TUFTS UNIVERSITY
ARTS & SCIENCES LIBRARY

^^^^^

birt Ot
William Hathaway Forbes

Digitized by

the Internet Archive

in 2015

https://archive.org/details/animalintelligenOOroma_0

THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC SERIES.
VOLUME XLIV.

I HAVE recently learnt from the publishers of the

* International Scientific Series' that they have made
arrangements with Sir John Lubbock to bring out in the
same series a work of his on Ants and Bees. Necessarily,
therefore, the material to be dealt with in his work will
to a large extent overlap that which is presented by my
chapters on the same insects ; but after consulting with
the publishers, and also with Sir John Lubbock, it has
seemed to me undesirable to omit these chapters on
account of the circumstances here stated. For, on the
one hand, the facts will not lose their value from being
twice told ; and on the other, it is desirable that the
present member of the Series should form in itself, so
far as its Author can make it, a complete resume of all the
more important facts of Animal Intelligence,

THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC SERIES.

A^flMAL mXELLIGENOE.

BY

GEORGE J. ROMANES, M. A., LL. D., F. R. S.,

ZOOLOGICAL SSCBSTABT OF THB LINNEAN SOCIETY.

NEW YORK AND LONDON

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
1912

QL

Printed in the United States of America

PEEFACE

When I first began to collect materials for this work it
was my intention to divide the book into two parts. Of
these I intended the first to be concerned only with the
facts of animal intelligence, while the second was to have
treated of these facts in their relation to the theory of
Descent. Finding, however, as I proceeded, that the
material was too considerable in amount to admit of
being comprised within the limits of a single volume, I
have made arrangements with the publishers of the

* International Scientific Series ' to bring out the second
division of the work as a separate treatise, under the title

* Mental Evolution.' This treatise I hope to get ready .
for press within a year or two.

My object in the work as a whole is twofold. First, I
have thought it desirable that there should be something
resembling a text-book of the facts of Comparative Psy-
chology, to which men of science, and also metaphysicians,
may turn whenever they may have occasion to acquaint
themselves with the particular level of intelligence to
which this or that species of animal attains. Hitherto the
endeavour of assigning these levels has been almost exclu-
sively in the hands of popular writers ; and as these have,
for the most part, merely strung together, with difl-
crimination more or less inadequate, innumerable aneo»

PREFACE.

dotes of the display of animal intelligence, their books
are valueless as works of reference. So much, indeed, is
this the case, that Comparative Psychology has been vir-
tually excluded from the hierarchy of the sciences. If we
except the methodical researches of a few distinguished
naturaHsts, it would appear that the phenomena of mind
in animals, having constituted so much and so long the
theme of unscientific authors, are now considered well-
nigh unworthy of serious treatment by scientific methods.
But it is surely needless to point out that the phenomena
which constitute the subject-matter of Comparative Psy-
chology, even if we regard them merely as facts in Nature,
have at least as great a claim to accurate classification as
those phenomena of structure which constitute the sub-
ject-matter of Comparative Anatomy. Leaving aside,
therefore, the reflection that within the last twenty years
the facts of animal intelligence have suddenly acquired a
new and profound importance, from the proved probability
of their genetic continuity wi^h those of human intelli
gence, it would remain true that their systematic arrange-
ment is a worthy object of scientific endeavour. This,
then, has been my first object, which, otherwise stated,
amounts merely to passing the animal kingdom in review
in order to give a trustworthy account of the grade of
psychological development which is presented by each
group. Such is the scope of the present treatise.

My second, and much more important object, is that of
considering the facts of animal intelligence in their rela-
tion to the theory of Descent. With the exception of
Mr. Darwin's admirable chapters on the mental powers
and moral sense, and Mr. Spencer's great work on the
Principles of Psychology, there has hitherto been no
earnest attempt at tracing the principles which have been
probably concerned in the genesis of Mind. Yet there is

PREFACE.

vii

Qot a doubt that, for the present generation at all events,
no subject of scientific inquiry can present a higher
degree of interest; and therefore it is mainly with the
view of furthering this inquiry that I have undertaken
this work. It will thus be apparent that the present
volume, while complete in itself as a statement of the
facts of Comparative Psychology, has for its more ultimate
purpose the laying of a firm foundation for my future
treatise on Mental Evolution. But although, from what I
have just said, it will be apparent that the present trea-
tise is preliminary to a more important one, I desire to
emphasise this statement, lest the critics, in being now
presented only with a groundwork on which the picture is
eventually to be painted, should deem that the art dis-
played is of somewhat too commonplace a kind. If the
present work is read without reference to its ultimate
object of supplying facts for the subsequent deduction of
principles, it may well seem but a small improvement
upon the works of the anecdote-mongers. But if it is
remembered that my object in these pages is the mapping
out of animal psychology for the purposes of a subsequent
synthesis, I may fairly claim to receive credit for a sound
scientific intention, even where the only methods at my
disposal may incidentally seem to minister to a mere love
of anecdote.

It remains to add a few words on the principles which
I have laid down for my own guidance in the selection and
arrangement of facts. Considering it desirable to cast as
wide a net as possible, I have fished the seas of popular
literature as well as the rivers of scientific writing. The
endless multitude of alleged facts which I have thus been
obliged to read, I have found, as may well be imagined,
excessively tedious ; and as they are for the most part re-
corded by whoUy unknown observers, the labour of reading

viii PREFACE.

them would have been useless without some trustworthy
principles of selection. The first and most obvious principle
that occurred to me was to regard onl^ those facts which
stood upon the authority of observers well known as com-
petent ; but I soon found that this principle constituted
much too close a mesh. Where one of my objects was to
determine the upper limit of intelligence reached by this
and that class, order, or species of animals, I usually found
that the most remarkable instances of the display of intel-
ligence were recorded by persons bearing names more or
less unknown to fame. This, of course, is what we might
antecedently expect, as it is obvious that the chances must
always be greatly against the more intelligent individuals
among animals happening to fall under the observation of
the more intelligent individuals among men. Therefore I
soon found that I had to choose between neglecting all the
more important part of the evidence — and consequently in
most cases feeling sure that I had fixed the upper Kmit
of intelligence too low — or supplementing the principle of
looking to authority alone with some other principles of
selection, which, while embracing the enormous class of
alleged facts recorded by unknown observers, might be
felt to meet the requirements of a reasonably critical
method. I therefore adopted the following principles as a
filter to this class of facts. First, never to accept an alleged
fact without the authority of some name. Second, in the
case of the name being unknown, and the alleged fact of
sufficient importance to be entertained, carefully to con-
sider whether, from all the circumstances of the case as
recorded, there was any considerable opportunity for mal-
observation ; this principle generally demanded that the
alleged fact, or action on the part of the animal, should be
of a particularly marked and unmistakable kind, looking
to the end which the action is said to have accomplished.

PREFACE.

ix

Third, to tabulate all important observations recorded by
unknown observers, with the view of ascertaining whether
they have ever been corroborated by similar or analogous
observations made by other and independent observers.
This principle I have found to be of great use in guiding
my selection of instances, for where statements of fact
which present nothing intrinsically improbable are found
to be unconsciously confirmed by different observers, they
have as good a right to be deemed trustworthy as state-
ments which stand on the single authority of a known ob-
server, and I have found the former to be at least as abun-
dant as the latter. Moreover, by getting into the habit
of always seeking for corroborative cases, I have frequently
been able to substantiate the assertions of known observers
by those of other observers as well or better known.

So much, then, for the principles by which I have
been guided in the selection of facts. As to the arrange-
ment of the facts, I have taken the animal kingdom ii^
ascending order, and endeavoured to give as full a sketch
as the selected evidence at my disposal permitted of the
psychology which is distinctive of each class, or order,
and, in some cases, family, genus, or even species. The
reason of my entering into greater detail with some
natural groups than with others scarcely requires explana-
tion. For it is almost needless to say that if the animal
kingdom were classified with reference to Psychology in-
stead of with reference to Anatomy, we should have a very
different kind of zoological tree from that which is now
given in our diagrams. There is, indeed, a general and,
philosophically considered, most important parallelism
running through the whole animal kingdom between
structural affinity and mental development; but this
paralleHsm is exceedingly rough, and to be traced only
in broad outlines, so that although it is convenient for

X PREFACE.

the purpose of definite arrangement to take the animal
kingdom in the order presented by zoological classifica-
tion, it would be absurd to restrict an inquiry into Animal
Psychology by any considerations of the apparently dis-
proportionate length and minute subdivision with which
it is necessary to treat some of the groups. Anatomically,
an ant or a bee does not require more consideration than a
beetle or a fly ; but psychologically there is need for as
great a difiference of treatment as there is in the not
very dissimilar case of a monkey and a man.

Throughout the work my aim has been to arrive at
definite principles rather than to chronicle mere inci-
dents— an aim which will become more apparent when
tbe work as a whole shall have been completed. Therefore
it is that in the present volume I have endeavoured, as
far as the nature and circumstances of the inquiry would
permit, to suppress anecdote. Nevertheless, although I
have nowhere introduced anecdotes for their own sake, I
have found it unavoidable not to devote much the largest
part of the present essay to their narration. Hence, with
the double purpose of limiting the introduction of anec-
dotes as much as possible, and of not repeating more
than I could help anecdotes already published, I have in
all cases, where I could do bo without detriment to my
main object, given the preference to facts which have
been communicated to me by friends and correspondents.
And here I may fitly take the opportunity of expressing
my thanks and obligations to the latter, who in astonish-
ing numbers have poured in their communications during
several years from all quarters of the globe. I make this
statement because I desire to explain to all my corres-
pondents who may read this book, that I am not the less
sensible of their kindness because its bounty has ren-
dered it impossible for me to send acknowledgments in

PREFACE.

zi

individual oases. However, I should like to add in this
connection that it does not follow, because I have only
quoted a small percentage of the letters which I have re-
ceived, that all of the remainder have been useless. On
the contrary, many of these have served to convey infor-
mation and suggestions which, even if not reserved for
express quotation in my forthcoming work, have been of
use in guiding my judgment on particular points. There-
fore I hope that the publication of these remarks may
serve to swell the stream of communications into a yet
larger flow. *

In all cases where I have occasion to quote statements
of fa>ct, which in the present treatise are necessarily
numerous, I have made a point of trying to quote
verbatim. Only where I have found that the account
given by an author or a correspondent might profitably
admit of a considerable degree of condensation have I
presented it in my own words.

And here I have to express my very special obligations
to Mr. Darwin, who not only assisted me in the most
generous manner with his immense stores of information,
as well as with his valuable judgment on sundry points
of diflBculty, but has also been kind enough to place
at my disposal all the notes and clippings on animal
intelligence which he has been collecting for the last forty
years, together with the original MS. of his wonderful
chapter on ' Instinct.' This chapter, on being re-cast f : •
the * Origin of Species,' underwent so merciless an amour
of compression that the original draft constitutes a rich
store of hitherto unpublished material. In my second
work I shall have occasion to draw upon this store more
largely than in the present one, and it is needless to add

* Letters may be addressed to me directly at 18 Cornwall Terrace^
Regent's Park, London, N W.

xii

PREFACE.

that in all cases where I do draw upon it I shall be careful
to state the source to which I am indebted.

[The above was written when I sent this work to the
publishers several months ago, and I have thought it
best to leave the concluding paragraph as it originally
stood. But in making this explanation, I cannot allude
to the calamity which has since occurred without paying
my tribute, not alone to the memory of the greatest
genius of our age, but still more, and much more, to the
memory of a friend so inexpressibly noble, kind, and
generous, that even my immense admiration of the
naturalist was surpassed by my loving veneration for the
man.]

CONTENTS.

iHTBODUCTION .

PACT
1

CHAPTER 1.

Application of the Foregoing Principles to the Lowest
Animals ........

18

MOLLUSCA

CHAPTER n.

25

Ants .

CHAPTER HI.

31

Bees and Wasps

CHAPTER rV.

148

Tebmites

CHAPTER V.

198

Spidebs and Scorpions

CHAPTER VL

204

CHAPTER m

Rbmaxning Abticulata

226

Fish

CHAPTER Vin.

. 241

CHAPTER IX.
Batrachians and Reptiles

254

xiv CONTENTS.

CHAPTER X.
BiBDS .....

CHAPTER XI.
Mammals . • . . .

CHAPTER XII.

RODBNTB .....

CHAPTER XIII.
Elephant .....

CHAPTER XIV.
The Oat. ....

CHAPTER XV.
Foxes, Wolves, Jackals, &c.

CHAPTER XVI.
The Dog. ....

CHAPTER XVII.
MONKBYS, Apes, and Baboons

Indux

INTEODUCTION

Before we begin to consider the phenomena of mind
throughout the animal kingdom it is desirable that we
should understand, as far as possible, what it is that we
exactly mean by mind. Now, by mind we may mean two
very different things, according as we contemplate it in
our own individual selves, or in other organisms. For if
we contemplate our own mind, we have an immediate
cognizance of a certain flow of thoughts or feelings, which
are the most ultimate things, and indeed the only things,
of which we are cognisant. But if we contemplat e mind
in other persons or organisms, we have no such imme-
diate cognizance of thoughts or feelings. In such cases
we can only infer the existence and the nature of
thoughts and feelings from the activities of the organisms
which appear to exhibit them. Thus it is that we may
have a subjective analysis of mind and an objective
analysis of mind the difference between the two con-
sisting in this, that in our subjective analysis we are
restricted to the limits of a single isolated mind which
we call our own, and within the territory of which we
have immediate cognizance of all the processes that are
going on, or at any rate of all the processes that fall
within the scope of our introspection. But in our ob-
jective analysis of other or foreign minds we have no
such immediate cognizance; all our knowledge of their
operations is derived, as it were, through the medium of
ambassadors — these ambassadors being the activities of
the organism. Hence it is evident that in our study of
animal intelligence we axe wholly restricted to the ob-
jective method. Starting from what I know subjectively

2

INTRODUCTION.

of the operations of my own individual mind, and the
activities which in my own organism they prompt, I
proceed by analogy to infer from the observable activities
of other organisms what are the mental operations that
underlie them.

Now, in this mode of procedure what is the kind of
activities which may be regarded as indicative of mind ?
I certainly do not so regard the flowing of a river or the
blowing of the wind. Why? First, because the objects
are too remote in kind from my own organism to admit of
my drawing any reasonable analogy between them and
it ; and, secondly, because the activities which they pre-
sent are of invariably the same kind under the same cir-
cumstances ; they afford no evidence of feeling or purpose.
In other words, two conditions require to be satisfied before
we even begin to imagine that observable activities are
indicative of mind : first, the activities must be displayed
by a living organism ; and secondly, they must be of a
kind to suggest the presence of two elements which we
recognise as the distinctive characteristics of mind as
such — consciousness and choice.

So far, then, the case seems simple enough. WTierever
we see a living organism apparently exerting intentional
choice, we might infer that it is conscious choice, and
therefore that the organism has a mind. But further
reflection shows us that this is just what we cannot do ;
for although it is true that there is no mind without the
power of conscious choice, it is not true that all apparent
choice is due to mind. In our own organisms, for in-
stance, we find a great many adaptive movements per-
formed without choice or even consciousness coming into
play at all — such, for instance, as in the beating of our
hearts. And not only so, but physiological experiments
and pathological lesions prove that in our own and in
other organisms the mechanism of the nervous system is
sufl&cient, without the intervention of consciousness, to
produce muscular movements of a highly co-ordinate and
apparently intentional character. Thus, for instance, if a
man has his back broken in such a way as to sever the
nervous connection between his brain and lower extremi-

INTKODUCTION.

3

ties, on pinching or tickling his feet they are drawn sud-
denly away from the irritation, although the man is quite
unconscious of the adaptive movement of his muscles ;
the lower nerve-centres of the spinal cord are competent
to bring about this movement of adaptive response with-
out requiring to be directed by the brain. This non-
mental operation of the lower nerve-centres in the pro-
duction of apparently intentional movements is called
Reflex Action, and the cases of its occurrence, even within
the limits of our own organism, are literally numberless.
Therefore, in view of such non-mental nervous adjust-
ment, leading to movements which are only in appearance
intentional, it clearly becomes a matter of great difficulty
to say in the case of the lower animals whether any action
which appears to indicate intelligent choice is not really
action of the reflex kind.

On this whole subject of mind-like- and yet not truly
mental action I shall have much to say in my subsequent
treatise, where I shall be concerned among other things
with tracing the probable genesis of mind from non-
raental antecedents. But here it is sufficient merely to
make this general statement of the fact, that even within
the experience supplied by our own organisms adaptive
movements of a highly complex and therefore apparently
purposive chanicter may be performed without any real
purpose, or even consciousness of their performance. It
thus becomes evident that before we can predicate the
bare existence of mind in the lower animals, we need
some yet more definite criterion of mind than that which
is supplied by the adaptive actions of a living organism,
howsoever apparently intentional such actions may be.
Such a criterion I have now to lay down, and I think it is
one that is as practically adequate as it is theoretically
legitimate.

Objectively considered, the only distinction between
adaptive movements due to reflex action and adaptive
movements due to mental perception, consists in the
former depending on inherited mechanisms within the
nervous system being so constructed as to effect particular
adaptive movements in response to particular stimula
2

4

INTRODUCTION.

tions, while the latter are independent of any such in-
herited adjustment of special mechanisms to the exi-
gencies of special circumstances. Reflex actions under
the influence of their appropriate stimuli may be com-
pared to the actions of a machine under the manipu-
lations of an operator ; when certain springs of action
are touched by certain stimuli, the whole machine is
thrown into appropriate movement ; there is no room for
choice, there is no room for uncertainty ; but as surely as
any of these inherited mechanisms are affected by the
stimulus with reference to which it has been constructed
CO act, so surely will it act in precisely the same way as it
always has acted. But the case with conscious mental
adjustment is quite different. For, without at present
going into the question concerning the relation of body
and mind, or waiting to ask whether cases of mental
adjustment are not really quite as mechanical in the
sense of being the necessary result or correlative of a chain
of physical sequences due to a physical stimulation, it is
enough to point to the variable and incalculable character
of mental adjustments as distinguished from the constant
and foreseeable character of reflex adjustments. All, in
fact, that in an objective sense we can mean by a mental
adjustment is an adjustment of a kind that has not been
definitely fixed by heredity as the only adjustment pos-
sible in the given circumstances of stimulation. For were
there no alternative of adjustment, the case, in an animal
at least, would be indistinguishable from one of reflex
action.

It is, then, adaptive action by a living organism in
cases where the inherited machinery of the nervous system
does not furnish data for our prevision of what the adap-
tive action must necessarily be — it is only here that we
recognise the objective evidence of mind. The criterion
of mind, therefore, which I propose, and to which I shall
adhere throughout the present volume, is as follows : —
Does the organism learn to make new adjustments, or to
modify old ones, in accordance with the results of its own
individual experience ? If it does so, the fact cannot be
due merely to reflex action in the sense above described,

INTRODUCTION.

5

for it is impossible that heredity can have pro^aded in
advance for innovations upon, or alterations of, its machi-
nery during the lifetime of a particular individual.

In my next work I shall have occasion to consider this
criterion of mind more carefully, and then it will be
shown that as here stated the criterion is not rigidly ex-
clusive, either, on the one hand, of a possibly mental
element in apparently non-mental adjustments, or, con-
versely, of a possibly non-mental element in apparently
mental adjustments. But, nevertheless, the criterion is
the best that is available, and, as it will be found sufficient
for all the purposes of the present work, its more minute
analysis had better be deferred till I shall have to treat of
the probable evolution of mind from non-mental an-
tecedents. I may, however, here explain that in my use
of this criterion I shall always regard it as fixing only the
upper limit of non-mental action ; I shall never regard it
as fixing the lower limit of mental action. For it is clear
that long before mind has advanced sufficiently far in the
scale of development to become amenable to the test in
question, it has probably begun to dawn as nascent sub-
jectivity. In other words, because a lowly organised
animal does not learn by its own individual experience,
we may not therefore conclude that in performing its
natural or ancestral adaptations to appropriate stimuli
consciousness, or the mind-element, is wholly absent ; we
can only say that this element, if present, reveals no
evidence of the fact. But, on the other hand, if a lowly
organised animal does learn by its own individual experi-
ence, we are in possession of the best available evidence
of conscious memory leading to intentional adaptation.
Therefore our criterion applies to the upper limit of non-
mental action, not to the lower limit of mental.

Of course to the sceptic this criterion may appear un-
satisfactory, since it depends, not on direct knowledge,
but on inference. Here, however, it seems enough to
point out, as already observed, that it is the best
criterion available ; and further, that scepticism ol this
kind is logically bound to deny evidence of mind, not only
in the case of the lower animals, but also in that of the

6

INTRODUCTION.

higher, and even in that of men other than the sceptic
himself. For all objections which could apply to the u<?e
of this criterion of mind in the animal kingdom would
apply with equal force to the evidence of any mind other
than that of the individual objector. This is obvious,
because, as I have already observed, the only evidence we
can have of objective mind is that which is furnished by
objective activities ; and as the subjective mind can never
become assimilated with the objective so as to learn by
direct feeling the mental processes which there accompany
the objective activities, it is clearly impossible to satisfy
any one who may choose to doubt the validity of inference,
that in any case other than his own mental processes ever
do accompany objective activities. Thus it is that philo-
sophy can supply no demonstrative refutation of idealism,
even of the most extravagant form. Common sense, how-
ever, universally feels that analogy is here a safer guide
to truth than the sceptical demand for impossible evi-
dence ; so that if the objective existence of other or-
ganisms and their activities is granted — without which
postulate comparative psychology, like all the other
sciences, would be an unsubstantial dream — common
sense will always and without question conclude that the
activities of organisms other than our own, when analogous
to those activities of our own which we know to be accom-
panied by certain mental states, are in them accompanied
by analogous mental states.

The theory of animal automatism, therefore, which is
usually attributed to Descartes (although it is not quite
clear how far this great philosopher really entertained the
theory), can never be accepted by common sense ; and even
as a philosophical speculation it will be seen, from what has
just been said, that by no feat of logic is it possible t')
make the theory apply to animals to the exclusion of
man. The expression of fear or affection by a dog in-
volves quite as distinctive and complex a series of neuro-
muscular actions as does the expression of similar emotions
by a human being ; and therefore, if the evidence of
corresponding mental states is held to be inadequate in
the one case, it must in consistency be held similarly

INTRODUCTION.

7

inadequate in the other. And likewise, of course, with all
other exhibitions of mental life.

It is quite true, however, that since the days of Des-
cartes— -or rather, we naight say, since the days of Joule —
the question of animal automatism has assumed a new or
more defined aspect, seeing that it now runs straight into the
most profound and insoluble problem that has ever been
presented to human thought — viz. the relation of body to
mind in view of the doctrine of the conservation of energy.
I shall subsequently have occasion to consider this problem
with the close attention that it demands ; but in the
present volume, which has to deal only with the pheno-
mena of mind as such, I expressly pass the problem aside
as one reserved for separate treatment. Here I desire
only to make it plain that the mind of animals must be
placed in the same category, with reference to this pro-
blem, as the mind of man ; and that we cannot without
gross inconsistency ignore or question the evidence of
mind in the former, while we accept precisely the same
kind of evidence as sufficient proof of mind in the latter.

And this proof, as I have endeavoured to show, is in all
cases and in its last analysis the fact of a living organism
showing itself able to learn by its own individual experi-
ence. Wherever we find an animal able to do this, we
have the same right to predicate mind as existing in such
an animal that we have to predicate it as existing in any
human being other than ourselves. For instance, a dog
has always been accustomed to eat a piece of meat when
his organism requires nourishment, and when his olfactory
nerves respond to the particular stimulus occasioned by
the proximity of the food. So far, it may be said, there
is no evidence of mind ; the whole series of events com-
prised in the stimulations and muscular movements may
be due to reflex action alone. But now suppose that by a
number of lessons the dog has been taught not to eat the
meat when he is hungry until he receives a certain verbal
signal : then we have exactly the same kind of evidence
that the dog's actions are prompted by mind as we havw
that the actions of a man are so prompted.^ N- )w we find
• Of course it may be said that we have no evidence »f j)roviptin4

0

INTRODUCTION.

that the lower down we go in the animal kingdom, the
more we observe reflex action, or noii -mental adjustment,
to predominate over volitional action, or mental adjust-
ment. That is to say, the lower down we go in the
animal kingdom, the less capacity do we find for changing
adjustive movements in correspondence with changed
conditions ; it becomes more and more hopeless to teach
animals — that is, to establish associations of ideas; and
the reason of this, of course, is that ideas or mental units
become fewer and less definite the lower we descend
through the structure of mind

It is not my object in the present work to enter upon
any analysis of the operations of mind, as this will require
to be done as fully as possible in my next work. Never-
theless, a few words must here be said with regard to the
main divisions of mental operation, in order to define
closely the meanings which I shall attach to certain terms
relating to these divisions, and the use of which I cannot
avoid.

The terms sensation, perception, emotion, and volition
need not here be considered. I shall use them in their
ordinary psychological significations; and although I
shall subsequently have to analyse each of the organic or
mental states which they respectively denote, there will
be no occasion in the present volume to enter upon this
subject. I may, however, point out one general con-
sideration to which I shall throughout adhere. Taking
it for granted that the external indications of mental
processes which we observe in animals are trustworthy, so
that we are justified in inferring particular mental states
from particular bodily actions, it follows that in con-
sistency we must everywhere apply the same criteria.

For instance, if we find a dog or a monkey exhibiting
marked expressions of affection, sympathy, jealousy, rage,
(%c., few persons are sceptical enough to doubt that the
complete analogy which these expressions afford with

in either case ; but this is the side issue which concerDS the general
relation of body and mind, and has nothing to do with the g^iarant'ea
of inferring the presence of mind in particular cases.

INTRODUCTION.

9

those whict are manifested by man, sufficiently prove

the existence of mental states analogous to those in man
of which these expressions are the outward and visible
signs. But when we find an ant or a bee apparently
exhibiting by its actions these same emotions, few persons
are sufficiently non-sceptical not to doubt whether the
outward and visible signs are here trustworthy as evidence
of analogous or corresponding inward and mental states.
The whole organisation of such a creature is so different
from that of a man that it becomes questionable how
far analogy drawn from the activities of the insect is a
safe guide to the inferring of mental states- —particularly
in view of the fac\ that in many respects, such as in the
great preponderance of ' instinct ' over ' reason,' the
psychology of an insect is demonstrably a widely different
thing from that of a man. Now it is, of course, perfectly
true that the less the resemblance the less is the value of
any analogy built upon the resemblance, and therefore
that the inference of an ant or a bee feeHng sympathy or
rage is not so valid as is the similar inference in the case
of a dog or a monkey. Still it is an inference, and, so
far as it goes, a valid one — being, in fact, the only in-
ference available. That is to say, if we observe an ant or
a bee apparently exhibiting sympathy or rage, we must
either conclude that some psychological state resembling
that of sympathy or rage is present, or else refuse to
think about the subject at all ; from the observable facts
there is no other inference open. Therefore, having full
regard to the progressive weakening of the analogy from
human to brute psychology as we recede through the
animal kingdom downwards from man, still, as it is the
only analogy available, I shall follow it throughout the
animal series.

It may not however, be superfluous to point out
that if we have full regard to this progressive weaken-
ing of the analogy, we must feel less and less certain
of the real similarity of the mental states compared ;
so that when we get down as low as the insects, I
think the most we can confidently assert is that the
known facts of human psychology furnish the best avail-

10

INTRODUCTION.

able pattern of the probable facts of insect psychology.
Just as the theologians tell us — and logically enough —
that if there is a Divine Mind, the best, and indeed only,
conception we can form of it is that which is formed on
the analogy, however imperfect, supplied by the human
mind; so with 'inverted anthropomorphism' we must
apply a similar consideration with a similar conclusion to
the animal mind. The mental states of an insect may
be widely different from those of a man, and yet most
probably the nearest conception that we can form of their
true nature is that which we form by assimilating them
to the pattern of the only mental states with which we
are actually acquainted. And this consideration, it is
needless to point out, has a special validity to the evo-
lutionist, inasmuch as upon his theory there must be a
psychological, no less than a physiological, continuity
extending throughout the length and breadth of the
Lnimal kingdom.

In these preliminary remarks only one other point
requires brief consideration, and this has reference to the
distinction between what in popular phraseology is called
* Instinct ' and ' Reason.' I shall not here enter upon
any elaborate analysis of a distinction which is un-
doubtedly valid, but shall confine my remarks to ex-
plaining the sense in which I shall everywhere use these
terms.

Few words in our language have been subject to a
greater variety of meanings than the word instinct. In
popular phraseology, descended from the Middle Ages,
all the mental faculties of the animal are termed in-
stinctive, in contradistinction to those of man, which
are termed rational. But unless we commit ourselves to
an obvious reasoning in a circle, we must avoid assuming
that all actions of animals are instinctive, and then
arguing that because they are instinctive, therefore they
differ from the rational actions of man. The question
really lies in what is here assumed, and we can only
answer it by examining in what essential respect instinct
differs from reason.

INTRODUCTION.

11

Again, Addison says : —

I look upon instinct as upon the principle of gravitation in
bodies, v/hich is not to be explained by any known qualities
inherent in the bodies themselves, nor from any laws of me-
chanism, but as an immediate impression from the first Mover,
and the Divine energy acting in the creatures.

This mode of ' looking upon instinct ' is merely to
exclude the subject from the sphere of inquiry, and so to
abstain from any attempt at definition.

Innumerable other opinions might be quoted from
well-known writers, ' looking upon instinct ' in widely
different ways ; but as this is not an historical work, I
shall pass on at once to the manner in which science
looks upon it, or, at least, the manner in which it will
always be looked upon throughout the present work.

Without concerning ourselves with the origin of in-
stincts, and so without reference to the theory of evolution,
we have to consider the most conspicuous and distinctive
features of instinct as it now exists. The most important
point to observe in the first instance is that instinct
involves mental operations ; for this is the only point
that serves to distinguish instinctive action from reflex.
Reflex action, as already explained, is non-menta] neuro-
muscular adaptation to appropriate stimuli; but in-
stinctive action is this and something more ; there is in
it the element of mind. Such, at least, is instinctive
action in the sense that I shall always allude to it. I
am, of course, aware that the limitation which I thus
impose is one which is ignored, or not recognised, by
many writers even among psychologists ; but I am per-
suaded that if we are to have any approach to definiteness
in the terms which we employ — not to say of clear-
ness in our ideas concerning the things of which we speak
— it is most desirable to restrict the word instinct to
mental as distinguished from non-mental activity. No
doubt it is often difficult, or even impossible, to decide
whether or not a given action implies the presence of the
mind-element — i.e., conscious as distinguished from un-
conscious adaptation ; but this is altogether a separate
matter, and has nothing to do with the question of

/2

INTRODUCTION

defining instinct in a manner which shall be formally
exclusive, on the one hand of reflex action, and on the
other of reason. As Virchow truly observes, ' it is diffi-
cult or impossible to draw the line between instinctive
and reflex action ; ' but at least the difficulty may be
narrowed down to deciding in particular cases whether
or not an action falls into this or that category of defini-
tion ; there is no reason why the difficulty should arise
on account of any ambiguity of the definitions themselves.
Therefore I endeavour to draw as sharply as possible the
line which in theory should be taken to separate in-
stinctive from reflex action; and this line, as I have
already said, is constituted by the boundary of non-mental
or unconscious adjustment, with adjustment in which
there is concerned consciousness or mind.

Having thus, I hope, made it clear that the difficulty
of drawing a distinction between reflex and instinctive
actions as a class is one thing, and that the difficulty of
assigning particular actions to one or the other of our
categories is another thing, we may next perceive that the
former difficulty is obviated by the distinction which I
have imposed, and that the latter only arises from the fact
that on the objective side there is no distinction im-
posable. The former difficulty is obviated by the distinc-
tion which I have drawn, simply because the distinction
is itself a definite one. In particular cases of adjustive
action we may not always be able to affirm whether con- *
sciousness of their performance is present or absent ; but,
as I have already said, this does not affect the validity of
our definition ; all we can say of such cases is that if the
performance in question is attended with consciousness it
is instinctive, and if not it is reflex.

And the difficulty of assigning particular actions to one
or other of these two categories arises, as I have said,
merely because on the objective side, or the side of the
nervous system, there is no distinction to be drawn.
Whether or not a neural process is accompanied by a men-
tal process, it is in itself the same. The advent and de-
velopment of consciousness, although progressively con-
verting reflex action into instinctive, and instinctive into

INTRODUCTION.

13

rational, does this exclusively in the sphere of subjec-
tivity ; the nervous processes engaged are throughout the
same in kind, and differ only in the relative degrees of
their complexity. Therefore, as the dawn of consciousness
or the rise of the mind-element is gradual and undefined,
both in the animal kingdom and in the growing child, it
is but necessary that in the early morning, as it were, of
consciousness any distinction between the mental and the
non-mental should be obscure, and generally impossible to
determine. Thus, for instance, a child at birth does not
close its eyes upon the near approach of a threatening
body, and it only learns to do so by degrees as the result
of experience ; at firs'-, therefore, the action of closing the
eyelids in order to protect the eyes may be said to be
instinctive, in that it involves the mind-element : ^ yet it
afterwards becomes a reflex which asserts itself even in
opposition to the will. And, conversely, sucking in a
new-born child, or a child in utero, is, in accordance with
my definition, a reflex action ; yet in later life, when con-
sciousness becomes more developed and the child seeks the
breast, sucking may properly be called an instinctive
action. Therefore it is that, as in the ascending scale
of objective complexity the mind-element arises and
advances gradually, many particular cases which occupy
the undefined boundary between reflex action and instinct
cannot be assigned with confidence either to the one region
or to the other.

We see then the point, and the only point, wherein
instinct can be consistently separated from reflex action ;
viz., in presenting a mental constituent. Next we must
consider wherein instinct may be separated from reason.
And for this purpose we may best begin by considering
what we mean by reason.

The term ' reason ' is used in significations almost as
various as those which are applied to ' instinct.' Some-

I.e., ancestral as well as individual. If the race had not always
had occasion to close ihe eyelids to protect the eyes, it is certain that
the young child would not go quickly learn to do so in virtue of its
own individual experience alone ; and as the action cannot be attri-
buted to any process of conscious inference, it is not rational ; but we
have seen that it is not originally reflex ; therefore it is instinctive.

14

INTRODUCTION.

times it stands for all the distinctively human faculties
taken collectively, and in antithesis to the mental faculties
of the brute ; while at other times it is taken to mean the
distinctively human faculties of intellect.

Dr. Johnson defines it as ' the power by which man
deduces one proposition from another, and proceeds from
premises to consequences,' This definition presupposes
language, and therefore ignores all cases of inference not
thrown into the formal shape of predication. Yet even in
man the majority of inferences drawn by the mind never
emerge as articulate propositions ; so that although, as
we shall have occasion fully to obser^'e in my subsequent
work, there is much profound philosophy in identifying
reason with speech as they were identified in the term
Logos, yet for purposes of careful definition so to identify
intellect with language is clearly a mistake.

More correctly, the word reason is used to signify the
power of perceiving analogies or ratios, and is in this
sense equivalent to the term ' ratiocination,' or the faculty
of deducing inferences from a perceived equivalency of
relations. Such is the only use of the word that is
strictly legitimate, and it is thus that I shall use it
throughout the present treatise. This faculty, however,
of balancing relations, drawing inferences, and so of fore-
casting probabilities, admits of numberless degrees ; and
as in the designation of its lower manifestations it sounds
somewhat unusual to employ the word reason, I shall in
these cases frequently substitute the word intelligence.
Where we find, for instance, that an oyster profits by
individual experience, or is able to perceive new relations
and suitably to act upon the result of its perceptions, I
think it sounds less unusual to speak of the oyster as dis-
playing intelligence than as displaying reason. On this
account I shall use the former term to signify the lower
degrees of the ratiocinative faculty ; and thus in my usage
it will be opposed to such terms as instinct, reflex action,
&c., in the same manner as the tenn reason is so opposed.
This is a point which, for the sake of clearness, I desire
the reader to retain in his memory. I shall always speak
of intelligence and intellect in antithesis to instinct, emo*

INTEODUCTION.

15

tion, and the rest, as implying mental faculties the same
in kind as those which in ourselves we call rational.

Now it is notorious that no distinct line can be drawn
between instinct and reason. Whether we look to the
growing child or to the ascending scale of animal life, we
find that instinct shades into reason by imperceptible
degrees, or, as Pope expresses it, that these principles are
* for ever separate, yet for ever near.' Nor is this other
than the principles of evolution would lead us to expect,
as I shall afterwards have abundant occasion to show.
Here, however, we are only concerned with drawing what
distinction we can between instinct and reason as these
faculties are actually presented to our observation. And
this in a general way it is not difficult to do.

We have seen that instinct involves ' mental opera-
tions,' and that by this feature it is distinguished from re-
flex action ; we have now to consider the features by which
it is distinguished from reason. These are accurately,
though not completely, conveyed by Sir Benjamin Brodie,
who defines instinct as ' a principle by which animals
are induced, independently of experience and reason-
ing, to the performances of certain voluntary acts, which
are necessary to their preservation as individuals, or
to the continuance of the species, or in some other
way convenient to them.'^ This definition, as I have
said, is accurate as far as it goes, but it does not state
with sufficient generality and terseness that all instinctive
action is adaptive ; nor does it clearly bring out the dis-
tinction between instinct and reason which is thus well
conveyed by the definition of Hartmann, who says in his
' Philosophy of the Unconscious,' that ' instinct is action
taken in pursuance of an end, but without conscious per-
ception of what the end is.' This definition, however, is
likewise defective in that it omits another of the im-
portant dififereiitiae of instinct — namely, the uniformity of
instinctive action as performed by different individuals of
the same species. Including this feature, therefore, we
may more accurately and completely define instinct as
mental action (whether in animals or human beings),
' Pgychological Researches, p. 187.

16

INTEODUCTION.

directed towards the accomplishing of adaptive movement,
antecedent to individual experience, without necessary
knowledge of the relation between the means employed
and the ends attained, but similarly performed under the
same appropriate circumstances by all the individuals of
the same species. Now in every one of these respects,
wit h the exception of «ontaining a mental constituent and
in being concerned in adaptive action, instinct differs from
reason. For reason, besides involving a mental con-
stituent, and besides being concerned in adaptive action,
is always subsequent to individual experience, never acts
but upon a definite and often laboriously acquired know-
ledge of the relation between means and ends, and is very
far from being always similarly performed under the same
appropriate circumstances by all the individuals of the
same species.

Thus the distinction between instinct and reason is
both more definite and more manifold than is that between
instinct and reflex action. Nevertheless, in particular
cases there is as much difficulty in classifying certain
actions as instinctive or rational, as there is in cases where
the question lies between instinct and reflex action. And
the explanation of this is, as already observ^ed, that instinct
passes into reason by imperceptible degrees; so that
actions in the main instinctive are very commonly
tempered with what Pierre Huber calls * a little dose of
judgment or reason,' and vice versa. But here, again, the
difficulty which attaches to the classification of particular "
actions has no reference to the validity of the distinctions
between the two classes of actions ; these are definite and
precise, whatever difficulty there may be in applying them
to particular cases.

Another point of difference between instinct and
reason may be noticed which, although not of invariable,
is of very general applicability. It will have been
observed, from what has already been said, that the
essential respect in which instinct differs from reason con-
sists in the amount of conscious deliberation which the
two processes respectively involve. Instinctive actions are
actions which, owing to their frequent repetition, become

INTRODUCTION.

17

80 habitual in the course of generations that all the
individuals of tl e same species automatically perform the
same actions under the stimulus supplied by the same
appropriate circumstances. Rational actions, on the other
hana, are actions which are required to meet circumstances
of comparatively rare occurrence in the life-history of the
species, and which therefore can only be performed by an
intentiondi eflfort of adaptation. Consequently there arises
the subordinate distinction to which I allude, viz., that
instinctive actions are only performed under particular
circumstances which have been frequently experienced
during the life-history of the species; whereas rational
actions are performed under varied circumstances, and
serve to meet, novel exigencies which may never before
have occurrea even in the life-history of the individual.

Thus, then, upon the whole, we may lay down our
several dennitions in their most complete form.

Retiex action is non-montal neuro-inuscular adjust-
ment, due to tile inherited mechanism of the nervous
system, which is formed to respond to particular and often
recurring stimuli, by giving rise to particular movements
of an adaptive though not of an intentional kind.

Instinct is reflex action into which there is imported
the element of consciousness. The term is therefore a
generic one, comprising all those faculties of mind which
are concerned m conscious and adaptive action, antecedent
to individual experience, without necessary knowledge of
the relation between means employed and ends attained,
but similarly performed under similar and frequently re-
curring circumstances by all the individuals of the same
species.

Reason or intelligence is the faculty which is concerned
in the intentional adaptation of means to ends. It there-
fore implies the conscious knowledge of the relation be-
tween means employed and ends attained, and may be
exercised in adaptation to circumstances novel alike to
the experience of the individual and to that of the species.

CHAPTER 1.

APPLICATION OF THE FOREGOING PRINCIPLES 10 THE
LOWEST ANIMALS.

Protozoa.

No one can have watched the movements of certain
Infusoria without feeling it difiScult to believe that these
little animals are not actuated by some amount of intelli-
gence. Even if the manner in which they avoid collisions
be attributed entirely to repulsions set up in the currents
which by their movements they create, any such mechanical
explanation certainly cannot apply to the small creatures
seeking one another for the purposes of prey, reproduction,
or, as it sometimes seems, of mere sport. There is a
common and well-known rotifer whose body is of a cup
shape, provided with a very active tail, which is armed at
its extremity with strong forceps. I have seen a small
specimen of this rotifer seize a much larger one with its
forceps, and attach itself by this means to the side of the
cup. The large rotifer at once became very active, and
swinging about with its burden until it came to a piece of
weed, it took firm hold of the weed with its own forceps,
and began the most extraordinary series of movements,
which were obviously directed towards ridding itself of the
encumbrance. It dashed from side to side in all directions
with a vigour and suddenness which were highly astonish-
ing, so that it seemed as if the animalcule would either
break its forceps or wrench its tail from its body. No
movements could possibly be better suited to jerk off the
offending object, for the energy with which the jerks were
given, now in one direction and now in another, were, as I
have said, most surprising. But not less surprising waa

PROTOZOA.

19

the tenacity with which the smaller rotifer retained its
hold ; for although one might think that it was being
almost jerked to pieces, after each bout of jerking it was
seen to be still attached. This trial of strength, which
must have involved an immense expenditure of energy in
proportion to the size of the animals, lasted for several
minutes, till eventually the small rotifer was thrown
violently away. It then returned to the conflict, but did
not succeed a second time in establishing its hold. The
entire scene was as like intelligent action on the part of
both animals as could well be imagined, so that if we were
to depend upon appearances alone, this one observation
would be sufficient to induce me to attribute conscious
determination to these microscopical organisms.

But, without denying that conscious determination may
here be present, or involving ourselves in the impossible
task of proving such a negative, we may properly affirm
that until an animalcule shows itself to be teachable by in-
dividual experience, we have no sufficient evidence derived
or derivable from any number of such apparently intelli-
gent movements, that conscious determination is present.
Therefore, I need not wait to quote the observations of
the sundry microscopists who detail facts more or less
similar to the above, with expressions of their belief that
microscopical organisms display a certain degree of instinct
or intelligence as distinguished from mechanical, or wholly
non-mental adjustment. But there are some observations
relating to the lowest of all animals, and made by a com-
petent person, which are so remarkable that I shall have to
quote them in full. These observations are recorded by
Mr. H. J. Carter, F.K.S., in the 'Annals of Natural
History,' and in his opinion prove that the beginnings of
instinct are to be found so low down in the scale as the
Rhizopoda. He says : — ' Even jFfJiaUum will confine
itself to the water of the watch-glass in which it may be
placed when away from sawdust and chips of wood among
which it has been living ; but if the watch-glass be placed
upon the sawdust, it will very soon make its way over the
side of the watch-glass and get to it.'

This is certainly a remarkable observation : for if. seemt
3

20

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

to show that the rhizopod distinguishes the presence of
the sawdust outside the watch-glass, and crawls over the
brim of the latter in order to get into more congenial
quarters, while it is contented with the water in the watch-
glass so long as there is no sawdust outside. But to pro-
ceed:

On one occasion, while investigating the nature of some
large, transparent, spore-like elliptical cells (fungal?) whose
protoplasm was rotating, while it was at the same time charged
with triangular grains of starch, I observed some actinophoroiis
rhizopods creeping about them, which had similarly shaped
grains of starch in their interior , and having determined the
nature of these grains in both by the addition of iodine, I
cleansed the glasses, and placed under the microscope a new
portion of the sediment jprom the basin containing these cehs and
actinophryans for further examination, when I observed one of
the spore-like cells had become ruptured, and that a portion of
its protoplasm, charged with the triangular starch-grains, was
slightly protruding through the crevice. It then struck me
that the actinophryans had obtained their starch- grains from
this source ; and while looking at the ruptiu'ed cell, an a4)ti-
nophrys made its appearance, and creeping round the cell, at
last arrived at the crevice, from which it extricated one of the
gi-ains of starch mentioued, and then crept off to a good dis-
tance. Presently, however, it returned to the same cell ; and
although there were now no more starch-grains protruding, the
actinophrys managed again to extract one from the interior
through the crevice. All this was repeated several times,
showing that the actinophrys instinctively knew that those were
nutritious grains, that they were contained in this cell, and
that, although each time after incepting a grain it went away
to some distance, it knew how to find its way back to the cell
again which furnished this nutriment.

On another occasion I saw an actinophrys station itself
close to a ripe spore-cell of pythium, which was situated upon
a filament of Spirogyra crassa ; and as the young ciliat^
monadic germs issued forth, one after another, from the dehis-
cent spore-cell, the actinophrys remained by it and caught
every one of them, even to the last, when it retired to another
part of the field, as if instinctively conscious that there was
nothing more to be got at the old place.

But by far the greatest feat of this kind that ever presented
itself to me was the catching of a young acineta by an oW

PEOTOZOA.

21

flluggish mifxhay as the former left its parent ; and this took
place as follows : —

In the evening of the 2nd of June, 1858, in Bombay, while
looking through a microscope at some Euglenoe, &c., which had
been placed aside for examination in a watch-glass, my eye fell
upon a stalked and triangular acineta {A. mystacinaV), around
whi^h an amoeba was creeping and lingering, as tbey do when
they are in quest of food. But knowing the antipathy that the
amoeha, like almost every othei infusorian, has to the ten-
tacles of the acineta^ I concluded that the amceha was not en-
couraging an appetite for its whiskered companion, when I was
surprised to find that it crept up the stem of the acineta, and
wound itself round its body. This mark of affection, too much
like that frequently evinced at the other end of the scale, even
where there is a mind for its control, did not long remain with-
out interpretation. There was a young acineta, tender, an^
without poisonous tentacles (for they are not developed at birth),
just ready to make its exit from the parent, an exit which takes
place so quickly, and is followed by such rapid bounding move-
ments of the non-ciliated acineta, that who would venture to
say, ci priori, that a dull, heavy, sluggish amoeba could catch
such an agile little thing 1 But the amoeba are as unerring
and unrelaxing in their gi-asp as they are unrelenting in their
cruel inceptions of the living and the dead, when they serve
them for nutrition ; and thus the amoeba, placing itself round
the ovarian aperture of the acineta, received the young one,
nurse-like, in its fatiil lap, incepted it, descended from the
parent, and crept off. Being unable to conceive at the time
that this was such an act of atrocity on the part of the amoeba
as the sequel disclosed, and thinking that the young acineta
might yet escape, or pass into some other form in the body of
its host, I watched the amoeba for some time afterwards, until
the tale ended by the young acineta becoming divided into two
parts, and thus in their respective digestive spaces ultimately
becominof broken down and dicrested.*

With regard to these remarkable observations it can
only, I think, be said that although certainly very sug-
gestive of something more than mechanical response to
stimulation, they are not sufficiently so to justify us in
ascribing to these lowest members of the zoological scale
any rudiment of truly mental action. The subject, how-

» H. J. Carter. F.R.S., AnnaU of NatwraX History, 3rd Series, 186ft
pp. 46-6.

22

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

ever, is here full of difficulty, and not the least so on
account of the amoeba not only having no nervous
system, but no observable organs of any kind ; so that,
although we may suppose that the adaptive movements
described by Mr. Carter were non-mental, it still remains
wonderful that these movements should be exhibited by
such apparently unorganised creatures, seeing that as to
the remoteness of the end attained, no less than the
complex refinement of the stimulus to which their
adaptive response was due, the movements in question
rival the most elaborate of non-mental adjustments else-
where performed by the most highly organised of nervous
systems.

Goelenterata.

Dr. Eimer attributes ' voluntary action ' to the Medusae,
and indeed draws a sharp distinction between what he
considers their ' involuntary ' and ' voluntary ' movements.
In this distinction, however, I do not at all concur ; for
although I am well acquainted with the difference be-
tween the active and slow rhythm upon which the dis-
tinction is founded, I see no evidence whatever for
supposing that the difference involves any psychological
element. The active swimming is produced by stimu-
lation, and is no doubt calculated to lead to the escape of
the organism ; but this fact certainly does not carry us
beyond the ordinary possibilities of reflex action. And
even when, as in some species is constantly the case,
bouts of active swimming appear to arise spontaneously
or without observable stimulation, the fact is to be at-
tributed to a liberation of overplus ganglionic energy,
or to some un observable stimulation ; it does not justify
the supposition of any psychical element being con-
cerned.'

M'Crady gives an interesting account of a medusa
which carries its larvae on the inner sides of its bell-
Bhaped body. The manubrium, or mobile digestive cavity

* For an account of the natural movements of the Medusae and tha
effects of stimulation upon them, see Croonian Lecture in Phil. Tratu.
1876, and also Phil. Trans. 1877 and 1879.

ECHINODERMATA.

23

of the animal, depends, as in the other Medusae, from the
summit of the concave surface of the bell, like a clapper
or tongue. Now M'Crady observed this depending organ
to be moved first to one side and then to the other side
cf the bell, in order to give suck to the larvae on the
sides of the bell — the larvae dipping their long noses into
the nutrient fluids which that organ of the parent's body
contained. I cite this case, because if it occurred in one
of the higher animals it would probably be called a case
of instiuct ; but as it occurs in so low an animal as a
jelly-fish, it is unreasonable to suppose that intelligence
can ever have played any part in originating the action.
Therefore we may set it down as the uncompounded
result of natural selection.

Some species of medusae — notably Sarsia — seek the
light, crowding into the path of a beam, and following it
actively if moved. They derive advantage from so doing,
because certain small Crustacea on which they feed like-
wise crowd into the light. The seeking of light by these
medusae is therefore doubtless of the nature of a reflex
action which has been developed by natural selection in
order to bring the animals into contact with their prey.
Paul Bert has found that Daphnia pulex seeks the light
(especially the yellow ray), and Engelmann has observed
the same fact with regard to certain protoplasmic organisms.
But in none of these or other such cases is there any
evidence of a psychical element being concerned in the
process.

Echinodermata.

Some of the natural movements of these animals, as
also some of their movements under stimulation, are very
suggestive of purpose ; but I have satisfied myself that
there is no adequate evidence of the animals being able to
profit by individual experience, and therefore, in accordance
with our canon, that there is no adequate evidence of their
exhibiting truly mental phenomena. On the other hand,
the study of reflex action in these organisms is full of
interest — so much so that in my next work I shall take
them as typical organisms in this connection.^

* See Croonian Lecture, 1881, in forthcoming issue of Phil. Trans.

24

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

Annelida,

Mr. Darwin has now in the press a highly interesting
work on the habits of earth-worms. It appears from his
observations that the manner in which these animals draw
down leaves, &c., into their burrows is strongly indicative
of instinctive action, if not of intelligent purpose — seeing
that they always lay hold of the part of the leaf (even
though an exotic one) by the traction of which the leaf
will offer least resistance to being drawn down. But as
this work will so shortly be published, I shall not forestall
any of the facts which it has to state, nor should I yet
like to venture an opinion as to how far these facts, when
considered altogether, would justify any inference to a
truly mental element as existing in these animals.

Of the land leeches in Ceylon, Sir E. Tennent gives
an account which likewise seems to bespeak intelligence
as occurring in annelids. He says : —

In moving, the land leeches have the power of planting one
extremity on the earth and raising the other perpendicularly to
watch for theii* victim. Such is their vigilance and instinct,
that on the approach of a passer-by to a spot which they infest,
they may be seen amongst the grass and fallen leaves on the
edge of a native path, poised erect, and preparing for their
attack on man and horse. On descrying their prey they ad-
vance rapidly by semicii'cular strides, fixing one end firmly and
arching the other forwards, till by successive advances they can
lay hold of the traveller's foot, when they disengage themselves
from the ground and ascend his dress in search of an aperture
to enter. In these encounters the individuals in the rear of a
party of travellers in the jungle invariably fare worst, as the
leeches, once warned of their approach, congregate with sin'
gular celerity.*

• Natural Hutory of Ceylon, p. 481.

CHAPTER II.

MOLLUSCA.

I SHALL treat of the Mollusca before the Articulata,

because as a group their intelligence is not so high.
Indeed, it is not to be expected that the class of
animals wherein the ' vegetative ' functions of nutri-
tion and reproduction predominate so largely over the
animal functions of sensation, locomotion, &c., should
present any considerable degree of intelligence. Nevei-
theless, in the only division of the group which has
sense organs and powers of locomotion highly developed
— viz., the Cephalopoda — we meet with large cephalic
ganglia, and, it would appear, with no small develop-
ment of intelligence. Taking, however, the sub-king-
dom in ascending order, I shall first present all the
trustworthy evidence that I have been able to collect,
pointing to the highest level of intelligence that is at-
tained by the lower members.

The following is quoted from JNIr. Darwin's MS, : —

Even the headless oyster seems to profit from experience,
for Dicquemase ('Journal de Physique,' vol. xxviii. p. 244)
asserts that oysters taken from a depth never uncovered by the
sea, open their shells, lose the water within, and perish ; but
oysters taken from the same place and depth, if kept in reser-
voirs, where they are occasionally left uncovered for a short
time, and are otherwise incommoded, learn to keep their shells
shut, and then live for a much longer time when taken out of
the water.*

' This fact is also stated by Bingley, Animal Biography, vol. ill.
p. 4:54, and is now turned to practical account in the so-called ' Oyster-
schools ' of France. The distance from the coast to Paris being too
great for the newly dredged oysters to travel without opening their
shells, they are first taught in the schools to bear a longer and longer
exposure to the air without gaping, and when their education in thia
respect is completed they are sent on their journey to the metropolis,
where they arrive with closed shells, and in a healthy condition.

26

ANEVIAL INTELLIGENCE.

Some evidence of intelligence seems to be displayed
by the razor-fish. For the animals dislike salt, so that
when this is sprinkled above their burrows in the sand,
they come to the surface and quit their habitations. But
if the animal is once seized when it comes to the surface
and afterwards allowed to retire into its burrow, no
amount of salt will force it again to come to the surface.^

With regard to snails, L. Agassiz writes : ' Quiconque
a eu I'occasion d'observer les amours des lima9ons, ne
saurait mettre en doute la seduction deployee dans les
mouvements et les allures qui preparent et accomplissent
le double embrassement de ces hermaphrodites.' ^

Again, JNIr. Darwin's MS. quotes from Mr. W. White ^
a curious exhibition of intelligence in a snail, which does
not seem to have admitted of mal-observation. This
gentleman 'fixed a land-shell mouth uppermost in a
chink of rock ; in a short time the snail protruded itself
to its utmost length, and, attaching its foot vertically
above, tried to pull the shell out in a straight line. Not
succeeding, it rested for a few minutes and then stretched
out its body on the right side and pulled its utmost, but
failed. Eesting again, it protruded its foot on the left
side, pulled with its full force, and freed the shell. This
exertion of force in three directions, which seems so
geometrically suitable, must have been intentional.'

If it is objected that snail shells must frequently be
liable to be impeded by obstacles, and therefore that this
display of manoeuvring on the part of their occupants is to
be regarded as a reflex, I may remark that here again we
have one of those incessantly recurring cases where it is
difficult to draw the line between intelligence and non-
intelligence. For, granting that the action is to a certain
extent mechanical, we must still recognise that the
animal while executing it must have remembered each of
the two directions in which it had pulled ineffectually
before it began to pull in the third direction ; and it is
improbable that snail shells are so frequently caught in
positions from which a pull in only one direction will

• Bingley, ho. cit., vol. iii. p. 449.

« De VEspece et dela Classe, &c., 1869, p. 106.

■ A Londoner's Walk to Edinhurgh, p. 155 (1856).

MOLLUSCA.

27

release them, that natural selection would have developed
a special instinct to try pulling successively in three
directions at right angles to one another.

The only other instance that I have met with of the
apparent display of intelligence in snails is the remark-
able one which Mr. Darwin gives in his ' Descent of Man,'
on the authority of Mr. Lonsdale. Although the inter-
pretation which is assigned to the fact seems to me to go
beyond anything that we should have reason to expect of
snail intelligence, I cannot ignore a fact which stands
upon the observation of so good an authority, and shall
therefore quote it in Mr. Darwin's words : —

These animals appear also susceptible of some degree of per-
manent attachment : an accurate observer, Mr. Lonsdale, in-
forms me that he placed a pah- of land-snails [Helix pomatia),
one of which was weakly, into a small and ill-provided garden.
After a short time the strong and healthy individual disap-
peared, and was traced by its track of slime over a wall into an
adjoining well-stocked garden. Mr. Lonsdale concluded that
it had deserted its sickly mate ; but after an absence of twenty-
four hours it returned, and apparently communicated the result
of its successful exploration, for both then started along the
same track, and disappeared over the wall.^

In this case the fact must be accepted, seeing that it
stands on the authority of an acciuate observer, and is of
so definite a kind as not to admit of mistake. Conse-
quently we are shut up to the alternative of supposing
the return of the healthy snail to its mate a mere acci-
dent, and their both going over the wall into the well-
stocked garden another mere accident, or acquiescing in
th«i interpretation which ^L*. Darwin assigns. Now, if
we look closely into the matter, the chances against the
double accident in question are certainly so considerable
as to render the former supposition almost impossible.
On the other hand, there is evidence to prove, as I shall
immediately show, that a not distantly allied animal is
unquestionably able to remember a particular locality as
its home, and habitually to return to this locality after
feeding. Therefore, in view of this analogous and cor-

• Descent of Mcm^ pp. 262-3.

28

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

roborative case, the improbability of the snail remembering
for twenty-four hours the position of its mate is very
much reduced ; while the subsequent communication, if
it took place, would only require to have been of the
nature of ' follow me,' which, as we shall repeatedly find,
is a degree of communicative ability which many inverte-
brated animals possess. Therefore, in view of these con-
siderations, I incline to Mr. Darwin's opinion that the facts
can only be explained by supposing them due to intelli-
gence on the part of the snails. Thus considered, these
facts are no doubt very remarkable ; for they would appear
to indicate not merely accurate memory of direction and
locality for twenty-four hours, but also no small degree of
something akin to ' permanent attachment,' and sympa-
thetic desire that another should share in the good things
which one has found. ^

The case to which I have just alluded as proving
beyond all doubt that some Gasteropoda are able to retain
a very precise and accurate memory of locality, is that of
the common limpet.

IVIr. J. Clarke Hawkshaw publishes in the Journal of
the Linnsean Society the following account of the habits
in question : —

The holes in the chalk in which the limpets are often to be
found are, I believe, excavated in a great measure by rasping
from the lingual teeth, though I doubt whether the object is to
form a cavity to shelter in, though the cavities, when formed,
may be of use for that purpose. It must be of the greatest im-
portance to a limpet that, in order that it may insure a firm
adherence to the rock, its shell should fit the rock accurately ;
when the shell does fit the rock accurately, a small amount of
muscular contraction of the animal would cause the shell to ad-
here so firmly to a smooth surface as to be practically im-
moveable without fracture. As the shells cannot be adapted
daily to different forms of surface, the limpets generally return
to the same place of attachment. I am sure this is the case
with many ; for I found shells perfectly adjusted to the uneven
Buifaces of flints, the growth of the shells being in some parts

* The facts, however, in order to sustain such conclusions, of course
require corroboration, and it is therefore to be regretted that Mr. Lons-
dale did not experimentally repeat the conditionfi.

MOLLUSCA.

29

distorted and indented to suit inequalities in the surface of the
flints. . . .

I noticed signs that limpets prefer a h/ird, smooth surface to
a pit in the chalk. On one surface of a large block, over all
sides of which limpets were regularly and plentifully distri-
buted, there were two flat fragments of a fossil shell about
3 inches by 4 inches, each embedded in the chalk. The chalk
all round these fragments was free from Umpets ; but on the
smooth surface of the pieces of shell they were packed as closely
as they could be. I noticed another case, which almost amounts,
to my mind, to a proof that they prefer a smooth surface to a
hole. A. limpet had formed a cleai'iug on one of the sea- weed-
covered blocks before referred to. In the midst of this clearing
was a pedestal of flint rather more than one inch in diameter,
standing up above the surface of the chalk ; it projected so
much that a tap from my hammer broke it off. On the top of
the smooth fractured surface of this flint the occupant of the
clearing had taken up its abode. The shell was closely adapted
to the uneven surface, which it would only fit in one position.
The cleared surface was in a hollow with several small natural
ca\ities, where the limpet could have found a pit ready made to
shelter in ; yet it preferred, after e^ch excursion, to climb up to
the top of the flint, the most exposed point in all its domain.^

It appears certain from these observations, which to
some extent were anticipated by those of jNIr. F. C. Lukis,^
that limpets, after every browsing excm'sion, return to
one particular spot or home ; and the precise memory of
direction and locality implied by this fact seems to justify
us in regarding these actions of the animal as of a nature
unquestionably intelligent.

Coming now to the cephalopoda, there is no doubt
that if a larger sphere of opportunity permitted, adequate
observation of these animals would prove them to be
much the most intelligent members of the sub-kingdom.
Unfortunately, however, this sphere of opportunity has
hitherto been very limited. The following meagre ac-
count is all that I have been able to gather concerning
the psychology of these interesting animals.

According to Schneider,^ the Cephalopoda show un-

' Journal Linn. Soo. vol. xi- p. 406 et seq.
« Mag. Nat. Hist. 18.31, vol iv. p. 346.
• Thieretche Wille, § 78.

30

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

mistakable evidence of consciousness and intelligence,
This observer had an opportunity of watching them for a
long time in the zoological station at Naples ; and he
says that they appeared to recognise their keeper after
they had for some time received their food from him.
Hoilmann narrates that an octopus, which had had a
struggle with a lobster, followed the latter into an adjacent
tank, to which it had been removed for safety, and there
destroyed it. In order to do this the octopus had to
climb up a vertical partition above the surface of the
water and descend the other side.^ According to
Schneider, the Cephalopoda have an abstract idea of
water, seeking to return to it when removed, even though
they do not see it. But this probably arises from the
sense of discomfort due to exposure of their skin to the
air ; and if we can call it an ' idea,' it is doubtless shared
by all other aquatic Mollusca when exposed to air.

> LobcK der Ce^hulqpoden, i. 21.

CHAPTEE m.

ANTS.

Within the last ten or twelve years our information on

the habits and intelligence of these insects has been so
considerably extended, that in here rendering a condensed
epitome of our knowledge in this most interesting branch
of comparative psychology, it will be found that the
chapter is constituted principally of a statement of observa
tions and experiments which have been conducted during the
short period named. The observers to whom we are mainl}'
indebted for this large increase of our knowledge are Messrs.
Bates, Belt, Miiller, Moggridge, Lincecum, MacCook, and
Sir John Lubbock. From the tact that these naturalists
conducted their observations in different parts of the
world and on widely dififerent species of ants, it is not
surprising that their results should present many points
of difference ; for this only shows, as we might have ex-
pected, that different species of ants differ considerably in
habits and intelligence. Therefore, in now drawing all
these numerous observations to a focus, I shall endeavour
to show clearly their points of difference as well as their
points of agreement ; and in order that the facts to be
considered may be arranged in some kind of order, I shall
deal with them under the following heads : — Powers of
special sense ; Sense of direction ; Powers of memory ;
Emotions ; Powers of communication ; Habits general in
sundry species ; Habits peculiar to certain species ; Genera)
intelligence of various species.

Powers of Special Sense,

Taking first the sense of sight, Sir John Lubbock maae
a number of experiments on the influence of light coloured
by passing through various tints of stained glass, with the

32

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

following results. The ants which he observed greatl}
dislike the presence of light within their nests, hurrying
about in search of the darkest corners when light is ad-
mitted. The experiments showed that the dislike is much
gT 3ater in the case of some colours than in that of others.
Thus under a slip of red glass there were congregated on
one occasion 890 ants, under green 544, under yellow 495,
and under violet only 5. To our eyes the violet is as opaque
as the red, more so than ihe green, and much more so
than the yellow. Yet, as the numbers show, the ants had
scarcely any tendency to congregate under it : there were
nearly as many under the same area of the uncovered
portion of the nest as under that shaded by the violet
glass. It is curious that the coloured glasses appear to act
on the ants in a graduated series, which corresponds ^vith
the order of their influence on a photographic plate. E
periments were therefore made to test whether it might
not be the actinic rays that were so particularly distasteful
to the ants ; but with negative results. Placing violet
glass above red produces the same effect as red glass
alone. Obviously, therefore, the ants avoid the 'sdolet
glass because they dislike the rays which it transmits,
and do not prefer the other colours because they like the
rays which they transmit. Sodium, barium, strontium,
and lithium flames were also tried, but not with so much
effect as the coloured glass.

It has just been observed that the relative dislike which
Sir John Lubbock's ants showed to lights of different colours
seems to be determined by the position of the colour in
the spectrum — there being a regular gradation of intole-
rance shown from the red to the violet end. As these ants
dislike light, the question suggests itself that the reason
of their graduated intolerance to light of different colours
may be due to their eyes not being so much affected by
the rays of low as by those of high refrangibility. In this
connection it would be interesting to ascertain whether
ants of the genus Atta show a similarly graduated intole-
rance to the light in different parts of the spectrum ; for
both Moggridge and Mac Cook record of this genus that it
not only does not shun the Hght, but seeks it — coming to

ANTS — SPECIAL SENSES.

33

the glass sides of their artificial nests to enjoy the light of
a lamp. Possibly, therefore, the scale of preference to
lights of different colours would be found in this genus to
be the reverse of that which Sir John Lubbock has found
in the case of the British species.

As regards hearing. Sir John Lubbock found that
Bounds of various kinds do not produce any effect upon
the insects. Tuning-forks and violin notes, shouting,
whistling, &c., were all equally inefficient in producing the
slightest influence upon the animal«5 ; and experiments
with sensitive flames, microphone, telephone, &c., failed to
yield any evidence of ants emitting sounds inaudible to
human ears.

Lastly, as regards the sense of smell, Sir John Lubbock
found that on bringing a camel's-hair brush steeped in
various strong scents near where ants were passing, some
went on without taking any notice, but others stopped,
and evidently perceiving the smell, turned back. Soon,
however, they returned, and passed the scented pencil.
After doing this two or three times, they generally took
no further notice of the scent. This experiment left no
doubt on my mind." In other cases the ants were observed
to wave about and throw back their antennae when the
scented pencil was brought near.

That ants track one another by scent was long ago
mentioned by Huber, and also that they depend on this
sense for their power of finding supplies which have been
previously found by other ants. Huber proved their
power of tracking a path previously pursued by their
friends, by drawing his finger across the trail, so oblite-
rating the scent at that point, and observing that when the
ants arrived at that point they became confused and ran
about in various directions till they again came upon the
trail on the other side of the interrupted space, when they
proceeded on their way as before. The more numerous
and systematic experiments of Sir John Lubbock have
fully corroborated Huber's observations, so far as these
points are concerned. Thus, to give only one or two
these experiments ; in the accompanying woodcut (Fig. i ;
A is the nest, B a board, n f g slips of paper, and m

34

ANIM.\L INTELLIGENCE.

similar slides of glass, on one of which, there was placed
pupae, while the other, m, was left empty. Sir John Lub-
bock watched two particular (marked) ants
proceeding from A to A and back again,
carrying the pupae on h to the nest A.
Whenever an ant came out of A upon B he
transposed the slips / and g. Therefore at
the angle below n there was a choice pre-
sented to the ant of taking the unscented
pathway leading to the full glass or the
scented pathway leading to the empty glass
m. The two marked ants, knowing their
' way, always took the right turn at the
^' angle ; but the stranger ants, being guided
only by scent, for the most part took the wrong turn at
the angle, so going to the empty glass m. For out of 150
stranger ants only 21 went to A, while the remaining 129
went to m. Still the fact that all the stranger ants did
not follow the erroneous scent-trail to m, may be taken to
indicate that they are also assisted in finding treasure by
the sense of sight, though in a lesser degree. Therefore
Sir John Lubbock concludes that in finding treasure ' they
are guided in some cases by sight, while in others they
track one another by scent.'

As further evidence showing how much more ants de-
pend upon scent than upon sight in finding their way, the
following experiment may be quoted. In the accompany-
ing woodcut (Fig. 2) the line marked L, 2, 3 represents
the edge of a paper bridge leading to the nest ; A the
top of a pencil which is standing perpendicularly upon
a board, represented by the general black surface ; B
the top of the same pencil when moved a distance of
a few inches from its first position A. On the top
of this pencil were placed some pupae. Sir John Lub-
bock, after contriving this arrangement, marked an ant
and put it upon the pupae on the top of the pencil.
After !?he had made two journeys carrying pupae firom the
pencil to the nest (the tracks she pursued being repre-
sented by the two thick white lines), while she was in the
nest he moved the pencil to its position at B. The thir

ANTS— SPECIAL SENSES. 35

white line represents the course then pursued by the ant
in its endeavours to find the pencil, which was shifted only
a few inches from A to B. That is, * the ants on their
journey to the shifted object travelled very often baclf-

Fig. 2.

wards and forwards and round the spot where the coveted
object first stood. Then they would retrace their stei)s
towards the nest, wander hither and thither from side tu
side between the nest and the point A, and only aftei
very repeated efforts around the original site of the larvje
reach, as it were, accidentally the object desired at B.'
Therefore the ants were clearly not guided by the sight
of the pencil.

The same thing is well shown by another form of
experiment. ' Some food was placed at the point a (Figs.
3 and 4) on a board measuring 20 inches by 12 inches,
4

56

AKIMAL IXTELLIGENCE.

Fig. 3.

and so arranged that the ants in going straight from it to
the nest would reach the board at the point 6, and after

-i passing under the paper

tunnel c, would proceed
between five pairs of
wooden bricks, each 3
inches in length and Ij
inches in height. When
they got to know their
way they went quite
straight along the line d e
to a. The board was then
twisted as shown in Fig. 4. ' The bricks and tunnel being

arranged exactly in the
same direction as be-
fore, but the board
having been moved, the
line d e was now out-
side them. The change,
however, did not at all
discompose the ants
but instead of going,
as before, through the
tunnel and between
the rows of bricks to
a, they walked exactly
Keeping the board steady, but
moving the brick pathway
to the left-hand corner of
the board where the food
was next placed (Fig. 5\
had the effect of making
the ant first go to the old
position of the food at a,
whence it veered to i nev
position, which we may
call X. The bricks and
food were then moved to-

Fig. 4.

aiong the old path to e.'

^ig. 5.

wards the right-hand comer of the board — i.e. over a dis-
tance of 8 inches ^Fig. 6). The ant now first went to f

ANTS — SENSE OF DIKECTION.

37

(hen to ic, and not finding the food at either place, set to
work to look for it at random, and was only successful
after twenty-five minutes' ^
wandering.

And, as evidence how
much more dependence
they place upon scent in
finding their way than
upon any other of their !
faculties, it is desirable to I

quote yet one further ex- '

periment, which is of great Pi 6

interest as showing that ^"
when their sense of smell is made to contradict their
sense of direction, they follow the former, notwithstanding,
as we shall presently see, the wonderful accuracy of the
information which is supplied to them by the latter. ' If,
when F, niger were carrying otf larvae placed in a cup on a
piece of board, I turned the board round so that the side
which had been tiuned towards the nest was away from it,
and vice versa, the ants always returned over the same
track on the board, and, in consequence, directly away
from home. If I moved my board to the other side of my
artificial nest, the result was the same. Evidently they
followed the road, not the direction.'

There can be little doubt that ants have a sense cf
taste, as they are so well able to distinguish sugary sub-
stances ; and it is unquestionable that in their antennae
they possess highly elaborated organs of touch

Sense of Direction.

As evidence of the accuracy and importance of the
sense of direction in the Hymenoptera, we must here
adduce Sir John Lubbock's highly interesting experiments
on ants — leaving his experiments in this connection on
bees and wasps to be considered in the next chapter.
He first accustomed some ants (Lasius niger) to go to
and fro to food over a wooden bridge. When they had
got quite accustomed to the way, he watched when an ant
was upon a bridge which could be rotated, and while she

58

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

was passing along it, he turned it round, so that end b was
at c, and c at 6. ' In most cases the ant immediately
turned round also ; but even if she went on to 6 or c, as
the case might be, as soon as she came to the end of the
bridge she turned round.' Next, between the nest and
the food he placed a hat-box twelve inches in diameter
and seven inches high, cutting two small holes, so that
the ants in passing from the nest to the food had to pass
in at one hole and out at the other. The box was fixed
upon a central pivot, so as to admit of being rotated easily
without much friction or disturbance. When the ants had
well learnt their way, the box was turned half round as
soon as an ant had entered it, 'but in every case the
ant turned too, thus retaining her direction.' Lastly,
Sir John took a disk of white paper, which he placed
in the stead of the hat-box between the nest and the
food. When an ant was on the disk making towards
the food, he gently drew the disk to the other side of the
food, so that the ant was conveyed by the moving surface
in the same direction as that in which she was going, but
beyond the point to which she intended to go. Under
these circumstances ' the ant did not turn round, but went
on ' to the further edge of the disk, when she seemed ' a
good deal surprised at finding where she was.'

These experiments seem to show that the mysterious
* sense of direction,' and consequent faculty of ' homing,'
are in ants, at all events, due to a process of registering,
and, where desirable, immediately counteracting any change
of direction, even when such change is gently made by a
wholly closed chamber in which the animal is moving, and
not by any muscular movements of the animal itself. And
the fact that drawing the moving surface along in the
same direction of advance as that which the insect ii=
pursuing does not afiect the movements of the latter,
seems conclusively to show that the power of registration
has reference only to lateral movements of the travelling
surface ; it has no reference to variations in the velocity
of advance along the line in which the animal is pro-
gressing.*

I While this MS. is passing through the press Hir John Lubbock has

ANTS— MEMORY.

39

Powers of Memory,

Little need here be said to prove that ants display
some powers of memory ; for many of the observations and
experiments already detailed constitute a sufficient demon-
stration of the statement that they do. Thus, for instance,
the general fact that whenever an ant finds her way to a
store of food or larvae, she will return to it again and again
in a more or less direct line from her nest, constitute?
ample proof that the ant remembers the way to the store.
It is of considerable interest, however, to note that the
nature of this insect-memory appears to be, as far as it
goes, precisely identical with that of memory in general.
Thus, a new fact becomes impressed upon their memory
by repetition^ and the impression is liable to become
effaced by lapse of time. More evidence on both these
features of insectr-memory will be adduced when we come
to treat of the intelligence of bees ; but meanwhile it is
enough to refer to the fact that in his experiments on
ants. Sir John Lubbock found it necessary to teach the
insects by a repetition of several les?ons their way to
treasure, if that way was long or unusual.

With regard to the duration of memory, it does not
appear that any experiments have been made ; but the
following observation by Mr. Belt on this point in the case
of the leaf-cutting ant may here be stated. In June 1859
he found his garden invaded by these ants, and following
up their paths he found their nest about a hundred yards

read another paper before the Linnsean Society, which contains some
important additional matter concerning the sense of direction in
ants. It seems that in the experiment above described, the hat-box
was not provided with a cover or lid, i.e. was not a ' closed chamber,'
and that Sir John now finds the ants to take their bearings from the
direction in which they observe the light to fall upon them. For in
the experiment with the uncovered hat-box, if the source (»f light
(candle) is moved round together with the rotating table which sup-
ports the box, the ants continue their way without making compen-
sating changes in their direction of advance. The same thing happens
if the hat-box is covered, so as to make of it a dark chamber. Direction
of light being the source of their information that their gi'ound is being
moved, we can understand why they do not know that it is being
moved when it is moved in the direction of their advance, as in the
experiment with the paper slip.

10

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

distant. He poured down their burrows a pint of common
brown carbolic acid, mixed with four buckets of water.
The marauding parties were at once drawn off from the
garden to meet the danger at home, and the whole formi-
carium was disorganised, the ants running up and down
again in the utmost perplexity. Next day he found them
busily employed bringing up the ant-food from the old
burrows, and carrying it to newly formed ones a few yards
distant. These, however, turned out to be only intended
as temporary repositories ; for in a few days both the old
and the new burrows were entirely deserted, so that he
supposed all the ants to have died. Subsequently, how-
ever, he found that they had migrated to a new site, about
two hundred yards from the old one, and there established
themselves in a new nest. Twelve months later the ants
again invaded his garden, and again he treated them to a
strong dose of carbolic acid. The ants, as on the previous
occasion, were at once withdrawn from the garden, and
two days afterwards he found ' all the survivors at work on
one track that led directly to the old nest of the year before,
where they were busily employed in making fresh exca-
vations. Many were bringing along pieces of ant-food '
from the nest most recently deluged with carbolic acid to
that which had been similarly deluged a year before, and
from which all the carbolic acid had long ago disappeared.
' Others carried the undeveloped white pupae and larvae.
It was a wholesale and entire migration;' and the next day
the nest down which he had last poured the carbolic acid
was entirely deserted. Mr. Belt adds : ' I afterwards found
that when much disturbed, and many of the ants destroyed,
the survivors migrate to a new locality. I do not doubt
that some of the leading minds in this formicarium recol-
lected the nest of the year before, and directed the
migration to it.'

Now, I do not insist that the facts necessarily point to
this conclusion ; for it may have been that the leaders of
the migration simply stumbled upon the old and vacant
nest by accident, and finding it already prepared as a nest,
forthwith proceeded to transfer the food and pupae to it.
Still, as the two nests were separated from one another by

ANTS — MEMORY.

41

flo considerable a distance, this hypothesis does not
seem probable, and the only other one open to us is that
the ants remembered the site of their former home for a
period of twelve months. And this conclusion is rendered
less improbable from a statement of Karl Vogt in his
' Thierstaaten,' to the effect that for several successive
years ants from a certain nest used to go through certain
inhabited streets to a chemist's shop 600 metres distant,
in order to obtain access to a vessel filled with syrup. As
it cannot be supposed that this vessel was found in suc-
cessive working seasons by as many successive accidents,
il can only be concluded that the ants remembered the
syrup store from season to season.

I shall now pass on to consider a class of highly re-
markable facts, perhaps the most remarkable of the many
remarkable facts connected with ant psychology.

It has been known since the observations of Huber
that all the ants of the same nest or community recognise
one another as friends, while an ant introduced from
another nest, even though it be an ant of the same
species, is known at once to be a foreigner, and is usually
maltreated or put to death. Huber found that when he
removed an ant from a nest and kept it away from its
companions for a period of four months it was still recog-
nised as a friend, and caressed by its previous fellow-
citizens after the manner in which ants show friendship,
viz., by stroking antennae. Sir John Lubbock, after re-
peating and fully confirming these observations, extended
them as follows. He first tried keeping the separated ant
away from the nest for a still longer period than four
months, and found that even after a separation of more
than a year the animal was recognised as before. He re-
peated this experiment a number of times, and always
with the same invariable difference between the recep-
tion accorded to a foreigner and a native —no matter,
apparently, how long the native had been absent.

ConsideriDg the enormous number of ants that go to
make a nest, it seems astonishing enough that they should
be all personally known to one another, and still more
astonishing that they should be able to recognise members

42

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

of their community after so prolonged an absence. Think-
ing that the facts could only be explained, either by aL
the ants in the same nest having a peculiar smell, or by
all the members of the same community having a par-
ticular pass-word or gesture-sign, Sir John Lubbock,
with the view of testing this theory, separated some ants
from a nest while still in the condition of pupae, and,
when they emerged from that stnte as perfect insects,
transferred them back to the nest from which they had
been taken as pupae. Of course in this case the ants in
the nest could never have seen those which had been
removed, for a larval ant is as unlike the mature insect as
a grub is unlike a beetle ; neither can it be supposed that
a larva, hatched out away from the nest, should retain,
when a perfect insect, any smell belonging to its parent
nest — more especially as it had been hatched out by
ants in another nest ; * nor, lastly, is it reasonable to
imagine that the animal, while still a larval grub, can have
been taught any gesture-signal used as a pass-word by the
matured animals. Yet, although ail these possible hypo-
theses seem to be thus fully excluded by the conditions
of the experiment, the result showed unequivocally that
the ants recognised their transformed larvae as native-bom
members of their community.

Lastly, Sir John Lubbock tried the experiment of
going still further back in the life-history of the ants
before separating them from the nest. For in September
he divided a nest into two halves, each having a queen.
At this season there were neither larvae nor eggs. The
following April both the queens began to lay eggs, and in
August — i.e. nearly a year after the original partitioning
of the nest — he took some of the ants newly hatched from
the pupae in one division, and placed them in the ether
division, and mcei;ersd. In all cases these ants were re-
ceived by the members of the other half of the divided
nest as friends, although if a stranger were introduced into
either half it was invariably killed. Yet the ants which

' It is to be noted that although ants will attack stranger ants
introduced from other nests, they will carefully tend stranger larvas
similarly introduced.

ANTS — MEMORY.

43

ifere thus so certainly recognised by their kindred ants
as friends had never, even in the state of an egg, been
present in that division of the nest before. On this highl}
remarkable fact Sir John Lubbock says : —

These observations seem to me conclusive as far as they go,
and they are very surprising. In my experiments of last year,
though the results were similar, still the ants experimented
with had been brought up in the ne.st, and were only removeil
after they had become pupae. It might therefore be argued
that the ants, having nursed them as larvae, recognised them
when they came to maturity ; and though this would certainly
be in the highest degree improbable, it could not be said to be
impossible. In the present case, however, the old ants had ab-
solutely never seen the young ones until the moment when,
some days after ariiving at maturity, they were introduced into
the nest ; and yet in all ten cases they were undoubtedly recog-
nised as belonging to the community.

It seems to me, therefore, to be established by these experi-
ments that the recognition of ants is not personal and indi-
vidual ; that their harmony is not due to the fact that each
ant is individually acquainted with every other member of the
community.

At the same time, the fact that they recognise their friends
even wheu intoxicated, and that they know the young bora in
their own nest even when they have been brought out of the
chrysalis by strangers, seems to indicate that the recognition is
not effected by means of any sign or pass- word.

We must, therefore, conclude with reference to this
subject that the mode whereby recognition is undoubtedly
effected is as yet wholly unintelligible ; and I have
introduced these facts under the heading of memory only
because this heading is not more inappropriate than any
other that could be devised for their reception.

It ought here to be added also that the power of
thus recognising members of their community is not con-
fined by the limits of blood-relationship, for in an experi-
ment made by Forel it was shown that Amazon ants
recognised their own slaves almost inst^antaneously after
an absence of four months.

Under this heading I may also adduce the evidence as
to enormous masses, or, as we might say, a whole nation
of ants recognising each other as belonging to the same

44

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

nationality. New nests often spring up as offshoots frona

the older ones, and thus a nation of towns gradually
spreads to an immense circumference around the original
centre. Forel describes a colony of F. exsecta which
comprised more than two hundred nests, and covered a
space of nearly two hundred square metres. *A11 the
members of such a colony, even those from the further-
most nest, recognise each other and admit no stranger.'

Similarly, JMacCook describes an 'ant town' in the
Alleghany Mountains of North America ('Trans. Amer.
Entom. Soc.,' Nov. 1877) which was inhabited by i^. exsec-
toides. It consists of 1,600 to 1,700 nests, which rise in
cones to a height of from two to five feet. The ground
below is riddled in every direction with subterranean
passages of communication. The inhabitants are all on the
most friendly terms, so that if any one nest is injiued it
is repaired by their united forces.

It remains to be added in connection with this subject
that the recognition is not automatically invariable, but
when ' ants are removed from a nest in the pupa state,
tended by strangers, and then restored, some at least of
their relatives are certainly puzzled, and in many cases
doubt their claims to consanguinity. I say some, because
while strangers under the circumstances would have been
immediately attacked, these ants were in every case
amicably received by the majority of the colony, and it was
sometimes several hours before they came across one who
did not recognise them.'

It may also be added that Lasius flavus behaves
towards strangers quite differently and much more hos-
pitably than is the case with L, niger. The stranger
shows no alarm, but, on the contrary, will voluntarily
enter the strange nest, and she is there received with
kindness ; although from the attention she excites, and
the numerous communications which take place between
her and her new friends, Sir John was ' satisfied that they
knew she was not one of themselves. . . . Very different is
the behaviour of L. niger under similar circumstances. I
tried the same experiment with them. There was no
communications with the antennae, there was no cleaning,

ANTS— EMOTIONS.

45

Dtxt every ant which the stranger approached flew at her
like a little tigress. I tried this experiment four times ;
each stranger was killed and borne off to the nest.'

Emotions.

The pugnacity, valour, and rapacity of ants are too
well and generally known to require the narration of
special instances of their display. With regard to the
tenderer emotions, however, there is a difference of opi-
nion among observers. Before the researches of Sir John
Lubbock it was the prevalent view that these insects dis-
play marked signs of affection towards one another, both
by caressing movements of their antennae, and by showing
solicitude for friends in distress. Sir John, however, has
found that the species of ants on which he has experi-
mented are apparently deficient both in feelings of
affection and of sympathy — or, at least, that such feelings
are in these species much less strongly developed than
the sterner passions.

He tried burying some specimens of Lasius niger
beneath an ant-road ; but none of the ants traversing the
road made any attempt to release their imprisoned com-
panions. He tried the same experiment with the same
result on various other species. Even when the friends in
difficulty are actually in sight, it by no means follows
that their companions will assist them. Of this, he says,
he could give almost any number of instances. Thus,
when ants are entangled in honey, their companions
devote themselves to the honey, and entirely neglect
their friends in distress ; and when partly di'owned, their
fiiends take no notice. When chloroformed or intoxicated
their own companions either do not heed them, or else
* seei_ somewhat puzzled at finding their intoxicated
fellow-creatures in such a condition, take them up, and
carry them about for a time in a somewhat aimless manner.'
Further experiments, however, on a larger scale, went to
show that chloroformed ants were treated as dead, i.e.
removed to the edge of the parade-board and dropped
over into the surrounding moat of water ; while intoxicated

46

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

ants were generally carried into the nest, if they were ants

belonging to that community ; if not, they were thrown
overboard. This care shown towards intoxicated friends
apppars to indicate a dim sense of sympathy towards
afflicied individuals; but that this emotion or instinct
does not in the case of these species extend to healthy
individuals in distress seems to be proved, not only by I lie
experiments of burying already described, but also by the
following : —

On Sept. 2, therefore, I put two ants from one of my nests
of F.fusca into a bottle, the end of which was tied up with
muslin as described , and laid it down close to the nest. In a
second bottle I put two ants from another nest of the same
species. The ants which were at liberty took no notice of the
bottle containing then imprisoned friends. The strangers in the
other bottle, on the contrary, excited them considerably. The
whole day one, two, or more ants stood sentry, as it were, over
the bottle. In the evening no less than twelve were collected
round it, a larger number than usually came out of the nest at
any one time. The whole of the next two days, in the same
way, there were more or less ants round the bottle containing
the strangers ; while, as far as we could see. no notice whatever
was taken of the friends. On the 9th the ants had eaten
through the muslin, and effected an entrance. We did not
chance to be on the spot at the moment ; but as I found two
ants lying dead, one in the bottle and one just outside, I think
there can be no doubt that the strangers were put to death.
The friends throughout were quite neglected.

Sept. 21. — I then repeated the experiment, putting three
ants from another nest in a bottle as before. The same scene
was repeated. The friends were neglected. On the other
hand, some of the ants were always watching over the bottle
containing the strangers, and biting at the muslin which pro-
tected them. The next morning at 6 a.m. I found five anta
thus occupied. One had caught hold of the leg of one of the
strangers, which had unwar ily been allowed to protrude through
the meshes of the muslin. They worked and watched, though
not, as far as I could see, with any system, till 7.30 in the
evening, when they effected an entrance, and immediately at
ticked the strangers.

Sept. 24. — I repeated the same experiment with the same
ntst. Again the ants came and sat over the bottle containing
the strangers, while no notice was taken of the friends.

ANTS — SYMPATHY.

47

The next morning again, when I got up, I found five anta
round the bottle containing the strangers, none near the friends.
As in the former case, one of the ants had seized a stranger by
the leg, and was trying to drag her through the muslin. All
(lay the ants clustered round the bottle, and bit perseveringly,
( hough not systematically, at the muslin. The same thing hap-
pened all the following day.

On repeating these experiments with another species (viz.,
Formica rufesceiis) the ants took no notice of either bottle,
and showed no sign either of affection or hatred. One is almost
tempted to surmise that the spirit of these ants is broken by
slavery \i.e. by the habit of keeping slaves]. But the experi-
ments on F. fusca seem to show that in these curious insects
hatred is a stronger passion than affection.

We must not, however, too readily assent to this
general conclusion, that ants as a whole are deficient in
the tenderer emotions ; for although the case is doubtless
so with the species which Sir John examined, it appears
to be certainly otherwise with other species, as we shall
presently see. But first it may be well to point out that
even the bard-hearted species with which Sir John had to
do seem not altogether devoid of sympathy with sick or
mutilated friends, although they appear to be so towards
healthy friends in distress. Thus the care sho\vn to
intoxicated friends seems to indicate, if not, as already
observed, a dim sense of sympathy, at least an instinct to
preserve the life of an ailing citizen for the future benefit
of the community. Sir John also quotes some observa-
tions of Latreille showing that ants display sympathy with
mutilated companions ; and, lastly, mentions an instance
which he has himself observed of the same thing. A spe-
cimen of F. fusca congenit^lly destitute of antennae was
attacked and injured by an ant of another species. When
separated by Sir John, another ant of her own species
came by. ' She examined the poor sufferer carefully, then
picked her up tenderly, and carried her away into the
nest. It would have been difficult for any one who
witnessed this scene to have denied to this ant the pos-
session of humane feelings.' Moggridge is also of opinion
that the habit of throwing sick and apparently dead ants

48

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

into the water, is 'in part to be rid of theni, and partly,
perhaps, with a view to effecting a possible cure; fori
have seen one ant carry another down the twig which
formed their path to the surface of the water, and, after
dipping it in for a minute, carry it laboriously up again,
and lay it in the sun to dry and recover.'

But that some species of ants display marked signs
of what we may call sympathy even towards healthy com-
panions in distress, is proved by the following observation
of Mr. Belt. He writes :^ —

One day, watching a small column of these ants (i.e.
Eciton hamata), I placed a little stone on one of them to se-
cure it. The next that approached, as soon as it discovered its
situation, ran backwards in an agitated manner, and soon com-
municated the intelligence to the others. They rushed to the
rescue ; some bit at the stone and tried to move it, others seized
the prisoner by the legs and tugged with such force that I
thought the legs would be pulled olF, but they persevered unti]
they got the captive free. I next covered one up with a piece
of clay, leaving only the ends of its antennae projecting. It was
soon discovered by its fellows, which set to work immediately,
and by biting off pieces of the clay soon liberated it. Another
time I found a very few of them passing along at intervals. I
confined one of these under a piece of clay at a little distance
from the line, with his head projecting. Several ants passed it,
but at last one discovered it and tried to pull it out, but could
not. It immediately set off at a great rate, and I thought it
had deserted its commde, but it had only gone for assistance,
for in a short time about a dozen ants came hurrying up, evi-
dently fully informed of the circumstances of the case, for they
made directly for their imprisoned comrade and soon set him
free. I do not see how this action could be instinctive. It was
sympathetic help, such as man only among the higher mam-
malia shows. The excitement and ardour with which they
carried on their unflagging exertions for the rescue of their
comrade could not have been greater if they had been human
beings.

This observation seems unequivocal as proving fellow-
feeUng and sympathy, so far as we can trace any analogy
between the emotions of the higher animals and those oi

* The Naturalist in Nica/ragiia^ 1874, p. 36.

AXTS— COMMUNICATION.

49

insects. That insects with such highly organised social
habits, and depending so greatly on the principles of co-
operation, should manifest emotions or instincts of an inci-
piently altruistic character, is no more than we should
antecedently expect on the general principle of survival
of the fittest. Our only surprise should be that these
emotions, or instincts, should appear to be so feebly de-
veloped in some species of ants, and, as we shall subse-
quently see, also of bees. But it may be worth while in
this connection to point out that the valuable observation
of Mr. Belt above quoted refers to the species of ant which,
as we shall subsequently find, presents the most highly
organised instincts of co-operation that are to be met with
among ants, and therefore the greatest dependence of the
welfare of the individual on that of the community. And
the same remark is applicable to our native species, F. san-
guinea, which the Kev. VV. W. F. White has repeatedly
seen rescuing buried companions very much in the manner
described by ]Mr. Belt ; and he does not appear to be ac-
quainted with Mr. Belt's observations. He figures one
case in which he saw three ants co-operating to dig out
a buried coiorade.^

Powers of Communication.

Huber, Kirby and Spence, Dujardin, Burmeister
Franklin, and other observers have all expressed them»
selves as more or less strongly of the opinion that members
of the same community of ants, and other social Hymen-
opt era, are able to communicate information to one
another by some system of language or signs. The facts,
however, on which their opinion rests have not been stated
with that degree of caution and detail which the accept-
ance of the conclusion requires. Thus, Kirby and Spence
give only one instance of supposed communication between
ants,*^ and even this one is inconclusive, as the facts de-
scribed admit of being explained by supposing that the
ants simply tracked one another by scent ; while Hubei

» See Leisure Hour, 1880, p. 390.

■ Introducti&n to Entomology ^ vol. iL p. 624.

50

AJ^IMAL INTELLIGENCE.

merely deals in general statements as to ' contact of
antennae,' without narrating any particulars of his observa-
tions. Therefore, until within the last few years there
was really no sufficient evidence to sustain the general
opinion that ants are able to communicat-e with one
another ; but the observations which I shall now detail
must be regarded as fully substantiating that general
opinion by facts as abundant and conclusive as the most
critical among us can desire. I shall first narrate in his
own words the more important of Sir John Lubbock's
experiments in this connection : —

I took three tapes, each about 2 feet 6 inches long, and
arranged them parallel to one another and about 6 inches
apart. An end of each I attached to one of the nests [F. niger),
and at the other end I placed a glass. In the glass at the end
of one tape I placed a considerable number {^300 to 600) of
larvae. In the second I put two or three larvae only, in the
third none at all. The object of the last was to see whether
many ants would come to the glasses under such circumstances
by mere accident, and I may at once say that scarcely any
did so. I then took two ant?, and placed one of them to the
glass with many larvae, the other to that with two or three.
Each of them took a larva and carried it to the nest, returning
for another, and so on. After each journey I put another
larva in the glass with only two or three larvae, to replace that
which had been removed. Now, if several ants came under the
above circumstances as a mere matter of accident, or accom-
panying one another by chance, or if they simply saw the larvae
which were being brought, and consequently concluded that
they might themselves find a larva in the same place, then the
numbers going to the two glasses ought to be approximately
equal. In each case the number of journeys made by the ants
would be nearly the same ; consequently, if it was a matter of
scent, the two glasses would be in the same position. It would
be impossible for an ant, seeing another in the act of bringing
a larva, to judge for itself whether there were few or many
left behind. On the other hand, if the strangers were brought,
then it would be curious to see whether more were brought
to the glass with many larvae than to that which only contained
two or three. I should also mention that every stranger was
imprisoned until the end of the experiment.

The results of these experiments were that during

ANTS — COMMUNICATION.

51

i?^ hours the ants which had access to a glass containing
numerous larvae brought 257 friends to their assistance ;
while during an interval 5^ hours longer those which
visited the glass with only two or three leirvae brought only
82 friends ; and, as already mentioned, no single ant came
to the glass which contained no larvae. Now, as all the
glasses were exposed to similar conditions, and as the
roads to the first two must, in the first instance at all
events, have been equally scented by the passage of ants
over them, these results look very conclusive as proving
some power of definite communication, not only that
larvae are to be found, but even where the largest store is
to be met with.

To this interesting account Sir John Lubbock adds, —

One case of apparent communication struck me very much.
I had had an ant {F. niger) under observation one day, during
which she was occupied in carrying ofi* larvse to her nest. At
night I imprisoned her in a small bottle ; in the morning I let
her out at 6.15, when she immediately resumed her occupation.
Having to go to London, I imprisoned her again at 9 o'clock.
When I returned at 4.40 I put her again to the larvae. She
examined them carefully, and went home without taking one.
At this time no other ants were out of the nest. In less than
a minute she came out again with eight friends, and the little
heap made straight for the heap of larvae. When they had gone
two-thirds of the way I again imprisoned the marked ant;
the others hesitated a few minutes, and then with curious quick-
ness returned home. At 5.15 I put her again to the larvae.
She again went home without a larva, hut after only a few
seconds' stay in the nest, came out with no less than thii-teen
friends. They all went towards the larvae, but Avhen they had
got about two-thirds of the way, although the marked ant had
on the previous day passed over the ground about 150 times,
and though she had just gone straight from the larvae to vhe
nest, she seemed to have forgotten her way. and considered ;
and after she had wandered about for half an hour, I put her to
the larvae. Now, in this case, the twenty-one ants must have
l)een brought out by my marked one, for they came exactly
with her, and there were no other ants out. Moreover, it would
seem that they must have been told, because (which is very
curious in itself) she did not in either case bring a larva, and
5

52

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

consequently it cannot have been the mere sight of a larva
which had induced them to follow her.

Further experiments proved, as we might have ex-
pected, that although an ant is able to communicate to
her friends in the nest that she has found treasure some-
where outside, she is not able to describe to them its pre-
cise locality. Thus, having exposed larvae and pla'^ed an
ant upon them as before. Sir John watched every time she
came out of the nest with friends to assist her, but instead
of allowing her to pilot the way, he took her up and
carried her to the larvae, allowing her to return with a
larva upon her own feet. Under these circumstances the
friends, although evidently coming out with the intention
of finding some treasure, were never able to find it ; but
wandered about in various directions for a while, and then
returned to the nest. Thus, during two hours she
brought out in her successive journeys altogether no less
than 120 ants, of which number only 5 in their unguided
wanderings happened to find the sought-for treasure.
This result seems to prove, as we might have expected,
that the communication is of the nature of some sign
amounting to no more than a ' follow me.' Other experi-
ments confirmed this result, and also brought out the
fact that ' some species act much more in association than
others — Formica fusca, for instance, much less than
Lasius niger,^ Thus Sir John Lubbock placed some honey
before a marked specimen of the former species ; but
although she visited and revisited the honey during an
entire day, she brought out no friends to share it ; and
although in her journeys to and from the nest she happened
to pass and repass many other individuals, they took no
notice of each other.

The obvious objection to these experiments, that an
ant observing a friend bringing home food or a pupa
might infer, without being told, that by accompanying
the friend on the return journey she * might participate in
the good things,' has been partly met by the fact already
stated, viz., that there is so very marked a difference in
the result if, on experimenting on two ants, one had access
to a large treasure and the other only to a small one. But

ANTS — COMM UNICATION.

53

to put this matter beyond question, Sir John Lubbock
tried the experiment of pinning down a dead fly, so that
the ant which found it was unable, with all her tugging,
to move it towards the nest. At length she went back
to the nest for assistance, and returned accompanied by
seven friends. So great was her excitement, however,
that she outran these friends, ' who seemed to have
cime out reluctantly, as if they had been asleep, and were
only half awake ; ' and they failed to find the fly, slowly
meandering about for twenty minutes. After again tug-
ging for a time at the fly, the first ant returned a second
time to the nest for assistance, and in less than a minute
came out with eight friends. They were even less energetic
than the first party, and having lost sight of their guide in
the same manner as happened before, they all returned to
the nest. Meanwhile several of the first party, which had
all the while been meandering about, found the fly, and
proceeded to dismember it, carrying the trophy to the
nest, and calling out more friends in the ordinary way.
This experiment was repeated several times and on differ-
ent species, always with the same result. Now, as Sir
John remarks, ' the two cases (i.e. those in which the ant
brought out friends to her assistance even when she had
no booty to show) surely indicate a distinct power of com-
munication. ... It is impossible to doubt that the friends
were brought out by the first ant ; and as she returned
empty-handed to the nest, the others cannot have been
induced to follow her by merely observing her proceedings.
I conclude, therefore, that they possess the power of re-
questing their friends to come and help them.'

In order to ascertain whether the signs which com-
municating ants make to one another are madp by means
of sound. Sir John Lubbock placed near a nest of Lasiua
flavus six small upright pillars of wood about inch high,
and on one of these he put a drop of honey. ' I then put
three ants to the honey, and when each had sufficiently
fed, I imprisoned her, and put another ; thus always keep-
ing three ants at the honey, but not allowing them to go
home. If, then, they could summon their friends by
sound, there ought soon to be many ants at the honey.

54

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

The result showed that the ants were not able thus to call
to one another from a distance.

As additional proof of the general fact that at all
events some ants have the power of communicating infor-
mation to one another, it will be enough here to quote an
exceedingly interesting observation of the distinguished
geologist Hague. The quotations are taken from
his letters written to Mr. Darwin, and published in
Nature : ^ —

On the mantelshelf of our sitting-room my wife has the
habit of keeping fresh flowei-s. A vase stands at each end, and
near the middle a small tumbler, usually filled with violets.
Some time ago I noticed a pile of very small red ants on the wall
above the left-hand vase, passing upward and downward be-
tween the mantelshelf and a small hole near the ceiling, at a
point where a picture nail had been driven. The ants, when
first observed, were not very numerous, but gradually increased
in number, until on some days the little creatures formed an
almost unbroken procession, issuing from the hole at the nail,
descending the wall, climbing the vase directly below the nail,
satisfying their desire for water or perfume, and then returning.
The other vase and tumbler were not visited at that time.

As I was just then recovering from a long illness it hap-
pened that I was confined to the house, and spent my days in the
room where the operations of these insects attracted my atten-
tion. Their presence caused me some annoyance, but I knew of
no efifective means of getting rid of them. For several days in
succession I frequently brushed the ants in great numbers from
the wall down to the floor ; but as they were not killed the re-
sult was that they soon formed a colony in the wall at the base
of the mantel, ascending thence to the shelf, so that before long
the vase was attacked from above and below.

One day I observed a number of ants, perhaps thirty or
forty, on the shelf at the foot of the vase. Thinking to kill
them, I struck them Hghtly with the end of my finger, killing
some and disabling the I'est. The effect of this was immediate
and unexpected. As soon as those ants which were approach-
ing arrived near to where their fellows lay dead and suffering,
they turned and fled with all possible haste. In half an hour
the wall above the mantelshelf was cleared of ants.

During the space of an hoiu* or two the colony from beloit

' Vol. vii pp. 44a-4.

ANTS— COMMUNICATION .

56

continaed to ascend until reaching the lower bevelled edge of
the shelf, at which point the more timid individuals, although
unable to see the vase, somehow became aware of trouble, and
turned about without further investigation, while the more
daring advanced hesitatingly just to the upper edge of the
shelf, when, extending their antennae and stretching their necks,
they seemed to peep cautiously over the edge until beholding
their suffering companions, when they too turned and followed
the others, expressing by their behaviour great excitement and.
terror. An hour or two later, the path or trail leading from
the lower colony to the vase was almost entirely free from ants.

I killed one or two ants on their path, striking them with
my finger, but leaving no visible trace. The effect of this was
that as soon as an ant ascending towards the shelf reached the
spot where one had been killed, it gave signs immediately of
great disturbance, and returned directly at the highest possible
speed.

A curious and invariable feature of their behaviour was
that when such an ant, returning in fright, met another ap-
proaching, the two would always communicate, but each would
pursue its own way, the secord ant continuing its journey to
the spot where the first had turned about, and then following
that example.

For some days after this there were, no ants visible on the
wall, either above or below the shelf.

Then a few ants from the lower colony began to reappear,
but instead of visiting the vase which had been the scene of the
disaster, they avoided it altogether, and following the lower
front edge of the shelf to the tumbler standing near the middle,
made their attack upon that. I repeated the same experiment
here with precisely the same result. KUling or maiming a few
of the ants and leaving their bodies about the base of the tum-
bler, the others on approaching, and even before arriving attlie
upper surface of the shelf where their mutilated companions
were visible, gave signs of intense emotion, some running away
immediately, and others advancing to where they could survey
the field and then hastening away precipitately.

Occasionally an ant would advance towards the tumbler
until it found itself among the dead and dying; then it seemed
to lose all self-possession, running hither and thither, making
wide circuits about the scene of the trouble, stopping at times
and elevating the antennae with a movement suggestive of
wringing them in despair, and finally taking flight. After this
another interval of several days passed, during which no ants

56

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

appeared. Now, three months later, the lower colony has been
entirely abandoned. Occasionally, however, especially when
fresh and fragrant violets have been placed on the shelf, a few
' prospectors ' descend from the upper nail-hole, rarely, almost
never, approaching the vase from which they were hrst driven
away, but seeking to satisfy their desire at t!ie tumbler. To
turn back these stragglers and keep them out of sight for a
aumber of days, sometimes for a fortnight, it is sufficient to
kill one or two ants on the trail which they follow descending
the wall. This I have recently done as high up as I can reach,
three or four feet above the mantel. The moment this spot is
reached, an ant turns abruptly and makes for home, and in a
little while there is not an ant visible on the wall.

In a subsequent volume of 'Nature' (viii. p. 244),
Mr. Darwin publishes another letter which he received from
]Mr. Hague upon the same subject. It seems that Mr. ^log-
gridge suggested to i\Ir. Darwin that, as he and others had
observed ants to be repelled by the mere scent of a finger
drawn across their path, the observation of Mr. Hague
might really resolve itself into a dislike on the part of the
ants to cross a line over which a finger had been drawn,
and have nothing to do with intelligent terror inspired by
the sight of their slaughtered companions. The following
is Mr. Hague's reply to ]Mr. Darwin's request for further
experiments to test this point : —

Acting on Mr. M 's suggestion, I first tried making simple

finger-marks on their path (the mantel is of marble), and found
just the results which he describes in his note as observed by
himself at Mentone, that is, no marked symptoms of fear, but a
dislike to the spot, and an eSbrt to avoid it by going around it,
or by turning back and only crossing it again after an interval
of time. I then killed several ants on the path, using a smooth
stone or piece of ivory, instead of my finger, to crush them. In
this case the ants approaching all turned back as before, and
with much greater exhibition of fear than when the simple
finger-mark was made. This I did repeatedly. The final re-
sult was the same as obtained last winter. They persisted in
coming for a week or two, during which I continued to kill
them, and then they disappeared, and we have seen none since.
It would appear from this that while the taint of the hand is
Bufiacient to turn them back, the killing of their follows with a
stone or other material produces the effect dasci-ibed in my first

ANTS - SWAKMING.

67

note. This wa^^ made clear to me at that time, from the be-
haviour of the ants the first day I killed any, for on that occa-
sion some of them approaching the vase from below, on reaching
the upper edge of the mantel, peeped over, and drew back on
seeing what had happened about the vase, then turned away a
little, and after a moment tried again at another and another
point along the edge, with the same result in the end. More-
over, those that found themselves among the dead and dying
went from one writhing ant to another in great haste and ex-
citement, exhibiting the signs of fright which I described.

I hardly hope that any will return again, but if they do,
and give me an opportunity, I shall endeavour to act farther on
Mr. M 's suggestion.

With this quotation I shall conclude the present division
of the chapter ; for, looking to all the other observations
previously mentioned, there can be no question concern-
ing the general fact that ants have the power of commu-
nicating with one another. And under subsequent head-
ings abundant additional evidence on this point will be
found implicated with the other facts detailed.

Habits General in Sundry Species.

Swarming. — The precise facts with regard to the
swarming of ants are not yet certainly established. As
regards some of the facts, however, there is no doubt.
The winged males and females first quit the nest in enor-
mous numbers, and choose some fine afternoon in July
or August for their wedding flight. The entrances to
the nest are widened by the workers and increased in
number, and there is a great commotion on the sur-
face of the nest. The swarm takes place as a thick
cloud of all the male and female insects, rising together
to a considerable height. The flight continues for
several hours, usually circling round some tree or
tower, and it is during the flight that fertilisation is
effected. After it is effected, the swarm returns to
the ground, when the males perish, either from falling
a prey, in their shelterless condition, to birds or spiders,
or, on account of not being able to feed themselves, from
starvation. ' The workers, or neuter ants, of their own

58

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

colony have lost all interest in them from the moment of
their return, and trouble themselves no more about them,
for they well know that the males have now fulfilled their
vocation.' The great majority of the fertilised females
share the same fate as the males. But a small proportion
find concealment in holes, which they either dig for therr -
selves, or happen to find ready made, and there found ^.
new colony. The first thing they do is to pull off their
now useless wings, by scratching and twisting them, one
after the other, with the clawed ends of their feet. They
then lay their eggs, and become the queens of new
colonies.

Forel says that no fertilised female ever returns to her
original home ; but that the workers keep back a certain
number of females which are fertilised before the swarming
takes place ; in this case the workers pull off the wings
of the fertilised females. The majority of observers, how-
ever, maintain that some of the females composing the
swarm return to their native home to become mothers
where they had been children. Probably both statements
are correct. A writer in the ' Grroniger Deekblad ' for
June 16, 1877, observes ttxt, looking to the injmious
effects of in-breeding, the facts as related by Forel are less
probable than those related by other observers, and that, if
they actually occur, the females fertilised before flight are
probably kept by the ants as a sort of ' reserve corps to
which the workers resort only in case of need, and if they
fail to secure any returning queens.'

Nursing. — The eggs will not develop into larvse un-
less nursed. The nursing is effected by licking the
surface of the eggs, which under the influence of this
process increase in size, or grow. In about a fortnight,
during which time the workers carry the eggs from higher
to lower levels of the nest, and vice versa, according to the
circumstances of heat, moisture, &c., the larvae are hatched
out, and require no less careful nursing than the eggs.
The workers feed them by placing mouths together and re-
gurgitating food stored up in the crop or proventriculus
into the intestinal tract of the young. The latter sho^
their hunger by ' stretching out their little brown heads.

ANTS — NURSING AND EDUCATION. 59

Great care is also taken by the workers in cleaning the
larvae, as well as in carrying them up and down the
chambers of the nest for warmth or shelter.

When fully grown the larvae spin cocoons, and are then
pupae, or the ' ants' eggs ' of bird-fanciers. These require
no food, but still need incessant attention with reference
to warmth, moisture, and cleanliness. When the time
arrives for their emergence as perfect insects, the workers
assist them to get out of their larval cases by biting
through the walls of the latter. It is noticeable that in
doing this the workers do not keep to any exact time,
but free them sometimes earlier and sometimes later, in
accordance with their rate of development. ' The little
animal when freed from its chrysalis is still covered with
a thin skin, like a little shirt, which has to be pulled off.
When we see how neatly and gently this is done, and
how the young creature is then washed, brushed, and
fed, we are involuntarily reminded of the nursing of
human babies. The empty cases, or cocoons, are carried
outside the nest, and may be seen heaped together there
for a long time. Some species carry them far away from
the nest, or turn them into building materials for the
dwelling.' '

Education, — ^The young ant does not appear to come
into the world with a full instinctive knowledge of all its
duties as a member of a social community. It is led about
the nest, and ' trained to a knowledge of domestic duties,
especially in the case of the larvae.' Later on the young
ants are taught to distinguish between friends and foes.
When an ants' nest is attacked by foreign ants, the young
ones never join in the fight, but confine themselves to
removing the pupae ; and that the knowledge of hereditary
enemies is not wholly instinctive in ants is proved by the
following experiment, which we owe to Forel. He put
young ants belonging to three difierent species into a glass
case with pupae of six other species —all the species being
naturally hostile to one another. The young ants did
not quarrel, but worked together to tend the pupae. When
the latter hatched out, an artificial colony was formed of
' Eiichner, Geuteilehen der Thiere, pp. 66-7.

60

ANIMAL INTELLIGExNCE.

a number of naturally hostile species all living together
after the manner of the ' happy families ' of the showmen.

Habit of keeping Aphides. — It is well known that
various species of ants keep aphides, as men keep milch
cows, to supply a nutritious secretion. Huber first ob-
served this fact, and noticed that the ants collected the
eggs of the aphides and treated them exactly as they
treated their own, guarding and tending them with the
utmost care. When these eggs hatch out the aphides are
usually kept and fed by the ants, to whom they yield a
sweet honey-like fluid, which they eject from the abdomen
upon being stroked on this region by the antennae of the
ants. Mr. Darwin, who has watched the latter process,
observes with regard to it, —

I removed all the ants from a group of about a dozen aphides
on a dock plant, and prevented their attendance during several
hours. After this interval, I felt sure that the aphides would
want to excrete. I watched them for some time through a
lens, but not one excreted ; I then tickled them with a hair in
the same manner, as well as I could, as the ants do with their
antennae ; but not one excreted. Afterwards 1 allowed an ant
to visit them, and it immediately seemed, by its eager way of
running about, to be well aware what a rich flock it had dis-
covered ; it then began to play with its antennse on the abdo-
men, first of one aphis and then of another; and each, as soon
as it felt the antennje, immediately lifted up its abdomen and
excreted a limpid drop of sweet juice, which was eagerly de-
voured by the ant. Even -quite }'oung aphides behaved in this
manner, showing that the action was instinctive, and not the
result of experience.

The facts also show that the yielding of the secretion
to the ants is, as it were, a voluntary act on the part of the
aphides, or, perhaps more correctly, that the instinct to
yield it has been developed in such a relation to the re-
quirements of the ants, that the peculiar stimulation sup*
plied by the antennae of the latter is necessary to start the
act of secretion ; for in the absence of this particular stimu-
lation the aphides will never excrete until compelled to do
so by the superabundance of the accumulating secretion.
The question, therefore, directly arises how, on evolutionary

ANTS — KEEPING APHIDES.

6]

principles, such a class of facts is to be met ; for it is cer-
tainly difficult to understand the manner in which this
instinct, so beneficial to the ants, can have arisen in the
aphides, to which it does not appear, at first sight, to ofifer
any advantages. Mr. Darwin meets the difficulty thus :
' Although there is no evidence that any animal performs
m action for the exclusive good of another species, yet
each tries to take advantage of the instincts of others
and * as the secretion is extremely viscid, it is no doubt a
convenience to the aphides to have it removed ; therefore
probably they do not excrete solely for the good of the
ants.' '

Some ants which keep aphides build covered ways, or
••unnels, to the trees or shrubs where the aphides live.
I'^orel saw a tunnel of this kind which was taken up a wall
and down again on the other side, in order to secure a
safe covered way from the nest to the aphides. Occasion-
ally such covered ways, or tubes, are continued so as to
enclose the stems of the plants on which the aphides live.
The latter are thus imprisoned by the walls of the tube,
which, however, expand where they take on this additional
function of stabling the aphides, so that these insects are
really confined in tolerably large chambers. The doors of
these chambers are too small to allow the aphides to escape,
while large enough for the ants to pass in and out. Forel
saw such a prison or stable shaped like a cocoon, and
about a centimetre long, which was hanging on the branch
of a tree, and contained aphides carefully tended by the
ants. Huber records similar observations.

Sii John Lubbock has made an interesting addition to
our knowledge respecting this habit as practised by a
certain species of ant [Lasius Jiavus), which departs in a
very remarkable manner from the habit as practised by
other species. He says : ' The ants took the greatest care
of these eggs, carrying them off to the lower chambers
with the utmost haste when the nest was disturbed.' But
the most interesting of Sir John Lubbock's observations
in this connection is new, and reveals an astonishing

• Origin of Species, 6th ed. pp. 207-8.

62

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

amount of method shown by the ants in farming theii
aphides. He says : —

When my eggs hatched I naturally thought that the aphides
belonged to one of the species usually found on the roots of
plants in the nests of Lasius Jlaviis. To my surprise, however,
the young creatures made the best of their way out of the nest,
and, indeed, were sometimes brought out by the ants them-
selv^es. In vain I tried them with roots of grass, (fee. ; they
wandered uneasily about, and eventually died. Moreover, they
did not in any way resemble the subterranean species. In 1878
I again attempted to rear these young aphides ; but though I
hatched a great many eggs, I did not succeed. This year, how-
ever, I have been more fortunate. The eggs commenced to
hatch the first week in March. IS'ear one of my nests of Lasiiis
fiavus, in which I had placed some of the eggs in question, was
a glass containing living specimens of several species of plants
commonly found on or around ants' nests. To this some of
the young aphides were brought by the ants. Shortly after-
wards I observed on a plant of daisy, in the axils of the leaves,
some small aphides, very much resembling those from my nest,
though we had not actually traced them continuously. They
seemed thriving, and remained stationary on the daisy. More-
over, whether they had sprung from the black eggs or not, the
ants evidently valued them, for they built up a wall of earth
round and over them. So things remained throughout the
summer, but on October 9 I found that the aphides had laid
some eggs exactly resembling those found in the ants' ne^ts ;
and on examining daisy plants from outside, I found on many
of them similar aphides, and more or less of the same eggs.

I confess these observations surprised me very much. The
statements of Huber have not, indeed, attracted so much notice
£ts many of the other interesting facts which he has recorded ;
because if aphides are kept by ants in their nests, it seems only
natural that their eggs should also occur. The above case,
however, is much more remarkable. Here are aphides, not
living in the ants* nests, but outside, on the leaf-stalks of plants.
The eggs are laid early in October on the food-plant of the in-
sexjt. They are of no dii-ect use to the ants, yet they are not
left where they are laid, where they would be exposed to the
severity of the weather and to innumerable dangers, but brought
into their nests by the ants, and tended by them with the ut-
most care through the long winter months until the following
March, when the young ones are brought out and again placed

ANTS — KEEPING APHTDBS.

63

on the young shoots of the daisy. This seem3 to me a most
remarkable case of prudence. Our ants may not perhaps lay
up food for the v^^Lnter, but they do more, for they keep during
six months the eggs which will enable them to procure food
during the following summer.

The following, which is taken from Biichner's
* Geistesleben der Thiere ' is perhaps a still more striking
performance of the same kind as that which Sir John
Lubbock observed : —

The author is debtor to Herr Nottebohm, Inspector of Build-
ings at Karlsruhe, who related the following on May 24, 1876,
under the title, ' Ants as Founders of Aphides* Colonies : ' — ' Of
bwo equally strong young weeping ashes, which I planted in my
garden at Kattowitz, in Upper Silesia, one succeeded well, and
in about five or six years showed full foliage, while the other
regularly every year was covered, when it began to bud, with
millions of aphides, which destroyed the young leaves and
sprouts, and thus completely delayed the development of the
tree. As I perceived that the only reason for this was the
action of the aphides, 1 determined to destroy them utterly.
So in the March of the following year I took the trouble to
«lean and wash every bough, sprig, and bud before the bursting
of the latter, with the greatest care, by means of a syringe. The
result was that the tree developed perfectly healthy and vigor-
ous leaves and young shoots, and remained quite free from the
aphides until the end of May or the beginning of June. My
joy was of short duration. One fine sunny morning I saw a
surprising number of ants running quickly up and down the
trunk of the tree ; this aroused my attention, and led me to
look more closely. To my great astonishment I then saw that
many troops of ants were busied in carrying single aphides up
the stem to the top, and that in this way many of the lower
leaves had been planted with colonies of aphides. After some
weeks the evil was as great as ever. The tree stood alone on
the grass plot, and offered the only situation for an aphides'
colony for the countless ants there present. I had destroyed
this colony ; but the ants replanted it by bringing new colonists
from distant branches, and setting them on the young leaves. *

Again —

MacCook noticed, of the mound-making ants, that of th€
' Loo. cit. p. 121.

64

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

workers returning to the nest from the tree on which the milk-
ing was going on, a far smaller number had distended abdomens
than among those descending the tree itself. A closer investi-
gation showed that at the roots of the trees, at the outlets of
the subterranean galleries, a number of ants were assembled,
which were fed by the returning ants after the fashion already
described in feeding the larvae, and which were distinguished
by the observer as * pensioners.' MacCook often observed the
same fact later, among, with others, the already described
Ponnsylvanian wood-ant. Distinguished individuals in the
body-guard of the queen were fed in like fashion. MacCook is
inclined to think that the reason of this proceeding is to be
found in the ' division of labour ' so general in the ant repub-
lic, and that the members of the community which are em-
ployed in building and working within the nest, leave to the
others the care of providing food for themselves as well as for
the younger and helpless members ; they thus have a claim to
receive from time to time a reciprocal toll of gratitude, and
take it, as is shown very clearly, in a way demanded by the
welfare of the community.^

Aphides are not the only insects which ants employ as
cows, several other insects which yield sweet secretions
being similarly utilised in various parts of the world.
Thus, gall insects and cocci are kept in just the same way
as aphides ; but MacCook observed that where aphides
and cocci are kept by the same ants, they are kept in
separate chambers, or stalls. The same observer saw
caterpillars of the genus Lycoena kept by ants for the sake
of a sweet secretion which they supply.

Habit of making Slaves. This habit, or instinct,
obtains among at least three species of ant, viz., Formica
rufescens, F. sanguinea, and strongylognathus. It was
originally observed by P. Huber in the first-named species.
Here the species enslaved is F.fusca, which is appropriately
coloured black. The slave-making ants attack a nest of
F. fusca in a body ; there is a great fight with much
slaughter, and, if victorious, the slave-makers carry off the
pupae of the vanquished nest in order to hatch them out
as slaves. Mr. Darwin gives an account of a battle which
he himself observed.^

» Loc. cit. p. 123.

* Origin of Sjjeoies, 6th ed. p. 218.

ANTS —SLAVE-MAKING.

65

When the pupae hatch out in the nest of their captors,
the young slaves begin their life of work, and seem to
regard their master's home as their own ; for they never
attempt to escape, and they fight no less keenly than their
masters in defence of the nest. F» sanguinea content
themselves with fewer slaves than do F. rufescens ; and
the work that devolves upon the slaves differs according
to the species which has enslaved them. In the nests of
F. sanguinea the comparatively few captives are kept as
household slaves ; they never either enter or leave the
nest, and so are never seen unless the nest is opened.
They are then very conspicuous from the contrast which
their black colour and small size present to the red colour
and much larger size of F. rufescens. As the slaves are
by this species kept strictly indoors, all the outdoor work
of foraging, slave-capturing, &c., is performed by the
masters ; and when for any reason a nest has to migrate,
the masters carry their slaves in their jaws. F. rufescens,
on the other hand, assigns a much larger share of labour
to the slaves, which, as we have already seen, are present
m much larger numbers to take it. In this species the
males and fertile females do no work of any kind ; and
the workers, or sterile females, though most energetic in
capturing slaves, do no other kind of work. Therefore
the whole community is absolutely dependent upon its
slaves. The masters are not able to make their own nests
or to feed their own larvae. When they migrate, it is the
slaves that determine the migration, and, reversing the
order of things that obtains in F. sanguinea, carry their
masters in their jaws. Huber shut up thirty masters
without a slave and with abundance of their favourite
food, and also with their own larvae and pupae as a stimulus
to work ; but they could not feed even themselves, and
many died of hunger. He then introduced a single slave,
and she at once set to work, fed the surviving masters,
attended to the larvae, and made some cells.

In order to confirm this observation, Lesp^s placed a
piece of sugar near a nest of slave-makers. It was soon
found by one of the slaves, which gorged its€^f and re-
turned to the nest. Other slaves then came out and did

66

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

likewise. Then some of the masters came out, and, by
pulling the legs of the feeding slaves, reminded them that
they were neglecting their duty. The slaves then imme-
diately began to serve their masters with the sugar. Forel
also has conlii-med all these observations of Huber. Indeed,
in the case of F. rufescens, the structure of the animal is
such as to render self-feeding physically impossible. Its
long and narrow jaws, adapted to pierce the head of an
enemy, do not admit of being used for feeding, unless
liquid food is poured into them by the mouth of a slave.
This fact shows of how ancient an origin the instinct of
slave-making must be ; it has altered in an important
manner a structure which could not have been so altered
prior to the establishment of the instinct in question.

Mr. Darwin thus sums up the differences in the offices
of the slaves in the nests of F, sanguinea and F. rufescens
respectively : —

The latter does not build its own nest, does not determine its
own migratioDS, does not collect food for itself or for its fellows,
and cannot even feed itself ; it is absolutely dependent on its nu-
merous slaves. Formica sanguinea^ on the other hand, possesses
much fewer slaves, and in the early part of the summer extremely
few ; the masters determine when and where a new nest shall
1)6 formed, and when they migrate, the masters carry the slaves.
Both in Switzerland and England the slaves seem to have the
exclusive care of the larvae, and the masters alone go on slave -
making expeditions. In Switzerland the slaves and masters
work together, making and biinging materials for the nest ;
both, but chiefly the slaves, tend and milk, as it may be called,
their aphides ; and thus both collect food for the community. In
England the masters alone usually leave the nest to collect
building materials and food for themselves, their slaves and
larvae. So that the masters in this country receive much less
service from their slaves than they do in Switzerland.

Mr. Darwm further observes that ' this difference in
the usual habits of the masters and slaves in the two
countries probably depends merely on the slaves being
captured in greater numbers in Switzerland than in Eng-
land ; ' and records that he has observed in a community
of the English species having an unusually large stock of
slaves that 'a few slaves mingled with their masters

ANTS — SLAVE-MAKING.

67

leaving the nest, and marched along the same road to a
tall Scotch fir tree, twenty-five yards distant, which they
ascended together, probably in search of aphides or cocci.*
And, according to Huber, the principal office of the slaves
in Switzerland is to search for aphides.

Mr. Darwin also made the following observation : —
* Desiring to ascertain whether F, sanguinea could dis-
tinguish the pupae of F. fusca, which they habitually
make into slaves, and which are an un warlike species,
from F. Jiava, which they rarely capture, and never
without a severe fight,' he found ' it was evident that
they did at once distinguish them ; ' for while ' they
eagerly and instantly seized the pupae of F. fusca, they
were much terrified when they came across the pupae, or
even the earth from the nest, of F. Jiava, and quickly ran
away ; but in about a quarter of an hour, shortly after
the little yellow ants had crawled away (from their nest
having been disturbed by Mr. Darwin), they took heart
and carried off the pupas.'

Concerning the origin of this remarkable instinct,
Mr. Darwin writes : —

As ants which are not slave-makers will, as I have seen,
carry off pupae of other species if scattered near their nests, it
is possible that such pupae originally stored as food might be-
come developed, and the foreign ants thus unintentionally
reared would then follow their proper instmcts, and do what
work they could. If their presence proved useful to the species
which had seized them — if it were more advantageous to the spe-
cies to capture workei-s than to procreate them — the habit of
collecting pupae, originally for food, might by natural selection be
strengthened and rendered permanent for the very diffei-ent
purpose of raising slaves. When the instinct wa;=; once acquired,
if carried out to a much less extent even than in our British
F. sanguinea, which, as we have seen, is less aided by its slaves
than the same species in Switzerland, natural selection might
increase and modify the instinct, always supposing such modifi-
cation to be of use to the species, until an ant was found as
abjectly dependent on its slave as is the Formica rufescens.

Ants do not appear to be the only animals of which
ants make slaves ; for there seems to be at least one case
6

68

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

in which these wonderful insects enslave insects of anothei
species, which therefore may be said to stand to the ants
in the relation of beasts of burden. The case to which I
allude is one that is recorded in Perty's ^ Intellectual Life
of Animals ' (2nd ed. p. 329), and is as follows : —

According to Audubon certain leaf-bugs are used as slaves
by the ants in the Brazilian forests. When these ants want to
bring home the leaves which they have bitten off the trees,
they do it by means of a column of these bugs, which go in
pairs, kept in order on either side by accompanying ants. They
compel stragglers to re-enter the ranks, and laggards to keep
up by biting them. After the work is done the bugs are shut
up within the colony and scantily fed.

Wars. — On the wars of ants a great deal might be said,
as the facts of interest in this connection are very nume-
rous ; but for the sake of brevity I shall confine myself to
giving only a somewhat meagre account.

One great cause of war is the plundering of ants' nests
by the slave-making species. Observers all agree that this
plundering is effected by a united march of the whole
army composing a nest of the slave-making species,
directed against some particular nest of the species which
they enslave. According to Lespes and Forel, single scouts
or small companies are first sent out from the nest to ex-
plore in various directions for a suitable nest to attack.
These scouts afterwards serve as guides to the marauding
excursion. Forel saw several of these scouts of the species
F. rufescens or Amazon carefully inspecting a nest of
F. fusca which they had found, investigating especially
the entrances. These are purposely made difficult to find
by their architects, and it not unfrequently happens that
after all precautions and inspections on the part of the
invaders, an expedition fails on account of not finding the
city gates.

When the scouts have been successful in discovering a
suitable nest to plunder, and have completed their stra-
tegical investigations of the locality to their satisfaction,
they return straight to their own nest or fortress. Forel
has then seen them walking about on the surface of theii
nest for a long time, as if in consultation, or making up

ANTS— WAES.

69

their minds. Then some of them entered the nest, soon
after which hosts of warriors streamed out of the entrances,
and ran about tapping each other with their head* and
antennae. They then formed into column and set out to
pillage the nest of the slave ants. The following is tl.e
account which Lespes gives of such expeditions : —

They only take place towards the end of the summer and in
autumn. At this time the winged members of the slave species
(F. fusca and F. cunicularia) have left the nest, and the
Amazons will not take the trouble to bring back useless con-
sumers. When the sky is clear our robbers leave their town in
the afternoon at about three or four o'clock. At first no order
is perceptible in their movements, but when they are all
gathered together they form a regular column, which then moves
forward quickly, and each day in a different direction. They
march closely pressed together, and the foremost always appear
to be seeking for something on the ground. They are each
moment overtaken by others, so that the head of the column is
continually growing. They are in fact seeking the traces of the
ants which they propose to plunder, and it is scent that guides
them. They snuff over the ground like hounds following the
track of a wild animal, and when they have found it they
plunge headlong forward, and the whole column rushes on be-
hind. The smallest armies I saw consisted of several hundred
individuals, but I have also seen some four times as large.
They then form columns which may be five metres long, and as
much as fifty centimetres wide. After a march, which often
lasts a full hour, the column arrives at the nest of the slave
species. The F. cunicularice, which are the strongest, offer
keen opposition, but without much result. The Amazons soon
penetrate within the nest, to come out again a moment later,
while the assailed ants at the same time rush out in masses.
During the whole time attention is directed solely to the larvae
and pupae, which the Amazons steal while the others try to
save as many as possible. They know very well that the Ama-
zons cannot climb, so they fly with their precious burdens to
the surrounding bushes or plants, whereto their enemies cannot
follow them. They then pursue the retreating robbers and try
to take away from them as much of their booty as possible.
But the latter do not trouble themselves much about them, and
hasten on home. On their return they do not follow the short-
eet road, but exactly the one by which they came, finding their
way back by smell. Ariived at their nest, they immediately

70

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

hand over their booty to the slaves, and trouble themselves no
more about it. A few days afterwards the stolen pupae or
nymphae emerge, without memory of their childhood, and im-
mediately and without compulsiou take part in all tasks.

According to Biiclmer's account,' —

From time to time the army makes a short halt, partly to
let the rearguard close up, partly because different opinions
arise as to the direction of the host, or because the place at
which they are is unknown to them. Forel several times saw
the army completely lose its way — an incident only once ob-
served by Huber. Forel pats the number of warriors in such
an army at from one hundred to more than two thousand. Its
speed is on an average a metre per minute, but varies much
according to circumstances, and is naturally least when return-
ing laden with booty. If the distance be very great, such
bodily fatigue may at last be felt that the whole attack on the
hostile nest is given up, and a retreat is begun ; Forel once saw
this happen after they had passed over a distance of two hun-
dred and forty yards. Sometimes it seems as though, on coming
within sight of the hostile nest, a kind of discouragement took
possession of them, and prevented their making the attack. If
the nest cannot at once be found, the whole army halts, and
some divisions are sent forward to search for it, and these are
gradually seen returning towards the centre. Forel also saw
such an army only searching the first day, advancing zigzag,
and with frequent halts, whereas on the following day it went
forward to its aim swiftly and without delay, having found out
the road. It seems that a single ant, even if it knows the way
and the place, is not able alone to lead a large army, but that a
considerable number must be employed in this duty. Mistakes
as to the road occur with special ease during the return journey,
because the several ants are laden with booty and cannot readily
understand each other. Individual ants are then seen to wander
about in every direction often for a long time, until they at last
reach a spot known to them, and then advance swiftly to their
goal. Many never come back at all. These mistakes easily
occur when the robbers which have passed into a hostile nest do
not come out again at the same holes whereby they entered, but
by others at some distance — for instance, by a subterranean
canal. Coming out thus in a strange neighbourhood, they do not
know which way to take, and only some chance to find the right
road during their aimless wanderings about, and recognise and

* Oeisteslehen der Thiere, pp. 145-9.

ANTS — WARS.

71

follow it by smell. On the other hand, such mistakes scarcely
ever happen to individuals in an unladen train, kept in good
array. Other species of ants {F. fusca, rufa, sanguinea) know
better how to manage under such circumstances than do the
Amazons. The laden ones lay down their loads, first find where
they are, and only take them up again after they have found
their way. If the booty seized in the nest first attacked is too
large to be all taken at once, the robbers return once, or oftener,

so as to complete their work The ants, as already said,

have no regular leaders nor chiefs, yet it is certain that in each
expedition, alteration of road, or other change, the decision
during that event comr s from a small knot of individuals, which
have previously come to an understanding, and carry the rest
and the undecided along with them. These do not alwaya
follow immediately, but only after they have received several
taps on the head from the members of the * ring.' The pro-
cession does not advance until the leaders have convinced them-
selves by their own eyesight that the main part of the army is
following.

One day Forel saw some Amazons on the surface of a nest
of the F. fusca seeking and sounding in all directions, without
being able to find the entrance. At last one of them found a
very little hole, hardly as large as a pin's head, through which
the robbers penetrated. But since, owing to the smallness of
the hole, the invasion went on slowly, the search was continued,
and an entrance was found further off, through which the
Amazon army gradually disappeared. All was quiet. About
five minutes later Forel saw a booty-laden column emerge from
each hole. Not a single ant was without a load. The two
columns united outside and retreated together.

A marauding excursion of the Amazons against the F.
rujibarhis, a sub-species of the F. fusca, or small black ants,
took place as follows : — The vanguard of the robber army found
that it had reached the neighbourhood of the hostile nest more
quickly than it had expected ; for it halted suddenly and de-
cidedly, and sent a number of messengers which brought up the
main body and the rearguard with incredible speed. In less
than thirty seconds the whole army had closed up, and hurled
itself in a mass on the dome of the hostile nest. This was the
more necessary as the rufibarhes during the short halt had dis-
covered the ai)proach of the enemy, and had utilised the time to
cover the dome with defenders. An indescribable struggle
followed, but the superior numbers of the Amazons overcame,
and they penetrated into the nest, while the defenders poured

12

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

by thousands out of the same holes, with their larvae and pup«
in their jaws, and escaped to the nearest plants and bushes,
running over the heaps of their assailants. These looked on
the matter as hopeless, and began to retreat. But the rufi-
harhes, furious at their proceedings, pursued them, and en-
deavoured to get away from them the few pupae they had ob-
tained, by trying to seize the Amazons' legs and to snatch away
the pupae. The Amazon lets its jaws slip slowly along the
captive pupa, as far as the head of its opponent, and pierces it,
if it does not, as generally happens, draw back. But it c^ten
manages to seize the pupa at the instant at which the Amazon
lets it go and flies with it. This is managed yet more easily
when a comrade holds the robber by the legs, and compels it to
loose its prey in order to guard itself against its assailant.
Sometimes the robbers seize empty cocoons and carry them
away, but they leave them on the road when they have dis-
covered their mistake. In the above case the strength of the
rujibarbes proved at last so great that the rearguard of the re^
treating army was seriously pressed, and was obliged to give up
its booty. A number of the Amazons also were overpowered
and killed, but not without the rujibarbes also losing many
people. None the less did seme individuals, as though despe-
rate, rush into the thickest hosts of the enemy, penetrated
again into the nest, and carried off several pupae by sheer au-
dacity and skill. Most of them left their prey to go to the
help of their comrades when assailed by the rujibarbes. Ten
minutes after the commencement of the retreat all the Amazons
had left the nest, and, being swifter than their opponents, they
were only pursued for about halfway back. Their attack had
failed on account of a short delay !

On another occasion observed by Forel, in which several
fertile Amazons also took part and killed many enemies, the
nest was thoroughly ravished, but the retreat was also in this
case very much disturbed and harassed by tlie superior numbers
of the enemy. There were many slain on both sides. That in
spite of the above-mentioned unanimity different opinions among
the members of an expedition sometimes hinder its conduct, the
following observation seems to show : — An advancing column
divided after it had gone about ten yards from the nest. Half
turned back, while the othf r half went on, but after some time
hesitated and also turned back. Arrived at home, it found
those which had formerly turned back putting themselves in
motion in a new direction. The newly returned followed them,
and the reunited army, after various wheelings, halts, <fcc., a*

ANTS — WABa

73

last turned home again by a long way round. The whole busi-
ness looked Kke a promenade. But apparently different parties
had different nests in view, while others were entirely against
the expedition. Yet perhaps it was only a march for exercise.

Outer obstacles do not, as a rule, hinder the Amazons when
they are once on the march. Forel saw them wade through
some shallow water, although many were drowned in it, and
then march over a dusty high road, although the wind blew
half of them away. As they returned, booty-laden, neither
Avind, nor dust, nor water could make them lay down their
prey. They only got back with great trouble, and turned back
again to bring fresh booty, although many lost their lives.

The following is also quoted from Biichner's excellent
epitome of Forel's observations in this connection : —

The most terrible enemy of the Amazons is the sanguine
ant (F. sanguinea), which also keeps slaves, and thereby often
comes into collision with the Amazons on their marauding ex-
cursions. It is not equal to it in bodily strength or fighting
capacity, but surpasses it in intelligence ; according to Forel it
is the most intelligent of all the species of ants. If Forel, for
instance, poured out the contents of a sack filled with a nest of
the slave species near an Amazon nest, the Amazons apparently
generally regarded the tumbled together heap of ants, larvae,
pupae, earth, building materials, (fee, a^s the dome of a hostile
nest, and took all imaginable but useless pains to find out the
entrances thereinto, leaving on one side for this investigation
their only object, the can-ying off the pupae ; but the sanguine
ants under similar circumstances did not allow themselves to be
deceived, but at once ransacked the whole heap.

On another occasion, while a procession of Amazon
ants was on its way to plunder a nest of F. fusca, before
it arrived Forel poured out a sack-full of sanguine ants,
and made a break in the nest : —

The sanguine ants pressed in, while the fusca came out to
defend themselves. At this moment the first Amazons arrived.
When they saw the sanguine ants they drew back and awaited
the main army, which appeared much disturbed at the news.
But once united, the bold robbers rushed at their foes. The
latter gathered together and beat back the first attack, but the
Amazons closed up their ranks and made a second assault, which
carried them on to the dome and into the midst of the enemy.
These were overthrown, as well as a number of F. pratensis,

r4

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

which Forel at this moment poured out on the nest. The con
querors delayed for a moment on the dome after their victory,
and then entered the nest to bring out a little of the valuable
booty. A few Amazons which were mad with anger did not
return with the main army, but went on slaughtering blindly
among the conquered and the fugitives of the three species,
fus'ca, pratensis, and sanguinea.

The ravished rufiharhes once became so desperate at their
overthrow that they followed the robbers to their own nest,
and the latter had some trouble in defending it. The rufiharhes
let themselves be killed in hundreds, and really seemed as
though they courted death. A small number of the Amazons
also sank under the bites of their enemies. The nest contained
slaves of the rufiharhis species, which on this emergency fought
actively against their own race. There were also slaves of
the species /w5ca, so that the nest included three different species
of ants.

The same nest is often revisited many times on the same day
or at different periods, until either there is no more to steal,
or the plundered folk have hit upon better mode of defence.
A column which was in the act of going back to such a plun-
dered nest turned when halfway there, and halted, apparently
on no other ground than because it had met the rearguard
of the army, and had learned that the nest was exhausted,
and that there was nothing more to be had there. The
robbers then went off to a rufiharhis nest which was in
the neighbourhood, and killed half the inhabitants while
plundering the nest. The surviving rufiharhes returned
after the robbery and brought up new progeny ; but thirteen
days later the Amazjns again reaped a rich harvest from
the same nest. The Amazon army often severs itself into two
separate divisions when there is not enough for both to do
at the same spot. Sometimes one di\dsion finds something
and the other nothing, and they then reunite. If any obstacle
be placed in their way they try to overcome it, in d':"ing which
some leave the main army, lose themselves, and only find their
way home ao^ain with difficulty. Forel has tried to establish
the normal frequency of expeditions, and found that a colony
watched by himself for a space of thirty days sent out no less
than forty-four maraudmg excursions. Of these about eight-
and-twenty were completely, nine partially, and the remainder
not at all successful. He four times saw the army di^dde into
two. Half the expeditions were levelled against the rufiharhes,
half against the fuscce. On an average a successful expedition

ANTS — WABS.

76

would bring back to the colony a thousand pupae or larvae.
On the whole, the number of future slaves stolen by a strong
colony during a favourable summer may be reckoned at forty
thousand !

The internecine battles which occasionally break out
among the Amazons themselves are naturally the most cruel.
They tear each other to pieces with incredible fury, and knots
of five or six individuals which have pierced each other may be
seen rolling over each other on the ground, it being impos-
sible to distinguish between fiiend and foe. Civil wars among
men are also known to be the most embittered and the most
bloody.

The mode of attack practised by the other best known
species of slave-making ant, sanguinea, is somewhat
different : —

They march in small troops which, in case of need, summon
reinforcements, and therefore as a rule only reach their goal
slowly. Between the individual troops messengers or scouts
run continually backwards and forwards. The first troop
which arrives at the hostile nest does not rush at it, as do the
Amazons, but contents itself with making provisional re-
connaissances, wherein some of the assailants are generally
made prisoners by the enemy, which have time to bethink
and to collect themselves. Reinforcements are now brought
up, and a regular siege of the nest begins. A sudden invasion,
like that of the Amazons, is never seen. The besieging army
forms a complete ring round the hostile nest, and the besiegers
hold this with mandibles open and antennae drawn back, with-
out going nearer. In this position they beat ofi" all assaults of
the besieged, until they feel themselves strong enough to advance
to the attack. This attack scarcely ever fails, and has for its
chief object the mastering of the entrances and outlets of the
nest. A special troop guards each opening, and only allows
such of the besieged to pass out as carry no pupae. This man-
ceuvre gives rise to a number of comical and characteristic
scenes. By this means the sanguine ants in a few minutes manage
to have all the defenders out of the nests and the ])up8e left
behind. This is the case at least with the rufiharbes, while
the rather less timid fuscoe try, even at the last moment whcLi
it is useless, to stop up or barricade the entrances. The sanguine
ants do not indeed possess the terrible weapons and the warHke
impetuosity of the Amazons, but they are stronger and larger.
If a fusca or a rufiharhis fights with a sanguine ant for the pos-

re

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE,

Fession of a pupa, it is generally very soon overcome. While
the main part of the army is penetrating into the nest to steal
the pupae, some divisions pursue the fugitives, to take away from
them the few pupae which may chance to have been saved.
They drive them even out of the cricket-holes in which they
have meanwhile taken refuge. In shoi-t, it is a razzia, or sweep-
ing burglary, as complete as can be imagined. In the retreat
the robbers in no wise huiry themselves, for they know that
they are threatened by no danger aud no loss, and the complete
emptying of a large and distant nest often takes several days in
accomplishing. The ants which have been so thoroughly robbed
scarcely every return to their former abode.

It must be admitted that a human army, robbing a foreign
town or fortress, could not behave better or more prudently.

Huber gives the following account of a battle waged
by sanguine ants : —

At ten, in a July morning, he noticed a small band of them
emerge from their nest, and march rapidly towards a nest of
negroes, around which it dispersed. A number of the blacks
rushed out, gave battle, and succeeded in defeating their in-
vaders, and in making several of Ihem prisoners. Upon this,
the remainder of the attacking force waited for a reinforcement.
When this came up, they still decUned further proceediugs,
and sent more aides-de-camp to their own nest. The result of
these messages was a much larger reinforcement ; but even yet
the pirates appeared to shun the combat. At last, the negroes
marched out from their nest in a phalanx of about two feet
square, and a number of skirmishes began, which soon ended in
a general melee. Long before the event seemed certain, the
negroes carried off their pupae to the most distant part of the
nest ; and when, after a longer encounter, they appeared to think
further resistance vain, they retreated, attempting to take with
them their young. In this, however, they were prevented, and
the invaders obtained possession of their nest and the booty.
When they had done this, they put in a garrison, and occupied
the night and the succeeding day in carrying off their spoil.

Biichner says —

Battles between ants of the same species often end with d
lasting alliance, especially when the number of the workers on
both sides is comparatively small. The wise little animals under
Buch circumstances discover, much more quickly and better than
men, that they can only destroy each other by fighting, while
union would benefit both parties, Somecimes they drive each

ANTS— WARS.

77

other out of their nests in a quite friendly way. Forel laid on
a table a piece of bark with a nest of the gentle Leptothorax
acervorum, and then put on it the contents of another nest of
the same species. The last comers were by far the more nume-
rous, and soon posse«?sed themselves of the nest, driving out the
inmates. But the latter did not know whither to go, and
turned back again. They were then seized by their opponents
one after the other, carried away as far as possible fi*om the nest,
and there put down. The oftener they came back the further
were they carried away. One of the carriers arrived in this
fashion at the edge of the table, and after it had by means of its
feelers convinced itself that it had reached the end of the world,
mercilessly let its burden drop into the fathomless abyss. It
waited a moment to see if it had attained its object, and then
turned back to the nest. Forel picked up the ant which had
fallen on the floor, and put it down right in front of the return-
ing ant. The latter repeated the same manoeuvre as at first,
only stretching its neck further over the edge of the table. He
several times reiterated his experiment, and always with the
same result. Later the two colonies were shut up together in
a glass case, and gradually learned to agree.

At other times, however, warlike ants show great and
needless cruelty to one another : —

They slowly pull from their victim, that is rendered defence-
less by wounds, exhaustion, or terror, first one feeler and then
the other, then the legs one after another, until they at last
kill it, or pull it in a completely mutilated and helpless con-
dition to some out-of-the-way spot where it perishes miserably.
Yet some compassionate hearts are to be found among the
victors, which only pull the conquered to a distant place in order
to get rid of them, and there let them go without injuring
them.

The following account is also taken from Biichner's
* Mind in Animals,' p. 87 : —

The doors are often guarded by special sentries, which fulfil
theii important duty in various ways. Forel saw a nest of the
Colohopsis truncata, the two or three very small round open-
ings of which were watched by soldiers, arranged so that
their thick cylindrical heads stopped them up, just as a cork
stops up the mouth of a bottle. The same observer saw the
Myrmecina Latreillei defend themselves against the invasions
of the slave-making Strongi/lognathus, by placing a worker at
each of the little openings of the nest, which quite stops up

78

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

the opening either Tvith its head or abdomen. The Campo-
notus species also defend their nests by stretching their heads
in front of the openings, drawing back the antennae. Each
approaching enemy thus receives a sharp blow or bite delivered
with the whole weight of the body. MacCook noticed in the nests
of the soon to be described Pennsylvanian mound-building ants,
the employment of special sentries, which lay watching within
the nest entrances, and sprang out at the first sight of danger
to attack the enemy ; and it was wondeifal to see with what
swiftness the news of such an alarm spread thiwigh the nest,
and how the inhabitants came out en masse to meet the enemy.
The Lasius species defend their large, strong, and vevj extensive
nests against hostile attack or sieges with equal courage and
skill, while other timid species seek to fly as speedily as possible
with their larvae, pupae, and fruitful queens. There is, as Forel
tells us, a regular barricade fight. Passage after passage is
stopped and defended to the uttermost, so that the assailants
can only advance step and step. Unless the latter are in an
enormous majority, the struggle may last a very long time with
these tactics. During this time, other workers are busy pre-
paring subteiTanean passages backwards for eventual flight.
Generally such passages are already made, and during a fight a
new dome of the Lasius may be seen rising at a distance, it not
being difficult for them to make this with the help of their ex-
tended subterranean passages and communications.

The F, exsecta or pre-ssilabris fights in a peculiar way, which is
due to care of their small and very tender bodies. It avoids all
single combats, and always fights in closed ranks. Only when
it thinks victory secure does it spring on its enemy's back. But
its chief strength lies in the fact that many together always
attack a foe. They nail down their opponent by seizing its legs
and holding them fiiTnly to the gi'ound, while a comrade springs
on the back of the defenceless creatui e and tidies to bite through
its neck. But if threatened the holders sometimes take flight,
and so it happens that in battles between the exsectce and the
much stvongeT j^ratenses not a few of the latter are seen running
about with a small enemy clutching their shoulders, and making
violent efforts to tear the neck of its foe. If the bearer is then
seized with cramp, the nervous cord ha,s been injm^ed. On the
other hand, if an exsecta is seized by the back by a j^ratensis it
is at once lost.

The tactics of the turf ants resemble those of the exsectce^
three or four of them seizing an opponent and pulling off" his
legs. In similar fashion the attack of the Lasius species is

ANTS — WARS.

7h

chiefly directed against the legs of its enemies, three, four, or
five uniting in the effort. They understand barricade fighting
particularly well in their large well-built dwellings, and if it
comes to the worst fly by subterranean passages. They are
feared by most ants on account of their numerical superiority
Forel one day poured the contents of ten nests of pratenses in
front of a tree trunk inhabited by Lasius fuliginosus (jet ant).
The siege at once began ; but the jet ants called in help from
the nests connected with their colony, and thick black columns
were at once seen coming out from the sui-rcunding trees. The
pratenses were obliged to fly, and left behind them a mass of dead
as well as their pupae, which last were carried off by the victors
to their nests to be eaten.

Battles, however, are not confined to species of ants
having warlike and slave-making habits. The agricultural
ants likewise at times wage fierce wars with one another.
The importance of seeds to these ants, and the consequent
value which they set upon them, induce the animals,
when supplies are scarce, to plunder each other's nests.
Thus Moggridge says,

By far the most savage and prolonged contests which I
have witnessed were those in which the combatants belong to
two different colonies of the same species. . . . The most
singular contests are those which are waged for seeds by A.
barbara, when one colony plunders the stores of an adjacent
nest belonging to the same species, the weaker nest making
prolonged though, for the most part, inefficient attempts to
recover their property.

In the case of the other species of ant which I have watched
fighting, the strife would last but a short time — a few hours or
a day — but A. barbara will carry on the battle day after day
and week after week. I was able to devote a good deal of time
to w^atching the progi'ess of a predatory w^ar of this kind, waged
by one nest of barbara against another, and which lasted for
forty six days, from January 18 to March 4 !

I cannot of course declare positively that no cessation of
hostilities may have taken place during the time, but I can
affirm that whenever I visited the spot — and I did so on twelve
days, or as nearly as possible twice a week — the scene was one
of war and spoliation such as that which I shall now describe.

An active train of ants, nearly resembling an ordinary
harvesting train, led from the entrance of one nest to that of
another lower down the slope, and fifteen feet distant ; but on

80

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

closer examination it appeared that though the groat n^ass of
seed-bearers were travelling towards the upper nest, some few
were going in the opposite direction and making for the lower.
Besides this, at intervals, combats might be seen taking place,
one ant seizing the free end of a seed carried by another, and
endeavouring to wrench it away, and then frequently, as neither
would let go, the stronger ant would drag seed and opponent
towards its nest. At times other ants would interfere and seize
one of the combatants and endeavour to drag it away, this often
resulting in terrible mutilations, and especially in the loss of the
abdomen, which would be torn oflf while the jaws of the victim
retained their indomitable bull-dog grip upon the seed. Then
the victor might be seen dragging away his piize, while its ad-
versary, though now little more than a head and legs, offered a
vigorous though of course ineffectual resistance. I frequently
observed that the ants during these contiicts would endeavour
to seize one another's antennae, and that if this were effected,
the ant thus assaulted would instantly release his hold, whether
of seed or adversary, and appear utterly discomfited. No doubt
the antennae are their most sensitive parts, and injuries inflicted
on these organs cause the greatest pain.

It was not until I had watched this scene for some days that
I apprehended its true meaning, and discovered that the ants of
the upper nest were robbing the granaries of the lower, while
the latter tried to recover the stolen seeds both by fighting
for them and by stealing seeds in their turn from the nest
of their oppressors. The thieves, however, were evidently
the stronger, and streams of ants laden with seeds arrived
safely at the upper nest, while close observation showed that
very few seeds were successfully carried on the reverse journey
into the lower and plundered nest.

Thus when I fixed my attention on one of these robbed ants
surreptitiously making its exit with the seed from the thieves*
nest, and having overcome the opposition and dangers met with
on its way, reaching, after a journey which took six minutes to
axjcomplish, the entrance to its own home, I saw that it Tvaa
violently deprived of its bui'den by a guard of ants stationed there
apparently for the purpose, one of whom instantly started ofl
and carried the seed all the way back again to the upper nest.

This I saw repeated several times.

After March 4 I never saw any acts of hostility between
these nests, though the robbed nest was not abandoned. In
another case of the same kind, however, where the struggle
lasted thirty-one days, the robbed nest was at length completely

ANTS — WARS.

81

abandoned, and on opening it I found all the granaries empty
with one single exception, and this one was pierced by the
matted roots of grasses and other plants, and must therefore
have been long neglected by the ants. Strangely enough, not
one of the seeds in this deserted granary showed traces of
germination.

No doubt some very pressing need is the cause of these
systematic raids in search of accumulations of seeds, and there
can be little doubt that the requirements of distinct colonies of
ants of the same species are often diflferent even at the same
season and date. Thus these warring colonies of ants were
active on many days when the majority of the nests were com-
pletely closed ; and I have even seen these robbers staggering
along, enfeebled by the cold, and in wind and rain, when all
other ants were safe below ground.

The agricultural ants of Texas do not appear to be
less pugnacious than their European congeners. Thus
MacCook says : —

A young community has sometimes to struggle into perma-
nent prosperity through many perils. The following example
is found in the unpublished Lincecum manuscripts. One day a
new ant-city was observed to be located within ten or twelve
yards of a long- established nest, a distance that the doctor
thought would prove too near for peaceable possession — for the
agricultural seem to pre-empt a certain range of territoiy
around their formicary as their own, within which no intrusion
is allowed. He therefore concluded to keep these nests under
close observation, and visited them frequently. Only a day or
two had elapsed before he found that the inhabitants of the old
city had made war upon the new. They had surrounded it in
great numbers, and were entering, dragging out and killing the
citizens. The young colonists, who seemed to be of less size
than their adversaries, fought bravely, and, notwithstanding
they were overwhelmed by superior numbers, killed and maimed
many of their assailants. The parties were scattered in strug-
gling pairs over a space ten or fifteen feet around the city gate,
and uhe ground was strewed with many dead bodies. The new
colonists aimed altogether at cutting off the legs of their larger
foes, which they accomplished with much success. The old-city
warriors, on the contrary, gnawed and clipped off the heads and
abdomens of their enemies. Two days afterward the battle-
field was revisited, and many ants were found lying dead
tightly locked together by legs and mandibles, while hundreds

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

of decapitated bodies and severed heads were strewed over the
ground.

Another example, which is given in the published paper, is
quite similar, and had like result. In forty-eight hours the old
settlers had exterminated the new. The distjince between the
nests was about 20 feet. While the young colonists remained
in concealment they were not disturbed, but as soon as they
began to clear away their open disk war was declared.

MacCook, however, says that ' these ants are not always
so jealous of territorial encroachment, or at least must
have different standards of rights.' For he observed many
cases of nests situated within twenty, and even ten feet
of one another, without a battle ever occurring between
members of the two communities. Therefore, without
questioning the accuracy of Lincecum's observations —
which, indeed, present no scope for inaccuracy — he adds,
*That neighbouring ants, like neighbouring nations of
civilised men, will fall out and wage war Lincecum's ex-
amples show. Perhaps we should be quite as unsuccessful
in case of these ants as of our human congeners, should
we seek a sufficient reason for these wars, or satisfactory
cause for these differences in dealing with neighbours
which appear from the comparison of Lincecum's observa-
tions with mine.'

In connection with the wars of these ants, the follow-
ing quotations may also be made from the same author : —

The erratic ants do not appear to be held as common ene-
mies by the agriculturals, and they are even permitted to
establish their formicaries within the limits of the open disk.
Sometimes, however, the diminutive hillocks which mark the
entrance to an erratic ant-nest multiply beyond the limit of the
agricultural' forbearance. But they do not declare war, noi
resort to any personal violence. Nevertheless, they get rid of
them, oddly enough, by a regular system of vexatious obstruc-
tions. They suddenly conclude that there is urgent demand
for improving their public domain. Forthwith they sally forth
in large numbers, fall eagerly to work gathering the little black
balls which are thrown up by the earth-worms in great quantities
everywhere in the prairie soil, which they bring and heap upon
the paved disk until all the erratic ant-nests are covered ! The
entire pavement is thus raised an inch or so, and pains are taken

ANTS — KEEPING PETS.

83

to deposit more balls upon and around the domiciles of their
tiny neighbours than elsewhere. The erratics struggle vigor-
ously against this Pompeian treatment ; they boi-e through
the avalanche of balls, only to find barriers laid in their way.
The obstructions at length become so serious that it is impos-
sible to keep the galleries open. The dwarfs cease to contend
against destiny, and, gathering together their household stores,
quietly evacuate the premises of the inhospitable giants. It ia
the triumph of the policy of obstruction, a bloodless but effec-
tual opposition.

Lastly, MacCook records the history of an interesting
engagement which he witnessed between two nests of
Tetramorium ccespitum. It took place between Broad
Street and Penn Square in Philadelphia, and lasted for
nearly three weeks. Although all the combatants belonged
to the same species, however great the confusion of the
fight, friends were always distinguished from foes — ap-
parently by contact of antennae.

Habit of keeping Domestic Pets. — Many species of
ants display the curious habit of keeping in their nests
sundry kinds of other insects, which, so far as observation
extends, are of no benefit to the ants, and which there-
fore have been regarded by observers as mere domestic
pets. These * pets ' are for the most part species which
occur nowhere else except in ants' nests, and each species
of ' pet ' is peculiar to certain species of ants. Thus
Moggridge found ' a large number of a minute shining
brown beetle moving about among the seeds ' in the nests
of the harvesting ant of the south of Europe, ' belonging
to the scarce and very restricted genus Golnocera, called
by Kraatz G. attce, on account of its inhabiting the nests
of ants belonging to the genus Atta.^ He also observed
inhabiting the same nests a minute cricket ' scarcely
larger than a grain of wheat ' {Gryllus myrmecophilus)^
which had been previously observed by Paolo Savi in the
nests of several species of ants in Tuscany, where it lived
on the best terms with its hosts, playing round the nests
in warm weather, and retiring into them in stormy weather,
while allowing the ants to carry it from place to place
during migrations. Again, Mr. Bates observes that
7

64

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

' some of the most anomalous forms of coleopterous iusecta
ai-e those which live solely in the nests of ants.' Sir
John Lubbock also, and other observers whom we need
not wait to cite, mention similar facts. The Rev. Mr.
White says that altogether 40 distinct species of Coleoptera,
most of which he has in his own collection, are known
to inhabit the nests of various species of ants, and to
occur nowhere else.

As in all these cases the ants live on amicable terms
with their guests, and in some cases even bestow labour
upon them (as in carrying them from one nest to another
dm*ing migration ), it is evident that these insects are not
only tolerated, but fostered by the ants. Moreover, as it
seems absurd to credit ants with any mere fancy or caprice
such as that of keeping pets, we can only conclude that
these insects, like the aphides, are of some use to their
hosts, although we are not yet in a position to surmise
what this use can be.

Habits of Sleep and Cleanliness. — It is probable that
all species of ants enjoy periods of true sleep alternating
with those of acti vity ; but actual observations on this
subject have only been made on two or three species.
The following is MacCook's account of these habits in the
harvesting ant of Texas : —

The observation upon the ants now before me began at
8 o'clock; at 11 p.m. the cluster had nearly dissolved, only a
few being asleep. To illustrnte the soundness of this sleep I
take the quill pen with which I write, and apply the feather
end of it to an ant who is sleeping upon the soil. She has
chosen a little oval depression in the surface, and lies with
abdomen upon the raised edge, and face toward the lamp. Her
legs are drawn up close to the body. She is perfectly still. 1
gently draw the feather tip along the body, stroking ' with the
fur,' if I may so say. There is no motion. Again and again
this action is repeated, the stroke gradually being made heavier,
although always quite gentle. Still there is no change. The
strok s are now directed upon the head, with the same result.
Now the tip is applied to the neck, the point at which the head
is united to the pro-thorax, with a waving motion intended to
produce a sensation of tickling. The ant remains motionless.
After continuing these experiments for several minutes, T

ANTS — SLEEP AND CLEANLINESS.

85

aronse the sleeper by a sharp touch of the quill. She stretches
out her head, then her legs, which she also shakes, steps nearer
to the light, and begins to cleanse herself in the manner already
described. This act invariably follows the waking of ants from
sleep. The above description applies to the general habit of
somnolence as observed upon the two named species of harvest-
ing ants for nearly four months. I have often applied the
quill, and even the point of a lead pencil, to the sleeping Flo-
ridians without breaking their slumber. There are some other
details which have not appeared in the behaviour of the indi-
vidual just put under observation.

Thus, I have several times seen the ants (Crudelis) yawning
after awaking. I use this word for lack of one which more
accurately expresses the behaviour. The action is very like
that of the human animal ; the mandibles are thrown open
with the peculiar muscular strain which is familiar to all
readers ; the tongue also is sometimes thrust out, and the limbs
stretched with the appearance, at leiist, of that tension which
accompanies the yawn in the genus homo. During sleep the
antennae have a gentle, quivering, apparently involuntary mo-
tion, which seemed to me, at times, to have the regularity of
breathing. I also often noted an occasional regular lifting up
and setting down of the fore-feet, one leg after another, with
almost a rhythmic motion.

The length of time during which sleep is prolonged appears
to vary according to circumstances and, perhaps, organism.
The large head-soldiers of the Floridian harvesters appear to
nave a more sluggish nature than the smaller workers. Their
sleep is longer and heavier. The former fact the watch readily
determined. The latter appeared from the greater stolidity of
the creatures under disturbance. While the ants of one group
are taking sleep others may be busy at work, and these stalk
among and over the sleepers, jostling them quite vigorously at
times. Again, new members occasionally join the group, and,
in their desire to get close up to the heat and light, crowd their
drowsy comrades aside. I have seen ants who had been at
work in the galleries drop their pellets, push thus into the
cluster, and presently be apparently sound asleep. This rough
treatment is invariably received with perfect good humour, as
are like jostlings when the ants are awake. I have never seen
the slightest iisplay of anger or attempt to resent disturbance
even under these circumstances, so peculiarly calculated to ex-
cite the utmost initation in men. But of course some of the
sleepers ai-e aroused. They change position a little, or give

86

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

themselves a brief combing, and then resume their nap, unless,
indeed, they are satisfied. In watching these movements it vras
quite evident that the Florida soldiei-s were far le>s easily dis-
turl^ed than their smaller fellows. They slept on stolidly while
all the others were in agitation around them. Moreover, their
very appearance, particularly when awaking out of sleep, indi-
Ci\ted the greater sluggishness of theii- temperament in this
respect.

The ordinary duration of sleep MacCook takes to be
about three hours.

Ants, like many other insects, are in the habit of
cleaning themselves, being, like them, provided by nature
with combs and brushes, &c., for the pm-pose. But, unlike
other insects, several species of ants are also in the habit
of assisting each other in the performance of their toilet.
The author last quoted gives the following account of this
process in the genus Atta : —

We take a couple ; the cleanser has begun at the face, which
is hcked thoroughly, even the mandibles being cared for, they
being held apart for convenient manipulation. From the face
the cleanser passes to the thomx, thence to the haunch, and so
along the first leg, along the second and third in the same
manner, around to the abdomen, and thence up the other side of
the ant to the head. A third ant approaches and joins in the
friendly task, but soon abandons the field to the original
cleanser. The attitude of the cleansed all this while is one of
intense satisfaction, quite resembling that of a family dog when
one is scratching the back of his neck. The insect stretches
out her limbs, and, as her fiiend takes them successively into
hand, yields them limp and supple to her manipulation ; she
rolls gently over upon her side, even q^iite over upon her back,
and with all her limbs relaxed presents a perfect pictiu^e of mus-
cidar surrender and ease. The pleasm-e which the ci-eatures
take in being thus *' combed ' and ' sponged ' is really enjoyable
to the observer. I have seen an ant kneel down before another
and thrust forward the head, drooping, quite under the face,
and lie there motionless, thus expressing, as plainly as sign-
language could, her desire to be cleansed. I at once under-
stood the gesture, and so did the supplicate-d ant, for she at
once went to work. If analogies in nature-studies were not >c
apt to be misleading, one might venture to suggest that our

ANTS — FLAY AND LEISUEE.

87

insect friends are thus in possession of a modifiea sort of
Emmetonian Turkish bath.

The acrobatic skill of these ants, which has often furnished
me amusement, and which I shall yet further illustrate, was
fully shown one morning in these offices of ablution. The for-
micary was taken from the study, where the air had become
chilled, and placed in an adjoining chamber upon the hearth,
before an open-grate fire. The genial warmth was soon diffused
throughout the nest, and aroused its occupants to unusual ac-
tivity. A tuft of grass in the centre of the box was presently
covered with them. They climbed to the very top of the spires,
turned round and round, hanging by their paws, not unlike
gymnasts performing upon a turning-bar. They hung or clung
in various positions, grasping the grass blade with the third and
fourth pairs of legs, which were spread out at length, cleansing
their heads with the fore-legs or bending underneath to comb
and lick the abdomen. Among these ants were several paii-s,
in one case a triplet, engaged in the cleansing operation just
described. The cleanser clung to the grass, having a fore-leg on
one side and a hind leg on the other side of the stem, stretched
out at full length, while the cleansed hung in a like position
below, and reached over and up, submitting herself to the
pleasant process. As the progress of the act required a change
of posture on the part of both insects, it was made with the
utmost agility.

Similarly, Bates thus describes the cleansing process in
another genus of ants (Ecitons) : — •

Here and there an ant was seen stretching forth first one
leg and then another, to be brushed and washed by one or more
of its comrades, who performed the task by passing the limb
between the jaws and tongue, finishing by giving the antennae a
friendly wipe.

Habits of Play and Leisure. — The life of ants is not
all work, or, at least, is not so in all species ; for in some
species, at any rate, periods of recreation are habitually
indulged in.

Biichner (* Greistesleben der Thiere,' p. 163) gives the
following abstract of Ruber's celebrated observations in
this connection : —

It was of the pratensis that Huber wrote the observations
touching its gymnastic sports which became so famous. He

88

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

saw these ants on a fine day assembled on the sui-face of their
nest, and behaving in a way that he could only explain aa
simulating festival sports or other games. They raised them-
selves on their hind legs, embraced each other with their fore-
legs, seized each other by the antennae, feet, or mandibles, and
wi-estled — bat all in friendliest fashion. They then let go, ran
after each other, and played hide and-seek. When one wag
victorious, it seized all the others in the ring, and tumbled them
over like ninepins.

This account of Huber's found its way into many popular
books, but in spite of its clearness won little credence from the
reading public. * I found it hard to believe Huber's obser-
vation,' writes Forel, 'in spite of its exactness, until I myself
had seen the same.' A. colony of the pratensis several times
gave him the opportunity when he approached it carefully.
The players caught each other by the feet or jaws, rolled over
each other on the ground Hke boys playing, pulled each other
inside the entrances of their nest, only to come out again, and so
on. All this was done without bad temper, or any spurting of
poison, and it was clear that all the rivalry was friendly. The
least breath from the side of the observer was enough to put an
end to the games. * I understand,' continues Forel, 'that the
afiair must seem marvellous to those who have not seen it,
especially when we remember that sexual attraction can here
play no part.'

MacCook also gives an account of habits of play as in-
dulged in among ants of the other Hemisphere : —

At one formicary half a dozen or more young queens were
out at the same time. They would climb up a large pebble
near the gate, face the wind, and assume a rampant posture.
Several having ascended the stone at one time, there ensued a
little playful passage-at-arms as to position. They nipped each
other gently with the mandibles, and chased one another from
favourite spots. They, however, never nipped the workers.
These latter evidently kept a watch upon the sportive prin-
jesses, occasionally saluted them with their antennae in the
asual way, or touched them at the abdomen, but apparently
allowed them full Kberty of action.

As to leisure, Bates writes : —

The life of these Ecitons is not all work, for I frequently saw
them very leisurely employed in a way that looked Hke recre-

ANTS -FUNEKEAL HABITS.

89

Ation. When this happened the place was always a sunny nook
in the forest. The main column of the army and the branch
columns, at these times, were in their ordinary relative posi-
tions ; but instead of pressing forward eagerly and plundering
light and left, they seemed to have been all smittf^n with a
sudden fit of laziness. Some were walking sternly about, others
were brushing their antennae with their fore- feet ; but the
drollest sight was their cleaning each other. [Here follows the
above-quoted passage.] The actions of these ants looked like

simple indulgence in idle amusement It is probable that

these hours of relaxation and cleaning may be indispensable to
the efiective performance of their harder burdens ; but whilst
looking at them, the conclusion that the ants were engaged
merely in play was irresistible.'

Funereal Habits, — In another connection it has already
been stated that Sir John Lubbock found his ants to be
very careful in disposing of the dead bodies of their com-
rades. This habit seems to be pretty general among many
species of ants, and is no doubt due to sanitary require-
ments, thus becoming developed as a beneficial instinct by
natural selection. The funereal habits of the agricultural
ant are thus related by MacCook : —

There is nothing which is apt to awaken deej^er interest in
the life-history of ants than what may properly be called their
funereal habits. All species whose manners I have closely
observed are quite alike in their mode cf caring for their own
dead, and for the dry carcasses of aliens. The former they
appear to treat with some degree of reverence, at least to the ex-
tent of giving them a sort of sepulture without feeding upon
them. The latter, after having exhausted the juices of the body,
they usually deposit together in some spot removed from the
nest. I did not see any of the ' cemeteries ' of the agricul-
tural ant upon the field, nor, indeed, observe any of their
behaviour towards the dead, but my artificial nests gave me some
insight of this. In the first colony had been placed eight agri-
culturals of another nest, which were Hterally cut to pieces.
Very soon after the ants were comfortably established in their
new home, a number of them laid hold upon these disjecta membra^
and began carrying them back and foi-th around the formicarium.
The next day this continued, and several of their own numbei

Loc. Git.

2 Loc, cit. p. 337

90

AJJ^IMAL INTELLIGENCE.

who had died were being treated in like manner. Back and
forth, up and down, into every corner of the box the bearers
wandered, the very embodiment of restlessness. For four days
this conduct continued without any intermission. No sooner
would a body or fragment thereof be dropped by one bearer
than another would take it up and begin the restless circuit.
The difficulty, I easily understood, was that there was no point
to be found tar enough removed from the living-rooms of the
insects in which to inter these dead. Their desire to have theii
dead buried out of their sight was strong enough to keep them
on this ceaseless round, apparently under the continuous influ-
ence of the hope that something might turn up to give them a
more satisfactory burial-ground. It does not appear greatly to
the credit of their wisdom that they were so long discovering
that they were limited to a space beyond their power to enlarge.
When, however, this fact was finally recognised they gave their
habit its utmost bent, and began to deposit the carcasses in the
extreme corner of the flat, as distant as possible from the
galleries on the terrace above. Here a little hollow was made
in the earth, quite up against the glass, wherein a number of
bodies were laid. Portions of bodies were thrust into the chinks
formed in the dry sod. This flat became the permanent
charnel-house of the colony, and here, in corners, crevices, and
holes, for the most part out of sight, but not always so, the
dead were deposited. But the living never seemed quite recon-
ciled to their presence. Occasionally, restless resurrectionists
would disentomb the dead, shift them to another spot, or start
them once more upon theii- unquiet wandeiings. Even after
the establishment of this cemetery, the creatures did not seem
able to lay away their newly deceased comrades — for there were
occasional deaths in the formicary — without first indulging in
this funereal promenade.

In the formicaries established in glass jars, both of harhatus
and crudelis, the same behaviour appeared. So great was the
desire to get the dead outside the nest, that the bearers would
climb up the smooth surface of the glass to the very top of the
jar, laboriously carrying with them a dead ant. This was severe
work, which was rarely undertaken except under the influence
of this fiuiereal enthusiasm. The jar was very smooth and quite
high. Falls were frequent, but patiently the little ' undertaker
would follow the impulse of her instinct, and try and try again
Finally, as in the large box, the fact of a necessity seemed to
dawn upon the ants, and a portion of the surface opposite from
the entrance to the galleries, and close up against the glass, was

ANTS — FUNEEEAL HAEITS.

91

ased as burial-ground and sort of kitchen-middi^n, where all the
refuse of the nest was deposited. Mrs. Treat has informed me
that her artificial nests of crudelis behaved in precisely the
same way.

An interesting fact in the funereal habits of Formica san-
guinea was related to me by this lady. A visit was paid to a large
colony of these slave- makers, which is established on the grounds
adjoining her residence at Vineland, New Jei'sey. I noticed
that a number of carcasses of one of the slave species, Formica
fusca^ were deposited together quite near the gates of the nest.
These were probably chiefly the dry bodies of ants brought in
from recent raids. It was noticed that the dead ants were all
of one species, and thereupon Mrs. Treat informed me that the
red slave-makers never deposited their dead with those of
their black servitors, but always laid them by themselves, not
in groups, but separately, and wei-e careful to take them a
considerable distance from the nest. One can hardly resist
pointing here another likeness between the customs of these
social hymenopters and those of human beings, certain of whom
carry their distinctions of race, condition, or religious caste, even
to the gates of the cemetery in which the poor body moulders
into its mother dust !

It will be observed that none of these accounts furnish
evidence of ants burying their dead, as Pliny asserts to
have been the case with ants in the south of Europe. In
the Proceedings of the Linnaean Society, however (1861),
there is a very definite account of such a practice as
obtaining among the ants of Sydney ; and although it is
from the pen of an observer not well known, the observa-
tion seems to have been one about which there could
scarcely have been a mistake. The observer was Mrs.
Hutton, and this is her account. Having killed a number
of ' soldier ants,' and returning half an hour afterwards to
the place where the dead bodies were l}^ng, she says :

I saw a large number of ants surrounding the dead ones. 1
determined to watch their proceedings closely. I followed four
>T five that started off from the rest towards a hillock a short
distance off, in which was an ants' nest. This th' y entered, and
in about five minutes they reappeared, followed by others. All
fell into rank, walking regularly and slowly two by two, until
they arrived at the spot where lay the dead bodies of the soldier
wits. In a few minutes two of the ants advanced and took up

92

ANIMAL INTELLI(;}ENCE.

the dead body of one of their comrades ; then two othei-s, and
so on, until all were ready to march. Eirst walked two ants
bearing a body, then two without a burden ; then two others
with another dead ant, and so on, until the line was extended
to about forty pairs, and the procCvSsion now moved slowly on-
wards, followed by an irregular body of about two hundred ants.
Occasionally the two laden ants stopped, and laying down the
dead ant, it was taken up by the two walking unburdened behind
them, and thus, by occasionally relieving each other, they
arrived at a sandy spot near the sea. The body of ants now
commenced digging with their jaws a number of holes in the
ground, into each of which a dead ant was laid, where they now
laboured on until they had filled up the ants' graves. This
did not quite finish the remarkable circumstances attending
this funeral of the ants. Some six or seven of the ants
had attempted to run off without performing their share of
the task of digging; these were caught and brought back, when
they were at once attacked by the body of ants and killed upon
the spot. A single grave was quickly dug, and they were all
dropped into it.

The Rev. W. Farren White also, in his papers on ants
published in the 'Leisure Hour' (1880), after alluding to
the above case, corroborates it by some interesting obser-
vations of his own. He says: —

Several of the little sextons I observed with dead in their
mandibles, and one in the act of burying a corpse. . . .
I should mention that the dead are not interred without con-
siderable difficulty, in consequence of the sides of the trays being
almost perpendicular. The work of the sextons continued until
no dead bodies remained upon the surface of the nest, but all
were interred in the extramural cemeteries. Afterwards I
removed the trays, and turned the contents of the formicarium
upside down, and then I placed six trays on the surface of the
earth, two of which I filled with sugar for food. All six were
used freely as cemeteries, being crowded with the corpses of
the little people and their young, the larvae which had perished
in the disruption of their home.

I have noticed in one of my formicaria a subterranean
cemetery, where I have ceen some ants burying their dead by
placing earth above them. One ant was evidently much affected,
and tried to exhume the bodies, but the united exertions of the
yellow sextons were more than sufficient to neutralise the effort
of the disconsolate mourner. The cemetery was now converted

LEAF-CUTTING ANTS.

93

into a large vault, the chamber where the dead were placed,
together with the passage which led to it, being completely
covered in.

Habits Peculiar to Certain Species.

Leaf-cutting Ants of the ^7?m0O7i (CEcodoma cephal-
otes). — The mode of working practised by these ants is
thus described by Mr. Bates : —

They mount a tree in multitudes. . . . Each one places
itself on the surface of a leaf, and cuts with its sharp scissor-
like jaws a nearly semicircular incision on the upper side ; it
then takes the edge between its jaws, and by a sharp jerk
detaches the piece. Sometimes they let the leaf drop to the
ground, where a little heap accumulates, until carried off by
another relay of workers ; but generally each marches off with
tlie piece it has operated on, and as all take the same road to
the colony, the path they follow becomes in a short time smooth
and bare, looking like the impression of a cart-wheel through
the herbage.

Each ant cai'ries its semicircular piece of leaf upright
over its head, so that the home-retm-ning train is rendered
very conspicuous. Nearer observation shows that this
home-retm-ning or ladened train of workers keeps to one
side of the road, while the outgoing or empty-handed
train keeps to the other side ; so that on every road there
is a double train of ants going in opposite directions.
When the leaves arrive at the nest they are received by a
smaller kind of workers, whose duty it is to cut up the
pieces of leaf into still smaller fragments, whereby the
leaves seem to be better fitted for the purpose to which,
as we shall presently see, they are put. These smaller
workers never take any part in the outdoor labours ; but
they occasionally leave the nest, apparently for the sole
pm'pose of obtaining air and exercise, for when they leave
the nest they merely run about doing nothing, and fre-
quently, as if in mere sport, mount some of the semi-
circular pieces of leaf which the carrier ants are taking to
the nest, and so get a ride home.

From his continued observation of these ants. Bates con
eludes — and his opinion has been corroborated bj that

94

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

both of Belt and Miiller — that the object of all this labour
is highly interesting and remarkable. The leaves when
gathered do not themselves appear to be of any service to
the ants as food ; but when cut into small fragments and
stored away in the nests, they become suited as a nidus
for the growth of a minute kind of fungus on which the
ant3 feed. We may therefore call these insects the
' gardening ants,' inasmuch as all their labour is given to
the rearing of nutritious vegetables on artificially prepared
soil. They are not particular as to the material which they
collect and store up for soil, provided that it is a material
on which the fungus will gi'ow. Thus they are very partial
to the inside white rind of o/'anges, and will carry off the
flowers of certain shrubs while leaving the leaves untouched.
But, to quote again from Bates, —

They are very particular about the ventilation of their tinder-
ground chambers, and have numerous holes leading up to the
surface from them. These they open out or close up, apparently
to keep up a regular degree of temperature below. The great
care they take that the pieces of leaves they carry into the
nest should be neither too dry nor too damp, is also consistent
with the idea that the object is the growth of a fungus that re-
quires particular conditions of temperature and moisture to
ensure its vigorous growth. If a sudden shower should come
on, the ants do not carry the wet pieces into the burrows, but
throw them down near the <5nfrances. Should the weather
clear up again, these pieces are picked up when nearly dried,
and taken inside : should the rain, however, continue, they get
sodden down into the ground, and are left there. On the con-
trary, in dry and hot weather, when the leaves would get dried
up before they could be conveyed to the nest, the ants, when in
exposed situations, do not go out at all during the hot hours, but
bruig in their leafy burdens in the cool of the day and during
the night. As soon as the pieces of leaves are carried in they
must be cut up by the small class of workers into little pieces.
Some of the ants make mistakes, and carry in unsuitable leaves.
Thus grass is always rejected by them, but I have seen some
ants, perhaps young ones, carrying leaves of grass ; but after a
while these pieces are always brought out again and thrown
away. I can imagine a young ant getting a severe ear-wigging
from one of the major-domos for its stupidity.

WTien a nest is dLstui'bed and the masses of ant-food spread

LEAF-CUTTING ANTS.

95

about, the anta are in great concern to carry every morsel of it
under shelter again ; and sometimes, when I had dug into a nest,
I found the next day all the earth thrown out filled with little
pits, that the ants had dug into it to get out the covered -up
food. When they migrate from one part to another, they
also carry with them all the ant-food from their old habita-
tions.

In Biichner's ' Greistesleben der Thiere ' there is pub-
lished an interesting description of the habits of these ants,
which was communicated to the author by Dr. Fr. Ellen-
dorf of Wiedenbriick, who has lived many years in Central
America. Dr. EUendorf says that —

It would be quite impossible for them to creep even through
short grass with loads on their heads for miles. They therefore
bite off the grass close to the ground for a breadth of about five
inches, and throw it on one side. Thus a road is constructed,
which is finally made quite smooth and even by the continual
passing to and fro of millions upon millions night and day. . .
If the road is looked down upon from a height with these
millions thickly pressed together, and all moving along with
their green bannerets over their heads, it looks as though a
giant green snake were gliding slowly along the ground ; and
this picture is all the more striking in that all these bannerets
are swaying backwards and forwards.^

This observer made the experiment of interrupting the
advance of a column of these ants, with the interesting
result which he describes : —

I wished to see how they would manage if I put an obstacle
in their way. Thick high grass stood on either side of their
narrow road, so that they could not pass through it with the
load on their heads. I placed a dry branch, nearly a foot in
diameter, obliquely across their path, and pressed it down so
tightly on the ground that they could not creep underneath.
The first comers crawled beneath the branch as far as they
could, and then tried to climb over, but failed owing to the
weight on their heads. Meanwhile the unloaded ants from
the other side came on, and when these succeeded in climbing
over the bough there was such a crush that the unladen ants
had to clamber over the laden, and the result was a terrible
muddle. 1 now walked along the train, and found that all the
ants with their bannerets on their heads were standing still,

' Log. oit. p. 97.

96

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

thickly pressed together, awaiting the word of command from
the front. When I turned back to the obstacle, I saw with
astonishment that the loads had been laid aside by more than a
foot's length of the column, one imitating the other. And
now work began on both sides of the branch, and in about h&lf
an hour a tunnel was made beneath it. Each ant then took up
its burden again, and the march was resumed in the most per-
fect order.

A migration of these ante is thus described by the same
observer : —

The road led towards a cocoa plantation, and here I soon
discovered the building which I afterwards visited daily. As I
again went thither one day I was met, at a considerable dis-
tance from the nest, by a closely pressed column coming thence,
and all the ants laden with leaves, beetles, pupae, buttei-flies,
&c. ; the nearer I came to the nest, the greater was the
activity. It was soon plain to me that the ants were in the
act of leaving their dwelling, and I walked along the train
to discover the new abode. They had gone for some, distance
along the old road, and had then made a new one through the
grass to a cooler place, lying rather higher. The grass on the
new road was all bitten off close to the ground, and thousands
were busy carrying the path on to the new building. At the
new home itself was an unusual stir of life. There were all
sorts of labourers — ^architects, builders, carpenters, sappers,
helpers. A number were busy digging a hole in the ground,
and they carried out little pellets of earth and laid them
together on end to make a wall. Others drew along little twigs,
straws, and grass-stalks, and put them near the place of build-
ing. I was anxious to know why they had quitted their old
home, and when the departure was complete, I dug it up with
a spade. At a depth of about a foot and a half I found several
tunnels of a large marmot species, the terror of cocoa planters,
because in making their passages they gnaw off the thickest
roots of the cocoa plants. The interior of the ant-hill had ap-
parently fallen in through these mines. Unfortunately I was
unable to follow further the progress of the new building, for I
was obliged to leave t/ie next day for San Juan del Sur. When
I returned at the end of a week the building was finished, and .
the whole colony was again busy with the leaves of the coffee
plants.

Harvesting Ants (Atta). — The ants which, so far as at

HARVESTING ANTS.

97

present known, practise the peculiai and distinctive
habits to be described under this division belong for the
most part to one genus, ^^^a, which, however, comprises a
number of species distributed in localised areas over all the
four quarters of the globe. Hitherto nineteen species
have been detected as having the habits in question.
These consist of gathering nutritious seeds of grasses
^luring summer, and storing them in granaries for winter
consumption. We owe our present knowledge concerning
these insects to Mr. Moggridge,' who studied them in the
south of Europe, Dr. Lincecum,^ and Mr. MacCook,^ who
studied them in Texas, and Colonel Sykes'' and Dr. Jerdon,"*
who made some observations upon them in India. They
also occur scattered over a great part of Europe and in
Palestine, where they were clearly known to Solomon and
other classical writers of antiquity,^ whose claim to accu-
rate observation, although long disputed (owing to the
authority of Huber), has now been amply vindicated.

Mr. Moggridge, who was a careful and industrious
observer, found the following points of interest in the
habits of the European harvesters. From the nest in
various directions there proceed outgoing trains, which
may be from twenty to thirty or more yards in length, and
each consists of a double row of ants, moving, like the
leaf-cutting ants, in opposite directions. Those in the
outgoing row are empty-handed, while those in the in-
coming row are laden. But here the burdens are grass
seeds. The roads terminate in the foraging ground, or
ant-fields, and the insects composing the columns there
become dispersed by hundreds among the seed-yielding
grasses. The following is their method of collecting seeds ;
I quote from Moggridge : —

' Harvesting Ants and Trap-door Spiders, London, 1873 and Sup-
plement, 1874.

Jovmal Linn Soc, vol. vi. p. 29, 1862.
» Agi-icultural Ant of Texas, Philadelphia, 1880.

* Trans. Ent. Soc. Land., i. 103, 1836.

* Madras Jonrn. Lit. Sc. 1851.

* For this see Moggridge, loc. oit. pp. 6-10, where, besides Prov. iv.
6-8, and xxx. 26, quotations are given from Horace, Virgil, PlaatiUi.
and others.

98

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

It is not a little surprising to see that the ants bring in not
only seeds of large size and fallen grain, but also green capsules,
the torn stalks of which show that they have been freshly
gathered from the plant. The manner in which they accomplish
this feat is as follows. An ant ascends the stem of a fruiting
plant of shepherd's-purse {Capsella hursa-pastoris), let us say,
and selects a well-filled but green pod about midway up the
Btem, those below being i-eady to shed their seeds at a touch.
Then, seizing it in its jaws, and fixing its hind legs firmly as a
pivot, it contrives to turn round and round, and so strain the
fibres of the fruit-stalk that at length they snap. It then de-
scends to the stem, patiently backing and turning upwards
again as often as the clumsy and disproportionate bui-den
becomes wedged between the thickly set stalks, and joins the
line of its companions on their way to the nest. In this manner
capsules of chickweed [/Stellaria media) and entire calyces, con-
taining the nutlets of calamint, are gathered ; two ants also
sometimes combine theii* efforts, when one stations itself near
the base of the peduncle and gnaws it at the point of greatest
tension, while the other hauls upon and twists it. I have
never seen a capsule severed from its stalk by cutting alone,
and the mandibles of this ant are perhaps incompetent to per-
form such a task. I have occasionally seen ants engaged in
cutting the capsules of certain plants, drop them, and allow their
companions below to carry them away ; and this corresponds
with the curious account given by ^lian of the manner in
which the spikelets of corn are severed and thrown down ' to
the people below,' rw St^/xw r<2 koltu).

The recognition of the principle of the division of
labour which the latter observation supplies, is further
proved by the following quotation from the same author.
A dead grasshopper which was being carried into their
nest was —

Too large to pass through the door, so they tried to dismember
it. Failing in this, several ants drew the wings and legs as 'ar
back as possible, while others gnawed through the mu cles
where the strain was greatest. They succeeded at last in thus
pulling it in.

The same thing is strikingly shown by the following
quotation from Lespes : —

If the road from the place where they are gathering theii

HAEVESTING ANTS.

99

harvest to the nest is very long, they make regular depots for
thpiir provisions under large leaves, stones, or other suitable
places, and let certain workers have the duty of carrying them
from dep6t to depot.

Biichner (loc. cit. p. 101) also makes the following
references to the statements of previous observers : —

The subterranean workers of this remarkable genus ai-e veiy
-clever. The Rev. H. Clark reports from Rio de Janeiro, that
the Sa-uhas have made a regular tunnel under the bed of the
river Parahyba, which is there as broad as the Thames at
London, in order to reach a storehouse which is on the opposite
bank. Bates tells us that close to the Magoary rice-mills, near
Para, the ants bored through the dam of a laige reservoir, and
the water escaped before the mischief could be remedied. In
the Para Botanical Gardens an entei-prising French gardener
did everything he could to drive the Sa-uhas away. He lit fires
at the chief entrances of their nests, and blew sulphur vapour
into their galleries by means of bellows. But how astonished
was Bates when he saw the vapour come out at no less a dis-
tance than seventy yards ! Such an extension have the sub-
terranean passages of the Sa-uhas.

The recognition of the principle of the division of
labour, which is shown by the above observations, is further
corroborated by the following quotation from Belt : —

Between the old burrows and the new one was a steep
dope. Instead of descending this with their burdens, they cast
them down on the top of the slope, whence they rolled down to
the bottom, where another relay of labourers picked them up
and caiTied them to the new burrow. It was amusing to watch
the ants hurrying out with bundles of food, droppiug them over
the slope, and rushing back immediately for more.

The same thing has been observed, as already stated,
of the leaf-cutting ants — those engaged in cutting fre-
quently throwing down the fragments of leaf which they
cut to the carriers below. The prevalence of this habit
among various species of ants therefore renders credible
the following statements of Vincent Gredler of Botzen
which are thus recorded in ' der Zool. Gart.,' xv. p. 434 : —

In Herr Gredler's monastery one of the monks had been
accustomed for some months to put food regularly on his window-
8

lOO

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

^ill for ants coming up from the garden. In consequence of
Herr Gredler's communications he took it into his head to put
the bait for the ants, pounded sugar, into an old inkstand, and
hung this up by a string to the cross-piece of hLs window, and
left it hanging freely. A few ants were in with the bait
These soon found their road out over the string with their grains
of sugar, and so their way back to their friends. Before long a
procession was arranged on the new road from the Avindow-sill
along the string to the spot where the sugar was, and so things
went on for two days, nothing fresh occurring. But one day
the procession stopped at the old feeding-place on the window-
sill, and took the food thence, without going up to the pendent
sugar -jar. Closer observation revealed that about a dozen of
the rogues were in the jar above, and were busily and unweary-
ingly carrying the grains of sugar to the edge of the pot, and
throwing them over to their comrades down below.

Many other instances of the division of labour might
be given besides these, and those to be mentioned here-
after in other connections throughout the course of the
present chapter ; but enough has been said to show that
the principle is unquestionably acted upon by sundry
species of ants.

That ants are liable to make mistakes, and, when they
do, that they profit by experience, is shown by the follow-
ing experiment made by Moggridge ; and many other in-
stances might be given were it desirable : —

It sometimes happens that an ant has manifestly made a bad
selection, and is told on its return that what it has brought
home with much pains is no better than rubbish, and is hustled
out of the nest, and forced to throw its burden away. In order
to try whether these creatures were not fallible like othei
mortals, I one day took out with me a little packet of grey and
white porcelain beads, and scattei-ed these in the path of a har-
vesting train. They had scarcely Iain a minute on the earth
before one of the largest workers seized upon a bead, and with
some difficulty clipped it with its mandibles and trotted back at
a great pace to the nest. I waited for a little while, my atten
tion being divided between the othei- ants who were vainly en-
deavouring to remove the beads, and the entrance down which
the worker had disappeared, and then left the spot. On my
return in an hour's time, I foimd the ants passing unconcernedl}
by and over the beads which lay where I had strewed then] 1 1

HARVESTING ANTS.

101

apparently undiminished quantities ; and I conclude from this
that they had found out their mistake, and had wisely returned
to their accustomed occupations.

When the grain is thus taken into the nest, it is
stored in regular granaries, but not until it has been de-
nuded of its ' husks ' or ' chaff.' The denuding process is
carried on below ground, and the chaff is brought up to
the surface, where it is laid in heaps to be blown away by
the wind.

It is a remarkable thing, and one not yet understood,
why the seed, when thus stored in subterranean chambers
just far enough below the surface to favoiu: germination,
does not germinate. Moggridge says that out of twenty-
one nests and among many thousands of seeds that he
examined, he only found twenty-seven cases of incipient
germination. Moreover, all these cases occurred in months
from November to February, while in the nests opened in
October, March, April, and May, no sprouted seeds were
discovered, though these are the months highly favourable
to germination. He is at a loss to suggest tlie treatment
to which the ants expose the seeds in order to prevent
their sprouting. ' Apparently it is not that moisture or
warmth or the influence of atmospheric air is denied to
the seeds, for we find them in damp soil in genial weather,
and often at but a trifling distance below the surface of
the ground ; ' and he has proved that the vitality of the
seeds is not impaired, for he succeeded in raising crops of
young plants from seeds removed from the granaries.

He also says, —

By a fortunate chance I have been able to prove that the
seeds will germinate in an undisturbed granary when the ants
are prevented from obtaining access to it : and this goes to show
not only that the structure and nature of the granary chamber
is not sufficient of itself to prevent germination, but also that the
presence of the ants is essential to secure the dormant condition
of the seeds.

I discovered in two places portions of distinct nests of Atta
gtructor which had been isolated owing to the desti-uction of the
hollow wall behind which they lay, and then the granaries well
filled up and literally choked with growing seeds, though the
earth in which they lay completely enclosed and concealed then?

102

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

antil by chance I laid them bare. In one case I knew that the
destruction of the wall had only taken place ten days before, so
that the seeds had sprouted in the interval.

My experiments also tend to confirm this, and to favour the
belief "that the non-germination of the seeds is due to some
direct influence voluntarily exercised by the ants, and not
merely to the conditions found in the nest, or to acid vapoars
which in certain cases are given off by the ants themselves.

These experiments consisted in confining a large
number of harvesting ants with their queen and larvae in
a glass test-tube partly filled with damp soil and various
seeds, the whole being closed with a cork in the mouth
of the test-tube. Under these circumstances the seeds
all sprouted, showing that mere confinement in an atmo-
sphere of exhalations from the ants did not prevent germi-
nation. Another series of experiments, undertaken at the
suggestion of Mr. Darwin, on the effects of an atmosphere
of formic acid, showed that although this vapour was very
injurious to the seeds, it did not prevent their incipient
germination. Therefore it yet remains to be ascertained
why the seeds do not germinate in the granaries of the
ants.

But in whatever way the ants manage to prevent ger-
mination, it is certain that they are aware of the
importance in this connection of keeping the seeds as
dry as possible ; for Moggridge repeatedly observed that
when the seeds which had been stored proved over-moist,
the ants again took them out and spread them in the sun
to dry, to be again brought into the nest after a sufficient
exposure.

Lastly, he also repeatedly observed the most surprising
and interesting fact that when, as we have seen was occa-
sionally the case, the seeds did begin to germinate in the
nests, the ants knew the most effective method of pre-
venting the germination from proceeding ; for he found
that in these cases the ants gnawed off the tips of the
radicles. This fact deserves to be considered as one of
the most remarkable among the many remarkable facts of
ant-psychology.

Passing on now to the harvest' rg or agricultural ants

HARVESTING ANTS.

103

of Texas, attention was first called to the habits of this
insect by Mr. Buckley in 1860,^ and by Dr. Lincecum,
who sent an account of his observations to Mr. Darwin,
by whom they were communicated to the Linnaean Society
in 1861. Five years later a paper was published in the
Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia from the MS. of Dr. Lincecum. Lastly, in
1877 Mr. MacCook went to Texas expressly to study the
habits of these insects, and he has recently embodied the
results of his observations in a book of three hundred
pages.^ These observations are for the most part confir-
matory of those of Lincecum, and for this as well as for
reasons to be deduced from the work itself, they deserve
to be accepted as trustworthy, notwithstanding that in some
cases they are provokingly incomplete. The following is
an epitome of these observations.

The ants clear away all the herbage above their nest in
the form of a perfect circle, or 'disk,' 15 or 20 feet in
diameter, by carefully felling every stalk of grass or weed
that may be growing thereon. As the nests are placed in
thickly grown localities, the effect of these bald or shaven
disks is highly conspicuous and peculiar, exactly resembling
in miniature the clearings which the settlers make in the
American backwoods. The disk, however, is not merely
cleared of herbage, but also carefully levelled, all inequali-
ties of the surface being reduced by building pellets of
soil into the hollows to an extent sufficient to make a
uniformly flat surface. The action of rain and the constant
motion of multitudes of ants cause this flat surface to
become hard and smooth. In the centre of the disk is the
gateway of the nest. This may be either a simple hole
or a hollow cone.

From the disk in various directions there radiate ant^
roads or avenues, which are cleared and smoothed like the
disk itself, and which course through the thick surround-
ing grass, branching and narrowing as they go till they
eventually taper away. These roads are usually three or
four in number before they begin to branch, but may be

> Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci., xii. p. 445.

* Agricultural Ant of Texas (Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia,! 880).

104

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

as many as seven. They are usually two to three inches
wide at their origin, but in large nests may be as much as
five. MacCook found no road longer than sixty feet, but
Lincecum describes one of three hundred feet. Along
these hard and level roads there is always passing, during
the daytime of the harvesting season, a constant stream
of ants — those going from the nest being empty-handed j
and those returning to it being laden with seeds. Of
course the incoming ants, converging from all quarters
upon the road, and therefore increasing in numbers as they
approach the nest, require greater space for free locomo-
tion ; while the outgoing ants, diverging as they get further
from home, also require greater proportional space the
less their distance from the nest: hence the gradual
swelling in the width of the roads as they approach the
nests.

The manner of collecting the seeds in the jungle sur-
rounding the roads is thus described by MacCook : —

At last a satisfactory seed is found. It is simply lifted from
the ground, or, as often happens, has to be pulled out of the
soil into which it has been tightly pressed by the rain or by
passing feet. Now follows a movement which at fii'st I
thought to be a testing of the seed, and which, indeed, may be
partially that; but finally I concluded that it was the adjusting
of the burden for safe and convenient carriage. The ant pulls
at the seed-husk with its mandibles, turning and pinching or
* feeling ' it on all sides. If this does not satisfy, and commonly
it does not, the body is raised by stifiening out the legs, the
abdomen is curved underneath, and the apex applied to the seed.
I suppose this to be simply a mechanical action for the better
adjusting of the load. Now the worker starts homeward. It
has not lost itself in the mazes of the grass forest. It turns
directly towards the road with an unerring judgment. There
are many obstacles to overcome. Pebbles, pellets of earth, bits
of wood, obtruding rootlets, or bent-down spears of grass block
up or hinder the way. These were scarcely noticed when thft
ant was empty-handed. But the}' are troublesome barriers now
that she is burdened with a seed quite as thick, twice as wide,
and half as long as herself. It is most interesting to see the
5kill, strength, and rapidity with which the little harvester
swings her treasure over or around, or pushes it beneath these
obstacles. Now the seed has caught against the herbage as the

HAEVESTma ANTS.

105

porter dodges under a too narrow opening. She backs out and
tries another passage. Now the sharp points of the husk are
entangled in the grass. She jerks or pulls the burden loose, and
hurries on. The road is reached, and progress is comparatively
easy. Holding the grain in her mandibles well above the
surface, she breaks into what I may describe with suffi-
cient accuracy as ' a trot,' and with little further interruption
reaches the disk and disappears within the gate. There are
variations from this behaviour, more or less marked, according
to the nature of the grounds, the seeds, and (I suppose) the indi-
viduality of the harvesters ; but the mode of ingathering the
crop is substantially as above. Each ant operated independently.
Once only did I see anything like an effort to extend sympathy
and aid. A worker minor seeming to have difficulty in testing
or adjusting a large seed of buffalo-grass, was assisted (ap-
parently) by one worker major, and then by another, after
which she went on her way.

But these ants do not confine their harvesting opera-
tions to gathering fallen seeds ; they will, like the ants of
Europe, also cut seeds from the stalk.

In order to test the disposition of cruddis to garner the
ieeds from the stem, bunches of millet were obtained from the
N^orth, and stalks eighteen inches high, crowned by the boll of
elose-set seeds, were stuck in the mound of an active formicary.
The ants mounted the stems and set to work vigorously to
lecure the seeds, clusters of twenty or more being engaged at
&nce upon one head. The seeds were carried off and stored
within the nest. This experiment proved pretty conclusively
that in the seeding season crudelis does not wait for the seeds
to drop, but harvests them from the plant.

The ' granaries ' into which the seeds are brought are
kept distinct from the ' nurseries ' for the pupae. Their
walls, floor, and roof are so hard and smooth, that MacCook
thinks the insects must practise upon them ' some rude
mason's craft.'

He traced these granaries to a depth of four feet
below the surface of the ground, and believes, from the
statements of a native peasant, that they, or at least the
formicaries, extend to a depth of fifteen feet.

As regards the care that the ants take of the gathered
grain, Lincecum describes the same habit as Moggridge
and Sykes describe — viz., the sunning of wet seeds tc

106

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

dry. MacCook, however, neglected to make any experi-
ments on this subject. Neither has he been able to throw
any light upon the question as to why the stored seeds do
not germinate, and is doubtful whether the habit ol
gnawing the radicle of sprouting seeds, which prevails
in the European species, is likewise practised by the
American. On two other points of importance MacCook'g
observations are also incomplete. One of these has refer-
ence to an alleged statement, which he is disposed to
beheve, that when some ants in a community have been
killed by poison, the survivors avoid the poison : he, how-
ever, made no experiments to test this statement.

The other main point on which his observations are
defective has reference to a remarkable statement made
by Lincecum in the most emphatic terms. This state-
ment is that upon the surface of their disk the ants
sow the seeds of a certain plant, called ant-rice, for the
purpose of subsequently reaping a harvest of the grain.
There is no doubt that the ant-disks do very often sup-
port this peculiar kind of gi'ass, and that the ants are
particularly fond of its seed; but whether the plant is
actually sown in these situations by the insects, or grows
there on account of these situations being more open
than the general surface of the ground — this question
MacCook has failed to answer, or even to further. We are,
therefore, still left with Dr. Lincecimi's emphatic assur-
ance that he has witnessed the fact. His account is that
the seed of the ant-rice, which is a biennial plant, is sown
in time for the autumnal rains to bring up. At the be-
ginning of November a green row or ring of ant-rice,
about four inches wide, is seen springing up round the cir-
cumference of the disk. In the vicinity of this circular
ring the ants do not permit a single spire of any other
grass or weed to remain a day, but leave the aristida, or
ant-rice, untouched until it ripens, which occurs in June of
the next year. After the maturing and harvesting of the
seed, the dry stubble is cut away and removed from the
pavement or disk, which is thus left unencumbered until
the ensuing autumn, when the same species of grass again
appears as before, and so on. Lincecum says he has seen

HAEVESTING ANTS.

107

the process go on year after year on the same ant-farms,
and adds, —

There can be no doubt of the fact that the particular species
of grain- bearing grass mentioned above is intentionally planted.
In farmer-like manner the gi'ound upon which it stands is care-
fully divested of all other grasses and weeds during the time it is
growing. When it is ripe the grain is taken care of, the dry
stubble cut away and carried off, the paved area being left un-
encumbered until the ensuing autumn, when the same ' ant-rice *
reappears within the same circle, and receives the same agri-
cultural attention as was bestoAved upon the previous crop — and
so on year after year, as I know to be the case, in all situations
when the ant's settlements are protected from graminivorous
animals.

In a second letter Dr. Linceciim, in reply to an inquiry
from Mr. Darwin whether he supposed that the ants plant
seeds for the ensuing crop, says : —

I have not the slightest doubt of it. And my conclusions
have not been an*ived at from hasty or careless observation, nor
from seeing the ants do something that looked a little like it,
and then guessing at the results. I have at all seasons watched
the same ant-cities during the last twelve years, and I know
that what I stated in my former letter is true. I visited the
same cities yesterday, and found the crop of ant rice growing
finely, and exhibiting also the signs of high cultivation, and not
a blade of any other kind of grass or weed was to be seen
within twelve inches of the circular row of ant-rice. — {Jourii.
Linn. Soc, vol. vi. p. 30-1.)

Now, MacCook found the ant-rice growing as described,
but only on some nests. Why it does not grow upon all
the nests he does not understand. So far, then, as his
observations go, they confirm those of Dr. Lincecum ; but
he does ' not believe that the ants deliberately sow a crop
as Lincecum asserts ; ' he thinks ' that they have for some
reason found it to their advantage to permit the aristida
to grow upon their disks, while they clear off all other
herbage ; ' but finally concludes ' that there is nothing
unreasonable, nor beyond the probable capacity of the
emmet intellect, in the supposition that the crop is actually
sown. Simply, it is the Scotch verdict — " Not proven."

108

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

The following facts with regard to ' modes of mining '
are worth quoting from MacCook : —

In sinking the galleries the difficulty of carrying is not
great in a moist or tough soil, which permits the ant to obtain
goodly-sized pellets for portage. But when the soil is light and
dry, so that it crumbles into dust as it is bitten off, the diffi-
culty is greatly increased. It would be a very tedious task
indeed to take out the diggings grain by grain. This difficulty
the worker overcomes by balling the small particles against the
surface of the gallery, the under side of the head, or within and
against the mandibles. The fore-feet are used for this purpose,
being pressed against the side face, turned under, and pushed
upwai'd with a motion similar to that of a man putting his
hand upon his mouth. The abdomen is then swung underneath
the body and the apex pressed against the little heap of grains
of dirt massed agtdnst the under side of the mandibles, or be-
tween tliat and the smooth under surface of the head. Thus the
dust is compressed into a ball which is of sufficient size to justify
deportation.

The same operation is observed in the side-galleries, where
the ants work very frequently upon their sides or backs, pre-
cisely as I have seen colhers do in Pennsylvania coal-mines.

The following is likewise worth quoting from the same
author : —

Seeds are evidently not the only food of our agriculturals.
When the ants at disk No. 2 had broken through the slight
mud-sediment that sealed up their gate, as described above,
they exhibited a peculiar behaviour. Instead of heading for
the roads and pressing along them, they distributed themselves
at once over the enth^e disk, radiating from the gate to all
points in the circumference, from which they penetrated the
jungle of grass beyond. In a moment a large number were
returning across the roads, out of the grass, over the pavement
toward the entrance. They bore in their mandibles objects
which I presently found to be the males and females of white
ants {Termes flavipes), which were filling the air, during and
after the rain, in marriage flight. They had probably swarmed
just before the shower. The agriculturals were under great
excitement, and hurried forth and back at the top of their
speed. The number of ants bearing termites was soon so great
that the vestibule became choked, and a mass of struggling
anthood was piled up around the gate. A stream of eager
insects continually poured out of the door, pushing their wa\

HAEVESTING AOTS.

109

through the crowd that vainly but persistently endeavoured to
get in with their burdens. The outcoming ants had the ad-
vantage, and succeeded in jostling through the quivering rosette
of antennae, legs, heads, and abdomens. Occasionally a worker
gained an entrance by dint of sheer physical force and perse-
verance. Again and again would the crowd rush from all
sides upon the gate, only to be pushed back by the issuing
throng. In the meanwhile quite a heap of termites, a good
handful at least, had been accumulated at one side of the gate,
the ants having evidently dropped them, in despair of entrance,
and hurried off to garner more.

In due time the pressure upon the vestibule diminished,
the laden workers entered more freely, and in the end this heap
was transferred to the interior. The i-apidity with which the
ants were distributed to all parts of their roads, after the first
opening of the gates, was truly surpiising. I was greatly
puzzled, at the first, to know what the cause of such a rush
might be. The whole behaviour was such as to carry the con-
viction that they knew accurately what effect the rain would
have, had calculated upon it, and were acting in accordance
with previous experience. I had no doubt at the time, and
have none now, that the capturing of insects beaten down by
the rain is one of the well-established customs of these ants. I
saw a few other insects taken in, and one milliped, but chiefly
the white ants.

That very afternoon I found in a formicary which I then
opened several large colonies, or parts of one colony of ter-
mites, nested within the limits of the disk and quite at home.
The next day numbers of the winged white ants were found
stored within the granaries of a large formicary. There is no
reason to doubt that these insects were intended for food, in
accordance with the quite universal habit of the Formicarice.

A curious habit has been noticed by most observers to
occur in many species of ant, and it is one on which ]\lr.
MacCook has a good deal to say. The habit in question
consists in the ants transporting one another from place to
place. The carrying ant seizes her comrade by the middle,
and hurries along with it held aloft — the ant which is
carried remaining quite motionless with all her legs drawn
together. Huber sup)posed the process to be one enjoy-
able to both the insects concerned, and to be performed by
mutual understanding and consent; but MacCook, in
common with most other observers, supposes that it is

no

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

merely a rough and primitive way of communicating t-o
fellow-workers the locality where their services are re*
quired. He says : —

Keeping these facts in mind, we have a key to the solution
of the press-gang operations which Liu cecum observed among
the agriculturals, and which have been fully described in other
species. In the absence of any common head or directory, and
of all executive officers, a change of location or any other con-
certed movement must be carried forward by the willing co-
operation of individuals. At first sight, the act of seizing and
carrying off workers does not appear like an appeal to free-will.
It is indeed coercive, so far as the first act goes. But, in point
of fact, the coercion ceases the moment the captive is set down
within the precincts of the new movement. The carrier-ant
has depended upon securing her consent and co-operation by
thus bringing her within the circle of activity for which her
service is sought. As a rule, no doubt, the deported ant at
once yields to the influence around her, and drops into the
current of fresh enterprise, in which she moves with as entire
freedom and as independently as any other worker. But she is
apparently under no restraint, and if she so please, may return
to her former haunts.

Certain Ants of Africa. — Livingstone says of certain
ants of Africa : —

They have established themselves on the plain where water
stands so long annually as to allow the lotus and other aqueous
plants to come to maturity. When all the ant-horizon is sub-
merged a foot deep, they manage to exist by ascending to little
houses built of black tenaceous loam on stalks of grass, and
placed higher than the line of inundation. This must have
been the result of experience, for, if they had waited till the
water actually invaded their terrestrial habitations, they would
not have been able to procure materials for their aerial quarters,
unless they dived down to the bottom for every mouthful of
clay. ^

The Tree Ant of India and New South Wales. — These
ants are remarkable from their habit of forming nests only
in trees. According to Col. Sykes' account, the shape of
the nest is more or less globular, and about ten inches in
diameter. It is formed entirely of cow-dung, which the

' Missionary Travels, p. 328,

HONEY-MAKING ANTS.

Ill

insects collect from the ground beneath, and work into
the form of thin scales. These are then built together in
an imbricated manner, like tiles or slates upon the roof of a
house, the upper or outer scale, however, being one un
broken sheet, which covers the whole nest like a skidl-cap.
Below this the scales are placed one upon another in a
wavy or scalloped manner, so that numerous little arched
entrances are left, and yet, owing to the imbricated
manner in which the scales are arranged, the interior of
the nest is perfectly protected from rain. This interior
consists of a number of irregular cells, the walls of which
are formed by the same process as the exterior.

In New South Wales there is another species of ant
which also frequents trees, but builds within the stem and
branches. In the report of Captain Cook's expedition its
habits are thus described: — 'Their habitations are the
insides of the branches of a tree, which they contrive to
excavate, by working out the pith almost to the extremity
of the slenderest twig ; the tree at the same time flourish-
ing as if it had no such inmate.' On breaking one of the
branches the ants swarm out in legions. Some of our
native species also have the habit of excavating the in-
terior of trees, though not on so extensive a scale.

Honey -making Ant (Myrmecocystus mexicanus). —
This ant is found in Texas and New Mexico. Capt. W.
B. Fleeson has observed its habits, and his observations
have been communicated to the Californian Academy of
Sciences, and also, by Mr. Henry Edwards, to ]Mr. Darwin.
The following are the chief points of interest in Capt.
Fleeson's results : —

The community appears to consist of three distinct kinds of
ants, probably of two separate genera, whose offices in the
general order of the nest would seem to be entirely apart from
each other, and who perform the labour allotted to them with-
out the least encroachment upon the dudes of their fellows.
These three kinds are —

I. Yellow workers ; nurses and feeders of 11.

II. Yellow honey-makers ; sole function to secrete a kind of

honey in their large globose abdomens, on which the
other ants are supposed to feed. They never quit
the nest, and are fed and tended by I.

112

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

Ill Black workers, guards, and pui-veyors ; surround the
nest as guards or sentinels, in a manner pi-esentlv
to be described, and also forage for the food required
for I. They are much larger and stronger insects
than eitlier I. or II., and are provided witli very
formidable mandibles.

The nest is plax3ed in sandy soil in the neighbourhocd
of shrubs and flowers, is a perfect square, and occupies
about four or five square feet of ground, the surface of
which is kept almost unbroken. But the boundaries of
the nest are rendered conspicuous by the guard of black
workers (III.), which continuously parade round three of
its sides in a close double line of defence, moving in
opposite directions. In the accompanying diagram this
sentry path is represented by the thick black lines. These
always face the same points of the compass, and the
direction in which the sentries march is one column from
south-west to south-east, and the other column from south
east to south-west — each column, however, moving in
regular order round three sides of a square. The southern
side of the encampment is left unguarded ; but if any
enemy approaches on this or any other side, a number of
the guards leave their stations, and sally forth to face the
foe — raising themselves on their hind tarsi on meeting the
enemy, and moving their large mandibles in defiance.
Spiders, wasps, beetles, and other insects, if they venture
too near the nest, are torn to pieces by the guard in a
most merciless manner, and the dead body of the van-
quished is speedily removed from the neighbourhood of the
nest — the guard then marching back to resume their
places in the line of defence, their object in destiuying
other insects being the defence of their encampment, and
not the obtaining of food.

The object of lea\'ing the southern side of the square
encampment open is as follows. While some of the black
workers are engaged on duty as guard, another and larger
division are engaged on duty as purveyors. These enter
and leave the quadrangle by its open or southern side
along the dotted line marked a to the central point c
The incoming line is composed of individuals each bearing

HONEY-MAKINa ANTS.

113

a burden of fragments of flowers or aromatic leaves.
These are all deposited in the centre of the quadi-angle
c. Along the other diagonal e there is a no less incessantly
moving double line of yellow workers (1.), whose office it
is to convey the supplies deposited by the black workers
at c to 6, which is the gateway of the fortress. It is re-
markable that no black ant is ever seen upon the line e,

N

Fig. 7.

and no yellow one upon the line a ; each keeps his own

separate station, and follows his own particular duty with
a steadfastness and apparent adherence to discipline that
are most astonishing. The hole at d seems to be a venti-
lating shaft ; it is never used as a gateway.

Section of the nest reveals, besides galleries, a small
chamber about three feet below the surface, across which
is spread, like a spider's web, a network of squares spun
by the insects, the squares being about \ inch across, and

114

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

the ends of the whole net being fastened to the earthen
walls of the chamber. In each one of the squares, sup-
ported by the web, sits one of the honey-making ants (II.).
Here these honey makers live in perpetual confinement,
and receive a constant supply of flowers, pollen, &c., which
is continually being brought them by (I.), and which, by
d process analogous to that performed by the bee, they
convert into honey.

Such is an epitome of the only account that the world
has yet received of the habits and economy of this wonder-
ful insect, whose instincts of military organization seem
to be not less wonderful than those of the Ecitons, though
in this case they are developed with reference to defence,
and not to aggression. It is especially noteworthy that
the black and yellow workers are believed to belong to
' two separate genera for if this is the case, it is the only
one I can recall of two distinct species co-operating for a
common end ; for even the nearest parallel which we find
suppHed in other species of ants maintaining aphides, is
not quite the same thing, seeing that the aphides are
merely passive agents, like Class II., of the honey-making
ant, and not actively co-operating members of the com-
munity, like Class I,

Ecitons. — We have next to consider the habits of the
wonderful ' foraging,' or, as it might be more appropriately
called, the military ant of the Amazon. These insects,
which belong to several species of the same genus, have
been carefully watched by Belt, Bates, and other natural-
ists. The following facts must therefore be accepted as
fully established.

Eciton legionis moves in enormous armies, and every-
thing that these insects do is done with the most perfect
instinct of military organization. The army marches in
the form of a rather broad and regular column, hundreds
of yards in length. The object of the march is the capture
and plunder of other insects, &c., for food, and as the
well-organised host advances, its devastating legions set
all other terrestrial life at defiance. From the main
column there are sent out smaller lateral columns, the
composing individuals of which play the part of scouts.

MILITARY Al^TS.

115

branching off in various directions, and searching about
with the utmost activity for insects, grubs, &c., over everj
log, under every fallen leaf, and in every nook and cranny
where there is any chance of finding prey. When their
errand is completed, they return into the main column
If the prey found is sufficiently small for the scouts them-
selves to manage, it is immediately seized, and carried
back to the main column ; but if the amount is too large
for the scouts to deal with alone, messengers are sent back
to the main column, whence there is immediately dig-
patched a detachment large enough to cope with the re-
quirements. Insects which when killed are too large for
single ants to carry, are torn in pieces, and the pieces
conveyed back to the main army by different iildividuals.
Many insects in trying to escape run up bushes and shrubs,
where they are pursued from branch to branch and twig
to twig by their remorseless enemies, until on arriving at
some terminal ramification they must either submit to
immediate capture by their pursuers, or drop down amid
the murderous hosts beneath. As already stated, all the
spoils that are taken by the scouts or by the detachments
sent out in answer to their demands for assistance, are
immediately taken back to the main column. When they
arrive there, they are taken to the rear of that column by
two smaller columns of carriers, which are constantly
running, one on either side of the main column, with the
supplies that are constantly pouring in from both sides.
Each of these outside columns is a double line, the ants
composing one of the two lines all running in the same
direction as the main army, and the ants composing the
other line all running in the opposite direction. The
former are empty-handed carriers, which having deposited
their burdens in the rear, are again advancing to the
van for fresh burdens. Those composing the other line
are all laden with the mangled remains of insects, pupae
of other ants, &c. On either side of the main column
there are also constantly running up and down a few in-
dividuals of smaller size and lighter colom than the other
ants, which seem to play the part of officers ; for thej
Dever leave their stations, and while running up and
9

116

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

down the outsides of the column, they every now and
again stop to touch antennae with some member of the
rank and file, as if to give instructions. When the scouts
discover a wasp's nest in a tree, a strong force is sent out
from the main army, the nest is pulled to pieces, and all
the larvae carried to the rear of the army, while the wasps
fly around defenceless against the invading multitude.
Or, if the nest of any other species of ant is found, a
similarly strong force, or perhaps the whole army is de-
flected towards it, and with the utmost energy the innu-
merable insects set to work to sink shafts and dig mines
till the whole nest is rifled of its contents. In these
mining operations the ants work with an extraordinary
display of organized co-operation ; for those low down in
the shafts do not lose time by carrying up the earth which
they excavate, but pass on the pellets to those above ; and
the ants on the surface, when they receive the pellets,
carry them, ' with an appearance of forethought that quite
staggered ' IVIr. Bates, only just far enough to ensure that
they shall not roll back again into the shaft, and, after
depositing them, immediately hurry back for more.
But there is not a rigid division of labour, although the
work ' seems to be performed by intelligent co-operation
amongst a host of eager little creatures ; ' for some of
them act ' sometimes as carriers of pellets, and at another
as miners, and all shortly afterwards assume the ofiice ol
conveyors of the spoil.' Again, as showing the instincts
of co-operation, the following may also be quoted from
Bates's account : —

On the following morniiig no trace of ants could be found
near the place where I had seen them the preceding day, nor
were there signs of insects of any description in the thicket ;
but at the distance of eighty or one hundred yards, I came
upon the same army, engaged evidently on a razzia of a similar
kind to that of the previous evening ; but requiring other re-
sources of their instinct, owing to the nature of the ground.
They were eagerly occupied on the face of an inchued bank ol
light earth in excavating mines, whence, from a depth of eight
or ten inches, they were extracting the bodies of a bulky species
of ant of the genus Formica. It was curious to see them crowd-
ing round the orifices of the mines, some assisting their com

MILITARY ANTS.

117

rades to lift out the bodies of tliu Formicse, and others tearing
them in pieces, on account oi their weight being too great for a
single Eciton ; a numbcx of carriers seizing each a fragment,
and carrying it off down the slope.

These EciLons have no fixed nest themselves, but live,
as it were^ on a perpetual campaign. At night, however,
thej call a halt and pitch a camp. F"or this purpose they
usually select a piece of broken ground, in the interstices
of which they temporarily store their plunder. In the
morning the army is again on the march, and before an
hour or two has passed not a single ant is to be seen
where the countless multitudes had previously covered
the ground.

Another and larger species of Eciton {E, hamata)
hunts sometimes in dense armies, and sometimes in
columns, according to the kind of prey of which they are
in search. When in columns they are seeking for the
nests of a certain species of ant which have their young
in holes of rotten logs. These Ecitons when seeking for
these nests hunt about, like those just described, in
columns, which branch ofi' in various directions. When a
fallen log is reached, the column spreads over it, search-
ing through all the holes and cracks. Mr. Belt says of
them : —

The workers are of various sizes, and the smallest are here
of use, for they squeeze themselves into the narrowest holes,
and search out their prey in the furthest ramifications of the
nests. When a nest of the Hypoclinea is attacked, the ants
rush out, carrying the larvae and pupae in their jaws, but are
immediately despoiled of them by the Ecitons, which are run-
ning about in every direction wiih great swiftness. Whenever
they come across a Hypoclinea caiTying a larva or pupa, they
take it from it so quickly, that I could never ascertain exactly
how it was done.

As soon as an Eciton gets hold of its prey, it rushes off back
along the advancing column, which is composed of two sets,
one hurrying forward, the other returning laden with their
booty, but all and always in the greatest haste and apparent
hurrv. About the nest which they are harrying, all appears in
confusion, Ecitons running here and there and everywhere in
the greatest haste and disorder ; but the result of this ap-

118

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

parent confusion is that scarcely a single Hypoclinea gets away
with a pupa or larva. I never saw the Ecitons injure the
Hypoclineas themselves, they were always contented with de-
spoiling them of their young.

The columns of this species ' are composed almost
entirely of workers of different sizes ; ' but, as in the
species previously mentioned, 'at inters^als of two or
three yards there are larger and lighter coloured indi-
viduals that often stop, and sometimes run a little back-
ward, stopping and touching some of the ants with their
antennae,' and looking ' like officers giving orders and di-
recting the march of the column.'

Concerning the other habits of this species, the same
author writes : —

The eyes in the Ecitons are very small, in some of the
species imperfect, and in others entirely absent ; in this they
differ greatly from the Pseudomyrma ant8, which hunt singly
and which have the eyes greatly developed. The imperfection
of eyesi.ofht in the Ecitons is an advantage to the community,
and to their particular mode of huntiug. It keeps them to-
gether, and prevents individual ants from stai'ting off alone
after objects that, if their eyesight was better, they might dis-
cover at a distance ; the Ecitons and most other ants follow
each other by scent, and, I believe, they can communicate the
presence of danger, of booty, or other intelligence, to a distance
by the different intensity or qualities of the odours given off. I
one day saw a column of Eciton hamata running along the foot
of a nearly perpendicular tramway cutting, the side of which
was about six feet high. At one point I noticed a sort of
assembly of about a dozen individuals that appeai'ed in consul-
tation. Suddenly one ant left the conclave, and ran with great
speed up the pei pendicular face of the cutting without stopping.
It was followed by others, which, however, did not keep straight
on like the first, but ran a short way, then returned, then again
followed a little further than the first time. They were evi-
dently scenting the trail of the pioneer, and making it per-
manently recognisable. These ants followed the exact line
taken by the first one, although it was far out of sight. Wher-
ever it had made a slight detour they did so likewise. I scraped
with my knife a small portion of the clay on the trail, and the
ants were completely at fault for a time which way to go.
Those ascending and those descending stopped at the scrape(/

MILITARY ANTS.

119

portion, and made short circuits until they hit the scented trail
again, when all their hesitation vanished, and they ran up and
down it with the greatest confidence. On gaining the top oi
the cutting, the ants entered some brushwood suitable for hunt-
ing. In a very short space of time the information was com-
municated to the ants below, and a dense column rushed up to
search for their prey. The Ecitons are singular amongst the
ants in this respect, that they have no fixed habitations, but
move on from one place to another, as they exhaust the hunting
grounds around them. I think Eciton hamata does not stay
more than four or five days in one place. I have sometimes
come across the migratory columns ; they may easily be known.
Here and there one of the light- coloured officers moves back-
wards and forwards directing the columns. Such a column is
of enormous length, and contains many thousands if not millions
of individuals. I have sometimes followed them up for two or
three hundred yards without getting to the end.

They make their temporary habitations in hollow trees, and
sometimes underneath large fallen trucks that otfer suitable
hollows. A nest that I came across in the latter situation was
open at one side. The ants were clustered together in a dense
mass, like a great swarm of bees, hanging from the roof but
reaching to the ground below. Their innumerable long legs
looked like brown threads binding together the mass, which
must have been at least a cubic yard in bulk, and contained
hundreds of thousai .ds of individuals, although many columns
were outside, some bringing in the pupae of ants, others the legs
and dissected bodies of various insects. I was surprised to see
in this living nest tubular passages leading down to the centre
of the mass, kept open just as if it had been formed of inorganic
materials. Down these holes the ants who were bringing in
booty passed with their prey. I thrust a long stick down to
the centre of the cluster, and brought out clinging to it many
ants holding larvae and pupae, which probably were kept warm
by the crowding together of the ants. Besides the common
dark-coloured workers and light-coloured officers, I saw here
many still larger individuals with enormous jaws. These
they go about holding wide open in a thi-eatening manner.

It was this ant which, as previously stated, showed
sympathy and fellow-feeling with companions in diflS-
culties.

The habits of E, drepanophora are closely similai
to those of the species already described ; and, indeed,

120

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

exuept in matters of detail, all the species of Ecitons have
much the same habits. Mr. Bates records an interesting
observation which he made on one of the moving columns
of this species. He says : ' When I interfered with the
column or abstracted an indi\ddual from it, news of the
disturbance was quickly communicated to a distance of
several yards to the rear, and the column at that j)oint
commenced retreating.' The main column is in thi>
species narrower, viz., * from four to six deep,' but extends
to a great length, viz., half a mile or more. It was this
species of Eciton that the same naturalist describes as en-
joying periods of leisure and recreation in the ' sunny
nooks of the forest.'

Next we have to consider E. prcedator, of which the
8ame observer writes : —

This is a small dark reddish species, very similar to the
common red stinging ant of England. It differs from all other
Ecitons in its habit of hunting, not in columns, but in dense
phalanxes consisting of myriads of individuals, and was first met
with at Ega, where it is very common. Nothing in insect
movements is more striking than tne rapid march of these
large and compact bodies. Wherever they pass, all the rpst of
the animal world is thrown into a state of alarm. They stream
along the ground and climb to the summits of all the lower
trees, searching every leaf to its apex, and whenever they en-
counter a mass of decaying vegetable matter, where booty L«
plentiful, they concentrate, like other Ecitons, all their forces
upon it, the dense phalanx of shining and quickly-moving
bodies, as it spreads over the surface, looking like a flood of
dark red liquid. They soon penetrate every part of the con-
fused heap, and then, gathering together again in marching
order, onward they move. All soft- bodied and inactive insects
fall an easy prey to them, and, ]ike other Ecitons, they tear
their victims in pieces for facility of carriage. A phalanx oi
this species, when passing over a tract of smooth ground, occu-
pies a space of from four to six square yjards ; on examining
the ants closely they are seen to move, not all together in one
straightforward dii-ection, but in variously spreading contiguous
columns, now separating a little from the geneml mass, now
reuniting with it. The margins of the phalanx spread out at
times like a cloud of skirmishers from the flanks of an array
I was never able to find the hive of this species.

MILITAEY ANTS.

121

Lastly, there are two species of Eciton totally blind,
and their habits differ from those of the species which
we have hitherto considered. Bates writes of them : —

The armies of E. vastator and E. erratica move, as far as I
could learn, wholly under covered roads, the ants constructing
them gradually but rapidly as they advance. The column of
foragers pushes forward step by step, under the protection of
these coveted passages, through the thickets, and on reaching a
rotting log, or other promising hunting-ground, pour into the
crevices in search of booty. I have traced their arcades, occa-
sionally, for a distance of one or two hundred yards ; the grains
of earth are taken from the soil over which the column is pass-
ing, and are fitted tA^gether without cement. It is this last-
mentioned feature that distinguishes them from the similar
covered roads made by termites, who use their glutinous saliva
to cement the grains together. The blind Ecitons, working in
numbers, build up simultaneously the sides of their convex
arcades, and contrive, in a surprising manner, to approximate
them and tit in the key-stones without letting the loose un-
cemented structure fall to pieces. There was a very cleiir di-
vision of labour between the two classes of neuters in these
blind species. The large-headed class, although not possessing
monstrously lengthened jaws like the worker-majors in E.
hamata and E. drepanophora, are rigidly defined in structut e
from the small-headed class, and act as soldiers, defending the
working community (like soldier termites) against all comers.
Whenever I made a breach in one of their covered ways, all
the ants underneath were set in commotion, but the worker-
minors remained behind to repair the damage, whilst the large-
heads issued forth in a most menacing manner, rearing their
heads and snapping their jaws with an expression of the fiercest
rage and defiance.

Anomma arcens. — This is the so-called ' driver ' or
* marching ' ant of West Africa, which in habits and intel-
ligence closely resembles the military ants of the other
hemisphere. I shall therefore not wait again to describe
these habits in detail. Like the Ecitons, the marching
ants of Africa have no fixed nest, but make temporary halts
in the shade of hollow trees, overhanging rocks, &c.
They march in large armies, and, like the Ecitons, always
in the form of a long close column ; but in this case the
relative position of the carriers of spoil and larvae is re-

122

ANIMAL INTELIJGENCE.

versed, for while these occupy the middle place the
soldiers and officers march on either side. These have
large heads armed with powerful jaws, and never take
part in carrying ; their function is to maintain order, act
as scouts, and attack prey. The habits of these ants
resemble most closely those of the blind Ecitons in that
they very frequently, and indeed generally, build covered
ways ; they do so apparently in order to protect themselves
from the heat of the African sun. Their line of march
is therefore marked by a continuous arch or tunnel, which
is always being constructed by the van of the column.
The structure is made of earth moulded together by
saliva, and is very quickly built. But it is only built in
places where the line of march is exposed to the sun-
light ; at night, or in the shadow of trees or long grass, it
is not made. If their camp is flooded by a tropical rain-
storm, the ants congregate in a close mass, with the
younger ants in the centre ; they thus form a floating
island.

It is remarkable that ants of different hemispheres
should manifest so close a similarity with respect to all
these wonderful habits. The Chasseur ants of Trinidad,
and, according to Madame Merian, the ants of visitation
of Cayenne, also display habits of the same kind.

General Intelligence of Various Species.

Many of the foregoing facts display an astonishing de-
gree of intelligence as obtaining among ants ; for I think
that however much latitude we may be inclined to allow to
' blind instinct ' in the way of imitating actions elsewhere
due to conscious purpose, some at least of these foregoing
facts can only be fairly reconciled with the view that the
insects know what they are doing and why they are doing
it. But as I am niyself well aware of the difficulty that
arises in all such cases of drawing the line between pur-
poseless instinct and purposive intelligence, I have thought
it desirable to reserve for this concluding division of the
present chapter several isolated facts which have been ob-
served among sundry species of ants, and which do not

ANTS — GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

123

seem to admit of being reasonably comprised under the
category of instinctive action, if by the latter we mean
action pm'sued without knowledge of the relation between
the means adopted and the ends attained.

It will be remembered that our test of instinctive as
distinguished from truly intelligent action is simply
whether all individuals of a species perform similar adap-
tive movements under the stimulus supplied by similar
and habitual circumstances, or whether they manifest in-
dividual and peculiar adaptive movements to meet the
exigencies of novel and peculiar circumstances. The im-
portance of this distinction may be rendered manifest by
the following illustrations.

We have already seen that the ants which Sir John
Lubbock observed display many and complex instincts,
which together might seem to justify us in anticipating
that animals which present such wonderful instincts must
also present sufficient general intelligence to meet simple
though novel exigencies by such simple adaptations as the
unfamiliar circumstances require. Yet experiments which

D

c

p

1%

J-

Fig. 8.

he made in this connection seem to show that such is not
the case, but that these ants, with all their wealth of
instinctive endowments, are utterly destitute of intelli-
gent resources; they have abundance of common and
detailed knowledge (supposing the adaptations to be made
consciously) how to act under certain complex though
familiar circumstances, but appear quite unable to origi-
nate any adaptive action to obviate even the simplest
conceivable difficulty, if this is of a kind which they have
not been previously accustomed to meet. Thus, on a
horizontal rod B supported in a saucer of water s, and
therefore inaccessible to the ants from beneath, he placed
some larvae A. On the nest N he then placed a block of
wood c D, constructed so that the portion D should touch

124

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

the larvae at a. When the ants had made a number of
journeys over c D a and back again, he raised the block C D
so that there was an interval —q of an inch between the
end of the block d and the larvae at a.

The ants kept on coming, and tried hard to reach down
fi on: D to A, which was only j iist out of their reach. . . . After
a wnile they all gave up their efforts and went away,
losing their piize in spit<3 of most earnest efforts, because it
did not occiu* to them to drop of an inch. At the mo-
ment when the separation was made there were fifteen ants on
the larvae. These could, of course, have returned if one had
stood still and allowed the others to get on its back. This,
however, did not occur to them ; nor did they think of letting
themselves drop from the bottom of the paper (p) on to the
nest. Two or three, indeed, fell down, I have no doubt by
accident ; but the remainder wandered about, until at length
most of them got into the water.

In another experiment he interposed a light straw
bridge on the way between the nest and the larvae, and
when the ants had well learnt the way, he drew the
bridge a short distance towards the nest, so that a small
chasm was made in the road. The ants tried hard and
ineffectually to reach across it, but it did not occur to
them to push the straw into its original position.

The following experiment is still more illustrative of
the absence of intelligence, because the adjustive action
required would not demand the exercise of such high
powers of imagination and abstraction as would have been
required for the moving forwards of the paper drawbridge .

To test their intelligence I made the following experiments :
I suspended some honey over a nest of Lasius Jiavus at i<
height of about ^ an inch, and accessible only by a paper bridge
more than 10 feet long. Under the glass I then placed ti
small heap of earth. The ants soon swarmed over the earth
on to the glass, and began feeding on the honey. I then re-
moved a little of the earth, so that there was an interval of
about ^ of an inch between the glass and the earth ; but
though the distance was so small, they would not jump down,
but preferred to go round by the long bridge. They tried in
vain to stretch up from the earth to the glass, which, however,
was just out of their reach, though they could touch it with

ANTS— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

125

theii' antennae ; but it did not occur to them to heap the earth
up a little, though if thej had moved only half a dozen particles
of earth they would have secured for themselves direct access to
the food. This, however, never occurred to them. At length
they gave up all attempts to reach up to the glass, and went
round by the paper bridge. I left the arrangement for several
weeks, but they continued to go round by the long paper
bridge.

Another and somewhat similar experiment consisted
in placing an upright stick A, supporting at an angle
another stick B. which nearly but not quite touched
the ground at c. At the end of the stick B there were
placed some larvae in a horizontal glass cell at D. Into
this cell were also placed a number of ants along with the
larvae. The drop from D to C was only ^ an inch ; ' still,
though the ants reached over and showed a great anxiety
to take this short cut home, they none of them faced the
leap, but all went round by the sticks, a distance of nearly
7 feet.' Sir John then reduced the interruption to f of
an inch, so that the ants could even touch the glass cell
with their antennae ; yet all day long the ants continued
to go the long way round rather than face the drop. Next,
therefore, he took still longer sticks and tapes, and ar-
ranged them as before, only horizontally instead of verti-
cally. He also placed some fine earth under the glass
cell containing the larvae. The ants as before continued
to go the long way round (16 feet), though the drop
could not have hurt either themselves or the larvae, aad
though even this drop might have been obviated by heap-
ing up the fine earth into a little mound ^ of an inch high,
so as to touch the glass cell.

It is desirable, however, here to state that all species
of ants do not show this aversion to allowing themselves
to drop through short distances ; for Moggridge describes
the harvesting ants of Europe as seeming rather to enjoy
acrobatic performances of this kind ; and the same fact is
recorded by Belt of the leaf-cutting ants of the Amazons.
Dr. Bastian, in his work on ' Brain as an Organ of Mind,'
suggests that the ' seeming lack of intelligence betrayed
by our English ants, from their disinclination to take a
small leap, may be due simply to their defective sight '

126

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

(pp. 241-2). But even this consideration does not ex-
tenuate the stupidity of the ants which failed to heap up
the fine earth to reach the glass cell which they were able
to touch with their antennae.

That the species of ants on which Sir John Lubbock
experimented were not, however, quite destitute of intel-
ligence is proved by the result of the following experi-
ment : —

I put some provisions in a shallow box with a glass top and
a single hole in one side ; I then put some specimens of Lasius
niger to the food, and soon a stream of ants was at work busily
caiTying supplies off to the nest. When they had got to know
their way thoroughly, and from thu-ty to forty were so occupied,
I poured some fine mould in front of the hole, so as to cover it
to a depth of about ^ an inch. I then took out the ants which
were actually in the box. As soon as the ants had recovered
from the shock of this unexpected proceeding on my part, they
began to run all round and about the box, looking for some
other place of entrance. Finding none, however, they began
digging down into the earth just over the hole, carrying off the
grains of earth one by one and depositing them without any
order all round at a distance of from ^ to 6 inches, until they
had excavated down to the doorway, when they again began
carrying off the food as before.

This experiment was several times repeated on L, niger
and on L.Jlavus, always with the same result.

Thus, then, we may conclude that the reasoning power
of these ants, although shown by the first experiments to
be almost nil, is shown by this experiment to be not quite
nil ; for the attempt to meet the exigencies of the case
by first going round the box to seek another entrance,
biefore taking the labour to remove the earth from the
known entran-ce, implies a certain rudimentary degree of
adaptive capacity which belongs to the category of the
rational.

Another point of considerable interest, as bearing on
the general intelligence of ants, is one that was brought
out as the result of a laborious series of hourly observa-
tions, extending without intermission from 6.30 a.m. to
10 P.M. for a period of three months. The object of these
observations was to ascertain whether the principle of the

Airra — GENERAL rN'TELLIGENCE.

127

division of labour is practised by the ants. The result of
these observations was to show that during the winter-
time, when the ants are not active, certain individuals are
told off to forage for supplies, and that when any casualty
overtakes these individuals, others are told oflf to supply
their places. Thus, in the words of Sir John Lubbock's
analysis of his lengthy tables, —

The feeders at the beginning of the experiment were those
known to us as Nos. 5, 6, and 7. On the 22nd of November a
friend, registered as No. 8, ca,me to the honey, and agaui on the
11th December; but with these two exceptions the whole of
the supplies were carried in by Nos. 5 and 6, with a little help
from No. 7. Thinking now it might be alleged that possibly these
were merely unusually active or greedy individuals, I im-
prisoned No. 6 when she came out to feed on the 5th. As will
be seen from the table, no other ant had been out to the honey
for some days ; and it could therefore hardly be accidental that
on that very evening another ant (then registeied as No. 9)
came out for food. This ant, as will be seen from the table,
then took the place of No. 6 (No. 5 being imprisoned). On the
lltb January No. 9 took in all the supplies, again with a little
help from No. 7. So matters continued until the 17th, when I
imprisoned No. 9, and then again, i.e. on the 19th, another ant
(No. 10) came out for the food, aided, on and after the 22nd,
by another (No. 1 1 ). This seems to me very curious. From the 1st
November to the 5th January, with two or three casual excep-
tions, the whole of the supplies were carried in by three ante,
one of whom, however, did comparatively little. The other two
are imprisoned, and then, but not till then, a fresh ant appears
on the scene. She carries in the food for a week, and then she
being imprisoned, two others undertake the task. On the
other hand, in nest 1, when the first foragers were not im-
prisoned, they continued during the whole time to carry in
the necessary supplies.

The facfts, therefore, certainly seem to indicate that
certain ants are told off as foragers, and that during
winter, when but little food is required, two or three such
foragers are sufficient to pro\ide it.

Although Sir John Lubbock's ants showed such meagre
resources of intelligent adjustment, other species of ants,
which we have already had occasion to c 'er, appear to
be as remarkable in this respect as they a.c in respect of

128

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

their instinctive adjustments. Unfortunately observations
on this subject are very sparse, but such as they are they
hold out a strong inducement for any one who has the
opportunity to experiment ^vith the view of testing the
intelligence of those species in connection with which the
following observations have been made.

Reaumur states that ants will make no attempt to enter an
It habited beehive to get at the contained honey, knowing that
■;he bees will slaughter them if they do so. But if the hive is
uninhabited, or the bees all dead, the ants will swarm into the
hive as long as any honey is to be found there.

P. Huber records that a wall which had been partly
erected by ants was observed by him —

As though it were intended to support the still unfinished
arched roof of a large room, which was being built from the
opposite side. But the workers which had begun the arch had
given it too low an elevation for the wall on which it was to
rest, and if it had been continued on the same lines it would
have met the partition wall halfway up, and this was to be
avoided. I had just made this ciiticism to myself, when a new
arrival, after looking at the work, came to the same conclusion.
For it began at once to destroy what had been done, and to
heighten the wall on which it was supported, and to make a
new arch with the materials of the old one under my very eyes.
When the ants begin an undertaking it teems exactly as if an
idea slowly ripened into execution in their minds. Thus if one
of them finds two stalks b'ing crosswise on the nest, which make
possible the formation of a room, or some little rafters which
suggest the walls and the corners, it first observes the various
parts accurately, and then quickly and neatly heaps little pellets
of earth in the interspaces and alongside the stalks. It brings
from every side materials that seem appropriate, and some-
times takes such from the uncompleted works of its companions,
BO much is it urged on by the idea which it has once conceived,
and by the desire to execute it. It goes and comes and turns
back again, until its plan is recognisable by the others.

Ebrard, in his ' Etudes de ^loeurs ' (p. 3), gives the
following remarkable instance of the display of intelli-
gence of F. fusca : —

The earth was damp and the workers were in full swin^f

ANTS— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

129

It was a constant coming and going of ants, coming forth
from their underground dwelling, and carrying back little
pellets of eaith for building In order to concentrate my
attention I fixed my gaze on the largest of the rooms which
were being built, wherein several ants were busy. The woi'k
had made considerable progress; but although a projection
could be plainly seen along the upper edge of the wall, there
remained an interspace of about twelve or fifteen millimetres
to fill in. Here would have been the place, in order to support
the earth still to be brought in, to have had recourse to those
pillars, buttresses, or fragments of dried leaves, which many
ants are wont to use in building. But tlie use of this expedient
is not customary with the ants I was observing [F. /usca).
Our ants, however, were suflBcient for the occasion. For
a moment they seemed inclined to leave their work, but
soon turned instead to a grass-plant gi'owing near, the long
narrow leaves of which ran close together. They chose the
nearest, and weighted its distal end with damp eai-th, until its
apex just bent down to the space to be covered. Unfortunately
the bend was too close to the extremity, and it threatened to
break. To prevent this misfortune, the ants gnawed at the
base of the leaf until it bent along its whole length and covered
the space required. But as this did not seem to be quite enough,
they heaped damp earth between the base of the plant and that
of the leaf, until the latter was sufficiently bent. After they
had thus attained their object, they heaped on the buttressing
leaf the materials required for building the arched roof.

The characteristic trait of the building of ants, sa} s Forel,
is the almost complete absence of an unchangeable model,
peculitir to each species, such as is found in wasps, bees, and
others. The ants know how to suit their indeed little perfect
work to circumstances, and to take advantage of each situation.
Besides, each works for itself and on a given plan, and is only
occasionally aided by others when these understand its plan.
Naturally many collisions occur, and some destroy that which
others have made. This also gives the key to under standing
the labyrinth of the dwelling. For the rest, it is always those
workers which have discovered the most advantageous method,
or which have shown the most patience, w^hich win over to their
plan the majority of theii- comrades and at last the vv'hole colony,
although not without many fights for supiemacy. But if one
Bucceeds in obtaining a second to follow it, and this second
draws the others after it, the first is soon lost again in the
crowd.

130

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

Espinas also observed ('Thierischen Gresellschaften,
German translation, 1879, p. 371) that each single ant
made its own plan and followed it until a comrade, which
had caught the idea, joined it, and then they worked to-
gether in the execution of the same plan.

Moggridge says of the harvesters of Europe, —

I have observed on more than one occasion that when in
digging into an ants' nest I have thrown out an elater larva,
the ants would cluster round it and direct it towards some
small opening in the soil, which it would quickly enlarge and
disappear down. At other times, however, the ants would take
no notice of the elater, and it is my belief that the attentions
paid to it on former occasions were purely selfish, and that
they intended to avail themselves of the tunnel thus made
down into tbe soil, with the view of reopening communications
with the galleries and granaries concealed below, the approaches
to which had been covered up. I liave frequently watched the
ants make use of these passages mined by the elater on these
occasions.

And again, as showing apparently intelligent adaptation
of their usual habits to altered circumstance^, he gives an
jiccount of the behaviour of these ants when a great
crowd of them were confined by him in a glass jar con-
taining earth. He says :

On the following morning the openings were ten in number,
and the greatly increased heaps of excavated earth showed that
they must probably have been at work all night. The amount
of work done in this short time was truly sui'prising, for it
must be remembered that, eighteen hours before, the earth pre-
sented a perfectly level surface, and the larvae and ants, now
housed below, found themselves prisoners in a strange place,
bounded by glass walls, and with no exit possible.

It seems to me that the ants displayed extraordinary intelli-
gence in having thus at a moment's notice devised a plan by
which the superabundant number of workers could be em-
pli yed at one time without coming in one another's way. The
soil contained in the jar was of course less than a tenth part of
that comprised within the limits of an ordinary nest, while the
number of woi'kers was probably more than a third of the total
number belonging to the colony. If therefore but one or two
entrances had been pierced in the soil, the workei-s would have
been for ever running against one another, and a great number

ANTS— GENEEAL INTELLIGENCE.

131

could never have got below to help in the all-important task
of preparing passages and chambers for the accommodation of
the larvae. These numerous and funnel-shaped entrances ad-
mitted of the simultaneous descent and ascent of large numbers
of ants, and the work progressed with proportionate rapidity.
After a few days only three entrances, and eventually only one,
remained open.

Concerning the harvesting ant of Texas, the following
quotation may be made, under the present head, from
MacCook. After remarking that these ants always select
sunny places wherein to build their nests, or disks, he
goes on to say that within a few paces of his tent —

A nest was made which was partly shaded by a small mes-
quite tree that stood just beyond the margin of the clearing.
The sapling had probably grown up after the location of the
community, and for some reason had been permitted to remain
until too old to kill oflf. The shadow thrown upon the pave-
ment was very slight; nevertheless, fifteen feet distant a new
formicary was being established. The path from the ranch to
the spring ran between this new^ hill and the old one, and ants
were in communication between the two. An opening had
been made in the ground, and the beginnings of a new formicary
were quite apparent. This is the only instance observed of
what seemed an attempt at colonising or removing, and I as-
sociated it with the presence of the small but growing shadow
of the young tree.

He also gives us a still more remarkable observation,
which indeed, I must candidly say, does not appear to me
credible. I am, therefore, glad to add that it does not
appear very distinctly from the account whether the
author himself made the observation, or had it narrated
to him by his guide. But here is the observation in his
own words : —

While studying the habits of the cutting ant 1 was tempted
to make a night visit to a farm some distance fiom camp, by
the farmer's story of depredations made by these insects upon
certain plants and vegetables. A long, dark tramp, a blind
and vain search among the fields, compelled us at last to call
out the countryman from his bed. He led us directly to one
of the cutting ants' nests, which was overshadowed by a
young peach tree. * There they be, sir,' cried he triumphantly,
10

132

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

They were agriculturals ! So also were the other nests shown.
The reason for this confounding of the two ants on the part of
the people hereabouts, and the reason for the ' cutting ' operations
of our harvesters, will be explained farther on. It is only in
point here to say that the farmer affirmed that the ants under
the peach tree had stripped oflf the first tender leaves last spring,
BO that scarcely one had been left upon the limbs. I am con-
vinced that the reason for this onslaught was the desire to be rid
of the obnoxious shade, and open the formicary to the full light
of the sun.

From this account it is not very clear whether the
writer himself saw evidence of the former denudation of
the tree, and if so whether there was any indication,
other than the word of the farmer, that the denudation
had been effected by the ants. To make this conclusion
credible the best conceivable evidence would be required,
and this, unfortunately, is just what we find wanting.
Somewhat the same remarks may be made on the follow-
ing quotation from the same writer, though in this case
his view is to some extent supported by an observation of
Moggridge, as well as by that of Ebrard already quoted :-

Here I observed what appeared to be a new mode of opera-
tion. The workers, in several cases, left the point at which
they had begun a cutting, ascended the blade, and passed as
far out toward the point as possible. The blade was thus borne
downward, and as the ant swayed up and down it really
seemed that she was taking advantage of the leverage thus
gained, and was bringing the augmented force to bear upon the
fracture. In two or three cases there appeared to be a division
of labour; that is to say, while the cutter at the roots kept on
with her work, another ant climbed the grass blade and applied
the power at the opposite end of the lever. This position may
have been quite accidental, but it certainly had the appearance
of a voluntary co-operation. I was sorry not to be able to es
tablish this last inference by a series of observations, as the
facts were only observed in this one nest.

The observation of Moggridge, to which I have alluded
as in some measure rendering support to the foregoing, is
as follows. Speaking of European harvesters which he
kept in an artificial nest for the purposes of close obser-
vation, he says

ANTS -GENEEAL INTELLIGENCE.

133

I was also in this way able to see for myself much that I
otherwise could not have seen. Thus I was able to watch the
opei-ation of removing roots which had pierced through their
galleries, belonging to seedling plants growing on the surface,
and which was performed by two ants, one pulling at the free
snd of the root, and the other gnawing at its fibres where the
strain was greatest, until at length it gave way.

And again, —

Two ants sometimes combine their efforts, when one stations
itself near the base of the peduncle, and gnaws it at the point of
greatest tension, while the other hauls upon and twists it. . . .
I have occasionally seen ants engaged in cutting the capsules
of certain plants, drop them, and allow their companions below
to carry them away.

Lastly, the statements of these three observers taken
together serve to render credible the following quotation
from Bingley,* who says that in Captain Cook's expedition
in New South Wales ants were seen by Sir Joseph Banks
and others —

As green as a leaf, which live upon trees and build their
nests of various sizes, between that of a man's head and his fist.
These nests are of a very curious structure : they are formed by
bending down several of the leaves, each of which is as broad
as a man's hand, and gluing the points of them together so as
to form a purse. The viscous matter used for this purpose is
an animal juice. . . . Their method of bending down leaves we
had no opportunity to observe ; but we saw thousands uniting
all their strength to hold them in this position, while other busy
multitudes were employed within, in applying this gluten, that
was to prevent their returning back. To satisfy ourselves that
the leaves were bent and held down by the efforts of these dimi-
nutive artificers, we disturbed them in their work ; and as soon
as they were driven from their station, the leaves on which they
were employed s])rang up with a force much greater than we
could have thought them able to conquer by any combination
of their strength.

This remarkable fact also seems to be corroborated
by the following independent observation of Sir E,
Tennent : —

* Animal Biography ^ * Ants.'

(34

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

The most formidable of all is the great red ant or Dimiya.
It is particularly abundant in gardens and on fruit-trees ; it
constructs its dwellings by gluing the leaves of such species as
are suitable from their shape and pliancy into hollow balls, and
these it lines with a kind of transparent paper, like that manu-
factured by the wasp. 1 have watched them at the interesting
operation of forming these dwellings; — a line of ants standing
cn the edge of one leaf bring another into contact with it, and
hold both together with their mandibles till their companions
within attach them firmly by means of their adhesive paper, the
assistants oiitside moving along as the work proceeds. If it be
necessary to iraw closer a leaf too distant to be laid hold of by
the immediate woi'kers, they form a chain by depending one
from the other till the object is reached, when it is at length
brought into contact, and made fast by cement.

I shall now pass on to the remarkable observation com-
municated to Kirby by Colonel Sykes, F.E.S., and which
is thus narrated by Kirby in his ' History, Habits, and
Instincts of Animals : ' —

When resident at Poena, the dessert, consisting of fruits,
cakes, and various preserves, always remained upon a small side
table, in a verandah of the dining-room. To guard against
inroads, the legs of the table were immeised in four basins filled
with water; it was removed an inch from the wall, and, to
keep off dust from open windows, was covered with a tablecloth.
At first the ants did not attempt to cross the water, but as the
strait was very narrow, from an inch to an inch and a half, and
the sweets very tempting, they appear, at length, to have braved
all risks, to have committed themselves to the deep, to have
scrambled across the channel, and to have reached the objects
of their desires, for hundreds were found every morning revelling
in enjoyment : daily vengeance was executed upon them with-
out lessening their numbers ; at last the legs of the table were
painted, just above the water, with a circle of turpentine. This
at first seemed to prove an effectual barrier, and for some days
the sweets were unmolested, after which they were again at-
tacked by these resolute plunderers ; but how they got at
them seemed totally unaccountable, till Colonel Sykes, who often
passed the table, was surprised to see an ant drop from the wall,
about a foot above the table, upon the cloth that covered it ;
another and another succeeded. So that though the turpentine
and the distance from the wall appeared efiTectual barriers, still

ANTS — GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

135

the resources of the animal, when determined to carry^its point,
were not exhausted, and by ascending the wall to a certain
height, with a slight effort against it, in falling it managed to
land in safety upon the table.

Colonel Sykes was a good observer, so that this state-
ment, standing upon his authority, ought not, perhaps, tc
be questioned. But in all cases of remarkable intelligen(;e
displayed by animals, we naturally and property desire
i;orroboration, however good the authority may be on
which the statement of such cases may rest. I will, there-
fore, add the following instances of the ingenious and
determined manner in which ants overcome obstacles, and
which so far lend confirmation to the above account.

Professor Leuckart placed round the trunk of a tree,
which was visited by ants as a pasture for aphides, a broad
cloth soaked in tobacco-water. When the ants returning
home down the trunk of the tree arrived at the soaked
cloth, they turned round, went up th<^ tree again to some
of the overhanging branches, and allowed themselves to
drop clear of the obnoxious barrier. On the other hand,
the ants which desired to mount the tree first examined
the nature of the barrier, then turned back and procured
from a distance little pellets of earth, which they carried
in their jaws and deposited one after another upon the
tobacco-cloth till a road of earth was made across it, over
which the ants passed to and fro with impunity.

This interesting, and indeed surprising observation of
Leuckart's is, in turn, a corroboration of an almost
identical one made more than a century ago by Cardinal
Fleury, and communicated by him to Eeaumur, who
published it in his 'I'Histoire des Insectes ' (1734).
The Cardinal smeared the trunk of a tree with birdlime
in order to prevent the ants from ascending it ; but the
insects overcame the obstacle by making a road of earth,
small stones, &c., as in the case just mentioned. In
another instance the Cardinal saw a number of ants make
a bridge across a vessel of water surrounding the bottom
of an orange-tree tub. They did so by conveying a
number of little pieces of wood, the choice of which
material instead of earth or stones, as in the previous case,

136

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

seems to betoken no small knowledge of practical engineer-
ing.

Biicliner, after quoting these cases, proceeds to saj
(loc. dt, p. 120),—

Tlie ants behaved in yet more ingenious fashion under the
following very similar circumstances. Herr G. Theuerkauf,
the painter (Wasserthorstr. 49, Berlin), writes to the author,
November 18, 1875: *A maple tree standing on the ground
of the manufacturer, Vollbaum, of Elbing (now of Dantzic),
swarmed with aphides and ants. In order to check the mis-
chief, the proprietor smeared about a foot width of the ground
round the tree with tar. The first ants who wanted to cross
naturally stuck fast. But what did the next 1 They turned
back to the tree and carried down aphides, which they stuck down
on the tar one after another until they had made a bridge over
which they could cross the tarring without danger. The above-
named merchant, Yollbaum, is the guarantor of this story,
which I received from his own mouth on the very spot whereat
it occurred.

Biichner also gives the following case on the authority
of Karl Vogt (loc. dt., p. 128). An apiary of a friend was
invaded by ants : —

To make this impossible for the future, the four legs of the
beehive-stand were put into small, shallow bowls filled with
water, as is often done with food in ant-infested places. The
ants soon found a way out of this, or rather a way into their
beloved honey, and that over an iron staple with which the
stand was attached to a neighbouring wall. The staple was
removed, but the ants did not allow themselves to be defeated.
They climbed into some linden trees standing near, the branches
of which hung over the stand, and then dropped upon it from
the branches, doing just the same as their comrades do with
respect to food surrounded by water, when they drop upon it
from the ceiling of the room. In order to make this impos-
sible, the boughs were cut away. But once more the ants
were found in the stand, and closer investigation showed
that one of the bowls was dried up, and that a crowd of ants
had gathered in it. But they found themselves puzzled how to
go on with their robbery, for the leg did not, by chance, rest on
the bottom of the bowl, but was about half an inch from it.
The ants were seen rapidly touching each other with their
antennse, or carrying on a consultation, until at last a rathe?

ANTS— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

137

larger ant came forward and put an end to the difficulty. It
rose to its full height on its hind legs, and struggled until at
last it seized a rather projecting splinter of the wooden leg, and
managed to take hold of it. As soon as this was done other
ants ran on to it, strengthened the hold by clinging, and so made
a little living bridge, over which the others could easily pass.

The same author publishes the following very remark-
able observation, quoted from a letter to him by Dr. EUen-
dorf:—

It is a hard matter to protect any eatables from these
creatures, let the custody be ever so close. The legs of cup-
boards and tables in or on which eatables are kept are placed in
vessels of water. I myself did this, but I none the less found
thousands of ants in the cupboard next morning. It was a
puzzle to me how they crossed the water, but the puzzle was
fioon solved; for I found a straw in one of the saucers, which
lay obliquely across the edge of the pan and touched the leg
of the press : this they had used for a bridge. Hundreds were
drowned in the wat«r, apparently because disorder had reigned
at first, those coming down with booty meeting those going up.
But now there was perfect order ; the descending stream used
one side of the straw, the ascending the other. I now pushed
the straw about an inch away from the cupboard leg ; a terrible
confusion arose. In a moment the leg immediately over the
water was covered with hundreds of ants, feeling for the bridge
in every direction with their antennae, running back again and
coming in ever larger swarms, as though they had communicated
to their comrades within the cupboard the fearful misfortune
that had taken place. Meanwhile the new-comers continued
to run along the straw, and not finding the leg of the cupboard
the greatest perplexity arose. They huriied round the edge of
the pan, and soon found out where the fault lay. With united
forces they quickly pulled and pushed at the straw, until it
again came into contact with the wood, and the communication
was again restored.

This observation is strikingly, though unconsciously,
confirmed by a recent writer in the Leisure Hour (1880,
pp. 718-19), who having been much troubled by small red
ants in the tropics swarming over his provisions, placed
the latter in a meat-safe detached from the wall and
standing on four legs, each of which was placed in a little
till vessel containing water. Eight or ten days afterwards

138

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

he found his provisions in the safe swarming with ants aa
before, and on investigating their mode of access to them
found —

Proceeding along the whitewashed wall a string of ants
going and coming from the outer door to a height of four feet
on my wall, and corresponding with that of the safe ; and look-
ing between it and the wall, I di&covered the secret — the bridg«
i^- hich these persevering little insects had made. It consiisted ol
K broken bit of straw, which rested with one end on a mud
buttress fixed to the wall, and the other on the overhanging oi
projecting top of the safe, which came within an inch and a half
of the wall. So they must have carried the straw up from the
floor, and resting their end of it on the support they had pre-
pared, let it fall until its other end reached the safe, and then
crossed and completed the structure, for it was fastened at both
ends with the mortar composed of their saliva and fine earth.
Ruthlessly T destroyed the bridge, and moving the safe farther
from the wall, managed to prevent their inroads for that season
at least. Since then I have frequently seen short bridges, com-
posed entii'ely of the concrete or mortar which the white ants
use to cover up their workings, extending fiom a damp earthen
wall to anything not more than three-quarters of an inch
from it.

Of the Ecitons Mr. Belt says : —

I shall relate two more instances of the use of a reasoning
faculty in these ants. I once saw a wide column trying to pass
along a crumbling, nearly perpendicular slope. They would
have got very slowly over it, and many of them would have
fallen, but a number having secured their hold, and reaching
to each other, remained stationary, and over them the main
column passed. Another time they were crossing a watercourse
along a small branch, not thicker than a goose-quill. They
widened this natural bridge to three times its width by a
number of ants clinging to it and to each other on each side,
over which the column passed three or four deep ; whereas
excepting for this expedient they would have had to pass over
in single file, and treble the time would have been consumed.
Can it be contended that such insects are not able to determine
hy reasoning powers which is the best way of doing a thing ?

Another observer, writing from the same part of the
world to Biichner, gives a still more wonderful account of
the ingenuity of Ecitons in crossing water. This observei

ANTS— GEN EE AL INTELLIGENCE.

139

IS Herr H. Kreplin, of Heidemiihl (Station Ducherom),
^ who lived for nearly twenty years in South America as
an engineer, and had often the opportunity of seeing the
driver ants in the forests there.' He writes to Biichner,
under date May 10, 1876, as follows: —

On both sides of the train, at about 10 mm. distance from
each othei stronger ants are to be seen, distinguishable from
the others by their foxy colour and very thick heads with
gigantic njandibles. These ' thickheads ' play the same role in
the ant-state for which they are cast in cultured communities.
They look after the order of the march, and allow none to turn
either to the right or left. The least confusion in the regularity
of the march makes them turn round and put things straight
again. While the procession of the brown workers streams
on unceasingly with a swarming motion, the ' officers,' as the
natives call these thickheads, run constantly backwards and
forwards, ready to take the command on meetmg any difficulty.
The crossing of streams by these creatures is the most interest-
ing point. If the watercourse be narrow, the thickheads soon
find trees, the branches of which meet on the bank on either
side, and after a short halt the column set themselves in motion
over these bridges, rearranging themselves in the nai-row train
with marvellous quickness on reaching the further side. But
if no natural bridge be available for the passage, they trav- 1
along the bank of the river until they arrive at a fiat sandy
shore. Each ant now seizes a bit of dry wood, pulls it into the
water, and mounts thereupon. The hinder rows push the front
ones even further out, holding on to the wood with their feet
and to their comrades with their jaws. In a short time the
water is covered with ants, and when the i-aft has grown too
large to be held together by the small creatures' strength, a part
breaks itself oflf and begins the journey across, while the ants
left on the bank busily pull their bits of wood into the water,
and work at enlarging the ferry-boat until it again breaks.
This is repeated as long as an ant remains on shore. I had
often heai'd described this method of crossing rivers, but in the
year 1859 I had the opportunity of seeing it foi myself.

It is remarkable that the military or driving ants of
Africa exhibit precisely similar devices for the bridging of
streams, namely, by forming a chain of individuals over
which the others pass. By means of similar chains they
also let themselves down from trees. It must be observed,

140

ANIMAL INTELLiaENCE.

however, that these and all the above observations, being
independently made and separately recorded, serve to cor-
roborate one another so strongly that we can entertain no
reasonable doubt concerning the wonderful facts which
they coDvey.

I shall now bring these numerous instances to a close
with a quotation from Mr. Belt, which reveals in the most
unequivocal manner surprising powers of observation and
rational action on the part of the leaf- cutting ants of
South America, whose general habits we have already con-
sidered : —

A nest was made near one of our tramways, and to get to
the trees the ants had to cross the rails, over which the waggons
were continually passing and repassing. Every time they came
along a number of ants were crushed to death. They pei-se-
vered in crossing for some time, but at last set to work and
tunnelled underneath each rail. One day, when the waggons
were not running, I stopped up the tunnels with stones ; but
although great numbers carrying leaves were thus cut off from
the nest, they would not cross the rails, but set to work making
fresh tunnels underneath them.

Anatomy and Physiology of Nerve-centres and
Sense-organs.

The foregoing facts concerning the intelligence of
ants fully justifies Mr. Darwin's observation that * the
brain of an ant is one of the most marvellous atoms of
matter in the world, perhaps more so than the brain of a
man.' It may therefore be interesting in this particular
cise to depart from the lines otherwise laid down through-
out the present work, and to devote a short section to the
anatomy and physiology of this nerve-centre with its ap-
pended organs of sense.

The brain of an ant, then, is proportionally larger than
that of any other insect. (See Titus Grraber, ' Insects,' vol.
i. p. 255.) In structure, also, the brain of an ant is in
advance of that of other insects, its nearest analogue being
the brain of a bee. The superiority of development is
particularly remarkable with reference to the * stalked
bodies ' of Dujardin ; and these are largest in neuter

ANTS — GENERAL INTELLIGENCE. 141

workers, which are the most intelligent members of the
community.

Injury of the brain causes, as in higher animals,
tetanic spasms and involuntary reflex movements, followed
by stupefaction.

An ant, whose brain has been perforated by the pointed
mandibles of an amazon, remains as though nailed to its place ;
a shudder runs from time to time through its body, and one of
its legs is lifted at regular intervals. It occasionally makes a
ehort and quick step, as though driven by an unseen spring,
but, like that of an automaton, aimless and objectless. If it is
pulled, it makes a movement of avoidance, but falls back into
its stupefied condition as soon as it is released. It is no longer
capable of action consciously directed to a given object; it
neither tries to escape, nor to attack, nor to go back to its
home, nor to rejoin its companions, nor to walk away ; it feels
neither heat nor cold, it knows neither fear nor desire for food.
It is merely an automatic and reflex machine, and is exactly
similar to one ol those pigeons from which Flourens removed
the hemispheres of the cerebrum. Just in the same way behaves
tbe body of an ant from which the head has been taken away.
In the numerous fights between amazons and other ants, count-
less cases have been observed of slight injury to the brain,
which have caused the most remarkable phenomena. Many of
the wounded were seized with a mad rage, and flung them-
selves a*^^ every one that came in their way, whether friend or
foe. Others assumed an appearance of indifference, and walked
serenely about in the midst of the fighting. Others exhibited
a sudden failure of strength ; but they still recognised their
enemies, approached them, and tried to bite them in cold
blood, in a way quite foreign to the behaviour of healthy ants.
They were also often observed to run round and round in a
circle, the motion resembling the manege, or riding-school
action of mammals, when one of the crura cerebri has been
removed.

If an ant is cut in half through the thorax, so that the great
nerve ganglia of the pro-thorax remain untouched, thebehavioui
of the head shows that intelligence also remains untouched.
Ants mutilated in this way try to go forwards with theii* two
remaining legs, and beg with their antennae for their com-
panions' aid. If one of these latter lets itself be stopped, then
we observe a lively interchange of thanks and sympathy ex-
1 ressed by the actively moving antennae. Forel placed near tg

142

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

each other two such mutilated bodies of the F. rufiharhis. They
conversed with each other in the above-described way, and aj>-
peared each to beg for help. But when he put in some simi
larly mutilated ants of a hostile species, F sanguinea, the
picture was changed ; war broke out between these cripples
just in the same way and with the same fury as between per-
fect ants.*

The antennae appear to be the most important of the
sense-organs, as their removal produces an extraordinary
disturbance in the intelligence of the animal. An ant so
mutilated can no longer find its way or recognise com-
panions, and therefore is unable to distinguish between
friends and foes. It is also unable to find food, ceases to
engage in any labour, and loses all its regard for larvae,
remaining permanently quiet and almost motionless. A
somewhat similar disturbance, or rather destruction, of the
mental faculties is observable as a result of the same
mutilation in the case of bees.^

' Biichner, Geisteslehen der Thiere, English translation, p. 49.

2 While thie work is passing through the press, an interesting
Essay h^s been published by Mr. MacCook on the Honey-making Ant.
I am nrK here able to refer to this Essay at greater length, but have
done « a review in Nature (Marcli 2, 1882.)— G. J. B.

CHAPTER IV.

BEES AND WASPS.

Arranging this chapter under the same general headings

as the one on ants, we shall consider first —

Powers of Special Sense,

Bees and wasps have much greater powers of sight
than ants. They not only perceive objects at a greater
distance, but are also able to distinguish their colours.
This was proved by Sir John Lubbock, who placed honey
on slips of paper similarly formed, but of different colours ;
when a bee had repeatedly visited a slip of one colour (A),
he transposed the slips during the absence of the bee ; on
its return the insect did not fly to slip B, although this now
occupied the position which had been previously occupied
by slip A, but again visited slip A, although this now occu-
pied the position which had been previously occupied by
slip B. Therefore, as these experiments were again and
again repeated both on bees and wasps with uniform re-
sults, there can be no question that the insects by their
first visits to slip A established an association between
the colour of A and the honey upon it, such that, when
they again returned and found B in the place of A, they
were guided by their memory of the colour rather than
by their memory of the position. It was thus shown that
the insects could distinguish green, red, yellow, and blue.
These experiments also brought out the further fact thai
both bees and wasps exhibit a marked preference for some
colours over others. Thus, in a series of black, white,
yellow, orange, green, blue, and red slips, two or three
bees paid twenty-one visits to the orange and yellow, and
only four to all the other slips. The slip? were then moved,

144

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

after which, out of thirty-two visits, twenty-two were to
the orange and yellow. Another colour to which a similar
preference is shown is blue.

As regards scent, Sir John found that on putting a few
drops of eau de Cologne at the entrance of a beehive,
' immediately a number (about 15) came out to see what
was the matter.' Other scents had a similar effect ; but
on repetition several times the bees became accustomed
to the scent, and no longer came out.

As in ants, so in bees. Sir John's experiments failed to
yield any e\ddence of a sense of hearing. But in this connec-
tion we must not forget the well-known fact, first observed
by Huber, that the queen bee will answer by a certain sound
the peculiar piping of a pupa queen ; and again, by making
a certain cry or humming noise, will strike consternation
suddenly on all the bees in the hive — these remaining for
a long time motionless as if stupefied.

Smse of Direction.

The following are Sir John Lubbock's observations
upon this subject in the case of bees and wasps : —

Every one has heard of a * bee-line.' It would be no less
correct to speak of a wasp-line. On August 6 I marked a
wasp, the nest of which was round the corner of the house, so
that her direct way home was not out at the window by which
she had entered, but in the opposite direction, across the room
to a window which was closed. 1 watched her for some hours,
during which time she constantly went to the wrong window,
and lost much time in buzzing about at it. For ten consecuti e
days this wasp paid numerous visits, coming in at the open
window, and always trying, though always unsuccessfully, to
return to her nest in the ' wasp-line ' of the closed window —
buzzing about that window for hours at a time, though
eventually on finding it closed she returned and went ro md
through the open window by which she always entered.

This observation shows how strong must be the instinct
in a wasp to take the shortest way home, and how much
the insect depends upon its sense of direction in so doing.
It also shows how long a time it requires to learn by indi-
vidual experience the properties of a previously unknown

BEES AND WASPS— SENSE OF DIEECTION. 145

substance such as glass. But to this latter point we shall
presently have occasion to return.

Next we must adduce evidence to show that in way-
finding the ' sense of direction ' in bees appears to
be largely supplemented by observation of particular
objects.

Sir John Lubbock observes : ' I never found bees to
return if brought any considerable distance at once. By
taking them, however, some twenty yards each time they
came to the honey, I at length trained them to come to
my room ; ' that is to say, bees require to learn their way
little by little before they can return to a store of honey
which they may have been fortunate enough to find ; their
general sense of direction is not in itself a sufficient
guide. This, at least, is the case where, as in the experi-
ments in question, the bees are carried from the hive to
the store of honey (here a distance of less than 200
yards) : possibly if they had found the honey by them-
selves flying towards it, and so probably taking note of
objects by the way, one journey might have proved suffi-
cient to teach them the way. But, whether or not this
would have been the case, the fact that when carried they
required also to be taught the way piece by piece, is con-
clusive proof that their sense of direction alone is not
sufficient to enable them to traverse a route of 200 yards
a second time.

The same result is brought out by other experiment?
conducted on a different plan, though not apparently
with this object. * My room is square, with two windows
on the south-west side, where the hive was placed, and
one on the south-east.' Besides the ordinary entrance
from outside, the hive had a small postern door opening
into the room.

At 6.50 a bee came out through the little posterD door. After
she had fed, she evidently did not know her way home ;
so I put her back.

At 7.10 she came out again. I again fed her and put her
back.

At 10.15 she came out a third time; and again -I had to put
her back.

146

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

At 10.55 she came out again, and still did not remember the
door. Though I was satisfied that she really wished
to return, and was not voluntarily remaining outside ;
still, to make the matter clear, I turned her out of
a side window into the garden, when she at once
retui^ned to the hive.

At 11.15 she came out again ; and again I had to show her the
way back.

At 11.20 she came out again ; and again I had to show her the
way back (this makes five times) ; when, however, —

At 11.30 she came out again after feeding, she returned straight
to the hive.

At 11.40 she came out, fed, and returned straight to the hive.
At 11.50 she came out, fed, and returned straight to the hive ^

she then stayed in for some time.
At 12.30 she came out again, but seemed to have forgotten the

way back ; after some time, however, she found the

door and went in.
Again : — August 24 at 7.20 a bee came through the post-
ern : I fed her ; and though she was not frightened or disturbed,
when she had finished her meal she flew to the window and had
evidently lost her way ; so at 8 o'clock I in pity put her back
myself.

August 29. — A bee came out to the honey at 10.10; at 10.12
she flew to the window, and remained buzzing about till 11.12,
when, being satisfied that she could not find her way, I put
her in.

Nay, even those who seemed to know the postern, if taken
near the other window, flew to it, and seemed to have lost
themselves.

This cost me a great many bees. Those which got into my
room by accident continually died on the floor near the
window.

These observations show that even when a bee is not
carried from the hive to the honey, but herself flies to it,
her sense of direction is not alone sufficient to enable her
to find the way back to the hive — or, rather, to the unac-
customed entrance to the hive from which she had come
out. Probably if the side window had been open, the bee
would have returned to the hive round the corner of the
house, and through the entrance to which she was most
accustx)med. But as it was she had to learn, by five 07

EEES WASPS — SENSE OF DIRECTION. 147

six journeys, the way between the postern entrance and
the food.

But the following observation on a wasp is in this con-
nection the most conclusive.

A marked wasp visited honey exposed in the room
before mentioned. ' The next morning she came —

A*: 7.25, and fed till 7.28, when she began flying about the
room and even into the next ; so I thought it well to
put her out of the window, when she flew straight
away to her nest. My room, as already mentioned,
had windows on two sides ; and the nest was in the
direction of a closed window, so that the wasp had to
go out of her way in going out through the open one.

At 7.45 she came back. I had moved the glass containing the
honey about two yards ; and though it stood conspi-
cuously, the wasp seemed to have much difficulty
in finding it. Again she flew to the window in the
direction of her nest, and I had to put her out, which
I did at 8.2.

At 8.15 she returned to the honey almost straight. 8.21, she
flew again to the closed window, and apparently could
not find her way ; so at 8.35 I put her out again. It
seems obvious from this that wasps have a sense of
dhection, and do not find their way merely by sight.

At 8.50 back to honey, and 8.54 again to wrong window ; but
finding it closed, she took two or three turns round
the room, and then flew out through the open
window.

At 9.24 back to the honey; and 9.27 away, first, however,
paying a visit to the wi*ong window, but without
alighting.

At 9.36 back to the honey, and 9.39 away, but, as before, going

first to wrong window.
She was away therefore 9 minutes,
time straight. „ 1 1 „
„ 11 ,
„ 12 „
>y 13 „

» u „

10 „

1 ft

9.50

9.53 away.

10

»

10. 7

»

10.19

10.22

10.35

>>

10.39

It

10.47

»

10.50

If

11. 4

)>

11. 7

9t

11 21

J)

11.24

ft

11.34

j>

11.37

tt

11.49

>»

11.52

tt

11

(48

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

12. 3 back to 12. 5 away. Away therefore 11 minutefi
the honey,

12.13 „ 12.151 „ „ 8 „

12.25 „ 12.28 „ „ 10 „

12.39 „ 12.43 „ „ 11 „

12.54 „ 12.57 „ „ 11 „

1.15 „ 1.19 „ „ 18 „

1.27 „ 1.30 „ „ 8 minutee,'

&c., (fee, the way being now clearly well learnt.

But that the sense of direction is of much service to
bees in finding the locality of their hives seems to be
indicated by the following observation thus naiTated, on
the authority of the authors themselves, by Messrs. Kirby
and Spence : —

In vain, during my stay at St. Nicholas, I sallied out at
every outlet to try to gain some idea of the extent and form of
the town. Trees, trees, trees, still met me, and intercepted the
view in every direction ; and I defy any inhabitant bee of this
rural metropolis, after once quitting its hive, ever to gain a
glimpse of it again until nearly perpendicularly over it. The
bees, therefore, .... must be led to their abodes by instinct, &c.

The observation, however, is not so conclusive as its
authors suppose ; for there is nothing to show that the
bees did not take note of particular objects on their ac-
customed routes, and so learn these routes by stages. It
would be worth while in this connection to try the effect
of hooding the eyes of a bee, or, if this were deemed too
disturbing an experiment, remo\dng the hive bodily to a
distance from its accustomed site, and observing whether
the bees start away boldly as before for long flights, or
learn their new routes by stages.

In this connection I may quot€ the following.

Dr. John Topham, of Marlborough House, Torquay,
writing to ' Nature,' ^ says : —

On October 29, 1873, I removed a hive of bees in m>
garden, after it was quite dark, for a distance of 12 yards from
the place in which it had stood for several months; ard
between its original situation and the new one there was a
bushy evergreen tree, so that all sight of its former place was

• Vol. ix. p. 484.

BEES AND WASPS— SENSE OF DIRECTION. 149

obstructed to a person looking from the new situation of the
hive.

Notwithstanding this change, the bees every day flew to the
locality where they formerly lived, and continued flying around
the site of what had been their home until, as night came on,
they many of them sank upon the grass exhausted and chilled
by the cold. Numbers, however, returned alive to their new
position, after having looked in vain for their hive in its old
place. At night I picked the exhausted bees up, and having
restored warmth to them (by leaving them for a time on my
co«it-sleeve), I returned them to their companions.

Here was an illustration that the faculty of memory was
superior to that of observation ; but that was not all. Nearly
every bee which I picked up during the 23 days through which
this effort of memory lasted was an old one, as was easily de-
duced from observing the worn edges of the wing,-: ; showing
that whilst the young insects were quick in receiving new im-
pressions and in correcting errors, the neiwous system of the
old bees continued acting in the direction whicJi early habit had
effected. So true it is that 'one touch of nature makes the
whole world kin.'

A closely similar observation has been told me by a
Mend, Mr. Greorge Turner. He found that when he
removed a beehive only a yard or two from its accus-
tomed site, the bees, on returning home, flew in swarms
around the latter, and for a long time were unable to find
the hive. And several other similar cases might be
adduced. Lastly, Thompson says : —

It is highly remarkable that they [bees] know their hive
more from its locality than from its appearance, for if it be re-
moved during their absence and a similar one be substituted,
they enter the strange one. If the position of a hive be changed,
the bees for the first day take no distant flight till they have
thoroughly scrutinised every object in its neighbourhood.'

On the other hand, the writer of the article on ' Bees '
in the ' Encyclopaedia Britannica ' says that in certain parts
of France it is the habit of bee-keepers to place a number
of hives upon a boat, which, in charge of a man, floats
slowly down a river. The bees are thus continuously
changing their pasture-ground, and yet do not lose their
locomotive hives.

' Passions of AnivmlSi p. 53.

150

ANIMAL I^"TELLIGENCE.

It may be here worth while to add, parenthetically, aa
the only authentic observation with which I am acquainted
concerning the distance that bees are accustomed to
forage, the following statement of Prof. Hugh Blackburn.
Writing from Grlasgow University to ' Nature,' ' he says
that bees are found in a certain peach-house every spring
at the time of blossom, although, so far as he can ascer-
tain, the beehives nearest to the peach-house in question
are his own, and these are at a distance of ten miles.

On the whole, then, and in the absence of furthei
experiments, we must conclude it to be probable that the
sense of direction with which hymenopterous insects are,
as shown by some of Sir John Lubbock's er[)eriments, un-
questionably endowed, is of no small use to them in land-
ing their way from home to food and vice versa ; although
it appears certain, from other of his experiments, that
this sense of direction is not in all cases a sufficient guide,
and therefore requires to be supplemented by the definite
observation of landmarks.

But the most conclusive evidence on this latter point
is afforded by a highly interesting observation of Mr.
Bates on the sand-wasps at Santurem, which may here be
suitably introduced, as the insects are not distantly allied.
He describes these animals as always taking a few turns
in the air round the hole they had made in the sand
before leaving to seek for flies in the forest, apparently in
order to mark well the position of the burrow, so that on
their return they might find it without difficulty. This
observation has been since confirmed in a striking manner
by Mr. Belt, who found that the sand- wasp takes the most
precise bearings of an object the position of which she
desires to remember. This observation is so interesting
that it deserves to be rendered in extenso : —

A specimen of Polistes carnifex [i.e. the sand-wasp noticed
by Mr. Bates) was hunting about for caterpillars in my garden.
I found one about an inch long, and held it out towards it on
the point of a stick. It seized it immediately, and commenced
biting it from head to tail, soon reducing the soft bod}' to a mass
of pulp. It rolled up about one-half of it into a ball, and pre

• Vol. xii. p. 68.

BEES AND WA-SPS — MEMORY.

151

pared to cany it off. Being at the time amidst a thick mass of
a fine-leaved climbing plant, it proceeded, before flying away,
to take note of the place where it was leaving the other half.
To do this, it hovered in front of it for a few seconds, then took
small circles in front of it, then larger ones round the whole
plant. I thought it had gone, but it returned again, and had
another lock at the opening in the dense foliage down which
the other half of the caterpillar lay. It then flew away, but
must have left its burden for distribution with its comrades at
the nest, for it returned in less than two minutes, and making
one circle around the bush, descended to the opening, alighted
on a leaf, and ran inside. The green remnant of the cater-
pillar was lying on another leaf inside, but not connected with
the one on which the wasp alighted, so that in running in it
missed it, and soon got hopelessly lost in the thick foliage.
Coming out again, it took another circle, and pounced down on
the same spot again, as soon as it came opposite to it. Three
small seed-pods, which here grew close together, formed the
mai'ks that I had myself taken to note the place, and these the
wasp seemed also to have taken as its guide, for it flew directly
down to them, and ran inside ; but the small leaf on which the
fragment of caterpillar lay not being directly connected with
any on the outside, it again missed it, and again got far away
from the object of its search. It then flew out again, and the
same process was repeated again and again. Always when in
circling round it came in sight of the seed-pods down it pounced,
alighted near them, and recommenced its quest on foot. I was
surprised at its perseverance, and thought it would have given
up the search ; but not so, it returned at least half-a-dozen
times, and seemed to get angiy, hurrying about with buzzing
wings. At last it stumbled across its prey, seized it eagerly,
and as there was nothing more to come back for, flew straight
off to its nest, without taking any further note of the locality.
Such an action is not the result of bUnd instinct, but of a
thinking mind ; and it is wonderful to see an insect so difler-
ently constructed using a mental process similar to that of
man

Memory.

We may here first allude to an observation of Sir
John Lubbock already quoted in another connexion (see
p. 147). It is here e\ddent that the wasp, after find-
ing the store of honey in the room, and after finding
the window closed in the ' wasp-line ' direction to its nes^

152

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

required three repeated lessons from Sir John before she
learnt that the window on the other side of the room, and
away from the direction of her nest, afforded no obstacle
to her exit. Having learnt this, the fourth time she
came she again flew to the closed window as before, and
then, as if but dimly remembering that there was another
opening somewhere that offered no such mysterious
resistance to her passage, ' she took two or three turns
round the room, and then flew out through the open
wmdow.' Ha\dng now taken the bearings of all the room
upon her own wings, and having again found the difference
between the two windows in respect of resistance, although
in all other respects so much alike, the next time she
came she made in the first instance as it were an experi-
mental flight towards the closed window, but clearly had
the alternative of going to the open one in her memory ;
for on finding the window closed as before, she did not
alight, but fiew straight from the closed to the open window.
The same thing happened once again, but now, with
the distinction between the two windows thus fully learnt,
avd with it the perception that in this case 'the short-
est cut was the longest way round,' she never again flew to
the closed window ; in the forty successive visits which she
paid through the remainder of that day, and the hundred
visits or so which she made during the two following days,
she seems to have uniformly flown to the open window.

As evidence of forgetfulness, it will be enough to refer
to the case of another wasp which, under precisely similar
circumstances to those just detailed, learnt her way out of
the open window one day, having made fifty passages
through it in five hours. Yet Sir John remarks, —

It struck me as curioaa that on the following day this wasp
Keemed by no means so sure of her way, but over and over
a-^nin went to the closed window.

It is farther of interest to note, as showing the simi-
larity of the memory displayed by these insects with that
of the higher animals, that there are considerable indi-
vidual differences to be found in the degree of its
manifestation.

BEES AKD WASPS — MEMORY.

153

In tliis respect they certainly differ considerably. Some of
th'^ bees which came out of the little postern door (already de-
Bcribed) were able to find their way back after it had been shown
to them a few times. Othei-s were much more stupid ; thus one
bee came out on the 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th, 14th, 15th, 16th,
17th, 18th, and 19th, and came to the honey; but though 1
repeatedly put her back through the postern, she was never
able to find her way for herself.

I often found that if bees which were brought to honey did
not return at once, still they would do so a day or two after-
wards. For instance, on July 11, 1874, a hot thundery day,
and when the bees wei-e much out of humoui', I brought
twelve bees to some honey ; only one came back, and that one
only twice ; but on the following day several of them returned.

This latter observ^ation is important, as proving that
bees can remember for at least a whole day the locality
where they have found honey only once before, and that
they so far think about their past experiences as to return
to that locality when foraging.

As the association of ideas by contiguity is the prin-
ciple which forms the basis of all psychology, it is de-
sirable to consider still more attentively this the earliest
manifestation that we have of it in the memory of the
Hymenoptera. That it is not exercised with exclusive
reference to locality is proved by the following observation
of Sir John Lubbock : —

I kept a specimen of Polistes Gallica for no less than nine
months.* ... I had no difficulty in inducing her to feed on
my hand ; but at first she was shy and nervous. She kept her
sting in constant readiness. . . . Gradually she became quite
used to me, and when 1 took her on my hand apparently ex-
pected to be fed. She even allowed me to stroke her without
any appearance of fear, and foi* some months I never saw her
sting.

One other observation which goes to prove that other
tilings besides locality are noted and remembered by
bees may here be quoted. Sir John placed a bee in
a bell jar, the closed end of which he held towards a
window. The bee buzzed about at that end trying to

' ♦ Three months ' in the Journal of the Linnaean Society, but Sii
John Lubbock informs me that this is a misprint.

154

AXIMAL INTELT.IGENCE.

make for the open air. He tlien showed her the way out
of the open end of the jar, and after havdng thus learnt
it, she was able to find the way out herself. This seems
to show that the bee, like the wasp on the closed window-
pane, was able to appreciate and to remember the differ-
ence between the quality of glass as resisting and air as
permeable, although to her sense of \ision the difference
must have been very slight. In other words, the bee
must have remembered that by first flying aivay from the
window, round the edge of the jar, and then towards the
window, she could surmount the transparent obstacle;
and this implies a somewhat different act of memory from
that of associating a particular object^ — such as honey —
with a particular locality. It is noteworthy that a fly under
similar circumstances did not require to be taught to find
its way out of the jar, but spontaneously found its own
way out. This, however, may be explained by the fact
that flies do not always direct their flight towards windows,
and therefore the escape of this one was probably not due
to any act of intelligence.

While upon the subject of memory in the Hymenoptera.
it is indispensable that we should again refer to the ob
servation of Messrs. Belt and Bates already alluded to on
pages 150-51. For it is from that observation rendered
e\ddent that these sand-wasps took definite pains, as it
were, to teach themselves the localities to which they
desired to return. "Mr. Bates further observed that after
thus taking a careful mental note of the place, they would
return to it without a moment's hesitation after an absence
of an hour. The observation of Mr. Belt, already quoted
in extenso, proves that these mental notes may be taken
with the utmost mmuteness, so that even in the most
intricate places the insect, on its return, is perfectly con-
fident that it has not ma ' a mistake.

With regard to the duration of memory, Stickney
relates a case in which some bees took possession of a
hollow place beneath a roof, and baving been then re-
mov(^d into a hive, continued for several years to return
and occupy the same hole with their successive swarms.'

See Kirby and Spence, vol. ii. p. 591.

BEES AND \\'ASPS — EMOTIONS.

155

Similarly Huber relates an observation of Lis own
showing tlie duration of memory in bees. One autumn
he put some honey in a window, which the bees visited in
large numbers. During the wintei the honey was taken
away and the shutters shut. When they were again
opened in the spring the bees returned, although there
was no honey in the window.

These two cases amply prove that the memory of beea
is comparable with that of ants, which, as we have seen
from analogous facts, also extends at least over a period
of many months.

Emotions,

Sir John Lubbock's experiments on this head go to
show that the social sympathies of bees are even less de-
veloped than he found them to be in certain species of
ants. Thus he says : —

I have already mentioned with reference to the attachment
which bees have been said to show for one another, that though
I have repeatedly seen them lick a bee which had smeared her-
self in honey, I never observed them show the slightest atten-
tion to any of their comrades who had been drowned in water.
Far, indeed, from having been able to discover any evidence of
affection among them, they appear to be thoroughly callous and
utterly indifferent to one another. As already mentioned, it
was necessary for me occasionally to kill a bee ; hut I never
found that the others took the slightest notice. Thus on the
11th of October I crushed a bee close to one which was feeding
— in fact, so close that their wings touched ; yet the survivor
took no notice whatever of the death of her sister, but went on
feeding with every appearance of composure and enjoyment,
just as if nothing had happened. When the pressure was re-
moved, she remained by the side of the corpse without the
sHghtest appearance of apprehension, sorrow, or recognition
It was, of course, impossible for her to understand my reasoL
for killing her companion ; yet neither did she feel the slightest
emotion at her sister's death, nor did she show any alarm lest
the same fate should befall her also. In a second ca.se exactly
the same occiu-red. Again, I have several times, while a bee
has been feeding, held a second bee by the leg close to her ; the
prisoner, of courvse, struggled to escape, and buzzed as loudly aa
she could; yet the selfish eater took no notice whatever. So

156

ANJMAL INTELLIGEN'Cb:.

far, therefore, from being at all affectionate, I doubt whethei
beeis are in the least fond of one another.

Eeaumur, however ('Insects,' vol. v., p. 265), nar-
rates a case in which a hive-bee was partly drowned and
BO rendered insensible; the others in the hive carefully
licked and otherwise tended her till she recovered. This
Beems to show that bees, like ants, are more apt to have
their sympathies aroused by the sight of ailing or injured
companions than by that of healthy companions in distress ;
but Sir John Lubbock's observations above quoted go to
prove that even in this case display of sympathy is cer-
tainly not the rule.

Poiuers of Communication,

Huber says that when one wasp finds a store of honey
it returns to its nest, and brings off in a short time a
hundred other wasps ; ' and this statement is confirmed
by Dujardin, who witnessed a somewhat similar perform-
ance in the case of bees — the individual which first found
a concealed store informing other individuals of the fact,
and so on till numberless individuals had found it.

Although the systematic experiments of Sir John
Lubbock have not tended to confirm these observations
with regard to bees and wasps, we must not too readily allow
his negative results to discredit these positive observations
— more especially as we have seen that his later experi-
ments have fully confirmed the opinion of these previous
authors wdth respect to ants. His experiments on bees
and wasps consisted in exposing honey in a hidden situa-
tion, marking a bee or wasp that came to it, and observing
whether it afterwards brought any companions to share
the booty. He found that although the same insect
\rould return over and over again, strangers came so
rarely that their visits could only be attributed to acci-
dental and independent discovery. Only if the honey
were in an exposed situation, where the insects could see
one another feeding, would one follow the other to the
food.

But we have the more reason not to accept unreservedly

BEES AND WASPS POWERS OF COMMUNICATION. 157

the conclusion to whicli these experiments in themselves
might lead, because the very able observer F. Miiller
states an observation of his own which must be considered
as alone sufficient to provv; that bees are able to com-
municate information to one another : —

Once (he says*) I assisted at a curious contest, which took
place between the queen and the other bees in one of my hives,
which throws some light on the intellectual faculties of these
animals. A set of forty-seven cells have been filled, eight on a
newly completed comb, thirty-five on the following, and four
around the first cell of a new comb. When the queen had
laid eggs in all the cells of the two older combs she went several
times round their circumference (as she always does, in order to
ascertain whether she has not forgotten any cell), and then pre-
pared to retreat into the lower part of the breeding-room. But
as she had overlooked the four cells of the new comb, the
workers ran impatiently from this part to the queen, pushing
her, in an odd manner, with their heads, as they did also other
workers they met with. In consequence the queen began again
to go around on the two older combs ; but as she did not find
any cell wanting an egg she tried to descend, but everywhere
she was })ushed back by the workers. This contest lasted for a
rather long while, till the queen escaped without having com-
pleted her work. Thus the workers knew how to advise the
queen that something was as yet to be done, but they knew not
how to show her where it had to be done.

Again, Mr. Josiah Emery, writing to ' Nature,' ^ with
reference to Sir John Lubbock's experiments, says that the
faculty of communication which bees possess is so well
and generally known to the ' bee-hunters ' of America,
that the recognised method of finding a bees' nest is to
act upon the faculty in question : —

Going to a field or wood at a distance from tame bees,
with then box of honey they gather up from the flowers and
imprison one or more bees, and after they have become suffi
ciently gorged, let them out to return to their home with their
easily gotten load. Waiting patiently a longer or shorter time,
according to the distance of the bee-tree, the hunter scarcely
ever fails to see the bee or bees return accompanied with other
bees, which are in like manner imprisoned till they in turn ai-e

• Letter to Mr. Darwin, published in Nature^ vol. x., p. 102.
« Vol. sdi., pp. 25-6.

158

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

dlled, when one or more are let out at places distant from each
other, and the direction in each case in which the bee flies
noted, and thus, by a kind of triangulation, the position of the
bee-tree proximately asceitained.

Those who have stored honey in their houses understand
^-ery well how important it is to prevent a single bee from dis-
covering its location. Such discovery is sure to be followed by
u general onslaught from the hive unless all means of access is
prevented. It is possible that our American are more intelli-
gent than European bees, but hardly probable ; and I certainly
shall not ask an Englishman to admit it. Those in America
who are in the habit of playing first, second, and third fiddle
to instinct will probably attribute this seeming intelligence to
that primciple.

According to De Fra^d^re, bees have a number of differ-
ent notes or tones which they emit from the stigmata of
the thorax and abdomen, and by which they communicate
informatio7i. He says : —

As soon as a bee arrives with important news, it is at once
surrounded, emits two or three shrill notes, and taps a com-
rade with its long, flexible, and very slender feelers, or antennae.
The friend passes on the news in similar fashion, and the intel-
ligence soon traverses the whole hive. If it is of an agreeable
kind — if, for insfe\nce, it concerns the discovery of a store of
sugar or of honey, or of a flowering meadow — all remains
orderly. But, on the other hand, gi-eat excitement arises if the
news presages some threatened danger, or if strange animals
are threatening invasion ot the hive. It seems that such intel-
ligence is conveyed fii^st to the queen, as the most important
person in the state.

This account, which is quoted from Biichner, no
doubt bears indications of imaginative coloming ; but if
the observation as to the emission of sounds is correct —
and, as we shall see, this point is well confirmed by other
obsen^ers — it is most likely concerned in communicating
by tone a general idea of good or harm : probably in the
former case it acts as a sign, ' follow me ;' and in the latter
as a signal of danger. Biichner finther says that, accord-
ing to Landois, if a saucer of honey is placed before a
hive, a few bees come out, which emit a cry of tut, tut,
tut. This note is rather shrill, and resembles the civ o/

BEES AND WASPS — POWERS OF CO^UNICATION. 159

an attacked bee. Hereupon a large number of bees come
out ot the hive to collect the offered honey.
Again —

The best way to observe the power of communication pos-
sessed by beas by means of tlieir interchange of touches, is to
take away the queen from a hive. In a little time, about ac
hour afterwards, the sad event will be noticed by a small part
of the community, and these will stop working and run hastily
about over the comb. But this only concerns part of the hive,
and the side of a single comb. The excited bees, however, soon
leave the little circle iti which they at first revolved, and when
they meet tlieir comrades they cross their antennae and lightly
touch the others with them. The bees which have received some
impression from this touch now become uneasy in their turn,
and convey their uneasiness and distress in the same way to
the other parts of the dwelling. The disorder increases i-apidly,
spreads to the other side of the comb, and at last to all the
people. Then arises the general confusion before described.

Huber tested this communication by the antennae by a
striking experiment. He divided a hive into two quite se})a-
rate parts by a partition wall, whereupon great excitement
arose in the division in which there was no queen, and this
was only quieted when some workers began to build royal cells.

He then divided a hive in similar fashion by a trellis, through
which the bees could pass their feelers. In this case all re-
mained quiet, and no attempt was made to build royal cells :
the queen could also be clearly seen crossing her antennae with
the workers on the other side of the trellis.

Apparently the feelers are also connected with the exceed-
ingly fine scent of the bees, which enables them, wonderful as
it may seem, to distinguish friend and foe, and to recognise
the members of their own hive among the thousands and
thousands of bees swarming around, and to drive back from the
entrance stranger or robber bees. The bee-masters, therefore,
when they want two separate colonies or the members of them
to unite in one hive, sprinkle water over the bees, or stupefy
them with some fumigating substance, so as to make them to a
certain extent insensible to smell, in order to attain their
object. It is always possible to unite colonies by making the
bfV3s smell of some strong-smelling stuff, such as musk.'

Lastly, under the present heading I shall quote one
Oiher observation, for which I am also indebted to

Loc. cit.

160

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

Buchner's very admirable collection of facts relating to the

psychology of Hymenoptera : —

HeiT L. Brofil relates, in ' der Zoologiache Garten ' (XYIII.
Year, No. 1, p. 67), that a poor and a rich hive stood next each
other on his father's bee stand, and the latter suddenly lost its
queen. Before the ownier had come to a decision thereupon the
bees of the two hives came to a mutual understanding as to the
condition of their two states. The dwellers in the queenless
hive, with their stores of provisions, went over into the less
populous or poorer hive, after they had assured themselves, by
many influential deputations, as to the state of the interior of
the poor hive, and, as appeared, especially as to the presence of
an egg-laying queen !

General Habits.

The active life of bees is divided between collecting
food and rearing young. We shall therefore consider
these two functions separately.

The food collected consists of two kinds, honey (which,
although stored in the ' crop ' for the purpose of carriage
from the flowers to the cells, appears to be but the con-
densed nectar of flowers) and so-called ' bee-bread.' This
consists of the pollen of flowers, which is worked into a kind
of paste by the bees and stored in clieu cells till it is re-
quired to serve as food for their larvae. It is then partly
digested by the nurses with honey, so that a sort of chyle
is formed. It is observable that in each flight the ' carrier
bees ' collect only one kind of pollen, so that it is possible
for the ' house bees ' (which, by the way, are the younger
bees left at home to discharge domestic duties with only
a small proportion of older ones, left probably to direct
the more inexperienced young) to sort it for storage in
different cells. In the result there are several different
kinds of bee-bread, some being more stimulating or nu-
tritious th ;n others. The most nutritious has the effect,
when given to any female larva, of developing that larva
into a queen or fertile female. This fact is well known
to the bees, who only feed a small number of larvae in this
manner, and the larvae which they select so to feed they
place in larger or ' royal * cells, with an ob\dous fore

BEES AND WASPS— GENEEAL HABITS.

161

knowledge of the increa»9ed dimensions to which the
animal will grow under the influence of t his food. Only
one queen is required for a single hive; but the bees
always raise several, so that if any mishap should occur to
one, other larvae may be ready to fall back upon.

Besides honey and bee-bread two other substances are
found in beehives. These are propolis and beeswax.
The former is a kind of sticky resin collected for the most
part from coniferous trees. This is used as mortar in
building, &c. It adheres so strongly to the legs of the
bee which has gathered it, that it can only be detached
by the help of comrades. For this purpose the loaded
bee presents her legs to her fellow- workers, who clean it
off with their jaws, and while it is still ductile, apply it
round the inside of the hive. According to Huber, who
made this observation, the propolis is applied also to the
insides of the cells. The workers first planed the surfaces
with their mandibles, and one of them then pulled out a
thread of propolis from the heap deposited by the carrier
bees, severed it by a sudden throwing back of the head,
and returned with it to the cell which it had previously
been planing. It then laid the thread between the two
walls which it had planed ; but, pro^-ing too long, a portion
of the thread was bitten off. The properly measured portion
was then forced into the angle of the cell by the fore-feet
and mandibles. The thread, now converted into a narrow
ribbon, was next found to be too broad. It was therefore
gnawed down to the proper width. Other bees then com-
pleted the work which this one had begun, till all the walls
of the cells were framed with bands of propolis. The ob-
ject of the propolis here seems to be that of giving strength
to the cells.

The wax is a secretion which proceeds from between
the segments of the abdomen. Having ingested a large
meal of honey, the bees hang in a thick cluster from the
top of their hive in order to secrete the wax. When it
begins to exude, the bees, assisted by their companions,
rub it off into heaps, and when a suflScient quantity of the
material has been thus collected, the work begins of build-
ing the cells. As the cells are used both for storing food and

162

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

rearing young, I shall consider them later on. Now we
liave to pass to the labours incidental to propagation.

All the eggs are laid by one queen, who requires during
this season a large amount of nourishment, so much,
indeed, that ten or twelve working bees (^i»e. sterile females)
are set apart as her feeders. Leaving the ' royal cell,*
she walks over the nursery-combs attended by a retinue
of workers, and drops a single egg into each open cell.
Tt is a highly remarkable fact that the queen is able to
control the sex of the eggs which she lays, and onlj^
deposits drone or male eggs in the drone cells, and
worker or female eggs in the worker cells — the cells pre-
pared for the reception of drone larvae being larger than
those required for the worker larvas. Young queens lay
more worker eggs than old queens, and when a queen,
from increasing age or any other cause, lays too large a
proportion of drone eggs, she is expelled from the com-
munity or put to death. It is remarkable, also, under
these circumstances, that the queen herself seems to know
that she has become useless, for she loses her propensity
to attack other queens, and so does not run the risk of
making the hive virtually queenless. There is now no
doubt at all that the determining cause of an egg turn-
ing out male or female is that which Dzierzon has shown,
namely, the absence or presence of fertihsation — unferti-
lised eggs always developing into males, and fertilised
ones into females. The manner, therefore, in which a
queen controls the sex of her eggs must depend on some
power that she has of controlling their fertilisation.

The eggs hatch out into larvae, which require constant
attention from the workers, who feed them with the chyle
or bee-bread already mentioned. In three weeks from
the time that the egg is deposited, the white worm-like
larva has passed through its last metamorphosis. When
it has emancipated itself its nurses assemble round it to
wash and caress it, as well as to supply it with food.
They then clean out the cell which it has Jeft.

When so large a number of the larvae hatch out as to
overcrowd the hive, it is the function of the queen to lead
forth a swarm. Meanwhile several larval queens have been

BEES AND WASPS — SWAEMING.

163

in course of development, and matters are so arranged hy
the foresight of the bees, that one or more young queens
are ready to emerge at a time when otherwise the hive
would be left queenless. But the young queen or queens,
although perfectly formed, must not escape from their
royal prison-houses until the swarm has fairly taken place ;
the worker bees will even strengthen the coverings of
these prison-houses if, owing to bad weather or other
causes, swarming is delayed. The prisoner queens,
which are fed through a small hole in the roof of their
cells, now continually give vent to a plaintive cry, called
by the bee-keepers ' piping,' and this is answered by the
mother queen. The tones of the piping vary. The
reason why the young queens are kept such close
prisoners till after the departure of the mother queen
with her swarm, is simply that the mother queen would
destroy all the younger ones, could she get the chance,
by stinging them. The workers, therefore, never allow
the old queen to approach the prisons of the younger
ones. They establish a guard all round these prisons or
royal cells, and beat off the old queen whenever she
endeavours to approach. But if the swarming season is
over, or anything should prevent a further swarm from
being sent out, the worker bees offer no further resistance
to the jealousy of the mother queen, but allow her in cold
blood to sting to death all the young queens in their nursery
prisons. As soon as the old queen leaves with a swarm,
the young queens are liberated in succession, but at
intervals of a few days ; for if they were all liberated at
once they would fall upon and destroy one another. Each
young queen as it is liberated goes off with another
swarm, and those which remain unliberated are as carefully
guarded from the liberated sister queen as they were
previously guarded from the mother queen. When the
season is too late for swarming the remaining young
queens are liberated simultaneously, and are then allowed
to fight to the death, the survivor being received as
sovereign.

The bees, far from seeking to prevent these battles, appear
to excite the combatants against each other, surroimding and

13

164

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

bringing them back to the charge when they are disposed to
recede from each other ; and when either of the queens shows a
disposition to approach her antagonist, all the bees forming the
cluster instantly give way to allow her full liberty of attack.
The first use which the conquering queen makes of her victory
is to secure herself against fresh dangers by destroying all her
future rivals in the royal cells ; while the other bees, which are
spectators of the carnage, share in the spoil, greedily devouring
any food which may be found at the bottom of the cells, and
even sucking the fluid fi'om the abdomen of the pupse before
they toss out the carcasses.*

Similarly, when a strange queen is put into a hive
already provided with a queen —

A circle of bees instinctively crowd around the invader, not,
however, to attack her — for a worker never assaults a queen —
but to respectfully prevent her escape, in order that a combat
may take place between her and their reigning monarch. The
lawful possessor then advances towards the part of the comb
where the invader has established herself, the attendant workers
clear a space for the encounter, and, without interfering, wait
the result. A fearful encounter then ensues, in which one is
stung to death, the survivor mounting the throne. Although
the workers of a de facto monarch will not tight for her defence,
yet, if they perceive a strange queen attempting to enter the
hive, they will surround her, and hold her until she is starved
to death ; but such is their respect for royalty that they never
attempt to sting her.^

All these facts display a wonderful amount of ap-
parently sagacious purpose on the part of the workers,
although they may not seem to reflect much credit on the
intelligence of the queens. But in this connection we
must remember the observation of F. Huber, who saw
two queens, which were the only ones left in the hive,
engaged in mortal combat ; and when an opp'jrtunity
arose for each to sting the other simultaneously, they
simultaneously released each other's grasp, as if in horror
of a situation that might have ended in lea\"ing the hive
queenless. This, then, is the calamity to avert which all

' Art. • Bees,' Encycl. Brit.

' Dr. Kemp, Indications of Instinct,

BEES AND WASPS — KILLING DEONES. 165

the instincts both of workers and queens are directed.
And that these instincts are controlled by intelligence is
suggested, if not proved, by the adaptations which they
show to special circumstances. Thus, for instance, F.
Huber smoked a hive so that the queen and older bees
effected their escape, and took up their quarters a short
distance away. The bees which remained behind set
about constructing three royal cells for the purpose of
rearing a new queen. Huber now carried back the old
queen and ensconced her in the hive. Immediately the
bees set aoout carrying away all the food from the royal
cells, in order to prevent the larvae contained therein from
developing into queens. Again, if a strange queen is pre-
sented to a hive already provided with one, the workers do
not wait for their own queen to destroy the pretender, but
themselves sting or smother her to death. When, on the
other hand, a queen is presented to a hive which is with-
out one, the bees adopt her, although it is often necessary
for the bee-master to protect her for a day or two in a
trellis cage, until her subjects have become acquainted
with her. When a hive is queenless, the bees stop all
work, become restless, and make a dull complaining noise.
This, however, is only the case if there is likewise a total
absence of royal pupae, and of ordinary pupae under three
days of age — i.e. the age during which it is possible to
rear an ordinary larva into a queen.

As soon as the queen has been fertilised, and the
services of the drones therefore no longer required, the
worker bees fall upon their unfortunate and defenceless
brothers to kill them, either by direct stinging or by
throwing them out of the hive to perish in the cold. The
drones' cells are then torn down, and any remaining drone
eggs or pupae destroyed. Grenerally all the drones — which
may number more than a thousand — are slaughtered in
Ihe course of a single day. Evidently the object of this
massacre is that of getting rid of useless mouths ; but
there is a more difficult question as to why these useless
mouths ever came into existence. It has been suggested
that the enormous disproportion between the present
number of males and the single fertile female refers to

166

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE,

a time before tlie social instincts became so complex oi
consolidated, and when, therefore, bees lived in lesser
communities. Probably this is the explanation, although
I think we might still have expected that before this
period in their evolution had arrived bees might have de-
veloped a compensating instinct, either not to allow the
queen to lay so many drone eggs, or else to massacre the
drones while still in the larval state. But here we must re-
member that among the wasps the males do work (chiefly
domestic work, for which they are fed by their foraging
sisters) ; so it is possible that in the hive-bee the drones
were originally useful members of the community, and
that they have lost their primitively useful instincts. But
whatever the explanation, it is very curious that here,
among the animals which are justly regarded as exhibiting
the highest perfection of instinct, we meet with perhaps
the most flagrant instance in the animal kingdom of
instinct unperfected. It is the more remarkable that
the drone-killing instinct should not have been better de-
veloped in the direction of killing the drones at the most
profitable time — namely, in their larval or oval state —
from the fact that in many respects it seems to have been
advanced to a high degree of discriminative refinement.
Thus, to quote Biichner, —

That the massacre of the drones is not performed entirely
from an instinctive impulse, but in full consciousness of the
object to be gained, is proved by the circumstance that it is
carried out the more completely and mercilessly the more fer-
tile the queen shows herself to be. But in cases where this
fertility is subject to serious doubt, or when the queen has been
fertilised too late or not at all, and therefore only lays drones'
eggs, or when the queen is barren, and new queens, to be fer-
tilised later, have to be brought up from working-bee larvae,
then all or some of the drones are left alive, in the clear pre-
vision that their services will be required later. . . . This wise
calcuLition of consequences is further exemplified in that some-
times the massacre of the drones takes place before the time for
Bwarming, as, for instance, when long-continued unfavourable
"weath-^T succeeds a favourable beginning of spring, and makes
the bees anxious for their own welfare. If, however, the
weather breaks, and work again becomes possible, so that the

BEES AND WASPS — KILLING DEONES. 167

Dees take courage anew, they then bring up new di-ones, and
prepare them in time for the swarming. This killing of di-oi>es
is distinguished from the r egular drone massacre by the fact
that the bees then only kill the developed drones, and leave the
drone larvae, save when absolute hunger compels their destruc-
tion. Not less can it be regarded as a prudent calculation of
circumstances when the bees of a hive, brought from our tempe-
rate climate to a more southern country, where the time of col-
lecting lasts longer, do not kill the drones in August, as usual,
but at a later period, suitable to the new conditions.

But the philosophy of drone-killing is, I think, even
more difficult in the case of the wasps than in that of the
bees. For, unlike the bees, whose communities live from
year to year, the wasps all perish at the end of autumn,
with the exception of a very few fertilised females. As
this season of universal calamity approaches, the workers
destroy all the larval grubs — a proceeding which, in the
opinion of some writers, strikingly exemplifies the bene-
ficence of the Deity ! Now, it does not appear to me easy
to understand how the presence of such an instinct in this
case is to be explained. For, on the one hand, the indi-
vidual females which are destined to live through the
wint-er cannot be conspicuously benefited by this slaughter
of grubs ; and, on the other hand, the rest of the com-
munity is so soon about to perish, that one fails to see of
what advantage it can be to it to get rid of the grubs. If
the whole human race, with the exception of a few women,
were to perish periodically once in a thousand years, the
race would profit nothing by destroying, a few months
before the end of each millennium, all sick persons, lunatics,
and other ' useless mouths.' I have not seen this difficulty
with regard to the massacring instinct in wasps mentioned
before, and I only mention it now in order to draw atten-
tion to the fact that there seems to be a more puzzling
problem presented here than in the case of the analogous
instinct as exhibited by bees. The only solution which
has suggested itself to my mind is the possibility that in
earHer times, or in other climates, wasps may have re-
sembled bees in living through the winter, and that the
grub-slaying instinct is in them a survival of one which

168

ANIM^Uii INTELLIGENCE.

was then, as in the case of the bees now, a clearly beneficial
instinct.

For some days before swarming begins, there is a
great excitement and buzzing in the hive, the temperature
of which rises from 92° to 104°. Scouts having been pre-
viously sent out to explore for suitable quarters wherein
to plant the new colony, these now act as guides. The
Bwarm leaves the hive with their queen. The bees which
remain behind busy themselves in rearing out the pupae,
which soon arriving at matm'ity, also quit the hive in
successive swarms. According to Biichner, ' secondary
swarms with young queens send out no scouts, but fly at
random through the air. They clearly lack the experience
and prudence of the older bees.' And, regarding the
behaviour of the scouts sent out by primary swarms, this
author says : —

M. de Fravi^re had the opportunity of observing the manner
in which such an examination is carried on, and with what pru-
dence and accui-acy. He placed an empty beehive, made in a new
style, in front of his house, so that he could exactly watch from
his own window what went on inside and out without disturb-
ance to himself or to the bees. A single bee came and examined
the building, flying all round it and touching it. It then let
itself down on the board, and walked carefully and thoroughly
over the interior, touching it continually with its antennae so as
to subject it on all sides to a thorough investigation. The
result of its examination must have been satisfactory, for after
it had gone away it returned accompanied by a crowd of some
fifty friends, which now together went through the same pro-
cess as iiheir guide. This new trial must also have had a good
result, for soon a whole swarm came, evidently from a distant
spot, and took possession. Still more remarkable is the
behaviour of the scouts when they take possession of a satis-
laetory hive or box for an imminent or approaching swarm.
Although it is not yet inhabited they regard it as their property,
watch it and guard it against stranger bees or other assailants,
and bu>;y themselves earnestly in the most careful cleansing of
it, so far as this cleansing is impossible to the setter up of
the hive. Such a taking possession sometimes occiu-s eight days
before the entrance of the swarm.

Wars. — As with ants, so with bees, the great cause of

BEES AND WASPS — WARS.

169

war is plunder ; and facts now well i^ubstantiated bj
numberless observers concerning ' robber-bees ' indicate
a large measure of intelligence. These aim at lessening
their labour in collecting honey by plundering the store
of other hives. The robberies may be conducted singly or
in concert. When the thieving propensity is developed
only in individual cases, the thieves cannot rely on force
in plundering a foreign state, and so resort to cautious
stealth. ' They show by their whole behaviour — creeping
into the hive with careful vigilance — that they are per-
fectly conscious of their bad conduct ; whereas the workers
belonging to the hive fly in quickly and openly, and in
full consciousness of their right.' If such solitary burglars
are successful in obtaining plunder, their bad example
leads other members of their own community to imitate
them ; thus it is that the whole bee-nation may de-
velop marauding habits, and when they do this they act
in concert to rob by force. In this case an army of bees
precipitates itself upon the foreign hive, a battle ensues,
and if successful in overcoming resistance, the invaders
hrst of all search out the queen-bee and put her to death,
whereby they disorganise their enemies and plunder the
hive with ease. It is observed that when this policy is once
successful, the spirit of aggrandisement is encom-aged, so
that the robber-bees ' find more pleasure in robbery than
in their own work, and become at last formidable robber-
states.' When an invaded hive is fairly overcome by
the invaders killing the queen, the owners of the hive,
finding that all is lost, not only abandon further resistance,
but very often reverse their policy and join the ranks of
their conquerors. They assist in the tearing down of
their cells, and in the conveyance of the honey to the
hive of their invaders. ^ When the assailed hive is
emptied, the next ones are attacked, and if no efi'ective
resistance is offered, are robbed in similar fashion, so that
in this way a whole bee-stand may be gradually destroyed.'
Siebold observed the same facts in the case of wasps
{Polistes gallica). If, however, the battle turns in favour
of the defenders, they pursue the flying legions of their
enemies to a distance from their home. It sometimes

170

ANIMAL INT1:LLIGENCE.

happens that the plundered hive offers no resistance at all,
owing to the robbers having visited the same flowers as
the robbed, and so probably (having much the same smell)
not being recogTiised as belonging to a different com-
munity. The thieves, when they find such to be the case,
may become so bold as to stop the bees that are returning
to the hive with their loads, of which they deprive them
at the entrance of the hive. This is done by a process
which one observer, Weygandt,^ calls ' milking,' and it
seems that the milking bee attains the double advantage
of securing the honey from the milked one and disarming
suspicion of the other bees by contracting its smell and
entering the hive loaded, into which it is admitted with-
out opposition to continue its plunder.

Sometimes robber-bees attack their victims in the
fields at a distance from the hives. This sort of high-
way robbery is generally conducted by a gang of four oi
five robber-bees which set upon a single honest bee,
' hold him by the legs, and pinch him until he unfolds
his tongue, which is sucked in succession by his assailants,
who then suffer him to depart in peace.'

It is strange that hive-bees of dishonest tempera-
ments seem able to coax or wheedle humble-bees into the
voluntary yielding of honey. ' Humble-bees have been
known to permit hive-bees to take the whole honey that
they have collected, and to go on gathering more, and
handing it over, for three weeks, although they refuse to
part with it, or seek refuge in flight, when wasps make
similar overtures.' ^

Besides theft and plunder, there are other causes o^
warfare among bees, which, however, are only apparent in
their effects. Thus, for some undiscernible reason, duels
are not infrequent, which generally end in the death of
one or both combatants. At other times, equally without
apparent reason, civil war breaks out in a hive, which is
sometimes attended with much slaughter.

Architecture. — Coming now to the construction of the
cells and combs, there is no doubt that here we meet with

' 77i£ Bee, 1877, No. 1.

* Dr. Lindley Kemp, Indications of Instinct.

BEES AND WASPS — ARCHITECTURE.

171

the most astonishing products of instinct that are pre-
sented in the animal kingdom. A great deal has been
written on the practical exhibition of high mathematical
principles which bees display in constructing their combs
in the form that secures the utmost capacity for storage
of honey with the smallest expenditure of building
material. The shortest and clearest statement of the
subject that I have met with is the following, which has
been given by Dr. Reid : —

There are only three possible figures of the cells which can
make them all equal and similar, without any useless interstices.
These are the equilateral triangle, the square, and the regular
hexagon. Mathematicians know that there is not a fourth way
possible in which a plane may be cut into little spaces that
shall be equal, similar, and regular, without useless spaces. Of
the three figures, the hexagon is the most proper for convenience
and strength. Bees, as if they knew this, make their cells
regular hexagons.

Again, it has been demonstrated that, by making the bottoms
of the cells to consist of three planes meeting in a point, there
is a saving of material and labour in no way inconsiderable.
The bees, as if acquainted with these principles of solid
geometry, follow them most accurately. It is a curious mathe-
matical problem, at what precise angle the three planes which
compose the bottom of a cell ought to meet, in order to make
the greatest possible saving, or the least exp -nse of raateiial and
labour. This is one of the problems which belong to the higher
parts of mathematics. It has accordingly been resolved by
some mathematicians, particularly by the ingenious Maclaurin,
by a fluctionary calculation, which is to be found in the Transac-
tions of the Royal Society of London. He has determined
precisely the angle required, and he found, by the most exact
mensuration the subject would admit, that it is the very angle
in which the three planes in the bottom of the cell of a honey-
comb do actually meet.^

Marvellous as these facts undoubtedly are, they may
now be regarded as having been satisfactorily explained.
Long ago Buffon sought to account for the hexagonal
form of the cells by an hypothesis of mutual pressure.
Supposing the bees to have a tendency to build tubulai

• Handcock on Instinct, p. 18.

172

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

cells, if a greater number of bees were to build in a given
space than could admit of all the parallel tubes being
completed, tubes with flat sides and sharp angles might
result, and if the mutual pressure were exactly equal in
all directions, these sides and angles would assume the form
of hexagons. This hypothesis of Buffon was sustained b^^
such physical analogies as the blowing of a crowd of soap-
bubbles in a cup, the swelUng of moistened peas in a con-
fined space, &c. The hypothesis, however, as thus pre-
sented was clearly inadequate ; for no reason is assigned
why the mutual pressure, even if conceded to exist, should
always be so exactly equal in all directions as to convert
all the cylinders into perfect hexagons — even the ana-
logy of the soap-bubbles and the moistened peas failing,
as pointed out by Brougham and others, to sustain it,
seeing that as a matter of fact bubbles and peas under
circumstances of mutual pressure do not assume the form
of hexagons, but, on the contrary, forms which are con-
spicuously irregular. Moreover, the hypothesis fails to
account for the particular prismatic shape presented by
the cell base. Therefore it is not surprising that this
hypothesis should have gained but small acceptance.
Kirby and Spence dispose of it thus : — ' He (Buffon) gravely
tells us that the boasted hexagonal cells of the bee are
produced by the reciprocal pressure of the cylindrical
bodies of these insects against each other ! ! ' ' The
double note of admiration here may be taken to express
the feelings with which this hypothesis of Buffon was re-
garded by all the more sober-minded naturalists. Yet it
turns out to have been not very wide of the mark. As is
often the case with the gropings of a great mind, the idea
contains the true principle of the explanation, although it
fails as an explanation from not being in a position to
take sufficient cognizance of all the facts. Safer it is for
lesser minds to restrain their notes of exclamation while
considering the theories of a greater ; however crude or
absurd the latter may appear, the place of their birth
renders it not impossible that some day they may prove
to have been prophetic of truth revealed by fuller know

' Jntrod. Ent.y ii., p. 465,

BEES AND WASPS — ARCHITECTURE.

173

ledge. Usually in such cases the final explanation is
eventually reached by the working of a yet greater mind,
and in this case the undivided credit of solving the
problem is to be assigned to the genius of Darwin.

^Ir. Waterhouse pointed out ' that the form of the cell
stands in close relation to the presence of adjoining cells.'
Starting from this fact, Mr. Darwin says, —

Let us look to the great principle of gradation, and see
whether Nature does not reveal to us her method of work. A t
one end of a short series we have humble-bees, which use their
old cocoons to hold honey, sometimes adding to them short
tubes of wax, and likewise making separate and very irregular
rounded cells of wax. At the other end of the series we have
the cells of the hive-bee, placed in a double layer, ... In the
series between the extreme perfection of the cells of the hive-
bee and the simplicity of those of the humble-bee we have the
cells of the Mexican Mdipona domestica^ carefully described
and figured bv Pierre H uber. ... It forms a nearly regular
waxen comb of cylindrical cells, in which the young are hatched,
and, in addition, some large cells of wax for holding honey.
These latter cells are nearly spherical and of nearly equal sizes,
and are aggregated into an irregular mass. But the important
thing to notice is, that these cells are always made at that degree
of nearness to each other that they would have intersected or
broken into each other if the spheres had been completed ;
but this is never permitted, the bees building perfectly flat cells
of wax between the spheres which thus tend to intersect. Hence
each cell consists of an outer spherical portion ; and of two,
three, or more flat surfaces, according as the cell adjoins two,
three, or more other cells. When one cell rests on three other
cells, which, from the spheres being nearly of the same size, is
very frequently and necessarily the case, the three flat surfaces
are united into a pyramid ; and this pyramid, as Huber has
remarked, is manifestly a gross imitation of the three-sided
p}-ramidal base of the cell of the hive-bee. . . .

Reflecting on this case, it occurred t-o me that if the Meli-
|K<na had made its spheres at some given distance from each
other, and had made them of equal sizes, and had arranged them
symmetrically in a double layer, the resulting structure would
have been as perfect as the comb of the hive-bee. Accordingly
I w^rote to Prof. Miller of Cambridge, and this geometer ha&
kindly read over the following statement, drawn up from hifi
information, and tells me that it is strictly correct.

174

AXi:VIAL INTELLIGENCE.

This statement having fuUj borne out his theory, ^Ir.
Darwin continues : —

Hence we may safely conclude that, if we could slightly
modify the instincts already possessed by the Melipona, and in
themselves not very wonderful, this bee would make a structure
as wonderfully perfect as that of the hive-bee. We must sup-
pose the Melipona to have the power of forming her cells truly
spherical, and of equal sizes ; and this would not be very sur-
prising, seeing that she already does so to a certain extent, and
seeing what perfectly cyhndrical burrows many insects make in
wood, apparently by turning round on a fixed point. We must
suppose the Melipona to arrange her cells in level layers, as she
already does her cylindrical cells ; and we must further suppose
— and this is the greatest difficulty — that she can somehow judge
accurately at what distance to stand from her fellow-labourers
when several are making their spheres ; but she is already so
far able to judge of distance that she always describes her
spheres so as to intersect to a certain extent ; and then she
unites the points of intersection by perfectly flat suifaces. By
such modifications of instinct, which in themselves are not very
wonderful — hardly more wonderful than those which guide a
bird to make its nest, — I believe that the hive-bee has ac4uii eii
through natural selection her inimitable architectural powers. ^

Mr. Darwin next tested this theory by the experiment
of introducing into beehives plates of wax, and observing
that the bees worked upon these plates just as the theory
required. That is to say, they made their cells by ex-
cavating a number of little circular pits at equal distances
from one another, so that by the time the pits had ac-
quired the width of an ordinary cell, the sides of the pits
intersected. As soon as this occurred the bees ceased to
excavate, and instead began to build up flat walls of wax
on the lines of intersection. Other experiments with very
thin plates of vermilion-coloured wax showed that the
bees all worked at about the same rate, and on opposite
Bides of the plates, so that the common bottoms of any
two opposite pits were flat. These flat bottoms 'were
situated, as far as the eye could judge, exactly along the
planes of imaginary intersection between the basins on
the opposite sides of the ridge of wax ; ' so that if the
^ Origin of Species^ ' Cell-making Instinct.'

BEES AND WASPS ARCHITECTURE.

175

plate of wax had been thick enough to admit of the oppo-
site basins being deepened (and widened) into cells, the
mutual intersect ion of adjacent as well as opposite bottoms
would have given rise, as in the first experiment witli the
thick plate of wax, to the pyramidal bottoms. Ejperi-
mei.ts with the vermilion wax also showed, as Huber had
previously stated, that a number of individual bees work
by turns at the same cell ; for by covering parts of grow-
ing cells with vermilion wax, Mr. Darwin —

Invariably found that the colour was most delicately diffused
by the bees — as delicately as a painter could have done it with
his brush — by atoms of the coloured wax having been taken
from the spot on which it had been placed, and worked into the
growing edges of the cells all round.

Such, omitting details, is the substance of Mr. Darwin's
theory. In summary he concludes, —

The work of construction seems to be a sort of balance
struck between many l^ees, all instinctively standing at the
same relative distance from each other, all trying to sweep
equal spheres, and then building up, or leaving imgnawed, the
planes of intersection between these spheres.

This theory, while serving as a full and simple expla-
nation of all the facts, has, as we have seen, been so fully
substantiated by observation and experiment, that it de-
serves to be regarded as raised to the rank of a completed
demonstration. It differs from the theory of Buffon in
two important particulars : it embraces all the facts,
and supplies. a cause adequate to explain them. This
cause is natural selection, which converts the random
' pressure ' in Buffon's theory into a precisely regulated
principle. Random pressure alone could never produce
the beautifully symmetrical form of the hexagonal cell
with the pyramidal bottom ; but it could and must have
produced the intersection of cylindrical cells among pos-
gibiy many extinct species of bees, such as the Melipona.
Whenever this intersection occurred in crowded nests, it
must cleai'ly have been of great benefit in securing
economy of precious wax ; for in every case where a flat
wall of partition between two adjacent cells did duty

176

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

instead of a double cylindrical wall of separate cells, there
wax should have been saved. Thus we can see how
natural selection would have worked towards the develop-
ing of an instinct to excavate cells near enough together
to produce intersection ; and once begun, there is no
reason why this instinct should not have been perfected
by the same agency, till we meet with its ideal perfectiDr*
in the hive-bee. For as Mr. Darwin observes, —

With respect to the formation of wax, it is kDown that
bees are often hard pressed to get sufficient nectar ; and I am
informed by Mr. Tegetmeier that it has been experimentally
proved that from twelve to fifteen pounds of dry sugar are con-
sumed by a hive of bees for the secretion of a pound of wax ; so
that a prodigious quantity of tiuid nectar must be collected and
consumed by the bees in a hive for the secretion of the wax
necessary for the construction of their combs. Moreover, many
bees have to remain idle for many days during the process of
secretion, . . . Hence it would continually be more and more
advantageous to our humble-bees if they were to make their
cells more and more regular, nearer together, and aggregated into
a mass, like the cells of Melipona ; for in this case a large part
of the bounding surface of each cell would serve to bound the
adjoining cell, and much labour and wax would be saved.
A gain, from the same cause, it would be advantageous to the
Melipona if she were to make her cells closer together, and
more regular in every way than at present ; for then, as we
have seen, the spherical surfaces would wholly disappear and be
replaced by plane surfaces ; and the Melipona would make a
comb as perfect as that of the hive-bee. Beyond this stage of
perfection in architecture, natural selection could not lead ; for
the comb of the hive-bee, as far as we can see, is absolutely
perfect in economising laboui* and wax.

The problem, then, as to the origin and perfection of
».he cell-making instinct appears thus to have been fully
and finally solved. I shall now adduce a few facts to show
that while the general instinct of building hexagonal
cells has doubtless been acquired by natm^al selection in
the way just explained, it is nevertheless an instinct not
wholly of a blind or mechanical kind, but is constantly
under the control of intelligent purpose. Thus Mr. Darwin
observes, —

BEES AND WASPS— AKCHlThCTURE.

177

It was really curious to note in cases of difficulty, as when
two pieces of comb met at an angle, how often the bees would
pull down and rebuild in different ways the same cell, some-
times recurring to a shape which they had at fii*st rejected.^

Again, Huber saw a bee building upon the wax which
had already been put together by her comrades. But she
did not arrange it properly, or in a way to continue the
design of her predecessors, so that her building made an
undesirable corner with theirs. ' Another bee perceived
it, pulled down the bad work before our eyes, and gave
it to the first in the requisite order, so that it might
exactly follow the original direction.' Similarly, to quote
Biichner, —

All the cells have not the same shape, as would be the case
if the bees in building worked according to a perfectly instinctive
and unchangeable plan. There are very manifold changes and
iri-egularities. Almost in every comb irregular and unfinished
cells are to be found, especially where the several divisions of a
comb come together. The small architects do not begin their
comb from a single centre, but begin building from many differ-
ent points, so as to progress as rapidly as possible, and so that
the greatest number may work simultaneously ; they therefore
build from above downwards, in the shape of Hat truncated
cones or hanging pyramids, and these several portions ;ire after-
wards united together during the winter budding. At these
lines of junction it is impossible to avoid irregular cells between
the pressed together or unnaturally lengthened om s. The
same is true more or less of the passage cells, which are made
to unite the large cells of the so-called drone wax with the
smaller ones of the working b^es, and which are generally
placed in two or three rows. The cells also which they usually
build from the combs to the glass walls of their hives, in order
to hold them up, show somewhat irregular forms. Finally, in
places where special conditions of the situation do not other-
wise permit, it may be observed that the bees, far from clinging
obstinately to their plan, very well understand how to accom
modate themselves to circumstancces not only in cell-building,
but also in making theii- combs. F. Huber tried to mislead
their instinct, or rather to put to the proof their reason and
cleverness in every possible way, but they always emerged tri-
umphant from the ordeal. For instance, he put bees in a hive

• Origin of Species, p. 226

178

A.NIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

the floor and roof of which were made of glass, that is of a body
which the bees use very unwillingly for the attachment of their
combs, on account of its smoothness. Thus the possibility of
building as usual from above downwards, and also from below
upwards, was taken away from them ; they had no point of sup-
port savfe the perpendicular walls of their dwelling. They
thereupon built on one of these walls a regular stratum of
cells, from which, building sideways, they tried to carry the
comb to the opposite side of the hive. To prevent this Huber
covered that side also with glass. But what way out of the
difficulty was found by the clever insects 1 Instead of building
further in the projected direction, they bent the comb round at
the extreme point, and carried it at a right angle towards one
of the inner sides of the hive which was not covered with glass,
and there fastened it. The form and dimensions of the cells
must necessarily have been altered thereby, and the arrange-
ment of their work at the angle must have been quite different
from the usual. They made the cells of the convex side so
much broader than those of the concave that they had a
diameter two or three times as great, and yert they managed to
join them properly with the others. They also did not wait to
bend the comb until they came to the glass itself, but recog-
nised the difficulty befoi-ehand,* which had been interposed by
Huber while they were building with a view to overcome the
first difficulty.

SPECLiL Habits.

The Mason-Bee. — This insect closes the roof of its
larval cell with a kind of mortar, which sets as hard as
stone. A little hole, closed only with soft mud, is, how-
ever, left in one part of the roof as a door of exit for the
matured insect. It is said that when a mason-bee finds
an old and deserted nest, it saves itself the trouble of
making a new one — utilising the ready-made nest after
having well cleaned it. In Algiers the mason-bees have
been observed in this way to utilise empty snail-shells.
According to Blan chard, some indi"\dduals avoid the labour
of making their own nests or houses for their youp.g, by
possessing themselves of their neighbours' houses either
by craft or by force. ' Does the mason-bee act like a
machine,' says E. Menault, ' when it directs its work ac-

' Mmd iti Aniituils, pp. 252-3.

BEES AND WASPS SPECIAL HABITS.

179

cording to circumstances, possesses itself of old nests,
cleanses and improves them, and thereby shows that it can
fully appreciate the immediate position ? Can one believe
that no kind of reflection is here necessary ? '

The Tapestry-Bee. — The so-called tapestry-bee digs
holes for her larvfe three or four inches deep in the earth,
and lines the walls and floor of the chamber with petals of
the poppy laid perfectly smooth. Several layers of petals
are used, and when the eggs are introduced the chamber
is closed by drawing all the leaves together at the top.
Loose earth is then piled over the whole structure in order
to conceal it. The so-called rose-bee (Megachile centun-
cularis) displays very similar habits.^

The Garpenter-Bee. — This was first observed and de-
scribed by Reaumur .2 It makes a long cylindrical tube in
the wood of beams, palings, &c. This it divides into a
number of successive chambers by partitions made of
agglutinated saw-dust built across the tube at right
angles to its axis. In each chamber there is deposited a
single egg, together with a store of pollen for the nourish-
ment of the future larva. The larvae hatch out in suc-
cession and in ihe order of their age — i.e. the dates at
which they were deposited. To provide for this, the bee
bores a hole from the lower cell to the exterior, so that
each larva, when ready to escape from its chamber, finds
an open way from the tube. The larvae have to cut their
own way out through the walls of their respective chambers,
and it is remarkable that they always cut through the wall
that faces the tubular passage left by the parent ; they
never bore their way out in the opposite direction, which,
were they to do so, would entail the destruction of all the
other and immature larvae.

The Garding-Bee. — This insect surrounds its nest
with a layer of wax, and then with a thick covering ol
moss. For this purpose a number of bees co-operate,
and in order to save time each bee does not find and carry
its own moss, but, with a division of labour similar to that

' For a complete account of these habits see Bingley, Animai
Biography, vol. iii., pp. 272-5.

* Mem. SWT les Insectes, torn, vi., p, 39
13

»80

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

which we have already noticed in the case of certain antSj
a row of bees is formed, and the bits of moss passed from
one to another along the line. There is a long passage
to the nest, through which the moss has to be passed, and
it is said that at the mouth of the tunnel a guard is
stationed to drive away ants or other intruders.

Wasps. — These usually construct their nests of wood-
dust, which they scrape otF the weather-worn surfaces ol
boards, palings, &c., and work into a kind of paper with
their saliva. If they happen to find any real paper, they
perceive that it so much resembles the product of their
own manufacture that they utilise it forthwith. The
wasps do not require any special cells or chambers for the
storage of honey, as they do not lay up any supply for the
winter. The cells which they construct are therefore used
exclusively for the rearing of larvae. In form these cells
are sometimes cylindrical or globular, but more usually
hexagonal, like those of the hive-bee. Although the
mode of building is different from that employed by the
bees, there can be little doubt that if it were as care-
fully investigated Mr. Darwin's theory of transition from
the cylindrical to the hexagonal form would be found to
apply here also, seeing that both forms so frequently
occur in the same nest.

The Mason-Wasp. — The habits of this insect are de-
scribed by iVIr. Bates. It constructs its nest of clay. Each
pellet that the insect brings it lays on the top of its nest-
wall, and then spreads it out with its jaws, and treads it
smooth with its feet. The nest, which is suspended on the
branch of a tree, is then stocked with spiders and insects
paralysed by stinging. The victims, not being wholly
deprived of life, keep fresh until required as food of the
developing larvae.

The Butcher-Wasps. — These also paralyse their prey
in a similar manner, and for a similar purpose. Fabre
removed from a so-called sph ex-wasp a killed grass-
hopper, which it was conveying to its nest and had
momentarily laid down at the mouth of the burrow — as
these insects always do on returning with prey, in order
to see that nothing has intruded into the burrow during

BEES AND WASPS— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE. 181

their absence. Fabre carried the dead or paralysed
grasshopper to a considerable distance from the hole.
On coming out the insect searched about until it found
its prey. It then again carried it to the mouth of its
burrow, and again laid it down while it once more went
in to see that all was right at home. Again Fabre
removed the grasshopper, and so on for forty times in
succession — the sphex never omitting to go through its
fixed routine of examining the interior of its burrow
every time that it brought the prey to its mouth.

Mr. Mivart, in his ' Lessons from Nature,' points to the
instinct of this animal in the stinging of the ganglion of
its prey as one that cannot be explained on Mr. Darwin's
theory concerning the origin of instincts. In my next
work, which will have to deal with this theory, I shall
consider Mr. Mivart's difficulty, and also the difficulty first
pointed out by Mr. Darwin himself as to why neuter
insects, separated as they appear to be from the possi-
bility of communicating by heredity any instinctive
acquirements of the individual to the species, should
present any instincts at all.

General Intelligence,

Beginning with Sir John Lubbock's observations on
this head, I shall first quote his statements with regard to
way-finding :— -

I have found, he says, that some bees are much more intel-
ligent in this respect than others. A bee which I had fed
several times, and which had flown about in the room, found ite
way out of the glass in a quarter of an hour, and when put in a
second time came out at once. Another bee, when I closed the
postern door, used to come round to the honey through an
open window.

Bees seem to me much less clever in finding things than I
Had expected. One day (April 14, 1872), when a number of
them were very busy on some barberries, I put a saucer with
some boney between two bunches of flowers ; these were re-
peatedly visited, and were so close that there was hardly room
for the saucer betweeen them, yet from 9.30 to 3.30 not a
single bee took any notice of the honey. At 3.30 I put some

182

ANIM.4L INTELLIGENCE.

honey on one of the bunches of floweis, and it was eagerly
sucked by the bees ; two kept continually returning till past
five in the evening.

One day when I came home in the afternoon I found that
at least a hundred bees had got into my room through the pos-
tern and were on the window, yet not one was attracted by an
open jar of honey ^vhich st<Dod in a shady corner about 3 feet
6 inches from the w^indow.

One day (29th April, 1872) I placed a saucer of honey close
to some forget-me-nots, on which bees were numerous and
busy; yet from 10 a.m. till 6 only one bee went to the honey.

I put some honey in a hollow in the garden wall opposite
the hives at 10.30 (this wall is about five feet high and four
feet from the hives) ; yet the bees did not find it during the
whole day.

On the 30th March, 1873, a fine sunshiny day, when the
bees were very active, I placed a glass containing honey at 9 in
the morning on the wall in front of the hives ; but not a single
bee went to the honey the whole day. On April 20 I tried the
same experiment, with the same result.

September 19. — At 9.30 I placed some honey in a glass
about four feet from and just in front of the hive ; but during
the whole day not a bee observed it.

As it then occurred to me that it might be suggested that
there w^as something about this honey which rendered it unat-
tractive to the bees, on a following day I placed it again on the
top of the wall for three hours, during which not a single bee
came, and then moved it close to the alighting-boai-d of the
hive. It remained unnoticed for a quarter of an hour, when
two bees observed it ; and others soon followed in considerable
numbers. . . . On the whole, wasps seem to me more clever in
finding their way than bees. I tried wasps with, the glass
mentioned on p. 124 [i.e. the bell-jar], but they had no diflS-
sulty in finding their way out.

We shall now conclude this resume of Sir John
Lubbock's observations by quoting two other passages
bearing on the general intelligence of bees and wasps : —

The following fact struck me as rather remarkable. The
wasp already mentioned at the foot of p. 135 one day smeared
her wings with syrup, so that she could not fly. When this
happened to a bee, it was only necessary to carry her to the
alighting-board, when she was soon cleaned by her comrades.
But I did not know where this wasp's nest was, and therefore

BEES AND WASPS —GENERAL INTELLIGENCE, 183

could not pursue a similar course with her. At first, ther , T was
afraid that she was doomed. I thought, however, that I would
wash her, fully expecting, indeed, to terrify her so much that
she would not return again. I therefore caua:ht her, put her in
a bottle half full of water, and shook her up well till the honey
was washed off. I then transferred her to a dry bottle and put
her in the sun. When she was diy I let her out, and she at
once flew to her nest. To my surprise, in thirteen minutes she
returned, as if nothing had happened, and continued her visits
to the honey all the afternoon.

This experiment interested me so much that I repeated it
with another marked wasp, this time, however, keeping the
wasp in the water till she was quite motionless and insensible.
When taken out of the water she soon recovered ; I fed her ;
she went quietly away to her nest as usuaJ, and returned after
the usual absence. The next uioming this wasp was the first
to visit the honey.

I was not able to watch any of the above-mentioned wasps
for more than a few days ; but I kept a specimen of PoUsies
Gallica for no less than nine months.

This is the wasp which has already been alluded to
under the heading ' Memory ; ' but it is evident that the
capacity which the insect displayed of becoming tamed
implies no small degree of general intelligence ; its
hereditary instincts were conspicuously modified by the
individual experiences incidental to its domestication.

The remaining passages that deserve quotation are the
following :- -

It is sometimes said of bees that those of one hive all know
one another, and immediately recognise and attack any intruder
from another hive. At first sight this certainly implies a great
deal of intelligence. It is. however, possible that the bees of
particular hives have a particular smell. Thus Langshaft, in
his interesting * Treatise on the Honey-Bee,' says : ' Membei-s of
difierent colonies appear to recognise their hive companions ty
the sense of smell ; and I believe that if color'' are sprinkled
with scented s}Tup, they may generally be safc.y mixed. More-
over, a bee i-eturning to its own hive with a load of treasure is
a very difierent creature from a hungry marauder ; and it is
said that a bee, if laden with honey, is allowed to enter any
hive with impunity.* Mr. Langshaft continues, ' There is an
air of roguery about a thieving bee which, to the expert, is as

i84

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

characteristic as are the motions of a pickpocket to skilful
policeman. Its sneaking look, and nervous, guilty ngitation,
once seen, can never be mistaken.* it is, at any rate, natural that
a bee which enters a wrong hive by accident should be much
surprised and alarmed, and would thus probably btitray herself.

On the whole, then, I do not attach much importance to
Vlieir recognition of one another as an indication of intelligence

Since their extreme eagerness for honey may be attributed
rnther to their anxiety for the common weal than to their desire
for personal gratification, it cannot fairly be imputed as greedi
ness ; stiJl the following scene, one which most of us have wit-
nessed, is incompatible surely with much intelligence. The sad
fate of their unfortunate companions does not in the least deter
others who approach the tempting lure from madly alighting
on the bodies of the dying and dead, to share the same miserable
end. No one can understand the extent of theii* infatuation
until he has seen a confectioner's shop assailed by myriads of
hungry bees. I have seen thousands strained out from the
syrup in which they had perished ; thousands more alighting
even upon the boiling sweets, the floor covered and windows
darkened with bees, some crawling, others flying, and others
still, so completely besmeared as to be able neither to crawl nor
fly, not one in ten able to carry home its ill-gotten spoils, and
yet the air filled with new hosts of thoughtless comers.

Passing on now to the statements of other observers,
Huber first noticed the remarkable fact that when bee-
hives are attacked by the death's-head moth the bees
close the entrance of their hive with wax and propolis to
keep out the marauder. The barricade, which is built
immediately behind the gateway, completely stops it up
— only a small hole being left large enough to admit a
bee, and therefore of course too small to admit the moth.
Huber specially states that it was not until the beehives
had been repeatedly attacked and robbed by the death's-
head moth, that the bees closed the entrance of their hive
with wax and propolis. Pure instinct would have induced
the bees to provide against the first attack. Huber also
observed that a wall built in 1804 against the death's-
head hawk-moth was destroyed in 1805. In the latter
year there were no death's-head moths, nor were any seen
during the following. But in the autumn of 1807 a large
number again appeared, and the hees at once protected

BEES AND WASPS— OENEKAL INTELLIGENCE. 185

themselves against their enemies. The bulwark was de-
stroyed again in 1808.

Again, Huber {loc. cit., torn, ii., p. 280) gives a case
of apparent exercise of reason, or power of inference
from a particular case to other and general cases. A
piece of comb fell down and was fixed in its new position by
wax. The bees then strengthened the attachments of
all the other combs, clearly because they inferred that
they too might be in danger of falling. This is a very
remarkable case, and leads Huber to exclaim, * I admit
that I was unable to av^oid a feeling of astonishment in
the presence of a fact from which the purest reason seemed
to shine out.'

A closely similar, and therefore corroborative case of
an even more remarkable kind is thus narrated in Watson's
' Reasoning Power of Animals ' (p. 448) : —

Dr. Brown, in his book on the bee, gives another illustration
of the reasonin^ij power of bees, observed by a friend of his. A
centre comb in a hive, being overburdened with honey, had
parted from its fastenings, and was pressing ao;ainst another
comb, so as to prevent the passage of the bees between them.
This accident excited <?reat bustle in the colony, and as soon as
their proceedings could be observed, it was found that they had
constructed two horizontal beams between the two combs, and
had removed enough of the honey and wax above them to admit
the passage of a bee, while the detached comb had been secured
by another beam, and fiistened to the window with spare wax.
But what was most remarkable was, that, when the comb was
thus fixed, they removed the horizontal beams first constructed,
as being of no fuither use. The whole occupation took about
ten days.

Again, Mr. Darwin's MS. quotes from Sir B. Brodie's
* Psychological Inquiries ' (1854, p. 88) the following case,
which is analogous to the above, except that the supports
required had to be made in a vertical instead of in a
horizontal direction : —

On one occasion, when a large portion of the honeycomb
bad been broken off, they pursued another course. The frag-
ment had somehow become fixed in the middle of the hive, and
the bees immediately began to erect a new structure of comb on
the floor, so placed as to foi-m a pillar supporting the fragment,

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

and preventing its fui-tlier descent. They then filled up the
space above, joining the comb which had become detached to
that from which it had been separated, and they concluded
their labours by remo^g the newly constructed comb below,
thus proving that they had intended it to answer a merely tem-
porary purpose.

Similarly, Dr. Dzierzon, an experienced keeper of
bees, and the observer who first discovered the fact of their
parthenogenesis, makes the general remark, —

The cleverness of the bees in repairing perfectly injuries to
their cells and combs, in supporting on pillars pieces of their
building accidentally knocked down by a hasty push, in fasten-
ing them with rivets, and bringing everything again into proper
unity, making hanging bridges, chains, and ladders, compels our
astonishment.

Lastly, as still further corroboration of such facts, I
shall quote the following from Jesse's * Grleanings : ' ^ —

Bees show great ingenuity in obviating the inconvenience
they experience from the slipperiness of glass, and certainly
beyond what we can conceive that mere instinct would enable
them to do. I am in the habit of putting small glass globes on
the top of ill" straw hives, for the purpose of having them filled
with hone : and I have invariably found that before the bees
commence ■ construction of combs, they place a great number
of spots of wax at regular distances from each other, which
serve as so many footstools on the shppery glass, each bee
resting on one of thase with its middle pair of legs, while the
tor(^ claws were hooked with the hind ones of the bee next above
him ; thus forming a ladder, by means of which the workers
were enabled to reach the top, and begin to make their combs
there.

HeiT Kleine, in his pamphlet on Italian Bees and Bee-
keeping (Berlin, 1855), says that on substituting during
the absence of the bees a hive filled with empty comb for
their own hive, the returning bees exhibit the utmost
perplexity. As the substituted hive stands in the exaci
spot jre\dously occupied by their own hive, the return-
ing b :;es fly into it without observing the change. But
finding only empty combs inside, ' they stop, do not know

« Vol. 1., pp. 22-3 (3rd ed.).

BEES AND WASPS — GENERAL INTELLIGENCE. 187

where they are, come out of the hole again without
depositing their loads, fly off, look most carefully round
the stand to assure themselves that they have made no
mistake, and go in once more when convinced that they
are at the right place. The same thing is repeated over
and over again, until the bees at last bow to the incom-
prehensible and unavoidable, lay down their loads, and
set to work at those tasks made necessary by the new
circumstanceB of the hive. But as all the newly arriving
bees behave in similar fashion, the disturbance lasts till
late in the evening, and the uncertainty and anxiety of
the bees is so great that the bee-master cannot contem-
plate it without deep sympathy.' Under such circum-
stances the bees bike quickly to a substituted queen ; ' for
the feeling of the first comers that they have no right to
the new dwelling, having, as they suppose, made some
inexplicable mistake which they cannot remedy, prevents
them from feeling any hostility to the new queen which
they find ; they probably consider themselves as merely on
suff - ance, and feel that they should be grateful that no
action is taken against them for their illegal entry, as
generally happens in bee-experience.' Hence the writer
adopts this device when he desires to exchange or substi-
tute queens.

Btichner, after alluding to this case, supplements it
with the following : —

The wind threw down from the stand of a bee-master — a
friend of the author's, whose name will soon become known —
a straw beehive, the inmates of which were surprised in full
work, and no small disorder in the interior was th£ result. The
owner repaired the hive, put the loose comb back in its place,
and replaced it in such a manner that the wind could not again
catch it, hoping that the accident would have no further results.
But when he examinL-d the hrve a few days later, he found that
the bees had left their old home iu the lurch, and had tried to
enter other hives, clearly because they could no longer trust the
weather, and feared that the terrible accident might again be-
fall them.

Dr. Erasmus Darwin, in his ' Zoonomia,* asserts that
bees, when transported to Barbadoes, where there is no

188

ANJMAL INTELLIGENCE.

winter, cease to lay up honey. In contradiction to this
statement, however, Kirby and Spence say, ' It is known
to every naturalist acquainted with the fact, that many
diilerent species of bees store up honey in the hottest
climates, and that there is no authentic instance on record
of the hive-bees altering in any age or climate their
peculiar operations.'

On the other hand, more recent observation has shown
that Dr. Darwin's statement is probably correct. For,
according to a note in Nature,^ European bees, when trans-
ported to Australia, retain their industrious habits only
for the first two or three years. After that time they
gradually cease to collect honey till they become wholly
idle. In a subsequent number of the same periodical
(p. 411) a correspondent writes that the same fact is
observable with bees transported to California, but is
obviated by abstracting honey as the bees collect it.

There seems to be no doubt that bees and wasps are
able to distinguish between persons, and even to recog-
nise those whom they are accustomed to see, and to
regard as friends. Bee-masters who attend much to their
bees, so as to give the insects a good chance of knowing
them, are gefierally of the opinion that the insects do
know them, as sho^vn by the comparatively sparing use of
their stings. Again, many instances might be quoted,
such as that given by Guerinzius,^ who allowed a species
of wasp native to Natal to build in the doorposts of his
house, and who observed that although he often interfered
with the nest, he was only once stung, and this by a
young wasp ; while no Caffre could venture to approach
the door, much less to pass through it.^ This power of
distinguishing between persons indicates a higher order
of intelligence than we might have expected to meet
with among insects ; and, according to Bingley, bees will
not only learn to distinguish persons, but even lend them-
selves to tuition by those whom they know. For he says,

' Vol. x\di., p. 373.

2 See Brehm, Thierlehen, ix., p. 255i.

3 An exactly similar case is recorded by Stodmann in his TraveU in
Surinam, ii., p. 266.

BEES AND WASPS— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE. 189

^Ir. Wildman, whose remarks on the management oi
bees are well known, possessed a secret by which he could
at any time cause a hive of bees to swarm upon his head,
shoulders, or body, in a most surprising manner. He has^
been seen to drink a glass of wine with the bees all over
his head and face more than an inch deep ; several fell
into the glass, but did not sting him. He could even
act thf^ part of a general with them, by marshalling them
in battle array on a large table. Then he divided them
into regiments, battalions, and companies, according to
military discipline, waiting only for his word of command.
The moment he uttered the word march ! they began to
march in a very regular manner in rank and file, like
soldiers. To these, his Lilliputians, he also taught so
much politeness that they never attempted to sting any
of the numerous company which, at dififerent times, re-
sorted to admire this singular spectacle."

Huber's observation, since amply confirmed, of bees
biting holes through the base of corollas in order to get
at the honey which the length of the corollas prevent
them from reaching in the ordinary way, also seems to
indicate a rational adjustment to unusual circumstances.
P'or the bees do not resort to this expedient until they
find from trial that they cannot reach the nectar from
above ; but having once ascertained this, they forthwith
proceed to pierce the bottoms of all the flowers of the
same species. From an interesting account by Mr.
Francis Darwin ' (unfortunately too long to quote) it
appears that, even when the nectar may be reached from
above, bees may still resort to the expedient of biting
through corollas in order to save time.

In connection with biting holes in corollas I may quote
an observation communicated to me by a correspondent,
Sir J. Clarke Jervoise. Speaking of a humble-bee, he
says: ' I watched him into the flower of a foxglove, and,
when out of sight, I closed the lips of the flower with my
finger and thumb. He did not hesitate a moment, but
cut his way out at the fiuther end as if he had been
served the same trick before. I never did it.'

» Natvjre^ ix., p. 189

190

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

Bees are highly particular in the matter of keeping
their hives pure, and their sanitary arrangements often
exhibit intelligence of a high order.

The following is quoted from Biichner [toe. cit, p.
248):—

Impure air within the hive is that which the bees must
above all things fear and avoid, for with the pressure together
of so many individuals in a comparatively small space, it would
not only be directly harmful to individual bees, but would pro-
duce among them dangerous diseases. They therefore also never
void their excrements within, but always outside the hive.
While this is veiw easy to do in summer, it is, on the contrary,
very difficult in the winter, when the bees sit close together
and generally motionless in the upper part of the hive, and
when, from impure air and foul evaporations, as well as from
bad and insufficient food, dysentery-like diseases break out
among them, and often carry off the whole community in a brief
space of time. In such cases they utilise the first tine day to
relieve themselves, and in the spring they take a long general
cleansing flight. But they also know how to take advantage of
special circumstances so as to perform the process of purification
in the way least harmful to the hive. Herr Heinrich Lehr, of
Darmstadt, a bee-keeping Mend of the author, has sent the fol-
lowing communication : — During an epidemic of dysenteiy in
winter, from which most of his hives suffered (as the bees were
no longer able to retain their excrements), one hive suffered less
than the others. Exact investigation showed that this hive was
soiled all over at the back with the excrement of the bees and
that the inmates had here made a kind of drain. On this spot
a little opening had been made by the falling off of the covering
clay, which led directly to the upper part of the hive, where the
bees were accustomed to sit together during the winter. This
excellent opportunity, whereby they could reach in the shortest
way an otherwise difficult object, and one rendered complicat<»d
by circumstances, did not escape them.

It sometimes happens that mice, slugs, &C.5 enter
a beehive. They are then killed and covered with a
coating of propolis. Eeaumur says ^ that he once saw a
snail enter a hive in this way. The hard shell was an
effective protection against the stings of the bees, so the
insects smeared round the edges of the shell with wax and
» See Kirhy and Sj?enoe, vol. iL, p. 229.

BEES AND WASPS- -GENERAL INTELLIGENCE. 191

reein, fastening down the animal to the wall of the hive,
so that it died of starvation or want of air. If the en-
casing of an animal (such as a mouse) with propolis is
not sufi&cient to prevent its putrefaction, the bees gnaw
away all the putrescible parts of the carcass and carry
them out of the hive, leaving only the skeleton behind.
The dead bodies of their companions are also carried out
of the hive and deposited at a distance. There is no
question about this fact (which it will be remembered is
analogous to that already mentioned in the case of ants) ;
according to Biichner, however, bees not only remove their
dead, but also, occasionally at least, bury them. But as
he gives very inadequate evidence in support of this asser-
tion, we may safely set it aside as insufficiently proven.

Biichner, however, gives an admirable summary, and
makes some judicious remarks on the well-known and
highly remarkable habit which bees practise for the
obvious purpose of ventilating their hives. As this
account gives all the facts in a brief compass, I cannot do
better than quote it : —

Very interesting, and closely connected with this character-
istic of cleanliness, is the conduct of the so-called ventilating-
bees, which have to take cai e that in summer or hot weather the
air necessary for respiration of the bees in the interior of the
hive is renewed, and the too high temper-ature cooled down.
The latter precaution is necessary, not only on account of the
bees working within the hive, to whom, as already said, a tem-
perature risen beyond a certain point would be intolerable, but
also to guard against the melting or softening of the wax. The
bees charged with the care of the ventilation divide themselves
into rows and stages in regular order through all parts of the
hive, and by swift fanning of their wings send Httle currents of
air in such fashion that a powerful stream or change of air
passes through all parts of the hive. Other bees stand at the
mouth ol the hive, which fan in the same way and considerably
accelerate the wind from within. The current of air thus cm used
is so strong that little bits of paper hung in front of the mouth
are rapidly moved, and that, according to F. Huber, a lighted
match is extinguished. The wind can be distinctly felt if the
hand be held in front.

The motion of the wings of the ventilating bees is so rapid
that it is scarcely perceptible, and Huber saw some bees working

192

A.NniAL INTELLIGENCE

their wings in this way for five-and-twenty minutes. WheD
they are tired they are relieved by others. According to Jesse,
the beas in very hot weather, in spit€ of all their efforts, are
unable to sufficiently lower the temperature, and prevent tho
melting of some of the wax ; they then get into a condition of
great excitement, and it is dangerous to approach them. In such
a case they also try to mend matters by a number leaving the
hi ve and settling in large masses on its surface, so as to protect
it as much as possible from the scorching rays of the sun.

Although the described plan of ventilation is remai-kable
enough in itself, it is yet more remarkable in that it is clearly
only the result of bee-keeping, and is evoked by this misfortune.
For thei-e could be no need of such ventilation for bees in a
state of nature, whose dwellings in hollow trees and clefts of
rocks leave nothing to be desii'ed as to roominess and airiness,
while in the narrow artificial hive this need at once comes out
strongly. In fact, the fanning of the bees almost entirely ceased
when Huber brought them into large hives live feet high, in
which there was plenty of air. It follows, therefore, that the
fanning and ventilating can have absolutely nothing to do with
an inborn tendency or instinct, but have been gi-adually evoked
by necessity, thought, and experience.

As the following observation on the cautious sagacity
of wasps is, so far as I am aware, new, and as it cei-tainly
does not admit of mal-observ^ation, I introduce it on the
authority of a correspondent, the Eev. ]Mr. J. W. Mossman,
who writes from Tarrington Kectory, Wragby. He found
an apple in his orchard which had fallen from a tree in
a; parently good condition; but on taking it up observed
that it was little more than a shell filled with wasps.
Giving the apple a shake, he saw a wasp slowly emerging
from a single small aperture in the rind : —

This aperture was sufficient, and only just sufficient, to admit
of the i gress or egress of a single wasp. The circumstance
which struck me as very remarkable was this — that the wasp
did not make its way through the aperi;ure with its head first,
as I should have expected, but with its tail, darting out its
sting to its utmost extent, and brandishing it furiously. In this
manner it came out of the apple backwards. Then, finding itself
in the open air upon the outer surface of the apple, it turned
round, and without any attempt to molegt me, flew t)ff in the
Qsual way. The moment this fii-st wasp had emerged, the sting

BEES AND WA.SPS— GEl^ERAL INTELLIGENCE. 193

and tail of another was seen protruding. This, too, I watched
with much interest, and exactly the same process was repeated
as in the case of the first. I held the apple in my hand until
some ten or a dozen wasps had made their exit in the same
identical manner in each individual case. I then threw down
the apple, inside of which, however, there were still apparently
a good many wasps.

It seemed to me at the time, and I have always felt since,
that the wasps coming out of the apple backwards, brandishing
their stings as a defensive weapon against possible enemies,
whom of course they were not able to see, was an evidence of
what would be called thought and rcllection in the case of
human beings. It seems to me that these wasps must have re-
flected that if they came out of the narrow aperture in the apple,
which was their only possible means of ready egress, in the
usual manner, head first, they might be taken at a disadvantage
by a possible enemy, and destioyed in detail. They, therefore,
with great prudence and foresight, came out of the apple back-
wards, protecting themselves by means of their chief ofiensive
and defensive weapons, theii* stings, which, according to their
normal method of locomotion, would have been useless to them
as long as they were making theii* exit.

With regard to the tactics displayed by hunting wasps
I may quote the following cases : —

Mr. Seth Green, writing to the New York World of May
14, says that one morning when he was watching a spider's
nest, a wasp alighted within an inch or two of the nest, on the
side opposite the opening. Creeping noiselessly around towards
the entrance of the nest the wasp stopped a little short of it,
and for a moment remained perfectly quiet ; then reaching out
one of his antennae he wriggled it before the opening and with-
drew it. This overture had the desii-ed effect, for the boss of
the nest, as large a spider as one ordinaiily sees, came out to
see what was wrong and to set it to rights. No sooner had the
spider emer^jed to that point at which he was at the worst dis-
advantage than the wasp, with a quick movement, thrust hia
sting into the body of his foe, killing him easily and almost in-
stantly. The experiment was repeated on the part of the wasp,
and when there was no response from the inside he became
satisfied, probably, that he held the fort. At all events, he pro-
ceeded to enter the nest and slaughter the young spiders, whicl]
were afterwards lugged off one at a time.

194

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

Mr. Henry Cecil, describing an observation by Consul
Merlin, writes as follows (Nature^ vol. xviii., p. 311) : —

I was sitting one summer's afternoon at an open window
(my bedroom) looking into a garden, when I was surprised to
observe a large and rare species of spider run across the window-
sill in a crouching attitude. It struck me the spider was evi-
dently alarmed, or it would not have so fearlessly approached
me. It hastened to conceal itself under the projecting ledge of
the window-sill inside the room, and had hardly done so when
a very fine large hunting wasp buzzed in at the open window
and flew about the room, evidently in search of something.
Finding nothing, the wasp returned to the open window and
settled on the window-sill, running backwards and forwards as
a dog does when looking or searching for a lost scent. It soon
alighted on the track of the poor spider, and in a moment it
discovered its hiding-place, darted down on it, and no doubt
inflicted a wound with its sting. The spider rushed ofi" again,
and this time took refuge under the bed, trying to conceal itself
under the framework or planks which supported the mattress.
The same scene occurred here; the wasp now appeared to follow
the spider by sight, but ran backwards and forwards in large
circles like a hound. The moment the trail of the spider was
found the wasp followed all the turns it had made till it came
on it again. The poor spider was chased from hiding-place to
hiding-place, out of the bedroom, across a passage, and into the
middle of another large room, where it finally succumbed to the
repeated stings inflicted by the wasp. Rolling itself up into a
ball the wasp then took poss&ssion of its prey, and after ascer-
taining it could make no resistance, tucked it up under its
very long hind legs, just as a hawk or eagle carries oflf its quarry,
when I interposed and secured both for my collection.

Mr. Belt, in bis work already frequently quoted,
gives tbe following account of a struggle whicb not un-
frequently occurs between wasps and ants for tbe sweet
secretion of ' frog-boppers : ' —

Similarly as, on the savannahs, I had observed a wasp at-
tending the honey -glands of the buU's-horn acacia along with
the ants ; so at Santo Domingo another wasp, belonging to quite
a different genus {Nectarina), attended some of the clusters of
frog-hoppers, and for the possession of others a constant skir-
mishing was going on. The wasp stroked the young hoppers,
and sipped up the honey when it was exuded, just like the anta

^1

BEES AND WASPS — GENERAL INTELLIGENCE. 195

When an ant came up to a cluster of leaf -hoppers attended by
a wasp, the latter would not attempt to grapple with its rival
on the leaf, but would fly oflf and hover over the ant ; then
when its little foe was well exposed, it would dart at it and
strike it to the ground. The action was so quick that I could
not determine whether it struck with its fore^feet or its jaws ;
but I think it was with the feet. I often saw a wasp trying to
clear a leaf from ants that were already in full possession of a
cluster of leaf-hoppers. It would sometimes have to stiike
three or four times at an ant before it made it quit its hold and
fall. At other times or.e ant after the other would be struck
off with great celerity and ease, and I fancied that some wasps
were much cleverer than others. In those cases where it sue
ceeded in clearing the leaf, it was never left long in peace; for
fresh relays of ants weie continually arriving, and generally
tilled the wasp out. It would never wait for an ant to get near
it, doubtless knowing well that if its little rival once fastened
on its leg, it would be a difficult matter to get rid of it again.
If a wasp fii-st obtained possession, it was able to keep it ; for
the first ants that came up were only pioneers, and by knocking
these off, it prevented them from returning and scenting the
trail to communicate the intelligence to others.

Dr. Erasmus Darwin records an observation ' Zoo-
nomia,' i., p. 183) which, from having since been so widely
quoted, deserves to be called classical. He saw a wasp
upon the ground endeavoming to remove a large fly which
was too heavy for it to carry oflf. The wasp cut off the
bead and abdomen, and flew away with the thorax alone.
The wind, however, catching the wings of this portion
made it still too unwieldy for the wasp to guide. II
therefore again alighted, and nipped ofif first one wing
and then the other, when it was able to fly off with it?
booty without further difficulty.

This observation has since been amply confirmed. I
shall quote some of the confirmatory cases.

Mr. K. S. Newall, F.E.S., in Nature, vol. xxi., p. 494,
gays: —

Many years ago I was examining an apple tree, when a wasp
alighted on a \eaS which formed a caterpillar's nest neatly rolled
up. The wasp examined both ends, and finding them closed, it
Boon clipped a hole in the leaf at one end of the nest about one-
eighth of an inch in diameter. It then went to the other end
14

(96

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

and made a noise which frightened the caterpillar, which came
rushing out of the hole. It was immediately seized by the wasp,
w^ho finding it too large to carry off at once, cut it in two and
went off with his game. I waited a little and saw the wasp
come back for the other half, with which it also flew away.

Again, Biichner {loc. cit., p. 297) gives the following
account in the words of his informant, Herr H. Lowenfels,
who himself witnessed the incident : —

I here found a robber- wasp busied in lifting from the ground
i large fly which it had apparently killed. It succeeded indeed
in its attempt, but had scarcely raised its prey a few inches above
the ground when the wind caught the wings of the dead fly,
and they began to act like -a. sail. The wasp was clearly unable
to resist this action, and was blown a little distance in the
direction of the wind, whereupon it let itself fall to the ground
with its prize. It now made no more attempts to fly, but with
eager industry pulled off with its teeth the fly's wings which
hindered it in its object. When this was quite done it seized
the fly, which was heavier than itself, and flew off with it un-
troubled on its journey through the air at a height of about five
feet.

Biichner also records the two following remarkable
observations, which from being so similar corroborate one
another. The first is •♦•eceived from Herr Albert Schltiter,
who writing from Texas says that he there saw a cicada
pursued by a large hornet, which threw itself upon its
prey and seemed to sting it to death : —

The murderer walked over its prey, which was considerably
larger than itself, grasped its body with its feet, spread out its
wings, and tried to fly away with it. Its strength was not
sufficient, and after many efforts it gave up the attempt. Half
a, minute went by ; sitting astride on the corpse and motionless
— only the wings occasionally jerking — it seems to reflect, and
indeed not in vain. A Diidberry tree stood close by, really only
a trunk — for the top had been broken off, clearly by the last
flood — of about ten or twelve feet high. The hornet saw this
trunk, dragged its prey toilsomely to the foot of it, and then up
to the top. Arrived thereat, it rested for a moment, grasped
its victim firmly, and flew off with it to the prairies. That which
it was unable to raise off the ground it could now carry easily
once high in the air.

BEES AND WASPS -GENEEAL INTELLIGENCE. 197

The other instance is as follows : —

Th. Meenan (' Proc. of the Acad, of Nat.,' Philadelphia, Jan,
22, 1878) observed a very similar case with Vespa maculata.
He saw one of these wasps try in vain to raise from the ground
a grasshopper it had killed. When all its efforts proved to be
in vain, it pulled its prey to a maple tree, about thirty feet off,
mounted it with its prize, and flew away from it. ' This,' adds
the writer, 'was more than instinct. It was reflection and
judgment, and the judgment was proved to be con*ect.'

Depri\dng bees of their antennae has the effect of pro-
ducing an even more marked bewilderment than results
from this operation in the case of ants. A queen thus
mutilated by Huber ran about in confusion, dropping her
eggs at random, and appeared unable to take with preci-
sion the food that was offered her. She showed no resent-
ment to a similarly mutilated stranger queen that was
introduced : the workers also heeded not the mutilated
stranger ; but when an unmutilated stranger was intro-
duced they fell upon her. When the mutilated queen
was allowed to escape, none of the workers follo^\ed.

CHAPTER V.

TERmTES.

The habits of the Termites, or so-called "WTiite Ants,
have not been so closely studied as they deserve. Our
chief knowledge concerning them is derived from the
observations of Jobson, in his * History of Gambia ; '
Bastian, in 'The Nations of Eastern Asia;' Forsteal,
Lespes, Konig, Sparman, Hagen, Quatrefages, Fritz
Miiller, and most of all, Smeathman, in * Philosophical
Transactions,' vol. Ixxi. In Africa these insects raise their
hills to a height of between ten and twenty feet, and con-
struct them of earth, stones, pieces of wood, &c., glued to-
gether by a sticky saliva. The hills are in the form of a cone,
and so strong that it is said the buffaloes are in the habit of
using them as watch-towers on which to post sentries, and
that they will even support the weight of an elephant.
The growth of these gigantic mounds is gradual, increas-
ing with the increase of the population. From the mound
in all directions there radiate subterranean tunnels, which
may be as much as a foot in width, and which serv^e as
roadways. Besides these tunnels there are a number of
other subterranean tubes, which serve the purpose of
drainage to carry off the floods of water to which the nest
is exposed during tropical showers. Biichner calculates
that a pyramid built by man on a scale proportional to his
size would only equal one of these nests if it attained to
the height of 3,000 feet. The following is this author's
description of the internal structure : —

These internal aiTangements are so various and so com-
pHcated that pages of description might be written there-
upon. There are myriads of rooms, cells, nurseiies, provision

TEKMITES.

199

chambers, guard-rooms, passages, corridors, vaults, bridges,
subterranean streets and canals, tunnels, arched ways, steps,
smooth inclines, domes, &c., &c , all arranged on a definite, co-
herent, and well-considered plan. In the middle of the build-
ing, sheltered as far as possible from outside dangers, lies the
stately royal dwelling, i*esembling an arched oven, in which the
royal pair reside, or rather are imprisoned ; for the entrances
and outlets are so small, that although the workers on ser-
vice can pass easily in and out, the queen cannot ; for during
the egg-laying her body swells out to an enormous size, two or
three thousand times the size and weight of an ordinary worker.
The queen, therefore, neyer leaves her dwelling, and dies
therein. Round the palace, which is at first small, but is later
enlarged in proportion as the queen increases in size until it is
at least a yard long and half a yard high, lie the nurseries, or
cells for the eggs and larvae ; next these the servants' rooms, or
cells for the workers which wait on the queen ; then special
chambers for the soldiers on guard, and, between these, nume-
rous store-rooms, filled with gums, resins, dried plant-juices,
meal, seeds, fruits, worked-up wood, &c. According to Bett-
ziech-Beta, there is always in the midst of the nest a large
common room, which is used either for popular assemblies or as
the meeting and starting point of the countless passages and
chambers of the nest. Others are of the opinion that this space
serves for purposes of ventilation.

Above and below the royal cell are the rooms of the workers
and soldiers which are specially charged with the care and de-
fence of the royal pair. They communicate with each other, as
well as with the nursery-cells and store-rooms, by means of
galleries and passages which, as already said, open into the
common room in the middle under the dome. This room is
suiTounded by high, boldly projected arched ways, which lose
themselves further out in the walls of the countless rooms and
galleries. Many roofs outside and in protect this room and
the surrounding chambers from rain, which, as already said, is
drained away by countless subterranean canals, made of clay
and of a diameter of ten or twelve centimetres. There are
also, under the layer of clay covering the whole building,
broad spirally winding passages running from below to the
highest points, which communicate with the passages of the
interior, and apparently, as they mainly consLst of smooth in-
clines, serve for carrying provisions to the higher parts of the
nest.^

' Log. cit., p. 189.

200

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

The termites, Kke many species of true ants, are
divided into two distinct castes, the workers and the
soldiers. If a breach is made in the walls of the dome
the soldiers rush out to meet the enemy, and fight
iesperately with any enemy that they may find. Here,
again, I cannot do better than quote Buchner's epitome
of facts : —

If the assailant withdraws beyond their reach and inflicts no
further injury, they retire within their dwelling in the course
of half an hour, as though they had come to the conclusion
that the enemy who had done the mischief had fled. Scarcely
have the soldiers disappeared when crowds <5f workers appear
in the breach, each with a quantity of ready-made mortar in its
mouth. As soon as they arrive they stick this moiiiar round
the open place, and direct the whole operation with such swift-
ness and facility that in spite of their great number they never
hinder each other, nor are obliged to stop. During this spec-
tacle of apparent restlessness and confusion the observer is
agreeably surprised to see arising a regular wall, filling up the
gap. During the time that the workers are thus busied the
soldiers remain within the nest, with the exception of a few,
which walk about apparently idly, never touching the mortar,
among the hundreds and thousands of workers. Nevertheless
one of them stands on guard close to the wall which is being
built. It turns gently each way in turn, lifting its head at in-
tervals of one or two minutes to strike the building with its
heavy mandibles, making the before-mentioned ci-ackling noise.
This signal is immediately answered by a loud rustling from the
interior of the nest and from all the subterranean passages
and holes. There is no doubt that this noise arises from the
workers, for as often as the sign is given they work with in-
creased energy and speed. A renewal of the attack instan-
taneously changes the scene. 'At the first stroke,' says
Smeathman, ' the workers run into the many tunnels and pas-
sages which run through the building, and this happens sc
quickly that they seem regularly to vanish. In a few seconds
fchey are all gone, and in their stead appear the soldiers once
more, as numerous and as pugnacious as before. If they find
no enemy, they turn back slowly into the interior of the hill,
and immediately the mortar-laden workers again appear, and
among them a few soldiers, which behave just as on the first
occasion. So one can have the pleasure of seeing them work
and fight in tm u, as often as one chooses j and it will be found

TERMITES.

201

each time that one set never fight, and the other never work,
however great the need may be.' ^

Similar facts have been observed by Fritz Miiller of
the South American species.

The Termites, being like the Ecitons blind, like them
make all their expeditions under the protection of covered
iirays. These are underground tunnels in all cases where
circumstances permit, but on arriving at a rock or other
impenetrable obstruction, they build a tubular passage
upon the surface. According to Biichner, —

They can even carry their viaducts through the air, and that
in vSuch bold arches that it is difficult to understand how they
were projected. In order to reach a sack of meal which was
well protected below, they broke through the roof of the room
in which it was, and built a straight tube from the breach they
had made down to the sack. As soon as they tried to carry oflF
their booty to a safe place, they became convinced that it was
impossible to pull it up the straight road. In order to meet
this difficulty, they adopted the principle of the smooth incline,
the use of which we have already seen in the interior of their
nests, and built close to the first tube a second, which wound
spirally within, like the famous clock tower of Venice. It was
now an easy task to carry their booty up this road and so away.
. . . Either from the desire to remain undiscovered, or from their
liking for darkness, they have the remarkable habit of destroy-
ing and gnawing everything from within outwards, and of
leaving the outside shell standing, so that from the outside ap-
pearance the dangerous state of the inside is not perceptible.
If, for instance, they have destroyed a table or other piece of
household furniture, in which they always manage from the
ground upwards to hit exactly the places on which the feet of
the article rest, the table looks perfectly uninjured outside, and
people are quite astonished when it breaks down under the
slightest pressure. The whole inside is eaten away, and only
the thinnest shell is left standing. If fruits are lying on the
table, they also are eaten out from the exact spot on which they
rest on the surface of the table.

In similar fashion things consisting wholly of wood, such as
wooden ships, trees, &c., are destroyed by them so that they
finally break in with out any one having noticed the mischief
Yet it is said that they go so prudently to work in tlieir de

* Ibid., p. 119.

202

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

Btruction that the main beams, the sudden breakage of which
would threaten the whole building and themselves therewith,
are either spared, or else so fostened together again with a ce-
ment made out of clay and earth that their strength is greater
than ever!(?) Hagen also states that they never cub right
through the corks which stop up stored bottles of wine, but
leave a very thin layer, which is sufficient to prevent the out-
Bow of the wine and the consequent destruction of the worken
The same author relates that in order to reach a box of wax
lights they made a covered road from the ground up to the
second story of a house. ^

It is needless to give a special description of any of
the other habits of these insects, such as their swarming,
breeding, &c., for they all more or less closely resemble
the analogous habits of ants and bees. It is very remark-
able that insects of two distinct orders should both
manifest such closely similar social habits of such high
complexity, and it rather surprises me that more has not
been made of this point by writers opposed to the
principles of evolution. Of course if the point were
raised, the argument in answer would require to be, eithei
that the similar instincts were derived from common and
very remote progenitors (in which case the fact would form
by far the most remarkable instance of the permanency
of instincts among changing species), or more probably,
that similar causes operating in the two orders have
produced similar efifects — complex and otherwise unique
though these effects undoubtedly are.

In connection with the theory of evolution I may
conclude this chapter with the following quotation from
Smeathman, as it shows how natural relation may develop
for the benefit of the species instincts which are detri-
mental to the individual. Speaking of the soldiers he
pays :- -

1 was always amused at the pugnacity displayed when, in
making a hole in the earthy cemented archway of their covered
roads, a host of these little fellows mounted the breach to cover
the retreat of the workers. The edges of the rupture bristled
with their armed heads as the courageous warriors ranged

» Geigteslehen der Thiere, pp. 194 and 19^200.

TERMITES.

203

themselves in compact line around them. They attacked fiercely
any intruding object, and as fast as their front ranks were de-
stroyed, others filled up their places. When the jaws closed in
the flesh, they suffered themselves to be torn in pieces rather
than loosen their hold. It might be said that this instinct is
rather a cause of their ruin than a protection when a colony is
attacked by the well-known enemy of termites, the ant-bear ;
but it is the soldiers only which attach themselves to the long
worm-like tongue of this animal, and the workers, on whom the
prosperity of the young brood immediately depends, are left for
the most part unharmed. I always found, on thrusting my
finger into a mixed crowd of termites, that the soldiers only
fastened upon it. Thus the fighting caste do in the end serve
to protect the species by saci-iticing themselves to its good *

* Phil. Trans., loc, oit

CHAPTEK VI.

SPIDEKS AND SCORPIONS.

Emotions,

The emotional life of spiders, so far as we can observe it

as expressed rn their actions, seems to be divided between
sexual passion (including maternal affection) and the
sterner feelings incidental to their fiercely predatory
habits. But the emotions, although apparently few and
simple in character, are exceedingly strong in force. In
many species the male spider in conducting his courtship
has to incur an amount of personal danger at the hands
(and jaws) of his terrific spouse, which might well daunt
the courage of a Leander. Kidiculously small and weak
in build, the males of these species can only conduct the
rites of marriage with their enormous and voracious brides
by a process of active manoeuvring, which if unsuccessful
is certain to cost them their lives. Yet their sexual
emotions are so strong that, as proved by the continuance
of the species, no amount of personal risk is sufficient to
deter them from giving these emotions full play. There
is no other case in the animal kingdom where coiurtship
is attended with any approach to the gravity of danger
that is here observable. Among many animals the males
have to meet a certain amount of inconvenience from the
coquetry or disinclination of the females ; but here the
coquetry and disinclination has passed into the hungry
determination of a ferocious giantess. The case, therefore,
because unique, is of interest from an evolutionary point
of view. We can see a direct advantage to species from
the danger incurred by males on account of mutual
jealousy ; for this, giving rise to what IMr. Darwin has

SPIDERS— EMOTIONS.

205

called ' the law of battle,' must obviously be a constant
source of the creation and the maintenance of specific
proficiency ; the law of battle determines that only the
strongest and most courageous males shall breed. But
the benefit to species is not so obvious where the danger
of courtship arises from the side of the female. Still, that
there must be some benefit is obvious, seeing that the
whole structure of the male, if we take that of the female
as the original type, has been greatly modified with refer-
ence to this danger : had the latter been wholly useless,
either it would not have been allowed to arise, or the
species must have become extinct. The only suggestion
I can make to meet this aberrant case is that the courage
and determination required of the male, besides being no
doubt of use to him in other relations in life, may be of
benefit to the species by instilling these qualities into the
psychology both of his male and female descendants.

The courage and rapacity of spiders as a class are too
well and generally known to require special illustration.
One instance, however, may be quoted to show the strength
of their maternal emotions. Bonnet threw a spider with
her bag of eggs into the pit of an ant-lion. The latter
seized the eggs and tore them away from the spider ; but
although Bonnet forced her out of the pit, she returned,
and chose to be dragged in and buried alive rather than
leave her charge.

The only other point that occurs to me with reference
to the emotions of spiders is the somewhat remarkable one
concerning their apparent fondness of music. The testi-
mony is so varied and abundant on this matter that we
can scarcely doubt the truth of the facts. These simply
are that spiders — or at any rate some species or individuals
— approach a sounding musical instrument, ' especially
when the music is tender and not too loud.' They usually
approach as near as possible, often letting themselves down
from the ceiling of the room by a line of web, and remain
suspended above the instrument. Should the music
become loud, they often again retreat. Professor C.
Reclain, during a concert at Leipsic, saw a spider descend
in this way from one of the chandeliers while a violin solo

206

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

was being played ; but as soon as the orchestra began to
sound it quickly ran back again J Similar observations
have been published by Eabigot, Simonius, von Hartmann,
and others.

A highly probable explanation of these facts has re-
cently been given by j\Ir. C. V. Boys, which relieves us oi
the necessity of imputing to animals so low in the scale
any rudiment of aesthetic emotion as aroused by musical
tones. As the observation is an interesting one, I shall
quote it in extenso : —

Having made some observations on the garden spider which
are I believe new, I send a short account; of them, in the hope
that they may be of interest to the readers of Nature.

Last autumn, while watching some spidei's spinning theii
beautiful geometrical wehs, it occuiTed to me to try what effect
a tuning-fork would have upon them. On sounding an A fork,
and lightly touching with it any leaf or other support of the
web, or any portion of the web itself, I found that the spider, if
at the centre of the web, rapidly slues round so as to face the
direction of the fork, feeling with its fore- feet along which
radial thread the vibration travels. Having become satisfied
on this point, it next darts along that thread till it reaches
either the fork itself or a junction of two or more threads, the
right one of which it instantly determines as before. If the
fork is not removed when the spider has arrived it seems to
have the same charm as any fly ; for the spider seizes it, em-
braces it, and rims about on the legs of the fork as often as it is
made to sound, never seeming to learn by experience that
other things may buzz besides its natural food.

If the spider is not at the centre of the web at the time that
the fork is applied, it cannot tell which way to go until it has
been to the centre to ascertain which radial thread is vibrating,
unless of course it should happen to be on that particular
thread, or on a stretched supporting thread in contact with the
fork.

If, wdien a spider has been enticed to the edge of the web
the fork is withdrawn, and then gradually brought near, the
spider is aware of its presence and of its direction, and reaches
out as far as possible in the direction of the fork ; but if a
sounding fork is gradually brought near a spider that has not
been disturbed, but which is waiting as usual in the middle 0/

Body and Mind, p. 275.

SPIDERS— WEB-BUILDING.

207

the web, then, instead of reaching out towards the fork, the
spider instantly drops — at the end of a thread, of course. If
under these conditions the fork is made to touch any part of the
web, the spider is aware of the fact, and climbs the thread and
reaches the fork with marvellous rapidity. The spider never
leaves the centre of the web without a thread along which to
travel back. If after enticing a spider out w^e cut this thread
with a pair of scissors, the spider seems to be unable to get back
without doing considerable damage to the web, generally gum-
ming together the sticky parallel threads in groups of three and
four.

By means of a tuning-fork a spider may be made to eat
what it would otherwise avoid. I took a fly that had been
drow*ned in paraffin and put it into a spider's web, and then at-
tracted the spider by touching the fly with a fork. When the
spider had come to the conclusion that it was not suitable food,
and was leaving it, I touched the fly again. This had the same
effect as before, and as often as the spider began to leave the fly
1 again touched it, and by this means compelled the spider to
eat a large portion of the fly.

The few house-spiders that I have found do not seem to
appreciate the tuning-fork, but retreat into their hiding-places
as when frightened ; yet the supposed fondness of spiders for
music must surely have some connection with these observations ;
and when they come out to listen, is it not that they cannot tell
which way to proceed 1

The few observations that I have made are necessarily im-
perfect, but I send them, as they afford a method which might
lead a naturalist to notice habits otherwise difficult to observe,
and so to arrive at conclusions which I in my ignorance of
natural history must leave to others.^

General Habits,

Coming now to general habits, our attention is claimed
by the only general habit that is of interest — namely, that
of web-building. The instinct of constructing nets foi
the captiue of prey occurs in no other class of animals,
while in spiders it not only attains to an extraordinary
degree of perfection (so that, in the opinion of some
geometers, the instinct is not less wonderful in this re-
spect than is that displayed by the hive-bee in the cod-

' Nature, xxiii., pp. 149-50,

208

ANDHAL INTELLIGENCE.

struction of its cells), but also ramifies into a number of
diverse directions. Thus we have, in different species,
wide open networks spread between the branches of bushes,
&c., closely woven textui'es in the comers of buildings,
earth tubes lined with silk, the strong muslin-like snai-e
of the ^lygale, which, as first noticed by Madame Pierian,*
and since confirmed by Bates,^ is able to retain a struggling
humming-bu'd while this most beautiful animal in creation
is being devoured by the most repulsive ; and many other
varieties might be mentioned. It may at first sight ap-
pear somewhat remarkable that this instinct of spreading
snares should on the one hand occur only in one class of
the animal kingdom, while on the other hand, in the class
where it does occur, it should attain such extreme perfec-
tion, and run into so much variety. But we must here
remember that the development of the instinct obviously
depends upon the presence of a web-secreting apparatus,
which is a comparatively rare anatomical feature. In
caterpillars, which are not predaceous, the web is used only
fur the pm-poses of protection and locomotion ; and it is
easy to see that the spreading of snares would here be of
no use to the animals. But in spiders, of com'se, the case
is otherwise. Once granting the power of forming a web,
and it is e\'ident that there is much potential service to
which this power may be put with reference to the vora-
cious habits of the animal ; and therefore it is not to be
wondered that both the anatomical structures and their
correlated instincts should attain to extreme perfection in
sundry lines of development. The origin of the web-
building structure was probably due to the use of the
web for purposes of locomotion or of cocoon-spinning, as
we see it still so used in the same way that it is used by
caterpillars for descending from heights, and in the case
of the gossamer spider for travelling immense distances
through the air. As the anatomical structures in question
differ very greatly in the case of spiders and in that of
caterpillars, we may wonder why analogous if not homolo-

' Naturalist an the Amazon, p. 83.

' For many other confirmations see Sir E. Tennent, Nat. Higt. Ceylon^
pp. 468-69.

SPIDERS— WEB-BUILDING,

209

gous structures should never have been developed in the
case of any other animal having predaceous habits —
especially, perhaps, in that of the imago form of preda-
ceous insects. It is easy to see how, if there were any
original tendency to secrete a viscid substance in the
neighbourhood of the anus, this might be utilised in de-
scending from low elevations (as certain kinds of slugs use
their viscid slime as threads whereby to let themselves
down from low branches tc the ground) ; and so we can
understand how natural selection might thus have the
material supplied out of which to develop such highly
specialised organs as the spinnerets of a spider. But if
we are inclined to wonder why this should not have
happened among other animals, we must remember that
any expectation that it should rests on negative grounds ;
we have no reason to suppose that in any other case the
initial tendency to secrete a viscid substance was present.
One inference, however, in the case of spiders seems per-
fectly vaHd. As this comparatively rare faculty of web-
spinning occurs so generally throughout the class, it must
have had its earliest origin very far back in the history of
that class, though probably not so far back as to include
the common progenitors of the spiders and the scorpions,
seeing that the latter do not spin webs.

I shall now give a few details on the manner in which
spiders' webs are made. Without going into the ana-
tomy of the subject further than to observe that a
spider's ' thread ' is a composite structure made up of a
number of finer threads, which leave their respective
spinneret-holes in an almost fluid condition, and immedi-
ately harden by exposure to the air, I shall begin at once
to describe the method of construction.

The so-called ' geometric spider ' constructs her web
by first laying down the radiating and unadhesive rays,
and then, beginning from the centre, spins a spiral line of
unadhesive web, like that of the rays which it intersects.
This line, in being woven through the radii in a spiral
from centre to circumference, serves as a scaffolding for the
spider to walk over, and also keeps the rayss properly
stretched. She next spins another spiral line.^ but thii

210

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

time from the circumference to near the centre, and
formed of web, covered with a viscid secretion to retain
prey. Lastly, she constructs her lair to hide and watch
for prey, at some distance from the web but connected
^-ith it by means of a line of communication or telegraph,
the vibrations of which inform her of the struggling of an
insect in the net.^

According to Thompson, —

The web of the garden spider — the n est ingenious and per-
fect contrivance that can be imagined — is usually fixed in a
perpendicular or somewhat oblique direction in an opening
between the leaves of some plant or shrub ; and as it is obvious
that round its whole extent hues will be required to which
those ends of radii that are farthest from the centre can be at/-
tached, the construction of those exterior lines is the spider's
first operation. It seems careless about the shape of the area
they are to enclose, well aware that it can as readily inscribe a
circle in a triangle as a square ; and in this respect it is guided
by the distance or proximity of the points to which it can attach
them. It spares no pains, however, to strengthen and keep them
in a proper degree of tension. With the former view it com-
poses each line of five or six or even of more threads glued
together ; and vdth. the latter it fixes to them from different
points a numerous and intricate apparatus of smaller threads ;
and having thus completed the foundation of its snare, it pro-
ceeds to fill up the outline. Attaching a thread to one of the
main lines, it walks along it, guiding it with one of its hind legs,
that it may not touch in any part and be prematurely glued, and
crosses over to the opposite side, where, by applying its spmners,
it firmly fixes it. To the middle of this diagonal thread, which
is to form the centre of its net, it fixes a second, which in like
manner it conveys and fastens to another part of the Unes in-
cluding the area. The work now proceeds rapidly. During
the preliminary operations it sometimes rests, as though its plan
requii-ed meditation ; but no sooner are the marginal lines of
the net firmly stretched, and two or three radii spun from its
centre, than it continues its labour so quickly and unremittingly
that the eye can scarcely follow^ its progress. The radii, to the
number of about twenty, giving the net the appearance of a
whet^l. are speedily finished. It then proceeds to the centre,
quickly turns itself round, pulls each thread with its feet to
ascertain its strength, breaking any one that seems defective, and

' Kirby, vol. ii., p. 298.

SPIDERS — WEB-BUILDING.

211

replacing it by another. Next it glues, immediately round
the centre, five or six small concentric circles, distant about
half a line from each other, and then four or five larger ones,
each separated by the space of half an inch or more. These
last serve as a sort of temporary scaffolding to walk over, and
to keep the radii properly stretched while it glues to them the
concentric circles that are to remain, which it now proceeds to
construct. Placing itself at the circumference, and fastening its
thread to the end of one of the radii, it walks up that one,
towards the centre, to such a distance as to draw the thread
from its body of a sufficient length to meet the next. Then
stepping across and conducting the thread with one of its hind
legs, it glues it with its spinners to the point in the adjoining
radius to which it is to be fixed. This process it repeats until
it has filled up nearly the whole space from the circumference
to the centre with concentric circles, distant from each other
about two lines. It always, however, leaves a vacant interval
around the smallest first spun circles that are nearest to the
centre, anrl bites away the small cotton like tuft that united all
the radii, which being held now together by the circular threads
have thus pi obably their elasticity increased ; and in the cir-
cular opening, resulting from this procedure, it takes its station
and watches for its prey, or occasionally retires to a little apart-
ment formed under some leaf, which it also rises as a slaughter-
house.*

According to Biichner, —

The long main threads, with the help of which the spider
begins and attaches its web, are always the thickest and strong-
est ; while the others, forming the web itself, are considerably
weaker. Injuries to the web at any spot the spider very
quickly repairs, but without keeping to the original plan, and
without taking more trouble than is absolutely necessary.
Most spiders' webs, therefore, if closely looked into, are found to
be somewhat irregular. When a storm threatens, the spider,
which is very economical with its valuable spinning material,
spins no web, for it knows that the storm will tear it in pieces
and waste its pains, and it also does not mend a web which
has been torn. If it is seen spinning or mending, on the other
hand, fine weather may be generally reckoned on. . . . The
emerged young at first spin a very irregular w^eb, and only
gradually learn to make a larger and finer one, so that here, aa
everywhere else, practice and experience play a great part. . .

• Thompson, Passions of Animah, p. 145.

15

212

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

The position must also offer favourable opposite points for the
attachment of the web itself. People have often puzzled their
brains, wondering how spiders, without being able to fly, had
managed first to stretch their web through the air between two
opposite points. But the little creature succeeds in accomplish-
ing this difficult task in the most various and ingenious wavs.
It either, when the distance is not too great, throws a moist
viscid pellet, joined to a thread, which will stick where it
touches ; or hangs itself by a thread in the air and lets itself be
driven by the wind to the spot ; or crawls there, letting out a
thread as it goes, and then pulls it taut when arrived at the
desired place; or floats a number of threads in the air and
waits till the wind has thrown them here or there. The main
or radial threads w^hich fasten the web possess such a high
degree of elasticity, that they tighten themselves between two
distant points to which the spider has crawled, without it being
necessary for the latter to pull them towards itself. When the
little artist has once got a single thread at its disposition, it
strengthens this until it is sufficiently strong for it to run back-
wards and forwards thereupon, and to spin therefrom the web.^

Special Habits.

Water-spider, — The water-spider {Argyroneta aqua-
tica), as is well known, displays the curious instinct of
building her nest below the surface of water, and construct-
ing it on the principle of a diving-bell. The animal
usually selects still waters for this purpose, and makes
her nest in the form of an oval hollow, lined with web,
and held secure by a number of threads passing in various
directions and fastened to the surrounding plants. In
this oval bell, which is open below, she watches for prey,
and, according to Kirby,^ passes the winter after having
closed the opening. The air needful for respiration the
spider carries from the surface of the water. To do this
she swims upon her back in order to entangle an air-
bubble upon the hairy surface of her abdomen. With this
bubble she descends, ' like a globe of quicksilver,' to the
opening of her nest, where she liberates it and returns for
more.

* Zoo. oit., p. 316 et teq.

* Hift, Mabits tmd Inst, Animals, voL iu p. B96.

WOLF- AND TKAP-DOOR SPIDEES. 213

The Vagrant or Wolf Spider. — This insect catches its
prey by stealthily stalking it until within distance near
enough to admit of a sudden dart being successful in
effecting capture. Some species, before making the final
dart (^e.g. Salticus scenicus), fix a line of web upon the
surface over which they are creeping, so that whether their
station is vertical or horizontal with reference to the prey,
t.hey can leap fearlessly, the thread in any case preventing
their fall. Dr. H. F. Hutchinson says that he has seen
this spider crawling over a looking-glass stalking its own
reflection.^

The following is quoted from Biichner : —

Less idyllic than the water-spider is our native hunting-
spider [Dolomedes Jimhriata), which belongs to those species
which spii. no web, but hunt their victims like animals of prey.
As the Argyroneta is the discoverer of the diving-bell, so may
this be regarded as the discoverer or first builder of a floating
raft. It is not content with hunting insects on land, but
follows them on the water, on the surface of which it runs
about with ease. It, however, needs a place to rest on, and
makes it by rolling together dry leaves and such like bodies,
binding them into a firm whole with its silken threads. On
this raft-like vessel it floats at the mercy of wind and waves ;
and if an unlucky water-insect comes for an instant to the sur-
face of the water to breathe, the spider darts at it with light-
ning speed, and carries it back to its raft to devour at its ease.
Thus everywhere in nature are battle, craft, and ingenuity, all
following the merciless law of egoism, in order to maintain
their own lives and to destroy those of others !

Trap-door Spiders. — These display the curious in-
stinct of providing their nests with trap-doors. The nest
consists of a tube excavated in the earth to the depth of
half a foot or more. In all save one species the tube is
imbranched ; it is always lined with silk, which is con-
tinuous with the lining of the trap-door or doors, of which
it forms the hinge. In the species which constructs a
branching tube, the branch is always single, more or less
straight, takes origin at a point situated a few inches from
the orifice of the main tube, is directed upwards at an acute

• Natwret vol. xx., p. 581.

* Loo. eit., p. 323.

214

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

angle with that tube, and terminates blindly just below
the surface of the soil. At its point of junction with Ji
departure from the main tube it is provided with a trap-
door resembling that which closes the orifice of the main
tube, and of such a size and arrangement that when closed
against the opening of the branch tube it just fills that
opening ; while when turned outwards, so as to uncork
this opening, it just fills the diameter of the main tube :
the latter, therefore, is in this species provided with two
trap-doors, one at the surface of the soil, and the other at
the fork of the branched tube.

Each species of trap-door spider is very constant in
building a particular kind of trap-door ; but among the
different species there are four several kinds of tra])-
doors to be distinguished. 1st. The single-door cork
nest, wherein the trap-door is a thick structure, and fits
into the tube like a cork into a bottle. 2nd. The single-
door wafer nest, wherein the traj^door is as thin as a
piece of paper. 3rd The double-door unbranched nest,
wherein there is a second trap-door situated a few inches
below the first one. And 4th, the double-door branched
nest already described. In all cases the trap- doors open
outwards, and when the nest is placed, as it usually is, on
a sloping bank, the trap-door opens upwards ; hence
there is no fear of its gaping, for gravity is on the side of
holding it shut.

The object of the trap-door is to conceal the nest, and
for this purpose it is always made so closely to resemble
the general surface of the ground on which it occurs, that
even a practised eye finds it difficult to detect the struc-
ture when closed. In order to make the resemblance to
the surrounding objects as perfect as possible, the spider
either constructs the surface of its door of a portion of
leaf, or weaves moss, grass, &c., into the texture Mog-
gridge says,^ —

Thus, for example, in one case where I had cut out a little
clod of mossy earth, about two inches thick and three square
ou the surface, containing the top of the tube and the moss-
covered cork door of cwmentaria, I found, on revisiting the

* HiM^estmg Ants and Trap-door Sjjiders, p. 120

TRAP-DOOR SPIDERS.

215

place six days later, that a new door had been made, and that
the spider had mounted up to fetch moss from the undisturbed
bank above, planting it in the earth which formed the crown
of the door. Here the moss actually called the eye to the
trap, which lay in the little plain of brown earth made by my
digging.

If an enemy should detect the trap-door and en-
deavour to open it, the spider frequently seizes hold of
its internal surface, and, applying her legs to the walls
of the tube, forcibly holds the trap-door shut. In the
double trap-door species it is surmised that the second
trap-door serves as an inner barrier of defence, behind
which the spider retires when obliged to abandon the
first one. In the branched tube species (which, so far as
at present known, only occurs in the south of Europe) it
is surmised that the spider, when it finds that an enemy
is about to gain entrance at the first trap-door, runs
into the branch tube and draws up behind it the second
trap-door. The surface of this trap-door, being overlaid
with silk like the walls of the tube, is then invisible ; so
that the enemy no doubt passes down the main tube to
find it empty, without observing the lateral branch in
whioii the spider is concealed behind the closed door.

As showing that these animals are to no small extent
able to adapt their dwellings to unusual circumstances, I
shall here quote the following from Moggridge {loc, cit.,
p. 122):—

Certain nests which were furnished with two doors of the
cork type were observed by Mr. S. S. Saundei-s in the Ionian
Islands. The door at the surface of these nests was normal in
position and structure, but the lower one was placed at the very
bottom of the nest, and inverted, so that, though apparently in-
tended to open downwards, it was permanently closed by the
suiTOunding earth. The presence of a carefully consrtructed
door in a situation which forbade the possibility of its ever
being opened seemed, indeed, something difficult to account for.
However, it occurred to Mr. Saunders that, as these nests were
found in the cultivated ground round the roots of olive trees,
they may occasionally have got turned topsy-turvy when the
soil was broken up. The spider then, finding her door buried
below in the gi-ound and the bottom of the tube at the surface.

216

ANIMAL JNTKLLKJENCE.

wc uld have either to seek new quarters or to adapt the nest to
its altered position, and make an opening and door at the ex-
posed end. In order to try whetlier one of these spiders would
do this, Mr. Saunders placed a nest, with its occupant inside,
upside down in a liower-pot. After the lapse of ten days a new
door was made, exactly as he had conjectured it would be, and
the nest presented two doors like those which he had found at
first.

The most remarkable fact connected with these
animals, if we regard their peculiar instinct from the
standpoint of the descent theory, is the wide range of
their geographical distribution. In all quarters of the
globe species of trap-door spiders are found occurring in
more or less localised areas ; and as it is improbable that
so peculiar an instinct should have arisen independently
in more than one line of descent, we can only conclude
that the wide dispersion of the species presenting it has
been subsequent to the origin and perfecting of the in-
stinct. This conclusion of course necessitates the suppo-
sition that the instinct must be one of enormous antiquity :
and in this connection it is worthy of remark that we
seem to have independent evidence to show that such is
the case. It is a principle of evolution that the earlier
any structure or instinct appears in the development of
the race, the sooner will it appear in the development of
the individual ; and read by the light of this principle we
should conclude, quite apart from all considerations as to
the wide geographical distribution of trap-door spiders,
that their instincts — as, indeed, is the case with the
characteristic instincts of many other species of spiders —
must be of immense age. Thus, again to quote Mog-
gridge,—

It seems to be the I'ule with spiders generally that the off
spring should leave the nest and construct dwellings for them-
selves when very young.

Mr. Blackwall, speaking of British spiders, says : — ' Com-
plicated as the processes are by which these symmetrical nets
are produced, nevertheless young spiders, acting under the
influence of instinctive impulse, display, even in their first
attempts to fabricate them, as consummate skill as the most
experienced individuals.'

TKAP-JJUOE yPlDEiW.

217

Again, Mr. F. Pollock^ relates of the young of Epeira aureliuy
frhioh he observed in Madeira, that when seven weeks old they
made a web the size of a penny, and that these nets have the
same beautiful symmetry as those of the full-grown spider.

And, speaking of trap-door spiders, Moggridge says,—

I cannot help thinking that these very small nests, built as
they are by minute spiders probably not very long hatched
from the egg, must rank among the most marvellous structures
of this kind with which we are acquainted. That so young
and weak a creature should be able to excavate a tube in the
earth many times its own length, and know how to make a
perfect miniature of the nest of its parents, seems to be a fact
which has scarcely a parallel in nature. ^

Kegarding the steps whereby the instinct of building
trap -doors probably arose, Biichner quotes Moggridge
thus : —

To show, lastly, how various are the transitional forms and
gi-adations so important in deciding upon the gradual origin of
the forms of nests, Moggridge also alludes to the similar build-
ings made by other genera of spidei"S. Lycosa Xarboytensis , a
spider of Southern France much resembling the Apuleian
tarantula, and belonging to the fomily of the wolf spiders,
makes cylindrical holes in the earth, about one inch wide and
three or four inches deep, in a perpendicular direction ; when
they have attained this depth they run further horizontally,
and end in a three cornered room, from one to two inches broad,
the floor of which is covered with the remnants of dead in-
sects. The whole nest is lined within with a thick silken
material, and has at its opening — closed by no door — an above-
ground chimney-shaped extension, made of leaves, needlas,
moss, wood, (fee, woven together with spider threads. These
chimneys show various differences in their manner of building,
md are intended chiefly, according to Moggridge, to prevent
the sand blown about by the violent sea-winds from penetrating
into the nests. During winter the opening is wholly and con-
tinuously woven over, and it is very well possible, or probable,
that the process of reopening such a warm covering in the spring,

> * The History and Habits of Epeira aurelia,' in Annals and Mag. of
Nat. Hist, for June 1865.

2 Harvesting Ants and Trap-door Spiders, p. 126. This admirable
work, with its appendix, contains a very full account of the whole
economy of the interesting animals with which it is concerned.

218

ANIMAL INTELI.IGENCE.

after this opening was three-quarters completed, and was larg^-
enough to let the spider pass out, may have long ago awaked
in the brain of some species of spider the idea of making a per-
manent and moveable door. But from this to the practical
construction of so perfect a door as we have learned to know,
and even to the building of the exceedingly complicated nest of
the N. ManderstjerncB, through all the gradations which we
already know, and which doubtless exist in far gi'eater number,
is no great or impossible step.

General Intelligence,

Coming now to the general intelligence of spiders, I
think there can be no reasonable doubt, from the force of
concurrent testimony, that they are able to distinguish
between persons, and approach those whom they have
found to be friendly, while shunning strangers. This
power of discrimination, it will be remembered, also occurs
among bees and wasps, and therefore its presence in
spiders is not antecedently improbable. I myself know a
lady who has ' tam d ' spiders to recognise her, so that
they come out to be fed when she enters the room where
they are kept ; and stories of the taming of spiders by
prisoners are abundant. The following anecdote recorded
by Biichner is in this connection worth quoting : —

Dr. Moschkau, of Gohlis, near Leipsic, writer as follows to
the author, on August 28, 1876 : — 'In Oderwitz (?), where I
lived in 1873 and 1874, 1 noticed one day in a half-dark corner
of the anteroom a tolerably respectable spider's web, in which
a well-fed cross-spider had made its honie, and sat at the nest-
opeoing early and late, watching for some flying or creeping
food. I was accidentally several times a witness of the craft
with which it caught its victim and rendered it harmless, and
it soon became a regular duty to carry it flies several times
during a day, which I laid down before its door with a pair of
pincers. At first this feeding seemed to arouse small confidence,
the pincers perhaps being in fault, for it let many of the flies
escape again, or only seized them when it knew that they were
within reach of its abode. After a while, however, the spider
came each time and took the flies out of the pincers and spun
them over. The latter business was sometimes done so super-
ficially, when I gave flies very quickly one after the other, that

SPIDERS —GENERAL LSTELLIGENCE.

219

some of the already ensnared flies found time and opportunity
to escape. This game was carried on by me for some weeks, as
it seemed to me curious. Bat one day when the spider seemed
very ravenous, and regularly flew at each fly ofiered to it, I
began teasing it. As soon as it had got hold of the fly I pulled
it back again with the pincers. It took this exceedingly ill.
The first time, as I finally left the fly with it, it managed to
forgive me, but when I later took a fly right away, our friend-
ship was destroyed for ever. On the following day it treated
my ofl'ered flies with contempt, and would not move, and on the
third day it had disappeared.^

Jesse relates the following anecdote, which seems to
display on the part of a spider somewhat remote adapta-
tion of means to novel circumstances. He confined a
spider with her eggs under a glass upon a marble mantel-
piece. Having surrounded the eggs with web, —

She next proceeded to fix one of her threads to the upper
part of the glass which confined her, and carried it to the further
end of the piece of grass, and in a short time had succeeded in
raising it up and fixing it perpendicularly, working her threads
from the sides of the glass to the top and sides of the piece of
grass. Her motive in doing this was obvious. She not only
rendered the object of her care more secure than it would
have been had it remained flat on the marble, but she was
probably aware that the cold from the marble would chill her
eggs, and prevent their arriving at maturity : she therefore
raised them from it in the manner I have described.*'^

Mr. Belt gives the following account of the intelligence
which certain species of South American spiders display in
escaping from the terrible hosts of the Eciton ants : —

Many of the spiders would escape by hanging suspended by
a thread of silk from the branches, safe from the foes thai
swarmed both above and below.

I noticed that spiders generally were most intelligent in
escaping, and viid not, like the cockroaches and other insects,
take shelter in the first hiding-place they found, only to be
driven out again, or perhaps caught by the advancing army of
ants. I have often seen large spiders making oflT many yards
in advance, and apparently determined to put a good distance

Loo. cit., p. 319.
• Gleanings, vol. i., p. 103,

220

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

between themselves and the foe. I once saw one of the false
spiders, or harvest-men [PhalangidcB), standing in the midst of an
army of ants, and with the greatest circumspection and cool-
ness lifting, one after the other, its long legs, which supported
its body above their reach. Sometimes as many as five out of
its eiojht legs would be lifted at once, and whenever an ant ap-
proacJied one of those on which it stood, there was always a
clear space within reach to put down another, so as to be able
to hold up the threatened one out of danger. ^

Mr. L. A. Morgan, writing to ' Nature ' (Jan. 22, 1 880),

gives an account of a spider conveying a large insect from
the part of the web where it was caught to the ' larder,'
by the following means. The spider first went two or
three times backwards and forwards between the head
of the insect and the main strand of the web. After
this he went about cutting all the threads around the
insect till the latter hung by the head strands alone.
The spider then fixed a thread to the tail end, and by
this dragged the carcass as far on its way to the larder
as the head strands would permit As soon as these were
taut, he made the tail rope fast, went back to the head
rope and cut it ; then he attached himself to the head
and pulled the body towards the larder, until the tail rope
was taut. In this way, by alternately cutting the head
and tail ropes and dragging the insect bit by bit, he con-
veyed it safely to the larder.

But the practical acquaintance with mechanical prin-
ciples which this observation displays is perhaps not so
remarkable as that which is sometimes shown by spiders
when they find that a widely spread web is not tightly
enough stretched, and as a consequence is to an incon-
venient extent swayed about by the wind. Under such
circumstances these animals have been observed to sus-
pend to their webs small stones or other heavy objects,
the weight of which serves to steady the whole system.
Gleditsch saw a spider so circumstanced let itself down to
the ground by means of a thread, seize a small stone, r&-
mount, and fasten the stone to the lower part of its web,
at a height sufficient to enable animals and men to wali

* Natwalist in Nicaragua, p. 19.

SPIDERS — GENEEAL INTELLIGENCE. 221

beneath it. After alluding to this case, Biichner observes
[loc. cit.y p. 318), —

But a similar observation was made by Professor E. H.
Weber, the famous anatomist and physiologist, and was pub-
lished many years ago in Miiller's Journal. A. spider had
stretched its web between two posts standing opposite each
other, and had fastened it to a plant below for the third point.
But as the attachment below was often broken by the garden
work, by passers-by, and in other ways, the little animal extri-
cated itself from the difficulty by spinning its web round a little
stone, and fastened this to the lower pai-t of its web, swinging
freely, and so to draw the web down by its weight instead of
fastening it in this direction by a connecting thread. Car us
('Vergl. Psycho.,' 1866, p. 76) also made a similar observation.
But the most interestiDg observation on this head is related
by J. G. Wood (' Glimpses into Petland '), and repeated by
Watson {loc. cit.,'p. 455). One of my friends, says Wood, was
accustomed to gi-ant shelter to a number of garden spiders
UDder a large verandah, and to watch theii- habits. One day a
shar]> storm broke out, and the wind raged so furiously through
the garden that the spiders suffered damage from it, although
sheltei ed by the verandah. The mainyards of one of these webs,
as the sailors would call them, were broken, so that the web
was blown hither and thither, like a slack sail in a storm. The
spider made no fret^h threads, but tried to help itself in another
way. It let itself down to the ground by a thread, and ci-awled
to a place where lay some splintered pieces of a woodeu fence
thrown down by the storm. It fastened a thread to one of the
bits of wood, turned back with it, and hung it with a strong
thread to the lower part of its nest, about five feet from the
ground. The performance was a wonderful one, for the weight
of the wood sufficed to keep the nest tolerably firm, while it was
yet light enough to yield to the wind, and so prevent fui-ther
injury. The piece of wood was about two and a half inches
long, and as thick as a goose-quill. On the following day a
careless servant knocked her head against the wood, and it fell
down. But in the course of a few hours the spider had found
it and brought it back to its place. When the storm ceased,
the spider mended her web, broke the supporting thread in two,
and let the wood fall to the ground !

If so well-observed a fact requires any further confir-
mation, I may adduce the following account, which is of
the more value as corroborative evidence from the writer

222

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

not appearing to be aware that the fact had been observed
before. This writer is Dr. John Topham, whom the late
Dr. Sharpey, P\R.S., assured me is a competent observer,
and who publishes the account in ' Nature ' (xi. 18) : —

A spider constructed its web in an angle of my garden, the
sides of which were attached by long threads to shrubs at the
height of nearly three feet from the gravel path beneath. Being
much exposed to the wind, the equincctial gales of this autumn
destroyed the web several times.

The ingenious spider now adopted the contrivance here
represented. It secured a conical fragment of gravel with its
larger end upwards by two cords, one attached to each of its
opposite sides, to the apex of its wedge-shaped web, and left it
suspended as a moveable weight to be opposed to the effect of
such gusts of air as had destroyed the webs previously occupy-
ing the same situation.

The spider must have descended to the gravel path for this
special object, and having attached threads to a stone suited to
its purpose, must have afterwards raised this by fixing itself
upon the web, and pulling the weight up to a height of more
than two feet from the ground, where it hung suspended by
elastic cords. The excellence of the contrivance is too evident
to require further comment.

An almost precisely analogous case, with a sketch, is
published by another observer in ' Land and Water,' Dec.
12, 1877.

Scorpions.

Before quitting the Arachnida I must allude to some
recent correspondence on the alleged tendency of the
scorpion to commit suicide when surrounded by fire.
This alleged tendency has long been recognised in
popular fables, and has been used by Byron as a poetical
metaphor in certain well-known lines. But until the
publication of the correspondence to which I allude, no one
supposed the tendency in question to have any existe ce
in fact. This correspondence took place in ' Nature '
(vol. xi.), and as the subject is an interesting one, I shall
reproduce the more important contributions to it in ex-
tenso. It was opened by Mr. W. Gr. Biddie as follows : —

I shaU feel obliged if you will record in * Nature ' a fact with

SCORPIONS.

223

reference to the common black scorpion of Southern India,
which was observed me some years ago in Madras.

One morning a servant brought to me a large specimen of
this scorpion, which, having stayed out too long in its nocturnal
rambles, had apparently got bewildered at daybreak, and been
unable to find its way home. To keep it safe the creature was
at once put into a glazed entomological case. Having a few
ieisure minutes in the course of the forenoon I thought I would
see how my prisoner was getting on, and to have a better view
of it the case was placed in a window in the rays of the hot
sun. The light and heat seemed to irritate it very much, and
this recalled to my mind a story which I had read somewhere
that a scorpion, on being surrounded with fire, had committed
suicide. I hesitated about subjecting my pet to such a terrible
ordeal, but taking a common botanical lens, I focussed the rays
of the sun on its back. The moment this was done it began to
run hurriedly about the case, hissing and spitting in a very
fierce way. This experiment was repeated some four or five
times with like results, but on trying it once again, the scorpion
turned up its tail and plunged the sting, quick as lightning, into
its own back. The infliction of the wound was followed by a
sudden escape of fluid, and a friend standing by me called out,
* See, it has stung itself : it is dead and sure enough in less
than half a minute life was quite extinct. I have written this
brief note to show (1) that animals may commit suicide; (2)
that the poison of certain animals may be destructive to them-
selves.

The following corroborative evidence on the subject
was then supplied by Dr. Allen Thomson, F.K.S. (' Nature,'
vol. XX., p. 577) : —

Doubts having been expressed at various times, even by
learned naturalists, as to the reality of the suicide or self-de-
struction of the scorpion by means of its own poison, and these
doubts having been again stated in ' Nature/ vol. xx.,p. 553, by
Mr. B. F. Hutchinson, of Peshawur, as the result of his own
observations, I think it may be useful to give an articulate
account of the phenomenon as it has been related to me by an
aye- witness, which removes all possible doubt as to its occurrence
under certain circumstaoces.

While lesiding many years ago, during the siimmer months
at the baths of Sulla in Italy, in a somewhat damp locality, my
informant together with the rest of the famil\' was much
annoyed by the frequent intrusion of small black scorpions into

224

ANIMAL INTELLiaENCE.

the house, and their being secreted among the bedclothes, in
shoes, and other articles of dress. It thus became necessary to
be constantly on the watch for these troublesome creatures, and
to take means for their removal and destruction. Having been
informed by the natives of the place that the scor})ion would
destroy itself if exposed to a sudden light, my informant and
her friends soon became adepts in c-atching the scorpions and
disposing of them in the manner suggested. This consisted in
confining the animal underan inverted drinking-glass or tumbler,
below which a card was inserted when the capture was made, and
then, waiting till dark, suddenly bringing the light of a candle
near to the glass in which the animal was confined. No
sooner was this done than the scorpion invariably showed signs
of great excitement, running round and round the interior of
the tumbler with reckless velocity for a number of times. This
state having lasted for a minute or more, the animal suddenly
became quiet, and turning its tail on the hinder part of its
body over its back, brought its recurved sting down upon the
middle of the head, and piercing it forcibly, in a few seconds
became quite motionless, and in fact quite dead. This observa-
tion was repeated very frequentlv ; in truth, it was adopted as
the best plan of getting rid of the animals. The young people
were in tlie habit of handling the scorpions with impunity im-
mediately after they were so killed, and of preserving many of
them as curiosities.

In this narrative the following circumstances are worthy of
attention :

(1) The eflfect of light in producing the excitement amount-
ing to despair, which causes the animal to commit self-destruc-
tion ;

(2) The suddenness of the operation of the poison, which
is probably inserted by the puncture of the head into the upper
cerebral ganglion; and

(3) The completeness of the fatal symptoms at once in-
duced.

I am aware that the phenomena now described have been
observed by others, and they appear to have been fiimiliarly
known to the inhabitants of the district in which the animals
are found. Sufficient confirmation of the facts is also to be
found in the narratives of * G. Biddie ' and ' M. L.' contained
in ' Nature,' vol. ix., pp. 29-47, and it will be observed that the
circumstances leading the animal to self-destruction in these in-
stances were somewhat similar to those narrated by my inform-
ttut. It is abundantly clear, therefore, that the view taken

SCORPIONS.

225

by Mr. Hutchinson, viz., that the 'popular idea regarding
scorpionic suicide is a delusion based on an impossibility,' is
wholly untenable ; indeed, the recurved direction of the sting,
which he refers to as creating the impossibility of the animal
destroying itself, actually facilitates the operation of inflicting
the wound. I suppose Mr. Hutchinson, arguing from the ana-
logy of bees or wasps, imagined that the sting would be bent
forwards upon the body, whereas the wound of the scorpion ia
invariably inflicted by a recurvation of the tail over the back of
the animal.

It will be perceived that these observations were not
made by Dr. Allen Thomson himself, and that there are
certain inherent discrepancies in the account which he
has published — such, for instance, as the reason given for
trying and repeating the experiment, the method being
clearly a cumbersome one to employ if the only object
were that of 'disposing of the animals. Nevertheless,
as Dr. Thomson is a high authority, and as I learn from
him that he is satisfied regarding the capability and vera-
city of his informant, I have not felt justified in suppress-
ing his evidence. Still I think that so remarkable a fact
unquestionably demands further corroboration before we
should be justified in accepting it unreservedly. For if it
is a fact, it stands as a unique case of an instinct
detrimental alike to the individual and to the species.'

' For additional information on this subject, see ray more recently pub-
lished work on Mental Evolution of Animals.

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

CHAPTER VII.

REMAINING ARTICULATA.

The Hymenoptera being so much the most intelligenl
order, not merely of insects, but of Invert ebrata, and the
Arachnida having been now considered, very little space
need be occupied with the remaining classes of the Articu-
lata.

Coleojptera,

Sir John Lubbock, in his first paper on Bees and
Wasps, quotes the following case from Kirby and Spence,
with the remarks which I append : —

The fii^t of these anecdotes refers to a beetle {Aieuchus pilu-
lariiLs) which, having made for the reception of its eggs a pellet
of dung too heavy for it to move, repaired to an adjoining heap,
and soon returned with three of his companions. 'All four now
applied their united strength to the pellet, and at length suc-
ceeded in pushing it out ; which being done, the three assistant
beetles left the spot and returned to their own quarters.' This
observation rests on the authority of an anonymous German
artist; and though we are assured that he was a 'man of strict
veracity,' I am not aware that any similar fact has been re-
corded by any other obserrer.

Catesby, however, says : —

I have attentively admired their industry, and their mutual
assisting of each other in rolling these globular balls from the
place where they made them, to that of their interment, which
is usually a distance of some yards, more or less. This they
perform back foremost, by raising their hind parts and pushing
away the ball with their hind feet. Two or three of them are
sometimes engaged in trundling one ball, which from meeting
with impediments, on account of the unevenness of ^he gi-ound,
is sometimes deserted by them. It is, however, attempted by
others with success, unless it happen to roll into some deep
hollow or ditch, where they are accustomed to leave it; but

BEETLES.

227

they continue their work by rolling off the next hall that comes
in their way. None of them seem to know their own balls, but
an equal care for the whole appears to affect all the community.
They form these pellets while the dung remains moist, and
leave them to harden in the sun before they attempt to roll
them. In their rolling of them from place to place, both they
and the balls may fi-equently be seen tumbling about over tlu
little eminences that are in their way. They are not, however,
easily discouraged, and by repeating their attempts usually
surmount the difficulties.^

Biichner speaks of the fact that dung-beetles co-operate
in their work as one that is well established, but gives no
authorities or references.^ A friend of my own, however,
informs me that she has witnessed the fact ; and in view
of analogous observations made on other species of Coleop-
tera, I see no reason to doubt this one. Some of these
observations I may here append.

Herr Gollitz writes to Biichner thus : —

Last summer, in the month of July, I was one day in my
field, and found there a mound of fresh earth like a molehill,
on which a striped black and red beetle, with long legs, and
about the size of a hornet, was busy taking away the earth
from a hole that led like a pit into the mound, and levelling
the place. After I had watched this beetle for some time, I
noticed a second beetle of the same kind, which brought a little
lump of earth from the interior to the opening of the hole, and
then disappeared again in the mound ; every four or five minutes
a pellet came out of the hole, and was carried away by the first-
named beetle. After I had watched these proceedings for about
half an hour, the beetle which had been working underground
came out and ran to its comrade. Both put theii' heads together,
and clearly held a conversation, for immediately afterwards they
changed work. The one which had been working outside vent
into the mound, the other took the outside labour, and all went
on vigorously. I watched the afiair still for a little longer, and
went away with the notion that these insects could understand
each other just like men. Klingelhoffer, of Darmstadt (it;
Brehm, loc. cit., ix., p. 86), says : — A golden running beetle came
to a cockchafer lying on its back in the garden, intending to eat
it, but was unable to master it ; it ran to the next bush, and

• Quoted by Bingley, Anivial Biography, vol. iii., p. 118.
« Loc. cit., p. 344.

16

228

ANIMAL INTKLLIGRNCE.

returned with a friend, whereupon the two overpowered ihm

cockchafer, and pulled it off to their hiding-place.

Similarly, there is no doubt that the burying beetles
(Nicrophorus) co-operate.

Several of them unite together to bury under the gi'ound, as
food and shelter for their young, some dead animal, such as a
mouse, a toad, a mole, a bird, (tc. The burial is performed
because the corpse, if left above ground, would either dry up, or
grow rotten, or be eaten by other animals. In all these cases
the young would perL«^h, whereas the dead body lying in the
earth and withdra^vn from the outer air lasts very well. The
burying beetles go to work in a very well-considered fashion,
for they scrape away the earth lying r.nder the body, so that it
sinks of itself deeper and deeper. When it is deep enough down,
it is covered over from above. If the situation is stony, the
beetles with united forces and great efforts drag the corpse to
some place more suitable for burying. They work so diligently
that a mouse, for instance, is buried within three hours. But
they often work on for days, so as to bury the body as deeply as
possible. From large carcasses, such as those of horses, sheep,
&c., they only bury pieces as large as they can manage.^

Lastly, Claryille gives a case of a bur3'ing beetle which
wanted to carry away a dead mouse, but, finding it too
heavy for its unaided strength, went off, like the beetles
previously mentioned, and brought four others to its as-
sistance.^

A friend of Grleditsch fastened a dead toad, which he
desired to dry, upon the top of an upright stick. The
burying beetles were attracted by the smell, and finding
that they could not reach the toad, they undermined the
stick, so causing it to fall with the toad, which was then
buried safe out of harm's way.^

A converse exemplification of beetle-intelligence is
given by Gr. Berkeley.'' He saw a beetle carrpng a dead
spider up a heath plant, and hanging it upon a twig of the
heath in so secure a position, that when the insect had left
it Mr. Berkeley found that a sharp shake of the heather
would not bring the dead spider down. As the burying

' Biichner, loc. cit., p. 344.

2 Quoted in Strauss, Insects, s. 389.

• Kirby and Sper.ce, loc. cit., pp. 321-2.

* lAfe and Recollectwns, vol. ii., p. 356.

EARWIG.

229

Deetle preserves its treasure by hiding it out of sight below
ground, so this beetle no doubt secured the same end but
by other means ; ' seeing,' as Mr. Berkeley observes, * that
if it did not hang up its prey, it might fall into the hands
of other hunters, it took all possible pains to find out the
best store-room for it.'

The above instances of beetle-intelligence lead me to
credit the following, which has been communicated to me
by Dr. G-arraway, of Faversham. On a bank of moss in
the Black Forest he saw a beetle alight with a caterpillar
which it was carrying, and proceed to excavate a cylindrical
hole in the peat, about an inch and a half deep, into which,
when completed, it dropped the caterpillar, and then flew
away through the pines. 'I was struck,' says my corre-
spondent, * with the creature's folly in leaving the whole
uncovered, as every curious wayfaring insect would doubt-
less be tempted to enter therein. However, in about a
minute the beetle returned, this time carrying a small
pebble, of which there were none in the immediate vicinity,
and having carefully fitted this into the aperture, fled
away into space.'

Earwig.

I must devote a short division of this chapter to the
earwig. M. Geer describes a regular process of incubation
as practised by the mother insect. He placed one with
her eggs in a box, and scattered the eggs on the floor of
the latter. The earwig, however, carried them one by one
into a certain part of the box, and then remained con-
stantly sitting upon the heap without ever quitting it for
a moment. When the eggs were hatched, the young ear-
wigs kept close to their mother, following her about every-
where, and often running under her abdomen, just as
chickens run under a hen.^

A young lady, who objects to her name being published,
informs me that her two younger sisters (children) are in
the habit of feeding every morning with sugar an earwig,
which they call ' Tom,' and which crawls up a certain
curtain regularly every day at the same hour, with the
apparent expectation of getting its breakfast. This re-
• Quoted by Bingley, loc. cit., vol. iii., pp. 150-51

230

ANIMAL TNTELLTGh:?:CE.

Bembles analogous instances which have been mentioned
Id the case of spiders.

Dipterous Insects.

The gad-fly, whose eggs are hatched out in the intes-
tines of the horse, exhibits a singular refinement of instinct
in depositing them upon those parts of the horse which
the animal is most likely to lick. For, according to
liingley and other writers, 'the inside of the knee is the
part on which these flies principally deposit their eggs ;
and next to this they fix them upon the sides, and the
back part of the shoulder; but almost always in places
liable to be licked by the tongue.' The female fly deposits
h'-y pggs while on the wing, or at least scarcely appears to
settle when she extends her ovipositor to touch tlie horse.
She lays only a single egg at a time — fl}ing away a short
distance after having deposited one in order to prepare
another, and so on.

The following anecdote, which I quote from Jesse,
seems to indicate no small degree of intelligence on the
part of the common house-fly — intelhgence, for instance,
the same both in kind and degree as that which was dis-
played by Sir John Lubbock's pet wasp already mentioned :

Slingsby, the celebrated opera dancer, resided in the large
house in Cross-deep, Twickenham, next to Sir Wathen Waller's,
looking down the river. He was fond of the study of natural
history, and particularly of insects, and he once tried to tame
some house-flies, and preserve them in a state of activity through
the winter. For this purpose, quite at the latter end of autumn,
and when they were becoming almost helpless, he selected four
from off his breakfast-table, put them upon a lai-ge handful of
cotton, and placed it in one corner of the window nearest the
fireplace. Not long afterwards the weather became so cold
that all flies disappeared except these four, which constantly
left their bed of cotton at his breakfast-time, came and fed at
the table, and then returned to their home. This continued
for a short time, when three of them became lifeless in theii
shelter, and only one came down. This one Slingsby had
trained to feed upon his thumb-nail, by placing on it some moist
Bugar mixed with a little butter. Although there had been at
intervals several days of sharp frost, the fly never missed taking
his daily meal in this way till after Christmas, when, his kind

FLIES— CRABS

231

preserver ha^ving invited a friend to dine and sleep at his house,
the fly, the next morning, perched upon the thumb of the
visitor, who, being ignorant that it was a pet of his host's,
clapped his hand upon it, and thus put an end to Mr. Slingsby's
experiment.^

Crustacea.

There is no doubt that these are an intelligent group
of animals, although I have been able to collect but
wonderfully little information upon the subject. Mr.
Moseley, F.K.S., in his very interesting work, ' Notes by a
Naturalist on the Challenger,' says (p. 70) : —

In the tropics one becomes accustomed to watch the habits
of various species of crabs, which there live so commonly an
aerial life. The more I have seen of them, the more have I been
astonished at their sagacity.

And again (pp. 48-9): —

A rock crab {Grapsus stringosus) was very abundant, run-
ning about all over the rocks, and making off into clefts on one's
approach. I was astonished at the keen and long sight of this
crab. I noticed some made off at full speed to their hiding-
places at the instant that my head showed above a rock fifty
yards distant. . . .

At Still Bay, on the sandy beach of which a heavy surf was
breaking, I encountered a sand crab {CEcypoda ippeus), which
was walking about, and got between it and its hole in the dry
sand above the beach. The crab was a large one, at least three
inches in breadth )f its carapace. . . . With its curious column-
like eyes erect, the crab bolted down towards the surf as the
only escape, and as it saw a great wave rushing up the shelving
shore, dug itself tight into the sand, and held on to prevent the
undertide from carrying it into the sea. As soon as the wave
had retreated, it made off full speed for the shore. I gave
chase, and whenever a wave approached, the crab repeated the
manceuvre. I once touched it with my hand whilst it was
buried and blinded by the sandy water, but the surf compelled
me to retreat, and I could not snatch hold of it for fear of its
powerful claws. At last I chased it, hard pressed, into the
surf in a hurry, and being unable to get proper hold in time, it
was washed into the sea. The crab evidently dreaded going
into the sea. . . . They soon die when kept a short time be-
neath the water.

* Gleanings, vol. ii., pp. 165-6.

232

ANIMAL INTELLIGENC:

The land crabs of the West Indies and North America
descend from their mountain home in May and June, to
deposit their spawn in the sea. They travel in such swarms
that the roads and woods are covered with them. They
migrate in a straight line, and rather than allow them-
selves to be deflected from it, ' they scale the houses, and
surmount every other obstacle that lies in their way'
(Kirby). They travel chiefly by night, and when the}
arrive at the sea-shore they ' bathe three or four dififerent
times,' and then ' commit their eggs to the waves.' They
return to the mountains by the same route, but only the
most vigorous survive the double journey.

Prof. Alex. Agassiz details some interesting observations
on the behaviour of young hermit crabs reai'ed by himself
' from very young stages,' when first presented with shells
of mollusks. ' A number of shells, some of them empty,
others with the animal h\T.ng, were placed in a glass dish
with the young crabs. Scarcely had the shells reached
the bottom before the crabs made a rush for the shells,
turned them roand and round, invariably at the mouth,
and soon a couple of the crabs decided to ventme in,
which they did with remarkable alacrity.' The crabs
which obtained for their share the shells still inhabited
by living mollusks, 'remained riding round upon the
mouth of their future dwelling, and, on the death of the
mollusk, which generally occurred soon after in captivity,
commenced at once to tear out the animal, and having
eaten him, proceeded to take its place within the shell.' ^

There is a species of small crustacean {Podocei^s
capillatus) described by Mr. Bates, which builds a nest to
contain its eggs. The nest is in the form of a hollow
cone, built upon seaweed, and composed of fine thread-
like material closely interlaced. ' These nests,' says ]\Ir.
Bates, ' are evidently used as a place of refuge and security,
in which the parent protects and keeps her brood of young
until they are old enough to be independent of the
mother's care.'

Dr. Erasmus Darwin t^lls us, on the authority of a
friend on whose competency as an observer he relied, that
the common crab during the moulting season stations as
* American Jonrn. Sc. and Artt vol. x., Oct. 1875.

CRABS AND LOBSTERS.

233

gentinel an unmoultcd or hard-shelled individual, to
prevent marine enemies from injuring moulted individuals
in their unprotected state. While thus mounting, guard
the hard-shelled crab is much more courageous than at
other times, when he has only his own safety to consider.
But these observations require to be corroborated.

In ' Nature ' (xv., p. 415) there is a notice of a lobstei
{Homarus marinus) in the Rothesay Aquarium which
attacked a flounder that was confined in the same tank
with him, and having devoured a portion of his victim,
buried the rest beneath a heap of shingle, on which he
' mounted guard.' ' Five times within two hours was the
fish unearthed, and as often did the lobster shovel the
gravel over it with his huge claws, each time ascending
the pile and turning his bold defensive front to his com-
panions.'

The following is quoted from Mr. Darwin's ' Descent of
Man '(pp. 270-1):—

A trustworthy naturalist, Mr. Gardner, whilst watching a
shore-crab {Gelasimus) making its burrow, threw some shells
towards the hole. One rolled in, and three other shells re-
mained within a few inches of the mouth. In about five
minutes the crab brought out the shell which had fallen in, and
carried it away to the distance of a foot ; it then saw the three
other shells lying near, and evidently thinking that they might
likewise roll in, carried them to the spot where it had laid the
first. It would, I think, be difficult to distinguish this act
from one performed by man by the aid of reason.

^Ir. Darwin also alludes to the curious instinctive
habits of the large shore-crab {Birgus latro), which feeds
on fallen cocoa-nuts ' by tearing off the husk fibre by fibre ;
and it always begins at that end where the three eye-like
depressions are situated. It then breaks through one of
these eyes by hammering with its heavy front pincers,
and turning round, extracts the albuminous core with its
narrow posterior pincers.'

Remarkable cases occur of commensalism between
certain crabs and sea-anemones, and they betoken much
intelligence. Thus Professor Mobius says in his ' Beitrage
ziir Meeresfauna der Insel Mauritius' (1880) that there
are two crabs belonging to different genera which have

ANIMAL INTELLIGENC^:.

the habit of firmly grasping a sea-anemone in each cla^
and carrying them about, presumably to secure some
benefit to themselves. The more familiar case of the
species of anemone which lives on the shells tenanted by
hermit crabs is of special interest to us on account of a
remarkable observation pubhshed by jMt. Gosse, F.R.S.
(Zoologist, June, 1859). He found that on his detaching
the anemone (Adamsia) from the shell, the hermit crab
always took it up in its claws and held it against the shell
* for the space of ten minutes at a time, until fairly
attached by a good strong base.' It was said by the late
Dr. Eobert Ball that when the common Sagartia para-
sitica is attached to a stone and a hermit crab is placed in
its vicinity, the anemone will leave the stone and attach
itself to the hermit's shell (Critic, March 24, 1860).

Intelligence of Larvce of Certain Insects.

I shall now allude to some of the more interesting facts
touching the psychology of insects when in their immature
or larval state. This is an interesting topic from the
point of view which we occupy as evolutionists, because a
caterpillar is. really a locomotive and self-feeding embryo,
whose entire mental constitution is destined to undergo a
metamorphosis no less complete and profound than that
which is also destined to take place in its corporeal struc-
ture. Yet although the caterpillar has an embryo psy-
chology, its instincts and even intelligence often seem to
be higher or more elaborated than is the case with the
imago form. Where such is the case the explanation
course must be that it is of more importance to the species
that the larval form should be in a certain measure in-
telligent than that the imago form should be so. Every
larva is a potential imago, or breeding individual ; there-
fore its life is of no less value to the species during its
larval than during its adult existence ; and if certain
instincts or grades of intelligence are of more use to it
during the former than during the latter period, of course
natural selection would determine the unusual event which
we seem here in some cases to see — namely, that the

INTELLIGENCE OF LAKV^— ANT-LION. 236

embryo should stand on a higher level of psychological
development than the adult.

I may most fitly begin under this heading with the
remarkable instincts of the so-called ' ant-lion,' which is
the larva of a neuropterous insect, the common Myrmeleon
{M. formicarium). I quote the following account of its
habits from Thompson's ' Passions of Animals ' (p. 258) : —

The devices of the ant-lion are still more extraordinary it
possible. He forms, with astonishing labour and perseverance,
a pit in the shape of a funnel, in a dry sandy soil, under some
old wall or other spot protected from the wind. His pit being
finished, he buries himself among the sand at the bottom, leaving
only his horns visible, and thus waits patiently for his prey.
Whenanant or any other small insect happens to walk on the edge
of the hollow, it forces down some of the particles of sand,
which gives the ant-lion notice of its presence. He immediately
throws up the sand which covei-s his head to overwhelm the
ant, and with its returning force brings it to the bottom. This
he continues to do till the insect is overcome and falls between
his horns. Every endeavour to escape, when once the incau-
tious ant has stepped within the verge of the pit, is vain, for in
all its attempts to climb the side the deceptive sand slips from
under its feet, and every struggle precipitates it still lower.
When within reach its enemy plunges the points of its jaws
into its body, and having sucked out all its juices, throws out
the empty skin to some distance.

According to Bingley, if the ant-lion, while excavating
its pitfall, —

Comes to a stone of some moderate size, it does not desert the
work on this account, but goes on, intending to remove that im-
pediment the last. When the pit is finished, it crawls back-
ward up the side of the place where the stone is; and, getting
its tail under it, takes gieat pains and time to get it on a true
poise, and then begins to crawl backward with it up the edge
to the top of the pit, to get it out of the way. It is a common
:hing to see an ant-lion labouring in this manner at a stone
four times as big as its own body ; and as it can only move
backwards, and the poise is difficult to keep, especially up a
slope of such crumbling matter as sand, which moulders away
from under its feet, and necessarily alters the position of its
body, the stone very frequently rolls down, when near the verge,
quite to the bottom. In this case the animal attacks it again

236

ANIMAL INTELLIGKNCE.

in the same way, and is often not discouraged by five or sLx
miscarriages, but continues its struggle so long that it at
length gets over the verge of the place. When it has done this,
it does not leave it there, lest it should roll in again ; but is
always at the pains of pushing it further on, till it has removed
it to a necessary distance from the edge of the pit.*

Passing on now to the intelligence of caterpillars,
Mr. Gr. B. Buckton, F.R.S., writing from Haslemere,
says :—

Many caterpillars of Pieris rapes have, during this autumn,
fed below my windows. On searching for suitable positions for
passing into chrysalides, some eight or ten im livid uals, in their
direct march upwards, encountered the plate-glass panes of my
windows : on these they appeared to be unaole to stand. Ac-
cordingly in every case they made silken ladders, some of them
five feet long, each ladder being formed of a single continuous
thread, woven in elegant loops from side to side. . . . The
reasoning, however, seems to be but narrow, for one ladder was
constructed parallel to the window-frame for nearly three feet,
on which secure footing could be had by simply diverting the
ti-ack two inches.^

In this case it appears clear that we have to do with
instinct, and not with reason. Xo doubt it is the congenital
habit of these caterpillars to overcome impediments in
this way ; but the instinct is one of sufficient interest to
be here stated.

The following is quoted from Kirby and Spence : —

A caterpillar described by Bonnet, which, from being confined
in a box, was unable to obtain a supply of the bark with which
its ordinary instinct du^ects it to make its cocoon, substituted
pieces of paper that were given to it, tied them together with
silk, and constructed a very passable cocoon with them. In
another instance the same naturalist having opened several
cocoons of a moth {Noctura verhasci), which are composed of
a mixture of grains of earth and silk, just after being finished,
the larv£B did not repair the injury in the same manner. Some
employed both earth and silk ; others contented themselves with
spinning a silken veil before the opening.*

The same authorities state, as result of their own
observation, that the —

' Animal Biography, vol. iii., pp. 244-5.
' Nature^ vii., p. 49. ' Jntr. to Ent., ii., p. 475.

INTELLIGENCE OF LARV^- -CATERPILLARS, 237

Common cabbage caterpillar, which, when building web under
gtone or wooden surfaces, previously covers a space with a web
to form a base for supporting its dependent pupa, when building
a web beneath a muslin surface dispenses with this base
altogether : it perceives that the woven texture of the muslin
forms facilities for attaching the threads of the cocoon securely
enough to support the weight of the cocoon without the neces-
sity of making the usual square inch or so of basal support.^

The instincts of the larva of the Tinea moth are thus
described by Reaumur : —

It feeds upon the elm, using the leaves both as food and
clothing. To do this it only eats the parenchyma of the leaf,
preserving the upper and under epidermal membranes, between
which it then insinuates itself as it progressively devours the
parenchyma. It, however, carefully avoids sei)arating these
membranes where they unite at the extreme edge of the leaf,
which is designed to form ' one of the seams of its coat.' The
cavity when thus excavated between the two epidermal mem-
branes is then lined with silk, made cylindrical in shape, cut off
at the two ends and all along the side remote from the * seam,'
and then the two epidermal membranes sewn together along the
side where they have had to be cut in order to separate them
from the tree. The larva now has a coat exactly fitting its body,
and open at each end. By the one opening it feeds, and by the
other discharges its excrement, * having on one side a nicely
jointed seam — that which is commonly applied to its back —
composed of the natural marginal junction of the membranes
of the leaf.'

Reaumur cut off the edge of a newly finished coat, so
as to expose the body of the larva at that point. The
animal did not set about making a new coat ab initio, as
we might expect that it would on the popular supposition
that a train of instinctive actions is always as mechanical
as the running down of a set of cog-wheels, and that
wherever a novel element is introduced the machinery
must be throwm out of gear, so that it cannot meet a new
emergency of however simple a character, and must there-
fore re-start the whole process over again from the be-
ginning. In this case the larva sewed up the rent ; and
not only so, but ' the scissors having cut off one of the
projections intended to enter into the construction of

» Ibid., p. 475.

238

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

the triangular end of the case, it entirely changed the
original plan, and made that end the head which had been
first designed for the tail.'

Another remarkable case of the variation of instinct in
the Lepidoptera is stated by Bonnet. There are usually,
he says, two generations of the Angoumois moth : the first
appear in early summer, and lay their eggs upon the ears
of wheat in the fields ; the second appear later in the
summer, or in the autumn, and these lay their eggs upon
wheat in the granaries ; from these eggs there comes the
first generation of next years moths. This is a highly
remarkable case — supposing the facts to be as Bonnet
states ; for it seems that the early summer moths, although
bom in the granaries, immediately fly to the unreaped
fields to lay their eggs in the standing corn, while the
autumn moths never attempt to leave the granaries, but
lay their eggs upon the stored wheat.^

Westwood says that —

A species of Tasmanian caterpillar [Noctua Ewingii) swarms
over the land in enormous companies, which regularly begin to
march at four o'clock in the morning, and as regularly halt at
midday. Liparis chrysorrhaca, a kind of caterpillar, spins for
the winter a common web, in which several hundred individuals
find a common shelter.^

According to Kirby and Spence, —

The larva of the ichneumon, while feeding upon its caterpillar
host, spares the walls of the intestines until it is time for it to
escai^e, when, the life of the caterpillar being no longer necessary
to its development, it perforates these walls.'

The larvae Theda isocrates live in a group of seven or eight
in the fruit of pomegranate. In consequence of their excava-
tions within the fruit, the latter is apt to fall ; and to prevent
its doing so the larvae throw out a thread of attachment where-
with to secure the fruit to the branch, so that if the stalk withers,
this thread serves to suspend the fruit.'*

The caterpillar of the Bombyx moth, which is a native of
France, exhibits very wonderful instincts. The larva is gre-
garious in its habits, each society (family) consisting of perhaps

1 (Eiivres, ix., p. 370. - Trans. Ent. Soc, vol. ii.

" Introd. Ent., Letter xi.

♦ Westwood, Tran.s. Ent. Soc, vol. ii., p. 1.

iNTELLiaENCE OF LARV.E — CATERPILLAES. 239

600 or 800 individuals. When young they have no fixed habi-
tation, but encamp sometimes in oue place, and sometimes in
another, under the shelter of their web ; but when they have
attained two -thirds of their growth, they weave for themselves
a common tent. About sunset the regiment leaves its quartei-s.
. . . At their head is a chief, by whose movements their pro-
cession is regulated. Wheu he stops all stop, and proceed when
he proceeds ; three or four of his immediate followers succeed
in the same line, the head of the second touching the tail of the
first ; then comes an equal series of pairs, next of threes, and sr
on, as far as fifteen or twenty. The whole procession move>
regularly on with an even pace, each file treading in the steps
of those that precede it. If the leader, arriving at a particular
point, pursues a difierent direction, all march to that point
before they turn. *

The following additional facts concerning these remark-
able habits may be quoted. I take them from the ac-
count published by ^Ir. Davis in 'Loudoun's Magazine of
Natural History : ' —

The caterpillars, he observed, were Bombyces, and were
seen crossing a road in single file, each so close to its predecessor
that the line was quite continuous, * moving like a living cord.'
The number of caterpillars was 154, and the length of the line
27 feet. When Mr. Davis removed one from the line the
caterpillar immediately in front suddenly stood still, then the
next, and next, and so on to tbe leader. Similarly, those behind
the point of interruption successively halted. After a pause of
a few moments, the fii'st caterpillar behind the break in the
line endeavoured to fill up the vacant space, and so recover con-
tact or communication, which after a time it succeeded in doing,
when the information that the line was again closed was
passed forward in some way from caterpillar to caterpillar till
it reached the leader, when the whole line was again put in
motion. The individual which had been abstracted remained
rolled up and motionless ; but on being placed near the moving
column it immediately unrolled, and made every attempt to get
readmitted into the procession. After many endeavours it
succeeded, the one below falling into the rear of the interloper.
On repeating the experiment by removing a caterpillar fifty from
the head of the procession, Mr. Davis found that it took just
thirty seconds by his watch for information of the fact to reach
the leader. All the same results followed as in the previous

* Kirby and Spence, Entomology ^ Letter xvi.

240

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

case. It wag observable that the animals were guided neither
by sight nor smell while endeavouring to close up the inter-
rupted line ; for the caterpillar next behind the interruption, on
whom the duty of closing up devolved, ' turned right and left,
and often in a wrong direction, when within half an inch of the
one immediately before him ; when he at last touched the ob-
ject of his search, the fact was communicated again by signal ;
and in thii-ty seconds the whole line was in rapid march.' This
gentleman adds that the object of the march was the search for
new pasture. The caterpillars feed on the Eucalyptus, and when
they have completely stripped one tree of its leaves, they all con-
gregate on the trunk, and proceed as described to another tree.

De Villiers ' gives an account of his observations on the
manner in which these caterpillars [Cnethocampii pitzo-
campa) are able to pass information, which does not quite
agree with the above observation of ]\Ir. Davis. For he
says that, in a train of 600 caterpillars, interference by
him in any part of the train was communicated through
the whole series instantaneously — all the 600 caterpillars
stopping immediately and with one consent like a single
organism.

According to Kirby and Spence there is a kind of
catei'pillar (l^ieris cratcegi) which lives in little colonies
of ten or twelve in common chambers lined with silk. ]n
one part they make of the same material a little bag or
pocket, which is used by the community or household as
a water-closet. When full of excrement the caterpillars
empty it by turning out the pellets with their feet.^

Only two other instances of noteworthy intelligence

as exhibited by larvse have fallen within my reading.

One of these is mentioned by Eeaumur, who says that

the larvae of Hemerobius chrysops chase aphides, and

having killed them, clothe themselves in their skins ; and

the other case is the very remarkable one mentioned in

his newly published work by W. ^EacLachlan, F.R.S., of

caddis- worms adjusting the specific gravity of their tubes

to suit that of the water in which they live, by attaching

heavy or Hght material to them according as they require

sinking or flotation.

' Trans. Ent. Soc. France, vol. i., p. 201 .
' Introduction to Entomology, Letter xxvi.

CHAPTER VIII.

FISH.

Although we here pass into the sub-kingdom of animala
the intelligence of which immeasurably surpasses that of the
other sub-kingdoms, it is remarkable that these lowest
representatives of the higher group are psychologically in-
ferior to some of the higher members of the lower groups.
Neither in its instincts nor in general intelligence can
any fish be compared with an ant or a bee — a fact which
shows how slightly a psy jhological classification of animals
depends upon zoological iffinity, or even morphological or-
ganisation. For although a highly competent authority,
namely Van Baer, has said that a bee is as highly organised
an animal as a fish, though on a different type,* no one would
be found to assert that an ant or a bee is so much more
highly organised than a fish as its higher inteUigence
would require, supposing degrees of intelligence to stand
in necessary relation to degree of organic development.
And this consideration is not materially altered if, instead
of regarding the whole organism, we look to the nervous
system alone. There is no doubt that the cerebral hemi-
spheres of a fish, although small as compared with these
organs in the higher Vertebrata, are, bulk for bulk,
enormous as compared with the oesophageal ganglia o*
' brain ' of an insect ; while the disproportion becomes
still greater if the cerebral hemispheres of a fish are com-
pared with their supposed analogues in the brain of an
ant, viz., the pedunculated and convoluted lobes which
surmount the cephalic ganglion. But here the relative
emallness of the ant as a whole must be taken into con-

' Fhil. Frags^ translated by Huxley, Taylor's Mag.^ 1863, p. 196.

242

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

sideration, and also the fact that its brain is relatively
much more massive as well as more highly organised than
that which occurs in any other order of in vertebral ed
animals, except, perhaps, the octopus and his allies. There-
fore, although the brain of a fish is formed upon a type
which by increase of size and complexity is destined in
function far to eclipse all other types of nerve-centre, we
have to observe that in its lowest stage of evolution as
presented to science in the fishes, this type is functionally
inferior to the invertebrate type, where this reaches its
highest stage of evolution in the Hymenoptera.

Emotions.

Fish display emotions of fear, pugnacity ; social, sexual,
and parental feelings ; anger, jealousy, play, and curiosity.
So far the class of emotions is the same as that with which
we have met in ants, and coiTesponds with that which is
distinctive of the psychology of a child about four months
old. T have not, however, any evidence of sympathy,
which would be required to make the list of emotions
identical ; but s3Tiipathy may nevertheless be present.

Fear and pugnacity are too apparent in fish to require
special proof. The social or gregarious feelings are strongly
shown by the numberless species which swim in shoals,
the sexual feelings are proved by courtships, and the
parental by those species which build nests and guard
their young. Schneider saw several species of fish at the
Naples Aquarium protecting their eggs. In one case the
male mounted guard over a rock where the eggs were de-
posited, and swam with open mouth against intruders.
The following accounts of the nidification of certain species
of fish show that the parental instincts are not unhke
th )se which obtain in birds, and are comparable in point of
strength with the same instincts as they occur in ants,
bees, and spiders.

Agassiz remarks ^ that while examining the marine products
of the Sargasso Sea, Mr. Mansfield picked up and brought to
him a round mass of sargassum, about the size of the two

' Silliman's American Journal^ Feb, 1872.

FISH — EMOTIONS.

243

fists placed together. The whole consisted, to all appeamnee,
of nothing but gulf-weed, the branches and leaves of which were,
however, evidently knit together, and not merely balled into a
roundish mass. The elastic threads which held the gulf-weed
together were beaded at intervals, sometimes two or three beads
being close together, or a branch of them hanging from the
cluster of threads. This nest was full of eggs scattered through-
out the mass, and not placed together in a cavity. It was
evidently the work of the Chironectes. This rocking fish-cradle
is carried along as an undying arbour, affording at the same
time protection and afterwards food for its living freight. It is
suggested that the fish must have used their peculiar pectoral
fins when constructing this elaborate nest.

The well-known tinker or ten-spined stickleback {Gaster-
osteus punyitius) is one of our indigenous fish which constructs
a nest. On May 1, 1864, a male * was placed in a well-estab-
lished aquarium of moderate size, to which, after three days,
two ripe females were added. Their presence at once roused
him into activity, and he soon began to build a nest of bits of
dirt and dead fibre, and of growing confervoid filaments, upon a
jutting point of rock among some interlacing branches of
Myriophyllum spicatum — all the time, however, frequently in-
terrupting his labours to pay his addresses to the females. This
was done in most vigorous fashion, he swimming, by a series of
little jerks, near and about the female, even pushing against her
with open mouth, but usually not biting. After a little
coquetting she responds and follows him, swimming just above
him as he leads the way to the nest. When there, the male
commences to flirt — he seems unaware of its situation, will not
swim to the right spot, and the female, after a few ineffectual
attempts to find the proper passage into it, turns tail to swim
away, but is then viciously pursued by the male. When he
first courts the female, if she, not being ready, does not soon
respond, he seems quickly to lose his temper, and, attacking
her with great apparent fury, drives her to seek shelter in some
crevice or dark corner. The coquetting of the male near the
nest, which seems due to the fact that he really has not quite
finished it, at length terminates by his pushing his head well
into the entrance of the nest, while the female closely follows
him, placing herself above him, and apparently much excited.
As he withdi'aws she passes into the nest, and pushes quite
through it, after a very brief delay, during which she deposits
her ova. The male now fertilises the eggs, and drives the female

• Ransom, Ann. aitd Mag. Nat. Higt., 1866, xvi., p. 449.
17

244

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

away to a safe distance ; then, after patting down the nest, he
proceeds in search of another female. The nest is built and the
ova deposited in about twenty-four hours. The male continued
to watch it day and night, and during the light hours he also
continually added to the nest.

The marine fifteen-spined stic]dehaxik(G aster osteus spinach'a)
afibrds another instance of nesthconst meting fishes. The place?
selected for their nests are usually harbours, or some sheltered
spots to where pure sea water reaches. The fish either find
growing, or even collect some of the softer kinds of green or red
seaweed, and join them with so much of the coralline tufts
{Janioi) growing on the rock as will serve the purj^oseof afford-
ing firmness to the structure, and constitute a pear-shaped mass
five or six inches long, and about as stout as a man's fist. A
thread, which is elastic and resembles silk, is employed for the
pui'pose of binding the matei-ials together : under a magnifier
it appears to consist of several strands connected by a gluey
substance, which hai-dens by exposure to the water.'

M. Carbormier, w^ho has studied the habits of the Chinese
butterfly-tish (Macropodus) in hLs private aquarium in Paris,
where he had some in confinement, observed tbat the male
constructs a nest of froth of considerable size, 15 to 18 centi-
metres horizontal diameter, and 10 to 12 high. He prepares
the bubbles in the air (which he sucks in and then expels),
strengthening them with mucous matter from his mouth, and
brings them into the nest. Sometimes the buccal secretion
will fail him, whereupon he goes to the bottom in seai-ch of
confervae, which he sucks and bites for a little in order to stimu-
late the act of secretion. The nest prepared, the female is in-
duced to enter. Not less curious is the way in which the male
brings the eggs from the bottom into the nest. He appears
unable to carry them up in his mouth ; instead of this, he first
swallows an abundant supply of air, then descending, he places
himself beneath the eggs, and suddenly, by a violent contraction
of the muscles in the interior of his mouth and pharynx, he ex-
hales the air which he had accumulated by the gills. This
air, finely divided by the lamellae and fringes of the giUs,
escapes in the form of two jets of veritable gaseous powder,
which envelopes the eggs and raises them to the surface. In
this mancEuvi-e the Macropodus entirely disappeared in a kind
of air-mist, and when this had dissipated he reappeared with a

' Quoted from Francis Day, F.L.S., • Instincts and Emotions of Fish,
Journ. Linn. Soc, vol. xv., pp. 36-7, where see for other cases of neat-
building among fish

FISH — NE.ST- BUILDING.

245

multitude of air- bubbles like little pearls clinging all over his
hody.^

Again, in detailing Mr. Baker's observations on the
three-spined stickleback, published in the Philosophical
Transactions, this author says : —

Tt has been remarked that after the deposition of the eggs
the nest was opened more to the action of the water, and tlie
vibratory motion of the body of the male fish, hovering over it<*
surface, caused a current of water to be propelled across the
surface of the ova, which action was repeated almost continu-
ously. After about ten days the nest was destroyed and the
materials removed ; and now were seen the minute fry flutter-
ing upwards here and there, by a movement half swimming,
half leaping, and then falling rapidly again upon or between
the clear pebbles of the shingle bottom. This arose from their
having the remainder of the yelk still attached to their body,
which, acting as a weight, caused them to sink the moment the
swimming effort had ceased. Around, across, and in every
direction the male fish, as the guardian, continually moved.
Now his labours became more arduous, and his vigilance was
taxed to the utmost extreme, for the other fish (two tench and
a gold carp), some twenty times larger than himself, as soon
as they perceived the young fry in motion, continuously used
their utmost endeavours to snap them up. The courage of the
little stickleback was now put to its severest test ; but, nothing
daunted, he drove them all off, seizing their fins and striking
with all his strength at their heads and at theh eyes. Hia
care of the young brood when encumbered with the yelk was
very extraordinary ; and as this was gi-adnally absorbed and
they gained strength, their attempts to swim carried them to a
greater distance from the parent fish ; his vigilance, however,
seemed everywhere, and if they rose by the action of their fins
above a certain height from the shingle bottom, or flitted beyond
a given distance from the nast, they were immediately seized in
his mouth, brought back, and gently puffed or jetted into their
place again. The same care of the young, bringing them back
to their nest up till about the sixth day after hatching, has
been remarked by Dr. Eansom in the ten-spined stickleback
[G. ptmgitius).^

The well-known habit of the lophobranchiate fish, oi

» Ibid,

246

ANIMAL INTELLiaENCE.

incubating their eggs in their pouches, also displays
highly elaborated parental feeling.' M. Kisso says that
when the young of the pipe-fish are hatched out, the
parents show them marked attachment, and that the
j)ouch then serves them as a place of shelter or retreat
from danger.2

M. Carbonnier has recorded how the male of the curiously
grotesque telescope-fish, a variety of Carassiits aurattcs (Linn.),
acts as accoucheur to the female. Three males pursued one
fen ale which was heavy with spawn, and rolled her like a ball
upon the ground for a distance of several metres, and continued
this process without rest or relaxation for two days, until the
exhausted female, who had been unable to recover her equili-
brium for a moment, had at last evacuated all her ova.^

That adult fish are capable of feeling afiection for one
another would seem to be well established : thus Jesse relates
how he once captured a female pike {Esox lucius) during the
breeding season, and that nothing could drive away the male
from the spot at which he had perceived his partner slowly dis-
appear, and whom he had followed to the edge of the water.

Mr. Arderon '* gave an account of how he tamed a dace,
which would lie close to the glass watching its master; and
subsequently how he kept two ruffs {Acerina cernua) in an
aquarium, where they became very much attached to one
another. He gave one away, when the other became so miser-
able that it would not eat, and this continued for nearly three
weeks. Fearing his remaining fish might die, he sent for its
former companion, and on the two meeting they became quit€
happy again. Jesse gives a similar account of two gold carp.®

Anger is strikingly shown by many fish, and notori-
ously by sticklebacks when their territory is invaded by a
neighbour. These animals display a strange instinct of
appropriating to themselves a certain part of the tank in
which they may be confined, and furiously attacking any
other stickleback which may presume to cross the imagi-
nary frontier. Uunder such circumstances of provocation I
have seen the whole animal change colour, and, darting at

» Kaup, Catal. Lopho. Fish in Brit. Mus. 1866, p. i

• Yarrell, Brit. Fishes, 2nd ed. 11. p. 436.
■ Compt. Rend., Nov. 4, 1872, p. 1127.

• Phil. Trans. Boyal Society, 1747.

• F. Day, loc. cit.

FISH — ANGER, JEALOUSY, CURIOSITY, ETC. 247

the trespasser, show rage and fury in every movement.
Of course, here, as elsewhere, it is impossible to be sure
how far apparent expression of an emotion is due to the
presence of that mental state which we recognise as the
emotion in ourselves ; but still the best guide we have to
follow is that of apparent expression.

Following this principle, we are also entitled to at-
tribute to fish the emotions conducive to play; for nothing
can well be more expressive of sportive glee than many of
their movements. As for jealousy, the fights of many
male fish for the possession of females constitutes evi-
dence of emotion which would be called by this name in
the higher animals. Schneider, in his recent work already
often quoted, says that he has observed a male fish (Lahrus)
show jealousy only towards other individual males of his
own species — chasing these away from the neighbourhood
of his female, but not objecting to the approach of fish of
other species.

Curiosity is shown by the readiness, or even eagerness,
with which fish will approach to examine any unfamiliar
object. So much is this the case that fishermen, like
hunters, sometimes trade upon this faculty: —

And the fisher, with his lamp
And spear, about the low rocks damp
Crept, and struck the fish which came
To worship the delusive flame.*

Stephenson, the engineer, on sinking lighted lanterns
in the water, also found that fish were attracted to them.*

Special Habits.

As curious instances of special instincts in fish we may
notice the well-known habit of the angler (Lophius pis-
cator), which conceals itself in mud and seaweed, while
waving in the water certain filaments with which it is
provided above its snout. Other fish, attracted by these
moving objects, approach, and are thereupon seized by the

* Shelley, Lines rcrittett in the Bay of Lerici.
' See Smiles, Lives of Engineers^ vol. iii., p. 69

248

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

angler. We miisl; also allude to the Chelmon rostratua^
which shoots its prey hy means of a drop of water projected
from the mouth with considerable force and unerring aim.
The mark thus shot at is always some small object, such
as a fly, at rest above the surface of the water, so that
when suddenly hit it falls into the water.^ This remark-
able instinct can only, I think, have originated as a
primordially intentional adjustment, and as such shows a
high degree of intelligence on the part of these fishes' an-
cestors. Moreover, the wonderful co-ordination of sight
and muscular movements required to judge the distance,
to make due allowance for refraction, and to aim coiTCctly,
shows that the existing representatives are not unworthy
of their ancestors.

Several species of fish in different parts of the world
have the habit of quitting pools which are about to dry
up, and taking excursions across country in search of more
abundant water. Eels have this habit, and perform their
migrations by night. Dr. Hancock, in the 'Zoological
Journal,' gives an account of a species of Doras, the indi-
viduals of which are about a foot in length, and travel by
night in large shoals, or ' droves,' when thus searching for
water. A strong serrated arm constitutes the first ray of
the pectoral fin; and, using this as a kind of foot, the animal
pushes itself forward by means of its tail, thus moving
nearly as fast as a man can walk. Another migrating fish
(Hydrargzra) was found by thousands in the fresh waters
of Carolina by Bosc. It travels by leaps, and, according
to Bosc, always directs itself towards the nearest water,
although he purposely placed them so that they could not
see it.

But perhaps the strangest among this class of habits
is that of the climljing fish, first discovered by Daldorff
in Tra7:iquebar ; for this animal not only creeps over
land, but even climbs the fan palm in search of certain
Crustacea which form its food. In climbing it uses
its open gill-covers as hands wherewith to suspend it-
self, while it deflects its tail laterally upwards so as
to bring to bear upon the bark certain little spines with
^ See ' On the Jaculator-Fish,' by Schlosser, Phil. Trans., 1764.

FISH- -MIGRATIONS.

249

which its anal fin is provided ; it then pushes itself up-
wards by straightening the tail, while it closes the gill-
covers not to prevent progress, and so on. Sir E. Tennent,
bowever, without disputing the evidence that these fish
do climb trees, says, —

The probability is, as suggested by Buchanan, that the
ascent which was witnessed by Daldorff was accidental, and
ought not to be regarded as the habit of the animal. '

A great number of species of fish perform migrations.
In relation to intelligence, the most interesting of these
is the migration of salmon, which annually leave the sea
to spawn in rivers, though there is some doubt whether
the same individuals spawn every year. There is no doubt,
however, that the same individuals frequently, though not
invariably, revisit the same rivers for their successive
spawnings. This fact may be due either to the remem-
brance of locality, similar to that which is unquestionably
manifested by birds, or to the salmon not swimming far
along the coast during other seasons of the year, and there-
fore in the spawning season when seeking a river happen-
ing to hit upon the same one. The latter hypothesis is
one which Mr. Herbert Spencer tells me he is inclined to
adopt, and, being a salmon-fisher, he has paid attention to
the subject. He informs me of an observation by a friend
of his own, who saw a salmon, when about to spawn, swim-
ming along the coast-line, and all round a boathouse,
apparently seeking any stream that it might first en-
counter.

The distances up rivers to which salmon will swim in
the spawning season is no less surprising than the energy
with which they perform the feat, and the determination
with which they overcome all obstacles. They reach
Bohemia by the Elbe and Switzerland by the Khine. On
encountering a waterfall they display astonislung agility
and perseverance in surmounting the obstacle. This fact,
of course, is v/ell known to all salmon-fishers ; but the
actual vertical height to which a well-grown salmon is
able to leap has only recently (1886) been made the
subject of exact measurement. By means of upright

^ Natural History of Ceylon^ p. 351.

250

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

posts fixed upon the banks of a stream on either side of
a waterfall in I^urwaj, Prof. Landmark has determined
that this fish is able to rise through the air, by a single
spring, a vertical distance of sixteen feet. The salmon,
therefore, may be said to have no competitor in its per-
foiTuance of the high jun)p, unless it be the kangaroo, as
to whose powers in this respect 1 have not been able to
find trustworthy information.

General Intelligence.

With reference to the general intelligence of fish,
allusion may first be made to their marked increase of
wariness in waters which are much fished. This shows no
small degree of intelligence, for the caution is proved to
be the result of observation by the fact that young trout
under such circumstances are less waxy than old ones.
Moreover, many fish will abandon old haunts when much
disturbed. Again, according to Kirby, the carp thrusts
itself into the mud in order that the net may pass over it,
or, if the bottom be stony, makes great leaps to clear it.

At the Andaman Islands fish are captured by the convicts
by means of weirs fixed across the openings of creeks. After
existing a week or so, it is observed that captures invariably
cease; and it is believed that such is due to barnacles, &c.,
clustering on to the wood of which they are composed. It does
not seem improbable that the fish have learned to avoid a loca-
lity out of teiTor at those which enter but do not again return^

Lacepede relates that some fish, which had been kept
for many years in a basin of the Tuileries, would come
when called by their names. Probably it was the sound
of the voice and not the articulate words to which they
responded ; for Lacepede also relates that in many parts
of Germany trout, carp, and tench were summoned to
their food by the sound of a bell ; and the same thing has
been recorded of various fish in various localities, notably
by Sir Joseph Banks, who used to collect his fish by
sounding a belL^

' F. Day, loc. cit. ■ Hist, cles Foiss., Introd.^ cxxx.

3 For sundry other similar cases see Mr. Day's excellent paper already
quoted.

FISH— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

251

In 'Nature' (vol. xi., p. 48) Mr. Mitcliell gives the
following instance of intelligence on the part of a small
perch. Having one day disturbed its nest full of young
fry, Mr. Mitchell next day went to look for the nest;
' but we searched in vain for the fish and her young. At
length, a few yards further up stream, we discovered the
parent guarding her fry with jealous care in a cavity
scooped out of the coarse sand. . . . This is the first and
only instance that has come under my notice of a fish
watching over her young, and conveying them, when
threatened with danger, to some other place.'

In 'Nature' (December 19, 1878) there is also pub-
lished a communication which was made by Mr. J. Faraday
to the Manchester Anglers' Association, concerning a skate
which he observed in the aquarium of that town : —

A morsel of food thrown into the tank fell directly in an
angle formed by the glass front and the bottom. The skate, a
large example, made several vain attempts to seize the food,
owing to it« mouth being on the underside of its head and the
food being close to the glass. He lay quite still for a while as
though thinking, then suddenly raised himself into a slanting
posture, the head inclined upwards, and the under surface of
the body towards the food, when he waved his broad expanse of
fins, thus creating an upward cun-ent or wave in the water,
which lifted the food from its position and carried it straight to
his mouth.

It will be observed, however, that this observation is
practically worthless, from the observer having neglected
to repeat the conditions in order to show that the move-
ments of the fish were not, in their adaptation to these
circumstances, purely accidental. Therefore I should not
have alluded to this observation, had I not found that it
has been quoted by several writers as a remarkable display
of intelHgence on the part of the fish.

I must not take leave of this class without makirg
some allusion to the alleged habits of the so-called ' pilot-
fish,' and also to those of ' thresher ' and * sword-fish.' I
class these widely dififerent habits together because they
are alike in being dubious ; dififerent observers give differ-
ent accounts, and therefore, until more information ia

252

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

forthcoming, we must suspend our judgment with regard
to the habits in question. The following describes what
these habits are believed by many observers to be.

Captain Kichards, E.N., says that he saw a blue shark
following a bait which was thrown out to him from the
ship. The shark, which was attended by four pilot-fish,
repi^atedly approached the bait ; but every time he did so
one of the latter rushed in and prevented him. After a
time the shark swam iiway; but when he had gone a con-
siderable distance, he turned back again, swam quickly
after the vessel, and before the pilot-fish could overtake
him, seized the bait and was caught. While hoisting
him on board, one of the pilots was seen to cling to his
side until above water, when it dropped off. All the pilots
then swam about for a time, as if searching for their
fi-iend, 'with every apparent mark of anxiety and distress.'*
Colonel Smith fully corroborates this observation; but
Mr. Greoffrey, on the other hand, saw a pilot-fish take great
pains to bring a shark to the bait.^ Probably the truth is
that the pilot-fish attend the shark in order to obtain the
crumbs that fall from his feasts, and that the cases in which
they appear to prevent his taking the bait are without any
psychological significance.

With regard to the alleged co-operation of the thresh-
ing and sword-fish in the destruction of whales, all that
can be said is that the statements, althouLh antecedently
improbable, are sufficient in number no^ to be ignored.
^Ir. Day appears to accept the evidence s adequate, and
gives the following cases : —

Captain Am, in a voyage to Memel in the Baltic, gives the
following interesting narrative : — One morning during a calm,
when near the Hebrides, all hands were called np at 2 a.m. to
witness a battle between several of the fish called threshers or
fox-sharks {Alopecias vulpes), and some sword-fish on one side,
and an enormous whale on the other. It was in the middle of
the summer ; and the weather being clear, and the fish close to
the vessel, we had a fine opportunity of witnessing the contest.
As soon as the whale's back appeared above the water, the

• Cu/., Anim. Kingd. x. p. 636.
« F. Day, loc. cit.

FISH — GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

253

threshers springing several yards into the air descended with
great violence upon the object of their rancour, and inflicted
upon him the most severe slaps with their long tails, the sounds
of which resembled the reports of muskets fired at a distance.
The sword-fish in their turn attacked the distressed whale, stab-
bing from below : and thus beset on all sides and wounded,
when the poor creature appeared, the water around him waa
dyed Avith blood. In this manner they continued tormenting
and wounding him for many hours, until we lost sight of him ;
and I have no doubt they in the end completed his destruction.

The master of a fishing-boat has recently observed that the
thresher-shark serves out the whales, the sea sometimes beina;
all blood. One whale, attacked by these fish, once took refus;e
under his vessel, where it lay an hour and a half without moving
a fin. He also remarked having seen the threshers jump out of
the water as high as the mast-head and down upon the whale,
while the j-word fish was wounding him from beneath, the two
sorts of fish evidently acting in concert.

[Dr. Giinther, however, denies that the thresher ever
attacks whales ; and Prof. Moseley writes me that he con-
siders the alleged cases 'very unlikely,' as the hide of the
whale is so tough, and the blubber so thick, that the
animal would not 'feel or care about the thresher, which,
by falling on the whale from a height of say 20 feet,
might nearly commit suicide without the whale knowing
anything about it. The supposed thresher is usually a
whale splashing, or whales copulating.' Moreover, as
regards the pilot-fish. Prof. Moseley writes me that from
actual observation he can fully corroborate the opinion
which I have expressed. ' The pilot-lish,' he says, 'cannot
possibly hold on the shark, as it has no means of attach-
ment ' ; ' it is the Remora (whicli habitually clings to the
bodies of sharks) that has been mistaken for the pilot-
fish. The latter is a m.ost unfortunate fish to nm as ex-
hibiting animal intelligence. It constantly mistakes a
ship for a big shark, swimming for weeks near the water-
surface, just a foot in front of the cutwater. Now, if it
sw^am just behind the stem it would get plenty of food,
whereas in front of the how it gets nothing whatever.
K evertheless, it stays on at what in a shark is of course
the right place, ready to be at the beast's mouth directly
food is found.' — 1886.]

2A4

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

CHAPTER IX.

BATRACHIANS AND REPTILES.

On the intelligence of frogs and toads very little has to
be said. Frogs seem to have definite ideas of locality j
for several of my correspondents inform me that they have
known cases in which these animals, after having been
removed for a distance of 200 or 300 yards from their
habitual haunts, returned to them again and again. This,
however, may I think perhaps be due to these haunts
having a moistness which the animals are able to perceive
at a great distance. But be this as it may, certainly the
distance at which frogs are able to perceive moisture is
surprising. Thus, for instance. Warden gives a case in
which a pond containing a number of frogs dried up, and
the frogs thereupon made straight for the nearest water,
although this wae at a distance of eight kilometres.^

A curious special instinct is met with in the toad Bufo
obsteti^cans, from which it derives its name ; for the male
here performs the function of an accoucheur to the female,
by severing from her body the gelatinous cord by which
the ova are attached.

Another special instinct or habit manifested by toads
is described by M. Duchemin in a paper before the
Academy of Sciences at Paris.^ The habit consists in the
killing of carp by squatting on the head of the fish and
forcing the fore-feet into its eyes. Probably this habit
arises from sexual excitement on the part of the toads.

I have one case, communicated to me by a corre-
spondent, of a frog which learnt to know her voice, and to
come when called. As fish will sometimes do the same

' Account of the United States, vol. ii., p 9.
« April 11, 1870

FROGS, TOADS, AND REPTILES.

255

thing, the account is sufficiently credible for me to
quote : —

I used to open the gate in the railings round the pond, and
call out ' Tommy ' (the name I had given it), and the frog
would jump out from the bushes, dive into the water, and swim
across to me get on my hand sometimes. When I called
* Tommy,' it would nearly always come, whatever the time of
day, though it was only fed after breakfast ; but it seemed quite
tame.

A very similar case is recorded by Mr. Pennent ' of
a toad which was domesticated for thirty-six years, and
knew all his friends.

There is no doubt that frogs are able to appreciate
coming changes of weather, and to adapt their movements
in anticipation of them ; but these facts show delicate
sensibility rather than remarkable intelligence.

The following observation of Edward, the Scottish
naturalist, however, shows considerable powers of observa-
tion on the part of frogs. After describing the great
noise made by a number of frogs on a moonlight night,
he says : —

Presently, when the whole of the vocalists had reached their
highest notes, they became hushed in an instant, I was amazed
at this, and began to wonder at the sudden termination of the
concert. But, looking about, I observed a brown owl drop
down, with the silence of death, on to the top of a low dyke
close by the orchestra.^

Reptiles,

Like the other cold-blooded Vertebrata, the reptiles are
characterised by a sluggishness and low development of
mental power which is to some extent proverbial. Never-
theless, that some members of the class present vivid
emotions is not to be questioned. Thus, to quote from
Thompson : —

The common guana (Lacerta iguana) is naturally extremely
gentle and harmless. Its appearance, however, is much against

» See Bingley, Animal Biography, vol. ii., p. 406.
* Smiles, Life of Edwards, p. 124,

256

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

it, especially wheu agitated by fear or anger. Its eyes thee
seem on fire ; it hisses like a serpent, swells out the pouch
under its throat, lashes about its long tail, erects the scales on
its back, and extending its wide jaws, holds its head, covered
over with tubercles, in a menncing attitude. The male, during
the spring of the year, exhibits g^eat attachment towards the
female. Throwing aside his usual gentleness of character, he
defends her even with fury, attacking with undaunted courage
every animal that seems inclined to injure her; and at this time,
though his bite is by no means poisonous, he fastens so firmly,
that it is necessary either to kill him or to beat him with great
violence on the nose, in order to make him quit his hold.'

Several species of snake incubate their eggs and show
parental affection for their young when they are hatched
out; but neither in these nor in any other of their
emotions do the reptiles appear to rise much above the
level of fish. The case, however, which I shall after-
wards quote, of the tame snakes kept by Mr. and Mrs.
Mann, seems to show a somewhat higher degree of emo-
tional development than could be pointed to as occurring
in any lower Vertebrata. Moreover, according to Pliny,
so much affection subsists between the male and female
asp, that when the one is killed the other seeks to avenge
its death ; and this statement is so far confirmed — or
rather, its origin explained — by Sir Emerson Tennent
that he says when a cobra is killed, its mate is often found
on the same spot a day or two afterwards.

Passing on to the general intelligence of reptiles, we
shall find that this also, although low as comp M'.-(i with
the intelligence of birds and mammals, is conspicuously
higher than that of fish or batrachians.

Taking first the case of special instincts, Mr. W. F.
Barrett, in a letter to Mr. Darwin, bearing the date May 6,
1873, and contained among the MSS. already alluded to,
gives an accoimt of cutting open with a penknife the
egg of an alligator just about to hatch. The young
animal, although Mind, ' instantly laid hold of the finger,
and attempted to bite.' Similarly, Dr. Davy, in his ' Ac-
count of Ceylon,' gives an interesting obser\ation of his
own on a young crocodile, which he cut out of the egg,
* Passions of Animals, p. 229.

ALLIGATORS AXIJ TURTLES.

257

and which, as soon as it escaped, started off in a direct
line for a neighbouring stream. Dr. Davy placed his
stick before it to try to make the little animal deviate
from its course ; but it stoutly resisted the opposition,
and raised itself into a posture of offence, just as an older
animal would have done.

Humboldt made exactly the same observation with
regard to young turtles, and he remarks that as the young
normally quit the egg at night, they cannot see the water
which they seek, and must therefore be guided to it by
discerning the direction in which the air is most humid.
He adds that experiments were made which consisted in
putting the newly hatched animals into bags, carrying
them to some distance from the shore, and liberating them
with their tails turned towards the water. It was in-
variably found that the young animals immediately faced
rouna, and took without hesitation the shortest way to
the water.

Sciircely less remarkable than the instincts of the
young turtles are those of the old ones. Their watchful
timidity at the time of laying their eggs is thus describei
by Bates : —

Great precautions are obliged to l^e taken to avoid disturb-
ing the sensitive turtles, who, pre\'iou.s to crawling ashore tc
lay, assemble in great shoals off the sand bank. The men durint^
this time take care not to show themselves, and warn off any
fisherman who wishes to pass near the place. Their fires are
made in a deep hollow net\r the borders of the forest, vso that the
smoke may not be visible. The pas>age of a boat through the
shallow waters where the animals are congregated, or the sight
of a man or a fire on the sand-bank, would prevent the turtles
from leaving the water that ni<:ht to lay their eggs ; and if the
causes of alarm were repeated once or twice they would forsjike
the praia for some other quieter place. ... I rose from my
hammock by daylight, shivering with cold — a praia, on account
of the great radiation of heat in the night from the sand, being
towards the dawn the coldest place that can be found in this
climate. Cardozo and the men were already up watching the
turtles. The sentinels had erected for this purpose a stage about
fifty feet high, on a tall tree near their station, the ascent to which
was by a roughly made ladder of woody hanas. They are ena-
bled, by observing the tiutles from thLs watch-tower, to ascertain

t58

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

the date of successive deposits of eggs, and thus guide the com*
ninndante in fixing the time for the general invitation to the
Ega people. The turtles lay their eggs by night, leaving the
water, when nothing disturbs them, in vast crowds, and crawl-
ing to the Cr^ntral and highest part of the praia. These places
ai e, of course, the last to go under water when, in unusually
wet seasons, the river rises before the eggs are hatched by the
heat of the sand. One could almost believe, from this, that the
animals used forethought in choosing a place ; but it is simply
one of those many instances in animals where unconscious
habit has the same result as conscious prevision. The hours
between midnight and dawn are the busiest. The turtles ex-
cavate with their broad webbed paws deep holes in the fine
sand : the first comer, in each case, making a pit about three
feet deep, laying its eggs (about 120 in number) and covering
them with sand ; the next making its deposit at the top of that
of its predecessor, and so on until every pit is full. The whole
body of turtles frequenting a praia does not finish laying in less
than fourteen or fifteen days, even when there is no interrup-
tion. When all have done, the area (called by the Brazilians
taboleiro) over which they have excavated is distinguishable
from the rest of the praia only by signs of the sand having been
a little disturbed.'

The same naturalist says of the alligator,

These little incidents show the timidity and cowardice
(] prudence and caution) of the alligator. He never attacks
man when his intended victim is on his guard; but he is
cunning enough to know when this may be done with impunity.
Of this we had proof a few days afterwards, &c.^

Of the alligator, Jesse writes : ^ —

But a most singular instance of attachment between two
animals, whose natures and habits were most opposite, was re-
lated to me by a person on whose veracity I can place the great-
est reliance. He had resided for nine years in the American
States, where he superintended the execution of some extensive
works for the American Government. One of these works con-
sisted in the erection of a beacon in a swamp in one of the rivers,

' Naturalist on the Amajzon, pp. 285- 6.

2 Ilid. The astonishing facts relating to the migration of turtles
m the laying season will be treated under the general heading ' Migra
don ' in my forthcoming work.

' OUaningg vol. i., pp. 163-4

TORTOISES.

259

where he caught a young alligator. This animal he made so
perfectly tame that it followed him about the house like a dog,
scrambling up the stairs after him, and showing much affection
and docility. Its great favourite, however, was a cat, and the
friendship was mutual. When the cat was reposing herself
before the fire (this was at New York), the alligator would lay
himself down, place his head upon the cat, and in this attitude
go to sleep, if the cat was absent the alligator was restless ;
but he always appeared happy when the cat was near him. The
only instance in which he showed any ferocity was in attacking
a fox, which was tied up in the yard. Probably, however, the
fox resented some playful advances which the other had made,
and thus called forth the anger of the alligator. In attacking
the fox he did not make use of his mouth, but beat him with so
much severity with his tail, that, had not the chain which con-
fined the fox broken, he would probably have killed him. The
alligator was fed on raw flesh, and sometimes with milk, fOr
which he showed a great fondness. In cold weather he was
shut up in a box, with wool in it ; but, having been forgotten
one frosty night, he was found dead in the morning. This is
not, I believe, a solitary instance of amphibia becoming tame,
and showing a fondness for those -vvho have been kind to them.
Blumenbach mentions that crocodiles have been tamed ; and
two instances have occurred under my own observation of toads
knowing their benefactors, and coming to meet them with con-
siderable alacrity.

With regard to the higher intelligence of reptiles, I
may quote the following instances.

Three or four different correspondents tell me of cases
which they have themselves observed, of snakes and
tortoises unmistakably distinguishing persons. In one of
these cases the tortoise would come to the call of the
favoured person, and when it came would manifest its
afifection by tapping the boot of this person with its mouth ;
' but it would not answer anyone else.' A separation of
some weeks did not affect the memory of this tortoise for
his friend.^

' The tortoise which has gained such immortal celeority by having
fallen under the observation of the author of the Natural History oj
Selbor7ie, likewise distinguished persons in this way. For ' whenever
the good old lady came in sight, who had waited on it for more than
thirty years, it always hobbled with awkward alacrity towards ita
benefactress, whilst to strangers it was altogether inattentive.'

18

260

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

The following interesting observation on the intelli-
gence of snakes shows, not only that these animals are well
able to distinguish persons, and that they remember their
friends for a period of at least six weeks, but also that
they possess an intensity of amiable emotion scarcely to
be expected in this class. Clearly the snakes in questicn
were not only perfectly tame, but entertained a remark-
able affection for those who tended and petted them. The
facts were communicated to me by Mr. Walter Severn, the
well-known artist, who was a friend of Mr. and Mrs. Mann,
the gentleman and his wife to whom the snakes belonged.
Mr. and ]Mrs. Mann having got into trouble with their
neighbours on account of the fear and dislike which their
pets occasioned, legal proceedings were instituted, and so
the matter came before the public. Mr. Severn then
wrote a letter to the Times, in order to show that the
animals were harmless. From this letter the following is
an extract : —

I happen to know the gentleman and lady against whom a
complaint has been made because of the snakes they keep, and
I should like to give a short account of my first visit to them.

Mr. M., after we had talked for a little time, asked if I had
any fear of snakes; and after a timid 'No, not very/ from me, he
produced out of a cupboard a large boa-constrictor, a python,
and several small snakes, which at once made themselves at
home on the writing-table among pens, ink, and books. I was
at first a good deal startled, especially when the two large snakes
coiled round and round my friend, and began to notice me with
their bright eyes and forked tongues ; but soon finding how
tame they were, I ceased to feel frightened. After a short time
Mr. M. expressed a wish to call Mi-s. M., and left me with the
boa deposited on an arm-chair. I felt a little queer when the
animal began gradually to come near, but the entrance of my
host and hostess, followed by two charming little children, put
me at my ease again. After the first interchange of civilities,
she and the children went at once to the boa, and, calhng it by
the most endearing names, allowed it to t\^dne itself most gi^ace-
fully round about them. I sat talking for a long time, lost in
wonder at the picture before me. Two beautiful little girls
with their charming mother sat before me with a boa-constrictor
(as thick round as a small tree) twining playfully round the
lady's waist and neck, and forming a kind of turban round liar

SNAKES.

261

head, expecting to be petted and made much of like a kitten.
The children over and over again took its head in their hands
and kissed its mouth, pushing aside its forked tongue in doing
so. The animal seemed much pleased, but kept turning its
head continually towards me with a curious gaze, until I allowed
it to nestle its head for a moment up my sleeve. ISTothing could
be prettier than to see this splendid serpent coiled all round
Mrs. M. while she moved about the room, and when she stood
to pour out our coffee. He seemed to adjust his weight so
nicely, and even coil with its beautiful marking was relieved
by the black velvet dress of the lady. It was long before I
could make up my mind to end the visit, and I returned soon
after with a friend (a distinguished M.P.'), to see my snake-
taming acquaintance again. . . .

These (the snakes) seemed very obedient, and remained in
their cupboard when told to do so.

About a year ago Mr. and Mrs. M. were away for six weeks,
and left the boa ia charge of a keeper at the Zoo The poor
reptile moped, slept, and refused to be comforted, but when his
master and mistress appeared he sprang upon them with delight,
coiling himself round them, and showing every symptom of in-
tense delight 2

The end of this python was remarkable and pathetic.
Mr. Severn tells me that some years after he had published
the above letter Mr. Mann w.as seized with an apoplectic
tit. His wife, being the only other person in the house at
the time, ran out to fetch a doctor. She was absent about
ten minutes, and on returning found that the serpen t
during her absence had crawled upstairs from the room
below into that where her husbond was lying, and was
stretched beside him dead. Such being the fact, we are
left to speculate whether the double seizure of the man
and the snake was a mere coincidence, or whether the
sight of its stricken master, acting on the emotions of a
possibly not healthy animal, precipitated its death. Look-
ing to the extreme suddenness of the latter, as well as to
the fact of the animal having pined so greatly for his
friends while it was confined at the Zoological Gardens,
I think the probability rather points to the death of the

* This gentleman was Lord Arthur Russell.

• The Times, July 25, 1872.

262

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

animal having been accelerated by emotional shock. But
of course the question is an open one.

So much for ^"he power of reptiles to establish such
definite and complete associations as are required for the
recognition of persons associations, however, to which, as
we have seen, frogs, and even insects may attain. As for
other associations, a correspondent writes to me : —

I beUeve tortoises are able to establish a definite association
between particular colours on a flat surface and food. Only the
day before reading your article on animal intelUgence I noticed
the endeavours of a small tortoise to eat the yellow flowers of
an inlaid writing-table, and I have often remarked the same
recognition with regard to red.

Lord Monboddo relates the following anecdote of a
serpent : —

I am well informed of a tame serpent in the East Indies,
which belonged to the late Dr. Vigot, and was kept by him in
the suburbs of Madras. This serpent was taken by the French,
when they invested Madras in the late war, and was carried to
Pondicherry in a close carriage. But from thence he found his
way back again to his old quarters, which it seems he liked
better, though Madras is distant from Pondicherry about one
hundred miles. This information, he adds, I have from a lady
who then was in India, and had seen the serpent often before
his journey and after his return.

Considering the enormous distances over which turtles
are able to find their way in the season of migration, this
display of the homing faculty to so great a degree in a
serpent is not to be regarded as incredible.

Mr. E. L. Layard, in his ' Kambles in Ceylon ' says
of the cobra : ^ —

I once watched one which had thrust its head through a
narrow aperture and swallowed one (i.e. a toad). With this
encumbrance he could not withdraw himself Finding this, he
reluctantly disgorged the precious morsel, which began to move
ofi". This was too much for snake philosophy to bear, and the
toad was again seized ; and again, after violent efforts to escape,
was the snake compelled to part with it. This time, however,
a lesson had been learnt, and the toad was seized by one leg
withdrawn, and then swaL^owed in triumph.

* See Annas. <md Mag. of Nat. Hut. , 2nd series, vol. ix., p. 333.

FASCINATION.

263

Mr. E. C. Buck, B.C.S., says in 'Nature' (vol. viii^
p. 303):—

I have witnessed exactly a similar plan pursued by a large
number of G-anges crocodiles, which had been lying or swimming
about all day in front of my tent, at the mouth of a small stream
which led from some large inland lakes to the Ganges. Towards
dusk, at the same moment every one of them left the bank on
which they were lying, or the deep water in which they were
swimming, and formed a line across the stream, which was
about twenty yards wide. They had to form a double line, as
there was not room for all in a single line. They then swam
slowly up the shallow stream, driving the fish before them, and
I saw two or three fish caught before they disappeared.

An account of reptile psychology would be incomplete
without some reference to the alleged facts of snakes
charming other animals by ' fascination,' and being them-
selves charmed by the arts of music, (%c. The testimony
on both subjects is conflicting, and especially with regard
to the fascination of other animals by snakes. Thus : —

Mr. Pennant says that this snake (rattle-snake) will fre-
quently lie at the bottom of a tree on which a squirrel is seated
He fixes his eyes on the animal, and from that moment it can-
not escape ; it begins a doleful outcry, which is so well known
that a passer-by, on hearing it, immediately knows that a snake
is present. The squirrel i-uns up the tree a little way, comes
down again, then goes up, and afterwards comes still lower.
The snake continues at the bottom of the tree with its eyes
fixed on the squirrel, and his attention is so entirely taken up,
that a person accidentally approaching may make a considerable
noise without so much as the snake turning about. The squiri-el
comes lower, and at last leaps down to the snake, whose mouth
is already distended for its reception. Le Yaillant confirms
this fascinating terror by a scene he witnessed. He saw on the
branch of a tree a species of shrike, trembling as if in convul-
sions, and at the distiince of nearly four feet, on another branch,
a large snake that was lying with outstretched neck and fiery
eyes, gazing steadily at the poor animal. The agony of the bird
was so great that it was deprived of the power of moving away ;
and when one of the party killed the snake, it {i.e. the bird) was
found dead upon the spot — and that entirely from fear; for,
on examination, it appeared not to have received the slightest
wound. The same traveller adds that a short time afterwards

264

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

he observed a small mouse in similar agonising convulsions,
about two yards from a snake, whose eyes were intently fixed
upon it ; and on frightening away the reptile, and taking up the
mouse, it expired in his hand.*

Many other observations, more or less similar, might
be (|uoted ; but, on the other hand. Sir Joseph Fayrer
tells me that ' fascination is only fright ; ' and this appears
to be the opinion of all persons who have had the oppor-
tunity of looking into the subject in a scientific manner.
The truth probably is that small animals are occasionally
much alarmed by the sight of a snake looking at them,
and as a consequence of this more easily fall a prey. In
some cases, it is likely enough, strong terror so unnerves
the animal as to make it behave in the manner which
the witnesses describe ; in making half-palsied efforts to
escape, it may actually fall or draw nearer to the object of
its dread. Perhaps, therefore, Dr. Barton, of Philadelphia,
is a little too severe on previous observers when he says
that —

The report of this fascinating property has had its rise in nothing
more than the fears and cries of birds and other animals in
the protection of their nests. . . . The result of not a little
attention has taught me that there is but one wonder in the
business — the wonder that the story should ever have been
beUeved by any man of understanding and observation.

But, be this as it may, it is certainly remarkable, as
Sir J. Fayrer in his letter to me observes, ' how little fear
some animals show until the moment that they are seized
and struck.'

As for snake-charming, the facts seem to be that
cobras and other serpents are attracted by the sound of a
pipe to creep out of their hiding-places, when they are
captured and tamed. It is certain that the fangs are not
always drawn, and also that from the first moment of
capture, before there has been time for any process of
training, a real snake-charmer is able to make the reptile
' dance.' Thus, for instance, Sir E. Tennent publishes the
following letter from Mr. Eeyne. After describing all his

• Thompson, Passions of Animals, p. 118 ; see also Bingley, Animal
Biography, vol. ii., pp. 447-8.

SNAKE-CHARMING

265

precautions to ensure that the snake-charmer had uo tamed
snakes concealed about his person, Mr. Keyne proceeds
to tell how he made the man accompany him to the jungle,
where, attracted by the music of a pipe which the man
played, a large cobra came from an ant-hill which Mr.
Reyne knew it to occupy : —

On seeing the man it tried to escape, but he caught it by
the tail and kept swmging it round until we reached the
bungalow. He then made it dance, but before long it bit him
above the knee. He immediately bandaged the leg above the
bite and applied a snake-stone to the wound to extract the
poison. He was in great pain for a few minutes, but after that
it gradually went away, the stone falling off just before he was
relieved.'

Thus the only remarkable thing about the charming of
a freshly caught snake seems to be that the charmer is
able to make the animal ' dance ' — for the fact of the
snake approaching the unfamiliar sound of music is not in
itself any more remarkable than a fish approaching the
unfamiliar sight of a lantern. It does not, however, ap-
pear that this dancing is anything more than some series
of gestures or movements which may be merely the expres-
sions, more or less natural, of uneasiness or alarm. Any-
thing else that charmed snakes may do is probably the
result of training; for there is no doubt that cobras admit
of being tamed, and even domesticated. Thus, for instance,
Major Skinner, writing to Sir E. Tennent, says : —

In one family near Negombo, cobras are kept as protectors,
in the place of dogs, by a wealthy man who has always large
sums of money in his house. But this is not a solitary case of
the kind. . . . The snakes glide about the house, a terror to
the thieves, but never attempting to harm the inmates.^

Thus, on the whole, we may accept Dr. Davey's opinion
who had good opportunities for observation — that the
snake-charmers control the cobras by working upon the
well-known timidity and reluctance of these animals tc
use their fangs till they become virtually tame.

> Natural Eiitory of Ceylon^ p. 314.
» Tennent, loc. cit., p. 299.

266

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

CHAPTER X.

BIRDS.

Adequately to treat of the intelligence of birds a separate
volume would be required ; here it must be enough to
deal with this class as I shall afterwards deal with the
Mammalia — namely, by giving an outline sketch of the
more prominent features of their psychology.

Memory,

The memory of birds is well developed. Thus, although

we are much in the dark on the whole subject of migration
— so much so that I reserve its discussion with all the
problems that this presents for a separate chapter in my
next work — we may at least conclude that the return of
the same pair of swallows every year to the same nest must
be due to the animals remembering the precise locality of
their nests. Again, Buckland gives an account of a pigeon
which remembered the voice of its mistress after an
absence of eighteen months ; * but I have not been able to

' Curiosities, &c., p. 126. Wilson also, in his American Ornithology,
gives the following sufficiently credible account of thememon'of ac^ow:—
' Agentleman who resided on the Delaware, a few miles below Easton, had
raised [reared] a crow, with wh<ise tricks and society he used frequently
to amuse himself. This crow lived long in the family, but at length
disappeared, having, as was then supposed, been shot by some vagrant
gunner, or destroyed by accident. About eleven months after this, as
the gentleman one morning, in company with several others, was stand-
ing on the ri\er shore, a number of crows happened to pass by ; one of
them left the flock, and fl\ing directly towards the company, alighted
on the gentleman's ^houlder, and began to gabble away with great
volubility, as one long-absent friend naturally enough does on meeting
another. On recovering from his surprise the gentleman instantly
recognised his old acquaintance, and endeavoured, by several civil but
sly manoeu\Tes, to lay hold of him ; but the crow, not altogether relish-
ing quite so much familiarity, having now had a taste of the sweets of

BIRDS — MEMORY.

267

meet with satisfactory evidence of the memory of a bird
endm-ing for a longer time than this.

As it is a matter of interest in comparative psychology
to trace as far as possible into detail the similarities of a
mental faculty as it occurs in difierent groups of animals, and
as the faculty of memory first admits of detailed study in
the class which we are now considering, I shall here devote
a paragraph to the facts concerning the exhibition of
memory by birds where its mechanism best admits of being
analysed ; I refer to the learning of articulate phrases and
tunes by talking and musical birds. The best observa-
tions in this connection with which I am acquainted are
those of Dr. Samuel Wilks, F.R.S., and therefore I shall
quote in extenso the portion of his paper which refers to
the memory of parrots : other portions of this paper I
shall have occasion to quote in my next work : —

When my parrot first came into my possession, several years
ago, it was quite unlettered, and I therefore had an opportunity
of oUser\'ing the mode in which it acquired the accomplishment
of speech. I was very much struck with its manner of learn-
ing, and the causes for its speaking on special occasions. The
first seemed to resemble very much the method of children in
learning their lessons, and the second to be due to some associa-
tion or suggestion — the usual provocative for set speeches at all
periods of human life. A parrot is well known to imitate
sounds in a most perfect manner, even to the tone of the voice,
besides having a compass which no human being can approach,
ranging from the gravest to the most acute note. My bii-d,
though possessing a good vocabulary of words and sentences,
can only retain them for a few months unless kept constantly in
practice by the suggestive recurrence of some circumstance
which causes their continual utterance. If forgotten, however,
they are soon revived in the memory by again repeating them
a few times, and much more speedily than any new sentence can
be acquired. In beginning to teach the parrot a sentence, it has
to be repeated many times, the bird all the while listening most
attentively by turning the opening of the ear as close as pos-
sible to the speaker. After a few hours it is heard attempting

liberty, cautiously eluded all his attempts ; and suddenly glancing his
eye on his distant companions, mounted in the air after them, soon
overtook and mingled with them, and was never afterwards seen to
return.'

268

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE,

to say the phrase, or, I should say, trying to learn it. It evi-
dently has the phrase somewhere in store, for eventually this
is uttered perfectly, but at fiist the attempts are very poor and
ludicrous. If the sentence be composed of a few words, the
first two or three are said over and over again, and then another
and another word added, until the sentence is complete, the
pronunciation at fii'St being very imperfect, and then becoming
gi-adually more complete, until the task is accomplished. Thus
hour after hour will the bird be indefatigably woi-king at the
sentence, and not until some days have elapsed will it be perfect.
The mode of acquiring it seems to me exactly what I have ob-
served in a child learning a French phi-ase; t \ o or three
words are constantly repeated, and then others added, until the
whole is known, the pronunciation becoming more perfect as the
repetition goes on. I found also on whistling a popular air to
my parrot that she picked it up in the same way, taking note
by note until the whole twenty-five notes were complete. Then
the mode of forgetting, or the way in which phrases and airs
pass from its recollection, may be worth remarking. The last
words or notes are first forgotten, so that soon the sentence re-
mains unfinislied or the air only half whistled through. The
first words are the best fixed in the memory ; these suggest
others which stand next to them, and so on till the last, which
have the least hold on the brain. These, however, as I have
before mentioned, can be easily revived on repetition. This is
also a very usual process in the human subject : for example,
an Englishman speaking French will, in his own country, if no
opportunity occur for conversation, apparently forget it ; he no
sooner, however, crosses the Channel and hears the language
than it very soon comes back to him again. In trying to recall
poems learned in childhood or in school days, although at that
period hundreds of lines may have been known, it is found that
in manhood we remember only the two or three first hues of
the ' Iliad,' the '^neid,' or the ' Paradise Lost.''

The following is communicated to me by Mr. Venn, of
Cambridge, the well-known logician : —

I had a grey parrot, three or four years old, which had
been taken from its nest in West Africa by those through whom
I received it. It stood ordinarily by the window, where it could
equally hear the front and back door bells. In the yard, by the
back door, was a collie dog, who naturally barked violently at
nearly all the comers that way. The parrot took to imitating the

^ Jomnal of Mental Seienee, July 1879.

BIEDS— MEMORY.

269

dog. After a time I was interested in observing the discrimi*
native association between the back-door bell and the dog's bark
in the parrot's mind. Even when the dog was not there, or for
any other cause did not bark, the parrot would constantly bark
when the back-door bell sounded, but never (that I could hear)
when the front-door bell was heard.

This is but a trifle in the way of intelligence, but it struck
me as an interesting analogous case to a law of association often
noticed by writers on human psychology.

The celebrated parrot that belonged to the Buffon
family and of which the Comte de Buff on wrote, exhibited
in a strange manner the association of its ideas. For he
was frequently in the habit of asking himself for his own
claw, and then never failed to comply with his own request
by holding it out, in the same way as he did when asked
for his claw by anybody else. This, however, probably
arose, not, as Buflfon or his sister Madame Nadault sup-
posed, from the bird not knowing its own voice, but
rather from the association between the words and the
gesture.

According to Margrave, parrots sometimes chatter their
phrases in their dreams, and this shows a striking simi-
larity of psychical processes in the operations of memory
with those which occur in ourselves.

Similarly, ^Ir. Walter Pollock, writes me of his own
parrot : —

In this parrot the sense of association is very strongly de-
veloped. If one word picked up at a former home comes into
its head, and is uttered by it, it immediately follows this word
up with all the other words and phi ases picked up at the same
place and period.

Lastly, parrots not only remember, but recollect ; that
is to say, they know when there is a missing link in a
train of association, and purjjosely endeavour to pick it
up. Thus, for instance, the late Lady Napier told me
an interesting series of observations on this point which
she had made upon an intelligent parrot of her own. They
were of this kind. Taking such a phrase as ' Old Dan
Tucker,' the bird would remember the beginning and the
«nd, and try to recollect the middle. For it would say

270

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

very slowly, ' Old — old — old — old ' (and then very quickly)
' Lucy Tucker.' Feeling that this was not right, it would
try again as before, ' Old — old — old — old — old Bessy
Tucker,' substituting one word after another in the place
of the sought-for word 'Dan.' And that the process was one
of truly seeking for the desired word was proved by the
fact that if, while the bird was saying, 'Old — old — old —
old,' any one threw in the word 'Dan,' he immediately
supplied the ' Tucker.'

Emotions,

As regards emotions, it is among birds that we first
meet with a conspicuous advance in the tenderer feelings
of affection and sympathy. Those relating to the sexes
and the care of progeny are in this class proverbial for
their intensity, olfering, in fact, a favourite type for the
poet and moralist. The pining of the ' love-bird ' for its
absent mate, and the keen distress of a hen on losing her
chickens, furnish abundant evidence of \dvid feelings of
the kind in question. Even the stupid-looking ostrich
has heart enough to die for love, as was the case with a
male in the Rotund of the Jardin des Plantes in Paris,
who, having lost his wife, pined rapidly away. It is remark-
able that in some species — notably pigeons — conjugal
fidelity should be so strongly marked ; for this shows, not
only what may be called a refinement of sexual feeling,
but also the presence of an abiding image in the mind's
eye of the lover. For instance, —

Refei ring to the habits of the mandarin duck (a Chinese
species) Mr. Bennett says that Mr. Beale's aviary afforded a
singular corroboration of the fidelity of the birds in question.
Of a pair in that gentleman's possession, the drake being one
night purloined by some thieves, the unfortunate duck displayed
the strongest marks of de^^pair at her bereavement, retiring into
a corner, and altogether neglecting food and drink, as well as
the care of her person. In this condition she was courted by a
drake who had lost his mate, but who met with no encourage
ment from the widow. On the stolen drake being subsequently
recovered and restored to the aviary, the most extravagant
demonstrations of joy were displayed by the fond couple ; but
this was not all, for, as if informed by his spouse of the gallant

i

BIRDS — CONJL^GAL EIDELITY.

271

proposals made to her shortly before his arrival, the drake at-
tacked the luckless bird who would have supplanted him, beat
out his eyes, and inflicted so many injuries as to cause his death.*

Similarly, to give an instance or two with regard to
other birds, Jesse states the following as his own obser-
vation : —

A pair of swans had been inseparable companions for three
years, during which time they had reared three broods of
cygnets; last autumn the male was killed, and since that time
the female has separated herself from all society with her own
species ; and, though at the time I am writing (the elid of
March) the breeding season for swans has far advanced, she re-
mains in the same state of seclusion, resisting the addresses of
a male swan, who has been making advances towards forming
an acquaintance with her, either driving him away, or flying
from him whenever he comes near her. How long she will
continue in this state of widowhood I know not, but at present
it is quite evident that she has not forgotten her former
partner.

This reminds me of a circumstance which lately happened
at Chalk Farm, near Hampton. A man, set to watch a field of
peas which had been much preyed upon by pigeons, shot an old
cock pigeon which had long been an inhabitant of the farm.
His mate, around whom he had for many a year cooed, whom
he had nourished from his own crop, and had assisted in rear-
ing numerous young ones, immediately settled on the ground by
his side, and .-.howed her grief in the most expressive manner.
The labourer took up the dead bird, and tied it to a short stake,
thinking that it would fiighten away the other depredators.
In this situation, however, the widow did not forsake her de-
ceased husband, but continued, day after day,walkiug slowly round
the stick. The kind-hearted wife of the bailitf of the farm
at last heard of the circumstance, and immediately went to
a^ord what relief she could to the poor bird. She told me that,
on arriving at the spot, she found the hen bird much exhausted,
and that she had made a circular beaten track round the dead
pigeon, making now and then a little spring towards him. On
the removal of the dead bird the hen returned to the dove-
cote.2

Ab evidence of the intensity of the maternal instinct

' Conch, Illustrations of Instinct, p. 165.
' Gleanings, vol. 1., pp. 112-13.

272

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

eveu in the t'.ase of barren birds, I may quote the follow-
ing from the naturalist Couch. I do so because, although
the instance is a trivial one, and also one of frequent
occmTence, it is interesting as showing that a deeply rooted
instinct or emotion may assert itself powerfully even in
the absence of what may be termed its natural stimulus
object : —

I was once witness to a curious instance of the yearning
for progeny in a diminutive bantam hen.

There was at this time a nest of the common hen in a se-
cluded pari of the garden, and the parent had been sitting on its
eggs, till compelled by hunger she left them for a short time.
This absence was fatal ; for the bantam had in the meantime
found its situation in a covered recess in the hedge, and I saw
her creep into it with all the triumph of the discoverer of a
treasure. The real mother now returned, and great was her
agony at finding an intruder in her nest. The expression of her
eye and the attitude of her head were emphatic of surprise at
the impudence of the proceeding. But after many attempts to
recover possession she w^as compelled to resign her rights, for
the bantam was too resolute to be contended with ; and though
its body was not big enough to cover the whole of the eggs, and
thus some of them were not hatched, yet in due season the prid ^
of this audacious step-mother was gratified by strutting at the
head of a company of robust chickens, which she passed ofi" upon
the feathered public as a brood of her own.^

As evidence of sympathy I shall quote in extenso an
interesting case which has been communicated to me by a
young lady, who desires her name withheld. There are
several more or less corroborative cases in the anecdote-
books,^ so that I have no doubt as to the substantial ac-
curacy of the account : —

My grandfather had a Swan River gander, which had been
reared near the house, and had consequently attached himself to
the members of the family ; so much so that, on seeing any of
them at a distance, he would run to meet them with all possible
demonstrations of delight.

But ' Swanny ' was quite an outcast from his own tribe ;
and as often as he made humble overtures to the other geese, so

• Couch, Illustrations of Instinct, p. 232.

• See especially Bingley, Animal Biography, vol. ii., pp. 327-29.

BIRDS — AFFECTION AND SYMPATHY. 273

often was he driven away with great contempt, and on such
occasions he would frequently run to some of his human friends,
and laying his head on their laps, seem to seek for sympathy.
At last, however, he found a friend among his own species.
An old grey goose, becoming blind, wag also discarded by her
more fortunate companions, and Swanny lost no opportunity of
recognising this comrade in distress. He at once took her
under his protection and led her about. When he considered
it well for her to have a swim, he would gently take her neck
in his bill, and thus lead her, sometimes a considerable distance,
to the water's edge. Having fairly launched her, he kept close
by her side, and guided her from dangerous places by arching
his neck over hers, and so turning her in the right direction.
After cruising about a sufficient time, he would guide her to a
convenient landing-place, and taking her neck in hLs bill as
before, lead her to terra firma again. When she had goslings,
he would proudly convoy the whole party to the water-side ;
and if any ill-fated gosling got into difficulties in a hole or deep
cart-rut, Swanny with ready skill would put his bill under its
body, and carefully i-aise it to the level ground.

My grandfather had also another gander who attached him-
self to him, and would follow him for hours through fields and
lanes, pausing when he stood still, and waddling gravely by his
side as he proceeded. This gander was not, like the other, dis-
carded by his kind, but would leave them any time to walk with
his master, and was exceedingly jealous of any one else who tried
to share this privilege, excepting only his mistress. On one
occasion, a gentleman venturing to place his hand on my grand-
father's arm, the gander flew at him, and beat him severely with
his wings, and it was with gi'eat difficulty that he was induced
to let go.

The solicitude which most gregarious birds display
when one of their number is wounded or captured,
constitutes strong evidence of sympathy. As Jesse ob-
serves,—

There is one trait in the character of the rook vhich is, I
believe, peculiar to that bird, and which does him no little
credit ; it is the distress which is exhibited when one of his
fellows has been killed or wounded by a gun while they have
been feeding in a field or flying over it. Instead of being scared
away by the report of the gun, leaving their wounded or dead
companion to his fate, they show the greatest anxiety and
sympathy for him, uttering cries of distress, and plainly proving

i74

ANIMAL INTEIXiaENCE

that they wish to render him assistance by hovering over him,
or sometimes making a dart from the air close np to him, ap-
parently to try and find out the reason «^hy he did not follow
them. ... I have seen one of my laboui'ers pick up a rook
which he had shot at for the purpose of putting him up as a
scarecrow in a field of wheat, and while the poor wouTided bii-d
was still fluttering in his hand, I have observed one of his com-
panions make a wheel round in the air, and suddenly dart past
him so as almost to touch him, perhaps with the last hope that
he might still afford assistance to his unfortunat-e mate or com-
panion. Even when the dead bird has been hung, in terrorem,
to a stake in the field, he has been visited by some of his former
friends, but as soon as they found that the case was hopeless,
they have generally abandoned that field altogether.

When one considers the instinctive care with which rooks
avoid any one carrying a gun, and wMch is so evident that I
have often heard country people remark that a rook can smell
gunpowder, one can more justly estimate the force of their love
or friendship in thus continuing to hover round a person who
has just destroyed one of theii' companions with an instrument
the dangerous nature of which they seem fully capable of appre-
ciating.*

The justice of these remarks may be better appreciated
in the light of the following very remarkable observation,
as an introduction to which I have quoted them.

Edward, the naturalist, having shot a tern, which fell
winged into the sea, its companions hovered around the
floating bird, manifesting much apparent solicitude, as
terns and gulls always do under such circumstances. How
far this apparent solicitude is real I have often speculated,
as in the analogous case of the crows — wondering whether
the emotions concerned were really those of sympathy or
mere curiosity. The following observation, however, seems
to set this question at rest. Having begun to make pre-
parer tions for securing the wounded bird, Edward says : * I
expected in a few moments to have it in my possession,
being not very far from the water's edge, and drifting
shorewards with the wind.' He continues : —

While matters were in this position I beheld, to my utter
astonishment and surprise, two of the unwounded tem>j take

• Gleanings, pp. 58-9.

BIRDS— SYMPATHY.

275

hold of their disabled comrade, one at each wing, lift him out of
the water, and bear him out seawards. They were followed by
two other birds. After being carried about six or seven yards,
he was let gently down again, when he was taken up in a
similar manner by the two who had been hitherto inactive. In
this way they continued to carry him alternately, until they had
conveyed him to a rock at a considerable distance, upon which
they landed him in safety. Having recovered my self-])OSsession,
I made toward the rock, wishing to obtain the prize which had
been so unceremoniously snatched from my grasp. I was ob-
served, however, by the terns ; and instead of four, I had in a
short time a whole swarm about me. On my near approach to
the rock I once more beheld two of them take hold of the
wounded bird as they had done already, and bear him out to sea
in triumph, far beyond my reach. This, had I been so inclined,
I could no doubt have prevented. Under the circumstances,
however, my feelings would not permit me ; and I willingly
allowed them to perform without molestation an act of mercy,
and to exhibit an instance of affection which man himself need
not be ashamed to imitate.^

According to Clavigero,^ the inhabitants of Mexico
utilise the sympathy of the wild pelican for the procuring
of fish. First a pelican is caught and its wing broken
The bird is then tied to a tree, and being both in pain and
captivity, it utters cries of distress. Other pelicans are
attracted by the cries, and finding their friend in such a
sorry case, their bowels of compassion become moved in a
very literal sense ; for they disgorge from their stomachs
and pouches the fish which they have caught, and deposit
them within reach of the captive. As soon as this is done
the men, who have been lying in wait concealed, run to
the spot, drive off the friendly pelicans, and secure their
fish, leaving only a small quantity for the use of the
captive.

The parrot which belonged to the Buffon family showed
much sympathy with a female servant to whom it was
attached when the girl had a sore finger, which it dis-
played by its never leaving her sick room, and groaning as
if itself in pain. As soon as the girl got better the bird
again became cheerful.

' Smiles, lAfe of Edivardy p. 240. * History of Mexico ^ p. 220,
19

276

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

I shall conclude this brief demonstration of the keen
sympathy which may exist in birds, by quoting the follow-
ing very conclusive case in the words of its distinguished
observer, Dr. Franklin : * —

I have known two parrots, said he, which had lived together
four years, when the female became weak, and her legs swelled.
These were symptoms of gout, a disease to which all birds of
this family are very subject in England. It became impossible
for her to descend from the perch, or to take her food as formerly,
but the male was most assiduous in carrying it to her in his beak.
He continued feeding her in this manner during four months,
but the infirmities of his companion increased from day to day,
so that at last she was unable to support herself on the perch.
She I'emained cowering down in the bottom of the cage, making,
from time to time, ineffectual efforts to regain the perch. The
male was always near her, and with all his strength aided the
feeble attempts of his dear better half Seizing the poor invahd
by the beak, or the upper part of the wing, he tried to raise her,
and renewed his efforts several times.

His constancy, his gestures, and his continued solicitude, all
showed in this affectionate bird the most ardent desire to relieve
the sufferings and assist the weakness of his companion.

But the scene became still more interesting when the female
was dying. Her unhappy spouse moved around her incessantly,
his attention and tender cares redoubled. He even tried to open
her beak to give some nourishment. He ran to her, then re*
turned with a troubled and agitated look. At intervals he
uttered the most plaintive cries ; then, with his eyes fixed on her,
kept a mournful silence. At length his companion breathed
her last ; from that moment he pined away, and died in the
course of a few weeks. ^

The jealousy of birds is proverbial; and that they also
manifest the kindred passion of emulation, no one can
doubt who has heard them singing against one another.
Mr. Bold relates that a mule canary would always sing at
his 3wn image in a mirror, becoming more and more excited,
till he ended by flying in rage against his supposed rival.

The late Lady Napier wrote me, among other ' anec-
dotes of a grey parrot left on a long visit to the family of
G-eneral Sir William Napier, at the time residing in Grer-

* ZoologUt, vol. iL

BIRDS — EMULATION AND VINDICTIVENESS. 277

many,' the following graphic description of the exultation
displayed by the bird when it baffled the imitative powers
of its master. The bird was the same as that ah-eady
mentioned under the head of * Memory ' ; —

Sometimes when only two or three were in the room, at quiet
occupations instead of talking, she would utter at short inter-
vals a series of strong squalls or cries in an interjectional style,
each more strange and grotesque than the previous one. My
fiither on these occasions sometimes amused himself by imitat-
ing these cries as she uttered them, which seemed to excite her
ingenuity in the production of them to the uttermost. As a last
resource she always had recourse to a very peculiar one, which
completely baffled him ; upon which, with a loud ha ! ha ! ha !
she made a somersault round her perch, swinging with her head
downwards, sprung from one part of the cage to another, and
tossed a bit of wood she used as a toy over her head in the
most exulting triumph, repeating at intervals the inimitable cry,
followed by peals of ha ! ha ! ha ! to the great amusement of all
present.

Allied to emulation is resentment, of which the follow-
ing, communicated to me by a correspondent, may be
taken as an example. If space permitted I could give
confirmatory cases : —

One day the cat and the parrot had a quarrel. I think the
cat had upset Polly's food, or something of that kind ; however,
they seemed all right again. An hour or so after, Polly was
standing on the edge of the table ; she called out in a tone of
extreme affection, ' Puss, puss, come then — come then, pussy.'
Pussy went and looked up innocently enough. Polly with
her beak seized a basin of milk standing by, and tipped the
basin and all its contents over the cat; then chuckled diabolically,
of course broke the basin, and half drowned the cat.

Several strange but mutually corroborative stories
seem to show cherished vindictiveness on the part of
storks. Thus, in Captain Brown's book there occurs an
account of a tame stork which lived in the college yard at
Tubingen, —

And in a neighbouring house was a nest, in which other storks,
that annually resorted to the place, used to hatch their eggs.
At this nest, one day in autumn, a young collegian fired a shot.

27S

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

by which the stork that was sitting on it was probably wounded,
for it did not fly out of the nest for some weeks afterwards. It
was able, however, to take its departure at the usual time with
the rest of the storks. But in the ensuing spring a strange
stork was observed on the roof of the college, which, by clapping
hi.*- wings and other gestures, seemed to invite the tame stork to
come to him ; but, as the tame one's wings were clipped, he was
unable to accept the invitation. After some days the strange
stoik appeared again, and came down into the yard, when the
tame one went out to meet him, clapping his wings as if to bid
him welcome, but was suddenly attacked by the visitor with
great fury. Some of the neighbours protected the tame bird,
and drove off the assailant, but he returned several times after-
wards, and incommoded the other through the whole summer.
The next spring, instead of one stork only, four storks came
together into the yard, and fell upon the tame one ; when all
the poultry present — cocks, hens, geese, and ducks — flocked at
once to his assistance, and rescued him from his enemies. In
consequence of this serious attack, the people of the house took
precaution for the tame stork's security, and he was no more
molested that year. But in the beginning of the thu-d spring
came upwards of twenty storks, which rushed at once into the
yard and killed the tame stork before either man or any other
animal could afford him protection.

A similar occurrence took place on the premises of a farmer
near Hamburg, who kept a tame stork, and, having caught
another, thought to make it a companion for the one in hispo -
session. But the two were no sooner brought together than
the tame one fell upon the other, and beat him so severely that
he made his escape from the place. About four months after-
wards, however, the defeated stork returned with three others,
who all made a combined attack upon the tame one and killed
him.*

The curiosity of birds is highly developed, so much
so, indeed, that in this and other countries it is played upon
by sportsmen and trappers. Unfamiliar objects being

' Watson, Reasoning Power of Animals, pp. 375-76, where see also
some cuiious cases of male storks slaying their females upon the
lattei hatching out eggs of other birds. He gives an exactly similar
case as having occurred with the domestic cock ; and in Bingley {loc.
cit., vol. ii., p. 241) there is quoted from Dr. Percival another case of
the same kind, in which a cock killed his hen as soon as she had
hatched out a brood of young partridges from eggs which had been sel
to her.

BIRDS — CURIOSITY, PRIDE, PLAY.

279

j)laced within sight, say of ducks, the birds approach to
examine them, and fall into the snares which have been
prepared. Similarly, in oceanic islands unfrequented by
man, the birds fearlessly approach to examine the first
human beings that they have seen.

That birds exhibit pride might be considered doubtful
if we had to rely only on the evidence supplied by the
display of the peacock, and the strutting of the turkey-
gobbler ; for these actions, although so expressive of this
emotion, may not really be due to it. But I think that
the evident pleasure which is taken in achievement by
talking birds can only be ascribed to the emotion in ques-
tion. These birds regularly practise their art, and when
a new phrase is perfected they show an unmistakable de-
light in displaying the result.

Play is exhibited by many species in various ways, and
it seems to be this class of feelings in their most organised
form which have led to the extraordinary instincts of the
bower-birds of New South Wales. The * playhouses '
of the animals have been described by ^Ir. Gould in his
' History of the Bird? of New South Wales.' Of course the
play-instincts are here united with those of courtship, which
are of such general occurrence among birds ; but I think
no one can read Mr. Gould's description of the bowers and
the uses to which they are put without feeling that the
love of sportive play must have been joined with the
sexual instincts in producing the result. But, be this as
it may, there can be no question that these bowers are
highly interesting structures, as furnishing the most un-
exceptionable evidence of true aesthetic, if not artistic
feeling on the part of the bird which constructs them ; and,
according to yir. Herbert Spencer, the artistic feelings are
physiologically allied with those of play. It is a matter
of importance to obtain definite proof of an aesthetic sense
in animals, because this constitutes the basis of Mr. Dar-
win's theory of sexual selection ; but as he has treated the
evidence on this subject in so exhaustive a manner, I shall
not enter upon so wide a field further than to point out
that the case of the bower-bird, even if it stood alone,
would be amply sufficient to carry the general conclusioD

380

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

that some animals exhibit emotions of the beautiful.
The following is JNIr. Grould's description, in extenso, of
the habits of the bird in question : —

The extraordinary bower-Kke structure, alluded to in mj
remarks on the genus, first came under my notice in the Sydney
Museum, to which an example had been presented by Charles
Cox, Esq. ... On visiting the cedar bushes of the Liverpool
rangt), I discovered several of these bowers or playing-houses on
the ground, under the shelter of the bianches of the overhang-
ing trees, in the most retired part of the forest ; they differed
onsiderably in size, some being a third larger than others. The
base consists of an extensive and rather convex platform of
sticks firmly interwoven, on the centre of which the bower itself
is built. This, like the platform on which it is placed, and with
which it is interwoven, is formed of sticks and twigs, but of a
more slender and flexible description, the tips of the twigs being
so arranged as to curve inwards and nearly meet at the top ; in
the interior the materials are so placed that the forks of the
twigs are always presented outwards, by which arrangement
not the slightest obstruction is offered to the passage of the
birds. The interest of this curious bower is much enhanced by
the manner in which it is decorated with the most gaily coloured
ai-ticles that can be collected, such as the blue tail-feathers of
the E.ose-bill and Pennantian parakeets, bleached bones and
shells of snails, (fcc; some of the feathers are inserted among
the twigs, while others with the bones and shells are strewed
near the entrances. The propensity of these birds to fly off with
any attractive object is so well known to the natives that they
always search the runs for any small missing article that may
have been accidentally dropped in the bush. I myself found at the
entrance of one of them a small neatly worked stone tomahaw-k of
an inch and a half in length, together with some slips of blue
cotton rag, which the birds had doubtless picked up at a deserted
encampment of the natives.

It has now b^en clearly ascertained that these curious
bowers are merely sporting-places in which the sexe?
meet, when the males display their finery, and exhibit
many remarkable actions ; and so inherent is this habit,
that the living examples, which have been from time to
time sent to this country, continue it even in captivity.^
Those belonging to the Zoological Society have constructed
» See Darwin. Descent of Man, pp. 92, 381, 406, 413.

BISDS — ESTHETIC EMOTIONS.

281

their bowers, decorated and kept them in repair, for
several years. In a letter from the late ]\Ir. F. Strange,

it is said : —

My aviary is now tenanted by a pair of satin-birds, which
for the last two months have been constantly engaged in con-
structing bowers. Both sexes assist in their erection, but the
male is the principal workman. At times the male will chase
the female all over the aviary, then go to the bower, pick up a
gay feather or a large leaf, utter a curious kind of note, set all
his feathers erect, run round the bower, and become so excited
that his eyes appear ready to start from his head, and he con-
tinues opening first one wing and then another, uttering a low
whistling note, and, like the domestic cock, seems to be picking
ip something from the ground, until at last the female goes
gently towards him, when after two turns round her, he sud-
denly makes a dash, and the scene ends.' ^

I have said that if this case stood alone it would con-
stitute ample evidence that some animals possess emotions
of the beautiful. But the case does not stand alone.
Certain humming-birds, according to Mr. G-ould, decorate
the outsides of their nests ' with the utmost taste ; they
instinctively fasten thereon beautiful pieces of flat lichen,
the larger pieces in the middle, and the smaller on the
part attached to the branch. Now and then a pretty
feather is intertwined or fastened to the outer sides, the
stem being always so placed that the feather stands out
beyond the surface.' Several other instances might be
rendered of the display of artistic feeling in the architec-
ture of birds ; and, as Mr. Dai-win so elaborately shows,
there can scarcely be question that these animals take
emotional pleasure in surveying beautiful plumage in the
opposite sex, looking to the careful manner in which the
males of many species display their fine colours to the
females. Doubtless the evidence of aesthetic feeling- is
much stronger in the case of birds than it is in that of
any other class ; but if this feeling is accepted as a suffi-
cient cause, through sexual selection, of natural decoration
in the members of this class, we are justified in attribut-
ing to sexual selection, and so to sesthetic feeling, natural

' Gronld. Birds of Australia, vol. i.. pp. 442-45.

282

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

decoration in other classes, at least as low down in the
scale as the Articulata. But, as I have said, Mr. Darwin
has dealt with this whole subject in so exhaustive a manner
that it is needless for me to enter upon it further than to
say in general terms, that whatever we may think of his
theory of sexual selection, his researches have unquestion-
ably proved the existence of an aesthetic sense in animals.

The same fact appears to be shown in another way by
the fondness of song-birds for the music of their mates.
There can be no doubt that male birds charm their females
with their strains, and that this, in fact, is the reason why
song in birds has become developed. Of course it may
be said that the vocal utterances of birds are not always,
or even generally, musical ; but this does not affect the
fact that birds find some aesthetic pleasure in the sounds
which they emit ; it only shows that the standard of
aesthetic taste differs in different species of birds as it
does in different races of men. Moreover, the pleasure
which birds manifest in musical sounds is not always re-
stricted to the sounds which they themselves produce.
Parrots seem certainly to take delight in hearing a piano
play or a girl sing ; and the following instance, published
by the musician John Lockman, reveals in a remarkable
manner the power of distinguishing a particular air, and
of preferring it above others. He was staying at the house
of a Mr. Lee in Cheshire, whose daughter used to play ;
and whenever she played the air of ' Speri si ' from
Handel's opera of ' Mmetus,' a pigeon would descend from
an adjacent dovecot to the window of the room where she
sat, ' and listen to the air apparently with the most pleas-
ing emotions,' always returning to the dovecot immedi-
ately the air was finished. But it was only this one air
that would induce the bird to behave in this way.^

Special Habits.

lender this heading we shall have a number of facts
to consider, which are more or less of a disconnected cha-
racter.

• Bingley, Animal Biography^ vol. ii., p. 220.

BIBDS — SPECIAL HABITS OF FEEDING. 283

Taking first those special habits connected with the
procuring of food, we may notice the instinct manifested
by blackbirds and thrushes of conveying snails to con-
siderable distances in ordfir to hammer and break
their shells against what may happen to be the nearest
stone,^ and the still more clever though somewhat analo-
gous instinct exhibited by certain gidls and crows of flying
with shell-fish to a considerable height and letting them
fall upon stones for the purpose of smashing their shells.^
Both these instincts manifest a high degree of intelligence,
either on the part of the birds themselves, or on that of
their ancestors ; for neither of these instincts can be re-
garded as due to originally accidental adjustments favoured
and improved by natural selection ; they must at least
originally have been intelligent actions purposely designed
to secure the ends attained.

An interesting instinct is that of piracy, which in the
animal kingdom reaches its highest or most systematic
development among the birds. It is easy to see how it
may be of more advantage to a species of strong bird that
its members should become parasitic on the labours of
other species than that they should forage for themselves,
and so there is no difficulty in understanding the develop-
ment of the plundering instinct by natural selection. We
find all stages of this development among the sea-birds.
Thus the gulls, although usually self-foragers, will, as I
have oft^n observed, congregate in enormous numbers
where the guillemots have found a shoal of fish. Resting

' l or full information, see Backland, Curiosities of Natural History,
p. 183.

2 Of the crow (carrion and hooded), Edward says : ' He goes aloft
with a crab, and lets it fall upon a stone or a rock chosen for the
purpose. If it does not break, he seizes it again, goes up higher, lets it
fall, and repeats his operation again and again until his object is
accomplished. When a convenient stone is once met with, the birds
resort to it for a long time. I myself know a pretty high rock, that has
been used by successive generations of crows for about twenty years I'
Also, as Handcock says, ' a friend of Dr. Darvsdn saw on the north coast
of Ireland above a hundred crows preying upon mussels, which is not
their natural food ; each crow took a mussel up into the air, twenty
or forty yards high, and let it fall on the stones, and thus breaking the
shell, got possessi.>n of the animal. Ravens, we are told, often resort
to the same contrivance.'

284

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

on or flying over the surface of the water, the gulls wait
till a guillemot comes to the surface with a fish, and then
wrest the latter from the beak of the former. In the
robber-tern this instinct has proceeded further, so that the
animal gains its subsistence entirely by plunder of other
terns. 1 have often observed this process, and it is inte-
resting that the common tern well knows the appearance
of the robber ; for no sooner does a robber-tern come up
than the greatest consternation is excited among a flock
of common terns, these flying about and screaming in a
frantic manner. The white-headed eagle has also de-
veloped the plundering instinct in great perfection, as is
shown by the following graphic account of Audubon : —

During spring and summer, the white-headed eagle, to procure
sustenance, follows a different course, and one much less suited
to a bird apparently so well able to supply itself without inter-
fering with other plunderers. No sooner does the first hawk
make its appearance along the Atlantic shore, or around the
numerous and large rivers, than the eagle follows it, and, like a
selfish oppressor, robs it of the hard-earned fruits of its labour.
Perched on some tall summit, in view of the ocean or of some
watercourse, he watches every motion of the osprey while on
the wing. When the latter rises from the water, with a fish in
its grasp, forth rushes the eagle in pursuit. He mounts above
the fish-hawk, and threatens it by actions well understood; when
the latter, fearing perhaps that its life is in danger, drops its
prey. In an instant the eagle, accurately estimating the rapid
descent of the fish, closes its wings, follows it with the swiftness
of thought, and the next moment grasjjs it. The prize is carried
off in silence to the woods, and assists in feeding the ever-
hungry brood of the eagle.

The frigate pelican is likewise a professional thief,
and attacks the boobies not only to make them drop the
fish which they have newly caught, but also to disgorge
those which are actually in their stomachs. The latter
process is effected by strong punishment, which they con-
tinue until the unfortunate booby yields up its dinner.
The punishment consists in stabbing the victim with its
powerful beak. Catesby and Dampier have both observed
and described these habits, and it seems from their account
that the plunderer may either commit highway robbery in

BIRDS — SPECIAL HABITS OF FEEDINa. 285

the air, or lie in wait for the boobies as they return to
rest.

In antithesis to this habit of plundering other birds
I may quote the following from ^ Nature ' (July 20, 1871),
to show that the instinct of provident labour, so common
among insects and rodents, is not altogether unrepresented
in birds : —

The ant-eating woodpecker (J/elanerpes formicivorus), a
common Californian species, has the curious and peculiar habit
of laying up provision against the inclement season. Small
round holes are dug in the bark of the pine and oak, into each
of which is inserted an acorn, and so tightly is it fitted or driven
in, that it is with difficulty extricated. The bark of the pine
trees, when thus filled, presents at a short distance the appear-
ance of being studded with nails.

The following may also be quoted

It is the nature of this bird (guillemot), as well as of most
of those birds which habitually dive to take their prey, to per-
form all their evolutions under water with the aid of their
wings ; but instead of dashing at once into the midst of the
terrified group of small prey, by which only a few would be
captured, it passes round and round them, and so drives them
into a heap ; and thus has an opportunity of snatching here one
and there another as it finds it convenient to swallow them ;
and if any one pushes out to escape, it falls the first prey of the
devourer. The manner in which this bird removes the egg of
a gull or hen to some secure place to be devoured, when com-
pared with that in which a like conveyance is made by the
parent for the safety of its future progeny, aftbrds a striking
manifestation of the difterence between appetite and afiection.
When influenced by afiection, the brittle treasure is removed
without fiaw or fracture, and is replaced with tender care ; but
the plunderer at once plunges his bill into its substance, and
carries it ofi'on its point. ^

Speaking of the feeding habits of the lapwing, Jesse
gays : —

When the lapwing wants to procure food, it seeks for a
worm's cast, and stamps the ground by the side of it with its
feet. After doing this for a short time, the bird waits for the

Couch. Tllustratiom of Instinct, pp. 192-93.

286

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

issue of the worm from its hole, which, alaroied at the shaking
of the ground, endeavours to make its escape, when it is imme
diately seized, and becomes the prey of the ingenious bird. The
lapwing also frequents the haunts of moles, which, when in
pursuit of worms on which they feed, frighten them, and the
worm, in attempting to escape, comes to the surface of the
ground, when it is seized by the lapwing.^

Again, —

A lady of Dr. E. Darwin's acquaintance saw a little bird re
peatedly hop on a poppy stem, and shake the head with his bill,
till many seeds were scattered, when it settled on the ground
and picked up the seeds. ^

It is a matter of common remark that in countries
where vultures abound, these birds rapidly 'gather to-
gether where the carcass is,' although before the death of
their prey no bird was to be seen in the sky. The question
has always been asked whether the vultures are guided to
the carcass by their sense of smell or by that of sight ; but
this question is really no longer an open one. When Mr.
Darwin was at Valparaiso he tried the following experi-
ment. Having tied a number of condors in a long row,
and having folded up a piece of meat in paper, he walked
backwards and forwards in front of the row, carrying the
meat at a distance of three yards from them, ' but no
notice whatever was taken.' He then threw the meat
upon the ground, within one yard of an old male bird ;
' he looked at it for a moment with attention, but then
regarded it no more.' With a stick he next pushed the
meat right under the beak of the bird. Then for the first
lime the bird smelled it, and tore open the paper 'with
fury, and at the same moment every bird in the long row
began struggling and flapping its wings.' ^ Thus there
can be no doubt that vultures do not depend on their sense
of smell for finding carrion at a distance. Nor is it myste-
rious why they should find it by their sense of sight. If
over an area of many square miles there are a number of
Tultures flying as they do at a very high elevation, and ii

' Gleanings, &c., vol. i., p. 71.
2 lud.

" Voyage of a Natv/raUsty &;c., p. 184

BIRDS — SPECTAI. ITAIUTS OF INCUBATION 287

one of the number perceives a carcass and begins to de-
scend, tbe next adjacent vultures would see the descent of
the first one, and follow him as a guide, while the next in
the series would follow these in the same way, and so on.

Coming now to special instincts relating to incubation
and the care of offspring, a correspondent writes : —

Last spring I had a pair of canaries, in an ordinary bi-eed
ing cage (with two small boxes for nests in a compartment at
one end). In due course the tirst egg was laid, which I inspeete(l
through the little door made for that purpose. The next day 1
looked again ; still only one egg, and so for four or five days. It
being evident, from the appearance of the hen, that there were
more eggs coming, and as she seemed in good health, I supposeil
she might have broken some ; and I took out the box, and exa-
mined it carefully for the shells (but without pulling the nest
to pieces), and found nothing, until towards the beginning of
another week I went to take the one egg away, as the hen
seemed preparing to sit upon it. There were two eggs ! The
next morning, to my surprise, she was sitting upon six eggs !
She must therefore have buried four of them in the four corners
of the box, and so deep that I had been unable to find them.
At first I thought that she had done so merely from dislike at
their being looked at, but on reflection it has occurred to mo
that she did it that all might be hatched at the same time (as
they subsequently were) ; for she was perfectly tame, and would
almost suffer herself to be handled when on her nest. Wild
birds never seem to conceal their eggs before sitting; but then
(having more amusements than cage birds) thev do not revisit
their eggs after laying, until they have laid their number,
whereas a caged bii'd, having nothing to divert her attention
from her nest, often sits on it the greater part of the day.

I am not aware that this cmious display of forethought
on the part of a caged bird has been hitherto recorded,
and seeing, as my correspondent points out, that it has
reference to the changed conditions of life brought about
by domestication, it may be said to constitute the first
step in the development of a new instinct, which, if the
conditions were of sufiiciently long continuance, might
lead to an important and permanent change of the ances-
tral instinct.

T have several interesting facts, also communicated to

288

\NrMAL IXTELLTGEXCE.

me by con-espondents, similarly relating to individual vari-
ations of the ancestral instinct of incabation in order to
meet the requirements of a novel emironment. Thus
^Ir. J. F. Fisher tells me that while he was a commander
in the East India trade he always took a quantity of fowls
to sea for food. The laying-boxes being in a confined
space, the hens used to quarrel over their occupancy ; a ad
one of the hens adopted the habit of remo^-ing the ' nest-
eggs ' which Mr. Fisher placed in one of the boxes to
another box of the same kind not very far away. He
watched the process through a chink of a door, and ' saw
her curl her neck round the egg, thus forming a cup by
which she lifted the egg,' and conveyed it to the other
box. He adds : —

I can give no information as to the more recondite question
ichy the egg was removed, or the fastidious preference of the
one box over the other, or the inventive faculty that suggested
the neck as a makeshift hand ; but from the despatch wit h
which she effected the removal of the egg in the case I saw, I
have no doubt that this hen was the one which had performed
the feat so often before.

The explanation of the preference shown for the one
box over the other may, I think, be gathered fi'om another
part of my correspondent's letter, for he there mentions
incidentally that the box in which he placed the nest-egg,
and from which the hen removed it, was standing near a
door which was usually open, and thus situated in a more
exposed position than the other box. But be this as it
may, consideriug that among domestic fowls the habit of
conveying eggs is not usual, such isolated cases are inte-
resting as showing how instincts may originate. Jesse
gives an exactly similar case Gleanings,' vol. i., p. 149)
of the Cape goose, which removed eggs from a nest at-
tacked by rats, and another case of a wild duck doing the
same.

In the same connection, and with the same remarks, I
may quote the following case in which a fowl adopted the
habit of conveying, not her eggs, but her youno^ chickens.
I quote it from Houzeau (' Journ.,' i., p. 332), who gives

BIRDS— SPECIAL HABITS.

289

tlie observation on the authority of his brother as eye-
witness. The fowl had found good feeding-ground on
the further side of a stream four metres wide. She
adopted the habit of tlying across with her chickens
upon her back, taking one chicken on each journeyo
She thus transferred the whole of her brood every mom=
ing, and brought them back in a similar way to their
nest every evening. Tlie habit of carrying young
in this way is not natural to GaUinacefe, and there-
fore this particular instance of its display can only be
set down as an intelligent adjustment by a particular
bird.

Similarly, a correspondent (Mr. J. Stent) informs me
of a case in which a pair of blackbirds, after having
been disturbed by his gardener looking into their nest
at their young, removed the latter to a distance of
twenty yards, and deposited them in a more concealed
place. Partridges are well known to do this, and simi-
larly, accordinu' to Audubon, the goatsucker, when its
nest is disturbed, removes its eggs to another place,
the male and female both transporting eggs in their
beaks.'

Now, it is easy to see that if any particular bird
is intelligent enough, as in the cases quoted, to per-
form this adjustive action of conveying young — whether
to feeding-grounds, as in the case of the hen, or
from sources of danger, as in the case of partridges,
blackbirds, and goatsuckers — inheritance and natural
selection might develop the originally intelligent ad-
justment into an instinct common to the species.
And it happens that this has actually occurred in at
least two species of birds — namely, tlie woodcock and
wild duck, both of which have been repeatedly observed
to fly with their young to and from their feeding-
ground.

Couch gives some facts of interest relating to the mode
of escape practised by the water-rail, swan, and some other
aquatic birds. This consists in sinking under water, with

* Orn. Biog., i., p. 276.

290

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

only the bill remaining above the surface for respiration.
When the swan has young, she may sink the head quite
under water in order to allow the young to mount on it,
and so be carried through even rapid currents.
The same author remarks that —

Many birds will GirefuUy remove the meetings of the young
from the neighbourhood of their nests, in order not to attract
the attention of enemies ; for while we find that birds which
make no secret of their nesting-places are careless in such
matters, the woodpecker and the marsh tit in particular are at
pains to remove even the chips which are made in excavating
the cavities where the nests are placed, and which might lead an
observer to the sacred spot.

Similarly, Jesse observes : —

The excrement of the young of many birds who build their
nests without any pretensions to concealment, such as the swallow,
crow, tire, may at all times be observed about or under the nest ;
while that of some of those birds wliose nests are more indus-
triously concealed is conveyed away in the mouths of the parent
birds, who generally drop it at a distance of twenty or thirty
yards from the nest. Were it not for this precaution, the ex-
ci-ement itself, from it^ accumulation, and commonly from its
very colour, would point out the place where the young wei^e
concealed. When the young birds are ready to fly, or nearly so,
the old bu-ds do not consider it any longer necessaiy to i^emovc
the exci'ement.

Sir H. Davy gives an account of a pair of eagles which
he saw on Ben Ne\'is teaching their young ones to fly ; and
every one must have observed the same thing among
commoner species of birds. The experiments of Spalding,
however, have shown that flying is an instinctive faculty ;
so that when he reared swallows from tlie nest and liberated
them only after they were fully fledged, they flew well im-
mediately on being liberated. Therefore, the ' teaching
to fly ' by parent birds must be regarded as mere en-
couragement to develop instinctive powers, which in \drtue
of this encom-agement are probably developed sooner than
would otherwise be the case.

A few observations may here be offered on some

BIRDS— NLDIF] CATION.

291

habits which do not fall under any particular head-
ing.

The habit which many small birds display of mobbing
carnivorous ones is probably due to a desire to drive off the
enemy, and perhaps also to warn friends by the hubbub.
It may therefore perhaps be regarded as a display of con-
certed action, of which, however, we shall have better
evidence further on. I have seen a flock of common terns
mob a pirate tern, which shows that this combined action
may be directed as much against robbery as against
murder. Couch says he has seen blackbirds mobbing a
cat which was concealed in a bush, and here the motive
would seem to be that of warning friends rather than that
of driving away the enemy.

I have observed among the sea-gulls at the Zoological
Gardens a curious habit, or mode of challenge. This con
sists in ostentatiously picking up a small twig or piece of
wood, and throwing it down before the bird challenged, in
the way that a glove used to be thrown down by the old
knights. I observed this action performed repeatedly by
several individuals of the glaucous and black-back species
in the early spring-time of the year, and so it probably
has some remote connection with the instinct of nest-
building.

Nidification,

In connection with the habits and instincts peculiar to
certain species of birds, I may give a short account of the
more remarkable kinds of nidification that are met with in
this class of animals. As the account must necessarily be
brief, I shall only mention the more interesting of the
usual types.

Petrels and puffins make their nests in burrows which
tb.ey excavate in the earth. The great sulphur mountain
in Gruadaloupe is described by Wasser as ' all bored like a
rabbit warren with the holes that these imps {i.e. petrels)
excavate.' In the case of the puffin it is the male that
does the work of burrowing. He throws himself upon
his back in the tunnel which he has made, and digs it
longer and longer with his broad bill, while casting ont
20

292

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

the mould with his webbed feet. The burrow when
finished has several twists and turns in it, and is about
ten feet deep. If a rabbit burrow is available, the puffin
saves himself the trouble of digging by taking possession
of the one already made. The kingfisher and sand-martin
also make their nests in buriows.

Certain auks lay their single egg on the bare rock
while the stone curlew and goatsucker deposit theirs on
the bare soil, returning, however, year after year to the
same spot. Ostriches scrape holes in the sand to serve as
extemporised nests for their eggs promiscuously dropped,
which are then buried by a light coating of sand, and in-
c abated during the day by the sunbeams, and at night
by the male bird. Sometimes a number of female ostriches
deposit their eggs in a common nest, and then take the
duty of incubation by turns. Similarly, gulls, sandpipers,
plovers, &c., place their eggs in shallow pits hollowed out
of the soil. The kingfisher makes a bed of undigested
fish-bones ejected as pellets from her stomach, and ' some
of the swifts secrete from their salivary glands a fluid
which rapidly hardens as it dries on exposure to the aii
into a substance resembling isinglass, and thus furnish the
" edible birds' nests " that are the delight of the Chinese
epiciues.' *

The house-martin builds its nest of clay, which it sticks
upon the face of a wall, and renders more tenacious by
working into it little bits of straw, splinters of wood, &c.
According to Mr. Grilbert White : —

That this work may Dot, while it is soft and green, pull
itself down by its own weight, the provident architect has
prudence and forbearance enough not to advance her work too
fast ; but by building only in the morning, and by dedicating
the rest of the day to food and amusement, gives it sufficient
time to dry and hai-den About half an inch seems a sufficient
layer for a day. Thus careful workmen, when they build mnd
walls (informed at first perhaps by these Uttle birds), raise h it
D moderate layer at a time, and then desist, lest the work should
become top-heavy, and ruined by its own weight. By this
method, in about ten or twelve days is formed a hemispheric
ae»t, with a small aperture towards the tcp, sti-ong, compact,
* Newton, Encycl. Brit., art. ' Birds.'

BIRDS — NIDIFICATION .

293

and warm, and perfectly fitted for all the purposes for which it
was intended.

Other birds build in wood. The tomtit and the
woodpecker excavate a hole in a trpe, and are said to carry
away the chips, so as not to give any indication of the
whereabouts of their nests. Wilson says that the American
woodpecker makes an excavation five feet in depth, of a
tortuous form, to keep out wind and rain.

The orchard starling suspends its nest from the
branches of a tree, and uses for its material tough kinds of
grass, the blades of which it weaves together. Wilson
found one of these blades to be thirteen inches long, and
to be woven in and out thirty-four times.

We may next notice the weaver (Ploceus textor) and
tailor (Prinia, Orthotomus, and Sylvia). The former
intertwines slender leaves of grass so as to produce a web
sufficiently substantial for the protection of its young.
The tailor-birds sew together leaves wherewith to make
their nests, using for the purpose cotton and thread where
they can find it, and natural vegetable fibres where they
cannot obtain artificial. Colonel Sykes says that he has
found the threads thus used for sewing knotted at the
ends.'

Forbes saw the tailor-bird of the East Indies construct-
ing its nest, and observed it to choobe a plant with large
leaves, gather cotton which it regularly spun into a thread
by means of its bill and claws, and then sew the leaves
together, using its beak as a needle, or rather awl.

This instinct is rendered particularly interesting to
evolutionists from the fact that it is exhibited by three
distinct genera. For, as the instinct is so peculiar and
unique, it is not likely to have originated independently in
the three genera, but must be regarded as almost certainly
derived from a common ancestral type — thus showing that
an instinct may be perpetuated unaltered after the dififeren-
tiat ion of structure has proceeded beyond a specific distinc-
tion. The genus Sylvia inhabits Italy, the other two
inhabit India. Sylvia uses for thread spiders' web col-

* Catalogue of Birds, &c., p. 16.

994

ANIMAL TNTETLIGENCE.

lectedfrom the egg-pouches, which is stitched through ho^ee
made in the edges of leaves, presumably with the beak.

The baya bird of India ' hangs its pendulous dwelling
from a projecting bough, twisting it with grass into a form
somewhat resembling a bottle with a prolonged neck, the
entrance being inverted, so as to baffle the approaches of
its enemies, the tree snakes and other reptiles.'

Sir E. Tennent, fi-om whom this account is taken,
adds : —

The natives assert that the male bird carries fire-flies to the
nest, and fastens them to its sides by particles of soft mud. Mr.
Layard assures me that although he has never succeeded in
finding the fire-fly, the nest of the male bird (for the female
occupies another during incubation) invariably contains a patch
of mud on each side of the perch.

Dr. Buchanan confirms the report of the natives here
alluded to, and says : —

At night each of the habitations is Hghted up by a fire-fly
stuck on the top with a bit of clay. The nest consists of two
rooms ; sometimes there are three or four fire-flies, and their
blaze in the little cells dazzles the eyes of the bats, which often
kill the young of these birds.

While this work is passing through the press I meet
with the following, which appears to refer to some inde-
pendent, and therefore corroborative observation concern-
ing the above-stated fact, and in any case is worth adding,
on account of the observation concerning the rats, which,
if trustworthy, would furnish a sufficient reason for the
instinct of the birds. The extract is taken from a letter to
' Nature ' (xxiv., p. 165), published by Mr. H. A. Severn :

I have been informed on safe authority that the lodian
bottle-bird protects his nest at night by sticking several of these
glow-beetles around the entrance bv means of clay ; and only a
few days back an intimate friend of my own was watching three
rats on a roof rafter of his bungalow when a glow- fly lodged
very close to them ; the rats immediately scampered off".

TheTalegallus of Australia is, in the opinion of Grould, —

Among the most important of the ornithological novelties
which the exploration of Western and Southern Australia has

BIKDS — NI DIFICATION.

295

anfolded to us, and this from the circumstance of its not hatch-
ing its own eggs, which, instead of being incubated in the usual
way, are deposited in mounds of mixed sand and herbage, and
there left for the heating of the mass to develop the young,
which, when accomplished, force their way through the sides of
the mound, and commence an active life from the moment they
see the light of day.^

Sir George Grey measured one of these mounds, and
f(>und it to be 'forty-five feet in circumference, and if
rounded in proportion on the top (it being at the time
unfinished) would have been full five feet high.' The heat
round the eggs was taken to be 89°.

A curious aberration of the nest-building instinct is
sometimes shown by certain birds — particularly the com-
mon wren. — which consists in building a supernumerary
nest. That is to say, after one nest is completed, another
is begun and finished before the eggs are laid, and the
first nest is not used, though sometimes it is used in pre-
ference to the second.

As showing at once the eccentricity which birds some-
times display in the choice of a site, and also the deter-
mination of certain birds to return to the same site in
successive years, I may allude to the case published by
Biugley, of a pair of swallows which built their nest upon
the wings and body of a dead owl, which was hanging
from the rafters of a barn, and so loosely as to sway about
with every gust of wind. The owl with the nest upon it
was placed as a curiosity in the museum of Sir Ash ton
Lever, and he directed that a shell should be hung upon
the rafters in the place which had been previously oc-
cupied by the dead owl. Next year the swallows re-
turned and constructed their new nest in the cavity of the
8hell.2

The following is quoted from Thompson's ' Passions of
Animals,' p. 205 : —

The sociable gi'osbeak of Africa is one of the few instanc«i
of bii'ds living in community and uniting in constructing ono

' Gould, Birds of Australia, vol. 11., p. 155, where sea for fiirther de-
scription.

Animal Biography ^ vol. ii., p. 204.

296

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

huge nost for the whole society. L. Yaliant's account has beet
fully confirmed by other travellers. He says : * I observed on the
way a tree with an enormous nest of these birds, which I have
called republicans; and as soon as I arrived at my camp I de-
spatched a few men with a waggon to bring it to me, that I might
open and examine the hive. When it arrived, I cut it in piece?
with a hatchet, and saw that the chief portion of the structure
w'oufji;:ed of a mass of Boshman's grass, without any mixture,
but so compact and firmly basketed together as to be impene-
traV le to the rain. This is the commencement of the structure,
and each bii'd builds its particular nest under this canopy. But
the nests are formed only beneath the eaves, the upper surface
remaining void, without, however, being useless ; for as it has a
projecting rim, and is a little inclined, it serves to let the water
run ofi", and preserves each little dwelling from the rain. Figure
to yourself a huge irregular sloping roof, all the eaves of which
are covered with nests, crowded one against another, and you
w^ill have a tolerably accurate idea of these singular edifices.
Each individual nest is three or four inches in diameter, which
is sufficient for the bird ; but, as they are all in contact with one
another around the eaves, they appear to the eye to form but
one building, and are distinguishable from each other only by a
little externa] aperture which serves as an entrance to the nest;
and even this is sometimes common to three different nests, one
of which is situated at the bottom and the other two at the
sides. This large nest, which was one of the most considerable
I had anywhere seen in the course of my journey, contained
320 inhabited cells, which, supposing a male and female to each,
would form a society of 640 indi^dduals; but as these birds are
polygamous, such a calculation would not be exact.'

The following is quoted from Couch ( ' Illustrations of
Instinct,' p. 227 et seq.) : —

Mr. Waterton says thei-e is a peculiarity in the nidificaticvn
of the domestic swan too singular to be passed over without
notice. At the time it lays its first egg the nest which it has
prepared is of very moderate size ; but as incubation proceeds
we see it increase vastly in height and breadth. Evejy soft
material, such as pieces of grass and fragments of sedges, is laid
hold of by the sitting swan as they float within her reach, and
n,re added to the nest. This w^ork of accumulation is performed
by her during the entire period of incubation, be the weather
wet or dry, settled or unsettled ; and it is perfectly astonishing
to see with what assiduity she plies her work of aggrandisement

BIRDS— NIDIFICATION.

297

to a nest already sufficient in strength and size to answer every
end. My swans generally form their nest on an island quite
above the reach of a flood ; and still the sitting bird never ap-
pears satisfied with the quantity of materials which are provided
for her nest. I once gave her two huge bundles of oaten straw,
and shepei-formed her work of apparent supererogation by apply-
ing the whole of it to her nest, already very large, and not
exposed to destruction had the weather become ever so rainy.

This same author continues : —

It is probable that this disposition to accumulation, in itt»
general Vjearing, has reference to heat rather than the flood ; but
that the wild swan has a foresight regarding danger, and a quick
perception as to the means of securing safety, appears from an
instance mentioned by Captain Parry, in his Northern voyage.
When everything was deeply involved in ice, the voyagers were
obliged to pay much attention to discern whether they were
travelling over water or land; but some birds, which formed
their nest at no great distance fr-om the ships, were under no
mistake in so imj)ortant a matter ; and when the thaw took
place it was seen that the nest was situated on an island in the
lake.

The following cases are likewise taken from Couch (^loc.
cit, p. 225) :—

This swan was eighteen or nineteen years old, had brought
up many broods, and w^as highly valued by the neighbom-s
She exhibited, some eight or nine yeai-s past, one of the most
remarkable powers of instinct ever i-ecorded. She was sitting
on four or five eggs, and was observed to be veiy busy in collect-
ing weeds, grasses, &c., to raise her nest; a farming man was
ordered to take down half a load of haulm, with which she most
industriou.sly raised her nest and the eggs two feet and a half ;
that very night there came down a tremendous fall of rain, which
flooded all the malt-shops and did great damage. Man madv^
no preparation, the bird did ; instinct prevailed over reason.
Her eggs were above, and only just above, the water.

During the eai'ly part of the summer of 1835, a pair of
wator-hens built their nest by the margin of the ornamental
pond at Bell's Hill, a piece of water of considerable extent, and
ordinarily fed by a spring from the height above, but into which
the contents of another large pond can occasionally be admitted.
This was done while the female was sitting ; and as the nest
had been built when the water level stood low, the sudden influx

298

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

of this large body of water from the second pond caused a rise
of several inches, so as to threaten the speedy immersion and
consequent destruction of the eggs. This the birds seem to
have been aware of, and immediately took precautions against
so imminent a danger ; for when the gardener, upon whose
veracity I can safely rely, seeing the sudden rise of the water,
went to look after the nest, expecting to find it covered and the
eggs destroyed, or at least forsaken by the hen, he observed,
whilst at a distance, both bii-ds busily engaged about the brink
where the nest was placed ; and when near enough he clearly
perceived that they were adding, with all possible despatch, fresh
materials to raise the fabric beyond the level of the increased
contents of the pond : and that the eggs had by some means
been removed from the nest by the birds, and were then de-
posited upon the grass about a foot or more from the margin of
the water. He watched them for some time, and saw the nest
rapidly increase in height ; but I regret to add that he did not
remain long enough, fearing he might ci^te alarm, to witness
the interesting act of replacing the eggs which must have
been effected shortly after ; for, upon his return in less than an
hour, he found the hen quietly sitting upon them in the newly
raised nest. In a few days afterwards the young were hatched,
and, as usual, soon quitted the nest and took to the water with
theii" parents. The nest was shown to me i7i situ shortly after,
and I could then plainly discern the formation of the new with
the older pai-t of the fabric.

We must not conclude these remarks on nidification
without alluding to Mr. Wallace's chapters on the * Philo-
sophy of Birds' Nests,' in his work on ' Natural Selection.'
This writer is inclined to suppose that birds do not build
their nests distinctive of their various species by the teach-
ings of hereditary instinct, but by the young birds intelli-
gently observing the construction of the nests in which
they are hatched, and purposely imitating this construc-
tion when in the following season they have occasion to
build nests of their own. With reference to this theory
it is only needful to say that it is antecedently improbable,
and not well substantiated by facts. It is antecedently
improbable because, when any habit has been continued
for a number of generations — especially when the habit
is of a peculiar and detailed character — the probability is
that it has become instinctive ; we should have almost as

BIEDS— NIDIFICATION.

299

mucli reason to anticipate that the nest of the little crus-
tacean Podocerus^ or the cell of the hive-bee, is constructed
by a process of conscious imitation, as" that this is the case
with the nests of birds. And this theory is not well sub-
stantiated by facts because, if the theory were true, we
should expect considerable differences to be usually pre-
ser.ted by nests of the same species. Unless the con-
struction of the nest of any given species were regulated
by a common instinct, numberless idiosyncratic peculi-
arities would necessarily require to arise, and there would
only be a very general uniformity of type presented by the
nests of the same species.

A more valuable contribution to the ' Philosophy of
Birds' Nests ' is furnished by this able naturalist when he
directs attention to a certain general correlation between
the form of the nest and the coloiu: of the female. For,
on reviewing the birds of the world, he certainly makes
good the proposition that, as a general rule, liable however
to frequent exceptions, dull-coloured females sit on open
nests, while those that are conspicuously coloured sit in
domed nests. But Mr. Darwin, in a careful review of all
the evidence, clearly shows that this interesting fact is to
be attributed, not, as Mr. Wallace supposed, to the colour of
the female having been determined through natural selection
by the form of the nest, but to the reverse process of the
form of the nest having been determined by the colour of
the female.'

Another general fact of interest connected with nidifica-
tion must not be omitted. This is that the instincts of
nidification, although not so variable as the theory of Mr.
Wallace would require, are nevertheless highly plastic.
The falcon, which usually builds on a cliff, has been
known to lay its eggs on the ground in a mar^h ; the
golden eagle sometimes builds in trees or on the ground
while the heron varies its site between trees, cliffs, and
open fen. 2 Again, Audubon, in his * Ornithological Bio-
graphy,' gives many cases of conspicuous local varialiona
in the nests of the same species in the northern and

' See Descent of Man, p. 452 et seg.

* See Newton. Mwy. Brit., art. * Birds.'

300

ANIIVIAL INTELLIGENCE.

southern United States; and, as Mr. Wallace truly ob-
serves,—

Many facts have already been given which show that birdc
do adapt their nests to the situations in which they place them ;
and the adoption of eaves, chimneys, and boxes by swallows,
wrens, and many other birds, shows that they are always ready
to take advantage of chanojed conditions. It is probable, there-
fore, that a permanent change of climate would cause many
bii'ds to modify the form or materials of their abode, so as better
to protect their young.'

In America the change of habits in this respect under-
gone by the house-swallow has been accomplished within
the last three hundred years.

Closely connected, if not identical, with this fact is
another, namely, that in some species which have been
watched closely for a sufficient length of time, a steady im-
provement in the construction of nests has been observed.
Thus C. G. Leroy, who filled the post of Ranger of Ver-
sailles about a century ago, and therefore had abundant
opportunities of studying the habits of animals, wrote an
essay on ' The Intelligence and Perfectibility of Animals
from a Philosophical Point of View.' In this essay he
has anticipated the American observer Wilson in noticing
that the nests of young birds are distinctly inferior to
those of older ones, both as regards their situation and
construction. As we have here independent testimony
of two good observers to a fact which in itself is not im-
probable, I think we may conclude that the nest-making
instinct admits of being supplemented, at any rate in
some birds, by the experience and intelligence of the
individual. M. Pouchet has also recorded that he has
found a decided improvement to have taken place in the
nests of the swallows at Rouen dm-ing his own lifptime ;
and this accords with the anticipation of Leroy that if our
observation extended over a sufficient length of time, and
in a manner sufficiently close, we should find that the ac-
cumulation of intelligent improvements by individuals of
8uccesi?ive generations would begin to tell upon the in-

• Natural Selection, pp. 232-3.

CUCKOO.

301

herited instiuct, so that all the nests in a given localitj
would attain to a higher grade of excellence.

Leroy also says that when swallows are hatched out
too late to migrate with the older birds, the instinct of
migration is not sufficiently imperative to induce them to
undertake the journey by themselves. ' They perish, the
victims of their ignorance, and of the tardy birth which
made them unable to follow their parents.'

Cuckoo,

Perhaps the strangest of the special instincts mani-
fested by birds is that of the cuckoo laying its eggs in the
nests of other birds. As the subject is an important one
from several points of view, I shall consider it at some
length.

It must first be observ{id that the parasitic habit in
question is not practised by all species of the genus —
the American cuckoo, for instance, being well known to
build its nest and rear its young in the ordinary manner.
The Australian species, however, manifests the same in-
stinct as the European. The first observer of the habit
practised by the European cuckoo was the illustrious
Jenner, who published his account in the ' Philosophical
Transactions.' From this account the following is an
extract : —

The cuckoo makes choice of the nests of ar great variety of
small birds. I have known its eggs entrusted to the care of the
hedge-sparrow, water-wagtail, titlark, yellowtammer, gi^een lin-
net, and winchat. Among these it generally selects the three
former, but shows a much gi-eater partiality to the hedge-sparrow
than to any of the rest ; therefore, for the purpose of avoiding
confusion, this bird only, in the following account, will be con-
sidered as the foster-parent of the cuckoo, except in instances
which are particularly specified.

When the hedge-sparrow has sat her usual time, and disen-
gaged the young cuckoo and some of her own offspring from the
shell,^ hor own young ones, and any of her eggs that remain
inhatched, are soon turned out, the young cuckoo I'emaining

* Phil. Trans., vol. Ixxviii., p. 221 et seq.

' The young cuckoo is generally hatched first.

302

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

possessor of the nest, and sole object of her future care. The
young birds are not previously killed, nor are the eggs de-
molished, but all are left to perish together, either entangled
about the bush which contains the nest, or lying on the ground
under it.

On June 18, 1787, I examined the nest of a hedge-sparrow,
M hich then contained a cuckoo's and three hedge-spax row's eggs.
On inspecting it the day following, I found the bii-d had hatched,
but that the nest now contained a young cuckoo and only one
young hedge-sparrow. The nest was placed So near the extremity
of a hedge, that I could distinctly see what was going forward in
it; and, to my astonishment, saw the young cuckoo, though so
newly hatched, in the act of turning out the young hedge-
sparrow.

The mode of accomplishing this was very curious. The
little animal, with the assistance of its rump and wings, contrived
to get the bird upon its back, and making a lodgment for the
burden by elevating its elbows, clambered backward with it up
the side of the nest till it reached the top, when, resting for a
moment, it thi-ew off its load with a jerk, and quite disengaged
it from the nest. It remained in this situation a short time,
feeling about with the extremities of its wings, as if to be con-
vinced whether this business was properly executed, and then
dropped into the nest again. With these (the extremities of its
wings) I have often seen it examine, as it were, an egg and nest-
ling before it began its operations ; and the sensibility which
these parts api>eared to possess seemed sufficiently to compensate
the want of sight, which as yet it was destitute of. I afterwards
put in an egg, and this by a similar process was conveyed to the
edge of the nest and thrown out. These experiments I have
since repeated several times in different nests, and have always
found the young cuckoo disposed to act in the same manner.
In climbing up the nest it sometimes drops its bui'den, and thua
is foiled in its endeavours ; but after a little respite the work
is resumed, and goes on almost incessantly till it is effected. It
is wonderful to see the extraordinary' exertions of the young
cuckoo, when it is two or three days old, if a bird be put into
the nest with it that is too weighty for it to lift out. In this
state it seems ever restless and uneasy. But this disposition
for turning out its companions begins to decline from the time
it is two or three till it is about twelve days old, when, as far
£is I have hitherto seen, it ceases Indeed, the disposition for
throwing out the egg appears to cease a few days sooner ; for I
have frequently seen the young cuckoo, after it had been hatched

CUCKOO.

303

nine or ten days, remove a nestling that had been placed in the
nest with it, when it suffered an egg, put thereat the sfime time,
to remain unmolested. The singularity of its shape is well
adapted to these piu-poses; for, different from other newly hatched
birds, its back from the scapulae downwards is very broad, with
a considerable depression in the middle. This depression seems
formed by nature for the design of giving a more secure lodg-
ment to the egg of the hedge-sparrow, or its young one, when the
young cuckoo is employed in remo\'ing either of them from the
nest. When it is about twelve days old this cavity is quite
filled up, and then the back assumes the shape of nestling birds
in general. . . . The circumstance of the young cuckoo being
destined by nature to throw o\it the young hedge-sparrows
seems to account for the parent cuckoo dropping her egg in
the nesis of birds so small as those I have particularised. If
she were to do this in the nest of a bird which produced a large
egg, and consequently a large nestling, the young cuckoo
would probably find an insurmountable ditficulty in solely pos-
sessing the nest, a«s its exei-tions would be unequal to the labour
of turning out the young birds. (I have known a c;ise in
which a hedge-sparrow sat upon a cuckoo's egg and one of her
own. Her own egg was hatche^l five days before the cuckoo's,
when the young hedge-sparrow had gained such a superiority
in size that the young cuckoo had not powers sufficient to lift it
out of the nest till it was two days old, by which time it had
gi-own very considerably. This egg was probably laid by the
cuckoo several days after the hedge-sparrow had begun to sit ;
and even in this case it appears that its presence had created
the disturbance before alluded to, as all the hedge-sparrow's eggs
had gone except one.) . . . June 27, 1787. — Two cuckoos
and a hedge-sparrow were hatched in the same nest this morn-
ing ; one hedge spaiTow's egg remained unhatched. In a few
houi-s after, a contest began between the cuckoos for the pos-
session of the nest, which continued undetermined till the next
afternoon ; when one of them, which was somewhat superior in
size, turned out the other, together with the young hedge-
sparrow and the unhatched egg. This contest was very remark-
able. The combatants alternately appeared to have the advan-
tage, as each carried the other several times nearly to the top
of the nest, and then sunk down again oppressed with the
weight of it.s burden ; till at length, after various efforts, the
strongest prevailed, and was afterwards brought up by the
hedge-sparrows.

To what cause, then, may we attribute the singularities of

304

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

the cuckoo ? May they not be owing to the following circum-
stances,— the short residence this bird is allowed to make in
the country where it is destined to propagate its spocies, and
the call that nature has upon it, during that short residence,
to produce a numerous proijeny ? The cuckoo's first appearance
here is about the middle of April, commonly on tlie 17th. Its
egg ifc not ready for incubation till some weeks after its arrival,
seldom before the middle of May. A fortnight is taken up by
the sitting bird in hatching the egg. The young bird generally
continues three weeks in the nest before it flies, and the foster-
parents feed it more than five weeks after this period ; so that,
if a cuckoo should be ready with an egg much sooner than the
time pointed out, not a single ne.- tling, even one of tbe earliest,
would be tit to provide for itself before its parent would be in-
stinctively directed to seek a new rasidence, and be thus com-
pelled to abandon its young one ; for old cuckoos tiike their
final leave of this country the first week in July.

Had nature allowed the cuckoo to hare stayed here as long
as some other migrating birds, which produce a single set of
yoimg ones (as the swift or nightingale, for example), and had
allowed her to have reared as large a number as any bird is
capable of bringing up at one time, there might not have been
sufficient to have answered her purpose ; but by sending the
cuckoo from one nest to another, she is reduced to the same
stat€ as the bird whose nest we daily rob of an egg, in which
case the stimulus for incubation is suspended.

A writer in ' Xatm-e ' (vol. v., p. 383 ; and vol. ix., p.
123), to whom ^Ir. Darwin refers in the latest edition of
'The Origin of Species ' as an observer that Mr. G-ould has
found trustworthy, precisely confiirms, from observations
of his own, the above description of Jenner. So far,
therefore, as the observations are common I shall not
quote his statements ; but the following additional matter
is worth rendering : —

But what struck me most was this : the cuckoo was per-
fectly naked, without a vestige of a feather or even a hint of
future feathers ; its eyes were not yet opened, and its neck
seemed too weak to support the weight of its head. The pipits
(in whose nest the young cuckoo was parasitic) had well
developed quills on the wings and back, and had bright eyed
partially open ; yet they seemed quite helpless under the mani-
pulations of the cuckoo, which looked a much less developed

CUCKOO.

305

creature. The cuckoo's legs, however, seemed very muscular,
and it appeared to feel about with its wings, which Avere abso-
lutely featherless, as with hands — the 'spurious wing' (unusually
large in proportion) looking like a spread-out thumb. The most
singular thing of all was the direct purpose with which the blind
little monster made for the open side of the nest, the only part
where it could throw its burden down the bank. [The latter
r( mark has reference to the position of the nest below a heather
bish, on the declivity of a low abrupt bank, whei"e the only
chance of dislodging the young bii-ds was to eject them over the
side of the nest remote from its support upon the bank.] As
the young cuckoo was blind, it must have known the part of
the nest to choose by feeling from the inside that that part was
unsupported.

Such being the facts, we have next to ask how they
are to be explained on the principles of evolution. At
first sight it seems that although the habit saves the bird
which practises it much time and trouble, and so is clearly
of benefit to the individual, it is not so clear how the in-
stinct is of benefit to the species ; for as cuckoos are not
social birds, and therefore cannot in any way depend on
mutual co-operation, it is difficult to see that this saving
of time and trouble to the individual can be of any use to
the species. But Jenner seems to have hit the right
cause in the concluding part of the above quotation. If
it is an advantage that the cuckoo should migrate early,
it clearly becomes an advantage, in order to admit of this,
that the habit should be formed of leaving her eggs for
other birds to incubate. At any rate, we have here a suffi-
ciently probable explanation of the liaison d'etre of this
curious instinct ; and whether it is the true reason or the
only reason, we are justified in setting do\vn the instinct
to the creating influence of natm'al selection.

Mr. Darwin, in his ' Origin of Species,' has some in-
teresting remarks to make on this subject. First, he
is informed by Dr. Merrell that the American cuckoo,
although as a rule following the ordinary custom of birds
in incubating her own eggs, nevertheless occasionally de-
posits them in the nests of other birds.

Now let us suppose that the ancient progenitor of our Euro-
pean cuckoo had the habits of the American cuckoo, and thai

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

she occasionally laid her egg in another bird's nest. If the old
bird profited by this occasional habit through being able to
migrate earlier, or through any other cause; or if the young
were made more vigorous by advantage being taken of the mis-
taken instinct of another species than when reared by their own
mother, encumbered as she could hardly fail to be by having
eggs and young at the same time ; ^ then the old birds or the
fofstered young would gain an advantage. ^

The instinct would seem to be a very old one, for there
are two great changes of structure in the European cuckoo
which are manifestly correlated with the instinct. Thus,
the shape of the young bird's back has already been noted ;
and not less remarkable than this is the small size of the
egg from which the young bird is hatched. For the egg
of the cuckoo is not any larger than that of the skylark,
although an adult cuckoo is four times the size of an adult
skylark. And ' that the small size of the egg is a real
case of adaptation (in order to deceive the small birds in
whose nests it is laid), we may infer from the fact of the
non-parasitic American cuckoo laying full-sized eggs.'
Yet, although the instinct in question is doubtless of high
antiquity, there have been occasional instances observed
in cuckoos of reversion to the ancestral instinct of nidifica-
tion ; for, according to Adolf Miiller, ' the cuckoo occasion-

' Allusion is here made to the fact that the cuckoo lays her eggs at
intervals of two or three days, and therefore that if all were incubated
by the mother, they would hatch out at different times — a state of things
which actually obtains in the case of the American cuckoo, whose
nest contains eggs and young at the same time.

It is worth while to observe, as bearing on this theory of the origin
of this parasitic habit, that even non-parasitic birds occasionally deposit
their eggs in nests of other birds. Thus, Professor A. Newton writes in
his admirable essay on ' Birds ' in the Encyclopsedia Britannica, * Cer-
tain it is that some birds, whether by mistake or stupidity, do not un-
frequently lay their eggs in the nests of others. It is within the know-
ledge of many that pheasants' eggs and partridges' eggs are often laid
in the same nest ; and it is within the knowledge of the writer that
gulls' eggs have been found in the nests of eider-ducks, and vice versa ;
that a redstart and a pied flycatcher will lay their eggs in the same con-
venient hole — the forest being rather deficient in such accommodatij:i :
that an owl and a duck will resort to the same nest-hole, set up by the
scheming woodman for his own advantage ; and that the starling, wli ich
constantly dispossesses the green woodpecker, sometimes discovers that
the rightful heir of the domicile has to be brought up by the intruding
tenant.'

CUCKOO.

307

ftlly lays her eggs on the bare ground, sits on tLem, and
feeds her young.'

In 'Nature' for November 18, 1869, Professor A.
Newton, F.E.S., has published an article on a somewhat
obscure point connected with the instincts of the cuckoo.
He says that Dr. Baldamus has satisfied him, by an exhibi-
tion of sixteen specimens of cuckoos' eggs found in the nests
of different species of birds, * that the egg of the cuckoo
is approximately coloured and marked like those of the
bird in whose nest it is found,' for the purpose, no doubt,
of deceiving the foster-parents. Professor Newton adds,
however : —

Having said this much, and beheving as I do the Doctor to
be partly justified in the carefully worded enunciation of what
he calls a * law of nature/ I must now declare that it is only
'approximately,' and by no means universally true that tho
cuckoo's egg is coloured like those of the victims of her imposi-
tion, &c.

StiU, when so great an authority as Professor Newton
expresses himself satisfied that there is a marked tendency
to such imitation, which in some cases leads to extra-
ordinary variations in the colouring of the cuckoo's egg,
the alleged fact becomes one which demands notice. The
question, of course, immediately arises. How is it conceiv-
able that the fact, if it is a fact, can be explained ? We
cannot imagine the cuckoo to be able consciously to colour
her egg during its formation in order to imitate the eggs
among which she is about to lay it ; nor can we suppose
that having laid an egg and observed its colouring, she
then carries it to the nest of the bird whose eggs it most
resembles. Professor Newton suggests another theory,
which he seems to think sufficient, but which I confess
seems to me little more satisfactory than the impossible
theories just stated. He says : —

Only one explanation of the process can, to my mind, be
offered. Eveiy person who has studied the habits of birds with
sufficient attention will be conversant with the tendency which
certain of those habits have to become hereditary. It is, I am
sure, no violent hypothesis to suppose that there is a very
reasonable probability of each cuckoo most commonly placing
21

308

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

her eggs in the nest of the same bird, and of this habit being
transmitted to her posterity.

Now it will be seen that it requii-es but only an application
to this case of t\e principle of ' natural selection/ or * survival
of the fittest.' to show that if mv arcrument be sound, nothing
can be more likely than that, in the course of time, that prin-
ciple should operate so as to produce the facts asserted, the eggs
which best imitated those of particular foster-parents having
the best chance of duping the latter, and so of being hatched
out.

Xow, granting to this hypothesis the assumption that
individual cuckoos have special predilections as to the
species in whose nests they are to lay their eggs, and that
some of these species require to be deceived by imitative
colouring of the egg to prevent their tilting it out, there
is still an enormous difficulty to be met. Supposing that
one cuckoo out of a hundred happens to lay eggs suffi-
ciently like those of the Xorth African magpies (a species
alluded to by Professor Xewton) to deceive the latter into
supposing the egg to be one of their own. This I cannot
think is too small a proportion to assume, seeing that, ex
hypothesi, the resemblance must be tolerably close, and
that the egg of the magpie does not resemble the great
majority of eggs of the cuckoo. Now, in order to sustain
the theory, we must suppose that the particular cuckoo
which happens to have the peculiai-ity of laying eggs so
closely resembling those of the magpie, must also happen
to have the peculiai'ity of desiring to lay its eggs in the
nest of a magpie. The conjunction of these two pecu-
liarities would, I should think, at a moderate estimate
reduce the chances of an approximately coloured egg being
laid in the appropriate nest to at least one thousand to
one. But supposing the happy accident to have taken
place, we have next to suppose that the peculiarity of
laying these exceptionably coloured eggs is not only con-
stant for the same individual cuckoo, but is inherited by
innumerable generations of her progeny; and, what is
much more difficult to grant, that the fancy for laying
eggs in the nest of a magpie is similarly inherited. I
think, therefore, notwithstanding Professor Newton's strong
opinion upon the subject, that the ingenious hypothesis

CUCKOO.

309

must be dismissed as too seriously encumbered by the
difficulties which I have mentioned. We may with philo-
sophical safety invoke the influence of natural selection to
explain all cases of protective colouring when the modus
ojjerandi need only be supposed simple and direct ; but
in a case such as this the number and complexity of the
conditions that would require to meet in order to give
natural selection the possibility of entrance, seem to me
much too considerable to admit of our entertaining the
possibility of its action — at all events in the way that
Professor Newton suggests. Therefore, if the facts are
fiicts, I cannot see how they are to be explained.

Cuckoos are not the only birds which manifest the
parasitic habit of laying their eggs in other birds' nests.

Some species of Melothrus, a widely distinct genus of
American birds, allied to our starlings, have parasitic habits
like those of the cuckoo ; and the species present an interesting
gradation in the peifection of their instincts. The sexes of
Melothrus cadius are stated by an excellent observer, Mr.
Hudson, sometimes to live promiscuously together in flocks and
sometimes to pair. They either build a nest of their own, or
seize on one belonging to some other bird, occasionally throwing
out the nestlings of the stranger. They either lay their eggs in
the nest thus appropriated, or oddly enough build one for them-
selves on the top of it. They usually sit on their own eggs and
rear their own young ; but Mr. Hudson says it is probable that
they are occasionally parasitic, for he has seen the young of this
species following old birds of a distinct kind and clamouriog
to be fed by them. The parasitic habits of another species of
Melothrus, the M. Canariensis, are much more highly developed
than those of the last, but are still far from perfect. This bird,
as far as it is known, invariably lays its eggs in the nests of
strangers, but it is remarkable that several together sometimes
commence to build an in^egular untidy nest of their own, placed
m singularly ill-adapted situations, as on the leaves of a large
thistle. They must, however, as far as Mr. Hudson has ascer-
tained, complete a nest for themselves. They often lay so many
eggs, from fifteen to twenty, in the same foster- nest, that few or
none can possibly be hatched. They have, moreover, the extra-
ordinary habit of pecking holes in the eggs, whether of their
own species or of their foster-parents, which they find in the
appropriated nests. They drop also many eggs on the bare

310

ANIMAL rNTELLIGENCE.

ground, which are thus wasted. A third species, the M. p"" cor is
of North America, has acqnii-ed instincts as perfect a» those of
the cuckoo, foi it never lays more than an egg in a foster-nest,
so that the young bird is securely reared. Mr. Hudson is a
strong disbeliever in evolution, but he appears to have been so
much struck by the imperfect instincts of the Melothrus Canari-
ensis that he quotes my words, and asks, * Must we consider these
habits not as especially endowed or created instincts, but as
small consequences of one general law, namely transition ? ' *

Such are aU the facts and considerations which I have
to present with reference to the curious instinct in ques-
tion. It will be seen that— with one doubtful or not suffi-
ciently investigated exception, viz., that of cuckoos adapt-
ing the colour of their eggs to that of the eggs of the
foster-parents — there is nothing connected with these
instincts that presents any difficulty to the theory of evo-
lution. We may, perhaps, at first sight wonder why some
counteracting instinct should not have been developed by
the same agency in the birds which are liable to be thus
duped ; but here we must remember that the deposition
of a parasitic egg is, comparatively speaking, an exceed-
ingly rare event, and therefore not one that is likely to
lead to the development of a special instinct to meet it.

General Intelligence,

Under this heading I shall here, as in tne case of this
heading elsewhere, string together all the instances which
I have met with, and which I deem trustworthy, of the
display of unusually high intelligence in the class, family,
order, or species of animals under consideration — the ob-
ject of this heading in all cases being that of supplying,
by the facts mentioned beneath it, a general idea of the
upper limit of intelligence which is distinctive of each
group of animals.

That birds recognise their own images in mirrors as
birds there can be no question. Houzeau, who records
observations of his own in this connection with parrots,'
adds that dogs are more difficult to deceive by mirrors in

• Origin 0/ Species, p. 215.

* Tom. i., p. 130.

BIRDS — GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

311

this way than birds, on account of their depending so
much upon smell for their information. No doubt indi-
vidual differences are to be met with in animals of both
classes, and much depends on previous experience. Young
dogs, or dogs which have never seen a mirror before, are
not, as a rule, difficult to deceive, even though they have
good noses. I myself had a setter with an excellent nose,
who on many repeated occasions tried to fight his own
image, till he found by experience that it was of no use.
As to birds, I have seen canaries suppose their own images
to be other canary birds, and also the reflection of a room
to be another room — the birds flying against a large
mirror and falling half stunned. I mention the latter
circumstance because it afforded evidence of the superior
intelligence of a linnet, which on the same occasion dashed
itself against the mirror once, but never a second time,
while the canaries did so repeatedly.

Mrs. Frankland, in ' Nature '(xxi., p. 82), gives the fol-
lowing account of a bullfinch paying more attention to a
portrait of a bullfinch than to his own image in a mirror,
which is certainly remarkable ; and as the fact seems to have
been observed repeatedly, it can scarcely be discredited :

The following is a curious instance of discrimination which
I have observed in my bullfinch. He is in the habit of coming
out of his cage in my room in the morning. In this room there
is a miri'or with a marble slab before it, and also a very cleverly
executed water-colour drawing of a hen bullfinch, life size. The
first thing that my hullfinch does on leaving his cage is to fly to
the picture (perching on a vase just below it) and pipe his tune
in the most insinuating manner, accompanied with much bow-
ing to the portrait of the hen builfinch. After having duly
paid his addresses to it, he generally spends some time on the
marble slab in front of the looking-glass, but without showing
the slightest emotion at the sight of his own reflection, or
courting it with a song. Whether this perfect coolness is due
to the fact of the reflection being that of a cock bird, or whether
(since he shows no desire to fight the reflected image) he is per-
fectly well aware that he only sees himself, it is difficult to say,

That birds possess considerable powers of imagination,
or forming mental pictures of absent objects, may be in*

312

ANIALVL INTELLTORNCE.

ferred from the fact of their pining for absent mates, parrots
calling for absent friends, &c. The same fact is further
proved by birds dreaming, a faculty which has been noticed
by Cuvier, Jerdon, Thompson, Bennet, Houzeau, Bechsteic,
Lindsay, and Darwin.^

The facility with which birds lend themselves to the
education of the show-man is certain evidence of consider-
able docility, or the power of forming novel associations
of ideas. Thus, according to Bingley, —

Some years ago the Sieur Koman exhibited in this country
the wonderful performances of his birds. These were gold-
finches, linnets, and canary birds. One appeared dead, and was
held up by the tail or claw without exhibiting any signs of life.
A second stood on its head, with its claws in the air, &c., &c.^

And many years ago there was exhibited a very puzzling
automaton, which, although of very small size and quite
isolated from any possibly mechanical connection with its
designer, performed certain movements in any order that
the fancy of the observers might dictate. The explana-
tion turned out to be that within the mechanism of the
figure there was a canary bird which had been taught to
run in different directions at different words or tones of
command, so by its weight starting the mechanism to
perform the particular movement required.

The rapidity with which birds learn not to fly against
newly erected telegi'aph wires, displays a large amount of
observation and intelligence. The fact has been repeatedly
observed. For instance, jVIr. Holden says : —

About twelve years ago I was residing on the coast of
county Antrim, at the time the telegraph wires were set up along
that charming road which skirts the sea between Larne and
Cushendall. During the winter months large flocks of starUngs
always migrated over from Scotland, arriving in the early morii-
ing. The first winter after the wires were stretched along the
coast I frequently found numbers of starlings lying dead or
wounded on the road-side, they having evidently in their flight
in the dusky morn struck against the telegraph wires, not

> See Birds o f India, i., p. 21; Passions of Animals, -p. 60; Fao. Men.
ics Ani., torn, ii., p. 183 ; Mind in Loner Animals, vol. ii., p. 96; and
Descent of Man, p. 74.

2 Animal Biography, vol. ii., p. 173.

BIRDS -GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

313

blown against them, as these accidents often occurred when there
was but little wind. I found that the peasantry had come to
the conclusion that these unusual deaths were due to the flash
of the telegi aj)h messages killing any starlings that happened to
be perched on the wires when working. Strange to say that
throughout the following and succeeding winters hardly a death
occurred among the starlings on their arrival. It would thus
appear that the birds were deeply impressed, and understood the
cause of the fatal accidents among their fellow-travellers the
previous year, and hence carefully avoided the telegraph wires ;
not only so, but the young birds must also have acquired this
knowledge and perpetuated it, a knowledge which they could
not have acquired by experience or even instinct, unless the
instinct was really inherited memory derived from the parents
whose brains were first impressed by it.^

Similar facts are given in Buckland's * Curiosities of
Natural History,' ^ and I have myself known of a case in
Scotland where a telegraph was erected across a piece of
moorland. During the first season some of the grouse
were injured by flying against the wires, but never in any
succeeding season. ^\1iy the young birds should avoid
them without having had individual experience may, I
think, be explained by the consideration that in birds
which fly in flocks or coveys, it is the older ones that lead
the way. This explanation would not, of course, apply to
birds which fly singly ; but I am not aware that any ob-
servations have gone to show that the young of such
birds avoid the wires.

I quote the following exhibition of intelligence in an
eagle from Menault : —

The following account of the patience with which a golden
eagle submitted to surgical treatment, and the care which it
showed in the gradual use of the healing limb, must suggest
the idea that something very near to pr^idence and reason
existed in the bird. This eagle was caught in a fox-trap set in
the forest of Fontainebleau, and its claw had been terribly torn.
An operation was performed on ihe limb by the conservators of
the Zoological Gardens at Paris, which the noble bird bore with
a rational patience. Though his head was left loose, he made
DO attempts to interfere with the agonising extraction of the

> Nature xx.,p. 266. « Vol. i., p. 216. See also Be&cmt of Man, p. 80

314

ANIMAL INTT^LLIGENCE.

pplinters, or to disturb the arrangements of the annoying band-
age*?. He seemed really to understand the nature of the servicea
rendered, and that they were for his good.'

Speaking of the Urubu vultures, Mr. Bates says : —

They assemble in great numbers in the villages about the
end of the wet season, and are then ravenous with hunger. My
cook could not leave the open kitchen at the back of the house
for a moment whilst the dinner was cooking, on account of
their thievish propensities. Some of them were always loitering
about, watching their opportunity, and the instant the kitchen
was left unguarded, the bold marauders marched in and lifted
the lids of the saucepans with their beaks to rob them of their
contents. The boys of the village lie in wait, and shoot them
with bow and arrow ; and vultui"es have consequently acquired
such a dread of these weapons, that they may be often kept off
by hanging a bow from the mfters of the kitchen.^

Mrs. Lee, in her ' Anecdotes/ says that one day her gardener
was struck by the strange conduct of a robin, which the man
had often fed. The bird fluttered about him in so strange a
manner — now coming close, then hurrying away, always in the
same direction — that the gardener followed its retreating move-
ments. The robin stopped near a flower-pot, and fluttered over
it in great agitation. It was soon found that a ne-st had been
formed in the pot, and contained several young. Close by was
a snake, intent, doubtless, upon making a meal of the brood.

The following appeared in the ' G-ardener's Chronicle '
for Aug. 3, 1878, under the initials ' T. Gr.' I wrote to the
editor requesting him to supply me with the name of his
correspondent, and also to state whether he knew him to
be a trustworthy man. In reply the editor said that he
knew his correspondent to be trustwort.hy, and that his
name is Thomas Greering : —

About thirty years ago the small market town in which I
reside was skirted by an open common, upon which a numbei
of geese were kept by cottagers. The number of the birds wae
very great. . . . Our corn market at that time was held in the
Btreet in front of the principal inn, and on the market day a
good deal of corn was scattered from sample bags by millers.
Pomohow the geese found out about the spilling of com, and
they appear to have held a consultation upon the subject. . . .

' Menault, WoJiders of Instinct, p. 132.

' Nat. on Amazons, p. 177; Anecdotes, p. 135.

BIRDS -GENERAL INT KLLIGENrE.

316

Fiom this time they never missed their opportunity, and the
entry of the geese was always looked for and invariably took
place. On the morning aft^r the market, early, and always on
the proper morning, fortnightly, in they came cackling and
gobbling in merry mood, and they never came on the wrong
day. The corn, of course, was the attraction, but in what
manner did they mark the time 1 One might have supposed
that their perceptions were awakened on the market day by the
smell of com, or perhaps by the noise of the market traffic ; but
my story is not yet finished, and its sequel is against this view.
It happened one year that a day of national humiliation was
kept, and the day appointed was that on which our market
should have been held. The market was postponed, and the
geese for once were baffled. There was no corn to tickle theii*
olfactory organs from afar, no traffic to appeal to their sense of
hearing. I think our little town was as still as it usually is on
Sundays. . . . The geese should have stopped away ; but they
knew their day, and came as usual. ... I do not pretend to
remember under what precise circumstances the habit of coming
into the street was acquired. It may have been formed by
degrees, and continued from year to year; but how the old
birds, who must have led the way, marked the time so as to
come in regularly and fortnightly, on a particular day of the
week, I am at a loss to conceive.

Livingstone's 'Expedition to the Zambesi, 1865,' p.
209, gives a conclusive account of the bird called the
honey-guide, which leads persons to bees' nests. * They
are quite as anxious to liure the stranger to the bees' hive
as other birds are to draw him away from their own nests.'
The object of the bird is to obtain the pupae of the bees
which are laid bare by the ravaging of the nest. The
habits of this bird have long been known and described
in books on popular natural history ; but it is well that
the facts have been observed by so trustworthy a man as
Livingstone. He adds, * How is it that members of this
family have learned that all men, white and black, are fond
of honey ? ' We can only answer, by intelligent observa-
tion in the fiirst instance, passing into individual and
hereditary habit, and so eventually into a fixed instinct.

Brehm relates an instance of cautious sagacity in a
pewit. He had placed some horsehair snares over its
nest, but the bird seeing them, pushed them aside with

316

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE-:,

her bill. Next day he set them thickly round the nest ;
but now the bird, instead of running as usual to the nest
along the ground, alighted directly upon it. This shows
a considerable appreciation of mechanical appliances, as
does also the following.

Mrs. G-. M. E. Campbell writes to me : —

At Ardglass, co. Down, Ireland, is a long tract of turf
coming to the edge of the rocks overhanging the sea, where
cattle and geese feed ; at a barn on this tract there was a low
enclosure, with a door fastening by a hook and staple to the side-
post : when the hook was out of the staple, the door fell open by
its o^vn weight. 1 one day saw a goose with a large troop of
goslings coming off the turf to this door, which was secured by
the hook being in the staple. The goose waited for a minute
or two, as if for the door to be opened, and then turned round
as if to go away, but what she did was to make a rush at the
door, and making a dart with her beak at the point of the hook
nearly threw it out of the staple ; she repeated this manoeuvre,
and succeeded at the third attempt, the door fell open, and the
goose led her troop in with a sound of triumphant chuckling.
How had the goose learned that the force of the rush was need-
ful to give the hook a sufficient toss 1

Mrs. K. Addison sends me the following instance of
the use of signs on the part of an intelligent jackdaw.
The bird was eighteen months old, and lived in some
bushes in Mrs. Addison's garden. She writes : —

T generally made a practice of filling a large basin which
stands under the trees every morning for Jack's bath. A few days
ago I forgot this duty, and was reminded of the fact in a very
singular manner. Another of my daily occupations is to open my
dressing-i-oom shutters about eleven o'clock of a morning. Now
these said shunters open almost on to the trees where Jack lives.
The day I forgot his bath, when I opened the shutters I found
my little friend waiting just outside them, as though he knew
that he should see me there ; and when he did he placed himself
immediately in front of me, and then shook himself and spread
out his wings just as he always does in his bath. The action
was so suggestive and so unmistakable, that I spoke just as I
would have done to a child — ' Oh yes, Jack, of course you shoU
have some water.'

Mr. W. W. Nichols writes to ' Nature : * —

BIKDS— GENERAL INTELLU; E N CE.

317

ITie Central Prison at Agra is the roosting-place of great
numbers of the common bhiG pigeon ; they fly out to the neigh-
bouring country for food every morning, and return in the
evening, when they drink at a tank just outside the prison walls.
In this tank are a large number of fresh-water turtles, which lie
in wait for the pigeons just under the suiface of the water and
at the edge of it. Any bird alighting to drink near one of
these turtles has a good chance of having its head bitten off and
eaten ; and the headless bodies of pigeons have been picked up
near the water, showing the fate which has sometimes befallen
the birds. The pigeons, however, are aware of the danger, and
have hit on the following plan to escape it. A pigeon comes in
from its long flight, and, as it nears the tank, instead of flying
down at once to the water's edge, will cross the tank at about
twenty feet above its surface, and then fly back to the side from
which it came, apparently selecting for alighting a safe spot
which it had remarked as it flew over the bank ; but even when
such a spot has been selected the bird will not alight at the
edge of the water, but on the bank about a yard from the water,
and will then run down quickly to the water, take two or three
hurried gulps of it, and then fly off to repeat the same process
at another part of the tank till its thii-Ft is satisfied. I had
often watched the birds doing this, aiid could not account for
their strange mode of drinking till tolu by my friend the super-
intendent of the prison, of the turtles which lay in ambush foi
the pigeons.

As a still more remarkable instance of the display of
intelligence by a bird of this species, I shall quote the
following observation of Commander E. H. Napier, also
published in ' Nature ' (\iii., p. 324) : —

A number of them (pouters) were feeding on a few oats
that had been accidentally let fall while fixing the nose-bag on
a horse standing at bait. Having finished all the grain at hand,
a large ' pouter ' rose, and flapping its vvings furiously, flew
directly at the horse's eyes, causing the animal to toss his head,
and in doing so, of course shake out more corn. I saw this
several times repeated — in fact, whenever the supply on hand
had been exhausted. . . . Was not this something more than
instinct 1

The following display of intelligence on the part of
swallows is communicated to me by ^Ir. Charles Wilson.

318

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

It can scarcely be attributed to accident, and does not
admit of mal-observation. My informant says : —

Two swallows were building a nest in the verandah of a
house in Victoria, but as their nest was i-esting partly on a bell-
wire, it was by this means twice pulled down. They then
began afresh, making a tunnel through the lower part of the
nest, through which the wii-e was able to act without doing
damage.

Another gentleman writes me of another use to which
he has observed swallows put the artifice of building
tunnels. Being molested by sparrows which desired to
take forcible possession of their nest, a pair of swallows
modified the entrance of the latter, so that instead of
opening by a simple hole under the eaves of a house, it
was carried on in the form of a tunnel.

Linnaeus says that the martin, wheu it builds under the
eaves of houses, sometimes is molested by sparrows taking
possession of the nest. The pair of martins to which the
nest belongs are not strong enough to dislodge the in-
vaders ; but they convoke their companions, some of whom
guard the captives, whilst others bring clay, close up the
entrance of the nest, and leave the sparrows to die miser-
ably. This account has been to a large extent indepen-
dently confirmed by Jesse, who ^eems not to have been
acquainted with the statement of Linnaeus. He writes : —

Swallows seem to entertain the recollection of injury, and
to resent it when an opportunity ofiers. A pair of swallowa
built their nest under the ledge of a house at Hampton Court.
It was no sooner completed than a couple of sparrows drove
them from it, notwithstanding the swallows kept up a good re-
sistance, and even brought others to assist them. The intruders
were lefc in peaceable possession of the nest, till the two old
birds were obliged to quit it to provide food for their young, Thej
had no sooner departed than several swallows came and broke
down the nest ; and I saw the young sparrows lying dead on
the ground. As soon as the nest was demolished, the swallowa
began to rebuild it.^

The same author gives the following and somewhat
similar case : —

* Gleam/i^s, vol. ii., p. 96.

BERDS — GENEEAL INTELLIGENCE.

319

A pair of swallows built their nest against one of the first-
floor windows of an uninhabited house in Merrion Square,
Dublin. A sparrow, however, took possession of it, and the
swallows were repeatedly seen clinging to the nest, and en-
deavouring to gain an entrance to the abode they had erected
with so much labour. All their efforts, however, were defeated
by the sparrow, who never once quitted the nest. The pei-se-
verance of the swallows was at length exhausted : they took
flight, but shortly afterwards returned, accompanied by a
number of their congenerS; each of them having a piece of dirt
in its bill. By this means they succeeded iii st<^pping up the
hole, and the intruder was immured in total darlmess. Soon
afterwards the nest was taken down and exbibited to seveml
persons, with the dead sparrow in it. In this case there ap-
pears to have been not only a reasoning faculty, but the birds
must have l)een possess^Ml of the power of communicating their
r&sentment and their wishes to their friends, without whose aid
they could not thus have avenged the injuiy they had sus-
tained. ^

That birds sometimes act in concert may also be
gathered from the following observations recorded by Mr.
Buck :—

I have constantly seen a flock of pelicans, when on the feed,
form a line across a lake, and drive the fish before them up its
whole length, just as fishermen would with a net,^

The following is extracted from Sir E. Tennent's
' Natural History of Ceylon,' and displays remarkable in-
telligence on the part of the crows in that island : —

One of these ingenious mai-auders, after vainly attitudi-
nising in fi-ont of a chained watch-dog, that was lazily gnawing
a bone, and after fruitlessly endeavouring to divert his attention
by dancing befoi-e him, with, head awry and eye askance, at
length flew away for a moment, and returned bringing a com-
panion which perched itself on a branch a few yards in the
rear. The crow's grimaces wei-e now actively renewed, but
with no better success, till its confederate, poising itself
on its wings, descended with the utmost velocity, striking the
dog upon the spine with all the force of its strong beak. The
nise was successful ; the dog started with surprise and pain,
but not quickly enough to seize his assailant, whilst the bone he
had been gnawmg was snatched away by the first crow thp

» Ibid., p. 99. « Natwre, vol. xiii., p. 303.

320

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

instant his head was tiimed. Two well-authenticated instances
of the recurrence of this device came within my knowledge at
Colombo, and attest the sagacity and powers of commanication
and combination possessed by these astute and courageous
birds.

This account, which would be difficult of credence if
narrated by a less competent author, is strikingly confirmed
by an independent observation on the crows of Japan,
which has recently been published by jMiss Bird, in whose
words I shall render it. She writes : —

In the inn garden I saw a dog eating a piece of carrion in
the presence of several of these covetous buxls. They evidently
said a great deal to each other on the subject, and now and then
one or two of them tried to pull the meat away from him,
which he resented. At last a big strong crow succeeded in
tearing off a piece, with which he returned to the pine where
the others were congregated, and after much earnest speech
they all surrounded the dog, and the leading bird dexterously
dropped the small piece of meat within reach of his mouth,
when he immediately snapped at it, letting go the big piece
unwisely for a second, on which two of the crows How away
with it to the pine, and with much fluttering and hilarity
they all ate, or rather gorged it, the deceived dog looking vacant
and bewildered for a moment, after which he sat under the tre*^
and barked at them inanely. A gentleman told me that he
saw a dog holding a piece of meat in like manner in the
presence of three crows, which also vainly tried to tear it from
him, and after a consultation they separated, two going as near
as they dared to the meat, while the thii^d gave the tail a
bite sharp enough to make the dog turn round with a
squeak, on which the other villains seized the meat, and the
three fed triumphantly upon it on the top of a wall.^

These two independent statements by competent ob-
servers of such similar exhibitions of intelligence by crows,
justifies us in accepting the fact, remarkable though it be.
\s further corroboration, however, I shall quote still
another independent and closely similar observation,
which I find in a letter to me from Sir J. Clarke Jervoise,
who says, while writing of rooke which he has observed in
England : —

* Unbeaten Tracks in Japan, vol. ii., pp. 149-60.

BIRDS — GENER.IL INTFXLIGEXCE. 32 i

A pheasant used to come very boldly and run off with large
pieces of food, which he could only divide by shaking, and he
was closely watched by the rooks for the pieces that tiew out of
his reach. He learned to run off into the shrubs, followed by
the rooks, who pulled his tail to make him drop his food.

I shall next quote a highly interesting observation
which seems to have been well made, and which displays
remarkable intelligence on the part of the birds described.
These are Turnstones, which, as their name implies, turn
over stones, &c., in order to obtain as food the sundry
small creatures concealed beneath. In this case the ob-
server was Edward. Being concealed in a hollow, and
unnoticed by the birds, he saw a pair trying to turn over
the body of a stranded cod-fish, three and a half feet long,
and buried in the sand to a depth of several inches. He
thus describes what he saw : —

Having got faiily settled down in my pebbly observatory, I
turned my undivided attention to the birds before me. They
were boldly pushing at the tish with their bills, and then with
their breasts. Their endeavours, however, were in vain : the
object remained immovable. On this they both went round to
the opposite side, and began to scrape away the sand from
beneath the fish. After removing a considerable quantity,
they again came back to the i^pot which they had left, and went
once more to work w^th their bills and breasts, but with a^
little apparent success as formerly. Nothing daunted, however,
they ran round a second time to the other side, and recommenced
their trenching operations with a seeming determination not to
be bafiled in their object, which evidently was to undermine the
dead animal before them, m order that it might be the more
easily overturned.

While they were thus employed, and after they had laboured
in this manner at both sides alternately for nearly half an hour,
they were joined by another of their own species, which came
flying with rapidity from the neighboiu-ing rocks. Its timely
arrival was hailed Avith evident signs of joy. I was led to thip
conclusion from the gestures which they exhibited, and from a
low but pleasant murmuring noise to which they gave utterance
so soon as the new-comer made his appearance. Of their
feelings he seemed to be perfectly aware, and he made his reply
to them in a similar strain. Their mutual congratulations
being over, they all three set to work; and after labouring

522

ANIMAL INTELLI.r,EXCE.

rigorously for a few minutes in removing the sand, they came
round to the other side, and putting their breasts simultaneously
to the fish, they succeeded in raising it some inches from the
sand, but were unable to turn it over. It went down again
into its sandy bed, to the manifest disappointment of the three.
Kesting, however, for a space, and without leaving their
respective positions, which were a little apart the one from the
other, they resolved, it appears, to give the work another tri 1.
Lowering themselves, with their breasts pressed close to the
sand, they managed to push their bills underneath the fish,
which they made to rise about the same height as before.
Afterwards, withdrawing their bills, but without losing the
advantage which they had gained, they applied their breasts to
the object. This they did with such force, and to such purpose,
that at length it went over, and rolled several yards down a
slight declivity. It was followed to some distance by the birds
themselves before they could recover their bearing.*

I shall now bring this chapter to a close by presenting
all the evidence that I have been able to collect with
regard to the punishment of malefactors among rooks.

Groldsmith, who used constantly to observe a rookery
from his window, says that the selection of a site for the
building of a nest is a matter of much anxious delibera-
tion on the part of a young crow couple ; the male and
female ' examining all the trees of a grove very atten-
tively, and when they have fixed upon a branch that seems
fit for their purpose, they continue to sit upon it, and
observe it very sedulously for two or three days longer : ' —

It often happens that the young couple have made choice of
a place too near the mansion of an older pair, who do not
choose to be incommoded by such troublesome neighbours ; a
quarrel, therefore, instantly ensues, in which the old ones are
always victorious. The young couple, thus expelled, are obliged
again to go through their fatigues — deliberating, examining,
and choosing ; and, having taken care to keep their due distance,
the nest begins again, and their industry deserves commen-
dation. But their activity is often too great in the beginning ;
they soon grow weary of bringing the materials of their nests
from distant places, and they very early perceive that sticka
may be provided nearer home, with less honesty indeed, but
some degree of address. Away they go, therefore, to pilfer as
Cswt as they can, and, whenever they see a nest unguarded, they

* Smiles, Life of Edward, pp. 244-6.

BIRDS— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

323

take care to rob it of the very choicest sticks of which it is
composed. But these thefts never go unpunished, and probably,
upon complaint being made, there is a general punishment
inflicted. I have seen eight or ten rooks come upon such
occasions, and, setting upon the new nest of the young couple,
all at once tear it to pieces in a moment.

At length, however, the young pair find the necessity of
going more regularly to woi-k. While one flies to fetch the
materials, the other sits upon the tree to guard it ; and thus m
the space of three or four days, with a skirmish now and then
between, the pair have filled up a commodious nest, composed
of sticks without, and of fibrous roots and long grass within.
From the instant the female b3gins to lay, all hostilities are at
an end ; not one of the whole gi'ove, that a little before treated
her so rudely, will now venture to molest her, so that she
brings forth her brood with perfect tranquillity. Such is the
severity with which even natix'e rooks are treated by each other ;
but if a foreign rook should attempt to make himself a denizen of
their society, he would meet with no favour, the whole gi-ove
would at once be up in arms against him, and expel him with-
out mercy.

Couch says (' Illustrations of Instinct,' p. 334 et seq.^ :
The wrong- doers being discovered, the punishment is ap
propriate to the oflTence ; by the destruction of their dishonest
work they are taught that they who build must find their own
bricks or sticks, and not their neighbours', and that if they wish
to live in the enjoyment of the advantages of the social con-
dition, they must endeavour to conform their actions to the
principles of the rookery of which they have been made
members.

Itis not known what enormities led to the institution of
another tribunal of the same kind, called the Crow Court, but ac-
cording to Dr. Edmonson, in his ' Yiew of the Shetland Islands,'
its proceedings are as authoritative and regular, audit is remark-
able as occurring in a species [Corvus Cornice) so near akin
to the rook. The Crow Court is a sort of general assembling of
birds who, in their usual habits, are accustomed to live in pairs,
scattered at great distances from each other ; when they visit
the south or wnest of England, as they do in severe winters,
they are commonly solitary. In their summer haunts in the
Shetland Islands, numbers meet together from different points
on a particular hill or field ; and on these occasions the assem-
bly is not complete, and does not begin its business for a day
or two, till, all the deputies having arrived, a general clamour

23

324

AXIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

or croaking ensues, and the whole of the court, judges, barristers,
ushers, audience, and all, fall upon the two or three prisoners
at the bar, and beat them till they kill them. When this is
accomplished the court breaks up and quietly disperses.

In the northern parts of Scotland (says Dr. Edmonson),
and in the Faroe Islands, extraordinary meetings of crows are
occasionally known to occur. They collect in great numbers,
as if they had all been summoned for the occasion ; a few of the
flock sit with drooping heads, and others seem as grave as
judges, while others again are exceedingly active and noisy ; in
the course of about one hour they disperse, and it is not un-
common, after they have flown away, to find one or tAvo left
dead on the spot. These meetings will sometimes continue for
a day or two before the object, whatever it may be, is completed.
Grows continue to arrive from all quarters during the session.
As soon as they have all arrived, a very general noise ensues ;
and, shortly after, the whole fall upon one or two individuals,
and put them to death. When the execution has been per-
formed, they quietly disperse.

Similarly, the Bishop of Carlisle writes in the ' Nine-
teenth Century' for July 1881 : -

I have seen also a jackdaw in the midst of a congregation of
rooks, appa ently being tried for some misdemeanour. First
Jack m de a speech, which was answered by a general cawing
of the rooks ; this subsiding. Jack again took up his pamble,
and the rooks in their turn replied in chorus. After a time
the business, whatever it was, appeared to be settled satisfac-
torily : if Jack was on his trial, as he seemed to be, he wa?
honourably acquitted by acclamation ; for he went to his home
in the towers of Ely Cathedral, and the rooks also went their way.

Lastly, Major-Greneral Sir Greorge Le Grand Jacob,
K.C.S.I., C.B., writes to me that while sitting in a ve-
randah in India, he saw three or four crows come and perch
on a neighbouring house. They then cawed continuously
with such peculiar sound and vigour as to attract his at-
tention. His account proceeds : —

Soon a gathering of crows from all quarters took place, until
the roof of the guard-house was blackened by them. Thereupon
a prodigious clatter ensued ; it was plain that a ' palaver ' was
going forward. Some of its members, more eager than othei-s,
skipping about, I became much interested, and narrowly watched
the proceedings, all within a dozen yards of me. After much
cawing and clamour, the whole ^oup Bnddenly rose into the air.

BIRDS — GENERAL INTELLIGENCE. 325

and kept circling round half a dozen of their fellows, one of whom
had been clearly told ofif for punishment, for the five repeat-
edly attacked it in quick succession, allowing no opportunity for
their victim l^o escape, which he was trying to do, until they
had cast him fluttering on the ground about thirty yards from
my chair. Unfortunately I rushed forward to pick up the bird,
prostrate but fluttering on the grass which was like a lawn
before the building. I succeeded only in touching it, for it
wriggled away from my grasp, and flew greatly crippled and
close to the ground into the neighbouring bushes, where I lost
sight of it. All the others, after circHng round me and
chattering, angrily as T thought, flew away, on my resuming
my seat, in the direction taken by their victim.

[Since going to press I have seen, through the kindness of Mr.
Seebohm, some specimens of cuckoo's eggs coloured in imitation of
those belonging to the birds in the nests of which they are laid.
There can be no question about the imitation, and I add this note to
mitigate the criticism which I have passed upon Professor Newton's
theory of the cause. For Mr. Seebohm has pointed out to me that the
theory becomes more probable if we consider that a cuckoo reared in the
.eat of any particular bird is likely afterwards to choose a similar
lest for the deposition of its own eggs. Whether or not the memory
of a bird would thus act could only, of course, be certainly proved by
experiment ; but in view of the possibility that it may, Professor
Newton's theory becomes more probable than it is if the selection
of the appropriate nest is supposed to depend only on inheritance.

I must also add that Dr. Sclater has been kind enough to draw my
attention to a remarkable description of a species of Bower-bird,
published by Dr. Beccari in the Gardener's Chronicle for March 16,
1879. This species is called the Gardener Bower-bird {Anihhionm
nim^nata), and inhabits New Guinea. The animal is about the size of a
turtle-dove, and its bower— or rather hut — is built round the stem of a
tree in the shape of a cone, with a space between the stem of the tree
and the walls of the hut. The latter are composed of stems of an orchid
with their leaves on — this particular plant being chosen by the birds
apparently because its leaves remain long fresh. But the imost extra-
ordinary structure is the garden, which is thus described by Dr.
Beccari : — ' Before the cottage there is a meadow of moss. This is
brought to the spot and left free from grass, stones, or anything which
would offend the eye. On this green turf flowers and fruits of pretty
colour are placed, so as to form an elegant little garden. The greater
part of the decoration is collected round the entrance to the nest, and
it would appear that the husband offers these his daily gifts to his wife.
The objects are very various, but always of a vivid colour. There were
some fruits of a Garcinia like a small-sized apple. Others were the
fruits of Gardencias of a deep yellow colour in the interior. I saw also
small rosy fruits, probably of a Scitamineous plant, and beautiful rosy
flowers of a new Vaccinium. There were also fungi and mottled insects
placed on the turf. As soon as the objects are faded they are moved to
the back of the hut.' There is a fine-coloured plate of this bird in
its garden, published in the Birds of New Guinea, by Mr. Gould
Part ix.. 1879.1

526

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

CHAPTER XI.

MAMMALS.

I SHALL devote this chapter to the psychology of all the
Mammalia which present any features of psychological
interest, with the exception of the rodents, the elephant,
the dog and cat tribe among Carnivora, and the Primates
— all of which I shall reserve for separate treatment.

Marsujpials,

In the ' Transactions of the Linnean Society,' Major
Mitchell gives an interesting account of the structm-e
reared by a small Australian marsupial (Conilurus con-
structor) for the purposes of defence against the dingo dog.
Ft consists of a large pile of dry sticks and brushwood,
' big enough to make two or three good cart-loads.' Each
stick and fragment is closely intertwined o^ woven with
the rest, so that the whole forms a solid, compact mass.
In the middle of this large structure is the nest of the
animal.

The marsupials are as low in the scale of mammalian
intelligence as they are in that of mammalian structure :
so that, except the above, I have met with no fact con-
nected with the psychology of this group that is worth
quoting, except, perhaps, the following, which appears to
show deliberation and decision on the part of the kangaroo.
Jesse writes : —

A gentleman who had resided for several years in New
South "Wales related the following circumstance, which he
assm^ed me he had frequently witnessed while hunting the kan-
garoo : it furnishes a strong proof of the affection of that animal
for her young, even when her own life has been placed in tha

MAESUPIALS A^D CETACEANS.

327

most imminent danger. He informed me that, when a female
kangaroo has been hard pressed by dogs, he has seen her,
while she has been making her bounds, put her fore-paws into
her pouch, take a young one from it, and then throw it as far
on one side as she possibly could out of the way of the dogs.
But for this manoeuvre her own life and that cf her young one
would have been sacrificed. By getting rid of the latter she
has frequently efiected her escape, and probably returned after-
wards to seek for her offspring.

Cetaceans,

The following is quoted froni Thompson : —

In 1811, says Mr. Scoresby, one of my harpooners struck a
sucker, with the hope of leading to the capture of the mother.
Presently she arose close to the ' fast boat,' and seizing the
young one, dragged about 600 feet of line out of the boat with
remarkable force and velocity. Again she rose to the surface,
darted furiously to and fro, frequently stopped short or suddenly
changed her direction, and gave every possible intimation of
extreme agony. For a length of time she continued thus to act,
though pursued closely by the boats; aud, inspired with courage
and resolution by her concei-n for her young, seemed regardless
of the dangers which surrounded her. At length one of the
boats approached so near that a harpoon was hove at her ; it
hit, but did not attach itself. A second harpoon was struck,
but this also failed to penetrate ; but a third was more successful,
and held. Still she did not attempt to escape, but allowed
other boats to approach ; so that in a few minutes three more
harpoons were fastened, and in the course of an hour afterwards
she was killed.'

^ir. Saville Kent communicates an article to 'Nature'
(vol. viii., p. 229) on ' Intellect of Porpoises.' He says : —

The keeper in charge of these interesting animals is now in
the habit of summoning them to their meals by the call of a
whistle ; his approaching footsteps, even, cause great excitement
in their movements. . . . The curiosity attributed to the.se
creatures, as illustrated by the experiences of Mr. Matthew
Williams, receives ample confirmation from their habits and
confinement. A new arrival is at once subjected to the most
importunate attention, and, advancing from famiharity to con-
' Passions of Aii'imals, p. 164.

528

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCK.

tempt if disapproved of, soon becomes the object of attack and
persecution. A few dog-fish {A canthias Bind Mastelus), three or
four feet long, now fell victims to their tyranny, the porpoises
seizing them by their tails, and swimming off with and
shaking them in a manner scarcely conducive to their comfort
or dignified appe;\rance, reminding the spectator of a large dog
worrying a rat. . . . On one occasion I witnessed the two
Cetacea acting e\^dently in concert against one of these unwieldy
fish (skates), the latter swimming close to the top of the water,
and seeking momentary respite from its relentless enemies, by
lifting its unfortunate caudal appendage high above its surface
— the peculiar tail of the skate being the object of sport to the
porpoises, which seized it in their mouths as a convenient handlo
whereby to pull the animal about, and worry it incessantly.

In a subsequent number of ' Nature ' (vol. ix., p. 42)
Mr. C. Fox writes : —

Several years ago a herd of porpoises was scattered by a net
which I had got made to enclose some of them. . . . The
whole ' senile ' was much alarmed, and two were secured. I
conclude that their companions retained a vivid remembrance
of the sea-fight, as these Cetacea, although frequent visitants in
this harboui' (Falmouth) previously, and often watched for,
Were not seen in it again for two yeare or more.

Horse and Ass.

The horse is not so intelligent an animal as any of the
larger Camivora, while among herbivorous quadrupeds his
sagacity is greatly exceeded by that of the elephant, and in
a lesser degree by that of his congener the ass. On the
other hand, his intelligence is a grade or two above that
of perhaps any ruminant or other herbivorous quadruped.

The emotional life of this animal is remarkable, in
that it appears to admit of undergoing a sudden trans-
formation in the hands of the ' horse-tamer.' The cele-
brated results obtained by Rarey in this connection have
since been repeated with more or less success by many
persons in various pai .s of the world, and the ' method '
appears to be in all cases essentially the same. The un-
tamed and apparently untamable animal has its fore-
leg or legs strapped up, is cast on its side and allowed t •

HORSE.

329

stniggle for a while. It is then subjected to various
manipulations, which, without necessarily causing pain,
make the animal feel its helplessness and the mastery of
the operator. The extraordinary fact is that, after having
once felt this, the spirit or emotional life of the animal
undergoes a complete and sudden change, so that from
having been ' wild ' it becomes ' tame.' In some cases
there are subsequent relapses, but these are easily
checked. Even the truly ' wild ' horse from the prairie
admits of being completely subdued in a marvellously
short time by the Gauchos, who employ an essentially
similar method, although the struggle is here much
more fierce and prolonged.' The same may be said of
the taming of wild elephants, although in this case
the facts are not nearly so remarkable from a psycho-
logical point of view, seeing that the process of taming is
80 much more slow.

Another curious emotional feature in the horse is the
liability of all the other mental faculties of the animal
to become abandoned to that of terror. For I think I am
right in saying that the horse is the only animal which,
under the influence of fear, loses the possession of every
other sense in one mad and mastering desire to run.
With its entire mental life thus overwhelmed by the flood
of a single emotion, the horse not only loses, as other
animals lose, ' presence of mind,' or a due balance among
the distinctively intellectual faculties, but even the
avenues of special sense become stopped, so that the wholly
demented animal may run headlong and at terrific speed
against a stone wall. I have known a hare come to grief
in a somewhat similar fashion when hotly pursued by a
dog ; this, however, was clearly owing to the hare looking
behind instead of before, in a manner not, under the cir-
cumstances, unwise ; but, as I have said, there is no animal
except the horse whose whole psychology is thus liable to
be completely dominated by a single emotion.

As for its other emotions, the horse is certainly an
affectionate animal, pleased at being petted, jealous of

' See !BTr. Darwin's account in Naturalist's Voyage round the World.
pp. 151-2.

330

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

companions receiving favour, greatly enjoying play wito
others of its kind, and also the sport of the hunting-field.
Lastly, horses exhibit pride in a marked degree, as do also
mules. Such animals, when well kept, are unmistakably
pleased with gay trappings, so that ' in Spain, as a punish-
ment for disobedience, it is usual to strip the animal of its
gaudy coronal and bells, and to transfer them to another
(Thompson).

The memory of the horse is remarkably good, as
almost every one must have had occasion to observ^e who
has driven one over roads which the animal may have
only once traversed a long time before. As showing the
duration of memory I may quote the following letter to
Mr. Darwin from the Eev. Rowland H. Wedgwood, which
I find among the MSS. of the former :-

I want to tell you of an instance of long memory in a
horse. I have just driven my pony down from London here,
and though she has not been here for eight years, she re-
membered her way quite well, and made a bolt for the stables
where I used to keep her.

A few instances of the display of intelligence by
members of the horse tribe may bring this section to a
close.

Mr. W. J. Fleming writes me concerning a \dcious horse
he had which, while being groomed, frequently used to
throw a ball of wood attached to his halter at the groom.
He did so by flexing his fetlock and jamming the ball
between the pastern and the leg, then throwing the ball
backwards ' with great force.'

I myself had a horse which was very clever at slipping
his halter after he knew that the coachman was in bed.
He would then draw out the two sticks in the pipe of the
oat-bin, so as to let all the oats run down from the bin
above upon the stable floor. Of course he must have
observed that this was the manner in which the coachman
obtained the oats, and desiring to obtain them, did what
he had observed to be required. Similarly, on other oc-
casions he used to turn the water-tap to obtain a drink,
and pull the window cord to open the window on hot nights

HORSE.

331

The anecdote books contain several stories very much
alike concerning horses spontaneously visiting blacksmiths'
shops when they require shoeing, or feel their shoes un-
comfortable. The appended account, vouched for as it is
bj a good authority, may be taken as corroborative of these
stories. I quote the account from ' Nature ' (May 19,
1881):—

The following instance of animal intelligence is sent to ils
by Dr. John Rae, F.R.S., who states that the Mr. William
Sinclair mentioned is respectable and trustworthy. The anec-
dote is taken from the ' Orkney Heraki ' of May 11 : A well-
authenticated and extraordinary case of the sagacity of the
Shetland pony has just come under our notice. A year or two
ago Mr. William Sinclair, pupil-teaoher, Holm, imported one
of these little animals from Shetland on which to ride to and
from school, his residence being at a considerable distance from
the school buildings. Up to that time the animal had been
unshod, but some time afterwards Mr. Sinclair had it shod by
Mr. Pratt, the parish blacksmith. The other day j\Ir. Pratt,
whose smithy is a long distance from Mr. Sinclair's house, saw
the pony, without halter or anything upon it, walking up to
where he was working. Thinking the animal had strayed from
home, he drove it off, throwing stones after the beast to make
it run homewards. This had the desired effect for a short
time ; but Mr. Pratt had only got fairly at work once more
in the smithy when the pony's head again made its appearance
at the door. On proceeding a second time outside to drive the
pony away, Mr. Pratt, with a blacksmith's instinct, took a look
at the pony's feet, when he observed that one of its shoes had
been lost. Having made a shoe he put it on, and then waited
to see what the animal would do. For a moment it looked at
the blacksmith as if asking whether he was done, then paAved
once or twice to see if the newly-shod foot was comfortable, and
finally gave a pleased neigh, erected its head, and started home
wards at a brisk trot. The owner was also exceedingly sur-
prised to find the animal at home completely shod the same
evening, and it was only on calling at the smithy some days
afterwards that he leai iied the full extent of his pony's sagacity.

In ' ISTature,' also (vol. xx., p. 21), Prof. Claypole, of
Antioch Cottage, Ohio, writes as follows : —

A friend of mine is employed on a farm near Toronto,
Ontario, where a horse, belonging to the wife of the farmer, is

332

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

never required to work, but is allowed to live the life of a
gentleman, for the following reason. Some years ago the lady
above mentioned fell off a plank bridge into a stream when the
water was deep. The horse, which was feeding in a field close
by, ran to the spot, and held her up with his teeth till assist-
ance arrived, thus probably saving her life. Was this reason
or instinct 1

Mr. Strickland, also writing to ' Nature ' (vol. xix.,
p. 410), says : —

A mare here had her first foal when she was ten or twelve
years old. She was blind of one eye. The result was, she
frequently trod upon the foal or knocked it over when it hap-
pened to be on the blind side of her, in consequence of which
the foal died when it was three or four months old. The next
year she had another foal, and we fully expected the result
would be the same. But no ; from the day it was bom she
never moved in the stall without looking round to see where
the foal was, and she never trod upon it or injured it in any
way. You see that reason did not teach her that she was killing
her first foal ; her care for the second was the result of memory,
imagination, and thought after the foal was dead, and before the
next one was born. The only difierence that I can see between
the reasoning power of men and animals is that the latter is
applied only to the very limited space of providing for their
bodily wants, whereas that of men embraces a vast amount of
other objects besides this.

Houzeau (vol. ii., p. 207) says that the mules used in
the tramways at New Orleans prove that they are able to
count five ; for they have to make five journeys from one
end of the tramway to the other before they are released,
and they make four of these journeys without showing
that they expect to be released, but bray at the end of
the fifth. This observation, however, requires to be con-
firmed, for unless carefully made we must suppose that
the fact may be due to the mules seeing the ostler wait-
ing to take them out.

Mr. Samuel G-oodbehere, solicitor, writes me from
Birmingham the following instance as having fallen under
his own observation : —

We had a Welsh cob pony or Galloway about 14 hands
tdgh, who was occasionally kept in a shed (in a farmyard),

HOUSE AND ASS.

333

piatly closed at the front by a gate which was secured by a bolt
ir-side and a drop latch outside. The pony (who was able to put
his head and neck over the gate, but could not reach the outside
latch) was constantly found loose in the yard, which was con-
sidered quite a mystery until it was solved one day by my
observing the pony fii-st pushing back the inside bolt, and then
neighing until a donkey, who had the run of the yard and an
adjoining paddock, came and pushed up the outside latch with
his nose, thus letting the pony at liberty, when the two
marched off together.

The following is the only instance that I have met
with in any of the horse tribe of that degree of sagacity
which leads to the intentional concealment of wrong-
doing. In the case of elephants, dogs, and monkeys we
find abundant evidence on this head, which therefore
renders the following instance more antecedently credible,
and, as it is also narrated on good authority, I do not
hesitate to quote it.

Professor Nipher, of Washington University, St. Louis,
U.S., says : —

A friend of mine living at Iowa City had a mule, whose
ingenuity in getting into mischief was more than ordinarily
remarkable. This animal had a great liking for the company
of an oat-bin, and lost no opportunity, when the yard gate and
barn door were open, to secure a mouthful of oats. Finally the
mule was found in the barn in the morning, and for a long time
it was found impossible to discover how he had come thei-e.
This went on for some time, until the animal was ' caught in the
act.' It was found that he had learned how to open the gate,
reaching over the fence to lift the latch, and that he then
effectually mystified his masters by turning round and backing
against it until it was latched. He then proceeded to the barn
door, and pulling out the pin which held the door, it swung
open of its own accord. From the intelligence which this
animal displayed on many occasions, I am of the opinion that
had not discovery of his trick prevented, it would soon have
occurred to him to retrace his steps before daylight, in order to
avoid the clubbing which the stable boys gave him in the
morning. It may be added that this animal had enjoyed no
unusual educational advantages, and his owners found it to their
interest to discourage his intellectual efforts as much as possible.'

* Nature^ vol. xx., p. 21.

534

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

Ruminants.

Concerning sympathy, Major-General Sir George Le
Grand Jacob, C.B., &c., writes me of instances which he
observed of doe ibexes raising with their heads the buckr
which he shot, and supporting them during flight.

A vivid and inteUigent class of emotions, in which
sympathy and rational fear are blended, seem to be ex-
hibited by cattle in slaughterhouses. Many years ago a
pamphlet was written upon the subject, and more recently
JVIr. Eobert Hamilton, F.C.S., without apparently knowing
of this previous publication, wrote another pamphlet, con-
veying precisely similar statements. These are too long
to quote in extenso ; but from a letter which the latter
gentleman writes to me I may make the following ex-
tract : —

The animal witnessing the process of killing, flaying, &c.,
repeated od one after another of its fellows, gets to comprehend
to the full extent the dreadful ordeal, and as it mentally grasps
the meaning of it all, the increasing horror de|)icted in its con-
dition can be clearly seen. Of course some portray it much
more vividly than others ; the varying intelligence manifested in
this respect is only another link which knits them in oneness
with the human family.

Pride is well marked in sheep and cattle, as shown by
the depressing effects produced on a • bell-wether ' or
leading cow by transferring the bell to another member of
the herd ; and it is said that in Switzerland the beasts
which on show days are provided with garlands, are
evidently aware of the distinction thus placed upon them.
With some amount of poetic exaggeration this fact is
noted by Schiller, who says in ' Wilhelm Tell,' —

See with what pride your steer his garland wears;
He knows himself the leader of the herd ;
But strip him of i^, and he'd die of grief.

With regard to the general intelHgence of ruminants
I may first quote the following : —

The sagacity with which the bisons defend themselves

BISON AND BUFFALO.

335

(igainst the attack of wolves is admirable. When they scent
the approach of a drove of these ravenous creatures, the herd
throws itself into the form of a circle, having the weakest and
the calves in the middle, and the strongest ranged on the outside ;
thus presenting an impenetrable front of horns. ^

The buffalo of the Old World manifests sagacity very
similar. As Sir J. E. Tennent informs us, —

The temper of the wild buffalo is morose and uncertain ; and
such is its strength and courage, that in the Hindu epic of the
' E,amayana ' its onslaught is compared with that of the tiger.
It is never quite safe to approach them if disturbed in their
pasture, or alarmed from their repose in the shallow lakes. On
such occasions they hurry into line, draw up in defensive array,
with a few of the oldest bulls in advance ; and, wheeling in
circles, their horns clashing with a loud sound as they clank
them together in their rapid evolutions, they prepare for attack
but generally, after a menacing display, the herd betake them
selves to flight ; then forming again at a safer distance, the)
halt as before, elevating their nostrils, and throwing back theii
heads to take a defiant survey of the intruders.^

When tamed this animal is used for sporting purposes
in a manner which displays the spirit of curiosity of deer,
hogs, and other animals. Thus, Sir J. E. Tennent con-
tinues : —

A bell is attached to its neck, and a box or basket with
one side open is securely strapped on its back. This at night is
lighted with flambeaux of wax, and the buffalo l>earing it is
slowly driven into the jungle. The huntsmen with theii
fowling-pieces keep close under the darkened side, and as it
moves slowly onwards, the vdld animals, startled by the sound
and bewildered by the light, steal cautiously towards it in
stupefied fascination. Even the snake, I am assured, will be
attracted by this extraordinary object ; and the leopard, too, falln
a victim to curiosity. ^

Livingstone says of the African buffalo, that he has
known the animal, when pursued by hunters, to ' turn
back to a point a few yards from its own trail, and then
lie down in a hollow for the hunter to come up,' — a fact

* Thompson, Passions of Animals, p. 308.

* Natural Histainj of Ceylon, p. 54.
' Ibid., p. 56.

S36

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

which displays a level of intelligence in this animal sur-
passing that which is met with in most Carnivora.*
Livingstone also says : —

It is curions to observe the intelligence of game ; in districts
where they are much annoyed by fire-arms they keep out on
the most open spots of country they can find, in order to have
a widely extended range of vision, and a man armed is carefully
shunned. . . . But here, where they are killed by the arrows
of the Balonda, they select for safety the densest forest, where
the arrow cannot be easily shot.^

Jesse, who had many opportunities of observing the
fact, says : —

I have been much delighted with watching the manner in
which some of the old bucks in Bushey Park continue to get the
berries from the fine thorn trees there. They will raise them-
selves on their hind legs give a spring, entangle their horns in
the lower branches of the tree, give them one or two shakes,
and they will then quietly pick them up.^

The same author elsewhere says : —

Few things, indeed, can show more forcibly the powerful
instinct which is implanted in animals for their self-preservation
than the means which they take to avoid danger. I saw an
instance of this lately in a stag. It had been turned out before
a pack of hounds, and, when somewhat pressed by them, I ob-
served it twice to go amongst a flock of sheep, and in both cases
to double back, evidently, I should imagine, with the intention
of baffling the pursuit of the dogs. It would thus seem that
the animal was aware of its being followed by the scent, and
not by sight. If this be the case, it afibrds another proof that
animals are possessed of something more than common instinct.^

This author also says that he has ' frequently observed
the buffalo at the Zoological Farm on Kingston Hill '
display the following proof of intelligence. Being of a
ferocious disposition, a strong iron ring was fixed through
the septum of his nose, to which a chain about two feet
long was attached. At the free end of the chain there-
was another ring about four inches in diameter. ' In
grazing the buffalo must have put his feet on this ring,

» Missionary Travels, p. 328. ^ Ibid., p. 280.

• Gleanings, &c., vol. i., p. 20. * Ibid., vol. ii., p. 20.

GOATS.

337

and in raising his head the jerk would have produced
considerable pain. In order to avoid this the animal has
the sense to put his horn through the lower ring, and thus
avoid the inconvenience he is put to. I have seen him
do this in a very deliberate manner, putting his head on
one side while he got his horn through the ring, and then
shaking his head till the ring rested at the bottom of the
horn.' '

The following is quoted from Mrs. I;ee's ' Anecdotes '
(p. 366), and is rendered credible not only because her
own observations are generally good, but also because
we shall subsequently find unquestionable evidence of the
display of similar intelligence by cats : —

A goat and her kids frequented a square in which I once Hved,
and were often fed by myself and servants — a circumstance which
would have made no impression, had I not heard a thumping
at the hall door, which arose from the buttings of the goat when
the food was not forthcoming, and whose example was followed
by the two little things. After a time this remained unheeded,
and, to our great astonishment, one day the area bell used by
the tradespeople, the wire of which passed by the side of one of
the railings, was sounded. The cook answered it, but no one
was there save the goat and kids, with their heads bent down
towards the kitchen window. It was thought thnt some boy
had rung for them ; but they were watched, and the old goat
was seen to hook one of her horns into the wire and pull it.
This is too much like reason to be ascribed to mere instinct.

P. Wakefield, in his ' Instinct Displayed,' ^ gives two
separate cases of an intelligent manoeuvre performed by
goats. On both occasions two goats met on a ridge of
rock with a precipice on each side, and too narrow to
admit of their passing one another. One of these cases
occurred on the ramparts of Plymouth Citadel, and was
witnessed by ' many persons ; ' the other took place at
Ardenglass, in Ireland. ' In both these instances the
animals looked at each other for some time, as if they
were considering their situation, and deliberating what
was best to be done in the emergency.' In each case one
of the goats then 'knelt down with great caution, and

' Hid., pp. 226-7.

' Pp. 66 and 97.

338

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

crouched as close as it could lie, when the other walked
over its back.' This manoeuvre on the part of goats has
also been recorded by other writers, and is not so incre-
dible as it may at first sight appear, if we remember that
in their wild state these animals must not unfrequently
find themselves in this predicament.

Mr. W. Forster, writing from Australia, gives me the
following account of the intelligence of a bull : —

A rather tame bull, bred of a milch cow, used to puzzle me
by being found inside a paddock used for cultivation, and en-
closed by a two-railed fence, of which the lower i-ail was unu-
sually high. At last I saw the animal lie down close to the
fence, and roll over on his back, with four legs in the aii*, by
which proceeding he was inside the paddock. I never knew
another beast perform this feat ; and although it must have been
often done in the presence of a number of cows, not one of them
ever imitated it, though they would all have unquestionably
followed the bull through an opening in the fence, or by the
slip- rails.

Mr. Gr. S. Erb, writing from Salt Lake City, gives me
an interesting account of the sagacity displayed by the wild
deer of the United States in avoiding gun-traps, which,
except for the cutting of the string, to which the teeth of
the animal are not so well adapted, is strikingly similar
to the sagacity which we shall see to be displayed in this
respect by sundry species of Carnivora. He says : —

My method was this : I would fell or cut down a maple tree,
the top of which they are very partial to ; and as the ground
was invariably covered with snow to the depth of 12 inches,
food was scarce, and the deer would come and browse, probably
from hearing the tree fall. I would place a loaded gun 20 feet
from the top of the tree at which it was pointing ; I would
attach a line the size of an ordinary fish-line to a lever that
pressed against the trigger ; the other end of the Une I would
fasten to the tree-top. By this means the deer could not pass
between the tree and the gun without getting shot, or at least
shot at ; but I never succeeded in killing one when my line was
as large as a fish-line, i.e. about one-sLxteenth of an inch in thick-
ness. Commencing at the body of the tree on one side, the deer
would eat all the tops to within 12 inches of the Une, and then
go around the gun and eat all on the other side, never touching

PIGS.

the line. I tried this at least sixty times, always with the same
result. Then I took a black linen thread, and had no diffi-
culty in killing them, as it was so small and black that they
could not distinguish it.

Figs.

There can be no doubt that pigs exhibit a degree of
intelligence which falls short only of that of the most
intelligent Camivora. The tricks taught the so-called
' learned pigs ' would alone suffice to show this ; while the
marvellous skill with which svrine sometimes open latches
and fastenings of gates, &c., is only equalled by that of
the cat. The following account of pigs in their wild
state shows that they manifest the same kind of sagacious
co-operation in facing an enemy as that which we have
just seen to be manifested by the bison and the buffalo,
although here it seems to be displayed in a manner still
more organised : —

Wild swine associate in herds and defend themselves in com-
mon. Green relates that in the wrlds of Vermont a person fell in
with a large herd in a state of extraordinary restlessness ; they
had formed a circle with theii* heads outwards, and the young
ones placed in the middle. A wolf was using every artitice to
snap one, and on his return he found the herd scattered, but the
wolf was dead and completely ripped up. Schmarda recounts
an almost similar encounter between a herd of tame swine and
a woif, which he witnessed on the military positions of Croatia.
He says that the swine, seeing two wolves, formed themselves
into a wedge, and approached the wolves slowly, grunting and
erecting their bristles. One wolf fled, but the other leaped
on to the trunk of a tree. As soon as the swine reached it
they surrounded it with one accord, when, suddenly and instan-
taneously, as the wolf attempted to leap over them, they got
him down and destroyed him in a moment.'

In Bingley's ' Memoirs of British Quadrupeds ' (page
452) there is an account drawn up at his request by
Sir Henry Mildmay, concerning the docility of the pig.
The Toomer brothers were King's keepers in the New
Forest, and they conceived the idea of training a sow to
point game. This they succeeded in doing within a fort-

' Thompson, Possums of AnimaUt P 308.

23

340

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

night, and in a few more weeks it also learnt to retrieve.
Her scent was exceedingly good, and she stood well at par-
tridges, black game, pheasants, snipes, and rabbits, but
never pointed hares. She was more useful than a dog,
and afterwards became the property of Sir Henry Mild-
may. According to Youatt,^ Colonel Thornton also had a
sow similarly trained. The same author says that a sow
bel 3nging to Mr. Craven had a litter of pigs, one of which,
when old enough, was taken and roasted, then a second
and a third. These were necessarily taken when the
mother returned in the evening from the woods for supper.
But the next time she came she was alone, and, ' as her
owners were anxious to know what was become of her
brood, she was watched on the following evening, and
observed driving back her pigs at the extremity of the
wood, with much earnest grunting, while she went oif to
the house, leaving them to wait for her return. It was
evident that she had noticed the diminution of her family,
and had adopted this method to save those that re-
mained.' ^

Mr. Stephen Harding sends me the following as an
observation of his own :

On the 15th ult. (Nov. 1879) I saw an intelligent sow pig
about twelve months old, running in an orchard, going to a young
apple tree and shaking it, pricking up her ears at the same
time, as if to listen to hear the apples fall. She then picked
the apples up and ate them. After they were all down she
shook the tree again and listened, but as there were no more
to fall she went away.

The proverbial indifference to dirt attributed to the
pig seems scarcely to be justified ; the worst that can be
said is that the animal prefers cool mud to dry heat, and
the filth which swine often exhibit in their sty is the
fault of the farmers rather than of the animals, Or,
to quote from Thompson's * Passions,' —

A washed sow in the hot season of our temperate climate,
and in almost every season of such a climate as that of Pales-
tine, ' returns to her wallowing in the mire ' simply because
she feels scorched, and blistered, and sickened under the ardent

' On the Piff, p. 17.

2 IMd.

BATS.— SEALS.

sunshine ; and hence, when she receives from man the aid which
is due to her as a d(;mesticated animal, she demands not dirt
all the year through, nor any day at all, but shade in summer,
shelter in winter, and a clean, dry bed in every season.

Gheirojptera.

Mr. Bates says of bats : ' The fact of their sucking the
blood of persons sleeping is now well established ; but it
is only a few persons who are subject to this bloodletting.
. . . I am inclined to think many different kinds of
bats have this propensity' ('Nat. on Amaz.,' p. 91).
The particular species of bat, however, which has been
most universally accredited with this habit, viz., the vam-
pire, is perfectly harmless.

Mr. O. CHark ('A Brief Notice of the Fauna of
Mauritius') gives an account of the intelligence dis-
played by a tame bat (Pteropus vulgaris). As soon as its
master came into the room, it welcomed him with cries ;
and if not at once taken up to be petted, it climbed up
his dress, rubbed its head against him, and licked his hands.
If Mr. Clark took anything in his hand, the bat would care-
fully examine it by sight and smell, and when he sat down
the bat would hang upon the back of his chair, following
all his movements with its eyes.

Ga/mivora,

I shall here run together a few facts relating to the
intelligence of carnivorous animals other than those to be
considered in subsequent chapters.

Seals. — In their wild state these animals have not
much opportunity for the display of intelligence ; but
when tamed it is seen that the latter is considerable.
They are then affectionate animals, liking to be petted,
and showing attachment to their homes. The most
remarkable species of the order from a psychological point
of view are the so-called Pinnipeds, whose habits during
the breeding season are so peculiar that I think it is
worth while to quote the best account that has hitherto

542

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

been published on the subject. This is the elaborate
work of Mr. Joel Asaph Allen : • —

From the time of the first arrivals in May up to the 1st of
June, as late as the middle of this month if the weather be
clear, is an interval in which everything seems quiet ; very few
seals ai-o added to the pioneers. By the 1st of June, however, or
thereabouts, the foggy, humid weather of summer sets in, and
with it the bull-seals come up by hundreds and thousands, and
locjiie themselves in advantageous positions for the reception
of the females, which ai'e from three weeks to a month later,
as a rule. The labour of locating and maintaining a position
in the rookery is really a sei-ious business for those bulls which
come in last, and for those that occupy the water-line, frequently
resulting in death from severe wounds in combat sustained. It
appears to be a well understood principle among the able-bodied
bulls that each one shall remain undisturbed on his ground,
which is usually about ten feet square, provided he is strong
enough to hold it against all comers ; for the crowding in of fresh
bulls often causes the removal of those who, though equally able-
bodied at first, have exhausted themselves by fighting earlier,
and are driven by the fresher animals back further and higher
up on the rookery. Some of these bulls show wonderful
strength and courage. I have marked one veteran, who was
among the first to take up his position, and that one on the
water-line, when at least fifty or sixty desperate battles were
fought victoriously by him with nearly as many different seals
who coveted his position ; and when the fighting season was
over (after the cows have mostly all hauled up) I saw him
covered with scars and gashes, raw and bloody, an eye gouged
out. but holding it bravely over his harem of fifteen or twenty
cows, all huddled together on the same spot he had first chosen.
The fighting is mostly or entirely done with the mouth, the
opponents seizing each other with the teeth and clenching
the jaw^s; nothing but sheer strength am shake them loose, and
that efibrt almost always leaves an ugly wound, the sharp canines
tearing out deep gutters in the skin and blubber, or shredding
the flippers into ribbon-strips. They usuallv approach each
other with averted heads and a great many false passes before
eitner one or the other takes the initiative by gi^ipping ; the
heads are darted out and back as quick as flash, their hoarse
roaring and shrill piping whistle never ceases, while their fat

' Hutiyry of the North American Pinnipeds. The quotations are
taken from pp. 348 to 36L

SEALS.

343

bodies writhe and .swell with exertion and rage, fur flying in air
and blood streaming down — all combined make a picture fierce
and savage enough, and, from its great novelty, exceedingly
strange at first sight. In these battles the parties are always
distinct, the offensive and the defensive ; if the latter proves the
weaker he withdraws from the position occupied, and is never
followed by his conqueror, who complacently throws up one of
his hind flippers, fans himself, as it were, to cool himself from
the heat of the conflict, uttering a peculiar chuckle of satisfac-
tion and contempt, with a sharp eye open for the next covetous
bull or ' sea-catch ' (native name for "^he bulls on the rookeries,
especially those which are able to maintain their position).

All the bulls, from the very first, that have been able to hold
their positions have not left them for an instant, night or day ;
nor do they do so until the end of the rutting season, which
subsides entirely between the 1st and 10th of August, beginning
shortly after the coming of the cows in June. Of necessity,
therefore, this causes them to fast, to abstain entirely from food
of any kind, or water for at least three months ; and a few of
them stay four months before going into the water for the first
time after hauling up in May. This alone is remarkable
enough, but it is simply wonderful when we come to associate
the condition with uncciising activity, restlessness, and duty de-
volved upon the bulls as heads and fathers of large families.
They do not stagnate like bears in caves ; it is evidently
accomplished or due to the absorption of their own fat, with
which they are so liberally supplied when they take their po.si-
tions on the breeding-ground, and which gradually diminishee
while they remain on it.

*******

They are noticed and received by the bulls on the water-line
station with much attention ; they are alternately coaxed and
urged up on the rocks, and are immediately under the most
jealous supervision ; but owing to the covetous and ambitious
nature of the bulls which occupy the station? l eaching some way
back from the w-ater-line, the little cows have a rough-and-
tumble time of it when they begin to arrive in small numbers
at first ; for no sooner is the pretty animal fairly established on
the station of bull No. 1 who has installed her there, than he
perhaps sees another one of her style down in the water from
which she has just come, and in obedience to his polygamous
feeling, he devotes himself anew to coaxing the later arrival in
the same winning manner so successful in her case, when h\i]l

344

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

No, 2, seeing bull No. 1 off his guard, leaches out hifl
long strong neck, and picks the unhappy but passive creature
up by the scruff of hers, just as a cat does a kitten, and deposits
her on his seraglio-ground ; then bulls Nos. 3, 4, 5, and
so on in the vicinity, seeing this high-handed operation, all assail
one another, and especially bull No. 2, and have a tremen-
dous fight perhaps for half a minute or so ; and during this
commotion the cow is generally moved or moves farther back
from the water two or three stations more, where, when all gets
quiet, she usually remains in peace. Her late lord and master, not
having the exposure to such diverting temptation as had her
first, gives her such care that she not only is unable to leave
did she wish, but no other bull can seize upon her. This is only
one instance of the many different trials and tribulations which
both parties on the rookery subject themselves to before the
harems are filled. Far back, fifteen or twenty stations deep
from the water-hne sometimes, but generally not more than, od
an average, ten or fifteen, the cows crowd in at the close of the
season for arriving, July 10 to 14, and then they are able
to go about pretty much as they please, for the bulls ha^'e
become greatly enfeebled by this constant fighting and excite-
ment during the past two months, and are quite content with
even only one or two partners.

******

I have found it difficult to ascertain the average number of
cows to one bull on the rookery, but I think it will be nearly
correct to assign to each male from twelve to fifteen females
occupying the stations nearest the water, those back in the rear
from five to nine. I have counted forty-five cows all under the
charge of one bull, which had them penned up on a flat table-
rock near Kestaire Point ; the bull was enabled to do this quite
easil}^ as there was but one way to go to or come from this
seraglio, and on this path the old Turk took his stand and
guarded it well. At the rear of all these rookeries there is
always a large numbei- of able-bodied bulls, who wait patiently,
but in vain, for families, most of them having had to fight as
desperately for the privilege of being there as any of their more
fortunately located neighbours, who are nearer the water than
themselves; but the cows do not like to be in any outside
position, when they are not in close company lying most quiet
and content in the largest harems ; and these large families pack
the surface of the ground so thickly that there is hardly moving
or turning room until the females cease to come up from the sea ;
but the inaction on the part of the bulLs in the rear during the

SEALS.

345

ruttiiig season only serves to qualify them to move into the places
vacated by those males who are obliged to leave from exhaus-
tion, or to take the position of fearless and jealous protectors for
the young pups in the fall. The courage with which the fur-
seal holds his position as the head and guardian of a family is
of the very highest order compared with that of other animals. I
have repeatedly tried to drive them when they have fairly estab-
lished themselves, and have almost always failed, using every
stone at my command, making all the noise I could, and finally,
to put their courage to the full test, I walked up to within twenty
feet of a bull at the rear and extreme end of Tolstoi Rookery,
who had four cows in charge, and commenced with my double-
barrelled breech-loading shot-gun to pepper him all over with
mustard-seed or dust-shot. His bearing in spite of the noise,
smell of powder, and pain, did not change in the least from the
usual attitude of determined defence which nearly all the bulls
assume when attacked with show^ers of stones and noise ; h?;
would dart out right and left and catch the cows which timidly
attempted to rim after each report, fling and drag them back
to their places ; then, stretching up to his full height, look me
directly and defiantly in the face, roaring and spitting most
vehemently. The cov7s, however, soon got away from him, but
he still stDod his ^;i•ound, making little charges on me of ten or
fifteen feet in a succession of gallops or lunges, spitting furiously
and then retreating to the old position, back of which he would
not go, fully resolved to hold his own or die in the attempt.

This courage is all the more noteworthy from the fact that,
in regard to man, it is invariably of a defensive character. The
seal, if it makes you turn when you attack it, never follows
you much farther than the boundary of its station, and no aggra-
vation will compel it to become offensive, as far as I have ])een
able to observe.

******

The apathy with which the young are treated by the old on
the breeding-grounds is somewhat strange. I have never seen
a cow caress or fondle her offspring, and should it stray but a
short distance from the harem, it can be picked up and killed
before the mother's eyes, without causing her to show the
slightest concern. The same indifference is exhibited by th<
bull to all that takes place outside of the boundary of his
seraglio. WTiile the pups are, however, within the limits of his
harem-ground he is a jealous and fearless protector ; but if the
little animals pass beyond this boundary, then they may be

546

ANIMAL INTELLIGEXCE.

carried ofT without the slightest attention in their behalf froni
their guardian.

***♦♦♦

Early in August (8th) the pups that are nearest the water on
th». rookeries essay swimming, but make slow and clumsy pro
gress, floundering about, when over head in depth, in the most
awkward manner, thrashing the water with their fore-fli{)pers,
not using the hinder ones. In a few seconds, or a minute at the
most, the youngest is so wary that he crawls out upon the rocks
or beach, and immediately takas a recuperative nap, repeating
the lesson as quick as he awakes and is rested. They soon get
familiar with the water and delight in it, swimming in endless
evolutions, t\visting, turning, diving ; and when exhausted, they
draw up on the beach again, shake themselves as young dogs
do, either going to sleep on the spot, or having a lazy frolic
among themselves.

In this matter of learning to swim, I have not seen any
* driving ' of the young pups into the water by the old in ordei
to teach them this process, as has been affirmed by writers on
the subject of seal life.

Otter. — The fact that otters admit of being taught to
catch fish and bring them to their masters, shows uo
small degree of docility on the part of these animals. ' I
have seen,' says Dr. Groldsmith, ' an otter go to a gentle-
man's pond at word of command, drive the fish into a
corner, and, seizing upon the largest of the whole, bring
it off in his mouth to his master.' And several other cases
of the same kind are given by Bingley.^

Weasel. — ' Mdlle. de Faister described her tame weasel
to Buffon as plapng with her fingers like a kitten, jump-
ing on her head and neck ; and if she presented her hands
at the distance of three feet, it jumped into them without
ever missing. It distinguished her voice amidst twenty
people, and sprang over everybody to get at her. She found
it impossible to open a drawer or a box, or even to look
at a paper, without his examining it also. If she took up
a paper or book, and looked attentively at it, the weasel
immediately ran upon her hand, and surveyed with an in-
quisitive air whatever she happened to hold.' ^

• Animal Biography, vol. iii., pp. 301-2.

* Thompson, Passions in Animals, p. 337.

CAKNIVORA.

347

Polecat. — Professor Alison, in his article on ' Instinct,'
in Todd's ' Cyclopaedia of Anatomy,' quotes the following ac-
count from the ' Magazine of Natural History ' (vol. iv., p.
206) touching a remarkable instinct manifested by polecats.
' I dug out five young polecats, comfortably embedded in
dry, withered grass ; and in a side hole, of proper dimen-
sions for such a larder, I picked out forty large frogs and
two toads, all alive, but merely capable of sprawling a little.
On examination, I found that the whole number, toads and
all, had been purposely and dexterously bitten through the
brain.' The analogy of this instinct to that which has
already been mentioned as having been much more re-
cently observed by M. Fabre in the sphex insect is
noteworthy.

Ferret. — I once kept a ferret as a domestic pet. He
was a very large specimen, and my sister taught him a
number of tricks, such as begging for food (which he did
quite as well and patiently as any terrier), leaping over
sticks, &c. He became a very affectionate animal, delight-
ing much in being petted, and following like a dog when
taken out for walk. He would, however, only follow those
persons whom he well knew. That his memory was ex-
ceedingly good was shown by the fact that after an ab-
sence of many months, during which he was never required
to beg, or to perform any of his tricks, he went through all
his paces perfectly the first time that we again tried him.

I strongly suspect that ferrets dream, as I have fre-
quently seen them when fast asleep moving their noses and
twitching their claws as if in pursuit of rabbits. Another
fact I may mention as bearing on the intelligence of these
animals. On one occasion, while ferreting rabbits, I lost
the ferret about a mile away from home. Some days
afterwards the animal returned to his home. Similar cases
have been communicated to me by several sporting friends,
but certainly the return of a ferret under such circum-
stances is the exception, and not the rule.

WolveHne. —Amazing tales are told concerning the
intelligence of this animal, which for the most part are
certainly exaggerations. Still there is no doubt that the
creature does display a degree of sagacious cunning unsur-

348

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

passed, if not une((ualled, in the animal kingdom. This
may be sliown by the two following quotations from thfi
statements of trustworthy ^Titers. The first is a letter
kindly sent me by Dr. J. Eae, F.K.S., in reply to my
request for information concerning the intelligence of this
animal : —

The naiTatives of most travellers in America tell wonderful
stories of the glutton or wolverine, but I do not know that any
of my experiences of this extremely acute animal indicate what
I call reasoning powers. They are very suspicious, and can
seldom or never be taken w^ith poisoned bait, trap, or gun. The
poisoned baits are usually found broken up, but not eaten by
them ; traps are destroyed or entered, but not where the trapper
desired ; and guns, except when concealed after the Eskimo
fashion by a covering of snow, are avoided.

In 1853, on the Arctic coast, when about to change our
domicile from a tent to the warmer snow hut, my man had
carried over about 100 lbs. or more of fine venison steaks to
the snow houses about a quarter of a mile from our t^nts ; and
as there were at the time no traces either of foxes, wolves, or
wolveiines about, the meat was placed overnight in one of the
huts, and the door left open. During the night two wolverines
came, but, evidently dreading some trap or danger in the open
door, would not enter that way, but cut a hole for themselves
through the wall of the snow hut, and carried off all our fine
steaks, a considerable quantity of which was picked up close
to our house when the thaw took place in the spring, it having
been hid in the snow, but completely spoilt for use, by a well-
known filthy habit.

Dr. Kae has also drawn my attention to the following
account contained in the ^liscellaneous Publications of the
G-eological Survey of the United States.' The writer of
this account is Captain Elliot Cones :-

To the trapper the wolverines are equally anno}^ng. When
they have discovered a line of marten traps they will never
abandon the road, and must be killed before the trapping can
be successfully carried on. Beginning at one end, they proceed
from trap to trap along the whole line, puUing them succes-
sively to pieces, and taking out the baits from behind. When
they can eat no more, they continue to steal the baits and cache

> Vol. viii., Washington, L877 ; 'A Monograph of the North Ameri'
can Mustelida/

WOLVEKINE.

349

them. If hungi-y they may devour two or three of the martens
they find captured, the remainder being carried off and hidden
in the snow at a considerable distance. The work of demoli-
tion goes on as fast as the traps can be renewed.

The propensity to steal and hide things is one of the strong-
est traits of the wolverine. To such an extent is it developed
that the animal will often secrete articles of no possible use to
itself Besides the wanton destruction of marten traps, it will
carry off the sticks and hide them at a distance, apparently
in sheer malice. Mr. Ross, in the article above quoted, has
given an amusing instance of the extreme of this propensity.
The f^esire for accumulating property seems so deeply implanted
in this animal, that, like tame ravens, it does not appear to care
much what it steals so that it can exercise its favourite propen-
sity to commit mischief. An instance occurred within my own
knowledge, in which a hunter and his family having left their
lodge unguarded during their absence, on their return found
it completely gutted — the walls were there, but nothing else.
Blankets, guns, kettles, axes, ams, knives, and all the other
paraphernalia of a trapper's tent had vanished, and the tracks
left by the beast showed who had been the thief. The family
set to work, and by carefully following up all his paths re-
covered, with some trifling exceptions, the whole of the lost
property.

******

At Peel's River, on one occasion, a very old carcajou dis-
covered my marten road, on which I had nearly a hundred and
fifty traps. I was in the habit of visiting the line about once a
fortnight, but the beast fell into the way of coming oftener
than I did, to my great annoyance and vexation. I deter-
mined to put a stop to his thieving and his life together, cost
what it might. So I made six strong traps at as many different
points, and also set three steel traps. For three weeks I tried
my best to catch the beast without success ; and my worst
enemy would allow that 1 am no green hand in these matters.
The animal carefully avoided the traps set for his own benefit,
and seemed to be taking more delight than ever in demolishing
my marten traps and eating the martens, scattering the poles
in every dii-ection, and caching what baits or martens he did
not devour on the spot. As we had no poison in those days, I
next set a gun on the bank of a little lake. The gun was con-
cealed in some low bushes, but the bait was so placed that the
carcajou must see it on his way up the bank, I blockaded my
path to the gun with a smaU pine tree, which completely hid

350

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

it. On my fii-st visit afterwards I found that the beast had
gone up to the bait and smelled it, but had left it untouched.
He had next pulled up the pine tree that blocked the path, and
gone around the gun and cut the Une which connected the bait
with th(? trigger, just behind the muzzle. Then he had gone back
and pulled the bait away, and c;\rried it out on the lake, where Yj
lay down and devoured it at his lei.^ure. There I found my string.
I could scarcely beUeve that all this had been done designedly, for
it seemed that faculties fully on a par with human reason would
be required for such an exploit if done intentionally. I there •
fore rearranged things, tying the string where it had been
bitten. But the result was exactly the same for three succes-
sive occasions, as I could plainly see by the footprints ; and
what is most singular of all, each time the brute was careful to
cut the line a little back o! where it had been tied before, as if
actually reasoning with himself that even the knots might be
some new device of mine, and therefore a source of hidden
danger he would prudently avoid. I came to the conclusion
that that carcajou ought to live, as he must be something at
least human, if not worse. I gave it up, and abandoned the
road for a period.

**#♦#*

With so much for the tricks and the manners of the beast
behind our backs, roaming at will in his vast solitudes, what of
his actions in the presence of man ? It is said that if one only
stands still, even in full view of an approaching carcajou, he
will come within fifty or sixty yards, provided he be to wind-
ward, before he takes the alarm. Even then, if he be not
warned by sense of smell, he seems in doubt, and %vill gaze
earnestly several times before he finally concludes to take him-
s»^lf off. On these and similar occasions he has a singular
habit — one not shared, so far as I am aware, by any other beas'
whatever. He sits on his haunches and shades his eyes with one of
his fore-paws, just as a human being would do in scrutinising a
dim or distant object. The carcajou, then, in addition to his
other and varied accomplishments, is a perfect sceptic — to ufe'.-;
this word in its original signification. A sceptic, with the
Greeks, was simply one who would shade his eyes to see more
clearly.

Bears. — There is no doubt that the intelligence of
these animals stands very high in the psychological scale,
although the actual instances which I have met of the
display of their intelligence are few. The tricks which

BEAKS.

351

are taught performing bears do not count for much as
proof of high sagacity, as they for the most part consist
in teaching the animals to assume unnatural positions,
or display grotesque antics — performances which speak
indeed for the general docility of the creatures, but
scarcely for their high intelligence. Still even here it is
worth while to remark that all species of bears would pro-
bably not lend themselves to this kind of education, for
the emotional temperament manifested by the different
species is unquestionably diverse. Thus, making all
allowances for exaggeration, it seems certain that the
grizzly bear displays a courage and ferocity which are
foreign to the disposition of the brown bear, and indeed
to that of most other animals. The polar bear likewise
displays much bravery under the influence of hunger or
maternal feeling, although under other circumstances it
usually deems discretion the better part of valour. The
following incident displays considerable intelligence on
the part of this animal.

Scoresby, in his ' Account of the Arctic Regions,' gives
the instance to which I allude : —

The animal with two cubs was being pursued by a party of
sailors over an ice-field. She urged her young to an increase
of speed by running before them, turning round, and manifest-
ing, by a peculiar action and voice, her anxiety for their pro-
gress ; but finding that her pursuers were gaining upon them,
she carried, or pushed, or pitched them alteinately forward,
until she effected their escape. In thi'owiug them befoie her,
the little creatures placed themselves across her path to receive
the impulse ; and w^hen projected some yards in advance, they
ran onwards until she overtook them, when they alternately
adjusted themselves for a second throw.

As the polar bear is not exposed to any enemies except
man, this method of escaping is not likely to be instinc-
tive, but was probably an intelligent adaptation to the
particular circumstances of the case.

Mr. S. J. Hutchinson writes me as follows with regard
to this same species : —

One Sunday, at the ' Zoo,' some one threw a bun to the bears,
but it fell in the water in that quadrant-shaped pond you wilJ

352

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

remomber. The bun fell just at the angle, and the bear seemed
disinclined to enter the water, but stood on the edge of the
pond, and commenced stirring the water with its paw, so that
it established a sort of rotatory current, which eventually
brought the bun within reach. When one leg got tired it used
the other, but in the same direction. I watched the whole per-
formance wiuh the greatest interest myself.

In corroboration of this most remarkable observation
I quote the following from Mr. Darwin's * Descent of Man '
(p. 76 \ which is so precisely similar, that the fact of bears
reaching the high level of intelligence which the fact
implies cun scarcely be doubted. ' A well-known ento-
mologist, Mr. Westropp, informs me that he observed in
Vienna a bear deliberately making with his paw a current
in some water which was close to the bars of his cage, sc
to draw a piece of floating bread within his reach.'

CHAPTER Xn.

RODENTS.

The rodents, psychologically considered, are, of all orders
in the animal kingdom, most remarkable for the differ-
ences presented by constituent species. For while the
group contains many animals, such as the guinea-pig,
whose instincts and intelligence cannot be said to rise
above the lowest level that obtains among mammalian
forms, it also contains other animals with instincts as
remarkable as those of the squirrel, intelligence as con-
siderable as that of the rat, and a psychological develop-
ment as unique as that of the beaver. In no other group
of animals do we meet with nearly so striking an exempli-
fication of the truth that zoological or structural affinity
is only related in a most loose and general way to psycho-
logical or mental similarity. Up to a certain point,
however, even here we meet with an exemplification of
what I may call a complementary truth, namely, that
similarity of organisation and environment is in a general
way related to similarity of instincts (though not neces-
sarily of intelligence). This is obviously the case with
the habit from which the order takes its name; for
whether the instinct of gnawing is here the cause or the
result of peculiar organisation, the instinct is unquestion-
ably correlated with the peculiarity. And similarly, though
less obviously, is this the case with the instinct of storing
food for winter consumption, which is more prevalent
among the rodents than in any other order of mammals —
rats, mice, squirrels, harvesters, beavers, &c., all mani-
festing it with remarkable vigour and persistency. Here
we probably have a case of similar organisation and en-
vironment determining the same instinct ; for the latter

354

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

is not of sufiSciently general occurrence among all species
of rodents to allow us to suppose that the species in which
it does occur have derived it from a common ancestry.

Rabbit.

Rabbits are somewhat stupid animals, exhibiting but
small resources under novel circumstances, although in-
heriting several clever instincts, such as that of rapidly
deciding upon the alternative of flight or crouching,
which is usually done with the best judgment. I have,
however, often observed that the animal does not seem to
have sense enough to regard the colour of the surface on
which it crouches, so that if this happens to be inappro-
priate, the rabbit may become conspicuous, and so its
crouching a source of danger. I have been particularly
struck with the fact that black rabbits inherit the crouch-
ing instinct as strongly as do normally coloured ones, with
the effect of rendering themselves highly conspicuous. This
shows that the instinct is not necessarily correlated with
the colour which alone renders the instinct useful, but
that both have developed simultaneously and indepen-
dently, and by natural selection. The fact also shows that
the crouching of rabbits is purely instinctive, and not due
to any conscious process of comparing their own colour
with that of the surfaces on which they crouch. Xo
doubt the instinct began and was developed by natural
selection placing a premium upon the better judgment of
those individuals which know when best to seek safety in
flight and when by crouching — protective colom'ing being
added at the same time by the same agency.

Another fact, which every one who shoots must have
observed, goes to show the stupidity of rabbits, or their
inability to learn by experience. When alarmed they run
for their burrows, and when they reach them, instead of
entering they very frequently squat down to watch the
enemy. Now, although they well know the distance at
which it is safe to allow a man with a gun to approach,
excess of curiosity, or a mistaken feeHng of security in
being so near their homes, induces the animals to allow a

RABBIT.

355

aian to approach within easy shooting distance. Yet that in
other respects rabbits can learn much by experience must
be evident to all who are accustomed to shoot with ferrets.
From burrows which have not been much ferreted, rabbits
will bolt soon after the ferret is put in ; but this is not
the case where rabbits have had previous experience of the
association between ferrets and sportsmen. Rather than
bolt under such circumstances, and so face the known
danger of the waiting gun, rabbits will often allow them-
selves to be torn with the ferrets' claws and mutilated by
their teeth. This is the case, no matter how silently the
sportsmen may conduct their operations ; the mere fact
of a ferret entering their burrows seems to be enough to
assure the rabbits that sportsmen are waiting outside.^

In its emotions the rabbit is for the most part a very
timid animal, although the males fight severely with one
another — having more strongly developed than any other
animal the strange but effectual instinct of castrating
their rivals. Moreover, even against other animals, rabbits
will, when compelled to do so, stand upon the defensive.
To show this I may quote a letter which several years ago
I pubhshed in ' Nature : '

I have occasion just now to keep over thirty Himalayan
rabbits in an outhouse. A short time ago it was observed that
some of these rabbits had been attacked and slightly bitten by
rats. Next day the person who feeds the rabbits observed,
upon entering the outhouse, that nearly all the inmates were
congregated in one corner ; and upon going to ascertain the
cause, found one rat dead, and another so much injured that it
could scarcely run. Both rats were of an unusually large size,
and their bodies were much mangled by the rabbits' teeth.

I never before knew that domestic rabbits would fight with
any carnivorous antagonist. That wild rabbits never do so I
infer from having several times seen ferrets turn out from the
most crowded burrow in a warren young stoats and weasels
not more than four inches long.

' It is particularly remarkable that if under these circumstances a
rabbit bolts and, seeing the sportsman, doubles back into its burrow,
being then certain that the sportsman is waiting, it will usually allow
Itself to be slowl>- and painfully killed by the ferret rather than bolt a
second time. This is remarkable because it proves the strength of an
abiding image or idea in the mind of the animal.

24

356

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

It is evident that the show-fight instinct cannot have been
developed in Himalayan rabbits by means of natui-al selection,
but it is no less evident that if it ever arose in wild rabbits it
would be preserved and intensified by such means.

The following observation of my own on a previously
unnoticed instinct displayed by wild rabbits is, I think, of
sufficient interest to render. Most people are aware that
if a rabbit is shot near the mouth of its burrow, the
animal will employ the last remnant of its life in struggHng
into it. Having several times observed that wounded
rabbits which had thus escaped appeared again several
days afterwards above ground, lying dead a few feet from
the mouth of the burrow, I wished to ascertain whether
the wounded animals had themselves come out before
dying, possibly for air, or had been taken out by their
companions. I therefore shot numerous rabbits while
they were sitting near their burrows, taking care that the
distance between the gun and the animal should be such
as to insure a speedy, though not an immediate death.
Having marked the burrows at which I shot rabbits in
this manner I returned to them at intervals for a fort-
night or more, and found that about one-half of the
bodies appeared again on the surface in the way described.
That this reappearance above ground is not due to the
victim's own exertions, I am now quite satisfied ; for not
only did two or three days generally elapse before the
body thus showed itself — a period much too long for a
severely wounded rabbit to survive — but in a number of
cases decomposition had set in. Indeed, on one occasion
scarcely anything of the animal was left save the skin
and bones. This was in a large warren.

It is a curious thinor that I have hitherto been unable
to get any bodies returned to the surface, of rabbits
which I inserted into their burrows after death. I account
for this by supposing that the stench of the decomposing
carcass is not so intolerable to the other occupants of the
burrow when it is near the orifice as it is when further
in. Similarly, I find that there is not so good a chance
of bodies being returned from an extensive warren of
intercommunicating holes, as there is from smaller war

HARE.

357

rens or blind holes ; the reason probably being that in
the one case the living inhabitants are free to vacate the
offensive locality, while in the other case they are not so.
Anyhow, there can be no reasonable doubt that the in-
stinct of removing their dead has arisen in rabbits from
the necessity of keeping their confined domiciles in a
pure state.

Hare.

The hare is a more intelligent animal than the rabbit.
Possibly its much greater powers of locomotion may be
one cause of its mental superiority to its nearest congener.
I have never myself observed a hare commit the mistake
already mentioned in the case of the rabbit, viz., that of
crouching for concealment upon an inappropriately coloured
surface. But the best idea of the comparatively high
intelligence of the hare will be gained by the following
quotations. The first of these is taken from Loudoun's
' Magazine of Natural History ' (vol. iv., p. 143) : —

It is especially conscious of the scent left by its feet, and of
the danger which thi-eatens it in consequence ; a reflection
which implies as much knowledge of the habits of its enemies
as of its own. When about to enter its seat for the purpose
of rest, it leaps in various directions, and crosses and rccrosses
its path with repeated spriugs ; and at last, by a leap of greater
energy than it has yet used, it efiects a lodgment in the selected
spot, which is chosen rather to disarm suspicion than to protect
it from injury. In the * Manuel du Chasseur ' some instances
are quoted from an ancient volume on hunting by Jaques du
Fouillouse. A hare intending to mislead its pursuers has been
seen spontaneously to quit its seat and to proceed to a pond at the
distance of nearly a mile, and having washed itself, push off
again through a quantity of rushes. It has, too, betn known,
when pursued to fatigue by dogs, to thrust another hare from
its seat and squat itself down in its place. This author has
seen hares swim successively through two or three ponds, of
which the smallest was eighty paces round. He has known it,
after a long chase, to crt^ep under the door of a sheep-house and
rest among the cattle, and when the hounds were in pursuit, it
would get into the middle of a flock of sheep and accompany
them in all their motions roimd the field, refusing by any means
to quit the shelter they afibrded. The stratagem of its passing

358

ANIMAL INTELLi{JENCE.

forward on one side of a hedge and returning by the other, wit'u
only the breadth of the hedge between itself audits enemies, is of
frequent occurrence, and it has even been known to select its seat
close to the walls of a dog-kennel. This ]atter circumstance,
however, is illustrative of the principles of reflection and reason-
ing ; for the fox, weasel, and polecat are to the hare more dan-
gerous enemies than the hound ; and the situations chosen were
mch as those ferocious creatures were not Kkely to approach.
A gentleman was engaged in the amusement of coursing, when
a hare, closely pressed, passed under a gate, while the dogs fol-
lowed by leaping over it. The delay caused to her pursuers by
this manoeuvre seems to have taught a sudden and useful lesson
to the persecuted creature ; for as soon as the dogs had cleared
the gate and overtaken her, she doubled and returned under the
gate as before, the dogs again following and passing over it.
And this flirtation continued backwards and forwards until the
dogs were faii-ly tired of the amusement ; when the hare, taking
advantage of their fatigue, quietly stole away.

The following note, by Mr. Yarrell, is significant of a
process of reasoning derived from observations of the
course of nature, such as would do no discredit to a higher
race of creatures : —

A harbour of great extent on our northern coast has an
island near the middle of considerable size, the nearest point of
which is a mile distant from the mainland at high water, and
with which point there is frequent communication by a ferry
Early one morning in spring two hares were observed to come
down from the hills of the mainland tow^ards the sea-side ; one of
which from time to time left its companion, and proceeding
to the very edge of the water, stopped there a minute or two,
and then returned to its mate. The tide was rising, and after
waiting some time, one of them, exactly at high water, took to
the sea, and swam rapidly over, in a straight line, to the oppo-
site projecting point of land. The observer on this occasion,
who was neai' the spot, but remained unperceived by the hares,
had no doubt they were of difierent sexes, and that it was the
male (like another Leander) which swam across the water, as
he had probably done many times before. It was remarkable
that the hares had remained on the shore nearly half an hour ;
one of them occasionally examining, as it would seem, the state
of the current, and ultimately taking to the sea at that precise
period of the tide called slackwater, when the passage across
could be effected without being carried by the force of the stream

HAEE.

359

either above or below the desired point of landing. The other
hare then cantered back to the hills. (Loudoun's ' Magazine of
Natural History,' vol. v., p. 99.)

According to Couch ('Illustrations of Instinct,' p. 177) —

When followed by dogs, it will not run through a gate.,
though this is obviously the most ready passage ; nor in crossing
a hedge will it prefer a smooth and even part, but the roughest,
where thorns and briars abound ; and when it mounts an emi-
nence it proceeds obliquely, and not straightforward. And
whether we suppose these actions to proceed from a desire to
avoid those places where traps may probably have been laid, or
from knowing that his pursuers will exactly follow his footsteps,
and he has resolved to lead them through as many obstacles as
possible, in either case an estimation of causes and consequences
is to be discovered.

It is a remarkable thing that both hares and rabbits
should allow themselves to be overtaken in the open Held
by weasels. I have myself witnessed the process, and am
at a loss to account for it. The hare or rabbit seems per-
fectly aware of the dangerous character of the weasel,
and yet does not put forth its powers of escape. It
merely toddles along with the weasel toddling behind,
until tamely allowing itself to be overtaken. This ano-
malous case may perhaps be akin to the alleged phenomena
of the fascination of birds and small rodents by snakes ;
but in any case there seems to have been here a remark-
able failure of natural selection in doing duty to the
instincts of these swift-footed animals.

We must not close this account of the intelligence of
the hare genus without alluding to the classical case of
Cowper's hares. The following abstract is taken from
Tegg's edition of ' The Life and Works of William
Cowper,'p. 633:—

Puss was ill three days, during which time T nursed him,
kept him apart from his fellows, . . . and by constant care,
&c., restored him to perfect health. No creature could be more
grateful than my patient after his recovery, a sentiment which
he most significantly expressed by licking my hand, first the
back of it, then the palm, then every finger separately, then
between all the fingers, as if anxious to leave no part of it un*

360

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

saluted ; a ceremony which he never performed hut once again
upon a similar occasion. Finding him extremely tractable, I
made it m^ custom to carry him always after breakfast into the
garden. ... I had not long habituated him to this taste of
liberty befi.re he began to be impatient for the return of the
time when he might enjoy it. He would invite me to the garden
by drumming upon my knee, and by a look of such expression
£iS it was not possible to misinterpret. If this rhetoric did not
immediately succeed, he would take the skirt of my coat between
his teeth and pull it with all his force. He seemed to be
happier in human society than when shut up with his natural
companions.

Rats and Mice

Eats are well known to be highly intelligent animals.
Unlike the hare or rabbit, their shyness seems to proceed
from a wise caution rather than from timidity ; for, when
circumstances require, their boldness and courage in
combat is surprising. Moreover, they never seem to lose
their presence of mind ; for, however great their danger,
they seem always ready to take advantage of any favour-
ing circumstances that may arise. Thus, when matched
with so formidable an opponent as a ferret in a closed
room, they have been known to display wonderful cunning
in taking advantage of the light — keeping close under the
window so as to throw the glare into the eyes of the enemy,
darting forwards time after time to deliver a bite, and then
as often retiring to their vantage-ground.^ But the emo-
tions of rats do not appear to be of an entirely selfish cha-
racter. There are so many accounts in the anecdote books
of blind rats being led about by their seeing companions,
that it is difficult to discredit an observation so frequently
confirmed.^ Moreover, rats have been frequently known
to assist one another in defending themselves from dan-
gerous enemies. Several observations of this kind are
recorded by the trustworthy writer jMr. Eodwell, in his
somewhat elaborate work upon this animal.

' See Watson's Reasoning Power in Animals, and Qumterly R&vieitt
c. 1., p. 136.

2 See especially Jesse, Gleanings, &c., iiL, p. 206 ; and Qva,*^^rl^
Review, c. i., p. 135.

EATS AND MICE.

361

Again, as showing affection for human beings, I maj
qu()te the following The mouse which had been tamed
by Baron Trench in his prison having been taken from
him, watched at the door and crept in when it was
0})ened; being removed again, it refused all food, and
died in three days.' '

With regard to general intelligence, every one knows
the extraordinary wariness of rats in relation to traps,
wtiich is only equalled in the animal kingdom by that of
the fox and the wolverine. It has frequently been regarded
as a wonderful display of intelligence on the part of rats
that while gnawing through the woodwork of a ship, they
always stop before they completely perforate the side ;
but, as Mr. Jesse suggests, this is probably due to their
distaste of the salt water. No such disparaging explanation,
however, is possible in some other instances of the display
of rat-intelligence. Thus, the manner in which they
transport eggs to their burrows has been too frequently
observed to admit of doubt. Rod well gives a case in
which a number of eggs were carried from the top of a
house to the bottom by two rats devoting themselves to
each egg, and alternately passing it down to each other at
every step of the staircase.^ Dr. Carpenter also received
from an eye-witness a similar account of another instance.'"'
According to the article in the Quarterly Review^ already
mentioned, rats will not only convey eggs from the top of
the house to the bottom, but from bottom to top. ' The
male rat places himself on his fore-paws, with his head
downwards, and raising up his hind legs and catching
the egg between them, pushes it up to the female, who
stands on the step above, and secures it with her fore-paws
till he j amps up to her; and this process is repeated from
step to step till the top is reached.'

* The captain of a merchantman,' says Mr. Jesse,
■ tiading to the port of Boston, in Lincolnshire, had con-
stantly missed eggs from his sea stock. He suspected
that he> was robbed by his crew, but not being able to dia-

• Thompson, Pasidons of Animals, p. 368.
« The Bat, its Natural Histor , p. 102.
' Mrs. Lee, Anecdotes of Animals, p. 264.

362

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

co\er the thief, he was determined to watch his store-
room. Accordingly, having laid in a fresh stock of eggs,
he seated himself at night in a situation that commanded
a view of his eggs. To his great astonishment he saw a
number of rats approach ; they formed a line from his egg
baskets to their hole, and handed the eggs from one to
another in their fore-paws.' '

Another device to which rats resort for the procuring
of food is mentioned in all the anecdote books, and it
seemed so interesting that I tried some direct experiments
upon the subject. I shall first state the alleged facts in
the words of Watson : —

As to oil, rats have been known to get oil out of a narrow-
necked bottle in the following way : — One of them would place
himself, on some convenient support, by the side of the bottle,
and then, dipping his tail into the oil, would give it to another
to lick. In this act there is something more than what we call
instinct ; there is reason and understanding.^

Jesse also gives the following account : —

A box containing some bottles of Florence oil was placed
in a store-room which was seldom opened ; the box had no lid
to it. On going to the room one day for one of the bottles, the
owner found that the pieces of bladder and cotton at the mouth
of each bottle had disappeared, and that much of the contents
of the bottles had been consumed. The circumstance having
excited suspicion, a few bottles were refilled with oil, and the
mouths of them secured as before. Next morning the coverings
of the bottles had been removed, and some of the oil was gone.
However, upon watching the room, which was done through
a little window, some rats were seen to get into the box, and
insert their tails into the necks of the bottles, and then with-
drawing them, they licked off the oil which adhered to them.^

Lastly, Rodwell gives another case similar in all essen-
tial respects, save that the rat licked its own tail instead
of presenting it to a companion.

The experiment whereby I tested the truth of these

Jesse, Gleanings, &c., ii., p. 281.
' Reaaoniny Power in Animals, p. 293,
• Loc. oU.

RATS AND MICE.

363

statements was a very simple one. I recorded it in
* Nature ' as follows : —

It is, I believe, pretty generally supposed that rats and mice
use their tails for feeding purposes when the food to be eaten
is contained in vessels too narrow to admit the entire body of
the animal. I am not aware, however, that the truth of thia
supposition has ever been actually tested by any trustworthy
parson, and so think- the following simple experiments are wwth
publishing. Having obtained a couple of tall-shaped preserve
bottles with rather short and narrow necks, I filled them to
within three inches of the top with red currant jelly which had
only half stiffened. I covered the bottles with bladder in the
ordinary way, and then stood them in a place infested by rats.
Next morning the bladder covering each of the bottles had a
small hole gnawed through it, and the level of the jelly was
reducpd in both bottles to the same extent. Now, as this
extent corresponded to about the length of a rat's tail if inserted
at the hole in the bladder, and as this hole was not much more
than just large enough to admit the root of this organ, I do not
see that any further evidence is required to prove the manner
in which the rats obtained the jelly, viz., by repeatedly intro-
ducing their tails into the viscid matter, and as repeatedly
licking them clean. However, to put the question beyond
doubt, I refilled the bottles to the extent of half an inch above
the jelly level left by the rats, and having placed a circle of
moist paper upon each of the jelly surfaces, covered the bottles
with bladder as before. I now left the bottles in a place where
there were no rats or mice, until a good crop of mould had
grown upon one of the moistened pieces of paper. The bottle
containing this crop of mould I then transferred to the place
where the rats were numerous. Next morning the bladder had
again been eaten through at one edge, and upon the mould there
were numerous and distinct tracings of the rats' tails, resem-
bling marks made with the top of a pen-holder. These tracings
were evidently caused by the animals sweeping their tails about
in a fruitless endeavour to find a hole in the circle of paper
which covered the jelly.

With regard to mice, the Eev. W. North, rector of
Ashdown, in Essex, placed a pot of honey in a closet, in
which a quantity of plaster rubbish had been left by
builders. The mice piled up the plaster in the form of a
heap against the sides of the pot, in order to constitute ao

364

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

inclined plane whereby to reach the rim. A quantity of
the rubbish had also been thrown into the pot, with the
efifect of raising the level of the honey that remained to
near the rim of the pot ; but, of course, the latter fact may
have been due to accident, and not to design.' This is a
case in which mal-observation does not seem to have been
likely.

Powelsen, a writer on Iceland, has related an account
of the intelligence displayed by the mice of that country,
which has given rise to a difference of competent opinion,
and which perhaps can hardly yet be said to have been
definitely settled. What Powelsen said is that the mice
collect in parties of from six to ten, select a flat piece of
dried cow-dung, pile berries or other food upon it, then
with united strength drag it to the edge of any stream
they wish to cross, launch it, embark, and range them-
selves round the central heap of provisions with their heads
joined over it, and their tails hanging in the water,
perhaps serving as rudders. Pennant afterwards gave
credit to this account, observing that in a country where
berries were scarce, the mice were compelled to cross
streams for distant forages.^ Dr. Hooker, however, in his
' Tour in Iceland,' concludes that the account is a pure
fabrication. Dr. Henderson, therefore, determined on
trying to arrive at the truth of the matter, with the fol-
lowing result :- I made a point of inquiring of different
individuals as to the reality of the account, and am happy
in being able to say that it is now established as an impor-
tant fact in natural history by the testimony of two eye-
witnesses of unquestionable veracity, the clergyman of
Briamslaek, and Madame Benedictson of Stickesholm, both
of whom assured me that they had seen the expedition
performed repeatedly. ^Madame Benedictson, in parti-
cular, recollected having spent a whole afternoon, in her
younger days, at the margin of a small lake on which
these skilful navigators had embarked, and amusing herself
and her companions by dri\ ins^ them away from the sides
of the lake as they approached them. I was also informed

• Jesse, Gleanings, in., p. 176.
• * Introduction to Arctic Zoology, p. 70.

RATS AND MICE.

365

that they make use of dried mushrooms as sacks, in which
they convey their provisions to the river, and thence to
their homes.' '

Before leaving the mice and rats I may say a few words
upon certain mouse- and rat-like animals which scarcely
require a separate section for their consideration. Of the
harvesting mouse Gilbert White says : —

One of their nests I procured this autumn, most artificially
plaited and composed of blades of wheat, perfectly round, and
about the size of a cricket-ball, with the aperture so ingeniously
closed that there was no discovering to what part it belonged.
It was so compact and well filled that it would roll across the
table without being discomposed, though it contained eight
little mice that were naked and blind. As the nest was per-
fectly full, how could the dam come at her litter respectively, so
as to administer a teat to each 1 Perhaps she opens different
places for that purpose, adjusting them again when the business
is over ; but she could not possibly be contained herself in the
ball with the young ont-s, which, moreover, would be daily in-
creasing in size. This wonderful procreant cradle, an elegant
instance of the efforts of instinct, was found in a wheat-field,
suspended on the head of a thistle.

Pallas has described the provident habits of the so-
called ' rat-hare ' (^Lagomys), which lays up a store of grass,
or rather hay, for winter consumption. These animals,
which occur in the Altai Mountaius, live in holes or cre-
vices of rock. About the middle of the month of August
they collect grass, and spread it out to dry into hay. In
September they form heaps or stacks of the hay, which
may be as much as six feet high, and eight feet in diame-
ter. It is stored in their chosen hole or crevice, protected
from the rain.

The following is quoted from Thompson's ' Passions oi
Animals,' pp. 235-6 : —

The life of the harvester rat is di\ ided between eating and
fighting. It seems to have no other passion than that of rage,
which induces it to attack every animal that comes in its way,
without in the least attending to the superior strength of its
enemy. Ignorant of the art of saving itself by flight, rather

' Dr. Henderson, Journal of a Residence in Iceland vr>
1816, vol. ii., p. 187.

366

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

than yield, it will allow itself to be beaten to pieces with a stick
If it seizes a man's hand, it must be killed before it will quit its
hold. The magnitude of the horse terrifies it as little as the
address of the dog, which last is fond of hunting it. When a
harvester perceives a dog at a distance, it begins by emptying
its cheek-pouches, if they happen to be filled with grain ; it then
blows them up so prodigiously, that the size of the head and
neck greatly exceeds that of the rest of the body. It rears itself
upon its hind legs, and thus darts upon the enemy. If it catches
hold, it never quits it but with the loss of its life ; but the dog
generally seizes it behind, and strangles it. This ferocious dis-
position prevents it from being at peace with any animal what-
ever. It even makes war against its own species. When two
harvesters meet, they never fail to attack each other, and the
stronger always devours the weaker. A combat between a
male and a female commonly lasts longer than between two
males. They begin by pursuing and biting each other, then
each of them retires aside, as if to take breath. After a short
interval they renew the combat, and continue to fight till one of
them falls. The vanquished uniformly serves as a repast to the
conqueror.

If we contrast the fearless disposition of the harvester
with the timidity of the hare or rabbit, we observe that in
respect of emotions, no less than in that of intelligence,
the order Eodentia comprises the utmost extremes.

The so-called ' prairie-dog ' is a kind of small rodent,
which makes burrows in the ground, and a slight eleva-
tion above it. The animals being social in their habits,
their warrens are called ' dog-towns.' Prof. Jillson, Ph.D.,
kept a pair in confinement (see * American Naturalist,'
vol. v., pp. 24-29), and found them to be intelligent and
highly affectionate animals. These burrows he found to
contain a ' granary,' or chambers set apart for the reception
of stored food. With regard to the association said to
exist between this animal and the owl and rattle-snake,
Prof. Jillson says, ' I have seen many dog-towns, with
owls and dogs standing on contiguous, and in some cases
on the same mound, but never saw a snake in the vicinity.'
The popular notion that the owl acts the part of sentry to
the dog requires, to say the least, confirmation.

BEAVEB.

367

Beaver,

Most remarkable among rodents for instinct and in-
telligence unquestionably stands the beaver. Indeed,
there is no animal — not even excepting the ants and bees
—where instinct has risen to a higher level of far-reaching
adaptation to certain constant conditions of environment,
or where faculties, undoubtedly instinctive, are more
puzzlingly wrought up with faculties no less undoubtedly
intelligent. So much is this the case that, as we shall
presently see, it is really impossible by the closest study
of the pyschology of this animal to distinguish the web of
instinct from the woof of intelligence ; the two principles
seem here to have been so intimately woven together, that
in the result, as expressed by certain particular actions, it
cannot be determined how much we are to attribute to
mechanical impulse, and how much to reasoned purpose.

Fortunatel}^, the doubt that for many years shrouded
the facts has been dispelled by the conscientious and
laborious observations of the late Mr. Lewis H. Morgan,'
whose work throughout displays the judicious accuracy of a
scientific mind. As this is much the most trustworthy, as
well as the most exhaustive essay upon the subject, I
shall mainly rely upon it for my statement of facts, and
while presenting these I shall endeavour to point out the
psychological explanation, or difficulty of explanation, to
which they are severally open.

The beaver is a social animal, the male living with his
single female and progeny in a separate burrow or ' lodge.'
Several of these lodges, however, are usually built close
together, so as to form a beaver colony. The young quit
the lodge of their parents when they enter upon the
summer of their third year, seek mates, and establish new
lodges for themselves. As each litter numbers three or
four, and breeding is annual, it follows that a beaver lodge
never or rarely contains more than twelve individuals,
while the number usually ranges from four to eight.
Every season, and particularly when a district becomee
' The American Bea/ver and his Works (Lippincott & Co. 1868).

368

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

overstocked, some of the beavers migrate. The Indianp

say that in their local migrations the old beavers go up
stream, and the young down ; assigning as a reason that
in the struggle for existence greater advantages are
afforded near the source than lower down a stream, and
therefore that the old beavers appropriate the former.
But although lodges may thus be vacated by the old
beavers, they are not left tenantless ; their lease is, as it
were, transferred to another beaver couple. This process
of transference of ownership goes on from generation to
generation, so that the same lodges are continuously
occupied for centuries.

These lodges, which are always constructed in or near
water, are of three kinds — the island, bank, and lake
lodge. The first are formed on small islands which may
happen to occur in the ponds made by the beaver-dams.
The floor of the lodge is a few inches above the level of
the water, and into it there open two, or sometimes more
entrances : —

These are made with great skill, and in the most artistic
manner. One is straight, or as nearly so as possible, with its
floor, which is of course under water, an inclined plane, rising
gradually from the bottom of the pond icto the chaniber; while
the other is abrupt in its descent, and often sinuous in its
course. The first we shall call the ' wood entrance,' from its
evident design to facilitate the admission into the chamber of
their wood cuttings, upon which they subsist during the season
of winter. These cuttings, as will elsewhere be shown, are of
such size and length that such an entrance is absolutely neces-
sary for their free admission into the lodge. The other, which
we shall call the ' beaver entrance,' is the ordinary run-way
for their exit and return. It is usually abrupt, and often wind-
ing. In the lodge under consideration, the wood entrance de-
scended from the outer run of the chamber entrance about ten
feet to the bottom of the pond in a straight line, and upon an
inclined plnne; while the other, emerging from the line of the
chamber at the side, descended quite abruptly to the bottom of
the moat or trench, through which the beavers must pass, in
open water, out into the pond. Both entrances were rudely
arched, with a roof of interlaced sticks filled in with mud in-
termixed with vegetable fibre, and were extended to the bottom

BEAVEE — LODGES.

36^

of the pond or trench, \vith the exception of the opening at
their ends. At the places where they were constructed through
the floor they were finished with neatness and precision ; the
upper parts and sides forming an arch more or less regular,
while the bottom and floor edges were formed with firm and
compacted earth, in which small sticks were embedded. It is
difficult to reaHse the artistic appearance of some of these
entrances without actual inspection.

Upon the floor of the lodge there is constructed a
house of sticks, brushwood, and mud, in the form of a
circular or oval chamber, the size of which varies with the
age of the lodge ; for by a continuous process of repair
(which consists in removing the decayed sticks, &c., from
the interior and working them up with new material upon
the exterior) the whole lodge progressively increases in
size : eventually in this way the interior chamber may
attain a diameter of seven or eight feet.

The ' bank lodges ' are of two kinds : —

One is situated upon the bank of the stream or pond, a few
feet back from its ed^e, and entered by an undergi-ound passage
from the bed of the stream, excavated through the natural earth
up into the chamber. The other is situated upon the edge of
the bank, a portion of it projecting over and resting upon the
bed of the channel, so as to have the floor of the chamber rest
upon the bank as upon solid ground, while the external wall
on the pond side projects beyond it, and is built up from the
bottom of the pond.

Lastly, the 'lake lodges ' are constructed on the shores
of lakes, which, being usually shelving and hard, require
some further variation in the structure of the lodges.
These, therefore, are of interest ' as illustrations of the
capacity of the beavers to vary the mode of construction
of their lodges in accordance with the changes of situa-
tion.' One-half or two-thirds of the lodge is in this case
' built out upon the lake for the obvious purpose of
covering the entrance, as well as for its extension into
deep water.'

All these forms of lodge are, historically regarded,
modififtd burrows.

S70

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

The beaver is a burrowing animal. Indulging this propensity,

he excavates chambers underground, and constructs artificial
lodges upon its surface, both of which are indispensable to his
security and happiness. The lodge is but a burrow above
ground, covered with an artificial roof, and possesses some
advantages over the latter as a place for rearing young.

There are reasons for believing that the burrow is the normal
residence of the beavers, and that the lodge grew out of it, in
the progress o^ ^heir experience, by a process of natural sugges-
tion. ... In addition to the lodge, the same beavers who
inhabit it have burrows in the banks surrounding the pond.
They never risk their personal safety upon their lodge alone,
which, being conspicuous to their enemies, is liable to attack.
. . . As the entrances are always below the surface level of the
pond, there are no external indications to mark the site of the
buiTow,

except occasionally a small pile of beaver-cuttings a foot
or more high. These, the trappers afiBrm, are purposely
left there by the beavers to keep the snow loose over the
ends of their burrows during winter for the admission
of air.

JVIr. Morgan adds the very probable suggestion that
this habit of piling up cuttings for purposes of ventilation
may have constituted the origin of lodge-building.

It is but a step from such a surface-pile of sticks to a lodge,
with its chamber above gi'ound, and the previous burrow as its
entrance from the pond. A burrow accidentally broken through
at its upper end, and repaired with a covering of sticks and
earth, would lead to a lodge above ground, and thus inaugurate
a beaver lodge out of a broken burrow.

It is evidence of an important local variation of in-
stinct, that in the Cascade Mountains the beavers live
chiefly in burrows in the banks of streams, and rarely
construct either lodges or dams. Dr. Newbiu-y, in his
report on the zoology of Oregon and California, says : * We
found the beavers in numbers, of which, when applied to
beavers, I had no conception,' and yet ' we never saw their
houses and seldom a dam.' Whether this local variation
be due to a relapse from dam- and lodge-building instincts
to the primitive burrowing instinct, or to a failure in the

BEAVER— LODGES.

371

full development of the ne"^er instinct, is immaterial.
Probably, I think, looking to the high antiquity of the
building instinct, and also to its being occasionally mani-
fested by the Califomian beavers, their case is to be re-
garded as one of relapsing instinct/

In selecting the site of their lodges beavers display
much sagacity and forethought.

The severity of the climate in these high northern latitudes
lays upon them the necessity of so locating their lodges as to be
assured of water deep enough in their entrances, and also so
protected in other respects, as not to freeze to the bottom ; ^
otherwise they would perish with hunger, locked up in ice-
bound habitations. To guard against thia danger, the daui,
also, must be sufficiently stable thi-ough the wint,er to maintain
the water at a constant level ; and this level, again, must be so
adjusted with reference to the floor of the lodge as to enable
them, at all times, to take in their cuttings from without as they
are needed for food. When they leave their normal mode of life
in the banks of the rivers, and undertake to live in dependence
upon artificial ponds of their own formation, they are compelled
to prevent the consequences of their acts at the peril of their
lives.

On the upper Missouri, where the banks of the river
are for miles together vertical, and rising from three to
eight feet above its surface, the beavers resort to the de-
vice of making what are called ' beaver slides.' These are
narrow inclined planes cut into the banks at intervals, the
angle of inclination being 45° to 60°, so as to form a gradual
descent from a point a few feet back from the edge of the
bank to the level of the river. As Mr. Morgan observes,
* they furnish another conspicuous illustration of the fact
that beavers possess a free intelligence, by means of which
they are enabled to adapt themselves to the cinumstances
in which they are placed.'

Coming now to the habits of these animals in connec-
tion with the procuring and storing of food, it is first to
be observed that * the thick bark upon the trunks of large
trees, and even upon those of medium size, is unsuitable

' See also Mental Evolution in Animals, p. 249.

2 To obviate this possibility, they often select as their site a place
where a spriug happens to rise in the bottom of the lake or pond.
25

$72

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

for food ; but the smaller limbs, the bark of which is
tender and nutritious, afford ^.he aliment which they pre-
fer.' To obtain this food, the animals, as is well known,
fell the trees by gnawing a ring round their base. Two
or three nights' successive work by a pair of beavers is
enough to bring down a half-grown tree, ' each family
being left to the undisturbed enjoyment of the fruits of
their own toil and industry.' ' When the tree begins to
crackle they desist from cutting, which they afterwards
continue with caution until it begins to fall, when they
plunge into the pond usually, and wait concealed for a
time, as if fearful that the cracking noise of the tree-fall
might attract some enemy to the place.' It is of much
interest that the beavers when thus felling trees know how
to regulate the direction of the fall ; by gnawing chiefly
on the side of the trunk remote from the water, they make
the tree fall towards the water, with the obvious purpose
of saving as much as possible the labour of subsequent
transport. For as soon as a tree is down, the next work
is to cut off the branches, or such as are from two to six
inches in diameter ; and then, when they have been cleared
of their twigs, to divide them into lengths sufficient to ad-
mit of the beavers transporting them to their lodges. The
cutting into lengths is effected by making a number of
semi-sections through the branch at more or less equal
distances as it lies upon the ground, and then timiing the
branch half round and continuing the sections from the
opposite side. * To cut it (the branch) entirely through
from the upper side would require an incision of such
width as to involve a loss of labour.' The thicker the
branch, the closer together are the sections made, and con-
sequently the shorter are the resulting portions — the
reason, of course, being that the strength of the animal
would not be sufficient to transport a thick piece of timber
of the same length as a thin piece which it is only just
able to manage.

In moving cuttings of this description they are quite in-
genious. They shove and roll them with their hips, using also
their legs and tails as levers, moving sideways in the act. In
this way they move the larger pieces from the more or iesa

BEAVEK — DAMS.

373

elcA'ated ground on which the deciduous trees are found, over
the uneven but generally descending surface to the pond. . . .
After one of these cuttings has been transported to the water,
a beaver, placing one end of it under his throat, pushes it before
him to tlie place where it is to be sunk.

The sinking is no doubt partly effected by mere soaking ;
but there is also sonie evidence to show that the beavers
have a method of anchoring down their supplies. Thus
they have been observed towing pieces of brush to their
lodges, and then, while holding the large end in their
mouths, ' going down with it to the bottom, apparently to
fix it in the mud bottom of the pond.' A brush -heap
being thus formed, the cuttings from the felled trees are
stuck through the brushwork, without which ' protection
they would be liable to be floated off by the strong currents,
and thus be lost to the beavers at the time when their
lives might depend upon their safe custody.'

Lastly, as a method whereby the beavers can save
themselves the trouble of cutting, transporting, and
anchoring all at the same time, they are prone, when cir-
cumstances permit, to fell a tree growing near enough to
their pond to admit of its branches being submerged in
the water. The animals then well know that the branches
and young shoots will remain preserved throughout the
winter without any further trouble from them. But of
course the supply of trees thus growing conveniently near
a beaver-pond is too limited to last long.

We have next to consider the most wonderful, and I
think the most psychologically puzzling structures that are
presented as the works of any animal ; I mean, of course,
the dams and canals.

The object of the dam is that of forming an artificial
pond, the use of which is to afford refuge to the animals
as well as water connection with their lodges. Therefore
the le\el of the pond must in all cases be higher than that
of the lodge- and burrow-entrances, and it is usually
maintained two or three feet above them.

As the dam is not an absolute necessity to the beaver for
the maintenance of his life — his normal habitation being rather
natural ponds and rivers, and the buiTOws in their banks— it is,

374

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

in itself considered, a remaikable fact that he should have
voluntarily transferred himself, by means of dams and ponds
of his own construction, from a natural to an artificial mode
of life.

In external appearance there are two distinct kinds of
dams, although all are constructed on the same principle.
One, the more common, is the ' stick dam,' which is com-
posed of interlaced stick and pole work upon the lower
face, with an embankment of earth mixed with the same
materials on the upper face. The other is the ' solid-bank
dam,' which differs from the former in having much more
brush and mud worked into its construction, especially
upon its surfaces ; the result being that the whole formation
looks like a solid bank of earth. In the first kind of dam
the surplus water percolates through the structure along
its entire length ; but in the second kind tlie discharge
takes place through a single furrow in the crest, which,
remarkable though the fact unquestionably is, the beavers
intentionally form for this purpose.

In the construction of the dam, stones are used here
and there to give down-weight and solidity. These stones
weigh from one to six pounds, and are carried by the
beavers in the same way as they carry their mud — namely,
by walking on their hind legs while holding their burden
against the chest with their fore-paws. The solid dams
are much firmer in their consistence than the stick dams ;
for while a horse might walk across the former, the weight
of a man would be too great to be sustained by the latter.
Each kind of dam is adapted to the locality in which it is
built, the diflference between the two kinds being due to
t he following cause. As a stream gains water and force in
its descent, it develops banks, and also a broader and
deeper channel. These banks assume a vertical form in
the level areas where the soil is alluvial. Tnus, an open
stick-work dam could not in such places be led ofif
from either bank ; and even if it could, the force and depth
of the stream would carry it away. Therefore in such
places the beavers build their solid-bank dam^j, while in
shallow and comparatively sluggish waters they content

•BEAVER — DAMS.

375

themselves with the smaller amount of labour involved in
eth building of a stick dam.

To give some idea of the proportions of a dam, I shall
epitomise a number of measurements given by Mr,
Morgan : —

Feet

Height of structure from base line . . . . 2 to 6

Difference in depth of water above and below dam . 4 to 5
Width of base or section . . . . . . 6 to 18

Length of slope, lower face . . . . . 6 to 13

Length of slope, upper face 4 to 8

The only other measiu-ement is that of length, and this,
of course, varies with the width of water to be spanned.
Where this width is considerable the length of a dam
may be prodigious, as the following quotation will show : —

Some of the dams in this region are not less remarkable
for their prodigious length, a statement of which, in fact, would
scarcely be credited unless verified by actual measurement.
The largest one yet mentioned measures 260 feet, but there are
dams 400 and even 500 feet long.

There is a dam in two sections, situated upon a tributary of
the main branch of the Esconauba Eiver, about a mile and
& half north-west of the Washington Main. One section
measures 110 and the other 400 feet, with an interval of
natural bank, worked here and there, of 1,000 feet. A solid-
bank dam, 20 feet in length, was first constructed across the
channel of the stream, from bank to bank, with the usual
opening for the surplus water, five feet wide. As the water
rose and overflowed the bank on the left side, the dam was
extended for 90 feet, until it reached ground high enough to
confine the pond. This natm-al bank extended up the stieam,
and nearly parallel with it, for 1,000 feet, where the ground
again subsided, and allowed the water in the upper part of the
pond to flow out and around into the channel of the stream below
the dam. To meet this emergency a second dam, 420 feet long,
was constructed. For the greater part of its length it is low, but
in some places it is two and a half and three feet high, and
constructed of stick-work on the land, and with an earth
embankment on its outer face. In efiect, therefore, it is one
structure 1,530 feet in length, of which 530 feet in two sections
is artificial, and the remainder natural bank, but worked here
and there where depressions in the ground required raising
by aitificial means.

S76

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCP:.

It is truly an astonishing fact that animals should
engage in such vast architectural labours with what
appears to be the deliberate purpose of securing, by
such very artificial means, the special benefits that arise
from their high engineering skill. So astonishing, indeed,
does this fact appear, that as sober-minded interpreters of
fact we would fain look for some explanation which would
not necessitate the inference that these actions are due to
any intelligent appreciation, either of the benefits that
arise from the laboui', or of the hydrostatic principles
to which this laboiu* so clearly refers. Yet the more
closely we look into the subject, the more impossible
do we find it to account for the facts by any such easy
method. Thus it seems perfectly certain that the bea-
vers, properly and strictly speaking, understand the use
of their dams in maintaining a certain level of water.
For it is unquestionable that in the solid-bank dams, as
already observed, a regular opening or trough is cut at one
part of its crest to pro^dde for the overflow ; and now it
has to be added that this opening is purposely widened or
narrowed with reference to the amount of water in the
stream at different times, so as to ensure the maintenance
of a constant level in the pond. Similarly, though by
different means, the same end is secured in the case of the
stick dams. For ' in most of these dams the rapidity or
slowness with which the sur}:)lus water is discharged is
undoubtedly regulated by the beavers ; otherwise the level
of the pond would continually vary. There must be a con-
stant tendency to enlarge the orifices through which the
water passes,' when the stream is small, and vice versa •
otherwise the lodges would be either inundated or have
their sub-aquatic entrances exposed.^ Moreover, a very
little consideration is enough to show that in stick dams
the tendency to increased leakage from the effects of per-
colation, and to a settling do^vn of the dam as its materials
decay from underneath, must demand unceasing vigi-

' In times of 'considerable 'freshet' the former case sometimes
occurs ; the beavers rrnt being able to pro-vide for a very considerable
overflow through their dams, the latter become then wholly submerged.
When arain exposed, the animals take great pains in repairing the in-
juries sustained.

BEAVER —DAMS.

377

lance and care to avert the consequences. And accordingly
it is found that ' in the fall of the year a new supply of
materials is placed upon the lower face of these dams to
compensate this waste from decay.'

Now, it is obvious that we have here presented a con-
tinual variation of conditions, imposed by continual varia-
tions in the amount of water coming down ; and it is a
matter of observation that these variations are met by the
beavers in the only way that they can be met — namely, by
regulating the amount of flow taking place through the
dams. It will therefore be seen that we have here to con-
sider a totally different case from that of the operation of
pure instinct, however wonderful such operation may be.
For the adaptations of pure instinct only have reference
to conditions that are unchanging ; so that if in this case
we suppose pure instinct to account for all the facts, we
must greatly modify our ideas of what pure instinct is
taken to mean. Thus we must suppose that when the
beavers find the level of their ponds rising or falling,
the discomfort which they experience acts as a stimulus to
cause them, without intelligent purpose, either to widen
or to narrow the orifices in their dams as the case may be.
And not only so, but the conditions of stimulation and
response must be so nicely balanced that the animals
widen or narrow these orifices with a more or less precise
quantitative reference to the degree of discomfort, actual
or prospective, which they experience. Now it seems tome
that even thus far it is an extremely difficult thing to be-
lieve that the mechanism of pure or wholly unintelligent
instinct could admit of sufficient refinement to meet so com-
plex a case of compensating adaptation ; and, as we shall
immediately see, this difficulty increases still more as we
contemplate additional facts relating to these structures.

Thus it sometimes happens that in large dams the
pressure of the water which they keep back is so consider-
able that their stability is endangered. In such cases it
has been observed by ]\Ir. Morgan that, at a short distance
beneath the main dam, another and lower dam is thrown
across the stream, with the result of forming a shallow
pond between the two. This pond is —

578

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

Of no apparent use for beaver occupation, but yet subserving
the impoi't;int purpose of setting back water to the depth

of twelve or fifteen inchas ; and the small dam. by

maintiiining the water a foot deep below the great dam,
diminishes to this extent the difference in level above and
below, and neutralises to the same extent the pressure of the
water in the pond above against the main structure.

' WTiether,' adds Mr. Morgan, with commendable caution,
* the lower dam was constructed with this motive and
for this object, or is explainable on some other hypothesis,
I shall not venture an opinion.' But as, he further adds,
' I have also found the same precise work repeated below
other large dams,' we are led to conclude that their corre-
lation cannot at least be accidental ; and as it is of so
definite a character, there really seems no ' other hypothesis '
open to us than that of its having reference to the sta-
bility of the main dam. Yet, if this is the case, it be-
comes in my opinion simply impossible to attribute the
fact to the operation of pure instinct.

Again, jNIr. Morgan observed one case in which, higher
up stream than the main dam, there was constructed
another dam, ninety-three feet long, and two and a half
feet high at the centre : —

A dam at this point is apparently of no conceivable
use to improve the lake for beaver occupation. It has one
feature, also, in which it differs from other dams except those
upon lake outlets, and that consists in its elevation, at all
points, of about two feet above the level of the lake at ordinary
stages of the water. In all other dams, except those upon lake
outlets, and in most of the latter, the water stands quite near
their crests, while in the one imder consideration it stood
about two feet below it. This fact suggests at least the inference,
although it may have but little of probability to sustain it,
that it was constructed with special reference to sudden rises
of the lake in times of fi-eshet, and that it was designed to hold
this surplus water until it could be gi'adually discharged through
the dam into the great space below. It would at least subserve
this purpose very efficiently, and thus protect the dam below it
from the effects of freshets. To ascribe the origin of this dam
to such motives of intelligence is to invest this animal with a
higher degree of sagacity than we have probable reason to

BEAArER— CANALS.

379

concede to him, and yet it is proper to mention the relation in
which those dams stand to each other — whether that relation
is regarded as accidental or intentional.

As before, we have here to commend the caution dis-
played by the closing sentence ; but, as useless dams are
not found in other places, the inference clearly is that the
dam in question, both as regards its exceptional position
and exceptional height, can only be explained by suppos-
ing the structure to have been designed for the use which
it unquestionably served. That is to say, if we do not
entertain this explanation, there is no other to be sug-
gested ; and although in any ordinary or occasional in-
stance of the display of animal intelligence in such a degree
as this I should not hesitate to attribute the facts to acci-
dent, in the case of the beaver there are such a multitude
of constantly recurring facts, all and only referable to
a practical though not less extraordinary appreciation of
hydrostatic principles, that the hypothesis of accident
must here, I think, be laid aside. To substantiate this
statement I shall detail the facts concerning the beaver-
canals.

As Mr. Morgan, who first discovered and described
these astonishing structures, observes, —

Remarkable as the dam may still be considered, from its
structure and objects, it scarcely surpasses, if it may be said to
equal, these wat-er-ways, here called canals, which are excavated
through the low lands bordering their ponds for the purpose of
reaching the hard wood, and for affording a channel for its
transportation to their lodges. To conceive and execute such
a design presupposes a more complicated and extended process
of reasoning than that required for the construction of a dam,
and, although a much simpler work to perform when the
thought was fully developed, it was far less to have been
expected from a mute animal.

These canals are developed in this way. One of the
principal objects served by a dam thrown across a small
stream, is that of flooding the low ground so as to obtain
water connection with the first high ground upon which
hard wood is to be found, such connection being conve-
nient, or even necessary, for the purposes of transport.

S80

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

Where the pond fails to accomplish this fully, and also
where the banks are defined and mark the limits of the
pond, the deficiency is supplied by the canals in question. On
descending surfaces, as has elsewhere been sbited, beavers roll
and drag their short cuttings down into the ponds. But
where the ground is low it is generally so uneven and rough
as to render it extremely difficult, if not impossible, for the
beavers to move them for any cons derable distance by physical
force. Hence the canal for fioating them across the inter-
vening level ground to the pond. The necessity for it is so
apparent as to diminish our astonishmenb at its construction ;
and yet that the beaver should devise a canal to surmount this
difficulty is not the less remarkable.

The canals, which are made by excavation, are usually
from three to five feet wide, three feet deep, and perhaps
hundreds of feet long — the length of course depending on
the distance between the lodge and the wood supply. They
are cut in the form of trenches, having perpendicular sides
and abrupt ends. All roots of trees, under-brush, &c.,
are cleared away in their course, so as to afford an un-
obstructed passage. These canals are of such frequent
occurrence that it is impossible to attribute them to acci-
dent ; they are evidently made, at the cost of much labour,
with the deliberate purpose of putting them to the use for
which they are designed. In executing this purpose there
is sometimes displayed a depth of engineering forethought
over details of structure required by the circumstances of
special localities, which is even more astonishing than
the execution of the general idea. Thus it not unfre-
quently happens that when a canal has been run for a
certain distance, a rise in the level of the ground renders
it impossible to continue the structure further from the
water supply or lodge-pond, without either incurring a
great amount of labour in digging the canal with pro-
gressively deepening sides, or leaving the trench empty of
water, and so useless. In such cases the beavers resort to
various expedients, according to the nature of the ground.

Mr. Morgan gives an interesting sketch of one such
case, where the canal is excavated through low ground for
a distance of 450 feet, when it reaches the first rise of

BEAVER — CANALS.

381

ground, and throughout this distance, being level with
the pond, it is supplied with water from this source.
Where the rise begins a dam is made, and the canal is
then continued for 25 feet at a level of one foot
higher than before. This higher level reach is supplied
with water collected from still higher levels by another
dam, extending for 75 feet upon one side of the
canal and 25 feet on the other, in the form of a
crescent with its concavity directed towards the high-
lands, so as to collect all the drainage water, and concen-

trate it into the second reach of the canal. Beyond this
larger dam there is another abrupt rise of a foot, and the
canal is there continued for 47 feet more, where a third
dam is built resembling the second in construction, only
having a still wider span on either side of the canal (142
feet), so as to catch a still larger quantity of drainage
water to supply the third or uppermost reach of the canal.
We have, therefore, here presented, not only a perfect
application of the principle of ' locks,' which are used in
canals of human construction, but also the principle of
collecting water to supply the reaches situated on the
slope by means of elaborately constructed dams of wide

382

ANIIVIAL INTELLIGENCE.

extent, and of the best form for the purpose. There is
thus shown much too great a concurrence of engineering
principles to the attainment of one object to admit of our
attributing the facts to accident. On this structure Mr.
Morgan observes : —

The crests of these dams where they cross the canals are
depressed, or worn down, in the centre, by the constant pas-
sage of beavers over them while going to a.nd fro and dragging
their cuttings. This canal with its adjuncts of dams and
its manifest objects is a remarkable work, transcending very
much the ordinaiy estimates of the intelligence of the beaver.
It sei-ved to bring the occupants of the pond into easy con-
nection by water with the trees that supplied them with food,
as well as to relieve them fi-om the tedious and perhaps im-
possible task of transporting their cuttings 500 feet over uneven
ground unassisted by any descent.

Again, in another case, also sketched by Mr. Morgan,
another device is resorted to, and one which, having re-
ference to the particular circumstances of the case, is the
best that could have been adopted. Here the canal,
proceeding from the pond to the woodland 150 feet dis-
tant, encounters at the woodland a rising slope covered
with hard wood. Thereupon the canal bifurcates, and the
two diverging branches or prongs are carried in opposite
directions along the base of the woodland rise, one for a
distance of 100 and the other for 115 feet. The level
being throughout the same, the water from the pond sup-
plies the two branch-canals as well as the tmnk. Both
branches end with abrupt vertical faces. Now the object
of these branches is sufficiently apparent : —

After the rising ground, and with it the hard wood trees,
were reached at the p.)iiit where it branches, there was no
very urgent necessity for the bi-anches. But their construc-
I ion along the base of the high groimd gave them a frontage
upon the canal of 215 feet of hard- wood lands, thus affording to
them, along this extended line, the great advantages of water
transportation for their cuttings.

One more proof of engineering purpose in the con-
Btraction of canals will be sufficient to place beyond all

BEAVER—CANALS.

383

question the fact that beavers form these canals, as they
form their dams, with a far-seeing perception of the suit^
ability of highly artificial means to the attainment of
particular ends, under a variety of special circumstances.
^Ir. Morgan observed one or two instances where the land
included in a wind or loop of a river was cut through by
a beaver canal across the narrowest part, ' apparently to
shorten the distance in going up and down by water.*
Judging from the figure? which he gives, drawn to
measurement, there can be no question that such was the
object ; and as these structures may be one or two hun-
dred feet in length, and represent the laborious excavation
of some 1,500 cubic feet of soil, the animals must be
actuated by the most vivid conception of the subsequent
saving in labour that is to be effected by making an arti-
ficial communication across the chord of an arc, instead
of always going round the natural curve of a stream.

Regarding now together all these facts relating to the
psychology of the beaver, it must be confessed, as I said
at the outset, that we have presented to us a problem per-
haps the most difficult of any that we have to encounter
in the whole range of animal intelligence. On the one
hand, it seems incredible that the beaver should attain to
such a level of abstract thought as would be implied by
his forming his various structures with the calculated pur-
pose of achieving the ends which they undoubtedly sub-
serve. On the other hand, as we have seen, it seems
little less than impossible that the formation of these
structures can be due to instinct. Yet one or other hypo-
thesis, either singly or in combination, must be resorted
to. The case, it will be observed, thus differs from that
of the more wonderful performances of instinct elsewhere,
such as that of ants and bees, inasmuch as the perform-
ances here are so complex and varied, as well as having
TBference to physical principles of a much more recondite
or less observable nature. The case from its theoretical
side being thus one of much difficulty, I think it will be
better to postpone its discussion till in ' Mental Evolu-
tion ' I come to treat of the whole subject of instinct in
relation to intelligence.

384

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

I must not, however, conclude this epitome of the
facts without alluding to the only other publication on the
habits of the beaver which is of distinctly scientific value.
This is a short but interesting paper by Prof. Alexander
AgassizJ He says that the largest dam he has himself seen
measured 650 feet in length, and 3J feet in height, with
a small number of lodges in the vicinity of the pond. The
number of lodges is always thus very small in proportion
to the size of the dam, the greatest number of lodges
that he has observed upon one pond being five. It is
evident from this that beavers are not really gregarious in
their habits, and that their dams and canals ' are the work
of a comparatively small number of animals ; but to make
up for the numbers the work of succeeding inhabitants of
any one pond must have been carried on for centuries to
accomplish the gigantic results we find in some localities.'

In once case Prof. Agassiz obtained what may be termed
geological evidence of the truth of an opinion advanced
by ]\Ir. Morgan, that beaver-works may be hundreds if
not thousands of years in course of continuous forma-
tion. For the purpose of obtaining a secure foundation
for a mill dam erected above a beaver dam, it was neces-
sary to clear away the soil from the bottom of the beaver
pond. This soil was found to be a peat bog. A trench
was dug into the peat 12 feet wide by 1,200 feet long,
and 9 feet deep ; all the way along this trench old stumps
of trees were found at various depths, some still bearing
marks of having been gnawed by beavers' teeth. Agassiz
calculated the growth of the bog as about a foot per cen-
tury, so that here we have tolerably accurate evidence of
an existing beaver dam being somewhere about a thousand
years old.

The gradual growth of these enormous dams has the
effect of greatly altering the configuration of the country
where they occur. By taking levels from dams towards
the sources of streams on which they occur, Agassiz was
able ideally to reconstruct the original landscape before
the growth of the dams, and he found that, ' from the

> Note on Beaver Dams (^Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 1869, p. 101,
ft teq.).

BEAVER— :\IEADOWS.

385

nature of the surrounding country, the open spaces now
joining the beaver ponds — the beaver meadows where the
trees are scanty or small — must at one time have been all
covered with forests.' At first the beavers ' began to clear
the forest just in the immediate vicinity of the dams,
extending in every direction, first up the stream as far as
the nature of the creek would allow, and then laterally by
means of their canals, as far as the level of the ground
would allow, thus little by little clearing a larger area
according to the time they have occupied any particular
place.' In this way beavers may change the whole aspect
of large tracts of country, covering with water a great
extent of ground which was once thickly wooded.

386

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

CHAPTER Xni.

ELEPHANT.

The intelligence of the elephant is no doubt considerable,
although there is equally little doubt that it is generally
exaggerated. Some of the most notorious instances of
the display of remarkable sagacity by this animal are
probably fabulous, or at least are not sufficiently corrobo-
rated to justify belief. Such, for instance, is the cele-
brated story told by Pliny with all the assurance of a
' certum est,'' ^ and repeated by Plutarch, ^ of the elephant,
who having been beaten for not dancing properly, was
afterwards found practising his steps alone in the light of
the moon. Although this story cannot, in the absence of
corroboration, be accepted as fact, we ought to remember,
in connection with it, that many talking and piping birds
unquestionably practise in solitude the accomplishments
which they desire to learn.

Quitting, however, the enormous multitude of anec-
dotes, more or less doubtful, and which may or may not
be true, I shall select a few well-authenticated instances
of the display of elephant intelligence.

Memory.

As regards memory, several cases are on record of
tamed elephants having become wild, and, on again being
captured after many years, returning to all their old
habits under domestication. JVIr. Corse publishes in
the ' Philosophical Transactions ' ^ an instance which came
under his own notice. He saw an elephant, which

> Plin., Higt. Nat., viii. 1-13. ^ Solert. Anim.., c. 12.

• Philosophical Tramactions, 1799, p. 40.

ELEPHANT — MEMORY AND EMOTIONS. 387

was carrying baggage, take fright at the smell of a tiger
and run off. Eighteen months afterwards this elephant
was recognised by its keepers among a herd of wild com-
panions, which had been captured and were confined in an
enclosure. But when anyone approached the animal he
struck out with his trunk, and seemed as fierce as any of
the wild herd. An old hunter then mounted a tame
elephant, went up to the feral one, seized his ear and
ordered him to lie down. Immediately the force of old
associations broke through all opposition, the word of
command was obeyed, and the elephant while lying down
gave a certain peculiar squeak which he had been known
to utter in former days. The same author gives another
and more interesting account of an elephant which, after
having been for only two years tamed, ran wild for fifteen
years, and on being then recaptured, remembered in all
details the words of command. This, with several other
well-authenticated facts of the same kind,^ shows that the
elephant certainly has an exceedingly tenacious memory,
rendering credible the statement of Pliny, that in their
more advanced age these animals recognise men who were
their drivers when young.^

Emotions,

Concerning emotions, the elephant seems to be usually
actuated by the most magnanimous of feelings. Even his
proverbial vindictiveness appears only to be excited under
a sense of remembered injustice. The universally known
story of the tailor and the elephant doubtless had a
foundation in fact, for there are several authentic cases on
record of elephants resenting injuries in precisely the
sanae way ; ^ and Captain Shipp personally tested the
matter by giving to an elephant a sandwich of bread,
butvter, and cayenne pepper. He then waited for six

' See Bingley, loc. cit., vol. i., pp. 148-51.
2 Hist. Nat., viii., 5.

" For these and other cases of vindictiveness, see Bingley, loo, eit^
vol. i., pp. 156-8.

* Memoirs, vol. 1., p. 448.

26

388

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

weeks before again visiting the animal, when he went
into the stable and began to fondle the elephant as he had
previously been accustomed to do. For a time no re-
sentment was shown, so that the Captain began to think
that the experiment had failed; but at last, watching for
an opportunity, the elephant filled his trunk with dirty
water, and drenched the Captain from head to foot.

Griffiths says that at the siege of Bhurtpore, in 1805,
the British army had been a long time before the city,
and, owing to the hot dry winds, the ponds and tanks had
dried up. There used therefore to be no little struggle
for priority in procuring water at one of the large wells
which still contained water : —

On one occasion two elephant-drivers, each with his elephant,
the one remarkably large and strong, and the other comparatively
small and weak, were at the well together ; the small elephant
had been provided by his master with a bucket for the occasion,
which he carried on the end of his proboscis, but the larger
animal, being destitute of this necessary vessel, either spon-
taneously, or by the desire of his keeper, seized the bucket, and
easily wrested it from his less powerful fellow-servant ; the latter
was too sensible of his inferiority openly to resent the insult,
though it is obvious that he felt it ; but great squabbling and
abuse ensued between the keepers. At length the weaker
animal, watching the opportunity when the other was standing
with his side to the well, retired backwards a few paces in a
very quiet and unsuspicious manner, and then, rushing forward
with all his might, drove his head against the side of the other,
and fairly pushed him into the well.

Grreat trouble was experienced in extricating thia
elephant from the well — a task which would, indeed, have
been impossible but for the intelligence of the animal
icself. For when a number of fascines, which had been
employed by the army in conducting the siege, were
thrown down the well, the elephant showed sagacity
enough to arrange them with his trunk so as to construct
a continuously rising platform, by which he gradually
raised himself to a level with the ground.

Allied to vindictiveness for small injuries is revenge foi
large ones, and this is often shown in a terrible manner

ELEPHANT— EMOTIONS.

389

by wounded elephants. For instance, Sir E. Tennent
writes : —

Some years ago an elephant which had been wounded by a
native, near Hambangtotte, pursued the man into the town,
followed him along the street, trampled him to death in the
bazaar before a crowd of terrified spectators, and succeeded in
making good its retreat t-o the jungle.

Many other cases of vindictiveness, more or less well
authenticated, may be found mentioned by Broderip,'
Bingley,'^ Mrs. Lee,^ Swainson,** and Watson.^ This trait
of emotional character seems to be more generally present
in the elephant than in any other animal, except perhaps
the monkey.

Another emotion strongly developed in the elephant is
sympathy. Numberless examples on this head might be
adduced, but one or two may suffice. Bishop Huber saw
an old elephant fall down from weakness, and another
elephant was brought to assist the fallen one to rise.
Huber says he was much struck with the almost human
expression of surprise, alarm, and sympathy manifested by
the second elephant on witnessing the condition of the
first. A chain was fastened round the neck and body of
the sick animal, which the other was directed to pull.
For a minute or two the healthy elephant pulled strongly ;
but on the first groan given by its distressed companion
it stopped abruptly, * turned fiercely round with a loud
roar, and with trunk and fore-feet began to loosen the
chain from the neck.'

Again, Sir E. Tennent says : —

The devotion and loyalty which the herd evince to their
leader are very remarkable. This is more readily seen in the
case of a tusker than any other, because in a herd he is gene-
rally the object of the keenest pursuit by the hunters. On such
occasions the others do their utmost to protect him from danger :
when driven to extremity they place their leader in the centre

' Zoological Recreations, p. 315.
' Animal Biography, i , pp. 156-8.

• Anecdotes of Animals, p. 276.

• Habits and Instincts of Animals, p. 37.

• Reasoning Power of Animals, chap. ir«

390

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

and crowd so eagerly in front of him that the sportsmen have
to shoot a number which they might othei-wise have spared. In
one instance a tusker, which was badly wounded by Major
Rogers, was promptly surrounded by his companions, who sup-
ported him between their shoulders, and actually succeeded iri
covering his retreat to the forest.

Lastly, allusion may be made to the celebrated obser-
vation of M. le Baron de Lauriston, who was at Laknaor
dming an epidemic which stretched a number of natives
sick and dying upon the road. The Nabob riding his
elephant over the road was careless whether or not the
animal crushed the men and women to death, but not so
the elephant, which took great pains to pick his steps
among the people so as not to injure them.

The following account of emotion and sagacity is quoted
from the Rev. Julius Young's Memoirs of his father, Mr.
Charles Young, the actor. The animal mentioned is the
one that subsequently attained such widespread notoriety
at Exeter Change, not only on account of his immense
size, but still more because of his cruel death : —

In July 1810, the largest elephant ever seen in England
was advertised as 'just arrived.' As soon as Henry Harris, the
manager of Covent Garden Theatre, heard of it, he determined,
if possible, to obtain it ; for it struck him that if it were to be
introduced into the new pantomime of ' Harlequin Padmenaba,'
which he was about to produce at great cost, it would add
greatly to its attraction. Under this impression, and before the
proprietor of Exeter Change had seen it, he purchased it for the
sum of 900 guineas. Mrs. Henry Johnston was to ride it, and
Miss Parker, the columbine, was to play up to it. Young hap-
pened to be one morning at the box-office adjoining Covent
Garden Theatre, when his ears were assailed by a strange and
unusual uproar within the walls. On asking one of the car-
penters the cause of it, he was told ' it was something going
wrong with the elephant; he could not exactly tell what.' I
am not aware what the usage may be nowadays, but then,
whenever a new piece had been announced for presentation on
a given night, and there was but scant time for its preparation,
a rehearsal would take place after the night's regular performance
was over, and the audience had been dismissed. One such there
had been the night before my father's curiosity had been roused.
As it had been arranged that Mrs. Henry Johnston, seated in

ELEPHANT— EMOTIONS,

391

a howdah on the elephant's back, should pass over a bridge in
the centre of a numerous ^jroup of followers, it was thought
expedient that the unwieldy monster's tractability should be
tested. On stepping up to the bridge, which was slight and
temporary, the sagacious brute drew back his fore-feet and
refused to budge. It is well known as a fact in natural history
that the elephant, aware of his unusual bulk, will never trust
its weight on any object which is unequal to its support. The
stage-manager, seeing how resolutely the animal resisted every
attempt made to compel or induce it to go over the bridge in
question, proposed that they should stay proceedings till next
day, when he might be in a better mood. It was duiing the
repetition of the experiment that my father, having heard the
extraordinary sounds, determined to go upon the stage, and see
if he could ascertain the cause of them. The first sight that met
his eyes kindled his indignation. There stood the high animal,
with downcast eyes and flapping ears, meekly submitting to
blow after blow from a sharp iron goad, which his keeper was
driving ferociously into the fleshy part of his neck, at the root
of the ear. The floor on which he stood was converted into a
p^ol of blood. One of the proprietors, impatient at what he
regarded as senseless obstinacy, kept urging the driver to pro-
ceed to still severer extremities, when Charles Young, who was
a great lover of animals, expostulated with him, went up to the
poor patient sufferer, and patted and caressed him ; and when
the driver was about to wield his instrument again, with even
still more vigour, he caught him by the wrist as in a vice, and
stayed his hand from further violence. While an angry alterca-
tion was going on between Young and the man of colour, who
was the driver. Captain Hay, of the Ashel, who had brought
over ' Chuny ' in his ship, and had petted him greatly on the
voyage, came in and begged to know what was the matter.
Before a word of explanation could be given, the much-wronged
creature spoke for himself ; for, as soon as he perceived the
entrance of his patron, he waddled up to him, and, with a
look of gentle appeal, caught hold of his hand with his pro-
boscis, plunged it into his bleeding wound, and then thrust it
before his eyes. The gesture seemed to say, as plainly as if it
had been enforced by speech, 'See how these cruel men treat
Chuny. Can you approve of itV The hearts of the hardest
present were sensibly touched by what they saw, and among
them that of the gentleman who had been so energetic in
promoting its harsh treatment. It was under a far better im-
pulse that he ran out into the street, purchased a few apples at

392

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

a stall, and oflfered them to him. Chuny eyed him askance, took
them, threw them beneath his feet, and when he had crushed
them to pulp, spurned them from him. Young, who had gone
into Covent Garden on the same errand as the gentleman who
had preceded him, shortly after re-entered, and also held out to
him some fruit, when, to the astonishment of the bystanders,
the elephant ate every morsel, and after he had done so, twined
hi'^ trunk with studied gentleness around Young's waist, mark-
ing by his action that, though he had resented a wrong, he did
not forget a kindness.

It was in the year 1814 that Harris parted with Chuny to
Cross, the proprietor of the menagerie at Exeter Change. One
of the purchaser's first acts was to send Charles Y^'oung a life
ticket of admission to his exhibition; and it was one of his little
innocent vanities, when passing through the Strand with any
friend, to drop in on Chuny, pay him a visit in his den, and
show the intimate relations which existed between them. Some
years after, when the elephant's theatrical career was run, and
he was reduced to play the part of captive in one of the cages of
Exeter Change, a thoughtless dandy one day amused himself by
teasing him with the repeated offer of lettuces — a vegetable for
which he was known to have an antipathy. At last he pre-
sented him with an apple, but, at the moment of his taking it,
drove a large pin into his trunk, and then sprang out of hia
reach. The keeper seeing that the poor creature was getting angry,
warned the silly fellow off", les: he should become dangerous.
With a contemptuous shrug of the shoulder, he trudged off to the
other end of the gallery, and there displayed his cruel ingenuity
on other humbler beasts, till, after the absence of half-an-hour,
he once more approached one of the cages opposite the elephant's.
By this time he had forgotten his pranks with Chuny, but Chuny
had not forgotten him ; and as he was standing with his back
towards him, he thrust his proboscis through the bars of his
prison, twitched off the offender's hat, dragged it in to him, tore
it to shreds, then threw it into the face of the offending gaby,
consummating his revenge with a loud guffaw of exultation. Ail
present proclaimed their approbation of this act of retributive
justice, and the discomfited coxcomb had to retreat from the
scene in confusion, jump into a hackney coach, and betake him-
self to the hatter's in quest of a new tile for his unroofed skull.
The tragic end of poor Chuny must be within the recollection of
many of my readers. From some cause unknown he went mad,
and after poison had been tried in vain it took 152 shots, dis*
charged by a detachment of the Guards, to despatch him.*
* Quoted in Animal World, March 1882.

ELEPHANT — EMOTIONS.

393

The elephant in many respects displays strange pe-
culiarities of emotional temperament. Thus Mr. Corse
says : — ' If a wild elephant happens to be separated from
its young for only two or three days, though giving suck,
she never after recognises or acknowledges it ; ' ' yet the
young one knows its dam, and cries plaintively for her
assistance.

Again, in the wild state, the spirit of exclusiveness
shown by members of a herd (i.e. family) towards elephants
of other herds is remarkable. Sir E. Tennent writes : —

If by any accident an elephant becomes hopelessly separated
from his own herd, he is not permitted to attach himself to any
other. He may browse in tho vicinity, or frequent the same
place to drink and to bathe ; but the intercourse is only on a
distant and conventional footing, and no famiharity or intimate
association is under any circumstances permitted. To such a
height is this exclusiveness carried, that even amidst the terror
of an elephant corral, when an individual, detached from his
own party in the melee and confusion, has been driven into the
enclosure with an unbroken herd, I have seen him repulsed in
every attempt to take refuge among them, and driven off by
heavy blows with their trunks as often as he attempted to in-
sinuate himself within the circle which they had formed for
common security. There can be no reasonable doubt that this
jealous and exclusive policy not only contributes to produce, but
mainly serves to perpetuate, the class of solitary elephants which
are known by the term goondahs in India, and which from their
vicious propensities and predatory habits are called Hora, or
Rogues, in Ceylon.^

The emotional temper, or rather transformation of
emotional psychology, which is exhibited by the Kogues
here mentioned, is as extraordinary as it is notorious.
F'rom being a peaceable, sympathetic, and magnanimous
animal, the elephant, when excluded from the society of
its kind, becomes savage, cruel, and morose to a degree un-
equalled in any other animal. The repulsive accounts of
the bloodthirsty rage and wanton destructiveness of Eogues
show that their actions are not due to sudden bursts of
fury at the sight of man or his works, but rather to a

' Philosophical Tranmctions, 1873.
* Natural History of Ceylon, p. 114.

394

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

deliberate and brooding resolve to wage war on everything,
so that the animal patiently lies in wait for travellers,
rushing from his ambush only when he finds that the
latter are within his power. As showing the cold-blooded
determination of this murderous desire, I may quote
the following case, as it was communicated to Sir E.
Tennent : —

We had, says the writer, calculated to come up with tho
brute where it had been seen half an hour before; but no sooner
had one of our men, who was walking foremost, seen the animal
at the distance of some fifteen or twenty fathoms, than he ex-
claimed, ' There ! there ! ' and immediately took to his heels,
and we all followed his example. The elephant did not see us
until we had run some fifteen or twenty paces from the spot
where we turned, when he gave us chase, screaming frightfully
as he came on. The Englishman managed to climb a tree, and
the rest of my companions did the same ; as for myself, I could
not, although I made one or two superhuman efibrts. But there
was no time to be lost. The elephant was running at me with
his trunk bent down in a curve towards the gi'ound. At this
critical moment Mr. Lindsay held out his foot to me, with the
help of which and then of the branches of the tree, which were
three or four feet above my head, I managed to scramble up to
a branch. The elephant came directly to the tree and attempted
to force it down, which he could not. He first coiled his trunk
round the stem, and pulled it with all his might, but with no
efiect. He then applied his head to the tree, and pushed for
several minutes, but with no better success. He then trampled
with his feet all the projecting roots, moving, as he did so, several
timrs round and round the tree. Lastly, faihng in all this, and
seeing a pile of timber, which I had lately cut, at a short dis-
tance from us, he removed it all (thirty-six pieces) one at a time
to the root of the tree, and piled them up in a regular business-
like manner ; then placing his hind feet on this pile, he raised
the fore part of his body, and reached out his trunk, but still he
could not touch us, as we were too far above him. The English-
man then fired, and the ball took effect somewhere on the
elephant's head, but did not kill him. It made him only the
more furious. The next shot, however, levelled him to the
ground. I afterwards brought the skull of the animal to Colombo,
and it is still to be seen at the house of Mr. Armitage.'

■ Natural History of Ceylon p. 140.

ELEPHANT — EMOTIONS.

395

Another highly curious trait in the emotional psycho-
logy of the elephant is the readiness with which the huge
animal expires under the mere influence of what the
natives call a ' broken heart.' The facts on this head are
without a parallel in any other animal, and are the more
remarkable from the fact that, so far as natural length of
life is any token, the elephant may be said to have more
vitality, or innate power of living, than any other terres-
trial mammal. Again, to quote from Sir E. Tennent : —

Amongst the last of the elephants noosed was the rogue.
Though far more savage than the others, he joined in none of
their charges and assaults on the fences, as they uniformly drove
him off, and would not permit him to enter their circle. When
dragged past another of his companions in misfortune, who was
lying exhausted on the ground, he flew upon him and attempted
to fasten his teeth in his head ; this was the only instance of
viciousness which occurred dui'ing the progress of the corral.
When tied up and overpowered, he was at first noisy and violent,
but soon lay down peacefully, a sign, according to the hunters,
that his death was at hand. Their prognostication was correct ;
he continued for about twelve hours to cover himself with dust
hke the others, and to moisten it with water from his trunk ;
but at length he lay exhausted, and died so calmly, that having
been moving but a few moments before, his death was only per-
ceived by the myriads of black flies by which his body was
almost instantly covered, although not one was visible a moment
before.'

But this peculiarity is not confined to rogue elephants.
Thus Captain Yule, in his ' Narrative of an Embassy to
Ava in 1855,' records an illustration of this tendency of
the elephant to sudden death. One newly captured, the
process of taming which was exhibited to the British
Envoy, ' made vigorous resistance to the placing of a collar
on its neck, and the people were proceeding to tighten it,
when the elephant, which had lain down as if quite ex-
hausted, reared suddenly on the hind quarters, and fell on
its side — dead ! '

Mr. Strachan noticed the same liability of the ele-
phants to sudden death from very slight causes. 'Of the

' Natwral History of Ceylon^ p. 196.

396

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

fall,' he says, ' at any time, though on plain ground, they
either die immediately, or languish till they die ; theii
great weight occasioning them so much hurt by the fall.' *
And Sir E. Tennent observes that, —

In the process of taming, the presence of the tame ones can
genenilly be dispensed with after two months, and the captivo
may then be ridden by the driver alone; and after three or four
months he may be entrusted with labour, so far as regards docility;
bul it is undesirable, and even involves the risk of life, to work
an elephant too soon ; it has frequently happened that a valu-
able animal has lain down and died the first time it was tried in
harness, from what the natives beheved to be * broken heart,'
certainly without any cause inferable from injiu-y or previous
disease. 2

Nor is this tendency to die under the influence of
mere emotion restricted to the efifect of a ' broken heart ; '
it seems also to occur under the power of strong emo-
tional disturbances of other kinds. For instance, an
elephant caught and trained by ^Ir. Cripps is thus alluded
to by Sir E. Tennent :—

This was the largest elephant that had been tamed in Ceylon ;
he measured upwards of nine feet at the shoulders, and belonged
to the caste so hi,s:hly prized for the temples. He was gentle
after his first capture, but his removal from the corral to the
stables, though only a distance of six miles, was a matter of the
extremest difficulty ; his extraordinaiy strength rendering him
more than a match for the attendant decoys. He on one occasion
escaped, but was recaptured in the forest ; and he afterwards
became so docile as to perform a variety of tricks. He was
at length ordered to be removed to Colombo ; but such was his
terror on approaching the fort, that on coaxing him to enter the
gate he became pamlysed in the exti^aordinary way elsewhere
alluded to, and died on the spot.

General Intelligence,

The higher mental faculties of the elephant are more
advanced in their development than in any other animal,
except the dog and monkey. I shall, therefore, devote

> Phil. Trans., a.d. 1701, vol. xxiii., p. 1052.
» Zoo. cit., p. 216.

ELEPHANT — GENERAL INTELLiaENCE. 397

some considerable space to the narration of instances of
its display. The general fact that elephants are habitually
employed in certain parts of India for the purposes of
building, storing timber, &c., in itself shows a level of
docile intelligence which only that of the dog can rival ;
but I shall here confine myself to stating special instances
of the display of sagacity unusually high, even for the
elephant.

Capt. Shipp, in his * Memoirs,' gives the following
incident, of which he was an eye-witness. During a march
with guns in the mountainous districts of India, the force
of which he was a member came to a steep ascent. A
staircase of logs was prepared to enable the elephants to
ascend the slope. When all was ready the first elephant
was led to the bottom of the staircase : —

He looked up, shook his head, and when forced by his
driver, roared piteonsly. There can be no question, in my
opinion, but that this sagacious animal was competent instinc-
tively to judge of the practicability of the artificial flight of steps
thus constructed ; for the moment some little alteration had
been made, he seemed willing to approach. He then com-
menced his examination and scrutiny by pressing with his
trunk the trees that had been thrown across; and after this he
put his fore-leg on with great caution. . . . The next step for
him to ascend by was a projecting rock, which he could not
remove. Here the same sagacious examination took place, the
elephant keeping his flat side close to the side of the trunk, and
leaning against it. The next step was against a tree, but this,
on the first pressure of his trunk, he did not like. Here the
di'iver made use of the most endearing epithets, such as
' Wonderful,' ' My life,' ' Well done, my dear,' ' My dove,' ' My
son,' ' My wife ; ' but all these endearing appellations, of which
elephants are so fond, would not induce him to try again.
Force was at length resorted to, and the elephant roared terri
fically, but would not move.

Something was then altered, the elephant was satisfied,
and at last succeeded in mounting to the top of the stair-
case : —

On reaching the top his delight was visible in a most eminent
degree ; he caressed his keepers, and threw dirt about in a most
plavful manner. Another elephant, a much younger animal,

398

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

had now to follow. He had watched the ascent of the other
with the utmost interest, making motions all the while as
though he was assisting him by shouldering him up the acclivity,
in such gestures as I have seen some men make when spectators of
gymnastic exercises. When he saw his comrade up, he evinced
his pleasure Jiy giving a salute something like the sound of a
trumpet. When called upon to take his turn, however, he
seemed much alarmed, and would not act at all without forc€'.

After a performance similar to that of the previous
elephant, however, he too neared the top, when 'the
other, who had already performed his task, extended his
trunk to the assistance of his brother in distress, round
which the younger animal entwined his, and thus reached
the summit.' There was then a cordial greeting between
the two animals, ' as if they had been long separated
from each other, and had just escaped from some perilous
achievement. They mutually embraced each other, and
stood face to face for a considerable time, as if whispering
congratulations.' ^

Mr. Jesse says : ' I was one day feeding the poor
elephant (who was so barbarously put to death at Exeter
Change) with potatoes, w^hich he took out of my hand.
One of them, a round one, fell on the floor, just out of
reach of his proboscis.' After several ineffectual attempts
to reach it, ' he at length blew the potato against the
opposite wall with sufficient force to make it rebound,
and he then without difficulty secured it.' ^

This remarkable observation has fortunately been cor-
roborated by Mr. Darwin. He writes : —

I have seen, as I dare say have others, that when a small
object is thrown on the ground beyond the reach of one of the
elephants at the Zoological Gardens, he blows through his
trunk on the ground beyond the object, so that the current
reflected on all sides may drive the object within his reach. ^

The observation has also been corroborated by othei
observers.'*

* Memoirs, vol. ii., p. 64 et seq.

2 Jesse, Gleanings in Natural History, vol. i., p. 19.
■ Descent of Man, p. 96.

* See Animal Kingdom, vol. iii., p. 374.

ELEPHANT—GENERAL INTELLIGENCE. 399

The following is quoted from Mr. Watson's book : ^ —
Of the elephant's sense and judgment the following instance
is given as a well-known fact in a letter of Dr. Daniel AVilson,
Bishop of Calcutta, to his son in England, printed in a Life of
the bishop; published a few years ago. An elephant belonging
to an Engineer officer in his diocese had a disease in his eyes,
and had for thi-ee days been completely blind. His owner
asked Dr. Webb, a physician intimate with the bishop, if he
could do anything for the relief of the animal. Dr. Webb
rephed that he was willing to try, on one of the eyes, the effect
of nitrate of silver, which was a remedy commonly used for
similar diseases in the human eye. The animal was accordingly
made to lie down, and when the nitrate of silver was applied,
uttered a terrific roar at the acute pain which it occasioned.
But the effect of the application was wonderful, for the eye was
in a great degree restored, and the elephant could partially see.
The doctor was in consequence ready to operate similarly on
the other eye on the following day ; and the animal, when he
was brought out and heard the doctor's voice, lay down of him-
self, placed his head quietly on one side, curled up his trunk,
drew in his breath like a human being about 1o endure a pain-
ful operation, gave a sigh of relief when it was over, and then,
by motions of his trunk and other gestures, gave evident signs
of wishing to express his gratitude. Here we plainly see in
the elephant memory, understanding, and reasoning from one
thing to another. The animal remembered the benefit that he
had felt from the application to one eye, and when he was
brought to the same place on the following day and heard the
operator's voice, he concluded that a like service was to be done
to his other eye.

The fact that elephants exhibit this sagacious fortitude
under surgical operations — thus resembling, as we shall
afterwards observe, both dogs and monkeys — is corro-
borated by another instance given in Bingley's ' Animal
Biography,'^ and serves to render credible the following
story given in the same work : —

In the last war in India a young elephant received a violent
wound in its head, the pain of which rendered it so frantic and
ungovernable that it was found impossible to persuade the
animal to have the part dressed. Whenever any one approached

* Reasoning Patver of Animals, pp. 5*1-5.

' Bingley, Animal Biography^ vol. i., p. 155.

400

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

it ran off with fury, and would suffer no person to come within
several yards of it. The man who had care of it at length hit
upon a contrivance for securing it. By a few words and signs
he gave the mother of the animal sufficient intelligence of what
was wanted ; the sensible creature immediately seized her
young one with her trunk, and held it firmly down, tho'igh
groaning with agony, while the surgeon completely dressed the
wound : and she continued to peiform this service every day till
the animal was perfectly recovered. '

Again, as still further corroboration of this point, I
may quote the following from Sir E. Tennent's ' Natural
History of Ceylon : ' —

Nothing can more strongly exhibit the impulse to obedience
in the elephant than the patience with which, at the order of
his keeper, he swallows the nauseous medicines of the native
elephant-doctors ; and it is impossible to witness the fortitude
with which (without shrinking) he submits to excruciating
surgical operations for the removal of tumours and ulcers to
which he is subject, without conceiving a vivid impression of
his gentleness and intelligence. Dr. Davy when in Ceylon was
consulted about an elephant in the Government stud, which
was suffering from a deep, burro\ving sore in the back, just over
the back- bone, which had long resisted the treatment ordinarily
employed. He recommended the use of the knife, that issue
might be given to the accumulated matter, but no one of the
attendants was competent to undertake the operation. * Being
assured,' he continues, ' that the creature would behave well, I
undertook it myself. The elephant was not bound, but was
made to kneel down at his keeper's command ; and with an
amputating knife, using all my force, I made the incision
required through the tough integuments. The elephant did
not flinch, but rather inclined towards me when using the
knife; and merely uttered a low, and as it were suppressed
groan. In short, he behaved as like a human being as possible,
as if conscious (as I believe he was) that the operation was for
his good, and the pain unavoidable.

Major Skinner witnessed the following display of
intelligent action by a large herd of wild elephants.
During the hot season at Nenera Kalama the elephants
have a difficulty in finding water, and are therefore

* Bingley, Animal Biography ^ vol. i., p. 155.

ELEPHANT— GENERAL INTELLiaENCE. 401

obliged to congregate in large numbers where water is
to be obtained. Being stationed near a water supply, and
knowing that a large herd of elephants were in the neigh-
bourhood, Major Skinner resolved to watch their pro-
ceedings. On a moonlight night, therefore, he

climbed a tree about four hundred yards from the water, and
waited ])atiently for two hours before he heard or saw anything
of the elephants. At length he saw a huge beast issue from
the wood, and advance cautiously across the open ground to
within a hundred yards of the tank, where he stood perfectly
motionless ; and the rest of the herd, meanwhile, were so quiet
that not the least sound was to be heard from them. Gradu-
ally, at three successive advances, halting some minutes after
each, he moved up to the water's edge, in which, however, he did
not think proper to quench his thii-st, but remained for several
minutes hstening in psrfect stillness. He then returned cau-
tiously and slowly to the point at which he had issued from
the wood, from whence he came back with five other elephants,
with which he proceeded, somewhat less slowly than before, to
within a few yards of the tank, where he posted them as
patrols. He then re-entered the wood and collected the whole
herd, which must have amounted to between eighty and a
hundred, and led them across the open ground with the most
extraordinary composure and quiet till they came up to the five
sentinels, when he left them for a moment, and again made a
reconnaissance at the edge of the tank. At last, being appa-
rently satisfied that all was safe, he turned back, aud obviously
^ave the order to advance ; ' for in a moment,' says Major
Skinner, ' the whole herd rushed to the water with a degree of
unreserved confidence so opposite to the caution and timidity
which had marked their previous movements, that nothing will
ever persuade me that there was not rational and preconcerted
co-operation throughout the whole part}', and a degree of
responsible authority exercised by the patriarch-leader.' *

Mr. H. L. Jenkins writes to me : —

What I particularly wish to observe is that there are good
reasons for supposing that elephants possess abstract ideas ; for
instance, I think it is impossible to doubt that they acquire
through their own experience notions of hardness and weight,
and the grounds on which I am led to think this are as follows.

• See his letter to Sir E. Tennent in 2Vat. Hist, of Ceylon, pp
11&-20.

102

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

A captured elephant after he has been taught his ordinary duty,
Bay about three months after he is taken, is taught to pick up
things from the ground and give them to his mahout sitting on
his shoulders. Now for the first few months it is dangerous to
require him to pick up anything but soft articles, such ae
clothes, because the things are often handed up with consider-
able force. After a time, longer with some elephants than
others, they appear to take in a knowledge of the nature of the
things they are required to lift, and the bundle of clothes will
be thrown up sharply as before, but heavy things, such as a
crowbar or piece of iron chain, will be handed up in a gentle
manner ; a sharp knife will be picked up by its handle and
placed on the elephant's head, so that the mahout can also take
it by the handle. I have purposely given elephants things to
lift which they could never have seen before, and they were all
handled in such a manner as to convince me that they recog
nised such qualities as hardness, sharpness, and weight. You
are quite at liberty to make any use of these remarks you please
if they are of service.

Again, as Dr. Lindley Kemp observes,* * the manner
in which tame elephants assist in capturing wild ones
affords us an instance of reasoning in an animal,' &c. ; and
similarly, Mr. Darwin observes : ' It is, I think, im-
possible to read the account given by Sir E. Tennent
of the behaviour of the female elephants used as de-
coys, without admitting that they intentionally practise
deceit.' 2

The following is an extract from the more interesting
of the observations to which Mr. Darwin here alludes, and
I think it is impossible to read them without assenting to
his judgment. Several herds of wild elephants having
been driven into a corral, two tame decoys were ridden
into it : —

One was of prodigious age, having been in the service of the
Dutch and English Governments in succession for upwards of
a century. The other, called by her keeper ' Siribeddi,' was
about fifty years old, and distinguished for gentleness and doci-
lity. She was a most accomplished decoy, and evinced the
utmost relish for the sport. Having entered the corral noise-
'lessly, carrying a mahout on her shoulders with the headman of

* Indications of Instinct, p. 129.

' Descent of Man, p 69.

ELEPHANT— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE. 403

the noosers seated behind him, she moved slowly along with a
sly composure and an assumed air of easy indifference ; saunter-
ing leisurely in the direction of the captives, and halting now and
then to pluck a bunch of grass or a few leaves as she passed. As
she approached the herd they put themselves in motion to meet
her, and the leader, having advanced in front and passed his
trunk gently over her head, turned and paced slowly back to
his dejected companions. Siribeddi followed with the same
listless step, and drew herself up close behind him, thus afford-
ing the nooser an opportunity to stoop under her and slip the
noose over the hind foot of the wild one. The latter instantly
perceived his danger, shook off the rope, and turned to attack
the man. He would have suffered for his temerity had not
Siribeddi protected him by raising her trunk and driving the
assailant into the midst of the herd, when the old man, being
slightly wounded, was helped out of the corral, and his son,
Eanghanie, took his place.

The herd again collected in a circle, with their heads
towards the centre. The largest male was singled out, and
two tame ones pushed boldly in, one on either side of him, till
the three stood nearly abreast. He made no resistance, but
betrayed his uneasiness by shifting restlessly from foot to foot.
Ranghanie now crept up, and holding the rope open with both
hands (its other extremity being made fast to Siribeddi's collar),
and watching the instant when the wild elephant lifted its
hind foot, succeeded in passing the noose over its leg, drew it
close, and fled to the rear. The two tame elephants instantly
fell back, Siribeddi stretched the rope to its full length, and
whilst she dragged out the captive, her companion placed
himself between her and the herd to prevent any inter-
ference.

In order to tie him to a tree he had to be drawn back-
wards some twenty or thirty yards, making furious resistance,
bellowing in terror, plunging on all sides, and crushing the
smaller timber, which bent like reeds beneath his clumsy
struggles. Siribeddi drew him steadily after her, and wound
the rope round the proper tree, holding it all the time at its
full tension, and stepping cautiously across it when, in order to
give it a second turn, it was necessary to pass between the tree
and the elephant. With a coil round the stem, however, it
was beyond her strength to haul the prisoner close up, which
was, nevertheless, necessary in order to make him perfectly
fast; but the second tame one, perceiving the difficulty, re-
turned from the herd, confronted the struggling prisoner-
27

104

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

pushed him shoulder to shoulder, and head to head, forcing
him backwards, whilst at every step Siribeddi hauled in the
slackened rope till she brought him fairly up to the foot of the
tree, where he was made fast by the cooroowe people. A
so'jond noose was then passed over the other hind-leg, and
secured like the first, both legs being afterwards hobbled to-
gether by ropes made from the fibre of the kitool or jaggery
palm, which, being more flexible than that of the cocoa-nut,
occasions less formidable ulcerations. The two decoys then
ranged themselves, as before, abreast of the prisoner on either
side, thus enabling Ranghanie to stoop under them and noose
the two fore-feet as he had already done the hind; and these
ropes being made fast to the tree in front, the capture was
complete, and the tame elephants and keepers withdrew to
repeat the operation on another of the herd.

The second victim singled out from the herd was secured in
the same manner as the first. It was a female. The tame
ones forced themselves in on either side as before, cutting her
ofi* from her companions, whilst Ranghanie stooped under them
and attached the fatal noose, and Siribeddi dragged her out
amidst unavailing struggles, when she was made fast by each
leg to the nearest gi'oup of strong trees. When the noose was
placed upon her fore-foot, she seized it with her trunk, and suc-
ceeded in carrying it to her mouth, where she would speedily have
severed it had not a tame elephant interfered, and placing his foot
on the rope pressed it downwards out of her jaws. . . . The
conduct of the tame ones during all these proceedings was truly
wonderful. They displayed the most perfect conception of
every movement, both of the object to be attained and of the
means to accomplish it. They manifested the utmost enjoy-
ment in what was going on. There was no ill-humour, no
malignity in the spirit displayed, in what was otherwise a
heartless proceeding, but they set about it in a way that showed a
thorough relish for it, as an agreeable pastime. Their caution
was as remarkable as their sagacity ; there was no hurrying, no
confusion, they never ran foul of the ropes, were never in the
way of the animals already noosed ; and amidst the most
violent struggles, when the tame ones had frequently to step
across the captives, they in no instance trampled on them, or
occasioned the slightest accident or annoyance. So far from
this, they saw intuitively a difficulty or a danger, and addressed
themselves unbidden to remove it. In tying up one of the
larger elephants, he contrived, before he could be hauled close
ap to the tree, to walk once or twice round it, carrying the

ELEPHANT— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE. 405

rope with him; the decoy, perceiving the advantage he had
thus gained over the nooser, walked up of her own accord, and
pushed him backwards with her head, till she made him un-
wind himself again ; upon which the rope was hauled tight and
made fast. More than once, when a wild one was extending
bis trunk, and would have intercepted the rope about to be
placed over his leg, Siribeddi, by a sudden motion of her own
trunk, pushed his aside, and prevented him ; and on one ocxiasion,
when successive efforts had failed to put the noose over the
fore-leg of an elephant which was ah-eady secured by one foot,
but which wisely put the other to the ground as often as it was
attempted to pass the noose under it, I saw the decoy watch
her opportunity, and when his foot was again raised, suddenly
push in her own leg beneath it, and hold it up till the noose
was attached and drawn tight.

One could almost fancy there was a display of dry humour
in the manner in which the decoys thus played with the fears
of the wild herd, and made light of their efforts at resistance.
When reluctant they shoved them forward, when violent they
drove them back ; when the wild ones threw themselves down,
the tame ones butted them with head and shoulders, and forced
them up again. And when it was necessary to keep them
down, they knelt upon them, and prevented them from rising,
till the ropes were secured.

At every moment of leisure they fanned themselves with a
bunch of leaves, and the graceful ease with which an elephant
uses his trunk on such occasions is very striking. It is doubtless
owing to the combination of a circular with a horizontal move-
ment in that flexible limb; but it is impossible to see an
elephant fanning himself without being struck by the singular
elegance of motion which he displays. The tame ones, too, in-
dulged in the luxury of dusting themselves with sand, by
flinging it from their trunks ; but it was a curious illustration
of their delicate sagacity, that so long as the mahout was on
their necks, they confined themselves to flinging the dust along
their sides and stomach, as if aware that to throw it over their
heads and back would cause annoyance to their riders.^

Sir E. Tennent has also some observations on other
uses to which tame elephants are put, which are well
worth quoting. Thus, speaking of the labour of piling
timber, he says that the elephant

' Natural History of Ceylon, pp. 181-94.

lOb ANIMAL INTELLiaENCE.

manifests an intelligence and dexterity which are surprising to q
stranger, because the sameness of the operation enables the
animal to go on for hours disposing of log after log, almost
without a hint or direction from his attendant. For example,
two elephants employed in piling ebony and satinwood in tiie
yards attached to the commissariat stores at Colombo, were ?o
accustomed to their work, that thej were able to accomplish
i1 with equal precision and with gi^eater rapidity than if it had
been done by dock-labourers. When the pile attained a certain
height, and they were qo longer able by their conjoint efforts
to raise one of the heavy logs of ebony to the summit, they had
been taught to lean two pieces against the heap, up the inclined
plane of which they gently rolled the remaining logs, and
placed them trimly on the top.

It has been asserted that in their occupations * elephants are
to a surprising extent the creatures of habit,' that their move-
ments are altogether mechanical, and that ' they are annoyed
by any deviation from their accustomed practice, and resent
any constrained departure from the regularity of their course.'
So far as my own observation goes, this is incorrect ; and I aui
assured by oflBcers of experience, that in regard to changing his
treatment, his hours or his occupation, an elephant evinces no
more consideration than a horse, but exhibits the same pliancy
and facility.

At one point, however, the utility of the elephant stops
short. Such is the intelligence and earnestness he displays in
work, which he seems to conduct almost without supervision,
that it has been assumed that he would continue his labour,
and accomplish his given task, as well in the absence of his
keeper as during his presence. But here his innate love of
ease displays itself, and if the eye of his attendant be withdrawn,
the moment he has finished the thing immediately in hand, he
will stroll away lazily, to browse or enjoy the luxury of fanning
himself and blowing dust over his back.

The means of punishing so powerful an animal is a question
of difficulty to his attendants. Eorce being almost inapplicable,
they try to work on his passions and feelings, by such ex-
pedients as altering the nature of his food or withholding it
altogether for a time. On such occasions the demeanour of the
creature will sometimes evince a sense of humiliation as well
as of discontent. In some parts of India it is customary, in
dealing with offenders, to stop their allowance of sugar canes
or of jaggery ; or to restrain them from eating their own share
of fodder and leaves till their companions shall have finished

ELEPHANT— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE. 407

and in such cases the conscioasness of degradation betrayed by
the looks and attitudes of the culprit is quite sufticient to
identify him, and to excite a feeling of sympathy and pity.

The elephant's obedience to his keeper is the result of afifec-
tion, as well as of fear; and although his attachment becomes
so strong that an elephant in Ceylon has been known to remain
out all night, without food, rather than abandon his mahout,
lying intoxicated in the jungle, yet he manifests little difficulty
Id yielding the same submission to a new driver in the event
of a change of attendants.*

Lastly, Sir E. Tennent writes : —

One evening, whilst riding in the vicinity of Candy, towai-da
the scene of the massacre of Major Dabies' party in 1803, my
horse evinced some excitement at a noise which approached us
in the thick jungle, and which consisted of a repetition of the
ejaculation urmph ! urmph / in a hoarse and dissatisfied tone.
A turn in the forest explained the mystery, by bringing us face
to face with a tame elephant, unaccompanied by any attendant.
He was labouring painfully to carry a heavy beam of timber,
which he balanced across his tasks, but, the pathway being
narrow, he was forced to bend his head to one side to permit it
to pass endways ; and the exei*tion and this inconvenience
combined led him to utter the dissatisfied sounds which dis-
turbed the composure of my horse. On seeing us halt, the
elephant raised his head, reconnoitred us for a moment, then
flung down the timber, and voluntarily forced himself back-
wards among the brushwood so as to leave a passage, of which
he expected us to avail ourselves. My horse hesitated : the
elephant observed it, and impatiently thrust himself deeper
into the jungle, repeating his cry of urmph 1 but in a voice
evidently meant to encourage us to advance. Still the horse
trembled ; and, anxious to observe the instinct of the two
sagacious animals, I forebore any interference : again the
elephant of his own accord wedged himself further in amongst
the trees, and manifested some impatience that we did not pass
him. At length the horse moved forward ; and when we were
fairly past, I saw the wise creature stoop and take up its heavy
burden, trim and balance it on its tusks, and resume its route
as before, hoarsely snorting its discontented remonstrance.

Dr. Erasmus Darwin records an observation which
was communicated to him by a ' gentleman of undoubted

' Natural History of Ceylon, pp. 181-94.

408

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

veracity,' of an elephant in India which the keeper was In
the habit of leaving to play the part of nurse to his child
when he and his wife had occasion to go away from home.
The elephant was chained up, and whenever the child in
its creeping about came to the end of the elephant's
tether, he used gently to draw it back again with his
trunk.

In * Nature,' vol. xix., p. 385, Mr. J. J. Furniss
writes : —

In Central Park one very hot day my attention was drawn
to the conduct of an elephant which had been placed in an
enclosure in the open air. On the ground was a large heap of
newly-mown grass, which the sagacious animal was taking up by
the trunkful, and laying carefully upon his suD-heated back. Ho
continued the operation until his back was completely thatched,
when he remained quiet, apparently enjoying the result of his
ingenuity.

Mr. Furniss in a later communication (vol. xx., p. 21)
continues : —

Since the publication of my former letter (as above), I
have received additional data bearing on the subject from Mr.
W. A. Conklin, the superintendent of the Central Park
Menagerie. I am informed by him that he has frequently
observed elephants, when out of doors in the hot sunshine,
thatch their backs with hay or grass ; that they do so to «
certain extent w^hen under cover in the summer time, and wheu
the flies which then attack the animals, often so fiercely as to
draw blood, are particularly numerous ; but that they never
attempt to thatch their backs in winter. This seems to prove
that they act intelligently for the attainment of a definite end.
It would be interesting to learn whether elephants in their
wild state are in the habit of so thatching their backs. It
seems more probable to suppose that in their native wilds they
would avail themselves of the natural shade afibrded by the
jungle, and that the habit is one which has been developed
Ln consequence of their changed surroundings in captivity.

Mr. Gr. E. Peal writes to ' Nature ' (vol. xxi., p. 34): —

One evening, soon after my arrival in Eastern Assam, and
while the five elephants were as usual being fed opposite the
bungalow, I observed a young and lately caught one step up to
B bamboo-stake fence, and quietly pull one of the stakes up.

ELEPHANT— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

409

Placing it under foot, it broke a piece off with the trunk, and
after lifting it to its mouth threw it away. It repeated this
twice or thrice, and then drew another stake and began again.
Seeing that the l)aniboo was old and dry I asked the reason of
this, and was told to wait and see what it would do. At last it
seemed to get a piece that suited, and holding it in the trunk
firmly, and stepping the left fore-leg well forward, passed the
piece of bamVjoo under the armpit, so to speak, and began to
scratch with some force. My surprise reached its climax when
I saw a large elephant leech fall on the ground, quite six inches
long and thick as one's finger, and which, from its position,
could not easily be detached without this scraper or scratcher
which was deliberately made by the elephant. I subsequently
found that it was a common occurrence. Such scrapers are
used by every elephant daily.

On another occasion, whec travelling at a time of the year
when the large files are so tormenting to an elephant, I noticed
that the one I rode had no fan or wisp to beat them off with.
The mahout, at my order, slackened pace and allowed her to
go to the side of the road, when for some moments she moved
along rummaging the smaller jungle on the bank ; at last she
came to a cluster of young shoots well branched, and after
feeling among them and selecting one, raised her trunk and
neatly stripped down the stem, taking off all the lower branches
and leaving a fine bunch on top. She deliberately cleaned it
down several times, and then laying hold at the lower end
broke off a beautiful fan or switch about five feet long, handle
included. With this she kept the flies at bay as we went along,
flapping them off on each side.

Say what we may, these are both really bond Jide implements,
each intelligently made for a definite purpose.

My friend Mrs. A. S. H. Richardson sends me the
following. The Rev. Mr. To^vnsend, who narrated the epi-
sode, is personally known to her : —

An elephant was chained to a tree in the compound opposite
Mr. Townsend's house. Its driver made an oven at a short
distance, in which he put his rice-cakes to bake, and then
covered them with stones and grass and went away. When he
was gone, the elephant with his trunk unfastened the chain
round his foot, went to the oven and uncovered it, took out
and ate the cakes, re-covered the oven with the stones and
grass as before, and went back to his place. He could not

410

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

fasten the chain again round his own foot, so he twisted it
roimd and round it, in order to look the same, and when the
driver returned the elephant was standing with his back to the
oven. The driver went to his cakes, discovered the theft, and^
looking round, caufi^ht the elephant's eye as he looked back over
his shoulder out of the corner of it. Instantly he detected the
culprit, and condign punishment followed. The whole occur-
rence was witnessed from the windows by the fEuuily

CHAPTEK XIV.

THE CAT.

The cat is unquestionably a highly intelligent animal,
though when contrasted with its great domestic rival, the
dog, its intelligence, from being cast in quite a different
mould, is very frequently underrated. Comparatively un-
social in temperament, wanderingly predaceous in habits,
and lacking in the affectionate docility of the canine
natm-e, this animal has never in any considerable degree
been subject to those psychologically transforming influ-
ences whereby a prolonged and intimate association
with man has, as we shall subsequently see, so profoundly
modified the psychology of the dog. Nevertheless, as we
shall immediately find, the cat is not only by nature an
animal remarkable for intelligence, but in spite of its
naturally imposed disadvantages of temperament, has not
altogether escaped those privileges of nurture which un-
numbered centuries of domestication could scarcely fail
to supply. Thus, as contrasted with most of the wild
species of the genus when tamed from their youngest
days, the domestic cat is conspicuously of less uncertam
temper towards its masters — the uncertainty of temper
displayed by nearly all the wild members of the feline tribe
when tamed being, of course, an expression of the inter-
ference of individual with hereditary experience. And, as
contrasted with all the wild species of the genus when
tamed, the domestic cat is conspicuous in alone manifest-
ing any exalted development of affection towards the
human kind ; for in many individual cases such affection,
under favouring circumstances, reaches a level fully com-
parable to that which it attains in the dog. We do not
kno w the wild stock from which the domestic cat originally

il2

ANIMAL INTELLiaENCE.

sprang, and therefore cannot estimate the extent of the
psychological results which human agency has here pro-
duced; but it is worth while in this connection to
remember that the nearest ally of the domestic cat is the
wild cat, and that this animal, while so closely resembling
its congener in size and anatomical structure, differs so
enormously from it in the branch of psychological structure
which we are considering, that there is no animal on the
face of the earth so obstinately untamable.

As regards the wild species of the tribe in general, il
may be said that they all exhibit the same unsocial, fierce^
and rapacious character. Bold when brought to bay, they
do not court battle with dangerous antagonists, but prefer
to seek safety in flight. Even the proverbial comrage of the
lion is now known, as a rule, to consist in ' the better part
of valour ; ' and those exceptional individuals among
tigers which adopt a 'man-eating' propensity, snatch
their human victims by stealth. That the larger feline
animals possess high intelligence would be shown, even in
the absence of information concerning their ordinary
habits, by the numerous tricks which they prove them-
selves capable of learning at the hands of menagerie-
keepers ; though in such cases the conflict of nature with
nmture renders even the best-trained specimens highly
uncertain in their behaviour, and therefore always more or
less dangerous to the ' lion-kings.' The only wild species
that is employed for any practical purpose — the cheetah
— is so employed by utilising directly its natural instincts ;
it is shown the antelope, and runs it down after the
manner of all its ancestors.

Ketuming now to the domestic cat, it is commonly
remarked as a peculiar and distinctive trait in its emo-
tional character that it shows a strongly rooted attach-
ment to places as distinguished from persons. There can
be no question that this pecuKarity is a marked feature in
the psychology of domestic cats considered as a class,
although of course individual exceptions occur ir« abun-
dance. Probably this feature is a survival of an instinctive
attachment to dens or lairs bequeathed to our cats by ^heir
wild progenitors.

CAT— EMOTIONS AND GENEKAL INTELLIGENCE. 413

The only other feature in the emotional life of cats
which calls for special notice is that which leads to theii
universal and proverbial treatment of helpless prey. The
feelings that prompt a cat to torture a captured mouse
can only, I think, be assigned to the category to which by
common consent they are ascribed— delight in torturing
for torture's sake. Speaking of man, John S. Mill some-
where observes that there is in some human beings a
special faculty or instinct of cruelty, which is not merely
a passive indifference to the sight of physical sufferings,
but an active pleasure in witnessing or causing it. Now,
so far as I have been able to discover, the only animals in
which there is any evidence of a class of feelings in any
way similar to these — if, indeed, in the case even of such
animals the feelings which prompt actions of gratuitous
cruelty really are similar to those which prompt it in man —
are cats and monkeys. With regard to monkeys I shall
adduce evidence on this point in the chapter which treats
of these animals. With regard to cats it is needless to
dwell further upon facts so universally known.

General Intelligence.

Coming now to the higher faculties, it is to be
noted as a general featin-e of interest that all cats, how-
ever domesticated they may be, when circumstances
require it, and often even quite spontaneously, throw
off with the utmost ease the whole mental clothing
of their artificial experience, and return in naked sim-
plicity to the natural habits of their ancestors. This
readiness of cats to become feral is a strong expression
of the shallow psychological influence which prolonged
domestication has here exerted, in comparison with that
which it has produced in the case of the dog. A pet
terrier lost in the haunts of his ancestors is almost as
pitiable an object as a babe in the wood ; a pet cat under
similar circumstances soon finds itself quite at home. The
reason of this difference is, of course, that the psychology
of the cat, never having lent itself to the practical uses of,
and intelligent dependency on, man, has never, as in the

414

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

case of the dog, been under the cumulative influence of
human agency in becoming further and further bent away
from its original and naturally imposed position of self-
reliance ; so that when now a severance takes place between
a cat and its human protectors, the animal, inheriting
unimpaired the transmitted experience of wild progenitors,
knows very well how to take care of itself.

Having made these general remarks, I shall now pass
on to quote a few instances showing the highest level of
intelligence to which cats attain.

As to observation, Mrs. Hubbard tells me of a cat
which she possessed, and which was in the habit of
poaching young rabbits to * eat privately in the seclusion
of a disused pigsty.' One day this cat caught a small black
rabbit, and instead of eating it, as she always did the
brown ones, brought it into the house unhurt, and laid it
at the feet of her mistress. * She clearly recognised the
black rabbit as an unusual specimen, and apparently
thought it right to show it to her mistress.' Such was
' not the only instance this cat showed of zoological dis-
crimination,' for on another occasion, ' having caught
another unusual animal — viz., a stoat — she also brought
this alive into the house for the purpose of exhibiting it.'

Mr. A. Percy Smith informs me of a cat which he
possesses, and which, to test her intelligence, he used to
punish whenever her kittens misbehaved. Very soon this
had the effect of causing the cat herself to train the
kittens, for whenever they misbehaved ' she swore at them
and boxed their ears, until she taught the kittens to be
clean.'

Mr. Blackman, writing from the London Institution,
tells me of a cat which he has, and which without
tuition began to ' beg ' for food, in imitation of a terrier
in the same house whose begging gesture it must have
observed to be successful in the obtaining of tit-bits.
The cat, however, would never beg unless it was
hungry ;—

And no coaxing could persuade it to do so unless it felt so
inclined. The same cat also, whenever it wanted to go out, would
come into the sitting-room, and make a peculiar noise to attract

CAT— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

415

attention : failing that mode being successful, it would pull one's
dress with its claw and then having succeeded in attracting the
desired attention, it would walk to the street door and stop
there, making the same cry until let out.

Coming now to cases indicative of reason in cats, Mr.
John Martin, writing from St. Clement's, Oxford, informs
me : ' I have a cat which a short time ago had kittens,
and from some cause or other her milk failed. My house-
keeper saw her carrying a piece of bread to them.' The
process of reasoning here is obvious.

^Ir. Bidie, writing from the Government Museum of
Madras to Nature ' (vol. xx., p. 96), relates this instance
of reasoning in a cat : —

In 1877 I was absent from Madras for two months, and left
in my quarters three cats, one of which, an English tabby, was
a very gentle and affectionate creature. During my absence the
quarters were occupied by two young gentlemen, who delighted
in teasing and frightening the cats. About a week before my
return the English cat had kittens, which she carefully con-
cealed behind bookshelves in the library. On the morning of
my return I saw the cat, and patted her as usual, and then left
the house for about an hour. On returning to dress I found
that the kittens were located in a corner of my dressing-room,
where previous broods had been deposited and nursed. On
questioning the servant as to how they came there, he at once
replied, ' Sir, the old cat taking one by one in her mouth, brought
them here.' In other words, the mother had carried them one
by one in her mouth from the libi-ary to the dressing-room, where
they lav quite exposed. I do not think I have heard of a more
remarkable instance of reasoning and affectionate confidence in
an animal, and I need hardly say that the latter manifestation
gave me great pleasure. The train of reasoning seems to have
been as follows : ' Now that my master has returned there is no
risk of the kittens being injured by the two young savages in
the house, so I will take them out for my protector to see and
admire, and keep them in the corner in which all my formei
pets have been nursed in safety.'

Dr. Bannister writes me from Chicago, of a cat belong-
ing to his friend the late Mr. Meek, the palaeontologist,
who drew my correspondent's attention to the fact: —

He had fixed upright on his table a small looking-glass, from

416

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

which he used to draw objects from nature, reversed on wood.
The cat seeing her image in this glass made several attempts to
investigate it, striking at it, kc. Then coming apparently to the
conclusion that there was something between her and the other
animal, she very slily and cautiously approached it, keeping her
eye on it all the while, and struck her paw around behind the
mirror, becoming seemingly much surprised at finding nothing
there. This was done repeatedly, until she was at last convinced
that it was beyond her comprehension, or she lost interest in
the matter.

^Ir. T. B. Grroves commuriicates an almost precisely
similar observation to 'Nature ' (vol. xx., p. 291), of a cat
which, on first seeing his own reflection in a mirror, tried
to fight it. Meeting with resistance from the glass, the
cat next ran behind the mirror. Not finding the object
of his search, he again came to the front, and while keep-
ing his eyes deliberately fixed on the image, felt round
the edge of the glass with one paw, whilst with his head
twisted round to the front he assured himself of the per-
sistence of the reflection. He never afterwards conde-
scended to notice a mirror.

The following is communicated to me by a corre-
spondent whose name I cannot obtain permission to pub-
lish. I am sure, however, that it is communicated in
good faith, and the incident can scarcely be supposed to
have been due to accident. After describing the cat and
the parrot in their amiable relationship, my correspondent
proceeds : —

One evening there was no one in the kitchen. Cook had
gone upstairs, and left a bowl full of dough to rise by the fire.
Shortly after, the cat rushed up after her, mewing, and making
what signs she could for her to go down ; then she jumped up
and seized her apron, and tried to drRg her dowi- Ajs she was
in such a state of excitement cook went, and found ' Polly '
shrieking, calling out, flapping her wings and struggling
violently, * up to her knees ' in dough, and stuck quite fast.

No doubt if she had not been rescued she would have sunk
in the morass and been smothered.

I shall here introduce two or three cases to show the
ingenious devices to which clever cats will resort for the
purpose of capturing prey.

CAT— GENEILIL INTELLIGENCE.

417

Mr. James Hutchings writes in ' Nature ' (voL xii., p
330) an account of an old torn cat using a young bird, which
had fallen out of its nest, as a decoy for the old birds.
The cat touched the young bird with his paw when it
ceased to flutter and cry, in order that, by thus making it
display its terror, the old cock bird, which was all the
while flying about in great consternation, might be induced
to approach near enough to be caught. Many times the
cock bird did so, and the cat made numerous attempts to
catch it, but without success. AU the w^hile a kitt-en had
to be kept from kilUng the young bird. As this scene
continued for a long time — in fact, till terminated by Mr.
Hutchings— and as there does not appear to have been
any opportunity for errors of observation, I think the case
worth recording.

The following case is communicated to me by Mr.
James Gr. Stevens, of St. Stephen, New Brunswick: —

Looking out on the garden id front of my residence, I
observed a robin alight on a small tree : it was midwinter, the
ground covered with about a foot of light snow. A cat came
stealthily along, with difficulty making her way through the snow
until within about three feet of the tree where the bhd was ; the
robin was sluggishly resting on a twig distant three feet from
the ground or surface of snow ] the cat could not well, owing to
the softness oi' the snow, venture to make a spring. She
crouched down and at first gently stirred herself, evidently with
the purpose of causing the bird to move. The first attempt
failed. She again more actively stu-red hei-self by a shaking
motion. She again failed, when she stirred herself vigorously
again and started the bird, which flew about fifty feet away, and
alighted on a small low bush on the northern side of a close-
hoarded fence. The cat keenly watched the flight and the alight-
ing of the bird ; as quickly as she could cross through the snow,
she then took a circuit of about one hundred feet, watcliing
the place where the bird was all the while, and covering her
march by making available every bush to hide her. When out of
range of vision of the bird she more actively made for the fence,
leaped over it, came up on the southern side of it, and jumped
on it, calculating her distance so accurately that she came within
a foot of the bush where the bird was, and at once sprung. She
missed her prey, but I thought she proved herself a cunning
hunter. If this case is worth relating you may use the name

418

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

of Judge Stevens, of St. Stephen, New Brunswick, as a witneaB
to the same.

Again, I quote the following case communicated to
'Nature ' by Dr. Frost, because, although it shows an almost
incredible amount of far-sighted stratagem, I cannot on
the one hand see much room for mal-observation, and on
the other hand it is, as I shall show, to some extent cor-
roborated by an independent observation of my friend
Dr. Klein, and another correspondent : —

Our servants have been accustomed during the late frost to
throw the crumbs remaining from the breakfast-table to the
bii'ds, and I have several times noticed that our cat used to wait
there in ambush in the expectation of obtaining a hearty meal
from one or two of the assembled birds. Now, so far, this cir-
cumstance in itself is not an ' example of abstract reasoning.*
But to continue. For the last few days this practice of feeding
the birds has been left off. The cat, however, with an almost
incredible amount of forethought, was observed by myself,
together with two other members of the household, to scatter
crumbs on the grass with the obvious intention of enticing the
birds.*

Although this account, as I have said, borders on the in-
credible, I have allowed it to pass, because up to a certain
point it is, as I have also said, corroborated by an obser-
vation communicated to me by my friend Dr. Klein, F.R.S.

Dr. Klein satisfied himself that the cat he observed had
established a definite association between crumbs already
sprinkled on the garden walk, and sparrows coming to eat
them ; for as soon as the crumbs were sprinkled on the
walk, the cat used to conceal himself from the walk in a
neighbouring shrubbery, there to await in ambush the
coming of the birds. The latter, however, showed them-
selves more wide awake than the cat, for there was a wall
running behind the shrubbery, from the top of which the
birds could see the cat in his supposed concealment, and
then a long line of sparrows used to wait watching the cat
and the crumbs at the same time, but never venturing to
fly down to the latter until the former, wearied with wait-
ing, went away. In this case the reasoning observation

* Nature, vol. xix., p. 619.

CAT— GENEEAL INTELLIGENCE.

419

of the cat — * crumbs attract birds, therefore I will wait
for birds when crumbs are scattered ' — was as complete as
in the case of Dr. Frost's cat, but the reasoning in the
latter case seems to have proceeded a stage further—
* therefore I will scatter crumbs to attract birds.'

Now, in the face of the definite statement made by
Dr. Frost, that his cat did advance to this further stage of
reasoning, I have not felt justified in suppressing his
remarkable observation. And, as lending still further
credence to the account, I may quote the corroborative
observation of another correspondent in * Nature,' which is
of value because forming an intermediate step between
the intelligence displayed by Dr. Klein's cat and that
displayed by Dr. Frost's. This correspondent says : —

A case somewhat similar to that mentioned by Dr. Frost, of
a cat scattering crumbs, occuiTed here within my own know-
ledge. During the recent severe winter a friend was in the
habit of throwing crumbs outside his bedroom window. The
family have a fine black cat, which, seeing that the crumbs
brought birds, would occasionally hide herself behind some
shrubs, and when the birds came for their breakfast, would
pounce out upon them with varying success. The crumbs had
been laid out as usual one afternoon, but left untouched, and
during the night a slight fall of snow occurred. On looking out
next morning my friend observed puss busily engaged scratching
away the snow. Curious to learn what she sought, he waited,
and saw her take the crumbs up from the cleared space and lay
them one by one after another on the snow. After doing this
she retired behind the shrubs to wait further developments.
This was repeated on two other occasions.^

Taking, then, these three cases together, we h^v'e an
ascending series in the grades of intelligence from that
displayed by Dr. Klein's cat, which merely observed that
crumbs attracted birds, through that of the cat vhich
exposed the concealed crumbs for the purpose of attracting
birds, to that of Dr. Frost's cat, which actually sprinkled
the crumbs. Therefore, although, if the last-mentioned or
most remarkable case had stood alone, I should not have
felt justified in quoting it, as we find it thus led up to by
other and independent observations, I do not feel that I
* Natv/re, vol. xx., p. 197.

28

420

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

ihould be justified in suppressing it. And, after all,
regarded as an act of reason, the sprinkling of crumbs to
attract birds does not involve ideas or inferences very
mucb more abstruse or remote than those which are con-
cerned in some of the other and better corroborated
instances of the display of feline intelligence, which I shall
now proceed to state.

In the understanding of mechanical appliances, cats
attain to a higher level of intelligence than any other
animals, except monkeys, and perhaps elephants. Doubt-
loss it is not accidental that these three kinds of animals
fall to be associated in this particular. The monkey in
its. hands, the elephant in its trunk, and the cat in its
agile limbs provided with mobile claws, all possess instru-
ments adapted to manipulation, with which no other organs
in the brute creation can properly be compared, except the
beak and toes of the parrot, where, as we have already
seen, a similar correlation with intelligence may be traced.
Probably, therefore, the higher aptitude which these
animals display in their understanding of mechanical
appliances is due to the reaction exerted upon their intel-
gence by these organs of manipulation. But, be this as
it may, I am quite sure that, excepting only the monkey
and elephant, the cat shows a higher intelligence of the
special kind in question than any other animal, not for-
getting even the dog. Thus, for instance, while I have
only heard of one solitary case (communicated to me by a
correspondent) of a dog which, without tuition, divined the
use of a thumb-latch, so as to open a closed door by
jumping upon the handle and depressing the thumb-piece,
I have received some half-dozen instances of this display
of intelligence on the part of cats. These instances are
all such precise repetitions of one another, that I conclude
the fact to be one of tolerably ordinary occurrence among
cats, while it is certainly very rare among dogs. I may
add that my own coachman once had a cat which, cer-
tainly without tuition, learnt thus to open a door that led
into the stables from a yard into which looked some of the
windows of the house. Standing at these windows when
the cat did not see me, I have many times witnessed her

CAT— GENEEAL INTELLIGENCE.

421

modus operandi. Walking up to the door with a most
matter-of-course kind of air, she used to spring at the
half-hoop handle just below the thumb-latch. Holding
on to the bottom of this half-hoop with one fore-paw, she
then raised the other to the thumb-piece, and while
depressing the latter, finally with her hind legs scratched
and pushed the doorposts so as to open the door. Pre-
cisely similar movements are described by my correspon-
dents as having been witnessed by them.

Of course in all such cases the cats must have pre-
viously observed that the doors are opened by persons
placing their hands upon the handles, and, having ob-
served this, the animals forthwith act by what may be
strictly termed rational imitation. But it should be
observed that the process as a whole is something more
than imitative. For not only would observation alone be
scarcely enough (within any limits of thoughtful reflection
that it would be reasonable to ascribe to an animal) to
enable a cat upon the ground to distinguish that the es-
sential part of the process as performed by the human
hand consists, not in grasping the handle, but in depress-
ing the latch ; but the cat certainly never saw any one,
after having depressed the latch, pushing the dooi-posts
with his legs ; and that this pushing action is due to an
originally deliberate intention of opening the door, and
not to having accidentally found this action to assist the
process, is shown by one of the cases communicated
to me (by Mr. Henry A. Gaphaus) ; for in this case, my
correspondent says, ' the door was not a loose-fitting one
by any means, and I was surprised that by the force of one
hind leg she should have been able to push it open after
unlatching it.' Hence we can only conclude that the cats
in such cases have a very definite idea as to the mechan-
ical properties of a door ; they know that to make it open,
even when unlatched, it requires to be pushed — a very
difi*erent thing from trying to imitate any particular action
which they may see to be performed for the same purpi se
by man. The whole psychological process, therefoie,
implied by the fact of a cat opening a door in this way is
really most complex. First the animal must have ob-

i22

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

served that the door is opened by the hand grasping the
handle and moving the latch. Next she must reason, by
' the logic of feelings ' — If a hand can do it, why not a
paw ? Then, strongly moved by this idea, she makes the
first trial. The steps which follow have not been ob-
served, so we cannot certainly say whether she learns by a
succession of trials that depression of the thumb-piece con-
stitutes the essential part of the process, or, perhaps more
probably, that her initial observations supplied her with
the idea of clicking the thumb-piece. But, however this
may be, it is certain that the pushing with the hind feet
after depressing the latch must be due to adaptive reasoning
unassisted by observation ; and only by the concerted
action of all her limbs in the performance of a highly com-
plex and most unnatural movement is her final purpose
attained.

Again, several very similar cases are communicated to
me of cats spontaneously, or without tuition, learning
to knock knockers and ring bells. Of course in both
cases the animals must have observed the use to which
knockers and bells are put, and when desiiing a door to be
opened, employ these signals for the purpose. It betokens
no small amount of observation and reasoning in a cat to
jump at a knocker with the expectation of thereby sum-
moning a servant to open the door — especially as in some
of the cases the jump is not a random jump at the
knocker, but a deliberate and complex action, ha\ing for
its purposes the raising and letting fall of the knocker.
For instance, ^Ir. Belshaw, writing to 'Nature' (vol. xix.,
p. 659), says : —

I was sitting in one of the rooms, the first evening there, and
hearing a loud knock at the front door was told not to heed it,
as it was only this kitten asking admittance. Not believing it,
1 watched for myself, and very soon saw the kitten jump onto
the door, hang on by one leg, and put the other fore-paw right
through the knocker and rap twice.

In such cases the action closely resembles that of
opening thumb-latches, but clearly is performed with
the purpose of summoning some one else to open the
door. Wonderful, however, as these cases of summoning

CAT— GENEKAL INTELLIGENCE.

423

by knockers undoubtedly are, I think they are surpassed
by other cases in which the instrument used is the bell.
For here it is not merely that cats perfectly well under-
stand the use of bells as calls,^ but I have one or two cases
of cats jumping at hell-wires passing from outside into

Some of my correspondents tell me of pet or drawing-room cats
jumping on chairs and looking at bells when they want milk — this being
their sign that they want the bell pulled to call the servant who brings
the milk ; and Mr. Lawson Tait tells me that one of his cats— of course
without tuition — has gone a step further, in that she places her paws
upon the bell as a still more emphatic sign that she desires it pulled.
But Dr. Creighton Browne tells me of a cat which he has that goes a
step further than this, and herself rings the bell. This is corroborative
of Archbishop Whately's anecdote. ' This cat lived many years in my
mother's family, and its feats of sagacity were witnessed by her, my
sisters, and myself. It was known, not merely once or twice, but
habitually, to ring the parlour bell whenever it wished the door to be
opened. Some alarm was excited on the first occasion that it turned
bell-ringer. The family had retired to rest, and in the middle of the
night the parlour bell was rung violently ; the sleepers were startled
from their repose, and proceeded downstairs with, poker and tongs, to
intercept, as they thought, the predatory movements of some burglar ;
but they were equally surprised to find that the bell had been rung by
pussy, who frequently repeated the act whenever she wished to get out
of the parlour.' The cases, however, mentioned in the text are more re-
markable than any of these, which, nevertheless, all tend to lead up to
them as by a series of steps. Dogs attain to the level of asking by
gesture their masters to ring bells. One instance will be sufficient to
quote. Mr. Rae says in ' Nature ' (vol. xix., p. 459) : * A small English
terrier belonging to a friend has been taught to ring for the servant.
To test if the dog knew 7vhi/ it rang the bell he was told to do so while
the girl was in the room. The little fellow looked up in the most in-
telligent manner at the person giving the order (his master or mistress,
I forget which), then at the servant, and refused to obey, although the
order was repeated more than once. The servant left the room, and a
few minutes afterwards the dog rang the bell immediately on being
told to do so.'

It must also be added that dogs sometimes attain to the level of
knocking knockers— though I should think this must be very rare with
these animals, as I have only met with one case of it. This, however,
is a remarkably good case, not only because it rests upon the authority
of a famous observer, but also because it is so very definite as proving
an act of reason. Dureau de la Malle had a terrier born in his house.
It had never seen a knocker in its native home, and when grown up it
was taken by its master to Paris. Getting fatigued by a walk in the
streets, the animal returned to tlie house, but found the door shut, and
it endeavoured vainly to attract the attention of those within by
barking. At length a visitoi called, knocked at the knocker, and
gained admittance. The dog observed what had been done, and went
in together with the visitor. The same afternoon he went in and out

i24

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

bouses the doors of which the cats desired to be opened.*
M} informants tell me that they do not know how these
cats, from any process of observation, can have surmised
that pulling the wire in an exposed part of its length
would have the effect of ringing the bell ; for they can
never have observed any one pulling the -wires. I can only
suggest that in these cases the animals must have ob-
served that when the bells were rung the wires moved, and
that the doors were afterwards opened ; then a process of
inference must have led them to try whether jump-
ing at the wires would produce the same effects. But
even this, which is the simplest explanation possible,
implies powers of observation scarcely less remarkable
than the process of reasoning to which they gave rise.

As further instances corroborating the fact that both
these faculties are developed in cats to a wonderful degree,
I may add the following. Couch (' Illustrations of
Instinct,' p. 196) gives a case within his own knowledge
of a cat which, in order to get at milk kept in a locked
cupboard, used to unlock the door by seating herself
on an adjoining table, and 'repeatedly patting on the bow
of the key with her paw, when with a slight pull on the
door ' she was able to open it ; the lock was old, and the
key turned in it * on a very slight impulse.'

As a still further instance of the high appreciation of
mechanical appliances to which cats attain, I shall quote
an extract from a paper by Mr. Otto, which will have been
read at the Linnean Society before this work is pub-
half a dozen times, gaining admittance on each occasion by springing
at the knocker.

Lastly, Dr. W. H. Kesteven writes to ' Nature ' (xx., p. 428) of a cat
which used to knock at a knocker to gain admittance, in the way
already described of so many other cats ; but as showing how much
more readily cats acquire this practice than dogs, it is interesting to
note that Dr. Kesteven adds that a dog which lived in the same house
ascertained that the cat was able to gain admittance by knocking, and
yet did not imitate the action, but 'was m the habit of searching for
her when he wanted to come in, and either waiting till she was ready
to knock at the door, or inducing her to do it to please him.'

' Consul E. L. Layard gives in Nature (xx., p. 339) a precisely similai
case of a cat habitually and without tuition ringing a bell by pulling
at an exposed wire.

CAT— GENEEAL INTELLIGENCE.

425

lished. After describing the case of a cat opening a
thumb-latch in the same way as those already mentioned,
this writer proceeds : —

At Parara, the residence of Parker Bowman, Esq., a full-
grown cat was one day accidentally locked up in a room with-
out any other outlet than a small window, moving on hinges,
and kept shut by means of a swivel. Not long afterwards the
window was found open and the cat gone. This having
happened several times, it was at last found that the cat j umped
upon the window-sill, placed her fore-paws as high as she could
reach against the side, deliberately reached with one over to
tlie swivel, moved it from its hoiizontal to a perpendicular posi-
tion, and then, leaning with her whole weight against the
M'indow, swung it open and escaped.

To give only one other instance of high reasoning power
in this animal, Mr. W. Brown, writing from Greenock to
* Nature ' (vol. xxi., p. 397), gives a remarkable story of a
cat, the facts in which do not seem to have admitted of
mal-observation. While a paraffine lamp was being
trimmed, some of the oil fell upon the back of the cat,
and was afterwards ignited by a cinder falling upon it
from the fire. The cat with her back ' in a blaze, in an
instant made for the door (which happened to be open)
and sped up the street about 100 yards,' where she plunged
into the village watering-trough, and extinguished the
flame. * The trough had eight or nine inches of water,
and puss was in the habit of seeing the fire put out with
water every night.' The latter point is important, as it
Bhows the data of observation on which the animal rea-
Boned.

12d

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCa

CHAPTER XV.

FOXES, WOLVES, JACKALS, ETC.

The general psychology of these animals is, of course,
very much the same as that of the dog ; but, from nevei
having been submitted to the influences of domestication,
their mental qualities present a sufficient number of
differences from those of the dog to require another
chapter for their consideration.

If we could subtract from the domestic dog all the
emotions arising from his prolonged companionship with
man, and at the same time intensify the emotions of self-
reliance, rapacity, &c., we should get the emotional
character now presented by the wolves and jackals.
It is interesting to note that this genetic similarity of
emotional character extends to what may be termed
idiosyncratic details in cases where it has not been
interfered with by human agency. Thus the peculiar,
weird, and unaccountable class of emotions which cause
wolves to bay at the moon has been propagated unchanged
to our domestic dogs.

The intelligence of the fox is proverbial ; but as I
have not received many original observations on this
head, I shall merely refer to some of the best authen-
ticated observations already published, and shaU begin
with the instance narrated by ^Ir. St. John in his ' Wild
Sports of the Highlands ' : —

When living in Ross-shire I went out one morning in July,
before daybreak, to endeavour to shoot a stag, which had been
complained of very much by an adjoining farmer, as having
done great damage to his crops. Just after it was davKght I
saw a large fox coming quietly along the edge of the plantation

FOX.

427

in which I was concealed ; he looked with great care over the
turf wall into the field, and seemed to long to get hold of some
hares that were feeding in it, but apparently knew that he had
no chance of catching one by dint of running ; after considering
a short time he seemed to have formed his plans, and having
examined the difierent gaps in the wall by which the hares
might be supposed to go in and out, he fixed upon the one that
seemed the most frequented, and laid himself down close to it in
an attitude like a cat watching a mouse. Cunning as he was,
he was too intent on his own hunting to be aware that I was
within twenty yards of him with a loaded rifle, and able to watch
every movement that he made. I was much amazed to see the
fellow so completely outwitted, and kept my rifle ready to shoot
him if he found me out and attempted to escape. In the mean-
time I watched all his plans. He first with great silence and
care scraped a small hollow in the ground, throwing up the
sand as a kind of screen between his hiding-place and the hares'
mews ; every now and then, however, he stopped to listen, and
sometimes to take a most cautious look into the field ; when he
had done this he laid himself down in a convenient position for
springing apon his prey, and remained perfectly motionless with
the exception of an occasional reconnoitre of the feeding hares.
When the sun began to rise, they came one by one from the
field to the cover of the plantation; three had already come in
without passing by his ambush; one of them came within
twenty yards of him, but he made no movement beyond crouch-
ing still more closely to the ground. Presently two came
directly towards him ; though be did not venture to look up, I
Sixw by an involuntary motion of his ears that those quick
organs hnd already warned him of their approach : the two
hares came through the gap together, and the fox, springing
Nvith the quicknevss of lightning, caught one and killed her
immediately ; he then lifted up his booty and was carrying it
ofl" like a retriever, when my rifle-ball stopped his course by
passing through his back-bone, and I went up and despatched
him.

Numberless instances are on record showing the remark-
able cunning of foxes in procuring bait from traps without
allowing themselves to be caught. These cases are so
numerous, and all display so much the same quality of
intelligence, that it is impossible to doubt so great a
concurrence of testimony. I shall only give two or three
specific cases, to show the kind of intelligence that is in

428

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

question. It will be observed that it is much the same
as that which is displayed under similar circumstances
by rats and wolverines, in which animals we have already
considered it. In all these cases the intelligence dis-
played must justly be deemed to be of a very remarkable
order. For, inasmuch as traps are not things to be met
with in nature, hereditary experience cannot be supposed
to have played any part in the formation of special
instincts to avoid the dangers arising from traps, and
therefore the astonishing devices by which these dangers
are avoided can only be attributed to observation, coupled
with intelligent investigation of a remarkably high cha-
racter.

I extract the following from Couch's ' Illustrations of
Instinct ' (p. 175):—

Whenever a cat is tempted by the bait, and caught in a fox-
trap, Heynard is at hand to devour the bait and the cat too, and
fearlessly approaches an instrument which the fox must know
cannot then do it any harm. Let us compare with this bold-
ness the incredible caution with which the animal proceeds
when tempted by the bait in a set trap, Dietrich aus dem
Winkell had once the good fortune of observing, on a winter
evening, a fox which for many preceding days had been allured
with loop baits, and as often as it ate one it sat comfortably
down, wagging its brush. The nearer it approached the trap,
the longer did it hesitate to take the baits, and the oftener did it
make the tour round the catching-place. ^ATien arrived near
the trap it squatted down, and eyed the bait for ten minutes at
least ; whereupon it ran three or four times round the ti-ap,
then it stretched out one of its fore-paws after the bait, but did
not touch it ; again a pause, during which the fox stared im-
movably at the bait. At last, as if in despair, the animal made
a rush and was caught by the neck. (Mag. Nat. Hist., N. S.,
vol. i., p. 512.)

In ' Nature,' vol. xxi., p. 1 32, ]Mr. Crehore, writing from
Boston, says : —

Some years since, while hunting in Northern Michigan, I
tried with the aid of a professional trapper to entrap a fox who
made nightly visits to a spot where the entrails of a deer had
been thrown. Although we tried every expedient that sug-
gested itself to us we were unsuccessful, and, what seemed very

FOX.

429

singular, we always found the trap sprung. My companion
insisted that the animal dug beneath it, and putting his paw
beneath the jaw, pushed down the pan with safety to himself;
but though the appearance seemed to confirm it, I could hardly
credit his explanation. This year, in another locality of the
same region, an old and experienced trapper assured me of its
correctness, and said in confirmation that he had several times
caught them, after they had made two or three successful
attempts to spring the trap, by the simple expedient of setting it
upside down, when of course the act of undermining and touch-
ing the pan would bring the paw within the grasp of the jaws.

In connection with traps, my friend Dr. Eae has
communicated to me a highly remarkable instance of the
display of reason on the part of the Arctic foxes. I have
previously published the facts in my lecture before the
British Association in 1879, and therefore shall here quote
them from it : —

Desiring to obtain some Arctic foxes, Dr. Rae set various
kinds of traps ; but as the foxes knew these traps from previous
experience, he was unsuccessful. Accordingly he set a kind of
trap with which the foxes in that part of the country were not
acquainted. This consi^^ted of a loaded gun set upon a stand
pointing at the bait. A string connected the trigger of the gun
with the bait, so that when the fox seized the bait he discharged
the gun, and thus committed suicide. In this arrangement the
gun was separated from the bait by a distance of about 30 yards,
and the string which connected the trigger with the bait was
concealed throuijhout nearly its whole distance in the snow.
The gun- trap thus set was successful in killing one fox, but
never in killing a second ; for the foxes afterwards adopted
either of two devices whereby to secure the bait without injur-
ing themselves. One of these devices was to bite through the
string at its exposed part near the trigger, and the other device
was to burrow up to the bait through the snow at right angles
to the line of fire, so that, although in this way they discharged
the gun, they escaped with perhaps only a pellet or two in the
nose. Now both of these devices exhibited a wonderful degree
of what I think must fairly be called power of reasoning. I
have carefully inten-ogated Dr. Eae on all the circumstances of
the case, and he tells me that in that part of the world traps
are never set with strings ; so that there can have been no
special association in the foxes' minds between strings and
traps. Moreover, after the death of fox No. 1, the track on

i30

ANIMAL INTELLiaENCE.

the snow showed that fox No. 2, notwithstanding the temp-
tation offered by the bait, had expended a great deal of scientific
observation on the gun before he undertook to sever the cord
Lastly, with regard to burrowing at right angles to the line of
fire, Dr. Rae justly deemed this so extraordinary a circumstance,
that he repeated the experiment a number of times, in order to
satisfy himself that the direction of the burrowing was really to
be attributed to thought, and not to chance. ^

' I have requested Dr. Rae to write out all the particulars of these
remarkable observations, and the following is the response which he
has kindly made : — ' When trapping foxes in Hudson's Bay it sometimes
happens that certain of these acute animals, probably from having seen
their companions caught, studiously avoid the ordinary steel and wooden
traps, however carefully set. The trapper then sets one or more guns
in a peculiar manner, having a line 15 or 20 yards long uniting the
trigger with a bait, on taking hold of which the fox sets the gun off,
and commits suicide. The double object of the bait being placed so
near the gun is that the fox may be certainly killed — not wounded
only- and that the head alone should be hit, and the body not riddled
all over with shot, which would spoil the skin. It is also necessary to
mention that tour or five inches of slack line must be allowed for
contraction of the line by change from a dry to a moist atmosphere,
which otherwise would cause so great a strain on the trigger that the
gun would be discharged without the bait being touched. So as to
conceal as far as possible all connection between bait and gun, that
part of the line next the bait is carefully hid under the snow.

' When the fox takes the bait, he will have lifted it five inches (the
length of the slack line) from its normal position before the gun goes
off ; consequently, instead of pointing the gun at the bait, it is aimed
fully eight or nine inches higher, at the probable position of the brain
of the animal when the gun is discharged.

' For reasons which scarcely require explanation, foxes very gene-
rally go about in pairs (long before the snow disappears), not necessarily
always close together, because they have a better chance of finding
food if separated some distance from each other.

' After one or more foxes have been shot, the trapper on visiting his
guns perhaps finds that a fox has first cut the line connecting the bait
with the gun, and then gone up and eaten the bait ; or, if the gun has
been set on a drift bank of snow, he or she has scraped a trench ten or
twelve inches deep up to the bait, taken hold of it whilst lying in the
trench, set the gun off, and then trotted coolly away with the food
(taken, one may say, from the gun's mouth) safe and uninjured, as is
clearlj' evinced by there being no mark of blood on the tracks.

* In pulling the bait whilst in the trench, the fox would drag it five
inches, or the length of the slack line, donmvards, and therefore his
liead and nose would be completely out of harm's way, both because of
the snow protection, and also these parts of his body being twelve or
thirteen inches below the line of aim.

* In the cases seen by myself, and by a friend of greater experience,
the trench was always scraped at right angles, or nearly so, to the line
of fire of the gun. This at first sight may appear erroneous, but on

WOLF aKD fox.

431

Dr. Rae also informs me with regard to wolves, that
* they have been frequently known to take the bait from
a gun without injury to themselves, by first cutting the
line of communication between the two.' ^ He adds : —

I may also mention what I have been told, although I have
never had an opportunity of seeing it, that wolves watch the
fishermen who set lines in deep water for trout, through holes
in the ice on Lake Supeiior, and very soon after the man has
left, the wolf goes up to the place, takes hold of the stick which
is placed across the hole and attached to the line, trots off with
it along the ice until the bait is brought to the surface, then
returns and eats the bait and the fish, if any happens to be on
the hook. The trout of Lake Superior are very large, and the
baits are of a size in proportion.

Mr. Murray Browne, Inspector of the Local Grovern-
ment Board, writes to me from Whitehall as follows : —

I once, at the Devil's Glen, Wicklow, found a fox fast in a
trap by the foot. We did not like to touch him, but got sticks
and poked at the trap till we got it open. The process took
ten minutes or a quarter-hour. When first we came up
the fox strained to get free, and looked frightfully savage ; but
we had not poked at the trap more than a very short time
before the whole expression of his face changed, he lay perfectly
quiet (though we must at times have hurt him) ; and when at
last we had got the trap completely off his foot, he still lay quiet,

reflection it really is not so, for if the trench is to be a shelter one —
thinking, as the fox must have done, that the gun or something coming
from it was the danger to be protected from or guarded against — it
must be made across the line of fire, for if scratched in the direction of
tire it would afford little or no protection or concealment, and the
reasoning power or intelligence of the fox would be at fault.

' My belief is that one of these knowing foxes had seen his or her
companion shot, or found it dead shortly after it had been killed, and
not unnaturally attributed the cause of the mishap to the only strange
thing it saw near, namely, the gun.

' It was evident that in all cases they had studied the situation care-
fully, as was sufiiciently shown by their tracks in the snow, which
indicated their extremely cautious approach when either the string-
cutting or trench-making dodge was resorted to, in attempting to obtain
the coveted bait without injury to themselves.'

' It will be remembered that, from evidence previously detailed,
both the wolverine or glutton and certain deer have been shown capable
of similarly obviating the danger of gun-traps.

432

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

and looked calmly at us, as if he knew we were friends. In
fact, we had some little difficulty in getting him to move away,
which he did readily enough when he chose. Was not this a
case of reason and good sense overpowering natural instinct %

Couch says ('Illustrations of Instinct,' p. 178):
^ Derham quotes Olaus in his account of Norway as
having himself witnessed the fact of a fox dropping his
tail among the rocks on the sea- shore to catch the crabs
below, and hauling up and devouring such as laid hold

of it;

Under the present heading I must not omit to refer
to an interesting class of instincts which are manifested
by those species of the genus Canis, whose custom it is to
hunt in packs. The instincts to which I refer are those
which lead to a combination among different members of
the same pack for the capture of prey by stratagem. These
instincts, which no doubt arose and are now maintained by
intelligent adaptation to the requirements of the chase, T
shall call ' collective instincts.' Thus Sir E. Tennent
writes : —

At dusk, and after nightfall, a pack of jackals, having
watched a hare or a small deer take refuge in one of these
retreats, immediately surrounded it on all sides ; and having
stationed a few to watch the path by which the game entered,
the leader commences the attack by raising the cry peculiar to
their race, and which resembles the sound ' okkay ' loudly and
rapidly repeated. The whole party then rush into the jungle
and drive out the victim, which generally falls into the ambush
previously laid to entrap it.

A native gentleman, who had favourable opportunities of
observing the movements of these animals, informed me that
when a jackal has brought down his game and killed it, his
first impulse ir.to hide it in the nearest jungle, whence he issues
with an air of easy indifference to observe whether anything
more powerful than himself may be at hand, from which he
might encounter the risk of being despoiled of his capture. If
the coast be clear he returns to the concealed carcass and carries
it away, followed by his companions. But if a man be in sight,
or any other animal to be avoided, my informant has seen the
jackal seize a cof oa-nut husk in his mouth, or any similar sub-
stance, and fly at full speed, as if eager to carry off his pretended

JACKAL, FOX, AND WOLF.

433

prize, returning for the real booty at some more convenient
season.*

Again, Jesse records the following display of the same
instinct by the fox, as having been communicated to him
by a friend on whose veracity he could rely: —

Part of this rocky ground was on the side of a very high
hill, which was not accessible for a sportsman, and from which
both hares and foxes took their way in the evening to the plain
below. There were two channels or gullies made by the rains,
leading from these rocks to the lower ground. Near one of
these channels, the sportsman in question, and his attendant,
stationed themselves one evening in hopes of being able to
shoot some hares. They had not been there long, when they
observed a fox coming down the gully, and followed by another.
After playing together for a little time, one of the foxes con-
cealed himself under a large stone or rock, which was at the
bottom of the channel, and the other returned to the rocks.
He soon, however, came back, chasing a hare before him. As
the hare was passing the stone \vhere the first fox had concealed
himself, he tried to seize her by a sudden spring, but missed his
aim. The chasing fox then came up, and findiug that his ex-
pected prey had escaped, through the want of skill in his
associate, he fell upon him, and they both fought with so much
animosity, that the parties ^"ho had been watching their pro-
ceedings came up and destroyed them both.

Similarly, :\Ir. E. C. Buck records (' Nature,' viii., 303)
the following interesting observation made by his friend
Mr. Elliot, B.C.S., Secretary to Grovemment, N.W.P. : —

He saw two wolves standing together, and shortly after
noticing them was surprised to see one of them lie down in a
ditch, and the other walk away over the open plain. He
watched the latter, which deliberately went to the far side of a
herd of antelopes standing in the plain, and drove them, as a
sheep-dog would a flock of sheep, to the very spot where his
companion lay in ambush. As the antelopes crossed the ditch,
the concealed wolf jumped up as in the former case, seized a
doe, and was joined by his colleague.

Mr. Buck draws attention to another closely similar
display of collective instinct of wolves in the same
district observed by a ' writer of one of the books on
Indian sport,'

' Met Hist, of Ceylon, p. 35.

434

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

With reference to this case I wrote to * Nature' as
follows. The friend to whom I allude was the late Dr.
Brjdon, C.B. (the ' last man ' of the Afghan expedition
of 1841), whom I knew intimately for several years, and
always found his observations on animals to be trust
worthy : —

In response to the api:>eal which closes Mr. Buck's interest-
ing letter (' Nature,' vol. viii., p. 302), the following instance of
' collective instinct ' exhibited by an animal closely allied to the
wolf, viz., the Indian jackal, deserves to be recorded. It was
communicated to me by a gentleman (since deceased) on whose
vei*acity I can depend. This gentleman was waiting in a tree
to shoot tigers as they came to drink at a large lake (I forget
the district), skirted by a dense jungle, when about midnight
a large axis deer emerged from the latter and went to the
water's edge. Then it stopped and sniffed the air in the direc-
tion of the jungle, as if suspecting the presence of an enemy ;
apparently satisfied, however, it began to drink, and continued
to do so for a most inordinate length of time. When literally
swollen with water it turned to go into the jungle, but was
met on its extreme margin by a jackal, which, with a shai-p
yelp, turned it again into the open. The deer seemed much
startled, and ran along the shore for some distance, when it
again attempted to ent^r the jungle, but was again met and
driven back in the same manner. The night being calm, my
friend could hear this process being repeated time after time —
the yelps becoming successively fliinter and fainter in the dis-
tance, until they b^ame wholly inaudible. The stratagem thus
employed was sufficiently evident. The lake having a long
narrow shore intervening between it and the jimgle, the jackals
formed themselves in line along it while concealed within the
extreme edge of the cover, and waited until the deer was water-
logged. Their prey, being thus rendered heavy and short-
winded, would fall an easy victim if induced to run sufficiently
far, i.e.f if prevented from entering the jungle. It was, of
course, impossible to estimate the number of jackals engaged in
this hunt, for it is not impossible that as soon as one had done
duty at one place, it outran the deer to await it in another.

A native servant who accompanied my friend told him that
this was a stratagem habitually employed by the jackals in that
place, and that they hunted in sufficient numbei*s ' to leave
nothing but the bones.' As it is a stratagem which could only
be effectual under the peculiar local conditions described, it

JACKAL AND DOG.

435

must appear that this exjimple of collective instinct is due to
* separate expression,' and not to ' inherited habit.'

Cases of collective instinct are not of unfrequent occurrence
among dogs. For the accuracy of the two following I can
vouch. A small Skye and a large mongrel were in the habit of
hunting hares and rabbits upon their own account, the small
dog having a good nose, and the larger one great fleetness.
These qualities they combined in the most advantageous
manner, the terrier dri/ing the cover towards his fleet-footed
companion w^hich was waiting for it outside.

The second case is remarkable for a display of sly sagacity.
A friend of mine in Ross-shii-e had a small terrier and a large
Newfoundland. One day a shepherd called upon him to say
that his dogs had been worrying sheep the night before. The
gentleman said there must be some mistake, as the New-found-
land had not been unchained. A few days afterwards the
shepherd agfiin called with the same complaint, vehemently
asserting that he was positive as to the identity of the dogs.
Consequently the owner set one watch upon the kennel and
another outside the sheep enclosm-e, directing them (in con-
sequence of what the shepherd had told him) not to interfere
with the action of the dogs. After this had been done several
nights in succession, the small dog was observed to come at
day dawn to the place where the large one was chained ; the
latter immediately slipped his collar, and the two animals made
straight for the sheep. Upon arriving at the enclosure the
Newfoundland concealed himself behind a hedge, while the
terrier drove the sheep towards his ambush, and the fate of one
of them was quickly sealed. When their breakfast was finished
the dogs l eturned home, and the larger one, thrusting his head
into his collar, lay down again as though nothing had happened.
Why this animal should have chosen to hunt by stratagem
prey which it could easily run down, I cannot suggest ; but
there can be little doubt that so wise a dog must have had
some good reason.

A similar instance of the display of collective instinct
is thus narrated by M. Dureau de la Malle : —

I had at one time two sporting dogs, the one an excellent
pointer with a very smooth skin, and of remarkable beauty and
intelligence ; the other was a spaniel with long and thick hair,
but which had not been taught to point, but only coursed in
the woods like a harrier. My chateau is situated on a level
■pot of ground, opposite to copse wood filled with hares and
29

486

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

rabbits. When sitting at my window, I have observed these
two dogs, which were at large in the yard, approach and make
signs to each other, and first glancing at me, as if to see if 1
offered any obstacle to their wishes, step away very gently, then
quicken their pace when they were at a little dLsbmce from my
sight, and finally dart off at full speed when they thought I
could neither see them nor order them back. Surprised at this
mysterious manoeuvre, I followed them, and witnessed a sin-
gular sight. The })ointer, who seemed to be the leader of the
enterprise, had sent the spaniel out to beat the bushes, and give
tongue at the opposite extremity of the bushwood. As to
himself, he made with slow steps the circuit of the wood by
following it along the border, and I observed him stop before a
passage much frequented by rabbits, and there point. T con-
tinued at a distance to observe how the intrigue was going to
end. At length I heard the spaniel, which had started a hare,
drive it with much tongue towards the place where its com-
panion was Ipng in ambush, and the moment that the hare
came out of the passage to gain the fields, the latter darted
upon it and brought it to me vdth. an air of triumph. I have
seen these two dogs rt^peat this same manceuvre more than a
hundred times ; and this conformity has convinced me that it
was not accidental, but the result of a concerted agreement and
combined plan of operations undei-stood beforehand.

Again, among ^Mr. Darwin's MSS., I find a letter from
■Mr. H. Reeks (1871), which says that the wolves of New
foundland adopt exactly the same stratagem for the cap-
ture of deer in winter as that which is adopted by the
hunters. That is to say, some of the pack secrete them-
selves in one or more of the leeward deer-paths in the
forest or * belting,' while one or two wolves make a
circuit round the herd of deer to windward. The herd
invariably retreats by one of its accustomed runs, and ' it
rai'ely happens .... that the wolves do not manage by
this stratagem to secure a doe or young stag.' And
Leroy, in his book on Animal Intelligence, narrates closely
similar facts of the wolves of Europe as having fallen
within his own observation.

CHAPTER XYI.

THE DOG.

The intelligence of the dog is of special, and indeed ol
unique interest from an evolutionary point of view, in
that from time out of record this animal has been domes-
ticated on account of the high level of its natural intelli-
gence ; and by persistent contact with man, coupled with
training and breeding, its natural intelligence has been
greatly changed. In the result we see, not only a general
modification in the way of dependent companionship and
docility, so unlike the fierce and self-reliant disposition
of all wild species of the genus ; but also a number of
special modifications, peculiar to certain breeds, which all
have obvious reference to the requirements of man. The
whole psychological character of the dog may therefore be
said to have been moulded by human agency with refer-
ence to human requirements, so that now it is not more
true that man has in a sense created the structure of the
bull-dog and greyhound, than that he has implanted the
instincts of the watch-dog and pointer. The definite
proof which we thus have afforded of the transforming
and creating influence exerted upon the mental character
and instincts of species by long and persistent training,
coupled with artificial selection, furnishes the strongest
possible corroboration of the theory which assigns psycho-
logical development in general to the joint operation of
individual experience coupled with natural selection. For
thousands of years man has here been virtually, though
unconsciously, performing what evolutionists may re-
gard as a gigantic experiment upon the potency of in-
dividual experience accumulated by heredity; and now
there stands before us this most wonderful monument of

438

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

his labours — the culmination of his experiment in thr
transformed psychology of the dog.

In my next work I shall treat of this subject with the
fulness that it deserves — especially in its relation to the
origin of instincts and the development of the moral
sense ; but to enter upon this topic at present would
demand more space than can be allowed.

To do full justice to the psychology of the dog a
separate treatise would be required. Here I can only
trace a sketch.

Memory,

As regards memory, one or two instances will suffice.
Mr. Darwin writes : ' I had a dog who was savage and
averse to all strangers, and I purposely tried his memory
after an absence of five years and two days. I went near
the stable where he lived, and shouted to him in my old
manner ; he showed no joy, but instantly followed me out
walking, and obeyed me, as if I had parted with him only
an hour before.' ^

It is not only persons or places that dogs remember
for long periods. I had a setter in the country, which one
year I took up with me to town for a few months. While
in town he was never allowed to go out without a collar
on which was engraved my address. A ring upon this
collar made a clinking sound, and the setter soon learnt to
associate the approach of this sound with the prospect of
a walk. Three years afterwards I again took this setter
up to town. He remembered every nook and corner of
my house in town, and also his way about the streets, and
the fi.rst time that I brought his collar, slightly clinking
as before, he showed by his demonstrations of joy that he
well remembered the sound with all its old associations,
although he had not heard this sound for three years.

Emotions.

The emotional life of the dog is highly developed —
more highly, indeed, than that of any other animal. Hia

* Descent of Man, p. 74.

DOG — EMOTIONS.

439

gregarious instincts, united with his high intelligence and
constant companionship with man, give to this animal a
psychological basis for the construction of emotional cha-
racter, having a more massive as well as more complex
consistency than that which is presented even in the case
of the monkey, which, as we shall afterwards see, attains
to a remarkably high level in this respect.

Pride, sense of dignity, and self-respect are very con-
spicuously exhibited by well-treated dogs. As with man, so
with the friend of man, it is only those whose lines of
fortune have fallen in pleasant places, and whose feelings
may therefore be said to have profited by the refining
influences of culture, that display in any conspicuous mea-
sure the emotions in question. ' Curs of low degree,' and
even many dogs of better social position, have never enjoyed
those conditions essential to moral refinement, which alone
can engender a true sense of self-respect and dignity. A
' low- life ' dog may not like to have his tail pulled, auy
more than a gutter child may like to have his ears boxed ;
but here it is physical pain rather than wounded pride
that causes the smart. Among ' high-life ' dogs, however,
the case is different. Here wounded sensibilities and loss
of esteem are capable of producing much keener suffering
than is mere physical pain ; so that among such dogs a
whipping produces quite a different and a much more
lasting effect than in the case of their rougher brethren,
who, as soon as it is over, give themselves a shake and think
no more about it. As evidence of the delicacy of feeling
to which dogs of aristocratic estate may attain, I shall
give one or two among many instances that I could render.

A reproachful word or look from any of his friends
would make a Skye terrier that I owned miserable for
a whole day. If we had ever ventured to strike him I
do not know what would have happened, for his sentiments
were quite abreast of the age with respect to moral repug-
nance to the use of the lash. Thus, for instance, at one
time when all his own friends were out of town, he was
taken for a walk every day in the park by my brother, to
whose care he had been entrusted. He enjoyed his walks
very much, and was wholly dependent upon my brother

i40

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

for obtaining them. Nevertheless, one day while he was
amusing himself with another dog in the park, my brother,
in order to persuade him to follow, struck him with a
glove. The terrier looked up at his face with an astonished
and indignant gaze, deliberately turned round, and trotted
home. Next day he went out with my brother as before,
but after he had gone a short distance he looked up at hi&
face significantly, and again trotted home with a dignified
air. After thus making bis protest in the strongest way
he could, the dog ever afterwards refused to accompany
him.

This terrier habitually exhibited a strong repugnance
to corporal punishment, even when inflicted upon others.
Thus, whenever or wherever he saw a man striking a dog,
whether in the house or outside, near at hand or at a dis-
tance, he used to rush in to interfere, snarling and snap-
ping in a most threatening way. Again, when driving
with me in a dog-cart, he always used to hold the sleeve of
my coat every time I touched the horse with the whip.
As bearing upon this sensitiveness of feeling produced in
dogs by habitually kind treatment, I shall here give an
extract from the letter of one of my correspondents (Mrs.
E. Picton). It relates to a Skye terrier which had a strong
aversion to being washed : —

In process of time this aversion increased so much that all
the servants I had refused to perform the ablutions, being in
terror of doing so from the ferocity the animal evinced on
Buch occasions. I myself did not choose to undertake the office,
for though the animal was passionately attached to me. such was
his horror of the operation, that even I was not safe. Threats,
beating, and starving were all of no avail ; he still persisted in
his obstinacy. At length I hit upon a new davice. Leaving
him perfectly free, and not curtailing his liberty in any way, I
let him know, by taking no notice of him, that he had oflended
me. He was usually the companion of my walks, but now I
refused to let him accompany me. "When I returned home I
took no notice of his demonstrative welcome, and when he came
looking up at me f'^r caresses when I was engaged either in
reading or needlework, I deliberately turned my head aside.
This state of things continued for about a week or ten days,
and the poor animal looked wretched and forlorn. There w;\a

DOG— EMOTIONS.

441

evidently a conflict going on within him, which told visibly on
his outward appearance. At length one morning he crept
quietly up to me, and gave me a look which said as plainly as
any spoken words could have done, ' I can stand it no longer; I
submit.' And submit he did quite quietly and patiently to
one of the roughest ablutions it had ever been his lot to expe-
rience ; for by this time he sorely needed it. After it was over
lie bounded to me with a joyous bark and wag of his tail, saying
unmistakably, ' I know all is right now.' He took his place by
my side as his right when I went for my walk, and retained
from that time his usually glad and joyous expression of coun-
tenance. When the period for the next ablution came round
the old spirit of obstinacy resumed its sway for a while, but a
single look at my averted countenance was sufficient for him,
and he again submitted without a murmur. Must there not
have been something akin to the reasoning faculty in the breast
of an animal who could thus for ten days carry on such a
struggle 1

This strong effect of silent coldness shows that the loss
of afFectionttte regard caused the terrier more suffering
than beating, starving, or even the hated bath ; and as
many analogous cases might be quoted, I have no hesitation
in adducing this one as typical of the craving for affec-
tionate regard which is manifested by sensitive dogs.

In this connection I may point out the remarkable
change which has been produced in the domestic dog as
compared with wild dogs, with reference to the enduring
of pain. A wolf or a fox will sustain the severest kinds of
physical suffering without giving utterance to a sound,
while a dog will scream when any one accidentally treads
upon its toes. This contrast is strikingly analogous to
that which obtains between savage and civilised man :
the North American Indian, and even the Hindoo, will
endure without a moan an amount of physical pain— or at
least bodily injury — which would produce rehement ex-
pressions of suffering from a European. And doubtless
the explanation is in both cases the same — namely, that
refinement of life engenders refinement of nervous organi-
sation, which renders nervous lesions more intolerable.

As evidence of the idea of caste in a dog, I shall
quote only one instance, although many others might be

142

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

given: this also may be taken as typical. I extract it
from St. John's ' Wild Sports of the Highlands,' where,
speaking of his retriever, this very good observer states :
' He struck up an acquaintance with a ratcatcher and his
cur. thoroughly entering into their way of business ; but
the moment he saw me he instantly cut his humble
friends, and denied all acquaintance with them in the
most comical manner.' '

Dogs likewise display in a high degree the feelings of
emulation and jealousy. I once had a terrier which took
great pains, and manifested paternal delight, in teaching
his puppy to hunt rabbits. But in time the puppy out-
grew his father in strength and fleetness, so that in the
chase, in spite of straining every nerve, the father used
to be gradually distanced. His whole demeanour then
changed, and every time that he found his son drawing
away from him he used in desperation to seize the reced-
ing tail of the youngster. Although the son was now
much stronger than the father, he never used to resent
this exercise of paternal authority, even though the
rabbit were close under his nose.

Of jealousy in dogs innumerable instances might be
given, but I shall merely quote one from my bulky cor-
respondence on this head. It is sent me by IMr. A
Oldham : —

He had grown old, and having some affection in his legs
which made walking difficult to him, he had sunk into a very
stagnant sort of life, when a Scotch terrier was brought to livo
with us, and treated with much favour. All Charlie's old vigoui
revived upon the advent of this rival. He exhibited agonies of
jealousy, and has since spent his life in following, watching, and
imitating him. He insists on doing everything that Jack does.
Although he had previously given up walking, he now makes a
Doint of going out whenever Jack does so. Several times he
nas started with us, but finding that Jack was not of the party,
has turned back and quietly gone home. In the same way,

* So many cases are on record of large dogs (especiallj of the New-
foundland breed) throwing troublesome curs into the water, and again
rescuing them if they show danger of drowning, that we can scarcely
fail to accept them as true. Such cases exhibit a wonderful play of
human-like emotit ns.

DOG — EMOTIONS.

443

although before he ate nothing but meat, he now eats any food
that is also given to Jack; and if Jack is caressed he watches
for some time, and then bursts out whining and barking. I have
seen the same rage manifested by a fine cockatoo at the sight of
his mistress carrying on her wrist and stroking affectionately a
little green parrot. Such jealousy seems to me a very advanced
emotion, as it has passed beyond the stage when it may be sup-
posed to be caused by a fear of other animals monopolising
material benefits which they desire for themselves; it is ex-
cited solely by seeing affection or attention bestowed by those
they love upon other animals. The actions in which Charlie
tries to participate — such as walking far, plunging into cold
water after sticks, &c. — are in themselves extremely disagree-
able to him, and he performs them only that he may obtain a
share in the companionship and notice bestowed upon Jack.

Akin to jealousy is the sense of justice. If a master
is not equal in his ways towards his dogs, the dogs are
very apt to discover the injustice and to resent it accord-
ingly. The well-known observation of the great Arago
may be taken as a typical one in this connection. Having
been detained by a storm at a country inn, and having
ordered a chicken for his dinner, Arago was warming himself
by the kitchen fire, when he saw the innkeeper put the fowl
on the spit and attempt to seize a turnspit dog lying in
the kitchen. The brute, however, refused to enter the
wheel, got under a table, and showed fight. On Arago
asking what could be the meaning of such conduct, the
host replied that the dog had some excuse, that it was
not his turn but his comrade's, who did not happen to be
in the kitchen. Accordingly, the other turnspit was sent
for, and he entered the spit very willingly, and turned
away. When the fowl was half roasted Arago took him
out, and the other dog, no longer smarting under the
sense of injustice, now took his turn without any opposi-
tion, and completed the roasting of the fowl.

Deceitfulness is another trait in canine character of
which numberless instances might be given ; but here,
again, it seems unnecessary to quote more than one or
two cases as illustrative of the general fact. Another of
my correspondents, after giving several examples of the
display of hypocrisy of a King Charles spaniel, proceeds

444

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

He showed the same deliberate design of deceiving on other
occasions. Having hurt his foot he became lame for a time,
during which he received more pity and attention than usual.
For months after he had recovered, whenever he was harshly
Bpoken to, he commenced hobbling about the room as if lame
and suffering pain from his foot. He only gave up the practice
wlien he gradually perceived that it was unsuccessful.

The folloviing instance, which I observed myself, I
regard as more remarkable. It has already been pub-
lished in ' Nature ' (vol. xii., p. 66), from which I quote it :

The terrier used to be very fond of catching flies upon the
window-panes, and if ridiculed when unsuccessful was evidently
much annoyed. On one occasion, in order to see what he
would do, I purposely laughed immoderately every time he
failed. It so happened that he did so* several times in succes-
sion— partly, I believe, in consequence of my laughing— and
eventually he became so distressed that he positively jyretended
to catch the fly, going through all the appropriate actions with
his lips and tongue, and afterwards rubbing the ground with
his neck as if to kill the victim : he then looked up at me w^ith
a triumphant air of success. So well was the whole process
simulated that I should have been quite deceived, had I not
seen that the fly was still upon the window. Accordingly I
drew his attention to this fact, as well as to the absence of any-
thing upon the floor ; and when he saw that his hypocrisy had
been detected he slunk away under some furnitui'e, evidently
very much ashamed of himself.

This allusion to the marked effects of ridicule upon a
dog leads to a consideration of the next emotion with
which I feel certain that some dogs are to be accredited.
I mean the emotion of the ludicrous. This same terrier
used, when in good humour, to perform several tricks,
which I know to have been self-taught, and which clearly
had the object of exciting laughter. For instance,
while lying on his side and violently grinning, he would
hold one leg in his mouth. Under such circumstances,
nothing pleased him so much as having his joke duly
appreciated, while if no notice was taken of him he
would become sulky. On the other hand, nothing dis-
pleased him so much as being laughed at when he did
not intend to be ridiculous, as could not be more cod

DOG — ^EMOTIONS AND COMMUNICATION OF IDEAS. 445

clusively proved than by the fact of his behaviour in
pretending to catch the fly. i\Ir. Darwin observes : ' Dogs
show what may be fairly called a sense of humour, as dis-
tinct from mere play ; if a bit of stick or other such ob-
ject be thrown to one, he will often carry it away for a
short distance ; and then squatting down with it on the
ground close before him, will wait until his master comes
close to take it away. The dog will seize it and rush
a'way in triumph, repeating the same manoeuvre, and
evidently enjoying the practical joke.' *

General Intelligence,

I have very definite evidence of the fact that dogs are
able to communicate to one another simple ideas. The
communication is always effected by gesture or tones of
barking, and the ideas are always of such a simple nature
as that of a mere 'follow me.' According to my own
observations, the dogs must be above the average of
canine intelligence, and the gesture they invariably em-
ploy is a contact of heads, with a motion between a rub
and a butt. It is quite different from anything that
occurs in play, and is always followed by a definite course
of action. 1 must add, however, that although the in-
formation thus conveyed is always definite, I have never
known a case in which it was complex — anything like
asking or telling the way, which several writers have said
that dogs can do, being, I believe, quite out of the question.
One example will suffice. A Skye terrier (not quite
pure) was asleep in the room where I was, while his son
lay upon a wall which separates the lawn from the high
road. The young dog, when alone, would never attack a
strange one, but was a keen fighter when in company
with his father. Upon the present occasion a large
mongrel passed along the road, and shortly afterwards
the old dog awoke and went sleepily downstairs. When
he arrived upon the door- step his son ran up to him and

• Descent of Man, p. 71.

i46

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

made the sign just described. His whole manner im-
mediately altered to that of high animation. Clearing
the wall together, the two animals ran down the road as
terriers only can when pursuing an euemy. I watched
them for a mile and a half, within which distance their
speed never abated, although the object of their pursuit
had not from the first been in sight.

V. is almost superfluous to give cases illustrating the
well-known fact that dogs communicate their desires and
ideas to man; but as the subject of the communication
by signs will afterwards be found of importance in con-
nection with the philosophy of communication by words,
I shall here give a few examples of dogs communicatiug
by signs with man, which for my purpose will be the
more valuable the less they are recognised as unusual.

Lieutenant-Gren. Sir John H. Lefroy, C.B., K.C.M.Gr.,
F.R.S., writes me that he has a terrier which it is the
duty of his wife's maid to wash and feed. ' It was her
habit after calling her mistress in the morning to go
out and milk a goat which was tethered near the house,
and give " Button " the milk. One morning, being
rather earlier than usual, instead of going out at once she
took up some needlework and began to occupy herself.
The dog endeavoured in every possible way to attract her
attention and draw her forth, and at last pushed aside the
curtain of a closet, and never ha\ang been taught to fetch
or carry, took between his teeth the cup she habitually
used, and brought it to her feet. I inquired into every
circumstance strictly on the spot, and was shown where he
found the cup.'

Similarly I select the following case from a great
number of others that I might quote, because it is so
closely analogous to the above. It is communicated to
me by Mr. A. H. Baines : —

There is a drioking-trough for him in my sitting-room : if
at any time it happens to be without water when he goes to
drink, he scratches the dish with his fore-paws in order to call
attention to his wants, and this is done in an authoritative way,
which generally has the desired effect. Another Pomeranian—
a member of the same family — when quite young used to soak

DOG — GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

447

hard biscuits in water till soft enongh to eat. She would carry
the biscuit in her mouth to the drinking- trough, drop it in and
leave it there for a few minutes, and then fish it out with her
paw.

One more instance of the communication of ideas by
gestures will no doubt be deemed sufficient. It is one of
a kind which has many analogies in the literature of
canine intelligence.

Dr. Beattie relates this case of canine sagacity, of which
the scene was a place near Aberdeen. The Dee being
frozen, a gentleman named Irvine was crossing the ice,
which gave way with him about the middle of the river.
Having a gun, he was able to keep himself from sinking
by placing it across the opening. ' The dog made many
fruitless efforts to save his master, and then ran to a
neighbouring village, where he saw a man, and with the
most significant gestures pulled him by the coat, and
prevailed on him to follow. The man arrived on the spot
in time to save the gentleman's life.'

Numberless other instances of the same kind might
be given, and they display a high degree of intelligence.
Even the idea of saving life implies in itself no small
amount of intelligence ; but in such cases as these we
have added the idea of going for help, communicating
news of a disaster, and leading the way to its occurrence.

Having thus as briefly as possible considered the
emotional and the more ordinary intellectual faculties of
the dog, r shall pass on to the statement of cases showing
the higher and more exceptional developments of canine
sagacity.

Were the purpose of this work that of accumulating
anecdotes of animal intelligence, this would be the place
to let loose a flood of facts, which might all be well
attested, relating to the high intelligence of dogs. But
as my aim is rather that of suppressing anecdotes, except
in so far as facts are required to prove the presence in
animals of the sundry psychologiccd faculties which I
believe the different classes to present, 1 shall here, as
elsewhere, follow the method of not multiplying anecdotes
further than seems necessary fully to demonstrate the

148

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

highest level of intelligence to which the animal undei
consideration can certainly be said to attain. But in
order that any who read these pages for the sake of the
anecdotes which they necessarily present may not be
disappointed by meeting with cases already known to
them, I shall draw my material mainly from the facts
communicated to me by private correspondents, alluding
to previously published facts only as supplementary to
those now published for the first time. It may be well
to explain to my numerous correspondents tliat I select
the following cases for quoting, not because they are the
most sensational that I have received, but rather because
they either contain nothing sufficiently exceptional to
excite the criticism of incredulity, or because they happen
to have been corroborated by the more or less similar
cases which I quote from other correspondents.

As showing the high general intelligence of the dog,
I shall first begin with the collie. It is certain that many
of these dogs can be trusted to gather and drive sheep
without supervision. It is enough on this head to refer
to the well-known anecdotes of the poet Hogg in his
' Shepherd's Calendar,' concerning his dog ' Sirrah.'

Williams, in his book on ' Dogs and their Ways,' says
(p. 124) that a friend of his had a collie which, whenever
his master said the words ' Cast, cast,' would run off to
seek any sheep that might be cast, and on finding it would
at once assist it to rise. He also knew of another dog
(p. 102), which would perform the same office even in the
absence of his master, going the round of the fields and
pastures by himself to right all the sheep that he found
to be cast.^

One of my correspondents (Mr. Laurie Gentles) sends
me an account of a sheep-dog belonging to a friend of his
(Mr. Mitchell, of Inverness-shire) which strayed to a neigh-
bouring farm, and took up his residence with the farmer.
On the second night after the dog arrived at the farm
the farmer ' took the dog down to the meadow to see if
the cattle were all right. To his dismay he found that

* For many other instances of sheep-dog sagacity, see "Watson,
Reasoning Power o/ Animals ^ under * Shepherd's Dog.'

DOG - GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

449

the fence between his meadow and his neighbour's had got
broken down, and that the whole of his neighbour's cattle had
got mixed up with his. By the help of the dog the strange
cattle were driven back into their proper meadow, and the
fence put into temporary repair. The next night, at the
same hour, the gentleman started off to look after the
ctittle. The dog, however, was not to be seen. On arriv-
ing at the meadow, what was the gentleman's astonish-
ment to find that the dog had preceded him ! His
astonishment soon changed into delighted approbation
when he found the dog sitting on the broken fence
between the two meadows, and daring the cattle from
either side to cross. The cattle had during the interval
between the first and second visits broken down the fence,
and had got mixed up with each other. The dog had
quietly gone off on his own account to see if all was right,
and finding a similar accident to the one the previous
evening, had alone and unaided driven back the strange
cattle to their proper meadow, and had mounted guard
over the broken fence as I have already indicated.'

Colonel Hamilton Smith says that the cattle-dogs of
Cuba and Terra Firma are very wise in managing cattle,
but require to display different tactics from the cattle-dogs
of Europe : —

Wheu vessels with live stock arrive at any of the West
India harbours, these animals, some of whiv h are nearly as
large as mastiffs, are wonderfully efficient in assisting to land
the cargo. The oxen are hoisted out with a sling passing
round the base of their horns ; and when an ox, thus suspended
by the head, is lowered, and allowed to fall into the water, so
that it may swim to land, men sometimes swim by the side of
it »nd guide it, but they have often do,i:s of this breed which
will perform the service equally well ; for, catching the per-
plexed animal by the (ars, one on each side, they will force it
to swim in the direction of the landing-place, and instantly let
go their hold when they feel it touch the ground, as the ox will
then naturally walk out of the water by itself.*

That this sagacity need not be due to special tuition,
may be inferred from a closely similar display sponta-

* Natwralisth Library, vol. x , p. 154 (quoted by Watson).

450

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

Qeously shown in the following case. It is communicated
to me by a correspondent, Mr. A. H. Browning. Thia
gentleman was looking at a litter of young pigs in their
sty, and when he went away the door of the sty was in-
advertently left unfastened. The pigs all escaped into
his garden. My correspondent then proceeds : —

My attention was called to my dog appearing in a great
Btate of excitement, not barking (he seldom barks), but whining
and performing all sorts of antics (in a human subject I should
have said ' gesticulating '). The herdmenand myself returned to
the sty ; we cauorht but one pig, and put him back ; no sooner
had we done so than the dog ran after each pig in succession,
brought him back to the sty by the ear, and then went after
another, until the whole number were again housed.

In Lord Brougham's 'Dialogues on Instinct' (iii.)
there is narrated the story told to the author by Lord
Truro of a dog that used to worry sheep at night. The
animal quietly submitted to be tied up in the evening,
but when everybody was asleep he used to slip his collar,
worry the sheep, and, returning before dawn, again get
into his collar to avoid suspicion. I allude to this re-
markable display of sagacity because I am myself able
fully to corroborate it by precisely similar cases. A friend
of mine (the late Mr. Sutherland Murray) had a dog
which was always kept tied up at night, but nevertheless
the neighbouring farmers complained of having detected
him as the culprit when watching to find what dog it was
that committed nightly slaughter among their sheep. My
friend, therefore, set a watch upon his dog, and found
that when all was still he slipped his collar, and after
being absent for some hours, returned and slipped bis
head in again.

A precisely similar case is given further back, and
others are communicated to me by two correspondents
(Mr. Goodbehere, of Birmingham, and Mr. Eichard Wil-
liams, of Buffalo). The latter says : —

And here let me ask if you are aware of the cunning and
sagacity of these sheep-killing dogs, that they never kill sheep
on the farm to which they belong, or in the immediate vicinity;
but often go miles away ; that they always return before day*

DOa— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

451

light, and before doing so wash themselves in some stream to get
rid of the blood.

In Grermany I knew a large dog that was very fond of
grapes, and at night used to slip his collar in order to
satisfy his propensity ; and it was not for some time that
the thief was suspected, owing to his returning before
daylight and appearing innocently chained up in his
kennel.

A closely similar case is recorded in j\ir. Duncan's
book on ' Instinct ' of a dog belonging to the Rev. Mr.
Taylor, of Colton. The only difference is that the delin-
quent dog slipped and afterwards readjusted a muzzle
instead of a collar.

In connection with sly sagacity I may also give an-
other story contained in my correspondence, although in
this case I am specially requested by my correspondent
not to publish his name. I can, therefore, only say that
he occupies a high position in the Church, and that the
dog (a retriever) was his own property : —

The dog was lying one evening before the kitchen fire where
the cook had prepared a turkey for roasting. She left the
kitchen for a few moments, when the dog immediately carried
away the turkey and placed it in the cleft of a tree close to the
house, but which was well concealed by the surrounding laurels.
So rapid were his movements that he returned to his post
before the cook had come back, and stretching himself before
the fire, looked * as innocent as a child unborn.' Unfortunately
for him, however, a man who was in the habit of taking him
to shoot, saw him can-ying away his prize and watched his pro-
gress. On coming into the kitchen the man found the dog in
his old place pretending to be asleep. Diver's conduct was all
along dictated by a desire to conceal his theft, and if he were
a man I should have said that he intended, in case of inquiry,
to prove an ahbi.

Mr. W. H. Bodley writes me of a retriever dog that
belonged to him : —

Before he came to me he lived where another dog of similar
size was kept, and on one occasion they fought. Having been
chastised for this, on futui-e occasions when they quarrelled
they used to swim over a river of some breadth, where they
30

i52

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

could aot be interfered with, and fight out their quarrel oil the
other side. What seems to me noteworthy in this conduct is
the self-restraint manifested under the influence of passion, and
the mutual understanding to defer the fight till they could pro-
secute it unmolested ; like two duellists crossing the Channel to
fight in France.

It is, of course, a well-known thing that dogs may
easily be taught the use of coin for buying buns, &c.
In the 'Scottish Naturalist' for April, 1881, Mr. Japp
vouches for the fact that a collie which he knew was in
the habit of purchasing cakes with coppers without ever
hav^ing been taught the use of coin for such purposes.
This fact, however, of a dog spontaneously divining
the use of money requires corroboration, although it
is certain that many dogs have an instinctive idea of
giving peace-offerings, and the step from this to the
idea of barter may not be large. Thus, to give only two
illustrations, Mr. Badcock writes to me that a friend of his
had a dog which one day had a quarrel with a companion
dog, so that they parted at variance. ' On the next day
the friend appeared with a biscuit, which he presented as
a peace-offering.' Again, Mr. Thomas D. Smeaton writes
to me of his dog that he ' has an amusing practice when
he is restored to favour after some slight offence, of im-
mediately picking up and carrying anything that is
handiest, stone, stick, paper : it is a deliberate effort to
please, a sort of good-will offering, a shaking hands over
the past.'

I am indebted for the following to ^Ir. Groodbehere, of
Birmingham ; it may be taken as typical of many similar
cases : —

My friend (Mr. James Canning, of Birmingham) was ac-
quainted with a small mongrel dog who on being presented
with a penny or a halfpenny would run with it in his mouth to
a baker's, jump on to the top of the half-door leading into the
shop, and ring the bell behind the door until the baker came for-
ward and gave him a bun or a biscuit in exchange for the coin.
The dog would accept any small biscuit for a halfpenny, but no-
thing less than a bun would satisfy him for a penny. On one
occasion the baker (being annoyed at the dog's too frequent
visits), after receiving the coin, refused to give the dog any

DOG— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

453

thing in exchange, and on every future occasion the latter (who
declined being taken in a second time) would put the coin on
the floor, and not permit the baker to pick it up until he had re-
ceived its equivalent.

Mr. K. 0. Backhouse writes to me : —

My dog is a broken-haired rabbit-coursing dog, and is very
intelligent. I took him one day to an exhibition of pictures and
objects of interest, among which were statues and a bust of Sir
Walter Scott. It was a local exhibition, and as there was
jewellery, some one had to sit up all night with it as guard. I
volunteered, and as we were looking about and sitting on a
stand of flowers, my dog suddenly began to bark, and made
as if he had found some one hiding. On looking round I
found that it was the bust of Sir Walter Scott standing among
the flowers, and in which he evidently recognised sufficient like-
ness to a human being to think the supposed man had no
business there at so late an hour.

I adduce this instance because it serves as a sort of in-
troduction to the more remarkable faculty which 1 cannot
have the least doubt is manifested by some dogs — the
faculty, namely, of recognising portraits as representing
persons, or possibly of mistaking portraits for persons.

]\Ir, Crehore, writing to * Nature' (vol. xxi., p. 132),
says : —

A Dandie-Dinmont terrier, after the death of hLs mistress,
was playing with some children in a room into which was
brought a photograph (large) of her that he had never previously
seen. It was placed upon the floor leaning ngainst the wall.
In the words of my informant, who witnessed it, the dog, when
he suddenly caught sight of the picture, crouched and trembled
all over, his whole body quivering. Then he crept along the
floor till he reached it, and, seating himself before it, began to
bark loudly, as if he would say, ' Why don't you speak to me ? '
The picture was moved to other parts of the room, and he fol-
lowed, seating himself before it and repeating his barking.

Mr. Charles W. Peach also gives an account in ' Nature *
(vol. XX., p. 196) of a large dog recognising his portrait :• —

When it (the portrait) was brought to my house, my old dog
was present with the family at the unveiling ; nothing was said
to him, nor invitation given to him to notice it. We saw that
his gaae was steadily fixed on it, and he soon became excited and

454

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

whined, and tried to lick and scratch it, and was so much tuken ,
up with it that we — although so well knowing his intelligence —
were all quite surprised — in fact, could scarcely believe tliat he
should know it was my likeness. We, however, had sufficient
proof after it was hung up in our parlour. The room was rather
low, and under the picture stood a chair : the door was left open,
without any thought ahout the dog ; he, however, soon found it
out, when a low whining and scratching was heard by the
family, and on search being made, he was in the chair trying to
get at the picture. After this I put it up higher, so as to
prevent its being injured by him. This did not prevent him
fi'ora paying attention to it, for whenever I was away from home,
whether for a short or a long time — sometimes for several days
— he spent most of his time gazing on it, and as it appeared to
give him comfort the door was always left open for him. When
I was long away he made a low whining, as if to draw attention
to it. This lasted for years — in fact, as long as he lived.

From this account it appears that when in the first
instance the dog's attention was drawn to the picture it
was on the floor in the line of the dog's sight ; the behaviour
of the animal then and subsequently was too marked and
peculiar to admit of mistake.

Another correspondent in ' Nature ' (vol. xx., p. 220),
alluding to the previous letter, writes : —

Having read Mr. Peach's letter on * Intellect in Brutes,'
as shown by the sagacity he witnessed in his dog, I have been
asked to send a similar anecdote, which I have often told to
friends. Many years ago my husband had his portrait taken by
J. PhUlips, R.A., and subsequently went to India, leaving the
portrait in London to be finished and framed. When it was
sent home, about two years after it was taken, it was placed on
the floor against the sofa, preparatory to being hung on the
wall. We had then a very handsome black-and-tan setter,
which was a great pet in the house. As soon as the dog came
into the room he recognised his master, though he had not seen
him for two years, and went up to the picture and licked the
face. When this anecdote was told to Phillips, he said it was
the highest compliment that had ever been paid him.

Similarly, in the same periodical (vol. xx., p. 220),
Mr. Henry Clark writes : —

Some years ago a fine arts exhibition was held at Derby. A
portrait of a Derby artist (Wright) was thus signalised : — * The

DOG— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

455

artist's pet dog distinguished this from a lot of pictures upon
the floor of the studio by Hcking the face of the portrait.'

Again, I learn from Dr. Samuel Wilks, F.R.S , that a
friend of his, whom I shall call ]\lrs. E., has a terrier which
recognised her portrait. ' The portrait is now (1881) hang-
ing in the Royal Academy. When it first arrived home
the dog barked at it, as it did at strangers ; but after a
day or t^^o, when Mrs. E. opened the door to show the
portrait to some friends, the dog went straight to the
picture and licked the hand. The picture is a three-
quarter length portrait of a lady with the hand at the
bottom of the picture.'

Lastly, my sister, who is a very conscientious and accu-
rate observer, witnessed a most unmistakable recognition
of portraits as representative of persons on the part of a
small but intelligent terrier of her own. At my request
she committed the facts to writing shortly after they
occurred. The following is her statement of them : —

I have a small terrier who attained the age of eight mouths
without ever having seen a large picture. One day three nearly
life-sized portraits were placed in my room during his absence.
Two were hung up, and one left standing against the wall on
the floor awaiting the arrival of a picture-rod. When the dog
entered the room he appeared much alarmed by the sight of the
pictures, barking in a teri-ified manner first at one and then at
another. That is to say, instead of attacking them in an aggres-
sive way with tail erect, as he would have done on thus encoun-
tering a strange person, he barked violently and incessantly at some
distance from the paintings, with tail down and body elongated,
sometimes bolting under the chairs and sofas in the extremity of
his fear, and continuing barking from there. Thinking it might
be merely the presence of strange objects in the room which
excited him, I covered the faces of the portraits with cloths
and turned the face of the one on the floor to the wall. The
dog soon after emerged from his hiding-place, and having looked
intently at the covered pictur-es and examined the back of the
frame on the ground, became quite quiet and contented. I
then uncovered one of the pictures, when he immediately flew
at it, bai-kiug in the same frightened manner as before. I then
re-covered that one and took the cover ofi* another. The dog left
the covered one and rushed at the one which was exposed. 1
then turned the face of the one on the floor to the room, and he

156

ANIMAL INTELL'.OIiNCE.

flew at that with increased fierceness. This I did many times,
covering and uncovering each picture alternately, always with
the same result. It was only when all three paintings were
uncovered at the same time, and he saw one looking at him in
whatever direction he turned, that he became utterly terrified.
He continued in this state for nearly an hour, at the end of which
time, although evidently very nervous and apt to start, he
ceased to bark. After that day he never took any more notice
of the pictures during the three months he remained in the
house. He was then absent from the house for seven months.
On his return he went with me into the room where the por-
traits were hung, immediately on his arrival. He was evidently
again much startled on first seeing them, for he rushed at one,
barking as he had done on the first occasion, but he only gave
three or four barks when he ran back to me with the same
apologetic manner as he has when he has barked at a well-
known friend by mistake.

It wiU have been observed that in all these cases the
portraits, when first recognised as bearing resemblance to
human beings, were placed on the floor, or in the ordinary
line of the dog's sight. This is probably an important
condition to the success of the recognition. That it cer-
tainly was so in the case of my sister's terrier was strikingly
proved on a subsequent occasion, when she took the
animal into a pictm-e-shop where there were a number of
portraits hanging round the walls, and also one of Car-
lyle standing on the floor. The terrier did not heed those
upon the walls, but barked excitedly at the one upon the
floor. This case was further interesting from the fact
that there were a number of purchasers in the shop who
were, of course, strangers to the terrier ; yet he took no
notice of them, although so much excited by the picture.
This shows that the pictorial illusion was not so complete
as to make the animal suppose the portrait to be a real
person ; it was only sufficiently so to make it feel a sense
of bewildered uncertainty at the kind of life-in-death
appearance of the motionless representation.

If, notwithstanding all this body of mutually corrobo-
rative cases, it is still thought incredible that dogs should
be able to recognise pictorial representations,^ we should

* Since my MS, went to press I have myself met with a striking

DOG — GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

457

do well to remember that this grade of mental evolution
is reached very early in the psychical development of the
human child. In my next work I shall adduce evidence
to show that children of one year, or even less, are able to
distinguish pictures as representations of particular objects,
and will point at the proper pictures when asked to show
these objects.

Coming now to cases more distinctly indicative of
reason in the strict sense of the word, numberless ordi-
nary acts performed by dogs indisputably show that they
possess this faculty. Thus, for instance, Livingstone
gives the following observation.^ A dog tracking his
master along a road came to a place where three roads
diverged. Scenting along two of the roads and not finding
the trail, he ran off on the third without waiting to smell.
Here, therefore, is a true act of inference. If the track is
not on A or B, it must be on C, there being no other
alternative.

Again, it is not an unusual thing for intelligent dogs,
who know that their masters do not wish to take them
out, to leave the house and run a long distance in the
direction in which they suppose their masters are about to
go, in order that when they are there found the distance
may be too great for their masters to return home for the
purpose of shutting them up. I have myself known
several terriers that would do this, and one of the in-
stances I shall give in extenso (quoted from an account
which I published at the time in ' Nature ' ) ; for I think
it displays remarkably complex processes of far-seeing
calculation : —

The terrier in question followed a conveyance from the
house in which I resided in the country, to a town ten miles
distant. He only did this on one occasion, and about five
months afterwards was taken by train to the same town as a
present to some friends there. Shortly afterwards I called
upon these friends in a different conveyance from the one
which the dog had previously followed ; but the latter may
have known that the two conveyances belonged tro the same

display of the recognition of a portrait by a dog. The portrait was
one of myself, and the dog a half-bred setter and retreiver of my own
* Misnonary Ti'o/vels^ chap, i.

458

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

house. Anyhow, after I had put up the horse.^ at an inn, 1
spent the morning with the terrier and his new masters, and
in the afternoon was accompanied hy them to the inn. I
should have mentioned that the inn was the same as that at
which the conveyance had been put up on the previous occa-
sion, five months before. Now, the dog evidently remembered
this, and, reasoning from analogy, inferred that I was about tc
return. This is shown by the fact that he stole away from our
party — although at what precise moment he did so I cannot
say, but it was certainly after we had arrived at the inn, for
subsequently we all remembered his having entered the coffee-
room with us, Now, not only did he infer from a single pre-
cedent that T was going home, and make up his mind to go with
me, but he also further reasoned thus : — *As my previous master
lately sent me to town, it is probable that he does not want
me to return to the country ; therefore, if I am to seize this
opportunity of resuming my poaching life, I must now steal
a march upon the conveyance. But not only so, my former
master may possibly pick me up and return with me to my
proper owners ; therefore I must take care only to intercept the
conveyance at a point sufficiently far without the town to
make sure that he will not think it worth his while to go back
with me.'

Complicated as this train of reasoning is, it is the
simplest one I can devise to account for the fact that
slightly beyond the third milestone the terrier was await-
ing me, lying right in the middle of the road with his
face towards the town. I should add that the second two
miles of the road were quite straight, so that I could
easily have seen the dog if he had been merely running a
comparatively short distance in front of the horses. Why
this animal should never have returned to his former home
on his own account I cannot suggest, but I think it was
merely due to an excessive caution which he also mani-
fested in other things. However, be the explanation of this
what it may, as a fact he never did venture to come back
upon his own account, although there never was a sub-
sequent occasion upon which any of his former friends
went to the town but the terrier was seen to return with
them, having always found some way of escape from his
intended imprisonment.

The Kev. J. C. Atkinson gives an account (' Zoolo

DOG — GENERAL INTELLIGENCE. 459

gist,' vol. vii., p. 2338) of his terrier, which, on starting a
water-rat out of reeds into the running stream, would not
plunge directly after it, knowing that the rat would beat
him at swimming. But the moment the rat plunged, the
dog ran four or live yards down the bank, and there waited
till the water-rat, being carried down stream, appeared
upon the surface, when he pounced upon it successfully.

Cases of this kind might be multiplied indefinitely, and
hey appear to show a true faculty of reason or inferring.

Professor W. W. Bailey, writing from Brown Univer-
«it) to ' Nature ' (xxii., p. 607), says : —

A. friend of mine, a naturahst, and a very conscientious
caan, whose word can be imphcitly trusted, gives the following,
to which he was an eye-witness. His grandfather, then a very
old but hale and hearty man, had a splendid Newfoundland.
There was a narrow and precipitous road leading from the
fields to the house. It was regarded as a very dangerous place.
One day when the old gentleman was doing some work about
the farm his horse became alarmed, and started off" with the
waggon along this causeway. The chances were that he would
dash himself and the empty waggon to pieces. At once the dog
seemed to take in the situation, although until that time he had
been impassive. He started after the horse at fuU speed, over-
took him, caught the bridle, and by his strength arrested the
frightened creature until help could reach him. My friend
gives many other stories of this fine dog, and thinks he had
a decided sense of humour. I will repeat that both of these
tales come to me well authenticated, and I could, by seeking
permission, give names and places.

Couch gives the following, which is worth quoting, as
showing the intelligence of dogs in attacking unusual
prey :—

On the first discovery of the prey (crabs) a terrier runs in to
seize it, and is immediately and severely bitten in the nose. But
a sedate Newfoundland dog of my acquaintance proceeds more
soberly in his work. He lays his paw on it to arrest it in its
escape ; then tumbling it over he bares his teeth, and, seiidng
it with the mouth, throws the crab aloft. It falls upon the
stones ; the shell is cracked beyond redemption, and then the
dainty dish is devoured at his leisure.^

Illustratio7is of Instinct, p. 179.

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

I myself know a large dog in German} which used to
Kill snakes by dexterously tossing them in ihe air a great
number of times, too quickly to admit of the snake biting,
When the snake was thus quite confused, the dog would
tear it in pieces. This dog can never have been poisoned
by the bite of a snake ; but he seems to have had an
instinctive idea that the snake might be more harmful in
its bite than other animals ; for while he was bold in
fighting with dogs, and did not then object to receiving his
fair share of laceration, he was extremely careful never to
begin to tear a snake till he had thoroughly bewildered it
by tossing it as described.

The reasoning displayed by dogs may not always be of
a high order, but Httle incidents, from being of constant
occurrence among all dogs, are the more important a«
showing the reasoning faculty to be general to these
animals. I shall therefore give a few cases to show the
kind of reasoning that is of constant occurrence.

Mr. Stone writes to me from Norbury Park concerning
two of his dogs, one large and the other small. Both
being in a room at the same time,

one of them, the larger, had a bone, and when he had left
it the smaller dog went to take it, the larger one growled, and
the other retired to a corner. Shortly afterwards the larger
dog went out, but the other did not appear to notice this, and at
any rate did not move. A few minutes later the large dog was
heard to bark out of doors ; the Httle dog then, without a
moment's hesitation, went straight to the bone and took it. It
thus appears quite evident that she reasoned — ' That dog is
barking out of doors, therefore he is not in this room, therefore
it is safe for me to take the bone.* The action wavS so rapid as
to be clearly a consequence of the other dog's barking.

Again, Mr. John Le Conte, writing from the Uni-
versity of California, tells me of a dog which used to
hunt rabbits in an extensive pasture-ground where there
was a hollow tree, which frequently served as a place of
refuge for the rabbits when, they were pressed : —

On one occasion a rabbit was ' started,' and all of the
dogs, with the exception of * Bonus,' dashed off in fall pursuit.
We were astonished to observe that the sedate * Bonus,' fore-

DOG— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

461

going the intense excitement of the chase, deliberately trotted
by a short cut to a hollow oak trunk, and crouching at its
base calmly awaited the adrent of the fleeing rabbit. And he
was not disappointed (thej frequently escaped without being
reduced to this extremity), for the pursuing dogs pressed the
rabbit so hard that, after making a long detour, it made for the
place of refuge. As it was about entering the hollow trunk,
the crouching * Bonus * captured the astonished rodent.

Similarly, Dr. Andrew Wilson, F.E.S.E., writes me as
follows : —

There is a shrubbery near the house, about 200 or 300 yards
long, and running in the shape of a horseshoe. A small terrier
used to start a rabbit nearly every morning, at the end of the
shrubbery next the house, and hunt him through the whole
length of it to the other end, where the rabbit escaped into an
old drain. The dog then appears to have come to the conclusion
that the chord of a circle is shorter than its arc, for he raised
the rabbit again, and instead of following him through the
shrubbery as usual, he took the short cut to the drain, and was
ready and in waiting on the rabbit when he arrived, and caught
him.

A somewhat similar instance is communicated to me
by Mr. William Cairns, of Argyll House, N.B. : —

I was watching the operations of a little Skye terrier on a
wheatstack which was in the course of being thrashed, when
suddenly a very large rat bounced off, just from under Fan's
nose. It darted into a pit of water about a dozen yards from
the stack, and tried to escape. Fan, however, plunged after,
and swam for some distance, but found she was being left be-
hind. So she turned to the shore again and ran round to
the other side of the pit, and was ready and caught it just on
landing.

I never saw anything more remarkable. If it was not rea-
son, I do not know how it is possible that it could come much
more closely to the exercise of that faculty.

Dr. Bannister, editor of the * Journal of Nervous and
Mental Diseases,' writes me from Chicago, that having
spent a winter in Alaska, he * had a good opportunity to
study animal intelligence in the Eskimo dogs,' and he
reports it as 'a fact of common occurrence,' when the
dogs are drawing sledges on the ice near the coast, that

462

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

on coming to sinuosities in the coast-line, they spon-
taneously leave the beaten track and strike out so aa
to ' cut across the windings by going straight from point
to point' of land. This is frequently done even when
the leading dog ' could not see the whole winding of the
beaten track; he seemed to reason that the route must
lead around the headlands, and that he could economise
travel by cutting across.'

It will be remembered in connection with these dogs,
that j\Ir. Darwin in the ' Descent of Man ' (p. 75) quotes
Dr. Hayes, who, in his work on ' The Open Polar Sea,'
* repeatedly remarks that his dogs, instead of continuing
to draw the sledges in a compact body, diverged and
separated when they came to thin ice, so that their weight
might be more evenly [and widely] distributed. This was
often the first warning which the travellers received that
the ice was becoming thin and dangerous.' Mr. Darwin
remarks, ' This instinct may possibly have arisen since the
time, long ago, when dogs were first employed by the
natives in drawing their sledges ; or the iVrctic wolves,
the parent stock of the Esquimaux dog, may have ac-
quired an instinct, impelling them not to attack their
prey in a close pack when on thin ice.'

Mrs. Horn writes me : —

One morning, soon after his usual time for starting, I saw
the dog looking anxiously about, evidently afraid that my
brother had gone without him. He looked into the room
where we had breakfasted, but my brother was not there. He
went up two or three stairs, and listened attentively. Then,
to my astonishment, he came down, and going to the hat-stand
in the hall, stood on his hind legs and sniffed at the great-coata
hanging there, undoubtedly trying to ascertain whether my
brother's coat was there or not.

Another correspondent (Mr. Westlecombe) writes : —

My cat had kittens, of which two were preserved, the rest
being drowned. The dog tolerated the two kittens, but did not
care about them with any friendship. When the kittens were
a few weeks old, I — finding that I could get but one of them
off my hands — determined to kill the other, and, as the quickest
mode of death, to shoot it by a pistol close behind its head. The

DOG— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

463

dog saw me do this in my garden, and in a few minutes after-
wards she appeared with the other kitten dead in her mouth ;
Rhe had killed it. If that was not reasoning I do not know
what is.

]\Ir. W. F. Hooper writes me of a Newfoundland dog
that was in the habit of accompanying the nursemaid and
baby belonging to its mistress. On one occasion a keen
wind began to blow, and the nursemaid drew her shawl
over the child : -

The nursemaid had not taken many steps towards home
before her progi-ess was barred by the dog, who placed himself
in the centre of the path and growled whenever she advanced.
She was much alarmed, and tried to coax the dog to move, but
Leo would not, and abated nothing of the hostile display. Half
an hour passed, and the girl became nearly distracted. What
could be the matter with the dog 1 Was she to be a prisoner
all day 1 Would the animal fly at her throat ] Was Leo suffer-
ing from hydrophobia ? These and similar questions crossed the
girl's mind. At length a suggestion of despair — it was nothing
more — occurred to her. She thought it might win the dog
round to good humour if she showed it the baby ; so she removed
the folds of her shawl and presented it at arm's length to the
dog. The result was magical, and far in excess of all expecta-
tion, for not only did the dog cease to growl, but he began to
gambol and caress, and removed himself from the path altogether,
so that there was now a free course, and home was soon reached.
The explanation of the whole affair is, when the nursemaid
turned on her path thinking she had gone sufficiently far, the
dog missed sight of the baby, and believed it was gone. Under
this impression the dog converted himself into a sentinel, with
the resolve that not one step should be taken towards home
without the baby ; and faithfully did the animal keep watch and
ward until the demonstration was given that the child had not
bee^ left behind, but was still in the nurse's arms ahve and well.
I think this is an exhibition of intelligence worthy of being
known to you.

I extract the following instance from Col. Hutchinson's
^ Dog-breaking.' It is briefly alluded to in the ' Descent
of Man.' The observer and narrator is Mr. Colquhoun : —

I may mention a proof of his sagacity. Having a couple of
long shots across a pretty broad stream, I stopped a mallard
with each barrel, but both were only wounded. I sent him

464

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

across for the birds. He first attempted to biing them both,
but one always struggled out of his mouth : he then laid down
one intending to bring the other ; but whenever he attempted
to cross to me, the bird left fluttered into the water ; he im-
mediately returned again, laid down the first on the shore and
recovered the other. The first now fluttered away, but he
instantly secured it, and, standing over them both, seemed to
cogitate for a moment ; then, although on any other occasion
he never ruffles a feather, deliberately killed one, brought over
the other, and then returned for the dead bird.

The following, communicated to me by Mr. Blood, is a
closely analogous, and therefore confirmatory case. He
was out shooting with a companion, and three wild ducks
were simultaneously dropped into a lake — one falling dead
and the other two winged. Mr. Blood sent in his spaniel
to retrieve,

and of course when the wounded birds saw her coming they
swam out, so that she first reached the dead duck. She swam
up to it, paused for a moment, and passing it went after the
nearest wounded bird. Having caught this, she again hesitated,
and apparently after consideration she gave it a chop and let it
go, quieted for the present. She then caught and brought to
land the other wounded duck, and going back she again reached
the dead bird ; but looking at the other and seeing that it was
again moving, she went out and brought it in, and last of all
brought the dead bird. The dog was a first-rate retriever and
never injured game, so that it was an entirely new thing for her
to kill a bird.

Again, Mr. Arthur Nicols, in * Nature,' vol. jix., page
496, says : —

Can we conceive any human being reasoning more correctly
than a dog did in the following instance ? Towards the evening
of a long day's snipe- shooting on Dartmoor, the party was
■walking down the bank of the Dart, when my retriever flushed
a widgeon which fell to my gun in the river, and of course
instantly dived. I said no word to the dog. He did not
plunge into the river then, but galloped down stream some fifty
or sixty yards, and then entered and dashed from side to side —
it was about twenty or thirty feet wide — working up stream,
and making a great commotion in the water until he came to
the place where we stood. Then he landed and shook himself,
and carefully hunted the near bank a considerable distance

DOG — GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

465

down, crossed to the opposite side, and diligently explored that
bank. Two or three minutes elapsed, and the party was for
moving on, when I called their attention to a sudden change in
the dog's demeanour. His ' flag ' was now up and going from
side to side in that energetic manner which, as every sportsman
knows, betokens a hot scent. I then knew that the bird was as
safe as if it was already in my bag. Away through the heather
went the waving tail, until twenty or thirty yards from the
bank opposite to that on which we were stmding there was a
momentary scuffle; the bird just rose from the ground abo^'e
the heather, the dog sprang into the air, caught it, came away
at full gallop, dashed across the stream, and delivered it into my
hands. Need I interpret all this for the experienced sportsman 1
The dog had learned from long experience in Australia and the
narrow canadas in the La Plata that a wounded duck goes down
stream ; if winged, his maimed wing sticks out and renders it
impossible for him to go up, so he wiU invariably land and try
to hide away from the bank. But if the dog enters at the place
where the bird fell, the latter wiU go on with the stream for an
indefinite distance, rising now and then for breath, and give infi-
nite trouble. My dog had found out all this long since, and had
proved the con^ectness of his knowledge times out of number,
and by his actions had taught me the whole art and mystery of
retrieving duck. His object, I say without a doubt, because I
had numberless opportunities of observing it, was to fling the
bird and for ce it to land by cutting it ofi" lower down the stream.
Then assuming, as his experience justified him, that the bin I
had landed, he hunted each bank in succession for the tra 1,
which he knew must betray the fugitive.

As showing in a higher, and therefore rarer degree,
the ratiocinative faculty in dogs, I may quote a brief ex-
tract from my British Association lecture : —

My friend Dr. Rae, the well-known traveller and natu-
ralist, knew a dog in Orkney which used to accompany his
master to church on alternate Sundays. To do so he had to
Bwim a channel about a mile wide ; and before taking to the
water he used to run about a mile to the north when the tide
was flowing, and a nearly equal distance to the south when the
tide was ebbing, ' almost invariably calculating his distance so
well that he landed at the nearest point to the church.' In his
letter to me Dr. Rae continues : * How the dog managed to
calculate the strength of the spring and neap tides at their

466

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

rarious rates of speed, and always to swim at the proper angle,

is most surprising.'

As a confirmatory case, I may also quote an extract
from a letter sent me by Mr. Percival Fothergill. Writing
of a retriever which he has, he says : —

I have seen her spring overboard from our gangway 16 feet
from the water-line. The tides ran more than 5 knots, and she
invariably came down to a little wharf abreast the ship, and
gazed intently for small pieces of stick or straw, and having
thus ascertained the drift of the tide (did as you mention of
another dog), ran up tide and swam off. The sentry on the
forecastle always kept a look-out for the dog, and threw over
a line with a bowling knot, and she ^^ as hauled on board.

But one day she was observed to wait an unusual time on
the wharf ; no wood or straw gave her the required information.
After waiting some time, she lay down on the planks, and
dropped one paw into the water, and found by the feel which
way the tide ran, got up, and ran up stream as usual.

Mr. Greorge Cook writes me that he recently had a
pointer, which one morning, when the grass was covered
with frost, dragged a mat out of his kennel, from which
he had got loose, to the lawn beneath the house windows,
where he was found lying upon the mat, which thus served
to protect him from the frost. The distance over which he
had dragged the mat for this purpose was about 100 yards.
Mr. Cook adds : ' I have since frequently seen him bring this
mat out of his kennel and lay it in the sunshine, shifting
it if a shadow came upon the place where he had laid it.'

The following is sent me " by the Rev. F. J. Penky.
He gives me the name of his friend the canon, but does
not give me express permission to publish it. In quoting
his account, therefore, I leave this name blank. He
says : —

The following is an instance of sagacity — indeed, amount-
ing to reason — in a dog, a French poodle that belcriged to
Colonel Pearson (not the lately beleaguered colonel at Ekowe,
but a Colonel Pearson living some years ago at Lichfield).

The circumstance happened to a friend of mine, Canon ,

rector of . I have the story fi-om his own Hps, but I have

QO permission for his name to be used in any pubHcation, should

DOa— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

467

the story be thought worthy of it. My friend the canon, I may
Bay, has no leanings. Being a guest at luncheon with the
dog's master, my friend fed the dog with pieces of beef After
luncheon the beef was taken into the larder. The dog did not
think he had his fair share. What did he dol Now he had
been taught to stand on his hind legs, put his paw on a lady's
wrist, and hand her into the dining-room. He adopted the
same tactics with my friend the canon, stood on his hind legs,
put his paw on his arm, and made for the door. To see what

would follow. Canon suffered himself to be led ; but the

sagacious dog, instead of steering for the dining-room, led him
in the direction of the larder, along a passage, down steps, &c.,
and did not halt till he brought him to the larder, and close to
the shelf where the beef had been put. The dog had a small

bit given him for his sagacity, and Canon returned to the

drawing-room. But the dog was still not satisfied. He tried
the same trick again, but this time fruitlessly. The canon was
not going again with him to the larder. What was Mori to do ]
And here comes the instance of reason in the poodle. Finding
he could not prevail on the visitor to make a second excursion
to the larder, he went out into the hall, took in his teeth Canon

's hat from off the hall table, and carried it under the

shelf in the larder, where the coveted beef lay out of his reach.
There he was found with the hat, waiting for the owner of the
hat, and expecting another savoury bit when he should come for
his hat.

Many anecdotes might be adduced of the cleverness
which some dogs show in finding their way by train ; but
I shall give only three, and I select these, not only be-
cause they all mutually corroborate one another, but like-
wise because they all display such high intelligence on the
part of the dogs.

Mr. Horsfall, in ' Nature,' vol. xx., p. 505, says : —

Last year we spent our holidays at Llan Bedr, Merioneth-
shire. Our host has a house in the above village, and another
at Harlech, a town three miles distant. His favourite dog,
Nero, is of Norwegian birth, and a highly intelligent animal.
He is at liberty to pass his time at either of the houses owned
by his master, and he occasionally walks from one to the other.
More frequently, however, he goes to the railway station at
Llan Bedr, gets into the train, and jumps out at Harlech.
Being most probably unable to get out of the carriage, he was
on one occasion taken to Salsernau, the station beyond Harlech,
31

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

when he left the carriage and waited on the platform for the
return train to Harlech. If Nero did not make use of 'abstract
reasoning ' we may as well give up the use of the term.

IVIiss M. C. Young writes to me : —

You may perhaps think the following worthy of notice, aa
illustrating the comparative failure of instinct in an animal
which has begun to reason. A friend of mine has a mongrel
fox-terrier of remarkable intelligence, though undeveloped by
any training. This dog has always shown a gi-eat fondness for
accompanying any of the family on a railway journey, often
having to be taken out of the train by force. One morning in
the summer of 1877 the groom came, in great distress, to say
that Spot had followed him to the station, and jumped into the
train after a visitor's maid who was going to see her friends,
and he (the groom) felt sure the dog would be stolen. The
railway is a short single line, with three trains down and up
each day, and my friend is well known to all the officials, so she
sent to meet the next train, when the guard said the dog
(apparently finding no friend in the train) had jumped out at
a little roadside station about five miles distant. Most dogs
would have found their way home easily, though the place
itself was strange, but Spot did not appear till late in the
evening, after ten hours' absence, and dead tired. On inquiry
we found that the guard had seen nothing of her at 9 a.m., at
12 A.M., at 1 P.M., nor at 4 p.m. ; but when he reached the little
station on his return at 5.30, ' she was walking up and down
the platform like a Christian,' jumped into his box, and jumped
out again of her own accord at the right station for her home.
She had evidently spent the interval in trying to find her way
home on foot, and not succeeding, had resolved on returning
the way she came.

Lastly, for the following very remarkable case I am
indebted to my friend !Mrs. A. S. H. Eichardson : —

The Eev. Mr. Townsend, incumbent of Lucan, was formerly
an engineer on the Dundalk line of railway. He had a very
intelligent Scotch retriever dog, which used to have a habit of
jumping into any carriage in which Mr. Townsend travelled;
but this had been discontinued for a year when the following
incident happened. Mr. Townsend and the dog were on the
platform at Dundalk station; Mr. Townsend went to get a
ticket for a lady, and during his absence the dog jumped into
a carriage, and when the train started, was carried down to

DOG — GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

469

Clones. There he found himself alone when he jumped out;
he went into the station-master's office and looked about, then
into the ticket-collector's and searched there, and then ran off
to the town of Clones, a mile distant. There he searched the
resident engineer's office, and not finding his master, returned
to the station and went to the wp platform. When the up
tmin arrived, he jumped in, but wa,s driven out by the guard.
A ballast train then drew up, going on to a branch Kne which
was being constructed to Caran, but which was not finished yet.
ITie dog travelled on the engine as far as the line went, and
then ran the remaining five miles to Caran, where Mr. Town-
send's sister lived. He visited her house, and not finding his
master, ran back to the station, and took a return train to
Clones, where he slept, and was fed by the station-master. At
four in the morning he took a goods train down to Dundalk,
where he found Mr. Townsend.

It would be easy to continue multiplying anecdotes of
canine intelligence ; but I think a sufi&cient number of in-
stances have now been given for the only purpose that I have
in view — namely, that of exhibiting in a connected manner
the various psychological faculties which are presented by
dogs, and the level of development to which they severally
attain. I may again remark that I have selected these
instances for publication from among many others that I
could have given, only because they conform to one or other
of the general principles to which I everywhere adhere in
the quoting of facts. That is to say, these facts are either
matters of ordinary observation, and so intrinsically credi-
ble ; or they stand upon the authority of observers well
known to me as competent ; or they are of a kind which
do not admit of mal-observation ; or, lastly, they are well
corroborated by similar accounts received from indepen-
dent observers. I think, therefore, that this sketch of the
psychology of the dog is as accurate as the nature of the
materials admits of my drawing it. If it is fairly open to
criticism on any one side, I believe it is from the side of

170

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

the dog-lovers, who may perhaps with justice complain
that I have ignored a number of published facts, stand-
ing on more or less good authority, and appearing more
wonderful than any of the facts that I have rendered. To
this criticism I have only to answer that it is better to err
on the safe side, and that if the facts which I have ren-
dered are sufficient to prove the existence of all the
psychological faculties which the dog can fairly be said to
possess, it is of less moment that partly doubtful cases
should be suppressed, where the only object of introducing
them would be to show that some particular faculties were
in some particular instances more highly developed than
was the case in the instances here recorded.

CHAPTER XVII.

MONKEYS, APES, AND BABOONS.

We now come to the last group of animals which we shall
have occasion to consider, and these, from an evolutionary
point of view, are the most interesting. Unfortunately,
however, the intelligence of apes, monkeys, and baboons
has not presented material for nearly so many observations
as that of other intelligent mammals. Useless for all
purposes of labom- or art, mischievous as domestic pets,
and in all cases troublesome to keep, these animals have
never enjoyed the improving influences of hereditary
domestication, while for the same reasons observation of
the intelligence of captured individuals has been com-
paratively scant. Still more unfortunately, these remarks
apply most of all to the most man-like of the group,
and the nearest existing prototypes of the human
race : our knowledge of the psychology of the anthropoid
apes is less than our knowledge of the psychology of any
other animal. But notwithstanding the scarcity of the
material which I have to present, I think there is enough
to show that the mental hfe of the Simiadce is of a dis-
tinctly different type from any that we have hitherto con-
sidered, and that in their psychology, as in their anatomy,
these animals approach most nearly to Homo sapiens.

Emotions.

Affection and sympathy are strongly marked — the
latter indeed more so than in any other animal, not even
excepting the dog. A few instances from many that
might be quoted will be sufficient to show this.

472

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

Mr. Darwin writes: —

Eengger observed an American monkey (a Cebus) carefully
driving away the flies which plagued her infant ; and Duvance^
Baw a Hylobates washing the faces of her young ones in a
stream. So intense is the grief of female monkeys for the loss
of their young, that it invariably caused the death of certjiiu
kinds kept under confinement by Brehm in North Africa.
Orphan monkeys were always adopted and carefully guarded
by the other monkeys, both male and female.^

Again, Jobson says that whenever his party shot an
orang-outang from their boat, the body was carried off
by others before the men could reach the shore.

So, again, James Forbes, F.K.S., in his ' Oriental
Memoirs,' narrates the following remarkable instance
of the display of solicitude and care for a dead companion
exhibited by a monkey : —

One of a shooting-party under a banian tree killed a female
monkey, and carried it to his tent, which was soon surrounded
by forty or fifty of the tribe, who made a great noise and seemed
disposed to attack their aggressor. They retreated when he
presented his fowling-piece, the dreadful effect of which they
had witnessed and appeared perfectly to understand. The head
of the troop, however, stood his ground, chattering furiously ;
the sportsman, who perhaps felt some httle degree of compunc-
tion for having killed one of the family, did not like to fire at
the creature, and nothincr short of firing would sufiice to drive
him off. At length he came to the door of the tent, and, find-
ing threats of no avail, began a lamentable moaning, and by the
most expressive gesture seemed to beg for the dead body. Lt
was given him ; he took it sorrowfully in his arms and bore it
away to his expecting companions. They who were witnesses
of this extraordinary scene resolved never again to fire at one
of the monkey race.

Of course it is not to be supposed from this instance
that all, or even most monkeys display any care for their
dead. A writer in ' Nature ' (vol. ix. p. 243), for instance,
says expressly that such is not the case with Gibbons
{Hylobates agilis)^ which he has observed to be highly
sympathetic to injured companions, but ' take no notice
whatever ' of dead ones.

* Descent of Man, p. 70.

MONKEYS — EMOTIONS.

473

Eegarding their sympathy for injured companions this
#friter says : —

I keep in my garden a number of Gibbon apes (Hylohates
agilis) ; they live quite free from all restraint in the trees, merely
cominsf when called to be fed. One of them, a young male, on
one occasion fell from a tree and dislocated his wrist ; it received
the greatest attention from the others, especially from an old
female, who, however, was no relation ; she used before eating
her own plantains to take up the first that were offered to her
ever)' day, and give them to the cri})ple, who was living in the
eaves of a wooden house ; and I have frequently noticed that a
cry of fright, pain, or distress from one would bring all the
others at once to the complainer, and they would then condole
with him and fold him in their arms.

Captain Hugh Crow, in his ' Narrative of my Life,'
relates an interesting tale of the conduct of some mon-
keys on board his ship. He says : —

Wa had several monkeys on board; they were of different
species and sizes, and amonsrst them was a beautiful little
cieature, the body of which was about ten inches or a foot in
length, and about the circumference of a common drinking glass.
This inten sting little animal, which, when I received it from
the Governor of the Island of St. Thomas, diverted me by its
innocent gambols, became afflicted by the malady which un-
fortunately prevailed in the ship. It had always been a
favourite with the other monkeys, who seemed to regard it as
the last born and the pet of the family ; and they granted it
many indulgences which they seldom conceded to one another.
It "was very tractable and gentle in its temper, and never took
advantage of the partiality shown to it. From the moment it
was t^ken ill their attention and care of it redoubled ; and it
was truly affecting and interesting to see with what anxiety
and tenderness they tended and nursed the little creature. A
straggle often ensued among them for priority in those offices
of affection ; and some would steal one thing and some another,
which they would carry to it untasted, however tempting it
might be to their own palates. Then they would take it up
gently in their fore-paws, hug it to their breasts, and cry over
it as a fond mother would over her suffering child. The little
creature seemed sensible of their assiduities, but it was wofully
overpowered by sickness. It would sometimes come to me
and look me pitifully in the face, and moan and cry like an

474

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

infant, as if it besought me to give it relief ; and we did every-
thing we could think of to restore it to health : hut, in spite of
the united attention of its kindred tribes and oui-selves, the
interesting little creature did not survive long.

Here is a case which I myself witnessed at the Zoo-
logical Gardens, and published in the ' Quarterly Journal
of Science,' from which I now quote : —

A year or two ago there was an Aj^bian baboon and an
Anubis baboon confined in one cage, adjoining that which con-
tained a dog-headed baboon. The Anubis baboon passed its
hand through the wires of the partition, in order to purloin a
nut which the large dog-headed baboon had left within reach —
expressly, I believe, that it might act as a bait. The Anubis
baboon very well knew the danger he ran, for he waited until
his bulky neighbour had turned his back upon the nub with the
appearance of having forgotten all about it. The dog-headed
baboon, however, was all the time slyly looking round with the
corner of his eye, and no sooner was the arm of his victim well
within his cage than he sprang with astonishing rapidity and
caught the retreating hand in his mouth. The cries of the
Anubis baboon quickly brought the keeper to the rescue, when,
by dint of a good deal of physical persuasion, the dog-headed
baboon was induced to leave go his hold. The Anubis baboon
then retired to the middle of his cage, moaning piteously, and
holding the injured hand against his chest while he rubbed it
with the other one. The Aj^abian baboon now approached him
from the top part of the cage, and, while making a soothing
sound very expressive of sympathy, folded the sufferer in its
arms — exactly as a mother would her child under similar
circumstances. It must be stated, also, that this expi-ession of
sympathy had a decidedly quieting effect upon the sufferer, his
moans becoming less piteous so soon as he was enfolded in the
arms of his comforter ; and the manner in which he laid his
cheek upon the bosom of hi^ friend was as expressive as any-
thing could be of sympathy appreciated. This really affecting
spectacle la-ted a considerable time, and while watching it I
felt that, even had it stood alone, it would in itself have been
sufficient to prove the essential identity of some of the noblest
among human emotions with those of the lower animals.

As a beautiful instance of the display of sympathy, I
may narrate an occurrence which was witnessed by my
friend Sir James Malcolm — a gentleman on the accuracy

MONKEYS —EMOTIONS.

475

of whose observation I can rely. He was on board a
steamer where there were two common East India
monkeys, one of which was older and larger than the
other, though they were not mother and child. The
smaller monkey one day fell overboard amidships. The
larger one became frantically excited, and running over
the bulwarks down to a part of the ship which is called
' the bend,' it held on to the side of the vessel with one
hand, while with the other it extended to her drowning
companion a cord with which she had been tied up, and
one end of which was fastened round her waist. The
incident astonished everyone on board, but unfortunately
for the romance of the story the little monkey was not
near enough to grasp the floating end of the cord. The
animal, however, was eventually saved by a sailor throwing
out a longer rope to the little swimmer, who had sense
enough to grasp it, and so to be hauled on board.

The following account of the behaviour of a wounded
monkey seems to suggest the presence of a class of
emotions similar to those which we know as feelings of
reproach. The observer was Capt. Johnson : —

I was one of a party of Jeekary in the Bahar district ; our
tents were pitched in a large mango garden, and our horses
were picquetted in the same garden a Httle distance off.
When we were at dinner a Syer came to us, complaining that
some of the horses had broken loose in consequence of being
frightened by monkeys (i.e. Macacus Orhesus) on the trees. As
soon as dinner was over I went out with my gun to drive them
off, and I fired with small shot at one of them, which instantly
ran down to the lowest branch of the tree, as if he were going
to fly at me, stopped suddenly, and coolly put his paw to the
part wounded, covered with blood, and held it out for me to
see. I was so much hurt at the time that it has left an im-
pression never to be effaced, and I have never since fired a gun
at any of the tribe. Almost immediately on my return to the
party, before I had fully described what had passed, a Syer came
to inform us that the monkey was dead. "We ordered the
Syer to bring it to us, but by the time he returned the othei
monkeys had carried the dead one off, and none of them could
anywhere be seen.

This case is strikingly corroborated by the foUowing

476

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

allusion to Sir W. Hoste's Memoirs, given by Jesse as
follows : —

One of his officers, comiDg home after a long day's shoot-
ing, saw a female monkey running along the rocks, with
her young one in her arms. He immediately fired, and the
animal fell. On his coming up, she grasped her little one close
to her breast, and with her other hand pointed to the wound
which the ball had made, and which had entered above her
breavSt. Dipping her finger in the blood, and then holding it
up, she seemed to reproach him with being the cause of her
death, and consequently that of the young one, to which she
frequently pointed. * I never,' says Sir William, * felt so much
as when I heard the story, and I determined never to shoot one
of these animals as long as I lived.' '

]\Ir. Darwin says that most persons who have observed
monkeys have seen them show a sense of the ludicrous.
Here is an instance which I have myself observed, and
now quote from my article in the ' Quarterly Jom-nal of
Science : ' —

Several years ago I used to watch carefully the young orang-
outang in the Zoological Gardens, and I am quite sure that
she manifested a sense of the ludicrous. One example will suffice.
Her feeding tin was of a somewhat pecuhar shape, and when it
was empty she used sometimes to invert it upon her head.
The tin then presented a comical resemblance to a bonnet, and
as its wearer would generally favour the spectators with a broad
grin at the time of putting it on, she never failed to raise a
laugh from them. Her success in this respect was evidently
attended with no small gratification on her part.

But perhaps the strongest evidence of monkeys
having an appreciation of the ludicrous is the same as
that which we have seen to be presented in the case of
certain dogs — namely, in the animals dishking ridicule.
Abundant evidence on this head in the case of monkeys
will be given further on.

That monkeys enjoy play no one can question who
spends on hour or two in the monkey-house at the
Zoological Grardens. According to Savage, chimpanzees
congregate together for the sole purpose of play, when

* Gleanings, vol. iii. pp. 86-7.

MONKEYS — EMOTIONS.

477

they beat or di'um with pieces of stick on sonorous pieces
of wood.^

Curiosity is more strongly pronounced in monkeys
than in any other animals. We all know the interesting
illustration on this head furnished by the experiment of
Mr. Darwin, who, in order to test the statement of Brehm
that monkeys have an instinctive dread of snakes, and yet
cannot ' desist from occasionally satiating their curiosity in
a most human fashion, by lifting up the lid of the box in
which the snakes were kept,' took a stuffed snake to the
monkey-house at the Zoological Gardens. IVIr. Darwin
says :—

The exeitement thus caused was one of the most curious
spectacles I ever beheld. ... I then placed a live snake in
a paper bag, with the mouth loosely closed, in one of the larger
compartments. One of the monkeys immediately approached,
cautiously opened the bag, peeped in, and instantly dashed
away. Then I witnessed what Brehm has described; for
monkey after monkey, with head raided high and turned on
one side, could not resist taking a momentary peep into the
upright bag, at the di-eadful object lying quietly at the
'ottom.*

Allied, perhaps, to curiosity, and so connected with
the emotions, is what Mr. Darwin calls ' the principle of
imitation.' It is proverbial that monkeys carry this
principle to ludicrous lengths, and they are the only
animals which imitate for the mere sake of imitating, as
has been observed by Desor, though an exception ought
to be made in favour of talking birds. The psychology
of imitation is difficult of analysis, but it is remarkable
as well as suggestive that it should be confined in its
manifestations to monkeys and certain birds among ani-
mals, and to the lower mental levels among men. As
Mr. Darwin says : —

The principle of imitation is strong in man, and especially,
as I have myself observed, with savages. In certain morbid
states of the brain, this tendency is exaggei-ated to an extra-
ordinary degree ; some hemiplegic patients and others, at the

* Boxton Journal of Nat. Hist.^ iv. p. 324.
' Descent of Mcmy p. 72.

t78

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

commencement of inflammatory softening of the brain, uncon-
sciously imitate every word that is uttered, whether in their
own or in a foreign language, and every gesture or action which
is performed near them.

The same sort of tendency is often observable in
joung children, so that it seems to be frequently dis-
tinctive of a certain stage or grade of mental evolution,
and particularly in the branch Primates, Other animals,
however, certainly imitate each other's actions to a certain
extent, as I shall have occasion fully to notice in my next
work.

As for the sterner emotions, rage may be so pronounced
as to make a monkey exhaust itself with beating about its
cage, or a baboon bite its own limbs till the blood flows,*
Jealousy occurs in a correspondingly high degree, while
retaliation and revenge are shown by all the higher
monkeys when injury has been done to them, as any
one may find by offering an insult to a baboon. The
following is a good case of this, as it shows what may be
called brooding resentment deliberately preparing a satis-
factory revenge. ]\Ir. Darwin writes : —

Sir Andrew Smith, a zoologist whose scrupulous accui-acy
was known to many persons, told me the following story of
which he was himself an eye-witness. At the Cape of Good
Hope, an officer had often plagued a certain baboon, and the
animal, seeing him approaching one Sunday for parade, poured
water into a hole and hastily made some thick mud, which he
skilfully dashed over the officer as he passed by, to the amuse-
ment of many bystanders. For long afterwards the baboon
rejoiced and triumphed whenever he saw his victim.'^

General Intelligence.

Coming now to the higher powers, I shall give a few
cases to show that monkeys certainly surpass all other
animals in the scope of their rational faculty. Professor
Croora Eobertson writes me : —

I witnessed the following incident in the Jardin des Plantes,
now many years ago ; but it struck me greatly at the time, and
I have narrated it repeatedly in the interval. A large ape — I
' Descent of Man, 71. * IMd., p. 69.

MONKEYS— GENEKAL INTELLIGENCE. 479

Delieve anthropoid, but cannot tell the species — was in the great
iron cage with a number of smaller monkeys, and was lording
it over them with many wild gambols, to the amusement of a
crowd of spectators. Many things — fruits and the like — had
been thrown between the bars into the cage, which the ape was
always forward to seize. At last some one threw in a small
hand looking-glass, wdth a stroni^ly made frame of wood. This
the upe at once laid hold of, and began to brandish like a ham-
mer. Suddenly he was arrested by the reflection of himself in
the glass, and looked puzzled for a moment ; then he darted his
head behind the glass to find the other of his kind that he
evidently supposed to be there. Astonished to find nothing, he
apparently bethought himself that he had not been quick
enough with his movement. He now proceeded to raise and
draw the glass nearer to him with great caution, and then with
a swifter dart looked behind. Again finding nothing, he re-
peated the attempt once more. He now passed from astonish-
ment to anger, and began to beat with the frame violently on
the floor of the cage. Soon the glass was shattered, and pieces
fell out. Continuing to beat, he w^as in the course of one blow
again arrested by his image in the piece of glass still remaining
in the frame. Then, as it seemed, he determined to make one
trial more. More circumspectly than ever the whole first pai-t
of the process was gone through with ; more violently than ever
the final dart made. His fury over this last failure knew no
bounds. He crunched the frame and glass together with his
teeth, he beat on the floor, he crunched again, till nothing but
splinters was left.

JNIr. Darwin writes : ' Eengger, a most careful ob-
server, states that when first he gave eggs to his monkeys
in Paraguay, they smashed them, and thus lost much of
their contents ; afterwards they generally hit one end
against some hard body, and picked oflf the bits with
their fingers. After cutting themselves only once with
any sharp tool, they would not touch it again, or would
handle it with the greatest caution. Lumps of sugar
were often given them wrapped up in paper ; and Eeng-
ger sometimes put a live wasp in the paper, so that in
hastily unfolding it they got stung ; after this had once
happened, they always first held the packet to their ears
to detect any movement within.' ^

' Descent of Man^-gy, 77-^,

ANIMAL INTi-JLLTGHNCE.

The powers of observation and readiness to establish
new associations thus rendered apparent, display a nigh
level of general intelligence. Mr. Darwin further ob-
serves that ]\Ir. Belt ' likewise describes various actions
of a tamed cebus, which, I think, clearly show that this
animal possessed some reasoning power.' The following
is the account to which Mr. Darwin here refers, and 1
quote it in extenso, because, as I shall presently show, I
have myself been able to confirm most of the observa
tions on another monkey of the same genus : —

It would sometimes entangle itself round a pole to which it
was fastened, and then unwind the coils again with the greatest
discernment. Its chain allowed it to swing dowD below the
verandah, but it could not reach to the ground. Sometimes,
when there were broods of young ducks about, it would hold
out a piece of bread in one hand, and when it had tempted a
duckling within reach, seize it by the other, and kill it with a
bite in the breast. There was such an uproar amongst the
fowls on these occasions, that we soon knew what was the
matter, and would rush out and punish Mickey (as we called
him) with a switch ; so that he was ultimately cured of his
poultry-killing propensities. One day, when whipping him, I
held up the dead duckling in front of him, and at each blow of
the light switch told him to take hold of it, and at last, much
to my siirprise, he did so, taking it and holding it tremblingly
in one hand. He would draw things towards him with a stick,
and even used a swing for the same purpose. It had been put
up for the children, and could be reached by Mickey, who now
and then indulged himself in a swing on it. One day I had
put down some bird-skins on a chair to dry, far beyond, as I
thought, Mickey's reach ; but, fertile in expedients, he took the
swing and launched it towards the chair, and actually managed
to knock the skins off in the return of the swing, so as to bring
them within his reach. He also procured some jelly that was
set out to cool in the same way. Mickey's actions were very
human-like. When any one came near to fondle him, he nevei
neglected the opportunity of pocket-picking. He would pull
out letters, and quickly take them from their envelopes.*

I shall now proceed to state some further facts, shew-
ing the high level of intelligence to which monkeys of
v^arious kinds attain.

' Naturalist in Moaragiia, p. 119.

MONKEYS — GENEEAL INTELLIGENCE.

481

The orang which Cuvier had used to draw a chair from
one end to the other of a room, in order to stand upon
it so as to reach a latch which it desired to open ; and in
this we have a display of rationally adaptive action
which no dog has equalled, although, as in the case before
given of the dog dragging the mat, it has been closely
approached. Again, Rengger describes a monkey em-
ploying a stick wherewith to prise up the lid of a chest,
which was too heavy for the animal to raise otherwise.
This use of a lever as a mechanical instrument is an
action to which no animal other than a monkey has ever
been known to attain ; and, as we shall subsequently see,
my own observation has fully corroborated that of Reng-
ger in this respect. More remarkable still, as we shall
also subsequently see, the monkey to which I allude as
having myself observed, succeeded also by methodical
investigation, and without any assistance, in discovering
for himself the mechanical principle of the screw ; and
that monkeys well understand how to use stones as ham-
mers is a matter of common observation since Dampier
and Wafer first described this action as practised by
these animals in the breaking open of oyster-shells. The
additional observation of Gernelli Carreri of monkeys
thrusting stones into the open valves of oysters so as
to save themselves the trouble of smashing the shells,
though not incredible, requires confirmation. But Mr.
Haden, of Dundee, has communicated to me the follow-
ing very remarkable appreciation of mechanical principles
which he himself observed in a monkey (species not noted),
and which would certainly be beyond the mental powers
of any other animal : —

* A large monkey, confined alone in a large cage, had
its sleeping-place in the form of a kind of hut in the
centre of the cage. Springing near the hut was a tree,
or imitation tree, the main branch of which ascendf^d
over the top of the hut, and then came forwards
away from it. Whether the roof of the hut enabled
this animal to gain any part of this branch, I did not
observe, but only remarked its method at the time of
gaining the part of the branch which led frontwards, and

482

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

away from the hut. This could be done by means of the
hut door, which, when opened, swung beneath this part
of the branch. The door, either by accident or by the
design of its construction, swung to each time the
animal opened it to mount upon its top edge. After one
or two etforts to mount by it in spite of its immediate
swinging to, the creature procured a thick blanket which
Iny in the cage, and threw it over the door, having
opened the same, so that its complete swinging to was
prevented sufficiently for the creature to mount upon its
free edge, and so gain that part of the branch which ran
above it.'

The following, which I quote from ' Nature ' (vol.
xxiii., p. 533), also displays high intelligence : —

One of the large monkeys at the Alexandra Palace had
been for some time suiSfering from the decay of the right lower
canine, and an abscess, forming a large protuberance on the
jaw, had resulted. The pain seemed so gi^eat, it was decided fjQ
consult a dentist as to what should be done ; and, as the poor
creature was at times very savage, it was thought that if the
tooth had to be extracted, gas should be used for the safety
of the operation. Preparations were made accordingly, but
the behaviour of the monkey was quite a surprise to all who
were concerned. He showed great fight on being taken out of
the cage, and not only struggled against being put into a sack
prepared with a hole cut for his head, but forced one of his
hands out, and snapped and screamed, and gave promise of being
very troublesome. Directly, however, Mr. Lewin Moseley, who
had undertaken the operation, managed to get his hand on the
abscess and gave relief, the monkey's demeanom* changed en-
tirely. He laid his head down quietly for examination, and,
without the use of the gas, submitted to the removal of a
Btump of a tooth as quietly as possible.

According to D'Osbonville, certain monkeys that he
observed in the wild state were in the habit of adminis-
tering corporal chastisement to their young. After suck-
ling and cleansing them, the mothers used to sit down
and watch the youngsters play. These would wrestle,
throw and chase each other, &c. ; but if any of them
grew malicious, the dams would spring up, and, seizing

MONKEYS— GENEEAL INTELLIGENCE. 483

their oflfspring by the tail with one hand, correct them
severely with the other.

We have already seen that dogs and cats display the
idea of maintaining discipline among their progeny.

According to Houzeau the sacred monkey of India
( Semnopithecus entellus) is very clever in catching snakes^
and in the case of poisonous species destroy the fangs by
breaking them against stones.^

Of the fact that monkeys act in co-operation, many
proofs might be given, but one will suffice.

Lieutenant Schipp, in his Memoirs, says : —

A Cape baboon having taken off some clothes from the
barracks, I formed a party to recover them. With twenty men
I made a circuit to cut them off from the caverns, to whicn
they always fled for shelter. They observed my movements,
and detaching about fifty to guard the entrance, the others kept
their post. We could see them collecting large stones and
other missiles. One old grey-headed one, who had often paid
us a visit at the barracks, was seen distributing his orders, as
if a general. We rushed on to the attack, when, at a scream
from him, they rolled down enormous stones on us, so that we
were forced to give up the contest.

I shall here bring to a close my selections from the
literature of monkey psychology, because I wish to devote
a good deal of space to detailing a number of observations
which have not yet been published. Thinking it desirable
for the purposes of this work that an intelligent monkey
should be subjected to close observation for some length
of time, I applied to Mr. Sclater for the loan of one from
the collection of the Zoological Society. He kindly con-
sented to my proposal, and I selected a specimen of Oehus
fatuellus, which appeared to me to be the most intelligent
monkey in the collection. Not having facilities for keep-
ing the animal in my own house, I consigned him to the
charge of my sister (who lives close by), with the request
that she should carefully note all points of interest con-
nected with his intelligence. Therefore, from the day
of his arrival till that of his departure she kept a diary,

82

I>oo. cit., vol. i., p. 305.

484

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

or note-book, in which all the observations that she
made when I was absent were entered. It was originally
my intention to make an abstract of this note-book ; but
on afterwards reading it through for this purpose, it
seemed to me that I should rather spoil matters by
attempting a condensation. There is a certain graphic
effect incidental to the diary form and spontaneous style
of diction — the notes, of course, not having been written
with a view to verbatim publication ; and besides, as the
psychology of monkeys has been so little studied, I think
it is well to give all the details of a continuous series of
observations. It is desirable to add that on occasions sub-
sequent to the taking of this or that particular note, I
generally had the opportunity of verifying the observation
myself; but I may state that I attach no more importance
to this circumstance than I should to verifying an obser-
vation of my own ; for as a careful observer of animals I
have quite as much confidence in my sister as in myself.
It only remains to explain that my mother, being an
invalid, is confined most of the time to her bedroom ;
and that the monkey was kept there for the first six weeks
of his stay at her house, partly in order that he might be
under constant observation, and partly also to furnish her
with an entertaining pet. The following are my sister's
notes in extenso and without alteration : —

Brown Capiichin {Cehus fatuellus — Linn.), Brazil,
DiABY, 1880.

December Arrived in box with keeper. Seemed rather

frightened and screamed a good deal on being transferred from
small box to a larger one.

19tb. Took him out of the box he had been in all night and
fastened chain on to collar. Was meek and subdued, hiding his
face in my lap.

20th. Has become much more lively and somewhat aggres-
sive, especially towards the servants. He has taken a fancy to
my mother, and (she holding his chain) he plays with her in a
gentle and affectionate manner in hei bed, but flies angrily at
any of the servants who come near the bed. I observed to-day
that he breaks walnuts (which are too hard for him to crack
with his teeth) by striking them with the flat bottom of a dish

INTELLIGENCE OE CEBUS.

485

he has for drinking out of. He is ceaselessly active all day, and
at night covers himself very neatly with warm shawls, and
sleeps so'indly till about eight o'clock.

21st. I notice that the love of mischief is very strong in
him. To-day he got hold of a wine-glass and an egg-cup. The
glass he dashed on the floor with all his might, and of course
broke it. Finding, however, that the egg-cup would not break
for being thrown down, he looked round for some hard sub-
stance against which to dash it. The post of the brass bedstead
appearing to be suitable for the purpose, he raised the egg-cup
high over his bead and gave it several hard blows. When it
was completely smashed he was quite satisfied. He breaks a
stick by passing it down between a heavy object and the wall,
and then hanging on to the end, thus breaking it across the
heavy objecb. He frequently destroys an article of dress by
carefully pulling out the threads (thus unripping it) before he
begins to tear it with his teeth in a more violent manner, ll
he gets hold of anything that he sees we do not care about, he
soon leaves it again ; but if it is an article of value (even if it
be only a scrap of paper) which he sees we are anxious about,
nothing will induce him to give it up. No food, however in-
viting, will distract his attention : scolding only makes him
aiore angry, and he keeps the article until it is quite destroyed.
To-day I gave him a hammer to break his walnuts with, and he
uses it in a proper manner for that purpose.

22nd. To-day a strange person (a dressmaker) came into the
room where he is tied up, and I gave him a walnut that she
might see him break it with his hammer. The nut was a bad
one, and the woman laughed at his disappointed face. He then
became very angry, and threw at her everything he could lay
hands on ; first the nut, then the hammer, then a coffee-pot
which he seized out of the grate, and, lastly, all his own shawls.
He throws things with great force and precision by holding
them in both hands, and extending his long arms well back over
his head before projecting the missile, standing erect the while.

23rd. There is contiDual war between him and Sharp [a small
terrier], but they both seem to have a cei tain mutual respect for
each other. The dog makes snatches at nuts, &c., and runs
away with them beyond the reach of his chain, and the monkey
catches at the dog, but seems afraid to hold him or hurt him.
He however pelts him with nuts or bits of carrot, and chatters
at him. At other times he holds out his hand as if to make
friends, but the dog is too suspicious to go near him. His hos-
tihty towards the servants (one especially) increases, so that he

486

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

will not even take a nut from her without catching fiercely at
her hand ; he also frequently throws things at her. On the other
hand, he allows my mother to do anything with him.

24th. He bit me in several places to-day when I was taking
him away from my mother's bed after his morning's game there.
I took no notice, but he secmod n shamed of himself afterwards,
hiding his face in his arms and sitting quiet for a time.* In ac-
cordance with his desire for mischief, he is of course very fond
of upsetting things, but he always takes great care they do not
fall on himself Thus he Avill pull a chair towards him till it is
almost over-balanced, then he intently fixes his eyes on the top
bar of the back, and when he sees it coming over his way,
darts from underneath and watches the fall with great delight ;
and similarly with heavier things. There is a washhand-stand, for
example, with a heavy marble top, which he has with great
labour upset several times, and always without hurting himself.^

25th. I observed to-day that if a nut or any object he wishes
to get hold of is beyond the reach of his chain, he puts out a
stick to draw it towards him, or, if that does not succeed, he
stands upright and throws a shawl back over his head, holding
it by the two corners so that it falls down his back ; he then
throws it forward with all his strength, still holding on by the
corners ; thus it goes out far in front of him and covers the nut,
which he then draws towards him by pulling in the shawl.
When his chain becomes twisted round the bars of a ' clothCvS-
horse ' (which is given him to run about upon), and thus too
short for his comfort, he looks at it intently and pulls it with
his fingers this way and that, and when he sees how the turns
are taken, he deliberately goes round and round the bars, first
this way, then that, until the chain is quite disentangled. He
often carries his chain grasped in his tail and held high over his
back to keep it from getting into the way of his feet. He is
always rather excited in the morning when I loosen his chain
preparatory to taking him to my mother's bed ; jumps about
and tugs at the chain. Sometimes, howev^er, if the chain is en-
tangled, and I am rather long in getting it unfastened, he sits
quietly down beside me, and begins picking at the chain with

• On subsequent observation (January 14, 18S1), I find this quiet-
ness was not due to shame at having birten me, for whether he succeeds
in biting any person or not he always sits quiet and dull-looking after a
fit of passion, being, I think, fatigued. He has bitten me often since
December 24, and seems to enjoy the fun on the whole.

2 These heavy objects he overturns with exceeding caution,
balancing them several times carefully, and studying them before finally
throwing or pulling them over.

INTELLiaENCE OF CEBUS.

487

his fingers as if to help me to untie it. I cannot say, however,
that he succeeds in helping me at all.

26th. He seems very fond of spinning things round. If he
gets a whole apple or orange he generally sits spinning it on one
end, before beginning to eat it. He eats an orange by biting of!
a tiny piece of the peel, and putting his long, thin finger deep
into the fruit; he then lays the whole orange under a piece of
wire netting he has near him, and, putting his mouth to the hole
he has made, presses the wire netting down upon the fruit, thus
squeezing the juice up into his mouth. When a good deal ot
juice begins to run out, he holds the orange up over his head and
lets the juice run into his mouth.

27th. To-day he obtained possession of a rather valuable
document, and, as usual, nothing I could do would persuade him
to give it up. He neglected any kind of food I ofiered him,
and only chattered when I coaxed him. When at last I tried
threatening him with a cane, he only became savage and flew at
me, chattering. My mother now came and sat down in a chair
beside him. He immediately jumped into her lap, and remained
quite still while she took the paper out of his hands. When,
however, she handed it to me and I laughed at her success, he
showed his teeth and screamed and chattered at me angrily. I
find laughing generally irritates him. Thus, when he is playing
with my mother in the bed in the best of humour, as long as I
sit quietly on the bed all is well, but if I laugh, for example at
any of his affectionate glances, he makes a dart at me to send me
off, and then returns with renewed demonstrations of aflection
to my mother, tumbling head over heels and lying on his back,
grinning in a most comical manner, and making a sound very
like slight laughter.

28th. His chain is fastened to the marble slab of a washhand-
stand, placed on the floor against the wall. It is too heavy for
him to pull along by his chain without hurting himself, so when
he desires to do any mischief which is beyond the reach of his
chain, he deliberately goes to the marble and pushes an arm
down between an upright part of it and the wall, until he has
}iioved the whole slab sufficiently far from the wall to admit ot
1 1 is slipping down behind the upright part himself. He then
places his back against the wall and his four hands against the
upright part of the marble, and pushes the slab as far as he can
stretch his long legs. He only does this, however, when he is
bent on mischief, as the fact of food being beyond the reach ol
his chain does not furnish a strong enough inducement to
lead him to take so much exertion. Thus to-day he began to

488

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

pull the glazfed leather cover off a trunk which was near him ,
I pulled the trunk away, and when he found it was out of his
reach he ran and pushed the marble towards the trunk in the
manner I have described, and when he knew his chain was
then sufficiently long to reach the trunk, he ran to the latter
and hastily resumed his destructive process.

29th. I notice that nothing the person does who has hold
of his chain offends him. I mean, although he is fui-iously
angry at having anything taken away from him, he is not
at all angry if he is pulled away by his chain. If he is
trying to bite a person, and another person takes hold of his
chain behind him and so prevents his spring forward, he does
not turn to bite the person who has taken hold of his chain, as
a dog would do under similar circumstances, but quietly submits
to be thus held. He seems to look upon his confinement and
management by a chain as a natural law against which it is
useless to struggle. On the other hand, he seems to be quite
aware of the place where his chain is fastened, and to know
that if he were clever enough to undo it he would be free.
After we found he could move about the marble slab of the
washhand-stand in the way described, we had a ring sunk in
the floor to tie him to. The moment the chain was fastened to
that * he began to investigate its new connection, and continued
to do so for hours, passing the chain rapidly backward and for-
wards through the ring. Wlien he found this did not loosen it,
he began to hammer it and the ring also with all his strength,
and this he continued to do for the rest of the day.

30th. He still continues to work at the chain where it is
fastened to the ring. He passed the whole of the chain through
the ring so many times with his fingers that it became quite
blocked up in the ring, which made it very short, and it took
me a quarter of an hour to disentangle it. He was very much
interested in this process, sitting quietly beside me and watching
my fingers intently, sometimes gently pulling my fingers on one
side in order to see better, and sometimes casting a quick in-
telligent glance into my face as if asking how I did it. After I
Lad disentangled and lengthened the chain he worked at it
again for hours, but took care not to twist it into the ring a
second tim.e.

31st. To day he hurt himself by getting one of his toes
caught in a hinge of the clothes-horse. He did not make any

> January 14, 1881. The marble slab was left with him after the
chain had been fastened to the ring ; but since that time he has never
attempted to move the marble.

INTELLIGENCE OP CEBUS.

489

fuss, although the accident must have been somewhat a painful
one, nor did he try to pull the toe out, which would have been
useless and only hurt him more; but he sat almost motionless,
making slight complaining noises until I discovered that there
was something wrong with him. When I began to extricate
his foot, he remained perfectly passive — although I dare say I
hurt him a good deal — and only looked at me gratefully.

January 1 , 1881. He has now quite given up trying to loosen
his chain himself; having ti-ied every way and failed, he has
evidently become hopeless about it. He now resents being
tied up. When I loosen him he is quite pleased, and when I
tie him he waits until he is quite sure he is being tied, and not
loosened, and then he flies at me and bites me.

10th. As he is always tied up in the same place he has
no new opportunities given him of showing his intelligence.
His attachment to my mother has increased. When she goes
out he immediately gives up all play and mischief, and does
nothing but run round and round in a restless manner, making
a peculiar sweet calling noise, such as he never makes when
she is in the room, listening intently between times. As long
as she remains away he takes no rest or amusement, nor does
he ever, or hardly ever, become angry ; but the moment she
returns he begins all his old ways again, usually becoming
more savage at other people than before.

My mother frequently takes things away from him, and he
never resents it to her as he would do to any other person.
He generally, however, chatters angrily at some one else when
my mother removes anything he wishes to keep. At first I
thought he was deceived in the matter — that he could not
believe it possible that his best friend could deprive him of
what he valued, and so thought someone else must have
done it. But the same thing has now happened so fre-
quently that I can hardly think he is not really aware of
who takes the things away. He seems rather to think it
politic to keep on good terms with one person, and that although
he does see her remove the things, and feels angry in con-
sequence, he thinks it more prudent to vent his anger upon
someone with whom he has already quarrelled. He always
shows more irritation when my mother gives anything to me after
having taken it away from him, than when she keeps it herself
(as mentioned on December 26), and this may be the reason
partly why he resents these matters to me ; he thinks when I
obtain posses-sion of anything he wants that it is a sort of
triumph to me. In the same way my mother may laugh as

490

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

much as she likes whether he is with her or not, but if 1 laugh
at all at anything it generally results in something being
thrown at me. K my mother calls out to the servants — if, for
instance, a servant has left the room and my mother calls her
back — he becomes very angry at the servant, and salutes her on
her return with a shower of missilas. Sometimes my mother
pretends to scold or beat the servants, and then he joirjs with
great energy, by way of supporting his friend. If I scold or
beat the servants he does not mind so much. When my
mother comes back after being out he does not show any great
demonstrations of joy. He screams out with pleasure when he
hears her voice approaching on the stairs, but does not make
much ado when she enters the room. While my mother is out
I can do anything 1 like with him, just as she can when she is
at home. Perhaps being in low spirits he does not feel angry,
or perhaps he thinks it prudent to be amiable when his best
friend is away. When my mother comes back, all his ill-temper
returns at once and even in an increased degree towards other
people, and he immediately resumes playing with all his toys.

11th. When he throws things at people now he first runs up
the bars of the clothes-horse ; he seems to have found out that
people do not much care for having things thrown at their feet,
and he is not strong enough to throw such heavy objects as a
poker or a hammer at people's heads ; he therefore mounts to a
level with his enemy's head, and thus succeeds in sending his
missile to a greater height and also to a greater distance.

14th. To-day he obtained possession of a hearth-brush, one
of the kind which has the handle screwed into the brush. He
soon found the way to unscrew the handle, and having done
that he immediately began to try to find out the way to screw
it in again. This he in time accomplished. At first he put the
wrong end of the handle into the hole, but turned it round and
round the right way for screwing. Finding it did not hold, he
turned the other end of the handle and carefully stuck it into
the hole, and began again to turn it the right way. It was of
course a very difficult feat for him to perform, for he required
both his hands to hold the handle in the proper position and to
turn it between his hands in order to screw it in, and the long
bristles of the brush prevented it from remaining steady or
with the right side up. He held the brush with his hind hand^
but even so it was very difficult for him to get the first turn of
the screw to fit into the thread ; he worked at it, however, with
the most unwearying perseverance until he got the first turn of
the screw to catch, and he then quickly turned it round and
round until it was screwed up to the end. The most remark-

INTELLIGENCE OF CEBUS.

491

able thing was that, however often he was disappointed in the
beginning, he never was induced to try turning the handle the
wrong way ; he always screwed it from right to left. As soon
as he had accomplished his wish, he unscrewed it again, and
then screwed it in again the second time rather more easily than
the first, and so on many times. When he had become by
practice tolerably perfect in screwing and unscrewing, he gave
it up and took to some other amusement. One remarkable
thing is that he should take so much trouble to do that which
is no material benefit to him. The desire to accomplish a
chosen task seems a sufficient inducement to lead him to take
any amount of trouble. This seems a very human feeling,
such as is not shown, I believe, by any other animal. It is not
the desire of praise, as he never notices people looking on ; it is
simply the desire to achieve an object for the sake of achieving
an object, and he never rests nor allows his attention to be dis-
tracted until it is done.

16th. When he is angry, and has at hand only those things
which he wishes to keep, he makes a great show of throwing them
at people, but always retains a hold. Thus if he has had a play-
thing a long time and is tired of it, he throws it right at a
person without the least hesitation ; but if he has a new thing
which he values, he goes through all the appropriate motions for
throwing, but only brings the object down with a noise upon
the ground, taking care not to let go his hold. He beats people
with a long cane he has, and when he cannot reach people he
strikes it with all his strength upon the ground to show what he
would do if he had the chance. There is no more comical sight
than to see him hurriedly climbing his screen in fiarce anger,
taking (not without great difficulty) his long and awkward
stick up with him in order to be high enough to give a good
blow to a person. The dog is quite afraid of the stick in the
monkey's hands, although he is too petted to be afraid of it in a
person's. The monkey is jealous of the dog lying in the arm-
chair in which he sometimes seats himself with my mother, so he
pokes the stick at the dog (as the chair is beyond the reach ol
His chain) and makes him get off.

18th. He was very angry to-day at a servant girl sweeping
out his place with a long brush, and he seized the brush every
time the servant attempted to sweep. My mother then took
it, and ho at once became not only quite good-tempered, but
assisted her in sweeping, by gathering the rubbish in the cor-
ners of his place into little heaps with his hands, and putting
the heaps into the way of the brush.

20th. To-day he broke his chain, and flew at a servant

492

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

savagely, but seeing my mother he immediately jumped into
her lap. While another chain was being prepared he got to the
trunk where his nuts are kept. I have long noticed that he
looks upon that trunk as in some special sense his own pro-
perty. There are other things kept in the trunk as well as the
nuts, and if any person goes to the trunk for anything he be-
comes furiously angry. Indeed nothing makes him .so angry aa
people opening the truiik, and this is not because he wants nuts
out of it, for he always has more than he can eat beside him,
and generally refuses to take any that are offered to him.
Well, to-day, as soon as the breaking of his chain enabled him
to get to the trunk, he began picking at the lock with his
fingers. I then gave him the key, and he tried for two full
hours without ceasing to unlock the trunk with this key. It
was a very dilticult lock to open, being slightly out of order,
and requires the lid of the trunk to be pressed down before it
would work, so I believe it was absolutely impossible for him
to open it, but he found in time the right way to put the key
in, and to turn it backwards and forwards, and after every at-
tempt he pulled the lid upwards to see if it were unlocked. That
this was the result of observing people is obvious, from the fact
that after every time he put the key into the lock and failed to
open the trunk, he passed the key round and round the outside
of the lock several times. Th(^ explanation of this is that, my
mother's sight being bad, she often misses the lock when put-
ting in the key, and then feels round and round the lock
with the key ; the monkey therefore evidently seems to think
that this feeling round and round the lock with the key is in
some way necessary to the success of unlocking the lock, so
that, although he could see perfectly well how to put the key in
straight himself, he went through this useless operation first.

21st. To-day I gave him a wooden box with the lid nailed
on, and an iron spoon, to see if he would use the latter as a
lever wherewith to raise the lid. The experiment was some-
what spoiled by my mother putting the handle of the spoon
into the crack between the lid and the box to show him how to do
it. Therefore I cannot tell whether or not he would have taken
this first step himself, if he had had time to do so. Howerer,
when the handle of the spoon was in he certainly used it in the
proper manner, pulling it down with all his strength at the
extreme end, thus drawing the nails out of the box and raising
the lid.

22nd. He was sit"^ing on my mother's knee, and she wash-
ing his hands with a little sponge, a process of which he U

INTELLIGENCE OF CEBUS.

498

very fond ; she tried to wash his face, and that he disliked very
much. Every time she began, the expression of his face became
more angry ; at last he suddenly jumped off her knee, and made
a violent attack on one of the servants who is usually his
favourite, although she was doing nothing at all to anger him.
This is a good instance of his habit of venting his anger at my
mother on other people. He always eats vigoT-ously when he is
angry, or after a fit of passion. After a prolonged fib of passion
he always lies down on his side as if dead, probably from ex-
haustion.

30th. He quite understands the meaning of shakiug hands.
He always holds out his own hand when he wishes to be
friendly, esi)ecially when a friend is entering or leaving the
I'oom. To-day he had been a long time playing with his toys,
taking no notice of any one. Suddenly my mother remembered
that to-day was my birthday, and (for the first time since he
c;ime to the house) shook hands with me in congratulation. He
immediately became very angry with me, screamed and chat-
tel ed and threw things at me, being evidently jealous of the
attention my mother was paying me.

February 1st. He has now been moved down to the dining-
room, where he is chained between the fireplace and the
window. He seems quite miserable on account of the change,
as he does not see so much of my mother.

4th. His low spirits continue, and threaten to make him ill.
He will not play with anything, but sits moping and shivering
in a corner. To-day I found him very cold and unhapj^y, and
warmed his hands for him. He is very meek and gentle, and
seems to be getting fond of me.

8th. He has quite recovered his spirits since he took a fancy
to me. He likes me now apparently as well as he used to do
my mother ; that is to say, he allows me to nurse him, and
walkabour in his place, and even take things away from him.
When, however, my mother comes to see him, he does not ciire
for me, although he shows none of his old hostility. To the
servants, however, he continues to do so when my mother ia
present.

10th. We gave bim a bundle of sticks this morning, and he
amused himself all day by poking them into the fire and pulling
tliem out again to smell the smoking end. He likewise pulls
out hot cinders from the grate and passes them over his head
and chest, evidently enjoying the warmth, but never burning
himself. He also puts hot ashes on his head. I gave him
some paper, and, as he cannot, from the length of his chain,

494

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

quite reach the fire, he rolled the paper up into the form of a
stick, and then put it into the fire, pulling it out as soon as it
caught light, and watching the blaze in the fender with great
satisfaction. I gave him a whole newspaper, and he tore it in
pieces, rolled up each piece as I have dftsciibed, to make it long
enough to reach the fire, and so burnt it all piece by piece. Ho
never once burnt his own fingers during the operation.

13th. He can open and shut the folding shutters with ease,
and this seems to be an amusement to him. He also unscrewed
all the knobs that belong to the fender. The bell-handle beside
the mantelpiece he likewise took to bits, which involves the un-
screwing of three screws.

15th. He is so amiable to me now that he constantly gives
me bits of things that he himself is eating, evidently expecting
me to share his repast with him. Sometimes this attention on
his part is not altogether agreeable. For instance, to-day he
thrust into my hand, when I was not looking, a quantity of
sopped bread and milk out of his pan, no doubt thinking him-
self very kind-hearted thus to supply me with food.

17th. He offered the dog a bit of toast which he himself
was eating, and the dog took a part of it. I think, however,
that he had at the same time a sly design of catching the dog
with the other hand, but he did not do so — perhaps because I
was looking on, and he knows the dog is a friend of mine ; but
he had a wicked look in his eye while feeding the dog, which he
has not when he extends his Ijounty to me.

19th. When I was brushing him to-day betook the brush
aw^ay from me. Playthings are especially valuable to him now,
as he is not allowed to have any lest he should break the win-
dows "WT.th them. For this reason I was afraid to leave the
brush with him, but found he was not at all disposed to give it
up. I threw other things within his reach, but he carried the
brush in his hind hand while going after the other things. At
last I sat down and called him gently, when he mildly came up
to my lap and put the brush into my two hands, evidently
resolving that he would not now quarrel with his only friend.

22nd. His manner of showing his humours is interesting,
as illustrating the principle of antithesis. Thus when he is
angry he springs forward on all four hands with tail very erect
and hair raised, so making himself look much bigger. When
afiectionate he advances slowly hackivards with his body in the
form of a hoop, so that the crown of his head rests on the
ground, face inwards. He walks on three hands (hair very
smooth), and puts the fourth fore-hand out at his back in advanca

INTELLIGENCE OF CEBUS.

495

of his body. He expects this hand to be taken kindly, and he
then assumes his natural attitude. In that manner of advanc-
ing it is obviously impossible that he could bite, as his mouth
is towards his own chest, so it is the best way of showing how
far he is from thinking of hostility.
February 28, 1881.

The above account may be taken as fully trustworthy
Most of the observations recorded I have myself subse-
quently verified numberless times. From the account,
however, several observations which I happened to make
myself in the first instance are designedly omitted, and
these I shall therefore now supply.

I bought at a toy- shop a very good imitation of a
monkey, and brought it into the room with the real
monkey, stroking and speaking to it as if it were alive.
The monkey evidently mistook the figure for a real
animal, manifesting intense curiosity, mixed with much
alarm if I made the figure approach him. Even when I
placed the figure upon a table, and left it standing motion-
less, the monkey was afraid to approach it. From this it
would appear that the animal trusted much more to his
sense of sight than to that of smell in recognising one of
his own kind.

I placed a mirror upon the floor, and the monkey at
once mistook his reflection in it for a real animal. At
first he was a little afraid of it ; but in a short time he
gained courage enough to approach and try to touch it.
Finding he could not do so, he went round behind the
mirror and then again before it a great number of times ;
but he did not become angry, as the monkey of which
Prof. Brown Robertson wrote me. Strange to say, he
appeared to mistake the sex of the image, and began in
the most indescribably ludicrous manner to pay to it the
addresses of courtship. First placing his lips against the
glass he rose to his full height on his hind legs, retired
slowly, and while doing so turned his back to the mirror,
looking over his shoulder at the image, and, with a pre-
posterous amount of ' pinch ' in his back, strutted up and
down before the glass with all the appearance of the most
laughable foppery. This display was always gone througl^

496

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

when at any subsequent time the mirror was placed udod
the floor.

From the first time that he saw me, this monkey took
as violently passionate an attachment to me as that which
he took to my mother. His mode of greeting, however,
was different. When she entered the room after an
absence, his welcome was of a quiet and contented cha-
racter ; but when I came in, his demonstrations were posi-
tively painful to witness. Standing erect on his hind legs
at the full length of his tether, and extending both hands
as far as he could reach, he screamed with all his strength,
in a tone and with an intensity which he never adopted
on any other occasion. So loud, indeed, were his rapidly
and continuously reiterated screams, that it was impossible
for any one to hold even a shouting conversation till I
took the animal in my arms, when he became placid, with
many signs of intense affection. Even the sound of my
voice down two flights of stairs used to set him screaming
in this manner, so that whenever I called at my mother's
house I had to keep silent while on the staircase, unless
I intended first of all to pay a visit to the monkey.

It has frequently been noticed that monkeys are very
capricious in forming their attachments and aversions ;
but I never knew before that this peculiarity could be so
strongly marked as it was in this case. His demonstra-
tions of affection to my mother and myself were piteous ;
while towards every one else, male or female, he was either
passively indifferent or actively hostile. Yet no shadow of
a reason could be assigned for the difference. My sister,
to whom animals are usually much more attached than
they are to me, used always to be forbearingly kind to this
one — taking all his bites, &c., with the utmost good
humour. Moreover, she supplied him with all his food,
and most of his playthings, so that she was really in every
way his best friend. Yet his antipathy to her was only
less remarkable than his passionate fondness of my mother
and myself.

Another trait in the psychology of this animal which
is worth observing was his quietness of manner towards
my mo+her. With me, and indeed with every one else, hid

INTELLIGENCE OF CEBUS.

497

movements were unrestrained, and generally monkey-like ;
but with her he was always as gentle as a kitten: he
appeared to know that her age and infirmities rendered
boisterousness on his part unacceptable.

I returned the monkey to the Zoological Gardens at
the end of February, and up to the time of his death in
October 1881, he remembered me as well as the first day
that he was sent back. I visited the monkey-house about
once a month, and whenever I approached his cage he saw
m3 with astonishing quickness — indeed, generally before
I saw him — and ran to the bars, through which he thrust
both hands with every expression of joy. He did not,
however, scream aloud ; his mind seemed too much occu-
pied by the cares of monkey-society to admit of a vacancy
large enough for such very intense emotion as he used to
experience in the calmer life that he lived before. Being
much struck with the extreme rapidity of his discernment
whenever I approached the cage, however many other
persons might be standing round, I purposely visited the
monkey-house on Easter Monday, in order to see whether
he would pick me out of the solid mass of people who fill
the place on that day. Although I could only obtain a
place three or four rows back from the cage, and although
I made no sound wherewith to attract his attention, he
saw me almost immediately, and with a sudden intelligent
look of recognition ran across the cage to greet me.
When I went away he followed me, as he always did, to
the extreme end of his cage, and stood there watching my
departure as long as I remained in sight.

In conclusion, I should say that much the most
striking feature in the psychology of this animal, and the
one which is least like anything met with in other animals,
was the tireless spirit of investigation. The hours and
hours of patient industry which this poor monkey has
spent in ascertaining all that his monkey-intelligence
could of the sundry unfamiliar objects that fell into his
hands, might well read a lesson in carefulness to many a
hasty observer. And the keen satisfaction which he dis-
played when he had succeeded in making any little dis-
covery, such as that of the mechanical principle of the

498

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

screw, repeating the results of his newly earned knowledge
over and over again, till one could not but marvel at the
intent abstraction of the ' dumb brute ' — this was so dif-
ferent from anything to be met with in any other animal,
that I confess I should not have believed what I saw
unless I had repeatedly seen it with my own eyes. As my
sister once observed, while we were watching him conductr-
ing some of his researches, in oblivion to his food and all his
other surroundings — ' when a monkey behaves like this, it
is no wonder that man is a scientific animal ! ' And in my
next work I shall hope to show how, from so high a
etarting-point, the psychology of the monkey has passed
into that of the man.

INDEX

AOC

A CVJOUCHEUB, fish, 246 ; toad,
IX 254

AceHna cernua, 246
Aoinia jJ'i'ehensa, 233
Actinia, 233, 234

Actinophrys, apparent intelligence

of, 20
Adamsia, 234

A-daptive movement, as evidence of

mind, 2, 3
A-ddison, his definition of instinct,

11

Addison, Mrs. K., on gesticulating
signs made by a jackdaw, 316

^lian, on division of labour in har-
vesting ants, 98

^Esthetic emotions of birds, 279-
82

Aifection,sexual, parental, and social,
of snails, 27 ; of ants, 45-9 and
58, 59 ; of bees, 155, 156, and 162;
of earwig, 229 ; of fish, 242-6 ; of
reptiles, 256, 258, 259; of birds,
270-6 ; of kangaroo, 326, 327 ; of
whale, 327 ; of horse, 329 ; of
deer, 334; of bat, 341; of seal,
341-6; of hare, 338-40; of rats,
340 ; of mice, 341 ; of beaver, 367 ;
of elephant, 387-92; of cat, 411,
412 ; of dog, 437, 440, 441 ; of
monkeys, 471-5 and 484-98

Agassiz, Professor A., on instinct of
hermit-crab, 232 ; nest of fish, 242-
8 ; on beaver-dams, 384, 385

A-gaosiz, Professor L., on intelligence
of snails, 26

Alison, Professor, on curious instinct
of polecat, 347

33

ANT

Allen, J. A., on breeding habito ri

pinniped seals, 341-6
Alligators, 256-8 and 263
Alopecias vulpes, 252
Amoeba, apparent intelligence of, 21
Anemones, sea, 233, 234
Anger, of ants ?.nd bees, see under j

of fish, 246, 247 ; of monkeys,

478, 479 and 484-96
Angler-fish, 247, 248
Annelida, apparent intelligence of,

24

Antennae, effects of removal in ants,

142 ; in bees, 197
Antithesis, principle of, in expression

of emotions by monkeys, 494, 495
Ant-lion, 23 1, 235

Ants, powers of special sense, 31-37,
of sight, 31-33; of hearing, 33;
of smell, 33-37 ; sense of direction,
37, 38 ; memory, 39-45 ; recogni-
tion of companions and nest-
mates, 41-45 ; emotions, 45-49 ;
affection, 45-48 ; sympathy, 48,
49 ; communication, 49-57 ; habits
general in sundry species, 57 -93 ;
swarming, 57, 58 ; nursing, 58,
59 ; education, 59, 60 ; keeping
aphides, 60-64 ; making slaves,
64-68; wars, 68-83; keeping
domestic pets, 83, 84 ; sleep and
cleanliness, 84-7 ; play and leisure,
87-89 ; funeral habits, 89-93 ;
habits peculiar to certain species,
93-122 ; leaf-cutting, 93-96 ; har-
vesting, 96-110; African, 110,
111 ; tree, 110, 111 ; honey making,
111-114 and 142 ; ecitons, or mili.

500

INDEX.

APE

tary, 114-122; general intelli-
gence, 122-142 ; Sir John Lub-
bock's experiments on intelligence,
123-128; intelligence displayed
in architecture, 128-130 ; in using
burrows made by elater larvaj,
130; in artificial hives, 130; in
removing nest from shadow of
tree, 131 ; in cutting leaves off
overshadowing tree, 131, 132 ; in
bending blades of grass while
cutting them, 132, 133; in co-
operating to glue leaves together,
133, 134 ; in getting at food in
diflScult places, 134, 135 ; in making
bridges, &c., 135-139; in tunnel-
ling under rails, 140 ; anatomy
and physiology of nerve-centres
and sense organs, 140-2

A.pes, see Monkeys

Ao'achnidcBy 204- 225, see Spiders and
Scorpions

Arago> his observation regarding
sense of justice in dog, 443

Arderon, on taming a dace, 246

Argyroneta aquatica, 212

Am, Capt., on sword- and thresher-
fish, 252, 253

AHiculata, see under divisions of

Ass, general intelligence of, 328 and
333

Association of ideas, see under vari-
ous animals

Atenchus pilularivs, 226

Atkealium, apparent intelligence of,
19-20

Atkinson, the Rev. J. C, on reason-
ing power of a dog, 458, 459

Audubon, on ants making beasts of
burden of bugs, 68 ; plundering
instincts of white-headed eagle,
284 ; variations in instinct of in-
cubation, 299, 300

Auk, nidification of, 292

A utomatism, hypothesis of animal, 6

BABOON, sympathy shown by
Arabian, 474 ; rage of, 478 ;
revenge of, 478
Badcock, on dog making peace-
offerings, 452

BEC

Baer, Van, on organisation of bee,
241

Bailey, Professor W. W., on dog stop-
ping a runaway horse, 459

Baines, A. H., on dog communicating
wants by signs, 446, 447

Baker, on sticklebacks, 245

Baldamus, Dr., on cuckoo laying
eggs coloured in imitation of those
of the birds in whose nests they
lay them, 307

Ball, Dr. Robert, on commensalism
of crab and anemone, 234

Banks, Sir Joseph, on intelligence
of tree-ants, 133 ; fish coming to
sound of bell, 250

Bannister, Dr., on cat trying to
catch image behind mirror, 415,
416 ; on intelligence of the Eskimo
dogs, 461, 462

Barrett, W. F., on instincts of young
alligator, 256

Barton, Dr., on alleged fascination
by snakes, 264

Bastian, on termites, 198

Bates, on ants' habit of keeping
pets, 84 ; cleaning one another,
87 ; play and leisure, 88, 89 ; leaf-
cutting, 93-95 ; tunnelling, 99 ;
ecitons, 114-21; on sand- wasp
taking bearings to remember pre-
cise locality, 150 ; mygale eating
humming-birds, 208 ; on nidifica-
tion of small crustacean, 232, 233 ;
habits of turtles, and alligators,
257, 258 ; intelligence of vultures,
314 ; bats sucking blood, 341

Batrachians, 254, 255

Bats, 341

Baya-bird, nidification of, 294
Bears, 350-352

Beattie, Dr., on dog communicating

desires by signs, 447
Beaver, 367-85 ; breeding habits,
367, 368 ; lodges, 368-73 ; dams,
373-79 ; canals, 379-83 ; gene-
ral remarks upon, 368, 377, 379,
383 ; age of their buildings, 384 ;
effects of their buildings on the
configuration of landscapes, 384^
385

Bechstein, on birds dreaming, 313

INDEX.

501

BEE

Bee, mason, 178, 179 ; tapestry, 179 ;
carpenter, 179 ; rose, 179 ; card-
ing, 179, 180

Bees, sense of sight, 143, 144 ; of
smell and hearing, 144 ; of direc-
tion, 144-51; remembering exact
locality of absent hive, 148-49 ;
following floating hives, 149 ;
memory, 151-55; sympathy, 155,
156 ; distances over which they
forage, 150 ; powers of communi-
cation, 156-60; economy of hive,
160-8 ; food and rearing, 160-
163; swarming and battles of
queens, 163, 164; drone-killing,
164-68; plunder and wars, 168-
170; architecture, 170-8; way-
finding, 181, 182 ; instinct of
neuters, 181 ; recognising com-
panions, 183, 184; barricading
doors against moths, 184, 185;
strengthening combs in danger of
falling, 185, 1 86 ; mode of dealing
with surfaces of glass, 186; with
strange hives, 186,187; evacua-
ting fallen hive, 187; ceasing to
store honey in Barbadoes and
California, 187, 188; recognising
persons, 188, 189 ; biting holes in
corollas, 189; ventilating hives,
191, 192 ; covering slugs, &c., with
propolis, 190, 191 ; effects of re-
moving antennae, 197

Beetles, see Coleoj)tera

Belshaw, on cat knocking knockers,
422

Belt, on ants, duration of me-
mory in, 3d, 40 ; sympathy, 48 ;
division of labour, 99 ; ecitons,
114-19 and 138 ; tunnelling
under rails, 1 40 ; on sand- wasp
taking precise bearings to remem-
ber locality, 150, 151 ; struggle
between wasps and ants for secre-
tion of frog-hoppers, 194, 195 ;
intelligence of spiders in protect-
ing themselves from ecitons, 219,
220 ; beetles undermining stick
supporting a dead toad, 228 ; in-
telligence of monkeys, 480

Benedictson, on navigating habits of
Iceland mice, 364, 365

BLA

Bennet, on birds dreaming, 312
Bennett, on conjugal fidelity of

duck, 270, 271
Berkeley, G., on beetle storing its

food, 228, 229
Bettziech-Beta, on termites, 199
Bidie, on suicide of scorpion, 222,

223 ; on reasoning power of cat»

415

Bingley, on intelligence of ants,
133 ; carpenter-bees, 179 ; account
of alleged training of bees, 189 ;
co-operation of beetles, 226, 227 ;
ant-lion, 230, 235; domestication
of toad, 255 ; fascination by snakes,
264 ; sympathy in birds, 272 ;
eccentricity of nest building in-
stinct, 295 ; education of birds,
312; pigs pointing game, 339.
340; intelligence of otter, 346;
memory of elephant. 387 ; vindic-
tiveness of elephant, 387, 389;
elephants enduring surgical opera-
tions, 399, 400

Bird, Miss, on combined action of
crows in obtaining food from dogs,
320

Birds, 266-325 ; memory of, 266-70;
emotions, 270-82; special habits
of procuring food, 283-6 ; of in-
cubation and taking care of off-
spring, 287-310; general intelli-
gence, 310-25 ; dreaming and ima-
gination, 311-12 ; learning to avoid
telegraph wires, 313; recognising
painting of birds, 311 ; submitting
to surgical operation, 313-14;
honey-guide, 315-16; appreciation
of mechanical appliances, 315-16 ;
concerted action, 318-822

Birgus latro, 233

Bison, 334-5

Blackbirds, breaking shells agaiiist
stones, 283 ; removing eggs, 289 ;
mobbing cat, 291

Blackburn, Professor H., on dis-
tances over which bees forage,
150

Blackhouse, R. 0., on dog being

alarmed at a statue, 453
Blackman, on cats learning to beg

for food. 414-15

INDEX.

502

BLA

Black wall, on early display of in-
stincts by spiders, 216
Blanchard. on mason-bee, 178
Blood, on reasoning power of a dog,
464

Boa-constrictor, really a Python,
which see

Bodley, W. H., on dogs crossing a
river to fight undisturbed, 451-2

Bold, on canary singing against own
image in mirror, 276

Bombyx moth, larva of, 238-40

Bonnet, on spider following her
eggs into pit of ant-lion, 205 ; his
experiments on instincts of cater-
pillars, 236 ; observations on ditto,
238

Boobies, plundered by frigate peli-
cans, 284
Bosc, on migrating fish, 248
Bower-bird, instincts of, 279-8L 325
Bo^s-man, Parker, his cat opening

swivel of window, 425
Boys, C. v., his experiments with a

tuning-fork on spiders, 206, 207
Brehm, on wasps recognising per-
sons, 188 ; intelligence of lapwing,
315, 316; curiosity of monkeys,
477

Broderip, on vindictiveness of ele-
phant, 389

Brodie, Sir B., his definition of
instinct, 15 ; on bees strengthen-
ing their corabs, 185, 186

Broift, Herr L., on powers of com-
munication in bees, 160

Brougham, Lord, on hexagonal form
of bees' cells, 172; on intelligence
of a dog, 450

Browi^, Capt., on vindictiveness of a
stork, 277-8

Brown, W., on a cat extinguishing
fire by water, 425

Browne, Dr. Crichton, on cat ring-
ing beU, 423

Browne, Murray, on fox allowing
itself to be extricated from trap,
431

Browning, A. H., on intelligence of a
dog, 450

Brydon, Dr., on collective instinct
of jackals, 434

BUL

Buchanan, Dr., on climbing perch,
249 ; on nidification of baya-bird,

294

Biichner, Professor, on ants: nursing
habits, 59 ; stocking trees with
aphides, 63 ; warfare, 71-9 ; play,
87-88 ; leaf cutting, 95-96 ; in-
telligence in making a bridge of
aphides over tar, 136; cf them-
selves over a space, 136-37; and
of a straw over water, 137 ;
ecitons, 139 ; anatomy and phy-
siology of brain, 141-42. On bees
and wasps : powers of commvmica-
tion, 158-60 ; swarming habits,
168 ; wars and plunder, 169 ; cell-
building, 177-78; evacuating
dangerous hive, 187 ; keeping
hives clean, 1 90 ; carrying dead
from hive and burying them, 191 ;
ventilating hives, 191-92; hornet
and wasp dismembering heavy
prey, and carrying it to an
eminence in order to fly away
with it, 196 ; on termites, 198-
202. On spiders: web- building,
211-12; wolf spider, 213; trap-
door spiders, 217-18; intelligence
of a spider habitually fed by Dr.
Moschkau, 218-19; spiders weight-
ing their webs, 221. On beetles :
co-operation of, 227-28

Buck, E. C, on intelligence of
crocodiles, 263 ; on collective in-
stinct of wolves, 433 ; on combined
action of pelicans, 319

Buckland, F., on pigeon remember-
ing voice of mistress, 266 ; crows
breaking shells by dropping them
on stones, 283 ; birds avoiding
telegraph wires, 313

Buckley, on harvesting ants, 103

Buckton, G. B., on caterpillars,
236

Bufialo, 335-37

Butfon, on hexagonal form of bees'
cells, 171-72 ; association of ideas
in parrot, 269 ; sympathy in ditto,
275 ; goat- sucker removing eggs
289

Biifo ohstetricans, 254
Bull, intelligence of, 338

INDEX.

503

BUR

Burmeister, on powers of communi-
cation in ants, 49

Byron, Lord, lines on alleged
tendency to scorpion to commit
Buicide, 222

pADDIS-WORMS, 240

\J Cairns, Mr. W., on reasoning
power of a dog, 461

Campbell, Mrs. (x. M. F., on in-
telligence of goose, 316

Canary, jealousy of, 276 ; modifica-
tion of incubating instinct in
cage, 287 ; flying against mirror,
311; trained, 312

Canning, J., his dog knowing value
of different coins, 452^ 3

Carassius auratus, 246

Carbonnier, M., on telescope-fish,
246

Carlisle, Bishop of, on congregation
or court held by jackdaws, 324

Carpenter, Dr., on intelligence of
rats, 361

Carreri, Gernelli, on monkeys thrust-
ing stones between oyster- shells
to keep them from closing, 481

Carter, H. J., on apparent intelli-
gence of athealinm, 19; of acti-
nojjhrys and amoeba, 20-1

Carus, Professor, on spiders weight-
ing their webs, 221

Cat, the, 411-25; general remarks
upon, 411-14; emotions of, 412-
13 ; general intelligence of , 413-42 ;
showing zoological discrimination,
414 ; punishing kittens for mis-
behaviour, 414 ; begging for food,
414-15 ; feeding kittens on bread
when milk fails, 415; carrying
kittens to be protected by master,
415; trying to catch image behind
mirror, 416 ; communicating by
signs, 419 ; devices for catching
prey, 417-20; appreciation of
mechanical appliances, 420-25 ;
extinguishing fire by water, 425

vJaterpillars, instinct of assisted by
intelligence, 236-8; migrating,
238-40

CON

Catesby, on co-operation of beetles,

226, 227 ; on frigate- pelican plun

dering boobies, 284
Cattle, fear exhibited by in

slaughterhouses, 334 ; pride of,

334

Cehus fatuellns, observations on in-
telligence of, 484-98

Cecil, H,, on tactics displayed by
hunting wasps, 194

Cephalopoda, intelligence of, 29-30

Cetacea. 327-28

Challenge, mode of, in gulls, 291
Charming of snakes, 264
Chtirojjtera, 341
Chelmvn rostratus, 248
Chimpanzee, play of, 476-77
Chinese swallow, nidification of,
292

Chironectes, 243
Choice, as evidence of mind, 2
Clark, G., on intelligence of a bat,
341

Clark, Rev. H., on harvesting ants,
99 ; on dog recognising portrait,
454-5

Clarville, on co-operation of beetles,
228

Clavigero, on sympathy of pelicans
for wounded companions, 276

Claypole, on intelligence of horse,
331-2

Cnethflcampii pitzocampa, 244
Cobra, sexual affection of, 256 ;

charming, 265 ; inteUigence of,

262

Cock, domestic, killing hen upon
batching out eggs of other birds,

278

Ccelenterata, movements of, and
question concerning their intel-
ligence, 22

CoLeoptera, 226-9 ; co-operation of,
226-8 ; other instances of intel-
ligence, 228-9

Colquhoun, on reasoning power of
a dog, 463-4

Commensalism, between crab and
anemone, and between moUusk
and anemone, 233

Communication, see Co- operation

Concerted action, see Co-operation

504

INDEX.

CON

Coneu, Captain Elliot, on intelli-
gence of wolverine, 348-50

Canilurus cnnstriictitr, 326

Conklin, W. A., on elephants thatch-
ing their backs, 409

Consciousness, as evidence of mind,
2 ; gradual dawn of, 13

Conte, John Le, on reasoning power
of a dog, 460-1

Cook, Capt., on tiee ants, 111 ; in-
telligence of tree-ants, 133

Cook, George, on do^ dragging mat
about to lie upon, 466

Co-operation, of ants, 48-49, 51- 59,
64 et seq. (in making slaves and
waging war), 85-96 ; (in sundrj^
occupations). 96-100; (in harvest-
ing), 108-10, 111-14; (of ap-
parently different species), 114-
122; (of military ants) 127-30,
132-4, 136-40 ; of bees, 159-74 ;
(in general work, wars, and archi-
tecture), 177, 178, 184-6, 190-2;
of termites, 198-203 ; of beetles.
226-8 ; of birds, 318-22 ; of horses
and asses, 333 ; of bison and buf-
falo, 335 ; of pigs, 339 ; of rats,
361, 362 ; of mice, 364 ; of beavers.
367-83 ; of elephants, 401 ; of
foxes, 433 ; of wolves, 433 and 436 ;
of jackals, 432-5 ; of baboons,
483

Corse, on memory of elephant, 386,
387 ; emotions of elephant, 393

Corvus cornice, punishing offenders,
323, 324

Couch, on maternal instinct of hen,
272 ; mode in which guillemots
catch fish, 285 ; mode of escape
practised by swan, 290 ; birds
removing dung from neighbour-
hood of their nests, 290 ; black-
birds mobbing cat, 291 ; niditica-
tion of swan, 296-8 ; crows punish-
ing offenders, 323-4 ; intelligence
of hare, 359 ; cat unlocking door,
424; fox avoiding trap, 428;
catching crabs with tail, 432 ;
mode by which a dog killed crabs,
459

Cowper, on intelligence of hare,
359, 360

DAR

Cox, C, play-houses of bower- birds
presented by him to Sydney Mu-
seum, 280

Crabs, 231-4

Craven, on intelligence of a sow,
340

Crehore, on foxes avoiding traps,
428, 429 ; on dog recognising por-
trait, 453

Cripps, his elephant dying under
emotional d sturbance, 396

Criterion of mind, 4-8

Crocodiles, 263

Crow, Capt. Hugh, on sympathy
shown by monkeys for sick com-
panion, 473, 474

Crows, memor}' of, 266; breaking
shells by dropping them on the
stones, 283 ; punishing offenders,
323-5

Cruelty, of cat, 413

Crustacea. 231-34

Cuckoo, parasitic instincts of, 301-7;
eg-gs of coloured like those of the
bird in whose ne>t they are laid,
307-9 ; American, hOo. 306

Curiosity, of fish, 247; of birds.
278, 279 ; of ruminants and
swine, 335 ; of monkeys. 477

Curlew, niditication of. 292

Cuvier. his orang drawing chair to
stand upon to reach a latch, 481 ;
on birds dreaming, 312

DACE, tamed, 246
Dampier, on frigate-pelicans
plundering boobies, 284 ; on mon-
keys hammering oyster shells with
stones, 481
Daplinia pulex. seeking light, es-
pecially yellow ray, 23
Darwin, Charles on apparent intel-
ligence of worms. 24 ; of oyster,
25 ; of snail. 27 ; Mr. Hague's letter
to, on powers of communication in
ants. 54-7 ; observations on ants
keeping aphides. 60. 61 ; on ants
making slaves, 64, 66, 67 ; com-
munirations of Lincecum to, on
harvesting ants, 103, 107 ; on pro-
portional size of ants' brain. 140 ;
communication of MiiUer ou

INDEX.

505

DAR

powers of communication in bees,
157 ; origin and development of
cell-making instinct, 173-7 ; in-
stincts of neuters, 181 ; quotation
in MS. from Sir B. Brodie on bees
supporting their combs. 185-6 ;
his ' law of battle ' in relation to
spiders, 205 ; intelligence of crab,
233 ; his theory of sexual selec-
tion, 279-82; sense of smell in
vultures, 286; on Wallace's theory
of correlation between colour of
sitting birds and form of their
nests, 299; instincts of cuckoo,
304-6; birds dreaming, 312;
Gauchos taming wild horses, 329;
memory of horse, 330 ; intelligence
of bear, 352 ; of elephant, 398,
402 ; collective instincL of wolves,
436 ; duration of memory in dogs,
438 ; intelligence of Eskimo dogs,
462 ; reason ing of retriever, 463-4 ;
maternal care and grief of mon-
key, 472; sense of ludicrous in
monkeys, 476 ; curiosity and imi-
tativeness of monkeys, 477 ; imi-
tativeness of man, 477-8; intel-
ligent observation displayed by
monkeys, 479, 480

I'^arwin, Erasmus, on bees ceas-
ing to store honey in Barbadoes,
187 ; wasp dismembering tiy to
facilitate carriage. 195; un-
moulted crab guarding moulted,
233 ; crows breaking shells by
dropping them on stones, 283 ;
bird shaking seed out of poppy,
286 ; elephant acting nurse to
younp child, 408

Darwin, F., on bees biting holes
through corollas, 1 89

Davis, on instincts of larvse of bom-
byx moth, 239

Davy, Dr., on instincts of alligators,
256, 257 ; taming cobra, 265 ; per-
forming operation on elephants,
400

Davy, Sir H., on eagles teaching

young to fly, 290
Day, F., on intelligence of fish, 244-

62

Deceitfulness, of elephant, 410 ; of

DZI

dog, 443, 444, 450-52, 457, 458 ;
of monkey, 494
Deer, intelligence of, 336, 338,

339

De Fraviere, on powers of commnni-
cation in bees, 158 ; their scouts,
168

Descartes, his hypothesis of animal

automatism, 6
Dicquemase, on intelligence of

oyster, 25
Dipterous insects, intelligence in

finding way out of a bell- jar, 153,

154; gad-fly, 230; house-fly, 230,

231

Division of labour, see Co- opera-
tion

Dog, ringing bell, 423; knocking
knocker, 423 ; collective instinct
of, 435, 436 ; general remarks on
psychology of, as influenced by
domestication, 437, 438 ; memory
of, 438; emotions of, 438-45;
pride and sensitiveness, 43!>-42 ;
intolerance of pain, 441 ; emula-
tion and jealousy, 442, 443 ; sense
of justice, 443 ; deceitfulness, 443,
444 ; sense of ludicrous and dis-
like of ridicule, 444, 445 ; general
intelligence of. 445-70; communi-
cating ideas, 445-7 ; instances of
reason, 447-69

Doldortf, on climbing perch, 248,
249

Bolomedes fimhriata, 213
Doras, 248

D'Osbonville, on monkeys adminis-
tering corporal chastisement to
their young, 482, 483

Dreaming, of birds, 269, 312 ; of
ferrets, 347

Duchemin, M., on toads killing carp,
254

Duck, conjugal fidelity of, 270,
271 ; conveying young on back,
289

Dugardin, on communication among

ants, 49 ; in bees, 156
Duncan, on cunning of a dog, 461
Dzierzon, on cause determining sex
of bees' eggs, 162 ; bees repairing
aijuries to their cells, 186

506

INDEX.

EAG

EAGLE, plundering instinct of
white-headed, 284 ; teaching
young to fly, 290 ; variations in
nest-building, 299; submitting to
surgical operations, 313, 314
Earwig, 229, 230

Ebrard, on co-operation of ants, 132
Echinodermuta, movements of, 23
Edmonson, Dr., on crows punishing

offenders, 323, 324
Edward, on int- lligence of frogs,

255 ; sympathy of terns for

wounded companion, 274, 275 ;

crows breaking shells by dropping

them on stones, 283 ; co-operation

of turnstones, 321
Edward, H., on honey-making ants,

111-14

Eimer, Dr., on voluntary and in-
voluntary movements of MeduscB,
22, 23

Elephant, general remarks upon, 386;
memory of, 386, 387 ; emotions of,
387-96 ; \'indictiveness, 387-9 ;
sympathy, 389-90; rogue, 393,
394 ; dying under effects of emo-
tion, 395, 396 ; general intelligence
of, 396-410 ; enduring surgical
operations, 399-400 ; vigilance,
401 ; formation of abstract ideas,
401, 402; intelligence of tame de-
coys, 402-6; of tame workers,
306-8; thatching their backs,
308, 309 ; removing leeches, and
fanning away flies, 309, 310 ; con-
cealing theft, 410

Ellendorf, Dr. F., on leaf-cutting
ants, 95, 96 ; on ants making a
bridge, 137

Elhot, on collective instinct of
wolves, 433

Emery, J., on powers of communi-
cation in bees. 1 57

Emulation, of birds, 277 ; of dogs,442

Encyclopaedia Britannica, on bees
following floating hives, 149;
battles of queen-bees, 163, 164 ;
parasitic instincts in birds, 306

Endurance, of pain by wild dogs,
441 ; of surgical operations by
eagle, 313, 314 ; by elephants,
399, 400 i by monkey, 482

FLE

Engelmann, on JDaphniapulexaoelL

ing yellow light, 23
Epeira aurelia, Mr. F. Pollock on
perfection of web built by young,
217

Erb, G. S., on intelligence of deer,

338, 339
Esox lucius, 246

E spinas, on co-operation of ants,
130

FABRE, on instincts of sphex-
wasp, 180, 181
Faister, Mdlle de, her tame weasel,
346

Falcon, variations in nest-building,
299

Faraday, J., on intelligence of skate,
251

Fascination, alleged, by snakes, 263,
264

Fa}Ter, Sir J., on fascination by
and charming of snakes, 264

Fear, in horses, 329 ; in ruminants,
334 ; in rabbits, 355 ; in rats, 360
excited in dogs by portraits,
455-7 ; in monkey by snakes,
477, and by imitation monkey,
495

Ferret, 347

Fire-flies, stuck on nests by baya
birds, 294

Fish, 241-53 ; comparison of brain
with that of invertebrata, 241 ;
emotions, 242-7 ; nidification,
courtship, and care of young,
242-6 ; pugnacity, and social
feelings, 242; anger, 246, 247;
play, jealousy, curiosity, 247 ;
angler, 247, 248 ; jaculator, 248 ;
travelling over land, 248 ; climbing
trees, 248, 249 ; migrations, 249,
250 ; general intelligence, 250-53

Fisher, J. F., on hen removing eggs
with her neck, 288

Fleeson, Captain B., on honey-mak^
ing ants, 111-14

Fleming, W. J., on intelligence of
horse, 330

Fleury, Cardinal, on intelligence of
ants in making bridges, 135

INDEX.

507

FOR

Forbes, on nidification of tailor-
bird, 293

Forbes, James, on monkey begging
for dead body of companion, 472

Forel, on ants ; recognising slaves,
43 ; and fellow-citizens, 44 ;
swarming babits, 58 ; experiment
in rearing together hostile species,
59, 60 ; tunnelling to obtain
aphides, 61 ; warfare, 68-77 ; play,
88 ; intelligence shown in archi-
tecture, 129

Forsteal, on termites, 198

Forster, W., on intelligence of a bull,
338

Fothergill, Percival, on reasoning
power of a dog, 466

Fouillouse, J. de, on intelligence of
hares, 357, 358

Fox, 426-33 ; lyicg in wait for
hares, 426, 427 ; avoiding traps,
427-30 ; allowing itself to be ex-
tricated from trap, 431 ; catching
crabs with tail, 432 ; collective
instinct in hunting, 433

Fox, C, on intelligence of porpoises,
328

Frankland, Mrs., on cock bulltinch
recognising portrait of hen, 311

Franklin, on powers of communi-
cation in ants, 49

Franklin, Dr., on sympathy in
parrots, 276

Frogs, 254, 255

Frost, Dr., on cat sprinkling crumbs
to attract birds, 418, 419

Furniss, J. J., on elephants thatch-
ing their backs, 408, 409

G1 AD-FLY, instinct of, 230
r Gander, see Goose
Gaphaus, H. A., on cat opening

thumb-latch, 421
Gardener, on intelligence of crab, 233
Garraway, Dr., on beetle concealing

its store of food, 229
Gasteropoda, intelligence of, 26-29
Gasterosteus j^ungiiius, 243 ; G.

sjnnachia, 243
Geer, M., on earwig incubating

young, 229
Gelasinnv4, 233

GRO

Gentles, W. Laurie, on intelligence
of a sheep-dog, 448, 449

Geofirey, on pilot tish, 252

Gibbons, tiieir sympathy for suffer-
ing companions, 472, 473

Gleditsch, on beetles undermining
stick supporting a dead toad,
228 ; on spiders weighting their
webs, 221

Glutton. 347-50

Goat, intelligence of, 337, 338

Goat-sucker, removing eggs, 289 ;
nidification of, 292

Goldtinch, tiained, 312

Goldsmith on habits of rooks, 322,
323

Goldsmith, Dr., on intelligence of

otter, 346
Gollitz, Herr, on co-operation of

beetles, 227
Goodbehere, S., on intelligence of a

pony and ass, 332, 333 ; on cun-
ning of sheep-killing dogs, 450;

on dog knowing value of different

coins, 452, 453
Goose, affection and sympathy of,

272, 273 ; removing eggs from

rats, 288 ; noting time, 314 ;

opening latch of gate, 316
Gosse, on commensalism of crab

and anemone, 234
Gould, on bower-bird, 279-81 ; on

humming-birds, 281 ; on tale-

gallus, 294, 295
Graber, Titus, on proportional size

of anfs brain, 141
Grapi^ns st'T.ngosus, 231
Gray, ISir George, on nidification of

talegallus, 295
Gredler, Vincent, on division of

labour among leaf-cutting ants,

99, 100

Green, on intelligence of pigs, 339
Green, Seth, on tactics displayed by

hunting wasps, 193
Griffiths, on intelligence of ele-
phant, 388, 389
Grosbeak, nidification of, 296, 296
Grouse, leaining to avoid telegraph

wires, 312, 313
Groves, J. B., on cat trying to catcb
image behind mirror, 416

508

INDEX.

GUA

Gnana, see Reptiles

Gnerinzius, on wasps recognising

persons, 188
Guillemots, plundering of by gulls,

283, 284 ; mode of catching tish,

285

Gulls, plundering guillemots, 283,
284; mode of challenge. 291;
niditication, 292

Guring, Thomas, on intelligence of
geese, 314, 315

HAGEN, on termites, 198, 202.
Hague, on powers of commu-
nication in ants, 54-7
Hamilton, R., on fear exhibited by

cattle in slaughterhouses, 334
Hancock, Dr., on fish quitting water,
248 ; crows breaking shells by
dropping them on stones, 283
Harding, 8., on intelligence of a

pig, 340
Hare, 357-60

Hartmann, Von, his definition of in-
stinct, 15; on fondness of spiders
for music, 206

Harvesting-ants, 96-110 ; mice, 365,
366

Hawkshaw, J. Clarke, on limpet
remembering locality, 28-9

Hayden, on monkey keeping door
open with blanket, 48'1

Hayes, Dr., on intelligence of Eskimo
dogs, 462

Heber, Bishop, on sympathy of ele-
phant, 289

Helix pomatia, intelligence of, 26, 27

Hevierohius chrysops, 240

Hen, maternal instinct of, 272 ; re-
moving eggs with neck, 288 ; and
young chicken on back, 288, 289

Henderson, on navigating habits of
Iceland mice, 364, 365

Heron, variations in nest-building,
299

Hogg, on intelligence of his sheep-
dog, 448

Holden, on starlings learning to
avoid telegraph wires, 312, 313

Hollmann, on intelligence of octopus,
30

HUG

Hoinarus viarinus, 233

Hooker, Sir Joseph, on navigating

habits of Iceland mice, 364
Hooper, AV. F., on intelligence of a

dog, 463

Horn, Mrs., on reasoning po"^ ers of

a dog, 462
Hornet, carrying heavy prey up an

elevation in order to fly away

with it, 196
Horse, emotions of, 328-30 ; memory,

330; general intelligence, 328,

330-3

Horse-fly, tamed, 230, 231

HorsfaU, on dog finding his way
about by train, 467, 468

Hoste, Sir W., on wounded monkey
showing its blood to the sports-
man, 476

Houzeau, on hen transporting young
chicken on her back, 288, 289;
parrots not being deceived by
mirrors, 3 JO, 311; birds di-eam-
ing, 312 ; mules counting their
journeys, 332 ; monkeys destroy-
ing poison-fangs of snakes, 483

Hubbard, Mrs., on intelligence of a
cat, 414

Huber, F. and P., on instinct, 16. On
ants : sense of smell in, 33 ; recog-
nising companions, 41 ; powers of
communication, 49, 50; observa-
tions on slave-making instinct,
65 ; on warfare, 76 ; play, 87, 88 ;
harvesting, 97 ; carrying one
another, 109 ; intelligence shown
in architecttire, 128, 129. On
bees : sense of hearing in, 144 ;
duration of memory, 155 ; powers
of communication, 156, 159 ;
manipulation and uses of pro-
polis, 161 ; battles of queen-bees,
164, 165; form of cells, 173;
building cells, 177, 178; barri
cading doors against moths, 184 ;
strengthening combs, 185 ; biting
holes in corollas, 189; ventilating
hives, 191, 192 ; effects of remov-
ing antennae of bees, 197

Hudson, on habits of Melathrus^ 309
310.

INDEX.

509

HUM

Humboldt, on instincts of young

turtles, 257
Humming-birds, agsthetic instincts

of, 281

Hutchings, J,, on intelligence of a
cat, 417

Hutchinson, on alleged tendency
of scorpion to commit suicide,
225

Hutchinson, Col., on reasoning power

of a dog, 4C3, 464
Hutchinson, Dr. H. F., on wolf-

spider stalking own image in

mirror, 213
Hutchinson, S. J., on intelligence of

polar Dear. 35 1, 352
Hutton, Mrs., on ants burying their

dead, 91, 92
Hydrargyra, 248
Hyvienojjitera, see Ants and Bees

IBEX, does assisting wounded
buck to escape, 334
Idealism, cannot be refuted by ar-
gument, 6
Ideas, see Association
Imitation, shown by talking birds,

monkeys, and idiots, 477, 478
Instinct, defined and distinguished
from reason and refiex action,
10-17 ; of medusffi, 23 ; of worms,
24 ; of mollusca, 25 ; of ants with
reference to colour, 32, 33 ; to
smell, 33-7 ; to sense of direction,
37-9 ; to recognising friends, 41-
5 ; to swarming, 57, 58 ; to nur-
sing, 58 ; to education, 59, 60 ; to
keeping aphides, 60-4 ; to making
slaves, 64-8 ; to wars, 68-83 ; to
keeping pets, 83, 84 ; to sleep and
cleanliness, 84-7 ; to play and
leisure. 87-9 ; to treatment of
dead, 89-93 ; of leaf -cutting spe-
cies, 93-6 ; of harvesting species,
97-1 10 ; of tree-inhabiting spe-
cies, 110, 111 ; of honey- making
species, 111-14; of ecitons, 114-
22 ; of driver and marching
species, 121- 2 ; of bees and wasps,
with reference to colour, 143-4 ;
to sense of direction, 144-51 ; to

JEN

food-collecting and wax-making,
160-2 ; to propagation, 162-8; of
queens, 162-5 ; of killing drones,
165-8 ; with reference to wars,
169, 170; to architecture, 170-
80; of sphex-wasp, 180, 181: of
termites, 198-203 ; of spiders,
204-18 ; of scorpion, 222-5 ; of
beetles, 226-9; of earwig, 229,
230 ; of flies, 230, 231 ; of crus-
tacea, 231, 232 ; of larvae, 234-
40 ; of fish, 242-53 ; of batra-
chians, 254 ; of reptiles, 256-9 ;
of birds, with reference to pro-
curing food, 283-7 ; to incuba-
tion, 287-91 ; to nidification,
291-301; of cuckoo, 301-10; of
marsupials, 320 ; of whale, 327 ;
of ruminants, 335 ; of swine. 339 ;
of bats, 341 ; of seals, 341-8 ; of
wolverine, 348-50 ; of rodents,
353, 354 ; of rabbit, 354-7 ; of
bare, 354-9 ; of rats, 360 ; of
mice, 364-5 ; of rat -hare, 365,
366 ; of beaver, mixed with intel-
ligence, 367 ; with reference to
propagation and lodges, 367-71 ;
to procuring food, 371-3; to
dams, 373-80 ; to canals, 380-4 ;
of cat, 411-12 ; of dog, 437, 438 ;
of monkey, 471

JACKAL, 426; collective instinct
in hunting, 432-35
Jackdaw, gesticulating signs made
by, 316 ; congregation for court
held by, 324
Jacob, Sir G. liC Grand, on crows
punishing offender, 324-5 ; ibexes
assisting wounded mate to es-
cape, 334
Japp, on dog spontaneously learn-
ing use of coin, 452
Jealousy, of fish, 242; of birds,
276-7 ; of horse, 329, 330 ; of
dogs, 442, 443 ; of monkey, 493
Jenkins, H. L., on formation of
abstract ideas by elephants, 401,
402

Jenner, on instinct of young cuckoo,
301-4

510

INDEX.

JEB

Jerdon, Dr., on harvesting-ants, 97 ;
on birds dreaming, 312

Jervoise, Sir J. C, on bee biting
liole in a corolla, 189 ; on com-
bined action of rooks in obtaining
food from pheasants, 321

Jesse, on intelligence of bees in
adapting their combs to smooth
surface, 186; spider protecting
eggs from cold, 219 ; tame house-
fly, 230, 231 ; affection of male
for female pike, 246 ; attachment
between alligator and cat, 258,
259 ; conjugal fidelity of swan,
and pigeon, 271 ; sympathy of
rooks, 273, 274; lapwing stamp-
ing on ground to make worms
rise, 285 ; goose removing eggs
from rats, 288; birds removing
dung from neighbourhood of their
nests, 290 ; swallows killing and
imprisoning hostile sparrows, 318,
319 ; kangaroo throwing young
from pouch when pursued, 326,
327 ; stag shaking berries from
trees, and manifesting intelligence
in escaping from dogs, 336 ; in-
telligence of buffalo, 336, 337;
intelligence of rats, 360-2 ; of
elephants, 398 ; collective instinct
of foxes, 433 ; wounded monkey
showing its blood to the sports-
man, 476

Jilson, Professor, on habits of the
'prairie-dog,' 366

John, St., on intelligence of fox, 426,
427 ; idea of caste in dog, 442

Johnson, on termites, 198 ; on orang-
outangs removing their dead com-
panions, 472

Johnson, Capt., on wounded monkey
showing its blood to the sports-
man, 475

Johnson, Dr., his definition of
reason, 14

KANGAROO, throwing young
from pouch when pursued,
326, 327
Kaup, on fish, 246

LAY

Kemp, Dr. L., on battles of queeb
bees, 164; robber bees, 170; o»
intelligence of decoy elephants,
402

Kent, Saville, on intelligence of
porpoises, 327, 328

Kesteven,Dr. W.H., on cat knocking
knocker, 424

Kingfisher, niditication of, 292

Kir by, on water-spider, 212; shore
crabs, 232 ; migration of salmon,
249, 250 ; intelligence of carp, 250

Kirby and Spence, on powers of
communication in ants, 49 ; sense
of direction in bees, 148 ; hex-
agonal form of bees' cells, 172;
ceasing to store honey in tropics,
188 ; co-operation of beetles, 226 ;
caterpillars, 236, and 238, 239

Klein, Dr., on intelligence of a cat,
418, 419

Kleine, Herr, on behaviour of bees
when rinding empty combs sub-
stituted for full ones, 186, 187

Klingelhoffer, Herr, on co-operatioB
of beetles, 227-8

K5nig, on termites, 198

Kreplin, Herr H., on ecitons, 139

r ABB US, 247

LacepMe, on fish coming tc
sound of bell, &c., 250

Lacerta iguana, 255

Lagomys, provident habits of, 365

Landois, on powers of communica-
tion in bees, 158

Langshaf t, on bees recognising hive
companions, 183 ; on robber bees,
183-4

Lapwing, stamping on ground to
make worms rise, 285 ; intelligence
of, 315, 316

Larvaj, of insects, intelligence of,
234-40

Latreille, on an's, sympathy of, 47
Lauriston, Baron, on sympathy of

elephant, 390
Layard, Consul, on intelligence of

cobra, 262 ; on niditication of

baya-bird, 294 ; or cat pulling

bell-wire. 424

INDEX.

511

Lee, Mrs,, on intelligence of robin,
314 ; of goats, 337 ; of rats, 361 ;
on vindictiveness of elephant, 389

Leeches, apparent intelligence of,
24

Lefroy, Lieut- Gen, Sir John, on
terrier communicating wants by
signs, 446

Lehr, Herr H., on bees draining
their hive, 190

fjeroy, C. G., on nidifi cation of birds,
300 ; on migration, 301 ; on col-
lective instinct of wolves, 436

Lespes, on ants , slave-making in-
stinct, 65, 66 ; warfare. 68, 69 ;
division of labour, 98, 99 : on
termites, 198

Leuckart, Prof., on intelligence of
ants in surmounting obstacles,
136

Lever, Sir Ashton, his experiment
on eccentricity of nest-building
instinct, 295

Limpet, remembering locality, 28,
29

Lincecum, Dr., on harvesting ants,
97 and 103-7 ; carrying one an-
other, 109

Lindsay, Dr. L., on birds dreaming,
312

Linnaeus, on swallows imprisoning

sparrows, 318
Linnet, intelligence of in not flying

against mirror, 311 ; trained, 312
Liparis chrysorrhaca, 238
Livingstone, Dr., on certain ants of

Africa, 110; honey-guide, 315;

intelligence of buffalo, 335, 336 ;

reasoning power of dog, 457
Lobster, 233

Lockman, J., on fondness of pigeon
for a particular air of music, 282

Lonsdale, on intelligence of snails,
27

Loj)hius piscator, 247-8
Lophobranchiate fish, incubating

eggs in mouth, 245-6
Loudoun's • Magazine of Natural

History,' quotations from, 357
Love-bird, conjugal affection of,

270

Lowenfels, Herr H., on a wasp dis-

m'co

membering a fly to facilitate car-
riage, 196.

Lubbock, Sir John, on ants : sense
of sight in, 32 ; of hearing, 33 ;
of smell, 33-7 ; of direction, 37-
8 ; recognising companions and
nest-mates, 41-3 and 44-5 ; defi-
ciency of affection and sympathy,
45-7 ; powers of communication,
50-3 ; collecting hatching eggs
of aphides, 61-2 ; keeping pets,
84 ; general intelligence, 123-8.
On bees and wasps : sense of sight
in, 143 ; of smell and hearing,
144 ; of direction, 144-8 ; me-
mory, 151-4; taming wasps, 153;
experiment on comparative in-
telligence of wasp and fly in find-
ing way out of a bell-jar, 153-4;
experiments to test sympathy,
155-6; way-finding, 181-3; re-
cognising one another, 183-4.
On co-operation of beetles, 226.

Ludicrous, sense of, in dogs, 444-5 ;
in monkeys, 476, 485, 487, and
490

Lukis, F, C, on limpet remember-
ing locality, 29

MACLACHLAN, on caddis- worms,
244

MacLaurin, on mathematical prin-
ciples observed by bees in con-
structing their cells, 171

Maci'opodos, 244

Malcolm, Sir James, on sympathy
shown by monkey, 474-5

Malle, Dureau de la, on dog knock-
ing knocker, 423-4 ; coUectivl
instinct of dogs, 435-6

Mammals, 326-498

Mann, Mr. and Mrs., their tame
.snakes, 256, 260-2

Mansfield, nest of fish, 242-43

Marsupials, 326-7

Martin, nidification of house, 292;
of land, 292

Martin, John, on reasoning power
of cat, 415

M'Cook, the Rev. Dr., on ants : re-
cognising fellow-citizens, 44; feed.

512

INDEX.

m'cr

ing comrades with aphides- secre-
tion, 63-4 ; keeping cocci and
caterpillars, 64 ; warfare, 78,
81-3; sleep and cleanliness, 84-
87 ; play, 88 ; funeral habits, 89-
91 ; agricultural, 97, 103-10 ;
modes of mining. 108; swarming
habits of agriculturals, 108-9 ;
carrying one another, 109-10 ;
removing nest from shade of tree,
131 ; cutting leaves from shading;
tree, 131-2; co-operation in cut-
ting grass, 132

M'Cready, on larva of Afedu see suck-
ing nutriment from parent, 34

Meek, his cat trying to catch image
behind mirror, 415-16

Meenan, on a wasp carrying heavy
prey up an elevation in order to
fly away with it, 197

Melatierjjes formicivorus, 285

Melia tessdlata, 233-4

Melipona domestica, form of its
ceils, 173-6

Meloihrus, 309-10

Memory, of moUusca, 25-9 ; of
ants, 39-45; of bees, 151-5; of
beetles and earwig, 226-30; of
batrachians, 255 ; of reptiles,
259 et seq. ; of birds, 266-70 ; of
horse, 330 ; of elephant, 386-7 ;
of dog, 438 ; of monkey, 497

Menault, on eagle submitting to
surgical operation, 313-14; on
mason bee, 178-9

Merian, Madame, on ants of visita-
tion, 130 ; mygale spider eating
humming-birds, 208

Merrell, Dr., on instinct of American
cuckoo, 305-6

Mice, 360-4

Migration, of caterpillars, 238 ; of
crabs, 232; of flsh, 248-50; of
reptiles, 257-8; of birds, 266 ;
of mammals, 341-60, and 368

Mild may, Sir Henry, on pigs learn-
ing to point game, 339-40

Mill, John S., on instinct of cruelty
in man, 413

Miller, Prof., calculations regard-
ing form of bee's cell, 173

Uind, subjec?iive and objective

HON

analysis of, 1 ; evidence of, 2 ;
criterion of, 4-8

Mischievousness, fondness of. shown
by monkeys, 485 et seq.

Mitchell, on fish removing eggs
from disturbed nest, 251

Mitchell, Major, on habits of Comv
lurus constructor^ 326

Mivart, on instincts of sphex-
wasps, 181

Mobbing instinct in birds, 291

Mobius, Prof., on commensalism
between crab and anemone, 233

Moggridge, on ants : S3'mpathy of,
48; suggestion to Mr. Hague, 56;
warfare of, 79-81 ; keeping pets,
83; harvesting, 97-8 and 100-
2 ; division of labour, 98 ; har-
vesters using burrows made by
elater, 130; intelligent adapta-
tion to artiricial conditions, 130 ;
co-operation in cutting grass, &c.,
133. On trap-door spiders cover-
ing trap-doors with moss, &c.,
214-15; making trap-door at ex-
posed end of accidentally inverted
tube, 215-216; perfection of
dwellines built by young spiders,
216-17 ; manner in which instinct
of making trap-doors probably
arose, 217-18

MoUusca, intelligence of, 25-30

Monboddo, Lord, on snake finding
way home, 262

Monkeys, 471-98 ; general remarks
on psychology of, 471 and 497-
98; emotions of, 471-8; affec-
tion and sympathy, 471-5 ;
reproach, 475-6 ; ludicrous, 476,
485, 487, 490; play, 476-77;
curiosity, 477 ; imitation, 477 ;
rage, jealousy, and revenge, 478 ;
memory of, 497 ; general intelli-
gence of, 478; behaviour with
mirror, 478-9 and 495-6 ; pick-
ing shells off eggs, and taking
care not to be stung by wasps in
paper, 479 ; intelligence of Mr.
Belt's, 480 ; disentang-ling chains,
480 and 486 8; raking in objects
with sticks or cloths, 480 and
486 ; drawing chair to stand utxDn.

IKDEX.

513

MOR

481 ; using levers, 481 and 492 ;
using hammers, 481 and 485 ;
divining principle of screw, 490-
91 ; keeping door open, with
blanket, 481-2; allowing tooth
to be drawn, 482 ; punishing
young, 482 -3 ; destroying snake's
fangs, 483 ; concerted action, 483;
love of mischief, 485 et seq.',
throwing things in rage, 485 et
geq. ', pushing slab to which tied,
484-7 ; capricious attachments and
dislikes, 484 et seq. ; tryin'jf to
unlock a box, 492 ; playing with
fire, 493-4 ; expression of emo-
tions, 494-5 ; dread of imitation
monkey, 495

Morgan, L. A., on spider convey-
ing insect to larder, 220

Morgan, L. H., on the beaver, 367-
83

Moschkau, Dr., on intelligence
shown by a spider which he
habitually fed, 218-19

Moseley, Lewin, performing opera-
tion on a monkey, 482

Moseley, Prof., on intelligence of
crabs, 231-2

Mossman, Rev. J. W., on wasps
coming out of small aperture
backwards, 192-3

Mule, alleged counting by, 332 ;
intelligence of, 333-4

Miiller, Adolph, on instinct of
cuckoo, 306-7

Miiller, F., on powers of communi-
cation in bees, 157 ; on termites,
198 and 201

Murray, S., intelligence of his dog,
450

Music, fondness of spiders for, 205-
7 ; of parrots and pigeon, 282

Mygdle spider eating humming-
birds, 208

Myrionphyllum spioatnm, 243

Myrmeleon /ormicanum, 234-5

NADAULT, Madame, the associa-
tion of ideas shown by her
parrot, 269
Napier, Commander, on pigeon

ORT

making .a horse shake oats from

nose-bag, 317
Napier, Lady, recollection in parrot,

269, 270 ; emulation in parrot,

276; 277
Nest, see Nidification
Newall, R. S., on wasp dividing

caterpillar to facilitate carriage,

195, 196

Newbury, on absence of beaver

dams in California, 370, 371
Newton, Professor A., on instincts

of cuckoo, 306-9
Nichols, W. W., on intelligence of

pigeons, 317
Nicols, A., on reasoning power of a

retriever, 464, 465
Alcrojjhorus, 228

Nidification, of crustacean, 232,
233 ; of fish, 242-5 ; of birds, 291
-301 ; petrels and puffins, 291 , 292 ;
auks, curlew, goatsucker, ostrich,
gulls, sandpipers, plovers, king-
fisher, Chinese swallow, house-
martin, 292; tomtit, woodpecker,
starling, weaver, 293 ; baya, tale-
gailus, 294; grosbeak, 295, 296;
swan, 296-8 ; Wallace's theories
concerning, 298, 299 ; variability
of 299-301 ; of harvesting mice.
365

Nipher, Professor, on intelligence

of a mule, 333, 334
Noctua Erviiigii, 238
Noctura verbasci, 236
North, the Rev, W., on intelligence of

mice, 361, 362
Nottebohm, Herr, on ants stocking

trees with aphides, 63

OBSTETRIC-FISH, 246 ; toad, 254
Octopus, intelligence of, 29, 30
(Ecypoda ippeus, 231
Oldham, A., on jealousy in dog,
442, 443

Orang-outang, removing dead com-
panions, 472 ; sense of humour in,
473 ; drawing chair to stand upon
to reach high places, 481

Ortlwtflmus, 293

INDEX.

OST

Ostrich, conjugal affection of, 270;

nidification, 292
Otter, 346

Oyster, intelligence of, 25

PALLAS, on provident habits of
Lagomys, 365
Parrot, memory of, 267-9 ; recollec-
tion, 269, 270 ; talking, &c., 267-
70 ; sympathy, 276, 276 ; exulta-
tion on baffling imitative powers
of master, 277 ; vindictiveness,
277 ; fondness of music, 282 ;
difficult to deceive by mirrors,
810, 311

Parry, Captain, on instincts of wild
swan, 297

Partridge, removing eggs, 289

Peach, C. W., on dog recognising
portrait, 453, 454

Peal, G. E., on elephants remov-
ing leeches and fanning away
flies, 409, 410

Pearson, Colonel, the reasoning
power of his dog, 466, 467

Peeweet, see Lapwing.

Pelicans, sympathy of for wounded
companions, 275 ; frigate, 284 :
combined action of in fishing,
319

Penky, the Rev. Mr., on reasoning

power of a dog, 466, 467
Pennant, on navigating habits of

Iceland mice, 364
Pennent, on domestication of toad,

255 ; on fascination by rattle-
snake, 263
Perca scandens, 248, 249
Perception, 9
Perch, climbing, 248, 249
Percival, Dr., on cock killing hen

when she hatched out eggs of

partridge, 278
Petrels, nidification of, 291, 292
Philhps, J., his portrait-painting

recognised by a dog, 454
Picton, Mrs. E., on sensitiveness of

a terrier, 440, 441
PieHs rapes, 236

Pigeon, memory of, 266 ; con-
jugal affection and fidelity, 270,

PRI

271 ; fondness for a particular
air of music, 282 ; intelligence in
avoiding turtles, 317 ; in making
horse shake oats from nose-bag
317
Pigs, 339-41

Pike, affection of male for female,

246

Pilot-fish, 251, 252
Pinnipeds, breeding habits of, 342
346

Pipe-fish, 246

Piracy, instinct of, in birds, 283,

284, 301-7
Pisces, see Fish

Play, of ants, 87, 89 ; of fish, 242 ; of
birds, 279 ; of porpoise, 327, 328 ;
of dogs, 445 ; of monkeys, 476, 477

Pliny, on ants burying their dead,
91 ; sexual affection of snakes,
256 ; on intelligence of elephant,
386 ; on memory of elephant, 387

Plocens textor, 293

Plover, see Lapwing ; nidification of,
292

Plutarch, on intelligence of elephant,

386

Podocerus cajnliata, 332

Polar bear, 352, 353

Polecat, curious instinct of, 347

PoHstes carnifex, taking precise

bearings to remember locality,

1.50, 151

PoUstes Gallica, tamed by Sir John
Lubbock, 153 ; robber, 169

Pollock, F., on perfection of webs
built by young spiders, 217

Pollock, \V., on association of ideas
in pairot, 269

Polydectes cupulifer, 233

Pope, on instinct and reason, 15

Porpoise, intelligence of, 327, 328

Portraits, recognised by birds, 311 ;
by dogs, 453-7

Pouchet, on improvement in nidifica-
tion of swallows, 300, 301

Powelsen, on navigating habits of
Iceland mice, 364

Prairie dog, 366

Pride, of birds, 279 ; of horse, 330 j
of ruminants, 334 ; of dog, 439-
42

INDEX.

515

FRI

Prinia, 293

Protozoa, movements of, 18 ; appa-
rent intelligence of, 19-21

Provident instincts, of ants, 97-110 ;
of bees, 160-162 ; of a bird, 285 ;
of rodents, 353, 354, and 365, 366 ;
of beaver, 368-70

Puflins, nidification of, 291, 292

Pugnacity, of ants, 45 ; of bees, 165-
70; of spiders, 204-5; of fish,
242 ; of seal, 341-6 ; of rabbits,
355 ; of rat-hare, 365, 366 ; of
canine animals, 426

Python, tame, affection of, &c., 256
and 260-2

QUARTERLY REVIEW, on in-
telligence of rats, 360, 361
Quatrefages, on termites, 198

RABBIT, 354-7
Rabigot, on fondness of spiders
for music, 206
Bae, Dr. John, on intelligence of
horse, 331 ; of wolverine, 348 ; of
wolves and foxes, 429, 430 ; of
dog, 465, 466
Rae, on dog ringing bell, 423
Ransom, Dr., on sticklebacks, 245
Rarey, his method of taming horses,

328, 329
Rats, 360-3

Rattlesnake, alleged fascination by,
263

Ravens, breaking shells by dropping
them on stones, 283

Razor-fish, intelligence of, 25

Reason, definition of, and distin-
guished from instinct, 13-17 ; ex-
hibitions of, by various animals,
ftee under sections headed ' general
intelligence '

Reaumur, on intelligence of ants,
128 ; sympathy of bees, 156 ;
carpenter-bee, 179 ; encasing snail
with propolis, 190; conveying
carrion out of hive, 191 ; experi-
ments on instincts of caterpillars,
237 ; on larvae chasing aphides,
S40

34

BOO

Reclain, Professor C, on spider de-
scending to violin-player, 205,

206

Recognition of persons, by bees,
188 ; by snakes and tortoises,
269-61 : of places, by moUusca,
27-9 ; hy ants, 33 et seq, ; by bees,
144 et seq. : of offspring, by ear-
wig, 229 : of portraits, see Birds
and Dogs : of other members of a
hive by ants and bees, see Ants
and Bees

Reeks, H., on collective instinct of
wolves, 436

Reflex action, 2-4

Reid, Dr., on mathematical princi-
ples observed by bees in con-
structing their cells, 171

Rengger, on maternal care and grief
of a cebus, 472 ; monke\'s dis-
playing intelligent observation,
479 ; using levers, 481

Reproach, shown by gestures of
monkeys 475-478

Reptiles, 255-265 ; emotions of, 255,
256. and 260-2; incubating eggs,
sexual and parental affection of,
256 ; general intelligence of, 256-
263 ; fascination by, 263, 264 ;
charming of, 264, 265

Reyne, his observations on snake-
charming, 264, 265

Rhizopoda, apparent intelligence of,
19-21

Richards, Captain, on pilot-fish,
252

Richardson, Mrs. A. S.H., on elephant
concealing theft, 410; on dog
finding its way home by train,
468, 469

Ridicule, dislike of, by dogs and

monkeys, see Ludicrous
Risso, M., on habits of pipe-fish,

246

Robertson, Professor G. Groom, on
behaviour of an ape with a mirror,
478, 479

Robin, intelligence of, 314

Rodents, 353

Rodwell, on intelligence of rate^
360-2

Rogue-elephants, see Elephant

516

INDEX.

BOM

Romanes, Miss C, on dog recognis-
ing portrait, 455, 456 ; on intelli-
genf'e of cebus, 484-95

Romanes, G. J., on movements of
rotifer, 18, 19; of medusoe, 22;
of echinodermata, 23 ; emotinr s of
stickleback, 246, 247 : pira y of
terns and gulls, 283-4 ; iKode
of challenge practised by gulls,
291 ; birds deceived by mirrors,
311; grouse learning to avoid
telegraph wires, 313 ; intelligence
of horse, 830; intelligence of
ferrets, 347 ; instincts of rabbits,
354 ; intelligence of rabbits, 354,
355 ; rabbits fighting rats, 355 ;
drawing dead companions out of
holes, 356, 357 ; intelligence of
hare, 357 ; hares and rabbits allow-
ing themselves to be caught by
weasels, 359 ; rats using their tails
for feeding purposes, 363 ; cat
opening thumb-latch, 420, 421 ;
collective instinct of jackals,
434, 435 ; of dogs, 435 ; duration
of memory in dog, 438 ; pride and
sensitiveness in dog, 439, 440 ;
intolerance of dog towards pain,
441 ; emulation and jealousy in
dog, 442 ; deceitf ulness and dis-
like of ridicule in dog, 444 ; sense
of ludicrous in dog, 444, 445 ;
dogs communicating ideas. 445,
446 ; dogs slipping into their
collars to conceal their sheep-
killing, &c., 435 and 450, 451 ;
dog recognising portrait, 456, 457 ;
reasoning of dog, 457,458: caution
of a dog in killing snakes, 460 ;
sympathy of an Arabian baboon,
47 4 ; sense of ludicrous and dislike
of ridicule in monkey, 476 ; in-
telligence of Cehis fatuellus, 484-
98

Rooks, sympathy of, for wounded
companions, 273, 274 ; concerted
action of, in obtaining food from
dogs, 319, 320 ; from pheasants,
321 ; nesting habits and punish-
ment of culprits, 322-5

Rotifer a, movements of, 18

Ruminants, 334

SIE

Russell, Lord Arthur, witnessiiig
tameness of snakes, 261

5 AG ART! A parasitica, 234
Salmon, migration of, 249, 250
Salticus scenicns, 213
Sandpipers, nidification of, 292
Sarda. seeking light, 23
Saunders, S. S., on trap-door spi-
ders, 215

Savage, on plav of chimpanzees, •
476, 477

Schiller, on pride of bell- wether

steers, 334

Schipp, Lieut., on combined action
of baboons, 483

Gchlosser, on jaculator-fish, 248

Schliiter, Herr A., on a hornet carry-
ing heavy prey up an elevation in
order to fly away with it, 196

Schneider, on intelligence of octojmSy
29, 30 ; on fish guarding eggs,
242 ; jealousy of fish, 247

Sclater, Dr., on instincts of cuckoo
325 ; lending a cebus for observa
tion, 483

Scoresby, on maternal affection

of whale, 327 ; on intelligence of

polar bear, 351
Scorpion, alleged suicide of, when

surrounded by fire or heat, 222-

25

Sea-anemones, 233, 234

Seals, intelligence of, and breeding.

habits of pinnipeds, 341-6
Seebohm, on instincts of cuckoo,

325

SemnojAtheciis entelhis, destroying

poison fangs of snakes, 483
Sensation, 8

Severn, H. A., on nidification of

baya-bird, 294
Severn, W., on snakes, 260, 261
Sheep, pride of leaders, 334
Shelley, lines on curiosity of fish,

247

Shipp, Capt., on vindictiveness of
elephant, 387, 388 ; on intelligence
of elephant, 397, 398
Siebold, on robber- wasps, 169
Sieur, Roman, his trained birds, 313

INDEX.

517

SIG

Signs, made by ants, id et seg.', by
bees, 157 et seq. ; by termites, 200 ;
by birds, 315, 316 ; by elephants,
891 and 401; by cat, 416; by
dcg, 145-7 ; by monkey, 472, 475,
476

Simiadffi, tee Monkeys

Simonius, on fondness of spiders for

music, 206
Sinclair, W., on intelligence of horse,

33

Skate, supposed intelligence of, 251

Skinner, Major, on intelligent vigi-
lance of elephants, 400, 401 ; on
training of cobra, 265

Slingsby, his experiment in train-
ing a house-fly, 230, 231

Smeathman, on termites, 198-203

Smeaton, Th. D., on dog making
peace-offerings. 452

Smiles, Dr. S., on observation of
Stephenson, 247; on observations
of Edward, 255, 275, 283, 321

Smith, A. P., on intelligence of a
cat, 414

Smith, Colonel, on pilot-fish, 252

Smith, Colonel Hamilton, on intelli-
gence of cattle-dogs, 449

Smith, Sir Andrew, on revenge of a
baboon, 478

Snails, intelligence of, 26-28

Snakes, incubating eggs, sexual and
parental affection of, 256 ; tamed,
256, 260-3, 265; finding way
home, 262 ; intelligence of, 262-
3; fascination by, 263-4 ; charm-
ing of, 264-5

Social feelings, see Sympathy and
Affection; habits common to Hy-
menoptera and termites, 202

Sow, pointing game, 339, 340

Sparman, on termites, 1 98

Spencer, Herbert, on migration of
salmon, 249 ; on play as allied to
artistic feeling, 279

Sphex, %ee under Wagp

Bpiders, emotions of, 204-7 ; court-
ship, 204, 205 ; strength of
maternal instinct, 205 ; fondness
of music, 205-7 ; web-building,
207-12; geometric, 209; water,
212; wolf or vagrant, 213; trap-

SYK

door, 213-18 ; admit of being

tamed and distinguish persons,
218-19 ; protecting eggs from
cold, 219 ; protecting themselves
from ecitons, 219; conveying prey
to larder, 220 ; suspending w^eights
to steady web, 220-2; wide
geographical range of trap-door
spiders, 216

Stag, intelligence of, 336

Starlings, nidification of, 293 ; learn-
ing to avoid telegraph-wires, 312-
13

Stephenson, on curiosity of fish, 247
Stevens, J. G., on intelligence of a

cat, 417-18
Sticklebacks, 243-5, 246-7
Stickney, on bees remembering in

successive year^he position of a

disused hive, 154
Stodmann, on wasps recognising

persons, 188
Stone, on reasoning power of a dog,

460

Stork, vindictiveness of, 277-8

Strachan, on elephants dying under
emotional disturbance, 395-6

Strange, F., on habits of bower-
bird, 281

Strauss, on co-operation of beetles

Street, J., on blackbirds removing
their young, 289

Strickland, on intelligence of a
mare, 332

Swainson, on vindictiveness of ele-
phant, 389

Swallows, memory of, 266 ; improve-
ment in their nidification and
adopting new modes of, 300 ;
migration, 301 ; making tunnels,
318 ; killing imprisoned hostile
sparrows, 318-19

Swan, conjugal fidelity of, 271 ;
mode of escaping with young,
290; nidification, 496-8

Swine, 339-41

Sword-fish, 252-3

Sykes, Colonel, on harvesting ants, 97:
on tree ants, 110-11 ; intelligence
of ants in getting at food in diffi-
cult situations, 134, 135 ; on nidi
fication of tailor-bird, 293

518

INDEX.

STL

Sylvia, 293

Sympathy, of ants, 46-9 ; of bees,
155-6; of fish, 242; of birds,
270-6; of horse, 831-2; of ni-
minants, 334 ; of elephants, 387-
92, and 397, 398 ; of cat, 416 ; of
monkeys, 471-5

TAIT, LAWS ON, on cat signing to
have bell pulled, 423
Talegalliis, niditication of, 294
Taylor, the Rev. Mr., cunning of his
dog, 451

Tegetmeier, on amount of sugar re-
quired by bees to make honev,
176

Telescope-fish, 246

Tennent, Sir E., on apparent intel-
ligence of land-leeches, 24 ; in-
telligence of tree-ants, 134 ; my-
gale eating humming birds, 208 ;
climbing-perch, 249 ; sexual affec-
tion of cobra, 246 : snake-charm-
ing, 264, 265 ; taming of cobra,
265 ; niditication of baya-bird.
294 ; combined action of crows,
319, 320 ; of biiffaloes, 335 ; use
of tame buffalo, 335 ; on emotions
and intelligence of elephant, 389,
390, 393-6, 400-8; collective in-
stinct of jackals, 432, 433

Tepper, Mr. Otto, on intelligence of
a cat, 424

Termites, 198-203 ; architecture,
198, 199, and 201, 202; workers
and soldiers, 200, 201 ; swarming,
breeding, &c., 202 ; remarkable
similarity of instincts io those of
Hymenoptera, 202 ; instincts de
trimental to individual but bene-
ficial to species, 202, 203

Terns, sympathy of, for wounded
companions, 274, 275 ; robber,
284 ; mobbing robber-terns, 291

The da isocrates, 238

Theuerkauf , Herr G., on intelligence
of ants in making a bridge of
aphides over tar, 136

Thompson, E. P., on bees remem-
bering exact position of absent
hive, 149; on garden-spider's

VIL

mode of web- building, 210, 211;
ant-lion, 234, 235; emotions of
guana, 255, 256 ; fascination by
snakes, 264 ; nidification of soci-
able grosbeak, 295, 296 ; birds
dreaming, 312; maternal affec-
tion of whale, 327; bisons de-
fending themselves from wolves,
334, 335 ; pigs defending them-
selves from wolves, 339 ; cleanli-
ness of pig, 340, 341 ; intelligence
of weasel, 346 ; of mouse, 361 ;
harvesting- mice, 365, 366

Thomson, Dr. Allen, on scorpions
committing suicide, 223-5

Thornton, Colonel, his sow trained
to point game. 340

Thresher- fish, 252, 253

Thrushes, breaking shells against
stones, 283

Timea, 237

Toads, 254, 255

Tomtit, nidification of, 293

Topham, Dr. J., on spiders weight-
ing their webs, 222

Topham, Mr. J., on bees remember-
ing exact position of absent hive,
149

Tortoises, knowing persons, 259
Townsend, the Rev. W., on elephant
concealing theft, 410 ; on dog
finding its way about by train,
468-9

Truro, Lord, on intelligence of a dog,
450

Turner, George, on bees remembering
exact position of absent hive, 149
Turnstones, intelligence of, 321
Turtles, 257, 258, and 262

T'^^AILLANT, Le, on fascination by
> tree-snake, 263, 264

Valiant, L., on nidification of soci-
able grosbeak, 296

Venn, on association of ideas in
parrot, 267, 268

Vigot, Dr., on snake finding way
home, 262

Villiers, De, on instincts of larvae of
bombyx moth, 240

INDEX.

519

vnr

Vindictiveness, of birds, 277, 278,
and 318-25 ; of horse, 330, 331 ;
of elephant, 387-9 ; of monkeys,
478, and 484-96

Virchow, on difficulty of distinguish-
ing between instinct and reason,
12

Vogt, Karl, on duration of memory
in ants, 41 ; bridge-making, 136

Vultures, finding carrion by sight
'and not by smell, 286, 287 ; intel-
ligence, 314

WAFER, on monkeys hammering
oyster-shells with stones, 481
Wakefield, P., on intelligence of

goats, 337, 338
Wallace, A. R., on philosophy of

birds'-nests, 298-300
Warden, on frogs going straight to

nearest water, 254
Wasp-mason, 180 ; butcher, 180, 181 ;
sphex. 181; hunting, 193, 194;
common, tamed by Sir John Lub-
bock, 153
Wasps, sense of direction in, 147 ;
teaching themselves, 154 ; killing
larvae, 167, 168 ; making cells,
180; instincts of neuters, 181;
recognising persons, 188 ; coming
out of small aperture backwards,
192, 193 ; struggles with ants for
secretion of frog-hoppers, 194,
195 ; dismembering hea\7' prey
for convenience of carriage, and
mounting eminences for same pur-
pose, 196, 197
vVasser, on nidification of puflfins,
291

Waterhouse, on hexagonal form of

beels cell, 173
Water-rail, its mode of escape, 289
Waterton, on nidification of swan,

295, 296

Watson, on spiders weighting their
webs, 221 ; cock killing hen on
her hatching out eggs of other
birds, 278; intelligence of rats,
360-62 ; vindictiveness of elephant,
389 ; elephant enduring surgical
operation, 899; intelligence of

WIN

sheep-dogs, 448 ; of cattle-doga,

449

Weasel, 346, 347

Weaver, nidification of, 293

Web, see Spider

Web-building, see Spiders

Webb, Dr., performing operation on

elephant, 399
Weber, Professor E. H., on spidera

weighting their webs, 221
Wedgewood, the Rev. R. H., on

memory of horse, 330
Westlecombe, on reasoning power

of a dog, 462, 463
Westropp, on intelligence oE bear

352

Westwood, on instinct of cater-
pillars, 288

Weygandt, on robber-bees, 170

Whale, maternal affection of, 327 ;
attacks on, by sword- and thresher-
fish, 252, 253

Whately, Archbishop, on cat ringing
bell, 423

White ants, see Termites

White, the Rev. Gilbert, on nests of
harvesting-mice, 365 ; on nidifi-
cation of house -martin, 292, 293

White, W., on intelligence of snails,
26

White, the Rev. W W. F., on sym-
pathy of ants, 49 ; keeping pets,
84 ; burying dead, 92, 93
White-headed eagle, see Eagle
Wildman, his alleged training of
bees. 189

Wilks, Dr. S., observations on talking
of parrot, 267, 268 ; on dog recog-
nising a portrait, 455

Williams, on intelligence of sheep-
dogs, 448

Williams, B., on cunning of sheep-
killing dogs, 450, 451

Wilson, on memory of crow, 266

Wilson, Dr. Andrew, on reasoning
power of a dog, 460

Wilson, Charles, on intelligence of
swallows, 318

Wilson, Dr. D., on elephant enduring
surgical operation, 399

Winkell, Dietrich aus dem, on in-
telligence of fox, 428

520

INDEX.

WOL

Wolf, 426-36 ; avoiding gun-traps,
431 ; drawing up fish-lines to
take fish, 431 ; collective instinct
in hunting, 433, 436

Wolverine, 347-50

Wood, Rev. G. J., on spidiirs weight-
ing their webs, 221

Woodcock, conveying young on
back, 289

Woodpecker, ant-eating, its instinct
of storing food, 285 ; nidification,
293

Words, understanding of, by bees,

189 ; by talking birds, 267-9
Wonni, apparent intelligence of, 24

YUL

Wright, his portrait-painting recog
nised by a dog, 454-5

YARRELL, on fish, 246; on in-
telligence of hare, 358-9
Youatt, on pigs learning to point

game, 840
Young, the Rev. Charles, on emotions
and intelligence of elephant, 390-
92

Young, Miss E., on dog finding his

way about by train, 468
Yule, Captain, on elephants dying

under emotional disturbance, 395

06)

THE END.

THE

INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC SERIES

Each book complete in One Volume, I2mo, and bound in Cloth.

1. THE FORMS OF WATER IN CLOUDS AND RFVERS, ICE AND GLA-
CIERS. ByJ, Tynd.^l, LL. D.,F. R. S. With 35 Illustrations. 81.50.

.2. PHYSICS AND POLITICS; or, Thoughts on the Application of the Prin-
ciples of "Natural Selection" and "Inheritance" to Political Society.
By Walter Bagehot. SI .50.

3. FOODS. By Edward Smith, M. D., LL. B.,F.R S. With numerous Illus-

trations. $1 .75.

4. MIND AND BODY: The Theories of their Relation. By Alexander Bain,

LL. D. With 4 Illustrations. $1.50.

6. THE NEW CHEMISTRY. By Professor J. P. Cooke, Harvard University.
With 31 Illustrations. S2.00.

8. ANIMAL LOCOMOTION; or. Walking. Swimming, and Flying. By J. B.

Pettigrew, M. D., F. R. S., etc. With 130 Illustrations. $1.75.

9. RESPONSIBILITY IN MENTAL DISEASE. By Henry Maudsley. M. D.

$1.50.

10. THE SCIENCE OF LAW. By Professor Sheldon Amos. $1.75.

11. ANIMAL MECHANISM: A Treatise on Terrestrial and Aerial Locomotion.

By Professor E. J. Marey, College of France. With 117 Illustrations. $1.75.

12. THE HISTORY OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN RELIGION AND

SCIENCE. By J. W. Draper, M. D., LL. D. $1.75.

13. THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT AND DARWINISM. By Professor Oscab

Schmidt, Strasburg University. With 26 Illustrations. $1.50.

14. THE CHEMISTRY OF LIGHT AND PHOTOGRAPHY IN THEIR AP-

PLICATION TO ART, SCIENCE, AND INDUSTRY. By Dr. Hermann
Vogel, Royal Industrial Academy of Berlin. With 100 Illustrations. $2.00,

15. FUNGI: Their Nature and Uses. By M. C. Cooke, M. A., LL. D. Edited by

the Rev. M. J. Berkeley, M. A., F. L. S. With 109 lUustrations. $1.50.

16. THE LIFE AND GROWTH OF LANGUAGE. By Professor William

DwiGHT Whitney, Yale College. $1.50.

17. MONEY AND THE MECHANISM OF EXCHANGE. By W. Stanley

Jevons, M. a., F. R. S. $1.75.

2

The Inta^national Scientific iSeries.— (Continued.)

18. THE NATURE OF LIGHT, with a General Account of Physical Optics. By
Dr. Eugene Lommel. With 188 Illustrations and a Table of Spectra in
Colors. 82.00.

21. THE FIVE SENSES OF MAN. By Professor Julius Bernstein, Univer-
sity of Halle. With 91 Illustrations. S1.75.

24. A HISTORY OF THE GROWTH OF THE STEAM-ENGINE. By Pro-

fessor R. H, Thurston, Cornell University, With 163 Illustrations. $2.50.

25. EDUCATION AS A SCIENCE. By Alexander B.-un, LL. D. 11.75.

26. STUDENTS' TEXT-BOOK OF COLOR; or, Modern Chromatics. With

Applications to Art and Industry. By Professor Ogden N. Rood, Colum-
bia College. With 130 Illustrations. $2.00.

27. THE HUMAN SPECIES. By Professor A. de Quatrefages, Museum of

Natural History, Paris. S2.00.

28. THE CRAYFISH: An Introduction to the Study of Zo6log>-. By T. H.

Huxley, F. R. S. With 82 Illustrations. SI .75.

30. ANIMAL LIFE AS AFFECTED BY THE NATURAL CONDITIONS OF

EXISTENCE. By Professor Karl Semper, University of Wiirzburg.
With 106 Illustrations and 2 Maps. S2.00.

31. SIGHT: An Exposition of the Principles of Monocular and Binocular Vision.

By Professor Joseph Le Conte, LL. D., University of California. With
132 Illustrations. $1.50.

33. ILLUSIONS: A Psychological Study. By James Sully. $1.50.

34. THE SLT^. By Professor C. A. Young, CoUege of New Jersey. With 83

Illustrations. $2.00.

35. VOLCANOES: What they Are and What they Teach. By Professor John

W. Judd, F. R. S., Royal School of Mines. With 96 Illustrations. $2.00.

36. SUICIDE: An Essay in Comparative Moral Statistics. By Professor Henry

Morselli, M. D., Royal University, Turin. With 4 Statistical Maps.
$1.75.

37. THE FORMATION OF VEGETABLE MOULD, THROUGH THE AC-

TION OF WORMS. With Observations on their Habits. By Charles
Dar^\-in, LL. D., F. R. S. With 15 Illustrations. $1.50.

39. THE BRAIN AND ITS FUNCTIONS. By J. Ltjys, Hospice Salpetrifere

Paris. With 6 Illustrations. SI .50.

40. MYTH AND SCIENCE. By Tito Vignoli. $1.50.

42. ANTS, BEES, AND WASPS. A Record of Observations of the Habits of
the Social Hymenoptera. By Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F. R.S., etc. S2.00.

The International Scientific Series.— (Continued.)

3

44. ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE. By George J. Romanes, M. D., F= R. S. $1.75.

45. MAN BEFORE METALS. By Professor N. Joly, Science Faculty of Tou-

louse. With 148 Illustrations. $1.75.

46. THE ORGANS OF SPEECH AND THEIR APPLICATION IN THE

FORMATION OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS. By Professor G. H. von
Meyer, University of Zurich. With 47 Illustrations. $1.75.

48 ORIGIN OF CULTIVATED PLANTS. By Alphonse de Candolle. $2.00.

50. THE COMMON SENSE OF THE EXACT SCIENCES. By William King-

don Clifford. With 100 Figures. $1.50.

51. PHYSICAL EXPRESSION: Its Modes and Principles. By Francis War-

ner, M. D., Assistant Physician, London Hospital. With 51 Illustrations.
$1.75.

52. ANTHROPOID APES. By Professor Robert Hartmann, University of

Berlin. With 63 Illustrations. $1.75.

53. THE MAMMALIA IN THEIR RELATION TO PRIMEVAL TIMES. By

Professor Oscar Schmidt, University of Strasburg. With 51 Illustrations.
$1.50.

54. COMPARATIVE LITERATURE. By Professor H. M. Posneit, M. A., Uni-

versity College, Auckland. $1.75.

55. EARTHQUAKES AND OTHER EARTH MOVEMENTS. By Professor

John Milne, Imperial College of Engineering, Tokio. With 38 Figures.
$1.75.

57. THE GEOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANI-
MALS. By Professor Angelo Heilprin, Academy of Natural Sciences,
Philadelphia. $2.00.

59. ANIMAL MAGNETISM. By Alfred Binet and Charles Fere, Assistant

Physician, Hospice Salpetrifere, Paris. With 15 Figures. $1.50.

60. INTERNATIONAL LAW, with Materials for a Code of International Law.

By Professor Leone Levi, King's College, London. $1.50.

62. ANTHROPOLOGY. An Introduction to the Study of Man and Civilization.

By Edward B. Tylor, D. C. L., F. R. S. With 78 Illustrations. S2.00.

63. THE ORIGIN OF FLORAL STRUCTURES, THROUGH INSECT AND

OTHER AGENCIES. By the Rev. George Henslow, M. A., etc. With
88 Illustrations. $1.75.

64. THE SENSES. INSTINCTS. AND INTELLIGENCE OF ANIMALS.

WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO INSECTS. By Sir John Lubbock.
Bart., F. R. S., etc. With 118 Illustrations. $1.75.

The International Scientific Series.— (Ciontlnued.)

66. PHYSIOLOGY OF BODILY EXERCISE. By F. Lagrange, M. D. fl.75.

67. THE COLORS OF ANIMALS: Their Meaning and Use. By Edward

Bagnall P0U1.TON, F. R. S. With 36 Illustrations and 1 Colored Plate.
$1.75.

68. SOCIALISM: New and Old. By Professor William Graham, M. A.,

Queen's College, Belfast. 81.75.

69. MAN AND THE GLACL\L PERIOD. By Professor G. Frederick

Wright, D. D., Oberlin Theological Seminary. With 108 Illustrations
and 3 Maps. SI .75.

71. A HISTORY" OF CRUSTACEA. Recent Malacostraca. By the Rev.
Thomas R. R. Stebbing, M. A. With 51 Illustrations. 82.00.

73, MOVEMENT. By E. J. Marey. Translated by Eric Pritchard, M. A.,
M. B., B. Ch. (Oxon.). With 200 Illustrations. S1.75.

75. WHAT IS ELECTRICITY"? By John Trowbridge, S. D., Rumford Pro-

fessor and Lecturer on the Applications of Science to the Useful Arts, Har-
vard University. Illustrated. SI .50.

76. THE EVOLUTION OF THE ART OF MUSIC. By C. Htjbert H. Parry,

D. C. L., M. A., etc. Si .75.

77. THE AURORA BOREALIS. By Alfred Angot, Honorary Meteorologist

to the Central Meteorological OflBce of France. SI .75.

78. MEMORY AND ITS CULTIVATION. By F. W. Edridge-Green, M. D.,

F. R. C. S. SI .50.

79. EVOLUTION BY ATROPHY. By Jean Demoor, Jean Massart, and

Emile Vandervelde.

D. APPLEICN AND COMPANY, NEW YORK

TWENTIETH CENTURY TEXT-BOOKS.

TEXT-BOOKS OF ZOOLOGY.

By David Starr Jordan, President of Leland Stan-
ford Jr. University; Vernon Lyman Kellogg, Professor
of Entomology; Harold Heath, Assistant Professor of
Invertebrate Zoology.

Evolution and Animal Life.

This is a popular discussion of the facts, processes, laws, and theories
relating to the life and evolution of animals. The reader of it will have
a very clear idea of the all-important theory of evolution as it has been
developed and as it is held to-day by scientists. 8vo. Cloth, with about
300 illustrations, $2.50 net ; postage 20 cents additional.

Animal Studies.

A compact but complete treatment of elementary zoology, especially
prepared for institutions of learning that prefer to find in a single book
an ecological as well as morphological survey of the animal world, i2mo.
Cloth, I1.25 net.

Animal Life.

An elementary account of animal ecology — that is, of the relations
of animals to their surroundings. It treats of animals from the stand-
point of the observer, and shows why the present conditions and habits
of animal life are as we find them. i2mo. Cloth, ^1.20 net.

Animal Forms.

This book deals in an elementary way with animal morphology. It
describes the structure and life processes of animals, from the lowest
creations to the highest and most complex. i2mo. Cloth, $1.10 net.

Animals.

This consists of "Animal Life" and "Animal Forms" bound in one
volume. i2mo. Cloth, $1.80.

Animal Structures.

A laboratory guide in the teaching of elementary zoology. i2mo.
Cloth, 50 cents net.

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,

NEW YORK. BOSTON. CHICAGO. LONDON.

= — ■ . ==a -

TWENTIETH CENTURY TEXT-BOOKS OF BOTANY.

By JOHN M. COULTER, AJVL, Ph.D.,

Head of Department of Botany, University of Chicago.

A Text-Book of Botany. i2mo. Illustrated. $1.25.

Plant Relations. A First Book of Botany. i2mo.
Cloth, $1.10.

"Plant Relations " Is the first part of the botanical section of Biology, and, as its
title indicates, treats what might be termed the human interests of plant life, the con-
ditions under which plants grow, their means of adaptation to environments, how
the_ protect themselves from enemies of various kinds in their struggle for existence,
their habits individually and in family groups, and their relations to other forms of
life — all of which constitute the economic and sociological phases of plant study.

Plant Structures. A Second Book of Botany. i2mo.
Cloth, $1.20.

This volume treats of the structural and morphological features of plant life and
plant growth. It is intended to follow "Plant Relations," but may precede this
book, and either may be used independently for a half-year's work in botanical study.

Plant Studies. An Elementary Botany. i2mo. Cloth,
$1.25.

This book is designed for those schools in which there is not a sufficient allot-
ment of time to permit the development of plant Ecologj' and Morpho ogy as outlined
in "Plant Relations" and "Plant Structures," and yet which are desirous of im-
parting instruction from both points ol view.

Plants. A Text-Book of Botany. i2mo. Cloth, $1.80.

Many of the high schools as well as the smaller colleges and seminaries that
devote one year to botanical work prefer a single volume covering the complete course
of study. For their convenience, therefore, "Plant Relations" and "Plant Struc-
tures" have been bound together in one book, under the title of "Plants."

Analytical Keys to Flom)ering Plants, t2mo. Limp Clothe
Northern States. By Professor Coulter. 25c.

Pacific Slope. By Prof. W. L. Jepson, University of

California. 45c.

Rocky Mountain Regions. By Prof. Aven Nelson,
University of Wyoming. 45c.

These Keys may be used with any text-book of botany, but they have references
10 the text of Professor Coulter's books.

A Laboratory Manual of Botany. By Otis W. Cald-
well, Ph.D., State Normal School, Charleston, 111. 50c.

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,

NEW YORK. BOSTON. CHICAGO. LONDON.

THE KROHN PHYSIOLOGIES,

BY WILLIAM O. KROHN, M.D., Ph.D.

A First Book in Physiology and Hy-
g'iene. liiustrated. 152 pages. Cloth, 35 cents.

A series of bright, simple lessons for little children, with the emphasis on
hygiene. It explains a few irnpcrtant things in a very clear and attiactive vvaj,
bringing in pictures, verses, and legends to drive each lesson home. Every-
thing that the children learn is put to test in useful exercises, each as good as
a game, many of them calling for individual observation and reasoning. It is
just the book to rouse a child's initiative arid make him choose for himself the
road to health.

I believe you have struck the key-note for teaching hygiene to little people.
— Ada Van Stone Harris, Supervisor of Kindergarten and Primary
Schools, Rochester, N. Y.

It is a gem from title to finish.— Wm. J. Cox, Superintendent of Public
Schools, Moline, III.

I have the little volume, and it i3 the only one in my experience where the
study of the human body and its needs is not made repulsive and tiresome.
The book is so cheery, it is like any other interesting story. — Fannie McGee,
Public Schools, Kansas City, Mo.

Graded Lessons in Physiology and Hy-
giene. Illustrated. 294 pages. Cloth, 60 cents.

An advanced book, thoroughly scientific and thoroughl> practical. Func-
tion is treated more fully than structure, but the most common and important
matters of anatomy and physiology are explained clearly and accurately. The
whole book pleads for health — for strong will power and good habits — as a
first requisite to good citizenship. This broad, wholesome view of the subject
includes chapters on public sanitation and on disea.ses growing out of the
specialization and stress of modem life. The book illustrates concretely and
forcibly the far-reaching importance of the whole subject, and sets exercises
and questions for discussion. It has a convenient pronouncing glossary.

Both teachers and pupils are more than satisfied with these books. In fact,
the "Lessons in Hygiene" has become to them a matter of delight. The
text has stimulated many of our children to independent observation. — W. N.
Hailmann, Formerly Superintendent of Instruction, Dayton, Ohio.

A most practical and up-to-date text-book. It combines science and good
sense in happy degrees.— W, M. Beardshear, Late President State College,
Ames, Joiva.

It is a great contribution, as touching the every-day life of the child, upon
a great subject.— Charles H. Albert, State Normal School, Blooms-
burg, Pa.

I regard it the best book on elementary hygiene that I have ever seen. —
John R. Kirk, President State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo.

D. APPLETON and company, new YORK.

3

A BUTTERFLY BOOK OF BEAUTY.^

How to Know the Butterflies.

By John Henry Comstock, Professor of Ento-
mology in Cornell University, and Anna Botsford
Comstock, Lecturer in Nature Study in Cornell
University. With 45 full-page colored plates, and
many illustrations in the text. 8vo. Cloth, $2.25
net ; postage additional.

This book is designed as a general treatise on butterflies
and a manual of the species of the United States east of the
Rocky Mountains. It is intended especially for beginners
and for students of nature ; but it will also serve as an in-
troduction to a serious study of this group of insects. This
book is richly illustrated, without a confusing array of figures
of species from remote parts of our country; it contains
brief descriptions of species, but sufficiently full that the
reader can definitely determine the species studied ; and it
gives the more important facts of the lives of our butterflies.

" This book gives the unscientific reader a direct acquaintance with a
large number of species, in such simple terms that classification is not
difficult, and with the aid of profuse colored illustrations that excite the
admiralion of those who have contented themselves heretofore with view-
ing the^e beautiful creatures on the wing. Butterfly catching is regarded
by many as a cruel pastime, but there are ways of capturing these ephem-
erals which may rightly be regarded as humane and decent, and the
authors, filled with an abounding love of nature, recommend nothing that
is not compatible with their beliefs. Notes of the habitat of each species
and the facts of butterfly life are given abundantly, and, with the pictures,
form an unusually important book, which is certain to widen the circle of
those who know the joys of butterfly collecting." — The Washington Star,

"Such blending of tints would seem to be a task fit for the painter
only instead of the printer. Investigation reveals the fact that the work
is a veritable treasure-house of information — perhaps the most carefully
prepared volume yet placed before the public dealing with the subject in
hand." — St. Louis Globe- Democrat.

" One of the most interesting, valuable, and beautiful of all the nature
books published this spring." — Brooklyn Standard- Union.

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK.

3 9090 009 794 1

DATE DUE

Z 1999

MM f

t^rrCT — 2

: — rtnr-

1

,' ..■,.-/

1

/I.

— m—

0 2006

mc 1

6 2004

GAYLORD

PRINTED IN U.S.A.