stamens and styles many.

5. Myosurus. — No involucre; sepals 5, spurred;
petals 5, with tubular claw ; receptacle elongated ;
stamens 5; carpels imbricate; seed pendulous.

6. Ranunculus. — Sepals imbricate, 5, rarely 3;
petals 5, rarely more, with honey glands; with or

without a scale ; carpels not bursting, in head ;
fruit an achene; seed ascending.

7. Caltha. — Sepals imbricate 5, petaloid, de-
ciduous; no petals; follicles 5-10, many-seeded,
bursting; stamens numerous.

8. Trollius. — Sepals 5, imbricate, deciduous,
petaloid; petals 5-15, small, clawed; flowers
globular; follicle many-seeded.

9. Helleborus. — Sepals 5, green, persistent;
petals 8-10, tubular, with long claw, 2-lipped;
follicles 3-10, sessile, many-seeded.

10. Eranthis. — Sepals 5-8, petaloid, deciduous;
petals 5, small, 2-lipped, tubular, claw long, inner
lips short; follicles stalked, 3-8, many-seeded.

11. Aquilegia. — Sepals 5, petaloid, deciduous;
petals 5, funnel-shaped, irregular, with horn-like
spur; follicles 5.

12. Delphinium.— Flowers irregular; sepals 5,
petaloid, deciduous, dorsal (upper) spurred; petals
4, 2 upper enclosed in spurred sepal; follicles i, 3,
or 5, many-seeded.

13. Aconitum. — Flowers irregular; sepals 5,
petaloid, upper one hooded, helmet-shaped; petals
2-5, 2 upper tubular on long stalks enclosed in
spurred sepal; follicles 3-5, many-seeded.

14. Actasa. — Flowers more or less regular;
sepals 4, petaloid, soon falling; petals 4, small;
fruit a berry, many-seeded, not bursting.

15. Paeonia.— Flowers regular; sepals 5, per-
sistent; petals 5, or more; follicles 2-5, many-
seeded, opening inwards.

Order 2. BERBERIDACE^

16. Berberis. — Shrub, with spines; flowers
yellow, in raceme; sepals, petals, stamens, 6; fruit
a berry, 2-3-seeded.

17. Epimedium. — Herbaceous, woody plant;
sepals 4, deciduous; petals 4; stamens 4; nec-
taries 4; fruit a capsule, many-seeded.

Order 3.

18. Nymphaea.— Flowers regular, yellow; sepals
5-6; petals numerous, on receptacle; stigma
sessile, with many rays; fruit a berry, many-
seeded.

208

APPENDIX II

19. Castalia. — Flowers white; sepals 4, green
petals numerous, on disk or base of ovary; fruit a
berry, many-seeded.

Order 4. PAPAVERACE^B

20. Papaver. — Petals 4; stamens numerous
stigma a 4-2O-rayed, nearly sessile disk; fruit a
capsule; opening by pores.

21. Meconopsis. — Petals 4; stamens numerous
stigma 5 6-rayed, free; style short, club-shaped
fruit a capsule, oblong, opening by pores.

22. Glaucium. — Flowers large; petals 4; stamens
numerous; stigmas 2; fruit a capsule, 2-celled;
seeds not crested.

23. Rcemeria. — Flowers violet; petals 3; stamens
numerous ; stigmas 2-4, radiant ; fruit a capsule,
2-4-valved, i -celled; seeds not crested.

24. Chclidonium. — Flowers yellow, small; petals
4; stigmas 2; fruit a capsule, 2-valved; seeds
crested.

Order 5. FUMARIACE^

25. Corydalis (Caf>noides). — Flowers irregular;
sepals 2, or o; petals 4, upper spurred below;
stamens diadelphous; fruit a pod, 2-valved; many-
seeded, opening.

26. Fumaria.— Sepals 2; petals 4, upper spurred
below; stamens diadelphous; fruit a nut, i-seeded,
not opening.

Order 6. CRUCIFER.S

27. Matthiola. — Flowers purple; stigma 2-lobed,
lobes erect, gibbous or horned on back; fruit a
pod, round or flattened, linear.

28. Cheiranthus. — Flowers yellow; lateral sepals
saccate; lobes of stigma spreading; pod compressed
or 2-edged, with rib on each valve; seeds in single
row in each cell.

29. Radicula (Nasturtium). — Pods round in sec-
tion, short, linear; valves turgid, nerveless; seeds
in 2 irregular rows, small.

30. Barbarea.— Pod round or 4-angled in sec-
tion, linear; valves convex, with longitudinal rib;
seeds in i row, oblong.

31. Arabis. — Pods flattened, linear; valves not
elastic, i-nerved with prominent rib; seeds in i
or 2 rows.

32. Cardamine. — Pod flattened; valves elastic,
nerveless; funicle slender.

33. Dentaria. — Like 32, but funicle dilated.

34. Alyssum. — Petals entire; filaments simple
or toothed, shorter with a gland each side below,
pouch compressed, oval; seeds 2-4 in each cell.

35. Draba. — Petals entire; filaments simple;
pods oblong, flat, seeds in 2 rows, not margined.

36. Erophila. — Petals notched; pods oblong,
linear, turgid.

37. Cochlearia. — Petals entire; filaments simple;
pouch round, turgid; valves convex, dorsal vein
prominent; seeds many.

38. Hesperis.— Stigma 2-lobed, lobes erect, de-
current on style; pod 4-sided or flattened, valves
keeled, 3-veined; seeds in single row.

39. Sisymbrium. — Stigma blunt; pods round
in section or 4-angled; valves convex, 2-nerved;
seeds in i row, smooth, funicle slender.

40. Erysimum.— Stem leaves not heart-shaped;
stigma blunt; pod 4-edged; valves with prominent
rib, and i longitudinal vein; seeds in i row,
funicle slender.

41. Conringia.— Like 39, but stem-leaves heart-
shaped, clasping; flowers white.

42. Camelina.— Stem-leaves stalkless, auricled;
pod sub-oval; valves inflated, with projection
adnate to style, i -nerved; seeds numerous in
2 rows.

43. Subularia. — Aquatic, scapigerous; leaves
awl-like; pod oval, flattened, valves boat-shaped;
cells 4-seeded.

44. Brassica. — Flowers yellow ; calyx erect ;
pods round in section or angled, beaked; seeds in
i row, round.

45. Diplotaxis. — Flowers yellow; calyx spread-
ing; pods flattened, seeds in 2 rows, flattened.

46. Capsella (Bursa). — Flowers white; silicic
triangular, inversely heart-shaped; valves flat-
tened, keeled ; seeds many.

47. Coronopus (Senebiera). — Silicic wrinkled,
didymous, not opening, kidney-shaped, entire at
end, or notched above and below, 2-jointed, 2-
seeded.

48. Lepidium. — Petals equal; silicle round, ob-
long, entire or notched, valves flat, keeled; cells
i-2-seeded.

49. Thlaspi. — Petals equal; filaments without
scales, simple; silicle round, notched, inversely
ovate; valves winged; seeds 4-8 in each cell.

50. Iberis. — Petals unequal, 2 outer larger;
filaments simple; silicle rounded, notched; valves
boat-shaped, keeled, winged at back; seeds i in
each cell.

51. Teesdalia. — Petals unequal; filaments with
scales at base; silicle round or oblong, notched;
valves boat-shaped, keeled below, slightly winged
above; seeds 2 in each cell.

52. Hutchinsia. — Petals equal; filaments with-
out scales; silicle elliptic, entire, oblong; valves
boat-shaped, keeled, not winged at back; seeds
2 in each cell.

53. Isatis. — Silicle indehiscent, i-celled, i-
seeded, flat, oblong; valves keeled, at length
separating.

54. Crambe. — Silicle, 2-jointed, lower joint
slender, seedless, upper round, i-seeded.

55. Cakile. — Silicle angular; joints 2, indehis-
cent, i-seeded, upper deciduous, sessile, ensiform
with an erect seed; lower persistent, seedless, or
with i pendent seed, inversely conical, 2-edged.

56. Raphanus.— Pod jointed, linear, oblong,
apered above, indehiscent, or moniliform and

divided into i -seeded cells, lower seedless, 2-valved.

Order 7. RESEDACE.B

57. Reseda.— Calyx many-partite, sepals di-
vided; petals unequal; stamens 10-40; styles 3-6;
ruit i-celled.

THE GENERA OF BRITISH FLOWERING PLANTS 209

Order 8. CiSTACE^E

58. Helianthemum.— Sepals 5, 2 outer smaller;
petals regular, 5, deciduous, white or yellow;
stamens numerous, free; capsule 3-valved.

Order 9. VIOLACE.S

59. Viola.— Sepals 5, produced at the base; petals
5, unequal, the lower spurred; stamens 5; anthers
united, 2 lower spurred.

Order 10. POLYGALACE.fi

60. Polygala.— Sepals 5, persistent, 2 inner
winged, petaloid ; corolla irregular, petals 3-5,
united, lower keeled; capsule flattened; seeds
solitary.

Order n. FRANKENIACE/E

61. Frankenia. — Style 3-fid, lobes oblong with
stigma on inner side; capsule i-locular, 3-4-
valved.

Order 12. CARYOPHYLLACE^E

62. Dianthus. — Calyx gamosepalous, with 2
opposite bracts below, 5-toothed; styles 2, free;
capsule 4-valved, i -celled; seeds many, peltate,
keeled.

63. Tunica. — Like 62 ; petals narrowed below,
wedge-shaped.

64. Saponaria. — Calyx without bracts below,
round in section, 5-toothed; styles 2; capsule
4-valved above, i -celled; seeds granulate.

65. Silene. — Calyx 5-toothed; styles 3-4; capsule
3- or 6-valved, with 6 apical teeth.

66. Cucubalus. — Calyx 5-toothed; styles 3;
capsule a berry, i-seeded, globular.

67. Lychnis. — Calyx 5-toothed ; petals, with
scale below; styles 5; capsule 5-celled, opening
above by 5 or 10 teeth.

68. Holosteum.— Sepals 5; petals 5, jagged;
stamens 3-5; styles 3; capsule 6-valved, cylin-
drical.

69. Cerastium. — Sepals 5 ; petals 5, 2-fid ;
stamens 4-10; styles 4-5; capsule tubular, open-
ing above by 10 teeth.

70. Stellaria.— Sepals 5; petals 5, 2-fid; sta-
mens 10 ; styles 3-5; capsule globose, 6-10-
valved ; seeds many.

71. Arenaria.— Sepals 5; petals 5, entire or
slightly notched; stamens 8-10; styles 3-5; cap-
sule 3-io-valved.

72. Sagina.— Sepals 5 entire; petals 4-5, entire,
or o, shorter than sepals; stamens 4-10; styles
4-5; capsule 4-5-valved; seeds wingless, uniform.

73. Spergula. — Stipules membranous; sepals
5; petals 5 entire, as long as calyx; stamens
5-10; styles 5; capsule 5-valved; seeds many.

74. Spergularia.— Sepals 5, petals 5, entire;
stamens 5-10; styles 3 or 5; fruit a capsule
3-valved.

75. Polycarpon.— Sepals keeled on back ; petals
5, notched; stamens 3-5; styles 3, united below,
short; capsule i -celled; seeds many.

VOL. V.

Order 13. Pc-RTULACE^E

76. Portulaca.— Calyx 2-fid, falling; petals 4-6,
distinct or united below; stamens 8-15 distinct.

77. Claytonia. — Sepals 2, persistent; petals 5,
free; stamens 5, opposite and adnate to petals;
style 3-cleft ; capsule 3-valved, globose ; seeds 3.

78. Montia.— Sepals 2, persistent; petals 5,
united below; stamens on throat of tube; style
short ; stigmas 3 ; capsule 3-valved.

Order 14. TAMARiCACE.fi

79. Tamarix. — Shrub; sepals 4-5; petals 4-5;
styles 3 ; seeds crowned with tuft of hairs.

Order 15. ELATINACE.B

80. Elatine. — Aquatic; sepals, petals, stamens
and styles 3-4; capsule 3~4-celled.

Order 16. HYPERICACE^E

81. Hypericum. — Flowers yellow; sepals 5;
petals 5; styles 3 or 5; capsule 3-celled; seeds
numerous.

Order 17. MALVACEAE

82. Althaea.— Calyx double; inner 5-fid; outer
of 6-9 lobes, united below; styles numerous;
carpels in a ring, i-seeded.

83. Lavatera. — Calyx double, inner 5-fid, outer
3-lobed, united below; styles many; carpels in a
ring, i-seeded.

84. Malva. — Calyx double, inner 5-fid, outer
of 3 free segments; carpels in a ring, i-seeded.

Order 18. TlLlACEfi

85. Tilia.— Trees; sepals 5, deciduous; petals
5, with or without a scale below ; stamens numer-
ous, free or not; style i; capsule i-celled; seeds
1-2.

Order 19. LiNACE.fi

86. Radiola.— Sepals 4, united below, 3-fid;
petals 4; stamens 4; styles 4; capsule 8-celled,
8-valved.

87. Linum.— Sepals 5, entire; petals, stamens,
styles 5; capsule lo-celled, lo-valved.

Order 20. GERANIACE^:

J8. Geranium.— Sepals 5; petals 5; stamens
10, all functional; carpels rounded above, of cocci,
i-seeded; awns not spirally coiled.

89. Erodium.— Sepals and petals 5; stamens 5;
staminodes 5 ; carpels with 2 depressions above ;
awn spirally coiled.

90. Oxalis.— Sepals 5, united below; petals 5,
united below; stamens 10; styles 5; capsule
5-io-valved, cells with 2 or more seeds.

91. Impatiens. — Sepals 3, petaloid, lower
hooded, spurred; petals 3, upper symmetrical,
lateral unequally 2-lobed ; stamens 5 ; anthers
united ; capsule explosive ; cells 2 or more seeded.

76

210

APPENDIX II

Order 21. AQUIFOLIACE.S

92. Ilex.— Tree; calyx 4~s-fid ; corolla rotate,
1 s- '"" I i stamens and stigmas 4-5 ; fruit fleshy, in-
dehiscent.

Order 22. CKLASTRACE^

93. Euonymus. — Shrub; flowers in cyme; calyx
4~5-lobed ; petals and stamens 4-5, on margin of
disk, perigynous; ovary 3~5-celled; fruit reddish;
seeds with orange aril.

Order 23. RHAMNACE.«

94. Rhamnus. — Shrubs; calyx 4-5 -cleft,
pitcher-shaped; petals 4-5, or o, perigynous;
stamens 4-5 ; fruit fleshy, a berry, 2~4-celled.

Order 24. ACBRACEA

95. Acer. — Trees; calyx 5-partite; petals 5;
stamens 8; fruit a schizocarp of 2 winged samaras.

Order 25. LEGUMINOS^

96. Lupinus. — Leaves digitate ; calyx deeply
2-fid; keel rostrate; style slender, curved; stigma
capitate; pod flat.

97. Genista, — Leaves simple; calyx shortly
2-lipped, toothed; style awl-like; stigma terminal;
corolla longer than calyx.

98. Ulex. — Leaves simple; calyx deeply
2-lipped, coloured, with small bracts below, nearly
as long as corolla ; pod thick, seeds few.

99. Cytisus. — Leaves 3-nate ; calyx 2-lipped ;
upper lip 2-fid, lower 3-fid; style long, curved;
pod flat.

100. Ononis. — Leaves 3-nate; calyx 5-cleft,
segments narrow, linear ; keel beaked ; stigma
terminal; pod thick.

101. Trigonella. — Flowers in short racemes;
calyx teeth 5, sub-equal; petals distinct, falling;
filaments not adhering to claws of petals; pods
flat, slightly curved, longer than corolla, opening;
seeds numerous.

102. Medicago. — Flowers in short racemes;
calyx teeth 5, sub-equal ; keels blunt ; filaments
slender; pod spiral; seeds numerous.

103. Melilotus. — Flowers in long one-sided
racemes; keel free; pods nearly straight, short,
not opening; seeds 1-4.

104. Trifolium. — Flowers in head; calyx teeth
5, unequal ; keel adnate ; petals persistent ; fila-
ments enlarged above, adhering to claws of petals ;
pod short, nearly straight; seeds 1-4.

105. Anthyllis. — Leaves pinnate; calyx tubular,
inflated, including pod with 5 unequal teeth ; keel
not beaked ; style slender ; stigma capitate.

106. Lotus. — Flowers in umbel; calyx teeth 5,
sub-equal, not inflated ; keel beaked ; pod
straight, linear, exserted ; seeds several.

107. Astragalus.— Leaves pinnate, no tendrils;
calyx with 5 teeth; keel blunt; pod continuous,
imperfectly 2-celled, lower suture inflexed.

108. Oxytropis. — Keel beaked, with incurved
tip; pod with upper suture inflexed.

109. Coronilla.— Flowers in an umbel; claw of

petals as long as calyx; pod long, straight,
jointed, 4-ang)ed.

1 10. Ornithopus. — Flowers in an umbel; pod
flat, many-jointed, of i-seeded joints.

in. Hippocrepis. — Flowers in an umbel, yel-
low; pod flat, of many curved, i-seeded joints.

112. Onobrychis. — Flowers in racemes, pink or
red; keel blunt; pod flat, i-celled, i-seeded,
I -jointed, hard.

113. Vicia. — Leaves pinnate, with tendrils;
calyx 5-fid ; style slender, hairy all over above, or
bearded below.

114. Lathyrus. — Leaves pinnate or simple,
with tendrils; calyx 5-fid; style flattened upwards,
hairy below stigma on upper face.

Order 26. ROSACES

115. Prunus. — Tree; calyx 5-cleft, falling;
petals 5; styles 1-5, united; drupe fleshy, not
bursting ; stone smooth or furrowed.

116. Spiraea. — Leaves compound ; calyx 5-cleft;
petals 5; stamens numerous, on disk adhering to
calyx; fruit of 3-12 follicles, inserted on calyx-
tube.

117. Rubus. — Shrubs; calyx 5-partite, per-
sistent; petals 5; styles numerous; carpels free;
fruit an aggegate of numerous succulent drupels,
on spongy, conical receptacle.

118. Dryas. — Leaves simple ; scape i-flowered;
calyx 8-io-cleft, in i row; petals 8; stamens
numerous; styles persistent, hairy, not jointed,
tipping the fruit; fruit of many awned achenes
enclosed in top-shaped receptacles.

119. Geum. — Leaves pinnate; calyx lo-cleft in
2 rows (i.e. with epicalyx); stamens numerous;
styles jointed, hooked, elongating after flowering;
fruit on long fleshy receptacle.

120. Fragaria. — Leaves 3-foliolate; petals 5;
stamens numerous; receptacle large, succulent,
pulpy, deciduous; fruit of small i-seeded nutlets
sunk in receptacle.

121. Potentilla. — Leaves 3- many foliolate;
calyx 8-io-partile, with smaller epicalyx; petals
4-5; stamens numerous; style not elongating
after flowering, lateral or sub-terminal ; fruit on
short, dry receptacle.

122. Alchemilla. — Calyx 4~5-lobed, with 4-5
bracts; apetalous ; stamens 1-4 in ring on throat
of calyx, opposite epicalyx lobes; nuts 1-5.

1 23. Agrimonia. — Calyx 5-lobed, without scales;
tube turbinate, armed with hooked bristles above ;
petals 5; stamens 12-20; achenes 2.

124. Poterium. — Calyx of 4 lobes, petaloid,
with 3 scales below; petals none; stamens 4-30;
nuts 2-3.

125. Rosa.— Shrubs; calyx 5-fid, urn-shaped,
fleshy at length; petals 4-5; stamens numerous;
fruit of several achenes enclosed in receptacle.

1 26. Pyrus. — Trees or shrubs ; calyx 5-toothed ;
petals 5 ; styles 2-5, united ; fruit fleshy (a pome),
cells cartilaginous, 2-5, distinct, 2-seeded.

127. Mespilus. — Tree; sepals 5, large, leafy;
petals 5; styles 2-5; fruit turbinate, endocarp
bony, exposed above.

THE GENERA OF BRITISH FLOWERING PLANTS 211

1 28. Crataegus. — Calyx-segments 5, acute ;
petals 5; styles 1-5; fruit a drupe, oval, with 1-5
long- stones, i-2-seeded.

129. Cotoneaster. — Calyx-segments 5; petals
5; styles 2-5; fruit a drupe, turbinate, with 3-5
half-exserted stones, not cohering at centre.

Order 27. SAXIFRAGACE^

130. Saxifraga. — Herbaceous plants; calyx
5-fid; petals 5; stamens 10; styles 2; ovary
2-celled; fruit a capsule.

131. Chrysosplenium. — Herbaceous plants;
calyx 4-fid; petals o; stamens 8-10; styles 2;
capsule i-celled, 2-beaked.

132. Parnassia. — Herbaceous plants; calyx
inferior, 5-cleft; petals 5; stamens 5, perigynous,
with 5 scales; stigmas 3-4; capsule i -celled.

133. Ribes. — Shrubs; calyx 5-cleft, superior;
petals 4-5; stamens 4-5; ovary i-celled; fruit a
berry, many-seeded, crowned with persistent
calyx.

Order 28. CRASSULACE^E

134. Tillaea. — Leaves opposite; sepals, petals,
and stamens 3-4 ; no scales ; carpels 3-4, 2-seeded.

135. Cotyledon. — Leaves alternate; sepals 5;
petals 5, united below; stamens 10, inserted on
corolla; scales 5.

136. Sedum. — Leaves alternate; sepals and
petals 5; stamens 10-12; scales entire; carpels
5-6; seeds numerous.

137. Sempervivum.— Succulent; leaves alter-
nate; sepals 6-10; petals 6-20; stamens 12-40;
scales laciniate.

Order 29. DROSERACE^:

138. Drosera. — Leaves glandular; sepals, petals,
and stamens 4-8; styles 3-5, 2-fid; capsule i-
celled, 3-5 ; seeds numerous.

Order 30. HALORAGACE^:

139. Hippuris. — Aquatic; leaves in whorls,
entire; calyx 2-lobed, minute; petals o; stamen
i ; fruit a nut, i -celled.

140. Myriophyllum. — Aquatic, submerged;
calyx 4-fid; petals 2-4; stamens 8; styles 4;
fruit of 4 hard nuts.

141. Callitriche. — Aquatic mainly, floating;
leaves opposite, entire; perianth o; stamen i;
fruit of 4 lobes, not opening.

Order 31. LYTHRACE^E

142. Peplis. — Calyx bell-shaped, with 12 teeth;
petals 6 or o; stamens 6 or 12; style short; capsule
2-celled.

143. Lythrum. — Calyx tubular, cylindrical,
teeth 8-12; petals 4-6, exceeding calyx-teeth;
style slender.

Order 32. EPILOBIACE^ (ONAGRACE^)

144. Epilobium.— Flowers pink or red; calyx
4-cleft; petals 4; stamens 8; capsule 4-celled,
4-valved,

145. Ludwigia.— Plant floating; flowers small;
calyx 4-cleft; petals short, 4 or o; stamens 4;
stigma capitate; capsule obovate, 4-celled.

146. CEnothera.— Flowers yellow; calyx united
below; petals 4; stamens 8; seeds not bearded.

147. Circaea. — Flowers small, white; calyx
2-fid; petals 2; stamens 2; capsule i -2-celled, with
hooked bristles.

Order 33. CUCURBITACEJE

148. Bryonia.— Plant dioecious; tendril climber;
calyx and corolla 5-toothed; stamens 5, in 3
bundles; style 3-fid; fruit a berry; seeds oval;
few.

Order 34. UMBELLIFERJE

149. Hydrocotyle. — Stem creeping; leaves
peltate, simple; calyx small; petals entire; fruit
of 2 flat carpels with 5 ridges; vittae o.

1 50. Eryngium. — Leaves palmate, spinose ;
flowers in dense capitate umbels ; calyx of 5 leaf-
like teeth ; petals erect ; fruit covered with chaffy
scales.

151. Astrantia. — Leaves palmate; calyx of 5
teeth, leafy; bracts very large; coloured; petals
erect; fruit with 5 plaited, dentate ridges.

152. Sanicula. — Leaves palmate; calyx 5-fid;
petals with long inflexed point; fruit with hooked
spines.

153. Danaa (Physospermum). — Calyx with 5
teeth; petals obcordate; fruit bladdery; carpels
round, with 5 sharp ridges, 2 lateral within mar-
gin; vittae solitary, in furrows.

154. Conium. — Calyx small; petals obcordate,
point inflexed; carpels with 5 thick, wavy, scal-
loped ridges; vittae none or several.

155. Smyrnium. — Calyx none or small; petals
entire, elliptic ; fruit black, flat ; mericarps kidney-
shaped, with 3 prominent sharp ridges; vittae
many.

156. Bupleurum. — Leaves simple, entire; flowers
yellow; calyx small; petals round, entire; carpels
with winged ridge.

157. Trinia (Apinella). — Leaves compound; leaf-
lets linear; plant dioecious; petals entire, white;
involucre of few bracts or none.

158. Apium. — Leaves compound; flowers bi-
sexual, white; calyx o; petals entire; fruit ovoid;
carpels with 5 filiform ridges; vittae solitary.

159. Cicuta. — Calyx with 5 teeth, leafy; petals
obcordate; fruit didymous, with obscure ridges;
vittae solitary.

1 60. Carum. — Calyx small; petals notched;
base of style depressed; carpophore 2-partite;
ridges slender.

161. Sison. — Upper leaves pinnatifid; fruit flat,
with blunt ridges; vittae club-shaped, solitary.

162. Falcaria.— Petals notched; calyx margin
with 5 teeth; vittae solitary.

163. Slum.— Leaves all pinnate; calyx with 5
small teeth; petals obcordate; general and partial
involucral bracts numerous; carpels with 5 blunt
ridges; disk depressed or conical; vittae long,
several.

212

APPENDIX II

164. JEgopodium. — Calyx o or small, teeth ob-
solete; petals obovatc; fruit oblong-, rounded, with
slender ridges; vittae o.

165. Pimpinella.— Calyx-teeth obsolete; petals
obcordate; involucre o; fruit flat, with blunt ridges;
vittae 3 or more.

166. Conopodium. — Petals notched; base of
style conical; vittae many in each furrow, often
faint.

167. Myrrhis. — Leaves compound; calyx small;
petals obcordate; fruit not beaked; carpels acutely
ribbed, of double membrane; vittae o.

1 68. Chaerophyllum.- Leaves compound; calyx
small; petals obcordate; fruit hardly beaked; car-
pels with 5 equal blunt ridges; vittae i or o.

169. Scandix. — Calyx small; petals obovate;
fruit with long beak, 5 blunt ridges; vittae o.

170. Anthriscus. — Calyx of 5 teeth; petals ob-
cordate; fruit flattened; beak slender, shorter than
fruit; ridges none or obscure.

171. Seseli. — Calyx with acute teeth; petals
white, notched, obcordate; fruit ovoid, flattened
dorsally, hairy, ribs thick; style long, reflexed.

172. Fceniculum. — Calyx-teeth obsolete; petals
yellow, entire, rounded; fruit oblong, ribs pro-
minent, blunt; style short.

173*. Crithmum. — Leaflets fleshy; petals elliptic,
entire, involute; fruit with triangular sharp ridges;
vittae 2 or more.

174. CEnanthe. — Calyx-teeth lanceolate; petals
obcordate; bracteoles whorled; fruit ovoid, corky
ridges blunt; style long, erect.

175. ^thusa. — Calyx small; petals obcordate;
bracteoles on one side; fruit globose, ribs acute;
style short, reflexed.

176. Silaus. — Leaflets lance - shaped ; calyx
small; petals yellow, nearly entire, with appen-
dage below; fruit elliptic, ridges winged.

177. Mcuin. — Leaflets capillary; calyx small;
petals elliptic, acute each end, entire, inflexed at
point; seed concave ventrally; vittae several.

178. Ligusticum. — Leaflets ovate; petals white,
obcordate; fruit elliptic, ridges sharp, winged;
vittae many or obscure.

179. Selinum. — Calyx inconspicuous; petals
oblong, notched; fruit ovoid or oblong; seed bi-
convex, adhering to carpel ; vittae solitary.

180. Angelica. — Leaflets ternately 2-pinnate;
calyx small; petals lanceolate, entire, incurved;
fruit dorsally flattened ; ridges slender ; vittae
solitary.

181. Archangelica. — Calyx with 5 small teeth;
petals elliptic, entire; ridges thick, 3 dorsal, 2
lateral ; vittae o.

182. Peucedanum. — Calyx of 5 teeth; petals
entire, obovate or obcordate; fruit with thin flat
margin dorsally flattened, 2 lateral ridges close to
base of dilated margin.

183. Heracleum.— Calyx with 5 teeth; petals
obcordate; flowers white; fruit dorsally flattened,
wings even; vittae short, club-shaped.

184. Tordylium.— Calyx-teeth 5, awl-like; petals
obcordate; fruit with thickened wrinkled wings,
the 2 lateral distant.

185. Coriandrum.— Calyx-teeth 5; petals obcor-

date; fruit globose, ridges small, 4 secondary
keeled, larger; carpels hardly separating.

186. Daucus. — Bracts pinnatifid; calyx-teeth 5;
petals obcordate; fruit prickly, dorsally flattened,
ridges prominent; seed flat in front.

187. Caucalis. — Bracts entire, or o; calyx-teeth
5; petals obcordate; fruit prickly, laterally flat-
tened, primary and secondary ridges with 1-2
rows of bristles.

Order 35. — ARALIACE>E (Hederacece)

188. Hedera.— Shrub, climbing by roots; stem
woody; calyx superior, Iimb5-fid; petals, stamens,
and styles 5-10; fruit a berry, 5-celled, 5-seeded.

Order 36.— CORNACE;E

189. Cornus. — Shrub or herbaceous plant; calyx-
limb superior, 4-fid; petals 4; stamens 4; style i;
fruit a drupe; stone 2-celled.

Order 37. — CAPRIFOLIACE.*

190. Adoxa. — Herbaceous plant; leaves 3-nately
compound; calyx 2-3-cleft; corolla rotate, 4-5-
lobed; stamens 8-10, in pairs; styles 5-10; fruit
4~5-celled.

191. Sambucus. — Shrub or large herb; leaves
pinnate; calyx 5-cleft; corolla rotate, s-lobed;
stamens 5 ; stigmas 3, sessile ; fruit 3~4-seeded.

192. Viburnum. — Shrubs, deciduous; leaves
simple; calyx 5-cleft; corolla bell-shaped or
funnel-shaped; stamens 5; stigmas 3, sessile;
fruit i-seeded.

193. Linnaea. — Evergreen creepingshrub; calyx-
segments awl-like ; corolla bell-shaped ; stamens 4,
unequal.

194. Lonicera. — Shrubs, deciduous, climbing;
calyx 5-cleft ; corolla tubular or funnel-shaped, 5-
fid or irregular; stamens 5; style slender; ovary
2-3-celled ; ovules many in each cell.

Order 38. RUBIACEJE

195. Rubia. — Calyx none ; corolla rotate, 5-cleft ;
fruit succulent.

196. Galiiim. — Calyx none; corolla rotate, 4-fid;
fruit dry.

197. Asperula. — Calyx-limb reduced ; corolla
funnel-shaped ; fruit dry.

198. Sherardia. — Flowers in an umbel with in-
volucre; calyx-teeth 4-6; corolla funnel-shaped;
fruit dry, crowned with calyx.

Order 39. VALERIANACE*

199. Valeriana. — Calyx pappose; corolla 5-lobed,
without spur, gibbous ; stamens 3 ; fruit crowned
with feathery pappus, i -celled.

200. Kentranthus (Centrnnthus).— Calyx pap-
pose; corolla 5-lobed, spurred; stamen i; fruit
crowned with feathery pappus, i -celled.

201. Valerianella. — Calyx toothed or lobed;
corolla obconical, not spurred, 5-lobed ; stamens 3;
fruit crowned with unequal teeth of calyx-limb.

THE GENERA OF BRITISH FLOWERING PLANTS 213

Order 40. DIPSACE/E

202. Dipsacus. — Calyx-limb cup-shaped, entire;
floral brads spinose, exserted, covering- the head ;
corolla 4-5-fid; stamens 4; fruit crowned with
pappose calyx.

203. Scabiosa (including- Knautid). — Floral
bracts concealed, scale-like or o; calyx-limb 4-15
bristles.

Order 41. COMPOSITE (Asferacece)

204. Eupatorium.— Flowerheads reddish-purple;
florets few, all tubular, funnel-shaped, bisexual;
phyllaries overlapping-, oblong-; anthers included;
style arms exserted ; receptacle naked.

205. Solidago. — Flowerheads with ray; florets
all yellow; involucral bracts overlapping-; anthers
simple; pappus in i row, rigid; fruit round in
section.

206. Bellis. — Receptacle conical, naked; scape
i -flowered; involucral bracts in 2 rows, equal,
blunt; achene flattened ; pappus o.

207. Aster. — Ray florets in i row, female, ligu-
late; disk florets tubular, perfect; receptacle
naked, pitted; phyllaries overlapping-; pappus
rigid, in many rows.

208. Erigeron. — Like 207, but ray florets in
several rows.

209. Filago. — Receptacle conical ; marginal
scales few; flowerheads bisexual; outer florets
female, in several rows, outermost with a few
inner phyllaries; disk florets tubular, few.

210. Antennaria. — Plant dioecious as a rule;
receptacle flat, naked; male florets tubular; pap-
pus club-shaped; female florets slender; phyllaries
with coloured tip.

211. Gnaphalium. — Flowerheads bisexual, tubu-
lar; receptacle, flat, naked ; involucre hemispheri-
cal, with overlapping- phyllaries.

212. Inula. — Ray florets female, lig-ulate; disk
florets tubular, bisexual; receptacle naked; in-
volucral bracts overlapping-; anthers bristly below;
pappus simple, hair-like, rough.

213. Pulicaria. — Phyllaries in few rows, loosely
overlapping-; anthers bristly below; pappus in 2
rows, with another row of short scales, roug-h.

214. Xanthium. — Plant monoecious; male florets:
with involucre of i row of free phyllaries ; recep-
tacle scaly; corolla funnel-shaped; anthers free;
female florets : 2, in beaked involucre, with hooked
spines; corolla and stamens o; fruit flattened.

215. Bidens. — Leaves opposite; flowerheads
sometimes rayed; disk florets bisexual, tubular;
receptacle flat ; phyllaries in 2 rows ; pappus of
2-5 barbed bristles.

216. Galinsoga.— Receptacle conical, scaly; ray
florets in i row, female, ligulate; disk florets
tubular, perfect; phyllaries 4-5, ciliate, in i row;
pappus of broad ciliate scales.

217. Achillea.— Receptacle conical, scaly; ray
florets female, ligulate, short; ligule broad, short;
disk florets tubular, perfect; phyllaries overlapping;
fruit flattened, winged ; pappus o.

218. Diotis. — Receptacle scaly; flowerheads
discoidal, all tubular, perfect; tube auricled below;

compressed; fruit crowned with auricled tube;
pappus o.

219. Anthemis.— Receptacle conical, scaly; ray
florets female or neuter, ligulate, in i row; disk
florets tubular, perfect; ligule oblong; fruit round
in section; pappus o.

220. Chrysanthemum.— Receptacle flat or con-
vex, naked ; phyllaries with membranous margins;
fruit of disk florets not winged, of ray florets
slightly winged; pappus o.

221. Matricaria. — Receptacle convex or at
length conical, lengthening, naked; phyllaries
without membranous margins; fruit angular;
pappus o.

222. Cotula. — Plant succulent; leaves clasping;
flowerheads solitary, discoidal, yellow.

223. Tanacetum. — Receptacle broad, not scaly;
phyllaries overlapping, numerous, in many series;
involucre hemispherical; fruit angular.

224. Artemisia. — Receptacle narrow, not scaly;
phyllaries in few rows; fruit obovate, with epi-
gynous disk; involucre roundish.

225. Tussilago. — Flowerheads solitary on
scapes, with many florets; ray-florets ligulate,
female, in many rows; disk florets tubular, male;
phyllaries in i row, with membranous margins.

226. Petasites. — Plant sub-dioecious ; flower-
heads in raceme, numerous, pink; outer florets
tubular; female florets slender, blunt, or shortly
ligulate, in many rows (in male flowerheads in
i row); male florets tubular, few and central in
female flowerheads, forming entire disk in male
flowerheads.

227. Doronicum. — Phyllaries in 2 or 3 rows,
equal; involucre hemispherical; ray florets in i
row, ligulate, female; disk florets tubular, perfect;
no pappus in ray florets; pappus rigid.

228. Senecio.— Ray florets in i row, ligulate,
female, or o; disk florets tubular, perfect; phyl-
laries in i row, equal, with membranous edges;
style arms of disk florets free; pappus silky.

229. Carlina. — Outer phyllaries spinose, inner
coloured, spreading; florets all perfect; receptacle
scaly; pappus in i row, feathery.

230. Arctium. — Phyllaries with hooked points;
involucre globose; receptacle flat, scaly; anther
cells tailed; pappus short, hair-like.

231. Carduus. — Phyllaries all spinous; recep-
tacle scaly; filaments free; fruit not angled;
pappus united below in a ring, deciduous, rough,
simple.

232. Cirsium (Cnicus).— Phyllaries all spinous;
filaments free; fruit flat, not angled; pappus
feathery.

233. Onopordon.— Phyllaries all spinous; re-
ceptacle honeycombed ; filaments free ; fruit
4-angled or ribbed, wrinkled; pappus rough.

234. Silybum (Mariana). — Phyllaries leafy be-
low, with spinous points; filaments united below;
fruit round in section, wrinkled; pappus hair-like
or scaly.

235. Saussurea.— Flowers all bisexual; phyl-
laries not spinose; anthers bristly below; pappus
longer than fruit.

236. Serratula. — Phyllaries unarmed, sharp ;

APPENDIX II

receptacle with bristly scales; anthers simple
below; fruit flattened.; pappus longer than fruit.

237. Centaurea. — Receptacle chaffy ; anthers
with papillose filaments; pappus shorter than
fruit hair-like or none.

238. Cichorium. — Flowerheads blue, axillary
lig-ulate, many; phyllaries in 2 rows, outer short,
loose, inner at length turned back; pappus in 2
rows, chaffy.

239. Arnoseris. — Flowerheads yellow, terminal,
many; phyllaries in I row, at length converging;
fruit inversely pyramidal crowned with a ring.

240. Lapsana.— Flowerheads 8-12; phyllaries
in i row, with 4-5 bracts below ; fruit striate,
blunt; pappus none.

241. Picris. — Phyllaries in i row, with unequal
linear spreading ones below; fruit transversely
striate, beaked, narrowed each end; pappus hairs
feathery.

242. Crepis. — Flowerheads many; involucre
double, inner in i row; fruit narrowed above or
beaked; pappus simple, soft.

243. Hieracium.— Flowerheads many, yellow ;
phyllaries overlapping, oblong; fruit blunt;
pappus hairs rough, brown, brittle, rigid.

244. Hypochaeris. — Receptacle naked, palea-
ceous; phyllaries oblong; fruit muricate, beaked;
pappus in 2 rows, feathery.

245. Leontodon. — Receptacle naked; involucre
more or less overlapping; outer phyllaries in 3
rows; fruit beaked; pappus in 2 rows, feathery,
inner longer.

246. Taraxacum.— Receptacle naked; involucre
double ; inner phyllaries erect ; outer few, loose ;
fruit muricate, narrowed below ; pappus hairs
simple.

247. Lactuca. — Flowerheads few ; phyllaries
with membranous edge; stem leafy; in 2-4 rows;
fruit flattened, beaked, ribs smooth.

248. Sonchus. — Flowerheads many; phyllaries
overlapping, in 2-3 rows, unequal; fruit flattened,
not beaked, ribs rough or smooth.

249. Tragopogon. — Involucral bracts united
below, 8-10, equal; fruit striate, beaked; pappus
in many rows, feathery, interwoven in ring.

Order 42. CAMPANULACE^E

250. Lobelia, — Calyx 5-fid; corolla irregular,
limb 2-lipped; anthers uniting in tube, 5; stigma
blunt; capsule 2-3-celled opening by 2-3 valves.

251. Jasione. — Flowers capitate; calyx 5-fid;
corolla regular, rotate, 5-fid; segments linear;
anthers connate, tips free; capsule 2-celled.

252. Wahlenbergia ( Cervicina). — Corolla re-
gular, bell-shaped, 5-lobed, lobes broad, capsule
3-celled, opening by 3-5 valves above calyx seg-
ments.

253. Phyteuma. — Flowers capitate; calyx
5-partite; corolla 2-lipped, regular, 5-fid, seg-
ments linear; anthers free; capsule opening at
the sides below the calyx-lobes.

254. Campanula.— Calyx 5-partite; corolla bell-
shaped, segments 5, broad; anthers free; filaments

swollen below; stigmas 3-5-fid; ovary short,
broad; capsule opening at sides.

255. Legousia (Specularia). — Corolla regular,
rotate or bell-shaped; capsule linear, narrow,
oblong opening by lateral pores between calyx-
lobes.

Order 43. VACCINIACE.S

256. Vaccinium. — Undershrub; calyx entire or
5-toothed; corolla bell- or pitcher-shaped; stamens
8-10; berry globose; seeds many.

257. Oxycoccus. — As 256, but corolla rotate.

Order 44. ERICACE/E

258. Arbutus. — Tree; calyx 5-partite; corolla
ovoid, 5-cleft; stamens 10; anthers with pores and
appendages; fruit tubercled, rough, globose; cells
many-seeded.

259. Arctostaphylos. — Undershrub, prostrate,
small; fruit smooth, cells i-seeded.

260. Andromeda. — Undershrub; leaves broad;
buds clothed with scales; corolla ovate, deciduous;
stamens 10; capsule 5-celled, 5-valved.

261. Calluna. — Undershrub; calyx 4-partite,
longer than corolla, with 4 green bracts; corolla
bell-shaped, 4-cleft, persistent; capsules opening
in loculi; seeds numerous in each cell.

262. Erica. — Undershrub ; calyx 4 - partite ;
corolla 4-fid, persistent; stamens 8; capsule septi-
cidal; seeds few in each cell.

263. Loiseleuria (Azalea). — Undershrub; calyx
5-partite ; corolla bell-shaped, 5-cleft, deciduous ;
anthers 5, opening by slits; capsule 2-3-celled.

264. Bryanthus (Menziesid) (Phyllodoce). —
Calyx 5-partite; corolla ovoid, pitcher-shaped,
ventricose, deciduous; stamens 10; anthers open-
ing by pores; capsules 5-celled.

265. Dabcecia (Borettd).— Calyx 4-cleft; corolla
pitcher-shaped, 4-toothed; stamens 8; anthers
opening by pores; capsule 4-celled.

266. Ledum. — Corolla 5-partite; anthers open-
ing by pores.

267. Pyrola. — Undershrub ; flowers in raceme;
calyx green, 5-partite; corolla of 5 free con-
cave petals; stamens 10; style 5-lobed; capsule
5-valved, loculicidal.

268. Moneses.— Flowers solitary; calyx 5-par-
tite; petals spreading, slightly adhering below;
stamens 10; stigma rayed; capsule 2-celled.

Order 45. MONOTROPACE^E

269. Hypopitys (Monotropa). — Fleshy sapro-
phyte; calyx 4-5-partite, coloured; corolla of 4-5
petals; stamens 8-10; anthers 2-valved ; stigma
peltate; capsule 5-valved; seeds numerous.

Order 46. PLUMBAGINACE^

270. Limonium.— Flowers in one-sided panicled
cymes; calyx membranous-edged; corolla 5-par-
tite ; styles smooth.

271. Statice (Armeria). — Flowers in head, with
bracts; inverted cylindrical sheath; styles hairy
below.

THE GENERA OF BRITISH FLOWERING PLANTS 215

Order 47. PRIMULACE/E

272. Hottonia. — Aquatic; leaves pectinate;
calyx 5-partite, hardly united below; corolla
salver -shaped; stamens epipetalous; capsule
valvular.

273. Primula. — Leaves radical; calyx tubular,
5-fid; corolla salver-shaped, tube cylindrical;
lobes spreading; stamens and styles dimorphic;
capsule 5-valved; seeds numerous.

274. Cyclamen. — Leaves radical; calyx bell-
shaped, 5-cleft; corolla bell-shaped; limb 5-par-
tite, reflexed; stamens 5; capsule many-seeded.

275. Lysimachia. — Leaves cauline; calyx 5-par-
tite; corolla rotate, limb 5-partite; stamens 5;
capsule 5-valved.

276. Trientalis.— Leaves cauline; flowers white;
calyx 7-partite; corolla rotate; stamens 7; cap-
sule many-seeded.

277. Glaux. — Leaves cauline; calyx bell-shaped,
coloured, 5-partite; corolla none; stamens 5; cap-
sule with few seeds.

278. Anagallis.— Calyx s-partite; corolla rotate
or funnel-shaped; no tube; stamens 5; filaments
hairy; capsule opening transversely.

279. Centunculus. — Calyx 4-partite; corolla
tube inflated subglobose; filaments smooth;
stamens 4-5; capsules with many seeds.

280. Samolus. — Leaves mainly radical; flowers
white; calyx 5-partite; corolla salver-shaped;
limb 5-partite; stamens 5; capsule half-inferior,
many-seeded.

Order 48. OLEACE/E

281. Fraxinus. — Tree, deciduous; calyx o or
4-cleft; corolla o, or of 4 petals; wanting in this
country; plant polygamous; fruit winged (samara),
dry.

282. Ligustrum. — Shrub, deciduous; calyx with
4 teeth; corolla funnel-shaped, limb 4-cleft;
stamens 2; fruit a fleshy berry, 2-seeded.

Order 49. APOCYNACE^E

283. Vinca.— Creeping shrub; calyx 4-partite;
corolla salver-shaped; tube 5-angled, long; fruit
of 2 follicles.

Order 50. GENTIANACEJE

284. Microcala. — Leaves opposite; corolla
funnel-shaped, yellow; stamens 4; stigma i,
entire, peltate.

285. Blackstonia (Chlord).— Leaves perfoliate;
calyx 8-partite; corolla yellow, rotate, 8-partite;
stamens 6-8; capsule i-celled.

286. Centaurium (Erythra>a\ — Calyx 4-5-fid;
corolla funnel-shaped; limb 4-5-fid; stamens 4-5;
anthers twisted; stigmas 2; capsule 2-celled.

287. Cicendia (Exacum}. — Calyx 4-partite;
corolla salver-shaped, limb 4-fid; stamens 4;
anthers erect; stigmas 2; capsule i-2-celled.

288. Gentiana.— Calyx 4-5-cleft; corolla funnel-
or salver-shaped; limb 4-5-cleft; stamens 4-5;
anthers erect; stigmas 2; capsule i-celled.

289. Menyanthes. — Leaves trifoliate; flowers
whitish-pink; calyx 5-partite; corolla funnel-

shaped, fleshy; stamens 5; stigma notched; cap-
sule 2-valved.

290. Limnanthemum. — Leaves rounded; plant
aquatic, floating; flowers yellow; calyx 5-partite;
corolla rotate, limb 5-partite; stamens 5; stigma
2-lobed; capsule i-celled.

Order 51. POLEMONIACE^E

291. Polemonium. — Calyx 5-fid; corolla rotate,
tube short; stamens 5; stigmas 3-fid; capsule
3-celled.

Order 52. BORAGINACE^E

292. Omphalodes. — Radical leaves cordate ;
flowers in raceme, blue.

293. Cynoglossum. — Calyx 5-cleft ; corolla
funnel-shaped; filaments very short; nutlets ovate,
with hooked bristles.

294. Lappula (Echinospermum). — Corolla with
tube, lobes rounded; style very short; fruit a nut-
let, with hooked bristles.

295. Symphytum. — Calyx 5-cleft; corolla tubu-
lar, bell-shaped, 5-toothed, tube short, straight;
anthers included; nutlets ovate.

296. Borago. — Calyx 5-fid ; corolla rotate-;
anthers exserted, forming a cone; filaments 2-fid;
nutlets 4.

297. Anchtisa. — Calyx 5-fid ; corolla funnel-
shaped, tube straight; stamens included; nutlets
depressed.

298. Lycopsis. — Calyx 5-fid; corolla funnel-
shaped, tube curved; limb oblique.

299. Pulmonaria. — Calyx tubular, 5-fid, tube
long; corolla regular, funnel-shaped, throat
naked; stamens included; styles simple; nutlets
attached by base.

300. Asperugo.— Calyx 5-cleft, with smaller
teeth between, lobes leafy; corolla funnel-shaped,
scales in throat; filaments short; nutlets flattened,
granulate.

301. Mertensia (Pneumaria).— Calyx 5-fid, tube
short; corolla bell-shaped, tube with protuber-
ances; stamens exserted; nutlets fleshy, inflated.

302. Myosotis.— Calyx 5-partite, tube long;
corolla salver-shaped, twisted in bud; limb 5-fid;
stamens included; nutlets smooth.

303. Lithospermum.— Calyx 5-fid, short; corolla
regular, funnel-shaped; stamens included; nutlets
stony.

304. Echium.— Calyx 5-fid; corolla irregular,
bell-shaped, throat naked, swollen; stamens ex-
serted; filaments unequal; style 2-fid; nutlets
wrinkled.

Order 53. CONVOLVULACE/E

305. Calystegia (Volvulus). — Plant leafy;
bracts 2, large, enclosing the calyx; stigma
broad.

306. Convolvulus.— Bracts small, distant from
flower; corolla bell-shaped, plaited in bud;
style simple; stigmas 2; capsule 2-4-celled.

307. Cuscuta. — Parasite, leafless; twining;
calyx 4-5-cleft; corolla bell-shaped, imbricate in
bud; stamens 4-5; styles 1-2; capsule opening
transversely.

416

APPENDIX II

Order 54. SOLANACE^E

308. Solanum.— Corolla rotate, limb 5-cleft,
reflexed; anthers erect, opening by terminal
pores; berry round, 2- or more-celled.

309. Lyrium.— Shrub; calyx pitcher-shaped;
corolla funnel-shaped; tube short, lobes spread-
ing; stamens exserled; fruit a berry, 2-celled.

310. Atropa.— Calyx 5-partite ; corolla bell-
shaped; anthers not opening by pores but by
slits; stamens included; fruit a berry, globose,
2-celled.

311. Datura.— Calyx falling; corolla funnel-
shaped, angular; stigma 2-lobed; capsule 4-valved,
spiny.

312. Hyoscyamus. — Corolla funnel-shaped,
tube short, lobes 5, unequal; capsule 2-celled,
opening transversely.

Order 55. SCROPHULARIACEJE

313. Verbascum. — Leaves alternate; calyx of 5
sepals; corolla rotate, lobes spreading, unequal;
stamens 2 or more, unequal, hairy below.

314. Linaria. — Calyx 5-partite, tubular; corolla
personate, spurred below; palate closing mouth;
capsule opening by pores.

315. Antirrhinum. — Calyx 5-partite; corolla
personate, saccate below, with palate in mouth;
capsule opening by pores.

316. Scrophularia. — Calyx 5-lobed; corolla
globose, with scale, or staminode; stamens 4;
capsule 2-valved.

317. Mimulus. — Calyx prismatical, 5-toothed;
corolla ringent, upper lip reflexed at side; capsule
2-valved; seeds numerous.

318. Limosella. — Aquatic; leaves narrow;
calyx 5-cleft ; corolla bell-shaped, 5-fid ; capsule
globose, 2-valved; anthers i-celled.

319. Sibthorpia. — Leaves alternate, rounded;
calyx 5-fid; corolla rotate, 5-cleft; anthers 2-celled,
sagittate.

320. Digitalis. — Calyx 5-fid ; corolla tubular
or bell-shaped; stamens 2 or 4; capsule septicidal.

321. Erinus. — Calyx 5-fid; corolla salver-
shaped, tube short, lobes unequal; capsule
2-celled.

322. Veronica. — Leaves opposite, calyx 4~5-par-
tite; corolla rotate, irregularly 2-lobed; capsule
flattened, 2-celled.

323. Euphrasia. — Calyx tubular, bell-shaped,
4-fid; corolla tubular, 2-lipped, upper lip 2-fid, not
flattened; capsule blunt or notched; seeds angular,
not winged.

324. Bartsia (including Eufragid). — Leaves
opposite; calyx bell-shaped or tubular, 4-cleft ;
corolla tubular, upper lip entire, not flattened;
capsule pointed; seeds not winged.

325. Pedicularis. — Leaves alternate; calyx
inflated, 5-toothed; corolla ringent, upper
flattened ; capsule acute ; seeds many, angular.

326. Rhinanthus. — Leaves opposite; calyx in-
flated, 4-toothed; corolla ringent, upper lip
flattened; capsule blunt; seeds winged.

327. Melampyrum. — Leaves opposite; calyx
tubular, 4-toothed; corolla ringent, upper lip

flattened at sides, lower furrowed; capsule oblong,
flattened; seeds smooth, not winged.

Order 56. OROBANCHACE*:

328. Orobanche. — Parasite, leafless; calyx
4-cleft, or 2-fid; corolla ringent, 4 5-cleft, de-
ciduous; bracts 1-3.

329. Lathraea. — Parasite, leafless; rootstock
fleshy, with thick scales ; corolla 2-lipped, upper
lip concave, entire; calyx bell-shaped, 4-cleft.

Order 57. LENTIBULARIACE^E

330. Utricularia. — Aquatic; leaves multifid,
bearing bladders ; flowers yellow ; calyx 2-leaved ;
corolla personate, spurred; stamens at base of
corolla lip.

331. Pinguicula. — Bog plants; leaves entire;
glandular, radical ; flowers blue or pink ; calyx
2-lipped, lower lip 2-fid; corolla gaping, spurred;
stamens at base of corolla.

Order 58. VERBENACE^E

331 bis*. Verbena. — Leaves pinnatifid or 3-par-
tite; flowers in terminal spikes; calyx tubular,
unequally 5-toothed ; corolla-limb oblique, 2-lipped,
5-fid ; capsule splitting into 4 granulate nutlets.

Order 59.

332. Mentha. — Calyx regular, 4-toothed ;
corolla 4-fid, tube short ; perfect stamens 4 ;
anther-cells parallel.

333. Lycopus. — Calyx regular, 5-cleft; corolla
4-cleft ; stamens 2, 2 upper imperfect ; anther-cells
at length spreading.

334. Origanum. — Leaves broad; spike 4-sided ;
calyx-teeth 5, equal, veins 10-13, throat hairy;
corolla 2-lipped; stamens 4, distant.

335. Thymus. — Procumbent; flowers in whorl,
axillary, or in spikes; calyx 2-lipped; corolla
2-lipped ; stamens 4, tips spreading.

336. Satureia (Calaminthat Clinopodium\ —
Flowers in many whorls, flowers loose ; bracts
small; upper lip of corolla flat; tube straight.

337. Melissa. — Calyx 2-lipped; upper lip of
corolla hollow, tube curved, ascending; tips of
stamens meeting together under upper lip of
corolla; anther-cells diverging.

338. Salvia. — Calyx 2-lipped, tubular; corolla
2-lipped, gaping; filaments with 2 spreading
branches.

339. Nepeta. — Calyx 5-toothed ; corolla gaping;
upper lip flat, straight, 2-fid, notched; anther cells
spreading.

340. Scutellaria. — Calyx ovate, hairy in British
plant, closed in fruit, 2-lipped ; corolla 2-lipped,
upper lip hollow; filaments simple, 2 lower anthers
i -celled.

341. Prunella. — Calyx closed at length, ovate;
upper lip flat, 3-toothed, lower 2-fid; filaments
2-fid; anthers all 2-celled.

342. Melittis.— Calyx inflated or 2-lipped, mem-
branous, bell-shaped; upper lip of corolla flat;
anthers forming a cross.

THE GENERA OF BRITISH FLOWERING PLANTS 217

343- Marrubium.— Calyx tubular, teeth sub-
equal; upper lip of corolla straight, erect, flat,
lower 3-lobed ; 2 lower stamens longest ; anther-
cells spreading ; nutlets flatly truncate.

344. Stachys. — Calyx tubular, bell-shaped,
teeth 10, equal; upper lip of corolla hollow; lower
lip with lateral lobes reflexed; anthers smooth;
nutlets smooth.

345. Galeopsis. — Calyx-teeth 5, spinous; calyx
tubular, bell-shaped; upper lip of corolla arched,
lower 3-lobed, with 2 teeth on upper side ; anthers
ciliate; nuts flattened.

346. Leonurus. — Calyx-teeth 5, spinous; calyx
tubular, spinous ; upper lip of corolla nearly flat,
lower 3-lobed ; lobes blunt ; anthers smooth ; nut-
lets 3-sided, truncate.

347. Lamium (and Galeobdolon). — Calyx bell-
shaped, lo-ribbed; upper lip of corolla arched;
lower lip entire, with 1-2 teeth each side; anthers
hairy ; nutlets 3-sided.

348. Ballota.— Calyx funnel-shaped, lo-ribbed;
upper lip of corolla hollow, erect; lower lip 3-fid,
middle lobe largest; anthers smooth; nutlets
blunt.

349. Teucrium. — Calyx tubular, 5-toothed ;
upper lip of corolla 2-partite ; nutlets united.

350. Ajuga. — Calyx ovate, bell-shaped, 5-cleft;
corolla with short upper lip, entire or notched.

Order 60. PLANTAGINACE^:

351. Plantago. — Plant terrestrial; flowers bi-
sexual; calyx 4-cleft ; corolla-tube ovoid, 4-partite;
stamens epipetalous; capsule opening trans-
versely.

352. Littorella. — Plant aquatic ; monoecious ;
male flowers stalked ; sepals 4; corolla-tube cylin-
drical; limb 4-partite; stamens hypogynous;
female flowers sessile; sepals 3; style long; cap-
sule i-seeded.

Order 61. ILLECEBRACE^

353. Illecebrum. — Leaves opposite ; sepals
white, concave, long-pointed; no petals or small
scales.

354. Herniaria.— Leaves opposite, not united
below; sepals green, blunt; petals slender; stig-
mas 2 ; no style.

355. Corrigiola.— Leaves alternate; petals 5,
as long as sepals, oblong; stigmas 3.

356. Scleranthus. — Leaves opposite, filiform,
united below; sepals and petals 5; stamens 10
stigmas 2.

Order 62. AMARANTHACE.E

357. Amaranthus. — Plant monoecious ; perianth
3-5-partite; stamens 3-5; stigmas 3; capsule
i -celled, i-seeded.

Order 63. CHENOPODIACE^:

358. Chenopodium. — Flowers bisexual; no
bracts; perianth 3-5-partite; stamens 5; stigmas
2-3; utricle membranous; pericarp free; testa
crustaceous.

359. Beta. — Perianth 5-partite; stamens 5
styles 2-3; utricle striate, hard above; pericarp
adhering to perianth ; testa thin.

360. Atriplex (and Obione). — Plant monoecious;
stem leafy; male flowers 3-5 sepals; stamens 5;
style o; female 2 sepals; perianth flattened;
stamens o; stigmas 2; pericarp membranous;
;esta crustaceous.

361. Salicornia. — Flowers bisexual; stem leaf-
ess, jointed ; perianth fleshy ; stamens 1-2 ; style
short ; stigma 2-fid ; pericarp membranous.

362. Suaeda (Dondid) (Lerckia).-Stem leafy;
leaves not spinous, ^-cylindrical ; perianth 5-par-
:ite; not appendaged; stamens 5; stigmas 2-3;
pericarp membranous; testa crustaceous.

363. Salsola. — Stem leafy ; leaves spinous ;
perianth 5-partite, segments appendaged, trans-
versely winged in fruit; stamens 5; styles 2;
pericarp membranous.

Order 64. POLYGONACE^E

364. Polygonum.— Flowers in raceme; perianth
5-partite, segments sub-equal; stamens 5-8;
styles 2-3; fruit compressed, 3-angled, wingless.

365. Fagopyrum. — Flowers cymose; perianth
5-partite; stamens 8; styles 3; nut 3-angled;
cotyledons large, leafy, twisted plicate.

366. Rumex. — Perianth 6-partite, 3 inner seg-
ments longer; stamens 6, in pairs; styles 3; fruit
3-angled.

367. Oxyria.— Perianth 4-partite, 2 inner seg-
ments large; stamens 6; stigmas 2, multifid; nut
flattened, winged.

Order 65. ARISTOLOCHIACE^;

368. Asarum. — Herbaceous ; perianth bell-
shaped, 3-cleft; stamens 12; stigma 6-lobed; cap-
sule 6.celled.

369. Aristolochia. — Stem erect; perianth tubu-
lar, swollen below, mouth oblique; stamens 6;
style columnar; stigma 6-lobed; capsule 6-celled.

Order 66.

370. Daphne.— Shrub, perianth 4-partite, deci-
duous ; stamens 8, in 2 rows ; fruit a berry, fleshy,
i -seeded.

Order 67.

371. Hippophae. — Shrub, spinose; plant dioe-
cious; male flowers in catkin, scales ovate,
perianth of 2 leaves; stamens 4; female flowers
solitary; perianth tubular; style short; nut
i -seeded.

Order 68. LORANTHACE^:

372. Viscura. — Hemi-parasite, on trees, yel-
lowish-green; plant dioecious; perianth fleshy,
4-partite; anthers opening by pores; stigma
sessile; berry i-seeded, white.

Order 69. SANTALACE^E

373. Thesium.— Hemi-parasite on roots, green;
plant prostrate; leaves linear; perianth 4-5-cleft
funnel-shaped; stamens 5; style i ; nut drupe-like.

Order 70. EUPHORBIACE^E

374. Euphorbia.— Plant monoecious; stem with
milky juice; involucre calyciform, several male
flowers (monandrous) surrounding i female.

218

APPENDIX II

375. Buxus.— Shrub, evergreen, glossy; plant
monoecious; male perianth 3-partite, inner seg-
ments 2; stamens 4; female perianth 4-partite,
inner segments 3; capsule 3-celled.

376. Mercurialis. — Plant monoecious or di-
oecious; perianth 3-partite; 9-16 stamens in
male, 2 barren filaments in female flowers; style
forked; capsule 2-celled.

Order 7 1. ULMACE/E

377. Ulmus. — Tree, deciduous; perianth 4-5-
partite; stamens 5; styles 2; capsule winged.

Order 72. URTICACE^E (and CANNABINACE^)

378. Humulus. —Twining plant; plant dioecious;
female flowers in catkins, paired ; perianth of male
5-partite, of female scale-like; ovary i-celled.

379. Cannabis. — Plant herbaceous, dioecious ;
flowers in racemes; stamens 5; perianth 5-partite;
female perigonium i -leaved.

380. Urtica. — Leaves opposite, with stinging
hairs; plant herbaceous, monoecious or dioecious;
male perianth 4-partite; stamens 4; female
perianth 2-partite; flowers in racemes.

381. Parietaria. — Leaves alternate, hairs
simple; flowers polygamous, in axillary clusters;
perianth bell-shaped, 4-partite; stamens 4; style
slender.

Order 73. MVRICACE^E

382. Myrica. — Shrub, aromatic; perianth o;
plant monoecious or dioecious; flowers in catkins
with concave scales; fruit drupe-like, i-celled;
stamens 4-8.

Order 74. AMENTACE^E

383. Betula. — Tree, deciduous; plant monoe-
cious; flowers in catkins; scales of female catkins
thin, deciduous, 3-fid; stamens 2; perianth o;
fruit with membranous margin.

384. Alnus. — Tree, deciduous; stamens 4;
female catkin small, ovoid; scales persistent,
woody; fruit not winged.

385. Carpinus. —Involucre leafy, 3-lobed; female
spike large, with many leafy scales; stigmas 2;
scales of male catkin 3-cleft.

386. Corylus.— Tree or shrub'; scale of male
catkins round; involucre leafy; anthers i-celled;
stigmas 2, red.

387. Quercus. — Tree, deciduous; male catkins
slender; stigmas 3; involucre a cupule, entire;
not spiny or leafy; nut (acorn) i-seeded.

388. Castanea. —Stamens 8-20; involucre muri-
cate, 4-lobed; stigmas 5-8; nut i-3-seeded.

389. Fagus. — Male flowers in globose catkin;
stigmas 3; involucre prickly, entirely enclosing
3-angled nut (mast).

Order 75. SAI.K \ii.i

390. Salix.— Tree, deciduous; plant dioecious;
leaves usually narrow; catkins generally erect
with overlapping entire scales; perianth o; stamens
1-5; fruit a i-celled nut.

391. Populus. — Tree, deciduous; plant dioe-
cious, leaves broad; catkins drooping with slashed
scales; perianth cup-shaped; stamens 4-30; fruit
nearly 2-celled.

Order 76. EMPETRACE^E

392. Empetrum. — Heath-like low shrub; calyx
3-partite; petals 3-partite; stamens 3; drupe
black.

Order 77. CERATOPHYLLACE^E

393. Ceratophyllum. — Aquatic ; plant monoe-
cious; leaves forked, whorled, linear, spinose;
anthers 12-20, sessile; perianth o; ovary i-celled;
stigma unilateral.

MONOCOTYLEDONS
Order 78. HYDROCHARIDACEJE

394. Elodea (Anacharis). — Aquatic, submerged;
plant dioecious ; leaves linear, opposite or in
whorls; flowers small, male rare, female long-
stalked; calyx 3-partite; spathe 2-fid.

395. Hydrocharis.— Aquatic plant, dioecious;
leaves reniform, floating; flowers large; calyx
3-partite; petals 3; males with stamens, 9-12 in 3
rows, and 3 functionless styles; female with 3
functionless filaments, 3 scales, and 6 styles;
capsule 6-celled.

396. Stratiotes. — Plant submerged and floating
alternatively, dioecious; leaves ensiform, serrate;
flowers white, large; perianth 6-partite, in 2
rows; male with 12 stamens, female with 6 2-fid
styles; berry 6-celled.

Order 79. ORCHIDACE^E

397. Malaxis. — Herbaceous, leafy; perianth
spreading; lip superior; spur o; rostellum short;
pollen-masses connected above; column short.

398. Liparis. — Herbaceous, leafy; perianth
spreading; lip inferior; column slender; rostel-
lum o.

399. Corallorrhiza. — Saprophyte, leafless; peri-
anth meeting together; lip inferior, white with
purplish markings; spur o; column long; rostel-
lum o.

400. Neottia. — Saprophyte ; brown scales in
place of leaves; perianth hooded; pollen powdery;
spuro; lip turned down, yellowish brown, 2-lobed,
enlarged below; rostellum flat.

401. Listera. — Leaves in pairs, sub-opposite;
perianth spreading; lip turned down, linear, free;
pollen powdery; rostellum leaf-like, arching over
stigma.

402. Spiranthes. — Leaves several; flowers spiral
on stalk; perianth gaping; lip inferior with fleshy
projections below, clawed; lateral sepals coloured;
rostellum straight; 2-fid at length.

403. Goodyera. — Leaves several ; perianth
gaping; lip swollen below, entire, free; rostellum
2-partite; pollen-grains cohering.

404. Epipogium. — Saprophyte, brown, leafless;
perianth spreading, lip superior; ovary not
twisted; pollen granular.

THE GENERA OF BRITISH FLOWERING PLANTS

219

405. Cephalanthera.— Stem leafy; flowers erect,
in a spike; perianth meeting; column long; ovary
twisted; beak of style short.

406. Helleborine (Epipactis). — Stem leafy;
flowers in raceme, drooping; perianth spreading;
lip interrupted; rostellum short; column short;
ovary straight, stalk twisted.

407. Orchis. — Perianth hooded ; lip 3-lobed,
spurred; spur long; pollen glands in one pouch.

408. Aceras. — Perianth hooded; lip pendant,
3-lobed; spur o; pollen glands in i pouch.

409. Ophrys. — Perianth spreading; lip lobed;
spur o; pollen glands in 2 pouches.

410. Herminium. — Perianth spreading, bell-
shaped; lip petaloid; spur o; lip 3-lobed; pollen
glands naked, exserted.

411. Habenaria. — Perianth gaping, hooded;
lip spurred; spur long or short; lip 3-lobed or
entire; pollen glands naked.

412. Cypripedium. — Perianth spreading; lip
large, saccate; anthers 2 (i in rest of Orchids);
column 3-fid above.

Order 80. IRIDACE^:

413. Iris. — Perianth regular, 6-cleft, segments
unequal, alternate ones reflexed; stigmas 3,
petaloid; ovary 3-celled.

414. Hermodactylus.— As 413, rootstock digi-
tate; ovary i-locular.

415. Crocus. — Perianth regular, funnel-shaped;
tube long, segments equal; stigma 3-fid or
3-partite.

416. Romulea.— Perianth regular, 6-cleft, seg-
ments equal; tube short; styles 3, 2-fid; lobes
slender.

417. Sisyrinchium.— Perianth 6-cleft, segments
subequal; tube short; styles 3, short, entire,
slender; filaments united below.

Order 81. AMARYLLIDACE^:

418. Narcissus. — Perianth-mouth with circular
corona (crown); limb 6-partite, segments equal;
stamens included, unequal.

419. Galanthus. — Perianth without corona,
6-partite, segments unequal, in 2 series, outer
larger; stamens equal.

420. Leucojum.— Perianth bell-shaped, without
corona; segments equal with thickened tips-
stamens equal.

Order 82. DiOSCOREACE^:

421. Tamus.— Twining plant, dioecious, stem
twining to left; perianth bell-shaped, small, limb
6-partite; 6 stamens; in female, perianth adnate to
ovary; fruit a berry.

Order 83. LILIACE;E (AND ASPARAGACE.E AND
MELANTHACE^:)

422. Ruscus. — Shrub ; cladodes in axils o
minute scales; plant dioecious; stamens 3; fila
ments united below; berry i-celled, 2-seeded.

423. Asparagus.— Herbaceous; stem branched
flowers axillary; perianth 6-partite, tubular below
stamens 6; filaments free; stigmas 3, reflexed.

424. Polygonatum. — Stem simple; leaves
nany; flowers axillary; perianth tubular, 6-cleft,
leciduous at length; berry with i-2-seeded cells.

425. Maianthemum (fJntfolium).—Slem simple;
eaves 2; flowers in terminal racemes; perianth

partite; stamens 4; berry 2-celled.

426. Convallaria. — Stem simple; leaves radical;
lowers in raceme; perianth globular, 6-partite;
>erry with i -seeded cells.

427. Simethis. — Rootstock bulbous; flowers
ointed on pedicels, purple outside, white within;
jerianth-segments 6, spreading; filaments bearded;

anthers attached by back.

428. Allium. — Flowers in umbel; spathe of i or
2 leaves; perianth-segments 6, spreading; anthers
attached by backs.

429. Muscari— Leaves radical; perianth-seg-
ments coherent below; perianth globose, mouth
narrowed; 6-cleft.

430. Scilla (Endytniori). — Flowers blue or pink,
n racemes; perianth -segments 6, spreading;

anthers attached by backs.

431. Ornithogalum. — Flowerswhite or greenish;
perianth segments 6; persistent; stamens on re-
ceptacle; anthers attached by backs.

432. Lilium. — Flowers on leafy scape, few,
nodding, panicled; nectaries o; perianth spreading
or turned back; anthers attached above the base;
seeds flat.

433. Fritillaria. — Flowers nodding, large,
solitary, red or white, chequered; nectary oblong;
perianth deciduous; anthers attached above their
base.

434. Tulipa. — Flowers large, erect, solitary,
yellow; nectaries o; perianth deciduous; anthers
erect.

435. Gagea. — Flowers in umbel, yellow, small;
nectaries o; leaves 1-2, linear; anthers erect;
perianth-segments 6, spreading; persistent.

436. Lloydia. — Flowers white, small, erect;
nectary transverse; anthers erect; perianth spread-
ing, persistent; stigma 3-angled; seeds angular
above.

437. Colchicum. — Style 4; ovary 4-5-lobed;
rootstock a corm ; flowers like Crocus, autumnal,
funnel-shaped; tube long; leaves several, radical;
ovaries buried.

438. Narthecium. — Rhizome slender, creeping;
flowers yellow; scape leafy; perianth 6-partite;
capsule 3-celled; seeds appendaged.

439. Tofieldia. — Flowers greenish - white;
perianth 6-partite; styles 3; stigmas 3; capsule
septicidal.

440. Paris.— Leaves net-veined; rhizome stout;
leaves in whorl, 4-5; flowers terminal; perianth
4-partite, in 2 whorls; styles 4; ovary 4-5-lobed.

Order 84., JUNCACE^

441. Juncus. — Leaves round; plant smooth;
perianth 6-fid, glumaceous; style simple; stigmas
3; capsule 3-celled; seeds many.

442. Luzula.— Plant tufted, hairy; leaves flat,
grass-like; capsule i-celled, 3-valved; seeds 3 at
base.

220

APPENDIX II

Order 85. TVPHACE*

443. Typha. — Plant monoecious; flowers in long
cylindrical spikes; upper male, stamens united,
surrounded by hairs; lower female.

444. Sparganium.— Plant monoecious; flowers
in round heads; perianth-segments 3-4; stamens
free; fruit dry.

Order 86. ARACE^:

445. Arum. — Plant monoecious; leaves hastate;
flowers in spadix, enclosed in spathe; perianth o;
male flowers of i sessile 2-celled anther; spadix
naked above.

446. Acorus. — Flowers bisexual on lateral
spadix; perianth-segments 6; stamens 6.

Order 87. I.KM v\n:.v:

447. Lemna. — Aquatic, floating; stem and
leaves none, frond with i or more roots; flowers
unisexual, in spathe, from lateral slit in frond;
stamens 1-2; anthers 2-celled.

448. Wolffia.— Plant rootless, aquatic, floating;
no spathe; stamen i; flowers from surface; anther
i -celled.

Order 88. ALISMACE^E

449. Alisma. — Leaves flat; flowers bisexual, in
whorls; stamens 6; carpels numerous, free, in a
ring; ovules solitary.

450. Echinodorus. — Flowers bisexual, in umbel
or whorl; stamens 6; carpels numerous, free.

451. Elisma. — Leaves floating; flowers bisexual,
sub-solitary; carpels numerous, free; stamens 6.

452. Sagittaria. — Plant monoecious; leaves
erect, sagittate; flowers whorled; stamens many;
carpels free.

453. Damasonium. — Leaves erect, 2; flowers
bisexual, in whorls; stamens 6; carpels united
below, star-like, spreading.

454. Butomus. — Leaves 3-angled ; perianth-
segments 6, rose-coloured; stamens 9; carpels 6,
united below.

Order 89. NAIADACE^E (including POTAMO-
GETONACE.E)

455. Triglochin.— Marsh plants; flowers without
bracts; perianth-segments erect; stamens 6;
anthers short; carpels free, i-2-seeded; stigma
downy.

456. Scheuchzeria. — Flowers with bracts;
perianth-segments 6, deciduous, spreading;
stamens 6; filaments and anthers long; stigmas
feathery.

457. Potamogeton. — Flowers bisexual, in
spikes; perianth-segments 4; anthers 4, sessile;
styles o; drupes 4, sessile.

458. Ruppia.— Flowers bisexual, 2 together;
perianth o; stamens 4; styles o; achenes 4,
stalked.

459. Zannichellia.— Plant monoecious; flowers
solitary, axillary; male flower: perianth o; i
stamen; female flower: perianth bell -shaped;
stigma peltate; nuts 2-5.

460. Zostera. — Marine plant; plant monoecious;
stamens and pistils in slit of leaf; perianth o;
stigmas 2; style i; anther i.

461. Naias. — Plant monoecious; flowers solitary,
axillary, sheathed; perianth tubular; i stamen;
stigmas 2-4.

Order 90. ERIOCAULONACE/E

462. Eriocaulon. — Plant monoecious; leaves
radical; flowers in scaly head; perianth 4-6-fid;
stamens 4-6; stigmas 2-; capsule 2-3-celled.

Order 91. CYPERACEJE

463. Cyperus. — Flowers bisexual; spikelets
many-flowered, flattened; glumes in 2 rows,
deciduous, all flowering, keeled, many; fruit
chestnut brown.

464. Eleocharis (Heleocharis). — Spikelet soli-
tary, terminal, round in section ; i of lowest
glumes empty; bristles 3-6, included; nut com-
pressed, crowned by style base.

465. Scirpus. — Spikelets in clusters, lateral;
glumes overlapping, sub-equal; bristles o or 3-8,
included; nut 3-angled.

466. Eriophorum. — Spikelets solitary or clus-
tered, terminal; glumes sub-equal; bristles longer
than glumes, silky; nut 3-angled.

467. Rhynchospora.— Spikelets round in section,
in an ovoid head, few-flowered; glumes 6 or 7;
bristles 6, slender; nut convex, beaked.

468. Schcenus. — Spikelets flattened, in 2 rows,
2-4-flowered; glumes 6-9, lower barren; bristles
few or none; nut black, not beaked.

469. Cladium. — Spikelets round in section, few-
flowered, in several crowded, compound cymes;
glumes 5 or 6, lobed, lower empty; bristles o; nut
blunt, with fleshy coat.

470. Kobresia. — Plant monoecious ; spikelets
i-2-flowered; spikes close; upper flowers male,
perianth o; lower flowers female, with perianth of
i scale; fruit not enclosed in perigynium.

471. Carex. — Plant monoecious; male flowers
above, female below, as a rule; spikelets many-
flowered, in overlapping spikes, with glumes ;
female flowers enclosed in a bottle -shaped per-
sistent perigynium; style i; stigmas 2-3; male
flowers of 3 stamens ; perianth o ; nut enclosed
in perigynium.

Order 92. GRAMINACE^E

472. Panicum.— Spike compound, spreading;
spikelets flattened dorsally; glumes 4, unequal;
pedicels of spikelets smooth or hairy.

473. Setaria. — Spike cylindrical, compound,
interrupted below; spikelets with an involucre of
bristles, in dense spike; glumes 4.

474. Spartina.— Spikes erect; spikelets laterally
compressed, awnless; style long; glumes 3, un-
equal.

475. Leersia. — Spikelets laterally compressed,
in loose panicle; glumes o; paleae 2, awnless,
lower broader.

476. Phalaris.— Spike ovate; spikelets laterally

THE GENERA OF BRITISH FLOWERING PLANTS 221

compressed; glumes equal, boat-shaped, keeled, 6,
third and fourth imperfect, not awned; stamens 3.

477. Anthoxanthum. — Spikelets in spike-like
panicle, interrupted; glumes unequal, awned, 6,
third and fourth empty; stamens 2; paleae
leathery, unequal.

478. Hierochloe.— Spikelets in an open panicle;
upper floret perfect; 2 lower male, 3-androus,
awnless; ovary smooth.

479. Alopecurus.— Spikelets in dense, cylindrical
spike, jointed on pedicel; glumes 6, awnless;
paleae awned, i -nerved.

480. Milium. — Panicle spreading; spikelets
stalked; rachilla not produced beyond flowering
glume; glumes equal; paleae awnless; flowering
glume hardening round fruit.

481. Phleum. — Spikelets in dense, cylindrical
spike, or panicle; flowering glume enclosing the
fruit; paleae awned, 2-nerved, glumes 3.

482. Mibora (Knappia).— Spike simple; spike-
lets dorsally compressed, solitary, one-sided,
i -flowered; glumes blunt; palea membranous,
shaggy, truncate, awnless.

483. Agrostis. — Spikelets in loose panicle;
flowering glume small, hyaline; glumes unequal,
upper smaller; outer paleae awnless.

484. Polypogon. — Spikelets in close contracted
spike-like panicle; glumes with long bristles,
membranous, lower palea awned from just below
tip.

485. Calamagrpstis. — Panicle spreading; ra-
chilla with long silky hairs; glumes subequal;
lower palea awned.

486. Deyeuxia. — Panicle close, spike-like;
glumes equal; rachis ciliate, longer than flowering
glume; empty glumes large; flowering glumes
awned.

487. Gastridium. — Panicle close, spike-like;
rachilla produced beyond flowering glume; glumes
acute, awnless; empty glumes large, boat-shaped;
flowering glume small, 4-toothed.

488. Apera. — Panicle loose; glumes acute, awn-
less, unequal, lower smaller; outer paleae awned;
flowering glume 2-fid, awned; empty glumes
large.

489. Ammophila. — Spike cylindrical, large;
spikelets large; glumes subequal, lower shorter;
paleae hairy below; rachilla long, silky.

490. Lagurus.— Spike ovate; glumes with long
bristles; empty glume plumose; flowering glume
3-awned; lower palea with 2 bristles and twisted
awn.

491. Aira.— Spikelets in loose panicle; rachilla
not produced beyond uppermost flowering glume ;
awn dorsal, twisted, lower paleae 2-fid; glumes
equalling lower floret.

492. Corynephorus ( Weingcertnerid), — Florets
2, awned; awn straight, jointed, upper part club-
shaped, tuft of hairs at junction.

493. Deschampsia.— Florets 2; awn straight,
rachilla longer than upper flowering glume; lower
palea jagged.

494. Holcus.— Florets 2; lower perfect, awnless;
upper male, with dorsal awn; paleae hardening
on fruit.

495. Trisetum.— Florets 2-6 in spikelet, crowded;
flowering glume 2-fid, awned; awn twisted;
ovary smooth; fruit not crested.

496. Avena. — Florets 2-6'; glumes equalling
lower floret; awn dorsal, keeled, twisted; ovary
hairy above; fruit crested and furrowed.

497. Arrhenatherum.— Florets 2; upper perfect,
lower staminate only; rachilla produced beyond
flowering glumes; lower with awn long, twisted
from below middle; upper with short straight awn
near tip.

498. Cynodon. — Spikelets fingered in com -
pound, spreading spike; in 1-2 series; rachis
flat, laterally compressed; glumes equal, spread-
ing, awnless.

499. Sieglingia ( Triodia).— Spikelets 2- (or more)
flowered; rachilla not bearded; glumes unequal,
acute, as long as outer palea; flowering glume
deeply concave, notched, with teeth ; fruit free.

500. Phragmites (Arundo). — Spikelets with 2
or more perfect flowers; rachilla bearded, with
long silky hairs; fruit not attached to palea.

501. Sesleria.— Florets without awn; spikelets
in panicled spike, with ciliate bract below, over-
lapping; lower palea keeled, membranous; with
3-5 points.

502. Cynosurus. — Spikelets in spike or head;
bract below pectinate; glumes subequal, keeled;
lower palea with bristle; fruit enclosed in palea.

503. Kceleria.— Spikelets in sub-cylindrical in-
terrupted spike, 2- (or more) flowered, flattened;
flowering glume membranous; fruit not enclosed
in palea.

504. Molinia. — Panicle contracted, conical,
round in section, glumes shorter than florets,
without lateral ribs; florets 1-2; palea hardening
in fruit.

505. Catabrosa. — Panicle spreading, loose,
branches whorled; glumes unequal, i-veined;
florets 2, distant.

506. Melica. — Florets 1-2 perfect, rounded on
back, and i or more imperfect; glumes equal,
veined, nearly as long as spikelet ; palea harden-
ing in fruit.

507. Dactylis. — Panicle secund; spikelets
crowded, few; glumes unequal; lower keeled;
lower palea flattened; fruit free.

508. Desmazeria.— Spikelets 2-rowed, in spike,
rigid; glumes 8-12; blunt, blunt-pointed, with
faint nerves.

509. Briza. — Spikelets in panicle, drooping;
glumes broad, blunt, membranous, boat-shaped,
saccate; fruit attached to palea.

510. Poa.— Spikelets in panicle; glumes acute,
unequal; flowering glumes flat, keeled, awnless,
tips nerved.

511. Glyceria. — Spikelets with many flowers;
glumes unequal, membranous; flowering glumes
convex, tip blunt, nerveless; lower palea with
7-10 ribs.

512. Festuca. — Panicle one-sided; flowering
glumes convex, tip nerved, acute, or awned;
ovary smooth; lower palea rounded or with ex-
current vein.

513. Bromus. — Spikelets in panicle; florets

222

APPENDIX II

many; lower glumes i-veined, upper 3-5-veined;
glume shorter than lower floret; awn straight.

514. Brachypodium. Spikelets solitary, nearly
sessile; glumes unequal, opposite; edges to rachis;
upper palea coarsely fringed on ribs; ovary-tip
villous.

515. Lolium. — Spikelets solitary; florets many;
sides to rachis; glume i, or inner smaller.

516. Agropyrum ( Trificum).— Spikelets solitary,
edge to rachis; glumes equal, opposite; lower
palea ciliate on ribs.

517. Lepturus. — Spikelets solitary, alternate
on rachis; glumes 1-2; both on same side of
rachis, cartilaginous; empty glumes 1—3.

518. Nardus.— Spikelets solitary; spike 2-rowed,
one-sided; style long; glumes o.

519. Hordeum. — Spikelets i -flowered, in 3*3;
palea? with long awns ; glumes 2, with long
bristles.

520. Elymus. — Spikelets 2-3, florets 2-7;
glumes 2, on same side of spikelet; no awns or
bristles.

APPENDIX III

BIBLIOGRAPHY

This list of works is not intended to be exhaus-
tive, and only a selection can be given. Fuller
lists will in many cases be found in the works
cited.

Access to most of these can usually be had at
any free library or lending- library. Those who
subscribe to Mudie's, Lewis's, the London Library,
Smith's, or Times Book Club should have no
difficulty also in obtaining them. Scientific papers,
journals, monographs are less easy to consult,
save in a museum, university, or scientific society's
library. Those resident in London, Oxford, Cam-
bridge, Dublin, Edinburgh, Aberystwith should,
however, be able to consult any desired work at
the National Library, where copies of all books
published are required to be sent.

I. ORIGIN

OF THE
FLORA

BRITISH

ARBER, E. A. N., and PARKIN, J. : On the Origin
of Angiosperms.

BENSON, M.: The Origin of Flowering Plants.

BESSEY, C. E. : Phylogeny and Taxonomy of the
Angiosperms.

BOWER, F. O.: Plant Life on Land.

COULTER, J. M., and CHAMBERLAIN, C. J.: Mor-
phology of Gymnosperms.

COULTER, J. M., and CHAMBERLAIN, C. J.: Mor-
phology of Angiosperms.

DAWSON, Sir W. T.: Ecological History of Plants.

FORBES, E.: On the Connexion between the Dis-
tribution of the Existing Fauna and Flora of
the British Isles and the Ecological Changes,
&c.

HENSLOW, G.: The Origin and Present Distribu-
tion of the British Flora.

HENSLOW, G.: A Theoretical Origin of Endogens
from Exogens, &c.

HOOKER, Sir J. D.: The Origin and Distribution
of Arctic Plants.

HORWOOD, A. R.: The Past History of Mono-
cotyledons.

LEWIS, F. J.: The Plant Remains in the Scottish
Peat Mosses.

OLIVER, F. W.: Pteridosperms and Angiosperms.

REID, CLEMENT: The Origin of the British Flora.

REID, CLEMENT: Submerged Forests.

REID, CLEMENT : The Cromer Forest Bed.

REID, CLEMENT : Norfolk Amber.

REID, CLEMENT : The Lignite of Bovey Tracey.

REID, CLEMENT, and REID, ELEONORA: On the
Preglacial Flora of Britain.

SAPORTA, G. DE: Plantes jurassiques.

SAPORTA, G. DE: Types Proangiospermes.

SAPORTA, G. DE : L'Evolution du Regne V<£ge" tal.

SARGANT, E. : A Theory of the Origin of Mono-
cotyledons, &c.

SARGANT, E. : The Evolution of Monocotyledons.

SARGANT, E.: The Early History of Angiosperms.

SCHARFF, R.: On an Early Tertiary Land-con-
nection between North and South America.

SCHARFF, R.: On the Resemblance of the Fauna
and Flora of Ireland to that of the Spanish
Peninsula.

SCHARFF, R. : On the Evidences of a Former Land-
bridge between Northern Europe and North
America.

SCOTT, D. H.: The Evolution of Plants.

SCOTT, D. H.: Studies in Fossil Botany.

SEWARD, A. C.: Fossil Botany.

SEWARD, A. C. : Links with the Past in the Plant
World.

SEWARD, A. C.: The Geological History of Mono-
cotyledons.

STOPES, M. C.: Ancient Plants.

WIELAND, G. R.: American Fossil Cycads.

II. BRITISH DISTRIBUTION
(Type, Altitude, Status, &c.)

BENNETT, A.: Supplement to Topographical

Botany.

DRUCE, G. C.: Comital Census Numbers.
HOOKER, Sir W. J. : Flora Scotica.
LINDLEY, J.: Synopsis of the British Flora.
MARSHALL, E. S.: The Status of some Britannic

Plants.
MARSHALL, E. S.: On the Probable Status of

some Irish Plants.
MARSHALL, E. S.: Remarks on Cybele Hibernica,

2nd Ed.

MARSHALL, E. S.: Irish Topographical Botany.
MORE, A. G.: Cybele Hibernica, 2nd Ed.
PRAEGER, R. LL.: Irish Topographical Botany.
PRAEGER, R. LL.: Geographical Distribution of

Plant Groups in Ireland.
PURTON, T.: Midland Flora.
ROGERS, W. M.: On the Distribution of Rubi in

Great Britain.

224

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ti KM K, D., and DILLWYN, L. W. : Botanist's

Guide.

WATSON, H. C.: Cybclc Britannica.
WATSON, H. C.: New Botanist's Guide.
WATSON, H. C.: Geographical Distribution of

British Plants.

WATSON, H. C.: Topographical Botany.
WILLIAMS, F. N.: The High Alpine Flora of Bri-

ll I. HABITAT (ECOLOGY)

ADAMSON, R. S.: The Ecology of a Cambridge-
shire Wood.

BAKER, J. G.: Elementary Lessons in Plant Geo-
graphy.

BOULGER, G. S.: Plant Geography.

CANDOLLE, A. DE: Geographic Botanique Rai-
sonne>e.

CLEMENTS, F. E.: The Development and Structure
of Vegetation.

CLEMENTS, F. E.: Research Methods in Ecology.

CLEMENTS, F. E.: Plant Physiology and Ecology.

DARWIN, C.: The Origin of Species.

DRUDE, O.: Manuel de Geographic Botanique.

DRUDE, O.: Atlas der Pflanzenverbreitung.

ELGER, F.: The Moorlands of East Yorkshire.

ENGLER, A.: Versuch einer Entwickelungs-
geschichte der Pflanzenwelt.

ENGLER, A., and DRUDE, O.: Vegetation der
Erde.

FLAHAULT, CH., and SCHROTER, C.: Phytogeo-
graphical Nomenclature.

FORBES, A. C.: The Development of British For-
estry.

GADOW, H.: Geographical Distribution of Ani-
mals.

GRAEBNER, P.: Pflanzengeographie.

GRAEBNER, P.: Lehrbuch der Pflanzengeographie.

GRISKBACH, H. R. A.: Die Vegetation der Erde.

GRISEBACH, H. R. A.: Cber den Einfluss des
Klimas auf die Begrenzung der natiirlichen
Floren.

HEMSLEY, W. B.: Report on Insular Floras.

HENSLOW, G.: Introduction to Plant Ecology.

HERBERTSON, A. J.: Outlines of Physiography.

HOOKER, Sir J. D.: Lecture on Insular Floras.

HORWOOD, A. R.: Practical Field Botany.

KINAHAN, G. H.: A Handy Book on the Reclama-
tion of Waste Lands.

LEWIS, F. J.: Geographical Distribution of Vege-
tation of the Basins of the Rivers Eden, Tees,
Wear, and Tyne.

MARCEL, H.: Esquisse de la Geographic et de la
Vegetation des Highlands d'Ecosse.

MERRILL, J. F. : Rocks, Rock-weathering, and
Soils.

MEYEN, F. J. F.: Botanical Geography.

Moss, C. E.: The Fundamental Limits of Vegeta-
tion.

Moss, C. E.: Peat Moors of the Pennines, &c.

Moss, C. E.: Geographical Distribution of Vege-
tation in Somerset, &c.

Moss, C. E. : Vegetation of the Peak District.

Moss, C. E., RANKIN, W. M., and TANSLEY, A. G.:

The Woodlands of England.
NISHKT, J.: British Forest Trees.
OLIVER, F. W.: Blakeney Point.
PEACOCK, E. A. W.: The Rock-soil Analysis of

Plants.
PETHYBRIDGE, G. H., and PRAEGER, R. LL.:

The Vegetation of the District lying South of

Dublin.
PRAEGER, R. LL.: A Tourist's Flora of the West

of Ireland.

PRAEGER, R. LL.: Open-air Studies in Botany.
SCHIMPER, A. F. W.: Plant Geography on a Phy-
siological Basis.
SCIENCE IN MODERN LIFE.

SMITH, R.: Botanical Survey of Scotland, Edin-
burgh District.
SMITH, R.: Botanical Survey of Scotland, Part II,

North Perthshire.
SMITH, W. G.: Botanical Survey of Scotland,

Forfar and Fife.
SMITH, W. G., and Moss, C. E.: Geographical

Distribution of Vegetation in Yorkshire,

Leeds and Halifax District.
SMITH, W. G., and RANKIN, W. M.: Geographical

Distribution of Vegetation in Harrogate and

Skipton District.

STEELE, A.: History of Peat Moss.
SUESS, F. : The Face of the Earth.
TANSLEY, A. G.: Types of British Vegetation.
TREUB, M.: Flora of Krakatau.
WALLACE, Sir A. R. : Geographical Distribution.
WALLACE, Sir A. R. : Island Life.
WARD, R, DE C.: Handbook of Climatology.
WARMING, E.: CEcological Botany (with good

Bibliography).
WOODHEAD, T. W.: Ecology of Woodland Plants,

&c.
WOODWARD, H. B.: The Geology of Soils and

Substrata.
WOODWARD, H. B.: The Geology of Water

Supply.
WOODWARD, H. B.: The Geology of England

and Wales.
YAPP, R. H.: Wicken Fen.

IV. HABIT

ARESCHOCG, F. : Beitrage zur Biologic der Holzge-
wachse.

ARESCHOUG, F.: Geophile Pflanzen.

BOULGER, G. S.: Aquatic Plants.

DARWIN, C.: Climbing Plants.

DARWIN, C. : Insectivorous Plants.

FREIDENFELDT: Wurzeln Krautiger Pflanzen.

GOEBEL, F. : Organography of Plants.

GOEBEL, F.: Pflanzenbiologische Schilderungen.

GROOM, P.: On Bud Protection.

KEEBLE, F. W.: On Hanging Foliage.

POTTER, M. C.: On Bud Protection.

SARGANT, E.: On Geophytes.

SCHENK, H.: Biologic u. Anatomic d. Lianen.

SCHIMPER, A. F. W.: Die Epiphytische Vegeta-
tion Amerikas.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

225

SCHIMPER, A. F. W.: Die Indomalayische Strand-
flora.

STAHL, E. : Pflanzen und Schnecken.
STAHL, E.: Regenfall u. Blattgestalt.
VdCHTlNG, H. : Knollengewachse.
WARMING, E.: Halofytstudier.

V. CHARACTERS, HEIGHT,
FLOWERING PERIOD, DURATION

DRUCE, G. C.: Hayward's Botanist's Pocket-
book.

Fox, H.: How to find and name Wild Flowers.

HOOKER, Sir W. J. : British Flora.

HOOKER, Sir W. J., and ARNOTT, G. A.: British
Flora.

KNAPP, F. H.: The Botanical Chart.

LINDLEY, J.: Synopsis of the British Flora.

SMITH, Sir J. E'.: English Botany.

SMITH, Sir J. E.: The English Flora.

SMITH, Sir J. E.: Compendium of the English
Flora.

STEELE, W. E.: A Handbook of Field Botany.

WATTS, W. M. : A School Flora.

WITHERING: Arrangement of British Plants.
(See also under Floras, XIII.)

VI. POLLINATION; FRUIT AND
SEED DISPERSAL

ALLEN, GRANT : The Colour of Flowers.

AVEBURY, LORD : Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves.

BEALE, W. J.: Birds.

BEHRENS, W. J.: Blumen u. Insekten.

DARWIN, C.: Cross- and Self-pollination.

DARWIN, C.: Fertilization of Orchids.

DARWIN, C. : Forms of Flowers.

GUPPY, H. B.: Studies on Fruits and Seeds.

HENSLOW, G.: The Making of Flowers.

HILDEBRAND, F. : Die Farben der Bluten.

KERNER V;ON MARILAUN, A., and OLIVER, F. W.:
The Natural History of Plants.

KERNER VON MARILAUN, A.: Flowers and their
Unbidden Guests.

KNUTH, P.: Flower Pollination.

MULLER, H.: Fertilization of Flowers (full Biblio-
graphy).

RILEY, C. V.: Monograph on Yucca Pollination.

SPRENGEL, C. K.: Entdecktes Geheimnis der
Natur.

TRELEASE, W.: Fertilization of Flowers by Hum-
ming Birds.

WALLACE, Sir A. R.: Darwinism.

VII. SOIL

AIKMAN, C. M.: The Food of Crops.
BAYLISS, W. M.: The Nature of Enzyme Action.
BRENCHLEY, W.: Plant Poisons.
FREAM, W.: Soils and their Properties.
FREAM, W.: Elements of Agriculture.
HALL, A. D.: The Soil.
HILGARD, E. W.: Soils.
VOL. V.

JOHNSTON, J. F. W.: Lectures on Agricultural

Chemistry and Geology.
KING, F. H.: The Soil.
LYON, T. L., and FIPPEN, G. O.: Soils.
MARR, J. E.: Agricultural Geology.
MERRILL, G. F.: Rocks, Rock -weathering, and

Soils.
MORTON, J.: On the Nature and Properties of

Soils.

RUSSELL, E. J. : Soil Conditions and Plant Growth.
RUSSELL, E. J. : The Fertility of the Soil.
RUSSELL, E. J.: Lessons on Soil.
SCOFFEN, J.: The Chemistry of Soils.
SCOTT, J., and MORTON, J. C.: The Soil of the

Farm.

SOMERVILLE, W. J.: Agriculture.
SNYDER, H.: Soils and Fertilizers.
SNYDER, H.: The Chemistry of Plant and Animal

Life.
WRIGHTSON, J.: Agricultural Textbook.

VIII. FUNGAL AND OTHER PLANT

PESTS

BERKELEY, M. J.: Outlines of British Fungology.
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE and FISHERIES: Leaflets.
CONNOLD, E.: British Vegetable Galls.
COOKE, M. C.: Handbook of British Fungi.
COOKE, M. C.: Fungi, their Nature, Influences,

&c.

GROVE, W. B.: The British Rust Fungi.
MASSEE, G. : A Textbook of Plant Diseases.
MASSEE, G.: Diseases of Cultivated Plants and

Trees.
PLOWRIGHT, C. B.: British Uredineae and Usti-

lagineae.

SWANTON, E. B.: British Galls.
TUBEUF, K. VON : Diseases of Plants.
WARD, H. M.: Diseases of Plants.
WARD, H. M.: Disease in Plants.
WARD, H. M.: Timber and some of its Diseases.

IX. INSECT AND OTHER ANIMAL

PESTS

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE and FISHERIES: Leaflets.

Bos, J. R.: Agricultural Zoology.

BUCKTON, G. B. : Monograph of British Aphides.

CAMERON, P. : British Phytophagous Hymen-
optera.

COLLINGE, W. G.: Reports on the Injurious In-
sects and other Animals observed in the
Midland Counties.

COLLINGE, W. T.: A Manual of Injurious Insects.

CURTIS, J.: Farm Insects.

FOWLER, W. W.: Coleoptera.

GlLLANDERS, A. T.: Forest Entomology.

KIRBY, W. F.: British Butterflies and Moths.

KIRBY, W. F., and SPENCE, W.: An Introduction
to Entomology.

KOLLAR, V.: Insects Injurious to Gardeners and
Farmers, &c.

MARTIN- DUNCAN, J.: Insect Pests of the Farm
and Garden.

77a

226

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MURRAY, A.: Economic Entomology, Aptera,

&.C.

NEWMAN, E.: British Moths.

NEWMAN, E.: British Butterflies.

ORMEROU, E. O. : Manual of Injurious Insects.

ORMEROD, E. O.; A Handbook of Injurious
Insects.

ORMEROD, E. O.: Notes for Observations of In-
jurious Insects, &c.

ORMEROD, E. O.: Handbook of Orchard and Fruit
Pests.

OSBORN, H.: Insects affecting Domestic Animals.

SANDERS, T. W.: Garden Foes.

SAUNDERS, E.: Hymenoptera Aculeata.

SAUNDERS, E.: Hemiptera Homoptera.

SAUNDKRS, E. : Hemiptera Heteroptera.

SOUTH, R.: British Butterflies.

SOUTH, R.: British Moths.

THEOBALD, F. V.: Reports on Economic Zoology
(British Museum).

TUTT, J. W.: British Moths.

VERRALL, J. H.: Diptera.

WOOD, T. : The Farmer's Friends and Foes.

WOOD, T.: Our Insect Enemies.

WOOD, T.: Our Bird Allies.

WOOD, T.: Nature and her Servants.

X. NAMES OF PLANTS,
NOMENCLATURE, ETC.

ALCOCK, R. H.: Botanical Names for English
Readers.

ANON.: International Rules for Botanical Nomen-
clature (Vienna).

BRITTEN, J., and HOLLAND R.: A Dictionary of
English Plant-names.

BROCKETT, J. T.: A Glossary of North Country
Words.

CLARKE, W. A.: First Records of British Flower-
ing Plants.

COLES, W.: The Art of Simpling.

DIEZ, F.: Dictionary of Romance Language.

DRUCE, G. C.: List of British Plants.

DRUCE, G. C.: Notes on the New Edition of
Babington's " Manual of British Botany".

DRUCE, G. C.: The Nomenclature of Plants.

DRUCE, G. C.: Notes on English Botany Supple-
ment.

DRUCE, G. C.: On the British Plant Lists and
their Discrepancies.

DRUCE, G. C.: The Oxford Plant List.

DRUCE, G. C.: Linnaeus's "Flora Anglica".

EARLE, J.: English Plant Names.

EGERTON-WARBURTON, G.: Names and Synonyms
of British Plants.

GARRY, F. N. A.: Notes on the Drawings for
" Sowerby's English Botany".

GERARDE, J.: The Herball.

GRASSMAN: Deutsche Pflan/.ennamen.

HALLIWELL-PHILIPPS, J. O.: Dictionary of Archaic
Words.

H ANBURY, F. J.: London Catalogue of British
Plants.

HIERN, W. P.: Index Abcedarius.

HOLLOWAY, W.: A General Dictionary of Pro-
vincialisms.

JACKSON, B. D.: Index Kewensis (and Durand's
Supplement).

JACKSON, B. D. : Guide to the Literature of Botany.

JAMIESON, J.: A Dictionary of the Scottish Lan-
guage.

LINDLEY, J.: Introduction to Botany.

LINNAEUS, C. VON : Species. Plantarum.

LINNAEUS, C. VON : Genera Plantarum.

LYTE, A.: A Niewe Herball.

MARSHALL, E. S. : Notes on the " London Cata-
logue, loth Ed.".

MENTZELIUS, C. : Index nominum plantarum uni-
versalis.

MORITZI, M.: Dictionnaire des Noms vulgaires
des Plantes.

PARKINSON, J.: Theatrum Botanicum.

PRIOR, R. C. A.: Popular Names of British Plants.

PRITZEL, G. A.: Icones Plantarum.

RENDLE, A. B., and BRITTEN, J.: British Seed
Plants.

RENDLE, A. B., and BRITTEN, J.: Notes on- the
List of British Seed Plants.

ROGERS, W. M.: On the Rubi List in "London
Catalogue, gth Ed. ".

RUSHBY, H. H., and BRITTON, N. L.: Druce's
List of British Plants.

SKEAT, W.: Etymological Dictionary.

TAYLOR, J. : Names and Places.

THEIS, M.: Glossaire de Botanique ou Diction-
naire Etymologique.

TRENCH, R. C.: The Study of Words.

TRENCH, R. C.: Glossary.

TREVERS, P.: The Crete Herball.

TURNER, W.: The Names of Herbes.

WRIGHT, T. : Dictionary of Obsolete and Pro-
vincial English.

XL FOLK-LORE

ADAMS, H. G.: Moral, Language, and Poetry of

Flowers.

ADAMS, H. G. : Language of Flowers.
ALLEN, G. : The Colour Sense.
ALLEN, G.: Le veritable Language des Fleurs.
BARING-GOULD, S.: Curious Myths.
BARRETT, W. A.: Flowers and Festivals.
BAUHIN, C.: De plantis a divis sanctisve nomen

habentibus.

BLACK: Folk-Medicine.

BOHN, H. G. : Polyglot of Foreign Proverbs.
BOHN, H. G.: English Proverbs.
BRAND, W.: Popular Antiquities.
BREWER, J.: Dictionary of Phrase and Fable.
BUNSEN: God in History.
COCKAYNE, O.: Saxon Leechdoms.
CONWAY, M. D. : Demonology and Devil-lore.
COOKE, M. C.: Freaks and Marvels of Plant Life.
DAVIES, J. A.: On the Evil Eye.
DYER: English Folk-lore.
EARLE, J.: Philology of the English Tongue.
ELLACOMBE, H. N.: Plant-lore of Shakespeare.
FARRER: Primitive Manners and Customs.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

227

FORSTER, T.: The Perennial Calendar.
FRIEND, H.: Flowers and Flower-lore.
GERARDE, J.: The Herball.
GRIMM : Fairy Tales.
GRIMM : Teutonic Mythology.
GRINDON, L.: Nature and Phenomena of Life.
GUBERNATIS, DE : Mythologie des Plantes.
HALLIWELL-PHILIPPS, J. O.: Illustrations of Fairy

Mythology.

HENDERSON, W.: Folk-lore of Northern Counties.
HIBBERD, SHIRLEY: Field Flowers.
HIBBERD, SHIRLEY: Flowers and their Teachings.
HIBBERD, SHIRLEY: Flora Domestica.
HIBBERD, SHIRLEY: Language and Sentiment of

Flowers.

HIBBERD, SHIRLEY: Clavis Calendularia.
HIBBERD, SHIRLEY: Flower-lore.
HILL, J.: Herbal.
INGRAM, J. H.: Flora Symbolica.
INWARDS, R.: Weather-lore.
JONES, W.: Credulities, Past and Present.
JONES: Crowns and Coronations.
KEIGHTLEY, T.: Fairy Mythology.
KING : Sketches and Studies.
LAMBERT, Miss : The Ceremonial Use of Flowers.
LANKESTER, Mrs.: Wild Flowers.
LINCOLN, Mrs.: Botany (American).
MALLET ; Northern Antiquities.
MANDEVILLE, Sir T. : Travels.
MANT, P.: The British Months.
MULLER, M.: Chips from a German Workshop.
PHILLIPS, H.: Flora historica.
SCHWARTZ : Der Ursprung der Mythologie.
SKEAT, W.: Dictionary of Philology.
SKEAT, W.: Etymological Dictionary.
SPALDING, T. A.: Elizabethan Demonology.
SWAINSON, C-: Weather Proverbs.
SYKES WIRT: British Goblins, &c.
SYLVESTER, J.: Christmas Carols and Ballads.
TAYLOR, J.: The Complete Weather Guide.
TYLOR, E. B.: Primitive Culture.
WADDY: A Year with the Wild Flowers.

XII. USES

AIRMAN, C. M.: The Food of Crops.
ARCHER, T. C.: Popular Economic Botany.
BAILEY, L. H.: Cyclopedia of Horticulture.
BAILEY, L. H.: Plant Breeding.
BARDSWELL, F.: The Herb Book.
CANDOLLE, A DE: Origin of Cultivated Plants.
FLUCKIGER, F. A., and HANBURY, D.: Pharma-

cographia.

GAMBLE, J. S.: A Manual of Indian Timbers.
H ANNAN, W. I.: Textile Fibres of Commerce.
HENSLOW, G.: The Uses of British Plants.
HENSLOW, G. : Poisonous Plants.
HENSLOW, G.: British Pharmacopeia.
HITCHCOCK, A. S.: A Textbook of Grasses.
JACKSON, B. D., and SYMONS, G. F.: Vegetable

Technology.

LINDLEY, J.: Flora Medica.
LINDLEY, J.: The Vegetable Kingdom.
LINDLEY, J.: Medical and Economical Botany.
VOL. V.

MORRIS: Plants Yielding India-rubber.

NICHOLLS: Tropical Agriculture.

NICHOLSON, G. : Dictionary of Gardening-.

PIPER, C. V.: Forage Plants.

POTTER, M. C. : Agricultural Botany.

SMITH, J.: Domestic Botany.

SMITH, J.: A Dictionary of Economic Plants.

SORAUER : Physiology of Plants for Gardeners.

STONE, J. H. : The Timbers of Commerce.

TYNAN and MAITLAND: The Book of Flowers.

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE: A Descrip-
tive Catalogue of Useful Fibre Plants of the
World.

WATT, G.: Dictionary of the Economic Products
of India.

WIESNER, J.: Die Rohstoffe des Pflanzenreichs.

WILLIS, G. S. V.: A Manual of Vegetable Materia
Medica.

WILLIS, J. C., and WRIGHT: Handbook of
Economic Products of India.

XIII. GENERAL BRITISH FLORAS
(A Selection)

BABINGTON, G. C.: Manual of British Botany.
BENTHAM, G.: Handbook of the British Flora.
BENTHAM, G., and HOOKER, Sir J. D.: British

Flora.

CARTER, H. G.: The Genera of British Plants.
DIXON, H. N., and JAMESON, H. G.: Student's

Handbook of Mosses.
DRUCE, G. C.: Hay ward's Botanist's Pocket

Book.

HOOKER, Sir J. D.: The Student's Flora.
Moss, C. E.: Cambridge Flora.
PEARSON, W. H.: The Hepaticae of the British

Isles.

SYME, E.: English Botany.
WEST, G. S.: Algae.
WILLIAMS, F. N. : Prodromus Florae Britannicas.

XIV. FOREIGN FLORAS

(A Selection)

ANDERSSON, N. J.: Plantae Scandinaviae.
ASCHERSON, P., and GRAEBNER, P.: Synopsis der

Mitteleuropaischen Flora.
BENTHAM, G., and HOOKER, Sir J. D.: Genera

Plantarum.

BOREAU, A. : Flore de la centre de la France.
BR^BISSON, L. A. DE : Flore de la Normandie.
COSSON, E.,and GERMAIN, E.: Flore des environs

de Paris.

ENGLER, A.: Das Pflanzenreich.
ENGLER, A., and PRANTL: Die natiirliclien Pflan-

zenfamilien.

FRIES, E. M.: Summa Vegetabilium Scandinaviae.
GRENIER, C., and GODRON, D. A.: Flore de

France.

HOOKER, Sir J. D.: Flora Indica.
KOCH, W. D. J.: Synopsis Florae Germanicae et

Helvetiae.

LEVY, O. J.: Flore de 1'Ouest de la France.

77 a 2

228

BIBLIOGRAPHY

NVMAN, C. F.: Conspectus Florae Europae.
PRITZEL, G. A.: Thesaurus.
PRITZEL, G. A.: Icones Plantarum.
REICH ENBACH, H. G.: Icones Florae Germanicae.
ROUY, G.: Flore de France.
ROUY, G., and FOUCAUD: Flore de France.
SCHINZ and KELLER: Flora der Schweiz.
SCHKUHR, C.: Riedgraser.

WILLKOMM, M., and LANGE, J.: Prodromus Florae
Hispanicae.

XV. GENERAL WORKS (A Selection)

ARTHUR J. C., and MACDOUGAL, D. T.: Living
Plants.

AVEBURY, LORD: On Seedling's.

AVEBURY, LORD: On Buds and Stipules.

BAILLON, M. H.: Natural History of Plants.

BARY, A. DE: Comparative Anatomy of the
Phanerogams and Ferns.

BATESON, W.: Materials for the Study of Varia-
tion.

BATESON, W.: Mendels Principles of Heredity.

BATESON, W.: Method and Scope of Genetics.

BERGEN, J. Y., and CALDWELL, O.W.: Introduc-
tion to Botany.

BOSE, J. G.: Plant Response.

BOWER, F. O.: Origin of a Land Flora.

BOWER, F. O.: Botany of the Living Plant.

CAMPBELL, D. H.: Plant Life and Evolution.

CHURCH, A. H.: Types of Floral Mechanism.

COULTER, J. M.: Plant Relations.

DARWIN, C.: Climbing Plants.

DARWIN, C.: Movements of Plants.

DARWIN, C.: Variation of Animals and Plants.

DARWIN, Sir F.: The Physiology of Plants.

DARWIN, Sir F.: Elements of Botany.

DAVIES, J. A.: The Flowering Plant.

DETMER, W.: Keimungsphysiologie.

DONCASTER, L.: Heredity.

DUGGAR, B. M.: Plant Physiology.

EICHLER, A. W.: Bliithendiagramme.

FARMER, J. B.: Plant Life.

I KIISCH, F. E., and SALISBURY, E. J.: An Intro-
duction to the Study of Plants.

GANONG, L.: The Living Plant.

GEDDES, P.: Evolution of Sex.

GOEBEL, K.: Organography of Plants.

GREEN J. R.: History of Botany.

HABERLANDT, G.: Physiological Plant Anatomy.

HENSLOW, G.: Floral Structure.

JACKSON, B. D.: Dictionary of Botanical Terms.

JOST, L.: Physiology of Plants.

KERNER VON MARILAUN, A., and OLIVER, F. W.:
The Natural History of Plants.

LE MAOUT, E., and DECAISNE, J.: System of
Botany.

LOTSY, J. P.: Vorlesungen ttber Botanische
Stammesgeschichte.

MACDOUGAL, D. T.: Textbook of Plant Physiology.

OLIVER, D.: Illustrations of the Natural Orders,
&c.

OLIVER, J. W. ; Systematic Botany.

PAYER, J. B.: Organogenic de la Fleur.

PAX, F. : Morphologic der Pflanzen.

PUNNETT, R. C.: Mendelism.

RENDLE, A. B.: Classification of Flowering Plants.

SACHS, J. VON: Lectures on the Physiology of
Plants.

SACHS, J. VON: History of Botany.

SCHUMANN, K.: Morphologische Studien.

SCOTT, D. H.: Structural Botany.

STEP, E., and KNIGHT, B. E.: The Living Plant.

STEVENS, E.: Plant Anatomy.

STOPES, M. C.: The Study of Plant Life.

STRASBURGER, C.: Textbook of Botany.

TIMIRIAZEFF, C. A.: The Life of the Plant

VERNON, H. M.: Variation.

VINES, S.: Textbook of Physiology.

VRIES, H. DE : Plant Breeding.

VRIES, H. DE: Species and Varieties.

WARMING, E. : Handbook of Systematic Botany.

WERNHAM, H. F.: Floral Evolution.

WILLIS, J. C.: Flowering Plants and Ferns.

APPENDIX IV

GLOSSARY

Achene, a hard, dry, indehiscent, one-celled, one-
seeded fruit ; e.g. Buttercup.

Acicular, needle-shaped, tapered.

Acuminate, coming to a point, which is elongate,
with concave sides.

Acute, coming to a sharp point, not prolonged.

Adnate, attached by the whole base or side.

Adpressed, closely touching.

^Estivation, the manner of arrangement or folding
of parts in the bud of a flower.

Aggregate, of fruits, closely arranged or con-
tiguous carpels.

Alae, wings of the corolla in Leguminosae (poste-
rior lateral petals).

Alternate, not opposite, as in leaves, &c.

Amphibious, addicted to land or water conditions.

Amplexicaul, half-clasping the stem, as the bases
of leaves.

Anemochorous, dispersed by wind.

Anemophilous, pollinated by the wind.

Annual, of one year's duration.

Anterior, situated in the forepart.

Anther, the distal part of the stamen which con-
tains the pollen.

Anthocyanin, purple colouring-matter in cells.

Apex, the part most removed from the base or
attachment.

Apiculate, with a small apical point, as the tip of
the midrib in some cases.

Apocarpous, when the carpels are not united.

Aquatic, growing in water, submerged or with
leaves floating.

Arcuate, forming an arch or bow.

Arenophilous, growing on sand.

Ascending, growing upwards, and approaching
a vertical position.

Asperous, with a rough surface.

Association, a community of definite composition,
associated with a definite type of habitat, and
recognized by the predominance of one or more
floristic types, such as a damp oakwood.

Attenuate, tapering gradually to a slender point.

Auricled, of the leaves, with ear-like lobes at the

base.
Autochorous, dispersed by the plant itself— of the

seed.
Autonomous movement, spontaneous, not induced

by external stimulus.
Awn, a bristle-like appendage, as in Grasses.

Axil, the angle of the stem and leaf.
Axis, the central stem or root.

Barbs, the recurved processes on bristles and

teeth on the leaf-margin.
Bark, the external layer of the stem in woody

plants where a corky layer is formed.
Bast, the inner layer of the bark, which is soft

phloem, or hard bast fibres.
Beak, a prolonged point.

Bearded, furnished with long hair, like a beard.
Berry, a succulent fruit, with several seeds, soft

pericarp.
Biennial, of two years' duration, flowering and

producing seed the second year.
Bifid, divided into two parts half-way.
Bilabiate, with two lips.

Bipartite, divided into two parts nearly entirely.
Bipinnate, tri-, quadri-, &c., 2, 3, or 4 times

divided again in the case of a pinnate leaf.
Bipinnatifid, once again pinnatifid.
Biternate, a ternate leaf divided ternately again.
Bract, a leaf differing from the stem leaves situ-
ated in the floral region.
Bracteoles, small bracts on the peduncle.
Bud, an unexpanded shoot, whether on the axis

or leaves.

Bulb, an underground bud with fleshy scale-
leaves, stored with reserve material.

Caespitose, tufted, of roots, stems, or leaves.

Calciphilous, addicted to a lime soil.

Calyx, the outermost protective whorl of the

perianth, usually green, made up of sepals.
Cambium, the layer between wood and bast,

forming new (secondary) wood and bast.
Capillary, thread-like, slender.
Capitate, clustered in heads with a knob like the

head of a pin.
Capitulum, a head of sessile flowers, as in Com-

positae.

Capsule, a dry many-seeded dehiscent fruit.
Carpel, the modified leaf which forms a single-
celled ovary, or a single cell of an ovary.
Caryopsis, a one-seeded fruit in which the seed-coat

and pericarp are adherent, indehiscent, as in

Grasses.

Catapult fruit, a fruit in which the seed is expelled
by an elastic movement of the plant itself.

230

GLOSSARY

Catkin, a spike of flowers of one sex only, with

bracts in place of perianths.
Caulescent, with an erect stem.
Cauline, arising from the .st-m.
Centrifugal, growing' outwards from the middle.
Centripetal, growing inwards towards the centre.
Channelled, hollowed out in the centre or middle

line.
Chasmochomophyte, Chasmophyte, plants that

grow in crevices on bare rock, with a little

detritus only.

Chersophytes, plant formations on waste land.
Chlorophyll, the green colouring-matter in plants

which enables them to assimilate carbon by aid

of the sun.
Chomophytes, plants growing on rock on which

detrital matter is present as a subsoil, on the

surface or in crevices.
Ciliate, with a fringe of hairs.
Clavate, club-shaped.

Claw, the attenuate base or stalk of a petal.
Cleft, divided, but not so far as the midrib.
Cleistogamic, flowers that do not open and are

self-pollinated.
Coherent, united together.
Column, when the stamens and style fuse to form

one structure, as in Orchids.
Commensal, when a species shares, with another,

food material, e.g. parasites, saprophytes.
Communities, the different members which to-
gether make up a coherent whole, possessing

at the same time a general unity of character,

as Heath-plants.
Compound, made up of a number of parts which

are similar, as opposed to simple.
Compressed, flattened laterally.
Connate, united around the stem.
Connective, a process connecting the cells of the

anthers with the filament.
Connivent, uniting together.
Cordate, heart-shaped.
Coriaceous, leathery in texture.
Corm, a fleshy, solid, bulb-like base of a stem.
Corolla, a whorl within the calyx, enclosing the

stamens and stigma, made up of petals.
Cortex, the ground tissue enclosing the vascular

tissue in a stem.
Corymb, a raceme in which the upper peduncles

are shortened to form a flat-topped inflorescence.
Cosmopolitan, plants having a universal distribu-
tion.

Cotyledon, the seed-leaves, single in monocotyle-
dons, double or paired in dicotyledons.
Crateriform, cup-shaped.
Crenate, with rounded teeth, scalloped.
Crenulate, with small rounded teeth.
Cross-fertilization, when pollen from the anthers

of one flower is carried to the stigma of another,

fertilization following.
Cross-pollination, the transfer of pollen from one

flower to another.
Cruciform, arranged like a cross in opposite

pairs.

Culm, the jointed hollow stems of Grasses, &c.
Cuneate, wedge-shaped.

Cupule, the bract-like cup enclosing a nut, e.g.

an acorn.
Cyme, a centrifugal inflorescence; the terminal

flower is overtopped by lateral branches.

Deciduous, of leaves, falling off, not evergreen,

or of flowers when petals drop.
Decumbent, prostrate, but ascending at the ex-
tremity.
Decurrent, when the blade of a leaf runs down

the stem below the point of attachment.
Decussate, when opposite pairs of leaves are

alternately at right angles.
Deflexed, turned down or backwards.
Dehiscence, the manner in which a fruit splits up

or opens.
Denizen, apparently native, but likely to have

been introduced by human agency.
Dentate, toothed, the teeth short, triangular.
Denticulate, finely toothed.
Depressed, flattened above.
Dichogamy, when anthers and stigma mature at

different times.
Diffuse, widely branching.
Digitate, finger-like.
Dioecious, unisexual, the sexes on different plants,

as in Willows.
Disk, (i) the central part of a capitulum; (2) the

flattened part of the receptacle, bearing corolla,

stamens, and carpels, e.g. in Acer.
Dissepiment, septum in an ovary.
Distichous, in two opposite rows.
Divaricate, spreading at an obtuse angle.
Divergence, the angle between the insertion of

successive leaves on the stem.
Divided, deeply cut.
Dominant, a species forming the strongest feature

in a botanical association.
Drupe, i -celled succulent fruit with a hard stone

which encloses a seed or kernel.
Duct, a tube formed by fusion or division of cells,

a canal made of cells without division.

Ecology, the study of plants in their natural habi-
tats, their association, and relation to the en-
vironment.

Emarginate, with a notch at the extremity.

Embryo, the young plant enclosed in the seed.

Embryo-sac, the large cell containing the ovum,
and the embryo in the ovule.

Endemic, confined to a certain district or station.

Endophytic, living within the tissue of another
plant.

Entire, untoothed.

Entomophilous, pollinated by insect agency.

Ephemeral, flowers that open for a few hours, or
plants that produce several generations in one
season.

Epigeal, growing above ground.

Epigynous, seated on the ovary.

Epiphytes, plants that grow on others but do not
draw nourishment from them; i.e. not as parasites.

Equitant, folded around.

Ericetal, growing on heaths.

Exserted, projecting beyond a corolla.

GLOSSARY

231

Extrorse, when anthers open outwards,
from the centre.

away

Falcate, sickle-shaped.

Fasciation, when several stems are abnormally
fused together.

Fasciculate, clustered in bundles.

Fastigiate, with parallel ascending branches.

Felted, covered with a soft felt.

Fertilization, fusion of the male gamete with the
egg-cell; in Angiosperms follows on pollination,
and is carried out by the agency of the pollen-
tube.

Filament, the stalk of an anther.

Filiform, thread-like.

Fimbriate, with a fringe of fine teeth.

Fistular, hollow.

Flaccid, weak, limp.

Flexuose, wavy.

Flora, the aggregate constituent plants of a par-
ticular region.

Floret, a small flower borne in clusters or singly.

Flower, all the modified leaf-like processes which
together combine to cause the reproduction of
the plant, by the production of seeds from spores
(or pollen-grains and embryo-sacs).

Flowering glume, the outer scale of a flower in
Grasses, usually bearing an awn.

Follicle, a one-celled carpel, opening only down
the ventral suture, and containing numerous
small seeds.

Fruit, the seed-vessel, with seeds, and protective
envelopes.

Fruticose, shrubby.

Fusiform, spindle-shaped.

Galeate, helmet-shaped.

Gall, an excrescence caused on stems and leaves,
&c., by the laying of an insect's egg within the
tissue, causing irritation, and producing in each
species a characteristic growth, rendering it
possible to indicate the gall insect from the gall
formed.

Geotropism, a growth - curvature induced by
gravity.

Germination, the growth of an embryo into a seed-
ling.

Gibbous, swollen at one part or another.

Glabrous, smooth.

Glandular, bearing glands or slender wart-like
outgrowths from the surface.

Glaucous, bluish green.

Glumes, bracts or scales enclosing the spikelets in
Grasses.

Growth-form, the result of the adaptation of
plants to their external conditions which pro-
duces a certain habit.

Habit, the general external form of a plant in out-
line.

Habitat, the natural haunt of each plant.

Halophilous, addicted to a saline soil.

Halophytes, plants that are confined, more or less,
to maritime conditions, and are used to saline
soil.

Hastate, spear-shaped below.

Haulm, the stem in Grasses.

Helophilous, addicted to a marshy habitat.

Herbaceous, green, succulent, without wood.

Herbal, the old descriptive Botany, usually re-
stricted to curious medicinal remedies.

Herbarium, a collection of dried plants, or the
place in which they are kept, or an illustrated
herbal. Formerly called hortus siccus.

Hermaphrodite, when both stamens and carpels
are present on the same plant.

Heterogamous, bearing two different kinds of
flowers of different sexes.

Heterophyllous, bearing different types of leaves.

Heterostyled, with styles of different length in
different flowers.

Heterotrophic plants, saprophytes and parasites.

High-moor, opposed to low-moor, a sphagnum-
moor.

Hirsute, with stiffish hairs.

Hispid, another term for hirsute.

Humus, vegetable mould, made up of decaying
animal and vegetable matter.

Hybrid, the result of crossing two different species,
usually allied.

Hydrochorous, dispersed by water — of the seed.

Hydrophytes, another term for aquatic plants.

Hygrophilous, loving moisture, but not necessarily
truly aquatic.

Hypogeal, underground.

Hypogynous, not adherent to the calyx, growing
from below the base of the ovary.

Imbricate, overlapping like the tiles of a roof

(imbrex, Latin, roof-tile).

Incised, deeply cut, with irregular sharp teeth.
Incurved, curved inwards.
Indehiscent, of fruits not opening.
Inferior, when the ovary adheres to the calyx, as

in epigynous flowers.
Inflexed, bent inwards.
Infundibuliform, funnel-shaped.
Insectivorous plants, those which attract, trap,

and digest insects.

Internode, the interval between the nodes.
Introrse, when the anther dehisces towards the

centre.

Involucel, the involucre of a secondary umbel.
Involucre, the whorl of bracts at the base of an

umbel or head.
Involute, rolled from the back inwards.

Keel, the two lower petals in a Leguminous

flower.
Knot, the node of a Grass stem.

Labellum, the lip or terminal segment in Orchids.
Laciniate, fringed with narrow segments.
Lacustral, addicted to a lake situation.
Lanceolate, lance-shaped, tapering towards the

point.

Lax, loose.

Leaf -axil, angle between leaf and stem.
Lenticular, lens-shaped.
Legume, a pod, one-celled, two-valved, seeds ar-

232

GLOSSARY

ranged along the inner angle, dehiscing by both

sutures.
Lig-ule, in Grasses a membrane at the base of the

limb of the leaf; in Composites applied to the

ray floret corollas.

Limb, the flat, enlarged part of a leaf or petal.
Linear, much narrower than long, with parallel

borders.

Linear-lanceolate, between linear and lanceolate.
Lipped, having two lips in corolla or calyx.
Lithophytcs, plants growing on rocks and stones.
Littoral, growing on the coast, maritime.
Loculicidal, opening down the back, or midrib.
Lomcntum, a legume with one-seeded joints.
Lyrate, pinnatifid, the lobes enlarged upwards,

with one very large terminal one.

Melliferous, honey-bearing.

Mesophytes, plants found on well-watered and

ventilated soil rich in nutriment.
Midrib, the central vein in a leaf.
Monadelphous, when the stamens are united by

the filaments into a column.
Moniliform, cylindrical, constricted at several

points.

Monocarpic, producing seed once only.
Monoecious, with male and female flowers on the

same plant, in separate flowers.
Monopetalous, when the petals are joined by their

margins to form a tube.
Morphology, that part of botany which deals

with the form, structure, and development of

plants.

Mucronate, with a short blunt point.
Muricate, covered with spines.
Mycorhiza, when roots are clothed with the my-
celium of a fungus.

Myrmecochorous, dispersed by aid of ants.
Myrmecophilous, plants which protect ants, which

in turn ward off enemies.

Naturalized, introduced, but establishing itself by

seed.

Nectary, a gland which secretes honey.
Neuter flowers, devoid of stamens or carpels of

use to the plant.
Node, point where a leaf or branch is attached to

the stem.

Nut, a hard indehiscent one-seeded fruit.
Nutation, a spontaneous movement in plants.

Obovate, ovate, but obtuse apically.

Ocrea, a membranous stipule around the stem, as

in Polygonaceae.
Ovary, the organ in which the ovules and seeds

are formed.

Ovate, egg-shaped, flat.
Ovoid, egg-shaped, not flat, but cylindrical.
Ovule, the young seed, the macro-sporangium

enclosing the embryo-sac.
Oxylophytes, bog-plants, growing on sour, acid

soil.

Palate, the projecting part of the throat of a gap-
ing corolla, or base of the lower lip.

Palea, the inner glume, enclosing the flower in a
Grass.

Palmate, with lobes radiating from a centre like
fingers of a hand.

Paludal, addicted to a marshy habitat.

Panicle, a raceme with clusters of branched
flowers.

Papilionaceous, butterfly-like, as the flowers of a
Pea, Vetch, &c.

Papilla, a small wart-like protuberance.

Pappus, the hairy outgrowth of the fruit in Com-
posites.

Parasite, a plant which lives on a living plant and
draws nutriment from it.

Partite, divided not quite to the base.

Patelliform, disc-like.

Patent, spreading nearly at right angles.

Pedicel, a branch from a peduncle which bears a
flower.

Peduncle, flower-stalk.

Peltate, shield-shaped, with the stalk attached
below or above the surface, not to the margin.

Perennial, plants that live for several years, seed-
ing several times.

Perfoliate, when the stem is encircled by a leaf,
almost or entirely.

Perianth, the outer whorls of a flower, or the
calyx and corolla.

Pericarp, the seed vessel or wall of an ovary which
forms a fruit.

Perigynous, when the corolla and stamens are
borne on the calyx, but are not attached to the
ovary.

Persistent, not falling.

Petal, the division of a corolla.

Petiole, the leaf-stalk.

Phaenogamous, furnished with stamens and pistil.

Phaenology, the recording of the time of flower-
ing, budding of leaves, &c.

Phyllaries, the bracts of the involucre in a Com-
posite.

Physiognomy, the general structure or characters
of a floral tract.

Pilose, with stiff scattered hair.

Pinnate, with the leaflets arranged on either side
of a common stalk.

Pinnatifid, when the leaf is deeply divided pin-
nately almost to the midrib into narrow seg-
ments.

Pinnule, the segment of a bipinnate leaf.

Pistil, the female part of a flower, including ovary,
style, and stigma.

Pistillate, flowers with pistils and without stamens.

Pitted, with depressions on the surface.

Plaited, plicate or folded.

Plant association, in a botanical formation there
are groups of different species such as wood-
land, grassland, heath, &c. Each group is an
association.

Plant community (see Community).

Plant-formation, a community of species, such as
that of clays and loams, associated together by
definite external characters of the habitat ; an
expression of certain defined conditions of life
(not affected by floristic differences).

GLOSSARY

233

Pollarding, the removal of the crown of a tree
causing branches to sprout out.

Pollen, the cells (microspores) contained in the
anther.

Pollen-grain, a grain of pollen or microspore.

Pollen-sac, the sporangium containing the micro-
spores.

Pollen-tube, the outgrowth of the pollen -grain
which helps to fertilize the plant.

Pollinium, a mass of pollen-grains adhering to-
gether.

Polycarpic, seeding more than once.

Polype talous, with separate petals.

Polysepalous, with several sepals not coherent.

Pome, a fleshy false fruit with many seeds.

Porous, when the anthers dehisce by holes.

Prickle, a hard, sharp epidermal process not
woody.

Procumbent, prostrate, lying on the ground.

Prostrate, flat on the ground.

Proterandrous (Protandrous), when the anthers
ripen and dehisce before the stigma.

Proterogynous (Protogynous), when the stigma
is ripe before the anthers dehisce.

Psammophilous, addicted to a sand-soil.

Pubescent, with down closely pressed to the sur-
face.

Pulverulent, powdery.

Pyriform, pear-shaped.

Raceme, a simple centripetal inflorescence with
stalked flowers.

Rachis, the axis of a compound leaf or the central
stem of several spikelets in a Grass.

Radical, springing from the crown of the root as
leaves.

Ray, the outer circle of florets in a composite.

Receptacle, (i) the terminal part of the floral axis;
(2) the flat, short axis of a flowerhead in Com-
posites.

Recurved, bent back.

Reflexed, bent back (markedly so).

Reniform, kidney-shaped.

Revolute, rolled back.

Rhizome, an underground stem, with roots and
leafy shoots.

Ringent, gaping, of a corolla.

Rock formations, different geological forma-
tions.

Rock-soil formations, which contribute to char-
acterize the different rock-soils that make up a
subsoil.

Rootstock, a thick, short root like a rhizome.

Rosette plants, plants that have short internodes
and close-set leaves, as the Daisy.

Rostellum, the top of the pistil, in Orchids forming
a beak or division between stamen and stigma.

Rotate, wheel-shaped, with short tube.

Rubble plants, developing on soil derived by the
disintegration of rock by atmospheric agency,
e.g. the chalk.

Runcinate, with the leaf segments turned back.

Runner, a prostrate stem rooting at intervals or
at the end.

Rupestral, growing on rocks.

Sagittate, with segments like the barb of an

arrow.
Samara, an indehiscent winged fruit ; as the key

of an Ash.
Saprophyte, growing on dead or decaying animal

or vegetable matter.

Saxicolous, growing on stones, walls, &c.
Scabrous, rough.
Scape, a peduncle which is without leaves and

radical.

Scarious, thin, dry, semi-transparent, or not green.
Schizocarp, a fruit splitting up into several one-
seeded divisions.

Sclerophyllous, term applied to xerophytic bush-
land.

Scorpioid, when a cyme is curved like a crozier.
Scrub, a formation of stunted growth.
Secund, turned to one side.
Seed, the fertilized and ripened ovule.
Seedling, the embryo after germination.
Sepal, a division of the calyx.
Serrate, with segments like the teeth of a saw.
Sessile, without stalk or pedicel.
Setaceous, bristle-like.

Shade-plants, plants that dislike too much light.
Shoot, the portions of a plant differentiated into

stem and leaves, &c.
Silicule, a short pod in Cruciferae.
Siliqua, a long pod in Cruciferae.
Sinuose, undulating.
Sling-fruit, one which, owing to the contraction

of certain tissues, hurls the seeds when mature

from the fruit.
Sobole, a thin underground creeping stem with

roots and buds at intervals.
Spadix, a succulent fleshy spike with close sessile

flowers.

Spathe, a large bract enclosing a spadix.
Spathulate, spoon-shaped.
Species, individuals possessing in common several

characters suggesting a derivation from a com-
mon ancestor.
Spike, a simple elongate axis bearing sessile

flowers.
Spikelet, the few flowers enclosed by glumes in

Grasses.

Spine, a sharp woody process or thorn.
Spur, a hollow expansion of the basal part of a

sepal or petal, connected with the nectary.
Stamen, the male part of the flower, consisting

of filament and anther.
Staminode, a sterile stamen.
Standard, the upper (posterior) petal in Legumi-

riosae.

Stigma, the pollen-receiving part of the pistil.
Stipule, leaf-like appendages at the base of the

petioles, usually paired.
Stole, a loose procumbent stem, with buds that

root at intervals.
Stoma, a ventilating pore in the epidermis, with

surrounding guard-cells.
Style, the prolonged end of the ovary, bearing the

stigma.
Sub-dominant, forming a less-marked feature of a

botanical association or formation.

234

GLOSSARY

Subsoil, the layer below the humus and soil which
is derived from the underlying rock formations.

Subulate, awl-shaped, tapered to a fine point.

Sucker, an underground shoot producing a stem
at the end.

Sun plants, plants that seek the light.

Switch plants, with reduced leaves, with green
shoots serving as leaves.

Symbiosis, when two plants are intimately asso-
ciated for mutual benefit.

Syncarpous, an ovary or fruit with the carpels
joined.

Tendril, a thread-like organ used for climbing.

Tentacle, a sensitive hair, as in Drosera.

Terete, round, in transverse section.

Ternate, in threes, as of leaflets.

Thalamus, the receptacle of a flower.

Toraentose, with densely-matted woolly hair.

Torulose, knotted.

Torus, the receptacle.

Transpiration, the giving off of aqueous vapour

from leaves, &c.

Trifid, divided into three parts nearly half-way.
Trigonous, with three angles and three convex

faces.

Truncate, blunted.
Trunk, main stem.
Tuber, a subterranean fleshy shoot.
Tubercle, a small wart-like excrescence.

Tumid, swollen.

Turfophilous, growing on humus or peat.

Turgidity, a state of tension in a cell due to
osmotic pressure of the cell-sap and elastic ten-
sion of the cell-wall.

Tussock formations, badly drained pastures, made
up of tussocks which exclude other plants.

Umbel, when clusters of stalked flowers radiate

from a centre.

Umbilicate, peltate, hollow from the stalk upward.
Undershrubs, the lesser shrubs that lurk under

scrub, &c.
Unilateral, turned on one side.

Valvate, opening by means of valves, of capsules.

Venation, the arrangement of the veins.

Ventricose, swollen below.

Vernation, the arrangement of the leaves in a bud.

Verticillate, in whorls.

Villose, with long soft hair.

Viscous, sticky.

Wliorl, with parts arranged in a circle.

Wood, the xylem or hard lignified part of a stem.

Xerophilous, fond of dry conditions.
Xerophytes, plants used to dry conditions.

Zoochorous, dispersed by animals.

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