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IEY AND LAWRY’S ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
VIVIAN'S EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY

) E AND HALLIGAN’S PLANT PRODUCTION
ae EDITED BY

KIRK LESTER HATCH, BS.

PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION
THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, MADISON

A contented herd of dairy cows in a well-shaded pasture.

Ample range of good pasture should be given brood sows and their litters of young pigs.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

BYG
JOHN L. TORMEY, B.S.A.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, MADISON

AND

mOLLA C. LAWRY, B.S.A.

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY

NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO
BOSTON ATLANTA

_ CopyricHT, 1920, By
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

TORMEY AND LAWRY ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

é

Lae ob) ngs

os

a GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Tuis series of agricultural texts is based on the theory that
the successful farmer should know the physical and biological
forces with which he has to contend; that he should understand
the laws under which these forces operate; and that he should
acquire some skill in directing them. He should ultimately
become able to adjust and correlate these forces so as to bring

- them all under the orderly operation of economic law. In con-

formity with the above theory this series has been made to cover
the following fundamental divisions :
The science and art of producing agricultural plants.
The production, care, and management of farm animals.
The establishment and conservation of soil fertility, with the
chemistry of the same in relation to plant and animal production.
The proper balance and combination of these three aspects
of agricultural production, in the business management of the
farm.

What Vocational Agriculture Demands. — Vocational train-
ing in agriculture should differ from trade instruction in
one most important regard: trade training develops skilled
workers for the various branches of an industry; it neither
develops, nor aims to develop, factory managers. It usually
deals with parts of the construction, less frequently with the
finished product, and more rarely still with the management
of the manufacturing plant. Vocational agriculture, on the
other hand, must train for the operation of the whole plant, as
the farm is a unit in itself. The trained farmer must be skilled,
not only in the arts of his varied industry, but also in the scien-

5

6 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

tific management of the entire farm. Added to skill there must
be knowledge and understanding.

What the Federal Law Requires. — Under the Smith-Hughes
law passed by Congress early in 1917, vocational instruction
in agriculture — to quote its language — “ must provide for
directed or supervised practice in agriculture either in a farm
provided by the school or other farms for at least six months
per year.” There can be no question as to the meaning or the
intent of this law. It demands that agricultural instruction
shall be useful, practical, and of immediate application.

What This Text is Designed to Accomplish. — The authors
of this book have long held the opinion that is expressed in
the Smith-Hughes law and made a condition of its fulfilment.
They have therefore made radical departures from the usual
style of textbook construction. In addition to the informa-
tional material, emphasis is placed on frequent sets of Exercises
intended to provoke class discussion and to direct attention
to the established practices on the home farm. Following
these exercises are lists of Home Projects designed to suggest
how the lessons gained from study of the text may be turned at
once to practical account.

It is believed that by following the plan set forth in this
volume teachers of vocational agriculture may fulfil the most
vigorous demands of the Smith-Hughes law. It is hoped that
students may also find herein something of inspiration, as well
as of immediate practical use.

KIRK LESTER HATCH.

PREFACE

ANIMAL HusBANDRY includes both the art of breeding,
feeding, and caring for live stock, and the fundamental
laws of science upon which these practices are based. The
ability of a stockman to raise and care for animals in a
proper manner rests ultimately upon his knowledge of
breeds, feeds, and housing conditions.

The feeder well knows that the ever changing price of
feeds has made his occupation one that requires both skill
and scientific knowledge. He must raise suitable feeds
that form a good crop rotation and which at the same time
combine to make the most efficient ration for his purposes.
Besides, he must purchase the by-products of milling estab-
lishments, slaughterhouses, and oil factories, whose nutri-
tive value must be known if an intelligent selection is to
be made.

The dairyman is continually being confronted with new
problems. He must select his breeding animals with the
greatest care. He must guard jealously the health of his
herd, and he must conform to restrictions and requirements
placed upon him by the state and by the manufacturers
of his raw product.

The successful stockman must understand live stock
history and the rules governing the conduct of the various
breed associations in order to select his breeding stock in-
telligently. He must know the reasons for the sanitary
precautions necessary to protect his animals from the

7

8 _ PREFACE

ravages of infectious diseases, and the scientific basis for
the restriction placed upon the importation of live stock.

The prominence which poultry breeding has attained as
a specialty, added to the widespread importance of raising
fowls in both country and town, demands the space given
to this section of the book. No aspect of animal husbandry
requires more study of the fundamental principles of breed-
ing, feeding, and marketing than does that of poultry.

All these essential elements of successful live stock farm-
ing make the study of animal husbandry one of especial
interest not only to those who actually engage in farming
but also to those who must depend upon agriculture for
sustenance.

This volume has been prepared with the hope that its
pages will, in some measure, meet the needs of students
of animal husbandry and create a deeper interest in the
live stock industry.

CHAPTER
I. THE COMPOSITION OF THE ANIMAL Bopy
II. FEEDING STUFFS AND THEIR PREPARATION
III. CLASSES OF FEEDING STUFFS
IV. By-Propuct FEEDING STUFFS .
VY. How THE ANIMAL USEs ITs FEED
VI. BREEDS OF HORSES
VII. BREEDS OF CATTLE
VIII. BREEDS OF SHEEP AND GOATS.
IX. BREEDS OF SWINE
X. JUDGING CATTLE
XI. JUDGING SWINE AND SHEEP
XII. Jupcinc Horses
XIII. Care AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES
XIV. CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF BEEF CATTLE
XV. CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE
XVI. CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP .
XVII. CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE .
XVIII. GENERAL LIVE Stock IMPROVEMENT
XIX. Farm POULTRY .
XX. INCUBATION AND BROODING
XXI. FEEDING, CARE, AND MANAGEMENT OF LAYING HENS
XXII. Types AND BREEDS OF CHICKENS
XXIII. Turkeys, Ducks, AND GEESE .
APPENDIX .
INDEX

CONTENTS

PAGE

339

(10)

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ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

CHAPTER. I

THE COMPOSITION OF THE ANIMAL BODY

In feeding animals, the feeder may consider himself a
builder who uses feeds as materials with which to build
the animal body. But the animal itself should be regarded
as something more than a building. It may also be con-
sidered as a machine which, while being operated and
kept in running order, creates heat, performs work, repairs
broken-down material, builds new material, and grows and
reproduces itself.

The plant and the animal bodies are built up from
various substances which perform distinct functions and
make up different parts of the organisms. The chemist
has found about 13 chemical elements essential to plants.
They are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur,
phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, sodium,
silicon, and chlorine. These elements combine to form the
following substances in both plant and animal life:

1. Proteins, 4. Mineral substances,
2. Carbohydrates, 5. Water.
a2 Fats,

Proteins. — These substances contain carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, and usually sulphur and phosphorus.

It

12 COMPOSITION OF THE ANIMAL BODY

Fig. 1.— Soy beans are high in protein.

Proteins form the most important part of feeding stuffs.
As a rule the highest priced feeds are the richest in protein.

Protein substances are found near the growing tips of
plants and usually constitute a higher percentage of young
than of old plants. They are also found stored in seeds
around the embryo. In animals, they are even more
abundant than in plants, forming the cell walls, lean-meat
tissues, brain and nerve cells, hair, hoof, horn, nails, and
structural material for all the working organs of the body.

Protein materials usually contain 16 per cent nitrogen.
Tn analyzing feeding stuffs for protein content, therefore, the
chemist determines the percentage of nitrogen and multi-

CARBOHYDRATES 13

plies this by 6.25; that is, 1oo per cent divided by 6.25.
Feeds high in protein make up a number of the best com-
mercial by-product feeds, such as wheat bran, middlings,
linseed meal, and cottonseed meal. Farm-grown crops
which are high in protein are alfalfa, clover, peas, beans,
and peanuts. Since protein is essential for the building of
living tissues, it is necessary in the feed of young growing
animals and milk-producing females. It is also necessary
in smaller amounts in the feeds of all other classes of ani-
mals, for from it broken-down tissue is rebuilt.

Carbohydrates. — These are defined as substances made
up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen with the hydrogen
and oxygen in the same proportions as they are found in
the composition of water, 7.e., two parts by volume of
hydrogen to one of oxygen. ;

Included under the head of carbohydrates are starches,
sugars, and cellulose. Cellulose forms the cell walls of
plants and gives shape and stiffness to the stems, leaves,
and seeds. Starch is stored in the seeds of plants like corn
and wheat, and in roots and tubers like the potato. It
serves as reserve material upon which the plant draws in
time of need. Sugar is stored in roots as in the sugar
_ beet, and in stems as in sugar cane.

The cellulose material is coarse and woody and makes up
what the chemist calls “crude fiber.”’ It is practically
indigestible.

Starch and sugar form the valuable sources of carbo-
hydrate feeding material. In the animal body, the carbo-
hydrates consist largely of glycogen or animal starch and
glucose, which are the forms in which this material is stored
to be doled out to the animal, furnishing the heat and the
energy necessary for doing work. When there is an excess

14 COMPOSITION OF THE ANIMAL BODY

of this carbohydrate material, it is changed into fats and as
such is deposited on the body of the animal.

Feeds high in carbohydrate material are the cereal
grains: corn, oats, rye, barley, rice, and buckwheat, which
contain large amounts of starch. Potatoes contain a high
percentage of starch, sugar beets a high proportion of sugar,
and the stems of grasses a large amount of crude fiber.

Fats. — Fats comprise a group of substances of varying
composition. They are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen, with a relatively high percentage of carbon in their
composition. In animals, fats may be considered as food
stored against the time of need.

Because of their high carbon content fats liberate in burn-
ing about 2% times as much heat or energy as do carbo-
hydrate substances; hence fats are said to have 27 times
the energy value of carbohydrates. The percentage of fat
in feed varies from .1 per cent in sugar beets to 39.6 per cent
in peanuts. In animals it may vary from 15 per cent in the
fat calf to 45 per cent or more in the body of the fat sheep.

Fig. 2. — Peanuts contain a high percentage of fat.

MINERAL SUBSTANCES 15

Mineral Substances. — These occur in the plant in
various compounds of calcium, phosphorus, potassium,
sodium, and magnesium. In animals most of the mineral
matter is to be found in the bones, though phosphorus, as
has already been indicated, is essential to protein com-
pounds.

Such feeds as bran, alfalfa, clover, and peas are high in
mineral matter, and for that reason are valuable for growing
animals which need the minerals for bone building. The
amount of mineral matter in feeds varies from .4 per
cent in wheat flour to 64.4 per cent in some samples of raw
ground bone. In animals, the mineral matter varies from
1.65 per cent in the fat pig to 4.66 per cent in the half
fat ox.

Water. — Water is found in varying amounts in all liv-
ing things. It is absolutely essential as a solvent of other

WATER FAT PROTEIN

ES SS
SSS
SSS :

Fig. 3. — Composition of the animal body.

O
=
FH
C7
BB
ure
=

food materials; it forms the basis of the circulating media
in the body; and it regulates the temperature of the organ-
ism. In feeding stuffs, the amount of water varies from
about 6 per cent in well-dried oat straw to over go per cent
in green clover crops. Growing plants contain relatively
more water than do mature ones.

The bodies of young animals contain relatively more
water than do those of older ones. The fatter the animal

16 COMPOSITION OF THE ANIMAL BODY

the lower is the percentage of water, because fatty tissue
contains less water than lean tissue. In the body of the
extra fat sheep the per cent of water may run as low as 35,
while in the body of the store sheep there is about 57 per
cent of water. This is one reason why the butcher pays
the best price for the fat animal.

Vitamines.— Until the last few years it was supposed _
that any feed containing proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and -
mineral matter combined in the proper proportions was a
perfect feed. It has been recently discovered, however,
that there are two other substances, called vitamines,
whose chemical nature is at present unknown, which are
necessary to life, growth, and reproduction. One of these
substances is found in milk, unpolished rice, peanuts,
kidney beans, and some other products. Since it is easily
dissolved in water it is called water soluble vitamine. The
other substance, found in butter fat, beef fat, cod-liver oil,
margarines, leaves of cabbage and alfalfa, and in some seeds,
is called fat soluble vitamine. Both vitamines are present
in whole milk, cotton seeds, soy beans, kernels of corn, oats
and wheat, and certain other plant and animal products.
Young animals fed on feeds from which the vitamines have
been removed fail to grow or even to live, and older animals
fail to reproduce. The practical application of this dis-
covery is to be found in feeding milk containing some but-
ter fat to all young growing animals and in curing and stor-
ing hay and other roughage in such manner that their life-
giving vitamines will not be washed away by dew and rains.

What Becomes of a Feeding Stuff in the Body of the
Animal. — It has already been shown that there is a close
relationship between the materials in the plant and in the
animal body. The food materials in the plant, when eaten,

WHAT HAPPENS TO FOOD ry

undergo various changes before they can be utilized by the
animal. Some of this material is not made use of at all but
passes off as waste.

What Happens to the Food. — Food, taken into the
mouth, is chewed and mixed with a secreted liquid known
as saliva. These processes are known as mastication and
insalivation. The food is then passed into a long tortuous
tube known as the digestive tract. In this tract it is broken
down into simpler substances so that it may be absorbed.
This breaking-down process is known as digestion. The
process of taking the broken-down and dissolved food
materials through the walls of the digestive tract is known
as absorption. ‘Transporting the materials to the different
parts of the body and using them for the different purposes
required is known as assimilation.

The digestive tract of all farm animals consists of a long
and a very crooked tube distended in certain parts for the
storage of food. The canal is divided into the following
parts:

1. The gullet, extending from the mouth to the stomach,

2. The stomach,

3. The small intestine, which is divided into the duo-
denum, the jejunum, and the ileum, and extending from
the stomach to the large intestine, and

4. The large intestine.

In the case of the cow and sheep, which are called ruminat-
ing animals, the gullet is expanded into three large recep-
tacles in which the coarser rough foods are placed partially
chewed by the animal. They remain here for a while, and
later are returned to the mouth and rechewed. This process
is known as rumination. The horse has a small stomach,

but eats large quantities of hay. In the case of the horse,
T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB. — 2

18 COMPOSITION OF THE ANIMAL BODY

the feed passes on through the stomach and is stored in a
large receptacle located between the small intestine and
the large intestine known as the cecum. In this organ
a great deal of absorption takes place. The hog con-
sumes less roughage than the horse or the cow and has
no such provision for the storing and softening of coarse
roughage.

Now what changes take place in the feeds as they pass
through the digestive tract?

Protein. — The protein material is first acted upon in the
stomach by pepsin, a ferment of the gastric juice, secreted
from the walls of the stomach. The gastric juice contains
another ferment known as rennin which curdles milk so
that it cannot pass through the stomach before being acted
upon by the secretions of the stomach. The pepsin breaks
the protein material down into simpler substances which
are then passed on to the small intestine where they are
acted upon by trypsin, an enzyme contained in the pan-
creatic juice (secreted by the pancreas, a gland located near
the stomach), and by the erepsin, a juice secreted by the
walls of the small intestine.

After having undergone all this action the protein materia]
is changed finally into simple substances called amino acids.
In this form it is absorbed from the digestive tract.

In the circulation of the blood these protein substances
are carried to different parts of the animal’s body and used
to build up new tissues such as muscular fibers, ligaments,
nerves, hair, hoof, horn, and skin, and to repair tissues
broken down in work. What is left, over and above these
requirements, goes to furnish heat for the body and energy
for work. Some of the excess is used to furnish protein
for the milk of female animals.

CARBOHYDRATES 19

The greater part of the waste from the broken-down
protein material is passed off through the kidneys in the
urine. Small amounts are breathed out through the lungs
and some passes off through the skin.

From the above it is evident that the animal uses pro-
tein for repairing waste and building up new material,
and, when the protein is furnished in sufficient amount, to
supply heat and energy. The importance of protein in the
‘ration is obvious. No tissue building and consequently
no growth can take place unless protein food is furnished in
sufficient quantity.

Carbohydrates.—-The carbohydrates make up the
greatest bulk of the feeding stuffs. The digestive tracts of
farm animals are arranged to accommodate large amounts
of these substances.

The changes in these food materials begin in the mouth.
While the food is being chewed, it is mixed with a liquid
known as saliva, secreted by glands in the mouth. The
function of the saliva is to moisten and soften the food so
that it may be easily swallowed; and to change the in-
soluble starch into a soluble sugar called maltose. The
action of the saliva continues on down the gullet and into
the stomach. The maltose is not yet in condition to be
absorbed by the system, but must be changed into a simpler
carbohydrate form known as glucose.

The carbohydrate materials pass into the small intestine
where they are broken down into simpler forms which may
be absorbed from the digestive tract and assimilated by the
animal body.

In the case of animals that live upon foods containing
large amounts of crude fiber, or cellulose, special digestive
structures are found. As has already been noted, the ox

20 COMPOSITION OF THE ANIMAL BODY

and sheep have four so-called stomachs, although the first
three are only enormous distentions of the gullet. These
parts are called the rumen or paunch, the honeycomb or
reticulum, the manyplies or omasum, and the abomasum or
irue stomach. In the last named, regular digestion takes
place. In the first three
named, especially in the
paunch, there is room
for vast quantities of
rough: feed:> Heremtie
rough feed lies for a time
until it is regurgitated,
chewed, swallowed the
second time, and passed
to the third stomach
or manyplies. In the
paunch, there is gener-
ally a great evolution of
gas, due to bacterial fermentation. Under ordinary con-
ditions, these gases are taken up by the blood circulation
and expelled from the body through the lungs.

Often when large amounts of green, dew-laden clover
or alfalfa are taken into the paunch, the evolution of gas
is greater than the blood can dispose of and bloat or hoven
occurs. If not relieved, the animal becomes greatly dis-
tressed, and the toxic or poisonous properties of these gases
may cause sickness or death.

Fats. — The fats are not so readily changed by the
digestive fluids as are the proteins and the carbohydrates.
As they pass along they are first acted upon by steapsin
(an enzyme secreted by the pancreas) and converted
into soaps. Fats themselves are not soluble and are

Fig. 4.— Stomachs of the sheep.

EXERCISES 21

changed to soaps so that they may be absorbed from the
digestive tract. These soaps are converted back to fats
after they have passed through the walls of the intestines
and are then taken into the circulation. The fat that is not
used to create heat or energy for external work is made into
fatty tissue which serves as a food reserve. ‘

Mineral Matter and Water. — Water is used all along the .
digestive tract as a solvent. It is found in all parts of the
body, forming a necessary part of all tissues. Without
water there can be no circulation whatever.

Mineral matter is taken up in solution all along the
digestive tract, and is carried by the circulation to all parts
of the body. Calcium or lime is used in building the skele-
ton. Phosphorus.is used in the skeleton and also plays
an important part in the protoplasm and cells of the animal.
It is also found in protein compounds. Iron is found in the
blood and to its presence is due the power of the red corpus-
cles to carry oxygen. Magnesium is found in the bones
and in the blood, chlorine is necessary in protein digestion in
the stomach, and sodium and potassium are found in the
serum and the red corpuscles of the blood.

EXERCISES

1. Name a list of feeds high in starch. In oil. In protein.
In sugar.
2. Classify the above feeds in order of the relative amounts
of these substances which they contain.
3. Makea list of feeds of high water content and classify them
in order.
HOME PROJECT

Make a collection of all the feeds used on the home farm and
classify them in order of their most important content.

CHAPTER II

FEEDING STUFFS AND THEIR PREPARATION

How Feeding Stuffs are Analyzed. — In analyzing feed-
ing stuffs the chemist determines the percentage of the
following substances: water, ash, protein, fat, crude
fiber, and nitrogen free extract. All of these are capable
of furnishing nourishment to the animal body, hence they
are called nutrients.

To determine the amounts of water and ash the chemist
first takes a known weight of the feeding stuff, dries it at a

pateae

[| J

WATER PROTEIN ERAL OTHER
SUBSTANCE SUBSTANCES

Fig. 5.— Composition of feeding stuffs.

temperature of 212° F. for a few hours, reweighs and repeats
the drying process. When it finally comes to a constant
weight the difference between the original and the dry
weight is the amount of water driven off. Dividing the
weight of water by the weight of the original sample

22

ANALYSIS 23

gives the percentage of water. The dry part of the sample
is then burned. Mineral matter will not burn. - The ash
remaining therefore represents the amount of mineral
matter.

As already indicated, the protein is found by first deter-
mining the nitrogen and multiplying it by 6.25. Since
about 16 per cent of protein is nitrogen, the weight of pro-
tein is 6.25 times the weight of nitrogen.

Another sample of the feeding stuff is next treated with
dilute acids and alkalies to remove all soluble portions. The
insoluble part remaining is called crude fiber. It is com-
posed chiefly of cellulose, abundant in seed coats, hulls,
husks, and stems of plants. Crude fiber is largely in-
digestible. Feeds that are high in crude fiber and low in
the more soluble nutrients are called roughages. ‘Those
comparatively low in crude fiber and high in the other
nutrients are called concentrates.

Another sample is treated with ether. The portion
soluble in ether is considered as fat although the term ether
extract is to be preferred, because ether dissolves waxes,
resins, and gums as well as fat. Waxes, gums, and resins
are more abundant in roughage than in concentrates, hence
the ether extract of roughage is less valuable than that of
concentrates. Fat is very valuable as a nutrient.

Sugars and starches are included under the term nitrogen
free extract. The sum of the ash, fat, protein, and crude
fiber is subtracted from the total dry matter. The differ-
ence is the nitrogen free extract. The sum of the nitrogen
free extract and the crude fiber makes up the carbohy-
drates of the feeding stuff.

An analysis of corn and timothy hay will serve to illus-
trate the varying amounts of the different nutrients.

24 .FEEDING STUFFS AND THEIR PREPARATION

Corn TimotHy Hay
% 6
WEUGER So) Ss ches eels ae ee 10.6 14.1
PASI odie xe Ue Sag Da ale err Tee we 3.9
Gride-proten <y.everte st eee ae 10.3 5.0
Crudehiber wi, ei" S ya eee Qo Bw
Nitrocen tireevextracts ue aes 70.4 43-7
READ Fo eck sean, aati) Sey ORR ea 5.0 22
Totals 2 .0.. <:. 0. Seen pena eee oe 100.0 100.0

It will be seen from the above that timothy hay, a rough-
age, is much higher in crude fiber and lower in nitoees thee
extract than is corn, a concentrate.

In general, the value of a feeding stuff depends upon
the digestible nutrients the feed contains. The animal
cannot use all of each nutrient ina feed. There will be some
waste. It is only the part of the feed that the animal
utilizes that is of value. ‘This is called the digestible
nutrient and can be determined only by experiment. By
digestibility is meant the relation which that portion of the
nutrient retained and used by the animal bears to the total
amount. This may be expressed in percentages called
coefficients of digestibility. There are three general
methods employed for determining the digestibility of feed.
Only one of these, the most common and the least com-
plicated, is explained in the following paragraph.

How Digestibility is Determined. — Digestion experi-
ments are conducted with ruminating animals, either cattle
or sheep. The animal is confined in a stall and an accurate
account kept both of the feed fed and the amount of solid
excrement. Both feed and solid excrement are weighed
and analyzed. The difference in analysis between these

DIGESTIBILITY 25

amounts represents the amount digested. From these data
it is easy to determine the percentage of digestible nutrients
in a feeding stuff. The relative values of feeds may be
found by comparing the amounts of digestible nutrients
which they contain as shown by the tables in the Appendix.

Factors Influencing Digestibility.— There are many
factors which influence the digestibility of feeds. The most
common of these are:

1. The relative amounts of the different nutrients. Feeds
high in crude fiber and low in nitrogen free extract, such as
coarse fodders, are low in digestibility, while those low in
crude fiber and high in nitrogen free extract, such as con-
centrates, are high in digestibility.

2. The maturity of the plant. The stage of maturity has
an effect upon the digestibility of roughages. The younger
the plant, the higher the digestibility. This is due in a
measure to the fact that as the plant advances in age, the
crude fiber becomes more woody and harder for the diges-
tive juices to dissolve. But the amounts of starch and sugar
also increase, so that the total amounts of digestible material
increase as the plant approaches maturity.

- aT
LTT =

Fig. 6. — Grinding and cutting machines used to increase digestibility of feeds.

20 FEEDING STUFFS AND THEIR PREPARATION

3. Grinding or crushing feed. Insome cases grinding and
crushing increase the digestibility of feeds. The value of
crushing is especially marked in grains having a heavy outer
husk, like oats and barley, which prevents the digestive
juices from acting freely upon the more digestible interiors.
Grinding seems to be more valuable for horses and pigs than
for ruminants, whose paunches enable them to more com-
pletely break down the coarse husks.

4. Cooking. Cooking has been found to lower the digest-
ibility of protein. In most cases investigators have found
that the digestibility of feeding stuffs is lowered by cooking,
though some starchy foods like potatoes are improved in
feeding quality. Skillful feeders often cook feeds for prize
animals for the purpose of adding variety to the ration.

Fig. 7.— The digestibility of fodder depends on its proper curing.

5. Drying and curing. Drying forage does not lower its
digestibility, although more work on the part of the diges-
tive organs is required to masticate it completely and to
carry it through the alimentary tract. Faulty curing may
cause a loss of some of the more digestible parts of the plant.

DIGESTIBILITY 27

6. The kind of animal. Animals of the same species
digest food about equally well, although individuals may
vary greatly in this power. Cattle and sheep digest rough-
age better than do horses and pigs, because the fermenta-
tion which takes place in their paunches breaks down the
cellulose structure. The difference is less noticeable when
concentrated foods are fed.

7. Frequency of feeding. ‘The time of watering or the fre-
quency and the order of feeding do not seem to affect the di-
gestibility, although changes in order and time of feeding and
watering may seriously affect the physical condition of the
animal and thus lower the final nutritive effect of a ration.

8. The amount of food given. ‘The amount of food given
may affect digestibility. The digestibility has been found
to increase on half rations and is probably due to more
intense action on the part of the digestive juices. On the
other hand, too much food may tax the digestive system,
and some of it may pass through unchanged.

9. The amount of work. Medium work has been found to
have a favorable influence upon digestibility, while hard or
fast work lowers digestibility.

10. The age of the animal. After the digestive organs
have reached full development and before they become
impaired by old age, the power to digest food is greatest.
Aside from this, age does not seem to influence digestibility.

11. The breed. One'breed of animal digests food as well
as another, although individuals may vary in this respect.

12. The value of kindness. Harsh treatment may in-
fluence digestibility by interfering with a normal secretion
of digestive fluids.

The Preservation and Preparation of Feeding Stuffs. —
In localities where feeding stuffs must be kept from one

28 FEEDING STUFFS AND THEIR PREPARATION

season of the year to another, the question of preservation
and its effect upon their feeding value is of large impor-
tance. There are two general methods now in use, viz.,
drying or curing, and
ensiling.

Drying or Curing.
— The majority of
forage crops are so
high in water con-
tent when harvested
that a process of cur-
ing must be resorted
to. While the mere
drying of a foodstuff
does not impair its
nutritive value, there
is generally a loss
of feeding value
through curing, be-
cause leaves are shat-
tered in handling,
and aroma is lost by
the evaporation of
dew. Bleaching by
ee : the sun also causes

Fig. 8.— Chopping corn forage and storing it in a chemical loss, and

ar the rain and the dew
carry off valuable nutrients in solution. Corn forage, al-
lowed to stand in the field over winter, loses not less than
25 per cent of its feeding value by leaching and bleaching.

The making of good hay is an art. Since the leaves of
alfalfa and clover contain the most valuable part of the

ENSILING 29

nutrients, the secret of successful haymaking is to withdraw
the water so uniformly from the leaves and stems that the
leaves may not be lost.

Since heating will cause a loss of its feeding value, early
picked corn and grain threshed out of the shock, or from
stacks, before sweating has taken place, should be care-
fully watched to prevent heating.

Ensiling. — Ensiling is the storing of crops as soon as they
are cut in air-tight receptacles called silos. This method
reduces the losses to a minimum. Ensiling preserves the
entire plant without loss of water, thus producing a succulent
feeding stuff. The chemical changes which take place in
the silo make the feed more pleasing to the taste. These
qualities give the ensiled crop a decided advantage over
dried crops. The silo extends the conditions of summer
feeding throughout the year. This is one of the strong
points in favor of silage as a feed for producing both milk
and beef.

Preparation of Feeding Stuffs. — In general, the less
preparation made of feeding stuffs, the more economical the
feeding process. However, the value of the feeding stuff
may sometimes be increased by cutting, grinding, or soaking.

Cutting. — Hay or straw for horses and cattle is often
improved by cutting it in lengths of 2 or 3 inches. This
may be mixed and fed with a grain ration. In this way the
value of the hay is apparently increased because the animals
eat it with greater relish, and the grain goes further because
it is better masticated by the animal. Shredding corn
stover does not increase its feeding value but it reduces the
-stover to a form that is more easily stored, handled, and fed.
The waste makes good bedding, is an excellent absorbent of
liquid manure, and is easily applied to the soil.

30 FEEDING STUFFS AND THEIR PREPARATION

Grinding and Crushing. — For fattening hogs there is
no economy in grinding corn. In feeding young pigs or
older animals for show purposes there may be some ad-
vantage in grinding. More rapid gains and a better finish
may be put on, but these will be-accomplished at an in-
creased cost.

It does not pay to grind corn for fattening cattle if hogsare
following. The gains made by the hogs are more valuable
than the increased gains made by the cattle on ground corn,
to say nothing of the cost of grinding. In case of feeding
without hogs following, the grain should be ground to pre-
vent loss of feed. For fitting cattle for show purposes,
improved finish and more rapid gains may be made by feed-
ing ground grains.

The dairy cow under the severe strain of heavy milking
needs ground feed. This saves her energy for milk produc-
tion and better results are thus obtained.

Calves do better on cracked or crushed grains because
their organs of mastication are not so well developed and
their digestive tracts are not so capable of handling the
unground feed as those of the mature animal. Fine grind-
ing should not be resorted to because of the additional cost,
and because finely ground grain does not properly exercise
the digestive organs.

Feeders of large numbers of work horses feed crushed grain
and cut hay to good-advantage. They find there is an
actual saving in the amount of grain necessary ; besides the
horses are kept in better condition.

Sheep can usually grind their own grain, but young lambs
do better on crushed or cracked grains.

Barley and old corn, on account of their hardness, are
digested better by all animals when crushed.

EXERCISES 31

Cooking and Soaking. — All modern investigators are
agreed that uncooked foods are better for farm animals.
For adding variety and palatability to the ration and im-
proving the finish of animals being fitted for show, without
regard to economy, cooked feeds are fed with good results.

Soaking feeds often improves them by rendering them
more easily masticated and carried along the digestive
tract. The mouths of grass-fed beef cattle often become
sore from eating hard, dry corn. For them the corn may
be improved by soaking for twelve hours before feeding.
Barley is also improved for pigs by soaking it for the
same length of time.

Care of Wet Feeds. — Slop or moistened feeds should not
be allowed to stand long in dirty barrels, vats, or other
receptacles. Under such conditions souring takes place
and feeds become unpalatable. Disastrous results to ani-
mals may follow a neglect to keep receptacles clean.

EXERCISES

1. Would you feed ground corn to pigs? Why?

2. Does it pay to give feeds special preparation?

3. For what purposes should feed receive special preparation?
How should it be prepared? |

4. Which is to be preferred as a feed, pound for pound, grass
or dry hay?

HOME PROJECT

By feeding two lots of pigs, one on whole corn and the other
on ground corn, and slop, and keeping accurate records, com-
pare these two methods of feeding corn. All other conditions
must be the same.

CHAPTER: Tit

CLASSES OF FEEDING STUFFS

FEEDING STUFFS are usually classified as roughages, con-
centrates, and root crops.

Roughages. — Roughages are bulky feeds that come
from the grasses and forage crops. They have a low
amount of digestible material in proportion to their weight.
Included under the head of roughages are the grasses, the
legumes, the straws of different cereals, silage, and stover.

Concentrates. — Included under this head are the cereal
grains, the oil-bearing seeds, and a large number of so-
called by-product feeding stuffs from the following sources:
the milling of grains, the manufacture of cereal foods,
starch, sugar and glucose, and the extraction of oils, and
the slaughtering of animals. Concentrates are just what
the name implies, concentrated feeds, since they are high
in the easily digested nutrients.

Roots and Tubers. — This group of feeding stuffs in-
cludes a large number of crops that form a valuable source
of food for animals in countries where corn cannot be
successfully grown. Root crops may be considered as
very succulent concentrates.

The Grasses. — Grass is the natural diet of all our
domesticated live stock and the experienced feeder knows
that the more he keeps his stock on a diet which closely
resembles grass pasture the more successful his feeding.

32

ROOTS AND CORN 18)

Included among the grasses are corn, Kentucky blue
grass, timothy, orchard grass, redtop, prairie grass, marsh
grass, quack grass, brome grass, Bermuda grass, Johnson
_ grass, Italian rye grass, the cereal grains, and other more
or less important grasses.

Corn as Roughage.— Though usually grown for the
grain to be used for human and animal consumption,

J ;
|

i

2
z
:
i/

Beet Carrot Parsnip Mangel-wurzel
Fig. 9.— Roots used for food.

corn is in reality a giant grass. It is more valuable to the

American farmer than all the other grains produced. When

it is planted in rows about 3% feet apart it reproduces the

grain more than a thousandfold. Indeed the richness of

our soils in many sections of the country is rated by the

amount of corn that can be raised upon them. When
T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB. — 3

34 CLASSES OF FEEDING STUFFS

this great crop 1s grown thickly in the row, or is sown broad-
cast upon the field, a veritable giant grass crop is formed
that will yield 10 to 20 tons of green material per acre.

As a feed for all classes of live stock corn is unsurpassed.
It should be remembered, however, that it is a highly
carbonaceous feed and should not be depended upon en-
tirely for feed for the young, or for the mother animal
producing milk.

The Sorghums.— These embrace a number of large
grasses which are becoming more and more important to
the farmers of the semiarid regions of the West and
Southwest. Although some of these plants are as large
as corn they differ from it in that the seeds grow at the
top of the plant instead of in the axil of the leaf, as is the
case with corn. These plants are better than corn for
dry climates because they do not suffer so easily from
drought. ‘The commonest of the sorghums used for feeds
are Kafir, amber cane, and broom corn.

The Smaller Grasses. — While the farmer recognizes the
value of corn and the sorghums for furnishing large yields
of roughage, he looks to the smaller grasses, which need
no cultivation and live on from year to year, for hay and
pasture. | :

Kentucky Blue Grass.— Ordinary blue grass is the
common grass of large sections of the country and is found
in abundance in Kentucky, Missouri, and the Virginias.
It flourishes where there is much lime in the soil, and if
left to itself for a few years will drive out other plants.
Grazing sections are valued in proportion to their ability
to produce blue grass. A great many of the best beef
cattle of the country are annually fattened on blue grass
as a part or all of the ration.

GRASSES 35

Timothy. — Timothy is the commonest grass grown for
hay. On the market it sells well because it is clean and
bright and of uniform quality. The farmer likes it because
it is easy to seed and easy to cure into hay.

Timothy hay is low in protein and ash and high in
crude fiber. These qualities make it a poor feed for young
animals, for sheep,
and dairy cows. It
should not be fed to
these animals when
clover or alfalfa
is available. It is
the popular hay for
horses because it is
free from dust and
easy to handle and
store. It can be fed
to beef cattle dur-
ing the later stages
of fattening when
they consume only
small amounts of
hay, but clover or
alfalfa are more

economical for this Fig. 10. — Timothy from blossom (left) to maturity
purpose. wreht)

Orchard Grass. — Orchard grass is grown in shady places
where other grasses do not thrive on account of the scarcity
of sunlight. This grass is very coarse and when allowed to
mature fully is too high in crude fiber, and too low in pro-
tein, to make good feed for young stock. If cut before
fully ripe, and properly cured, it makes good hay.

36 CLASSES OF FEEDING STUFFS

Redtop. — This is sometimes mistaken for blue grass
which it closely resembles. It grows on low damp places
and matures early in the summer. When young and soft
it makes fairly good pasture, but it becomes wiry and tough
as it approaches ma-
turity. ‘Rommake
good hay it should
be cut early.

Prairie Grass. —
The original grass of
all prairie regions is
tall with but few
leaves. When the
land is once broken
up this grass disap-
pears. It is thus be-
coming extinct in
cultivated sections
of the country, and
is of little economic
importance. When
cut and euredias
makes good hay for
horses, being espe-—
cially free from dust.

Marsh Grass. —
This coarse, woody grass is valuable in dry years to take
the place of pasture grass for those who have unreclaimed
marsh land. It cures into a clean hay but it is too low in
protein to be valuable as a food for young stock and milk-
producing animals.

Brome Grass.— This grass is quite commonly culti-

Fig. 11.— Brome grass.

GRASSES 37

vated in the northwestern part of the Mississippi Valley
and grown with success in the Dakotas and Canada. In
these regions it is a heavier yielder than blue grass and has
higher feeding value than timothy, especially for growing
stock and for dairy cattle. It is also good for pasture.

Bermuda Grass. — This grass grows in the cotton belt
states where it is more valuable for pasture than is blue
grass. It is so persistent in its habits of growth that it is
considered a pest in cultivated fields. If made into hay it
should be cut early, because it becomes woody as it ap-
proaches maturity.

The Cereals as Grasses. — The cereals are usually grown
for their seeds or grain. When pastures are poor or in
case of insufficient land, the cereals may be used for feeding
green as soiling crops, or they may be grazed off for pas-
ture. Ii cut while the grain is still in the milk, a bright,
nutritious hay may be made. Oats are the best substitute
for grass, making the best pasture and the best hay. Barley
is next in value and rye stands last.

The Legumes. — The legumes are plants which produce
their seeds in pods. When the proper bacteria are pres-
ent in the soil they have the power of fixing the free
nitrogen of the air and storing it in nodules which develop
upon their roots. In this way these plants add _ nitro-
gen to the soil upon which they grow. They utilize nitro-
gen in the growth of their stems and leaves. Hence they
contain a high percentage of protein. They form the prin-
cipal source of high protein roughages.

The principal legumes are alfalfa, the clovers (medium
red, mammoth, alsike, Japan, white, sweet, and crimson),
peas, cowpeas, beans, peanuts, vetches, sanfoin, and
seradella.

38 CLASSES OF FEEDING STUFFS

Alfalfa. — Alfalfa flourishes in the semiarid regions of
the West. It is the best of hay crops. The leaves which
carry most of the protein are the most valuable portions of
the plant.

In regions where alfalfa flourishes it makes the best of ©
pastures. In some of the Western States large yields of
milk are secured from cows running upon alfalfa pasture.
Steers, hogs, sheep, and horses are also fattened on alfalfa
pasture only. In the Middle West and the Mississippi
Valley, however, it is not advisable to pasture this crop
when the ground is soft, as the feet of the animals cut the
crowns and thus seriously damage the plants. There is
special danger, if sheep or cattle are turned on to alfalfa
fields wet with rain or dew, from bloat, or hoven, that is
likely to follow. ;

In making the hay, great care should be taken to save
the leaves, which break off very easily.

Alfalfa can be ensiled with fairly good results. It should
be considered as a hay crop, however, and ensiled only
when wet weather prevents making it into hay. Alfalfa
silage has a much stronger smell than corn silage and un-
less it is cut into short lengths it is hard to remove from
the silo.

For the dairy cow there is no hay so good as alfalfa. It
is the best source of home-grown protein, and furnishes,
in the cheapest form, the constituents so necessary to milk
production. For steer feeding, it is the best roughage to
feed with corn, since it balances the ration by supplying
the protein and mineral matter in which corn is deficient.
Fed alone to steers it fattens them well. For calves, it is.
the best roughage, because it supplies the crude fiber neces-
sary to proper development of the paunch of the calf, and

LEGUMES 30

also contains the protein and mineral matter essential for
the calf’s growth. If fed judiciously in limited amounts,
it is especially valuable for the growing colt. It is one of
the best roughages for all classes of sheep. Hogs relish
alfalfa hay better than any other roughage. For young
growing pigs, it is
valuable either as
pasture in connec-
tion with the ordi-
nary ration or cut
and fed in the form of
slop. For feeding the
mothers of all young
animals the hay is
the best roughage
that can be obtained.

Medium Red
Clover.— Medium
red clover is one of
the commonest leg-
umes in the North-
ern States, and is
the usual crop sown
in rotations with
corn, grain, and hay. While not so valuable as alfalfa be-
cause of its smaller yields and lower protein content, its
more extensive cultivation renders it equal to alfalfa as a
feeding stuff.

Mammoth Red Clover.— As the name implies, this
clover is larger and coarser than the medium red variety,
and is not grown so widely for feed. -It ripens somewhat
earlier than the medium red. It may be pastured in the

Fig. 12.— Alfalfa is the best of hay crops.

40 CLASSES OF FEEDING STUFFS

spring for two or three weeks and then cut before it gets too
coarse, in which case, if well cured, it makes good hay.
The second crop is usually plowed under.

Alsike Clover.— This clover which resembles white
clover is much larger and has pink blossoms instead. It is
usually grown with timothy. It is not so heavy a yielder
as medium red clover but is of finer texture and makes an
excellent quality of hay for all classes of live stock.

Crimson Clover. — This variety is grown most exten-
sively in the East and South. If cut early, it makes a good
quality of hay.
After it has begun
to ripen, the heads
are covered with
barbed hairs which
may form balls in
the intestines of
horses and cause
serious digestive
troubles sometimes
resulting in death.

White Clover. —
White clover is pe-
rennial in nature
and the best crops
are grown on well-
drained clay lands.
It makes good pas-
ture but it is said
to cause an abundant secretion of saliva in horses.

Sweet Clover. — This legume is sometimes regarded as
a weed and is not extensively sown as a hay or pasture

Fig. 13. Medium red clover. One of our commonest
legumes.

LEGUMES 41

crop. If it is cut early before it has become too coarse and
woody, it makes a valuable hay. For this reason it is grow-
ing rapidly in favor in certain sections of the country.

Peas. — Peas are often very profitably grown with oats,
when the crop is to be grazed off by hogs, or to be fed to
dairy cows. In districts where peas are grown for canning
purposes, the vines are cured into hay or made into silage.
As silage they form one of the best feeds for fattening sheep.
They may also be used for feeding dairy cows and beef cat-
tle. Ensiled pea vines contain a large amount of water,
and if fed in too large quantities may cause serious diges-
tive disturbances. They should always be fed in connec-
tion with hay or a dry grain ration to counteract this tend-
ency. Peas contain high percentages of both phosphorus
and protein which make them excellent feed for all classes
of young stock. The dried seeds when ground are valuable
as feed for hogs and dairy cattle.

Beans. — While beans are usually grown for human
food, they may be used to good advantage for feeding
stock. They are high in protein and mineral matter.
Where beans are raised for the market, the straw is valu-
able as a roughage for fattening sheep.

Cowpeas. — Cowpeas are grown extensively south of the
Ohio River. In some of the North Central States fairly
good results have been obtained from their use. They are
hard to cure, but where they can be grown successfully,
they may form a good roughage for sheep and dairy cows.

Peanuts. — Though usually grown for human consump-
tion, peanuts are used as a feed for live stock to a con-
siderable extent in some states. Hogs do well when turned
upon the crop in the field and allowed to dig the peanuts
for themselves. When peanuts are harvested in the usual

42 . CLASSES OF FEEDING STUFFS

way the vines may be cured into a nutritious hay and fed
to horses, cattle, and sheep.

Vetch. — Hairy vetch is the principal vetch grown as a
feed for live stock. It makes good pasture for hogs, cattle,
and sheep, and can be made into a hay of excellent quality.

Straw. — This term applies to the stalks of the cereals
after the grain has been removed. Straw is high in crude
fiber and low in protein, nitrogen free extract, fat, and
mineral matter. It is therefore low in digestibility.

As a feeding stuff, straw is very useful to supply rough-
age to horses and cattle that are being maintained over
winter. It is often fed with advantage to fattening steers
along with a liberal supply of concentrates and other rough-
ages. It may also be cut into short lengths and intro-
duced into the grain ration of the horse. “‘ Heavy” and
other greedy horses should receive some straw as part of |
their rations to prevent overeating of dusty hay. Oat
straw is the best. Barley straw comes next in feeding
value. Wheat and rye straw have small value as feed.

Concentrates. — Concentrates or concentrated feeding
stuffs, as they are sometimes called, are necessary in the
rations of all animals that are performing hard work, or
that are being fattened, or those which are rearing young.

Concentrates may be classified under the following
groups:

1. Seeds of various plants,

2. Commercial by-product feeds.

Under the head of seeds come the cereal grains, oil-bear-
ing seeds, and leguminous seeds low in oil. Under the head
of ‘“ by-products” come a great many feeds that are the
result of commercial operations in the manufacture of
certain commodities.

CEREALS — 43

Corn. — Corn is the king of American crops. The grain
is high in starch and fat. It is comparatively low in pro-
tein and mineral matter and contains but a small amount
of crude fiber. It is one of the best feeds to put on fat
and to furnish heat and energy to the animal. Since the
‘corn kernel is low in
protein and mineral
matter, so important
for growth, corn
should not be the
sole feed for the
growing animal, or
the dairy cow, but
should always be fed
with some other feed
that is high in these
important’ sub-
stances. Normal
growth is impossible
on an exclusive corn
ration.

Corn may well
make up a part of
the rations of all of
our farm animals, io.
provided good judg- Fig. 14. — Carcass of hog, fed on corn alone, and one

3 of hog fed on corn and alfalfa.
ment is exercised in
the amounts and the proportions fed. For the dairy cow
from 20 per cent to 50 percent of the ration may be made
up of corn. For fattening steers it is practically indispen-
sable. Although there is a prevalent notion that corn is
not a good feed for horses, it has been found as effective as

44 CLASSES OF FEEDING STUFFS

oats, which is usually considered to be the standard feed.
For fattening horses for the market, corn has been found
cheaper and better than any other farm-grown feed. For
the fattening of sheep and lambs, corn is very valuable.
In America, corn is the chief ration for hogs. -

Fig. 15.— Fattening hogs on unhusked corn.

Wheat. — Wheat is raised in large amounts for human
consumption, and is generally taken as a standard when
considering the price of foodstuffs.

As a feed for live stock, wheat is of little importance,
because it is generally too high in price. However, it
often happens that some of the grain is damaged by rains,
frost, or blight. These damaged kernels are useful for feed-
ing purposes. Wheat is higher in protein and mineral
matter than corn and is therefore to be preferred in the
ration of the growing animal.

Oats. — This grain stands next to corn as a feeding
stuff. Oats is very variable in quality and in weight per

——

——— —

CEREALS 45

bushel. The standard weight calls for 32 pounds, but this
may vary from 20 pounds in the South, where a great deal
of hull appears, to 40 pounds in the states of the North-
west, where a more plump kernel with less hull is pro-
duced. Per hundred pounds of weight, this grain is higher
in protein and mineral matter than corn, but is lower in
digestible carbohydrates due to a higher percentage of
crude fiber and a somewhat lower percentage of starch.
It is higher in fat than wheat.

Oats is one of the safest of feeds. Due to the high
amount of crude fiber it carries, it is not a heavy feed;
and its well-proportioned amounts of the various nutrients
make it approach more nearly to the requirements of a
properly balanced ration, for all classes of animals, than
any other single feeding stuff. It is the best feed for the
road horse. For growing young horses, calves, and sheep
it is almost indispensable, forming either all or part of the
grain rations for these animals. It may also form about
20 per cent or more of the grain ration for the dairy cow,
and some of the slop ration for the brood sow. The high
amount of crude fiber makes this grain poorly adapted for
fattening swine. It is well to have oats in the ration of
the young lamb, and the breeding ewe. Oats makes a
good feed for all classes of male animals.

Barley. — This cereal grain is one of the most widely
grown crops that the world produces, and forms one of the
principal sources of human food. For this purpose, large
quantities are used in the manufacture of pearl barley.
As a feeding stuff, it is good for all classes of farm animals.

In the western part of the United States, barley is the
principal horse feed, and in parts of the country near the
corn belt, it is growing in popularity as a substitute for oats.

46 CLASSES OF FEEDING STUFFS

Because of the hard outside hull, this grain is better for the
horse if crushed. As a feed for cattle, mixed with corn,
it makes a better feed than either barley or corn fed alone.
For the dairy cow it should be either crushed or ground.
Barley is also used for feeding hogs. Since it ripens early,
it makes a good feed for summer and early fall. In the form
of slop, with ground oats or ground corn, it greatly im-
proves the ration for the young pig. If fed whole, it should
be soaked for about twelve hours before feeding.

Rye. — Rye is usually grown on poor soils where it or-
dinarily yields better than other cereals. It is not a pop-
ular feed because of its low yields and because it is an
unsafe feed for some classes of live stock. The grain fre-
quently carries ergot, a parasitic disease that may cause
serious trouble, and even death. When mixed with other
cereals it may be fed to fattening animals with good re-
sults. Horses doing heavy, slow work keep in excellent
condition on it.

Emmer. — This cereal is a member of the wheat family.
It has a heavier bran than wheat and because of this is
more variable in its composition and feeding value. It
will do better than some other cereals in regions of light
rainfall. Large quantities are grown in the West, where it
is used in place of oats for feeding all classes of live stock.

ROOT CROPS

Root crops are those crops that store most of their
material in the roots. In European countries and also in
Canada large quantities of roots are used as feeds for
cattle, sheep, and horses. In the United States corn can
be grown more cheaply. Corn silage makes a feed stuff
equal in value to root crops at one half the cost.

ROOT CROPS 47

Root Crops High in Water. — Root crops are high in |
water content, which may vary from 8o per cent to go per
cent. The dry matter in them is in feeding value equal
to an equivalent weight of the best grains. Root crops
may thus be considered as watered concentrates which
are of great value in furnishing succulence to the ration
of the animal. They also have a tonic effect not produced
by other crops. Roots are usually sliced or pulped and fed
alone or with the grain ration. In Scotland and England,
they are sometimes pulped and mixed with cut straw or
hay, and allowed to stand for some time before feeding.

Roots Similar to Grass. — Roots are valuable for the
breeding animal, the animal producing milk, and for grow-
ing and fattening animals. The Utah Experiment Station
reports as follows: “ (1) The live weight gain for cattle —
and sheep was greater, and for hogs less, when fed on roots.
(2) The dressed weight of cattle, sheep, and hogs showed
in every case greater shrinkage for those fed on roots.
(3) The root-fed animals contained more blood and neces-
sarily more water in the blood. (4) The root-fed steers
had heavier vital organs. (5) The fat was always less
for the root-fed animals.’”’ The foregoing shows that the
bodies of the root-fed animals are about the same as the
bodies of animals that feed on grass, which is nature’s
ration and the one upon which the animals do best and
keep in the best health. For animals that are to be fat-
tened or fitted for show, roots are very valuable.

Roots Commonly Used. — Some of the common roots
for the dairy cow are the sugar beet, the rutabaga or swede,
and the carrot. For beef cattle the mangel is usually pro-
duced and for sheep the flat turnip is most commonly
grown. Though sugar beets are hard to harvest they are

48 CLASSES OF FEEDING STUFFS

excellent to add to the ration of the cow. Sugar beets
are about equal to silage in feeding value but cost more
to produce. Mangels are heavy yielders, and should be
fed pulped or sliced. Rutabagas may taint the milk of
cows, and should be fed after milking. Carrots are good
for horses, especially for young horses. While potatoes
are’ low in yield compared with some of the other crops,
small and otherwise unsalable potatoes may be fed sliced
to cows, and cooked to pigs, with good results.

Roots should be stored in a good root cellar and not
allowed to freeze. Frozen roots should never be fed.

CORN SILAGE AND ITS PREPARATION

Although any green forage crop may be ensiled, expe-
rience has taught that corn is the best crop for the silo.

Filling the Silo. — The best time to cut corn for silage
is when the kernels are well glazed, or about the same stage
of growth that corn is usually cut for grain. When filling
the silo, the material should be chopped with a silage cutter
into bits about $ inch in length, and well tramped down,
especially at the edges, in order to exclude the air. The
maximum amount of silage can be stored in the silo if the
material is allowed to settle a day or two after each day’s
filling. One of the approved modern methods of handling
silage is to fill the silo as full as possible and then to seal
it by planting on top of the silage, oats or other crop that,
in growing, will form a mat which will exclude the air.
After the silo is opened, there should be continuous feeding
to prevent long exposure to the air, which will cause molds
to grow, and result in poor feeding material. About two
inches in depth of the silage should be fed each day. This

CORN SILAGE 40

means there should be a relationship between the exposed
surface of the silage and the amount of feed used daily.
Practically all silos are now made round, because the round
silo has more volume for the same amount of building
material, more uniform pressure throughout, and there are
no corners in which it is difficult to pack the silage.

How to Calculate the Capacity of a Silo. — A silo that is
twice the diameter of another requires only twice the
building material, but holds four times the amount of
silage for each foot in height, and one that has three times
the diameter, has nine times the capacity. In arranging
the silo, it is a good rule to allow 35 or 40 pounds of silage
daily per cow. In a silo 30 feet deep, each cubic foot of
silage weighs about 40 pounds, and the average square foot
of surface 2 inches thick about 7 pounds. It will then
take about 6 square feet of surface 2 inches thick to supply
one cow for one day. To supply a herd of 30 cows, it
will take 30 X 6 square feet or 180 square feet, which will
be furnished by a silo with a diameter of 15 feet. The
silo 30 feet deep and 15 feet in diameter will supply silage
for a period of 180 days for a herd of 30 cows, if each
animal is fed 40 pounds of silage daily.

Feeding Silage. — As a feed for the dairy cow in the corn
belt silage is practically indispensable. It may be fed to
young calves, but it must be remembered that corn silage
is a feed low in protein and mineral matter and high in
crude fiber. For calves it must be supplemented with feeds
higher in protein. Silage may be fed to horses in limited
amounts, but it is too watery to furnish a large proportion
of the ration of working horses. Only the best quality of
silage, free from molds, should ever be given to the horse.

Sheep do well when silage forms part of the ration.
_T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB.— 4

50 CLASSES OF FEEDING STUFFS

There is danger in feeding frozen silage. After it has
thawed out it may be fed, but it spoils quickly after having
been once frozen. Frosted corn makes good silage, but is
drier than silage made from corn that has never been frozen.
Since silage corn loses a great many of its leaves after being
frosted, it should be cut, if possible, before frost comes.

Manufacturers of condensed milk and Swiss cheese often
contend that silage-fed milk makes a poor quality of these
products. Scientific investigation has failed to show that
there is anything in silage milk that makes it different from
other milk. In some localities milk produced by silage-
fed cows is accepted at condensaries. Owing to its high
water content there is some danger of unsanitary conditions
existing about barns where silage is used, but if properly
handled and fed, silage produces a good quality of milk.

EXERCISES

Write a list of roughages in the order of feeding value.
Arrange a list of concentrates in order of protein content.
Make out a list of feeds that are high in oils.
Write a classified list of seeds used as feeding stuffs.

5. Is cottonseed worthy of special consideration as a feeding
stuff ? Why?

eee

HOME PROJECT

Assist in the preservation or preparation of feeding stuffs on
the home farm. Keep a careful account of the processes in-
volved, the expenses incurred, and the results obtained, in con-
nection with at least one such feed.

CHAPTER: TV.

BY-PRODUCT FEEDING STUFFS

By-propuct feeding stuffs are derived from various
sources, such as the milling of grains, the manufacture of
cereal foods, starch, sugar, glucose, the extraction of oils,
the slaughter of animals, and the manufacture of butter
and cheese. |

Wheat Bran. — This is the most widely used of all by-
products and the one best known to the American farmer.
The outside coats of the wheat grain are high in protein and
mineral matter, principally phosphorus. In milling, these
coats are removed. Bran is made up of these coats, and if
of good quality, consists of large flakes, bright in color,
and light in weight. It contains a high percentage of crude
fiber which gives it bulk and makes it a light and safe
feeding stuff.

Asa feed for farm animals it has a wide range of usefulness.
For the dairy cow it is considered almost indispensable by
some feeders because it furnishes the protein and mineral
matter so essential to the production of milk. Its bulk,
lightness, and laxative properties make it easily digested
and help to keep the animal in a thrifty condition. For fat-
tening steers it is sometimes too high in price to be used
regularly unless fed in connection with corn, a combination
that brings good results. For calves, bran is an excellent
feed when fed with either oats or corn.

51

52 BY-PRODUCT FEEDING STUFFS

It is a good feed for horses also if fed with corn to
add bulk to the heavy corn ration. Bran is often made
into a mash and given to horses as a laxative. The practice
of feeding this mash regularly, whether the animal needs
it or not, is now looked upon with disfavor.

For all classes of young and growing animals, bran is one
of the safest and best of feeds.

Wheat Middlings. — In the process of milling, after the
bran is taken off, the next part that is removed is known as
‘““ middlings.”’ This is the part of the kernel between the
coarse bran and the finer flour beneath. Shorts and mid-
dlings are terms used interchangeably. Middlings are high
both in protein and mineral matter, being somewhat lower
in the latter than bran. When middlings are clean and free
from mill sweepings, they make an excellent feeding stuff,
especially valuable for hogs when mixed with ground corn.
They are not so good as bran for dairy cows.

Red Dog, or Coarse Feeding Flour.— This material is finer
and whiter than middlings, but does not command so high
a price as flour because it contains many wheat germs which
give to it a dark color. When this material can be bought
for a reasonable figure, it is good feed for hogs if mixed
with coarser feeding stuffs and fed in the form of a slop.

Buckwheat Middlings and Bran. — In the manufacture
of buckwheat flour, the coarse hulls and the coarser parts
on the outside of the grain are separated from the finer flour
beneath. Buckwheat middlings form a valuable feeding —
stuff. When they can be obtained free from woody hulls,
they rank in value with wheat bran and middlings as a feed-
ing stuff for dairy cattle. When the hulls are mixed with
middlings, buckwheat bran is formed, the value of which is
lessened as the proportion of hulls is increased.

CEREAL FEEDS 53

Screenings. — From the cleaning of the wheat before it
is ground and from material swept from the mill floor, a
by-product known as screenings is obtained. This ma-
terial varies in feeding value according to the relative
amount of grain and waste material which it contains.
Large numbers of sheep are annuaily fattened upon screen-
ings as part of their diet.

Rice Bran. — In the milling of rice, the harsh outside hulls
are removed, which, with some of the material adhering-to
-them, form rice bran. The hulls themselves are valueless
asafeed. The value of the bran depends upon the amount
of rice meal it contains. The hulls are often ground fine
and mixed with the meal so that their presence cannot be
easily detected. In purchasing rice by-products one should
always be guided by the chemical analysis.

BY-PRODUCTS FROM THE MANUFACTURE OF
CEREAL FOODS

Oat Hulls. — In the manufacture of oatmeal the outside
husk is removed. These hulls are high in crude fiber and
have about the same feeding value as oat straw. They are
often used to adulterate ground corn, in which combination
they are put upon the market as ground corn and oats.
While a great many of these so-called ground corn and oats
mixtures are good feeds, many of them are too high in crude
fiber to be of value.

Barley Feeds. — Pearl barley is a cereal food made from
the barley grain. For this purpose only the best of the
grains are used from which the outside hulls are removed.
These hulls are used to adulterate the poorer grains, unfit
for pearling purposes, and the ground combination forms a
barley feed. The hulls may also be mixed with other grains

54 BY-PRODUCT FEEDING STUFFS

and the combination sold as mixed feeds. These barley
feeds therefore vary greatly in feeding value.

Hominy Feeds. — Hominy is made from corn. Only the
best grains are used and these must grade up to a certain size.
From the select grains the outside hulls and tips are removed.
The coarse tips and seed coats and a great many small ker-
nels are left as by-products. These materials are mixed
together in various ways and sold under a great variety of
trade names such as hominy chop, and hominy feed. Their
feeding value is shown by chemical analysis.

BY-PRODUCT FEEDS FROM THE MANUFACTURE
OF STARCH AND GLUCOSE

Corn is used in the manufacture of starch and glucose.
Since only the starch grains are desired by the manufac-
turer, the by-product materials are made up of the hull, the
tips, the germs, and the gluten portions of the corn kernel.
The feeding stuffs thus obtained appear below.

Corn Bran. — This material is made up of the outside
layer of the corn grain and is removed in the earliest part of
the starch-making process. It contains a high percentage of
crude fiber and mineral matter. It does not equal wheat
bran in feeding value, and is generally used to adulterate
other by-products to form some of the so-called mixed feeds,
sold under the names of sugar feeds and starch feeds. It is
also used to mix with the gluten meal to form gluten feed.

Germ Meal.— In another part of the starch-making
process the germs of the corn are removed. ‘These germs
are ground and the oil is pressed out, leaving germ oil cake.
This ground cake forms germ oil meal, a feeding stuff high
in protein, mineral matter, and fat. It is valuable to mix
with some of the coarser concentrates, but when left in stor-

PULP FEEDS 55

age for too long a period, it may become rancid and unpal-
atable.

Gluten Meal and Gluten Feed. — The gluten residue of
the corn kernel is rich in protein. When this is ground it
forms gluten meal which is almost too concentrated to feed
alone. The manufacturer mixes corn bran with the meal
and forms gluten feed, one of the best feeds for dairy cows.
The feeding value of the gluten feed depends upon the
amount of bran it contains.

Sugar and Starch Feeds. — These are mixtures prepared
in various ways from the by-products obtainable from starch
and glucose factories. Their feeding values are variable,
and in purchasing, the feeder should insist upon relatively
high protein and low crude fiber content.

BY-PRODUCT FEEDS FROM THE MANUFACTURE
OF SUGAR

Ordinary sugar is made from sugar cane and sugar beets.
Some of the by-products of the sugar industry are useful for
feeding purposes.

Beet Pulp. — In the manufacture of beet sugar there is
a by-product known as beet pulp, consisting largely of crude
fiber. It also contains a considerable amount of protein
and mineral matter. In the wet form it is a wholesome and
valuable feed for dairy and beef cattle. When fed in the
open, in cold weather, care should be taken to prevent
freezing. It should be fed in warm stables, and all feeding
receptacles should be kept fresh and clean. In the imme-
diate vicinity of beet sugar factories it is often stored in
silos. Most of the beet pulp is dried, however, in which
form it can be readily transported, and the danger of freez-
ing and spoiling is reduced to a minimum. In the dried

56 BY-PRODUCT FEEDING STUFFS

form the pulp can be stored the same as bran‘or any other
_ dry feed. Dried pulp is a good feed for horses and sheep as
well as for beef and dairy cattle.

Molasses Feeds. — The liquid drawn off during the
crystallization of sugar is known as molasses. The mo-
lasses from sugar cane is sweet and palatable and makes a
good feeding stuff. In the South, where this material is
obtained in large quantities, it is fed freely to mules and is
considered to have feeding value equal to corn. A great
deal of black molasses is used for feeding beef cattle that
are being fitted for show, and very good results are ob-
tained from its use.

Molasses obtained from the sugar beet is not so palatable
as that obtained from the cane plant. It is often mixed
with other feed stuffs and the mixtures are called molasses
feeds. These feeds vary greatly in feeding value, depending
upon the quality of the materials with which the molasses
is mixed. Alfalfa is sometimes mixed with molasses.
If the alfalfa is good the mixture is good, but it often
happens that the alfalfa is poor and then the mixture is
not so good as alfalfa hay, even though it does contain
molasses and may cost more. Molasses is sometimes used
to act as carrier and sweetener for practically worthless
material. Purchasers of molasses mixtures should be care-
ful to buy only those feeds whose feeding value is known.

BY-PRODUCT FEEDS FROM THE EXTRACTION
OF OILS

Some plants produce seeds high in oil of great commercial
value. From flaxseed, linseed oil, used largely in the man-
ufacture of paint, is obtained. This oil commands a high
price and thus makes the manufacture of linseed oil a lucra-

COTTONSEED FEEDS 57

tive industry. From the seed of the cotton plant is derived
cottonseed oil, used in the manufacture of soaps and for
other purposes. Commercial oils are also obtained from
corn and peanuts.

Flax, cotton, and peanut seeds are not only high in oil
content but are also rich in protein and mineral matter.
After the oil has been extracted from these seeds, the by-
product materials form feeding substances that are the
heaviest carriers of protein of all commercial feeds.

Cottonseed Meal. — After the extraction of cottonseed
oil the cake remaining is called cottonseed cake. If this
cake is ground, cottonseed meal is formed. The cake is
sometimes merely broken into nut form.

Cottonseed cake or meal is one of the cheapest and best
carriers of protein. It can be fed in limited amounts to
all classes of animals. For the dairy cow it is a satisfactory
feed and gives excellent results when fed in small amounts

Fig. 16.— Fancy cuts of beef from animals whose feed contained cottonseed meal as
the principal concentrate.

in connection with a good grain ration. For feeding steers
it is now conceded to be one of the best high protein feeds,
when fed with corn as part of the ration. Cottonseed meal
can be used to replace some of the grain in the ration of the
horse with good results. In sheep feeding, cottonseed cake ©
can be utilized and the fattening ration is often improved
by introducing a limited amount of this feed.

58 BY-PRODUCT: FEEDING STUFFS

Cottonseed Poisoning. — Hogs have often been poisoned
by being fed upon cottonseed meal. The usual advice
given is not to feed cottonseed meal to hogs. Cattle have
been known to go blind after having been fed upon this
material for a 100-day period, and in instances where fed
too long death has ensued.

Fed in limited amounts, cottonseed meal is a safe
feed and should be more generally used. If fresh it has

Fig. 17.— Cattle fed on shelled corn, linseed oil meal, shock corn, and clover hay.

a bright yellow color. Old feed that has been long stored or
that has been wet and become moldy should not be fed.
From 2 to 4 pounds daily in the rations of either the dairy
cow or the steer are perfectly safe amounts.

Linseed Oil Meal. — There are two methods of extracting
linseed oil from the seed of flax. In the old process, the oil
is extracted by pressure, and in the new process, the oil is
dissolved out by treating the ground flaxseed with naphtha.

LINSEED FEEDS 59

Most of the linseed oil now on the market is obtained by the
old process, so that old process oil meal is the kind most
in use as a stock feed. The new process extracts the oil
‘somewhat more completely than does the old, so that the
old process oil meal is somewhat higher in fat and slightly .
lower in protein content. In extracting the oil by the new
process, however, the seed is heated by steam to drive off
the naphtha. This heating lowers the digestibility of the
protein so that the amount of digestible protein in the two
feeds is nearly the same. Linseed meal is a valuable feed
on any stock farm, but it is too rich and high priced to feed
in large amounts. Its high content of protein makes it an
excellent feed to add to rations low in this nutrient. Its
high content of oil gives to it a mild laxative effect.

For dairy cows, about ten per cent of linseed meal in the
grain ration increases the flow of milk and improves the con-
dition of the animal. For young calves a small amount of
oil meal improves the quality of the ration. Breeding
animals should receive a small amount of the feed in the
ration. Animals that are being fitted for show or sale are
given an added appearance of thrift and finish by the use of
oil meal. A small amount of this feed will improve the
rations of both sheep and hogs.

BY-PRODUCT FEEDS FROM SLAUGHTERING
OF ANIMALS

The principal by-products of the great slaughtering
houses furnished to the feeder of live stock are tankage,
dried blood, and meat meal. These feeds are all rich in
protein and some of them are high in mineral matter.

Tankage. — Tankage is prepared by boiling down refuse
material from slaughtered animals in order to secure the

60 BY-PRODUCT FEEDING STUFFS

oil. After the oil has been removed the remaining material
is dried so that it may be shipped, stored, and kept over
long periods of time. The poorer grades of tankage are
sold as fertilizer, and those portions that do not contain any
_ of the refuse of the digestive tract are sold for feed stuffs.
Tankage is especially valuable for feeding young pigs.
It is so high in protein that it should not furnish more than
to per cent of the ration. It is an economical feed in spite
of its high price. Farmers who have no skim milk to feed to
young pigs should make large use of tankage.

Blood Meal. — Dried blood meal is also very high in
protein material and is valuable to add in small amounts.
to the ration of the pig and calf. Used sparingly it acts as
a corrective of stomach disorders.

Meat Meal. — Meat meal obtained from refuse scraps
may be fed to advantage to young animals. Because of its
richness it should be fed sparingly. All of the slaughter-
house by-products that are sold as feed stuffs are so
thoroughly sterilized by the high temperature to which they
are subjected during the process of manufacture that no
contagious diseases can be contracted from their use.

BY-PRODUCT FEEDING STUFFS FROM THE DAIRY
INDUSTRY

Milk is nature’s food for the young animal, and normal
milk contains all the nutrients in correct proportions for
its proper development. The nutrients in milk are highly
digestible. The first milk secreted by the dam after the
young animal has been born is called colostrum. It is high
in protein and has a laxative effect upon the young animal,
its purpose being to cleanse the digestive tract. After about
five days the milk of the cow is in normal condition.

DAIRY FEEDS 61

Milk contains a sugar called milk sugar which has the
same composition as cane sugar. |

The commercial value of cows’ milk is generally estab-
lished by its fat content, which may vary from 3 per cent
or less to over 5 per cent. The fat content varies with
individual animals, the stage of lactation, and the progress
of the milking. The fat content of milk increases as the
lactation period advances, and last drawn milk js richer
in fat than first.

At the present time butter fat commands such a high
price that few people can afford to feed whole milk except
in those rare cases where it is fed to choice young animals
that are kept for breeding or show purposes.

Skim Milk. — Milk from which the fat has been removed
is proportionately higher in protein and ash than whole
milk. It is valuable for rearing calves, and is the cheapest
and most reliable feed for this purpose. It is one of the
best feeds for young pigs. Five or six pounds of skim
milk has the same feeding value as one pound of corn.
Skim milk may also be fed to young colts after weaning,
with good results.

Buttermilk. — Buttermilk is the by-product from butter
manufacture. It has practically the same composition as
skim milk, and if the material has not been too badly
diluted, as is often done at creameries, it is equal to skim
milk as a feed for pigs.

Whey. — Whey is the by-product derived from cheese
factories and it is only with difficulty that thrifty calves can
be reared upon it. For pigs it has about half the feeding
value of skim milk and should be fed in connection with a
good grain ration. Whey should be fed fresh. If exposed .
to the sun in filthy tanks it is not suitable for feeding.

62 BY-PRODUCT FEEDING STUFFS

CONDIMENTAL STOCK FOODS

Condimental stock foods are said by their manufac-
turers to have peculiar medicinal properties not possessed
by the common run of feeding stuffs. They contain small
amounts of various drugs and herbs, which when properly
given under the direction of a qualified veterinarian,
produce good results with sick animals or those other- —
wise out of condition. 3 |

The Value of Stock Foods. — Various experiments have
been made with different stock foods upon all classes of
farm animals at the several experiment stations, and in
no instance have these foods equaled the claims made for
them. Gains made upon rations containing these materials
were always more expensive than those made upon rations
that did not contain them.

If animals need condiments, stimulants, or condition
powders, which is seldom the case if they are properly fed,
it is better to consult a competent veterinarian than to
resort to the use of expensive cure-alls.

EXERCISES

1. Make out a list of high protein by-product feeds.

2. What by-product feeds need to be purchased with caution
on account of great variation in their feeding value?

3. Why may not roots form the bulk of a ration?

4. What combination of feeds would make an ideal ration
for horses? For milk cows? For pigs?

HOME PROJECT

Test one of the combinations of feeds on some of the animals
at home, keeping accurate record of cost and results.

CHAPTER V

HOW THE ANIMAL USES ITS FEED

Rations. — A ration is the amount of feed given to an’
animal in twenty-four hours, irrespective of the time of
feeding or into how many portions this feed is divided.
A balanced ration is one that supplies protein, carbo-
hydrates, and fats in the proper amounts and proportions
so that there is neither excess nor deficiency. A mainte-
nance ration is one that will. keep an animal at constant
weight.

Feeding for Maintenance. — Feeding for maintenance
means feeding so that the animal will neither gain nor lose
in weight. The maintenance ration should furnish ma-
terial sufficient to repair broken down tissue; should
supply energy for carrying on the vital functions, such as
breathing, digestion, absorption, and assimilation; and
should produce sufficient heat for the animal body.

Roughages Preferred for Maintenance. — As a rule,
roughages are more economical for maintenance rations
than are concentrates. If the animal is doing no work
there is not much breaking down of tissue, but the normal
heat of the body must be maintained. Idle horses
and cattle are more economically maintained on a
ration consisting mostly of coarse roughages than on less
bulky but more expensive concentrates. The ration does
not need to contain a great deal of protein to supply the

63

64 HOW THE ANIMAL USES ITS FEED

demands of the mature animal at rest, and the bulkier
carbohydrates furnish sufficient heat.

Relation of Size to Maintenance. — For animals of the
same age, class, type, and kind, the larger the animal, the
larger must be the maintenance ration. The protein re-
quirements vary directly with the weight of the animal,
because the muscular tissue varies directly with the
weight. The most of the heat produced in the animal
body comes from the carbohydrates and fats in the feed
stuff and escapes from the surface of the body. A large
animal has proportionally less body surface than a smaller
animal of the same class and type. The large animal
thus requires somewhat. less carbohydrate and fat ma-
terial in proportion to its weight than does the small
animal of the same type. ,

Other Factors in Maintenance. — The fat animal re-
quires a higher maintenance ration than the thin animal
because it carries greater weight, and added weight re-
quires added energy to move it about. Under ordinary
conditions, the higher the external temperature, the
smaller the maintenance ration, because there is less
radiation of heat from the body surface. Nervous
animals are harder to maintain than quiet ones.’ Animals
also vary in their capacities to digest and assimilate
food. Other things being equal, animals of the same
general type make about the same comparative uses of
the feed given to them, regardless of the breed to which
they belong. It is practically impossible to keep a young
animal at constant weight during its period of growth.

Feeding for Meat Production. — Feeding for meat pro-
duction accomplishes two ends, growth and fattening.
Growth prepares the framework and fattening increases

MEAT PRODUCTION 65

the weight and improves the quality of flesh, making the
_ meat more juicy, tender, and nutritious.

- Growth and Fattening. — During growth, the muscular
fibers increase in number, length, and thickness. The

Fig. 18.— Cuts of pork from pigs fed rations rich in proteins. These cuts have less
fat than those shown in Fig. 19.

skeleton and all the organs of the body increase in size
and capacity to do work. In fattening there may be a
slight growth in the muscular tissues, but during the fat-
tening process the greater part of the gain in weight is
due to an increase in the amount of fatty tissue. Fat is

Fig. 19.— Cuts of pork from pigs fed fat-producing foods.

deposited between the muscular fibers and the layers of
muscle, beneath the skin of the animal and around the
internal organs.

The quantity, quality, and palatability of the feed has
much to do with the amount of fat deposited upon the
animal’s body. Only that over and above maintenance

T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB. — 5

66 HOW THE ANIMAL USES ITS FEED

_ requirements is used for making fat. An older animal
will fatten more readily than will a young one, because
the young animal grows, while the old one only lays on
fat. ‘The quiet animal fattens more readily than the nerv-
ous, restless animal, because less of the food is wasted
in needless exercise. ‘The breed of an animal has little ef-
fect upon fattening quality, but the type has an important
bearing upon the quality of meat produced. If the climate —
is very cold, shelter from strong cold winds is an aid in
fattening, as less food will be required to keep the body
warm. Thrifty steers can stand steady cold weather and
fatten better than in weather so warm as to cause loss
of appetite. The hog, having a lighter coat and taking
less exercise, needs greater protection from the cold than
does the steer. ip

Effect of Water, Light, and Air. — The fattening animal
should have free access to an abundance of good, pure, and
fresh water. Water helps to regulate the temperature of
the animal body and is necessary to carry on the increased
activity in the life processes due to fattening. Sunlight is
necessary to the growing animal, in order that its body
and organs may develop normally. For a brief period
an animal will fatten more rapidly and cheaply in dark
quarters than in light, although light is essential to health.
Darkened quarters prevent annoyance from flies and keep
the animal in a quieter condition. They fatten better
when quietness prevails. Regularity in time of feeding
and the amount and kind of feed given are also important
factors. If changes, either in the feed or in the conditions
surrounding the animals are to be made, they should be
made gradually. A changing period under any circum-
stances is always a losing period.

ECONOMICAL USE OF FOOD 67

Feeding for Milk Production. — Feeding for the pro-
duction of milk differs from feeding for the production of
body fat. The ration for fat production needs to supply
only sufficient protein and mineral matter to repair waste
and build up a small amount of new tissue. The bulk of
the body fat is built up from the carbohydrate and fat ma-
terial in the ration in excess of the amount necessary for
maintenance. On the other hand, in the production of
milk there is the constant need for protein and mineral
matter in the milk which the cow secretes. Considerable
protein and mineral matter are therefore necessary in
the ration to supply the demands of the milk-producing
animal.

The Dairy Cow an Economical Food Producer. — The
dairy cow makes the most economical use of the food given
her. The constant outlet of milk prevents her system
from becoming clogged, as in the case of the steer deposit-
ing fat. There is perhaps more variation in the ability
of different cows to produce milk than in the ability of
steers to lay on fat. Several factors cause a variation in
the cost of producing milk. In the same herd one cow may
make a good profit, while another, under the same con-
ditions, may show actual loss. While a competent judge
may be able to determine quite accurately from external
appearances the fattening qualities of a steer, only an ap-
proximation of the ability of the cow to produce milk can
be so made.

Care as Essential as Feed. — The amount and character
of feed given is a large factor in milk production. Cows
that are expected to produce heavily must be liberally fed.
The ration of the cow should be palatable and contain a
liberal supply of protein and mineral matter.

68 HOW THE ANIMAL USES ITS FEED

While exercise requires more feed, a certain amount of
exercise is necessary to keep the animal in good physical
condition. ‘The dairy cow requires a higher and more uni-
form temperature than the beef animal because she has
no protecting layer of fat. The skin and hair of the dairy
cow are also thinner than on beef animals. Milk secretion
is controlled by the nervous system of the animal, and
any shock to the nervous system such as that resulting
from exposure to cold cuts down milk production.

Importance of Water. — Dairy cows require large quan-
tities of water, because milk contains about 87 per cent of
water. More water is also necessary to regulate the heat
of the body. The dry cow requires only about 65 per cent
as much water as the cow giving milk. The water supply
should be fresh, pure, and easily accessible. Some cow
stables are now equipped with drinking cups so that with-
out effort the cows can obtain drinking water at will.

Feeding for Work Production. — Within certain limits,
the working capacity of the animal depends upon the
amount of food consumed over and above the amount
necessary for maintenance. Rations for work animals
should be such as will furnish the greatest amount of
energy. Concentrated feeds rich in digestible nutrients
supply this in most convenient form. Bulky feeds that
require a great deal of energy to digest leave but little
excess to be utilized in doing work.

Nutritive Ratio. — The nutritive ratio is the ratio that
exists between the sum of the digestible fats and carbohy-
drates and the digestible protein in the ration or feeding
stuff. The nutritive ratio is found by multiplying the
digestible fat by 24, adding the product to the digestible
carbohydrate material, and dividing the sum by the

|
|

.

RATION OF THE YOUNG ANIMAL 69

amount of digestible protein. The quotient derived will
be the second term of the ratio of which the first term is 1.

For example, dent corn contains 7.8 pounds of di-
gestible protein, 66.8 pounds of digestible carbohydrates,
and 4.3 pounds of digestible fat in each 100 pounds. The
nutritive ratio of dent corn is found in the following way :
4.3 X 24+ 66.8

7.8
said to be 1: 9.8.

Rations that are relatively rich in protein are called
narrow rations and those that are poor in protein are called
wide rations. Cottonseed meal has the narrow nutritive
ratio of 1:1.14; rye straw has the wide ratio of 1: 57.8;
and oats has the medium nutritive ratio of 1: 5.49.

How Rations should Vary. — Youth is the period of the
animal’s life when normal development and growth take
place. To secure the maximum growth the ration of the
young animal should supply sufficient quantities of protein
and mineral matter.

The mature animal does not need such a high propor-
tion of protein and mineral matter in its ration, because
growth is complete. Sufficient protein to repair waste is
all that is essential. Because carbohydrate and fat ma-
terials are cheaper than are protein and mineral matter,
it is more economical to feed the mature animal a wider
ration than that fed to the young animal.

The Needs of the Young Animal. — In the corn belt
young animals are often raised to maturity on rations de-
ficient in protein and mineral matter. Young pigs suffer
most from this lack. The rations of calves usually con-
tain roughage materials higher in mineral content. Lime
and phosphorus are the mineral constituents needed in

=g.8. The nutritive ratio of corn is then

70 HOW THE ANIMAL USES ITS FEED

large amounts by young animals. These substances may
be supplied by feeding such feeds as alfalfa and clover
which are high in lime, and bran and middlings which are
high in phosphorus, or feeding ground rock phosphate, bone
ash, and calcium phosphate in mineral forms. Charcoal
is valuable for hogs and.should be supplied to them in a
trough mixed with salt. Common salt is a mineral sub-
stance which all animals crave and free access to it should
be allowed.

Young ruminants need roughage. Frequent attempts
have been made to raise calves to maturity on purely
concentrated rations, but without success. Non-ruminants
may grow to maturity on concentrated feeds alone.

Experiments have proven that milk with a medium
amount of fat is better for young animals than milk that
is abnormally high in fat. The milk of the average cow
has only a medium fat content, and the calf grows and
does well on it. Some of our special dairy breeds have
been developed to produce milk rich in fat, but the mineral
and protein materials are not correspondingly high, and
calves do not thrive so well when fed on such milk.

Feeding Standards. —It is not long since the feeding
of animals was considered little more than the work of a
common artisan. Cows, sheep, and horses were either al-
lowed to graze the range or were given feeds at hand with-
out thought as to their value. At the beginning of the
last century, science invaded this field and live stock feed-
ing became a science as well as an art. In time, standards
were formulated setting forth the feed requirements of
different classes of animals kept under different conditions.
The first standard appeared in 1810, and consisted of a
table in which were shown the amounts of different feeding

FEEDING STANDARDS 71

stuffs necessary to furnish the equivalent feeding value
of 100 pounds of meadow hay. The next standard of im-
portance was based upon the total amounts of protein,
carbohydrates, and fats in the feed stuffs.

The Wolff Standards. — The feeding standards of Dr.
Emil von Wolff, a German scientist, are based upon the
amounts of digestible protein, carbohydrate, and fat ma-
terial required by various farm animals under different
conditions. The first presentation of these standards was
made in 1864, and they appeared for the first time in
America in 1874. These standards are now called the
Wolfi-Lehmann standards because of the assistance of
Dr. C. Lehmann, a pupil of Wolff, in presenting them to
the public. The Wolff-Lehmann standards are widely
used because they are positive and easily understood.

Calculating Rations by the Use of Feeding Standards. —
It is practically impossible to get any one feed stuff that
will supply all nutrients in the amounts and proportions
that will properly nourish the animal without deficiency
or waste. Some of our feed stuffs are high in protein.
The use of such a feed alone would cause a waste of protein.
Other feeds are high in carbohydrates and fat. To get
the required amount of protein from such a feed would
necessitate the loss of non-protein material. If the feeds
are introduced into the rations in the proper proportions,
the deficiency of protein in one feed will be counterbal-
anced by the excess in another, and a properly balanced
ration will result.

A proper mixture of feeds always gives better results than
any single feed. Palatability and adaptability to the animal
are also good qualities. A certain amount of succulent feed
should be introduced into a ration as an aid to digestion.

72 HOW THE ANIMAL USES ITS FEED |

The following table sets forth the number of pounds of
total dry matter, digestible protein, carbohydrates, and
fat necessary for various farm animals.

WOLFF-LEHMANN FEEDING STANDARDS MODIFIED

POUNDS PER DAY PER 1000 LB. LIVE WEIGHT

DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS

ANIMAL q
reas Nutri
PROTEIN Ran fs a ae
Oxen ;
aN Sie ot =1 Ree ee a A 18 0.7 8.0 O.I 11.8 ,
Atjheavy. WOrke seit. «os 28 2.8 13.0 0.8 54
Dairy Cows
pidb.-ot milkidaily <2 2.9 25 1.6 10.0 0.3 6.7
22 lb. of milk daily. . . 29 2.5 13,0. /4\ i 105 6.0
Horses
Micghitswonks oiv ee mie 20 1.5 9.5 0.4 7a |
Heavy works. 55.) c ct elope 2,8 eee 0.8 6.0 .
Breeding Ewes ;
i hipadanle Weal of} Mibeag he atlonw es cs 25 2.9 15.0 0.5 5.6
BrGOdySOMseis.s waar kcee teh ge 22 2.5 rges 0.4 6.6
Fattening Cattle
First‘period® i2hia5.. tes 30 D5 15.0 0.5 6.5
astperniad: sine eciegts ji. 26 | 15.0 0.7 6.2
Fattening Swine
Hirst) period {fds tre seu 36 4.5 25.0 Or? 5-9
East period a4 Ment.) fe 25 2.7 18.0 0.4 7.0
Growing Cattle
Woune calves soiree ees: 23 4.0 13.0 2.0 4.5
Weanling seri. tt oe i 27, 2.0 L225 0.5 6.8
Growing Sheep
Young lambs... 26 4.4 15.5 0.9 4.0
Vearlingsss cay oi4 23 2.2 12.6 0.5 6.3
Growing Pigs
At weaning time. .. . 44 7.6 28.0 1.9 4.0
AXES MOS HApeR On) aN 30 3.6 20.5 0.4 6.0

It will be noted that the standards are made for 1000
pounds live weight of the animal, and call for material

PLANNING A RATION 73

sufficient for twenty-four hours. If animals are heavier
in weight, the standard can be changed to vary in direct
proportion to the live weight of the animal; the 1100
pound animal requiring 1o per cent more and the goo
pound animal requiring to per cent less than the amount
given in the table. The 250 pound hog will require $ of the
amounts set forth in the standard. In the Appendix will
be found the number of pounds of total dry matter, di-
gestible protein, carbohydrates, and fats in feed stuffs.
If the feeds are combined so that the sum of the nutrients
they furnish in combination corresponds to the number
of pounds called for in the standard, the ration will be
balanced according to the standard.

Figuring a Ration. — To plan a ration for a 1000 pound
steer at rest, first find the requirements according to the
standard used. The Wolff-Lehmann standard calls for
18 pounds of total dry matter, 0.7 pound of digestible
protein, 8.0 pounds of digestible carbohydrates, and o.1
pound of digestible fats in the ration. The nutritive ratio
of the mixture should be 1: 11.8, which is wide, because
the steer at rest needs little protein but requires considerable
heat-making food to maintain the temperature of the body.
Roughage is better for this purpose than are concentrates.

Assuming that timothy hay and oat straw are both
available, 10 pounds of each can be taken as a trial ration.
The Appendix tables show that in too pounds of timothy
hay there are 86.8 pounds of dry matter, 2.8 pounds of
digestible protein, 42.4 pounds of digestible carbohydrates,
and 1.3 pounds of digestible fats. In to pounds of timothy
hay there will be 7s of those amounts, or 8.68 pounds of
dry matter, 0.28 pound of digestible protein, 4.24 pounds
of digestible carbohydrates, and 0.13 pound of digestible

74 HOW THE ANIMAL USES ITS FEED

fats. In like manner it will be found that 1o pounds of
oat straw will furnish 9.08 pounds of dry matter, 0.13
pound of digestible protein, 3.95 pounds of digestible
carbohydrates, and 0.08 pound of digestible fats.

For the purpose of comparison, these facts are tabulated

as follows:
RATION FOR 1000 POUND STEER AT REST

First trial ration 4

DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS

DE
FEEDING STUFFS Matter | Crupe | Carso- RatIo

PROTEIN |HYDRATES Fats
lb. 1b. lb 1b.
1o pounds timothy hay . 8.68 0.28 4.24 0.13
Io pounds oat straw. . . 9.08 0.13 3.05 0.08
Sum of first trial ration .| 17.76 0.41 8.19 0.25 |! Teens
Wolff-Lehmann standard . 18.00 0.7 8.00 O:fO: ||," a aes
Excess or deficit . . . .| —o.24 | —o.29 | +o.19 | +o.11z

The first trial ration is low in dry matter, very low in
protein, and high in carbohydrates and fats. Some feed that
is high in digestible protein and low in non-protein material
must be found to. balance the ration. New-process lin-
seed oil meal is such a feed. If one pound of this meal be
added, the second trial ration will appear as follows:

Second trial ration

DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS

Dry ee NR IVE

FEEDING STUFFS Marrer'| Crupe | Carzo- RaTIo

PROTEIN |HYDRATES Fats
lb lb 1b. lb
First trial tations: 42000 07.96 0.410] 8.190 0.210
New-process linseed meal,
BOs Mayes eRe en (pe 0.91 O.375)|) O.857 0.024
Second trial ration . . .| 18.67 0.725) 8.547 0.234] Fti25
Wolff-Lehmann standard .| 18.00 0.700| 8.000 ©: T00:| ny aaee

Excess or deficit . . . .|+0.67 | +0.025 |+0.547 | +0.134

TRIAL RATION 75

The addition of 1 pound of new-process oil meal makes
the second trial ration too high in all nutrients, — the ex-
cess being most noticeable in digestible carbohydrates and
fats. If two pounds of oat straw are deducted, the third
trial ration appears as follows:

Third trial ration

DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS

FEEDING STUFFS ee N mae
CRUDE | CARBO- ars
PROTEIN | HYDRATES
1b. 1b. 1b 1b
Second trialration . . .| 18.670] 0.725] 8.547] 0.234
Oat straw (deducted), 2 lb. 1.816 | 0.026] 0.790|, 0.016
Sum itiaitation. . . .| 16.854] 0.699] 7-757| 0.218| 1: 11.8
Wolff-Lehmann standard .| 18.000] 0.700} 8.000} 0.100] 1:11.8
Excess or deficit . . . .|—1.146| —o.0oo1 | —0.243 | +0.118

The third trial ration falls below the standard by 1.146
pounds of dry matter, which is unimportant; 0o.0oo1 pound
of digestible protein, which is insignificant; and 0.243
pound of digestible carbohydrates, which is offset by an
excess of 0.118 pound of digestible fat.

Thus a satisfactory ration for a 1ooo pound steer at
rest might consist of ro pounds of timothy hay, 8 pounds
of oat straw, and 1 pound of new-process oil: meal.

It is practically impossible to keep the fat of the ration

“as low as the standard requirements, but since carbo-
hydrate and fat material are both sources of energy and
fat for the animal, these two nutrients may interchange

- in the ration. So long as the protein supplied in the ra-
tion is near to the requirements of the standard and the
nutritive ratio of the ration is close to that of the standard,
it matters little if the fat content is high. Neither is it so

76 HOW THE ANIMAL USES ITS FEED

important to keep the dry matter requirements up to the
standard, since it is the digestible parts of the ration,
rather than the total of its constituents, that is of greatest
importance.

Suppose a ration is required for a cow weighing goo
pounds, and producing 16.6 pounds of milk daily. The
standard for the 1000 pound cow producing 16.6 pounds
of milk daily, calls for 27 pounds of dry matter, 2.0 pounds
of digestible protein, 11.0 pounds of digestible carbohy-
drates, and 0.4 pound of digestible fats. The goo pound
cow will require nine tenths as much or 24.3 pounds of dry
matter, 1.8 pounds of digestible protein, 9.9 pounds of di-
gestible carbohydrates, and 0.36 pound of digestible fats.

Assuming that there are available for feeding, corn silage,
red clover hay, wheat bran, and ground oats, the follow-
ing amounts may be selected for a trial ration: 20 pounds
of silage, ro pounds of clover hay, 5 pounds of bran, and
2 pounds of ground oats. Tabulating these materials, as
was done in the case of figuring the ration for the steer, the
results appear as follows:

TRIAL RATION FOR A goo LB. Cow PrRopwtcinc 16.6 LB. oF MILK DAILY

DiGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS

Dry ——_ —_—— _] Nor ee ir ive
FEEDING STUFFS Risers ES Bee E Ratio
PROTEIN HYDRATES ous
Roughages lb. lb. lb. lb.
Corn silage, 20 lb. 5.280 0.280 2.840 0.014

Clover hay, io lb. 8.470 0.710 3.780 0.180
Concentrates

Wheat bran, 5 lb. . 4.405 0.595 2.100 0.125

Ground oats, 2 lb. 1.760 0.202 1.050 0.740
Prial rationh ener) fe 19.915 1.787 9.770 0.3930 | 5: 5.96
StamGardy yc nea. 24.3 1.800 9.900 0.3600 | 1:6
Excess or deficit . .| —4.385 | —0.013 | —0.2300 | +0.0330

FIGURING RATIONS a4

This ration is quite near the standard in all nutrients
and the nutritive ratio is about the same as that of the
standard. According to the standard, a ration consisting
of the above feeds in the amounts given would be suitable
for the 900 pound cow producing 16.6 pounds of milk daily.

Helpful Rules in Figuring Rations. — A few simple rules
are of value in calculating rations. The average ration of
the average dairy cow is about as follows: 24 to 40 pounds
of silage, 6 to 10 pounds of hay, and 1 pound of grain mix-
ture daily for each pound of butter fat produced weekly,
or 1 pound of grain mixture for every 3 or 4 pounds of milk
produced. The nutritive ratio of this ration is between
#:-O and 1: 7.

A tooo pound fattening steer will require about 15 pounds
of grain mixture or about 18 to 20 pounds of corn on the
cob, 15 to 20 pounds of corn silage, and 6 to 10 pounds of
alfalfa or clover hay. A rule for feeding horses is to:
supply about 1 pound of hay daily for each too pounds of
live weight. The horse on light work should receive about
1 pound of grain to each 1oo pounds of live weight and the
horse at heavy work should receive one third to one half
more to keep it in good flesh. In the Haecker standard,
in the Appendix, the tooo pound cow requires for main-
tenance, independently of the milk produced, 0.7 pound
of digestible protein, 7.0 pounds of digestible carbohydrate
material, and o.1 pound of digestible fat. For each 100
pounds that the cow weighs more than tooo pounds, the
maintenance standard is increased by one tenth, and for
each roo pounds that the cow weighs less than tooo pounds,
one tenth is deducted. To the maintenance requirements
are added the amounts necessary to produce the required
amount of milk of a certain richness in fat, and the same

78 HOW THE ANIMAL USES ITS FEED

method of finding the amounts of the various feed stuffs
is followed, as in the case of calculating for the Wolfi-
Lehmann standards.

EXERCISES

1. Calculate a ration for a 250 lb. pig, using the Wolff-Leh-
mann standards. |

2. Calculate the nutritive ratio of the various rations fed on
the home farm.

3. Compound a better ration in each case if the home rations
are deficient or expensive.

4. By the use of the Haecker table calculate a ration, using
home-grown feeds, for a 1200 lb. Holstein cow giving 40 lbs. of
3-5 per cent milk daily. 7

HOME PROJECT

Try out for at least one month’s time on the home farm
some new ration that you have calculated, keeping accurate
account of results.

CHAPTER VI

BREEDS OF HORSES

Breed is a term applied to a group of animals homoge-
neous in blood, possessing certain well-defined characters,
which are uniformly transmitted by inheritance; and
whose records are kept by a duly authorized association.

Type is a term that designates the use to which an
animal is adapted. In each class of live stock there are dif-
ferent types evolved by the special use made of the animals
during the development of the breeds. Thus, under the
term “ beef type ”’ are included animals especially adapted
to the production of beef. To the “ dairy type” belong
animals suited for the production of milk. |

The breeds of horses are classified according to type or
use. There are certain breeds of horses which are better
suited for certain purposes than other breeds. The Per-
cheron horse is better adapted for pulling heavy loads than
the thoroughbred. The latter has been developed for speed,
and for this purpose is much better than the Percheron.

CLASSIFICATION OF HORSES

According to type, horses are classified as draft horses,
coach horses, saddle horses, roadsters, and ponies. Mules
and asses are given a separate classification.

The breeds of draft horses are Percheron, Belgian, Clydes-
dale, Shire, and Suffolk Punch.

79

BREEDS OF HORSES

80

‘SSUIP]OS UOIDYIIOg

*mv9} 8SIOY XIS UoIdmMBYyD — ‘07 ‘5

PERCHERON HORSE 81

The breeds of coach, or carriage, horses are Hackney,
French Coach, German Coach, Cleveland: Bay, and off-
shoots therefrom.

Breeds of horses belonging to the roadster type are
American Trotter and Pacer, Arabian horse, and Thorough-
bred.

Included among ponies are the American ponies, which
comprise Indian ponies, mustangs, and bronchos; Shetland
ponies, Welsh ponies, and Hackney ponies.

According to the use to which they are put, mules
are classified as plantation or sugar mules, lumber mules,
railroad mules, levee mules, and mine mules.

THE PERCHERON HORSE

Percheron horses are the most popular and widely distrib-
uted of all the draft breeds in America to-day. They orig-
inated in the district or province of La Perche, located in
the north-central part of France. In the early history of
France, along about the eighth century, horses were used
a great deal in war, and the French drew freely for breed-
ing purposes upon the Arabian horses which they cap-
tured from the Saracens whom they defeated in 732 ap.
War as fought in those days demanded active, strong, and
rather heavy horses. Such horses had been developed
by the nomadic Arabs and were selected for use in France.
These Arabian fusions were practiced until about a century
ago, when a demand for large, active, strong horses arose in
France to be used not for war but on the heavy omnibuses
in the cities, and for farm work in the country. These
horses were strong, powerful, and active, somewhat rangy in

conformation, but well muscled. When railroads became
T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB. —6

82 BREEDS OF HORSES

common and the use of street cars and motor buses sup-
planted the horse-drawn vehicles there arose a new de-
mand for heavy draft horses. The American trade which
called for strong, heavy animals has had much to do with
developing the Percheron draft horse.

The country in which these horses originated is fertile,
the climate is mild and furnishes ideal conditions for the
rearing of good horses. The French government has also
helped to improve the horses of the nation by inspecting
them, keeping the good animals in the country and subsi-
dizing the best ones for breeding purposes.

The first importation of Percherons to this country was
made in 1839 into the state of New Jersey. In 1851, the
horse ‘‘ Louis Napoleon ’”’ was imported and found his
way to Illinois, where it is said he became the sire of over
400 colts whose good qualities helped to advertise these
horses and make them popular with farmers.

Characteristics. — The prevailing colors of the Per-
cheron are gray and black. Some bays and browns occur,
but they are less popular and common than the two above
named. Formerly the imported horses were not so heavy
as the type now popular, and more grays than blacks were
brought into the country. The Percheron type is that of
a strong, well-muscled, thick-bodied, clean-boned, low-
set draft horse. The good Percheron is noted for the size
and quality of its feet; well-muscled arms, forearms, gas-
kins and thighs; clean, hard, flinty cannon bones, free from
superfluous hair ; strong, deep, and wide chest; short, wide
back ; strong, well-breasted neck; and a good head carrying
neat ears and bold, cleareyes. The action is free, bold, and
straightforward, showing vitality and vigor in the horse.
Some of the too common weaknesses are tendencies to

PERCHERON HORSE 83

droop at the croup, sickling at the hocks which may have a
tendency to fill, and somewhat short and steep pasterns,
giving the horse a “‘ stilty ” gait. There is also a tendency
to be too rangy, which is not desired when one wishes to
grade up a “ blocky ” lot of horses.

Fig. 21.— Percheron horse.

The Percheron is very prepotent and his ability to trans-
mit his good qualities to his progeny has made this horse
popular throughout the country. The absence of hair,
which is liable to gather mud and snow, around the fetlocks
and on the cannon bones has made this breed a favored
one with farmers, and their weight and size, together with
the good quality of their feet, have made these horses good
sellers in the cities.

84 BREEDS OF HORSES

THE BELGIAN HORSE

History. — Belgian horses were first imported into
America from Belgium about 1886. Because of their
size, compactness, early maturing qualities, strength, and
quiet disposition, they have met with much favor at the
hands of American farmers. The history of their origin has
been rather obscure, although it is known that draft horses
have been produced in this section of Europe for centuries,
and horses from Belgium have played an important part in
the improvement of other European draft breeds.

They are said to be a product of the environment in which
they developed, so that few men stand out prominently as
improvers of the breed. Since about 1850, the government
of Belgium has done much through subsidies to encourage
the producers of these horses, and to keep the best ones
in the country. More males than females are brought to
America, most of the females being kept in Belgium or
sold to Germany, where Belgian horses are also well liked.

Characteristics. — These horses are very compact, being
the heaviest breed of horses for their apparent size. ‘The
body is short and round with well-sprung ribs, and set upon
short legs. The principal colors are sorrel, chestnut, roan,
bay, and black. Grays are quite uncommon. The breast
is wide and the limbs are muscular. The objections
to the breed are a tendency to meatiness in the re-
gion of the joints and roundness of hocks and can-
non bones. The pasterns are often too short and steep,
and a common criticism is that the feet, although of good
material, are too small in circumference at the hoof head
and too high at the heel. These combined defects often
lead to poor action and a stumbly gait.

CLYDESDALE HORSE 85

Mature males should weigh 2000 pounds and mature
females at least 1600 pounds each.

,

THE CLYDESDALE HORSE

History. — Clydesdale horses, of pure Scotch origin, and
_the favorite horses in Scotland, are found in all parts of the
world where Scotchmen live. They are produced in largest
numbers at present in southwestern Scotland, although good
Clydesdales are bred in England, in Australia, in Canada,
and in the United States.

In developing these horses, there are certain prominent
characteristics for which the Scotchmen have firmly stood,
and these features are the principal ones for which the
Clydesdale horse is noted. Males of the proper proportions

Fig. 22. — Clydesdale horse.

86 BREEDS OF HORSES

should weigh as much as 2000 pounds, and the females
should weigh at least 1600 pounds when mature.

Characteristics. — These horses have been selected for
their true and snappy action, excellent conformation and
quality of feet, pasterns, and limbs. The best Clydesdales
have large feet with open hoof heads and liberal width at
the heels; the pasterns are long and sloping; the cannon
bones are clean, hard, and supported by strong well-defined
tendons. The feather or hair that grows back of the can-
non bones is fine, denoting quality. The hock joint is
usually well set and clean, and the knees are large, straight,
and flat. The thighs and quarters are strong, and the arm
and forearm are well muscled. They have gently sloping
shoulders and are high at the withers.

The body is somewhat rangier than that of the Belgian
or Percheron. The Clydesdales are excellent draft horses
and good types sell well; but they have not met with the
favor on the market that the Percherons enjoy, because
they lack compactness of form. American farmers who
have used the Clydesdale horse object to the hairy legs,
which gather mud and snow, and are thus hard to keep
clean; and the market does not favor pasterns that slope
extremely.

In America, they were first imported to Canada in 1842,
where they are found to-day in greater numbers than in
the United States. Their continued use has greatly im-
proved Canadian horses.

The favorite and commonest color of the Clydesdale is
bay with perhaps one or more white feet and cannon bones,
and a white star on the forehead or white strip in the face.
Black, gray, and chestnut colors are also found, but they
are not encouraged in fancy breeding.

SHIRE HORSE 87

THE SHIRE HORSE

The Shire horses are the most popular draft horses in
England. They have become general in city use in that
country because of their great weight and strength.

They have developed and are now bred mostly in the low
flat lands of England, where the soil is rich, climate moist,
and vegetation abundant.

Although much valued in England, both in the cities
and on the farms, and used to a large extent in continental

Fig. 23. — Shire horse.

Europe and in Australia, they have not met with general
favor in America, because of the abundant growth of hair
on their legs, to which our farmers object.

Some people have difficulty in distinguishing between
the Shire and the Clydesdale breeds. While bay is the pre-

|

‘

88 BREEDS OF HORSES

vailing color in both breeds, and both have hairy legs, the
body of the Shire is much more compact, the legs much
rounder and meatier, and the hair, skin, bones, and feet
much coarser in quality. The pasterns and shoulders of
the Shire are steeper and the action is less rapid, true, and
snappy than in the Clydesdale. °

The colors are bay, black, gray, and chestnut, the popu-
larity of color running in about the order named.

THE SUFFOLK HORSE

Origin. — The Suffolk or Suffolk Punch is a breed of
draft horses that developed in the county of Suffolk in
eastern England, and it is in this section of the world that
the greatest numbers are to be found to-day. They have
never been much exploited in America, which accounts,
in a great measure, for their apparent lack of popularity.
The breed, however, has merit and will, no doubt, enjoy
wider distribution when its worth is more widely known
and appreciated. |

Characteristics. — The purity of this breed can be traced
further back than any other breed of British horses, being
well established as early as the beginning of the eighteenth
century. As to form, they are characterized by a low,
deep, compact body; short, strong back ; excellent spring of
ribs; strong thighs, and depth of flank. They are excellent
feeders, and can easily be kept in good flesh. Their action
is good and their limbs are clean. The general objections
are feet of limited size, although generally of good quality
and texture, and pasterns somewhat too steep. They are
also criticized for being too light in the limbs in propor-
tion to their heavy bodies, although the bones are clean
and strong and the muscles are well developed.

COACH BREEDS 89

Fig. 24. — Suffolk horse.

These horses are uniformly chestnut in color and breed
very true to type, which makes them valuable for pur-
poses of grading. The males weigh from 1900 to 2000
pounds, and the females about 1600 to 1700 pounds, at
mature weight.

THE HACKNEY HORSE

Coach Breeds. — The Hackneys belong to the coach or
carriage horses, which include three other types; French
Coach, German Coach, and Cleveland Bay.

History. — Hackneys are heavy harness horses, in which
beauty and attractiveness of action are combined with
strength and symmetry of body. They originated in
Yorkshire, England, where as early as 1800 they were bred
for trotting purposes. In early Hackney pedigrees there

go BREEDS OF HORSES

often appear the same names as are found in trotting horse
pedigrees, showing that these breeds have similar origin.
Later, toward the middle of the nineteenth century, the
establishment of horse shows did much to encourage im-
provement in the breed. The action of the Hackney is at-
tractive, being strong and “‘ flashy ” rather than “ speedy.”
Speed is sacrificed for great knee and hock action, which
produce the “ high stepping ” horses so popular at horse
shows. Since weight is essential to strength, and action is
associated with lack of weight, the greatest difficulty met
in getting good Hackneys is to attain proper weight and
retain quality and action in the animal.

Characteristics. — In form the Hackney is muscular,
with a round, compact body. To allow the desired high
knee action, the shoulder is well sloped and muscular.
Strength and depth of thigh favor the extreme action of
the hock. The neck is quite muscular and nicely curved ;
the head is clean with a straight profile. The loin is
heavily muscled, and the croup is comparatively straight.
The feet of the Hackney are well shaped and of good qual-
ity. The pasterns are long, strong, gently sloping, and
springy, and the joints of the knee and hock are large,
clean, and well set.

These horses are generally chestnut, brown, or ee of
solid color, making them easily matched.

Males weigh up to 1500 pounds and females up to 1300
pounds.

Hackneys are well distributed throughout the world
wherever fancy carriage horses are demanded. Although
the first importation of any great numbers to America did
not appear until after 1881, they are now our most popular
heavy harness horse.

lenin
COACH HORSE gt

THE FRENCH COACH HORSE

History. — This breed of horses has been developed in
France, in a region west of the city of Paris. They were
used for several different purposes, which evolved several

Fig. 25. — French Coach horse.

different types. For centuries the French people have had
racing horses, especially horses that could trot rapidly un-
_ der the saddle for distances of from one to three miles.
This developed the Trotting type. The government of
France has done much to encourage the breeding of horses
for army or remount purposes, and it offers a premium or
subsidy of from $100 to $1000 annually on good stallions,

g2 BREEDS OF HORSES

so that the owners will keep them in France for breeding
purposes. This government aid gave rise to the army
type. In France, as in other countries, a desire on the
part of the people for a horse suitable for carriage work
gave rise to the carriage type. The animals of the car-
riage type, the most popular in America, weigh from 1200
to 1400 pounds; an average weight for males being
1350 pounds and for females,about 1200 pounds.

Characteristics. — In perfecting this breed, the French
introduced blood from all available sources, the aim being
to produce the desired type, regardless of origin. From
England came the blood of Thoroughbreds and Hackneys ;
from Arabia the blood of the Arabian horse; and from
America some American Trotter blood. The result of these
infusions is a horse of strength, style, and quality, and
with an abundance of action.

The prevailing colors are bay, brown, and black, and the
height is about 16 hands’ They are an upstanding breed
with clean heads and necks, round, compact bodies, and
deep, strong quarters. Although most popular in France,
they are found in large numbers in America.

THE GERMAN COACH HORSE

History. — This breed of horses was developed in the
northwestern part of Germany for heavy carriage pur-
poses, and by the government for army purposes.

It is definitely known that these horses have been bred

in Germany for centuries, but authorities are uncertain as ©

to their true origin and development. The various Ger-
man states have produced the different types of German
Coach horses in America to-day, and these types have
different names. ‘Thus we find advertised the East Prus-

COACH HORSE 93

sian or Trakehner, the Hanoverian, the Holstein, the
Oldenberg, East Friesland, and Mecklenburg, all claimed to
be German Coach horses.

Characteristics. — The German Coach horses generally
seen at American shows are somewhat heavier than the
French Coach horses, and the stylish action of the Hack-
ney is usually lacking. They have strong muscular necks
and shoulders; round, strong bodies; level croups, and
strong thighs and quarters. The colors are black, bay,
and brown. They weigh about 1350 to 1450 pounds, and
stand about 16 to 163 hands high. In Germany, the
lighter ones are used for fast driving, and the heavier ones
as horses of all work. In this country they have not
attained any great popularity.

THE CLEVELAND BAY HORSE

History. — This breed of coach horses originated in
Yorkshire, in northern England. They were developed to
meet the demand for a heavy horse for cross country coach-
ing, and to draw heavy “ turn-outs ”’ in the cities.

Characteristics. — They are an upstanding breed, uni-
versally bay in color, weigh up to 1500 pounds, and have
strong action. They are very prepotent in transmitting
these characters when crossed with common breeds. For
these reasons, they can be easily matched, are attractive,
and good specimens sell well.

Cleveland Bay horses have never become very popular
in America. Their size and endurance might make them
useful for farm work, but farmers prefer to raise the more
salable and profitable draft horse. In competition with
the Hackney, they lack the action and. quality necessary
for great success as heavy harness or carriage horses.

94 BREEDS OF HORSES

THE AMERICAN TROTTER AND PACER

_ The Roadster Type.— This group of. horses includes
among others the following three prominent breeds;
American Trotter and Pacer, Arabian, and Thoroughbred.

‘History. — The American Trotter, whose ancestry can
be traced to the trotting and Thoroughbred horses of
England, has been developed for the sole purpose of speed
and pleasure. By selecting and mating the horses that
made fast records, a type best suited for speed has been
evolved. American Trotters are the fastest trotting horses
in the world. ‘Trotting bred horses that come up to cer-
tain standard requirements set forth by the American
Trotting Register are known as “ Standard Bred Horses.”

Characteristics. — The trot is a gait in which one front
foot and the opposite hind foot are moved forward at the
same time. In the pace, one front foot and one hind
foot on the same side are moved forward at the same time.
In both the trot and pace, there is a time that all four feet
are in the air, the horse being thrown forward with mo-
mentum sufficient to carry his weight through the air.
The trot is straightforward. In the pace, the body has a
swaying motion from side to side. The pace is a faster
gait than the trot, the world’s pacing record for a mile
being about three seconds lower. The trot is a more
powerful looking gait, and for driving purposes it is the
more popular. In the pace the feet are not lifted so high
from the ground, which is an advantage on hard roads
and streets, giving the horse somewhat better wearing
qualities.

The form of these horses is strongly in contrast with the
form of the draft horse. Strength is sacrificed for speed,

TROTTING HORSE 95

Fig. 26. — American Trotter.

and huge muscles are replaced by strong tendons. Short,
thick, coarse bones are replaced by more slender and re-
fined bones of great strength, smoothness, and hardness.
The hair is also finer than that of the draft horse. The
eyes are bright and clear, the chest is deep and full, and the
back short and strong ; all these points indicating endurance
and constitution. The joints are clean and strong, and the
feet of proportionate size and of extra good quality.

Some Great Race Horses. — The history of the trotting
horse is associated with the racetrack, and records made
there have influenced the selection of breeding stock. The
horse, Messenger, imported to America in 1788 and traced
back to Thoroughbred stock, had a marked influence upon

96 BREEDS OF HORSES

American horses. A great many trotting horse families
trace their parentage back to Messenger, and an elaborate
pedigree of Dan Patch (1:552) traces back to Messenger
43 times. Some of the leading families are the Clay,
Morgan, Hal, Mambrino Chief, Hambletonian, and Pilot.
Since most of these families started about the middle of
the nineteenth century, the trotting horse is of compara-
tively recent development.

The Morgan family, from which are obtained the Mor-
gan horses, is not famous for speed, but for horses that
are symmetrical, useful, beautiful, and stylish.

The Standard Bred trotting horses are most useful for
producing roadsters, a class of horses which the auto-
mobile is rapidly supplanting. The United States govern-
ment is now developing a type of heavy harness horse by
mating the heavier and stronger Standard Bred horses.

THE ARABIAN HORSE

The Arabian horse deserves study because its blood
has had much to do in developing practically all of our
modern breeds.

History. — The breed of Arabian horses was well estab-
lished before the time of Mohammed, who lived about
seven hundred years after the birth of Christ, and the
history of this breed is definitely known back to about
1500 A.D. The blood of the Arabian horse is distributed
over practically the entire world in the breeds of light
horses. Arabian horses were first imported into England
early in the seventeenth century, and helped to develop the
Hackney and Thoroughbred. They were introduced very
early into America and had a marked influence upon our
light horses.

THOROUGHBRED HORSE 97

__ Characteristics. — This breed of horses is noted for
‘g beauty, endurance, and fearlessness. They are strongly
and symmetrically built, and stand about 144 hands high.
_ The colors may be white, gray, bay, chestnut, brown, or

black.

THE THOROUGHBRED HORSE

_ This term is properly applied only to a distinct breed of
a horses developed principally in England.
a History. — It is thought that the ancestry of the Thor-
_ oughbred traces back to Oriental and African horses, that
_ were brought into the British Isles as far back as the
_ seventh or eighth centuries. From these horses some of
| the best of the progeny were selected to serve for cavalry
| and racing purposes. By selecting the fastest and largest
_ ones the general improvement of the breed was accom-
plished.
__ In America, the Thoroughbred horse has attained as
: much perfection as in the British Isles. The first ones
_ were introduced into Virginia as early as 1730, and in that
| state are now found some of the best horses of the breed,
| which are used for hunting and pleasure purposes.
___ Characteristics. — They have been bred pure longer than
| any other known breed and have been developed primarily |
: ¢ me speed under the saddle; consequently the form evolved
__ is best suited for that purpose. The typical Thoroughbred
a : is extremely refined about the head with fine ears and a
rather straight profile. The eye is clear and bright, indi-
| cating great nervous strength and endurance. The neck
is long and slender and the head is carried low rather than
| high, as is the case of the more stylish carriage horses.
3 The body is long and sinuous; and in strong contrast with
T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB. —7

98 BREEDS OF HORSES

the short thick muscles so much sought for in the draft
horse, this horse has long, strong tendons. The legs are
quite long; the muscles refined; the pasterns long and
strong, and the bones and feet of the best quality. The
horse is strong in the quarters, with strong tendons and
joints in the rear limbs. The blood vessels show very
prominently, which is considered an index of good
breeding. In action, the one ideal is that of speed, for
which style is sacrificed. The Thoroughbred should travel
close to the ground, and waste no energy in fancy steps.
This horse has had so much to do with attracting the at-
tention of man toward the improvement of live stock that
its study is quite important, even though it does not re-
ceive much attention from the practical breeder.

At the present time this breed is very useful in crossing
with common horses to impart quality. The American
Trotter, Hackney, and Coach breeds all owe much of their
quality and refinement to the infusions of Thoroughbred
blood they have received in their development.

PONIES

Practically every country’in the world where horses are
found has developed its own type of ponies. The sparse
feed and severe climatic conditions under which they are
produced tend to give the pony its small size, which alone
distinguishes it from the horse. In the British Isles the
height of the pony is given as 14 hands, but the American
standard is 14 hands, 1 inch. The height of the polo pony |
is 14 hands, 2 inches, or about the height of the Arabian —
horse.

Ponies are useful for riding, for drawing light vehicles, and

PONIES 99

in some cases for doing light draft work. Their great en-
_ durance makes them especially desirable for long trips and
for use in sections of the country where agriculture has not
_ reached a high state of development. They can be cheaply
- kept because they are able to use their food to the best
- possible advantage.

In breeding ponies, one of the great difficulties is to keep
the size within the limits set by the breed requirements.
_ The care and attention which must of necessity be given to

. breeding operations tends to increase the size of the ani-
mals with each succeeding generation.

American Ponies. — In America, the common pony is
_ the mustang, a term applied alike to both bronchos and
_ Indian ponies. These ponies, which are small and very
hardy, have been bred on the ranges where they have run
. wild for many years. Their weights range from 850 to

- goo pounds. Though difficult to break, they are faith-
| ful, intelligent, fearless when trained, and have great en-

_ durance. These qualities have made them the favorite

A ; pony of the cowboy on the western ranges.

i Ponies of Great Britain. — In Great Britain, there are

‘g a number of breeds of ponies produced, the most common
being the Shetland, the Welsh, and the Hackney.

_.. The Shetland Pony.— The Shetland ponies are the

_ smallest breed. In their native country, the Shetland

Islands, lying to the north of Scotland, they are used to
carry loads, to work in mines, and to draw vehicles. Liv-
_ ing under the influence of a very severe climate, they are

| the hardiest little horses that the world produces. In

_ conformation they are blocky; their weight varies from 325
to 375 pounds, and their height is from 36 to 4o inches.
_ When allowed to run out of doors, they produce long,

LOO BREEDS OF HORSES

shaggy coats of hair. The common colors are brown,
black, and bay. There are also chestnuts, grays, and a
great many broken colors. In this country, the Shetland
pony is a favorite with children, and as pets they have
found their way into nearly every country in the civilized
world.
The Welsh Pony. — The Welsh pony is produced in the
mountain sections of Wales. Forced to exist under very
severe conditions, it has developed great hardiness. It is
not so blocky as the Shetland, but is speedier and more
useful for both riding and driving.

The Hackney Pony. — The Hackney pony is really a
Hackney horse less than 14% hands high. Its size has also
been reduced by introducing some of the blood of the
Welsh pony. It has marvelous action, and because of this
it is, in this country, meeting with the favor of people who
wish small horses for fancy driving purposes.

Fig. 27. — Shetland Pony.

THE DONKEY IOI

Fig. 28. — Welsh Pony.

THE DONKEY

History. — The donkey or ass, a beast of burden common
to southern Europe, was first brought to this country about
the time of the Revolutionary War. The best types have
come from Spain and France, and are now found in the
southern and central parts of the United States, more
particularly in Kentucky and Missouri.

Characteristics. — The donkey is distinguished from the
horse by its long ears, large head, slender legs, small hoofs,
andits peculiar voice. The color sought for in this country
is black, with gray points. The feet are very narrow and
the joints of the legs are large, although the bones are of
good quality. The body is compact and the back is short

102 BREEDS OF HORSES

Fig. 29. — Donkey.

and straight. The tailis smooth except near the end, where
it has hair similar to that on the tail of the horse.

The burro, a small type of donkey, is popular in moun-
tainous sections of America. It is not much larger than
the Shetland pony, and is used chiefly as a pack animal.
Its patience, strength, and faithfulness make it especially
valuable.

THE MULE

The mule is the hybrid cross of the donkey and horse. —
The characteristics of the donkey and the horse are
combined in the mule. The mule has long ears like the
donkey, brays like him, and has narrow feet quite similar
to those of the donkey. However, there is more symmetry

SP)
O ‘MOT}IQIYXe UO Sonu ezI1g — ‘Of “BIA
—

MULES

104 BREEDS OF HORSES

of body and quality in the joints and bones of the mule.
The mule has a more nearly cylindrical body and is colored
more like the horse.

Plantation Mules are the best and highest priced mules
on the market. They range from 14 to 16 hands in height
and from 1100 to 1400 pounds in weight. They are called
“sugar ’’ mules or “ cotton”? mules according to the use
to which they are to be put on the plantation. The sugar —
mules are the larger and bring the higher prices. |

Lumber Mules stand from 15% to 17 hands high and
are used for hard, rough work in the woods. Extra quality
is not so essential as strength and ruggedness. :

Railroad Mules are somewhat smaller and lighter than
lumber mules, being about 15% to 16% hands high, and
weighing from 1200 to 1500 pounds. They are used for
work in grading railroads and must be strong and of
good quality.

Levee Mules are of about the same size as railroad mules,
but are of better quality. They must be strong and rugged
to stand the heavy work exacted of them at the wharves.

Mine Mules are small, ranging in height from 11 to 153
hands. Since their work is hard they must be chunky and
strong. In order that they may work back into the drifts
they need to be small.

The mule is resistant to disease and stands hot weather
better than does the horse. Female mules are superior to
males for all purposes. They mature earlier, are quieter,
and fatten more easily.

EXERCISES

1. What are the English breeds of draft horses? How do
they differ from the French breed?

EXERCISES 105

Be 3; What are the distinguishing characteristics of each breed
ol fhorses?

Pa ‘Study the horses on the street to see if you can detect
breed characteristics. tas

HOME PROJECTS

: Study the home horses and those of your neighbors and see
how many breed characteristics you can detect. By these de-
termine, if Ree their breed ancestry.

CHAPTER VII
BREEDS OF CATTLE

CLASSIFICATION OF CATTLE

AccoRDING to type, cattle are classed as beef, dairy,
and dual purpose cattle.

The beef breeds are Shorthorn, Polled Davican Hereford,
Polled Hereford, Aberdeen Angus, Galloway, and West
Highland.

The dairy breeds are Holstein, Jersey, Guernsey, hae
shire, Brown Swiss, Dutch Belted, French-Canadian, and
Kerry.

The most common dual purpose breeds are Red Poll
and Devon.

SHORTHORN

Shorthorn cattle are sometimes called the reds, the whites,
and the roans, because these are the colors common to
them. Originating in northern England in the fertile
counties of Durham and Northumberland, this breed is
sometimes called Durham, but modern usage makes
Shorthorn the correct name.

History. — The foundation stock of this breed were
called “‘ Teeswater ”’ cattle. They were of no particular
color, and not especially uniform in type and quality. The
Colling Brothers were among the earliest men to do con-
sistent work in improving the breed. They were followed

106

SHORTHORN CATTLE 107

by Thomas Booth, who developed large cattle that were

wide over the back and hips, but lacked in quality. The
“next man of note was Thomas Bates, who aimed, by care-
ful selection and mating, to establish a strain of cattle that
was large and of good quality. The Bates cattle, as they
are called, had very short horns, fine heads, smooth, sym-
metrical bodies, and were useful for milking purposes. Mr.

_ Bates succeeded in establishing several families of this

type, which were eagerly sought after both in England and
America. He was a good showman and believed in exten-
sive advertising. The most famous family he ever pro-
duced was the Duchess family. One of this family, a cow
named ‘ Eighth Duchess of Geneva,” in 1873 sold for
$40,600 at public auction in New York State, a record-
breaking price for a cow.

While the Bates cattle were strong ee idene of what
can be accomplished in the breeding line, they were lack-
ing in hardiness under unfavorable conditions. In develop-
ing the strain, Mr. Bates had done considerable inbreed-
ing and the constitutions of the cattle were thus impaired.
Amos Cruickshank was a farsighted Scotchman who
looked forward to the time when there would be a large
demand for beef cattle on the vast ranges of the western
part of the United States, and in the Argentine of South
America. So he set to work to develop from the Short-
horns a purely beef strain of cattle. He selected only
those of most nearly perfect conformation, and in time
developed a beefier strain than were the Bates cattle.
The cold climate of Scotland’made the cattle hardier than
the English cattle were ; they matured earlier; and it was
not long until the Scotch cattle, as they were called, be-
came popular in the show ring. Sometimes they are called

108 BREEDS OF CATTLE

“Cruickshank ” cattle in honor of the man who was the
first to develop them. :
Shorthorn cattle are the most widely distributed of any
breed of cattle and can be found in all parts of the civilized
world. As beef animals they are in the foremost rank.
Some of the cows are very good milkers. About 95 per cent
of the milk produced in the British Isles is from Shorthorn

Fig. 31. — ‘‘ Roan Queen,”’ a Champion Shorthorn heifer.

cows. In this country milking strains of Shorthorn cattle
are held in favor by some farmers, since they produce a
liberal supply of milk and a calf that can be sold for beef
at a good price. Such animals are known as “ milking
Shorthorns,” and are dual purpose cattle.

Characteristics. — The colors of the Shorthorn are red,
white, and roan (a mixture of red and white hairs). The roan
color is now much in favor on the market. Good bulls of
this breed weigh up to 2000 or 2200 pounds when mature.
Bulls have been known to weigh up to 3000 pounds, but

POLLED DURHAM CATTLE 10g

these cases are rare and this great weight is not desirable.
Good cows weigh from 1400 to 1600 pounds.

THE POLLED DURHAM

The Polled Durham breed of beef cattle have the charac-
teristics of the Shorthorns, but are without horns. There
are two distinct types: the Double Standard and the Single
Standard Polled Durhams. The Double Standards were ob-
tained by saving for breeding purposes hornless Shorthorn
“freaks ’’ which occasionally appeared. ‘The Single Stand-
ard resulted from the efforts of various men to produce
hornless cattle that possessed the type of the Shorthorn.
Both the Single and Double Standard Polled Durhams can
be recorded in the Polled Durham herd book, and the Double
Standard Polled Durhams can be recorded in the Shorthorn
herd book as well, because they are pure bred Shorthorns
according to the generally accepted definition of the term.

MESES

Fig. 32. — Polled Durham bull.

LO BREEDS OF CATTLE

In judging the Polled Durham cattle the same type is
desired as is sought for in the Shorthorn. These cattle
are now attaining a high degree of excellence and will
gradually improve as the number of breeding animals
increases.

THE HEREFORD

History. — Hereford cattle originated in the county or
shire of Hereford, in the southwestern part of England.
They are easily recognized. by their color markings. The
color is red with white face, white on the underline and on

Fig. 33. — Hereford yearlings.

the neck back to the shoulders. This color is so striking
that the cattle are often spoken of as ‘‘ White Faces.”’
There are, of course, variations from these general color
markings, but in a mixed lot of cattle an amateur can easily
pick out the Herefords by their white faces and red bodies.

HEREFORD CATTLE 1

Characteristics. — This breed is strictly a beef breed
and the fanciers make no claim to milking qualities, al-
though there is occasionally a cow that is a good milker.

Fig. 34. — Horned Hereford bull.

Herefords are very hardy and have become famous in this
country on the ranges. As grazing cattle they are excel-
lent and are said to be the logical successors to the buffalo.
Because the man who lives in the corn belt has in the past
few years looked to the range to furnish feeding cattle, the
Herefords have become very common in the feed lots,
where they make good gains on feed, and finish off well.
They are now distributed over the world wherever good
grazing ground is obtainable, and large herds of them are
to be found in Argentina, where they are raised to supply
the British demand for beef.

Because they have so long been reared under such natu-
ral conditions, they have developed thickness through the
fore quarters, and have become somewhat lighter in the rear
quarters, a fault, however, not found in the better Herefords.

112 BREEDS OF CATTLE

POLLED HEREFORDS.

The Herefords have large horns, a serious objection.
Most of them are dehorned before they go into the feed lot.
To do away with the dehorning, men have developed within
the ranks of the Hereford breed a polled strain. Because
there were so few of them, inbreeding had to be resorted -
to. Thus the type evolved is not so good as the best Here-

'

Fig. 35. — Polled Hereford bull.

fords, although as the numbers increase, the type will
doubtless improve. The strain established within the
ranks of the breed is known as “‘ Double Standard Polled
Hereford ” and is eligible to register in the Hereford Herd
Book. The ‘‘ Single Standard Polled Hereford ” was es-
tablished by crossing horned Herefords with common

‘ABERDEEN ANGUS CATTLE 113

hornless cows. The progeny were polled and having the
white face of the Hereford were called Polled Herefords.
This strain is not eligible to register in the Hereford Herd
Book.

THE ABERDEEN ANGUS

History. — The Aberdeen Angus breed, sometimes called
“ Doddies,” developed in northeastern Scotland, and
some of the best of them are produced there to-day. They

Fig. 36. — Aberdeen Angus cow.

are characterized by their black color and polled heads,
and are sometimes confused with the Galloways, —another
black, hornless beef breed produced in Scotland. With a
little experience, one is able to distinguish between these
two breeds, as the Angus is smoother and has better quality
than the Galloway.

Angus cattle produce the best meat, and in show yard

circles, where all beef breeds compete, carry off more honors
T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB. — 8

114 BREEDS OF CATTLE

than any other breed. Besides winning over 60 per cent
of the grand champion honors, they have won more than
half the championship honors for car lots and carcasses at
the Chicago International Live Stock Expositions. They
are very popular in the feed lot, and have met with much
favor on the range, although they are not so numerous
there as are the Herefords.

Characteristics. — They are very Slnechs in type; their
bodies are cylindrical, and contain great weight in propor-
tion to the surface of the body. When fat, they are de-
ceptive, weighing heavily for their apparent size. When
mature, the bulls weigh from 2000 to 2200 pounds and the
mature cows weigh from 1400 to 1600 pounds.

THE GALLOWAY

History. — Galloway cattle originated in the southwest-
ern part of Scotland where the best types of the breed are to
be found to-day. The early history of the Galloways is not
well known, but it is stated that they were found by the Ro-
mans when they visited Scotland about the fourth century.

Characteristics. — They have many things in common
with the Aberdeen Angus. Both breeds are black, both
are polled, but the Galloways are somewhat smaller and
have long shaggy coats of hair. They are very hardy,
and valuable for a rough country with a severe climate.
Their hides, because of the long hair they carry, are valuable
for robes and coats. As yet, they have not attained the
popularity enjoyed by the Aberdeen Angus cattle.

The Galloways are valuable in the feed lot, and may be on
the range. They are very prepotent and readily transmit
their characters to their offspring, making them useful for
grading up a beef herd.

HIGHLAND CATTLE a Hs

Fig. 37. — Galloway bull.

THE WEST HIGHLAND CATTLE

West Highland cattle are produced in greatest numbers
in the Highlands of Scotland where they originated. They
are easily distinguished by the dun color, rugged appear-
ance, long shaggy coats of hair, heavy horns, and the blocky
conformation of their bodies.

In Scotland they are well liked for the quality of beef
which they produce, and for their ability to thrive at little
expense in the mountainous sections. It is said they are
the only breed of cattle that will stand and face a storm.
They have never attained great popularity in America.
There is scarcely any demand for them, so that their impor-
tation to this country has not been encouraged. Under
natural conditions, they run in the open practically all the
year, and this free and open life has made them somewhat
nervous and wild when put into the feed lot. Under native

BREEDS OF CATTLE

116

UleIsjoH — “gt “sIq

HOLSTEIN CATTLE 1 Th |

: - conditions, they are small, but they have been quite suc-
| cessful in competition with other breeds for show-yard
honors.

HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN CATTLE

_ Holstein-Friesian cattle, commonly called ‘‘ Holsteins,”
| originated in the small and thickly settled European coun-
_ try of the Netherlands, a large part of which is below the
level of the sea and which has been reclaimed from it.
_ The land is low and wet and the climate is very moist,
| ideal conditions for the growth of pasture grass.
History. — The early history of the Holstein is not
_ definitely known, but records show that large producing
_ cows were common to that part of Europe over 1000 years
| ago. From this breed sprung some of the most important
breeds of Denmark, Germany, and Belgium. The early
_ Dutch settlers brought some of these cattle to the United
_ States. Large black and white cattle were numerous in
_ the New England States over 200 years ago.
Characteristics. — Holsteins are easily recognized by
their black and white color and their great size. Bulls
| weighing up to 2500 or 2600 pounds in moderate flesh are
not unusual, though those weighing around a ton are more
| desirable. Cows will weigh up to 1800 or 1900 pounds, but
| % the most common weights run from 1250 to 1450 pounds.
| _ Holstein calves are very large, and their high birth weights
| make them desirable for veal purposes.
The cows are the heaviest yielders of milk of any dairy
| breed. Good cows produce on the average 10,000 pounds
| of milk annually, while some have produced over 30,000
pounds in a single year. Farmers like the cows because
; ’ they are large and strong, which gives them the capacity

118 BREEDS OF CATTLE

to consume large quantities of roughage and return large
quantities of milk. The objection often raised against
Holstein cows is that their milk is not high enough in fat
content, the average for the breed running about 3% per
cent. This low test is offset, however, by the large yield,
so that the Holstein also makes a good butter cow. ;

Holstein fanciers make some claims for the beef qualities
of the breed, but the markets discriminate against the black
and white color. However, one can sell the cows after
they have done a life service in yielding milk for more
money than can be realized for smaller cows. These
cattle are becoming more and more popular throughout
the country and good prices for them prevail.

JERSEY CATTLE

The native home of the Jersey is the Island of Jersey,
from which the breed derives its name. This island is

Fig. 39. — Jersey cow.

JERSEY CATTLE I19Q

‘one of the Channel Islands, located in the English Chan-
_nel between England and France. The Island of Jersey is
- only eleven miles long and six miles wide, and contains a
population so dense that the size of the farms is very small,
and all the possible farming land must be utilized to the
best advantage. The climate is temperate and moist, and
the people are very industrious. In the midst of such
surroundings was developed one of the best butter breeds
of the world.

_ History.— The methods employed by the natives in
_ developing this breed of cattle are interesting. They kept
for breeding purposes only those cows that produced a
good supply of butter, paying little attention at first to
‘the amount of milk given by the cows. Later, however,
they began selecting cows for milk flow as well as for but-
‘ter production, and in that way developed the milking
qualities... Selecting for butter production developed cattle
that gave rich milk, and the cows still retain that quality.
Another thing the people of the island did was to prohibit
the importation of outside breeds into the island, and in
this way the cattle were kept pure. The government also
helped the industry by placing premiums upon the best
cows and bulls, which premium had to be refunded if they
were sold to leave the island. Certain good animals were
also kept in communities where the poorer farmers could
make use of them for the improvement of their herds.

_ Characteristics. — In size, the Jersey is the smallest of
the well-known dairy breeds, the cows weighing from 700
to 1000 pounds and the bulls ranging around 1400 to 1600
pounds in weight. While their small size is often raised
as an objection to them, they are very economical pro-
4 ducers. Jersey cows have proven themselves able to com-

120 BREEDS OE CATTLE

pete with other breeds in actual production of butter fat
for a year’s time. Their color is variable, ranging from
light fawn to heavy dun or black. Breeders have never
paid so much attention to color as they have to form and
performance, but broken colors are very undesirable.
Black at the extremities is desirable. In form the Jerseys
are pretty cattle. The cows have neat heads, and very
fawnlike necks. The eye is large and prominent, and the
ear is neatly carried. The shoulders are slight, the back-
bone prominent, the barrel of liberal size, the udder large,
well shaped, and proportioned, with the teats well placed
and of convenient size. The good animals are quite uni-
form as to type. The bulls display a great deal of vigor,
and are very active and highly organized. This latter
characteristic makes them undesired by some, because if
not carefully handled, they may become vicious.

The principal weaknesses of the breed are lack of size,
and consequent lack of constitution. Some of the Ameri-
can bred cattle, however, have sufficient size and as good
constitutions as any other dairy breed.

GUERNSEY CATTLE

Guernsey cattle were developed on the Island of Guern-
sey, a sister island to the Island of Jersey. Guernsey is
smaller than Jersey, and not nearly so many cattle can be
produced on it. While Guernsey cattle were introduced
into America at an earlier date than the Jersey, they were
not so popular, due to the fact that they were not ad-
vertised so much during the earlier days, and could not be
produced on the island fast enough to fill the demand.

Their development, while similar in essentials to the
development of Jerseys, differs in some respects. The

GUERNSEY CATTLE BOE

people of the Island of Guernsey are very busily engaged in
raising flowers and garden supplies for the big markets of
London. The cattle have been allowed for the most
part to evolve naturally. Their origin seems to be a cross
between the big red cattle of Normandy, and the little
black cows of Brittany. The characteristics of the Nor-
mandy cattle predominate. For almost a century, no out-

Fig. 49. — Guernsey cow.

side cattle have been imported into the island. Thus they
have been kept pure.

The first importation into America was about 1833.
No great impetus was given to the breed until the World’s
Fair in Chicago, when in the public test they took their
place along with the Jerseys as economical producers
of butter fat, and with the other dairy breeds as producers
of total milk solids. Their strongest point is that they
vield a finely flavored product of the best natural color.

122 BREEDS OF CATTLE

Characteristics. — Guernseys are somewhat larger than
Jerseys. The cows, when mature, should weigh about ros5o
pounds, and the bulls about 1500 pounds. The hair
is a shade of fawn with white markings, the nose cream
colored, and the horns amber colored, curving, and not
coarse. The skin should be rich in yellow secretions, indi-
cating richness in the color of the products. In general
type they conform closely to that of the Jersey. Great
stress is placed on the type and shape of the udder. They
have an even temperament, and the bulls are easily
handled.

AYRSHIRES

History. — Ayrshire cattle are the dairy breed of south-
ern Scotland and one of the prominent breeds in America. —
They are a hardy breed that give a liberal supply of milk
on grass or scanty rations.

These cattle were brought to America at an early date
and remained in the eastern part of the United States, to
which section they were confined for many years. The
first real impetus that was given to the breed was at the
time of the World’s Fair in Chicago in 1893. Two types of
Ayrshire cattle were shown; one from Canada, the other

from the Eastern States. The cattle which came from ~—

Canada had straighter backs and their colors were not so
badly broken, with white predominating. They were a
trifle longer legged, but their bodies were rounder and more
symmetrical. The shape of the udder had been given par-
ticular attention, and for uniformity in this respect the
Canadian type was unsurpassed. The udders were well
held up neatly in front and behind, and the teats, while
quite short, were well placed at the corners of the udder.

AYRSHIRE CATTLE 123

The cows also carried their width well out at the rear, giv-
ing them a beautiful form. At this show the Canadian or
Scotch type won the favor of.the judge and this type of

Fig. 41. — Ayrshire cow.

Ayrshire has now become the fashionable one in show-yard
circles.

Characteristics. — The colors of the Ayrshire are various
shades of red or brown, with white, mahogany and white,
or white, with each color clearly defined. Brindle is
allowed, but is undesirable. At the present time the
white color should predominate. While the dairy type is
preferred, it is not so greatly sought after as in the case of the
Jersey, Guernsey, or Holstein, particular emphasis being
placed upon beauty of form, symmetry, smoothness,
straightness of lines, and uniformity of udder and placing

124 BREEDS OF CATTLE

of teats. Ayrshires should also show considerable style,
and while they should not be nervous, the eye should
be clear, and indicative of health and constitution. Bulls
should weigh not less than 1500 pounds and cows not less
than 1ooo pounds when mature.

BROWN SWISS CATTLE

_ History. — As implied by the name, this breed of cattle
originated in Switzerland. They are said to have descended

Fig. 42. — Brown Swiss cow.

from the Brown Switzer, an old breed found in the more
mountainous sections of this mountainous country. Noone
man stands out prominently as a developer of the breed.
These cattle were evolved by the nation as the breed best
suited to the conditions under which they live. Gen-

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BROWN SWISS CATTLE 125

erally they are grazed on the mountains in the summer and
taken back to the valleys in the winter and fed upon hay.
The rough topography of the country and the rigors of the
climate naturally called for a hardy breed. The cows are
also used for work animals, which tends to make them
strong and muscular, oftentimes coarse.

Characteristics. — Brown Swiss cattle are quite large,
bulls weighing 1800 pounds and cows 1200 pounds when
mature and properly developed. The calves are large
when born, ranking next to the Holstein calves in weight.
At one time the Brown Swiss were classed as dual purpose
cattle, but now they are regarded as one of the special
dairy breeds. As yet they lack the extrenie dairy type of
the Jerseys and Guernseys, and are not so uniform. In
color they are a light to dark chestnut brown, with a
light tuft of hair between the horns on the inside of the
ears, and a narrow line along the back. The nose is
black with a meal-colored band around it. The horns,
while occasionally coarse, are of medium size and length
with black tips. The tail is long with a heavy black
switch. The hoofs and tongue are black. The legs are
heavy and straight. The udder is large and should be well
set, carrying large well-placed teats. The ribs are well
sprung, and the heart girth large, indicating good consti-
tution. .

DUTCH BELTED CATTLE

History. — This breed of dairy cattle which originated in
the Netherlands is easily recognized by the peculiar and
uniform coloring. The two colors are jet black and pure
white, the white encircling the animal as a belt from the
shoulders to the hips, hence the name.

126 BREEDS OF CATTLE

While their history is not so well known as that of some
breeds, it is said that about 1750 a Dutch nobleman con-
ceived the idea of breeding cattle that would be black in
color with white belts around the middle of the body, and
from his foundation the breed was perfected. They were
first brought to America about 1840, when P. T. Barnum,
the great circus man, imported a few to take with his
show. After 1850 there were no more importations, the
principal reason being that they were difficult to obtain,
which accounts for their scarcity in this country at the
present time:

Characteristics.— In size these cattle are medium, mature
bulls weighing up to 2000 pounds, and mature cows weigh-
ing from goo to 1300 pounds. Im type they are of the
dairy conformation. They have good dispositions, and
make good dairy cows. While they have not secured any
great milk records, they are economical producers and do
well on rough hilly land.

FRENCH-CANADIAN CATTLE

History. — This breed of cattle originated in Canada,
being descendants of cattle from Brittany and Normandy
brought over by the early French settlers. They are of
the same origin as the Jersey cattle, and in many respects
resemble them, although the more rugged climatic condi-
tions under which they have been developed have made
them more hardy. They are economical producers, doing
well on scant rations.

Characteristics. — These cattle are quite small, the cows
when fully mature weighing from 700 to goo pounds, and
the bulls about tooo pounds. In color, they are black,
brown, dark brown, with or without a yellow stripe along

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RED POLLED CATTLE B27

the back and around the muzzle. They may also be fawn
or brindle in color, and white under the belly, on the fore-
head, and switch.

KERRY CATTLE

Kerry cattle originated in the Kerry mountains of west-
ern Ireland, and are a natural product of the environment
in which they have lived for centuries. They are one of
the smallest of all breeds of cattle, the sparse grazing ground
and the harsh climatic conditions working together to make
the animals undersized. Bulls weigh from 800 to 1000
pounds and mature cows weigh from 500 to 600 pounds.
These figures vary according to care and food. While
the cows are small, and on this account are not popular,
this breed produces milk and butter economically and
makes good returns for the feed consumed. ‘The color of
the breed is black, but red may occur. In general con-
formation they incline toward the dairy type, but are not
so extreme in this respect as the Jerseys, being short of

leg, and strong through the heart.

RED POLLED CATTLE

History. — This breed of cattle is the principal dual pur-
pose breed of cattle in America to-day and ranks very
high in both milk and butter production. It originated
in the counties of Suffolk and Norfolk, England. Back as
far as 1778, there have been hornless red cattle in Norfolk
county. It is thought that the “muley” cattle that
were at one time common in America, and from which
the so-called “muley” natives sprang, came from this
source. The Suffolk red polled cattle were of the dairy

128 BREEDS OF CATTLE

Fig. 43. — Red Polled cow.

type, and were noted for their milk yield, while those that
were common in Norfolk had smaller bones, shorter
legs, round barrels, good loins, and rather fine heads, which
qualities made them good for meat production. In 1846,
the two strains were combined to form the dual purpose
cattle now known as Red Polled. The first regular im-
portation was made into the state of New York in 1873,
and since that time their spread over the country has been
rather rapid. While they have never been popular in
the corn belt, they are now widely distributed in some
of the Western States.

Characteristics. — Red Polled cattle are easily recog-
nized by their solid red color and absence of horns. White
is allowed on the belly and udder and the switch of the
tail, but a solid color is preferred. In conformation they
have not the extreme beef form of the beef breeds nor the
pronounced dairy conformation of the dairy cattle. In

DEVON CATTLE 129

_ this country, they are tending more toward the dairy type
_ than in England, because they are being developed more
_ strongly along the milking lines. Some very good steers
_ are annually shown at the International Live Stock Ex-
_ hibition, but they have not yet succeeded in capturing any
championship honors. For beef purposes, they are some-
what coarse in the neck, high at the tail, thin in the
thighs, and high in the region of the flank. From the
_ standpoint of dairy conformation they are heavy along
_ the back, and too thick in the thighs, although some of
_ the cows are excellent milkers. The steers make very
profitable gains and their carcasses make excellent meat.

DEVON CATTLE

History. — While Devon cattle are oftentimes classified

_ with beef cattle, they have not been very popular in this

country in competition with some of the more pronounced
_ beef breeds. They originated in the county of Devon in
_ western England near the border of Wales, where for
_ many years red cattle have existed. The rough country,
and the rather limited supply of food in that part of the
_ island, tended to produce a hardy animal that was well
_ adapted to these adverse conditions. Their history can
_ be traced back as far as any of the improved breeds. The

first well-known improver of the breed, Francis Quartly,

_ began his work on these cattle in 1793.

_ In course of time there have been two well-defined types
_ evolved. The North Devon type is compact, hardy, well
adapted to rough country, and the carcass is good for beef.
_ The South Devon type is larger and coarser, and better
_ adapted to the production of both beef and milk.

T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB.—gQ

eoy date BREEDS OF CATTLE

They were introduced into America at an early date, the —
English colonists bringing them over as early as 1623.
For many years they met with favor, and they are still
raised in some of the Eastern States. The exhibits made at
some of the fairs throughout the country show them to be
a breed of great possibilities, but the fanciers have not made
rapid progress in developing them and bringing their merits
before the public.

Characteristics. — The Devons are quite easily recog-
nized by their solid red color, which may range from light
to dark. They have orange rings around the eyes, with
white on the tip of the tail and on the udder occasionally.
The score card calls for a three-year-old weight of not less
than 1400 pounds for the bull, and tooo pounds for cows.
In conformation the American animal is neither of extreme
beef nor dairy type. |

EXERCISES

1. What breeds of dairy cattle have black noses, tongues,
horns, and hoofs?

2. Name all breeds of cattle either partially or wholly black.

3. Make a list of the red breeds.

4. On what breeds of cattle is white found?

s. Make a complete list of the hornless breeds of cattle.

6. Classify the breeds of cattle as to the country from which
they come.

HOME PROJECT

Study the home herd and those in the neighborhood for breed
characteristics. See how many breeds are thus suggested in
your neighborhood. It must be remembered that character-
istics of two or more breeds may often be found in the same
animal.

CHAPTER VIII

BREEDS OF SHEEP AND GOATS

SHEEP are classified according to their wool into the fine

| wool, the medium wool, and the long wool breeds. The

medium wool and the long wool breeds constitute the
mutton breeds. The breeds commonly belonging to the
fine wool class are the American Merino, the Delaine
Merino, and the Rambouillet. Those belonging to the
medium wool class are the Shropshire, Oxford, Hampshire,
Southdown, Cheviot, Suffolk, Dorset, and Tunis. The
breeds belonging to the long wool class are the Lincoln,
Leicester (pronounced Lester), Cotswold, Black Faced
Highland, and Kent or Romney Marsh.

Fine wool sheep do not mature until the age of three
years, but the medium wool breeds are mature at the
age of two years.

THE FINE WOOL BREEDS

American Merino. — This is the name applied to one
type of the Merino sheep which originally came from Spain.
In form, these sheep are of poor mutton type, having been
bred for the fineness of wool alone. They are narrow over
the back, sharp at the withers; and the legs, which stand
close together, are crooked and often long. The skin is
wrinkled and lies in folds, especially on the neck and in the
region of the flank. In the western part of the country

131

132 BREEDS OF SHEEP AND’ GOATS

Fig. 44. — Merino ram.

they have been bred to Mexican sheep to improve the
quality of the wool of the latter. Merinos are hardy and
can endure both the heat of the south and the cold of the
north. They can be handled in large flocks, which is a
decided advantage on the range. The rams have strong
twisted horns, while the ewes are hornless. Rams weigh from
too to 175 pounds and ewes weigh from 80 to too pounds.

The Delaine.— This breed has been developed in
America by selecting from the larger Merinos the smoothest
sheep with longest and coarsest wool.

The wool has less oil and coarser crimp or kink than
that of the American Merino. However, the quality of
the mutton is higher and the lambs fatten and mature much
better. The horned rams weigh from 140 to 200 pounds,
while the hornless ewes weigh from too to 150 pounds.

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RAMBOUILLET SHEEP 133

Breeders of Delaines frequently select breeding stock from
the ranks of the American Merino to obtain improvement
in wool and from the Rambouillet to increase the size of
their sheep.

The Rambouillet. — This breed of sheep was developed
in France near the village of Rambouillet, hence the name.
The work of improvement was first carried on by the
French Government. From France some good specimens
were taken to Germany, where large flocks are now estab-
lished and considerable improvement is still being made.
These sheep are larger and smoother than the American
Merino and have a mutton carcass superior to the other
fine wool breeds.

In America the Rambouillets were received from the first
with much favor. The breed has made considerable head-
way on the ranges because they can be herded in large

Fig. 45. — Rambouillet ram.

134 BREEDS OF SHEEP AND GOATS

flocks, produce a liberal clipping of good wool, and give a
mutton carcass of fair quality. Rams of this breed weigh
from 170 to 185 pounds and may be either horned or horn-
less. The ewes are hornless and should weigh from
140 to 165 pounds. Individuals, both male and female,
may run much heavier than these weights.

THE MEDIUM WOOL BREEDS

The Shropshire. — The Shropshire is the most popular
of the English breeds of sheep and is found not only in
England, the United States, and Canada in large numbers,
but wherever the influence of British agriculture is felt.
The sheep are valuable for the mutton which they yield,
and their heavy clippings of medium wool. So well de-
veloped are both these characters in this breed, that Shrop-
shire are often called dual purpose sheep. The rams

Fig. 46. — Shropshire ram.

SHROPSHIRE SHEEP 135

weigh about 225 pounds and the ewes about 175 pounds
when mature. Ewes yield about 8 pounds of wool and
rams about 12 pounds of wool at each clipping.

The form of the Shropshire is that of a typical mutton
sheep. The most distinguishing features of the breed are

the head and face. The wool grows down over the face
so that the only parts of the head exposed are the ears and
the tip of the nose. The wool also grows down on the legs,
so that “ Shropshire sheep are wool from the nose to the
toes.’ The ears are small, short, and straight. The
thickness of the wool around the head gives the ears the
appearance of being shorter than they really are. The
color of the exposed hair is dark brown and the skin is of a
very healthy, bright pink color. The wool, while of medium
thickness, is quite dense, and should have no tendency
to part in clusters and curls. Shropshires have straight,
strong, wide backs; short, wide, thick loins; and long,

136 BREEDS OF SHEEP AND GOATS

level, wide rumps. A good development of the “leg o’
mutton ’’ is also necessary in good types. They do not
thrive well in large flocks, but under reasonable care are
quite hardy. They are sometimes called the farmer’s
ideal sheep.

The Oxford. —- These sheep originated in Oxfordshire,
England, and were not recognized as a distinct breed until

Fig. 48. — Oxford ram.

1862, the first year they were awarded prizes at the Royal
Show of England. They were developed through a desire
on the part of some men to establish a breed that would
combine high quality with large size, which was accom-
plished by crossing the long wool Cotswold with the
medium wool Hampshire and adding a slight infusion
of Southdown blood. The result is a breed whose wool
is the longest and coarsest of all the medium wool breeds

7
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ST ee ov tte A See

OXFORD SHEEP 137

and whose weight is the heaviest. They have never yet
succeeded in defeating the Southdown and the Shropshire
breeds in carcass competition.

Oxfords have longer legs than other medium wool sheep.
The color of the hair on the face is brown, sometimes with
gray spots, somewhat lighter in color than the Shropshire;
and the wool, while covering the head, does not meet on
the face below the eyes. The ears are also much longer
and coarser than those of the Shropshire.

These sheep are distributed over the United States,
particularly in the section east of the Mississippi and north

of the Ohio River. They are not popular on the range,

because they do not do well in large flocks and are not
hardy enough for range conditions, but they are quite
popular with the farmer who keeps a small flock. The
ewes are prolific, and the lambs develop rapidly and attain
a good weight at an early age, which makes them much
admired by the stock buyer. Rams should weigh from
250 to 350 pounds and ewes from 180 to 275 pounds.

The Hampshire. — Hampshire sheep originated in Hamp-
shire, England, and rank next to Oxfords in popularity.
Rams weigh about 250 pounds when mature, and ewes
from 185 to 195 pounds. These sheep are not so long-
legged as the Oxfords. They have fine and compact fleeces,
which are short and do not yield a great deal of wool. The
hair is black, and the skin is deep purple in color. A great
many of the lambs are born black, but after the fleece
grows they become white. The face, not covered with wool,
is black. The heavy Roman nose gives this sheep a coarse
appearance.

The breed is meeting with great favor in America be-
cause the lambs mature early. They are prized highly for

138 BREEDS OF SHEEP AND GOATS

Fig. 49. — Hampshire ewe.

early spring trade and bring good prices. The mutton is
of good quality and the ewes are very prolific and good
milkers. On the range they are frequently desired for
crossing with the Merino. Hampshire sheep are quite
widely distributed over the world wherever sheep are
raised.

The Southdown. — The Southdown is the oldest es-
tablished breed of mutton sheep. They originated in
southeastern England upon the thin chalk soils in the low
hill or down country. Over one hundred years ago these
sheep existed pure, and through the efforts of two pro-
gressive English farmers, John Ellman and Jonas Webb,
they were improved, and became the favorite sheep of
royalty, which distinction they have held to the present
day. Some of the best sheep are produced near the city

SOUTHDOWN SHEEP 139

of Cambridge, England, the home of Jonas Webb, where
stands a large monument erected to his memory, because
of the valuable work he did in improving both sheep and
cattle.

Southdowns are the smallest of all the mutton breeds,
and produce the finest quality of mutton. Both in this
country and in England, they have captured more cham-
pionship carcass prizes than any other breed of sheep. In
their own country, reared under natural conditions, they
are the hardiest of the medium wool breeds.

In form, they are very plump, low down, and compact,
and weigh very heavy because of their solidity. The wool
is very dense and of good quality, being the finest of all
the medium wools. It covers the top of the head and the
forehead, but does not meet on the face below the eyes.
The color of the hair on the face is a dingy gray, white

Fig. 50. — Southdown ewe.

I40 BREEDS OF SHEEP AND GOATS

being very objectionable. No wool is found on the legs
below the knees.

These sheep are quite widely distributed over the world.
They are valuable for improving the common stock of the
country and for producing very fine mutton, but are not
always popular with the farmer, because of their small size.

Fig. 51. — Cheviot ewe.

The Cheviot. — This breed developed in the Cheviot
Hills of Scotland. Reared under natural conditions upon
these rugged hills, sheep of great thrift and hardiness have
resulted. Having been bred pure for generations, they
come true to type and are very prepotent.

The distinguishing features of Cheviots are clean, white
faces of medium length; bright eyes; erect alert bear-
ing; short, compact bodies covered with compact fleeces

CHEVIOT SHEEP I4I

of clean, white color. The legs are short and straight, and
the bones are flat, not rounded as is the case of the down
breeds of England. The wool covers the neck very com-
pactly, but leaves the ears, head, and face exposed and clean.
The ears are held very erect, which gives to the sheep an
alert appearance.

Cheviots produce a fair clipping of very desirable, clean
wool of medium quality and length. They are also prized
for their mutton. While their meat does not possess the
quality of the Southdown, it is much superior to that of
some of the coarser down breeds of England. They are
valuable for crossing with common stock and their hardi-
ness makes them favorites where their good qualities are
known. ‘The ewes are prolific and make good mothers.

Rams, bred in America, should weigh from 175 to 200
pounds, and ewes about 150 pounds. Imported stock will
weigh somewhat less. The American breeders have been
selecting the more compact sheep, and have been paying
more attention to their mutton than to their wool qualities.

The Suffolk. — This breed originated in the county of
Suffolk in the eastern part of England and is the result of
a cross between native sheep and the Southdown breeds.
The distinguishing features of the breed are the black,
smooth face free from wool; the hornless head; the long,
black, smooth legs, and long, rangy body covered with fine
wool. They can easily be distinguished from the Hamp-
shire sheep, which have heavier noses and a bolder and more
alert appearance.

The Dorset. — These sheep originated in the county of
Dorset in the south of England. They are easily dis-
tinguished from the other medium wool breeds by their
horns. This is the only breed of sheep in America in which

142 BREEDS OF SHEEP AND GOATS

both sexes are horned. In size they rank between the
Shropshire and the Southdown, but have longer legs, and
are not so uniform in conformation and quality. In their
native country they have been kept pure longer than most
breeds of English sheep. The rams weigh about 200 pounds
and the ewes about 160 pounds each.

Fig. 52. — Dorset ram.

The hair of this breed is pure white, the skin pink, and
the wool which is short but of good quality covers the body
closely and compactly, the head and face only being free
from wool.

They are well distributed over the world. In this
country they are popular because the ewes are very pro-
lific, and will produce two crops of lambs per year. The
mothers are good milkers and the lambs grow rapidly.
They are very useful for producing winter lambs which

LONG WOOL BREEDS 143

may be ready for market at a time of the year when fresh
lamb’is a delicacy and brings high prices.

The Tunis. — This breed originated in the upland region
of Tunis in northern Africa. They are sometimes called
“ fat-tailed’’ sheep because the tail is broad, being five to
ten inches wide. They were once raised for that reason,
and very fat tails were sought in the breeding stock. They
were first brought to this country in the latter part of the
eighteenth century. The breed is generally hornless and
the legs are brown or of tawny color. The wool is of
variablé color, and scant in quantity. It is for this reason
that they are not received with great favor. The ewes are
quite prolific, and the lambs are good for mutton purposes.

At present they are being exploited for use in some of the
semiarid sections in the southwestern part of the United
States.

THE LONG WOOL BREEDS

The long wool breeds of sheep are larger and coarser
than the medium wool breeds, and have longer legs.
While they fatten readily, the meat is coarser and lacks
the marbling found in the carcasses of the medium wool
sheep. The body is long and rangy and the fleece, while
having longer staple, lacks compactness. The long wools
are generally developed in low flat regions where there is
an abundance of rainfall and luscious pasture. They are
not so hardy as the medium wool breeds and the open-
ness of their fleeces makes them poorly adapted for climates
where much cold rain and snow falls.

Lincoln Sheep. — The Lincoln sheep originated in the
county of Lincoln, one of the richest agricultural sections
in all England, where the land is very low and flat. The

144 BREEDS OF SHEEP AND GOATS

Fig. 53. — Lincoln ewe.

breed of Lincoln sheep is noted for the length, strength,
quality, and luster of its wool.

They are one of the largest of the long wool breeds.
Mature rams weigh not less than 250 pounds, and the ewes
not less than 200 pounds. The color of the hair is white,
the head is large and hornless, the feet and legs are large
and coarse. The wool which forms in ringlets is not found
on the belly but covers the body, and forms a tuft upon the
top of the head.

They were imported to America at an early date but are
not widely. distributed. Their mutton qualities are not
the best, the tendency being to produce too much fat which
makes a soft, blubbery carcass.

Leicester Sheep. — Leicester sheep originated in the
county of Leicester, near the central part of England, and
were one of the first breeds of sheep to receive systematic
improvement by selection and breeding. Robert Bakewell,

LEICESTER SHEEP 145

a man who did much to improve cattle, was an improver
of the Leicester sheep.

There are now two types of Leicester sheep: the Bake-
well, or Dishley, type and the Border Leicester.

The Border Leicester are the most favored in this country.
They developed near the border line between England and
Scotland, and are tall sheep that fatten readily. Mature
rams weigh not less than 250 pounds and ewes 200 pounds.
The face and legs are free from wool and the hair is white.
The fleece, while quite long, is of good quality and hangs
from the body in ringlets.

The Bakewell, or Dishley, type has a tuft of wool on
the forehead, and the skin has a bluish tinge. Both types
of Leicesters are hornless.

The wool produced by Leicesters is medium fine and of
fair length, but the mutton is inferior. They can be crossed

Fig. 54. Leicester sheep.

T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB. rest

146 BREEDS OF SHEEP AND GOATS

with some of the medium wool breeds to good advantage.
They are not good rustlers, neither are they good grazers,
nor hardy. They were imported into this country at an
early date and have received much improvement at the
hands of American breeders.

Fig. 55. — Cotswold ram.

The Cotswold. — The Cotswold is one of the oldest breeds
of English sheep. They are a heavy breed, the maturerams ©
weighing not less than 250 pounds, and the ewes not less
than 200 pounds. They are easily distinguished from the
other long wool breeds by the locks of wool which hang
down over their faces. The fleece is very long and hangs
from the body inringlets. They are quite hardy and do well
on good pasture land. Their bodies are compact and they
fatten readily, but the mutton is not of the best quality.

BLACK FACE SHEEP kA

These sheep were early imported to America and met
with considerable favor, because of their ruggedness, pro-
lificacy, the amount of wool they produce, and the size
of the lambs. Good Cotswolds will shear from 16 to 18
pounds of wool, and the lambs will weigh over too pounds
at the age of 12 months.

The Black Face Highland. — The Black Face Highland
sheep, sometimes known as “ Black Face,” are to be found
in the Highlands of Scotland where they originated, and in
the mountains of Ireland to which country they have been

Fig. 56. — Black Face Highland ewe.

imported. They are said to be one of the oldest breeds
of sheep in Scotland and are particularly adapted to with-
stand the hardships of the regions in which they live. They
are easily distinguished by their long shaggy fleeces of wool,
which although compact is generally coarse. The hair

BREEDS OF SHEEP AND GOATS

148

GOATS 149

on the face is black or mottled gray and black and both
males and females have horns.

These sheep are remarkable for their constitutions ; even
the young lambs, as soon as born, are able to withstand
the inclemency of the weather because of the fleece which
covers them at birth. They live in the mountainous sec-
tions, out of doors all of the time in all sorts of weather,
but seek shelter behind crags and projecting rocks when
bad storms prevail. The mutton which they produce is
said to be of good quality. Although they have much to
commend them, they are not very common in this country.

Kent, or Romney Marsh. — This is one of the largest
breeds of sheep and originated in the lowlands of the county
of Kent in the southeastern part of England. They are
remarkable for their ability to thrive upon low, wet land.
Under these conditions they attain great size, being sur-
passed in this respect only by the Lincoln sheep. They
are long and rather rangy sheep, having white, broad
faces. They are low set on short, thick, strong legs and
strong feet. The wool although long is rather fine.

GOATS

In general characteristics, goats resemble sheep. They
are not so generally raised in America as in foreign countries,
but will probably be more common as the country be-
comes more thickly settled and the rougher sections more
generally used. |

In this country, goats are raised both for their fleeces
and for milk production. More are raised for the former
than for the latter purpose.

Angora Goats. — While the Angora goat is grown pri-
marily for its fleece, the better the form of the body the

150 BREEDS OF SHEEP AND GOATS

more desirable is the goat. The color of the skin is a bright
pink and the hair is white. The face is free from fleece
with the exception of a tuft upon the forehead. The fleece
forms in lustrous ringlets, and may grow to a length of ten
inches. The offensive odor of the common goat is absent
in the Angora breed; and the odor in a fleece of mohair is
even milder than that in a fleece of common wool. This
fleece or mohair is useful for the manufacture of felting
material and coarse plushes. Practically all the cushions
of car seats are made from mohair, the best of which comes
from the younger goats. There is also a considerable
demand for the meat of the Angora goat. |

Goats are useful in the clearing of brush land. They
have good digestive systems and will thrive upon young
twigs and shoots as well as upon grass. The skins of
goats are used for robes and rugs. Leather made there-
from is used in the manufacture of gloves, purses, shoes,
and other articles.

Milch Goats.— The milch goat, often called ‘‘ the
poor man’s cow,” is used in many foreign countries.
Milch goats can be fed and cared for more cheaply than
cows, and for the feed given them, they return liberal
amounts of milk. The milk is used for immediate con-
sumption and in the manufacture of cheese. One who is
used to drinking cow’s milk does not relish the milk of
goats because of its strong smell and taste.

There are several breeds of milch goats which derive
their names from the localities where they originated.
Some of these breeds are Nubian, Maltese, New Mexican,
Spanish Maltese, Toggenburg, White Appenzeller, White
Saanen, and Black-necked Valaisan. The last four are
Swiss breeds.

EXERCISES he ee

EXERCISES

1. What breeds of sheep have black or dark faces? Dark
legs? Covered faces? Bare faces? .

2. How do you distinguish a Hampshire from a Southdown?
_ 3. What are the essential points of difference between an
_ Oxford and a Cotswold?

4. Arrange some scheme of classification by which you
_ will be able to distinguish the various breeds of sheep on sight.
5. What are the principal breeds of sheep raised in your
locality?

HOME PROJECT

__ When lambs are less than four weeks old, select and mark
_ two that are apparently the best mutton types and two of the
poorest for this purpose. Weigh all four animals every two
_ weeks and keep records of their growth as a test of your judg-
- ment in selecting young stock.

CHAP PER Px

BREEDS OF SWINE

SWINE breeding is widely distributed throughout the
United States. The principal breeds of the lard type are
the Poland China, the Duroc Jersey, the Berkshire, and
the Chester White. The minor breeds of this type include
the Small Yorkshire, Victoria Swine, Suffolk Swine, the
Essex, and the Cheshire. Berkshires are sometimes classi-
fied as belonging to the bacon breeds, but in the United
States they are distinctly of the lard type. The breeds
of the bacon type are the Large Yorkshire, the Tamworth,
and the Hampshire or Thin Rind Hog.

THE POLAND CHINA °

History. — America is responsible for the development
of most of the breeds of lard hogs. This is because of the
large amount of Indian corn produced and fed to hogs in
this country, since the feeding of Indian corn tends to pro-
duce much fat, the distinguishing characteristic of this
type. The Poland China, which originated in Ohio about
1840, is one of the most popular breeds. In its early de-
velopment, a great many breeds of swine were called upon
to furnish blood, the commonest ones being the Berkshire,
the Irish Grazier, and the China. The final product was
a hog that matured early, fattened off at almost any age,
and did well on the one-sided ration of corn and water.

152

POLAND CHINA HOG 153

Characteristics. — This breed is the accepted type for
the lard hog and is characterized by a compact form; a
well-arched, wide back; wide, thick loins; long, wide, and
rather rounding rump; and deep, well-developed hams.

Fig. 58. — Poland China hogs.

The face is short and slightly dished. The ear is one of the
marks of perfection and a point to which breeders pay con-
siderable attention. This should be of good quality, erect
at the head, and should break downward about one third of
the distance from the tip. Six white points, a white face,
white tip at the end of the tail, and four white feet, are also
considered essential. In the show yard, the type sought is
a blocky, compact hog of medium to large size that carries
much flesh and gives evidence of being an early maturing
animal.

THE DUROC JERSEY.

History. — This breed of hogs originated in New Jersey,
where they were called ‘“‘ Jersey Reds.” They were orig-

154 BREEDS OF SWINE

Fig. 59. — Duroc Jersey hog.

inally large and coarse, with large pendulous ears. Later,
they were crossed with a strain of red hogs developed in
New York state, that were called Durocs. When the
two breeds were blended together, the new breed was called
Duroc Jersey.

Characteristics. — At the present time, they are the only
red breed of lard hogs in this country. In type, they are
similar to the Poland China, and it might be said that
Duroc Jerseys are red Poland Chinas, although the fanciers
of both breeds would not like the comparison. The color
preferred is cherry red. Pigs that are exposed to the sun
in the summer time become sandy in color. Black spots
over the body are objectionable, and if found in too large
numbers, they disqualify the animals in the show ring.

Duroc Jersey hogs are good grazers and are also well
adapted to following cattle in the feed lot. For hogs
of the lard type, they are prolific and they cross well with
other breeds. |

155

*s30Y aITysHIog — *09 “BIW

BERKSHIRE HOGS

156 BREEDS OF SWINE

THE BERKSHIRE

History. — Berkshire hogs derive their name from Berk-
shire in England, where the breed originated. In 1823
they were introduced into the United States, and were
brought into Canada in 1838.

Characteristics. — The Berkshire can be easily recognized
by the shape of the face and snout and the erect ears.
The face is decidedly dished and the snout is rather short,
giving the animal a “ pug-faced’”’ appearance. The color
is black with white feet, white face, and white at the tip of
the tail. There may be an occasional splash of white on
the arm or thigh, but more white than this is considered
objectionable. Berkshires vary more or less in type. To
a great extent the type is determined by the market de-
mands of the countries in which they are bred and by the
methods of individual breeders. The Berkshire in this
country is decidedly a lard hog, although in Canada, where
corn is scarce, it is more of the bacon type.

Berkshires are quite popular with swine fanciers. They
are somewhat longer and straighter along the back than the
Poland Chinas and the Durocs, and, being more active in
disposition than these two breeds, are good rustlers on
pasture. Berkshires of the accepted type are quite pro-
lific. The litters are large and the females are good mothers.
In some animals there is a tendency to be somewhat weak
around the heart girth and in the pasterns. In selecting
Berkshires, one should guard against these weaknesses.

Berkshires mature at an early age. Pigs one year old ©
weigh about 300 pounds. They fatten readily and are
capable of making gains cheaply. The meat of Berkshires
is of good quality and has a large proportion of lean to fat.

CHESTER WHITE HOG TS ,7

THE CHESTER WHITE

History. — Chester White hogs originated in Chester
County, Pennsylvania, where large white hogs were common
for many years and from which region the breed derived
its name. The breed was improved by crossing with a
strain of more refined Chinese hogs. There are now two
strains known as Todd’s Improved Chester Whites and
the Ohio Improved Chester Whites, both of which have
been developed by selecting and mating some of the best
of the breed.

Characteristics. — This breed is the largest breed of
lard hogs. In the show ring, judges favor the compact,
low down, smooth type, but farmers throughout the country
who favor the Chester White for breeding purposes, se-
lect the coarser and more rangy animals, because hogs
of this type raise larger litters of pigs.

These hogs should be pure white, no black hair being
permissible, although bluish spots are often found on the

Fig. 61. — Chester White boar.

158 BREEDS OF SWINE

skin; these are considered objectionable. The body is long ©
with a tendency to be high on the legs, and the bones and
hair are often coarse. The head is quite long and the earis —
long and pendulous. These coarse characteristics do not
appeal to the judge in the show ring.

MINOR BREEDS

The Small Yorkshire. — The Small Yorkshire is a breed
which originated in England, where the hogs are known
as the Small White. They are the smallest breed in
America, and while they mature quite early, they are not
very useful for improving other breeds. Their bodies are
compact, their legs are short, the coat is white and curly, and
the nose is upturned giving the face a decidedly dished outline.
_ Victoria Swine. — These swine originated in the United

States, but have never attained much popularity. They
are white in color and of medium size. The hair is smooth
and straight, the face dished, and the ear, which is of
medium size, is erect and straight. The Victoria is a lard
hog, and while it may be as useful as any other breed for the
production of meat and for crossing purposes, it has not
attained wide popularity.

- Suffolk Swine. — This is another English breed. Like die
Small Yorkshire, it is white, small, and of the lard type. ©
It has never attained much popularity in this country.

The Essex. — The Essex, developed in the county of 7
Essex, England, is one of the smallest breeds of lard hogs.
It is coal black in color, has fine bones and hair, and
matures very early. While it may be useful for crossing —
with coarser breeds to produce quality, it is not very Popa |
lar with the American farmer.

|

YORKSHIRE HOG 159

The Cheshire. — The Cheshire is a lard hog of medium
size. The color is white, the face slightly dished, the ears
small and erect, and the shoulders and hams are usually
well developed. The quality of meat is quite as good as
that from any of the breeds of lard hogs. This breed
originated in the northern part of New York and is simply
a development of the Yorkshire hogs that were early in-
troduced into that state.

THE LARGE YORKSHIRE

History.— The Large Yorkshire, or the Large White
as it is sometimes called in its native country, England,
is the most popular hog of Great Britain. It possesses
the finest bacon qualities and stands first among the
bacon breeds of swine. The superb bacon of Ireland and
Denmark comes from these hogs. They are found in large
numbers in Canada, to which country they have been im-
ported to improve the bacon qualities of the Canadian
hogs In the United States, they are not so numerous as

Fig. 62. — Yorkshire boar.

160 BREEDS OF SWINE

some of the lard type breeds. In this country, where
swine producing centers have been extended beyond the
corn belt, these hogs are increasing in numbers.

Characteristics. — This is one of the largest breeds of
hogs. The color is pure white, black or blue spots in the
skin being objectionable. The hair is smooth and straight ;
the sides are long, straight, and free from wrinkles, and the
back is straight and of medium width. The face is dished
like that of the Berkshire, but is not so short, conforming
more to the bacon type. Although of large size, the
Yorkshires retain a great deal of quality and smooth-
ness. The shoulders are smooth, the chest strong, and the
bones fine but strong. The females are very prolific and
are good mothers.

THE TAMWORTH

History. — The Tamworth, which ranks well with the
Large Yorkshire in size and ability to produce bacon of the
best quality, also originated in England. While these hogs
have not received so much recognition in the bacon pro-
ducing centers of Europe, they are quite extensively raised
in Canada, and to a lesser degree in the United States.

Characteristics. — After once being seen, the Tamworth
hogs are easily recognized. They are red in color, a cherry
red being preferred, although some of them become chest-
nut, and in some cases the color is so dark as to appear al-
most black. The face is very different from that of the
Large Yorkshire, being long and narrow, and the nose is
exceptionally long and straight. Its appearance has much
to do in prejudicing many farmers against the breed. The
ears are long and inclined slightly forward with no tendency
to droop. When compared with lard hogs, the legs of the

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HAMPSHIRE HOG 161

Fig. 63. —- Tamworth boar.

Tamworth appear abnormally long and the hams small.
The sides are long with firm flesh, and the back, while not
especially wide, is well covered. General smoothness
throughout characterizes the animal.

They are a late maturing breed, but are very prolific,
producing large litters of healthy, active pigs. _The cross-
ing of a Tamworth with one of the lard breeds increases
the size of the litters and improves the quality of the pork.

THE HAMPSHIRE OR THIN RIND HOG

History. — The Hampshire breed is of English origin,
being first developed in Hampshire, England. In this
country these hogs are becoming quite popular in parts of
the corn belt, where the tendency seems to be to develop
them more and more toward the lard type.

Characteristics. — This breed is easily recognized by its
peculiar markings. It is black with a wide white band

T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB.—II

BREEDS OF SWINE

162

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HAMPSHIRE HOG 163

around the middle of the body, the white belt including
both front legs. The animals are usually classed as bacon
hogs, but because they are shorter than the Large York-
shire and the Tamworth, they do not furnish such long
sides of bacon. Because of their shortness and their thin-
ness of covering they are sometimes classed between the
bacon and the lard types. Besides their peculiar markings
they have other distinguishing characteristics. The face
is straight and narrow; the ear is straight and inclines
forward slightly. The legs are longer than those of the
lard type hog, and they are deficient in the region of the
ham. The back is slightly arched, but lacks the width
shown in the lard hog. The flesh of the Hampshire is of
high quality. It is fine grained and has considerable lean.
Hampshires are hardy and they are good grazers.

EXERCISES

1. What breeds of swine have dished faces? Straight faces?
Long noses ?

2. Name the black breeds of swine; the white breeds; the
red breeds.

3. Name the principal breeds of the lard type; of the bacon
type.

4. Why are most of the hogs of the United States of the
lard type?

5. In what respects does the lard type of swine differ from
the bacon type?

6. Which breeds of swine are raised in your home locality?
Which breed is most popular?

7. How do you distinguish between the Chester White and
the small and large Yorkshires ?

8. Make a list of the breeds of swine having erect ears;
drooping ears.

164 BREEDS OF SWINE

g. Arrange a table of breed characteristics by which you can
recognize the various breeds of swine at sight.

HOME PROJECT

From a litter of pigs select two that give promise of being
the bestiim the liter:

By frequent weighing of these animals and recording the
weights, check your judgment in comparison with all the rest
of the pigs in the litter.

CHAPTER X

JUDGING CATTLE

Tue judging of cattle should be considered under three
main heads, namely, beef, dairy, and dual purpose cattle.
The dual purpose type of cattle falls naturally between
the beef and the dairy types.

JUDGING BEEF CATTLE

The profitable beef animal is one that will return the
largest amount of good meat in proportion to its live weight.
The market will pay more for some cuts than for others, be-
cause the meat consumers have preferences for particular
cuts. Experience of the butcher has taught us that a good
beef animal must have a conformation upon which is
possible the greatest development of high priced cuts of
meat.

High Priced Cuts. — The highest priced meat is on the
back in the region of the loin, that part of the animal imme-
diately in front of the projecting hip points. Next to this
just back of the shoulders is another cut of good meat. The
hindquarters also produce meat that sells for a good price.

Cheap Cuts. — The head is practically all waste material.
The neck forms cheap meat, and that in the region of the
belly or underline is also sold for a low price.

Waste Material. — The legs are waste material so far as

meat is concerned, and a great deal more waste material]
165

166 JUDGING CATTLE

comes from the digestive tract and its contents. When
an animal is slaughtered, the part that is retained for meat
is termed the “‘ carcass,’ and the waste material is termed
“ offal.” The butcher is interested in getting an animal
that will produce, when slaughtered, a high percentage of —
carcass and a low percentage of offal. The producer of the
beef animal is interested in fulfilling, in so far as is possible,
the demands of the butcher.

What the Butcher Demands. — The butcher desires an
animal that has a small head, small bones, short legs, and a
small paunch. The animal should also have a wide thick
back, a wide deep loin, and well-developed hindquarters.
The man who is to feed the steer to sell to the butcher looks
for an animal that promises to fulfill these demands.

What the Feeder Demands. — The form of the animal
sought by the man who feeds beef cattle will vary somewhat
from the standard of the butcher. While the feeding steer
should possess such desirable qualities as a straight back
and well-developed quarters, it of necessity differs from the
ideal of the butcher in that it should have a well-developed,
wide head ; thick neck ; large heart girth; a roomy paunch,
and rather strong bone. The feeding steer must possess
these points, because the feeding period is trying to the
health of the animal, and strength and constitution are
essential. The feeding steer must have a large paunch so
as to have sufficient capacity for feed.

What the Breeder Demands. — The breeding animal
should not only conform in type to the accepted type for
the butcher, but sex and breed characters should also be
emphasized in the breeding animal. In the bull the head
and neck should be strong and somewhat heavier than the
butcher demands, and the development of bone and muscle

BEEF BREEDS 167

Fig. 65. — Beef breeds. From top to bottom: Galloway, Hereford, Aberdeen Angus,
Shorthorn.

168 JUDGING CATTLE

should be greater. These features indicate ability to trans-
mit these attributes to his offspring. Besides his masculine
features, the bull should have a straight wide back, wide
thick loin, good rump, and be well let down in the thigh,
low set and deep.

The cow should be somewhat refined about the head and
neck, and show refinement also in the bone and muscular
development. She should also be wider in the rear quarters
than the bull. Besides all the good characteristics that
belong to the cow, she should also have the attributes of the
butcher animal.

Besides the special sex characters which distinguish the
cow from the bull, breeding animals should also conform in
type to some particular breed, and as each breed has special
characters of its own, it remains for the judge to learn the
attributes of each particular breed before he can lay claim
to proficiency in judging breeding animals.

The Form of the Beef Animal. — The form of the good
beef animal should be deep, broad, and low set, with straight
top and underline. Viewed from the side, the top line and
the bottom line should be parallel; the vertical line at the
rear from the pin bones to the hocks and that in front from
the brisket upward should be parallel, so that viewed from
the side, the steer should show a rectangular form. Viewed
from the rear, the back should appear broad and flat, and
the sides of the steer should be parallel so that a cross sec-
tion of the body would appear as a somewhat flattened
circle. The general form should be one ‘that contributes
to the greatest compactness.

Quality. — Every beef animal, whether it be already
fattened or a feeder, must have general or inherited quality
which is indicated by the fineness of bone and the fineness of

QUALITY IN BEEF CATTLE 169

Fig. 66. — Grand champion steer. International Live Stock Show.

skin and its pliability. A fine, heavy, mossy coat of hair
is also desirable, as it indicates thrift and constitution.
Fineness of skin indicates fineness of meat fiber. Pliabil-
ity of skin indicates that the animal is in a good thrifty con-
dition, that it will do well on a fattening ration and finish off
well. Fineness of bone shows that the animal has fine fiber
throughout the body, and that the animal will have less
waste when killed. While the butcher desires fine bone,
the feeding steer may be too refined and not strong and
vigorous enough to feed out well.

Finish. — Quality is also used to mean “‘ finish ” in the
animal. ‘The feeder says that finish is the quality one must
feed into the animal. The market offers more money per
pound for the “ finished’ animal than for the thin animal,
because the finished animal will not only dress a higher
percentage of salable carcass, but the meat itself is more

170 JUDGING CATTLE

palatable and nutritious. Fat tissues contain less water
than lean meat tissues, so that as the animal gets fat the per-
centage of water in. the carcass decreases. The buyer can
afford to pay more for the fat animal than for the thin one,
because he pays for less water; and his customers prefer
to eat the finished meat es Hae been made tender by the
fattening process.

In looking for finish the judge ‘“‘handles”’ the animal. If
the flesh is soft and spongy he decides that the animal is yet
unfinished or has been overdone. The value of a carcass
depends upon the “marbling ”’ of meat, which means a
mixture of fat and lean somewhat resembling streaks in
marble. If the animal is overdone, there will be too high
a percentage of fat, which is undesirable and which lowers
the value of the carcass. The animal should be evenly
covered and the flesh should be firm because this means
that the flesh will make good meat. Often the animal
is inclined ‘to be ‘‘patchy,” that is, its fat will be deposited
in patches. These patches are often found around the tail
head, and on cattle of poor type the flesh collects around the
points of the hips.

Style and Temperament. — In style the steer should
be active and upstanding, and not sluggish in temperament.
The laying on of fat is dependent upon the activity of the
animal, and if he appears sluggish or inactive it may indicate
poor physical condition and inability to utilize the ration to
the best advantage.

A great deal is said concerning the temperament of the
beef animal. While the animal should ‘be quiet, this does
not mean that he should be sluggish. If too nervously
inclined, the animal may move about too much, yet some of
the best feeders are most nervous and finish the cheapest

PARTS OF THE BODY 171

and best if quietly handled. The beef steer must have what
is known asa phlegmatic temperament. This means that he
must be docile enough so that he will consume great quanti-
ties of food and place the surplus in the form of fat upon his
body. ‘This in turn depends upon type and quality. In
the case of the beef animal as well as the dairy animal,
_ temperament is secondary to type and quality.

Head and Neck. — The head and neck of the beef animal
are peculiar to the type, and experienced judges can almost
_ determine the value of the animal by looking at its head and
_ neck. The muzzle should be of good size, indicating strength ;
a large mouth indicates capacity, thin lips indicate quality,
and large nostrils indicate breathing capacity and constitu-
_ tion. The eyes should be clear, indicating health, and placid,

_ indicating a quiet disposition. A short face indicates that

_ the body of the animal is short and compact. Ears of mod-
_ erate size indicate that the animal is free from coarseness,
_ and fine texture of the ear shows that the quality of the
animal is good. A short neck indicates compactness and
_ lessens the amount of cheap meat. Thickness of the neck,
_ while it increases the weight, is essential because it is always
associated with the desired thickness of body.

_ Forequarters: Shoulders. — In the region of the fore-
_ quarters, one looks for smoothness and compactness. The
_ neck should blend gently into the body of the animal. The
_ region where the shoulder and neck meet is known as the
“ shoulder vein,” and fullness in this region means that the

~ neck and shoulder blend well. The shoulder should be well

_ covered, smooth, and compact on top. Width at the top of
the shoulders is desirable, but it often happens that the

_ shoulders are too wide. This gives the animal an appear-

ance of coarseness, and the shoulders are likely to be too

172 JUDGING CATTLE

loosely knit at the top. Width in the region of the breast
is desirable also in the beef animal.

The brisket is the name applied to the point of the breast
bone together with the flesh covering this region. While the

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brisket is one of the cheaper parts of the animal, fullness
and prominence in this region is desired, because if the ani-
mal is deficient in one part it is likely to be deficient in other
parts. Dewlap is the term applied to the loose skin that
is found on the lower side of the neck extending from the
lower jaw to the brisket. The amount of dewlap varies
with the breed. A light dewlap is desired. The front legs
should be short and straight and set wide apart. They
should be fine without appearance of weakness. Coarse
bones are undesirable.

PARTS OF THE BODY 173

The Body: Chest. — In the region of the chest the animal
q should be full, deep, and wide, providing space for the heart
and lungs located therein. The chest is one of the most
_ important points in the make-up of the animal. An animal

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Fig. 68. — Side view of a heavy steer.

_ with a small chest is unable to thrive so well through the
_ feeding period.

The girth is the distance around the body measured just
back of the shoulders. The larger the girth the better the

animal.

The fore flank is located immediately back of the fore
_ legs. In the well-finished steer, the elbow joint is almost
_ concealed.

__ The Crops. — The crops! is the region immediately back
of the top of the shoulders. This region should be well

_ filled up so that there is no depression.

1The Americans and the British do not agree as to the location of the
_ crops. The Scotch and English schools state that the crops refers to the out-
_ cropping of the tops of the shoulders of the animal. What the Americans
_ call crops is called chine by the British. The usage as accepted by the
j American schools has been accepted and employed here.

174 JUDGING CATTLE

Ribs. — The ribs spring from the backbone and in the
beef animal are well arched and extend well out from it,
making a round and deep barrel. The ribs should be close
together and well covered with flesh. Since upon the
arching of the ribs depends the amount of meat the back will
carry, the spring of the ribs is very important. The flat
ribbed animal is never a good feeder.

Back. — The back is the most important part to be con-
sidered in judging the steer. Here are located the best cuts
of meat, and here the judge gets his first impressions of the
value of the animal. Breadth and straightness of back
should be carefully considered.. The broader the back the
more meat the animal will be able to carry. Straightness of
back indicates strength, and the covering of flesh upon the
back denotes the finish of the animal.

Loin. — The loin is the region that lies between the last
ribs and the points of the hips. This is the region of the
highest priced cuts of meat, and great width and thickness
of loin is desirable. The loin should be short and com-
pact. An animal long in the -coupling is never a good
feeder and seldom produces a large proporticn of high-
priced cuts.

Flank. — The flank lies in front of the hind legs. This
should be well let down so that the underline will be straight.
Tf the animal is high in this region he is not only a poor
feeder but the rear quarters will not be large enough to pro-
duce a goodly amount of round steak. Thickness of flank
indicates finish. This region is one of the last places to
fatten, and if the steer is well filled in this part he is carrying
considerable flesh.

Hindquarters. —The hips of the steer should be smoothly
covered. Projecting hips belong to the dairy cow and are

THE SCORE CARD 175

undesirable in the meat producing animal. Steers with
projecting hips are hard to fatten and do not finish smoothly.

The rump lies back of the hips. From this region some
_ very good cuts of meat are obtained. Length and width
here are desirable. A sloping rump is objectionable, because
it detracts from the form of the animal. If too high at the
tail head, the rump is likely to be narrow and the tail head
patchy and prominent.

The sharp bones at either side of the tail head are called
pin bones. These should be far apart to conform to the
_ general width of the animal, and should be smoothly covered
with flesh. .

The thighs consist of the thigh bones and the meat on the
outside of them. In this region, the steer should be plump,
wide, and deep. Even in the thin animal, one should look
for well-developed muscles.

The twist is the name applied to the muscles on the inside
of the thigh bones. In this region look for plumpness and
depth. The thighs and twist taken together constitute the
quarters of the animal from which the round steaks are cut.
Fullness in the quarters is very desirable.

USE OF THE SCORE CARD

The score card is always made use of by the student of
live stock judging, but it is seldom used by the expert in the
show ring. The total score for any animal is 100. While
animals may approach perfection, none attain it, so that a
score of 100 is impossible. In scoring live stock no cuts
should be less than one fourth of one point for imperfections.

When the points and their relative value have once been
fixed in mind the score card may be dispensed with and the
animals judged by direct comparison.

176 JUDGING CATTLE

BEEF CATTLE

SCORE CARD FOR JUDGING BEEF CATTLE

Pornts DEFICIENT

SCALE OF POINTS POssIBLE |_
SCORE Student’s
Scone Corrected

GENERAL APPEARANCE — bis POINTS
Weight, estimated in lbs.. ;
Weight. . A
Form, straight top line and ‘underline; ‘deep,
broad, low set. a aNd o
Quality, firm handling; hair fine; skin pliable ;
fine bone: evenly covered with firm flesh... .
Style, active aupstandine ete i weave eine
Temperament, quiet, docile..........:.......
HEAD AND NECK — 8 POINTS
Muzzle, good size, mouth Palats ; lips thin, nos-
trils large. . LED RE et ee 2
Eyes, large, clear, placid... x
Face, short, quiet expression. Bbe Ricita ey Satna I
Forehead, broads full eaten ee I
Ears; medium ‘size, fine ‘texture st {200% 5 eleven I
Neck, thick, short, throat clean........ 2

FOREQUARTERS — 14 POINTS

NS et 0O oo ion)

Shoulder Vein, full.. 3
Shoulder, covered with ‘flesh, ‘compact ¢ on n top,
snug.. be Nsisa t 5
Breast, wide; "brisket. prominent. . hy eth 2
Dewlap, skin not too loose and drooping. . ii
Legs, straight, short; arm full; shank ‘fine,
smooth.. Dn, eee RR Me 9M ae Ae kane A, 3

BODY — 28 POINTS
Chest, full, cree) wide; girth, masks fore-flank

Pall 6
Crops, full, ‘even with shoulders. 3
Ribs, deep, arched, thickly fleshed . 5
Back, broad, straight, evenly fleshed . 6
Loin, thick, broad. =
Flank, full, even with underline. 3

HINDQUARTERS — 25 POINTS
Hips, smoothly covered; distance apart in pro-

portion with other parts. . 4
Rump, long, even, wide; tail head smooth, not

patchy.. tat.

Pin Bones, not. prominent, far “apart. DEAL 2
Thighs, full, wide, deep.. PEA yin arent en 6
Twist, deep, pliamnp!. 3) ee CH 4
Legs, straight, short; shank fine, smooth...... 3

Total. ait se CG oe ee ae 100

1» Lee

DAIRY CATTLE E77

JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE

It is harder to become a good judge of dairy cattle than of
beef cattle. While one may judge quite accurately the
percentage of carcass a steer will return, and the quality
of the same by the general quality and condition of the
animal, he can only guess as to how much milk a cow will
give and what will be the percentage of butter fat in her
milk. The scales and the Babcock test are the two best

means of judging dairy cows, but these appliances are not

used in the show ring, where animals are judged according
to type. Carefully selecting and retaining for breeding
purposes cows with good records for a great number of
years has developed animals of a certain type that are best
suited for the production ofymilk and milk solids. The type
of these animals is the “ dairy type,” and the man who is
most proficient in recognizing the points making up the
dairy type is the man who is the good judge of dairy cattle.
However, -a great deal of a cow’s worth depends upon her
individuality, and there are no points on the surface of the
animal that can be made to indicate the animal’s individ-
uality. This is why the best cow in the show ring is often
second best in yield of milk.

What Determines Dairy Type. — Milk production is a
function of the cow performed by certain organs. The
four principal systems upon which milk production de-
pends are: the digestive system, the circulatory system,
the nervous system, and the secreting system. It is im-
portant that the organs of these systems be well de-
veloped. Those characters that show fattening tendencies
should be repressed so far as possible, because it is im-

possible to find extreme development of both milk and beef
T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB.—I12

JUDGING CATTLE

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SHAPE OF DAIRY COW 179

qualities in the same animal. Except in the case of a few
of the points, such as constitution and capacity for feed,
that should be well developed in all animals, the form of

the dairy animal is strongly in contrast
with that of the beef animal.

Form of the Dairy Cow. — In general
form the dairy cow should present wedge
shapes. when viewed from three differ-
ent positions, the front, the side, and
the top. Viewed from the front the
point of the wedge appears at the top
of the shoulders, and the butt of the
wedge appears at the points of the
shoulders. This wedge indicates a cow
free from fatty tendencies on the back
and wide through the region of the
chest. Viewed from the top, one sees
the point of the wedge at the shoulders
and the butt at the points of the
hips. Freedom from fleshiness over
the shoulders and great capacity in the
region of the hips and pelvis are here
shown. From a side view of the cow
one should note the great depth from
the top of the hips to the bottom of the
udder, which distance constitutes the
butt of the wedge. One should also
note the gradual decrease in depth as he
carries his eye forward to the shoulder.
This means that the barrel of the cow
is large, giving capacity for feed, and
that the udder is well developed.

Fig. 70. — Wedge shaped
back of a dairy cow.

‘tic Ager OS 4 4
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Fig. 71. — Wedge shaped
shoulder and back of a
dairy cow.

180 JUDGING CATTLE

Quality. — Quality is indicated by clean, fine bones, free
from roughness and coarseness; fine, soft hair; and loose,
mellow skin of medium thickness with an abundance of
yellow secretion. Coarseness of any kind means plain
breeding or lack of breeding for any particular purpose.
Coarse, rough cows are poor mothers, and poor mothers
make poor dairy cows. ‘The yellow secretion means that the
secreting glands of
the body are in good,
healthy, active con-
dition. Well-fed and
cared-for cows show
more secretion than
those that are poorly
kept. The amount
of secretion varies
with the breed of the
animal, and it may also vary with different individuals
within the breed. The amount of secretion and the color
of it is said by some to be an index to the quality of the fat
content of the milk.

Temperament.— The term temperament includes, in
our generally accepted meaning of the word, disposition,
but it means more than disposition. Dairy temperament
might be defined as the inherited attributes of the dairy
animal which make it possible for her to change large quan-
tities of food into milk and milk solids, and to transmit those
qualities to her offspring. The temperament of the dairy
animal is spoken of as “nervous.” This does not mean
that the dairy animal should be erratic, according to our
often accepted meaning of the term “ nervous.”’ The term
is used here to mean just what the derivation of the word

Fig. 72. — Wedge shaped side of a dairy cow.

>

DAIRY TYPE 181

explains, viz., full of nerves, or having nervous force, or a
strong nervous system. The points which indicate dairy.
temperament are a refined head and neck and a strong
prominent backbone, providing plenty of room for good
nerve development. One might properly include all the
points that constitute dairy type as points that indicate
dairy temperament.

Head and Neck. — Marked refinement should be por-
trayed in every feature of the head and neck. The face
should be long, indicating that the body is long. The
expression should be quiet and the eye clear. A large
muzzle, indicating feeding capacity, and large nostrils,
indicating lung capacity, are desirable. The eyes should
be large and clear, indicating vigor and health. Breadth
of forehead indicates brain and nerve capacity; and ears
of fine quality with an abundance of secretion indicate
quality. Refinement of neck is an indication of inherited
maternal instinct.

Forequarters. — The shoulders should be wide at the
points to give plenty of chest room, and thin at the top,
indicating refinement and freedom from fleshiness. Too
great width should be avoided. The breast should be full
and capacious, and the legs should be short, fine, and free
from any indication of coarseness.

Body. — An examination of the body of the animal should
show a deep chest of moderate width, which indicates con-
stitution. Constitutional vigor and endurance are the
two most essential points of the milk-producing cow. The
ribs should spring gently from the backbone and extend
well down, with the spaces between them roomy, making
the barrel as large as possible to give great capacity. The
backbone should be prominent, indicating room for a strong

182 JUDGING CATTLE

spinal cord, the main line of the nervous system from the
brain to different extremities of the body. The backbone
should be open-jointed, as would be expected if the ribs were
well spaced. The loin should also be large and roomy, and
all these parts should be free from fattening tendencies.

Hindquarters. — Liberal development of the hindquar-
ters of the cow is essential. The hip points should be far
apart and prominent,
the rump should
be long, wide and
level, with the pin
bones far apart. A
short drooping rump
is a serious objec-
tion in the dairy cow.
The setting and
length of the tail
are important. The
tail should be set
|} high, and it should

Fig. 73. — Large capacity to produce milk. reach at least to the

hocks. It should be

thin, and is one of the indications of quality. The thighs

should be thin and curving on the inside to give ae
of room for udder development.

The escutcheon is that part of the cow’s udder and the
space above it marked by the hair growing upward or out-
ward instead of downward. It is sometimes called the
‘milk mirror,’ and was believed at one time to be an
index to the milking qualities of the animal. The ideal
escutcheon should be wide and high. There are good
milkers with ideal escutcheons and good milkers whose

PARTS OF THE DAIRY COW 183

escutcheons are far from ideal. There are also poor milk-
ers that bear good escutcheons, so its importance is ques-
tioned. It is well to make a careful examination, and -
to become familiar with escutcheons, since considerable
emphasis is placed upon them by many breed associations.

The udder is the most important part of the dairy cow,
and should be given careful examination. It is here that the
secretion of milk takes place. If an animal has a poorly
shaped udder, or one that is fleshy, diseased, or defective
in any one of its quarters, her chances of being a good milk
cow are poor. The udder should be broad, and the quarters
symmetrical and evenly placed. A long pendulous udder
or a fleshy one is very undesirable. One that is carried well
forward and well held up between the thighs is ideal and
most desirable. Oftentimes the cow with the large udder
is not the cow that returns the most milk. The cow with
the small udder of good quality is better equipped than the
cow with the large fleshy udder. On the other hand heavy-
producing cows have large, well-developed udders. Milk is
secreted by the glands of the udder largely at milking time.
The udder is not a huge cistern to carry milk that is being
constantly secreted, as is often supposed, but is the gland
which secretes the fluid.

The teats of the cow are very important. Their size and
placing have much to do with the ease of milking. Teats
should be evenly placed at the four quarters of the udder,
and should hang plumb. Teats that are too large are un-
gainly, and small teats are hard to milk. The milk should
be easily drawn from the teats.

The Mammary or Milk Veins are the large blood vessels
on the cow’s belly that extend from the udder forward and
enter the body cavity near the fore legs. It should be

184 JUDGING CATTLE

remembered that these vessels are carrying the blood away
from the udder and not toward it. They are an index to
the amount of blood that has been taken to the udder, and
for this reason they are worthy of careful consideration on
the part of the judge. All good record cows have had large,
tortuous, branching milk veins. Oftentimes there are poor
producing cows that are well equipped with good veins, but
they are the exception rather than the rule. The milk
veins enter the body
cavity through holes
that are called “milk
wells.’* These should
be large, allowing
_ room for large veins.
There is always one
on each side, but if
there are two or even
three on a side it is
better.
The hind legs
PPS oe should be short,
Fig. 74. — Prominent milk veins. straight, and strong,
as opposed to
crooked, weak legs. Placed well apart they allow room for
a wide udder and show capacity in the cow.

Importance of Dairy Score Cards.— While there are a
great many things about the dairy cow that do not appear
on the surface, it is well to remember that the cows of dairy
type that conform to the dairy score card are better pro-
ducing cows than those that are opposite in type. Milk
records are, of course, very important, and a great deal of
consideration should be given them, but it is likewise

SCORE CARD 185

SCORE CARD FOR JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE

GENERAL APPEARANCE — A dairy cow should weigh not less than 800 pounds,
have large capacity for feed, a dairy temperament, well-developed milk organs, fine
quality and perfect health, and be capable of a large production of milk and butter fat.

Pornts DEFICIENT

PERFECT

ScorRE | Student’s
Score

SCALE OF POINTS
Corrected

INDICATION OF CAPACITY FOR FEED —
25 POINTS
Face, broad between the eyes and long; muzzle clean
cut; mouth large; lips strong; lower jaws lean
Lad S0DER7 C1 Siege oe ce ee SEM Ol neta tame cee DRA en Sha, ay
Body, wedge shape as viewed from front, side, and
top; ribs, long, far apart and well sprung; breast

full and wide; flanks, deep and full.............. TON agi be take cee Si Te LR
Back, straight; crops, broad and open; loin broad

Eh BUCA. <n aie ee ee | oe ile 31H ip nr Beees te | AnS iales te
Hips and thurls, wide apart and high.............. Sle Fel cee ae oe | (eae nae ae

INDICATION OF DAIRY TEMPERAMENT —

25 POINTS
Head, clean cut and fine in contour; eyes, promi-

emer amaG: DFISHE 8... ee eo. a PRET s Anup eee area
Neck, thin, long, neatly joined to head and shoulders | |

and free from throatiness and dewlap............ io Ci | Sea ts cape aa a
St en Sate a ase > JIT RARE A a

Shoulders, lean, sloping, nicely laid up to body;
points prominent; withers sharp............... pS SPOR are ance ea ee, Eas

Back, strong, prominent to tail head and open jointed Sey esi, 2 cee. oll eee a cok

Hips, prominent, sharp and level with back........ et thet cet Mead Lat Bah

Thighs, thin and curving on the inside............ 4

MHP ead EANELIN@. 62°. fo. ee a lle ees I

Meera, SHAME TINE... Scie ets cc eee a we I

INDICATION OF WELL-DEVELOPED MILK
ORGANS — 25 POINTS

e/ te. erie] 6 mie) ONE) Tela aye le) slinre.

Rump, long, wide, and level; pelvis roomy ....... Ce 1 a nated Beams ia Sh
Thighs, wide apart; twist, high and open.......... Cee ee eee SE Se nT er
Udder, large, pliable, extending well forward and

high up behind; quarters, full, symmetrical,

evenly joined and well held up to body......... TS Ty [ese e yaiy. eat Pica eee
Teats, plumb, good size, symmetrical and well placed ARIAT eo darks 2 [ih at Sau eee

INDICATIONS OF STRONG CIRCULATORY
SYSTEM, HEALTH, VIGOR, AND MILK
FLOW — 25 POINTS

ESS UA) Foy: 7A AR rao MORE ee eee
Pe HO OREN lo... ee ee tee Cie DARE sein ed 3 RRC Rae
Chest, roomy...... Sra, 7G ecarsvhersy <i| Mh acciot eto.

Skin, pliable; hair, fine and straight; secretions
abundant in ear, on body, and at end of tail...... Gove teeta: wily ia ceetrees 4
Veins, prominent on face and udder; mammary
veins, large, crooked, and branching; milk wells
RRP IREET BIT CLOUS vein). 3 olapc.y ere isess oo, Systm, woes abe ee Mia Micra eek: | rounseta dea ks
Escutcheon, wide and extending high up.......... I

RE MIE RESG NED Ad 1a ing KOR Res es, bo Sich Pete kasi 100

186 JUDGING CATTLE

necessary to consider the type. It is imperative in dairy
circles to maintain uniform standards, and there is no
question but that one gets very close to the relative value
of cows in the order of their possible production when using
type as a standard.

EXERCISES

1. By the use of the score card system select the best beef
animal on the home farm.

2. By using the points on the score card select the best cow
in the home herd.

3. Test your judgment by weighing the milk of the three
best cows.

4. Further check your judgment by testing the milk of all
these animals and calculating butter fat production.

HOME PROJECT

Keep an accurate record of the milk production of all the
dairy cows in the home herd for one month and test the milk
of each in order to determine by actual test the best cows.

CHAPTER XI

JUDGING SWINE AND SHEEP

SWINE are produced for meat alone; and the ideal animal
is the one that will produce the maximum percentage of
good meat. The lard hog is a low-down, thick, compact
animal that has been developed on fattening foods; while
the bacon hog has been developed on foods that tend to
produce more bone than muscle. The fat hog is a product
of the corn belt, where corn is the cheapest ration grown and
the one most commonly fed. The bacon hog is a product of
regions outside the corn belt. The market favors the corn-
fed hog because it dresses a higher percentage of carcass,
averaging from 80 per cent to 85 per cent of the live weight.
The bacon hog dresses about ro per cent less than the lard
hog.

The average consumer prefers meat from the bacon hog,
notwithstanding its higher cost, because it contains a larger
proportion of lean meat. _

JUDGING LARD HOGS

In form the lard hog is deep, broad, low, long, symmetrical,
and compact, standing squarely on its legs. The ideal lard
hog gives one the impression of great weight in the smallest
possible space, and is the type sought by the butcher. In
this respect it closely resembles the beef steer and the
mutton sheep.

187

188 JUDGING SWINE AND SHEEP

Quality. — Quality is indicated by clean bones, free from
coarseness ; fine, smooth hair, free from swirls ; and soft skin,
indicating fineness of flesh. The head and ears should be
refined, indicating a low percentage of waste. If the body
is evenly covered with firm flesh, the judge will know that
the fat and lean are well mixed in the carcass. Flabbiness,
which is undesirable, indicates too large a proportion of
fat meat in the carcass.

Disposition. — In disposition, the hog should be quiet,
because the quiet hog will consume large rations, lie down,
and thus fatten more readily than the animal that takes a
great deal of exercise.

Head and Neck. — In the examination of the head and
neck, one should look for a snout of medium length, not
too coarse. A long snout indicates a long frame and a rever-
sion to wild ancestry. The face should be short, with full,
plump cheeks. The short face indicates a compact body,
and the full cheeks, fleshing tendencies on the part of the
animal. Breadth of forehead indicates width of body and
liberal capacity. The eyes of hogs are small, and in the case
of the extremely fat hog they are almost entirely concealed,
but they should be as large as possible and wide apart. The
ear is a good index to quality, the large coarse ear indicating
coarse meat. The ear of medium size and fine texture is
desirable as it indicates a carcass of good quality. If the
ear hangs too limply, it indicates sluggishness, which is
undesirable. The jowl, which is the flesh beneath the lower
jaw, should be neat and well tucked up, and at the same
time it should be full and wide. The hog’s neck should be
short and thick, blending smoothly into the shoulders and
connecting nicely with the head. A long, thin neck on a
lard hog is very undesirable.

PARTS: OF ‘THE HOG 189

Shoulder. — From the shoulder, some very good meat
is obtained. This part of the carcass is usually trimmed,
packed, and cured separately. The so-called “picnic hams,”

_ which are in great demand, come from the shoulder. This

should be deep, broad, and well covered with flesh. On
top, the shoulders should be compact and well knit, leaving
no depressions, which may occur if they are wide and too
far apart. If the shoulders on the male hog are too coarse,
they may develop “ shields,” which are great thickenings
of the skin over the shoulders and are very objectionable.

Breast and Chest. — The breast should be prominent,
wide, and well let down. If the animal is tucked up or
deficient in the breast, he will be deficient in the region of
the chest and will lack constitutional strength.

The chest of the hog is one of the most important points
to be considered. ‘“‘ Dropping” back of the shoulders and
“tucking in” at the heart girth are quite common faults.
The modern lard hog lives under unnatural conditions which
tend to produce a poor constitution, so that one cannot be
too careful in guarding against weakness of the chest.

Sides. — From the sides of the hog is obtained some of
the best meat. In bacon hogs this point is most important,
and in lard hogs the sides are valuable for packing. In
order to insure the maximum amount of side meat, select
__ the animals that have deep, long sides, which are well filled
; _ out, indicating thickness and weight. Smoothness of sides
is also desired ; wrinkles indicate poor quality.

Back. — As is the case with all meat animals, the back
_ is very important. The judge should get his first impres-
sions of the animal from its back, and if the animal is defi-
cient in this region, it should be given low rank. The back
_ should be wide, strong, well arched, and well covered. Fat

190 JUDGING SWINE AND SHEEP

backs are required for packing purposes, and the amount of —

spare ribs also depends upon the size of the animal’s back.

Loin. — The loin is the region from the last rib to the hip
points, and here the hog should be thick, wide, and strong.
Some of the finest cuts of pork come from the region of the
loin, and the market is willing to pay a higher price for the
strong loined hog than for the one deficient in this region.

Belly and Flank. — In the lard hog the belly is cheap meat,
and the less of this the better. In the case of the bacon hog
the belly goes in with the side, and is thus of greater value.
In either case, it should be well held up and free from flab-
biness.

In the region of the flank, the lard hog should be well let
down, making the underline level and straight, with no
depression in front of the hind leg. Fleshiness in this region
indicates fleshiness throughout the carcass.

Hip and Rump. — The hips, which should be wide apart,
conforming with the other parts of the body, should be
smooth and well covered with flesh. The rump should be
long, level, and wide. Some breeds have more sloping
rumps than others. In the case of the hog that has the
nicely arched back, there is a tendency for a somewhat
more sloping rump than in the case of the hog that has a
more level back. If the back of the hog is well arched, one
should expect to find a long rounding rump, evenly fleshed
and smooth.

Hams. — The hams of the lard hog form one of the most
valuable parts, and in judging swine careful examination
should be made of this region. The hog with low flanks
and a long, well-shaped rump will usually have a well-shaped
ham. In this region there should be depth, fullness, and
width. While the hams should carry as much flesh as pos-

BACON HOGS 191

sible, the judge should guard against flabby hams. The
value of the hams depends in great measure upon the mix-
ture of fat and lean meat. Flabby, blubbery hams are un-
desirable. |

Legs. — The legs of the hog should be short and strong
without coarseness, and should be well placed under the
body. Breeds that are good grazers stand up on their legs
_ better than those of the extreme lard type, because they
_ exercise more and become better developed in those parts.
_ Weak pasterns should be guarded against, and the animal
_ with a tendency to drop down on its dewclaws should be
_ rejected. In the case of fat animals, however, this may be |
disregarded.

JUDGING BACON HOGS

In recent years there has developed a great demand for
_ bacon, to be sold in cured and smoked form. The consum-
_ ers of bacon demand firm meat without too much fat. To
produce this meat, the bacon hog has been evolved. The
best bacon comes from the sides of the hog, so in judging
_ bacon hogs, one should pay particular attention to the
_ animal with long, deep, firm sides, and firm flesh throughout
' the carcass. These are the points worthy of particular
study in the bacon hog.
Condition and Quality. — The thin or lean hog is not the
| best for bacon purposes. The covering of flesh is very
_ important, and this should be firmer than that of the lard
hog, but not so thick. The animal should be smooth
_ throughout and entirely free from wrinkles. The bones
| should be fine and the skin and hair soft and pliable.
_ Form. — In form, the bacon hog should be longer and
_ deeper than the lard hog, without the extreme thickness and

192 JUDGING SWINE AND SHEEP

width. The animal must be uniform in width throughout,
and all tendency toward thickness in some parts should be.
avoided. ‘The snout of the bacon hog is longer and more
slender than that of the lard hog, and the animal stands up
higher on its legs.

The shoulders should be smooth and free from coarseness,
compact on top, and well knit together.

The hindquarters of the bacon hog should be well filled
and carried down well toward the hocks. Instead of the
extremely thick and fat ham found on the fat hog we here
find a compact, neat, and firm quarter. The term “ gam-

mon ”’ is applied to the hams of the bacon hog.
Bacon hogs are more active than lard hogs. They are
more prolific, and produce large litters of very active and
healthy pigs. ;

JUDGING BREEDING CLASSES

To be a judge of breeding animals one should be familiar
with the standards of excellence for the various breeds,
and should also be experienced in handling them so as to
become familiar with their important points.

In judging, allowance should be made for sex differ-
ences. Males are uniformly heavy in the forequarters, so
that the evenness of lines called for on the score card will
not be found in the case of the male. Females are lighter
in the forequarters than males, but are proportionately —
wider in the hindquarters. Males are coarser about the
head and neck than females. In disposition, the male is
aggressive, active, and sometimes more or less vicious, while
the female is generally quiet and docile. The male has
coarser bone, skin, and hair, and is about 20 per cent heavier
at maturity.

SCORE CARD

193

SCORE CARD FOR JUDGING SWINE

ScALE OF PoINTS

GENERAL APPEARANCE — 25 POINTS

Form, deep, broad, low, long, symmetrical, com-
pact, standing squarely on legs..

Quality, bone clean; hair silky; Skin soft; eae
and ears refined, Bee covered ite firm
flesh. . ’

Disposition, chains Siete ly:

HEAD AND NECK —10 POINTS
Snout, medium aa WOE COATSES Sccok se care
Face, short, cheeks full.
Forehead, broad.
Eyes, large, mild, full, bright, Side pact.
Ears, medium size, fine, soft. $i
Jowl, strong, neat, foe. BE nes Tang ee
Neck, thick, medium leuette Gabe bec RSS ee She dna

FOREQUARTERS — 13 POINTS
Shoulder, symmetrical, broad, deep, full, com-
pact ontop.. : ;
Breast, wide, prominent. well let down,
Legs, straight, short, feet and pasterns sieone ,

BODY — 32 POINTS
Chest, deep, broad; girth large..............
Sides, deep, inethy and full. 4
Back, broad, straight, thickly ast ae fleshed
Loin, thick, wide and strong..
Belly, straight, even, and firmly feshed.
Flank, low and well fleshed, girth large...

HIND QUARTERS — 20 POINTS
Hips, wide apart, smooth.
Rump, long, wide, evenly fleshed, ‘saath
Hams, firm, heavily fleshed, deep and made
Legs, straight, short; feet, and pasterns strone

RR ie cts Lb) os. seals 1+ Sdlcicd,hcaen ani

T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB.—13

Weight,.... ....estimate...... actual lbs.... t

POSSIBLE
SCORE

On

co

uw OV

oboe Hoe Soe

NO

nan

Nwun on

na or W

Points DEFICIENT

Student’s

Share Corrected

194 JUDGING SWINE AND SHEEP

JUDGING SHEEP

Next to horses, sheep are the most difficult class of live
stock to judge. The sheep is covered by a coat of wool
which, in the show ring, is generally long and dense enough
to hide the form of the animal’s body. The skillful shepherd
by the clever use of the shears can trim the wool so that
the appearance of the animal is very deceptive. In judging
sheep, the judge must rely upon his hands to discover the
exact form of the animal. He who would become skilled
in the art of judging sheep must train his hands to determine
accurately the form and covering of flesh on the animal’s
body beneath the covering of wool. ‘To avoid the possibility
of leaving any part of the animal unexamined, the judge
should adhere to a regular routine of handling and follow
it closely in the examination of the sheep.

The Form of the Mutton Sheep. — The form of the sheep
sought for mutton purposes should be, in general, the same
as that looked for in the beef animal and the lard hog.
Good development in the parts of the animal upon which
the best meat is obtained is required in the good mutton
sheep. Were the demands of the butcher entirely satis-
fied, the sheep would have a peculiar form indeed, because
butchers call for an animal that is heavily developed in the
region of the leg of mutton and along the back, and slightly
developed in the region of the head, neck, and legs. This
form of animal, however, isan impossibility, and the man
selecting sheep knows that in actual practice the butcher’s
ideal can only be approximated. The judge’s ideal is an
animal that is well developed in all the essential parts.

Form. — The mutton sheep should be low, blocky, and
squarely set upon short legs, with the body as long as possible

MUTTON SHEEP 195

without sacrificing the compactness essential in the meat
animal. Symmetry, or the correct proportioning of parts,
is necessary in the good sheep. An even covering of firm
flesh is important. Other things being equal, the thicker
the covering the sheep carries, the higher will be the killing
percentage, and the firmer the covering the better will be
the quality of the mutton. Softness of flesh indicates that
the animal’s carcass does not possess the correct ‘‘ marbling”’
or distribution of fat and lean, and in this case one may sus-
pect that the carcass carries surplus fat.

Quality. — The quality of the animal is indicated by the
silkiness of the hair found on the nose, by the refinement and
clear definition of the tendons at the back of the foreleg,
and by the fineness and cleanness of the bone. Refinement
in these parts indicates that this same fineness exists in
the muscles and meat of the sheep.

Disposition. —In temperament the animal should be
quiet. The nervous, restless animal lacks fattening tend-
encies and has a poorer appetite than the animal of the op-
posite disposition.

Head and Neck. — The face of the sheep should be short
and the forehead wide. This is of so much importance
that the good judge can often select the best feeding sheep
by the appearance of the head alone. A strong, wide
muzzle indicates breathing capacity and constitution, while
thin lips indicate quality. Full clear eyes indicate health
_ and vitality. The neck should be short and thick, blending

_ well with wide, compact, well-covered shoulders, making the
shoulder vein full and smooth.

Chest. — The chest should be deep and wide, giving a
large girth, which indicates sufficient room for the vital
organs and for feeding capacity as well. The animal should

196 JUDGING SWINE AND SHEEP

be low at the brisket, and this part of the sheep should be
full and prominent.

Legs. — The legs should be short, to reduce the waste
in this part of the body to the minimum. They should
also be straight, strong, and placed wide apart.

Body. — The back and loin of the sheep are very impor-
tant. It is from this region that the judge should get his
impressions of the worth of the sheep. A short, strong,
straight, wide back, well covered with flesh, indicates at
once a good animal. Width and thickness of loin are very
essential, as in this region some very choice cuts should be
found. Well-arched ribs with good depth indicate that the
sheep has room not only for the consumption of feed but
also for the deposition of fat upon the body. A full, well-
let-down flank indicates that the sheep is carrying flesh and
makes a straight underline.

Leg of Mutton. — Since the leg of mutton is the most
valuable portion of the carcass, development in the region
of the twist and thigh is especially sought for.

Wool. — Although the butcher is not especially inter-
ested in the wool, no sheep is completely judged for breeding
‘purposes until a careful examination of the wool has been
made. One should also bear in mind the general rule, that
the finer and more compact the wool, on a mutton sheep,
the better will be the quality of its meat. In judging the
fine-wool breeds which are raised primarily for their wool
this examination is of the first importance.

The thickest and the best quality of wool grows in the
region of the shoulder, while the poorest grade grows along
the belly. When examining the fleece, part it with the
palms of the hands, not with the finger tips, in the region
of the shoulder near the heart girth. Do not break the

EXAMINING THE FLEECE , 197

wool clusters so as to leave the fleece open, but examine it
where the fleece seems to part naturally. The fleece should
also be examined in the region of the thigh, because a very
poor quality of wool grows here and is much more easily
examined than on the belly. It is a good plan to examine
the wool on the belly because an animal in poor condition
is often poorly covered in‘this region.

Fig. 75. — Examining wool on a sheep.

The judge should look for both quantity and quality of
wool, although it is generally true that the finer the
quality of the wool the shorter will be the fiber, and the
longer the fiber the coarser will be the wool. The factors
that determine the quantity of wool are density, length
of fiber, and evenness of the fleece over the body of the
animal. |

By density of fleece is meant compactness of its fibers.
Toone seeking market wool this means a much heavier fleece,
and to the breeder it indicates better constitution and pro-
tection against inclement weather. The sheep with the
compact coat can shed rains better than the animal with an
open fleece. A heavy, dense coat of wool also prevents the

198 JUDGING SWINE AND SHEEP

radiation of heat from the surface of the body and thus
enables the sheep better to withstand the cold. |

The length of the fiber not only indicates the amount of
wool but also determines the use to which it will be put
by the manufacturers. In the making of worsted goods, a
long fiber is sought, while for broadcloth the manufacturer
seeks a shorter staple.

The quality of wool is indicated by its soundness, purity,
crimp, luster, brightness, and the amount of yolk to be
found in it. Softness may be determined by pressing the
flat of the hand upon the surface of the fleece. Harshness
of fleece is generally due to a lack of yolk or oil in the wool.
Poor feeding or exposure to the weather may cause a harsh
fleece. Soils also have a marked influence upon the softness
of fleece. The effect of good care cannot be overestimated
in its influence upon the fleece as well as upon the carcass
of the sheep.

The soundness of the fleece depends upon the uniform
strength of the fibers. Fibers with weak spots in them are
not worth so much to the manufacturer as are uniformly
strong fibers. Soundness may be determined by taking a
small bundle of fibers from the fleece and twisting it into
yarn. If the fleece is sound the yarn cannot be broken.
Unsound fibers will break at the weak spot. Unsoundness
of fleece also indicates the care which the animal received.
A period of poor feeding or of poor health will produce a
weak place in the wool. 7

Crimp refers to the little waves or kinks that are found
in wool. These kinks are caused by the flatness of the fibers.
Crimp distinguishes a wool fiber from a fiber of hair, which
has no crimp. In fine fleeces of good quality these kinks
are numerous and uniform in size. In coarse fleeces the

EXAMINING THE FLEECE 199

crimp is open. The waves or kinks should be of uniform
size throughout the entire length of the fiber.

The condition of wool depends upon luster, brightness,
purity, and character of the yolk, and is influenced by the
care and management of the flock as well as by the breeding.

In examining for purity look for dead hairs, commonly
called kemp. These can easily be detected, because they
are straight with no crimp. They are usually found upon
poorly kept sheep, and are partly due to exposure. The
manufacturer does not want kemp, because it will not take
the dye well.

The terms luster and brightness are often confused.
Luster refers to the peculiar sheen found upon all wool and
is as common upon the darker-colored wools as upon the
lighter ones. Lustrous wool takes the dye somewhat better
than wool that possesses little luster. Brightness, on the
other hand, refers entirely to the color of the wool. White,
clean fleeces are spoken of as bright, while dark-colored,
dirty fleeces are said to be dark. Cleanliness, then, improves
the brightness of the wool. Dirty fleeces are found in
places where sand storms fill the fleeces with wind-blown
sand. Sheep that are forced to live around straw stacks,
or are kept in muddy lots with steers or other cattle, where
they are forced to lie down in filthy places, get dirty and
their fleeces lack brightness.

The yolk is the oil in the fleece. It is of no particular im-
portance to the manufacturers of woolen goods, since it
is all washed out before the wool is used, but to the breeder
presence of yolk indicates that the animal is in good physi-
cal condition. Feeding has a great influence upon the
amount of yolk that the sheep secretes ; the better the feed-
ing the greater is the quantity of yolk.

200

JUDGING SWINE AND SHEEP

SCORE CARD FOR JUDGING MUTTON SHEEP

SCALE OF POINTS

POSSIBLE
SCORE

Age.. Aaa rims Rover ve :
GENERAL APPEARANCE — ier POINT Ss

Weight. . .estimated. .actual pounds
according to age.

Form, low, long, symmetrical,
evenly covered with firm

Quality, clean bone;

Temperament. .

flesh.

HEAD AND NECK —9 POINTS.
He this;

Muzzle, fair size;
mouth large

nostrils ES
Byes; full: bright e208 aes

Face, short, bel espisso Ui SEEEL SS So ak he

Forehead, broad.
Ears, fine, erect.
Neck, thick, short ; ‘throat ‘clean.

FOREQUARTERS — 13 POINTS

Shoulder Vein, full.
Shoulders, covered, ‘compact .
Chest, deep, wide, large girth. .

Brisket, full, prominent; breast Male fi thypo ta th
Legs, straight, short, wide Ge strong; | fore-

arm full, shank smooth.
BODY — 13 POINTS

Back; straight} wide olite: te eye oo Pyeng

Loin, broad, thick.
Ribs, deep, arched.

Flank, low, thick, making underline straight .

HIND QUARTERS — 17 POINTS
Hips, smooth, far apart. Brot esa ees vtaee
Rump, long, level, wide.

Thighs, full, well ‘fleshed.
Twist, plump, deep. .
Legs, ‘straight, short, strong ; ‘shank: smooth.

CONSTITUTION — 10 POINTS

Girth, ‘large. .°3.225 2:
Skin, pink color.

Fleece, dense and even over t body, yolk abun-

dant..

WOOL — 14 , POINTS|

Quantity, long, dense, even. :sf) Like neat
Quality, fine, soft, pure, event 4: bs See

Condition, bright, Clean. Fc. fax

Potal wees AON Ah eee eee

strong,

compact, “and

aden PBR BAA Sa

OHHH HN

wPophnw

| PRO

Points DEFICIENT

Student’s
Score

Corrected

elee ee ee ee

ee ee

:

i

EXERCISES. 201

EXERCISES

1. Indicate the various steps in their proper order that you
would take in selecting the best animal from a herd of swine.
2. What are the principal defects to be noted by the show

ring judge when judging swine?

3. Show how you would pick out from a mixed flock the best

- mutton sheep.

4. What would be your method of selecting breeding ewes
for wool production?
5. What are some of the tricks used in the show ring for

_ deceiving the judge of sheep?

HOME PROJECT

From the home herd or flock select the two best animals and

- fit them for show. Discard the poorer of the two just before
entry.

CHARTER XII

JUDGING HORSES

Jupernc horses is the most difficult and at the same time
the most fascinating task of the live stock judge. The
judge should be familiar with the variations in type due to
the many different uses to which horses are put ; the various
breed types; the blemishes and unsoundnesses; and the
“tricks of the trade’ in showing horses. All these com-
bine to make horse judging the highest art in the judging
of live stock.

BLEMISHES AND UNSOUNDNESS

An unsoundness is a defect of a horse, a predisposition
towards which is inherited from its ancestors. Blemishes
are defects caused by injury, such as bruises and wire cuts.
While blemishes are disfiguring, undesirable, and hurt the
sale of a horse, they do not disqualify the breeding animal.

Horses should be carefully examined for unsoundness,
because in the judging of all classes no unsound horse should
be awarded a place. If in the detailed examination in the
show ring, any of these defects are discovered, the defective
horse should be retired from the competition. The com-
mon unsoundnesses which every one who judges horses
should very readily recognize are: poll evil, fistula of the
withers heaves, bad wind or roaring, ringbone, sidebone,

202

_ = .”6h6Ue

PARTS OF A’ HORSE : 203

thoroughpin, bone and bog spavins, curb, stringhalt, and
defects of the eyes or other organs.

Poll Evil. — This is a suppurating sore located on the top
of the head just back of the line drawn between the ears.

Fig. 76. — Parts of a horse.

1. Poll 12. Knee . 23. Hip

2. Forehead 13. Fetlock 24. Croup

3. Face 14. Pastern 25. Flank

4. Muzzle 15. Neck 26. Stifle

5. Throatlatch 16. Crest 27. Hip joint

6. Windpipe 17. Withers 28. Thigh

“E ‘yaar groove 18. Back 29. Quarter

8. Point of shoulder 19. Shoulder 30. Point of hock
9. Chest 20. Elbow 31. Hock joint
to. Arm, from shoulder point 21. Loins 32. Gaskin or lower thigh
11. Forearm 22. Coupling 33. Coronet

It discharges pus and is very painful to the animal. The
difficulty in curing the trouble lies in the fact that the sore
cannot be well drained because no outlet can be made from

204 JUDGING HORSES

below. Horses that have been afflicted with this trouble
show scars, and object to being handled about their heads.

Fistula of the Withers. — This trouble, of the same gen-
eral nature as poll evil, is located on top of the withers or at
the top of the shoulders. Horses that have been affected
with fistula generally show scars. The neck may show a
depression and is often sensitive to the touch.

Heaves. — This disease affects the lungs of the horse and

is generally noticeable after eating too greedily of bulky hay |

or dusty feeds, or after a heavy pull or violent exercise.
Theaffected horse breathes in a peculiar fashion, most notice-
able in the region of the flank, the air being expelled from
the lungs in two short jerks. Horses with this disease are
generally shorter of breath than are sound horses, and cough
after exertion.

Roaring. — Roaring is a disease which affects the larynx
or windpipe. When the horse is exercised at a rapid rate or
worked under a heavy pull, loud breathing or roaring results.

Ringbone. — Ringbone affects the pastern bone of the
horse, and appears as an enlargement encircling this bone.

Sidebones. — Sidebones affect the
feet of the horse. ‘The lateral car-
tilages beneath the skin at the hoof
head above the heel become ossified,
or turn to bone. Horses with nar-
row feet, or low or too prominent at

the heels, are most susceptible to

Tei bieecant aie auch hie thole | Predisposition to side-

eet sie bones is inherited, and animals with
them should not be used for breeding purposes.

Thoroughpin. — This is found just above the hock of the
horse. It appears as a swelling or filling between the lower

a
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~ made to oscillate back and forth.

UNSOUNDNESS 205

thigh bone and the large tendon back of it. By pressing

with the fingers either on the outside or the inside of the
enlargement, the swelling may be

Spavin.— Spavins areof twokinds,
bone spavin and bog spavin. The
bone spavin affects the bones of the
hock, and generally appears as an
enlargement at the lower inner as-
pect of the hock joint. When form-
ing, they are small and painful, and
are called ‘‘jacks” by some horsemen.

The bog spavin appears as a swell- Fig. 78. —Unsound hock joint,
ing of the entire hock joint. The aye eh anh
swelling generally appears on the inside of the hock, al-
though the entire joint may be affected.

Curb. — Curb shows as a swelling
at the back of the hind leg just below
the hock. It is usually associated
with “sickle” or crooked hocks.
Sometimes curb appears upon well-
formed legs, and may be due to a
hard pull or a sudden strain.

Stringhalt. —- This is a disease of
the nerves, that usually appears in
only one of the hind legs. In the

Bis | case of affected animals, the feet are
fe ee | lifted quickly from the ground, raised
Fig. 79. —Unsound hock abnormally high, and set down with
joint, showing large curb. z
the same vigor. If the horse is

“warmed up ”’ it is often not noticeable, but if the animal

is allowed to stand quietly for some time and then sud-

206 JUDGING HORSES

denly started forward or backward, the trouble can be
detected. ; i

Defective Eyes or Other Organs. — The horse should be
examined for blindness, and to see that the eyes are of the
same color. In examining for defective sight, care should
be taken not to get the hands too close to the eye, as breezes
from the waving of the hands, or the touching of long hairs
that are found about the eyes may cause the horse to close
its eyes, even though the animal may have good sight.
A sound eye appears translucent. A blind eye is opaque.
One should notice if the horse hears well. If the ears
appear too alert or move too much, defective ears should be
suspected.

The horse’s mouth should be examined for poor teeth.
The upper row of incisors should strike the lower row.
The horse may be parrot-mouthed, in which case the upper
jaw protrudes beyond the lower one; or it may be undershot,
in which case the lower jaw extends beyond the upper.

JUDGING DRAFT HORSES

The draft horse is used to draw heavy loads at a slow
rate of speed, and is so built that the greatest strength
may be obtained without regard to speed. The bones and
muscles of the horse are short and strong. The whole
build of the animal is such that the load is brought as nearly
as possible to the power. |

Age. —- The age of the horse is usually indicated by its
teeth. The horse’s teeth are classed as incisors or
cutting teeth, canine or tearing teeth, and cheek teeth
which are made up of premolars and molars. There are
12 incisors, 6 on both the upper and the lower jaw;
12 to 14 premolars, either 3 or 4 each side in the upper and

\

m

EXAMINING THE TEETH 207

3 on each side in the lower jaw; and 12 molars, 3 on each
side in both upper and lower jaws, making a total of 4o or
42 permanent teeth in the mouth of the mature horse.
The colt does not have a “ full mouth.”

Changes take place quite uniformly in the number of
temporary and permanent teeth found in the mouth of the
young horse, and in the appearance of the permanent teeth
as the horse advances in age. To determine the age of the

_ animal, it is necessary to examine and note the appearance

of the incisor teeth only. Permanent teeth are much larger
than the colt’s temporary ones.

At about the age of 23 years, the central pair of temporary
incisors in both upper and lower jaws is replaced by per-
manent teeth, so that if there is present in the mouth
of the horse one pair of permanent incisors the animal
is between 23 and 33 years of age. At about the age
of 33 years, one incisor on each side of the central
pair in both the upper and the lower jaw is replaced by
new permanent teeth, so that the presence of two pairs
of permanent incisors and one pair of temporary in-
cisors indicates that the horse is from 3% to 4% years old.
At about the age of 43 or 5 years, the remaining temporary
incisors are replaced by permanent teeth, so that at this
age the horse has a full mouth of permanent incisors and is
spoken of as having a “ full mouth.” Up to five years of
age there is not much difficulty in determining the age of
the horse, because the temporary incisors, which are white
and smooth with a restriction about the neck of the tooth
near the gums, are not hard to distinguish from the perma-
nent incisors, which are much longer, broader, harder, and
stronger.

The teeth of horses are constructed differently from those

208 | JUDGING HORSES

of any other animal in that they have a deep cavity in the
center of the wearing surface. This cavity, which is partly
filled with a sort of cement, becomes darkened with deposits
of food, and is usually called the “ cup ” or “‘ mark ” of the
tooth. As the horse advances in age, the tooth wears down —
about the cup, and in time it disappears from the tooth.
It takes about three years for the cups to disappear from
the teeth of the lower jaw, and about six years for them to
disappear from the upper jaw, because in the upper teeth the
cups are deeper. From the age of five years the principal
changes in the appearance of the teeth are: as follows.
At about the age of six years the cups or marks have dis-
appeared from the lower central incisors, at the age of seven
years the cups disappear from the lower incisors next the
central pair, and at the age of eight years the cups have
disappeared from all the lower incisors. At about the age
of nine years the cups disappear from the upper central
incisors; they disappear from the incisors next to the central
upper pair at the age of ten years, and at the age of eleven
years no cups are to be found on the incisor teeth of the
horse. As the horse advances in age the teeth seem to
project forward as viewed from the side, and the wearing
surface of the teeth becomes triangular in form with the base
of the triangle next to the lips of the animal.

In judging, it is well to be able to tell the age of horses
by the teeth up to the age of five years, so that a horse will
not be allowed to enter a wrong class according to age.
The teeth of horses are often ‘‘ bishoped ” or chipped out,
and made to appear like those of young horses.

Height. — The height of the horse is reckoned in “‘ hands.”
A “hand” is four inches. The height is measured by a
vertical line let fall from the top of the withers to the ground

HEIGHT AND WEIGHT 209

just back of the heel. The horse should be led on to a hard
floor and so stood that all four feet are under the body in
normal position when the measurement is made. A draft
horse should be at least 16 hands high. The desirable
height is 163 to 17 hands. Horses above that height are
somewhat difficult to care for, and are hard to match.

Weight. — The score card allows four points for the
weight of the draft horse. If all the horses competing are
above 1500 pounds in weight this allowance is sufficient,
but weight is the factor that determines whether or not a
horse belongs in the draft class. Without weight, the ani-
mal lacks the power to start heavy loads with ease. The
point is well illustrated in the case of the railway locomo-
tive, which is dependent to a great extent upon its weight,
giving it power to grip the rails.

The market price of the draft horse depends largely
upon its weight. Statistics show that a price of $25.00 is
received for every hundred pounds of weight above 1400
pounds. Men often take advantage of the difference in
price between light and heavy horses, and buy thin horses
possessing good quality and large frame on the market,
feed them until they have increased in weight from 100 to
300 pounds, return them to the market, and make a good
profit on the increased price offered for the increase in
weight and the improved appearance and condition of the
horses. ‘There is always a strong demand for heavy horses,
but there is a limited demand for extremely heavy horses,
because they are hard to match and must either be worked
alone or as middle horses in three-horse teams.

Form. — The form of the draft horse should be such that
the greatest weight is compacted into the least space, and
the center of gravity thus brought close to the ground.

T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB. — 14

210 JUDGING HORSES

The working parts of the body should be so arranged that
the levers will give the animal the greatest power to pull.
Great breadth and massiveness in all parts of the horse
indicate strength and give the animal required weight.
Symmetry, or correct proportion of the parts of the body
to one another, lends beauty of appearance and increases
efficiency as well. The animal should be blocky, shor
legged, and close to the ground. %

Quality. — Quality is a term used to designate degree of
refinement in physical make-up. Over-refinement should
not be sought for in the draft horse. Weight and refine-
- ment are two opposite characters, and extreme refinement
is obtained only at the sacrifice of weight, which is the first
and most important essential. The bones of the animal,
while large and strong, should be free from roughness. The
tendons, wherever they may be seen on the body of the
horse, should be large, strong, and clearly defined. The
skin should feel soft and pliable beneath the touch of the
hand, and the hair should be fine and silky. This is espe-
cially true of the “ feather,’ which is the hair that grows
from the back of the cannon bone from the knee to the fet-
lock joint in the hairy-legged breeds.

Action. — Although strength is the primary requisite
and great speed is not essential, good action is an important
qualification of the draft horse. Judgment should not be
passed until the animal has been made to move. Free,
strong movement indicates vigor and good condition, while
listless action indicates sluggishness. Action also serves
to bring out defects in the structure and working parts of
the body which might otherwise be hidden.

In examining for action, the horse should be led straight
away from the judge and viewed from the rear. The feet

ACTION OTT

should be carried forward in a straight line. Paddling,
or throwing the toes outward as they are carried forward,
and winging, the opposite defect, are both equally bad.
The hocks should also be carried straight forward. If the
points of the hocks turn outward, carrying the toes of the
hind feet too close together, the horse cannot get so much
strength for pulling and is classed as defective in the hocks.
In action, the feet should be lifted from the ground with a
snap, and the joints near the feet should be so flexed that
the horse will show the sole of each foot when viewed from
the rear.

The horse should also be led straight back toward the
judge, so that a front view of action may be obtained.
From this view, the judge can get an impression of the
carriage of the horse’s head, and obtain a better view of
the movement of the feet. The style and life of the horse
can also be observed from the front. The judge should
also obtain a side view of the horse in action. The stride
should be long and springy. “ Interfering,” or “ forging,”
which is the striking of one foot with another, should be
watched for while the horse is in action.

The walk of the draft horse is somewhat more important
than the trot. The walk should be free, elastic, springy,
snappy, regular, and straight away. The trot should be
free and bold, springy without lifting the body too high
from the ground, and should be straight away in the line of
draft. The action of a horse should never be passed upon
until both walk and trot are observed.

Temperament. — The draft horse should be energetic,
but the fiery disposition of the fast horse is not expected.
In temperament, the animal should be quiet, or phlegmatic,
as opposed to the more nervous disposition of the horse

212 JUDGING HORSES

developed for speed alone. A peaceable, quiet disposition
is desired, and the animal that will conserve its strength
for work, even in the midst of most exciting surroundings,
is the horse best suited for draft purposes.

Head. — The head of the draft horse should be large
enough to be in proportion with the rest of the body. The
proper size can only be learned by experience. It should
be well carried to give style and finish to the animal’s ap-
pearance. A straight profile is generally found on the horse
of greatest intelligence; the rounding profile, which gives
the Roman nose to the animal, may indicate stubbornness,
and the incurving profile is usually found on the horse that
is easily controlled, but of small capacity for training.
Profiles of horses vary with the breed.

Forehead. — The forehead covers that part of the head
extending from a line drawn between the eyes back or up
to a line drawn between the ears. It should be broad and
full, indicating intelligence.

Eyes. — The eyes should be bright, full, clear, and of the
same color. Clearness and brightness of the eyes indicate
intelligence and a generally healthy condition. The eye is
a good index to the disposition of the horse. Small eyes
usually indicate a mean disposition; large mild eyes, a
good one. The judge should examine carefully for cases
of blindness, as these are disqualifications.

Ears. — The ears should be of proportionate size, which
is best told by experience. The way a horse carries his
ears is a good index to the disposition of the animal.
Alertness of the ears shows vigor and life. While move-
ment of the ears generally indicates spirit, it may also
indicate defective eyesight, a condition which should be
carefully inspected.

‘

HEAD AND SHOULDERS 213

Muzzle. — The nostrils, lips, and external mouth parts
are included in the muzzle. The nostrils should be large,
giving room for free and easy breathing; but if they are
distended too much it may be an indication that the ani-
mal at one time suffered from overheating. The lips should
be fine and firmly held together, indicating a tense muscu-
lar system. Flabby and drooping lips are usually found on
sluggish horses.

Lower Jaw. — The lower jaw should be wide to conform
with the general width desired throughout the body. The
spaces between the two parts of the lower jawbone should
be wide and free from fleshiness or lumps of any sort.

Neck. — The neck of the draft horse should be well
muscled, neatly arched, and blend gracefully into the
shoulder. A “ ewe neck,’ or one that curves downward,
is very undesirable, detracting greatly from the appearance.

‘The throatlatch should be clean and free from swellings.

The windpipe should be large, for free breathing.

Shoulders. — The shoulders should slope gently and be
smooth, blending well into the neck in front and the body
at the rear. Very steep shoulders are undesirable, because
in pulling too much of the weight will be borne near the
lower point of the shoulder. If they are too sloping, how-
ever, the reverse condition obtains.

Arm.— The arm of the horse, extending from the
shoulder joint to the elbow joint, should be strong and well
muscled.

Forearm. — The forearm, which extends from the elbow
to the knee, should be long and muscular, indicating
great strength.

Knees. — The knees should be free from puffiness, should
be flat and large, allowing plenty of room for articulation

214 ‘ JUDGING HORSES

of the joint and attachment of muscles. Knees that are
slightly flexed and held forward when the horse is standing
are called ‘‘ buck knees.”’

Cannons. — The cannon bones are really round, but
when Deen supported by sufficient tendons, appear flat.

They extend from the knee to the

fetlock joint and should be short

and free from enlargements. Splints,
which are small, bony growths, some-
times appear on the inside of the
front cannon bones. While they sel-
dom cause lameness, they are unde-
sirable, especially upon light, fancy
driving horses. Clean, strong ten-
dons are desired, and any tendency
toward puffiness is objectionable. If
the cannon bones are too small the
knees have the appearance of being
set back too far. This defect is called “calf kneed.”’

Fetlocks. — The fetlock joint is located between the
cannon and the pastern bones. These joints should be
large, strong, and free from puffiness.

Pasterns. — Although only three points are given to
pasterns on the score card, the setting and length of the
pastern bones are very important in the conformation of the
horse. These bones should be moderately long and slope
at an angle of about 45°. If the pasterns are short and
steep, the horse will have a stiff, stilty action. ‘The horse’s
foot receives a heavy blow when his weight is brought down
upon it during action. If the pastern is sloping, a great deal
of the force of the blow is broken or absorbed. This is not
so in the case of the horse with the short steep pastern, in ,

Fig. 80. — Unsound knees.

PASTERNS 215

which the force of the blow is trans-
mitted undiminished through the joints
to the animal’s body. The horse with
the moderately long and sloping pas-
tern will have better action, and will
also be better able to endure the shocks
of hard citystreets. Too long and slop-
ing pasterns are likewise objectionable
because they are likely to be weak.
Feet. — It has been said that in
examining a horse, one should begin | ~~ -
at the ground and work upward, and gig. sr. — A good type se
then work down to ground again, data te chia
meaning that the part of the horse that supports it at the
ground is the most important part. In judging horses, strict

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Fig. 82.— Side views of forelegs. The drawing at the left shows correct conforma-
tion. The others show common defects.

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Fig. 83. — Front views of forelegs. The drawing at the left shows correct conforma-
tion. The others show common defects.

216 JUDGING HORSES

attention should be paid to the feet. The larger the foot,
the more of the shock will it be able to absorb, and the less
will there be transmitted to the upper parts of the body.
The foot should be large at the hoof head, so as to give
greater freedom for articulation in the movement of the
foot, and thus lessen the susceptibility of the horse to foot
troubles.

The feet should be of the same size, and point straight
forward. In front they should slope gently from the top to
the ground. A very flat foot is too low at the heel. On
the other hand, if the foot is very steep, the pastern of the
horse is usually steep, which has already been noted as an
objectionable feature.

The quality of the foot is very important. The horn, of
which the outside is composed, should be dense and waxy,
not dry and flaky. The condition of the foot can be greatly
influenced by the treatment. If kept on hard floors, and
worked on paved streets, the feet will appear flaky, and will
be more likely to crack than if the animal is kept on a dirt
floor and worked a part or all of the time on soft earth.
A poor horseshoe may also work great injury to a horse’s
Teer.

Chest. — The chest is that part of the body that contains
the heart and lungs. Its capacity is measured by the
length of the girth, the distance around the body of the
horse, back of the shoulders. At this point, the animal
should be deep and wide, indicating that there is sufficient
room for large, vigorous organs. The breastbone should
be low, providing ample chest space and giving the low-
down, blocky appearance so essential in a valuable draft
horse.

Ribs. — The form of the body depends to a large degree

CHEST AND BACK 217

upon the shape of the ribs. The ribs should be well
arched, springing out from the backbone. This will make
a broad back, furnishing room for the attachment of strong
muscles. They should be well carried down, forming a
roomy cavity for the digestive organs, and giving to the
animal a cylindrical appearance. The distance from the
last rib to the hips should be short, forming what is called
a “short couple.” The round-ribbed, short-coupled an-
imal is stronger, healthier, and more easily kept in good
condition thereby.

Back. — The back, extending from the shoulders to the
hips, should be short, wide, and strong. Low and long

_ backs are weak ones. The male should have a shorter back

and shorter coupling than the female, in which more length
is allowable.

Loins. — The loin is the region between the last rib and
the hips, constituting what has been referred to as the
“coupling.” One should look for a short, wide, muscular
loin. When the back of the horse becomes weak the
attack generally affects the loin first, and most violently ;
the horse sustaining an injury of this kind often losing the
power to move.

Underline. — The underline should be long and low, and
the legs short. The horse with the long belly and the short
back is the best-shaped animal. In the region of the flank.
the animal should be low with no tendency toward “ tuck-
ing up,” as this indicates an unthrifty animal. Deficiency
in the region of the flank also means weakness of the
thigh, a point in which the draft horse should be es-
pecially strong.

Hips. — From one hip point to the other, the horse should
be wide, level, and well covered with muscle. The female

218 JUDGING HORSES

is usually wider and roomier in this region than the male.
In the mare width and roominess between the hips indi-
cate good breeding qualities.

Croup. — The croup of the horse corresponds to the rump
of the meat-producing animal. It extends from the hips

Fig. 84. — A croup of good draft type. Fig. 85. — A steep croup.

back to the tail, and on the good horse is long, level, and
wide. Steepness and shortness of the croup are common
defects of horses. The horse with the short, steep croup
can turn quickly. This is especially desirable in the
case of the cattle pony. On the other hand, the horse
with the long, flat croup can move with the greater
rapidity in a straight line.

Thighs. — The thigh bones extend from the hips to the
stifle joints. The region below the croup and to the rear
of the flank is known as the thigh. The thigh should be
long, deep, and well covered with muscle. A horse that
has strong thighs is a much stronger horse than the one
that is deficient in this region.

Quarters. — The flesh and muscles between the thigh

HIND LEGS 219

bones are called the quarters. In this part of the body
the horse should be plump, and well let down. The
scant, shallow quarter indicates a weak horse and a poor
feeder.

Stifles. — The stifle is the joint between the thigh bone
and the lower thigh or gaskin. In this region the horse
should be well muscled, the joint large and strong and held
up close to the body.

Gaskins. — The gaskins, or lower thigh bones, extend
from the stifle to the hock joints. They should be long,
wide, and heavily covered with muscle, on both the outside
and inside of the legs.

Hocks. — The hock joint, located between the gaskin
and the hind cannon bone, is the most important joint

Fig. 86. — - Side views of hind eee The drawing on the left shows correct conforma
tion. The others show common defects.

fa

Fig. Ba. . — Rear views of hind legs. The drawing on the left shows correct con-
formation. The others show common defects.

220 JUDGING HORSES

in the structure of the horse. It is the fulcrum of one of the
principal levers of the animal’s body, and through it must
pass all the power utilized by the horse in pulling or moving
about.

The hocks should be large, to allow for perfect freedom
of motion and for the attachment of muscles. From the
front to the rear they should be deep, giving more power to
the levers. They should be clean and free from puffiness,
and it is of equal importance that they be free also from
the unsoundnesses common to these parts, namely, spavin,
curb, and thoroughpin.

The proper setting or conformation of the hock may be
determined by dropping a plumb-line from the point of the
buttock down the rear of the hind leg as shown in Fig. 86 and
Fig. 87. If the hock is properly shaped, the line will pass
down the rear of the hind cannon bone from the hock to
the heel, dividing the heel in the middle. Viewed from the
side, the line should be parallel to the direction of the
hind cannon bone.

If the hock is too rounding, forming what is known as
a “sickle hock,” it is prone to unsoundness, especially
curb, and is not so strong as a hock that is properly set.
The hock may also be set too straight.

Cannon Bones, Fetlocks, Pasterns, and Feet of the

Hind Legs. — The cannon bones of the hind legs should |

have clean, strong tendons. The fetlock joints should be
strong and free from puffiness. Special care should be given
to examining the setting and length of the pasterns which
should be moderately long and slope at an angle of 45°.
The size and quality of the hind feet should be noticed for
the same points that have already been discussed in the
treatment of the front feet.

SCORE CARD 225

SCORE CARD FOR JUDGING DRAFT HORSES

Points DEFICIENT

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e
a eo ae oe fo) Biche! dite ci! Slingo. w0!'pya o silsi| els ecie # Fueio is ¥0 2 eas fie 6eyo a0
GENERAL APPEARANCE — 29 POINTS
Height; estimated......... PETE SE Me ACUI UN Re Tame ie ies ree he alll cchle asor sta cc UO cd ilove, eee
Weight, over 1500 Ib. estimated......... lb., score

4 CPLUG TOD [Pacis eae rE oY aioe cece ai lhae tremor tees
Form, broad, massive, evenly proportioned, symmet-

SaEMM SIRT, Silo se fic ee obs bn ee oasis os 7a Sah) eile Rare a esl SA Ae ed 2
Quality, refined; bones clean, large, strong; tendons

clean, defined, prominent; skin and hair fine;

Beerenerao Present, SUKY.; -.. 2 0): «sje 2 cece ness Gad Pal eare aee va tiie «cll poke Meenas
Action, walk, fast, elastic, regular, straight; trot,

imecesprimey. Dalanced, straight....0..2....2 0+: EON dea poee chads ceiliteccetnces
Temperament, energetic; disposition good......... A oe Sh heen eRe Ry| | ry Al ee

HEAD AND NECK —8 POINTS
Head, proportionate size, clean cut, well carried;

2 BEST UD re ee Tee OMe tars, dhe Neue | ey arateee are
SO Thalia | ea ee adie ctl ei ears se
epee, wile cleat, full, same color:............... Dee i] speetise epee | ene erates 38
Ears, medium size, well carried, alert.............. Mura Ds |e oganee ey ates les dea Bes oie
Muzzle, neat; nostrils large, flexible; lips thin, even,

SRM Ie oh LU se ieNac oid nies 0 0 ole ab ds 1 | Re co ea eae
Lower Jaw, angles wide, space clean.............. Te Oe Net MUR GALA COP oon eh ded
928 muscled, arched; throatlatch fine, windpipe

Sere NAc so iaie ieveie Siale ove see ciseeeanee ial eetniess cet. chon acca ashe

FOREQUARTERS — 22 POINTS
Shoulders, moderately sloping, smooth, snug, ex-
io Sa cg vee serena bee See Mack) Meow ites Aen a al
Arm, short, strong muscled, thrown back, well set.... Lg OM CaaS ea el LAB Se
Forearm, long, wide, clean, heavily muscled........ 7 Sa | | SN Ie ul Ras Ee
Knees, straight, wide, deep, strong, clean.......... BS eae eh ot OUR au dad Nore ole
Cannons, short, wide, clean; tendons clean, defined,

ic) rae Aes se dh ee wm s ora venisrs Ze Ne ale court se srede tacts a
Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean............ LES acters elie me eles
Pasterns, moderately sloping, strong, clean........ a AeA is ao Une the
Feet, large, even size, sound; horn dense, waxy; soles

concave; bars strong, full; frogs large, elastic;

heels wide, one half length of toe, vertical to ground Sire la eae ctallo oer oats

BODY —9 POINTS
Chest, deep, wide; breastbone low; girthlarge...... Da bie Chases toa WE Meecha
Ribs, deep, well sprung, closely ribbed to hip........ at | hee tine hehe Ale
Meee, road. ;strong, muscular.................... dat Dil lee Pee (OPEN Wee Ae
Loins, short, wide, thick muscled.................. Bia Oise Us. hs orellisois pes tomatoe
er ar MANES fT. og. ek cc cee dewe Kiet ale See welts as tee

HIND QUARTERS — 32 POINTS
Hips, broad, smooth, level, well muscled............ Lie WEN SE | bales a oP
Croup, wide, heavily muscled, not markedly drooping 24) Lysal| Aulad AA Ae Niches hd
Thighs, deep, broad, strong, muscular.............. i ie a ee es Re ce RR are
Quarters, plump with muscle, deep................ 7 ath atl lice Bn al Ne Aare
Stifles, large, strong, muscular, clean.............. 7AOd, Lonel Oa ce ae, LO REE ete
Gaskins (lower thighs), long, wide, clean, heavily

Ee oS attains wei bex orc ch o 00) ond edhe ine dna POE hehe eet ca seta lies ay ave sehaee
Hocks, large, strong, wide, deep, clean, wellset...... Mee a i an a 1 a Oe PL
Cannons, short, wide, clean; tendons clean, defined,

SIERO SL fey os 5 of xi Gelade! 2 oe dw ce Whee ciddhe un ele!s ee MME. tg Xgl sol Ur des Itoh pee ohettore Ue
Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean.............. iO SNe Di rae ate aneeg ee NE
Pasterns, moderately sloping, strong, clean........ eT GAMT Ons it ok te es ahean
Feet, large, even size, sound; horn dense, waxy;

soles concave; bars strong, full; frogs large, elastic;

heels wide, one halflength of toe, vertical to ground "iil 2] be oe een PARR AR een

ET Siro) 6 tle SR ia iste. J & « viadasd tea site > vio (o]e y | ae ae ey oi

222 JUDGING HORSES

JUDGING LIGHT HORSES

In the light horse, long and slender bones and muscles
are found. The levers and angles in the conformation of
the light horse are all so arranged as to give the maximum
speed, which is attained only at the loss of strength. The
light horse is rangier and less compact in conformation than
the draft horse. It is more refined as to quality, having
finer and cleaner bones, and more clearly defined tendons.

Weight. — The weights of light horses range from 1000
pounds or less in the case of light roadsters to 1500
pounds in the case of the heavy harness or coach horse.

Height. — There is also great variation in the height of
light horses, but horses less than 14 hands high are con-
sidered as ponies.

Form. — In form, the light horse should be symmetrical
and stylish; and instead of the blockiness of the draft
horse, ranginess should be sought.

Quality. — The quality of the light horse is easily studied
because there is less flesh upon it than upon the heavy horse.
When the hand is placed upon the animal, the coat should
feel.soft and silky, and the skin fine. When rubbing down
over the cannon bones, one should feel no superfluous meat
beneath the skin, which should appear to fit the limbs of
the horse much as a glove fits the hand.

Action. — Attention to action is more important in judg-
ing light horses than in judging draft animals. The trot,
is, in this case, more important than the walk, and in the
roadster types speed is sought as well. The walk should
be fast, elastic, and straight, and the stride should: be long.
In the trot, great freedom of motion and “‘ snappiness ”’ are
required. In action, the body should not be raised too high

LIGHT HORSES 223

from the ground, deviations from a straight line forward
being objectionable.

Temperament. — In temperament, the light horse should
be active and alert with no tendency toward sluggishness, as
is occasionally the case with the draft horse.

Head and Neck. — The head of the light horse is pro-
portionately smaller and more refined than that of the draft
horse. The ears are smaller and more active and alert,
and the eye generally shows signs of more life. The fore-
head should be broad and full, and the muzzle large, with
large nostrils for furnishing sufficient air. The neck does
not require the extreme muscularity seen in the draft
horse, and is longer and more slender.

Shoulders. — The shoulders should be slight, sloping
gently, and carried back well at the top with high withers.
Height at the withers is essential in a horse built for speed,
as it gives a better carriage to the head, and enables the ani-
mal to lift its front feet higher from the ground, thus lending
style to action. |

Arm, Forearm, and Knees. — The arm should be well
muscled and long, throwing the elbow joint well back.
The forearm should be strong and long from the elbow joint
to the knee. The knees should be flat and broad, without
coarseness or extra flesh. A common tendency to be
slightly “ buck kneed ” or weak kneed should be guarded
against.

Cannon Bones and Fetlocks. — The cannon bones should
be short in comparison with the length of the forearm.
They should be well supported with strong tendons, and free
from all roughness or tendency toward splints. The fet-
lock joints should be strong and free from puffiness, which
is very objectionable but quite common in light horses.

224 JUDGING HORSES

Pasterns. — Long and gently sloping pasterns, which are
conducive to rapid, springy, and enduring action, are es-
sential in light horses.

Feet. — For work upon hard roads the feet should be of
the best material. Large size is also very essential. Small,
contracted, flaky hoofs are undesirable.

Body. — The body of the horse should show the points
that indicate stamina and endurance without too much
tendency toward fleshiness. The chest should be roomy,
giving capacity for the vital organs. Since thickness is
undesirable, depth should be sought in this region. Deep,
well-sprung ribs furnish capacity for food. The back should
be broad, providing place for attachment of muscles, but
great breadth may give the animal a “ drafty” appear-
ance, which is undesirable. The loin should be wide, thick,
and short from the last rib to the hip. The flanks should
be well let down and full, making the underline straight.
A horse too high in the flank will be hard to keep and will
have poor endurance.

Hindquarters. — The hindquarters should be studied
very carefully, because upon the shape of these depends
the speed ability of the horse. The hips should be level
and wide without losing sight of the type of the animals.
The croup should be well muscled, long, wide, and level,
carrying out the symmetry of the horse. The long, level
croup is found on the speedy horse. The thighs should be
deep, strong, and muscular, without the plumpness found in
the draft horse. The angle formed by the junction of the
thigh bone and the hip bone should be large and open so
that greater freedom for articulation may be obtained.
The quarters should be well muscled and deep without the
fleshiness found in the same region in the draft horse. The

CARRIAGE AND SADDLE HORSES 225

stifle should be well muscled, clean and large, insuring a
strong joint; and the gaskins or lower thighs should be well
muscled and long. The hock of the light horse is as im-
portant as that of the draft horse; and if not sufficiently
strong and well set is very prone to bog spavin, bone spavin,
orcurbs. Unsoundnesses show more on the light horse than
they do on the draft animal. Since many of the light horses
are used for fancy driving purposes, it is of great importance
that the hocks should be well set, strong, and free from
puffiness.

The rear cannon bones should be te wide, strong, and
clean, with clearly defined, hard, prominent tendons. The
hind pasterns should be long and slope gently.

All that has been said concerning the front feet applies
with equal force to the hind feet.

JUDGING CARRIAGE HORSES, ROADSTERS, AND
SADDLE HORSES

The carriage horse is one that can pull a fair-sized load
with some speed. Such horses should weigh 1250 to 1450
pounds, and have round, well-muscled bodies and strong,
hard, flat, muscular limbs. The pasterns of carriage horses
should be strong and sufficiently long to give the animal
a springy, stylish action. These horses should also possess
all the marks of endurance, such as a deep round chest;
strong wide back; short couple; depth at the flank; clear
bright eyes; and large muzzles.

The roadster is designed for speed. This type has been
developed by selecting and mating the speediest horses
without regard to conformation, so the type evolved is the
result of selecting those that made the best records. The
roadster weighs about 1000 pounds, and has speedy action,

T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB.—I5

226 JUDGING HORSES

without regard to style. The roadster and trotting horses
are extreme types of light horses, and while endurance is
the main consideration, the horse should be free from all
fleshiness. The limbs should be flat, long, and strong, the
pasterns gently sloping and long, and the feet large and
of good quality. The body should be rangy and closely
ribbed up to the hip. The animal should be refined, the
hair fine and silky, the skin thin and of fine quality, and the
veins prominent.

The Saddle Horse. — The American Jaa horse is a
distinct type. The saddle horse is stylish, and strong, with
an easy, springy gait. In judging the saddle horse par-
ticular attention should be paid to his gaits, and the readi-
ness with which he performs. ‘The gaits of the saddle horse
are: (1) walk, (2) trot, (3) rack, (4) canter, (5) slow pace,
(6) running walk, (7) fox trot.

Gaits. — The three natural gaits of the horse are the walk,
the trot, and the gallop. Occasionally there are natural
pacers, but they are not common. In the walk, the hind
foot on one side is brought forward and is placed upon the
ground near the spot where the front foot of the same side
was placed and almost immediately after it had left the
ground. The trot is an angular gait, the front foot of one
side and the hind foot of the opposite side being carried
forward at the same time. In the pace the front foot
and the hind foot on one side are carried forward at the
same time. This gives the horse a swaying motion. In
the single-foot or rack each foot touches the ground
at a different time. It may be called a “slow gait,”
but is somewhat faster than the walk, and is one which
the horse can keep up for a great length of time. The
canter is a slow gallop, a very easy riding gait, easily

PONIES ee

Fig. 88. — Combination harness and saddle horse.

taught to the horse. The running walk is faster than
the walk, but slower than the pace or trot, and an
easier riding gait than either. The slow pace is a some-
what similar gait, but is more like the pace than the
running walk. The fox trot is a sort of jog trot, and is
not so desirable as the slow pace and the rack. If a horse
has five of the above gaits he is a gaited saddle horse; and
the breeding, conformation, and style of the horse, together
with the manner in which he performs these gaits, determine
his value.

JUDGING PONIES

All the rules for judging horses apply to the judging of
ponies, which are in reality small horses. In this country
ponies are kept mainly for pleasure purposes. Americans

228 JUDGING HORSES

SCORE CARD FOR JUDGING LIGHT HORSES

Points DEFICIENT
SCALE OF PomnTs PosstBLE |———____
ScorE | Student’s
Ganen Corrected

GENERAL APPEARANCE — 30 POINTS

Weight, estimated ‘mm. (0S) oe seis cece eee ot) gee Ol ieneieemetene teen eee go
Height, estimated injhands).). 0... avec wie ieee «|. a RS eer oe
Height. 15) Hands orrowertenaesc.2s ae as cee ous ee cuhe ke
Form, type — symmetrical, smooth, stylish........
Quality, refined; bone clean, fine, tendons clean, de-

fined, prominent; hair and skin fine............
Action, walk long, fast, elastic, regular, straight;

trot rapid, regular, straight, balanced.......... I
Temperament, active, disposition good............

HEAD AND NECK —10 POINTS

Head, proportionate, well carried, features well de-

fined prod eystrane tees etree eeeee nae elie
Forehead, broad, full............. Se HIER ee eae
Eyes, full, bright, clear, large, same color..........
Ears, medium size, pointed, well carried, alert......
Muzzle, neat, nostrils large, flexible; lips thin, firm,

EVIETIA Cees Mereeematahon etnies a Mec men EMP rn AEE Re Mes to .8. See ees
Lower Jaw, angles wide, space clean.............. be Ee es SNe io oo
Neck, muscled, arched; throatlatch fine; windpipe

© © 90 .@ s\.6 = Ihe 6) wie) alee) (a

Penner eon COM DACA

a) ie) dp fohe wie (0! | euwie tele) eral

Pee Cre) Ree a

On mn aS)

Pu ee ee {ho ot cok oe:

= i, ©). 6.0, ‘eteics ||| a) kuhie) Le) sienna re

SUpPPOLtEd A=. 2-215 > sala ee era ten eon 7 I EPRI | Sioyo'o 3 32
Cannons, short, clean, wide, tendons large, hard,
cleans, prominent?) eae e ey). . eke weaciepenenie eeearaan ade aR WE OA ate cose ic
Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean.............. | a PR RA Naas 6 ig d
Pasterns, lengthy, sloping, strong, clean............ Boo. [RALER Ree Coach Reet eemeene
Feet, medium size, even, sound; horn dense, waxy;
soles concave; bars strong, full; frogs large, elas-
tic; heels wide, one half length of toe..........
BODY — 10 POINT
Withers, high, extending well back................
Chest, deep, low; girth large....................
Ribs deep,‘ wellisprung.) con. eae ee ne
Back broad, strong, muscular... .2 5) eet le.
Loins, short, wide, thick muscled, close coupled......
Underline, low, flanks full, welllet down............
HINDQUARTERS — 30 POINTS 2
Hips smooth*ewide: leveltmer sq 2 mre cir reece oe
Croup, long, wide, muscular, not drooping..........
Tail, “attached hiehy wellcarrieds .5- sae seen seer
Thighs, deep, broad, strong, muscular..............
Quarters, deep, plump with muscle................
Stifles strong) muscular clean. se pelo eee
Gaskins (lower thighs), long, wide, muscular........
Hocks, large, strong, wide, deep, clean, well set......
Cannons, short, clean, wide; tendons large, hard,
clean, prominent... See ee een A meee eee otal 2) nutes sven ss]
Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean.............. Eo bene ae eee
Pasterns, strong, sloping, springy, clean............ 30, “abies Stale eee Sill Seen
Feet, medium size, even, sound; horn dense, waxy;
soles concave; bars strong, full; frogs large, elas-
bic wheels widest heh ee ete eee A eth. eal ee

SS ee | | |

an

oe. eo, weyred.= aillnl (a) ee een

© 6 6, = resleys, SHllim enw lop oe

oer ce ee Ot

HNNNN HA

Pia Tr a | Cr ee OS

eee bw. ep elm) ne) ee) 6)

“NN DN HWADD

@ a) eo! eyin\'s:||'e) aera ee

MULES AND BREEDING CLASSES 229

desire more style and action in the small ponies than is
required in the countries to which the ponies are native.
Cleanness of bone, freedom from all unsoundnesses, sym-
metry of body, and all the other essentials of a good horse
should be found in ponies.

JUDGING MULES

The mule is produced for work in warm climates and
should be judged as a work animal. The mule type, how-
ever, is different from that of the work horse. Height is
one of the most important factors in determining the value
of a mule, size being very important. Quality is also given
great consideration, mules of good quality selling better
than rough ones.: The same relationship of parts that ob-
tains in the case of horses should be found in mules. The
feet of the mule are long and narrow like those of the ass,
and should be of as good quality as horses’ feet.

JUDGING BREEDING CLASSES

In judging breeding classes, the judge should first be
familiar with the type sought for by the best breeders.
This presupposes a knowledge of the breed and breed re-
quirements. Even though one animal may be better fitted
for market and may be more useful than another, it is not
eligible for highest rank in the show ring if it lacks the type
set forth in the standard established by the breed association.

Unsoundness and poor conformation should be looked for
with great care, because, while unsoundnesses are not in-
herited directly, the predisposition toward them is inherited.
Blemishes that would lower the market price of the animal
are not so serious in breeding classes, although they are

230 JUDGING HORSES

objectionable. Breed types should be given precedence
over blemishes in the selection of breeding animals. Ani-
mals that are so defective as to impair their breeding powers
should be disqualified.

EXERCISES

1. What is the first thing to be sought in judging heavy
draft horses? Driving horses?

2. What unsoundness disqualifies for either class of horses?

3. How does the show ring judge go about to “throw out”
the poorest animals? To “place’’ the rest?

4. Describe how you would ‘‘show” the action of a horse.
How would you judge it?

5. Name and describe the various kinds of defective action. —

HOME PROJECT

Select the best colt or horse on the home farm and fit it for
show. Show the animal yourself in the judging ring.

CHAPTER XIII
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES

Stables. — The horse barn should be roomy, well lighted,
and ventilated, and should be kept free from chickens or
other animals that may introduce parasites to infest the
horse. The stable should be thoroughly cleaned at least
twice daily, morning and evening, and fresh bedding pro-
vided at the evening cleaning.

Grooming. — Horses should be thoroughly groomed
every morning. In the spring of the year especial care
should be given to this work. During the winter they
grow heavy coats of hair. When put into the work har-
ness in spring their profuse sweating loosens the hair.
If this loose hair is not removed by currying, it will make
the horse both uncomfortable and unsightly. Their
shoulders and necks should be carefully watched. It is
a good practice to wash them after each day’s work. For
harness galls, an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of
cure. The best cure for sore shoulders and necks is rest
and removal of the cause. In the spring it is well to clip
the hair from the fetlocks, so that the animal’s legs can
be more easily kept clean.

Food Requirements of the Work Horse. — A work horse
more nearly resembles a machine than any other animal
kept on the farm. The hard-worked horse needs energy-
giving and tissue-building material in its feed to supply

231

232 CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES

power and to repair the great waste that goes on during
a siege of hard work. The horse may start in the spring
fat and sleek, and before the heavy fall work is completed,
the cellular structure of the body may have been torn
down and rebuilt many times. This calls for protein in
the ration; and the energy that must be supplied necessi-
tates carbohydrate and fat material.

A good grain mixture for the horse consists of 3 parts
of oats, 2 parts of corn, and 1 part of bran by weight. In
feeding horses, a safe rule to follow is to allow one pound
of grain daily for each too pounds of live weight of the
animal, and to increase this amount if the horse is hard
at work. The horse at extra hard work will require about
50 per cent mcre grain than is called for by the above rule.
Draft horses weighing 1600 pounds will therefore require
8 pounds of grain three times daily when at hard work.

Roughage. — A horse will consume daily about 1 pound
of roughage for each 1oo pounds of live weight. Tim-
othy hay is the roughage most commonly fed. Clover hay
of good quality, bright, and free from dust, may be fed
safely. Mixed hay consisting of blue grass and timothy,
or other grasses, is excellent. Alfalfa hay is fed almost
entirely in western sections, and horses work well on it in
spite of the fact that it makes them sweat freely and
causes a larger secretion of urine. If corn silage is fed, it
must be of good quality, free from mold, and must be fed in
moderate amounts.

Precaution. — When the work horse gets a day or two

of rest, the ration should be decreased. During a resting
time the horse accustomed to hard work will, if allowed
to do so, eat more feed than can be utilized by the body.
A great many cases of a disease known as “ Azoturia,”

FEEDING 233

)

sometimes called ‘‘ Monday morning disease,’ result from
feeding horses heavily when they are idle over Sunday and
are given no exercise. Farm horses should be turned on to
a short pasture when not at work. This gives the animal
an opportunity to roll, get a bite of grass, and sufficient
exercise to prevent disorders due to overfeeding. The
animal will not need the noon feed, and in the evening a
lighter feed than usual may be given. If horses are not
used to it, too much grass may produce colic.

In case horses cannot be turned out, a good plan is to
give the regular grain feed at breakfast time and cut the
noon and evening meals in half. The old custom of feed-
ing a bran mash on idle days has been quite generally
abandoned. A small allowance of bran in the daily ra-
tion is nutritious, and its mild laxative effect will keep
the animal’s digestive tract in good condition. Horses
should not be fed or watered when very hot. It is often
fatal to the animal; or founder and stiffness may result,
from the effects of which horses seldom recover.

The Brood Mare. — The brood mare should be treated
with more consideration than the work horse. It is better
to work the brood mare than to deprive her of the oppor-
tunity to get sufficient exercise. She should not be allowed
to “rough it”’ in winter. It is not necessary to keep her
in a warm stable if she is given sufficient wholesome,
nourishing food, but good colts should not be expected
from dams forced to go through the winter on hay and
straw alone. The dam must be fed tissue-building ma-
terials. A good grain mixture consists of 3 parts of
oats and 1 part of bran. Good timothy or mixed hay
is satisfactory for roughage, and some cut hay may be
introduced into the grain ration.

234 CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES

Working the Brood Mare. — If the brood mare is needed
as a work horse, she should be given some light work.
Such service as fast driving on the road or plowing in a
four-horse team should not be expected from her. The
brood mare should at all times be handled quietly, care-
fully, and kindly.

Feeds for the Young Foal. — Grain should be supplied
in a separate box to the young foal as soon as it has learned
to eat grain from its mother’s feed box. Oats is the best
grain for the young colt, and this should be fed in small
amounts at first. A safe rule to follow in supplying grain
to the foal is to allow from 2 to 3 pounds of grain daily
up to the age of one year; 4 to 5 pounds daily between
the ages of one and two years; and 7 to 8 pounds of grain
daily between the age of two and three years. The same
amount of roughage may be allowed the young horse,
though these allowances are subject to wide variation.

The young horse should be liberally fed so as to acquire
one half its mature weight at the age of twelve months.
Only during the growing period can the animal be properly
developed, so that it may later attain its greatest possible
size. At this time feeds rich in protein and mineral matter
should be given to develop muscles and bones. After
being weaned the foal should be fed liberally on such feeds
as oats, bran, and linseed oil meal. Cut alfalfa hay, cow-
peas, soy beans, and skim milk may also be introduced
into the ration at this time to good advantage.

Orphan Foals. — Orphan foals are often reared upon
modified cow’s milk. Cow’s milk is higher in fat and
lower in sugar and mineral matter than mare’s milk, and
when fed to the young foal limewater and sugar should
be added. At all times the milk should be fed warm, and

EXERCISES 235

strict attention should be given to cleanliness and sanitary
conditions in preparing food for the young foal.

Colic in Horses. — Colic causes more deaths among
horses than any other single complaint. It is of two
kinds, spasmodic or cramp colic, and flatulent or wind
colic. Spasmodic colic is the more violent and comes
- on more rapidly. Injudicious feeding, standing in drafts
of air, and drinking too much cold water are some of
the causes of spasmodic colic. The horse tramps in the
stall, paws, bends the knees, turns the head around to
the side, has a worried look, lies down and rolls, and
shows other signs of distress. The pain comes periodi-
cally; the horse for a few minutes seems well, then the
symptoms of the trouble suddenly reappear. Flatulent or
wind colic comes on more slowly, and is caused by fer-
mentation of food in the large intestine. Proper feeding
and care will prevent most of the attacks of colic.

In all cases of colic it is much better to call a reliable
veterinarian than to resort to home treatment.

EXERCISES

1. Does fast driving have any effect upon the amount of
feed required by horses? If so, what?

2. What special attention does the farm work horse require
in spring ?

3. Why do horses need more concentrated feeds than cattle?
Can a work horse be kept in condition on rough feed? Why?

4. Describe a good method by which a young foal may be
raised by hand. |

HOME PROJECT

Take entire care of the farm work horses or the driving team
for any given period, using the best of methods in this work.

CHAPTER XIV
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF BEEF CATTLE

The Cattle to Keep for Beef. — The cattle to keep for
beef should be of the beef type. Such animals produce
the greatest amount of coe priced meat from a given
amount of food.

Care of the Cow and Calf. — In rearing calves for beef
purposes on high-priced land, there are several methods
that may be followed. One practice is to milk the cow
and raise the calf upon skim milk and grain. This method
is the cheapest. The calf will eat a grain ration after it
is weaned and will do well, with very little shrinkage. This
method presupposes, however, that the cows are good
milkers. It is not advisable to follow it with calves from
the dairy breeds.

Rearing Two Calves with One Cow. — Another practice
is to place two calves with one cow and milk the extra
cows, or buy calves to place with them. ‘The two calves
do well, but at weaning time they shrink more than calves
reared on skim milk and grain. When two are reared by ©
one cow, they should not be allowed to run with the —
cow in the pasture, but should be turned with her
night and morning. The calves should be watched while
feeding; otherwise the stronger one will rob the weaker.
In addition to the milk from the cow, the calves should
have a liberal feeding of grain. They should be started

236

FEEDING FOR BEEF PRODUCTION 237

upon the grain ration while quite young, because they
will have to be weaned at the early age of four or five
months.

If single calves are allowed to run with the cows, it re-
duces the labor bill to the minimum, but is advisable
only upon very cheap land, or in the production of high-
priced breeding stock. Such calves should be weaned at
the age of five or six months. In exceptional cases, when
calves are being fitted for show, they may be allowed to
nurse until they are fifteen or eighteen months of age.
Any of the above methods will produce good beef cattle,
provided the animals have the proper breeding.

Care of the Beef Sire. — On the farm where cattle are
kept for the production of beef, the sire should receive
just as good care as on the dairy farm. He should have
a pen with a paddock in connection where he may exercise.
While he should receive sufficient feed to keep him in good
condition, he should not be kept fat. - Alfalfa or clover hay
with a limited amount of silage of good quality for rough-
age, and a grain ration made up of corn, oats, and bran, if
not fed in excess, will keep him in a healthy condition.

‘““ Baby Beef ”’ Production. — The production of “‘ baby
beef” requires great care and intelligent feeding. The
industry has arisen because of the scarcity of feeding
cattle, due to the high price of western land upon which
feeders are now produced.

In this method, the beef producer feeds the calves
liberally from the time they are born until they are mar-
keted. ‘“ The calf is not allowed to lose its calf fat.”
These animals are sold at from 12 to 18 months of age.
They should weigh from 800 to 1000 pounds each, and
they should be fat, and smooth, and of good quality.

238 CARE OF BEEF CATTLE

The advantages of “‘ baby beef” production are:

1. The cattle are not kept so long on the farm. This
makes it possible to maintain a large breeding herd to
produce more calves.

2. Capital is turned over faster.

3. The percentage of weight given by the dam is
greater.

4. The market favors the lighter animal that will pro-
duce smaller cuts of meat.

5. The young animal gains more economically than the
older one.

The disadvantages of the method are:

1. Young animals require greater care and more skill in
feeding.

2. The animals must be well finished when sent to the
market, or they will be turned back again to the country
as “‘ feeders,”’ for which a lower price is paid.

3. The animals must be very uniform in conformation
and quality to command a good price.

4. To fatten them requires a long feeding period, be-
cause young animals have a tendency to grow instead of
fatten.

In the summer time it is poor practice to allow the
calves to eat too heavily of grass, because grass has a
tendency to produce scours. The grain ration may con-
sist of corn. With this some bran should be fed, and
toward the end of the feeding period some cottonseed
meal added. If possible either alfalfa or clover hay should
be given for roughage. Timothy hay is undesirable,
although, if nothing better can be furnished, mixed hay
will prove quite satisfactory. Corn silage helps to cheapen
the gains and keeps the animals in good condition.

FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 239

Feeding Older Cattle. —A common practice is to buy
cattle at about the age of two years and feed them
until they are fat enough for the market. These cattle
may be fed from 60 to go days, known as “‘ the short
feeding period,’ or from 120 to 180 days, called ‘ the
long feeding period.” Cattle that have been fed for the
short feeding period are called ‘‘ short fed cattle,” and
those fed the long period are called “‘ long fed cattle.”’

Starting Cattle on Feed. —- Cattle should be started on
feed gradually. Only a small allowance of concentrated
feed should be given. The coarser and cheaper the feed
stuffs given at the beginning, the easier it is to get the
cattle up to “‘ full feed.”

Full Feed. — Cattle are on “full feed ’’ when they are
consuming the maximum allowance of heavy concentrated
feeds such as corn and cottonseed meal. It takes from
two to four weeks to get cattle on full feed, depending
upon the kind and condition of the cattle. Young cattle
go on to full feed somewhat more slowly than older cattle,
and the feeder should be more cautious with young cattle
because they get “off their feed’’ more easily. Cattle
in good flesh and used to feeding will go on to full feed
more quickly than will thin cattle unused to being fed.

The Feeds for Beef Cattle. — For feeding beef cattle,
corn should form the principal part of the fattening ration.
When on full feed, the steer will consume from 12 to 15
pounds of shelled corn per 1000 pounds of live weight
daily. In connection with corn the steer should get
from 24 to 3 pounds of cottonseed meal or linseed meal.
The general rule for the feeding of cottonseed meal is to
give 3 pounds daily per tooo pounds of live weight. The
animals should be watched carefully to see that they do

240 CARE OF BEEF CATTLE

not overeat on the meal. The amount of the meal should
be decreased after the steers have been fed for a period of
about 100 days, and in some cases it may be taken out of
the ration entirely. For roughage, well-cured clover hay
is excellent. Where it can be obtained at a reasonable
figure alfalfa is probably the best roughage for fattening
cattle. However, care should be exercised in feeding it,
or bloat may result. This is especially true when the
alfalfa is damp or wet. Timothy hay is an expensive
roughage. Besides being high in price it does not produce
the gains that are obtained from the alfalfa or clover.
Corn silage should be fed to beef cattle because it reduces
the amount of grain needed and keeps the animals healthy.
Steers will consume about 15 to 20 pounds of silage and
from 6 to 8 pounds of alfalfa or clover, daily, per 1000
pounds of live weight. As steers grow fat, the amount of
roughage may be lowered and the amount of grain in-
creased. A suitable day’s ration for the 1tooo-pound steer
consists of 12 to 15 pounds of shelled corn, 2 to 3 pounds
of cottonseed meal, 6 to 8 pounds of alfalfa or clover hay,
and 15 to 20 pounds of corn silage. Steers should average
from 25 to 3 pounds of gain per day on such a ration.
Hogs Following Steers. — The steer feeder always has
hogs following the steers to pick up the waste corn. The
best way to feed corn to steers is on the ear, with hogs
following. A great many steer feeders are content if the
steers pay only for the cost of feeding. They make the
profit on the hogs which follow the cattle in the feed lot.
Active, vigorous pigs weighing from too to 150 pounds
are the best for this purpose. However, the pigs should
have some feed besides what they pick up after the cattle.
The number of pigs per steer varies with the condition of

EQUIPMENT FOR FEEDING 241

the cattle and the way the feed is prepared. If whole
corn is fed, one pig per steer is about the right proportion.

Equipment. — Feeding beef cattle does not require ex-
pensive equipment. All tests show that steers do best
under conditions where they have plenty of freedom. The
fattening steer is protected by a heavy coat of hair, and
when he becomes fat, the layer of fat is of itself a protec-

Fig. 89. — Typical heavy load of fat steers.

tion against cold. He is also evolving a great deal of
heat in building up tissue and taking care of his food.
The experience of feeders is that the steers do better in
steady, cold weather than in warm, soft, muggy, or change-
able weather.

Barns or Open Sheds. — Barns are handier for feeding,
but an open shed, well bedded and dry, with a south and
east exposure, gives the best satisfaction. Some feeders
prefer to provide the cattle only with windbreaks. This
is good practice in the southern part of the corn belt, but
on its northern edge the cattle are better off if provided

T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB. — 15

242 CARE OF BEEF CATTLE

with cover to protect them from snows and cold rains.
These sheds need not be expensive. The cheapness of
equipment is one of the arguments in favor of steer
feeding.

Self-feeders or Open Feed Troughs. — Cattle may be
fed from open feed bunks or troughs, or they may have
their feed given to them in self-feeders. In the self-feeder,
the feed is put into a large hopper from which it works
down as the cattle eat it out below. The self-feeder saves
considerable labor, and if the farmer must employ help
incapable of feeding wisely, the self-feeder may obviate
trouble which might arise from overfeeding. On the
other hand, a good cattle feeder will get better results
if the feeding is supervised, as must be the case when
open feed troughs are used.

Water. — Fattening cattle require considerable water,
which must be fresh, clean, and pure. The supply should
be easily accessible so that the cattle may drink at will.
In cold weather the chill should be taken from the water
by the use of a tank heater, but care should be taken not
to heat the water enough to make it unpalatable.

Advantages of Steer Feeding. — The general advantages
of steer feeding are:

1. It saves labor.

2. It uses the roughage of the farm.

3. It returns a large amount of fertility to the land.

4. It makes a good return on grain and feed.

EXERCISES

1. Why are Holstein cows frequently found in a beef herd?
2. Can baby beef be produced as economically on the same
farm as that from three-year-old steers? Discuss.

EXERCISES 243

3. Which will do better on a wide ration, a fattening steer
or a dairy cow? Why?

4. Why do beef cattle do better in open sheds than in warm
barns?

HOME PROJECT

Feed a lot of steers until finished for market. Keep accurate
records of cost, rations, returns, and profits.

CHAPTER XV

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE

The Cattle to Keep for the Dairy. —The dairy breeds of
cattle have been improved by the selection of breeding stock
from the best producing families. The farmer who engages
in the milk producing business will save time by buying |
representative cows of dairy breeds, or cows that give evi-
dences of dairy breeding. A good pure-bred sire of one of
the dairy breeds should be selected to head this herd. In
improving the herd, records obtained by weighing and
testing the milk of the individual cows of the herd should be
studied for the purpose of eliminating the poor cows.

The Advantages of Dairying. — As already stated, the
dairy cow is the most economical producer of human food
from the coarse materials raised upon the farm. For ex-
ample, the cow, Missouri Chief Josephine, in a period
of twelve months gave 26,861.0 pounds of milk, containing
740.5 pounds of fat. The total solids in her milk weighed
3330 pounds, consisting of 740.5 pounds of fat, 815 pounds
of protein material, 1579 pounds of milk sugar, and 195
pounds of ash material. All of this was human food. A
steer weighing 1250 pounds was found to contain in its body
548 pounds of dry matter, which included not only the edible
portions but also a great deal of bone and other refuse. Of
the dry matter in the body of the steer 333 pounds was fat,
172 pounds was protein, and 43 pounds was ash material.

244

DAIRY EQUIPMENT 245

The cow in one year’s time produced over six times as much
dry matter as was found in the carcass of the steer, over
twice as much fat, and almost five times as much ash. She
also produced over three fourths of a ton of nutritious milk
sugar. In addition she produced a calf, and was as valuable
at the end of the year as at the beginning. To get the food
material from the steer he had to be fed more than two
years before being slaughtered.

Dairying is the most intensive form of animal husbandry
that can be practiced on high-priced land. The price of
manufactured dairy products is always higher than meat
products. There is less waste in handling them, they stand
transportation over long distances, and are easily kept over
long periods of time.

Equipment. — Successful dairying depends in a large de-
gree upon the care and management of the cows in the herd.
The farm of the practical dairyman should be well equipped
with good dairy buildings. Roomy, well-lighted, well-ven-
tilated barns that are warm in the winter and: cool in the
summer are a necessity. Windows should be provided with
shades or otherwise equipped so that they may be dark-
ened in the summer during fly time.

Barns should be whitewashed on the inside at least twice
annually, and if possible the ceiling of the stable should be
covered so that no beams are exposed where dirt and disease
germs can find lodgment. The stables should be kept
clean, and if it is not possible to drive through the barn to
clean it, a litter carrier should be provided. Whether the
cows should stand facing each other or not is a matter of
opinion. The feeding operation is simplified when they face
each other, and if more time and labor are devoted to feeding
than to cleaning the barn it is more economical. If a litter

246 CARE ‘OF DAIRY CATTLE

carrier is used, it should have direct communication with a
covered pit so built as to save the manure.

Care of the Cow. — The cow is the unit of the herd, and
the success of the whole depends upon the care of each unit.
During all operations in the handling of dairy cows clean-
liness should prevail. The cows should be brushed daily.
Their udders should be wiped with a damp cloth
previous to milking. It is also good practice to use milk
pails with small tops, so that the amount of dust and dirt
falling into the pail will be reduced to the minimum. Milk-
ers should practice “‘ dry hand ” milking, and should change
from their dirty field clothes to clean outer garments before
beginning to milk. All these precautions not only tend to
keep the milk clean, but also help the dairyman to improve
conditions generally.

The cow should be well cared for at all times, fed liberally,
and should receive utmost kindness from the hands of the
herdsman. All unnecessary excitement, fright, and injury
should be carefully avoided. In commercial dairying it is
well to separate the calf from the cow two or three days
after birth so that she will not become attached to it.
However, if one is raising valuable pure-bred calves, they
may be allowed to remain for a week or more if desired.

If the cow is a heavy milker she should be watched
for milk fever. The farm should be provided with an
outfit for the treatment of this malady. ‘The most effec-
tive method is that of simply inflating the udder with air.

In the case of young cows, the first milking period deter-
mines the future persistency of the cow. The heifer should
be milked by a competent milker, and should be kept in
milk as long as possible. This will tend to lengthen her
future lactation periods.

FEEDING FOR MILK PRODUCTION 247

Feeding the Dairy Cow. — It must be remembered that
the dairy cow uses a part of her ration for maintenance.
Only that portion of the food which she receives in excess of
that needed for maintenance can be used for the production
of milk, the nourishing of the calf, or the laying on of fat.
Nature, however, in providing for the young animal, made
the milking function so strong in the cow that she will rob
her own system in order to provide for her young.

Maintenance and Production Requirements. — Main-
tenance requirements are not heavy. The most food is
required to supply the heat of the body. Heat may be
furnished by roughages. In the feeding of dairy cows, the
roughage part of the ration, therefore, should be considered
as the part that the animal is using for her own maintenance.

The production of milk should be regarded as hard work,
and the dairy cow should be fed accordingly. All cows do
not respond equally well to feeding, because some cows have
greater milk-producing possibilities than others. Good
cows should be fed liberally because they make good use
of their food, and require no more for maintenance than
poor cows require. Good cows eat more than poor cows do,
but they return much larger results. For milk production,
concentrates are usually fed.

How the Ration of the Cow Should Vary. — There are
many factors affecting the ration, the more important ones
being the weight of the cow, the amount of milk the cow
produces, the season of the year, the period of lactation,
the quarters in which the cow is kept, and the physical
condition and peculiarities of the animal.

The roughage allowance for a 1000 pound dairy cow is
generally about 30 pounds of silage, and from 6 to 10 pounds
of good mixed clover or alfalfa hay. Timothy hay is not

248 CARE “OF “DAIRY CATILE

a good feed for a milk cow. In addition to this roughage
allowance, the cow should receive one pound of good grain
mixture per day for each pound of butter fat produced
weekly. The grain mixture should be made up of at least
three different grains or concentrated feeds. It is well to
grind feeds for dairy cows.

According to weight the ration should be made to vary.
directly, heavy cows requiring more feed than light ones.

In the summer time the cows will do well on pasture dur-

ing the early part of the season, but as soon as fly time comes
on and the pasture gets dry, the cows should be kept in the
barn during the heat of the day, at least, and be fed fresh-cut
green crops or ‘‘ summer silage,’’ which is simply silage kept
over until the summer time. If the cow is an exceptionally
good one it pays to feed her about one half of her regular
grain ration while on pasture.
_ Water and Salt. — Dairy cows should at all times have
free access to salt and water. Barns are now built equipped
with drinking cups and salt licks for each cow. During the
period of lactation, a cow will drink much more water than
during the period in which she is not in milk.

Tuberculosis in Cattle. —— Tuberculosis is one of the
worst. diseases with which the farmer has to contend.
It thrives best where animals are kept in confinement and
under unnatural conditions. ‘On the open range very little
of itis known. Cattle kept in well-ventilated barns are not
as liable to contract the disease as those housed in filthy
and poorly ventilated stables. Hence this disease is more
dreaded by dairymen than by the producers of beef cattle.
It also attacks hogs and chickens, but is most destructive
in cattle, and is but little prevalent in horses and sheep.

Tuberculosis is caused by the tubercle bacillus. It may

TUBERCULOSIS 249

appear in two forms, the acute and the chronic. An animal
attacked by the acute form shows rapid decline and dies
in afew months. In the chronic form the diseased animal |
may live for years and yet show no outward signs. Itis the
insidious nature of the disease that makes it so dangerous.

The disease is spread by inhaling or swallowing the germs
which are given off from the body of affected animals.
The disease may also be contracted from the milk of dis-
eased animals, especially if the udder is affected. Human
beings, especially young children, may contract the disease
from the milk of tubercular cows; and pigs may contract it
in like manner, or by consuming waste around infected
regions, and eating offal and carcasses of tubercular cattle.

Incipient tuberculosis in animals has no outward symp-
toms, though in the advanced stages of the disease there is a
general appearance of unthrift, such as a staring coat, a list-
less eye, a hanging head, drooping ears, lack of ambition,
loss of appetite, a hacking cough, and general emaciation,
even though the animal be well fed and cared for. There are
many other diseases that have the same general symptoms,
but there is an infallible test for tuberculosis known as the
tuberculin test. If the animal responds to this test it should
be killed, as there is no absolute cure.

Prevention. — In order to keep the disease out of a herd
there are certain rules that should be followed. All new
animals brought into the herd should be tested before being
placed with the herd. Animals reacting to the tuberculin
test should be eliminated from the herd. Well-ventilated
and well-lighted stables should be provided and kept well
disinfected with some good disinfecting solution.

The tuberculin test should not be applied to a herd except
by a skilled veterinarian or other competent person.

250 CARE OF DAIRY CATTLE

Milk Fever. — Milk fever affects the best cared for and
apparently the healthiest cows in the herd. It usually
appears in the early period of lactation. The cow falls to
the ground, holding her head around to one side. Her
throat seems paralyzed, and she cannot swallow. ‘The dis-
ease is caused by an excess of nutrition in the udder, brought
on by overfeeding and lack of exercise. The cow should be
given neither food nor medicine.

The treatment consists of inflating the udder with air,
either by using a regular milk fever outfit, with which every
farm should be equipped, or by inserting a sterilized milking
tube into the udder and pumping in air with a sterilized
bicycle pump. After the udder is inflated tape may be
wound around the teats if necessary to keep the air from
escaping. If the air is absorbed in four or five hours and
relief has not come to the cow, the inflation should be
repeated. Usually the cow recovers quickly after the first
treatment.

EXERCISES

1. What special precautions need be taken in the manage-
ment of the dairy cow?

2. How do the cow and the steer compare in the ability to
convert grain and hay into human food? Give figures to prove
your answer.

3. Why is cleanliness of such great importance in the manage-
ment of the dairy herd?

4. Which needs the narrower ration, the heavy or the light
milker? Why?

HOME PROJECT

Raise a calf from birth to six months of age by the most
approved methods; keeping accurate records.

Pita Bk VL

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP

Economy of Sheep. — Sheep usually yield as good re-
turns as any other class of live stock. The expenditure for
buildings and the capital required to become established
in the business are small, the gains made by sheep are
economical, and mutton is constantly growing in popu-
larity. Besides the mutton produced, the sheep also
yields a crop of wool which is often sufficient to pay for the
cost of maintaining the breeding animal throughout the
year. Sheep are great weed eradicators. They will rid a
farm of weeds if allowed to graze over badly infested fields,
leaving valuable manure to enrich the soil. If allowed to
remain in the pasture at night, they seek the highest ground.
In this way fertility is left on the uplands, where it does
the most good.

In parts of England, the farming industry has actually
been established and made permanent by the use of sheep,
and lands that at one time were practically worthless for
producing good crops are now returning handsome profits.
So profitable are a few sheep on many farms where they are
fed that the animal has justly been termed “ the golden
hoof.”

Sheep Feeding. — Sheep feeding is a popular industry.
The breeding flock is kept cheaply on the range, where
lambs are produced in large numbers. When they reach

251

252 CARE OFS SHEEP

about 60 pounds in weight they are shipped to some of
the large central markets and sold to feeders who fatten
and return them to the market. There is often good profit
in this feeding business, and a great deal of fertility is
added to farms where this system is followed.

Another branch of the industry is the production of
lambs commonly known as “hot-house lambs.” The

Fig. 90. — Lambs of the average mutton type.

majority of the lambs are sold in the fall, weighing from 75
to 100 pounds, and young lambs placed upon the market in
the winter and early spring readily command a high price.
Dorset sheep produce lambs any time of the year and are
therefore valuable for winter lamb production. The winter
lamb should be kept in good quarters and should receive
careful attention. To bring the best price the lambs
should be well fattened and weigh from 50 to 60 pounds
when ready for market.

Conditions of the Large Producer. — Where sheep are
produced in large numbers on the ranges, pasture forms
the larger part of their feed. The cost of production is
low, because of the cheapness of the land and the small

HANDLING AND STABLING 253

amount of labor required. The sheep are handled in large
flocks and are generally cared for by herders, who move the
flocks with the pasture, going into the highlands in the
summer and to the valleys or lowlands for the winter. As
the weather becomes warm in the spring the movement
begins, and by following near the snow line, fresh and
nutritious grasses are obtained. However, the open range
is rapidly disappearing, and the cost of rearing sheep in the
west is continually advancing. This condition will even-
tually force the raising of more sheep in other parts of the
country.

The Shepherd. —Not every one can make a success
of sheep husbandry. The profits from this industry depend
in a great measure upon the man engaged in the work.
The successful sheep man generally has well-defined qual-
ities without which the handling of sheep would be un-
profitable. No domesticated animal appreciates gentle-
ness more than the sheep, and if the industry is to return
profits the shepherd must be gentle and kind in the handling
of his animals.

Stabling for Sheep. — Quarters for sheep should be dry,
clean, well ventilated, and not too warm. ‘These animals
are protected from inclement weather by heavy fleeces,
and can withstand a great deal of cold, but let them become
wet and serious troubles at once begin. Sheep barns
should be placed upon high, dry ground so that drainage
away from the building is assured. The quarters should be
kept well bedded with clean straw. Pure air should be
provided at all times, but great care should be taken to
prevent drafts. Sheep contract colds easily, and large losses
often occur from pneumonia when over-zealous amateurs try
to provide sheep with fresh air by leaving barn doors open.

254 CARE OF SHEEP

Feeding Racks. — Feed troughs and other receptacles
used for feed should be kept clean. A six-inch board placed
about a foot above the center of the trough will give the
sheep a chance to eat, but will prevent them from getting
their feet into the trough.

Preparation of Feeds. — As a general rule ordinary feed
stuffs do not require much preparation for sheep. Such
grains as peas and beans are best fed ground, especially

to young lambs and

NG pens old sheep with poor

ah teeth. For these ani-
ji

| A Ne mals corn should be
1, = ie \ cracked. Barley may
ity 2 fone / ~ \i\ be improved by soak-
N i iN ij "ing, and roots should
um i be sliced or pulped be-
Fig. 91. — Trough used in feeding grain to sheep. P of ?
fore feeding.” om
healthy sheep whose teeth are sound, there need be little
preparation of feed. To get the best results feeding must
be done regularly.

Water and Salt. — It is a good plan to have clean, pure,
fresh water accessible to the sheep at all times. They will
drink more water with dry feed than when green or suc-
culent feeds are provided, and more will be drunk in sum-
mer than in winter. Salt should be kept constantly be-
fore them.

Exercise. — Sheep should have plenty of exercise. In
cold climates it is often difficult to provide this. They
should be turned out in the open every fine day, but not
exposed to raw winter winds, snowstorms, and rains. The
thrifty shepherd never allows his sheep to remain out in
heavy rainstorms, even in the summer time.

f

j |

FEEDS AND FEEDING 255

Succulent and Rough Feeds. — Sheep should be given
some succulent feed. In the winter, this is best provided
in the form of moderate amounts of corn silage or roots.
Two pounds of rutabagas daily per animal is sufficient.
If frozen materials are fed, serious sickness or even
death may follow. Moldy silage may also lead to the
same results. For roughage, clover and alfalfa hay cannot
be surpassed. Cowpeas, or common field peas are also
good; and for fattening sheep, pea-vine silage is especially
valuable.

Concentrated Feeds for the Breeding Flock. — For the
breeding flock, the best concentrated feeds are bran and
oats, mixed in the proportion of 3 parts of oats to 2 parts
of bran. This ration, fed about one half pound daily
with alfalfa or clover hay, will keep the flock in good con-
dition. No grain need be fed until the spring season ap-
proaches. Extra feed and care at this time is well paid
for in increased returns, and grain given to the ewes and
to the lambs is generally economical.

Early Feeding. — If the dam is well fed, the lamb de-
rives the benefit. By the time the lambs are a month old
they have learned to eat grain from their mother’s feed
trough. At this time it is well to provide a “ creep,”
separating the pen of the mother from another pen provided
with a trough for the lambs. In this way the lambs can be
fedalone. For growth, a good mixture to be fed all through
the summer in small amounts consists of 1 part wheat bran,
2 parts oats, 2 parts corn meal, and 1 part oil meal. At
about the age of five months the lambs should be taken away
to a fresh pasture out of sight and hearing of their dams.

Feeding for Fattening. If lambs are to be fattened
they may be fed a half pound daily ration made up of

256 CARE OF SHEEP

cracked corn, peas, and wheat bran. The grain may be
gradually increased up to one pound daily. When the time
comes to yard them, they should be fed either alfalfa or
clover hay for dry roughage, some succulent feed such as
corn silage or roots, of which rutabagas are best, and a
erain mixture of shelled corn or corn meal, and a small
amount of linseed meal or cottonseed meal. Linseed cake

Fig. 92. — Docking a lamb.

and cottonseed cake broken into nut size gives better satis-
faction with the lambs than if fed in the finely ground form.
The grain ration may gradually be increased up to two
pounds daily when the lambs are about ready for market.

Docking and Trimming. — Lambs should be docked at
about the age of two weeks. Docking is the removal of
the tail. This insures cleanliness, and docked lambs sell
better, to say nothing of their added comfort and better
gains.

The outside of a sheep’s hoof grows faster than it wears
off unless the sheep are kept on very rough ground. If not

DIPPING SHEEP 257

trimmed, this outside shell turns under the hoof, collects
dirt and filth and in time may lead to foot rot. The feet
should be trimmed at least twice each year.

LASS SNe Sy
ne SSS SSS Sg8sy
RSS x SS ide NS

‘
RAN

‘

Fig. 93. — aa section of dipping tank and pens.

Sheep Ticks. — The sheep tick, a wingless fly, is about
one fourth of an inch long and of reddish-brown color.
The adult tick lays the eggs, which adhere to the ae
fibers. These hatch in about four
weeks. All sheep are more or less
affected, but the long-wool -breeds
seem to harbor more ticks than the
other classes of sheep. At time of
shearing the ticks move to the
lambs for protection.

Sheep ticks cause the animals
great annoyance. They suck the
blood, dry up the wool, produce
irritation, and cause emaciation. TE
Every sheep owner should dip his fig. 94. — A handy lift gate for a
sheep annually, about a week or e aaacalaaerre
ten days after shearing time, in one of the standard sheep-
dipping solutions.

T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB. —1I17

258 CARE OF SHEEP

EXERCISES

1. Can mutton sheep be produced on pasture alone? Give
reasons for your answer.

2. Why do sheep protected by a heavy fleece need stabling ?

3. At what age should the lambs be separated from their
dams to be fed alone?

4. Which need the greater amount of protein in the ration,
lambs or pigs? Why?

5. Why is exercise of so much importance in the management
of all live stock ?

HOME PROJECT

With the consent of your parents take entire charge of the
care and management of the home flock.

CHAPTER XVII

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE

WHILE the hog has an omnivorous appetite and will eat
refuse of all kinds, its habits are exceedingly clean. There
is no other farm animal that appreciates more clean and
healthful quarters, and that responds better to good care
and wise feeding.

Quarters. — While quarters for hogs need not be ex-
pensive, they should provide an abundance of sunlight and
fresh air. In cold climates, hog houses should be warmly
constructed. The large central house should be so ar-
ranged that it can be divided into small pens. If possible
the doors of the pens should open into small lots or runways
to give the animals an opportunity to get out for exer-
cise. In connection with the hog house there should be a
feed room, equipped with a stove or heater, where water
can be heated and feeds warmed or cooked.

The up-to-date hog plant has individual hog houses, or
colony houses, as they are sometimes called. The breed-
ing animals are usually kept in these colony houses all
winter, where they have the advantage of plenty of exer-
cise and good air.

All hog houses should be clean, well bedded with straw,
and the walls should be whitewashed and disinfected regu-
larly. Feed troughs and other feed receptacles should be
kept clean.

259

260 CARE OF SWINE

Feeding the Brood Sow. — In connection with pasture,
the brood sow should receive daily from two to four pounds
of a mixed grain ration. This should be rich in protein
and mineral matter, to which should be added some rough-
age such as alfalfa or clover hay. These bulky feeds keep
the digestive tract distended and in good condition. Grain
mixtures may be made from corn, oats, bran, peas, and soy
beans. If skim milk can be obtained it is well to feed five
or six pounds daily.

Feeding the Young Pigs. — At about the age of three
weeks the pigs should be provided with feed in a small
trough of their own. The feed may be the same as that
given to the mother. They should have plenty of out-
door exercise. Their quarters should be kept dry and
clean. The pigs should be weaned at about the age of
six weeks.

By weaning time the young pigs will have learned to
eat. A “creep” into a separate pen should be provided so
that the young ones may slip into this pen, away from the
mother, and eat corn, slop, and skim milk. They should
be fed liberally, and if possible should have the run of a
grass pasture where there is sufficient shade and running
water. . It is poor practice to have the small pigs feed with
larger ones, or young pigs with older ones. Not more
than fifty pigs of the same size should be herded together.

Finishing the Lard Hog. — Hogs are easily fattened if
liberally fed. In the corn belt of North America, where
lard hogs are more extensively raised than in any other
part of the world, corn forms the principal part of the’
diet of the fattening hog. The number of pounds of pork
annually produced depends within reasonable limits upon
the number of bushels of corn raised. The states where

FEEDS FOR FATTENING 261

corn grows best are the states in which most of the pork
is produced. |

Wheat middlings fed in a slop ration or tankage fed in
the same way will be found a valuable adjunct to corn for
pork production. Cottonseed meal should not be fed to
hogs. In the later stages of feeding, linseed meal also
softens the fat and should not be fed at that time. Bran
is too bulky for hog feeding.

Pasture, Soiling, and Preparation of Feeds. — Pasture
is a help toward profitable hog fattening. Dry lot fat-
tening is often expensive. In the case of fattening in dry
lots it is a good thing to supply the animals with some
succulent feed in the form of soiling crops, such as peas,
beans, clover, or alfalfa. If grains like barley are soaked
at least twelve hours before feeding, better results are ob-
tained. As a rule little preparation of corn is necessary.
The best way to feed corn is on the cob. During cold
weather slop should be warmed for hogs, but no feeds ex-
cept potatoes or pumpkins need be cooked for them.

The Relation of Grain to Gain. — The general rule for
the relation of feed to gain is that one should allow a bushel
of corn for every ten pounds of pork produced. During
the fattening period, the hogs should be watched, and
as soon as they cease to make gains they should be sold,
unless the market is poor. The feeder should study the
market and strive to sell when prices are high. During
winter feeding, hogs should have warm quarters, but even
then more corn will be required to make a pound of gain
than in summer feeding.

Feeding for Bacon Production. — In feeding for the pro-
duction of bacon, less corn is desired. The ration should
consist of feeds relatively low in carbohydrate and fat

262 CARE OF SWINE

material, in comparison with corn; such as barley, oats,
peas, soy beans, shorts, middlings, and skim milk. Sum-.
mer pasture is good to furnish green material and give
time for the development of the animal, but too much green
forage ought not be fed, as it tends to produce a soft car-
cass. Hogs from one of the bacon breeds should be used
for the production of bacon.

Pasture for Pigs. — During recent years much atten-
tion has been given to the production of pork on pasture
with a self-feeder. This has proven to be a most economical
method of pork production. The pigs are farrowed late
enough in the spring so that they may be turned on pas-

mys: >
Sir :

Fig. 95. — Alfalfa rack for hogs.

ture about weaning time. Alfalfa and clover or common
blue grass are very acceptable permanent pasture for pigs.
Peas, oats and peas, rape, or other especially planted crop,
are often preferred. Best results are obtained from pigs
fed a small allowance of skim milk and having free access
to a self-feeder stocked with corn or other mixed feeds.
Hog Cholera. — Hog cholera is one of the worst dis-
eases with which the swine producer has to contend. It is
caused by virulent germs which live for a long time in bed-

HOG CHOLERA 263

ding, straw piles, litter, rubbish, and mud holes. These
are carried from place to place by streams, wagons, birds,
and on the feet of men and animals.

The disease appears in two forms, the acute, which takes
away the victim in a few hours, and the chronic, which
may last one or more weeks.

Affected pigs are usually dumpish and listless, lying
around huddled together. Their appetite varies, and
their digestion is de-
ranged. The skin is
reddened and in-
flamed around the
ears, nose, and eyes,
along the belly, and
inside of the thighs.
Violent diarrhoea is
the characteristic
symptom. .

To prevent the
spread of the disease
in infected areas, all

hogs brought to the

_ Fig. 96. — Kidneys from a cholera hog. On the sur-
farm should be quar face of the kidney are small blood spots which give
antined for four them a turkey-egg appearance. The white spotis a

blood vessel.

weeks. Dogs and

other migratory animals should be kept away, and care
should be taken not to visit infested farms. Hogs should
be pastured at a distance from highways, railways, and
streams. Troughs should be disinfected daily and pens
weekly with quicklime or some other good disinfectant, and
all wallow holes should be filled. Litter should be burned,
and old straw piles should not be left standing where pigs

264. CARE OF SWINE

may have access to them. If the disease is in the vicinity,
pigs should be vaccinated against cholera by a duly quali-
fied veterinarian.

If the herd is attacked, all pens should be cleaned and
thoroughly disinfected, the serum treatment given, all
carcasses and litter burned, the hogs kept away from wal-
low holes and other unsanitary places, and provided with
well-lighted and well-ventilated sleeping quarters.

EXERCISES

1. What are the advantages of the colony hog houses?

2. Why should the brood sow with a litter of pigs be given
feeds rich in protein and mineral matter? How should her
feed differ from that of the pigs after weaning?

3. What is the essential difference between feeds for plaids
and for lard hogs? ; |

4. Can hogs be fattened on pasture, rape, or any kind of
‘ green feed? Give reasons for your answer.

5. Do bacon breeds ever become lard hogs? If so, under
what conditions?

HOME: PROJECT

Select and raise a pig to sufficient maturity for the market
under the best conditions of feeding, care, and management.
Keep an accurate record of cost and returns.

CHAPTER: XVIII

GENERAL LIVE STOCK IMPROVEMENT

Heredity and Variation. — ‘‘ Like begets like.’”’ This
tendency is known as heredity, and upon heredity are based
all the possibilities of live stock improvement. Offspring
are the result of all their ancestors, and while they resemble
their parents, they are never exactly like their parents nor
exactly like each other. It is upon variation that animal
improvement depends. Offspring vary slightly from their
parents in certain marked characteristics. The breeder
selects the animals that have the qualities he desires to
perpetuate, and by mating them he produces other ani-
mals with characteristics that conform to his ideal.

Selection. — Selection is of two kinds: natural selec-
tion or nature’s selection of animals best fitted to certain
natural conditions, and methodical selection, or that prac-
ticed by the breeder. Natural selection is sometimes
called the “‘ survival of the fittest,’ and while the animal
may be the fittest animal for nature’s conditions it may
not be the best animal under economic conditions set up
by man. So the breeder selects his animals methodically,
and establishes artificial conditions under which the ani-
mals may best thrive.

Atavism. — Atavism is reversion to the original type.
Oftentimes animals are born resembling very remote an-
cestors. Red calves are frequently born to black Aber-

265

266 LIVE STOCK IMPROVEMENT

deen Angus parents because years ago there were many
red Angus cattle. This reversion is atavism.

Mutants or Sports. — Frequently animals are born that
are direct deviations from their ancestors such as a polled
animal from horned ancestors. These animals are called
“mutants”? or “sports,” and many breeds of animals
have been developed from these “‘sports.’”? A good ex-
ample of this is seen in the case of the Double Standard
Polled Durham cattle.

Crossbreeding. — Crossbreeding is the mating of animals
of the same species, but of different breeds. A calf pro-
duced by mating a pure-bred Shorthorn with a pure-bred
Hereford would be known as a Shorthorn-Hereford cross-
bred calf. Introducing the blood of a different breed for
only one generation is known as an “ outcross.” The
crossing of different breeds tends to break up the charac-
ters by which any particular breed is known, and is
unsatisfactory after the first cross.

Hybrids. — The mating of animals from two different
species produces the hybrid. The mule is the commonest
and best-known hybrid among farm animals. Hybrids
‘are generally nonbreeders, but cases are on record where
they have reproduced.

Inbreeding. — Inbreeding is the mating of closely re-
lated animals. It is resorted to by breeders in develop-
ing new breeds of animals, or in the fixing of certain
characters.

Line Breeding. — Line breeding is allied to inbreeding,
except that the animals mated are not so closely related.
It generally applies to breeding of animals of the same
family that are more remotely related than in the case of
inbreeding.

BREEDING 267

The Pure-bred Sire. — The use of the “ pure-bred sire ”’
is one of the shortest cuts to improving the live stock of
any community. The value of the pure-bred sire in im-
proving common stock is well shown by the following
tabulation from Davenport’s “ Principles of Breeding.”’

TABLE SHOWING APPEARANCE OF PURE BLOOD AND DISAPPEARANCE OF
ImMpurRE By USE OF PURE-BRED SIRE

SIRE Dam OrFsPRING
GENERATION % Purity % Purity
% Purity % Impurity

I 100 fe) 5° 50

2 b fore) 50 75 25

3 100 75 873 123

4 100 873 934 t

5 100 03¢ 965 33

6 100 963 9875 is

This table means that if grade and pure-bred animals
of the same breed are mated, consistent improvement is
made by the infusion of pure blood.

After six generations there is less than 2 per cent of
impure blood in the offspring. This offspring, even though
possessing many of the characters of the pure breed, is
not a pure-bred and cannot be registered in our American
Herd Books. There is no possible way to “ grade up”’
common stock to become absolutely pure bred.

Breed Associations. — Every breed of live stock has its
breed association made up of the men who direct the
improvement of the breed. The association agrees upon
what the type of the animal should be and points out the
deficiencies for correction and the good points which the
breed possesses. The active associations offer prizes at

268 LIVE STOCK IMPROVEMENT

the leading shows for the best animals of the breed. They
also lay down rules for the registration of animals.

At some of the principal shows and exhibitions, money,
set aside by the associations, is used for futurity prizes.
Animals to compete for futurity prizes must be nominated
some time in advance of the show. This encourages the
breeder to strive to get the best breeding stock and to
take the best possible care of the progeny.

Registers of merit or advanced registers are instituted
by the dairy cattle breed associations. The purpose of
these associations is to encourage high production of milk
and butter fat and to keep track of the best producers, so
that prospective purchasers may select animals from good
ancestors, and breeders may breed more intelligently and
effectively.

Tests for advanced registration are of two kinds: official
and semi-official. The official test lasts for seven days.
In this test the tester visits the farm, sees that the cow is
milked out dry, sees the milking before the test begins, and
then stays on the farm during the entire test, watches every
milking, weighs the milk, and makes a butter-fat test.
The semi-official test covers one year, or as long as the
lactation period of the cow lasts. A representative of a
state agricultural college comes to the farm once every
month, on days unannounced to the owner, and remains
for two days. All feed as well as the milk is weighed and
recorded. The butter-fat content of the milk is also
found. The weighing of the milk on the other days of the
month, and the two days’ test of the quality of the milk, is
taken as the record for the month.

The table on the opposite page sets forth the Advanced
Register requirements of the different dairy breeds.

269

ADVANCED REGISTER TABLE

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270 LIVE STOCK IMPROVEMENT

The Holstein Association admits to advanced registry
by official test on the seven-day record of the cow. If
the cow qualifies in the seven-day test, she may be run
for the year, and the year’s record will be published. The
Jersey Association admits cows to the advanced register
by either official seven-day test, or by the yearly semi-
official test. The Ayrshire and the Brown Swiss Associa-
tions admit cows to advanced register by the yearly sem1i-
official test only, but they may be admitted on either
their milk or their butter-fat production. The Guernsey
Cattle Club admits cows to advanced registry by semi-
official test only, and on the year’s butter-fat record only.

Advanced registry systems have served to stimulate
competition among different breeds of cattle, and as a re-
sult some very remarkable records have been made. Not
many years ago the idea that a cow could produce more
than tooo pounds of butter in 12 months seemed pre-

Fig. 97. — Guernsey cow.

DAIRY COW RECORDS 271

posterous. Now there are many cows on record that
have made over 1000 pounds of butter. Some of the
cows that have made good records are listed in the follow-
ing table.

Some Wortip’s Recorp Cows, JANUARY I, IQI9

Name or Cow BREED ii onl eee. % Test ora vid
Days

Duchess Skylark

Orensby ._. | Holstein 365 |27,761.70 4.34 1205.09
Finderne Holinen

Fayne . . .| Holstein 365 24,612.8 4.53 1116.05
K. P. Pontiac | Holstein

Lass, 106812 . 55-20 ! 7 | 585-5 6.03 35.382
Creamelle Vale, | Holstein |

73357 Pa 7-0-0 305 29,591.0 | 3.12 924.08
Sophie’s Agnes . | Jersey bil? aii 16,212.0 6.12 1000.87
Murne Cowan . | Guernsey | 24,008.0 1098.18
May Rilma, 22761 | Guernsey 365 19,673.0 5.45 1073.41

6—4-16

College Bravura | Brown Swiss

— 267. . Full age 365 19,460.6 4.10 798.16
Lily of

Willowmowe . | Ayrshire 365 |22,596.0 4.23 955-50
oO a Red Poll 13,160.6 606.8

Rose of Glenside | Shorthorn 365 18,075.2 624.76

!-Age at which record was made.
Norte: To find the butter production add 3 to the amount of butter fat.

Test Associations.—— A great deal of improvement in
dairy cattle is being made throughout the country by the
establishment of ‘“‘ Test Associations.” In these associa-
tions the dairymen of a community band together, and
employ a man to go from place to place and weigh and
test the milk at each farm once amonth. The feed is also
weighed. The farmer weighs the milk the rest of the
month, and the monthly test is taken as the average for

272 LIVE STOCK IMPROVEMENT

the entire month. From the data thus obtained the
farmer is able to judge the profitable and unprofitable
cows in his herd. This makes it possible for him to im-
prove his herd systematically. It is not necessary that
the cows be pure-bred or that they belong to any particular
breed of cattle. The work is educational, and the re-
sults obtained by the different associations have done
much to improve dairying. |

Subsidizing Sires. — Great improvement in the horse
industry has been made in France and Belgium especially
by subsidizing the good sires. If a stallion is especially
good, the government pays the owner a bonus so that it
will be to his interest to keep the animal in the country,
otherwise the best horses would be exported. By this
arrangement the standard of the horses of those countries
is kept high. A similar plan is worked out in Ireland.
The government owns good sires and places them in cer-
tain communities. At the Agricultural College at Glas-
nevin fine herds of cattle and hogs are maintained. -The
young sires produced here are sold to the good breeders
at a price that is much less than the real commercial value
ofthe animal. The breeder must agree to return the animal
when its period of usefulness on that farm is over. These
methods are working incalculable good in Great Britain
and other European countries.

Other plans for improving live stock are in use in this
country. Breeders’ associations in certain localities have
done much good. Associated effort makes it possible for
the small breeder to get his stock before the public more
effectively than he can alone. Prospective purchasers
would rather go into a community to purchase than to go
to any one breeder, because if there are several breeders

EXERCISES 273

in the same community, a great deal of time and money
that would be used for traveling is saved.

On the islands of Guernsey and Jersey, importation of
live animals, except for immediate slaughter, has been
prohibited for many years. Prizes for the best stock
are awarded annually by the local breeders’ associations.
The result is that their cattle have been kept pure in
breeding and the purchaser is sure of it. The possibility
of introducing disease has also been eliminated.

Stallion Enrollment. — One of the most effective methods
of live stock improvement in this country is the enrollment
of stallions, which was established in Wisconsin some
years ago and has since been adopted by many progressive
states in the Union. This has the effect of eliminating
the unsound and unfit, so that only the best types are
allowed to perpetuate their kind.

EXERCISES

1. Do you practice line breeding or crossbreeding on the
home farm ?

2. Do you keep herd records of any sort ?

3. Has the trotting horse been improved by the use of records ?
In what way?

4. Do you know of any one who is now making use of records
to secure live stock improvement ?

5. Is crossbreeding successful with any class of animals?

HOME PROJECT

Keep milk, butter fat, and feed records of the animals in the
home dairy herd, with a view to selecting those best suited for
breeding purposes.

T. AND L, ANIMAL HUSB.— 18

CHAPTER XIX

FARM POULTRY

THE hen on the farm may be characterized as the ‘‘ penny-
saver.’’ Each individual hen accomplishes little, but the
aggregate saving of a flock of hens is a matter of considerable
importance. No other animal is more economical in the
consumption and assimilation of food, or can utilize waste
products to better advantage.

The Farm Flock Should Be of Pure Breeds. — As the
pure-bred animal, which has been especially selected and
raised for some definite end, will excel a mongrel or native
animal in the special kind of performance for which it is
bred, so a pure-bred Leghorn, Plymouth Rock, or Rhode
Island Red hen will lay more eggs than a mongrel or scrub
hen, because she has been specially bred for this purpose.

But the desirability of raising pure-bred poultry does
not end with the gain in number of eggs. Pure-bred market
fowls are uniform in appearance, have the same color of
skin and legs, the same shape of breast and weigh about
the same number of pounds each; consequently the car-
casses of pure-bred fowls sell for more on the market.

Pure-bred fowls utilize their feed to better advantage; for
the more highly bred an animal is the less food it requires
to produce a given product. It has often been stated that
pure-bred hens do not require any more to keep them than
common or scrub stock. Besides, they have the power

274

CARE OF THE FLOCK 275

Fig. 98. — White Plymouth Rocks.

of turning their feed into a fancy product at a greater
profit to the poultry breeder.

Buyers of spring chickens readily pay more for a coop of
uniform broilers than they will for a coop containing the
same number of nondescript fowls of various colors and
shapes, because pure-bred chickens fatten more quickly and
more uniformly and sell for a higher price.

Care of the Flock. The farm flock should be comfortably
housed and well fed. The hens should be confined within
definite bounds so that, while they are not crowded and
hampered, yet they will not have an opportunity to run
about the farm, wasting energy, losing eggs, and being
a general nuisance. While exercise is necessary to the best
health of the poultry, it should be intelligently restricted.
During the breeding season, however, it is well to let the
breeders have plenty of exercise.

Two Houses Desirable.— On the average farm the
pullets are housed with the old hens. When the young
pullets are put in the same house the old hens usually annoy

276 FARM POULTRY

and frighten them so that they cease growing and developing
eggs. For this reason it is desirable to have either two
poultry houses or one house so divided that the old hens
may be kept in one compartment and the pullets in the
other.

Poultry House. — The farm poultry house must be dry
at all times, with a tight roof which keeps out rains and

Fig. 99. — Shed type of poultry house.

melting snows, and walls proof against driving storms. The
floor must be sufficiently high above the natural surface of
the ground to prevent water from running over it. In
most locations the floor should.be raised so that it is from
six inches to a foot above the natural level of the ground. |

Air and Light Necessary. — The poultry house should
have plenty of light, and should furnish an abundance of
fresh air without draft. It should be sufficiently warm so
that the hens are not subjected to sudden and extreme
changes of temperature, and so arranged that it can be
easily and perfectly cleaned.

TYPES OF HOUSES 279

Two Types of Houses. — There are two general types of
houses; namely, the colony house or disconnected unit,
and the continuous, or connected type. The latter is really
a multiplication of colony houses set side by side under a
single roof.

The Colony House. —It is claimed that the hens do
better in small flocks than in large groups. Moreover, small
houses holding from twenty-five to fifty hens each can
be scattered about
the farm and moved
from field to field as
the crops are rotated.
This type of house is
in special favor in
places where the land
is too rough for
economically build-
ing long continuous
houses. It is by all
odds the best type for
the general farmer.

Amount of Floor
Space per Hen. —
From three to four
square feet of floor
space per hen is suffi-
cient. The smaller the house the greater should be the allow-
ance per hen, for the reason that the total area over which
one hen can roam is very much greater in a large house.

Amount of Yard Space per Hen. — Ten hens can very
easily be kept in a yard sixteen feet square, if there is an-
other yard of the same size in which they can be alternated

Fig. 100. — Outside of a poultry house in winter.

Fig. 1o1. — Inside of poultry house shown in Fig. 100.

278 FARM POULTRY

occasionally, and some green crop grown thereon for the
purpose of renovating the soil. The same ten hens can be
confined in a space ten feet square if the soil be spaded and
renovated frequently. It is better to err on the side of too
much space than too little. A safe rule is to make the yard
so large that the hens will never kill the grass on it, and then
have another yard of the same size into which they can be
turned on alternate months.

Renewing the Farm Fiock.— It is no easy task to set a
hen properly, and many eggs are spoiled annually because
people are careless or ignorant in this respect.

First of all, a cozy nest, neither too large nor too small,
should be provided. If too large, the eggs willbe scattered ;
if too small, the hen is likely to break the eggs in getting on
and off the nest. A box approximately fifteen inches square
by eight inches deep is an acceptable size. Earth may first
be placed in it, then chaff or cut hay on top of this. The nest
should be hollow so that the eggs will not roll around. A
quiet hen should be selected, not too large, and placed on
a setting of china eggs for a few days to get her accustomed
to the nest. | |

A fussy, flighty hen is a nuisance and ought never be used.
If the hen breaks an egg and smears the others, they must
be taken out and washed with warm water, for smeared eggs
will not hatch. Too many eggs should not be placed in one
nest. A far greater percentage of chicks will hatch if a
setting of eggs is put under two hens than if all are put
under one hen. In cold weather nine eggs is sufficient.
The chicks may be placed with one hen after they are
hatched.

~The nest box should be so arranged that it can be closed
except when the hen is to be taken off for feeding and

CARE OF HEN AND CHICKS 279

watering. Closing the nest box prevents other hens from
disturbing the sitter or rats from stealing the-eggs.

Care of the Sitting Hens. — Best results are obtained
when the sitting hens are fed only corn in addition to water
and grit. Many poultry men provide a dust bath in the
room so that the hen can dust when she is off for feeding,
but this purpose can better be accomplished by thoroughly
dusting the hen with insect powder before setting her and
once or twice during the period of incubation.

Care of Young Chicks. — When the chicks are hatched
it is best to raise them artificially, after the third or fourth
day. If it is desired to use the hen as a brooder, she should
be confined in a slatted coop so that the chicks can wander
about and return to the hen for warmth and at night.
Chicks do not do so well if allowed torun with the hen. The
general care and feeding of the chicks hatched with hens
should be the same as for brooder chicks, described later.

Beginners’ Mistakes. —-It is common for beginners to
expect too many chicks from a setting of eggs. A hatch of
50 per cent of the eggs is good and 75 per cent is very good
indeed.

A point that beginners do not always understand is that

ees
>. = Pb a x a

_—s*

Z ee Sy og 4
ae é; 7 ff

Fig. 102. — Old-fashioned coop that has many advantages.

280 FARM POULTRY

the down on chicks is not always the color of their parents.
Chicks from eggs of the black breeds, such as Black Cochins
and Black Langshans, often hatch out white, but are none
the less pure for all that, and will grow up into perfectly
black fowls. Chicks from white breeds often hatch out dark,
but they become perfectly white after they shed their first
feathers.

EXERCISES

1. Why is poultry an economical farm product?

2. Why is it desirable to separate young pullets from old
hens?

3. Give five reasons for raising pure breeds of farm poultry.

4. Why should hens be comfortably housed, and well fed?

5. What is the reason for providing for exercise in poultry
production ?

HOME PROJECTS

1. What provision is made for poultry and egg production |
on your home farm? How may these conditions be improved ?
Outline a plan and put it into operation.

2. If pullets are yarded with old hens at home, try separat-
ing them if possible and note the effect on egg production.
Keep accurate records.

CHAPTER XX

INCUBATION AND BROODING

Artificial and Natural Incubation Compared. — Hens
are used to incubate only on the most limited scale. In
fact, artificial incubation has been so improved and per-
fected in its methods that, all things considered, the work
can really be done more satisfactorily by first-class ma-
chines. ;

Another advantage of artificial incubation is that by
means of it one can produce greater numbers of chickens
than would be possible if it were necessary to depend en-
tirely upon hens for incubation. Then, too, by hatching
with a machine one controls conditions; there is no hen to
leave the nest at night; none of the eggs become broken
and smeared over the remaining ones; the nest does not
become soiled. In every way artificial methods admit of
better sanitary measures, so that the chances for producing
stronger, healthier chicks are very much greater. The in-
cubator can be thoroughly disinfected at the beginning of
the hatch, and it stays so until the chicks have popped from
the shells. Incubator chicks are free from lice, and can be
kept so until they are large enough to run at large with
other poultry, when the lice will do little harm.

It is a great satisfaction to care for a flock of artificially
hatched chickens, because the brood is so much larger.

With the use of the proper appliances 500 artificially
281

282 INCUBATION AND BROODING

hatched chicks can be cared for just as easily as five
broods of hen-hatched chicks.

When incubators are used the directions furnished with
the machine for its operation should be closely followed.

Selecting Eggs for Incubation. — Although eggs that
are not uniform in size, shape, or thickness of shell ap-
parently hatch as well as more nearly perfect eggs, pro-
vided all of a kind are put into the same machine, it is in-
advisable to use them. The unsafe feature of promiscuous
selection lies in the fact that the eggs of poor shape and
shell have been laid by hens with whom the char-
acteristic of producing eggs of this nature is dominant ; and
so the chicks hatched from these eggs show a tendency to
lay eggs of poor shape. Then, too, eggs of different sizes
and different thicknesses of shell do not respond tothe
heat of incubation so evenly as do eggs that are more nearly
uniform in size and shell.

It is advisable but not necessary to test out infertile
eggs after the sixth or eighth day. It is advisable because
removing them obviates crowding at hatching time.

Effect of Chilling on Incubation. — Eggs should not be
used for incubation after a sudden drop in temperature.
Where thousands of eggs have been incubated, it has been
observed that those collected on the day of a sudden
change in temperature, or a day or so afterward, do not
hatch so well, even when they have not been chilled, as
those collected during the period when the temperature
was more nearly uniform, regardless of the degree of cold-
ness. It is inadvisable to hold eggs which are to be incu-
bated, for any length of time. The only time when it is
advisable is when the flock is extremely small and the
incubating facilities are limited.

CLEANLINESS AND TEMPERATURE | 283

Effect of Age on Incubation. — It has been stated that
eggs should not be held for any great length of time. How-
ever, if it is found necessary to hold the eggs from a week
to ten days the eggs should be kept in a dry, cool place, .
free from excessive air circulation. The best results will be
obtained if the temperature of the storage room does not
fluctuate beyond the extremes of 50° and 60° Fahrenheit.

Effect of Cleanliness on Incubation. — No egg should he
used for incubation which was excessively soiled in the
nest; in fact best results are obtained where no cleaning
has been required. Where eggs are incubated later than
the first of April, in middle and northern latitudes they
should be disinfected with a weak solution of crude car-
bolic acid. Farther south, disinfection should be practiced
earlier in the year. The trays and all removable parts of
the incubator should be thoroughly scrubbed with a three
per cent solution of the above disinfectant, using a stiff
vegetable brush, and every portion of the interior thor-
oughly sprayed with the same solution. Every possible
means should be used to make the incubator aseptic
before the eggs are placed in it. The eggs should be
put in the machine while it is still surcharged with this
antiseptic vapor. Small pans containing a weaker solution
of the above disinfectant may be placed under each tray of
eggs, so that throughout the entire hatch the eggs are
kept in as nearly an aseptic atmosphere as is possible.

Effect of Temperature on Incubation. — When the tem-
perature can be kept uniform, the resulting hatches are
more nearly uniform and the chicks stronger than when
a fluctuating temperature is maintained throughout the
hatch. The proper hatching temperature is 102° to 103°
Fahrenheit.

284 _ INCUBATION AND BROODING

Testing the Thermometer. — In starting the hatch, no
thermometer, however good the make or however reliable
its past history may be, should be used without first test-
ing it by comparison with a standardized thermometer.
It has been found best to recalibrate or test the ther-
mometer at the beginning of each season, as the readings
change from year to year. This is due to the “‘seasoning”’
of the glass from which the thermometer is made.

To Test and Recalibrate an Incubator Thermometer. —
Provide a large shallow basin of water heated to 110°,
place a standardized thermometer and one to be tested
side by side in the water with the mercury bulbs about
one inch below the surface; compare the two until water
has cooled to 96°, making a note of the comparative read-
ing on the two thermometers. Then mark the correction,
if any, on the incubator thermometer.

Effect of Moisture on Incubation. — Close watch needs
be kept on the relative humidity of air in the machine.
Best results are obtained when the relative humidity is
not less than 50 per cent. With most machines the ad-
dition of moisture is necessary. The surest and safest
way to maintain humidity is by the use of the wet sand
tray. The water used for moistening the sand should
contain about one per cent of some volatile disinfectant.
In order to prevent the lowering of temperature within
the incubator, this water should be brought to 102° Fah-
renheit before being added to the trays.

What Constitutes a Good Hatch. — The real test of the
hatch is not the fertility but the number of chicks resulting
from the total number of eggs incubated. The total num-
ber of chicks should not mean the total number that suc-
ceeded in freeing themselves from the shells without help,

BROODING CHICKS 285

but should include only such chicks as dry off nicely, are
undeformed, bright, and have “‘ shape.” It is a mistake to
attempt to raise all of the chicks that hatch. The test of
a hatch is the number of perfect chicks taken to the brooder
which require no special care over and above what is
given to the average of the flock to make them thrive and
grow. A poor hatch may be due to poor eggs, weakness
of the breeding stock, lack of proper care of the eggs be-
fore placing them in the incubator, or bad management of
the machine.

Brooding Young Chicks. — The term brooding is meant
to include the warming, feeding, care, hygiene, and com-
fort of young chicks. Eternal vigilance and regularity are
the price of success in this work. There should he stated
periods for cleaning and disinfecting, and then one’s best
judgment should be used to detect any additional need.

Before a chick is hatched, one should decide what to
feed; at what hours to feed; how often to clean; how
frequently to disinfect; with what to disinfect; how soon
to feed the chicks; and at what temperature to operate
the brooder. Then after once having settled on this rou-
tine of procedure, making use of the best information and
observation in formulating it, follow it out intelligently, ©
thoroughly, and persistently.

Artificial Brooding Preferred. — Chicks should be
brooded artificially wherever it is possible, for by so doing
all conditions can be kept under control; more chicks
can be handled by one person, and sturdier, more rapid
growth can be obtained. If the brooder is cleaned and
disinfected before incubator chicks are placed in it, all
possibility of their becoming lousy while of a tender age is
eliminated.

286 INCUBATION AND BROODING

The brooder should be thoroughly heated and dried out
several days before the first chicks are placed in it. Then
a slight sprinkling of sand should be spread over the floors
to facilitate cleaning and to supply the chicks with some
form of grit. A constant supply of clean, cool water, regu-
lar heat, and fresh air should be maintained. The tem-
perature under the hover should always be higher than is
required to keep chicks comfortable, so that at any time
they may go under the hover and be warmed quickly with-
out crowding. During the first three weeks of the chick’s
life the hover room and feed room of the brooder should be
scraped, scrubbed, and cleaned frequently. A 5 per cent
solution of a strong disinfectant is used for this purpose.
Great care should be exercised in order that the chicks may
receive their food free of contamination from the droppings
or floor litter.

Sanitary Precautions Necessary. — On the most success-
ful poultry plants strict sanitary measures are observed
throughout the period of brooding, so that up to the time
the chicks are taken to the open range or, if brooding is done
with hens, up to the weaning time, there is no chance for
disease to creep in. The brooders are arranged so that
each compartment can be quickly and easily cleaned and
disinfected. Whenever a dead chick is found, all the litter
should be removed and the brooder cleaned and disin-
fected.

Feeding Brooder Chicks. — In feeding, an effort should
be made to attain the happy mean between the two ex-
tremes of underfeeding and overfeeding. As a rule more
chicks are killed by overfeeding than by underfeeding, and
the overfeeding in most cases starts by feeding too soon,
while underfeeding results in small, weak chicks. Forty

METHODS OF FEEDING 287

hours after the chick has dried in the incubator is soon
enough to begin feeding it, and it is safer not to feed it until
it is seventy-two hours old than to feed it when it is only
twenty-four hours from the shell. It is important that
artificially hatched chicks should be transferred from
hatcher to brooder in the evening, after dusk, so that they
will stay under the hover. After they have nestled under
the warm hover for a night they learn the purpose of it,
and will instinctively return to it at all hours when they
require warmth.

There are almost as many good methods of feeding chicks
as there are good poultrymen, so that it is only necessary
to give the following simple and typical method which
exemplifies the principles involved.

The first feed consists of a mixture composed of eggs
which have been boiled hard and thoroughly ground,
shells and all, with bran and pinhead oatmeal. The pro-
portion of eggs to bran and meal should be such that when
rubbed together the moisture of the egg will be taken up by
the other ingredients. When feeding is commenced forty
to forty-eight hours after hatching, the chicks should have
only as much of this mixture as they will eat up quickly
and greedily in ten minutes, five times daily. Care should
be taken to see that each chick is taught to eat. It is very
essential that the chicks have plenty of grit and water for
the first few days. It is also well to mix a small amount
of charcoal with the egg and bran. After the first or second
day, when it is apparent that all of the chicks have learned
to eat, a grain chick feed should be given them at two of
the feeding periods the first day, and the egg mixture
diminished, until at the end of the first week they are re-
ceiving only one feeding of the egg mixture, daily at noon.

288 INCUBATION AND BROODING

A good grain feed is
made by mixing
equal parts of cracked
wheat, pinhead oat-
meal, amd: avmel x
cracked corn.
Beginning the third
= EE ey gS eels| week, the noon feed-
Fig. 103. — Self-feeder for chicks. ing of the egg mixture
is changed to a mash
mixture made of ten pounds of bran, eight pounds of corn
meal, eight pounds of middlings, two pounds of alfalfa meal,
and three pounds of good clean meat scrap. Wheat bran
with 10 per cent of meat scrap may be substituted for this
mixture. When this mash feed is first given it should be
slightly moistened with warm water or skim milk, gradually
_reducing the amount of moisture until the chicks have
learned to eat the meal mixture dry. It can then be leit
before them. If skim milk can be had for mixing the mash,
the meat may be omitted. As soon as the chicks have
learned to eat the dry mash, the milk may be given to
them in a drinking vessel.

——- fy

&—— SUPPLY LID

CLOSE HOPPER \
pe)

Fig. 104. — A mash hopper.

BROODER HOUSE 280

After the third week the grain food is reduced to three
times a day, and coarser grains are added to it until at the
end of the fifth week they are receiving about equal parts
of chick feed and the whole grain, such as whole wheat,
kaffir corn, and small cracked corn. The amount of fine
grain or chick feed is then reduced until they are receiving

all coarse grains. |
- The chicks should be allowed to stay in the brooder house
until they are thoroughly feathered and the sexes sepa-
rated. In this way every possibility of their becoming
chilled while of tender age is avoided. By having the in-
door runs roomy and by supplying fresh untrampled green
feed in the form of lawn or rye clippings, sturdier and more
rapid growth is obtained, and the mortality is also much
less than if the chicks are allowed to run where they choose
and are compelled to search for a part of their food.

A Good Brooder House.—A good type of brooder
house is one built 24 feet wide. It has a sunken passage
4 feet wide throughout its entire length. It is heated
with two hot-water brooding systems. The hover rooms
are 3 feet square and open into runways 3 by 7 feet.

All floors are of concrete. All screens, doors, and parti-
tions have removable frames, which are interchangeable, so
that any one set of frames can be used for any of the brood-
ers throughout the house.

The watering is done in galvanized iron troughs, located
outside the hover rooms and placed in such a way that the
chicks drink through openings in the back wall. By this
arrangement the water is kept pure and clean.

Near the center of the building is a kitchenette in which
the food is prepared for the chicks during the first few
weeks of their lives.

T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB.—1I9Q

290 INCUBATION AND BROODING

No other material is so good and economical for a
brooder house floor as concrete. It is rat proof, draft
proof, and permits of thorough and easy cleaning.

The Small Flock Best. — Whether chicks are raised on
a large or a small scale it is almost imperative that they be
started in small flocks if one expects to raise a high per-
centage of them. The reason for this is that the little
chicks do not know how to eat wisely, and must be taught.
When they are placed in large flocks some of them are sure
to be neglected or overlooked, and die as a result, after the
third or fourth day. If they are started in small flocks
each individual’s chances for proper attention increase in
direct proportion to the decrease in the size of the flock.

For the first week the chicks should be placed in flocks
of from fifteen to twenty-five; and at the first few feeding
periods the attendant should see that each separate chick
has tasted its food and submerged its beak in the water,
even if they have to be picked up one at a time and fed
and watered by hand.

This teaching period may be shortened and facilitated
by introducing one or two older chickens, free from lice
and disease, into each flock. After the chicks are six or
seven days old several shovelfuls of moist earth or muck
are thrown into the corner of the runs for them to pick
over. It is found that they will eat a great deal of this,
as it apparently fulfills some whim of appetite or body need
which cannot be supplied in the feed, especially where
the chicks are closely confined to yards.

At the end of two or three weeks, and after they have
learned to take care of themselves, the number in a flock
may be increased. |

Many beginners have difficulty in raising late-hatched

CHICKS ON THE RANGE 291

chicks, a not uncommon happening even with experienced
poultrymen. This condition is explained by the fact
that in order to raise chickens successfully the number
- which is placed in a flock must be diminished as the season
grows later, because in any climate where the nights are
markedly colder than the days, it matters not what system
of brooding is used, the chickens crowd in the brooders and
trample each other to death.

Range Raised Chicks. — It has been said that constitu-
tional vigor is nature’s stamp of approval upon man’s ef-
fort at animal breeding and improvement. There is no
surer way to foster this desirable character than by develop-
ing the fully feathered chicks on free range after they
leave the brooder.

The excellent results obtained from range raised chicks
illustrate the desirability of putting into the young animal
solid bone and sturdy muscle that can come only from un-
hampered, spontaneous, and instinctive exercise, the exer-
cise of the young animal at play. At ten or twelve weeks
the sexes should be separated and the females taken to the
range, where they are given liberty to run over fields of
growing crops, or under the shade of wood pastures. The
cockerels should be carefully inspected for individuals that
give promise of developing into superior breeders, and these
should be either sold at once or taken to a separate range.
The remaining ones should be fattened and sold as broilers.

On the range the chicks should be placed in flocks of one
hundred to two hundred and fifty for each range house.
They should be allowed to run in small temporary yards
for a few days until they learn to go in and out of the house.
After this they may range at will, the members of each flock
returning at night to their respective houses.

7.0 1 INCUBATION AND BROODING

EXERCISES

1. Why select eggs of uniform size, shape, and shell for
hatching purposes ?

2. Why are white-shelled eggs more easily affected by heat
than brown-shelled eggs?

3. Why should soiled eggs be rejected for incubation ?

4. Why should eggs for incubation not be held for several
days, particularly in warm weather ?

5. What is the purpose of disinfection in brooding chicks?

6. Why is it important to keep the air in an incubator moist ?

7. Why does sprinkling the eggs in the incubator cool them?

8. Give some good methods of disinfection.

HOME PROJECTS

1. What method of incubation is used at your home, —
natural or artificial? Keep count of all eggs set by natural
method, the total number of chicks hatched, and calculate the
percentage of hatched eggs. :

2. Get permission to take charge of the incubator and pro-
duce a hatch of chicks, following directions as closely as pos-
sible, and calculate the percentage of eggs hatched.

3. Get permission to take full charge of all eggs set and
hatched by the natural method at home, if the incubator is not
used. Calculate results.

4. Feed young chicks for broilers, and by records ascertain
actual cost of production.

CHAPTER XXI

FEEDING, CARE, AND MANAGEMENT OF
LAYING HENS

When to Feed. — For heaviest production mature stock
should be fed at least three times daily throughout the
year, and during certain seasons may be fed five times a
day. ‘The first feed given in the morning, regardless of
season, is generally a grain mixture, scattered on the floor
in deep straw litter. This first feeding should take place
at seven o'clock in the morning, or earlier according to
season, but always at the same hour, and the amount

Fig. 105. — There should be plenty of litter on the floor.
293

204 CARE OF LAYING HENS

of grain should be so regulated that the fowls will clean it
up in two or three hours.

How to Feed. — In the spring and summer time, when it
is possible for the hens to get green feed in the yards, no
other feeding is necessary before noon except filling troughs
with skim milk, or buttermilk if it can be had. If, however,
there has been a long drought and the vegetation in the
yards is withered and parched, green alfalfa or alfalfa hay,
cut in short lengths and soaked in water long enough to
swell and become succulent, may be placed in the troughs
at about ten o’clock in the morning.

At noon more grain is scattered in the litter, and again
at four o’clock in the afternoon. At the last feeding an
effort should be made to feed just a little more than the
hens will clean up, so that there will be something left in
the litter for them to start work on again early in the
morning.

Importance of Drinking Water. — One of the most im-
portant things about caring for hens is to see that they
always have plenty of clean, fresh drinking water before
them. More than 65 per cent of the egg is water. Water
also makes up 55 per cent of the hen’s body. Unless a hen
has water she cannot produce eggs, nor can she properly
digest food. Many a hen, otherwise well fed, fails to lay
because she is compelled to go without sufficient water.
When laying freely, a flock of five hundred hens will re-
quire from forty to eighty quarts of water per day. The
warmer the weather, the more water required. The more
eggs that are laid the more water is required. Small eggs
usually result from a shortage of drinking water or from
the fact that the water is so cold that the hens cannot
drink their usual amount.

FEEDING HENS 295

Mineral Matter Necessary. — Laying hens should have

more mineral matter than is furnished in ordinary foods.
For this reason it is important that crushed oyster shells
be supplied in abundant quantities. The desire for mineral
matter in some form frequently causes the hen to eat her
own eggs. A flock of hens may be broken from this habit
by scattering a few china eggs on the floor.
_ Grit Essential. — Although on most farms there is an
abundance of small bits of limestone or gravel about the
yards, still grit should be supplied artificially in the form
of crushed quartz, or “chit.’’ It must not be forgotten
that the only teeth the hen has are those given to her in
the form of grit.

Inducing Hens to Eat. — The poultryman’s problem is
to induce the hen to eat an abundance of raw material so
that she can turn out a larger quantity of manufactured
product, rather than to see how small an amount of food
he can keep her on.

Hens will eat when the attendant is around and makes
pretense of scattering grain in the litter. They have a
curiosity which causes them to peck at everything brought
into the room, and the more things that are brought in,
the better the chances are that they will eat. A good
many times the quantity of grain scattered at the noon
feeding is negligible, but the mere pretense of scattering
grain starts the hens to scratching and singing, a condition
most conducive to egg production. It has been said, and
truthfully, that the ‘‘ singing hen is the laying hen.”

Variety Desirable. — Although standard mixtures should
be used, feeding should not be confined to any particular
mixture nor to any special ingredients. An effort should
be made always to have the food palatable and the

296 CARE OF LAYING HENS |

ration of the right proportion, but no opportunity should
be lost to take advantage of seasonable fluctuations in the
market price of poultry food products. If the price of corn
is proportionately much lower than that of wheat, then corn
should be used in greater quantity and the ration balanced
by using larger proportions of by-products in the form of
bran, wheat middlings, oil meal, and the like. However,
the general principles underlying the compounding of a
good ration for farm animals should not be lost sight of.

‘Green Cut Bone. — When fresh and untainted, green
cut bone can be fed with safety and profit in the propor-
tion of one half ounce daily or one ounce every other day
per hen. When tainted or when fed in too large quan-
tities it may cause diarrhoea, oviduct eversion, or poisoning.

Time to Feed Different Ingredients. — The time to feed
whole grain is the first thing in the morning and the last
thing at night, and in some cases for the noon meal.

If a wet mash is fed, it should never be given before ten
o’clock and preferably at noon. The physiological reasons
for the above statements are clear: grain in the morning
induces exercise; the mash fed in the middle forenoon is a
stimulant. Bran has a laxative effect, is a regulator and
makes a valuable addition to finely ground foods as it gives
them bulk and porosity, making it easier for the digestive
fluids to permeate the mash, thus preventing poor diges-
tion and consequent poisoning and general ill health.

Cooking and Grinding Poultry Foods. — It is reasonable
to suppose that cooking poultry feeds makes them more
digestible, just as cooking food for human consumption does.
This holds true with starch foods better than with protein
foods. The digestion of ground feed requires less energy
and takes place much more rapidly than the digestion of

STANDARD RATIONS 207

unground feeds. By grinding grain in a mill we save the
fowl the necessity of doing the grinding. However, this
practice cannot be continued indefinitely; if it were, the.
fowls would not get sufficient internal exercise to keep them
in the best of condition.

STANDARD RATIONS

20 pounds kaffir corn
20 pounds wheat
30 pounds cracked corn
I5 pounds oats
ro pounds barley
5 pounds sunflower seed

This ration may be used as a standard grain ration at
all seasons of the year. Its value is not lessened by in-
creasing or decreasing the amount of kaffir corn and by
decreasing or increasing the amount of cracked corn ac-
cordingly. These two feed stuffs can be used interchange-
ably, or the amount of corn may be reduced and the
amount of wheat increased so that frequently poultrymen
may feed the following ration:

60 pounds wheat
30 pounds corn
ro pounds oats

A meal mixture for fattening broilers may be made up

as follows: 20 pounds corn meal

20 pounds wheat middlings
20 pounds ground oats
6 pounds meat scrap

This should be mixed with buttermilk to a thin batter
and fed twice daily.

298 CARE OF LAYING HENS

Special Care Necessary. — No pains should be spared to
keep the hens comfortable and happy. During the molt-
ing season and on days when it is cold or damp and the
hen’s appetite is not likely to be keen, if the attendant will
bring to her in the middle of the forenoon and the middle
of the afternoon a small amount of hot savory mash, she
will welcome it and eat it with such avidity that the whole
room will for a moment be transformed into conditions of
springtime. Such singing and scratching will be set up as
could be duplicated naturally only in the spring of the year.
This hot mash in winter not only warms the hen for the
moment, but if composed of the right ingredients will so
stimulate her appetite and the flow of digestive fluids that
she can be made to eat a large amount of other foods and
egg production will be increased correspondingly.

In feeding a hot wet mash no attempt should be made
to satisfy thoroughly the hen’s appetite. Best results are
realized when only enough is used to stimulate her appetite
so that she will eat more of every kind of food. Only so
much should be given at one time as will be eagerly
eaten.

Inducing Molting. — It is not best to induce a molt,
though this can be done by feeding short rations for a time
and then feeding heavily on foods rich in protein and min-
eral salts. The best practice is to endeavor to get all the
eggs it is possible to obtain without injury, keeping care-
ful watch to know just when molting begins. When molt-
ing has begun a gradual change in the kinds of foods should
be made to hasten the molt and make it uniform throughout
the flock. The amount of protein should be increased by
adding linseed meal or meat, or by increasing the amount
of milk or buttermilk fed. Too much buttermilk, or pro-

GREEN FOODS AND GRAIN 299

tein in any form, will cause diarrhoea, and such foods
should be fed with care.

Kinds of Green Foods. — Perhaps one of the best forms
of green food for laying hens is stock beets. Other suc-
culent feeds that may be given with good results are enumer-
ated in the order of their desirableness: cabbage, turnips,
potatoes, apples. Properly cured clover or alfalfa swollen
by soaking equals or exceeds stock beets, but the trouble
of preparation is sometimes an objection.

Sprouted oats also make good green food, but require
some practice for preparation. Which of these the poul-
tryman uses should be decided entirely by availability
and cheapness. Alfalfa is frequently used on account of
its being an easy matter to store a sufficient supply with-
out fear of deterioration.

Feeding the Range Stock. — No particular effort should
be made to force the young stock on the range other than
to keep them growing rapidly. As a rule they should be
given grain of the standard mixture fed to the hens, three
times daily. Occasionally wet or dry mash should be fed
at noon for variety. Under most favorable conditions the
ranges are sufficiently supplied with running water, and
furnish an abundance of grit or small stone.

When their combs begin to redden and develop, the pul-
lets should be taken to the laying houses and made com-
fortable before cold weather begins. They should then be
fed for early and continuous egg production.

Essential Points of a Good Ration. — According to an
eminent authority “the greatest profit is realized when an
abundance of food best suited to produce the greatest vigor
of the reproductive system is available to the hens.” The
essential points of a good ration for fowls are that:

300 CARE OF LAYING HENS

(a) It should be composed of foods every one of which
the fowls like.

(b) It should contain a sufficient quantity of digestible
nutrients to supply the needs of rapid ee and large
production.

(c) It should have enough bulk to enable the ed
tive secretion to act quickly upon it.

-(d) It should not contain an excess of ‘ndtipesethle
fiber (such as oat hulls, corn bran, and alfalfa stems).

(e) A certain proportion of the ration should be of
whole grain in order to provide muscular activity of the
digestive organs. About one third of the ration should be
of soft ground food for the purpose of providing quickly
available nutrients to supply the immediate demand of
rapid growth or heavy continuous egg yield.

(f) A good variety of food must be provided, in which
are included grain, green food, meat, and mineral matter.

(g) The foods in the ration should not have an un-
desirable effect upon the color or flavor of the product.
Onions, barnyard manure, and carrion flavor anegg. When
the fowl drinks from pools about the barnyard the yolk of
the egg is given an undesirable reddish color.

(h) The ration must provide the two classes of food
nutrients, protein and carbohydrates, in such proportions
that they will supply the daily needs of the fowl’s system ;
provide sufficient and digestible protein to repair the
wasted tissue with new growth, and produce eggs; and
provide the proper amount of digestible carbohydrate food ~
(starch, sugar, and fat) to furnish heat, energy, and lay on’
a little surplus fuel in the form of fat.

Shall the Poultryman Raise his Feed ? — There seems to
be some doubt as to whether persons engaged in special

DUST BATHS ene

poultry farming should or should not raise their feed. If
one is sufficiently well versed in practice and theory to
operate a poultry plant he can spend all of his time to
better advantage in raising poultry than in raising feed for
poultry. This, however, does not mean that areas should
not be reserved for the production of green feeds. Nor does
it mean that small areas should not be cultivated for the
purpose of renovating the soil and at the same time growing
such crops as can well be used as forage for horses or for
feeding the hens. .

Dust Baths. — The primary function of a dust bath is
to gratify the hen’s instinctive desire to dust; to keep her
contented and comfortable. A secondary purpose, the
value of which has been very much overrated, is to rid the
hen’s body of lice. |

Careful observation and close investigation have estab-
lished the following points :

First, the indoor dust bath, which has its greatest value
in allowing the hen to dust in cold weather, when the
ground is covered with snow, is generally so cold that the
hen will not use it.

Second, when it is warm enough for her to use it, the air
of the room becomes so dusty that it is uncomfortable for
the attendant and injurious to all the flock.

Third, upon microscopical examination of the throat
mucus in some cases of pneumonia, it has been found that
the source of inflammation was due to dust particles im-
bedded in the mucus membrane.

Fourth, the hen’s instinctive desire for wallowing or
dusting is apparently just as thoroughly gratified by wal-
lowing in the litter thrown upon the floor as it is in a
specially devised dust box.

302 CARE OF LAYING HENS

Fifth, hens provided with dust baths are apparently as
much infested with lice as hens not so provided.

Preventing Poultry Diseases. — The old maxim that
‘““an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure”’
is a splendid guide for the poultryman. It is far better
to prevent disease than to attempt to cure it. Sanitation
is the one preventive. The poultry house, the drinking
vessels, and the food containers should be keptclean. The
drinking water should be made antiseptic by the addition
of potassium permanganate in the proportion of one tea-
spoonful to each ten-quart pail of drinking water, or iron
sulphate at the rate of one tablespoonful of crystals to a
gallon of water. Mature fowls should be given a small
dose of Epsom salts in a wet mash every two or three
weeks in the proportion of about five ounces to each one
hundred hens.

One should not wait until the spread of disease necessi-
tates disinfection, but should disinfect regularly. It is a
good practice to apply to all poultry buildings a heavy
coat of whitewash once a year, and to spray the roosts,
ceiling, and walls with a good strong disinfecting solution
two or three times a year. The perches, nests, and crevices
about the dropping board should be sprayed more frequently.

When a sick fowl is found in one of the pens it is, as a
rule, too late to attempt to cure that fowl. But it is the
signal to begin extraordinary methods of cleaning, so that
other fowls will not contract disease. The litter should
be removed, the floor thoroughly cleaned, all the dust on
the walls and crevices washed down, and then the walls
and ceiling should be thoroughly disinfected.

Treatment of Infectious Poultry Diseases. — Infectious
~ diseases may be prevented by cleanliness and proper sani-

TO CONTROL LICE AND MITES ° 303

tation. Roup, chicken pox, white diarrhoea, cholera, con-
junctivitis, and vent gleet are the most common diseases
of this class. While the symptoms for each of these
are peculiar to the disease itself, the treatment is common.
Isolate diseased fowls, kill, and burn their carcasses. In
case of large losses, dispose of all fowls and start anew on an
uninfected part of the farm. Heavily coat the surface of
the old yards with air-slaked lime and plow under. Sow
some rank-growing crop. Thoroughly disinfect and
whitewash all houses, coops, and equipment.

Poultry Lice and Mites. — Body lice on poultry need
not give the poultryman any serious concern, for despite
all he can do there are likely to be a few on his hens. They
can be partially removed by dusting the hens thoroughly
with an insect powder. Repeat the dusting in ten days.
If this is properly done it should give several months’
freedom from the pest. The little red mite which attacks
the hens when on the nest or roost is a very real enemy
of the poultryman, but it can be very easily prevented and
destroyed by simple and regularly executed disinfecting
measures. Simple, cheap, and effective lice and mite
killers are made as follows:

Liquid Lice and Mite Killer — 3 quarts of kerosene to
r quart crude ¢arbolic acid.

Lice Powder—3 quarts gasoline, 1 quart crude carbolic
acid; sufficient plaster of Paris to absorb thoroughly the
four parts of liquid. Spread the mixture on heavy paper
until all liquid has evaporated. Rub it through a screen
or fine flour sifter, and it is ready for use.

Use of Lice and Mite Killer. — For body lice, paint the
perches with the liquid just before roosting time; or place
a piece of brown paper thoroughly saturated with this

304 : CARE OF LAYING HENS

liquid in the bottom of a tight box and confine the sitting
hen in the box for ten or fifteen minutes. When this
method is used the box should be covered with a bag,
through which a hole is made for the hen’s head, to pre-
vent suffocation.

For mites, apply the liquid solution with a paint brush
to the perches, roosts, dropping boards, and nests, and
spray into all the corners and cracks of the house. One or
two applications will entirely eradicate the worst infesta-
tion of vermin.

The liquid has also been used with splendid success in
painting the floors of hen houses and brooders, to eradicate
disease.

Use of Lice Powder. — The powder is used on sitting
hens or little chicks and will cause the lice to drop off
dead almost instantly. The proper method of application
is to hold the fowl over the lap by the feet and dust the
powder well down through the feathers, using a tin can
similar to a salt shaker. The powder can be collected and
used repeatedly. |

Disinfectants. — Crude carbolic’ acid, crude creoline, or
other cleansing preparations constitute cheap and effective
disinfectants. Both of these mix readily with water in
any desired proportion and pass through a spray nozzle
without clogging.

Wherever the hands are liable to come in contact with
the solution do not use stronger than 2 per cent. Where
the disinfectant is to be applied with a brush or spray
pump, a 5 to ro per cent solution may be used. The fol-
lowing table for preparing solutions of a given strength
is sufficiently accurate to be safe and effective for all .
ordinary purposes.

EXERCISES 305

TABLE FOR MAKING SOLUTIONS OF VARIOUS STRENGTHS

TO MAKE STOCK SOLUTION — STRENGTH 10%

WATER DISINFECTANT

5 quarts I pint

24 gals. I quart

5 gals. 2 quarts

STRENGTH WATER STOCK SOLUTION

5% I part I part
23% 3 parts I part
1% g parts I part

TABLE FOR MIXING SMALL AMOUNTS

STRENGTH WATER DISINFECTANT
1% I pint 1 teaspoonful
2% I pint 2 teaspoonfuls
5% I pint 5 teaspoonfuls

EXERCISES

1. What are the chief reasons for feeding poultry three times
daily ?

2. Of what should an egg-producing ration be composed, and
why?

3. What is the purpose of the deep litter method of feeding ?

4. Compound a good ration for laying hens not outlined in
the text.

5. Give reasons for each ingredient in the above ration.

6. What is the function of each of the following ingredients
in a poultry ration, — grit, lime, water, green food, animal
food, and wet mash?

7. Why is sanitation the first requisite in the control of
poultry diseases?

T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB.— 20

306 CARE OF LAYING HENS

8. What are some good disinfectants to use around the
poultry plant?
g. Is it better to burn or to bury fowls dead from disease?
Why?
HOME PROJECTS

1. What poultry rations are used on the home farm? Do
they supply all the necessary ingredients for meat or egg pro-
duction, as the case may be? If not, try to arrange for new
and better rations.

2. By means of accurate records compare the old ration with
the new, either for meat or egg production. Also compare cost
of each and see which is most efficient.

3. Disinfect the home poultry house and yards, using plan
and mixtures given in this chapter.

CHAPTER XXII

TYPES AND BREEDS OF CHICKENS

Types of Chickens. — Poultrymen recognize two distinct
types among hens, —the egg type andthe meat type. Inthe
nervous, rangy hen is found the egg type; in her plumper,
less active sister, the meat type. Heavy layers have the
bodies nicely placed on longer, trimmer legs than the meat
type, their combs are larger, their bodies longer, and their
pelvic arches broader. In fact, the two types are as truly
distinct as the race horse and the draft horse, or the dairy
cow and the beef animal.

Breeds of Chickens. — The most important breeds of
chickens fall into three groups, based on their utility value
as follows: Egg Breeds, Meat Breeds, General Purpose
Breeds.

The Egg Breeds. — As suggested by the name, the egg
breeds are valued primarily for egg production, though of
late years the members of this group have won first place
as producers of squab broilers. They are very precocious,
frequently coming into laying at four and one half months,
though the reasonable expectation of the keepers of this
group is that the majority of the pullets will mature at five
and one half months. These breeds constitute the Mediter-
ranean group. The most popular members of this group
are the Leghorns and the Anconas.

307

308 TYPES AND BREEDS OF CHICKENS

Fig. 106. — White Orpingtons.

Meat Breeds. — This group comprises only the Asiatic
class, though contrary to theory more meat poultry is pro-
duced from the general purpose breeds than from the spe-
cial meat breeds. This condition is probably due to the
fact that the meat breeds are not so precocious as the general
purpose breeds and present the difficulty of fewer eggs and
hence fewer chicks. The Cochins, Langshans, and -Brah-
mas constitute this group.

General Purpose Breeds. — This group comprises the
American class, the English class, and the French class, and
as indicated by the group name are valued for their dual
purpose. They produce a reasonable number of eggs and
are large enough for use as meat poultry. The English
breeds of this group were originally valued chiefly for
meat production, but the breed shape has been slightly
changed by environment until in America they are regu-
larly classed as general purpose fowls. The most popular —
members of this group are the Plymouth Rocks, Rhode .
Island Reds, Wyandottes, and Orpingtons.

SCORE CARD 309

A list of the general purpose breeds is as follows:
Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Javas, Dominiques, Rhode
Island Reds, Buckeyes, Dorkings, Redcaps, Orpingtons,
and Houdans.

Poultry Judging. Bete Sulkcy judging is taught by men-
tally comparing an individual with the ideal for that variety
and entering the demerits in the schedule of points on a
score card authorized by the American Poultry Association.

SCORE CARD FOR JUDGING POULTRY

With the exception of ‘“‘ Remarks ”’ column, this card is arranged to
conform to the card adopted by the American Poultry Association. Direc-
tions for the use of this score card are given in ‘‘ The American Stand-
ard of Perfection.”

Sees ROY Di Ree ere et Date
NS SII ESR oR ee bg ay lS nr
A Seualalle ae SIGE Rapa CR ECA Ae Pll
ae (0 a ee Webht.< 20. io:
i Se
SHAPE | COLOR REMARKS
, Undeveloped, Rangy, Blocky, Carriage \s
Symmetry Tr ; f
— Under or Over
Weight
Large or Small
Size
Je Health, Dirty, Broken or Roughed Plumage, Scaly Legs
Condition | | Frosted, Injured, Wild side ie
\aieeiivers Large, Small, Serrations, Thumbmark, Coarse, Twisted
| Hollow Center, Smooth, Spike, Large, Small, Tele-
Comb | scoped, Lopped
Long, Short, Wide, Narrow, Flat, Snaky, or Gamey
Head Face Pale, Red, Ww bite “Vine: eee (a Color
| Long, Short, Straight, Curved, Injured
Beak i Light, Dark, Striped
| Large, Small, Injured, One Missing
Eyes | Light Colored, Not Matching, Greenish, Golden

| | Large, Small, Irregular, Injured, Frosted, Wrinkled
Lobes it | Red, White, Yellow, Creamy

310 TYPES AND BREEDS OF CHICKENS

SHAPE | COLoR REMARKS

Large, Small, Irregular, Long, Injured, Frosted
Wattles Wrinkled, Folded ;
Long, Short, Undeveloped, Broken Plumage

Light, Dark Buff, Red, White, Undercolor, Surface.
Neck Ticking, Mealy e ndercolor, : uriace,

NTT =
Carried High, Low, Broken or Missing Feathers, Un-
developed \

Light, Dark Buff, Bows, Flights, Black, White, Ticking,
Mealy, Shafting

Wings Long, Short, Narrow, Flat, Curved, Cushion, Plumage
Light, Dark Buff, Red, White, Undercolor, Surface,
Back Mealy, Shafting
High, Low, Pinched, Broken, Maintail, Sickles, Long,
Short
Tail ey Dark Buff, Black, White, Ticking, Surface,
ndercolor
Undeveloped, Flat, Narrow, Crooked Keel, Low
Breast Light, Dark Buff, Under, Surface, Mealy, Shafting
Body and Long, Short, Low, Too Deep, Shallow, Fat
Fluff eens eae Light, Dark Buff, Under, Surface, Mealy, Shafting
E Long, Short, Bowed, Knock-kneed, Scaly, Injured,
Down Bs
Legs rent Light, Faded, Spur, Missing, Yellow
Long, Short, Crooked, Nails, Injured, Down
Toes Faded, Light, Yellow
Crest and
Beard 1
Sharpness
of Feather?
Outs SCORE

8 © 0X0) @ 0m Oe (0) 0).08) © 0.0 10. © 6) 0. © 60, .0\8) 0: ©, 6) s-els ee @ 1 ‘ale © fs 6 918 (ee 6) «= 6 wy eo ece ee) mh mete ee ie

© 8 6 © 6 © a9, ¢ © © 6.0, 0 @ 6 @ Be © (00). 0:0) Us) 0s @ 0) a 0 ah cove 0 6 8) 8 © die! 0, eo) e'e bie eo, Uae eee ae

Secretary

The placing of awards in the show room at present is
largely done by first scoring the birds according to the score
card system, and then comparing the cards, giving the

1 Applies to crested breeds.
2 Applies to Games and Game Bantams.

RULES FOR JUDGING CDE

awards to the birds receiving the highest score. However,
the direct comparison system of judging is coming into
general use, especially in the largest and best exhibitions
of the country.

Breed Requirements. — Before judging the birds either
by the score card system or by direct comparison it is neces-
sary to know the requirements of conformation, color,
feather markings, and carriage of each variety. It is also
necessary to know what the customary defects are for each
variety. The beginner should consult the various breed
books and should use a score card. This card serves the
double purpose of aiding the judge to keep in mind the
several defects he should look for in each breed and of
furnishing to the owner a record of the judge’s reasons ,
for putting the bird in any particular section.

Rules for Judging. — Some of the rules which it is neces-
sary for the beginner in poultry judging to fix in his mind
are:

a. That place of origin, temperament, and purpose
make the class.

b. That shape and size make the breed.

c. That color and marking of feathers and form of comb
make the variety. .

The four principal class groups into which all standard
varieties of poultry are divided, are as follows:

Group I. The Mediterranean class.

Group II. The American, English, and French classes.

Group III. The Asiatic class.

Group IV. The Oriental and Exhibition classes.

The Mediterranean Class. —It is supposed that this
class originated in Southern Europe along the shores of the
Mediterranean Sea.

ay

TYPES AND> BREEDS OF CHICKENS

MOTTLED

312

W

Wi,

ip

ARRED

B

i

Fig. 107. — Different feather markings.

EGG BREEDS 313

Members of this group are of nervous, active tempera-
‘ment; non-sitters; good foragers, with close-feathered
bodies; unfeathered legs ; medium to large comb and head
furnishings ; extremely precocious. All breeds of this group
lay large eggs with chalk-white shell.

They are small to medium in size, set well up on clean
legs, and in outline are an oblong oval with small end
toward the shoulders. The several breeds of this group are
distinguished by shape of back and carriage of tail.

The Mediterranean Class includes five breeds, as follows:

1. Leghorns, 2. Minorcas, 3. Spanish, 4. Blue Andalu-
siams, 5. Anconas. ‘These are the so-called egg breeds.
The varieties of all breeds in this group have white ear
lobes. The breeds may be distinguished one from the other
by comparison of (a) size, (b) comb, (c) back, (d) tail.

The varieties of the several breeds in this group are dis-
tinguished one from the other either by shape of comb or
feather color or feather marking.

Example of classification by above method :

Group: I.

Class: Mediterranean, as shown by sprightly carriage,
nervous temperament, and white ear lobes.

Breed: Leghorn, as shown by oval shape of body when
viewed from any direction. Small to medium size body.
Distinguished from Minorcas by shape of back and shape of
comb; and from Anconas by individuality of the Ancona
plumage.

Varieties: Rose Comb White Leghorns are readily dis-
tinguished from Single Comb White Leghorns by their dif-
ferent forms of comb, and the Single Comb Brown, Buff,
and White varieties of Leghorns can readily be distinguished
by color and marking of their plumage.

314 TYPES AND BREEDS OF CHICKENS

Rose Comb White Leghorns Mottled Anconas

=

Single Comb White Leghorns Rose Comb Brown Leghorns

Single Comb Buff Leghorns Rose Comb Black Minorcas

Fig. 108. — Types of chickens among the egg breeds.

DUAL PURPOSE BREEDS 315

The American, English, and French Classes. — The
members of this group are active but not nervous; are
fair to good foragers; feathered more loosely than the
breeds of Group I; good to excellent sitters and mothers ;
are not so precocious as Group I, seldom reaching maturity
before six toseven months. Asa group they are average to

Fig. 1o9. — A White Leghorn.

good layers of fair-sized brown-shelled eggs, though some
individuals of highly specialized strains have made wonder-
ful egg records. The members of this group originated in
either America, England, or France, but in all cases have
been thoroughly Americanized.

The breeds of this group, already enumerated under
dual purpose breeds, are of medium size and stockily built.
The shapes of the several breeds in this group when viewed
from the side vary from almost round to rectangular, and

316 TYPES AND BREEDS OF CHICKENS

this variation in body shape serves as one of the best in-
dexes to the several breeds.

The several varieties of each breed are distinguished one
from the other by shape of comb or color of feathers. All
of this group have red ear lobes. Nearly all members of
the French class have five toes; this is also true of the Eng-

Fig. 110. — A White Plymouth Rock.

lish class, the Orpingtons however being a notable excep-
tion. Members of the American class have four toes.

The Asiatics. — Members of this group are of sluggish,
phlegmatic temperament, with strong predisposition to
broodiness, though their extreme size and heavily feathered
legs and toes make them undesirable sitters or mothers.
They are poor foragers and indifferent layers. They lay
medium to large-sized eggs with brown shells. They are
not precocious, seldom reaching maturity before seven
and a-half to eight months. As indicated by their class

EXHIBITION CLASSES 317

name, it is believed that the different members of this
group originated from stock imported from Asia.

This group comprises the Brahma, Cochin, and Langshan,
—the largest breeds of fowls. One of the distinguish-
ing characteristics of the group is the feathered legs. The
three breeds of the group can be distinguished one from the

Fig. 111. — A Black Langshan.

other by shape of back. Other distinguishing characteris-
tics are form of comb, length of leg, and feathering of legs
and toes.

The varieties of these breeds are distinguished one from
the other by color of feather.

The Oriental and Exhibition Classes. — For the most
part individuals of this group are very small, of various
temperaments and sources of origin. However, the group-
ing is based on the fact that all are bred for their exhibition
value on account of fancy color or feather marking. The

318 TYPES AND BREEDS OF CHICKENS
RRL Aehalsgse INN

WY Ma idicrs
Lip
PINTS

of,
Vpn \
"Wy

DTM ww

WS yy 7;

Pea comb Strawberry comb

Fig. 112. — Types of combs.

Cornish, Game, Malay, Sumatra, and the several Bantam
breeds belong to this group. Im addition to the above
groups there are the Hamburg, Polish, and several other
miscellaneous breeds.

The person learning poultry judging should study the out-
line on page 313 in order to apply it readily to the individual
fowl to be judged. While all of these things cannot be
seen or known at once, he will quickly associate them with
individuals of the various groups he is judging. After he
becomes acquainted with the groups the next thing is to

EXHIBITION CLASSES 319

learn to recognize the breeds in each group. This can be
done by learning the requirements of body conformation,
comb shape, and tail carriage for each of the breeds. This
will come by handling the actual specimens, and can be
developed only by practice and a careful study of the
characteristics of each breed as outlined in more complete
treatises on this subject.

EXERCISES

1. Reproduce from memory the principal points on the
poultry score card.

2. Name the characteristics of each of the four great groups
of chickens.

3. How does the Asiatic group differ from the Oriental ?

4. Arrange the four groups in order of size.

5. Arrange the four groups in order of general appearance.

HOME PROJECTS

1. Study the home flock to determine the group or groups to
which the chickens belong.

2. Study the home flock to ascertain characteristics of breed
or breeds represented. In making reports give reasons for your
decisions.

CHAPTER XXIII

TURKEYS, DUCKS, AND GEESE

ALTHOUGH few poultrymen and farmers care to raise
turkeys, ducks, and geese on a large scale, some or all of
these fowls are found on almost every farm. A brief outline
of the details necessary to success in the production of these
fowls is here included.

TURKEYS

According to the American standard of perfection, there
are several recognized varieties of turkeys, as follows:
Bronze, Narragansett, White, Black, Buff, Slate, and
Bourbon. Of these the Bronze is the most popular.

The Bronze is the largest of all the standard varieties,
the weight for pullets being sixteen pounds; hens, twenty
pounds; cockerels, twenty-five pounds; yearling cocks,
thirty-three pounds; and adult cocks, thirty-six pounds.
The preferred weight for market at Thanksgiving time is
from fourteen to thirty pounds.

The egg yield of a turkey hen is from eighteen to thirty
eggs, each of which can usually be counted on to produce a
living poult under natural conditions. A common source of
trouble in raising young turkeys is brought about by con-
tinued inbreeding. There are so few turkeys raised in some
localities that all of the turkeys in a neighborhood within a
radius of ten or fifteen miles have descended from a single
pair. Inbreeding of this sort is entirely too close.

320

KIND OF HENS TO SELECT 321

Kind of Hens to Select. — No matter what variety of
turkeys may be selected for keeping, they should, above all
things, be strong, vigorous, healthy, and well matured, but
not akin. Better secure the females from one locality and
the male from another to insure their non-relationship,
rather than run the risk of inbreeding.

Rangers Are to Be Preferred. — ‘Though turkeys may be
yarded and handled successfully, with sufficient care they

Bronze turkeys Narragansett turkeys

White Holland turkeys

Fig. 113. — Varieties of turkeys.

do best when they have the entire range of the farm. When
given free range they pick up injurious insects, weeds, and
waste grain that cannot be utilized in any other way. The
cost of raising them is thus greatly reduced, and they seem
to be in better health where they have free range. Wheat,

oats, barley, corn, in fact any grain that makes good chicken
T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB. — 21 >

322 TURKEYS, DUCKS, AND GEESE

feed can be fed to turkeys. Grit, shell, and water are
necessary, as with other poultry.

Turkeys do best if they can roost in the open air, another
reason for giving them the range of the farm.

Nesting Provisions. — The turkey hen usually begins to
lay in the latter part of March or early in April. If the eggs
are likely to be chilled, they should be gathered in order to
protect them from the cold. If it is necessary to gather
the eggs they should be replaced with some other sort of egg
until the turkey becomes broody. If all eggs are removed,
she will change her nest.

It is well to provide an old barrel or a box, which may be
entered freely by the turkey hen, to protect the nest from
the weather. Soft straw or hay is the best nest material,
though if these are not at hand clean, dry leaves make an
excellent nest. On account of the fact that the turkey
hens produce such a very small number of eggs, it is best
not to attempt to hatch the eggs with domestic hens or
incubators, though of the two substitute methods the hen
is to be preferred.

Incubation of. Turkey Eggs. — The period of incubation
is from twenty-seven to twenty-nine days. The fresher
eggs will hatch a few hours sooner than the older ones. The
best success attends the hatch when not more than nineteen
eggs are given to a turkey hen and not more than ten eggs
to a domestic hen. A turkey hen when sitting should be
supplied with food and water near by, so that these will
be available just as soon as she comes from the nest.
Wheat and corn are the best food at this time.

Brooding. Young Turkeys. —It is a practice of most
breeders to set a turkey hen and a domestic hen at the same
time, both on turkey eggs, and then to give all of the poults

DUCKS 323

to the turkey hen, since the turkey seems to be the more
successful of the two in raising the young brood.

After the young turkeys have grown large enough to
range the farm they require little attention until fattening
time comes, when they can be fattened by the use of the
rations given to chickens for the same purpose.

DUCKS

Of the eleven standard breeds of ducks, — Pekin, Ayles-
bury, Rouen, Cayuga, Call, East India, Crested, Muscovy,
Buff, Indian Runner, and Swedish, — raised for fancy or
market purposes, the two most popular breeds and the ones
most commonly found on the farm are the White Pekin and
the Indian Runner, either fawn or white. The Pekin duck
is valued primarily for its carcass as young roast duck, or
“green duck,” while the Indian Runner is valued for its
great power of egg production. It is not unusual for Indian
Runner females to lay as many as one hundred seventy
eggs a year, rivaling in this respect the best strains of
domestic hens. The Rouen is a strong rival of the Pekin
in some sections.

Quick Growth Necessary. — The quicker the flesh is put
on, the more tender it is. The duck grower has his duck-
lings under absolute control all the time. He keeps their
appetites keen and gives them all the flesh-producing
food they willeat. They are penned in quarters sufficiently
large to allow proper exercise, but not enough to make the
flesh hard from too much activity. These pens are kept
absolutely clean, as are also the yards. In some sections
where the soil is sticky and unsanitary, duck growers cover
their yards with straw and care for them the same as for
those in the indoor pens.

324 TURKEYS, DUCKS, AND GEESE

| Fig. ae Pekin aes

Only Drinking Water Necessary.— Ducks are given fresh.
clean water to drink, which is very essential, but none to
play or wallow in. The expert duck grower has his bird
ready for market in ten weeks from the shell. It is larger
and many times more toothsome than the six months old
duck sent to market by the farmer.

Caring for the Eggs. — A good strain of breeding ducks
will lay an average of at least one hundred thirty-five eggs
per season, which should, with proper feed, be eighty-five
per cent fertile. Ducks do not care for nests. ‘They pre-
fer to drop their eggs on the floor. They lay between four
and eight o’clock in the morning. They should be fas-
tened in their houses the night before and fed in the yards at
8 am. and 4 p.m. daily. The eggs should be collected
after liberating the ducks in the morning. If the pens are
clean the eggs will be clean. The soiled ones should be
rinsed in tepid water and dried with a towel.

Hatching with the Incubator. — As soon as enough eggs
have been collected to fill an incubator they should be set.

FEEDING AND CARE OF DUCKLINGS 325

The incubator must be run at 102° the first two weeks, 1023°
the third week, and 103° the last week of hatch. The eggs
are turned once a day during the first week, then twice daily
until they pip. After that the machine must be kept
closed until the hatching is over.

Feeding and Care of Ducklings. — After removal of the
egg shells the ducklings are left in the machine until thor-
oughly dry. They are then ready to remove to a brooder,
which should be at a temperature of 90°. Any brooder
practical for chickens is good for ducklings, allowing two
ducklings the same space as three chicks.

Ducklings ought to have clean, sharp river sand and
fresh water before them. ‘They should be fed five times a
day with bread crumbs mixed with the boiled infertile
eggs from the incubator, which are ground fine in a meat
chopper, with enough crumbs to make a dry food. Stale
bread is preferable, but it must be perfectly sweet, not
moldy or sour.

After the fifth day a growing mash, made of six parts
bran, two parts corn meal, two of flour, five of cut greens,
ten per cent of beef scrap, sand, grit, and oyster shell, should
be fed. They are given all they will eat up clean. After
eight weeks of age they are gradually changed to a fattening
food, consisting of four parts of corn meal, two parts of low
grade flour, one part of bran, twelve per cent of beef scrap ;
to this should be added a little cut greens, sand, shell, and
grit to aid in digestion. Many feed good food, but fail to
provide proper grit to digest it. The cut greens may be
either lawn clippings, green clover, corn fodder, dwarf Essex
rape, or wheat. If ducklings have been carefully fed and
attended to they will average ten pounds or more to the
pair. At ten weeks they are in the best condition to kill.

326 TURKEYS, DUCKS, AND GEESE

If they are now properly prepared for market they will com-
mand a price that makes production profitable.

Fig. 115. — Indian Runner ducks.

It costs about a third less to produce one pound of

duck flesh than it does to produce one pound of chicken.
Ducks are practically free from disease, easy to raise, and
readily marketed.
- Indian Runner Ducks. — The Indian Runner ducks are
so called because they are supposed to have originated in
India and because of their peculiar manner of running.
They excel many breeds of hens as egg producers.

Indian Runner ducks are the hardiest of all do-
mestic fowls, being practically free from all contagious
diseases. They bear confinement well and are especially
adapted to limited quarters. It is not necessary to have a
pond or a quantity of water to raise them successfully, —
just enough for them to drink and so that they can cover
their heads.

They are active and will forage for part of their living.
They thrive on coarse feed, with little attention and cheap
housing, and are very rapid growers.

The Indian Runner ducks possess great laying qual-
ities, and they should be bred with this one object in
view, preserving, of course, the standard markings. If

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF LAYING DUCKS 327

fed for this purpose, they commence laying at from four
to six months of age. Ducklings hatched in June or
July often lay through the entire winter. They lay well
until several years old. Their capacity for winter egg pro-
duction is their strongest characteristic.

Indian Runner eggs are not quite so large as the eggs of
other varieties of ducks, but larger than a hen’s egg. They
are of a delicate flavor quite unlike that of all the other
ducks’ eggs. The shell is a beautiful white color with an
occasional tint, so that the egg is attractive in appearance.

Care and Management of Laying Ducks. — After the
first of May laying ducks do better if allowed to run.
They should be shut up in a pen or inclosure, however,
until 8 or 9 A.M., when they will be through laying for the
day.

For winter protection a warm house is necessary. It
need not be costly or large. A tight shed, eight feet high
in front, four feet high at the back, open to the south will
meet all requirements. An earth floor with plenty of straw
for bedding can be used.

Laying ducks require food that will produce eggs and
make shell. The same rations that are fed to laying hens
are also suitable for the feeding of ducks.

Ducks must have shade in hot weather, exercise, and
plenty of fresh air. They prefer to stay outside no matter
how stormy the weather, but they may be trained to use a
house or shed. Poor sleeping quarters, a lack of bedding,
or allowing them to sleep out in bad-weather, causes rheu-
matism, about the only disease to which they are subject.
A little care in this one particular will insure against loss
of birds. Ducks may be allowed to stay outside except at
night during cold or stormy weather. They are hardier

328 TURKEYS, DUCKS, AND GEESE

than chickens, and with a little care and with proper shelter
they will show most gratifying results.

Feeding troughs and water fountains must be kept clean.
Ducklings should be sheltered from rain till well feathered.
Shade should be provided for the hot summer weather.
They should always have water before them while eating,
whether young or old, but should not be allowed to swim
in it till feathered.

GEESE

Of the six standard breeds of geese,— Toulouse, Embden,
African, Chinese, Wild or Canadian, and Egyptian, — the
most popular one is the Toulouse.

A few geese can be kept on a farm without causing much
trouble, but if their number is large they must be restrained,
fenced far away from the house, the barn, and the farming
and pasturing lands. An ideal place for geese is rough up-
land, slanting down into marshy places where there is at
least one pool of water in which the geese may swim. The
uplands furnish a change of pasture for them and a dry
place for them to rest. If a few shade trees grow upon the
hillside, their shelter will be found desirable; if there are no
trees, a low, slant-roof shed open toward the south should be
built as a protection from sun, rain, and snow. Eggs laid by
geese having free access to water are more likely to be fertile
than are eggs laid by geese without access to such a pool.

Ranges for Geese. — Geese may live almost entirely by
grazing. Marshy lands are suitable pasture for geese, since
they furnish a supply of rich, juicy grasses, snails, water
beetles, worms, and bugs that grow in such places. Where
such pasturage can be had, even though the land may be
worthless, it is excellent upon which to grow geese.

BREEDING STOCK 329

Breeding Stock. — For beauty and elegance the Gray
Toulouse and the White Embden surpass all other kinds of
geese. It is not unusual for adults of these two breeds to
weigh from forty to forty-five pounds per pair. Either
kind can be made to
weigh from twelve to six-
teen pounds each when
between eight and nine
months old, at which age
they are best for table
use.

Geese lay from sixteen
to forty eggs each in a
single year, averaging
about twenty-five eggs
each.

Laying geese do best
when not too fat. A
mixture of equal parts
of corn meal, wheatmid-
dlings, wheat bran, and
ground oats, with a little
animal food mixed in,
is best for them. This ; ae

Fig. 116.— An African gander crossed with
should be moistened and Toulouse makes the finest meat fowl.
fed in shallow troughs.

When corn is fed to them they may be taught to eat dry
grain. After the birds become accustomed to this kind
of feeding it does not injure them, but they do not thrive so
well nor will they make such tender meat as when they
receive a meal-mash mixture. Geese are liable to “ blind
staggers ’’ or choking spells from eating dry grain without

330 TURKEYS, DUCKS, AND GEESE

a plentiful supply of water at hand. ‘Their habit is to eat
a little and drink a little, and continue doing so until they
have enough.

Natural Incubation Preferred. — Geese hatch their own
eggs; when they lay more than a nestful the surplus eggs
should be hatched under a hen. ‘The incubation period is
from twenty-eight to thirty days. The goslings should be

Fig. 117. —- White Chinese geese.

left in the nest until they are perfectly dry. When taken
outside they should be placed in a small inclosure provided
with some kind of shelter. Goslings must be protected from
cold and rain until they are at least two weeks old, after
which they may be given their liberty.

Feeding Young Goslings. — The first food for young
goslings should be bread and milk, made into a moist mash
with wheat bran or wheat middlings; or a mixture of one
part each of corn meal and ground oats and two parts of
wheat bran. This should be moistened with either hot
milk or hot water and made into a crumbly mass which the
goslings can pick up easily. The food should never be hot,
only slightly warm. Goslings, as well as geese, should have
a plentiful supply of grass for grazing. They will eat grass

FATTENING GEESE 331

Fig. 118. — Mixed flock of geese.

freely and appear to grow fat on it, but when fed a proper
grain ration goslings grow very rapidly.

Fattening Geese. — While being fattened, geese should
be kept perfectly quiet and should be fed all the food they
will eat. Their food should consist of equal parts by meas-
ure of corn meal, ground oats, wheat middlings, and wheat
bran, mixed and moistened with either milk or water.
Geese so fed will be fit for table use within ten or twelve
days. In some localities, when the geese fed in this way
are so fat as to quit feeding, they are shut up in dark places
and stuffed with specially prepared ‘‘ noodles ” three or four
times a day until they become excessively fat. Stuffed
geese develop abnormally large livers, which are prized as
a great delicacy. In a few regions of the United States,
the stuffed-goose industry has developed large propor-
tions.

332 TURKEYS, DUCKS, AND GEESE

EXERCISES

1. In growing turkeys, what are the essential points to be re-
membered in the selection of breeding stock ?

2. Why do turkeys do better on the open range than under
confinement ? |

3. What are the essential differences between Pekin and
Indian Runner ducks?

4. What are the essential ingredients of the feed for young
ducks? Give reason for each ingredient selected.

5. How does the food for market ducks differ from that for
layers? Why?

6. What are the essential differences, if any, in the care and
management of ducks and geese?

HOME PROJECTS

1. Get permission to produce and market a flock of either
turkeys, ducks, or geese. Keep accurate record of cost and
returns.

2. Study the home method of producing either of these classes
of poultry and report on how it may be improved.

APPENDIX

HAECKER’S FEEDING STANDARD FOR THE DAIRY COW

For support of the 1000-lb. cow .
To ihe allowance for support add:
of 3.0 per cent milk.
of 3.5 per cent milk.
of 4.0 per cent milk.
of 4.5 per cent milk.
of 5.0 per cent milk.
of 5.5 per cent milk.
of 6.0 per cent miik.
of 6.5 per cent milk.
of 7.0 per cent milk.

For each lb.
For each lb.
For each lb.
For each lb.
For each lb.
For each lb.
For each lb.
For each |b.
For each lb.

Datty ALLOWANCE OF DIGESTIBLE

Crude
Protein

Lbs.
0.700

0.040
0.042
0.047
0.049
0.051
0.054

0.057
0.061

0.063

NUTRIENTS
Carbo-
hydrates Fat
Lbs. Lbs.
7.00 0.100
0.19 0.015
0.21 0.016
0.23 0.018
0.26 0.020
Or 0.021
0.29 ° 0.022
0.31 0.024
533 0.025
0.35 0.027

To formulate a ration, according to this standard, for a
goo pound cow, producing 30 lbs. 4 per cent milk, ae pro-
cedure is as follows:

Digestible nutrients required daily by the goo pound cow
yielding 30 pounds of 4 per cent milk daily.

CruDE PROTEIN

For maintenance ;
For 30 lbs. 4 percent milk .

Total .

CARBOHYDRATES

6.30
6.90

13.20

334 | APPENDIX

For maintenance, the 900 pound cow requires nine
tenths as much of the digestible nutrients as the 1000
pound cow, or 0.63 pound of digestible protein, 6.30 pounds
_ of digestible carbohydrates, and 0.09 pound of digestible
fat. For the production of 30 pounds of 4 per cent milk
there is required an additional 1.41 pounds of digestible
protein, 6.90 pounds of digestible carbohydrates, and.
0.540 pound of fat, making the standard for the goo
pound cow yielding 30 pounds of 4 per cent milk daily
consist of 2.04 pounds of digestible protein, 13.2 pounds of
digestible carbohydrates, and 0.63 pound of digestible fat
material. In order to calculate the ration that will satisfy
the requirements of the standard, the same method is em-
ployed as in determining the amount for the Wolff-Lehmann
standards.

AVERAGE DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS AND FERTILIZING
CONSTITUENTS IN AMERICAN FEEDING STUFFS

Torat | DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS Peer ee
Dry ;
NAME OF FEED MATTER
IN 100 : Phos-
-| Crude | Carbo- Nitro- :
ei Protein dyciates Hat zen Beene Potash
CONCENTRATES
Grains, Seeds, and their
Parts Lbs, (> Lbs) |. Loss | Lbs. ‘| bs. -| Eds, Oss
Went eGrnun) 8 Gees oOl4 718 || 00.5 453 Oss 7 5-7
Blint corm te 45% 2. oo, 8:0)! 06.2 4.3 |- 16.8 eal )
Sweet corn! . . QI.2 8:8: || 63:7 FO) Toso 7 Baz.
Corn-and-cob seal 84.9 4.4 | 60.0 2.07 Eirs Om augeg, 4.7
Gluten feed .. Qos) iets 52.3 250) | SALON lan Sey, 0.4
-Hominy feed (chop). 90.4 6.8 | 60.5 7A) TOL tle (Ore 4.9
Wihedt 2 89.5 8.8 .| 67.5 TaGs | SLO ete 8.7
Red-dog flour 1 op OOM aT O:2 Whacyre 2420 | ee

1From ‘‘Feeds and Feeding” by Henry and Morrison.

APPENDIX

335

NAME OF FEED

Grains, Seed, and their
Parts — Continued

Standard wheat mid-
dlings (shorts) .
Wheat bran, all

analyses . 5
Wheat screenings
oS ee
Rye middlings! .
Barley F
Emmer (speltz) .
AES: a.

Oat hulls 1.
Buckwheat ot a
Buckwheat middlings
Buckwheat hulls 4
oo
Canada field pea .
Cowpea .
Soy bean
Kaffir corn
Milo maize seed !
Flaxseed es
Linseed meal, old
process -. toes
Linseed meal, new
process
Cottonseed meal
Cottonseed hulls
Dried beet pulp .
Dried molasses beet
pulp .
Cow’s milk :
Cow’s milk, colostrum
Skim milk .
Buttermilk
Whey!. .
Tankage! .

Tora | DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS
Dry

FERTILIZING CONSTITU-
ENTS IN 1000 LBs.

MATTER
IN 100} Crude | Carbo-
Lss. | Protein |hydrates

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.

85.6 <l) 13.0)" 45.7 4.5

88. 0° | TL-O | 42.0 os
Bord |i. O.0> |) 48.2 1.9
Q1.3 9.5 | 69.4 t.2
S.2. | LL-0 «52.9 2.6
89.2 O4ie O53 1.6
G24; |) 20.0 | 70:3 2.0
wOL0 ||, 0.7) |+.§o.3 3.8

* 92.6 Ea) (30.5 0.6

86.6 8.1 | 48.2 2.4
epeale 22.7 |... 37.5 6.1
86.8 D2 hi 2o.0 0.5
87.6 6.4 | 79.2 0.4
5-0: |b Ia.7 /|) 40.3 0.4
5-4 |) 16:8) 54.9 I.I
So.3-} 20:1 23,2 | 14.6
90.1 Beek he vag3 1.4
QI.0 4.9 | 44.8 74
9:07 1 20:0] 17.1") ~.20:0

go.2 | 930.2 | 32.0 6.9

Gio sms || 3557 2.4
95-0 37:6 | 21.4 ;

88.9 @.3 |, 33:2 vy
91.6 4.1 | 64.9 —

92.0 G2 68:7 —
12.8 3.4 4.8 2.7
25.4.) 17.6 2.7 3.6
9.4 2.9 ic 0.3
9.9 3.8 3.9 1.0
6.2 0.6 5.0 0.2
93.0 | 50.1 —— | £2.6

1 “Feeds and Feeding.”

3 Phos
Nitro- phoric | Potash
Ben. Acid

SS Oe ee OO

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.

5.0 2.1 2.0
6.4 t.7 1.6
1.0 rE 2.0

336 APPENDIX

FERTILIZING CONSTiTU-

ToraL | DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS ENTS IN 1000 LBS.

Dry
NAME OF FEED MATTER coh
IN 100 | Crude | Carbo- Nitro- Hf
Lgs. | Protein |h,drates Fat gen ae Potash

Dried Roughage
Fodder corn, ears, if | Los. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.

any, remaining .| 57.8 OS BAG E22 7.2 Bea rai
Corn stover, ears re-
moved . 50.5 £4) |} Bi.2 0.7 6.1 3.8 | 10.9

Timothy, allen alee 86.8 2.8 | 42.4 1.3 9.4 3.3 (i m4.2
Kentucky blue grass | 86.0 AAD IW AOr2 O27) 1 eas 4x0) | D507

Red clover. . . 84.7 Wena. 3478 TSr | aeey, 55 | Bay
Mammoth red plage 78.8 O12 aan. 7 Mn ag ea yf 5m | Ee
Alsike clover . . .| 90.3 Sia eB Os7 iT. |\ -2oa5 5.0 |. Lao
White clover . . .| 90.3 | 11.5 | 42.2 Hg | oes 7.81) “ge
Sov Deans .045) #4) ). hc tole aot 12) | -2a2o09 a5
Cow pede: wip x12)” fo keens Ica BELO} i.3) | Aes S20) Say

Alfalfa, western
WnitedtStatesia: -)\f082) ttt |e sont 0.6 | 24.7 6.2 a7.

Wiicatecs 10.) ad ta) aloo. OS a5 0.4 5.0 252°| 9 nore
can Ma Se meek Bee ob bi 7.|) 5 C0RL0) 0:7-.30,6 0.4 5.0 2:5}. 5 B20
Oath kee eee Ge:s Tee al easons 0.8 5.8 3.0)} U7
iBatleyy ic) Ske (fee 0.9 | 40.1 0.6 7.0 2.0| 10.6

Fresh Green Roughage
Fodder corn, all va-

Tieties >). P20, BT oyia fia bao) 0.4 2.9 1.1 os)
Fresh Green Gu
Pasture grass. . 20.0 Da fae LODE! 0.5 5.6 2:0 | Tot
Kentucky blue grass 1 34.9 2B EOL 0.8 6.6 ———
Timothy, Var ee. | S84 Vig pe hie to 0) 0.6 5.0 216) 76

Fresh Green Legumes,
Grasses, and Leg-
umes Combined

Red clover... 29.2 2.9 | 14.9 0.7 7.0 15 ere
Mammoth red clover! 20.0 2.0 Q.1 0.2 4.8 las
Alsike clover!» ... . | 25.2 2.6 | 15.4 O.8 | 0e Tit | ea
Crimson clover . .| 19.1 2.4 9.1 0.5 5.0 1.2 |e
Sweet clover!. . .| 20.0 2.5 8.4 0.4 6.1 2.4.) -Os7
AL alias lt tree ee eo 2.6 oro x 0.4 hy 1.37) eo
Barley and peas . .| 20.0 2.1 9.1 0.4 4.5 —
Oats and peas) 4F 20.3 1.8 | 10.2 0.4 3.8 L.Siie Geo

1 “ Feeds and Feeding.”

NAME OF FEED

Roots and Tubers

Potato

Mangel .

Sugar beet .

Flat turnip

Silage

Corn, recent analyses

Corn, ears removed !

Red clover .

Brewers’ grains! .

Corn cannery refuse,
husk ! we

Pea cannery refuse! .

MATTER
IN I00

LBs.

Lbs.
20.9
9.1

rs.5

9-9

26.4
26.3
28.0

29-7

16.2
23.2

APPENDIX

537

DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS

Crude |

FERTILIZING CONSTITU-
ENTS IN r000 LBs.

Carbo-
Protein |hydrates Fat
Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.
Al (eB er, O.1
1.0 as 0.2
Des, 9.8 O.1
0.9 6.4 O.1
|

EAS (04.2 0.7
Ed}. TA@ 0.7
1.5 Q.2 0.5
AG METS 1.8
O.4. WustOur 0.4
or? ies. 0.8

1 “Feeds and Feeding.”

T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB. — 22

N Las phoric Potash
Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.
3.4 LO aaa:
2.2 0.9 3.8
2.90 OF8 F387
2.1 0.9 3.4

INDEX

Aberdeen Angus cattle, 106, 113-114 Beef cattle — Continued

Abomasum, 20 } equipment, 241
Absorption of food, 17, 18 feeding, 239-240
Age, and digestion, 27 Galloway, 106, 114
Alfalfa, 38-39 Hereford, 106, 110-111
a legume, 37 housing, 241-242
gas from eating, 20 judging, 165-176
mineral matter in, 15 management, 236-243
protein in, 13 | Polled Durham, 106
vitamine in, 16 Polled Hereford, 106, 112-113
with molasses, 56 production, 237-238
Amber cane, 34 sire, care of, 237
American Merino sheep, 131-132 water for, 242
American Saddle horse, 81 West Highland, 106, 115-117
American Trotter and Pacer, 81, 94-96 | Beef fat, vitamine in, 16
Morgan horse, 96 Beet pulp, 55-56
race horse, 95-96 Belgian draft horse, 79, 84-85
Standard Bred horse, 96 Bermuda grass, 33, 37
Amino acids, 18 Black Face Highland sheep, 147-149
Ancona chickens, 313 Bloat, 20
Angora goats, 149-150 Blood, circulation, 18
Animal body, composition, 11-21 iron in, 21
Animal starch, 13 magnesium in, 21
Appendix, 333-337 Blood meal, 59, 60
Arabian horse, 81, 96-97 Blue Andalusian chickens, 313
Ash, in feed stuffs, 22 Blue grass, Kentucky, 34
Assimilation of food, 17 Bones, magnesium in, 21
Ayrshire Association, 270 mineral matter in, I5
Ayrshire cattle, 106, 122-124 Brain cells, 12
Brahma chickens, 317
Bacon hogs, judging, 191-192 Bran, corn, 54
Bacterial fermentation, 20 mineral matter in, 15
Balanced ration, 63 rice, 53
Barley, 37, 45-46 wheat, 51
carbohydrates in, 14 Breed Associations, 267-271
feeds, 53-54 requirements for admission, 269
value of crushing, 26 Breed, defined, 79
Barns, 245 Breeding horses, judging, 229-230
Beans, a legume, 37 Breeds of cattle, 106-130
Bedding, 29 of horses, 79-105
Beef cattle, 106 of sheep, 131-151
Aberdeen Angus, 106, 113-114 of swine, 152-164
care, 236-243 Brome grass, 33, 36-37

339

340

Broncho, 81, 99
Brooder, 286
house, 289-290
Broom corn, 34
Brown Swiss Association, 270
Brown Swiss cattle, 106, 124-125
Buckwheat, carbohydrates in, 14
middlings, 52
Burro, 102
Butter fat, vitamine in, 16
Buttermilk, 61
By-product feeds, 32, 51-62
barley, 53-54
beet pulp, 55-56
blood meal, 59, 60
buttermilk, 61 .
condimental stock foods, 62
corn bran, 54
cottonseed meal, 57
from cereals, 53-54
from corn, 54-55
from dairying, 60-61

from manufacture of sugar, 55-56
from slaughtering animals, 32,

60
germ meal, 54
glucose, 32
gluten meal, 55
grains, 32
hominy, 54
linseed meal, 58-59
meat meal, 59, 60
molasses, 56
oat hulls, 53
oils, 32
skim milk, 61
starch, 32
sugar, 32
- whey, 61
By-products, concentrates, 42

Cabbage, vitamine in, 16
Cecum, 18
Calcium, 11
in plants, 15
in the skeleton, 21
Calculating rations, 71
Calves, 70
alfalfa for, 38-39
bran for, 51
crushed grain for, 30
linseed meal for, 59

INDEX

Carbohydrates, 11, 13-14, 19-20
crude fiber, 23
effects of digestive fluids, 20-21
in oats, 45
nitrogen free extract, 23
Carbon, 11, 13
in fats, 14
Carriage horses, judging, 225-227
Cattle, Ayrshire, 106, 122-124
barley for, 46
beef (see Beef cattle)
beet pulp for, 55
breeds, 106-130
Brown Swiss, 124-125
buckwheat middlings for, 52
care of beef, 236-243
classification, 106
cottonseed meal for, 57
dairy (see Dairy cattle)
digestion experiments, 24-25
dual-purpose, 106
fattening, 30
feeding standards, 70-73
feed troughs, 242
judging, 165-186
~ linseed meal for, 59
tuberculosis, 248-249
Cells, phosphorus, 21
Cellulose, 13, 19
in crude fiber, 23
Cell walls, 12
Cereal grains, grass, 33
Cereals, as grasses, 37
by-products from, 53-54
carbohydrates in, 14
Chester White swine, 157-158
Cheviot sheep, 131, 140-141
Chickens, age of eggs, 283
American class, 311, 315-316
Anconas, 313
artificial brooding, 285
artificial incubation, 281-282
Asiatic class, 311, 316-317
Blue Andalusians, 313
Brahmas, 317
breed requirements, 311
breeds, 307-319
brooder, 286
brooder house, 289-290
brooding, 281-292
care, 293-296
care of chicks, 279

INDEX 341

Chickens — Continued Chickens — Continued

chiliing eggs, 282 sitting hens, 279

classes, 311 small flock, 290-291
cleanliness and incubation, 283 Spanish, 313

Cochin, 317 standard rations, 297
cooking food for, 296-297 Sumatra, 318
‘ Cornish, 318 temperature and incubation, 283
cut bone as feed, 296 types, 307-319

diseases, 302-303 variety in diet, 295-206
disinfectants, 304-305 water for, 294

dual purpose breeds, 315-316 yard space, 277-278

dust baths, 301-302 Chlorine, 11

egg breeds, 307, 313 in digestion, 21

eggs for incubation, 282 Cholera, hog, 262-264
English classes, 311, 315-316 Circulation, 18, 20, 21
exhibition classes, 311, 317-319 Cleveland Bay horse, 81, 93-904
farm flock, 274-275 Clover, alsike, 40

feeding, 293-2096 crimson, 40

feeding brooder chicks, 286-289 gas from eating, 20
feeding range stock, 299 legume, 37

French classes, 311, 315-316 mammoth red, 39-40
Game, 318 medium red, 39

general purpose breeds, 308-309 mineral matter in, 15
grinding food, 296-297 protein in, 13

grit, 295 sweet, 40-41

hatching, 284-285 white, 40

houses, 275-277 Clydesdale draft horse, 79, 85-86
incubation, 281-292 Coach horse, 81

inducing to eat, 295 English, 81

essentials of good ration, 299-300 French, 81

green foods, 299 German, 81

judging, 309-311 Hackney, 81

Langshan, 317 Morgan, 96

laying, 293-306 Yorkshire, 81

Leghorn, 274, 313 Cochin chickens, 317

lice and mites, 303-304 Cod liver oil, vitamine in, 16
Malay, 318 Colic in horses, 235

meat breeds, 308 Colts, alfalfa for, 39
Mediterranean classes, 311-313 Composition of animal body, 11-21
mineral matter, 295 Concentrates, 23, 42
Minorcas, 313 cereal foods, 32

mistakes in treating, 279-280 defined, 32

molting, 298-299 ether extract, 23

Oriental classes, 311, 317-319 | from slaughter of animals, 32
Plymouth Rock, 274 glucose, 32

raising feed for, 300-301 grains, 32

range-raised chicks, 291 oil-bearing seeds, 32
renewing flock, 278-279 oils, 32

Rhode Island Red, 274 starch, 32

rules for judging, 311 sugar, 32

sanitary precautions, 286 Condimental stock foods, 62

score card for buff varieties, 309-310 | Cooking, 26

342

Corn, 43-44

a grass, 33

analysis, 23-24

bran; 54

carbohydrates in, 14

crushing, 30

forage, 28

for live stock, 34

grinding, 30

prevention of heating, 27

roughage, 33

silage, 48-50

vitamines in, 16
Cornish chickens, 318
Corpuscles, red, 21
Cotswold sheep, 146-147
Cottonseed meal, 57

protein in, 13
Cottonseed poisoning, 58
Cotton seeds, vitamines in, 16
Cowpeas, 41

legume, 37
Cows, world’s record, 271
Crossbreeding, 266
Crude fiber, 13, 19, 23

cellulose in, 23

digestibility, 25

in bran, 51

in feeding stuffs, 22

in grasses, 14

in hay, 24

in oats, 45

Dairy cattle, 106, 117-127, 244
alfalfa for, 38
Ayrshire, 196, 122-124
barns, 245
bran for, 51
Brown Swiss, 106, 124-125
care, 244-250
corn for, 43
corn silage for, 50
cottonseed meal for, 58
Dutch Belted, 125-126
feeding, 245-246, 247, 248
food producers, 67

French Canadian, 106, 126-127

ground feed for, 30
Guernsey, 106, 120-122

Haecker’s feeding standard, 333-337

Holstein, 106
Holstein-Friesian, 117-118

INDEX

Dairy cattle — Continued

Jersey, 118-120

judging, 177-186

Kerry, 106, 127

management of, 244-250

milk fever, 250

oats for, 45

production requirements, 247

Shetland, 106

variety in rations, 247-248

water for, 68
Dairying, advantages, 244-245

cattle, 244

equipment, 245-246
Delaine Merino sheep, 131
Delaine sheep, 132-133
Devon cattle, 106, 129-130
Digestibility, 24-27

age of animal, 27

amount of food, 27

crushing feed, 26

curing feed, 26

curing forage, 26

defined, 24

drying feed, 26

drying forage, 26

effect of cooking, 26

effect of kindness, 27

effect of work, 27

factors influencing, 25-27

frequency of feeding, 27

grinding feed, 26

ground feed, 26

how determined, 24-25
Digestible nutrient, 24
Digestion, 17

age of animal, 27

chlorine, 21

kind of animal, 27

of ox, 20

of sheep, 20
Digestive fluids, 20
Digestive tract, 17, 18, 19

water in, 21
Disinfectants, 304-305
Donkey, 1o1—102

burro, 102
Dorset sheep, 131, 141-143
Draft horses, judging, 206-221
Drying forage, 26

Dual purpose cattle, 106, 127-130

Devon, 106, 129-130

INDEX

Dual purpose cattle — Continued
Milking Shorthorn, 106
Red Polled, 106, 127-129

Ducks, 323-328
care of ducklings, 325-326
‘care of eggs, 324
care of layers, 327-328
drinking water, 324
incubator, 324-325
Indian Runners, 326-327
quick growth of, 323

Duodenum, 17

Duroc Jersey swine, 153-154

Dutch Belted cattle, 125-126

Egyptian Geese, 328

Embden geese, 328

Emmer, 46

Energy, 18, 19

fat for, 21

English Coach horse, 81

Ensiling, 29

Enzyme, 18, 20

Erepsin, 18

Ether extract, 23

Exercises, 21, 31, 50, 78, 104-105, 130,
Tot tOs—TOA, 186,. 201, 230, 235,
242-243, 250, 258, 264, 273, 280,
292, 305-300, 310, 332

Farm poultry (see Poultry)
Fat, as nutrient, 23

in feeding stuffs, 22
Fats, 11, 14, 20-21
Fattening, 66

feeding for, 65-66
Fatty tissue, 21
Feed, and milk production, 67-68

crushing, 26

grinding, 26

ground, 30
Feeding, amount, 27

and digestibility, 27

for fattening, 65-66

for growth, 65-66

for maintenance, 63

for milk production, 67

for work production, 68

frequency, 27
Feeding standards, 70
Feeding stuffs, 46

alfalfa, 38-39

alsike clover, 40

343

Feeding stuffs — Continued
analysis of, 22-24
barley, 45-46, 53-54
beans, 41
beet pulp, 55-56
Bermuda grass, 37
blood meal, 60
bran, 51
brome grass, 36-37
buckwheat middlings, 52
buttermilk, 61
by-products, 32, 51-62
carbohydrates in, 19
cereals as grasses, 37
charcoal, 70
classes, 32-50
concentrates, 32, 42
condimental stock foods, 62
cooking, 31
corn, 33-34, 43-44
corn bran, 54
corn silage, 48-50
cottonseed meal, 57
cowpeas, 41
crimson clover, 40
curing, 28
drying, 28
for young animals, 69-70
germ meal, 54
gluten feed, 55
gluten meal, 55
grasses, 32-33
hominy feeds, 54
how used, 63-78
Kentucky blue grass, 34
legumes, 37
linseed meal, 58-59
mammoth red clover, 39-40
marsh grass, 36
meat meal, 60
medium red clover, 39
molasses feeds, 56
oat hulls, 53
oats, 44-45
orchard grass, 35
peanuts, 41
peas, 41
preparation, 22-31
preservation, 27-29
proper mixture, 71~72
protein in, 13
red dog, 52

344 INDEX

Feeding stuffs — Continued
redtop, 36
rice bran, 53
root crops, 46-48
roots, 32
roughages, 32
rye, 46
salt, 70
screenings, 53
skim milk, 61
smaller grasses, 34
soaking, 31
sorghums, 34
starch feeds, 55
straws, 42
sugar feeds, 55
sweet clover, 40-41
tankage, 59-60
timothy, 35
tubers, 32
value of, 24
vetch, 42
wet feeds, 31
wheat, 44
wheat middlings, 52
whey, 61
white clover, 40 i
Fermentation, bacterial, 20
Fiber, crude, 19, 23
Fibers, muscular, 18
Figuring rations, 73-78
Fluids, digestive, 20
Fodders, digestibility, 25
Food, absorption of, 17, 18
assimilation of, 17
in the body, 16-17
Food producer, dairy cow as, 67
Forage, corn as, 28
value of drying, 26
French-Canadian cattle, 106, 126-127
French Coach horse, 91-92

Galloway cattle, 106-114
Game chickens, 318
Gases, toxic properties, 20.
Gastric juice, 18
Geese, African, 328
breeding stock, 329-330
Chinese, 328
Egyptian, 328
Embden, 328
fattening, 331

Geese — Continued
feeding goslings, 330
incubation, 330
ranges, 328
Toulouse, 328
Wild, 328
Germ meal, 54
German Coach horse, 92-93
Glands of mouth, 19
Glucose, 13, 19
Gluten food, 55
Glycogen, 13
Goats, 149-150
Grass, 32
Bermuda, 33, 37
brome, 33, 36-37
cereal grains, 33
cereals as, 37
corm, 33
crude fiber in, 14
Italian rye, 33
- Johnson, 33
Kentucky blue, 33, 34
marsh, 36
orchard, 33, 35
prairie, 36
quack, 33
redtop, 36
roughage, 32
smaller varieties, 34
timothy, 33, 35
Ground feed, 30
Growth, feeding for, 65-66
Guernsey cattle, 106, 120-122
Guernsey Cattle Club, 270
Gullet, 17, 19
of ox, 19-20
of sheep, 20

Hackney horse, 89-90
Hackney pony, 81, 99, 100
Haecker’s feeding standard, 333-337
Hair, 12, 18
Hampshire sheep, 131, 137-138
Hampshire swine, 161-163
Hay, alfalfa, 38

making, 28-29

nitrogen free extract in, 24

roughage, 24

timothy, 23-24, 35
Heat, fat for, 21

for the body, 18

INDEX

Hereford cattle, 106, 110-111
Highland pony, 81
Hogs, alfalfa for, 39
barley for, 46
charcoal for, 70
corn for, 30
linseed meal, 59
poisoned by cotton seed, 58
wheat middlings, 52
Holstein Association, 270
Holstein cattle, 106
Holstein-Friesian cattle, 117-118
Home projects, 21, 31, 50, 62, 78, 105, 130,
E51, 164, 186, 201, 230, 235, 243, 250,
258, 264, 273, 280, 292, 306, 319, 332
Hominy feeds, 54
Honeycomb, 20
Hoofs, 12, 18
Horns, 12, 18
Horses, age, 206-208
American Saddle, 81
American Trotter, 81, 94-96
Arabian, 81, 96-97
Belgian, 79, 84-85
blemishes, 202-206
bran for, 52
breeds, 79-105
brood mare, 233-234
care of, 231-235
carriage, 81
classification, 79
Cleveland Bay, 81, 93-94
Clydesdale, 79, 85-86
Coach, 81, 89-98
colic, 235
cottonseed meal for, 57
cutting hay for, 29
donkey, 101-102
draft, 79
English Coach, 81
feeding standards for, 72
food for work, 231-232
French Coach, 81, 91-92
German Coach, 81, 92-93
grinding food for, 26
grooming, 231
Hackney, 81, 89-90
judging, 202-230
management of, 231-235
Morgan, 96
oats for, 45
Orloff Trotter, 81

Horses — Continued
Percheron, 79, 81-83
ponies, 81, 98-100
race, 95-96
rations, 232-233
roadster, 81
Saddle, 226
Shire, 79, 87-88
silage for, 50
stables, 231
stallion enrollment, 273
straw as food for, 42
Suffolk, 88
Suffolk Punch, 79
teeth of, 206-208
Thoroughbred, 81, 97-98
timothy for, 35
unsoundness, 202-206
work, 30
Yorkshire, 81

Hoven, 20

Hybrids, 266

Hydrogen, 11, 13
in fats, 14

Tleum, 17
Improvement, live stock (see
stock)

Inbreeding, 266

Incubation, age of eggs, 283
artificial, 281-282
brooder, 286
brooding chicks, 285—286
chilling eggs, 282
cleanliness, 283
feeding brooder chicks, 286-289
hatching, 284-285
moisture, effect of, 284
sanitary precautions, 286
selecting eggs, 282

temperature, 283

thermometer, 284

Indian pony, 81, 99

Indian Runner ducks, 326-327

Insalivation, 17

Intestine, carbohydrates in, 19
enzyme in, 18
erepsin in, 18
soaps in, 21
trypsin in, 18

Iron, 11, 21

Italian rye grass, 33

345

Live

346 INDEX

Jejunum, 17
Jersey Association, 270
Jersey cattle, 106, 118-120
Johnson grass, 33
Judging bacon hogs, 191-192
Judging beef cattle, back, 174

body, chest, 173

breeder’s demands, 166-168

butcher’s demands, 166

cheap cuts, 165

crops, 173

feeder’s demands, 166

finish, 169-170

flank, 174

forequarters, 171-172

form of animal, 168

head and neck, 171

high-priced cuts, 165

hindquarters, 174-175

loin, 174

quality, 168-169

ribs, 174

score card, 175-176

style and temperament, 170-171

waste material, 165-166
Judging breeding horses, 229-230
Judging breeding swine, 192-1093
Judging dairy cattle, body, 181-182

determining type, 177-179

forequarters, 181

form of cow, 179

head and neck, 181

hindquarters, 182-183

mammary veins, 183-184

quality, 180

score cards, 184-186

temperament, 180-181
Judging draft horses, action, 210-211

age, 206-208

arm, 213

ears, 212

back, 217

cannons, 214

chest, 216

croup, 217-218

eyes, 212

feet, 215-216

fetlocks, 214

forearm, 213

forehead, 212

form, 209-210

gaskins, 219

Judging draft-horses — Continued
head, 212
height, 208-209
hind legs, 220
hips, 217
hocks, 219-220
knees, 213-214
loins, 217
lower jaw, 213
muzzle, 213
neck, 213
pasterns, 214-215
quality, 210
quarters, 218
ribs, 216-217
score card, 221
shoulders, 213
stifles, 218
temperament, 211-212
thighs, 218
underline, 217
weight, 209
Judging horses, blemishes, 202-206
curb, 205
fistula of withers, 204
heaves, 204
poll evil, 203-204
ringbone, 204
roaring, 204
sidebones, 204
spavin, 205
stringhalt, 205-206
thoroughpin, 204-205
unsoundness, 202—206
Judging lard hogs, back, 189-190
belly and flank, 190
breast and chest, 189
disposition, 188
hams, 190-191
head and neck, 188
hip and rump, 190
legs, 191
loin, 190
quality, 188
shoulder, 189
sides, 189
Judging light horses, action, 222-223
arm, 223 :
body, 224
cannon bones, 223-224
feet, 224
fetlocks, 223-224

INDEX

Judging light horses — Continued
form, 222
head and neck, 223
height, 222
hindquarters, 224-225
knees, 223
pasterns, 224
quality, 222
score card, 228
shoulders, 223
temperament, 223
weight, 222
Judging mules, 229
Judging ponies, 227-229
Judging sheep, body, 196
chest, 195-196
disposition, 195
form, 194-195
form for mutton, 194
head and neck, 195
legs, 196
quality, 195
score card, 200
wool, 196-199
Judging swine, 187-193

Kafir, 34

Kent sheep, 149

Kentucky blue grass, 33, 34
Kerry cattle, 106, 127
Kidney beans, vitamine in, 16
Kidneys, 19

Kindness, value, 27

Lambs, 252
oats for, 45
Langshan chickens, 317
Lard hog, 260-261
Large Yorkshire swine, 159-160
Lean-meat tissues, 12
Leghorn chickens, 274, 313
Legumes, 37
roughage, 32
Lehmann, Dr. C., 71
Leicester sheep, 144-146
Ligaments, 18
Lime in the skeleton, 21
Lincoln sheep, 143-144
Linseed meal, 58-59
protein, 13

Live stock improvement, atavism, 265-

266

Live stock improvement — Continued
crossbreeding, 266
heredity, 265
hybrids, 266
inbreeding, 266
line breeding, 266
mutants, 266
selection, 265
sire, pure-bred, 267
stallion enrollment, 273
subsidizing sires, 272
Test Associations, 271

Lungs, 19

Magnesium, 11
in blood, 21
in bones, 21
in plants, 15
Maintenance, factors, 64
feeding for, 63
roughages for, 63-64
size, relation to, 64
Malay chickens, 318
Maltose, 19
Manyplies, 20
Mare, brood, 233-234
Margarines, vitamine in, 16
Marsh grass, 36
Mastication, 17
Meal, germ, 54
gluten, 55
Meat meal, 59-60
Middlings, protein in, 13
Milch goats, 150
Milk, commercial value, 61
fat content, 70
feeding for production, 67
production, care essential, 67-68
skim milk, 61
vitamine in, 16
Milk fever, 250
Milking Shorthorn cattle, 106
Milk sugar, 61
Mineral matter, in bran, 51
in feeding stuffs, 23
in oats, 45
water and, 21
Mineral substances, 11, 15
Minorca chickens, 313
Mixture of feeds, 71-72
Molasses feeds, 56
Morgan horse, 96

347

348

Mouth, 19

Mules, 102-104
judging, 229

Muscular fibers, 18

Mustang pony, 81, 99

Mutants, 266

Nai's, 12

Nerve cells, 12

Nerves, 18

Nitrogen, 11, 12, 13
in protein, 23

Nitrogen free extract, 22, 23
digestibility, 25

Nutrient, digestible, 22, 24
fat as, 23

Nutritive ratio, 68-69

Oat hulls, 53
Oats, 37, 44-45
carbohydrates in, 14
value of crushing, 26
vitamines in, 16
Omasum, 20
Orchard grass, 33, 35
Organism, parts, II
Orloff Trotter, 81
Ox, digestion, 20, 27
stomachs of, 19-20
Oxford sheep, 131
Oxygen, 13
in fats, 14
in red corpuscles, 21

Pancreas, 18, 20
Pancreatic juice, 18
Paunch, 19-20
Peanuts, 41-42
legume, 37
protein in, 13
vitamine in, 16
Peas, 41
mineral in, 15
protein in, 13
Pepsin, 18
Percheron draft horse, 79, 81-83
Phosphorus, 11
in plants, 11, 15
in proteins, 21
in the skeleton, 21
Pigs, buttermilk for, 61
skim milk for, 61
Plant, maturity, 25

INDEX

Plymouth Rock chickens, 274
Pneumonia, 253
Poland China swine, 152-153

Polled Durham cattle, 106, 109-110
Polled Hereford cattle, 106, 112-113

Polo pony, 81
Ponies, 81, 9g8—100
American, 99
broncho, 81, 99
Hackney, 81
Highland, 81
Indian, 81, 99
judging, 227-229
mustang, 81, 99
Polo, 81
Shetland, 81, 99-100
Welsh, 81, 99, 100
Potassium, I1
in plants, 15
Potatoes, starch in, 14
Poultry, 274-332
American class, 311
artificial incubation, 281-282
Asiatic class, 311
breed requirements, 311
breeds of chickens, 307-319
brooder house, 289-290
brooding, 281-292
care of chicks, 279
care of flock, 275
classes, 311
cooking food, 296-297
diseases, 302—303
disinfectants, 304-305
ducks, 323-331
egg breeds, 307
English class, 311
Exhibition class, 311
farm flock, 274-275
feeding, 293-296
French class, 311
geese, 328-331

general purpose breeds, 308-309

grinding food, 296-297

hens, 274-319

houses, 275-277

incubation, 281-292

judging, 309-311

laying hens, 293-306

lice and mites, 303-304

meat breeds, 308
Mediterranean class, 311-313

Poultry — Continued
Oriental class, 311
pure-bred fowls, 274-275
raising feed, 300-301
renewing flock, 278-279
rules for judging, 311
score card, 309-311
sitting hens, 279
small flock, 290-291
testing thermometer, 284
turkeys, 320-323
types of chickens, 307-319

Prairie grass, 36

Protein, analyzing for, 12
effect of digestive fluids, 20-21
for repair of waste, 19
in bran, 51
in feed stuffs, 22
in stomach, 18
in oats, 45
phosphorus in, 15, 21

Race horse, 95-96
Racks, feeding, 254
Rambouillet sheep, 131, 133-134
Ration, balanced, 63
figuring, 71, 73-78
trial, 73-77
varying, 169
Red dog, 52
Red Polled cattle, 106, 128-129
Redtop, 36
Rennin, 18
Resins in roughage, 23
Reticulum, 20
Rhode Island Red chickens, 274
Rice, bran, 53
carbohydrates in, 14
vitamine in, 16
Roadster horse, American Saddle, 81
American Trotter, 81
Arabian, 81
judging, 225-227
Orloff Trotter, 81
Thoroughbred, 81
Romney Marsh sheep, 149
Root crops, 32, 46-48
commonly used, 47-48
similar to grass, 47
water in, 47
Roughage, 23
alfalfa, 38

INDEX

Roughage — Continued
corn, 33
defined, 32
digestibility, 25
ether extract of, 23
for maintenance, 63-64
for ruminants, 70
grasses, 32
legumes, 32
silage, 32
stover, 32
straw, 32
Rumen, 20
Ruminants, roughage for, 7¢
Ruminating animals, 17
experiments with, 24-25
Rumination, 17
Rye, 37, 46
carbohydrates in, 14

Saddle horse, gaits, 226-227
judging, 225-227
Saliva, 19
Salt, 70, 248, 254
Sanfoin, legume, 37
Score card, beef cattle, 176
chickens, 309-310
dairy cattle, 185
draft horses, 221
light horses, 228
sheep, 200
swine 193
Screenings, 53
Secretions of stomach, 18
Seeds, concentrates, 42
Seradella, legume, 37
Serum, sodium in, 21
Sheep, alfalfa for, 39
American Merino, 131-132
Black Face Highland, 131, 147-149
breeds, 131-151
care, 251-258
Cheviot, 131, 140-141
classification, 131
cost, 252-253
Cotswold, 131, 146-147
cottonseed meal for, 57
Delaine, 132-133
Delaine Merino, 131
digestion, 20, 24-25, 27
dipping tank, 257
docking, 256-257

349

35%

Sheep — Continued
Dorset, 131, 141-143
economy in raising, 251
exercise, 254
fattening, 255-256
feeding, 251-252, 254, 255-256
feeding racks, 254
feeding standards, 72
feeds for, 255
fine-wool breeds, 131-134
grain for, 30
Hampshire, 131, 137-138
judging, 194-200
Kent, 131, 149
lambs, 252
Leicester, 131, 144-146
Lincoln, 143-144
linseed meal for, 59
long-wool breeds, 131, 143-140
management of, 251-258
medium-wool breeds, 131, 134-143
oats for, 45
Oxford, 131, 136-137
paunch of, 20
pneumonia in, 253
Rambouillet, 131, 133-134
Romney Marsh, 131, 149
salt for, 254
shepherd, 253
Shropshire, 131, 134-136
Southdown, 131, 138-140
stabling, 253
stomachs of, 20
Suffolk, 131, 141
ticks, 257
Tunis, 131, 143
Shepherd, 253
Shetland cattle, 106
ponies, 81
Shire draft horse,79, 87-88
Shorthorn cattle, 106-109
Shropshire sheep, 131, 134-136
Silage, 29
alfalfa, 38
corn, 48-50
feeding, 50
peas, 41
roughage, 32
Silicon, 11
Silo, 29
calculating capacity, 49-50
filling, 48-49

INDEX

| Sire, pure-bred, 267

Skeleton, 21
Skim milk, 61
Skin, 18, 19
Soaps, 20-21
Sodium, 11

in plants, 15

in serum, 21
Sorghums, 34
Southdown sheep, 131, 138-140
Soy beans, vitamines in, 16
Spanish chickens, 313
Stable, 231, 245, 253
Stallion enrollment, 273
Standard bred horse, 906
Standards, feeding, 70-73

Wolff, 71

Wolff-Lehmann, 71-73
Starch, 13, 14, 19

feeds, 55

nitrogen free extract in, 23
Steapsin, 20
Steers, alfalfa for, 38

bran for, 51

corn for, 43

cottonseed meal for, 57
Stock foods, condimental, 62
Stomach, 17, 18, 19, 20
Stover, corn, 29

roughage, 32
Straw, cutting, 29

roughage, 32
Straws, 42
Suffolk horse, 88-89
Suffolk Punch draft horse, 79
Suffolk sheep, 131, 141
Sugar, in beets, 14

nitrogen free extract in, 23
Sugar beet molasses, 56
Sugar beets, 14
Sugar cane, 55
Sugar feeds, 55
Sugars, 13
Sulphur, 11
Sumatra chickens, 318
Swine, bacon breeds, 159-163

Berkshire, 155-156

breeds of, 152-164

brood sow, 260

care of, 259-264

Cheshire, 159

Chester White, 157-158

Swine — Continued
Duroc Jersey, 153-154
Essex, 158-
feeding, 261-262
feeding standards, 72
feeding young pigs, 260
grinding food for, 26
Hampshire, 161-163
hog cholera, 262-264
housing, 259
judging, 187-193
lard breeds, 152-158
lard hog, 260-261
Large Yorkshire, 159-160
minor breeds, 158-159
pasture, 262
Poland China, 152-153
Small Yorkshire, 158
Suffolk, 158
Tamworth, 160-161
Victoria, 158
with steers, 240-241

Tamworth swine, 160-161
Tankage, 59-60
Test Associations, 271
Thermometer, 284
Thoroughbred horse, 81, 97-98
Timothy, 35

for horses, 35

grass, 33

hay, 23-24

roughage, 24
Tissue, fatty, 21
Tissues, 18

water in, 21
Toulouse geese, 328
Toxic properties of gases, 20
Trypsin, 18

INDEX 351

Tuberculin test, 240
Tuberculosis, in cattle, 248-249
Tubers, 32
Tunis sheep, 131, 143
Turkeys, brooding young, 322-323
hens, 321
incubation of eggs, 322
nesting, 322
rangers preferable, 321-322
Type defined, 79

Vetch, 42

a legume, 37
Vitamines, 16

Waste material, 19
Water, 11, 15-16

in feed stuffs, 22

in tissues, 21

mineral matter and, 21
Waxes in roughage, 23
Welsh pony, 81, 99, 100
West Highland cattle, 106
Wheat, 44

vitamines in, 16
Wheat bran, protein in, 13
Wheat middlings, 52
Whey, 61
Wild geese, 328
Wolff, Emil von, 71
Wolff-Lehmann standards, 71-73
Wolff standards, 71
Work, and digestion, 27

animals’ rations, 68
Work horse, 30

food for, 231-232

Yorkshire Coach horse, 81
Young animal, needs of, 69-70

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