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ANIMAL KINGDOM 


ARRANGED IN CONFORMITY WITH ITS ORGANIZATION, 


4 


BY THE BARON CUVIER, 


PERPETUAL SECRETARY TO THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ETC. ETC, ETC. 


THE CRUSTACEA, ARACHNIDES AND INSECTA, 
BY P. A. LATREILLE, 


MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ETC, ETC. ETC, 


TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH, 
WITH NOTES AND ADDITIONS, 


BY? H: M’7MURTRIES MM: Di &os: &e: 


IN FOUR VOLUMES, WITH PLATES," 


VOLUME I. 


NEW YORK: 
“Gyv& C. & HGCA R Vib. 


MDCCCXXxXI. 


Entered according to the act of congress, in the year one thousand eight hundred and 
thirty-one, by G. & C. & H. Carvill, in the clerk’s office of the southern district of 
New York, 


Philadelphia : 
Printed by James Kay, Jun. & Co. 
Printers to the American Philosophical Society. 
& No. 4, Minor Street. 


REMARKS. 


In presenting to the Zoologist this production of the Aris- 
totle of the nineteenth century, the oracle of his science, it 
is far from my intention to occupy his time by attempting to 
show that it is not only the best source of knowledge to which 
he can refer, that of Nature herself alone excepted, but that 
it is the only one from which he can be certain of obtaining 
it unmingled with the grossest error—for this is universally 
admitted. 

Divesting himself of the prejudices arising from a blind re- 
verence for authority and a habit of imitation, our author has 
brought all the free energies of his powerful and penetrating 
mind to the investigation of his subject. Perceiving at once 
the importance of the difference between the constant and 
mutable characters of animals, aware of the harmony subsist- 
ing between one constant character and another, and unap- 
palled by the prospect of the almost endless labour that 
awaited him, he resolved to expose them with the knife; ex- 
pecting by the aid of comparative anatomy to arrive at facts 
which would enable him to arrange the whole animal king- 
dom, from Man to the last of the Infusoria, in its natural 
order. How well he has succeeded, the precision with which 
he has characterized insulated and mutilated fragments of 
fossil bones of extinct species, and the reconstruction of the 
whole oftheir gigantic frames from a part, this book, and the 
common consent of the learned of all countries, amply testify. 
He has accomplished the boast of Horace, he has erected the 
altars of the science in the temple of Truth, and placed its 


1V REMARKS. 


everlasting foundations on the unchangeable organization of 
that economy it was his business to study: his monument is 
imperishable-—** Hegalique situ pyramidum altius.”’ 

When the extent and nature of this work are taken into 
consideration, it will be readily surmised that my task has been 
far from an easy one; and a glance at the original is sufficient 
to convince the scientific critic that such is not only the case, 
but that the difficulties I have had to encounter were of no 
ordinary cast. The graceful flexibility of the French lan- 
guage is such as to yield to a combination of words and forms 
of expression that almost bid defiance to any thing like sy- 
nonymes in our more stubborn English. If this be true in 
relation to the language of conversation or that of books on or- 
dinary subjects, how greatly must the difficulty be increased 
when we find them abounding in a work like this! Such has 
been my trouble and perplexity on this account, that I may be 
excused for observing, that although the necessity for making 
new words cannot be denied, we should never forget that 
there are but two sources from which they can be legitimately 
drawn—the Latin or Greek. A word thus formed, being 
universally understood, may be removed unaltered from one 
language to another(1). 

Previously to commencing the execution of this version, it 
became indispensably requisite to fix upon some general plan 
of proceeding. The absurdity of translating into English the 
technical portion, or the nomenclature, was too apparent to 
demand a moment’s consideration—the genius of our language 
forbids it. ‘To have left these terms in French would have 
been inexpedient for self-evident reasons ; and the idea of 
giving a class in Latin, an order in French, &c., presented 
too revolting a medley. By giving them all in Latin, the 
common language of science, these objections vanished, al- 
though it entailed difficulties of a different character. I have 
ventured to encounter them; and while strictly adhering to 


(1) For some remarks on this subject, see Count Dejean’s preface to his Spe- 
cies, &c., I, p. 8. 


REMARKS. Vv 


the spirit, and, as far as practicable, to the very letter of my 
author, have endeavoured to give to the whole work that 
classical ‘¢ form and pressure” which facilitates its study and 
tends to fix its great and leading points more firmly in the 
memory. How far I have succeeded others must determine. 

I have not forgotten that although this work is more parti- 
cularly intended to be studied by the naturalist, it will proba- 
bly be read by every one who has the slightest desire to ac- 
quire some knowledge of the numerous and interesting groups 
of animals by which Man is surrounded, and with which he 
is so indissolubly connected. The general reader will lose 
nothing by the concise and simple style I have endeavoured to 
adopt 3 and although the meanings of the names aflixed to the 
various divisions are not placed in glaring characters at their 
head, he will always find it in the text. 

Whenever an animal is mentioned that is generally known 
by one and the same English, or vulgar name, I have always 
givenits; but of the many thousands here treated of, very few 
are thus circumstanced, and I cannot but think that it would 
be advantageous to the science if vulgar names were totally 
excluded from its nomenclature. The evidence of this 1s to 
be found in the fact, that, with comparatively few exceptions, 
these names vary, not only in different countries, but in dif- 
ferent parts of the same country. ‘Thus the Rockfish of Phila- 
delphia is a Striped-Bass at Boston; the Sheephead of Pitts- 
burg (a Corvina) is a totally different fish from the one so called 
in our city (a Sargus), and even belongs to a different family; 
the Trout we receive from Long Branch might with equal 
propriety be denominated a Shark or a Sturgeon. Different 
names are sometimes attached to the same animal, and the 
same name to different animals. Vulgar names are a fruitful 
source of error ; and therefore I have employed them as spa- 
ringly and as cautiously as possible. 

An immaculate book is perhaps rather to be wished for than 
expected, and that errors should have crept into the Regne 
Animal is not at all surprizing. These I have endeavoured 
to correct, not by erasure or altering the text (those cases al- 


vi REMARKS. 


ways excepted where the mistake was evidently and purely 
typographical), but by a note, either on the page itself, or in 
the appendix. Thus, whatever has been added, nothing has 
been taken away, and the text of my author remains as I 
found it. | 

It was originally my intention to have made considerable 
additions of American species to the Entomology, but to such 
an extent has the formation of new genera and the division of 
old ones lately been carried, that it would have required 
more time to do this correctly than to translate the whole 
book, and consequently I was compelled to abandon it. Of. 
the Fishes of this country nothing can be said, until we are in 
possession of the expected work of M. Lesueur. 

The period in which America was compelled to look to 
Europe for a knowledge of her own productions has termi- 
nated; and our Wilson, Say, Ord, Le Conte, Harlan, Hentz, 
Audubon, &c. &c. are repaying the debt with usury. Nor 
is this spirit of observation abating. ‘The increasing number 
of institutions exclusively devoted to the natural sciences, in 
almost every section of our extensive country, shows the re- 
verse to be the fact, and authorizes us to expect the most 
splendid results from their united efforts. 

I cannot conclude without acknowledging my obligations to 
Major Le Conte for his valuable communications on various 
portions of the Regne Animal. The results of his critical and 
laborious investigations are chiefly to be found in the notes on 
American birds, and the Catalogue which closes this volume, 
and I have only to regret that the unfinished state of the work 
on the Lepidoptera of North America, which is now being 
published at Paris by him and M. Boisduval, prevented me 
from employing it. 

H. M’MURTRIE. 

Philadelphia, June 1831. 


PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 


Havine devoted myself from my earliest youth to the stu- 
dy of comparative anatomy, that is to the laws of the or- 
ganization of animals and of the modifications this organiza- 
tion undergoes in the various species, and having, for nearly 
thirty years since, consecrated to that science every moment 
of which my duties allowed me to dispose, the constant aim of 
my labours has been to reduce it to general rules, and to pro- 
positions which may contain their most simple expression. 
My first essays soon made me perceive, that I could only 
attain this in proportion as the animals, whose structure I 
should have to elucidate, were arranged in conformity with 
that structure, so that in one single name of class, order, genus, 
&ce. might be embraced all those species which, in-their ex- 
ternal as well as internal conformation, have affinities either 
more general or particular. Now this is what the greater 
number of naturalists of that epoch had never attempted, and 
what but few of them could have effected, had they even 
been willing to try, since a similar arrangement presupposes 
an extensive knowledge of the structures, of which it is partly 
the representation. 

It is true, that Daubenton and Camper had given facts, 
that Pallas had indicated views: but the ideas of these learned 
men had not yet exercised upon their contemporaries the in- 
fluence they merited. The only general catalogue of animals 
then in existence, and the only one we possess even now, the 
system of Linnzus, had just been disfigured by an unfortunate 
editor, who did not even take the pains to examine the prin- 


vill PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 


ciples of that ingenious methodist, and who, wherever he — 
found any disorder, seems to have tried to render it more in- 
extricable. 

It is also true, that there were very extensive works upon 
particular classes, which had made known a great number of 
new species ; but their authors merely considered the exter- 
nal relations of those species, and no one had employed him- 
self in arranging the classes and orders from the ensemble of 
the structure; the characters of several classes remained false 
or incomplete even in justly celebrated works of anatomy ; 
some of the orders were arbitrary, and in scarcely any of these 
divisions were the genera placed conformably to nature. 

I was compelled then, and the task occupied a considerable 
period of time, I was compelled to make anatomy and zoology, 
dissection and classification, the pioneers of my steps 5 to search 
for better principles of distribution in my first remarks on or- 
ganization—to employ them in order to arrive at new ones, 
and to render the distribution perfect—in fine, from this mu- 
tual reaction of the two sciences, to elicit a system of zoology 
that might serve as an introduction and a guide in anatomical 
investigations, and as a body of anatomical doctrine fitted to 
develope and explain the zoological system. 

The first results of this double labour appeared in 1795 in 
a special memoir upon a new division of the white blooded 
animals. A sketch of their application to genera and to their 
division in subgenera was the object of my elementary ‘‘ Ta- 
bleau Elémentaire des Animaux,” printed in 1798, which, in 
conjunction with M. Dumeril, I improved, in the tables an- 
nexed to the first volumes of my “Lecons d’Anatomie Com- 
parée” in 1800. 

I should, perhaps, have contented myself with perfecting 
these tables, and proceeded immediately to the publication of 
my great work on anatomy, if, in the course of my researches, 
I had not been frequently struck with another defect of the 
greater number of the general or partial systems of zoology; I 
mean the confusion in which the want of critical acumen has 
left a great number of species, and even several genera. 


PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 1X 


The classes and orders were not only not sufficiently con- 
formed to the intimate nature of animals to serve conve- 
niently as a basis to a treatise on comparative anatomy, but 
the genera themselves, although mostly better constituted, 
presented but inadequate resources, on account of the species 
not having been arranged under each of them, in conformity 
with these characters. Thus in placing the Sea-cow (Mana- 
tus, Cuv.) in the genus Morse (Trichechus, Lin.), the Siren 
in that of the Eels, Gmelin had rendered any general propo- 
sition relative to the organization of these two genera imposs- 
ible, just as by approximating to the same class the same 
order, and placing side by side the Sepia and the fresh- 
water Polypus, he had made it impossible to say any thing in 
general on the class and order which embraced such different 
beings. 

The examples above cited are selected from the most strik- 
ing of these errors; but there existed an infinitude of them, 
less sensible at the first glance, which presented difliculties 
not less real. 

It was not enough then to have imagined a new arrange- 
ment of classes and orders, and to have properly placed the 
genera there; it was also necessary to examine all the species 
in order to be assured, whether they really belonged to the 
genera in which they had been placed. 

Having come to this, I found species not only grouped or 
dispersed, against all semblance of reason, but I remarked 
that several had not been positively determined; neither by 
the characters assigned to them, nor by their figures and de- 
scriptions. 

Here, one of them, by means of synonymes, represents seve- 
ral in one single name, and often so different from each other 
that they should not be placed in the same genus; there, a 
single one is doubled, trebled, and successively reappears in 
several subgenera, genera, and sometimes in different orders. 

What shall we say, for instance, of the Trichechus mana- 
tus of Gmelin, which in one single specific name comprises 
three species and two genera ; two genera, differing in almost 

Vou. I.—(2) 


xX PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 


every thing? By what name shall we speak of the Velella, 
which figures there twice among the Medusz and once among 
the Holothuriz ? How are we to bring together the Biphore ; 
some of which are called there Dagyse, the greater number 
Salpz, and several placed among the Holothuriz. 

In order, therefore, completely to attain the object, it was 
not sufficient to review the species—it was necessary to re- 
view their synonymes, or in other words to remodel the sys- 
tem of animals. 

Such an enterprise, from the prodigious development of 
the science in late years, could not have been executed com- 
pletely by any one individual, even supposing him to have no 
other employment and to live the longest possible term of 
years; had I been constrained to depend upon myself alone. 
I should not have been able to prepare even the simple sketch 
I now give; but the resources of my position seemed to me to 
supply what I wanted both of time and talent. Living in the 
midst of so many able naturalists—drawing from their works 
as fast as they appeared—enjoying the use of their collec- 
tions as freely as themselves—and having formed a very con- 
siderable one myself especially appropriated to my object; a 
great portion of my labour consisted merely in the employ- 
ment of so many rich materials. It was not possible, for in- 
stance, that much remained for me to do on shells studied by 
M. de Lamarck, or on quadrupeds described by M. Geoffroy. 
The numerous and new aflinities observed by M. de Lacé- 
pede were so many traits for my system of fishes. Among so 
many beautiful birds, collected from all parts of the world, 
M. Le Vaillant perceived details of organization, which I im- 
mediately adapted to my plan. My own researches, employed 
and multiplied by other naturalists, yielded those fruits to me, 
which, in my hands alone, they would not, all, have produced. 
Thus, by examining, in the cabinet I have formed, the ana- 
tomical preparations on which I designed to found my division 
of reptiles, M. de Blainville and M. Oppel anticipated (and 
perhaps better than I could have done) results of which as 
yet I had but a glimpse, &c., &e. 


PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. Xl 


Encouraged by these reflections, | determined to precede 
my treatise on comparative anatomy by a kind of abridged 
system of animals, in which I would present their divisions 
and subdivisions of all degrees, established in a parallel man- 
ner upon their structure, external and internal ; where I would 
give the indication of well ascertained species, which certainly 
belong to each of the subdivisions, and where, to create more 
interest, I would enter into some details upon such of those 
species, which from their abounding in our country, the uses 
to which we put them, the evils they cause us, the singularity 
of their habits and economy, their extraordinary forms, their 
beauty or their size, become the most remarkable. 

In so doing, I hoped to prove useful to young naturalists, 
who, for the most part, have but little idea of the confusion 
and errors of criticism in which the most accredited works 
abound, and who, in foreign countries particularly, do not 
sufficiently attend to the study of the true relations of the con- 
formation of beings; I considered myself as rendering a more 
direct service to those anatomists, who require to know be- 
forehand to what orders they should direct their researches, 
when they wish to solve any problem of human anatomy or 
physiology by comparative anatomy, but whose ordinary oc- 
cupations do not sufficiently prepare them for fulfilling me 
condition which is essential to their success. 

I had no intention, however, of extending this two-fold view 
to all the classes of the animal kingdom, and the Vertebrated 
animals, as in every sense the most interesting, naturally 
claimed a preference. .Among the Invertebrata, I had to 
study more particularly the naked Mollusca and the great 
Zoophytes; but the innumerable variations of the external 
forms of shells and corals, the microscopic animals, and the 
other families whose part, on the great theatre of nature, is 
not very apparent, or whose organization affords but little 
room for the use of the scalpel, did not require a similar mi- 
nuteness of detail. Independently of this, so far as the shells 
and corals were concerned, I could depend on the work of 


Xli PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION, 


M. de Lamarck, in which will be found all that the most ar- 
dent thirst for knowledge can desire. . 

As regards Insects, which, by their external form, organi- 
zation, habits, and influence on all animated nature, are so 
highly interesting, I have been fortunate enough to find assis- 
tance, which, in rendering my work infinitely more perfect 
than it could have possibly been had it emanated from my pen 
alone, has at the same time considerably accelerated its publica- 
tion. My friend and colleague M. Latreille, who has studied 
these animals more profoundly than any other man in Europe, 
has kindly consented to give, ina single volume, and nearly. 
in the order adopted for the other parts, a summary of his 
immense researches, and an abridged description of those in- 
numerable genera entomologists are continually establishing. 

As for the rest, if in some places I have given less extent 
to the exposition of subgenera and species, all that relates to 
the superior divisions and the indicia of relations, I have 
founded on bases equally solid, by assiduous and universal re- 
searches. 

I have examined, one by one, all the species of which I 
could procure specimens; I have approximated those which 
merely differed from each other in size, colour, or in the 
number of some parts of little importance, and have formed 
them into what I denominate subgenera. 

Every time it was possible, I dissected one species at least 
of each subgenus, and if those be excepted to which the 
scalpel cannot be applied, but very few groups of this degree 
can be found in my work, of which I cannot produce some 
considerable portion of the organs. 

Having determined the names of the species I observed, 
which had been previously either well described or well 
figured, I placed in the same subgenera those I had not 
seen, but whose exact figures, or descriptions, sufliciently 
precise to leave no doubt remaining as to their natural rela- 
tions, I found in authors; but I have passed over in silence 
that great number of vague indications, on which, in my opi- 
nion, naturalists have been too eager to establish species, 


PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. Xi 


whose adoption is what has mainly contributed to introduce in 
the catalogue of beings, that confusion which deprives it of so 
great a portion of its utility. 

I could, every where, have added great numbers of new, 
species, but as I could not refer to figures it would in that 
case have been necessary to extend their descriptions beyond 
the bounds of my limits; I have preferred therefore depriv- 
ing my work of that ornament, and have indicated those only 
whose singular formation gives origin to new subgenera. 

My subgenera once established on undoubted relations, and 
composed of well ascertained species, nothing remained but 
to construct this great scaffolding of genera, tribes, families, 
orders, classes and divisions which constitute the ensemble of 
the animal kingdom. 

Here I have proceeded, partly by ascending from the in- 
ferior to thé superior divisions, by means of approximation 
and comparison, and partly by descending from the superior 
to the inferior divisions, on the principle of the subordination 
of characters; carefully comparing the results of the two 
methods, verifying one by the other, and always sedulously 
establishing the correspondence of forms, external and inter- 
nal, both of which constitute integral parts of the essence of 
each animal. 

Such has been my mode of proceeding whenever it was ne- 
cessary and possible to form new arrangements but I need 
not observe, that in many places, the results to which it would 
have conducted me, had been already so satisfactorily obtained, 
that no other trouble was left to me than that of following the 
track of my predecessors. Even in these cases, however, by 
new observations I have confirmed and verified what was 
previously acknowledged, and what I did not adopt until it 
was subjected to a rigorous scrutiny. An idea of this mode 
of examination may be obtained from the Memoirs on the ana- 
tomy of the Mollusca which have appeared in the ‘* Annales 
du Muséum¢”? and of which I am now preparing a separate 
and augmented collection. I venture to assure the reader, 
that the labour I have bestowed upon the Vertebrated animals, 


XIV PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 


the Annulata, the Radiata, and many of the Insects and Crus- 
tacea, is equally extensive. I have not deemed it necess- 
ary to publish it with the same detail; but all my prepara- 
tions are exposed in the Cabinet of Comparative Anatomy in 
the Jardin du Roi, and will serve hereafter for my Treatise 
on Anatomy. 

Another work of considerable labour, but whose proofs 
cannot be made so authentic, is the critical examination of 
species. I examined and verified all the figures adduced by 
authors, and as often as possible referred each to its true spe- 
cies, before making a choice of those I have pointed out; it is 
from this verification alone, and never from the classification 
of preceding methodists, that I have referred to my sub- 
genera the species that belong to them. Such is the reason, 
why no astonishment should be experienced on finding that 
such or such a genus of Gmelin is now divided and distributed 
even in different classes and divisions; that numerous nominal 
species are reduced to a single one, and that vulgar names are 
very differently applied. 

There is not a single one of these changes that Iam not 
prepared to justify, or of which the reader himself may not 
obtain the proof by recurring to the sources I have indicated. 

In order to diminish his trouble, I have been careful to se- 
lect for each class a principal author, generally the richest in 
good original figures, and I quote secondary works only in 
those cases in which the former are silent, or where it was 
useful to establish some comparison, for the sake of confirm- 
ing synonymes. . 

My subject could have been made to fill many volumes, 
but I considered it my duty to condense it, by imagining 
abridged meansof publication. I have obtained these by gra- 
duated generalities; by never repeating for a species what 
could be said of a whole subgenus, nor for a genus what might 
be applied to an entire order, and so on, we arrive at the 
greatest possible economy of words. ‘To this my endeavours 
have been, above all, particularly directed, inasmuch as this 
was the principal end of my work. It may be observed, 


PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. KV 


however, that I have not employed many technical terms, 
and that I have endeavoured to communicate my ideas with- 
out that barbarous apparatus of factitious words, which, in 
the works of so many modern naturalists, prove so very re- 
pulsive. I cannot perceive, however, that I have thereby 
lost any thing in precision or clearness. 

I have been compelled, unfortunately, to introduce many 
new names, although I endeavoured as far as possible to pre- 
serve those of my predecessors; but the numerous subgenera 
I have established required these denominations ; for in things 
so various the memory is not satisfied with numerical indica- 
tions. I have selected them, so as either to convey some 
character, or among the common names which I have latinized, 
or finally after the example of Linnzeus, from those of mytho- 
logy, which are generally agreeable to the ear, and which we 
are far from having exhausted. 

In naming species, however, I would recommend employ- 
ing the substantive of the genus, and the trivial name only. 
The names of the subgenera are designed as a mere relief te 
the memory, when we wish to indicate these subdivisions in 
particular. Otherwise, as the subgenera, already very nu- 
merous, will in the end become greatly multiplied, in con- 
sequence of having substantives continually to retain, we shall 
be in danger of losing the advantages of that binary nomen- 
clature so happily imagined by Linneus. 

it is the better to preserve it that I have dismembered, 
as little as possible, the genera of that illustrious reformer of 
science. Whenever the subgenera in which I divide them 
were not to be translated to different families, I have left 
them together under their former generic appellation. This 
was not only due to the memory of Linneus, but it was ne- 
cessary in order to preserve the mutual intelligence of the 
naturalists of different countries. 

The habit, naturally acquired in the study of natural his- 
tory, of the,mental classification of a great number of ideas, 
is one of the advantages of that science that is seldom observed, 
and which, when it shall have been generally introduced into 


XVI PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 


/ 


the system of common education, will become, perhaps, the 
principal one. By it, the student is exercised in that part of 
logic which is termed method, just as he is by geometry in 
that of syllogism, because natural history is the science which 
requires the most precise methods, as geometry is that which 
demands the most rigorous reasoning. Now this art of me- 
thod, once well acquired, may be applied with infinite advan- 
tage to studies the most foreign to natural history. Every dis- 
cussion which supposes a classification of facts, every research 
which demands a distribution of matters, is performed accord- 
ing to the same laws; and he who had cultivated this science . 
merely for amusement, is surprised at the facilities it affords 
him in disentangling and arranging all kinds of affairs. 

It is not less useful in solitude. Sufliciently extensive to 
satisfy the most powerful mind, sufficiently various and inte- 
resting to calm the most agitated soul, it sheds consolation in 
the bosom of the unhappy, and stills the angry waves of envy 
and hatred. Once elevated to the contemplation of that har- 
mony of nature irresistibly regulated by Providence, how weak 
and trivial appear those causes which it has been pleased to 
leave dependent on the will of man! How astonishing to be- 
hold so many fine minds, consuming themselves so uselessly for 
their own happiness or that of others, in the pursuit of vain 
combinations, whose very traces a few years suflice to sweep 
away. 

I avow it—these ideas have always been present to my mind, 
the companions of my labours; and if I have endeavoured by 
every means in my power to advance this peaceful study, it is 
because, in my opinion, it is more capable than any other of 
supplying that want of occupation, which has so largely con- 
tributed to the troubles of our age—but I must return to my 
subject. 

There yet remains the task of accounting for the principal 
changes I have effected in the latest received methods, and 
to acknowledge the amount of .my obligations to those natu- 
ralists, whose works have furnished or suggested a part of 
them. 


PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. XVI 


To anticipate a remark which will naturally present itself 
to many, I must observe that I have neither desired nor pre- 
tended to class animals so as to form one single line, or so as 
to mark their relative superiority. I even consider every at- 
tempt of this kind impracticable. Thus, I do not mean that 
the Mammalia or Birds which come last, are the most imper- 
fect of their class; still less do I believe that the last of the 
Mammalia are more perfect than the first of the Birds, the 
last of the Mollusca more so than the first of the Annulata or 
of the Radiata, even restraining the meaning of this vague 
word perfect to that of most completely organized. I re- 
gard my divisions and subdivisions as the merely graduated 
expression of the resemblance of the beings which enter into 
each of them, and although in some we observe a sort of de- 
gradation or passage from one species to the other, which can- 
not be denied, this disposition is far from being general. The 
pretended chain of beings, as applied to the whole creation, 
is but an erroneous application of those partial observations, 
which are only true when confined to the limits within which 
they were made—it has, in my opinion, proved more detri- 
mental to the progress of natural history in modern times, 
than it is easy to imagine. 

It is in conformity with these views that I have established 
my four general divisions, which have already been made 
known in a separate Memoir. I still think it expresses the 
real relations of animals more exactly than the old arrange- 
ment of Vertebrata and Invertebrata, for the simple reason, 
that the former animals have a much greater resemblance to 
each other than to the latter, and that it was necessary to 
mark this difference in the extent of their relations. 

M. Virey, in an article of the ‘‘ Nouveau Dictionnaire d’ His- 
toire Naturelle,” had already discovered a part of the basis of 
this division, and principally that which reposes on the ner- 
vous system. 

The particular approximation of oviparous Vertebrata, in- 
ter se, originated from the curious observations of M. Geoff- 


roy on the composition of bony heads; and from those I have 
Von. I.—(3) 


Xvill PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 


added to them, relative to the rest of the skeleton and to the 
muscles. 

In the Mammalia I have brought back the Solipedes to the 
Pachydermata, and have divided the latter into families on a 
new plan; the Ruminantia I have placed after the Quadru- 
peds, and the Sea-cow near the Cetacea. The arrangement 
of the Carnaria I have somewhat altered—the Ouistites have 
been wholly separated from the Monkeys, and a sort of pa- 
rallelism between the pouched animals and other digitated 
Mammalia indicated ; the whole from my own anatomical re- 
searches. All that I have given on the Quadrumana and the 
Bats is based on the recent and profound labours of my friend 
M. Geoffroy de Saint-Hilaire. ‘The researches of my bro- 
ther, M. Frederick Cuvier, on the teeth of the Carnaria and 
the Rodentia, have proved highly useful to me in forming ‘the 
subgenera of these two orders. Notwithstanding the genera 
of the late M. Illiger are but the results of these same studies, 
and. those of some foreign naturalists, I have adopted his names 
whenever my subgenera could be placed in his genera. I 
have also adopted M. de Lacépéde’s excellent divisions of this 
description, but the characters of all the degrees and all the 
indications of species have been taken from nature, either in 
the cabinet of anatomy, or the galleries of the Museum. 

The same plan was pursued with respect to the Birds. I 
have examined with the greatest care and attention more than 
four thousand individuals in the Museum ; I arranged them 
agreeably to my views in the public gallery more than five 
years ago, and all that is said of this class has been drawn from 
that source. Thus, any resemblance which my subdivisions 
may bear to some recent descriptions is on my side purely 
accidental(1). 


(1) This observation not having been sufficiently understood abroad, I am com- 
pelled to repeat it here, and openly to declare a fact witnessed by thousands in 
Paris—it is this, that all the birds in the public gallery of the Museum were named 
and arranged according to my system in 1811. Even such of my subdivisions 
. as J had not yet named were marked by particular signs. This is my date. In- 


PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. X1X 


Naturalists, I hope, will approve of the numerous subgenera 
I have deemed it necessary to establish among the Birds of 
Prey, Passerine, and Shore-Birds; they appear to me to have 
completely elucidated genera hitherto involved in much con- 
fusion. J have also marked, as exactly as I could, the corres-. 
pondence of these subdivisions with the genera of MM. de La- 
cépede, Meyer, Wolf, Temminck, Savigny, and have refer- 
red to each of them all the species of which I could obtain a 
very positive knowledge. ‘This laborious work will prove of 
value to those who may hereafter attempt a true history of 
Birds. The splendid works on Ornithology published within 
a few years, and those chiefly of M. Le Vaillant, which are 
filled with so many interesting observations, together with M. 
Vieillot’s, have been of much assistance to me in designating 
- with precision the species they represent. 

The general division of this class remains as I published it 
in 1798 in my ‘Tableau Elémentaire(1).”’ 

The general division of Reptiles, by my friend M. Brong- 
niart, I have thought proper to preserve, but I have prose- 
cuted very extensive and laborious anatomical investigations 
to obtain my ulterior subdivisions. M. Oppel, as I have al- 
ready stated, has partly taken advantage of these preparatory 
labours, and whenever my genera finally agreed with his, I 
have noticed the fact. The work of Daudin, indifferent as it 
is, has been useful to me for indications of details, but the par- 
ticular divisions I have made in the genera Monitor and 
Gecko, are the product of my own observations on a great 
number of Reptiles recently brought to the Museum by Messrs 
Peron and Geoffroy. 

My labours with regard to the Fishes will probably be found 
to exceed those I have bestowed on the other vertebrated 


dependently of this, my first volume was printed in the beginning of 1816. Four 
volumes are not printed as quickly as a pamphlet ofa few Pee I say no more. 
(Note to Ed. 1829.) 

(1) I only mention this, because an amiable naturalist, M. Vieillot, ina recent work 
has attributed to himself the union of the Pice with the Passeres. Thad published 
it in 1798, with my other arrangements, so as to render them public in the Museum 
since 1811 and 1812. 


XX PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 


animals. Since the publication of the celebrated work of M. 
de Lacépede, the accession to our Museum of a great number 
of fishes, has enabled me to add several subdivisions to those of 
that learned naturalist, to form different combinations of several 
species, and to multiply anatomical observations. I have also 
had better means of verifying the species of Commerson and of 
some other travellers, and on this point I owe much toa re- 
view of the drawings of Commerson and of the dried fishes 
he brought with him, by M. Dumeri!l, which have been but 
very lately recovered: resources to which I added those pre- 
sented to me in the fishes brought by Peron from the Indian 
Ocean and Archipelago; those which I collected in the Medi- 
terranean, and the coilections made on the coast of Coroman- 
del by the late M. Sonnerat, at the Isle of France by M. Ma- 
thieu, in the Nile and Red Sea by M. Geoffroy, &c. I was 
thus enabled to verify most of the species of Bloch, Russel, 
and others, and to have prepared the skeletons and viscera of 
nearly all the subgenera, so that this portion of the work will, 
I presume, -present to icthyologists much that is new. 

As to my division of this class, I confess its inconvenience, 
but I still think it more natural than any preceding one. When 
I first published it, I gave it, quantum valeat, and if any one 
discovers a better principle of division, and as conformable 
to the organization, I shall hasten to adopt it. 

It is well known that all the works, on the general division 
of the Invertebrated animals, are mere modifications of what 
I proposed in 1795 in the first of my memoirs; and the time 
and care I have devoted to the anatomy of the Mollusca in ge- 
neral, and principally to the naked Mollusca, are equally so. 
The determining of this class, as well as of its divisions and 
subdivisions, rests on my observations; the magnificent work 
of M. Poli had alone anticipated me by descriptions and 
anatomical researches, useful to me it is true, but confined to 
bivalves and. multivalves only. I have verified all the facts 
furnished to me by that able anatomist, and I have, I think, 
more justly marked the functions of some organs. I have also 
endeavoured to determine the animals to which the principal 


PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. XXxi 


forms of shells belong, and to arrange the latter from that con- 
sideration; but as to the ulterior divisions of those shells whose 
animals resemble each other, I have examined them only so 
far as to enable me to describe those admitted by Messrs de 
Lamarck and de Montfort; even the small number of genera or 
subgenera which are properly mine, are derived from observa- 
tions on the animals. Inciting examples I have confined my- 
self to a certain number of the species of Martini, Chemnitz, 
Lister, and that only (the volume of M. de Lamarck, which 
is to contain these matters, not being published), because I 
was compelled to fix the attention of the reader on specific 
objects. In the selection and determining of these species 
however I lay no claim to the same critical accuracy I have 
employed for the Vertebrated animals and the naked Mol- 
lusca. ; ; 

The excellent observations of Messrs Savigny, Lesueur, 
and Desmarest on the compound Ascidia, approximate the 
latter family of the Mollusca to certain orders of Zoophytes— 
a curious relation, and an additional proof of the impractica- 
bility of arranging animals on one single line. 

The Annulata (the establishing of which order, although 
not the name, belongs de facto to me) have I think been ex- 
tricated from the confusion in which they had hitherto been 
involved among the Mollusca, the Testacea, and the Zoophy- 
tes, and placed in their natural order—even their genera have 
been elucidated only by my observations on them, published 
in the ‘¢ Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles,” and elsewhere. 

I can say nothing relative to the three classes contained in 
the third volume. M. Latreille, who, with the exception of 
some anatomical details, founded on my own observations and 
those of M. Randohr, added to his text, is its sole author, 
will spare me that trouble. 

As to the Zoophytes, which terminate the animal kingdom, 
I have availed myself, for the Echinodermata, of the late work 
of M. de Lamarck, and for the Intestinal Worms, of that of 
M. Rudolphi, entitled Lxtozoa; but I have anatomized all 
the genera, some of which have been determined by me only. 


XX PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 


Besides this, there is an excellent work of M. Tiedemann on 
the anatomy of the Echinodermata that received the prize of 
the Institute some years ago, that will shortly appear—it will 
leave nothing unsaid with respect to these curious animals. 
The Corals and the Infusoria, allowing no field for anatomical 
investigations, have been briefly disposed of. ‘The new work 
_ of M. de Lamarck will supply my deficiencies(1). 

With respect to authors, I can only mention, here, those 
who have furnished me with general views, or who were the 
origin of such in my own mind(2). There are many others 
to whom I am indebted for particular facts, whose names I 
have carefully quoted wherever I have made use of them. 
They will be found on every page of my book. Should I 
have omitted to do justice to any, it must be attributed to in- 
voluntary forgetfulness—no property, in my eyes, is more 
sacred than the conceptions of the mind, and the custom, too 
common among naturalists, of making plagiarisms by a change 
of names, has always appeared to me a crime. 

The publication of my Comparative Anatomy will now 
occupy me every moment; the materials are ready, great 
quantities of preparations and drawings are finished and ar- 
ranged ; and I shall be careful in dividing the work into parts, 
each of which will form a whole, so that should my physical 
powers prove insufficient for the completion of the totality of 
my plan, what I shall have produced will still form entire 
suites, and the materials I have collected be ready for the 
hand of him who may undertake the continuation of my la- 
bours. ; 


Jardin du Rot, 1816. 


(1) I have this moment received, /’ Histoire des Polypiers coralligéenes flexibles of 
M. Lamouroux, which furnishes an excellent supplement to M. Lamarck. 

(2) M. de Blainville has recently published general zoological tables, which 1 
regret came too late for me to profit by; having appeared when my book was nearly 
printed. 


PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 


Tue preceding preface exhibits a faithful account of the 
state in which I found the history of animals at the time the . 
first edition of this work was published. During the twelve 
years that have since elapsed, this science has made immense 
progress. ‘The labours of numerous, courageous, and learned 
travellers, who have explored every region of the globe, the 
rich collections formed -and rendered public by various go- 
vernments, the profound and splendid works where new 
species are described and figured, and whose authors have 
been determined to detect their mutual relations and to con- 
sider them in every light(1), have all been instrumental in 
producing this result. , 

I have endeavoured to avail myself of these discoveries, as 
far as my plan permitted, by first studying the innumerable 
specimens received at the Cabinet du Roi, and comparing 
them with those which served as the basis of my first edition, 
in order te deduce thence new approximations or new subdi- 
visions, and then by searching in all the books I could pro- 
cure for the genera or subgenera established by naturalists, 
and the description of species by which they have supported 
these different combinations. 

The study of synonymes has become much easier now than 
it was at the period of my first edition. Both French and 


4 
(1) See my Discourse before the Institute on the “ Progres de l’Histoire Natu- 
relle depuis la paix maritime,” published in the third volume of my “ Eloges.”’ 


ee ee ee eee eee ee ee LL LS SL SS 


i] 7 
XXIV PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 


foreign naturalists seem to have felt the necessity of establish- 

ing divisions in those immense genera, in which such incon- 

gruous species were formerly heaped together ; their groups 

are now precise and well defined, their descriptions sufliciently 

detailed, their figures scrupulously exact even to the most 

minute characters, and very frequently of the greatest beauty. 

Scarcely any difliculty remains therefore in determining the 
identity of their species, and nothing hinders them from com- 

ing to an understanding with respect to the nomenclature. . 
This, unfortunately, has been almost neglected ; the names of 
the same genera, the same species, are multiplied as often as 

they are spoken of ; and should this discord continue, the same 

chaos will be produced that previously existed, peel arising 

from a different cause. 

I have used every effort to compare and approximate these 
redundancies, and forgetting even my own little interest of 
author, have often given names which seem to have been form- 
ed expressly to avoid being compelled to avow the borrowing 
of my divisions. But in order thoroughly to execute this un- 
dertaking, this pinax of the animal kingdom, which becomes 
daily more and more necessary, to examine its proofs, and to fix 


_ on the definite nomenclature that would be adopted, by basing 


it on sufficient figures and descriptions, requires more space 
than I can dispose of, and a time imperiously claimed by other 
works. It is in the ‘‘ History of Fishes,” which, assisted by 
M. Valenciennes, I have commenced publishing, that I intend 
to give an idea of what I think might be effected with respect 
to all parts of the science. ‘This is a mere abridgement, a 
simple sketch—fortunate will I be if I succeed in rendering 
it correct in all its parts. 

Various descriptions of a similar kind have been published 
on some of the classes, and I have carefully studied them all, in 
order to perfect my own. The *‘ Mammalogie” of M. Desma- 
rest, that of M. Lesson, the ‘‘Traité sur les Dents des Qua- 
drupédes” of M. Frederick Cuvier, the English translation of 
my first edition by Mr Griflith enriched by numerous additions 
chiefly by Hamilton Smith, the new edition of the ‘‘ Ma- 


PREFACE TO THE SECOND ED!TION. XXV 


nuel d’Ornithomalogie”’ of M. Temminck, the ‘¢ Ornithological 
Fragments” of M. Wagler, the ‘‘ Description of Reptiles” by 
the late Merrem, and the dissertation on the same subject by 
M. Fitzinger, were principally useful to me for the Vertebrated. 
animals. The ‘Histoire des Animaux sans Vertebres” of M. 
de Lamarck; and the «‘ Malacologie” of M. de Blainville, were 
also of great use to me for the Mollusca. To these I have 
added the new views and facts contained in the numerous and 
learned writings of Messrs Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, father and 
son, Savigny, Temminck, Lichtenstein, Kuhl, Wilson, Hors- 
field, Vigors, Swainson, Gray, Ord, Say, Harlan, Charles Bo- 
naparte, Lamouroux, Mitchell, Lesueur, and many other able 
and studious men, whose names will be carefully mentioned, 
wherever I speak of the subjects they have described. 

The fine collection of engravings which have appeared 
within the last twelve years, have allowed me to indicate a 
ereater number of species, nor have I failed to make ample use 
of the opportunity. I must particularly acknowledge what I 
owe on this score, to the ‘¢ Histoire des Mammiferes”’ of MM. 
Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Frederick Cuvier, the ‘‘ Planches 
Coloriées’” of Messrs Temminck and Laugier, the ‘¢ Galerie des 
Oiseaux’’ of M. Vieillot, the new edition of the ‘‘ Oiseaux d’ Al- 
lemagne” of M. Nauman, the Birds of the United States of 
Messrs Wilson, Ord, and Charles Bonaparte(1), the great 
works of M. Spix and of the prince Maximilian de Wied on 
the animals of Brazil, and to those of M. Ferussac on the Mol- 
lusca. The plates and zoological descriptions of the travels of 
Messrs Freycinet and Duperrey, given in the first by Messrs 
Quoy and Gaymard, and in the second by Messrs Lesson and 
Garnot, present, also, many new objects. ‘The same should 
be said of the animals of Java, by M. Horsfield. ‘Though ona 
smaller scale, new figures of rare species are to be found in the 
<¢ Memoires du Muséum,” in the ‘¢ Annales des Sciences Natu- 
relles,” in the different dictionaries of the natural sciences, in 
aA. Se ee lle a Se 


(1) The work of M. Audubon upon the Birds of North America, which sur- 
passes all others in magnificence, was unknown to me till after the whole of that 
part which treats of birds was printed. 


Vou. I.—(4) 


XXvi PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 


the Zoological Illustrations of M. Swainson, and in the Zoolo- 
gical Journal published by able naturalists in London. The 
Journals of the Lyceum of New York, and of the Academy of 
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, are not less precious; but in 
proportion as the taste for natural history becomes extended, 
and the more numerous the countries in which it is cultivated, 
the number of its acquisitions increase in geometrical pro- 
gression, and it becomes more and more difficult to collect all 
the writings of naturalists, and to complete the table of their 
results ; I rely therefore on the indulgence of those whose ob- 
servations may have escaped me, or whose works I may not 
have sufficiently studied. 

My celebrated friend and colleague M. Latreille, as in the 
first edition, having consented to take upon himself the im- 
portant and difficult subject of the Crustacea, Arachnides and 
Insects, will himself point out the path he has pursued; so 
that on these points I need say nothing more here. 


Jardin du Roi, October 1828. 


SYSTEMATIC INDEX. 


INTRODUCTION 
Of natural history 
Of living beings and or- 
ganization in general 
Division of organized be- 
ings into animals and 
vegetables 
Of the forms peculiar to 
the organic elements of 
the animal body, and 
of the principal com- 
binations of its chemi- 
cal elements 
Of the forces which act in 
the animal body 
Summary idea of the func- 
tions and organs of the 
bodies of animals, and 
of their various degrees 
of complication 
Of the intellectual func- 
tions of animals 
Of method as applied to 
the animal kingdom 
Distribution of the ani- 
mal kingdom into four 
great divisions 
OF THE VERTEBRATA 
IN GENERAL 
Subdivision of the Verte- 
brata into four classes 
MAMMALIA 
Orders of the Mammalia 
BIMANA 
Man 
Peculiar conforma- 
tion of Man 
Physical and moral 
development of 
; Man 


11 


13 


A8 


Varieties of the hu- 


man species 
QUADRUMANA 
Simia 
Simia proper 
Pithecus 
Hilobates 
Cercopithecus 
Semnopithecus 
Macacus 
Tnuus 
Cynocephalus 
Mandrills 
Monkeys of America 
Sapajous 
Mycetes 
Ateles 
Lagothrix 
Sajous 
Saimiri 
Sakis 
Callithrix 
Nocthora 
Ouistitis 
Midas 
Lemur 
Lemur proper 
Indris 
Loris 
Galago 
Tarsius 
CARNARIA 
CHEIROPTERA 
Vespertilio 
Pteropus 
Cephalotes 
Vespertilio proper 
Molossus 
Dinops 
Nyctinomus 
Noctilio 
Phyllostoma 
Megaderma 
Rhinolophus 
Nycteris 
Rhinopoma 


Ay ae ae eS” 


XXVIl 


SYSTEMATIC INDEX. 


Taphozous 
Mormoops 
Vespertilio 
Plecotus 
Nycticeus 
Galeopithecus 


INSECTIVORA 


Erinaceus 
Centenes 
Cladobates 
Sorex 

Mygale 
Chrysochloris 
Talpa 
Condylura 
Scalops 


CARNIVORA 


PLANTIGRADA 


Ursus 
Procyon 
Ailurus 
Ictides 
Nasua 
Meles 
Gulo 
Ratelus 


DIGITIGRADA 


Mustela : 
Putorius 
Mustela proper 
Mephitis 
Lutra 

Canis 
Canis proper 
Foxes 
Megalotis 

Viverra 
Viverra proper 
Genetta 
Paradoxurus 
Mangusta 
Ryzena 
Crossarchus 
Proteles 

Hyena 

Felis 


AMPHIBIA 


Phoca 
Phoca proper 
Stenorhynchus 
Pelagus 
Stemmatopus 
Macrorhinus 
Otaries 

Trichechus 


MARSUPIALIA 


Didelphis 
Didelphis proper 


82 
83 
83 
84 
84. 
84 
85 
85 
86 
87 
87 
88 


Chironectes 
Dasyurus 
Thylacinus 
Phascogale 
Dasyurus proper 
Perameles 
Phalangista 
Phalangista proper 
Petaurus 
Hypsiprymnus 
Macropus 
Koala 
Phascolomys 


RODENTIA 
Sciurus 
Sciurus proper 
Pteromys 
Cheiromys 
Mus 
Arctomys 
Spermophilus 
Myoxus 
Echimys 
Hydromys 
Capromys 
Mus proper 
Gerbillus 
Meriones 
Cricetus 
Arvicola 
Fiber 
Arvicola 
Georychus 
Otomys 
Dipus 
Helamys 
Spalax : 
Bathyergus 
Geomys 
Diplostoma 
Castor 
Myopotamus 
’ Hystrix 
Hystrix proper 
Atherurus 
Eretison 
Synetheres 
Lepus 
Lepus proper 
Lagomys 
Hydrocherus 
Cayia 
Kerodon 
Chloromys 
Celogenys 
EDENTATA 
TARDIGRADA 


Bradypus 


SYSTEMATIC INDEX. 


Acheus 160 
Bradypus 161 
Megatherium 162 
Megalonyx 162 
EpENTATA ORDINARIA 162 
Dasypus 162 
Cachicamus 163 
Apara 163 
Encoubertus 163 
Cabassous 164 
Priodon 164 
Clamyphorus 164. 

Orycteropus 165 

Myrmecophaga 165 

Manis 166 

MonoTREMATA 167 
Echidna 168 
Ornithorhynchus 168 

PACHYDERMATA 169 
PROBOSCIDIANA 170 
Elephas 171 
Mastodon 172 
PACHYDERMATA ORDI- 

NARIA ny fs: 

Hippopotamus hae 

Sus 174 
Sus proper 174 
Phacocherus 175 
Dicotyles 175 

Anoplotherium 176 

Rhinoceros 177 

Hyrax 178 

Palzeotherium 178 

Lophiodon 179 

Tapir 179 

SOLIPEDES 180 

Equus 180 

RUMINANTIA 182 

Without Horns. 

Camelus 184 
Camelus proper 184. 
Auchenia 185 

Moschus 185 

With Horns. 

Cervus 187 

Camelopardalis 190 

Antilope 19] 

Capra 198 

Ovis 199 

Bos 200 

CETACEA 202 
HERBIVORA 203 

Manatus 203 

Halicore 204 

Stellerus 204 

ORDINARIA 204 


XX1X 


Delphinus 206 
Delphinus proper 206 
Phocena 207 

Delphinapte- 
rus 209 
Hyperoodon 209 

Monodon 210 

Physeter 211 
Physeter 212 

Balena 212 
Baleznoptera 214 

Oviparous Vertebrata 215 
AVES 217 
ACCIPITRES 225 
DIURNE 225 

Vultur 226 
Vultur proper 226 
Cathartes 227 
Percnopterus 228 
Gypaetos 229 

Falco 229 

Nobiles 230 
Falco proper 230 
Hierofalco 219 

Ignobiles 23 
Aquila 233 

Aquila proper 233 
Halietus 235 
Pandion 236 
Circaetus 236 
Harpyia 237 
Morphnus 238 
Cymindis 239 
Astur 239 
Asturproper 239 
Nisus 240 
Milvus 241 
Milvus proper 241 
Pernis 242 
Buteo 242 
Circus 243 
Serpentarius 244, 
NOCTURNE 245 

Strix 245 
Otus 246 
Ulula 247 
Strix 247 
Syrnium 247 
Bubo 248 
Noctua 248 
Scops 250 

PASSERINA 251 
DENTIROSTRES 252 

Lanius 252 
Lanius proper 252 
Vanga 255 
Ocypterus 255 
Barita 256 


Chalybeus 256 


SYSTEMATIC INDEX. 


Psaris 
Graucalus 
Bethylus 
Falcunculus 
Pardalotus 
Muscicapa 
Tyrannus 
Muscipeta 
Platyrhynchus 
Muscicapa 
Gymnocephalus 
Chephalopterus 
Ampelis 
Ampelis 
Tersina 
Ceblepyris 
Bombycilla 
Procnias 
Procnias pro- 
per 
Casmarhyn- 
chus 
Gymnoderus 
Edolius 
Phibalura 
Tanagra 
Bulfinch Tanagers 


256 
257 
257 
257 
258 
258 
258 
259 
259 
260 
261 
262 
262 
262 
263 
263 
263 
264 


264 


264 
264 
265 
265 
265 
266 


Grossbeak Tanagers 266 


Tanagra proper 
Oriole Tanagers 
Cardinal Tanagers 


266 
266 
266 


Ramphoceline Tana- 


gers 
Turdus 
Turdus proper 
Grives 
Lamprotornis 
Turdoides 
Grallines 
Criniger 
Myothera 
Orthonyx 
Cinclus 
Philedon 
Eulabes 
Gracula 
Manorhina 
Pyrrhocorax 
Oriolus 
Gymnops 
Menura 
Motacilla 
Saxicola 
Sylvia 
Curruca 
Accentor 
Regulus 
Troglodytes 
Motacilla 
Motacilla pro- 


per 


267 | 


267 
267 
268 
270 
270 
270 
270 
270 
272 
272 
273 
274 
274 
276 
276 
276 
277 
277 
278 
278 
279 
279 
282 
283 
284 
284 


284 


Budytes 
Anthus 
Pipra 
Rupicola 
Calyptomenes 
Pipra proper 
Eurylaimus 
FISSIROSTRES 
Hirundo 
Cypselus 
Hirundo proper 
Caprimulgus 
Podargus 
CONIROSTRES 
Alauda 
Parus 
Parus proper 


Bearded Titmouse 


Remiz 
Emberiza 
Fringilla 

Ploceus 

Pyrgita 

Fringilla 

Carduelis 

Linaria 

Vidua 

Coccothraustes 

Pitylus 

Pyrrhula 
Loxia 
Corythus 
Colius 
Buphaga 
Cassicus 

Cassicus proper 

Icterus 

Xanthornus 

Oxyrhynchus 

Dacnis 
Sturnus 
Corvus 

Corvus proper 

Pica 

Garrulus 

Caryocatactes 

Temia 

Glaucopis 
Coracias 

Coracias proper 

Colaris 
Paradisza 

TENUIROSTRES 
Sitta 

Xenops 

Anabates 

Synallaxis 
Certhia 

Certhia proper 


SYSTEMATIC INDEX. 


Dendrocolaptes 315 
Tichodroma 315 
Nectarinia 316 
Diceum 316 
Melithreptus 317 
i Cinnyris 317 
Arachnothera 318 
Trochilus 318 
Trochilus proper 319 
Orthorhynchus 319 
Upupa 320 
Fregilus 320 
Upupa proper S21 
Promerops 321 
Epimachus 322 
SYNDACTYLE 323 
Merops 323 
Prionites 324 
Alcedo 324 
Ceyx 325 
Todus 325 
Buceros 326 
SCANSORIA 320 
Galbula 327, 
Galbula proper 327 
Jacamerops 328 
Picus 328 
Picoides 330 
Yunx 331 
Cuculus 331 
Cuculus proper 33 
Couas 333 
Centropus 333 
Courols 333 
Indicator 33 
Barbacous 334 
Malcoha 334 
Scythrops 334 
Bucco 335 
Barbicans 335 
Bucco proper 335 
Tamatia 336 
Trogon 336 
Crotophaga 337 
Ramphastos 337 
Ramphastos proper 338 
Pteroglossus 338 
Psittacus 338 
Ara 339 
Cornurus 33 
Cockatoos 340 
Psittacus proper 340 
Loris 341 
Paittaculus 341 
Péroquets a trompe 342 
Pezoporus 342 
Corythaix 343 
Musophaga 343 


XXXI1 

GALLINACEZ 343 
Alector 344 
Alector proper 345 
Ourax 345 
Penelope 346 
Ortalida 347 
Opisthocomus 347 
Pavo 347 
Lophophorus 348 
Meleagris 349 
Numida 349 
Phasianus 350 
Gallus 350 
Phasianus proper 351 
Houppiferes 302 
Tragopan 352 
Cryptonyx 352 
Tetrao 358 
Tetrao proper 353 
Lagopus 355 
Ganga 355 
Perdix 356 
Francolinus 356 

Perdix proper 356 
Coturnix 357 
Tridactylus 358 
Turnix 358 
Syrrhaptes 358 

Tinamus 359 
Columba 359 
Columbi-gallines 360 
Columba proper 360 
Vinago 362 
GRALLATORIA 363 
BREVIPENNES 363 
Struthio 364 
Casuarius 365 
PRESSIROSTRES 366 
Otis 367 
Charadrius 368 
CEdicnemus 368 
Charadrius proper 368 
Vanellus 369 
Squatarola 370 
Vanellus proper 370 
Hematopus 371 
Cursorius 371 
Cariama 372 
CULTIROSTRES 372 
Grus Se AS 
Psophia 373 
Grus proper 374 
Eurypyga 373 
Cancroma 375 
Ardea 376 
Ardea proper 376 
Crabeaters 376 
Onores 377. 


XXX SYSTEMATIC INDEX. 


Egrets 377 Podiceps 403 
Bitterns 377 Heliornis 404. 
Night Herons 378 Mergus 404 
Ciconia 378 Uria 405 
Mycteria 379 Cephus 405 
Scopus 380 Alca_ . 406 
Hane 380 Fratercula 406 
Drenine 380 Alca proper 406 
Tantal = Aptenodytes 407 
antalus 381 Aptenodytes proper 407 
Platalea 381 Catarrhactes 407 
LONGIROSTRES 382 Spheniscus 408 
Scolopax 383 LONGIPENNES 408 
Ibis: | 383 Procellaria 408 
Numenius 384 Procellaria proper 409 
Scolopax proper 385 Puffinus 410 
Rhynchea 386 Halodroma 410 
Limosa 387 Pachyptila 410 
Calidris 387 Diomedea Alt 
Arenaria 388 Larus Ata 
Pelidna 388 
Gakarli 389 Goelands 412 
Falcinellus 389 se vs ie 
Machetes 389 tercorarius 413 
Eurinorhynchus 390 Sterna — A13 
Phalaropus 390 Noddies 415 
Strepsilas 391 Rynchops 415 
Totanus 391 TOTIPALMAT 415 
Lobipes 393 Pelecanus 416 
Himantopus 393 Pelecanus proper 416 
Recurvirostra 394 Phalacrocorax 416 
MACRODACTYLI 394 Tachypetes 417 
Jacana 395 Sula 417 
Palamedea 396 Plotus Ake 
Chauna 396 Pheeton 418 
Megapodius 397 LAMELLIROSTRES 419 
Rallus 398 Anas 419 
Fulica 399 Cygnus 419 
Gallinula 399 yee ee 
Porphyto 389 OL Re oe 
ae oe tee 229 Cereopsis 421 
Chionis 400 Anas proper 422 
Oidemia 4.25 
Glareola 400 Clangula 423 
Pheenicopterus 401. Somateria 4.24 
PALMIPEDES 402. Rynchaspis 426 
BRACHYPTERE 402 Tadorna 426° 
Colymbus 403 Mergus 428 


oe 
+ 4 


INTRODUCTION. 


As correct ideas respecting natural history are not very 
generally formed, it appears necessary to begin by defining 
its peculiar object, and establishing rigorous limits between it 
and neighbouring sciences. 

In our language and in most others, the word NATURE is 
variously employed. At one time it is used to express the 
qualities a being derives from birth, in opposition to those it 
may owe to art; at another, the entire mass of beings which 
compose the universe; and at a third, the laws which govern 
those beings. It is in this latter sense particularly that we 
usually personify nature, and, through respect, use its name 
for that of its Creator. 

Physics, or Natural Philosophy, treats of the nature of these 
three relations, and is either general or particular. General 
physics examines abstractedly each of the properties of those 
movable and extended beings we call bodies. That branch 
of them styled Dynamics, considers bodies in mass; and pro- 
ceeding from a very small number of experiments, determines 
_ mathematically the laws of equilibrium, and those of motion 
and of its communication. Its different divisions are termed 
Statics, Hydrostatics, Hydrodynamics, Mechanics, &c. &c., 
according to the nature of the particular bodies whose motions 
it examines. Optics considers the particular motions of light, 
whose phenomena, which hitherto nothing but experiment has 
been able to determine, are becoming more numerous. 

Chemistry, another branch of general physics, exposes the 
laws by which the aay molecules of bodies act on each 

Vo. 1. —A 


2 INTRODUCTION. 


other; the combinations or separations which result from the 
general tendency of these molecules to re-unite; and the 
modifications which the various circumstances ‘capable of se- 
parating or approximating them produce on that tendency. It 
is purely a science of experiment, and is irreducible to calcu- 
lation. 

The theory of heat and that of electricity belong either to 
dynamics or chemistry, according to the point of view in 
which they are considered. © 

The ruling method in all the branches of general physics 
consists in isolating bodies, reducing them to their greatest 
simplicity, in bringing each of their properties separately into 
action, either by reflection or experiment, and by observing 
or calculating the results; and finally, in generalising and con- 
necting the laws of these properties, so as to form codes, 
and, if it were possible, to refer them to one single principle 
into which they might all be resolved. 

The object of Particular Physics, or of Natural History— 
for the terms are synonymous—is the special application of 
the laws recognised by the various branches of general phy- 
sics to the numerous and varied beings which exist in nature, 
in order to explain the phenomena | which each of them pre- 
sents. 

Within this extensive range, natebinatig also would be in- 
cluded; but that science, sufficiently elucidated by mechanics, 
and poinlainly subjected to its laws, employs methods, differ- 
ing too widely from those required by natural history, to per- 
mit it to be cultivated by the students of the latter. Fi 

Natural history, then, is confined to objects which do not — 
allow of exact calculation, nor of precise measurement ‘in all 
their parts. Meteorology also is substracted from it and united 
to general physics; so that, properly speaking, it considers only 
inanimate bodies called minerals, and the different kinds of 
living beings, in all of which we may observe the effects, more 
or less various, of the laws of motion and chemical attraction, 
and of all the other causes analysed by general physics. 

Natural history, in strictness, should employ similar methods 
with the general sciences; and it does so, im fact, whenever the 


INTRODUCTION. 3 


objects it examines are sufliciently simple to allow it. This, 
however, is but very rarely the case. 

An essential difference between the general sciences and 
natural history is, that in the former, phenomena are examin- 
ed, whose conditions are all regulated by the examiner, in 
order, by their analysis, to arrive at general laws; whereas 
in the latter, they take place under circumstances beyond the 
control of him who studies them for the purpose of discover- 
ing amid the complication, the effects of known general laws. 
He is not, like the experimenter, allowed to subtract them sue- 
cessively from. each condition, and to reduce the problem to 
its elements—he is compelled to take it in its entireness, with 
all its conditions at once, and can perform the analysis only in 
thought. Suppose, for example, we attempt to insulate the 
numerous phenomena which compose the life of any of the 
higher orders of animals; a single one being suppressed, every 
vestige of life is a thane, 

Dynamics have thus nearly become a science of pure caleu- 
lation; chemistry is still a science of pure experiment; and 
natural history, in a great number of its branches, will long 
remain one of pure observation. 

These three terms sufficiently designate the methods em- 
ployed in the three branches of the natural sciences; but in 
establishing between them very different degrees of certitude, 
they indicate, at the same time, the point to which they should 
incessantly tend, in order to attain nearer and nearer to per- 
fection. 

Calculation, if we may so express it, thus commands nature, 
and determines her phenomena more exactly than observation 
can make them known; experiment compels her to unveil; 
‘while observation pries into her secrets when refractory, ihe 
endeavours to surprise her. 

There is, however, a principle peculiar to natur al history, 
which it uses with advantage on many occasions; .it is that of 
the conditionsof existence, commonly styled jinal causes. As 
nothing can exist without the re-union of those conditions 
which render its existence possible, the component parts of 
each being must be so arranged as to render possible the whole 


4 INTRODUCTION. 


being, not only with regard to itself but to its surrounding 
relations. ‘The analysis of these conditions frequently con- 
ducts us to general laws, as certain as those that are derived 
from calculation or experiment. 

It is only when all the laws of general physics and those 
which result from the conditions of existence are exhausted, 
that we are reduced to the simple laws of observation. 

The most effectual method of obtaining these, is that of 
comparison. ‘This consists in successively observing the same 
bodies in the different positions in which nature places them, or 
in a mutual comparison of different bodies; until we have 
ascertained invariable relations between their structures and 
the phenomena they exhibit. ‘These various bodies are kinds 
of experiments ready prepared by nature, who adds to or de- 
ducts from each of them different parts, just as we might wish 
to do in our laboratories ; showing us, herself, at the same time 
their various results. 

In this way we finally succeed in establishing certain laws 
by which these relations are governed, and which are em-. 
ployed like those that are determined by the general sciences. 

The incorporation of these laws of observation with the 
general Jaws, either directly or by the principle of the con- 
ditions of existence, would complete the system of the natural 
sciences, in rendering sensible in all its parts the mutual in- 
fluence of every being. ‘To this end, should those who culti- 
vate these sciences direct all their efforts. 

All researches of this nature, however, pre-suppose means 
of distinguishing clearly, and causing others to distinguish, the 
bodies they are occupied with; otherwise we should be con- 
tinually confounding them. Natural. history then should be 
based on what is called a system of natures or a great cata- 
logue in which all created beings have suitable names, may be 
recognised by distinctive characters, and be arranged in divi- 
sions and subdivisions, themselves named and characterised, 
in which they may be found. 

In order that each being may be recognised in this catalogue, 
it must be accompanied by its character: habits or properties 


INTRODUCTION. 5 


which are but momentary cannot, then, furnish characters— 
they must be drawn from the conformation. 

There is scarcely a single being which has a simple charac- 
ter, or can be recognised by one single feature of its conforma- 
tions a union of several of these traits are almost always re- 
quired to distinguish one being from those that surround it, 
who also have some but not all of them, or who have them 
combined with others of which the first is destitute. The 
more numerous the beings to be distinguished, the greater 
should be the number of traits; so that to distinguish an indi- 
vidual being from all others, a complete description of it should 
enter into its character. 

It is to avoid this inconvenience, that divisions and subdi- 
visions have been invented. A certain number only of neigh- 
bouring beings are compared with each other, and their cha- 
racters need only to express their differences, which, by the 
supposition itself, are the least part of their conformation. 
Such a re-union is termed a genus. 

The same inconvenience would be experienced in distin- 
guishing genera from each other, were it not for the repetition 
of the operation in uniting the adjoining genera, so as to form 
an order, the orders to form a class, &c. Intermediate sub- 
divisions may also be established. 

This scaffolding of divisions, the superior of which contain 
the inferior, is called a method. It isin some respects a sort of 
dictionary, in which we proceed from the properties of things 
to arrive at their names; being the reverse of the common 


ones, in which we proceed from the name to arrive at the. 


property. 

When the method is good, it does more than teach us names. 
If the subdivisions have not been established arbitrarily, but 
are based on the true fundamental relations, on the essential 
resemblances of beings, the method is the surest means of re- 
ducing the properties of beings to general rules, of expressing 
them in the fewest wor S and of stamping them on the me- 
mory. 

To render it such, we cin an assiduous comparison of 
beings, directed by the principle of the subordination of cha- 


6 INTRODUCTION. 


racters, which is itself derived from that of the, conditions of 
existence. The parts of a being possessing a mutual adapta- 
tion, some traits of character exclude others, while on the 
contrary, there are others that require them. When, there- 
fore, we perceive such or such traits in a being, we can caleu- 
late before hand those that co-exist in it, or those that are 
incompatible with them. The parts, the properties, or the 
traits of conformation, which have the greatest number of 
these relations of incompatibility or of co-existence with others, 
or, in other words, that exercise the most marked influence 
upon the whole of the being, are called the amportant charac- 
ters, dominating characters; the others are the subordinate 
characters, all varying in degree. 

This influence of characters is sometimes determined ration- 
ally, by the consideration of the nature of the organ. When 
this is impracticable, we have recourse to simple observations 
and a sure mark by which we may recognise the important 
characters, and one which is drawn from their own nature, is 
their superior constancy, and that in a long series of different 
beings, approximated according to their degrees of similitude, 
these characters are the last to vary. That they should be 
preferred for distinguishing the great divisions, and that in 
proportion as we descend to the inferior subdivisions, we can 
also descend to subordinate and variable characters, is a rule 
resulting equally from their influence and constancy. 

There can be. but one perfect method, which is the natural 
method. We thus name.an arrangement in which beings of the 
same genus are placed nearer to each other than to those of the 
other genera; the genera of the same order nearer than those 
of the other orders, &c. &c. This method is the ideal to 
which natural history should tend; for it is evident that if we 
can reach it, we shall have the exact and complete expression 
of all nature. In fact, each being is determined by its resem- 
blance to others, and difference from them; and all these rela- 
tions would be fully given by the arrangement in question. 
In a word, the natural method would be the whole science, 
and every step towards it tends to advance the science to per- 
fection. ; 


INTRODUCTION. | 7 


Life being the most important of all the properties of be- 


ings, and the highest of all characters, it is not surprising that , 


it has in all ages been made the most general principle of dis- 
tinction; and that natural beings have always been separated 
into two immense divisions, the wing and the inanimate. 


Of Living Beings, and Organization in general. 


If, in order to obtain a correct idea of the essence of life, we 
consider it in those beings in which its effects are the most 


simple, we quickly perceive that it consists in the faculty pos- 


sessed by certain corporeal combinations, of continuing for a 


time and under a determinate form, by constantly attracting 


into their composition a part of surrounding substances, and 
rendering to the elements, portions of their own. 

- Life then isa vortex, more or less rapid, more or less com- 
plicated, the direction of which is invariable, and which always 
carries along molecules of similar kinds, but into which indi- 
vidual molecules are continually entering, and from which they 
are continually departing; so that the form of a living body is 
more essential to it than its matter. 

As long as this motion subsists, the body in which it takes 
place is livine—c¢ dives. When it finally ceases, 2¢ dies. 
After death, the elements which compose it, abandoned to the 
ordinary chemical aflinities, soon separate, from which, more 
or less quickly, results the dissolution of the once living body. 
It was then by the vital motion that its dissolution was arrest- 
ed, and its elements were held in a temporary union. 

All living bodies,die after a certain period, whose extreme 
limit is fixed for each species, and death appears to be a ne- 
cessary consequence of life, which, by its own action, insensi- 
bly alters the structure of the body, so as to render its conti- 
nuance impossible. 

In fact, the living body undergoes gradual, but continual 
changes, during the whole term of its existence. At first, it 
increases in diensions, according to proportions, and within 
limits, fixed for each species and for each one of its parts; it 
then augments in density in the most of its parts:—it is this 


ee ee ee a 


ed 


8 INTRODUCTION. 


second kind of change that appears to be the cause of natural 


. death. 


If we examine the various living bodies more closely, we 
find they possess a common structure, which a little reflection 
soon causes us to perceive is essential to a vortex such as the 
vital motion. 

Solids, it is plain, are necessary to these bodies, for the 
maintenance of their forms; and fluids for the conservation of 
motion in them. ‘Their tissue, accordingly, is composed of 
network and plates, or of fibres and solid lamin, within whose 


interstices are contained the fluids; it is in these fluids that 


the motion is most continued and extended. Foreign sub- 
stances penetrate the body and unite with them; they nourish 
the solids by the interposition of their molecules, and also de- 
tach from them those that are superfluous. It is in a liquid 
or gaseous form that the matters to be exhaled traverse the 
pores of the living body; but in return, it is the solids which 
contain the fluids, and by their contraction communicate to 
them part of their motion. 

This mutual action of the fluids and solids, this transition of 
molecules, required considerable affinity in their chemical 
composition ; and such is the fact—the solids of organized bo- 
dies being mostly composed of elements easily convertible into 
fluids or gases. 

The motion of the fluids needing also a constantly repeated 
action on the part of the solids, and communicating one to 
them, required in the latter both flexibility and dilatability; 
and accordingly we find this character nearly general in alt 
organized solids. 

This structure, common to all living bodies; this areolar tis- 
sue, whose more or less flexible fibres or lamine intercept fluids 
more or less abundant; constitutes what is called the organt- 
zation. As a consequence of what we have said, it follows, 
that life can be enjoyed by organized bodies only. 

Organization, then, results from a great variety of arrange- 
ments, which are all conditions of life; and it is easy to con- 
ceive, that if its effect be to alter either of these conditions, so 


INTRODUCTION, . 
as to arrest even one of the partial motions of which it is com- 
posed, the general movement of life must cease. 

Every organized body, independently of the qualities com- 
mon to its tissue, has a form peculiar to itself, not merely ge- 
neral and external, but extending to the detail of the structure 
of each of its parts; and it is upon this form, which determines 
the particular direction of each of the partial movements that 
take place in it, that depends the complication of the general 
movement of its life—it constitutes its species and renders it 
what itis. Each part co-operates in this general movement 
by a peculiar action, and experiences from it particular effects, 
so that in every being life is a whole, resulting from the mu- 
tual action and re-action of all its parts. 

Life, then, in general, pre-supposes organization in gene- 
ral, and the life proper to each individual being pre-supposes 
an organization peculiar to that being, just as the movement 
of a clock pre-supposes the clock; and accordingly we behold 
life only in beings that are organized and formed to enjoy it, 
and all the efforts of philosophy have never been able to dis- 
cover matter in the act of organization, neither per se, nor by 
any external cause. In fact, life exercising upon the elements 
which at every moment form part of the living body, and 
upon those which it attracts to it, an action contrary to that 
which, without it, would be produced by the usual chemical 
affinities, it seems impossible that it can be produced by these 
affinities, and yet we know of no other power in nature capa- 
ble of re-uniting previously separated molecules. 

The birth of organized beings is, therefore, the greatest 
mystery of the organic economy and of all nature: we see 
them developed, but never being formed; nay more, all those 
whose origin we can trace, have at first been attached to a 
body similar in form to their own, but-which was developed 
before them—in a word, to a parent. So long as the offspring 
has no independent existence, but participates in that of its 
parent, it is called a germ. es 

The place to which the germ is attached, and the cause 
which detaches it’and gives it an indépendent jite; vary 3. but 

Von. L.—B 


10 INTRODUCTION. 


this primitive adhesion to a similar being, is a rule without 
exception. The separation of the germ is called generation. 

Every organized being re-produces others that are similar 
to itself, otherwise, death being a necessary consequence of 
life, the species would become extinct. 

Organized beings have even the faculty of reproducing, m 
degrees varying with the species, particular parts of which 
they may have been deprived—this is called the power of re- 
production. 

The development of organized beings is more or less rapid, 
and more or less extended, as circumstances are more or less 
favourable. Heat, the abundance and species of nutriment, 
with other causes, exercise great influence, and this influence 
may extend to the whole body in general, or to certain organs 
in particular: thence arises the impossibility of a perfect 
similitude between the offspring and parent. 

Differences of this kind, between organized beings, form 
what are termed varieties. 

There is no proof, that all the differences which now dis- 
tinguish organized beings, are such as may have been pro- 
duced by circumstances. All that has been advanced upon 
this subject is hypothetical. Experience, on the contrary, ap- 
pears to prove, that, in the actual state of the globe, varieties 
are confined within rather narrow limits, and go back as far 
as we may, we still find those limits the same. 

We are thus compelled to admit of certain forms, which, 
from the origin of things, have perpetuated themselves with- 
out exceeding these limits, and every being appertaining to 
one or other of these forms, constitutes what is termed a spe- 
cies. Varieties are accidental subdivisions of species. 

Generation being the only means of ascertaining the limits 
to which varieties may extend, species should be defined, the 
re-union of individuals descended one from the other, or from 
common parents, or from such as resemble them, as strongly 
as they resemble each other. But although this definition is 
strict, it will be seen that its application to particular indivi- 
duals may be very diflicult, where the necéssary experiments 
have not been made. : 


INTRODUCTION. 11 


Thus then it stands—absorption, assimilation, exhalation, 
development and generation are functions common to all liv- 
ing bodies; birth and death the universal limits of their exist- 
ence; anareolar, contractile tissue, containing within its lamin 
fluids or gases in motion, the general essence of its struc- 
ture; substances almost all susceptible of conversion into fluids 
or gases, and combinations capable of an easy and mutual 
transformation, the basis of their chemical composition. Fixed 
forms that are perpetuated by generation distinguish their 
species, determine the complication of the secondary functions 
proper to each of them, and assign to them the parts they are 
to play on. the great stage of the universe. ‘These forms are 
neither produced nor changed by their own agency—life sup- 
poses their existence, its flame can only be kindled in an 
organization already prepared, and the most profound medita- 
tion and lynx-eyed and delicate observation can penetrate no 
farther than the mystery of the pre-existence of germs. 


Division of Organized Beings into Animals and Vegetables. 


Living or organized beings have always been subdivided 
into animate beings, that is, such as are possessed of sense and 
motion, and into inanimate beings, which are deprived of 
both these faculties, and are reduced to the simple faculty of 
vegetating. Although the leaves of several plants shrink 
from the touch, and the roots are steadily directed towards 
moisture, the leaves to light and air, and though parts of 
vegetables appear. to oscillate without any apparent external 
cause, still these various motions have too little similarity to 
those of animals, to enable us to find in them any proofs of 
perception or will. 


The spontaneity in the motions of animals required. essen-_ 


tial modifications even in their purely vegetative organs. 
Their roots not penetrating the earth, it was necessary they 
should be able to place within themselves a supply of aliment, 
and to carry its reservoir along with them. Hence is derived 
the first character of animals, or their alimentary canal, from 


12 INTRODUCTION. 


which their nutritive fluid penetrates all other parts through 
pores or vessels, which are a kind of internal roots. 

The organization of this cavity and its appurtenances re- 
quired varying, according to the nature of the aliment, and 
the operation it had to undergo, before it could furnish juices 
fit for absorption; whilst the air and earth present to ve- 
getablesnought but elaborated juices ready for absorption. 

The animal, whose functions are more numerous and varied 
than those of the plant, consequently necessitated an organiza- 
tion much more complete; besides this, its parts not being 
capable of preserving one fixed relative position, there were 
no means by which external causes could produce the motion 
of their fluids, which required an exemption from atmospheric 
influence; from this originates the second character of animals, 
their circulating system, one less essential than that of diges- 
tion, since in the more simple animals it is unnecessary. ‘The 
animal functions required organic systems, not needed by ve- 
getables—that of the muscles for voluntary motion, and nerves 
for sensibility ; and these two systems, like the rest, acting only 
through the motions and transformations of the fluids, it was 
necessary that these should be most numerous in animals, and 
that the chemical composition of the animal body be more com- 
plex than that of the plant; and so it is, for one substance more 
(azote) enters into it as an essential element, whilst in plants 
it is a mere accidental junction with the three other general 
elements of organization, oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon. 
This then is the third character of animals. 

From the sun and atmosphere, vegetables receive for their 
nutrition water, which is composed of oxygen and hydrogen ; 
air, which contains oxygen and azote ; and carbonic acid, which 
is a combination of oxygen and carbon. To extract their 
own composition from these aliments, it was necessary they 
should retain the hydrogen and carbon, exhale the super- 
fluous oxygen and absorb little or no azote. Such, in fact, is 
vegetable life, whose essential function is the exhalation of 
oxygen, which is effected through the agency of light. 

Animals also derive nourishment, directly or indirectly, 
from the vegetable itself, in which hydrogen and carbon form 


- INTRODUCTION. 13 


the principal parts. To assimilate them to their own compo- 
sition, they must get rid of the superabundant hydrogen and 
carbon in particular, and accumulate more azote, which is 
performed through the medium of respiration, by which the 
oxygen of the atmosphere combines with the hydrogen and 
carbon of their blood, and is exhaled with them in the form 
of water and carbonic acid. ‘The azote, whatever part of the 
body it may penetrate, seems always to remain there. 

The relations of vegetables and animals to the surrounding 
atmosphere are therefore in an inverse ratio—the former re- 
ject water and carbonic acid, while the latter produce them. 
The essential function of the animal body is respiration, it is 
that which in a manner animalizes it, and we shall see that 
the animal functions are the more completely exercised, in 
proportion to the greatness of the powers of respiration pos- 
sessed by the animal. This difference of relations constitutes 
the fourth character of animals. 


Of the forms peculiar fo the Organic Elements of the Ani- 
mal Body, and of the principal combinations of its Che- 
mical Elements. 


An areolar tissue and three chemical elements are essential 
to every living body; there is a fourth element peculiarly re- 
quisite to that of an animal; but this tissue is composed of 
variously formed meshes, and these elements are variously 
combined. 

There are three kinds of organic materials or forms of tex- 
ture, the cellular membrane, the muscular fibre, and the me- 
dullary matter, and to each form belongs a peculiar combina- 
tion of chemical elements, as well as a particular function. 

The cellular substance is composed of an infinity of small 
fibres and lamin, fortuitously disposed, so as form little cells 
that communicate with each other. It is a kind of sponge, 
which has the same form as the body, all other parts of which 
traverse or fill it, and contracting indefinitely, on the removal 
of the causes of its tension. It is this power that retains the 
body in a given form and within certain limits. | 


H 
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} 
| 
} 


14 INTRODUCTION. . 


When condensed, this substance forms those laminz called 
membranes ; the membranes, rolled into cylinders, form those 
more or less ramified tubes named vessels ; the filaments called 
fibres are resolved into it, and bones are nothing but the same 
thing indurated by the accumulation of earthy particles. 

The cellular substance consists of a combination well known 
as gelatine, characterised by its solubility in boiling water, 
and forming, when cold, a trembling jelly. 

We have not yet been able to reduce the medullary matter 
to its organic molecules; to the naked eye, it appears like a 
sort of soft bouillie, consisting of excessively small globules; it 
is not susceptible of any apparent motion, but in it resides the 
admirable power of transmitting to the Me the impressions 
of the external senses, and conveying to the muscles the orders 
of the will. It constitutes the greater portion of the brain and 
the spinal marrow, and the nerves which are distributed to all 
the sentient organs are, essentially, mere fasciculi of its rami- 
fications. 

The fleshy or muscular fibre is a peculiar sort of filament, 
whose distinctive property, during life, is that of contracting 
when touched or struck, or when it experiences the action 
of the will through the medium of the nerve. 

The muscles, direct organs of voluntary motion, are mere 
bundles of fleshy fibres. All vessels and membranes which 
have any kind of compression to execute are armed with these 
fibres. They are always intimately connected with nervous 
threads, but those which belong to the purely vegetative func- 
tions contract, without the knowledge of the mx, so that, al- 
though the will is truly a means of causing the fibres to act, 
it is neither general nor unique. 

The fleshy fibre has for its base a particular substance 
called fibrine, which is insoluble in boiling water, and which 
seems naturally to assume this filamentous disposition. 

The nutritive fluid or the blood, such as we find it in the 
vessels of the circulation, is not only mostly resolvable into the 
general elements of the animal body, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen 
and azote, but it also contains fibrine and gelatine, almost 
prepared to contract and to assume the forms of membranes 


INTRODUCTION. 15 


or filaments peculiar to them, all that is ever wanted for 
their manifestation being a little repose. The blood also con- 
tains another combination, which is found in many animal fluids 


and solids, called albwmen, whose characteristic property is — 


that of coagulating in boiling water. Besides these, the blood 
contains almost every element which may enter into the com- 
position of the body of each animal, such as the dime and 
phosphorus which harden the bones of vertebrated animals, 
the iron from which it and various other parts receive their 
colour, the fat or animal oil which is deposited in the cellular 
substance to supple it, &e. All the fluids and solids of the 
animal body are composed of chemical elements found in the 
blood, and it is only by possessing a few elements more or 
less, that each of them is distinguished; whence it is plain, that 
their formation entirely depends on the subtraction of the 
whole or part of one or more elements of the blood, and in 
some few cases, on the addition of some element from else- 
where. 

These operations, by which the blood nourishes the fluid or 
solid matter of all parts of the body, may assume the general 
name of secretions. This name, however, is often appropriated 
exclusively to the production of liquids; while that of natri- 
tion is more especially applied to the formation and deposition 
of the matter necessary to the growth and conservation of the 
solids. 

The composition of every solid organ, of every fluid is pre- 
cisely such as fits it for the part it is to play, and it preserves 
it as long as health remains, because the blood renews it as 
fast as it becomes changed. The blood itself by this continued 
contribution is changed every moment, but is restored by di- 
gestion, which renews its matter by respiration, which delivers 
it from superfluous carbon and hydrogen, by perspiration and 
various other excretions, that relieve it from other AUD ETEUUR 
dant principles. 

These perpetual changes of chemical composition form a 
part of the vital vortex, not less essential than the visible 
movements and those of translation. The object of the latter 
is, in fact, but to produce the former. 


16 INTRODUCTION. 


Of the forces which act in the Animal Body. 


The muscular fibre is not only the organ of voluntary mo- 
tion, for we have just seen that it is also the most powerful of 
the agents employed by nature to produce those transmutations 
so necessary to vegetative life. Thus the fibres of the intes- 
tines produce the peristaltic motion, which causes the alimen- 
tary matter therein contained to pass through them; the fibres 
of the heart and arteries are the agents of the circulation and 
through it of all the secretions, &c. 

Volition contracts the fibre through the medium of the 
nerve; and the involuntary fibres, such as those we have men- 
tioned, being also animated by them, it is probable that these 
nerves are the cause of their contraction. 

All contraction, and generally speaking, every change of 
dimension in nature, is produced by a change of chemical 
composition, though it consist merely in the flowing or ebbing 
of an imponderable fluid, such as caloric; thus also are pro- 
duced the most violent movements known upon earth, explo- 
sions, &c. ) 

There is, consequently, good reason to suppose that the 
nerve acts upon the fibre through the medium of an impon- 
derable fluid, and the more so, as it is proved that this action 
is not mechanical. 

The medullary matter of the whole nervous system is ho- 
mogeneous, and must be able to exercise its peculiar func- 
tions wherever it is found; all its ramifications are abundantly 
supplied with blood vessels. 

All the animal fluids bemg drawn from the blood by secre- 
tion, we can have no doubt that such is the case with the ner- 
vous fluid, and that the medullary matter secretes it. 

On the other hand, it is certain that the medullary matter 
is the sole conductor of the nervous fluid; all the other or- 


- ganic elements restrain.and arrest it, as glass arrests electri- 


city. R 
The external causes which are capable of producing sensa- 
tions or causing contractions of the fibre are all chemical 


INTRODUCTION. ef 


agents, capable of effecting decompositions, such as light, 
caloric, the salts, odorous vapours, percussion, compression, 
&e. &e. 

It would appear then that these causes act on the nervous 
fluid chemically, and by changing its composition; this ap- 
pears the more likely, as their action becomes weakened by 
continuance, as if the nervous fluid needed the resumption of 
its primitive composition, to fit it for a fresh alteration. 

The external organs of the senses may be compared. to 
sieves, which allow nothing to pass through to the nerve; ex- 
cept that species of agent which should affect it in that par- 
ticular place, but which often accumulates it so as to increase 
its effect. The tongue has its spongy papillae which imbibe 
saline solutions; the ear, a gelatinous pulp which is violently 
agitated by sonorous vibrations; the eye, transparent lenses 
which concentrate the rays of light, &c. &c. 

It is probable, that what are styled irritants, or the agents 
which occasion the contractions of the fibre, exert this ac- 
tion by producing on the fibre, by the nerve, a similar effect 
to that produced on it by the will; that is, by altering the ner- 
vous fluid, in the way that is requisite to change the dimen- 
sions of the fibre which it influences: but with this process 
the will has nothing to do, and very often the ME is entirely 
ignorant of it. The muscles separated from the body pre- 
serve their susceptibility of irritation, as long as the portion 
of the nerve that remains with them preserves the power of 
acting on them—with this phenomenon the will has evidently 
no connexion. 

The nervous fluid is altered by muscular irritation, as well 
as by sensibility and voluntary motion, and the same necessity 
exists for the re-establishment of its primitive composition. 

The transmutations necessary to vegetable life are occasioned 
by irritants; the aliment irritates the intestine, the blood irri- 
tates the heart, &c. These movements are all independent 
of the will, apd generally (while in health) take place without 
the knowledge of the mE; in several par ts, the nerves that 
produce them are even differently arranged from those that 
are appropriated to sensation or dependent on the will, and 

Vou. 1.—C 


a I ee ee 


SS ER. 


ee 


ee: 


rs 


18 INTRODUCTION. 


the very object of this difference appears to be the securing 
of this independence. 

The nervous functions, that is, sensibility and muscular ir- 
ritability, are so much the stronger at every point, in pro- 
portion as their exciting cause is abundant; and as this cause 
or the nervous fluid is produced by secretion, its abundance 
must be in proportion to the quantity of medullary or secre- 
tory matter, and the amount of blood received by the latter. 

In animals that have a circulating system, the blood is pro- 
pelled through the arteries which convey it to its destined 
parts, by means of their irritability and that of the heart. If 
these arteries be irritated, they act more strongly, and pro- 
pel a greater quantity of blood; the nervous fluid becomes 
more abundant and augments the local sensibility; this, in its 
turn, augments the irritability of the arteries, so that this mu- 
tual action may sometimes be carried to a great extent. It is 
called orgasm, and when it becomes painful and permanent, 
inflammation. The irritation may also originate in the nerve 
when exposed to the influence of acute sensations. 

This mutual influence of the nerves and fibres, either in- 
testinal or arterial, is the real spring of vegetative life in ani- 
mals. 

As each external sense is permeable only by such or such 
sensible substances, so each internal organ may be accessible 
only to this or that agent of irritation. Thus, mercury irri- 
tates the salivary glands, cantharides irritate the bladder, &c. 
These agents are called specifics. 

The nervous system being homogeneous and continuous, 
local sensations and irritation debilitate the whole, and each 
function, by excessive action, may weaken the others. Ex- 
cess of aliment weakens the power of thought, while long con- 
tinued meditation impairs that of digestion, Cc. 

Excessive local irritation will enfeeble the whole body, as 
if all the powers of life were concentrated in one single point. 

A second irritation produced at another part may diminish, 
or divert, as it is termed, the first: such is the effect of blis- 
ters, purgatives, &e. bah hs 

Brief as our sketch has been, it is’suflicient to establish the 


INTRODUCTION. 19 


possibility of accounting for all the phenomena of physical life, 
from the properties it presents, by the simple admission of a 
fluid such as we have defined. 


Summary idea of the Functions and Organs of the Bodies of 
Animals, and of their various degrees of Complication. 


After what we have stated respecting the organic elements 
of the body, its chemical principles and acting powers, no- 
thing remains but to give a summary idea of the functions of 
which life is composed, and of their appropriate organs. 

The functions of the animal body are divided into two 
classes : 

The animal functions, or those proper to at that is to 
say, sensibility and voluntary motion. 

The vital, vegetative functions, or those common to animals 
and vegetables, i. e., nutrition and generation. 

Sensibility resides in the nervous system. 

The most general external sense is that of touch; it is seated 
in the skin, a membrane that envelopes the whole body, which 
is traversed in every direction by nerves whose extreme fila- 
ments expand on the surface into papille, and are protected 
by the epidermis and other insensible teguments, such as hairs, 
scales, &c. &c. ‘Taste and smell are merely delicate states of 
the sense of touch, for which the skin of the mouth and nos- 
trils is particularly organized: the first, by means of papill 
more convex and spongy; the second, by its extreme delicacy 
and the multiplication of its ever humid surface. We have 
already spoken of the ear and the eye. ‘The organ of gene- 
ration is endowed with a sixth sense, seated in its internal 
skin; that of the stomach and intestines declares the state of 
those viscera by peculiar sensations. In fine, sensations more 
or less painful may originate in every part of the body 
through accident or disease. 

Many animals have neither ears nor nostrils, several are 
without eyes, and some are reduced to the single sense of 
touch, which is never absent. 


20 INTRODUGTION. 


The action received by the external organs is continued by 
the nerves to the central masses of the nervous system, which, 
in the higher animals, consists of the brain and spinal mar- 
row. ‘The more elevated the nature of the animal, the more 
voluminous is the brain and the more is the sensitive power 
concentrated there; the lower the animal, the more the me- 
dullary masses are dispersed, and in the most imperfect genera, 
the entire nervous substance seems to melt into the general 
matter of the body. 

That part of the body which contains the brain and princi- 
pal organs of sense, is called the head. j 

When the animal has received a sensation, and this has oc- 
casioned volition: it is by the nerves, also, that this volition is 
transmitted to the muscles. 

The muscles are bundles of fleshy fibres whose contractions 
produce all the movements of the animal body. ‘The exten- 
sion of the limbs and every elongation, as well as every flexion 
and abbreviation of parts, are the effects of muscular contrac- 
tion. The muscles of every animal are arranged, both as re- 
spects number and direction, according to the movements it 
has to make; and when these motions require force, the 
muscles are inserted into hard parts, articulated one over an- 
other, and may be considered as so many levers. These parts 
are called bones in the vertebrated animals, where they are in- 
ternal, and are formed of a gelatinous mass, penetrated by par- 
ticles of phosphate of lime. In the Mollusca, the Crustacea, 
and Insects, where they are external, and composed of a cal- 
careous or horny substance that exudes between the skin and 
epidermis, they are called shells, crusts and scales. 

The fleshy fibres are attached to the hard parts by means 
of other fibres of a gelatinous nature, which seem to be a con- 
tinuation of the former, constituting what are called tendons. 

The configuration of the articulating surfaces of the hard 
parts limits their motion, which are also restrained by cords or 
envelopes, attached to the sides of the articulations, called 
ligaments. 

It is from the various arrangements of this bony and mus- 
cular apparatus, and the form and proportion of the members 


INTRODUCTION. 21 


therefrom resulting, that animals are capable of executing the 
innumerable movements that enter into walking and leaping, 
flight and natation. 

The muscular fibres, appropriated to digestion and the cir- 
culation, are independent of the will; they receive nerves, 
however, but the chief of them are subdivided and arranged 
in a manner which seems to have for its object their indepen- 
dence of the me. It is only in paroxysms of the passions and 
other powerful affections of the soul, which break down these 
barriers, that the empire of the mx is perceptible, and even 
then it is almost always to disorder these vegetative functions. 
It is, also, in a state of sickness only that these functions are 
accompanied with sensations: digestion is usually performed 
unconsciously. 

The aliment divided by the jaws and teeth, or sucked up 
when liquids constitute the food, is swallowed by the muscu- 
lar movements of the hinder parts of the mouth and throat, 
and deposited in the first portions of the alimentary canal that 
is usually expanded into one or more stomachs; there it is 
penetrated with juices fitted to dissolve it. Passing thence 
through the rest of the canal, it receives other juices destined 
to complete its preparation. ‘The parietes of the canal are 
pierced with pores which extract from this alimentary mass 
its nutritious portion; the useless residuum is rejected as ex- 
crement. 

The canal in which this first act of nutrition is performed, 
is a continuation of the skin, and is composed of similar lay- 
ers; even the fibres that encircle it are analogous to those 
which adhere to the internal surface of the skin, called the 
fleshy pannicle. Throughout the whole interior of this canal 
there is a transudation which has some connexion with the cu- 
taneous perspiration, and which becomes more abundant when 
the latter is suppressed; the absorption of the skin is even 
very analogous to that of the intestines. It is in the lowest 
order of animals that the excrements are rejected by the 
mouth, their intestines resembling a sac, with but the one 
opening. 

Even among those where the intestinal canal has two ori- 


a al tar a a a a 


22 INTRODUCTION. 


fices, there are many in which the nutritive juices being ab- 
sorbed by the parietes of the intestine, are immediately dif- 
fused throughout the whole spongy substance of the body: 
such, it would appear, is the case with all Insects. But from 
the Arachnoides and Worms upwards, the nutritive fluid circu- 
lates in a system of closed vessels, whose ultimate ramifications 
alone dispense its molecules to the parts that are nourished by 
it; the vessels that convey it are called arteries, those that 
bring it back to the centre of the circulation, veins. The 
circulating vortex is here simple, and there double and even 
triple (including that of the vena porte); the rapidity of. its 
motion is often assisted by the contractions of a certain fleshy 
apparatus called a heart, which is placed at one or the other 
centres of circulation, and sometimes at both of them. 

In the red-blooded vertebrated animals, the nutritive fluid 
exudes from the intestines, white or transparent, and is then 
termed chyle; it is poured into the veins where it mingles 
with the blood, by two peculiar vessels called lacteals. Ves- 
sels similar to these lacteals, and forming with them an arrange- 
ment called the lymphatic system, also convey to the venous 
blood the residue of the nutrition of the parts and the pro- 
ducts of cutaneous absorption. 

Before the blood is fit to nourish the parts, it must expe- 
rience from the circumambient element the modification of 
which we have previously spoken. In animals possessing a 
circulating system, one portion of the vessels is destined to 
carry the blood into organs in which they spread it over a 
great surface to obtain an increase of this elemental influence. 
When that element is air, the surface is hollow, and is called 
lungs; when it is water, it is salient, and is termed branchiz. 
There is always an arrangement of the organs of motion for 
the purpose of propelling the element into, or upon, the organ 
of respiration. 

In animals destitute of a circulating system, air is diffused 
through every part of the body by elastic vessels called tra- 
chez ; or water acts upon them, either by penetrating through 
vessels, or by simply bathing the surface of the skin. The 
respired, or purified blood is properly qualified for restoring 


INTRODUCTION. 23 


the composition of all the parts, and to effect what is properly 
called nutrition. This facility, which the blood possesses, of 
decomposing itself at every point, so as to leave there the 
precise kind of molecule necessary, is indeed wonderful; but 
it is this wonder which constitutes the whole vegetative life. 
For the nourishment of the solids we see no cther arrangement 
than a great subdivision of the extreme arterial ramifications, 
but for the production of fluids the apparatus is more complex 
and various. Sometimes the extremities of the vessels simply 
spread themselves over large’ surfaces, whence the produced 
fluid exhales; at others it oozes from the bottom of little cavi- 
ties. Before these arterial extremities change into veins, they 
most commonly give rise to particular vessels that convey this 
fluid, which appears to proceed from the exact point of union 
between the two kinds of vessels; in this case the blood ves- 
sels and these latter form, by interlacing, particular bodies call- 
ed conglomerate or secretory glands. 

Tn animals that have no circulation, in Insects particularly, 
the parts are all bathed in the nutritive fluid: each of these 
parts draws from it what it requires, and if the production of 
a liquid be necessary, proper vessels floating in the fluid take 
up by their pores the constituent elements of that liquid. 

It is thus that the blood incessantly supports the composi- 
tion of all the parts, and repairs the injuries arising from those 
changes which are the continual and necessary consequences 
of their functions. ‘The general ideas we form with respect 
to this process are tolerably clear, although we have no dis- 
tinct or detailed notion of what passes at each point, and for 
want of knowing the chemical composition of each part with 
suflicient precision, we cannot render an exact account of the 
transmutations necessary to effect it. ‘ 

Besides the glands which separate from the blood those 
fluids that are destined for the internal economy, there are 
some which detach others from it that are to be totally eject- 
ed, either as superfluous—the urine, for instance, which is 
produced by the kidneys; or for some use to the animal, as the 
ink of the cuttle-fish, and the purple matter of various mol- 
lusca, &e. 


24 INTRODUCTION. 


With respect to generation, there is a process or phenome- 
non, infinitely more difficult to comprehend than that of the 
secretions—the production of the germ. We have even seen 
that it is to be considered as almost incomprehensible; but the 
existence of the germ being admitted, generation presents no 
particular difficulties. As long as it adheres to the parent, it 
is nourished as if it were one of its organs, and when it de- 
taches itself, it possesses its own life, which is essentially simi- 
Jar to that of the adult. | 

The germ, the embryo, the fetus, and the new-born ani- 
mal have never, however, exactly the same form as the adult, 
and the difference is sometimes so great, that their assimilation 
has been termed a metamorphosis. ‘Thus, no one not previ- 
ously aware of the fact would suppose that the caterpillar is 
to become a butterfly. 

Every living being is more or less metamorphosed in the 
course of its growth; that is, it loses certain parts, and deve- 
lopes others. The antenne, wings, and all the parts of the 
butterfly were enclosed beneath the skin of the caterpillar; 
this skin vanishes along with the jaws, feet, and other organs, 
that do not remain with the butterfly. The feet of the frog 
are enclosed by the skin of the tadpole; and the tadpole, to 
become a frog, parts with its tail, mouth, and branchie. The 
child, at birth, loses its placenta and membranes; at a certain 
period its thymus gland nearly disappears, and it gradually 
acquires hair, teeth, and beard; the relative size of its organs 
is altered, and its body augments in a greater ratio than its 
head, the head more than the internal ear, &c. 

The place where these germs are found, and their germs 
themselves are collectively styled the ovary; the canal through 
which, when detached, they are carried into the uterus, the 
oviduct; the cavity in which, in many species, they are com- 
pelled to remain for a longer or shorter period previous to 
birth, the azferus ; and the external orifice through which they 
pass into the world, the vulva. Where there are sexes, the 
male impregnates, the germs appearing in the female. The 
fecundating liquor is called semen; the glands that separate 


INTRODUCTION. 29 


it.from the blood, fesfes; and. when it is requisite it should be 
carried into the body of the female, the introductory organ is 
named a penis. 


Of the Intellectual Functions of Animals. 


The impression of external objects upon the Meg, the produc- 
tion of a sensation or of an image, is a mystery into which the 
human understanding cannot penetrate ; and materialism an 
hypothesis, so much the more conjectual, as philosophy can 
furnish no direct proof of the actual existence of matter. The 
naturalist, however, should examine what appear to be the 
material conditions of sensation, trace the ulterior operations 
of the mind, ascertain to what point they reach in each being, 
and assure himself whether they are not subject to conditions 
of perfection, dependent on the organization of each species, 
or on the momentary state of each individual body. 

To enable the Me to perceive, there must be an uninter- 
rupted communication between the external sense and the 
central masses of the medullary system. It is then the modi- 
fication only experienced by these masses that the ME per- 
ceives: there may also be real sensations, without the exter- 
nal organ being affected, and which originate either in the 
nervous chain of communication, or in the central mass itself; 
such are dreams and visions, or certain accidental sensations. 

By central masses, we mean a part of the nervous system, 
that is so much the more cireumscribed, as the animal is more 
perfect. In man, it consists exelusively of a limited portion 
of the brain; but in reptiles, it includes the brain and the 
whole of the medulla, and of each of their parts taken sepa-_ 
rately, so that the absence of the entire brain does not pre- 
vent sensation. In the inferior classes this extension is still 
greater. 

The perception acquired by the mm, produces the image of 
the sensation exper ienced. We trace to without the cause of 
that sensation, and thus acquire the idea of the object that has 
produced it. By a necessary law of our intelligence, all ideas 
of material objects are in time and space. 

Vou. I.—D 


ee 


26 INTRODUCTION, 


The modifications experienced by the medullary masses 
leave impressions there which are reproduced, and thus re- 
cal to the mind images and ideas; this is memory, a corporeal 
faculty that varies greatly, according to the age and health of 
the animal. 

Similar ideas, or such as have been acquired at the same 
time, recal each other; this is the association of ideas. ‘The 
order, extent and quickness of this association constitute the 
perfection of memory. 


Every object presents itself to the memory with all its quali- 
ties or with all its accessary ideas. 

Intelligence has the power of separating these accessary 
ideas of objects, and of combining those that are alike in 
several different objects under a general idea; the object of 
which no where really exists, nor presents itself per se—this- 
is abstraction. 

Every sensation being more or less agreeable or disagree- 
able, experience and repeated essays soon show what move- 
ments are required to procure the one and avoid the other; 
and with respect to this, the intelligence abstracts itself from 
the general rules to direct the wd. 

An agreeable sensation being liable to consequences that are 
not so, and vice versa, the subsequent sensations become asso- 
ciated with the idea of the primitive one, and modify the 
general rules framed by intelligence—this is prudence. 

From the application of these rules to general ideas, result 
certain formule, which are afterwards easily adapted to par- 
ticular cases—this is called reasoning. 

A lively remembrance of primitive and associated sensations, 


and of the impressions of pleasure or pain that belong to them, 


constitutes wnagination. 

One privileged being, MAN, has the faculty of associating 
his general ideas with particular images more or less arbitrary, 
easily impressed upon the memory, and which serve to recal 
the general ideas they represent. ‘These associated images 
are styled signs; their assemblage is a language. When the 
language is composed of images that relate to the sense of 
hearing or of sounds, it is termed speech, and when relative 


INTRODUCTION. 27 


to that of sight, hieroglyphics. Writing isa suite of images 
that relates to the sense of sight, by which we represent the 
elementary sounds; and by combining them, all the images 
relative to the sense of hearing of which speech is composed ; 
it is therefore only a mediate representation of ideas. 

This faculty of representing general ideas by particular 
signs or images associated with them, enables us to retain dis- 
tinctly, and to remember without embarrassment, an im- 
mense number; and furnishes to the reasoning faculty and 
the imagination innumerable materials, and to individuals 
means of communication, which cause the whole species to 
participate in the experience of each individual, so that no 
bounds seem to be placed to the acquisition of knowledge; it 
is the distinguishing character of human intelligence. 

Although, with respect to the intellectual faculties, the most 
perfect animals are infinitely beneath man; it is certain that 
their intelligence performs operations of the same kind. They 
move in consequence of sensations received, are susceptible of 
durable affections, and acquire by experience a certain know- 
ledge of things, by which they are governed independently of 
actual pain or pleasure, and by the simple foresight of conse- 
quences. When domesticated, they feel their subordination, 
know that the being who punishes them may refrain from so 
doing if he will, and when sensible of having done wrong, or 
behold him angry, they assume a suppliant and deprecating 
air. In the society of man they become either corrupted or 
improved, and are susceptible of emulation and jealousy: they 
have among themselves a natural language, which, it is true, 
is merely the expression of their momentary sensations, but 
man teaches them to understand another, much more compli- 
cated, by which he makes known to them his will, and causes 
them to execute it. 

' To sum up all, we perceive in the higher animals a certain 
degree of reason, with all its consequences, good and bad, and 
which appears to be about the same as that of children ere they 
have learned to speak. ‘he lower we descend from man the 
weaker these faculties become, and at the bottom of the scale 
we find them reduced to signs (at times equivocal) of sensibi- 


28 INTRODUCTION. 


lity, that is, to some few slight movements to escape from pain. 
Between these two extremes, the degrees are infinite. 

In a great number of animals, however, there exists another 
kind of intelligence, called instinct. ‘This induces them to 
certain actions necessary to the preservation of the species, 
but very often altogether foreign to the apparent wants of the 
individual; often also very complicated, and which, if attri- 
. buted to intelligence, would suppose a foresight and know- 
ledge in the species that perform them infinitely superior to 
what can possibly be granted. ‘These actions, the result of 
instinct, are not the effect of imitation, for very frequently the 
individuals who execute them have never seen them perform- 
ed by others: they are not proportioned to ordinary intelli- 
gence, but become more singular, more wise, more disinterest- 
ed, in proportion as the animals belong to less elevated classes, 
and in all the rest of their actions are more dull and stupid. 
They are so entirely the property. of the species, that all its 
individuals perform them in the same way without ever im- 
proving them a particle. 

The working bees, for instance, have always constructed 
very ingenious edifices, agreeably to the rules of the highest 
geometry, and destined to lodge and nourish a posterity not 
even their own. The solitary bee, and the wasp also, form 
highly complicated nests, in which to deposit their eggs. 
From this egg comes a worm, which has never seen its parent, 
which is ignorant of the structure of the prison in which it is 
confined, but which, once metamorphosed, constructs another 
precisely similar. 

The only method of obtaining a clear idea of instinct, is by 
admitting the existence of mnate and perpetual images or 
sensations in the sensorium which cause the animal to act in 
the same way as ordinary or accidental sensations usually do. 
It is a kind of perpetual vision or dream that always pursues 
it, and it may be considered, in all that has relation to its in- 
stinct, as a kind of somnambulism. 

Instinct has been granted to animals as a supplement to in- 
telligence, to coneur with it, and with strength and fecundity, 
in the preservation, to a proper degree, of each species. 


INTRODUCTION. 29 


There is no visible mark of instinct im the conformation of 
the animal, but, as well as it can be ascertained, the intelligence 
is always in proportion to the relative size of the brain, and 
particularly of its hemispheres. 


Of Method, as applied to the Animal Kingdom. 


From what has been stated with respect to methods in ge- 
neral, we have now to ascertain what are the essential charac- 
ters in animals, on which their primary divisions are to be 
founded. It is evident they should be those which are drawn 
from the animal functions, that is from the sensations, and mo- 
tions; for both these not only make the being an animal, but in 
a manner establish its degree of animality. 

Observation confirms this position by showing that their 
degrees of development and complication accord with those of 
the organs of the vegetative functions. 

The heart and the organs of the circulation form a kind of 
centre for the vegetative functions, as the brain and the trunk 
of the nervous system do for the animal ones. Now we see 
these two systems become imperfect and disappear together. 
In the lowest class of animals, where the nerves cease to be 
visible, the fibres are no longer distinct, and the organs of 
digestion are simple excavations in the honogeneous mass of 
the body. In insects the vascular system even disappears 
before the nervous one; but, in general, the dispersion of the 
medullary masses accompanies that of the muscular agents: a 
spinal marrow, on which the knots or ganglions represent so 
many brains, corresponds to a body divided into numerous 
rings, supported by pairs of limbs longitudinally distributed, 
&e. 

This correspondence of general forms, which results from 
the arrangement of the organs of motion, the distribution of the 
nervous masses, and the energy of the circulating system, 
should then beithe basis of the primary divisions of the animal 
kingdom. We will afterwards ascertain, in each of these 
divisions, what characters should succeed immediately to those, 
and form the basis of the primary subdivisions. 


30 INTRODUCTION. 


General distribution of the Animal Kingdom into Four Great 
Divisions. 


If, divesting ourselves of the prejudices founded on the 
divisions formerly admitted, we consider only the organization 
and nature of animals, without regard to their size, utility, 
the greater or less knowledge we have of them, and other ac- 
cessary circumstances, we shall find there are four principal 
forms, four general plans, if it may be so expressed, on which 
all animals seem to have been modelled, and whose ulterior 
divisions, whatever be the titles with which naturalists have 
decorated them, are merely slight modifications, founded on 
the development or addition of certain parts, which produce 
no essential change in the plan itself. 

In the first of these forms, which is that of man, and of the 
animals most nearly resembling him, the brain and principal 
trunk of the nervous system are enclosed in a bony envelope, 
formed by the cranium and vertebre; to the sides of this in- 
termedial column are attached the ribs, and bones of the 
limbs, which form the frame work of the body; the muscles 
generally cover the bones, whose motions they occasion, while 
the viscera are contained within the head and trunk. Ani- 
mals of this form we shall denominate 


Animalia Vertebrata. 


They have, all, red blood, a muscular heart, a mouth fur- 
nished with two jaws situated either above or before each 
other, distinct organs of sight, hearing, smell and taste placed 
in the cavities of the face, never more than four limbs, the 
sexes always separated, and a very similar distribution of the 
medullary masses and the principal branches of the nervous 
system. 

By a closer examination of each of the parts of this great 
series of animals, we always discover some analogy, even in 
species the most remote from each other; and may trace the 
gradations of one same plan from man to the last of the fishes. 

In the second form there is no skeleton; the muscles are 


* 


INTRODUCTION. ro 


merely attached to the skin, which constitutes a soft contrac- 
tile envelope, in which, in many species, are formed stony 
plates, called shells, whose position and production are ana- 
logous to those of the mucous body. ‘The nervous system is 
contained within this general envelope along with the viscera, 
and is composed of several scattered masses connected by ner- 
vous filaments; the. chief of these masses is placed on the 
cesophagus, and is called the brain. Of the four senses, the 
organs of two only are observable, those of taste and sight, the 
latter of which are even frequently wanting. One single 
family alone presents organs of hearing. ‘There is always, 
however, a complete system of circulation, and particular or- 
gans for respiration. Those of digestion and secretion are 
nearly as complex as in the vertebrata. We will distinguish 
the animals of this second form by the appellation of 


Animalia Mollusca. 


Although, as respects the external configuration of the 
parts, the general plan of their organization is not as uniform 
as that of the vertebratas there is always an equal degree of 
resemblance between them in the structure and the functions. 

The third form is that remarked in worms, insects, &c. 
Their nervous system consists of two long cords, running lon- 
gitudinally through the abdomen, dilated at intervals into 
knots or ganglions, ‘The first of these knots, placed over the 
cesophagus, and called brain, is scarcely any larger than those 
that are along the abdomen, with which they communicate by 
filaments that encircle the csophagus like a necklace. ‘The 
covering or envelope of the body is divided by transverse 
folds into a certain number of rings, whose teguments are 
sometimes soft, and sometimes hard; the muscles, however, 
being always situated internally. Articulated limbs are fre- 
quently attached to the trunk ; but very often there are none. 
We will call these animals 


Animala Articulata, 


Or articulated animals, in which is observed the transition 


32 INTRODUCTION. 


from the circulation in closed vessels to nutrition by imbibi- 
tion, and the corresponding one of respiration in circumscribed 
organs, to that effected by trachex or air-vessels distributed 
throughout the body. In them, the organs of taste and sight 
are the most distinct; one single family alone presenting that 
of hearing. Their jaws, when they have any, are always 
lateral. | 

The fourth form, which embraces all those animals known 
by the name of zoophytes, may also properly be denominated 


Animalia Radiata, 


Or radiated animals. We have seen that the organs of 
sense and motion in all the preceding ones are symmetrically 
arranged on the two sides of an axis. There is a posterior 
and anterior dissimilar face. In this last division, they are 
disposed like rays round a centre; and this is the case even 
when they consist of but two series, for then the two faces 
are similar. ‘They approximate to the homogeneity of plants, 
having no very distinct nervous system or particular organs of 
sense; in some of them, it is even diflicult to discover a ves- 
tige of circulation; their respiratory organs are almost univer- 
sally seated on the surface of the body, the intestine in the 
greater number is a mere sac without issue, and the lowest of 
the series are nothing but a sort of homogeneous pulp, endow- 
ed with motion and sensibility.(1) 


(1) Before my time, modern naturalists divided all invertebrated animals into 
two classes, Insects and Worms. I was the first who attacked this method ; and 
ina memoir read before the Society of Natural History of Paris on the 10th of 
May 1795, and printed in the Decade Philosophique, I presented a new division, 
in which I marked the characters and limits of the Mollusca, Crustacea, Insects 
and Worms, Echinodermata and Zoophytes. In a memoir read before the Insti- 
tute on the 3lst of December 1801, Lascertained the red-blooded worms or Anne- 
lides. And finally, in a memoir read before the Institute in July 1812, and printed 
in the Annales du Museum d’Histoire Naturelle, tome xix, I distributed these 
various classes in three divisions, each of which is analogous to a branch of the 
vertebrata. 


FIRST GREAT DIVISION OF THE ANIMAL 
KINGDOM. 


ANIMALIA VERTEBRATA. 


The bodies and limbs of vertebrated animals being sup- 
ported by a frame-work or skeleton composed of connected 
pieces that are movable upon each other, their motions are 
certain and vigorous. ‘The solidity of this support enables 
them to attain considerable size, and it is among them that 
the largest animals are found. 

The great concentration of the nervous s system, and the 
volume of its central portions, give energy and stability to 
their sentiments, whence result superior intelligence and per- 
fectibility. 

Their body always consists of a head, trunk and members. 

The head is formed by the cranium which contains the 
brain, and by the face which is composed of two jaws and of 
the receptacles of the senses. 

The trunk is supported by the spine and the ribs. 

The spine is formed of vertebra, the first of which sup- 
ports the head, that move upon each other, and are perforated 
by an annular opening, forming together a canal, in which is 
lodged that medullary production from which arise the nerves, 
called the spinal marrow. 

The spine, most commonly, is continued into a tail, extend- 
ing beyond the posterior members. 

The ribs are a kind of semicircular hoops which protect 

Vou. I.—E 


34 ANIMALIA VERTEBRATA. 


the sides of the cavity of the trunk, they are articulated at 
one extremity with the vertebrae, and most generally at the 
other with the sternum; sometimes, however, they do not 
encircle the trunk, and there are genera in which they are 
hardly visible. 

There are never more than two pairs of members, but some- 
times one or the other is wanting, or even both. Their forms 
vary according to the movements they have to execute. The 
superior members are converted into hands, feet, wings or 
fins, and the inferior into feet or fins. 

The blood is always red, and appears to be so composed as 
to sustain a peculiar energy of sentiment and muscular strength, 
but in various degrees, corresponding to their quality of re- 
spiration: from which originates the subdivision of the verte- 
brata into four classes. 

The external senses are always five in number, and reside 
in two eyes, two ears, two nostrils, the teguments of the 
tongue, and those of the body, generally. In some species, 
however, the eyes are obliterated. 

The nerves reach the medulla through the foramina of the 
vertebr or those of the cranium; they all seem to unite with 
this medulla, which, after crossing its filaments, spreads out 
to form the various lobes of which the brain is composed, and 
terminates in the two medullary arches called hemispheres, 
whose volume is in proportion to the extent of the intelligence. 

There are always two jaws, the greatest motion is in the 
lower one, which rises and falls; the upper jaw is sometimes 
immovable. Both of these are almost always armed with 
teeth, excrescences of a peculiar nature, which in their chemi- 
cal composition are very similar to that of bone, but which 
grow by layers and transudation; one whole class, however, 
that of birds, has the jaws invested with horn, and the genus 
Testudo, in the class of reptiles, is in the same case. 

The intestinal canal traverses the body from the mouth to 
the anus, experiencing various enlargements and contractions, 
having appendages and receiving solvent fluids, one of which, 
the saliva, is discharged into the mouth. The others, which 
are poured into the intestine only, have various names: the 


ANIMALIA VERTEBRATA. 35 


two principal ones are the juices of the gland called the pan- 
creas, and bile, a product of another very large gland named 
the liver. 

While the digested aliment is traversing its canal, that por- 
tion of it which is fitted for nutrition, called the chyle, is ab- 
sorbed by particular vessels styled lacteals, and carried into 
the veins; the residue of the nourishment of the parts is also 
carried into the veins by vessels analogous to these lacteals, 
and forming with them one same system called the lymphatic 
system. 

The blood which has served to nourish the parts, and which 
has just been renewed by the chyle and lymph, is returned to 
the heart by the veins—but this blood is obliged, either 
wholly or in part, to pass into the organ of respiration, in or- 
der to regain its arterial nature, previous to being again sent 
through the system by the arteries. In the three first classes 
this respiratory organ consists of lungs, that is, a collection of 
cells into which air penetrates. In fish only, and in some 
reptiles, while young, it consists of branchiz ora series of 
lamin, between which water passes. 

In all the vertebrata, the blood which furnishes the liver 
with the materials of the bile is venous blood, which has cir- 
culated partly in the parietes of the intestines, and partly in 
a peculiar body called the spleen, and which, after being 
united in a trunk called the vena porta, is again subdivided 
at the liver. 

All these animals have a particular secretion; the wrine, 
which is produced in two large glands, attached to the sides 
of the spine of the back, called Azdneys—the liquid they 
secrete is most commonly poured into a reservoir, named 
bladder. 

The sexes are separate, and the female has always one or 
two ovaries, from which the eggs are detached at the instant 
of conception. ‘The male fecundifies them with the seminal 
fluid, but the mode varies greatly. In most of the genera of 
the three first classes, it requires an intromission of the fluid ; 
in some reptiles, and in most of the fishes, it takes place after 
the exit of the egg. 


36 ANIMALIA VERTEBRATA. 


Subdivision of the Vertebrata into Four Classes. 


We have just seen how far vertebrated animals resemble 
each other; they present, however, four great subdivisions or 
classes, characterised by the kind or power of their motions, 
which depend themselves on the quantity of their respiration, 
inasmuch as it is from this respiration that the muscular fibres 
derive the strength of their irritability. 

The quantity of respiration depends upon two agents: the 
first is the relative amount of blood which is poured into the 
respiratory organ in a given instant of time; the second is the 
relative amount of oxygen which enters into the composition 
of the surrounding fluid. The quantity of the former de- 
pends upon the disposition of the organs of circulation and 
respiration. 

The organs of the circulation may be double, so that all the 
blood which is brought back from the various parts of the 
body by the veins, is forced to circulate through the respi- 
ratory organ, previous to resuming its former course through 
the arteries; or they may be simple, so that a part only of 
the blood is obliged to pass through that organ, the remainder 
returning directly to the body. 

The latter is the case with reptiles. The quantity of their 
respiration, and all their qualities which depend on it, vary 
with the amount of blood thrown into the lungs at each pul- 
sation. 

Fishes have a double circulation, but their organ of respi- 
ration is formed to execute its function through the medium 
of water; and their blood is only acted on by the portion of 
oxygen it contains, so that the quantity of their respiration is 
perhaps less than that of reptiles. 

In the mammalia the circulation is double, and the aerial 
respiration simple, that is, it is performed in the lungs only ; 
their quantity of respiration is, consequently, superior to that 
of reptiles, on account of the form of their respiratory organ, 
and to that of fishes from the nature of their surrounding ele- 
ment. 


ANIMALIA VERTEBRATA. 37 


The quantity of respiration in birds is even superior to that 
of quadrupeds, not only because they have a double circula- 
tion and an aerial respiration, but also because they respire 
by many other cavities besides the lungs, the air penetrating 
throughout their bodies, and bathing the branches of the 
aorta, as well as those of the pulmonary artery. 

Hence result the four different kinds of motion for which 
the four classes of vertebrated animals are more particularly 
designed: quadrupeds, in which the quantity of respiration is 
moderate, are generally formed to walk and run, both motions 
being characterized by precision and vigour; birds, which 
have more of it, possess the muscular strength and lightness 
requisite for flight; reptiles, where it is diminished, are con- 
demned to creep, and many of them pass a portion of their 
lives in a kind of torpor; jishes, in fine, to execute their mo- 
tions, require to be supported in a fluid whose specific gravity 
is nearly as great as their own. 

All the circumstances of organization peculiar to each of 
these four classes, and those especially which regard motion 
and the external sensations, have a necessary relation with 
these essential characters. 

The mammalia, however, have particular characters in their 
viviparous mode of generation, in the manner by which the 
foetus is nourished in the uterus through the medium of the 
placenta, and in the mammez by which they suckle their 
young. 

The other classes, on the contrary, are oviparous, and if we 
compare them to the first, we shall find such numerous points 
of resemblance as announce a peculiar system of organization 
in the great general plan of the vertebrata. 


38 ANIMALIA VERTEBRATA. 


CLASS I. 


MAMMALIA. 


The mammalia are placed at the head of the animal kingdom. 
not only because it is the class to which man himself belongs, 
but also because it is that which enjoys the most numerous 
faculties, the most delicate sensations, the most varied powers 
of motion, and in which all the different qualities seem com- 
bined in order to produce a more perfect degree of intelli- 
gence, the one most fertile in resources, most susceptible of 
perfection, and least the slave of instinct. 

As their quantity of respiration is moderate, they are de- 
signed in general for walking on the earth, but with vigorous 
and continued steps. ‘The forms of the articulations of their 
skeleton, are, consequently, strictly defined, which deter- 
mines all their motions with the most rigorous precision. 

Some of them, however, by means of limbs considerably 
elongated, and extended membranes, raise themselves in the 
air; others have them so shortened, that they can move with 
facility in water only, though this does not deprive them of 
the general characters of the class. 

The upper jaw, in all of these animals, is fixed to the cra- 
nium; the lower is formed of two pieces only, articulated by a 
projecting condyle to a fixed temporal bone; the neck con- 
sists of seven vertebrz, one single species excepted which has 
nine; the anterior ribs are attached before, by cartilage, to a 
sternum consisting of several vertical pieces; their anterior 
extremity commences in a shoulder-blade, that is not articu- 
lated, but simply suspended in the flesh, often resting on the 
sternum by means of an intermediate bone, called a clavicle. 


’ 


2 


MAMMALIA. 39 


This extremity is continued by an arm, a fore-arm, and a 
hand, the latter being composed of two ranges of small bones 
called the carpus, of another range called the metacarpus, and 
of the fingers, each of which consists of two or three bones, 
termed phalanges. 

With the exception of the cetacea, the first part of the pos- 
terior extremity, in all animals of this class, is fixed to the 
spine, forming a girdle or pelvis, which, in youth, consists of 
three pairs of bones, the ilium which is attached to the spine, 
the pubis which forms the anterior part of the girdle, and the 
ischium, the posterior. At the point of union of these three 
bones is situated the cavity with which the thigh is articulated, 
to which, in its turn, is attached the leg, formed of two bones, 
the tibia and fibula; this extremity is terminated by parts 
similar to those of the hand, i. e. by a tarsus, metatarsus and 
toes. 

The head of the mammalia is always articulated by two con- 
dyles, with the atlas, the first vertebra of the neck. 

The brain is always composed of two hemispheres, united by 
a medullary layer, called the corpus callosum, containing the 
ventricles, and enveloping four pairs of tubercles, named the 
corpora striata, or striated bodies, the thalamt nervorum op- 
ticorum, or beds of the optic nerves, and the nates and testes. 
Between the optic beds is a third ventricle, which communi- 
cates with a fourth under the cerebellum, the crura of which 
always form a transverse prominence under the medulla ob- 
longata, called the pons Varolit, or bridge of Varolius. 

The eye, invariably lodged in its orbit, is protected by 
two lids and a vestige of a third, and has its crystalline fixed 
by the ciliary processes—its sclerotic is simply cellular. 

The ear always contains a cavity called the 4ympanum, or 
drum, which communicates with the mouth by the Eustachian 
tube; the cavity itself is closed externally by a membrane call- 
ed the membrana tympani, and contains a chain of four little 
bones, named the zrcus or anvil, malleus or hammer, the os 
orbiculare or circular bone, and the séapes or stirrup; a ves- 
tibule, on the entrance of which rests the stapes, and which 
communicates with three semicircular canals; and, finally, a 


40 MAMMALIA. 


cochlea, which terminates by one canal in the vestibule, and 
by the other in the tympanum. 

Their cranium is subdivided into three portions; the ante- 
rior is formed by the two frontal and ethmoidal bones, the 
middle by the two ossa parietalia and the os ethmoides, and 
the posterior by the os occipitis. Between the ossa parietalia, 
the sphenoidalis and the os occipitis, are interposed the two 
temporal bones, part of which belong properly to the face. 

In the foetus, the occipital bone is divided into four parts: 
the sphenoidal into two halves, which are again subdivided 
into three pairs of lateral wings; the temporal into three, one 
of which serves to complete the cranium, the second to close 
the labyrinth of the ear, the third to form the parittes of the 
tympanum, &c. ‘These bony portions, still more numerous in 
the earliest period of the foetal existence, are united more or 
less promptly, according to the species, and the bones them- 
selves finally become consolidated in the adult. 

Their face consists of the two maxillary bones, between 
which pass the nostrils; the two intermaxillaries are situated 
before, and the two ossa palati behind them; between these 
descends the vomer, a bony process of the os ethmoides; at 
the entrance of the nasal canal are placed the ossa nasi; to its 
external parietes adhere the inferior turbinated bones, the 
superior ones which occupy its upper and posterior portion 
belonging to the os ethmoides. The jugal or cheek bone 
unites the maxillary to the temporal bone on each side, and 
frequently to the os frontis; finally, the os unguis, and pars 
plana of the ethmoid bone occupy the internal angle of the 
orbit, and sometimes a part of the cheek. In the embryo 
state these bones also are much more subdivided. 

Their tongue is always fleshy, connected with a bone called 
the hyoides, which is composed of several pieces, and sus- 
pended from the cranium by ligaments. 

Their lungs, two in number, divided into lobes, and com- 
posed of an infinitude of cells, are always enclosed, without 
any adhesion, in a cavity formed by the ribs and diaphragm 
and lined by the pleura; the organ of voice is always at the 


MAMMALIA. 41 


upper extremity of the trachea; a fleshy curtain, called the 
velum palati, establishes a direct communication between their 
larynx and nasal canal. 

Their residence on the surface of the earth rendering them 
less exposed to the alternations of cold and heat, their tegu- 
ment, the hair, is but moderately thick, and in such as inhabit 
warm climates, even that is rare. 

The Cetacea, which live exclusively in-water, are the only 
ones that are altogether deprived of it. 

The abdominal cavity is lined with a membrane called the 
peritoneum, and the intestinal canal is suspended to a fold of 
it called the mesentery, which contains numerous conglobate 
glands in which the lacteals ramify: another production of 
the peritoneum, styled the Segnae Ese: in front of and un- 
der the intestines. 

The urine which is retained for a time in the bladder finds 
an exit in both sexes, with very few exceptions, by orifices 
in the organs of generation. 

In all the Mammalia, generation is essentially viviparous; 
that is, the foetus, directly after conception, descends into the 
uterus enveloped in its membranes, the exterior of which is 
called chorion and the interior amnios; it fixes itself to the 
parietes of this cavity by one plexus, or more of vessels called 
the placenta, which establishes a communication between it 
and the mother, by which it receives its nourishment, and most 
probably its oxygenation, notwithstanding which, the foetus 
of the Mammalia, at an early period, has a vesicle analogous 
to that which contains the yolk in the Ovipara, receiving in 
like manner vessels from the mesentery. It has also another 
external bladder named the allantoid, which communicates 
with the urinary one by a canal called the urachus. 

Conceptign always requires an effectual coitus, in which the 
semen masculinum is thrown into the uterus of the female. 

The young are nourished for some time after birth by a 
fluid (milk) peculiar to animals of this class, which is pro- 
duced by the mamme at the time of parturition, and continues 
to be so as long as is necessary. It is from the mamme that 

Vou, L—F 


= 


42 MAMMALIA. 


this class derives its name, and being a character peculiar to 
it, they distinguish it better than any other that is external.(1) 


Division of the Mammalia into Orders. 


The variable characters which form essential differences 
among the Mammalia are taken from the organs of touch, on 
which depends their degree of ability or address, and from 
the organs of manducation, which determine the nature of 
their aliment, and are all closely connected, not only with 
every thing relative to the function of digestion, but also with 
a multitude of other differences relating even to their intelli- 
gence. 

The degree of perfection of the organs of touch is esti- 
mated by the number and the pliability of the fingers, and 
from the greater or less extent to which their extremities are 
enveloped by the nail or the hoof. 

A hoof which completely envelopes the end of the toe, 
blunts its sensibility, and renders the foot incapable of seizing. 

The opposite extreme is when a nail, formed of one single 
lamina, covers only one of the faces of the extremity of the 
finger, leaving the other possessed of all its delicacy. 

The nature of the food is known by the grinders, to the 
form of which the articulation of the jaws universally corres- 
ponds. , 

To cut flesh, grinders are required as trenchant as a saw, and 
jaws fitted like scissars, having no other motion than a verti- 
cal one. 

For bruising roots or grains, flat-crowned grinders are ne- 
cessary, and jaws that have a lateral motion; in order that 
inequalities may always exist on the crown of these teeth, it — 
is also requisite that their substance be composed of parts of 
unequal hardness, so that some may wear away faster than 
others. 

Hoofed animals are all necessarily herbivorous, and have 


(1) We shall find, however, in the sequel some doubts on this subject, arising 
from certain points in the family of the Monotremata. 


MAMMALIA. 43 


flat-crowned grinders, inasmuch as their feet. preclude the 
possibility of their seizing a living prey. 

Animals with unguiculated fingers were susceptible of more 
variety; their food is of all kinds, and independently of the 
form of their grinders, they differ greatly from each other in 
the pliability and delicacy of their fingers. ‘There is one 
character with respect to this, which has immense influence 
on their dexterity and greatly multiplies its powers; it is the 
faculty of opposing the thumb to the finger for the purpose 
of seizing minute objects, constituting what is properly called 
a hand; a faculty which is carried to its highest perfection in 
man, in whom the whole anterior extremity is free and capable 
of prehension. 

These various combinations which strictly determine the 
nature of the different Mammalia, have given rise to the fol- 
lowing orders: 

Among the unguiculated animals, the first is Man, who, in 
addition to privileges of other descriptions, possesses hands at 
the anterior extremities only, the posterior being designed to 
support him in an erect position. 

In the order next to man, that of the QUADRUMANA, we 
find hands at the four extremities. 

In another order, that of the CARNARIA, the thumb is not 
free, and cannot be opposed to the anterior extremities. 

Each of these orders has the three sorts of teeth, grinders, 
canini, and incisors or cutting teeth. 

In a fourth order, that of the RopENTTIA, the toes differ but 
little from those of the Carnaria, but there are no canine teeth, 
and the incisors are placed in front of the mouth, and adapted 
to a very peculiar sort of manducation. 

Then come those animals whose toes are much cramped, 
and deeply sunk in large nails, which are generally curved; 
they have no incisors, and in some the canines disappear, 
while others have none of any description. We comprise 
them all under the title of the EDENTATA. 

This distribution of the unguiculated animals would be per- 
fect, and form a very regular series, were it not that New 
Holland has lately furnished us with a little collateral one, 


44 MAMMALIA. 


consisting of anzmals with pouches, the different genera of 
which are connected by a general similarity of organization; 
some of them, however, in the teeth and nature of their diet 
corresponding to the Carnaria, others to the Rodentia, and a 
third to the Edentata. 

The hoofed animals are less numerous, and have likewise 
fewer irregularities. 

The RUMINANTIA, by their cloven foot, the absence of true 
incisors in their upper jaw, and their four stomachs, form an 
order that is very distinct. 

The remaining hoofed animals may all be united in a single 
order, which I shall call PACHYDERMATA or JUMENTA, the E/e- 
phant excepted, which might constitute a separate one, and 
which is remotely connected with that of the Rodentia. 

In the last place, we find those of the Mammalia which 
have no posterior extremities, whose piscatory form and aqua- 
tic mode of life would induce us to form them into a particu- 
lar class, were it not that in every thing else their economy is 
similar to that in which we leave them. ‘These are the hot- 
blooded fishes of the ancients, or the cerAcEA, which, uniting 
to the vigour of the other mammalia the advantage of being 
sustained by the watery element, present to our wondering 
sight the most gigantic of animals. 


ORDER I. 
BIMANA. 


Man forms but one genus, and that genus the only one of its 
order. As his history is the more directly interesting to our- 
selves, and forms the point of comparison to which we refer 
that of other animals, we will speak of it more in detail. 

We will rapidly sketch every thing that is peculiar in each 
of his organic systems, amidst all that he shares in common 
with other mammalia; we will examine the advantages he 


BIMANA. 45 


derives from these peculiarities over other species; we will 
describe the principal varieties of his race and their distin- 
guishing characters, and finally point out the natural order in 
which his individual and social faculties are developed. 


Peculiar Conformation of Man. 


The foot of Man is very different from that of the Monkey; it is 
large; the leg bears vertically upon it; the heel is expanded beneath; 
the toes are short, and but slightly flexible; the great toe, longer 
and larger than the rest, is placed on the same line with, and can- 
not be opposed to them. This foot, then,is peculiarly well adapted 
to support the body; but cannot be used for seizing or climbing, and 
as the hands are not calculated for walking, Man is the only true 
bimanous and biped animal. 

The whole body of Man is arranged with a view to a vertical po- 
sition. His feet, as just mentioned, furnish him with a base more 
extensive than that of any other of the Mammalia. The muscles 
which extend the foot and thigh are more vigorous, whence pro- 
ceeds the projection of the calf and buttock; the flexors of the leg 
are inserted higher up, which allows full extension of the knee, and 
renders the calf more apparent. The pelvis is wider, hence a greater 
separation of the thighs and feet, and that pyramidal form of the 
body so favourable to equilibrium. ‘The necks of the thigh bones 
form an angle with the body of the bone, which increases, still 
more, the separation of the feet, and augments the basis of the 
body. Finally, the head in this vertical position is in equilibrium 
on the body, because its articulation is exactly under the middle of 
its mass. 

Were he to desire it, Man could not, with convenience, walk on 
all fours; his short and nearly inflexible foot, and his long thigh, 
would bring the knee to the ground; his widely separated shoulders 
and his arms, too far extended from the median line, would ill sup- 
port the upper portion of his body. The great indented muscle, 
which, in quadrupeds, suspends, as in a girth, the body between the 
scapulz, is smaller in Man than in any one among them. The head 
is also heavier, both from the magnitude of the brain and the small- 
ness of the sinuses or cavities of the bones; and yet the means of 
supporting it are weaker, for he has neither cervical ligament, nor 
are his vertebrz so arranged as to prevent their flexure forwards; 
the result of this would be, that he could only keep his head in the 
same line with the spine, and then his eyes and mouth being directed 
towards the earth, he could not see before him;—in the erect posi- 


A6 MAMMALIA. 


tion, on the contrary, the arrangement of these organs is every way 
perfect. | 

The arteries which are sent to his brain, not being subdivided as 
in many quadrupeds, and the blood requisite for so voluminous an 
organ being carried into it with too much violence, frequent apo- 
plexies would be the consequence of a horizontal position. 

Man, then, is formed for an erect position only. He thus pre- 
serves the entire use of his hands for the arts, while his organs of 
sense are most favourably situated for observation. 

These hands, which derive such advantages from their liberty, re- 
ceive as many more from their structure. The thumb, longer in 
proportion than that of the Monkey, increases its facility of seizing 
small objects. All the fingers, the annularis excepted, have sepa- 
rate movements, a faculty possessed by no other animal, not even by 
the Monkey. The nail, covering one side only of the extremity of 
the finger, acts as a support to the touch, without depriving it of an 
atom of its delicacy. The arms to which these hands are attached, 
are strongly and firmly connected by the large scapula, the strong 
clavicle, &c. 

Man, so highly favoured as to dexterity, is not at all so with 
respect to force. His swiftness in running is greatly inferior to that 
of other animals of his size. Having neither projecting jaws, nor | 
salient canine teeth, nor claws, he is destitute of offensive weapons; 
and the sides and upper parts of his body being naked, unprovided 
even with hair, he is absolutely without defensive ones. Of all ani- 
mals, he is also the longest in attaining the power necessary to 
provide for himself. 

This very weakness, however, is but one advantage more—it com- 
pels him to have recourse to that intelligence within, for which he 
is so eminently conspicuous. 

No quadruped approaches him in the magnitude and convolutions 
of the hemispheres of the brain, that is, in the part of this organ 
which is the principal instrument of the intellectual operations. The 
posterior portion of the same organ extends backwards, so as to 
form a second covering to the cerebellum; the very form of his cra- 
nium announces this magnitude of the brain, while the smallness of 
his face shows how slightly that portion of the nervous system 
which influences the external senses predominates in him. 

These external sensations, moderate as they all are in Man, are 
nevertheless extremely delicate and well balanced. 

His two eyes are directed forwards; he does not see on two sides 
at once, like many quadrupeds, which produces more unity in 
the result of his sight, and concentrates his attention more closely on 
sensations of this kind. The ball and iris of his eye vary but little; 


BIMANA. 47 


this restrains the activity of his sight to a limited distance, and a 
determined degree of light. His external ear, possessing but little 
mobility or extent, does not increase the intensity of sounds, and 
yet, of all animals, he best distinguishes the various degrees of in- 
tonation. His nostrils, more complicated than those of the Monkey, 
are less so than those of all other genera; and yet he appears to be 
the only animal whose sense of smell is sufficiently delicate to be 
affected by unpleasant odours. _ Delicacy of smell must have some 
influence on that of taste, and independently of this Man must have 
some advantage in this respect over other animals, those, at least, 
whose tongues are covered with scales. Lastly, the nicety of his 
tact results, both from the delicacy of his tezuments, and the ab- 
sence of all insensible parts, as well as from the form of his hand, 
which is better adapted than that of any other animal for suiting 
itself to every little superficial inequality. 

Man is pre-eminently distinguished in the organ of his voice; of 
all the Mammalia, he alone possesses the faculty of articulating 
sounds, its probable causes being the form of his mouth and the 
great mobility of his lips. From this results his most invaluable 
mode of communication, for of all the signs which can be conveniently 
employed for the transmission of ideas, variations of sound are those 
which can be perceived at the greatest distance, and are the most 
extensive in their sphere of operation. 

The whole of his structure, even to the heart and great vessels, 
appears to have been framed with a view to a vertical position. The 
heart is placed obliquely on the diaphragm, and its point inclines to 
the left, thereby occasioning a distribution of the aorta, differing 
from that of most quadrupeds. 

The natural food of man, judging from his structure, appears to 
consist of the fruits, roots, and other succulent parts of vegetables: 
“his hands offer him every facility for gathering them; his short, and 
but moderately strong jaws on the one hand, and his canini being 
equal in length to the remaining teeth, and his tubercular molares 
on the other, would allow him neither to feed on grass nor to devour 
flesh, were these aliments not previously prepared by cooking. 
Once, however, possessed of fire, and those arts by which he is 
aided in seizing animals or killing them at a distance, every living 
being was rendered subservient to his nourishment, thereby giving 
him the means of an infinite multiplication of his species. 

His organs of digestion are in conformity with those of manduca- 
tion; his stomach is simple, his intestinal canal of moderate length, 
the great intestines well marked, his cecum short and thick and 
augmented by a small appendage, and his liver divided only into two 


. 
7 cane 


48 MAMMALIA. 


large lobes and one small one; his epiploon hangs in front of the 
intestines, and extends into the pelvis. 

To complete the hasty sketch of the anatomical structure of Man 
requisite for this introduction, we will add, that he has thirty-two 
vertebrz, of which seven belong to the neck, twelve to the back, five 
to the loins, five to the sacrum, and three to the coccyx. Seven 
pairs of his ribs are united with the sternum by elongated cartilages, 
and are called true ribs; the five following pairs are denominated 
false ones. His adult cranium is formed of eight bones; an occipi- 
talis, two ossa temporis, two parietalia, and the frontal, ethmoidal 
and sphenoidal bones. The bones of his face are fourteen in number, 
two maxillaries, two ossa mal, each of which joins the temporal 
to the maxillary bone of its own side by a kind of handle called the 
zygomatic arch; two nasal bones, two ossa palati behind the palate, 
a vomer between the nostrils, two turbinated bones of the nose in 
the nostrils, two lachrymals (unguis) in the internal angles of the 
orbits and the single bone of the lower jaw. Each jaw has sixteen 
teeth; four cutting incisors in the middle, two pointed canines at 
the corners, and ten tuberculated molares, five on each side. At 
the extremity of the spine of his scapula, is a tuberosity called the 
acromion, to which the clavicle is attached, and over its articulation 
is a point called the coracoid process with which certain muscles 
are connected. The radius revolves upon the ulna, owing to the 
mode of its articulation with the humerus. The carpus has eight 


iy bones, four in each range; the tarsus has seven; those of the remain- 
ing parts of the hand and foot may be easily counted by the number 
of fingers and toes. 


Enjoying uniform and regular supplies of nourishment, the fruit 
of his industry, Man is at all times inclined to the °* plaisirs 
d’amour,”’ without ever experiencing that irresistible and violent 
impetus which marks the passion in quadrupeds. His organ of 
generation is not upheld by a bony axis; the prepuce does not tie it 


down to the abdomen, and it hangs loosely in front of the pubis. 


Numerous and large veins which effect a rapid transfer of the blood 
of his testes to the gen€ral circulation, epReet to contribute to the 
moderation of his desires. 

The uterus of woman is a simple oval cavity; her mammz, only 
two in number, are placed upon her breast, and correspond with the 
facility she possesses of supporting her child upon her arm. 


Physical and Moral Development of Man. 


The term of gestation in the human species is nine months, and 
but one child is usually produced at a birth, as in five hundred 
\ 


BIMANA. 49 


cases of parturition there is but one of twins; more than the latter 
is extremely rare. The foetus, a month old, is generally about one 
inch in height; when two months, it is two inches and a half; when 
three, five inches; in the fifth month, it is six orseven inches; in the 
seventh, it is eleven inches; in the eighth, fourteen, and in the ninth, 
eighteen inches.. Those which are born prior to the seventh month 
usually die. The first or milk teeth begin to appear in a few months, 
commencing with the incisors. The number increases in two years 
to twenty, which, about the seventh year, are successively shed to 
make room for others. Of the twelve posterior molares which are 
permanent, there are four which make their appearance at four 
years and a half, and four at nine; the last four are frequently not 
cut until the twentieth year. The growth of the foetus is propor- 
tionably increased as it approaches the time of birth—that of the 
child, on the contrary, is always less and less. It has more than 
the fourth of its height when born; it attains the half of it at two 
years and a half, and the three-fourths at nine or ten years; its 
growth is completed about the eighteenth year. Man rarely ex- 
ceeds the height of six feet, and as rarely remains under five. Woman 
is usually some inches shorter. 

Puberty is announced by external symptoms, from the tenth to the | 
twelfth year in girls, and from the twelfth to the sixteenth in boys; 
it arrives sooner in warm climates, and neither sex, (very rarely at 
least,) is productive before or after that manifestation. 

Scarcely has the body gained the full period of its growth in 
height, before it begins to increase in bulk; fat accumulates in the — 
cellular tissue, the different vessels become gradually obstructed, the 
solids become rigid, and, after a life more or less long, more or less" wie 
agitated, more or less painful, old age arrives with decrepitude, de- 
cay, and death. Man rarely lives beyond.a hundred years, and most 
of the species, either from disease, accident, or old age, perish long 
before that term. 

The child needs the assistance of its mother much longer thanher _ 
milk, from this it obtains an education both moral and physical, and 
a mutual attachment is created that is fervent and durable. The 
nearly equal number of the two sexes, the difficulty of supporting 
more than one wife, when wealth does not supply the want of power, 
all go to prove that monogamy is the mode of union most natu- 
ral to our species, and, as wherever this kind of tie exists, the father 
participates in the education of his offspring, the length of time re- 
quired for that education allows the birth of others—hence the na- 
tural permanence of the conjugal state. From the long period of 
infantile weakness springs domestic subordination, and the order of 
society in general, as the young people which compose the new 

Vou. IL.—G 


50-@ MAMMALIA. 


families continue to preserve with their parents those tender rela- 
tions to which they have so long been accustomed. This disposi- 
tion to mutual assistance multiplies to an almost unlimited extent 
those advantages previously derived by insulated man from his in- 
telligences; it has assisted him to tame or repulse other animals, to 
defend himself from the effects of climate, and thus enabled him to 
cover the earth with his species. 

In other respects, man appears to possess nothing resembling in- 
stinct, no regular habit of industry produced by innate ideas; his 
knowledge is the result of his sensations and of his observation, or 
of those of his predecessors. Transmitted by speech, increased by 
meditation, and applied to his necessities and his enjoyments, they 
have originated all the arts of life. Language and letters, by pre- 
serving acquired knowledge, are a source of indefinite perfection to 
his species. Itis thus he has acquired ideas, and made all nature 
contribute to his wants. 

There are very different degrees of development, however, in man. 

The first hordes, compelied to live by fishing and hunting, or on 
wild fruits, and being obliged to devote all their time to search for 
the means of subsistence, and not being able to multiply greatly, 
because that would have destroyed the game, advanced but slowly. 
Their arts were limited to the construction of huts and canoes, to 
covering themselves with skins and the fabrication of arrows and 
nets. They observed such stars only as directed them in their jour- 
neys, and some few natural objects whose properties were of use to 
them. They domesticated the Dog, simply because he had a natu- 
ral inclination for their own kind of life. When they had succeeded 
in taming the herbivorous animals, they found in the possession of 
numerous flocks a never failing source of subsistence, and also some 
leisure, which they employed in extending the sphere of their ac- 
quirements. Some industry was then employed in the construction 
of dwellings and the making of clothes: the idea of property was 
admitted, and consequently that of barter, as well as wealth and 
difference of conditions, those fruitful sources of the noblest emula- 
tion and the vilest passions: but the necessity of searching for fresh 
pastures, and of obeying the changes of the seasons, still doomed 
them to a wandering life, and limited their improvement to a very 
narrow sphere. 

The multiplication of the human species, and its improvement in 
the arts and sciences, have only been carried to a high degree since 
the invention of agriculture and the division of the soil into heredi- 
tary possessions. By means of agriculture, the manual labour of a 
portion of society is adequate to the maintenance of the whole, and 
allows the remainder time for less necessary occupations, at the same . 


BIMANA. 51 


time that the hope of acquiring, by industry, a comfortable exist- 
ence for self and posterity, has given a new spring to emulation. 
The discovery of a representative of property or a circulating me- 
dium, by facilitating exchanges and rendering fortunes more inde- 
pendent and susceptible of being increased, has carried this emula- 
tion to its highest degree, but by a necessary consequence it has 
also equally increased the vices of effeminacy and the furies of ambi- 
tion. ) 

The natural propensity to reduce every thing to general principles, 
and to search for the causes of every phenomenon, has produced re- 


flecting men, in every stage of society, who have added new ideas to 


those already obtained, nearly all of whom, while knowledge was 
confined to the few, endeavoured to convert their intellectual supe- 
riority into the means of domination, by exaggerating their own 
merit, and disguising the poverty of their knowledge by the propa- 
gation of superstitious ideas. 

An evil still more irremediable, is the abuse of physical power : 
now that man only can injure man, he is continually seeking to do 
so, and is the only animal upon earth that is for ever at war with his 
own species. Savages fight for a forest, and herdsmen for a pasture, 
and as often as they can, break inupon the cultivators of the earth 
to rob them of the fruits of their long and painful labours. Even 
civilized nations, far from being contented with their blessings, pour 
out each other’s blood for the prerogatives of pride, or the monopoly 
of trade. Hence, the necessity for governments to direct the 
national wars, and to repress or reduce to regular forms the quarrels 
of individuals. Het 


: ae 5 4 . ie 
The social condition of man has been restrained, or advanced by 


circumstances more or less favourable. 

The glacial climates of the north of both continents, and the im- 
penetrable forests of America are still inhabited by the savage hun- 
ter or fisherman. The immense sandy and salt plains of central 
Asia and Africa are covered with a pastoral people, and innumerable 


herds. These half civilized hordes assemble at the call of every 


enthusiastic chief, and rush like a torrent on the cultivated coun- 
tries that surround them, in which they establish themselves, but to 
be weakened by luxury, and in their turn to become the prey of 
others. This is the true cause of that despotism which has always 
crushed and destroyed the industry of Persia, India, and China. 
Mild climates, soils naturally irrigated and rich in vegetables, are 
the cradles of agriculture and civilization, and when so situated as 
to be sheltered from the incursions of barbarians, every species of 
talent is excited; such were (the first in Europe) Italy and Greece, 
and such is, at present, nearly all that happy portion of the earth. 


52 MAMMALIA. 


There are, however, certain intrinsic causes which seem to arrest 
the progress of particular races, although situated amidst the most 
favourable circumstances. 


Varieties of the Human Species. 


Although the promiscuous intercourse of the human species, 
which produces individuals capable of propagation, would seem to 
demonstrate its unity, certain hereditary peculiarities of conforma- 
tion are observed which constitute what are termed races. 

Three of them in particular appear very distinct—the Caucasian 
or white, the Mongolian or yellow, and the Ethiopian or negro. 

The Caucasian, to which we belong, is distinguished by the beauty 
of the oval formed by his head, varying in complexion and the 
colour of the hair. To this variety, the most highly civilized nations, 
and those which have generally held all others in subjection, are in- 
debted for their origin. 

The Mongolian is known by his high cheek bones, flat visage, 
narrow and oblique eyes, straight black hair, scanty beard and olive 
complexion. Great empires have been established by this race in 
China and Japan, and their conquests been extended to this side of 
the Great Desert. In civilization, however, it has always remained 
stationary. 

The Negro race is confined to the south of mount Atlas; it is 
marked by a black complexion, crisped or woolly hair, compressed 
cranium, and a flat nose. The projection of the lower parts of the 
face, and the thick lips, evidently approximate it to the monkey 
tribe: the hordes of which it consists have always remained in the 
most complete state of utter barbarism. 

The race from which we are descended has been called Caucasian, 
because tradition and the filiation of nations seem to refer its origin 
to that group of mountains situated between the Caspian and Black 
seas, whence, as from acentre, it has been extended like the radii of 
a circle. Various nations in the vicinity of Caucasus, the Georgians 
and Circassians, are still considered the handsomest on earth. » The 
principal ramifications of this race may be distinguished by the ana- 
logies of language. The Armenian or Syrian branch, stretching 
to the south, produced the Assyrians, the Chaldeans, the hitherto 
untameable Arabs, who, after Mahomet, were near becoming mas- 
ters of the world; the Phenicians, Jews and Abyssinians, which 
were Arabian colonies ; and most probably the Egyptians. It is 
from this branch, always inclined to mysticism, that have sprung 
the most widely extended forms of religion—the arts and literature 


& 


BIMANA. 53 


have sometimes flourished among its nations, but always enveloped 
ina strange disguise and figurative style. 
The Indian, German, and Pelasgic branch is much more extend- 


ed, and was much earlier divided: notwithstanding which, the most 


numerous.affinities may be observed.between its four principal lan- 


| guages—the Sanscrit, the present sacred language of the Hindoos, 


and the parent of the greater number of the dialects of Hindostans 

the ancient language of the Pelasgi, common mother of the Greek, 

Latin, many tongues that are extinct, and of all those of the south of 
Europe; the Gothic or Teutonic, from which are derived the lan- 

guages of the north and north-west of Europe, such as the German, | 
Dutch, English, Danish, Swedish, and other dialects; and finally, 
the Sclavonian, from which spring those of the north-east, the Rus- 
sian, Polish, Bohemian, &c. 

It is by this great and venerable branch of the Caucasian stock, 
that philosophy, the arts, and the sciences have been carried to the 
greatest perfection, and remained in the keeping of the nations 
which compose it for more than three thousand years. 

It was preceded in Europe by the Celts, who came from the north, 
whose tribes, once very numerous, are now confined to its most 
eastern extremity, and by the Cantabrians, who passed from Africa 
into Spain, now confounded with the many nations whose posterity 
have intermingled in that peninsula. 

The ancient Persians originate from the same source as the In- 
dians, and their descendants to the present hour bear great marks > 
of resemblance to the people of Europe. ! 

The predatory tribes of the Scythian and Tartar branch, extending 
at first to the north and north-east, always wandering over the im- 
mense plains of those countries, returned only to devastate the happier 
abodes of their more civilized brethren. The Scythians, who, at so 
remote a period, made irruptions into upper Asia; the Parthians, 
who there destroyed the Greek and Roman domination; the Turks, 
who there subverted that of the Arabs, and subjugated in Europe 
the unfortunate remnant of the Grecian people, all swarmed from 
this prolific branch. The Finlanders and Hungarians are tribes of 
the same division, which have strayed among the Sclavonic and 
Teutonic nations. Their original country, to the north and north- 
east of the Caspian sea still contains inhabitants who have the same 
origin, and speak similar languages, but mingled with other petty 
nations, variously descended, and of different languages. The Tar- 
tars remained unmixed longer than the others in the country in- 
cluded between the mouth of the Danube to beyond the Irtisch, 
from which they so long menaced Russia, and where they have 
finally been subjugated by her. The Mongoles, however, have 


54 MAMMALIA. 


mingled their blood with that of those they conquered, many traces 
of which may still be found among the inhabitants of lesser Tartary. 

It is to the east of this Tartar branch of the Caucasian race that 
the Mongolian race begins, whence it extends to the eastern ocean. 
Its branches, the Calmucs, &c. still wandering shepherds, are con- 
stantly traversing the desert. Thrice did their ancestors under 
Attila, Genghis, and Tamerlane, spread far the terror of their name. 
The Chinese are the earliest and most civilized branch not only of 
this race, to which they belong, but of all the nations upon earth. 
A third branch, the Mantchures, recently conquered, and still 
govern China. The Japanese, Coreans, and nearly all the hordes 
which extend to the north-east of Siberia, subject to Russia, are also 
to be considered, in a great measure, as originating from this race; 
and such also is esteemed the fact, with regard to the original inha- 
bitants of various islands of that Archipelago. With the exception 
of a few Chinese literati, the different nations of the Mongoles are 
universally addicted to Buddism, or the religion of Fo. 

The origin of this great race appears to have been in the moun- 
tains of Atlai, but it is impossible to trace the filiation of its diffe- 
rent branches with the same certainty as we have done those of the 
Caucasian. The history of these wandering nations is as fugitive as 
their establishments, and that of the Chinese, confined exclusively to 
their own empire, gives us nothing satisfactory with respect to their 
neighbours. The affinities of their languages are also too little 
known to direct us in this labyrinth. 

The languages of the north of the Peninsula beyond the Ganges, 
as well as that of Thibet, are somewhat allied to the Chinese, at 
least in their monosyllabic structure, and the people who speak 
them have features somewhat resembling other Mongoles. The 
south of this Peninsula, however, is inhabited by Malays, whose 
forms approximate them much nearer to the Indians, whose race 
and language are extended over all the coasts of the islands of the 
Indian Archipelago. The innumerable little islands of the southern 
ocean are also peopled by a handsome race, nearly allied to the In- 
dians, whose language is very similar to the Malay; in the interior 
of the largest of these islands, particularly in the wilder portions of 
it, is another race of men with black complexions, crisped hair, and 
negro faces, called Alfourous.. On the coast of New Guinea, and in 
the neighbouring islands, we find other negroes, nearly similar to 
those of the eastern coast of Africa, named Papuas (1) to the latter, 


(1) With respect to the various nations of the Indian and Pacific oceans, see 
the dissertation of Messrs Lesson and Garnot in the Zoologie du Voyage de la 


BIMANA. mh WBS 


are generally referred the people of Van-Diemen’s land, and those 
of New Holland to the Alfourous. 

These Malays, and these Papuas are not easily referable to either 
of the three great races of which we have been speaking, but can 
the former be clearly distinguished from their neighbours, the Cau- 
casian Hindoos and the Mongolian Chinese? As for us, we confess 
we cannot discover any sufficient characteristics in them for that 
purpose. Are the Papuas Negroes, which may formerly have strayed 
into the Indian ocean? We possess neither figures nor descriptions 
sufficiently precise to enable us to answer this question. 

The northern inhabitants of both continents, the Samoiédes, the 
Laplanders, and the Esquimaux spring, according to some, from the 
Mongolian race, while others assert that they are mere degenerate 
offsets from the Scythian and Tartar branch of the Caucasian stock. 

We have not yet been able to refer the Americans to any of the 
races of the eastern continent; still, they have no precise nor con- 
stant character which can entitle them to be considered as a par- 
ticular one. Their copper coloured complexion is not sufficient; 
their generally black hair and scanty beard would induce us to 
refer them to the Mongoles, if their defined features, projecting 
nose, large and open eye, did not oppose such a theory, and corres- 
pond with the features of the European. Their languages are as 
numberless as their tribes, and no demonstrative analogy has as yet 


been obtained, either with each other, or with those of the old 
world. (1) 


ORDER II. 
n QUADRUMANA. 


Independently of the anatomical details which distinguish 
it from man, and which have been given, this family differs 
from our species in a very remarkable way. All the animals 
belonging to it have the toes of the hind feet free and oppo- 


Coquille, p. 1—113. For the languages of the Asiatics and their affinities, con- 
sult the Asia Polyglotta of M. Klaproth. 


(1) See the Voyage de M. de Humboldt, and the dissertations of Vater and 
Mitchill. 


: 
| 
| 


SS a Oe 


56 ‘ MAMMALIA.’ « 


sable to the others, and the toes are all as long and flexible as 
fingers. In consequence of this, the whole species climb 
trees with the greatest facility, while it is only with pain and 
difficulty they can stand and walk upright; their foot then 
resting on its outer edge only, and their narrow pelvis being un- 
favourable to an equilibrium. They all have intestines very 
similar to those of man; the eyes directed forwards, the mam- 
mz on the breast, the penis pendent. The brain has three 
lobes on each side, the posterior of which covers the cerebel- 
lum, and the temporal foss are separated from the orbits by 
a bony partition. In every thing else, however, they gradu- 
ally lessen in resemblance to him, by assuming a muzzle more 
and more elongated, a tail and a gait more like that of quad- 
rupeds. Notwithstanding this, the freedom of their arms and 
the complication of their hands allow them all to perform 
many of the actions of man as well as to imitate his gestures. 

They have long been divided into two genera, the Monkeys 
and the Lemurs, which, by the multiplication of secondary 
forms, have now become two small families, between which 
we must place a third genus that of the Ouzséztis, as it is not 
conveniently referable to the one or the other. 


Simi&. Eth. 


The monkeys are all quadrumana, which have four straight incisors 


_ in each jaw, and flat nails on all the extremities; two characters 


which approximate them more nearly to man, than the subsequent 
genera; their molares have also blunt tubercles like ours, and their 
food consists chiefly of fruits. Their canine teeth, however, being 
longer than the rest, supply them with a weapon we do not possess, 
and which require a hollow in the opposite jaw, to receive ther 
when the mouth is closed. 

They may be divided, from the number of their molar teeth, into 
two principal subgenera, which are again subdivided into nu- 
merous groups.(1) The 


(1) Buffon subdivided the monkeys into five tribes: the true monkeys without 
tails ; the baboons with short tails ; the guwenons with long tails and callous buttocks ; 
the sapajous with long prehensile tails and no callus ; the sagowins with long tails, 
not prehensile and without callus. Erxleben, adopting this division, translated 
these names by simia, papio, cercopithecus; cebus and callithriz. Thus it is, that 
the names cebus and callithrix, by which the ancients designated monkeys ef Af- 


QUADRUMANA. on OF 


Monkeys, properly so called, 


Or those of the eastern continent, have the same number of grin- 
ders as Man, but otherwise differing from each other by characters, 
which have formed the grounds of the following subdivisions. The 


AY de «~ Sma, Erxl.—Piruecus, Geoffr. 


The Ourangs(1) are the only monkeys of the ancient continent 
which have no callus on the buttock; their hyoid bone, liver and 
cecum resemble those of Man. Their nose is not prominent, they 
have no cheek-pouches, nor a vestige of a tail. Some of them have 
arms long enough to reach the ground when standing—their legs, 
on the contrary, are very short. 

S. satyrus, L.; Audeb., pl. 23 Fr. Cuv. pl. 2. (The Ourang- 
Outang.)(2) Of all animals, this Ourang is considered as ap- 
proaching most nearly to Man in the form of his head, height 
of forehead, and volume of brain; but the exaggerated descrip- 
tions of some authors respecting this resemblance, are partly to 
be attributed to the fact of their being drawn from young in- 
dividuals only; and there is every reason to believe, that with 
age, their muzzle becomes much more prominent. The body 
is covered with coarse red hair, the face bluish, and the hinder 
thumbs very short compared with the toes. His lips are sus- 
ceptible of a singular elongation, and possess great mobility. 
His history has been much disfigured by mingling it with that 
of the other great monkeys, that of the Chimpansé in particu- 
lar. After a strict and critical examination, I have ascertained 


r 


rica and India, have been transferred to those of America. The genus Papio, 
founded solely on the shortness of the tail, could not be retained, as it violated 
natural affinities, and all the others required subdividing. It was also necessary 
to abolish the genus Ouistitis, which was comprised in that of the Sagouins, but 
which does not altogether correspond with the common characters of the other 
monkeys. 

(1) Orang is a Malay word signifying reasonable being, which is applied to man, 
the ourang-outang, and the elephant. Oufang means wild, or of the woods; hence, 
Wild Man of the Woods. 

(2) The only good figure of the Ourang-Outang we had for a long time was that 
of Vosmaer, taken from a living specimen at the Hague. That of Buffon, Suppl. 
VIM, pl. 1, is every way erroneous ; that of Allamand (Buff. d’Holl. XV, pl. 11,) is 
somewhat better—it was copied in Schreber, pl. 2, B. That of Camper, copied ib., 
pl. 2, C, is tolerably exact, but i is easily discovered to have been taken from the 
dead body. Bontius, Med. Ind. 84, gives a completely ideal one, although Linnzus 
took it for the type of his troglodyte (Amen. Ac. VI, pl. 1,§1). There are some 
good ones in Griffith, and in Krusenstern’s Voyage, pl. 94 and 95, but alk of them 
from young subjects. 


WoT. be EL 


“ato 


58 MAMMALIA. 


that the Ourang-Outang inhabits the most eastern countries 
only, such as Malabar, Cochin China, and particularly the great 
island of Borneo, whence he has been occasionally brought to 
Europe by the way of Java. When young, and such as he ap- 
pears to us in his captiyity, he is a mild and gentle animal, 
easily rendered tame and affectionate, which is enabled by his 
conformation to imitate many of our actions, but whose intel- 
ligence does not appear to be as great as is reported, not much 
surpassing even that of the Dog. Camper discovered, and has 
well described two membranous sacs in this animal which com- 
municate with the glottis, that produce a hoarseness of his voice 
—he was mistaken, however, in imagining that the nails are 
always wanting on his hinder thumbs. 

There is a monkey in Borneo, hitherto known only by his 
skeleton, called the Pongo,(1) which so closely resembles the 
Ourang-Outang in the proportions of all his parts, and by the ar- 
rangement of the foramina, and sutures of the head, that, not- 

withstanding the great prominence of the muzzle, the small- 
ness of the cranium, and the height of the branches of the lower 
jaw, we are tempted to consider him an adult—if not of the 
species of the Ourang-Outang, at least of one very nearly allied 
to it. The length of the arms, that of the apophyses of the 
cervical vertebrx, and the tuberosity of his calcaneum, may 
enable him to assume the vertical position, and walk upon two 
feet. He is the largest monkey known, and in size is nearly 
equal to Man. 

Mr J. Harwood, in the Trans. Lin. Soc. XV, p. 471, de- 
scribes the feet of an ourang, fifteen English inches in length. 
This announces a very great stature in the animal to which 
they belonged, and would have Ied him to the belief that the 

- Pongo is the adult Ourang-Outang, were it not that the skele- 
ton of the Pongo in the College of Surgeons, at London, has 
one lumbar vertebra more than those of the Ourangs. This, 


(1) Audeb. Singes, pl. anat. 2. This name of Pongo, a corruption of Boggo, 
which is given in Africa to the Chimpansé, or to the Mandrill, was applied by 
Buffon to a pretended large species of Ourang-Outang—the mere imaginary pro- 
duct of his combinations. Wurmb, a naturalist of Batavia, has transferred it to 
this animal, which he was the first to describe, and of which Buffon never had 
any idea. See Mem. of the Soc. of Batavia, vol. ii, p. 245. The thought, that it 
might be an adult Ourang, struck me on examining the head of an ordinary 
Ourang, whose muzzle projected much more thap those of the very young speci- 
mens hitherto described. I described it in a memoir read before the Acad. des 
Sciences in 1818. ‘Tilesius and Rudolphi appear: ang to have had it. See the 
Mem. of the Acad. of Berlin, 1824, p. 131. 


QUADRUMANA. 59 


however, is no objection—the same variation is frequently 
observed in the human subject. 

The arms of the remaining Ourangs reach only to the knee. They 
have no forehead, and the cranium retreats from the crest of the 
eye-brow. The name of CuimpansEs might be exclusively applied 
to them. 

S. troglodytes, L. (The Chimpansé)(1) is covered with black 
or brown hair. Could any reliance be placed on the accounts 
of travellers, this animal must be equal or superior to man 
in stature, but no part of it hitherto seen in Europe indicates 
this extraordinary size. It inhabits Guinea and Congo, lives 
in troops, constructs huts of leaves and sticks, arms itself with 
clubs and stones, and thus repulses men and elephants; pur- 
sues and abducts, as is said, negro women, &c. Naturalists 
have generally confounded it with the Ourang-Outang. When 
domesticated he soon learns to walk, sit, and eat like a man. 
We now separate the Gibbons from the Ourangs. 


Hirorartes, Illig. 


The Gibbons have the long arms of the true Ourangs, and the 
low forehead of the Chimpansé, along with the callous buttocks of 
the Guenons, differing however from the latter in having no tail 
or cheek-pouch. They all inhabit the most remote parts of India. 

S. lar. L.3 Buff. XIV, 23; Onko, Fred. Cuv. pl. 5 and 6, (The 
Black Gibbon) is covered with coarse black hairs, and has a 
whitish circle round his face. 

HZ. agilis, Fred. Cuv. pl. 3 and 43 Petit Gibbon of Buffon, 
XIV, 3, (The Brown Gibbon) is brown—the circle round the 
face is of a pale red; the lower part of the back is of the same 
colour. The young are of a uniform yellowish white—it is 
very agile, and lives in pairs—its Malay name, Wouwou, is 
taken from its cry. 

S. leucisea, Schreber, pl. 3, B, (Whe Cinereous Gibbon) 
is covered with a soft and ash-coloured wool. The visage is 


(1) This is the Quojas morou or the Satyr of Angola of Tulpius, who gives a bad 
figure of it, (Obs. Med., p. 271) and the Pygmy, much better represented by 
Tyson, (Anat. of a Pygmy, pl. 1,) copied by Schreber, pl. 1, B. Scotin had given 
a tolerable drawing of it, copied Amen. Acad. VI, pl. 1, fig. 3, and Schreber, 1, C. 
An individual that lived with Buffon, and which is still preserved in the Museum, 
is represented, though badly, in the Hist. Nat. XIV, 1, where he is called Jocko. 
The same specimen is much better in Lecat (Traite du Mouv. Muscl. pl. 1, fig. 1), 
under the name Quimpese. Audebert gives the same, but from the stuffed speci- 
men only—he calls it Pongo. 


at 


60 MAMMALIA. 


black—lives among the reeds, and climbs to the tops of the 
highest branches of the bamboos, where it balances itself by 
itslong arms. We might separate from the other Gibbons the 
Stamang. 

S. syndactila, Raff., Fred. Cuv., pl. 2, (The Siamang) has the 
second and third toes of the hind foot united by a narrow mem- 
brane, the whole length of the first phalanx. It is black—the 
chin and eyebrows red—lives in numerous troops, which are 
led, by courageous and vigilant chiefs, which, at sunrise and 
sunset, make the forest ring with the most frightful cries. 
Their larynx has a membranous sac connected with it. 

All the ensuing monkeys of the eastern continent have the liver 
divided into several lobes; the czcum thick, short, and without 
any appendage; the hyoid bone has the form of a shield. 


Crrcoriruecus, Erxl., partim. 


The long-tailed monkeys(1) have a moderately prominent muz- 
zle (of 60°); cheek-pouches; tails; callosities on the buttocks ; the 
last of the inferior molares with four tubercles like the rest. Nu- 
merous species, of every variety of size and colour, abound in 
Africa, live in troops, and do much damage to the gardens and 
fields under cultivation. They are easily tamed. 

Simua rubra, Gm.; Buff. XIV, 303; Fred. Cuv. 24. (The 
Patras.) Red fawn colour above, whitish below; a black band 
over the eyes, sometimes surmounted with white—from Sene- 
gal. 

Simia ethiops, L.; Buff. XIV, 323-Fred. Cuv. 24. (The 
Collared Mangabey.) A chocolate brown above; below and 
the nape of the neck, whitish ; on the head a cap or coif of a 
lively red; eye-lids white. Buffon says it is from Madagascar, 
and Hasselquist from Senegal; and in fact Sonnerat declares, 
there are no monkeys in Madagascar. 

Simia fuliginosa, Geoff.; Buff. XIV, 323 Fred. Cuv. 25. 
(The Mangabey.) A chocolate brown, uniform above, fawn- 
coloured below; eye-lids white. Buffon says it is from Mada- 
gascar, and he believes it to be a variety of the preceding. 

Simia sabea, Lin.; Buff. XIV, 373; Fred. Cuv. 19. (The 
Green Monkey.)(2) It is greenish above, whitish beneath; face 


(¥) Cercopithecus, i. e. tailed monkey, a name used by the Greeks. 

(2) Callithrix, Pliny, 1. 8, c. 54, is the name of an Ethiopian Monkey, furnished 
with ‘beard and a tufted tail, probably the Ouanderow. Buffon arbitrarily applied 
it to this species. 


QUADRUMANA. 61 


black; the tufts on the checks yellowish; tip of the tail yellow. 
From Senegal. | 

Simia faunus, Gm.; Malbrouc, Buff. XIV, 293 Simia cy- 
nosuros, Scopol.; Schr. pl. 14, C3 Fred. Cuy. pl. 22, var. 
of the callithrix; Audeb. 4th fam. 2d sect. pl. 5.(1) Greenish 
above; limbs ash-coloured ; face flesh-coloured ; no yellow on the 
tail ; one black, and one white band over the eye-brows ; scro- 
tum of a beautiful ultramarine. 

Simia erythropyga, Fred. Cuy. pl. 21, (The Vervet) differs 
from the Malbrouc in the scrotum, which is surrounded with 
white hairs, the anus with red ones; and from the Grivet, 
(S. grisea) Fred. Cuv. 21, by a green scrotum, encircled with 
fawn-coloured hairs. 

Simia melarhina, Fred. Cuv. pl. 18.3 Buff. XIV, pl. 10. “(The 
Talapoin.) Greenish above; tufts of the cheek yellowish; a 
black nose, in the middle of a flesh-coloured face. 

Sim. mona and §. monacha, Schreb.; Buff. XIV, 363; Fred. 
Cuy..13. (The Mona.) Body brown, limbs black, the breast, 
insides of the arms, and circumference of the head whitish ; 
black band across the forehead ; a white spot at each side of the 
root of the tail. 

Sim. diana, Lin.; Exquima, Marcgr. ;(2) Audeb. 4th fam. sec. 
2, pl. 6, and Buff. Supp. VII, 20. (The Roloway.) Blackish, 
speckled with white above, beneath white; crupper of a pur- 
plish red; face black, surrounded with white; a little white 
beard on the chin. 

Sim, cephus, Lin.; Buff. XIV, 34; Fred. Cuv. 17. (The 
Moustache.) Ashy-brown; a yellow tuft before each ear; a 
clear blue band, resembling a reversed chevron, on the upper lip. 

S. petaurista, Gm.; Audeb. 4th fam. sec. 2, pl. 133 Fred. 
Cuy. pl. 16. (The Vaulting Monkey.) Olive-brown above, 
grey below ; visage blue; nose white ; a white tuft before each 
ear 3 a black moustache. 

S. nictitans, Gm.; Audeb. ib. XIV; Fred. Cuv. 13. (The 
White-nosed Monkey.) Black or brown, speckled with white $ 
white nose; face black; circumference of the lips and the eyes 
reddish. 

These last five species, all small, beautifully variegated in 


(1) The Cercop. barbatus of Clusius, which Linn. cites as an example of his faunus, 
is rather an Ouanderow than a Malbroue. 

(2) The figure annexed to the description of the Eaguima in Marcgrave is that 
of an Ouarine, and that of the Exquima is joined to the description of the Ouarine 
or Guariba. ‘This transposition has produced many errors in synonymes. 


62 MAMMALIA, 


colour, and of a mild and gentle disposition, are very common 
in Guinea.(1) 


SEMNOPITHECUS, Fred. Cuv. 


Differs from the Long-tailed Monkeys, by having an additional 
small tubercle on the last of the inferior molares. They inhabit 
eastern countries, and their long limbs and very long tail give them 
a very peculiar appearance. Their muzzle projects very little more 
than that of the Gibbons, and like them, they have callosities on the 
buttocks. They appear, likewise, to have no cheek-pouches ; their 
larnyx is furnished with a sac. The one longest known is the 

Sim. nemeus, L.; Buff. XIV, 413 Fred. Cuv. pl. 12. Re- 
markable for its lively and varied colouring; body and arms 
grey; hands, thighs and feet black; legs of a lively red; the 
tail and a large triangular spot upon the loins, white; face 
orange 3 he has a black and red collar, and tufts of yellow hairs 
on the sides of the head ; inhabits Cochin China.(2) 

Another species is remarkable for the very extraordinary form 
of the nose—it is the 

S. nasica, Schr.; Buff. Supp. VII, 11 and 12. (The Kahau.) 
Yellow, tinted with red; nose’ extremely long and projecting, 
in the form of a sloping spatula. This monkey inhabits Borneo, 
lives in great troops, which assemble morning and evening, on 
the branches of the great trees on the banks of the rivers—its 
cry is kahau. It is also said to be found in Cochin China. 

S. entellus, Dufres.; Fred. Cuv. pl. 8 and 9. (The Entel- 
lus.) A light yellowish grey; black hairs on the eye-brows 
and sides of the head, directed forwards. From Upper Bengal. 
Is one of the species held in veneration by the Brahmins. 

S. melalophos, Raff.; F. C. pl. 7. (The Simpai.) Fur of 
a very lively red; beneath white; face blue; a crest of black 
hairs reaching from one ear to the other. 

S. comata, Desm.; 8. cristata, Raff.; Fr. Cuv. pl. 2. Presbitis 
mitrata, Kotzeb. (The Croo.) Fine ash colour below, and the 


(1) Pennant has described certain Guenons without thumbs, Sim. polycomos and 
Sim. ferruginea, from which Mliger has constructed his genus Colobus, but { have not 
yet been able to see them, and for this reason have not mentioned them. M, 
Temminck assures us that their head and teeth resemble those of a Semnopithecus. 

(2) M. Diard having transmitted to the Museum several Doues from Cochin Chi- 
na, it has been proved that they have callosities on the buttocks ; a fact denied 
by Buffon, on account of his having seen but one specimen injured by stuffing. 
The genus Lasiopyga of Iliger must consequently be suppressed, as it is based on 
this error. 


QUADRUMANA. 63 


tuft of the tail white; black crest on the eye-brows, and the 
hairs of the top of the head long and turned up, forming a tuft. 

S. maura, L.3 F. Cuy. pl. 10. (The Negro Monkey.) All 
black, the young of a brownish yellow. The three latter species 
are from the straits of Sunda.(1) 


Macacus.(2) 


All the animals of this denomination have a fifth tubercle on their 
last molares, and callosities and cheek-pouches like aGuenon. The 
limbs are shorter and thicker than in a Semnopithecus ; the muzzle 
more projecting, and the superciliary ridge more inflated than in 
either the one or the other. Though docile when young, they be- 
come unmanageable when old. They all have asac which commu- 
nicates with the larynx under the thyroid cartilage, and which, when 
they cry out, becomes filled with air. Their tail is pendent, and 
takes no part in their motions: they produce early, but are not 
completely adult for four or five years. The period of gestation is 
seven months—during the rutting season the labia pudendi, &c. of 
the females are excessively distended.(3) They are generally brought 
from India. 

Sim. silenus and leonina, L. and Gm.3; Ouanderou, Buff. ; 
Audeb. 2d fam. sect. 1, pl. 3. (The Maned Macaque.) Blacks 
ash coloured mane and whitish beard which surround the head. 
From Ceylon. 

Sim. sinica, Gm.;3 Buff. XIV, 30; Fr. Cuv. 30. (The Chinese 
Monkey.) <A lively fawn-coloured brown above, white be- 
neath ; flesh-coloured face; the hairs on the top of the head 
arranged in radii forming a sort of hat. From Bengal, Ceylon. 

S. radiata, Geoff.; Fr. Cuv. 29. (The Cape Monkey.) Dif- 
fering from the preceding in a greenish tint. 

Sim. cynomolgus and cynocephalus, Lin.; Macaque, Buff. 
XIV, 20; Fr. Cuv. 26 and 27. (The Hare-lipped Monkey.)- 
Greenish above, yellowish or whitish below; ears and hands 


(1) There is some variation in their Malay names. Raffles, (Linn, Trans. XTIT) 
calls the S. comata, Chinkaw; the S. maura, Lotong. Raffles calls the S. fascicu- 
laris the Kra. 

(2) Macaco is the generic appellation of monkeys on the coast of Guinea, and 
among: the negroes transported to the colonies. Marcgrave mentions a species, 
which he says has ‘¢ nares elatas bifidas””—and these vague words, copied from him 
only, have remained in the character applied to the Macaque of Buff. although it 
has nothing like it. 

(3) Hence the observation of lian, that monkeys are to be seen in India which 
have a prolapsus uteri. 


64 MAMMALIA. 


black; face and scrotum tawny.(1) The Aigrette, Sim. aygula, 
Lin., Buff. XIV, 21, appears to be a mere variety of this one, 
differing by a longer tuft of hair on the top of the head. 

Some of the Macaques are distinguished by a short tail. 

M. rhesus.; Rhesus, Audeb. fam. iis; Patas a queue courte, 
ib. pl. 4, and Buff. Supp. XIV, pl. 16; the first baboon figured 
by Buff. XIV, pl. 19.(2) (The Pig-tailed Baboon.) Greyish ; 
a fawn-coloured tinge on the head and crupper, sometimes on 
the back ; face flesh-colour ; tail reaching below the hamstrings. 
From Bengal. (3) 

Sim. menestrinus, L.3 Sim. platypigos, Schreb.; Audeb. fam. 
ii, sect. 1, pl. 2.3 Fr. Cuv. Mammif. under the name of Singe 
a queue de cochon. (The Brown Baboon.) Deep brown above; 
black band beginning on the head, and fading as it extends 
along the back; yellowish round the head and limbs ; tail thin 
and wrinkled.(4) 


Inuus, Cuv. 


Mere Macaques, which have a small tubercle in lieu of a tail. 

S. silvanus, pithecus and inuus, Lin.; Buff. XIV, 7, 83 Fr. 
Cuv. Mammif. (The Barbary Ape.) Completely covered 
with a light grey-brown hair, and of all monkeys, is the one 
that suffers least from our climate. He is originally from 
Barbary, but is said to have become naturalised in the most 
inaccessible parts of the rock of Gibraltar.(5) 


CynocEpHaLus, C.(6) 


The Dog-headed Monkeys, together with the teeth, cheek- 
pouches and callosities of the Inuus, Cuv., have an elongated muz- 


(1) Add the Black-faced Macaque, Fr. Cuv. Mammif. 28, and the other species 
described in the same work. 

(2) The two specimens used by Audebert are still in the Museum. I have ex- 
amined them and find they are both of one species. 

(3) The Macaque a queue courte of Buff. Supp. VU, pl. 18, (Stim. erytrhea, Schr.) 
appears to me to be a true Macaque (S. cynomolgus), whose tail had been ampu- 
tated. 

(4) Add the Macaque de ’ Inde, and the Macaque a face rouge, Fr. Cuv. Mammif. 

(5) The Pitheque of Buff. Supp. VII, pl. 4.and 5, wasa young Magot. His Little 
Cynocephalus, ib. pl.6, and the Great and Little Cynocephala of Prosper Alpin are 
also of that species. s8ux0¢ is the Greek term for monkeys in general, and the 
one whose anatomy has been given by Galen was a Magot, although Camper 
thought it was an Ourang-Outang. M. de Blainville perceived this mistake, and 
I have proved it by comparing with these two species, all that Galen has stated 
respecting the anatomy of his pithecus. 

(6) Cynocephalus, dog’s head, a name well known to the ancients, especially as 


° 


=, 


QUADRUMANA. 65 


zle truncated at the end, in which the nostrils are pierced, giving 
it a greater resemblance to that of a dog than of any other mon- 
key; their tail varies in length. They are generally large, fero- 
cious and dangerous animals, found mostly in Africa. 


C. papio, Desm.; Sim. sphynx, Lin.; Papion, Buff. (The 
Guinea Baboon.) Yellow, verging more or less on a brown; ° 
tufts of the cheeks fawn-coloured ; face black ; tail long.(1) 
They are found of various sizes, owing probably to the dif- 
ference of age. When full grown, frightful from their ferocity 
and brutal lubricity. From Guinea. 

There, is another neighbouring species with a shorter tail, 
a greener fur, whiter cheek-tufts and a flesh-coloured face, 
S. cynocephalus; the Babouin, Fr. Cuv. Mém. du Mus. IV, 
pl. 19. 

C. porcarius ; Sim. porcaria, Bodd.; S. ursina, Penn.; SS. 
sphyngiola, Herm.; The Long-faced Guenon, Penn., and Buff. 
Supp. VII, pl. 15.3; Black Monkey of Vaillant ;(2) Chacma, 
Fr. Cuv. Mammif. Black, with a green or yellowish glaze, 
particularly on the forehead; tufts of the cheeks grey; face 
and hands black; his tail reaches his heel, and ends in a tuft. 
The adult has a large mane—in every thing else, as to habits 
and form, resembling the preceding. From the Cape of Good 
Hope. 

C. hamadryas ; Tartarin of Belon, Ois. fol. 101, or Papion a 
perruque s; Sim. hamadryas, L.; Dog-faced Baboon, Penn.; Singe 
de Moco, Buff. Supp. VII, 10.(3) A bluish ash-colour ; hairs 
of the ruff, and particularly those of the sides of the head very 
long; face flesh-coloured. This great Monkey is also among 
the most libidinous and horribly ferocious of his kind—lives in 
Arabia and Ethiopia. 

There is another species which should be distinguished 
from other Cynocephala, which is totally black, and without 


the Dog played a conspicuous part in the symbols of the Egyptians, in which it 
represented Tot or Mercury. 

(1) Those which have been figured as having it short, as the Papions of Buff. 
XIV, pl. 13 and 14, &e. had it cut off. M. Brongnard was the first who gaye a 
good figure of it, but under the improper name of Sim. cynocephalus. His figure 

iis copied by Schreber, pl. 13, B. See the different Papios in the Mammif. Fred. 


_ (2) All these factitious species have been established on the good or bad con- 
dition of individual specimens of the same species, or on their difference of age. 

(S) Copied by Schreber, but badly coloured. There is now a good figure of it 
in the Mammif, of Fred. Cuy. 


VOT Leek 


66 MAMMALIA. 


a tail—S. nigra, Cuv.; but whose head resembles that of the 
rest. *'The 


ManpRILLs, 


Of all the monkeys, have the longest muzzle (30°); their tail is 
very short; they are brutal and ferocious; nose as in the preceding. 

Sim. maimon and mormon, Lin.; Boggo, Choras, Buff. XIV, 
XVI, XVII, et Supp. VII, 9. (The Mandrill.) Greyish brown, 
inclining to olive above; cheeks blue and furrowed. The 
nose in the adult male becomes red, particularly at the end, 
where it is scarlet, which has been the cause of its being 
deemed, erroneously, a distinct species.(1) The genital parts, 
and those about the anus, are of the same colour. The buttocks 
are of a beautiful violet. It is difficult to imagine a more hide- 
ous or extraordinary animal. He nearly attains the size of a 
man, and is a terror to the negroes of Guinea. Many details 
of his history have been mixed up with that of the Chimpansé, 
and consequently with that of the Ourang-Outang. 

Sim. leucophea, Fred. Cuv. Ann. du Mus. d’Hist. Nat. IX, 
pl. 37, from a young specimen, and Hist. des Mammif. from 
the adult. (The Drill.) Yellowish grey; face black; tail 
very short and thin; in old ones the fur becomes darker, 
and the chin ofa brilliant red. 


Tue Monkeys or AMERICA 


Haye four grinders more than the others—thirty-six in all; the 
tail long ; no cheek-pouches ; buttocks hairy; no callosities; nostrils 
opening on the sides of the nose, and not underneath. All the great 
Quadrumana of America belong to this division. The large intes- 
tines are less inflated, and the cecum longerand more slender than 
in those of the eastern continent. 

The tails of some of them are prehensile—that is, their extremity 
can twist round a body with sufficient force to seize it as witha 
hand. They are more particularly designated by the name of Sapa- 
jous, Cebus, Erxleben.(2) _ 

At their head may be placed the Alouattes (Mycrres, Illig.), 
which are distinguished by a pyramidal head, the uppenje of which 


descends much below the cranium, as the branches of the lower one 


7 


‘ (1) I have seen, as well as M. Geoffroy, two or three Mandrills, or S. maimon, 
change to the Choras or S. mormon, in the Menagerie of the Museum. The tuft 
of hair, which is frequently given as a character of the mormon, is often also in 
the maimon. ’ ' 

(2) Cebus or Cepus, or Knxos, names of an Bihigpiati Monkey, which, from the 
description of Ailian, lib. xxvii, c. 8, must haye been the Patas. 


QUADRUMANA. 67 


ascend very high for the purpose of lodging a bony drum, formed 
_by a vesicular inflation of the byoid bone, which communicates with 
the larynx, and gives to their voice astonishing power, and a most 
frightful sound. Hence their name of Howling Monkeys. The pre- 
hensile portion of the tail is naked beneath. 

There are several species, whose distinguishing characters are 
not yet well ascertained, for the colour of the fur on which they are 
established varies with the age and sex. 

Simia seniculus, Buff. Supp. VII, 25. (Red Howling Mon- 
key.) It is often sent to us from the forests of Guiana, 
where it lives in troops; size that of a large fox ; colour, a red- 
dish chesnut, rather deeper at the head and tail. The 2llowatte 
ourson (Stentor ursinus, Geofft.), Humb. Obs. Zool. I. pl. 30, 
must differ from it, although slightly ; but it would appear that 
there are many others, some of which are brown or black, others 
ofa pale colour. In certain species this pale tint is peculiar to 
the females.(1) 

The Common Sarasous have the head flat, and the projection of the 
muzzle very moderate—facial angle 60°. 

In some of them, the anterior thumbs are either totally, -or nearly 
so, hidden under the skin, and the prehensile part of the tail naked 
beneath. M. Geoff. has formed them into a genus by the name of 
ATELEs.(2) 


The first species, the Chamek, Ateles pentadactylus, Geoft., 


(1) Maregrave, Braz. 226, speaks of a black Guariba, with brown hands, that 
Spix thought he had found in his Seniculus niger. Mem. de Munic, for 1813, p. 
333. Mycetes rufimanus, Kuhl. 

Marcgrave, 227, speaks of another species, all black and bearded, fig. p. 228, 
under the wrong name of Lxquima, which must have been, it is probable, the 


Mycetes barbatus, Spix, pl. 32. The female, ib. pl. 33, is of a light yellowish 


grey. The male must be the Mycetes niger of Kuhl and Prince Maximil. de Neu- 
wied. The Caraia of d’Azzara, which is black ; breast and belly ofa dark red ; 
the female brownish ; may be referred to this species. 

Pr. Max. has another Mycetes ursinus, which appears to be much browner than 
the ursinus of M. Geoffroy, and to approximate nearer to the M. fuscus, or the M- 
discolor of Spix, pl. 30 and 34, This latter rather appears to be the St. fuscus of 
Geoffroy. 

The Straw-coloured Alouatte, Stentor stramineus, Geoff. and the Myc. stramineus, 
Spix, pl. 31, of a yellowish grey, appears from its cranium to be of a different 
species, but it may merely be the female of a preceding one. It is easily seen, 
also, that if their characters are so uncertain, their synonymes must be much 
more so. 

Add the St. flavicaudatus, Geoff. of a black brown, with a yellow streak on each 
side of the tail. 


(2) Ann, du Museum, VII, 260, et seq. 


tae 


© 


68 he MAMMALIA. 


differs again from the others in having a slight projection of 
the thumb, though but for a single phalanx, but without a 
nail; its hair is totally black. 

A second species the Mikirt, At. ddipoalleithales Pr. Max.; 
Brachyteles macrotarsus, Spix, pl. i., has also a very small 
thumb, and sometimes even a nail. The hair is yellowish, 
ferruginous towards the tail. These two species are separated 
by Spix under the name Bracuyreies. They connect the 
Atéles with Lagothrix. 

The other Arrtes to which alone Spix restricts that name— 
Coaita, Buff.—have no apparent thumb whatever. Such are the 
following: 

A. paniscus; Simia panisc. L.3; Coaita, Buff. XV, 1. (The 
Coaita.) Completely covered with black hair, like the Chamek, 
but without any visible thumb; face, flesh-colour. 

A. ater, Fr. Cuv. Mammif. (The Cayou.) Face black, like 
the rest of the body. 

A. marginatus, Geoff. The Chuva, Humb. or the Coaita 
a face bordée, Ann. Mus. XII, pl. 10. Black, with a border 
of white hairs round the face. 

A. belzebuth; Sim. beelzeb., Briss. The Marimonda, Humb. | 
or Coaita a ventre blanc, Geoff.; Ann. Mus. VI, pl. 16. Black 
above; white beneath; circumference of the eyes flesh-co- 
loured. 

A. arachnoides, Geoff. Ann. Mus. XIII, pl. 9. (The Spider 
Monkey.) Fawn-coloured or red; eyebrows black. 

All these animals are natives of Guiana or Brazil; their 
fore-feet are very long and slender, and their gait remarkably 
slow.(1) 


Lacotrurix, Geoff.—Gasrrimarcus, Spix. 


Head round, like the Atéles; a thumb like the Alouattes; tail 
partly naked, like the one and the other. Such are the Z. Humbol- 
dit, Geoff.; the Caparo, Humb.; Gast. olivaceus, Spix, pl. 28 (The 
Capparo); and the Grison; Lag. canus., Geoff.; Gastr. infumatus, 
Spix, 29. (The Silver-haired Monkey.) Monkeys from the interior 
of South America, said to be remarkable gluttons. 

The other Sapajous (Cesus, Geoff.) have a round head, distinct 
thumbs, and the tail hairy, though prehensile. The species are 
more numerous than those of the Alouatte, and are characterised 
with nearly as much difficulty. 


(1) They exhibit some remarkable resemblances to man in their muscles. Of 
all animals, they alone have the biceps of the thigh made like his. 


QUADRUMANA. 69 


Some of them have the hairs on the forehead of a uniform length, 
such as the 

Sim. appella, L. (The Sajou); and the S. capucina, L.; Buff. 
XV, 4, 5 and 8, 9. (The Capuchin.) Both of them of dif- 
ferent browns; in the first, the circumference of the face is 
blackish; in the second it is whitish; but the shade of co- 
lour in all the rest of their bodies varies between a brownish 
black and a fawn-colour, sometimes even a white. The should- 
ers and breast are however generally lighter, and the calotte 
and hands darker.(1) 

Others, again, have the hairs of the forehead so disposed as to 
form a kind of aigrette, such as the 

Sim. fatuellus, Gm.; Buff. Supp. VII, 29. (The Horned 
Sajou.) This animal has a tuft of black hairs on each side of 
the forehead. (2) 

The disposition of these Monkeys is mild and gentle, their 
motions quick and light, and they are easily tamed. Their 
name of Weeping Monkeys is derived from their soft plaintive 
voice. : 

In the Saimrert the tail is depressed, and almost ceases to be pre- 
hensile; the head is very much flattened; in the interorbitar parti- 
tion of the skeleton there is a membranous space. There is only 
one known; the 

Simia sciurea, Buff. XV, 10. (The Siamiri.) Size ofa Squir- 


(1) The Sajous and the Sais vary so much from a brown to a yellow, that were 
there not intermediate varieties, we should be tempted to make many species of 
them. Such is the case with the Sim. trepida, syrichta, lugubris, flavia, L. and 
Schreb., as well as some of those distinguished by M. Geoffroy, Ann. du Mus, 
XIX, 111 and 112. Spix has recently, and in our opinion improperly, multiplied 
them still more. 

We would refer to the Sajow (Sim. apella, Lin.) the Cebus robustus, Pr. Max., 
which appears to us an o/d one of that species. The Ceb. macrocephalus, Spix, pl. 
1, does not seem to differ from its so far as regards the species. We refer to the 
Sai (S. capucina, Lin.) the Sat @ gorge blanche, Buff. (S. hypolencos); the Cebus 
libidinosus, Spix, 2; the Ceb. xanthosternus, Pr. Max., or the Ceb. xanthocephalus, 
Spix, 3; the Ceb. cwcullatus, id. 6. 

We should be more inclined to consider as distinct species, the Sajou 4 pieds 

‘dorés, Fred. Cuy., the Sajow brun, id. or Ceb. wnicolor, Spix, pl. 4; the Sim. flavia, 
Schreber, 31, B, from which the Ceb. gracilis, Spix, pl. 5, seems to differ only in 
my tne stufling—but that we require numerous observations, made on the spot which 
f “these animals inhabit, before we can hope to establish their species in any other 
than an arbitrary manner. 
(2) Here should come the Cebus cirrhifer, Geoff. and the Ced. of the same name, 
of Pr. Max., but which is different. Oeb. cristatus, Fred. Cuy. 


Le 


70 MAMMALIA,, 


rel; ofa yellowish grey; fore-arms, legs, and the four extremi- 
ties of a yellowish fawn-colour; end of the nose black. 

Those of the American monkeys, whose tails are not at all pre- 
hensile, are called Saxis.(1) Several of them have that appendage 
long and tufted, whence they have been also termed Fox-tailed Mon- 
keys: their teeth project forwards more than those of the others. 
They are the Pirugot1a of Desmarets and Illiger. 

Simia pithecia, L.s Buff. XV, 123; Pithecia inusta, Spix, pl. 
10. (The Yarke.) Blackish ; circumference of the face whi- 
tish. 

Pith. hirsuta, Spix, pl. 8. (The Grey Sakis.) Grey hands; 
yellowish. 

| Simia satanus, Hofmansegg; Humb. Obs. Zool. L. xxvii. 
(The Black Saki.) All black. 

Pith. rufiventris, Geoff.; Buff. Supp. Vil, 31; Pith. capilla- 
mentosa, Spix, pl. 2. (The Red-bellied Saki.) Brown, with 
a red belly. 

Spix distinguishes those species whose tails, although tufted, are 
shorter than the body, by the name of Bracuiurus. His Br. Oua- 
raki, Sp. pl. 8, has a fawn-coloured body; head, neck, arms and 
feet black. To this should be referred, provided always it is ano- 
ther species, the Sim. melanocephala, Humb. Obs. Zool. p. 293 yel- 
low, with a black head. 

In some, also, the Catuirurix, Geoff. or Sagouins, Fr. Cuv. the 
tail is slender, and the teeth do not project. The Saimiri were 
associated with them for a long time, but the head of the Sagouins 
is higher, and their canine teeth much shorter. Such are the 

Call. personata, Geoff., Spix, pl. 12.3; Call. nigrifrons, id. 15. 
(The Masked Monkey.) A yellowish grey; head and hands 
black. 

Call. lugens; S. lugens, Humb. (The Widow Monkey.) 
Blackish, with a large white gorget or neck-piece. The Call. 
amicta, Geoff., Sp. pl. 13, and the Call. torqguata, Hofmansegg, 
can differ but little from this species.(2) 


(1) All the American monkeys whose tails are not prehensile, together with 
the Quistitis, are termed by Buffon Sacourns (Catuirurix, Erxl.). This name 
of sagouin or cagut is in fact applied in Brazil to all the little Quadrumana, whose 
tails are not prehensile. i 

N.B. M. Geoff., Ann. Mus. XIX, 112, 113, gives to his Callithrix, which are 
merely a division of those of Erxleben—WNocthorus and Pithecia, the common name » 
of Geopithecus. 

(2) Add Call. melanochir, Pr. Max.—C. cinerascens, Spix, pl. 14, is the young of 
the same according to Temminck.—C. cuprea, Spix, pl. 17.—C. gigo, id. pl. 16. 


. QUADRUMANA. 71 


Nocruorus, Fred. Cuv.—-Nycririrutcus, Spix. Improperly 
called Aotus by Llliger. 


Only differs from the Sagouins in its great nocturnal eyes, and in 
the ears, which are partly hidden under the hair. One species only 
is known. 

Nocth. trivirgata, Fred. Cuv., Mammif.; Nyciipith. vociferans, 
Spix, pl. 18. (The Douroucouli.) Ash-coloured above, yel- 
lowish beneath; a black vertical line on the middle of the fore- 

» head, and one on each temple. It is a nocturnal animal of 
South America.(1) 
They are all from Guiana or Brazil. 


Ouistitis.—Hapatxz, Illig—Arcroprrnecus, Geoff. 


A small genus, similar to the Sakis, and for a long time confounded 
with them in the great genus of monkeys. In fact, like the genera- 
lity of the American monkeys, they have the head round; visage 
flats nostrils lateral; buttocks hairy; no cheek-pouches, and, like the 
Sakis in particular, the tail not prehensile. They have only, how- 
ever, twenty grinders, like the monkeys of the eastern continent; all 
their nails are compressed and pointed, those of the hind thumbs 
excepted, while their anterior ones are so slightly separated from 
the fingers, that it is with hesitation we assign to them the name of 
quadrumana. ‘They are pretty little creatures, of agreeable forms, 
and easily tamed. 

M. Geoffroy distinguishes the Owistitis, properly so called, which 
he names Jaccuus, and whose peculiar characters are pointed in- 
ferior incisors, arranged on acurved line, equal to the canines. Their 
tail is annulated and well covered with hairs; the ears generally or- 
namented with a tuft. 

Sim. jacchus, Lin.; in Paraguay the Jit. (The Common 
Ouistiti.) ail tolerably well tufted, coloured in rings of 
brown and white ; body greyish-brown; two large tufts of white 

‘hairs before the ears. From nearly every part of South Ameri- 
ca.(2) 


N.B. This name of Gigo or Guigo is given by Pr. Max. to his Melanochir, so that 
‘we must consider it generic. 
(1) Add Wyctipithec. felinus, Spix, pl. 18. . 

(2) It is difficult to establish very specific limits between Ouistitis of different 
colours. The Jucch. penicillatus, Geoff., Spix, pl. 26, has a white spot on the 
forehead, and the tufts of the ears brown or black.—His J. leucocephalus, Pr. Max., 
lib. 2, has the same tufts, but the whole head and fore part of the neck are 
white.—His J. humeralifer has the breast, shoulders and arms white.—The J. al- 
bicollis, Spix, pl. 25, has the spot on the forehead, tufts of the ears and a large 


72 MAMMALIA. ‘ 


'M. Geoffroy calls those species which have inferior trenchant 
incisors placed on a straight line and less than the canines, Mipas. 
Their tail is also more slender and not annulated. 

Sim. edipus, L.; Buff. XV, 17. (The Pinche.) Grey, 
waved with brown; long white hairs on the head which hang 
behind the ears; tail slender and red. From the banks of 
the Amazon.(1) 

Mid. rufimanus, Geoff.; Sim. midas, L.; Buff. XV, 13. (The 
Tamarin.) Black, the four extremities yellowish. From 
Guiana. 

Mid. ursulus, Geoff.; Buff. Supp. VIII, 32; Mid. fuscieolt 
Spix, pl. 20. (The Black Tamarin.) All black; reddish waved 
stripes on the back. : 

Mid. labiatus, Geoff.; M. nigricoliis, Spix, 21. (The White- 
lipped Tamarin.) Black; crupper reddish; circumference of 
the nose white.(2) 3 

Sim. rosalia, L.; Buff. XIV, 16. (Lion Monkey or the 
Marikina.) Yellowish; the head surrounded with a yellow 
mane ; end of the tail brown. From Surinam. 

Hapale chrysomelas, Pr. Max. lib. ii. (Black Marikina.) 
Black fore-arms; upper side of the tail and mane of a golden 
yellow. 

Sim. argentatus, L.; Buff. XV, 18. (The Miedo Silver grey, 
sometimes all white; tail brown. From the Amazon. 


Lemur, Lin: 


The Lemurs, according to Linnzus, comprehend all the Quadru- 
mana which have in either jaw incisors differing in number from 
four, or at least differently directed from those of the Monkeys. 
This negative character could not fail to embrace every different 
beings, while it did not even unite those which should be combined. 
Geoffroy has established several divisions in this genus which 
are much better characterized. The four thumbs of these animals 
are well developed and opposable, and the first hind finger is armed 


with a pointed, raised nail; all the other nails are flat. Their fur 


collar all white. In some of them, on the contrary, all the white has disappeared. 
See Annal. du Mus., XIX, p. 119—122. 

(1) I suspect the Mid. bicolor, Spix, pl. 24, is merely a variety of the Sim. edipus, 
and his M. mystax of the M. labiatus. 

(2) The S. leonina, Humb. Obs. I. pl. 5, is brown, with whit lips and black face, 
like this species ; but it appears the hairs of the neck are more thickly set, form- 
ing a mane like that of the Marikina. Add Mid. chrysopygus, Natterer. 


—— a 


QUADRUMANA. 73 


is woolly; and their teeth begin to exhibit sharp tubercles catching 
in each other as in the Insectivora. 


Lremur.—Maxis, properly so called. 


Six incisors in the lower Jaw compressed and slanting forwards, 
four in the upper that are straight, the intermediate ones being 
separated from each other ; trenchant canines ; six molares on each 
side above, six below; ears small. They are very active animals, 
which, from their pointed heads, have been called Hox-nosed Monkeys. 
Their food is fruit. Their species are very numerous, and are only 
met with in the island of Madagascar, where they appear to replace 
the Monkeys, none of which it is said are to be found there. Nearly 
all the difference that exists between them is in the colour. 

L. catta, L.; Le Mococo, Buff. XIII, 22. Ashy-grey; tail 
black, and white rings. 

L. macaco, L.; Le Vari, Buff. XII, 27. Variegated with 
large black and white spots. 

L. ruber, Péron ; Le Maki rouge ; Fr. Cuv. Mammif. A lively 
reddish chestnut ; head, hands, tail and belly black ; a white spot 
on the nape of the neck, a red tuft to each ear. 

L. mongos, L.; Le Mongous ; Buff. XIII, 26. All brown ; 
face and hands black; and other neighbouring species, such as 

L. albifrons, Geoff.; Le Mongous a front blanc; Audeb., 
Makis, pl. S. Brown; forehead white, &c.(1) 


Inpris.—Licuanortus, Illig. 


Teeth like the preceding, except that there are only four below. 
One species only is known ; it has no tail; is three feet high ; 
black ; face grey; posteriors white, (Lemur Indri,) Sonnerat, 
Voy. I, pl. 86. The inhabitants of Madagascar tame and 
train it like a dog for the chase.(2) 


Loris.—Srenops, Illig. 


The Lazy Monkeys, as they are called, have teeth like the Makis, 
the grinders excepted, the points of which are more acute; the 


short muzzle of a mastiff; body slender ; no tail ; large eyes; tongue 
rough. 


(1) Add the Black Maki, L.; Niger, Edw. 218.—The Black-fronted Maki (L. ni- 
 grifrons, Geoft.).—The Black-headed Makis (LL. melanocephalus), Fr. Cuy.—The 
Strawberry Maki.—The Red Maki, Audeb. pl. 2, &c. It is not certain, however, 
that these species are all distinct. See Geoff., Ann. Mus. XIX, p. 160. 
(2) The Long-tailed Indri, (Lemur laniger, Gm.) Sonnerat, Voy. II. pl. 87, needs 
revision. 


Vor. TK 


—_ 


74 MAMMALIA. 


They feed on insects, occasionally on small birds and quadrupeds, 
their gait is excessively slow, and mode of life nocturnal. M. Car- 
lisle has found that the base of the arteries of the limbs is divided 
into small branches, as in the true Sloths. Two species only are 
known, both of them from the East Indies. 

Lem. tardigradus, L.; (The Slow Loris, or Sloth of Bengal.) 
Buff. Supp. VII, 36. Fawn-coloured grey, a-brown streak 
along the back; two of the upper incisors sometimes want- 
ing.(1) 

Lem. gracilis, L. (The Slender Loris.) Buff. XIII, So, and 
better, Seb. I, 47. Fawn-coloured grey; no dorsal stripe; 
rather smaller than the preceding ; nose more raised by a pro- 
jection of the intermaxillaries.(2) 


Gaxaco, Geoff.—Orotincus, Illig. 


The teeth and insectivorous regimen of the preceding ; elongated 
tarsi which produce a disproportion in the dimensions of their hind 
feet; a long tufted tail; large membranous ears and great eyes, 
which announce nocturnal habits. 

There are several species known, all from Africa.(3) It ap- 
pears also that we should refer to them an animal of that coun- 
try (Lemur potto, Gm.), Bosman, Voy. in Guin., p. 252, No. 
4, whose gait is said to be as slow as that of the Loris and 
Sloths. 


TaRsIvus. 


Elongated tarsi, and all the other details of form belonging to the 
preceding division ; but the space between the molars and incisors 
is occupied by several shorter teeth ; the middle superior incisors 
are lengthened and resemble canini. The muzzle is very short, and 
the eyes still larger than those of the Galago. They are nocturnal 
animals, and feed on insects. From the Moluccas. Lemur spec- 
trum, Pall., Buff. XIII, 9.(4) 


(1) The slowness of its gait, which caused it to be mistaken for a Sloth, has 
induced some authors to maintain, in opposition to Buffon and to truth, that the 
genus of the Sloths exists also in Asia. 

(2) From this difference in the nose, Geoffroy makes of the first species the 
genus Nycricervs, and of the second that of Loris. 

(S) The great Galago, as large as a Rabbit (G@alago crassicaudatus, Geoff.). The 
middling one the size of a Rat (Galago senegalensis, id.); Schreb. XXXVIII, Bb, 
Audeb. Gal. pl. 1—The small one a little less, Brown, Ill. 44.—Compare also the 
Galago of Demidorf, Fischer, Mem. des Nat. de Mouscou, [, pl. 1. 

(4) Compare the Tarsius fuscomanus, Fischer, Annat. des Makis, pl. 3, and 
the Tarsius bancanus, Horsfield, Java. . 


MAMMALIA. 75 


ORDER III. 
CARNARIA. 


This order consists of a considerable and varied assemblage 
of unguiculated quadrupeds, possessing like Man and the | 
Quadrumana the three sorts of teeth, but which have no op- 
posable thumb, to their fore-feet. Their food is animal, and 
the more exclusively so, as their grinders are the more tren- 
chant. Suchas have them wholly or partly tuberculous, take 
more or less vegetable aliment, and those in which they are 
bristled with points live principally on Insects. ‘The articu- 
lation of their lower jaw, being transversely directed and 
hinge-like, allows of no lateral motion, it can only open and 
shut. 

Although the convolutions of the brain are still tolerably 
well marked, it has no third lobe, nor does it cover the cere- 
bellum any more than in the following families; the orbit is 
not separated from the temporal fossa in the skeleton; the 
cranium is narrowed and the zygomatic arches widened and 
raised, in order to give more strength and volume to the 
muscles of their jaws. ‘Their predominant sense is that of 
smell, and their pituitary membrane is generally spread over 
numerous bony lamine. ‘The fore-arm has still the power of 
revolving in nearly all of them, although with less facility than 
in the Quadrumana, and they never have the thumb of the 
anterior extremities opposed to the other toes. On account 
of the substantial nature of the aliment, and to avoid the pu- 
trefaction it would undergo by remaining too long in an elon- 
gated canal, their intestines are less voluminous. 

There is a great variety in their forms and in the details of 


Travellers should search for certain animals drawn by Commerson, and which 
M. Geoffroy has had engraved. Ann. Mus. XIX, 10, under the name of Cheirogaleus. 
These figures seem to announce a new genus or subgenus of the Quadrumana. 


SS 


76 MAMMALIA. 


their organization, which produce analogous differences in 
their habits, and to such an extent as makes it impossible to 
arrange their genera on one line, and compels us to form them 
into several families, which are variously connected by multi- 
plied relations. 


FAMILY I. 
CHEIROPTERA. 


This family still retains some aflinity with the Quadrumana 
by the pendulous penis, and by the mamme which are placed 
on the breast. ‘Their distinguishing character consists in a 
fold of the skin, which, commencing at the sides of the neck, 
extends between their four feet and toes, supports them im the 
air, and even enables such of them to fly as have their hands 
sufliciently developed for that purpose. This disposition re- 
quired strong clavicles and large scapule to give the necessary 
solidity to the shoulder, but it was incompatible with the ro- 
tation of the fore-arm, which would have diminished the force 
of the stroke requisite for flight. ‘They have all four great 
canini, but the number of their incisors varies. They have 
jong been divided into two genera, founded upon the ex- 
tent of their organs of flight. The first of these, however, 
requires several subdivisions. 


VESPERTILIO, Lin. 


The arms, fore-arms and fingers of the Bats are excessively length- 
ened, forming, with the membrane that occupies their intervals, 
true wings, possessing even a greater extent of surface than those 
of Birds—they consequently fly very high, and with great rapidity. 
The thickness of their pectoral muscles is proportioned to the mo- 
tions they have to execute, and there is a ridge in the middle of the 
sternum like that of Birds, to which they are attached. The thumb 
is short and armed with a claw, by which they are enabled to creep 
and to suspend themselves. Their hind feet are weak and are divided 
into five toes, almost always of equal length, armed with trenchant 
and pointed nails. They have nocecum. Their eyes are exces- 
sively small, but their ears are frequently very large, and together 
with the wings form a vast membranous surface, which is almost 


CARNARIA. hf 


naked, and so extremely sensible that it is probable they guide them- 
selves through all the sinuosities of their labirynths, even after their 
eyes have been plucked out, solely by the diversity of the impres- 
sions of the air. They are nocturnal, and in our climate pass the 
winter in a state of stupor. During the day they suspend them- 
selves in obscure places. They generally produce two young ones 
at a birth, which cling to their mammez, and whose size is con- 
siderable in proportion to that of the mother. This genus is very 


numerous, and offers many subdivisions. We must begin by sepa- 


rating from it the 


Preropus, Briss. 


Trenchant incisors in each jaw, and grinders with flat crowns ;(1) 
the food, consequently, consists chiefly of fruit, of which it destroys 
considerable quantities ; it also successfully pursues birds and small 
quadrupeds. It is the largest Bat known, and the flesh is eaten. 
It inhabits the East Indies. 

The membrane is deeply notched between the legs; it has no 
tail, or nearly none; the index finger, which is but half the length 
of the medius has a third phalanx, and a little nail which is want- 
ing in the other Bats; each of the following fingers, however, has 
but two phalanges. The muzzle is simple, the nostrils are widely 
separated, the ears are of a middling size, but without a tragus, and 
the tongue is bristled with points that curve backwards; the sto- 
mach is an elongated sac, unequally inflated. They have never been 
found out of the south of Asia or the Indian Archipelago. 


a. Without tails, and four incisors in each jaw.(2) 


P. edulis, Geoff. (The Black Roussette.) Blackish brown, 
deepest beneath, wings nearly four feet from tip to tip. From 
the Moluccas and the straits of Sunda, where they are found in 
great numbers during the day suspended to the trees. To pre- 
serve fruit from their attacks, it is necessary to cover it with 
nets. Their cry resembles that of the goose. They are taken 
by holding to them a bag fastened to the end of a rod; the flesh 
is esteemed a delicacy by the natives, but Europeans dislike 
it on account of its musky scent.(3) 


(1) The grinders have two longitudinal and parallel projections separated by a 
"groove, which wear away by attrition. 
(2) Linnezus confounded them under his Vespertilio vampirus. 
(3) The Pter. Edwardsii of Geoff., Edw. 103, fawn-coloured, with a dark brown 
back, is the young of this species. 


| 
| 


7E.¥ oh MAMMALIA, 


Pter. vulgaris, Geoff.; Buff. X, 14. (The Common Rous- 
sette.) Brown, face and sides of the back fawn-coloured. From 
the Isle of France and Bourbon, where it is found on the trees 
in the forests. Its flesh has been compared to that of the hare 
and partridge. 

Pter. rubicollis, Geoff.; Buff. X, 17. (The Red-collared Rous- 
sette.) Greyish brown, the neck red. From the same islands, 
where it lives in the hollows of trees and in caverns.(1) 


b. With a small tail and four incisors in each jaw. 


M. Geoffroy was the first who described the species of this 
subdivision. One of them grey and woolly, Pter. egypticus, is 
found in the caves of Egypt. A second is reddish, and has a 
somewhat longer tail, half involved by the membrane—Pter. 
amplexicaudus, Ann. du Mus. tom. XV, pl. 4. From the Indian 
Archipelago, &c.(2) 

_c. According to the indicia of M. Geoffroy, we also separate from 
the Pteropi the CrpHaLores which have the same kind of grinders, 
but whose index, short, and consisting of three phalanges, like that 
of the preceding, has no nail. The membranes of their wings, in- 
stead of meeting at the flank, are joined to each other on the middle 
of the back, to which they adhere by a vertical and longitudinal par- 
tition. Very often they -have but two incisors. 

C. Peronii, Geoff.; Ann. du Mus., XV, pl. 4. Brownor red. 

From Timor. 

The Pteropi being taken away, we have the true Bars left, which 
are all insectivorous, and have three grinders on each side in each 
jaw, bristled with conical points, that are preceded by a variable 
number of false molars. Their index never has a nail, and, one 


(1) Add Pter. medius;—Pter. pheops;—Pter. poliocephalus;—Pter. dasymallus; 
Temm., Mamm., pl. 10.—Pter. pallidus;—Pter. Keraudrenius, Quoy and Gaym., 
Voy. de Freycinet;—Pter. griseus, Geoff. Ann. Mus. pl. 3, XV, v1, cop. Temm., 
pl. 11;—Pter. personatus;—Pter. melanocephalus, Temm. pl. 12. 

(2) Add Pter. stramineus;—Pter. marginatus, Geoff. loc. cit. pl. 5;—Pter. 
minimus, id. or the Kiodote, Fr. Cuy., or the Pter. rostratus, Horsf. 

M. Isidore Geoffroy—Dict. Class. d’Hist. Nat. article RousserrE,—gives us a 
monography of this genus, in which he forms the Pier. personatus of Temm., and 
some neighbouring species into the subgenus Pacuisoma, which has four molars 
less than the others, and the zygomatic arches more projecting; the Per. minimus 
or rostratus into the subgenus Macroexossa, in which the muzzle is longer and 
more slender, and where there are spaces between the grinders. Its tongue is 
thought to be extensible. He, finally, separates the Céphalote of Peron from that 
of Pallas, and gives to the first the name of Hypopermis, on account of the com- 
plete dorsal insertion of the membrane of its wing's. 


CARNARIA. 79 


subgenus excepted, the membrane is always extended between the 
two legs. 

They should be divided into two principal tribes. The first has 
three ossified phalanges in the middle finger of the wing, but the re- 
mainder, including the index itself, consists of but two. 

To this tribe, which is almost exclusively foreign, belong the fol- 
lowing subgenera. 


Motossus, Geoff.—Dysoprss, Illig. 


The muzzle simple; ears broad and short, arising near the angle 
of the lips, and uniting with each other on the muzzle; the tragus 
short, and not enveloped by the conch. The tail occupies the whole 
length of their inter-femoral membrane, and, most generally, even 
extends beyond it. They have very seldom more than two incisors 
in each jaw, though, according to Temminck, several of them have 
at first six below, of which four are successively lost. 

The Dinops of M. Savi belong to this Molossus, with six inferior 
incisors. There is one species in Italy—Dinops cestonit, Savi, 
Giorn. de Letter., No. 21, p. 230. : 

M. Geoffroy calls those in which he has counted four inferior in- 
cisors Nycrinomus.(1) 

The Molossi, at first, were only found in America;(2) at present, 
however, we know several of both continents.(3) Some of them have 
the hinder thumb placed at a greater distance from the first finger 
than the fingers are from each other, and endowed with a separate 
motion, a character on which, in a species where it is very strongly 
marked, M. Horsfield has established his genus CuriRoMELEs.(4) 

it is here, perhaps, that we should also place the Turroprera of 
Spix, which appear to have several characters of the Molossi, and 


(1) The Nyctinome d’Egypte, Geoff., Eg. Mammif., pl. 2, f. 2, and Temm., 
Monog. des Mammif. pl. 19;—the Wyctinome du Brésil, Isid. Geoff., Ann, des Sc. 
Nat., I, pl. 22, or Mol. nasutus, Spix, pl. 35, f. 7;—the WV. tenuis, Horsfield, 
Jaya, No. 5, and Temm. Monog. pl. 19, bis. 

(2) Buffon has three of them confounded by Gmel., under the common name of 
Vespertilio molossus; M. longicaudatus, Buff. X, xix, 2;—M. fusciventer, ib. 1;—M. 
guyanensis, id. Supp. VU, Ixxy. Since then they have beenincreased. M. rufus, 
Geoff., Ann. Mus. VI, 155;—M. alecto,| Temm., Monog., pl. xx;—M. abrasus, 
Temm., ib., pl. xxi;—-Z velox, Natterer, Temm., pl. xxii, 1;—M. obscurus, 
Geoff., Temm., ib., pl. xxii, 2. These species, however, have not been suffi- 
ciently compared with those of Buffon, nor with the MW. ursinus, Spix, pl. xxxv, 


f. 4, and the M. fumarius, ib., f. 5 and 6, 


(3) M. plicatus; Vespert. plicatus, Buchan.; Lin. Trans., V. pl. xiii;—Dysopes 
ruppelii; Temm., Monog., pl. xviii. 

(4) Chetromeles torquatus, Worsf., Jav. or Dysopes chetropus, Temm., Monog., 
pl. xvii. 


: 
: 
F 


80 MAMMALIA. 


whose thumb has a little concave palette peculiar to them, and by 
which they are enabled to cling more closely.(1) 


Noctizro, Lin. Ed. XII. 


Muzzle short, inflated, and split into a double hare-lip, covered 
with odd looking warts and seams; ears separate; four incisors 
above, and two below; tail short, and free above the inter-femoral 
membrane. 

The species best known is from America. It is of a uniform 
fawn-colour—Vespert. leporinus, Gm., Schreb. LX.(2) 


PuyLiosroma, Cuv. and Geoff. 


The regular number of incisors is four to each jaw, but a part of 
the lower ones frequently fall, being forced out by the growth of the 
canini. They are moreover distinguished by a membrane resembling 
a doubled leaf, that is placed crosswise on the end of the nose. The 
tragus of the ear resembles a small leaf, more or less denticulated, 
The tongue, which is very extensible, terminates in papillz, which 
appear to be so arranged as to form an organ of suction—the lips 
also are furnished with tubercles, symmetrically arranged. They 
are all from America, run along the ground with more facility than 
the other bats, and have a habit of sucking the blood of animals. 


a. Without a tail.—Vamrirvus, Spix. 


P. spectrum; V. spectrum, Lin.; Andira-guacu of the Brazi- 
lians; Seb. LVIII; Geoff. Ann. Mus. XV, xii, 4. (The Vam- 
pire.) The leaf funnel-shaped ; colour a reddish brown; size, 
that of a Magpie. From South America. It is accused of 
causing the death of men and animals by sucking their blood ; 
the wound, however, is small, though it may occasionally prove 
serious from the effects of the climate.(3) 


b. The tail involved in the inter-femoral membrane. 


V. hastatus, L. Buff.; XIII, xxxiii.. (The Javelin Bat.) The 
leaf shaved like the head of a javelin, the edges entire.(4) 


(1) Thir. tricolor, Spix, 36,f.9. It is with some hesitation that we have thus 
placed this subgenus, its description being incomplete. 

(2) The WV. dorsatus, Geoff., or the WV. vittatus, Pr. Max., hasa white stripe down 
the back.—The W, albiventer, Spix, 35, 2 and 4, is fawn-coloured above, white be- 
neath, and rather smaller. Add, WV. rufus, Spix, 35, 1. 

(3) Add la Lunette; Vesp. perspicillatus, L.; Buff., Supp. VU, Ixxiv; and the 
three species from Azzara, by Geoff., Ann. du Mus., VI, 181—182. 

(4) Add Philost. elongatum, Geoff., Ann. Mus., XV, ix. 


CARNARIA,. 81 


c. The tail free above the membrane. 


P. crenulatum, Geoff. Ann. du Mus. XV, pl. 10. (The In- 
dented Javelin Bat.) The leaf denticulated on the edges. 

M. Geoffroy, Mem. du Mus. IV, p. 418, separates from the Phyl- 
lostomz those species whose tongues are narrow, susceptible of elon- 
gation, and furnished with papillz resembling hairs—he calls them 
GrossopHaGa. 

These species are likewise from America.(1) 

In the second great tribe of Bats the index has only one bony 
phalanx, while all the other fingers have two. 

This tribe is also divided into several subgenera. 


Mercaperma, Geoff. Ann. du Mus. XV. 


The membrane on the nose, or the leaf, more complicated than 
that of the Phyllostome; the tragus large and most commonly 
bifurcated ; the conchs of the ear ample and soldered together on 
the top of the head ; tongue and lips smooth ; the inter-femoral mem- 
brane entire, and no tail. They have four incisors below, but there 
are none above, and their inter-maxiilary bone remains cartilaginous. 

They are all from the eastern continent, either from Africa, 
the Leaf from Senegal for instance, (Meg. Frons., Geoff.) whose 
nasal membrane is oval and nearly as large as the head; or 
from the Indian Archipelago, as the Spasma of Ternate, Ves- 
pert. Spasma, L., Seb. I, tv1.—La Lyre, Geoff. Ann. Mus. XV, 
pl. 12.—Le 7réjle de Java, Id. ib. &c. They are distinguished 
from ‘each other by the figure of the leaf, like the Phyllostome. 


Rutnotopuus, Geoff. and Cuv. 


The nose of the Horse-shoe Bats, as they are vulgarly called, is 
furnished with very complex crests and membranes laid upon the 
chanfrin, presenting the figure of a horse-shoe; the tail long and 
placed in the inter-femoral membrane. There are four incisors be- 
low, and two very small ones above in a cartilaginous inter-maxillary 
bone. 

There are two species of them in France which are very com- 
mon, discovered by Daubenton. 

Rk. bifer, Geoff., Ann. Mus. XX, pl. 53 Vesp. ferrum equi- 
num, L.; and the small one, Vesp. hipposideros, Bechst. 


(1) Vespertilio sorictnus, Pall. Spicil. Fascic. HI, pl. Sand 4, copied Buff. Supp. 
I, pl. 53.—Glossoph. amplexicaudatus, Geoft.. Mem. Mus. IV, pl. 18, F. C.—Gi. 
caudifer, Id. ib. pl. 17, fig. A and B. 

Wor. T=]: 


82 MAMMALIA. 


Buff. VIII, xvi, 2 and 203; Geoff. loc. cit., both of which in- 
habit quarries solitarily, and suspended by their feet, envelop- 
ing themselves with their wings so that no part of the body. is 
visible.(1) 


Nycreris, Cuy. and Geoff. 


The forehead furrowed by a longitudinal groove, which is even 
marked upon the cranium, bordered by a fold of the skin which par- 
tially covers it; nostrils simple ; four incisors without intervals 
above and six below; ears large and separated ; tail involved in the 
interfemoral membrane. They are African species. Daubenton 
“has described one by the name of the Campagnol volant, Buff. X, 
pl. xx, fig. 1 and 2, the V. hispidus, Lin., Schreb. LVI. M. Geoff- 
roy has found others in Egypt.(2) 


Rurvoroma, Geoff. 


The pit on the forehead less strongly marked ; nostrils at the end 
of the muzzle with a little leaf above, somewhat resembling a cur- 
rier’s knife ; ears united ; tail extending far beyond the membrane. 
One is known in Egypt, where it is principally found in the pyra- 
mids.(3) 


Taruozous, Geoff. 


A smal{ round pit on the nose; no recurved leaf to the nostrils ; 
head pyramidal ; only two incisors above, and very often none; four 
trilobate incisors below; ears wide apart, and the tail free above the 
membrane. The males have a transverse cavity under the throat. 
A little prolongation of the membrane of the wings forms a sort of 
sac near the carpus.(4) One species was discovered in the cata- 
combs of Egypt by M. Geoffroy.(5) 


(1) Add the other four species figured, Geoff. Ann. Mus. XX, pl. 5, of which 
one isthe Vesp. speoris, Schreb. LIX, B. and Peron, Voy. aux Terres, Aust. pl. 35. 

(2) Nyctére de la Thébaide, 29, Mammif. 1, 2, 2; and Ann. Mus. XX, pl. 1.—W. 
de Java, Geoff. Ann. Mus. XX, pl. 1. 

(3) Rhinopome microphylle, Geoff.; Vesper. microphyllus, Schr. 

(4) It was this that caused Huet to name the genus which contained the Ta- 
phiens Saccopteria. 

(5) The Tuphien filet, Eg. Mammif. I, 1, 1.—The Tuphien perforé, ib. W1,1, which 
does not appear to differ from the Lerof volant, Daub.; T! senegalensis, G—Add the 
Vesp. lepturus, Gm., Schr. LV1.—The 7' of India; V. brachmanus, G.—The T: 
of the Isle of France ; T. mauritianus, @—The T rufus, Wils. Amer. Ornith. vol. 
VI, pl. 50, No. 4.—The T°’ longimanus, Hardw. Lin. Trans. vol. and pl. XVI. 


CARNARIA. 83 


Mormoops, Leach. 


Four incisors in each jaw, the superior tolerably large, the 
inferior trilobate ; cranium singularly raised like a pyramid aboye 
the muzzle; on each side of the nose is a triangular leaf which ex- 
tends to the ear.(1) 


VeEsPERTILIO, Cuv. and Geoff. 


Muzzle without leaf or other peculiar appendage ; ears separate 5 
four incisors above, of which the two middle ones are apart, and 
six trenchant incisors slightly denticulated below; the tail contained 
in the membrane. This subgenus is the most numerous of the 
whole, its species being found in every part of the world. France 
alone has six or seven. 

The tragus of some is shaped like an awl, and to this division be- 
longs the most commonly known species. 

Vesp. murinus, L.; V. myotis, Kuhl, Buff. VIII, xvi. (The 
Common Bat.) Tragus oblong, the length of the head; hair 
brown; maronne above, grey beneath; the young of an ashy 
grey. 

Some other smaller but neighbouring species have lately 
been observed in Europe.(2) 

In others again the tragus is angular, such as the 

Vesp. serotinus, L.; Buff. VIII, xvin, 2. (The Serotine Bat.) 
A deep maronne; wings and ears blackish ; the conch triangu- 
lar and shorter than the head. The female is paler than the 
male.- Found under the roofs of churches, uninhabited build- 
ings, &c.(3) 

A third kind has a crescent shaped tragus. 

V. noctula, L.; Buff. VII, xvi, 13 V. proterus, Kuhl; PV. 
lasiopterus, Schreb., 58, B. Fawn coloured; ears triangular, 
shorter than the head ; tragus rounded, a little larger than the 
preceding. Found in the hollows of old trees, &c. 

V. pipistrellus, Gm.; Buff. VIII, xrx, 1. (The Pipistrelle.) 
The smallest one in France; a blackish brown; ears triangu- 
lar. (4) 


(1) The species—Mormoops Blainvillii, Leach, 1 Lin. Trans. XI1I—is from Java. 

(2) The V. Bechsteinit, Leisler, Chauves. d’Allem., pl. 22.—The V. mystacinus, 
ib. 18—V. Daubentoni, Leisler, Kuhl, pl. xxv, 2.—V. Natterert, Kuhl, pl. 23, 
&e.—Add foreign species, V. emarginatus, Geoff. Ann. Mus. VIII, pl. 46.—V. pie- 
tus, L. or the Kirivoula of Java, Seb. I, pl. 56, f. 23.—V. polythriz, Isid. Geoff. 
‘Ann. des Sc. Nat. ILI, p. 440.—V. levis, Id. ib. &c. 

(3) Add V. carolinensis, Geoff. Ann. Mus. VIII, pl. 47. [See Append. I. of Am. 
Ed.) 

(4) Add the V. Kuhlii, Natterer, Kuhl, Chauves. d’Allem. p. 55. 


34 MAMMALIA. 
M. Geoffroy also separates from Vespertilio the 


Piecotus, Geoff. 


Ears larger than the head, and united on the cranium as in 
Megaderma, &c.3 the tragus large and lanceolate—an operculum 
on their auditory passage. 

The common species—Vesp. auritus, L.; Buff. VIII, xvi, 1. 
(The Long-eared Bat.) Still more abundant in France than the 
Bat. Its ears are nearly as large as the rest of the body. It 
lives in kitchens, houses, &c. There is also another discovered 
by Daubenton—Vesp. barbastellus, Gm., Buff. VIII, 19, 2. 
Brown, with much smaller ears.(1) 

Finally, the Nyorrcrus, Rafinesque, has only two incisors in the 
upper jaw, along with the moderate ears and simple muzzle of the 
Vespertilio. ‘The species known are from North America.(2) 


GALEopirHeEcus, Pall. 


The Galeopitheci differ generically from the Vespertilios, in the 
fingers, all armed with trenchant nails, which are not longer than 
the toes, so that the membrane which occupies their intervals, and 
extends to the sides of the tail, can only act as a parachute. The 
canini are denticulated and short like the molars. There are two 
upper denticulated incisors widely separated from each other; below 
there are six, split into narrow strips, like a comb, a structure alto- 
gether peculiar to this genus. The animals belonging to it are 
found in the Indian Archipelago, on the trees, among which they 
pursue insects, and perhaps birds. If we can judge by the injury 
the teeth sustain from age, they use fruit also. Their cecum is 
very large. 
One species only is well ascertained, the Flying Lemur. 
Audeb., Galzop., pl. land 2. Fur greyish red above, reddish 


(1) Add the Plee. timoriensis, Geoft.—PI. velatus, sid. Geoft.—Pl. maugei, Desm. 
— Plec. cornutus, Fab.—Vesp. megalotis, Rafin. [See Append. IL. of Am. Ed.) 

N.B. As our plan permits us to class those animals only whose characters we 
have ascertained either from personal observation or from very complete descrip- 
tions and figures, we have been compelled to omit several of the genera of MM. 
Leach, Rafinesque, &c.; and while on this subject, we must observe that there is 
no family which stands more in need of revision than that of the Bats—a revision 
from nature and not by compilation. 

(2) Vespertiliolasiurus, Schreb., LXU, B.—V. noveboracensis, Penn. Quadr., pl. 
31, fig. 2.—VPesp. borbomicus, Geoff., Ann. Mus. VII, pl. 46. 

These three are the same. [See Append. IIL. of Am. Ed.| 


CARNARIA. ' 85 


below; spotted and striped with various shades of grey when 
young. From the Molucea islands, straits of Sunda, &c. 


All the other Carnaria have the mamme situated under the 
abdomen. ' 


FAMILY II. 
INSECTIVORA. 


The animals of this family, like the Chciroptera, have 
grinders studded with conical points, and lead a nocturnal or 
subterraneous life. Their principal food is Insects, and in 
cold climates many of them pass the winter in a torpid state. 
Unlike the Bats, they have no lateral membranes, although 
they always have clavicles. ‘Their feet are short, and their 
motions feeble; the mamme are placed under the abdomen, 
and the penis in a sheath. None of them have a cecum, and 
in walking they all place the whole sole of the foot on the 
ground. 

They differ from each other by the relative position and 
proportions of their incisors and canini. 

Some have long incisors in front, followed by other incisors 
and canini, all, even shorter than the molares, a kind of den- 
tition of which the ‘Tarsiers, among the Quadrumana, have 
already given us an example, and which somewhat approx- 
imates these animals to the Rodentia. Others have large sepa- 
rated canini, between which are placed small incisors, the 
most usual disposition of these parts among the Quadrumana 
and the Carnaria; and these two systems of dental arrangement 
are found in genera, otherwise very similar in the teguments, 
shape of the limbs, and mode of life. 


Erinaceus, Lin. 


The body of the Hedgehog is covered with spines instead of hairs. 
The skin of the back is furnished with such muscles, as, by inclin- 
ing the head and feet towards the abdomen, enable the animal to 
shut himself up init, as in a purse, presenting his’ spines on all sides 
to the enemy. The tail is very short, and there are five toes to each 
foot. There are six incisors in each jaw, the middle ones being the 


86 . MAMMALIA. 


longest, and on each side three false molars, three bristled with 
points, and a small one studded with tubercles.(1) 

LE. europexus, L.3 Buff. VIL, vi. (The Common Hedgehog. ) 
Ears short; common in the woods and hedges 5 passes the win- 
ter in its burrow, whence ifissues in the spring with an ampli- 
tude and complication of the vesiculz seminales that is almost 
incredible. To insects, which constitute its ordinary diet, it 
adds fruit, by which at a certain age its teeth become worn. 
The skin was formerly used to dress hemp. 

E. auritus, Pall.; Schreb. CLXIII. (The Long-eared Hedge- 
hog.) Smaller than the preceding; ears as large as the two- 
thirds of the head, otherwise similar to the europzus in form 
and habits. It is found from the north of the Caspian sea, as 
far as Egypt inclusively. 


CeNnTENES, Illig. 


The body of the Tenrec is covered with spines like the Hedge- 
hog. It does not however possess the faculty of rolling itself so 
completely into a ball: there is no tail; the muzzle is very pointed, 
and the teeth are very different. There are four or six incisors, and 
two great canini in each jaw. Behind the canini are one or two 
small teeth, and four triangular and bristled molars. Three species 
are found in Madagascar, the first of which has been naturalized in 
the Isle of France. It is a nocturnal animal, which passes three 
months of the year in a state of lethargy, although inhabiting the 
torrid zone. Brugicre even assures us that it is during the greatest 
heats that they grow torpid. 

Erinaceus ecaudatus, L.3; Buff. XII, lvi. (The Tenrec.) Co- 
vered with stiffspines ; only four notched incisors below. Itis 
the largest of the three, and exceeds the hedgehog in size. 

Erinaceus setosus, L.; Buff. XII, Ivii. The spines more 
flexible and setaceous $ six notched incisors in each jaw. 

Erinaceus semi-spinosus. Covered indiscriminately with 
spines and sete ; striped with yellow and black}; its six incisors 


and carini are all slender and hooked ; size hardly that of a 
Mole.(2) 


(1) Pallas has noted as an interesting fact, that the Hedgehog eats hundreds of 
Cantharides without inconvenience, while a single one produces the most horrible 
agony in the Dog and the Cat. ine 

(2) Buff., Suppl. UW, pl. 37, has mistaken it for a young Tenrec. Voy. ala 
Chine, II, p. 140, gives a wrong description of the teeth. 


CARNARIA, 87 


CLADOBATES, Fr. Cuv.—Tupata, Raff. 


This is a new genus from the Indian Archipelago. The teeth 
have much affinity with those of the Hedgehog ; their middle upper 
incisors, however, are proportionably shorter, and the four lower 
ones elongated; there is also no tubercular one behind. The animal 
is covered with hair, has a long shaggy tail, and, contrary to the 
habits of other Insectivora, climbs trees with the agility of a Squir- 
rel; the pointed muzzle, however, makes the animal easily distin- 
guishable even at a distance.(1) 


‘Sorex, Lin. 


The Shrews are generally small, and covered with hair. Under 
this, and upon each flank, there is a small band of stiff, thickly 
set sete, from between which, in the rutting season, oozes an 
odorous fluid, the product of a peculiar gland.(2) The two middle 
upper incisors are hooked and dentated at their base, the lower 
ones slanting and elongated: five small teeth on each side follow the 
first, and two only the second. There are moreover in each jaw 
three bristled molars, and in the upper one, the last is a small tuber- 
culous tooth. ‘This animal lives in holes it excavates in the earth, 
which it seldom leaves till evening, and lives on worms and insects. 
One species only was for a long time known in France; the 
Sor. araneus, L.; Buff. VIII, x, 1. (The Common Shrew.) 
Grey above ; ash-coloured beneath ; tail square, and not so long 
as the body by one-third; teeth white; ears naked and ex- 
posed ; common in the fields, &c. This little animal has been 
accused of producing a disease in horses by its bite; the impu- 
tation however is false, and arises, perhaps, from the fact, that 
though Cats kill the Shrew, they will not eat it on account of its 
unpleasant odour. 
Daubenton has discovered the 
Sor. fodiens, Gm.; 8S. Daubentonii, Blumenb.; Buff. VIII, xi. 
(The Water Shrew.) Rather larger than the common one; 
black above ; white beneath; tail compressed at the end, and not 
so long as the body by one-fourth ; the incisors red at the ends 5 


(1) The banzring ; Cladob. javanica, Fr. Cuy.; Tupaia javanica, Horsf. Jav.;— 
Cl. tana, Fr. Cuv.; Tup. tana, Horst.;—Clad. ferruginea, Fr. Cuv.; Tup. ferrugi- 
nea, Raff. The genus Gymnura of Vigors and Horsfield—Zoolog. Journ. II, pl. 8, 
appears to approximate to Cladobates by the teeth, and to the Shrew by its point- 
ed snoutand scaly tail. There are five unguiculated toes to each foot, and tolera- 
bly stiff sete growing among woolly hairs. It can only be properly classed when 
its anatomy is known. 

(2) See Geoff., Mem. du Mus., vol. 1, p. 299. 


88 MAMMALIA. 


the ear surrounded with white, and almost hidden in the hair ; 
it has the faculty of hermetically closing when the animal dives, 
while the stiff bristles which fringe its feet give it a facility in 
swimming, in consequence of which it prefers the banks of 
creeks and rivulets. 

- Several Shrews have been observed in Europe, somewhat dif- 
fering from the preceding ones; but as in this genus the age 
and season materially affect the colours of the fur, it is gah no 
means certain they are distinct species. (1) 

Other countries also have their own, the most remarkable of 
which is the S. myosurus, Pall., Act. Petrop. 1781, part Il, pl. 
A; Mus musquée del’ Inde, Buff. Supp. VII, 71. (The Rat-tailed 
Shrew.) In its form and colour it resembles our common Shrew, 
and also has its large naked ears, but the tail is round, furnished 
with scattering hairs, and is almost as large as that of our 
Long-tailed Field-mouse. It gives out a strong musky scent 
which impregnates every thing it touches. It is found through- 
out India and part of Africa, and is one of the animals the an- 
cient Egyptians were in the habit of embalming.(2) 


Myeates, Cuv. 


The Desmans differ from the Shrews in two very small teeth 
placed between the two great lower incisors, and in their two upper 


(1) The S. lewcodon, Schreb. 159, D, does not appear to me to differ from the © 
common Shrew. I strongly suspect the S. ¢etragonurus and constrictus, Herm., 
Schreb. 159, B and C, or Geoff. Ann. Mus. XVI, pl. 2, f. 3, and pl. 3, f. 1, and 
even the S. remifer, Geoff. Ann. Mus. XVII, pl. 2, f. 1, to be different ages of the 
Water-Shrew; the remifer particularly, whose belly is sometimes white, sometimes 
black ; the S. lineatus, Geoff. ib. 181, is an accidental variety of the tetragonurus 
arising from age. The S. minutus, Laxmann, Schreb. 161, B, is merely a muti- 
Jated specimen of the S. pygmaus, Pall. 

Such is not the case however with the S. etruscus, Savi, which is but half the 
size of our common species, is blackish, has naked ears, white muzzle and paws, 
round tail, &c. It is a true and distinct species. 

(2) I consider the S. myosurus, Pall. and Geoff. Ann. du Mus. XVU, pl. 3, f. 
2; the S. capensis, id. ib. pl. ii, f.2; the S. indicus, id. Mem. du Mus. J, pl. 15, f. 
1, as ages or varieties of one same species, to which I also refer the S. giganteus, 
Isid. Geoff. Mém. du Mus. XV, pl. 4, fig. 3; perhaps even the S. /flavescens, Isid. 
Geoff. ib. Seba figures it, Mus. I, pl. 31, f. 7 and 11—pl. 63, fig. 5, and the 
white variety, I, pl. 47, f. 4.—Add the 8. murinus, Lin. of Java, of the size of a 
mouse ; grey ; ears naked ; tail round and nearly as long as the body.—The S. bre- 
vicaudus, Say, from North America; blackish, ears concealed, tail one-fourth the 
length of the body. —S. parvus, id. with naked ears.—The 8. suaveolens, Pall., and 
the other species pointed out by him in his Zoography of Russia. This genus 
needs revision as much as that of the Bats. N.b. There are several species in 
the United States which have not yet been sufficiently examined. 4m. Ed. 


CARNARIA. 89 


incisors which are flattened and triangular. Behind these incisors 
are six or seven small teeth and four bristled molars. Their snout 
is drawn out into alittle flexible proboscis, which they keep constantly 
in motion. Their long tail, scaly, and flattened on the sides, with 
their feet of five fingers all united by membranes, evidently proclaim 
them to be aquatic animals. Their eyes are very small, and they have 
no external ears. 
Sorex moschatus, L.; Buff. X; Pall. Act. Petrop. 1781, part 
Il, pl. 5. (The Russian Muskrat.) Nearly as large as a Shrew; 
above blackish, beneath whitish ; tail not so long as the body 
by one-fourth. Very common along the rivers and lakes of 
southern Russia, where it lives on Worms, the larve of Insects, 
and particularly on Leeches, which, by means of its flexible 
snout, it easily withdraws from the mud. Its burrow, which is 
made in the bank, commences under water, and ascends to such 
a height as to be above its level in the greatest floods. This 
animal never comes voluntarily on shore, but numbers of them 
are taken in the nets of the fishermen. Its musky odour arises 
from a kind of pomatum that is secreted in small follicles un- 
der the tail, and it is so powerful as to be communicated to the 
flesh of the Pike which feeds on the Desman. 
A small species of this genus is found in the rivulets of the 
Pyrenees, whose tail is longer than its body; ascertained by M. 
Geoff. Ann. du Mus. tom. XVII, pl. iv, f. 1, Myg. pyrenaica, H. 


Curysocutoris, Lacep. 


Animals of this genus, like those of the preceding one, have two in- 
cisors above and four below; but their grinders are long, distinct 
and almost all shaped like triangular prisms. Their muzzle is 
short, broad and recurved, and their fore-feet have only three nails, 
of which the external, that is very large, much arcuated and 
pointed, serves them as a powerful instrument for excavating and 
piercing the earth ; the others regularly decrease in size. The hind 
feet have five of an ordinary size. They are subterraneous animals, 
whose mode of life is similar to that of Moles. To enable them to 
dig the better, their fore-arm is supported by a third bone placed 
under the cubitus. 
C. asiaticus ; Talpa asiatica, L.; Schreb. CLVII ; and better, 
Brown, ll. XLV. (The Golden Mole.) A little smaller than 
the European Mole ; no apparent tail; is the only known quad- 
ruped that presents any appearance of those splendid metallic 
tints which brighten and adorn so many Birds, Fishes and In- 
sects. Its fur is a green, changing to a copper or bronze; 
Vou. I.—M 


90 MAMMALIA. 


there is no conch to the ear, and the eye is not percepti- 
ble. (1) 


Tapa, Lin. 


No one is ignorant of this curious animal, the Mole, whose form so 
perfectly qualifies it for a subterraneous mode of life. A very short 
arm attached to a long scapula, supported by a powerful clavicle 
and furnished with enormous muscles, sustains an extremely large 
hand, the palm of which is always directed either outwards or back- 
wards; the lower edge of this hand is trenchant, the fingers are 
scarcely perceptible, but the nails in which they terminate are long, 
flat, strong and sharp. Such is the instrument employed by the 
Mole to tear the earth and throw it behind it. Its sternum, like 
that of Birds and Bats, has a process which gives to the pectoral 
muscles the size that is required for their functions. To pierce and 
raise up the earth, it makes use of its long pointed head, whose muz- 
zle is armed at its extremity with a peculiar little bone, and whose 
muscles are extremely powerful. There is even an additional bone 
in the cervical ligament. It has but little power behind, and moves 
as slowly above ground as it advances rapidly under it. Its sense of 
hearing is very acute, and the tympanum very large, although there 
is no external ear ; its eyes are so small and so hidden by the hair, that 
for a long time their existence was positively denied. In the genital 
organs there is this peculiarity—the bones of the pubis are not 
united, a circumstance which permits it to produce tolerably large 
young ones, notwithstanding the narrowness of the pelvis. The 
urethra of the female passes through the clitoris. She has six teats. 
The jaws are weak, and the food consists of Worms, Insects, and 
some soft roots. There are six incisors above and eight below. 
The canini have two roots, which causes them to partake of the na- 
ture of false molars; back of them are four false molars above and 
three below, after which are three bristled molars. 

T. europea, L.; Buff. VIII, xiii. (The Common Mole.) 
Pointed muzzle; hair soft and black; individuals are found 
white, fawn coloured and piebald—a vexatious animal in culti- 
vated grounds. 

This species, according to Dr Harlan, is also found in North 
America. (2) 


(1) The Red Mole of America, Seba, 1, pl. xxxii, f. 1, (Zalpa rubra, Lin.) is 
most probably a Chryso asiaticus, drawn from a dried specimen of that species, 
for then the hair appears purple ; the éwcwn of Fernandez, App.‘X XIV, which is 
considered as synonymous with it, from its two long teeth in each jaw and its 
vegetable diet, appears to be a Spalax. 

(2) A mistake : the europza is not found here. 4m. Ed. 


CARNARIA. 91 


M. Savi has found a Mole(1) in the Appennines that is per- 
fectly blind, although otherwise similar to the common one ; 
he calls it Talpa ceca. 


ConpyLura, Illig. 


In the animals belonging to this genus, the two kinds of dentition 
peculiar to the Insectivora seem to be combined. In the upper jaw 
are two large triangular incisors, two extremely small and slender 
ones, and on each side a strong canine. In the lower one are four 
incisors slanting forwards, and a pointed but small canine. The 
superior false molars are triangular and separated, the inferior 
trenchant and denticulated. 

In their feet and the whole of their exterior they resemble the Mole, 
but their tail is longer, and what more particularly. serves to distin- 
guish them from the former, is, that their nostrils are surrounded 
with little movable cartilaginous points, which, when they separate, 
radiate like a kind of star. 

One species particularly is found in North America—Sorex 
cristatus, L.(2) (The Radiated Mole.) Similar to the Mole of 
Europe, the nose excepted, but having a tail more than double 
the length of that of the latter. 


Scatops, Cuv. 


Teeth very similar to those of the Desmans, except that the small 
or false molars are less numerous; the muzzle is simply pointed, 
like that of the Shrew; their hands are widened, armed with strong 
nails fitted to excavate the earth, and exactly similar to those of 
Moles: in fact their mode of life isthe same; their eyes are equally as 
small, and their ears quite as much hidden. The only species 
known is the 
S. aquaticus; Sorex aquaticus, L.; Schreb. CLVIII. It ap- 
pears to inhabit a great part of North America, along rivers, 


(1) Itis not perfectly blind ; the eye-lids have an opening, though smaller than 
in the common one. 

The existence of the optic nerve in the common Mole has been denied. I 
think I can demonstrate it throughout its entire course. 

(2) This is the Conpytura of Mliger, but the characters he indicates, taken 
from the figure of La Faille, copied Buff. Supp. VI, xxxvi, 1, and on which he 
composed the name of the genus, are false. M. Desmarets was the first who cor- 
rectly described the teeth of this animal. 

Dr Harlan describes a species, Cond. macroura, which has but very short points 
about the nostrils, and a scaly compressed tail. He associates with it as a third 
species, the Tulp. longicaudata, Penn. Hist., No. 443, which he appears however 
not to haye seen. 


— eee ee 


92 MAMMALIA. 


&c. Its external resemblance to the common Mole of Europe (1) 
is so great, that it is easy to mistake the one for the other. 


FAMILY III. 
CARNIVORA. 


Although the term carnivorous is applicable to all unguicu- 
lated animals, not quadrumanate, that have three sorts of 
teeth, inasmuch as they all use more or less animal aliment, 
there are, however, many of them, the two preceding families 
especially, which are compelled by weakness and the conical 
tubercles of their grinders to live almost entirely on Insects. 
It is in the present family that the sanguinary appetite for 
flesh is joined to the force necessary to obtain it. ‘There are 
always four stout, long, and separated canini, between which 
are six incisors in each jaw, the root of the second of the 
lower ones being placed a little more inwards than the others. 
The molars are either wholly trenchant, or have some blunted 
tuberculous parts, but they are never bristled with conical 
points. 

These animals are so much the more exclusively carnivo- 
rous, as their teeth are the more completely trenchant, and 
the proportions of their regimen may be calculated from the 
extent of the tuberculous surface of their teeth, compared with 
that which is trenchant. The Bears, which can live altoge- 
ther on vegetables, have nearly all their teeth tuberculated. 

The anterior molars are the most trenchant; next comes a 
molar, larger than the others, usually furnished with a larger 
or smaller tuberculous heel; then follow one or two small teeth, 
that are perfectly flat. It is with these small teeth in the 
back part of the mouth that the dog chews the grass he some- 
times swallows. We will call, with M. Fr. Cuvier, this large 
upper molar, and its corresponding one below, carnivorous 
teeth; the anterior pointed ones, false molars; and the poste- 
rior blunted ones, tuberculous teeth. 


(1) Itis the Common Mole of the United States. 4m. Ed. 


CARNARIA. 93 


It is easy to conceive that those genera which have the 
fewest false molars, and whose jaws are the shortest, are those 
best adapted for biting. 

It is upon these differences that the genera can be most 
surely established. 

It is necessary, however, that the consideration of the hind 
foot should be added to them. 

Several genera, like those of the two preceding families, in 
walking, or when they stand erect, place the whole sole of the 
foot on the ground, a fact proved by the total want of hair on 
that part of it. 

Others, and by far the greater number, walk on the ends of 
the toes, by raising up the tarsus. ‘They are much swifter, 
and to this first difference are added many others of habits, 
and even of internal conformation. In both the clavicle is a 
mere bony rudiment suspended in the muscles. The 


PLANTIGRADA 


Form this first tribe, in which the whole sole of the foot is 
placed on the ground in walking, a circumstance which gives 
them a greater facility in standing vertically upon their hinder 
feet. They partake of the slowness and nocturnal life of the 
Insectivora, and, like them, have no cecum: most of those 
that inhabit cold countries pass the winter in a state of torpor. 
They all have five toes to each foot. 


Ursus, Lin. 


Bears have three large molars on each side(1) in each jaw, alto- 
gether tuberculous, and of which the posterior upper, and anterior 
lower are the longest. They are preceded by a tooth a little more 
trenchant, which is one of the carnivorous teeth of this genus, and by 
a variable number of very small false molars, which are sometimes 
shed at a very early period. This almost frugivorous sort of denti- 
tion is the reason why, notwithstanding their great strength, they 
seldom eat flesh unless from necessity. 

They are large stout-bodied animals, with thick limbs, and a very 


(1) We shall hereafter omit the repetition of the words ‘on each side,” &c., it 
being understood that we speak of the molars on one side only, those of the other 
being the same. 


94 MAMMALIA, 


short tail: the cartilage of the nose is elongated and movable. 
They excavate dens or construct huts, in which they pass the winter 
in a state of somnolency more or less profound, and without food. 
It is in these retreats that the female brings forth. 

The species are not easily distinguished by apparent characters. 
We have the 

U. arctos, L., Buff. VIIT, xxxi. (The Brown Bear of Eu- 
rope.) Forehead convex; fur brown, more or less woolly when 
young, and growing smoother with age. Some of them are 
greyish, others almost yellow, and a third kind is brown, with 
shades bordering on silver. The relative height of their legs is 
equally variable, and all without any fixed relation to age or 
sex. They have most commonly, when young, a whitish col- 
lar, which; in some varieties, remains for a longer or shorter 
period, and even for life. This animal inhabits the lofty moun- 
tains, and great forests of Europe, and of a great part of Asia; the 
coupling season is in June, and the young are produced in Janua- 
ry. It sometimes lodges very high up in trees ; when young its 
flesh is esteemed a delicacy—the feet are considered good at all 
ages. 

It is thought that the Black Bear of Europe is a distinct spe- 
cies: those which have been described as such had a flat fore- 
head, and the fur woolly and blackish; their origin, however, 
does not appear to us to be very authentic.(1) 

U. americanus, Gm.3; Fr. Cuv. Mammif.; Schreb. pl. 141, B. 
(The North American Black Bear.) A very distinct species, 
with a flat forehead, smooth and black fur, and fawn-coloured 
muzzle. We have always found the small teeth behind the 
canini more numerous in this Bear than in the European spe- 
cies. Individuals have been seen that were entirely fawn-co- 
loured. Its usual food is wild fruits; it devastates the fields, 


(1) Weare not yet satisfied that the Grisly Bear of North America differs speci- 
fically from the Brown Bear of Europe. 

P.S. Since the above note was written, General La Fayette has presented a 
Grisly Bear to the Menagerie du Jardin du Roi. In form and hair, some shades of 
colouring excepted, it closely resembles the Brown Bear; its nails, however, are 
much longer and more trenchant. It appears to be a distinct species. 

M. Horsfield, Lin. Trans., XV, 332, describes a Bear from Nepaul, of a light 
bay colour, whose nails are less trenchant than those of the other Bears of India, 
and which appears to him a distinct species. 

I have neglected stating in the text that we have recovered many fossil bones of 
lost species of Bears, the most remarkable of which are the U. speleus, Blumenb., 
with a rounded forehead, and ofa very large size; and the U. cultridens, Cuv. See 
thefourth yol. of my ‘* Ossemens Fossiles.” 


. 
al 


CARNARIA. 95 


and, where fish is abundant, proceeds to the shores for the 

purpose of catching it. It is only for want of other aliment 

that it attacks quadrupeds. _ The flesh is held in great esteem. 

There is another Black Bear found in the Cordilleras, with a_ 

white throat and muzzle, and large fawn-coloured eye-brows, 

that unite on the forehead—U. ornatus, Fr. Cuy. Mammif. 
The East Indies also produce several Bears of a black colour, 

such as the 

U. malaianus, Horsf. Java. (The Malay Bear.) Smooth ; 
black ; fawn-coloured muzzle ; a heart-shaped spot of the same 
colour on the breast. From the Peninsula beyond the Ganges 
and the islands of the straits of Sunda. It is very injurious to 

, thecocoa nut trees, which it climbs in order to devour their tops 
and drink the milk of the fruit. 

U. thibetanus, Fr.Cuy. Mammif. (The Thibet Bear.) Black ; 
the under lip and a large mark in the form of a Y on the breast 
white ; profile straighter and claws weaker. From the moun- 
tains in the north of India. 

The most remarkable however of these Bears of India is the 

U. labiatus, Blain.; L’ Ours jongleur, Fred. Cuv. Mammif.; 
U. longirostris, Tied. (The Thick-lipped Bear.) The cartilage 
of the nose dilated ; the tip of the under lip elongated, both be- 
ing movable; when old, very thick, bushy hairs round the 
head. The incisors being easily lost, occasioned it for a long 
time to be considered as a Sloth.(1) It is black; the muzzle 
and tips of the paws fawn-coloured or whitish, and a half collar 
or spot in the form of a Y under the neck and. breast. This 
animal is a favourite with the Indian jugglers on account of its 
deformity. 

U. maritimus, L.; Cuv. Ménag. du Mus., 8vo, p. 683 copied, 
Schreb. pl. cxli. (The Polar Bear.) This is another species, 
very distinguishable by its long and flattened head and its white 
and smooth fur. It pursues Seals and other marine animals. 
Exaggerated accounts of its ferocity have rendered it highly 
celebrated. 


Procyon, Storr. 


The Raccoons have three back tuberculous molars, the superior of 
which are nearly square, and three pointed false molars in front, 
forming a continuous series to the canines, which are straight and 


(1) It is the Bradypus ursinus of Shaw, and the genus Procui1vs, Illig. See 
Jour. de Phys. of 1792, vol, xl, p. 136. 


96 MAMMALIA. 


compressed. The tail is long, but the remainder of the exterior is 
that of a Bear in miniature. They rest the whole sole of the foot 
on the ground only when they are stopped; when they walk, they 
raise the heel. 
P. lotor; Ursus lotor, L.; Mapach of the Mexicans ; Buff. 
VIII, xliii. (The Raccoon.) Greyish brown; muzzle white 3 
a brown streak across the eyes; tail marked with brown and 
white rings. This animal is about the size.of a Badger, is 
easily tamed, and remarked for a singular habit of eating 
nothing it has not previously dipped in water. From North 
America—lives on eggs, Birds, &c. 
P. cancrivorus; Ursus cancriv., L.; Buff. Supp. VI, xxxii. 
(The Raccoon Crab-eater.) A uniform light ash-brown; the 
rings on the tail less distinct. From South America. 


Aiuurus, Fred. Cuv. 


The Panda appears to approximate to the Raccoon in its canini, 
and what is known of its other teeth 5 with this exception, that it has 
only one false molar. The head is shorts; tail long; walk planti- 
grade ; five toes with retractile claws.(1) One species only is known, 
the 
A. refulgens, Fred. Cuy. Mammif.; Hardwick, Linn. Trans. 
XV, p. 161. Size of a large Cat; fur soft and thickly set; 
above of the most brilliant cinnamon red 3 behind more fawn- 
coloured ; beneath of a deep black. The head is whitish, and 
the tail marked with brown rings. This most beautiful of all 
known quadrupeds, and which inhabits the mountains of the 
north of India, was sent to Europe by my son-in-law the late 
M. Alfred du Vaucel. 


Ictipes, Valen. 


The Benturong is somewhat related to the Raccoon by its teeth, but 
the three upper back molars are much smaller and less tuberculous, 
the last one in each jaw particularly, which is very small and nearly 
simple. It is covered with long hair, and has a tuft at each ear. 
The tail is long, hairy, and has a propensity to curl, as if prehensile. 
This animal is also one of those from India, for the knowledge of 
which we are indebted to the late M. du Vaucel. One species, is the 
Ict. albifrons, Fr. Cuv., Ann. des Sc. Nat. IV, pl. i. Grey; 
tail and sides of the muzzle black; size, that of a large Cat. 
From Bootan. 


* (1) General Hardwick has described the upper teeth of the Panda, Lin. Trans. 
XV, pl. ii. There are four square and tuberculous grinders, and one false tren- 
chant molar in front, at a short distance from the canine. 


CARNARIA. 97 


Ict. ater, Fr. Cuv. Mammif. Black; muzzle whitish; size 
that of a stout Dog. From Malacca.(1) 


Nasva, Storr. 


The Coatis, to the teeth, tail, nocturnal habit, and slow dragging 
gait of the Raccoon, add a singularly elongated and flexible snout. 
The feet are semi-palmate, notwithstanding which they climb trees. 
Their long claws are used for digging. They inhabit the warm cli- 
mates of America, and their diet is nearly the same as that of the 
Marten of Europe. 
Viverra nasua, L.; Buff. VIII, xlviii. (The Red Coati.) 
Reddish fawn colour ; muzzle brown ; tail with brown rings. 
Viv. narica, L.; Buff, VIII, xlviii. (The Brown Coati.) 
Brown, white spots over the eye and snout. 

This is perhaps the only proper place for the singular genus of 
the Kincasous or Porro, Cuv.—Crrcoteprres, Illig.—which, to a 
plantigrade walk, adds a long prehensile tail like that of the Sapa- 
jous, a short muzzle, a slender and extensible tongue, two pointed 
grinders before, and three tuberculous ones behind. 

Only one species is known, Viverra caudivolvula, Gm.; Buff. 
Supp. III, 1; and better, Fr. Cuv. Mammif. From the warm 
parts of America and from the great Antilles, where it is called 
Potio; size of a Polecats; hair woolly, and of a grey or yel- 
lowish brown; habits nocturnal, of a mild disposition, and lives 
on fruit, milk, honey, blood, &c. 


Metss, Storr. 


The Badgers, which Linnzus placed with the Raccoons in the genus 
‘Ursus, have a very small tooth behind the canine, then two pointed 
molars followed in the upper jaw by one that we begin to recognize 
as carnivorous from the trenchant vestige it exhibits on its outer 
side ; behind this is a square tuberculous one, the largest of all. Be- 
low, the penultimate begins to show a resemblance to the inferior 
carnivorous teeth, but as there are two tubercles on its internal 
border as elevated as its trenchant edge, it acts as a tuberculous 
one; the last below is very small. 

The slow movements of the Badgers and their nocturnal habits are 
like those of the preceding animals; their tails are short, the toes 
are much enveloped in the skin, and they are otherwise peculiarly 
distinguished by a sac under the tail, from which oozes a fatty, 


(1) Add /’Ictide doré, Fred. Cuy. 
VoL. GN 


~ 


98 MAMMALIA. 


fetid humour. The long claws of their fore-feet enable them to dig 
with great effect. 

M. europea; Ursus meles,L.3; Buff. VII, vii. (The Badger.) 
Greyish above, black beneath, a blackish band on each side of 
the head. The American Badger (Mel. hudsonius) is not 
very different. [See App. LV. of Am. Ed. | 


GULO, Storr. 


Linnezus also placed the Gluttons among the Bears, but they ap- 
proximate much nearer to the Weasels in their teeth as well as 
in their habits, the only relation they have to the former consisting 
in their plantigrade motion. They have three false molars above 
and four below, immediately antecedent to the carnivorous teeth, 
which are well characterized, and behind them two small tubercu- 
lous ones, the upper being more broad than long. Their superior 
carnivorous tooth has only one small tubercle on the inner side, and 
in fact, the whole dental system is nearly the same as that of the 
Weasels. The tail is of a middling size, with a plait or fold be- 
neath in place of a sac, and the port of the animal is very similar to 
that of the Badger. 
The most celebrated species is the Glutton of the north, the 
Ursus gulo, L., Buff. Supp. II, xlviii. (The Common Glut- 
ton.) About the size of the Badger; usually of a fine deep 
maronne colour, with a disk on the back of a darker brown ; 
sometimes, however, the shades are lighter. It inhabits the 
most glacial regions of the North, is considered very sanguinary 
and ferocious, hunts during the night, does not become torpid 
during the winter, and masters the largest animals by leaping 
upon them from the top of atree. Its voracity has been ridi- 
culously exaggerated by some authors. The /Volverene of North 
America (Ursus luscus, Lin. Edw. 103) does not appear to dif- 
- fer from it in any constant character—its colours, however, are 
generally lighter. 

Hot climates produce some species which can only be placed near 
the Gluttons, as they differ from them merely in having one false 
molar less in each jaw, and ina long tail. Such are the animals, 
termed by the inhabitants of South America Ferrets, which, having the 
teeth of our Ferrets and Polecats, have, in fact, similar habits—they 
are distinguished from them, however, by their plantigrade motion. 

Viverra vittata, L., Buff. Supp. VII, xxiii and xxv. (The 
Grison.) Black; top of the head and neck grey ; a white band, 
reaching from the forehead to the shoulders. 

Mustela barbara, L., Buff. Supp. VI, Ix. (The Taira.) 


* 


CARNARIA. 99 


Brown; top of the head grey; a large white spot under the 
throat. 

Thése two animals are found in all the warm climates of 
America, and smell strongly of musk. Their feet are some- 
what palmated, and it appears they have sometimes been taken 
for Otters.(1) 


RATELUS, 1. C. 


The Ratels have a false molar in each jaw less than the Grison, 
and their upper tuberculous tooth is but slightly developed, so that 
in the teeth they approach the Cat, while their whole exterior is 
that of the Grison or Badger. The legs are short ; feet plantigrade, 
and five toes to each; nails very strong, &c. &c. 

One species only is known, the Viverra mellivora, Sparm.; 
and Viv. capensis, Schreb. pl. 125. Size of the European Bad- 
ger; grey above; black beneath, with a white line that sepa- 
rates the two colours; sometimes it is nearly all white above. 
It inhabits the Cape of Good Hope, and digs up the earth with 
its long claws, in search of the honey-combs of the wild bees. 

The 


DIGITIGRADA 


Form the second tribe of the Carnivora. ‘The animals 
which compose it walk on the ends of their toes. 

In the first subdivision there is only one tuberculous tooth 
behind the upper carnivorus ; these animals, on account of the 
length of their body, and the shortness of their legs, which 
permit them to pass through the smallest openings, have been 
styled vermiform, Like the preceding ones, they have no 
exeum, but they are not torpid during the winter. Linneus 
placed them all m one genus, that of 


MustTeta, Lin., 


Or the Weasels, which we will divide into four subgenera. 


Purorius, Cuv. 


The Polecats are the most sanguinary of all; the lower carnivo- 
rous tooth has no inner tubercle, and the superior tuberculous one 


(1) [t is supposed by the description given by Marcgrave of his cariqueibeiu, 
which name Buffon has applied to his saricovienne, Vol. XIII, p. 319, that he 
meant to speak of the Taira. 


100 MAMMALIA. 


is more broad than long there are only two false molars above and 
three below. These animals are externally recognised by their 
muzzle, which is shorter and thicker than that of the Weasel. They 
all diffuse a most horrible stench. 

Mustela putorius, L., Buff. VII, xiii. (The Common Pole- 
cat.) Brown; flanks yellowish; white spots on the head; the 
terror of poultry-yards and warrens. 

M. furo, L., Buff. VII, xxv and xxvi. (The Ferret.) Yel- 
lowish, with rose-coloured eyes, and is perhaps a mere variety 
of the Polecat. It is only found in France in a domesticated 
state, and is employed to ferret out the rabbits from their holes. 
It comes from Spain and Barbary. 

M. sarmaticas; The Perouasca; Pall. Spic. Zool. XIV, iv, 15 
Schreb. CXXXII. (The Sarmatian Weasel.) Brown; every- 
where spotted with yellow and white. So beautifully is the skin 
mottled, that it is in high request among furriers. It is found 
throughout all southern Russia, Asia Minor, and the coast of 
the Caspian sea. 

M. sibirica, Pall. Spic. Zool. XIV, iv, 2. (The Siberian 
Polecat.) A uniform light fawn colour; nose and circumfe- 
rence of the eyes brown; end of the muzzle and the under part 
of the lower jaw white. 

It is also to this subdivision that we must refer two small 
European species: 

M. vulgaris, L., Buff. VII, xxix, 1. (The Weasel.) Ofa 
uniform red, and the 

M. erminea, L., Buff. VII, xxix, 2, and xxxi, 1. (The Stoat.) 
Red in summer, white in winter; end of the tail always black. 
Skin much used by furriers. 

We should also place near it the 

M. lutreola, Pall. Spic. Zool. XI, 1; Leche, Stock. Mem., 
1739, pl. xi; Schreb. CKXVII. (The Mink or Norek.)_ It 
frequents the shores of rivers, &c., in the north and east of Eu- 
rope from the Arctic Ocean to the Black Sea, and lives on 
frogs and crabs. The feet are slightly palmated at the base of 
the toes, but the teeth and round tail approximate it nearer 
to the Polecat than the Otter. It is of a reddish brown; the 
circumference of the lips and the under part of the jaw white ; 
it exhales a musky odour, and is much esteemed for its well 
known fur. 

The above animal is considered by some tobe the same as the 
Polecat of the North American rivers, also called the Mink, 
whose feet are likewise semi-palmated ; but the only white 


CARNARIA, 101 


about it is on the point of the chin, and sometimes a narrow 
line under the throat—it is a different species.(1) 

Warm climates also have their Polecats or Weasels. 

Put. nudipes, Fred. Cuv. Mammif. (The Javanese Ferret.) 
Golden-yellows; head and tip of the tail white. 

Put. africanus, Desm, (The African Ferret.) Reddish 
fawn colour above; yellowish white below; a red band reach- 
ing longitudinally along the middle of the belly from the fore to 
the hind legs. 

Put. striatus, Cuv. (The Striped Madagascar Ferret.) 
Size of the European Weasel; reddish brown, with five longi- 
tudinal white stripes; beneath and the tail nearly all white. 

Put. zorilla; Zorille, Buff.; Viverra zorrilla, Gm.; Buff. XIII, 
xl, 1. (Cape Polecat.) Irregularly striped with black and white; 
an animal that has been so far confounded with the mephitic 
weasels as to receive the name of Zorillo, or little Fox, which 
the Spaniards have applied to those fetid American animals. 
It approaches them in its claws, which are fitted for digging, 
but in every thing else resembles the Polecats. They indicate 
a subterraneous habit, which might induce us to separate it 
from the other species. 


Musreta, Cuyv. 


- The true Weasels differ from the Polecats in having an additional 
false molar above and below, and in the existence of a small internal 
tubercle on their inferior carnivorous tooth, two characters which 
somewhat diminish the cruelty of their nature. 


There are two species in Europe closely allied to each other, 
the 


M. martes, L.; Buff. VII, xviii. (The Common Marten.) 
Brown; a yellow spot under the throat. Inhabits the woods. 

M. foina, L.; Buff. VII, xviii. (The Beech Marten.) Brown; 
the whole under part of the throat and neck white. Inhabits 
houses. Both species are very destructive. Siberia produces 
the 

M. zibellina, Pall. Spic. Zool. XIV, iii, 2; Schreb. CXXXVI. 
(The Sable.) Highly valued for its rich fur; brown, spot- 


(1) When this page was written, I had no other knowledge of the Norek, or 

Mink of Europe, than what the description of Pallas afforded me. Having since 
then procured some specimens, I have ascertained that the white about the jaws 
is not permanent, and that very frequently the only white to be seen is at the end 
of the lower jaw, as in the American Mink. I now think they are both one spe- 
cies. 


102 MAMMALIA. 


ted with white about the head, and distinguished from 
the preceding ones by the extension of the hair to the under 
surface of the toes. It inhabits the coldest mountains, and the 
hunting to obtain it, in the midst of winter and tremendous 
snows, is a perilous and painful undertaking. It is to the pur- 
suit of this animal that we owe the discovery of the eastern 
countries of Siberia. 

North America also possesses several Martens indicaséd by 
naturalists and travellers, under the indefinite names of Pekan, 
Vison, Mink, &c. 

One of them, the White Vison of the furriers, Mus. leutreoce- 
phala, Harl., has as hairy feet and almost as soft'a fur as the 
Sable, but is of a light fawn colour, and almost white about the 
head. 

That which we call the Pekan; Must. canadensis, Gm., and 
which comes from Canada and the United States, is of a brown- 
ish colour, mixed with white on the head, neck, shoulders and 
top of the back 3 nose, crupper, tail and limbs blackish.(1) 


Mepuiris, Cuv.: 


The Skunk, like the Polecat, has two false molars above and three 
below, but the superior tuberculous one is very large, and as long 
as it is broad, and the inferior carnivorus has two tubercles on its | 
internal side, circumstances which ally/it to the Badger just as the 
Polecat approximates to the Grison and Glutton. Independently 
of this, the anterior nails of the Skunk, like those of the Badger, are 
long and. fitted for digging ; they are moreover semi-plantigrade, and 
the resemblance extends even to the distribution of their colours. 
The whole family are remarkable for their fetid exhalations, but the 
Skunk is pre-eminently distinguished by its most horrible and suf- 
focating stench. 

Skunks are generally marked with white stripes on a black 
ground, but the number of stripes appears to vary in the same 
“species. ‘The most common species of North America is the 

M. putorius.; Viverra putor., Gm.; Catesb. Carol. I, Ixii. 
Schreb. CXXII. (The American Skunk.) -Black, with stripes 
of white, larger or smaller, and more or less numerous ; the tail 
is black, and the tip white. The odour it produces resembles 


(1) It is the Pékan of Daubenton, but it has not almaye the white under the 
throat. [See 2ppend. V. of Am. Ed.] 

There are several other species of Polecats or oh Martens indicated by MM. 
Molina, Humboldt and Harlan ; ; but they require re-examination. 


CARNARIA, 103 


that of the Polecat, mingled with a strong smell of garlic— 
nothing is more nauseous. 

It would seem that in South America the species most usu- 
ally encountered has a white tail. The stripes on the back 
sometimes occupy its whole breadth; it is the Viverra mephitis, 
Gm.; Buff. XIII, xxxix, or the Chinche.(1) 

We may make a distinct subgenus of the Mypaus, Fred. Cuv. 
whose teeth, feet, and even colours are similar to those of the 
Skunk, but whose truncated muzzle resembles a Hog’s snout ; 
the tail being reduced to a small pencil. One species only is 
known, the 

»  M. meliceps, Fred. Cuv., and Horsf. Java. (The Teledu.) 
Blacks; the nape of the neck, a stripe along the back and the 
tail white ; the dorsal stripe sometimes interrupted in the mid- 
dle ; not surpassed in stench by any of the Skunks. 


Lurra, Storr. 


The Otters have three false molars in each jaw, a strong heel to 
the superior carnivorus, a tuberculus on the inner side of the inferior 
one, and a large tuberculous tooth ‘above that is nearly as long as it 
is broad. The head is compressed, and the tongue demi-asperate. 
They are otherwise distinguished from all the preceding subgenera 
by palmated feet, and a horizontally flattened tail, two characters 
which render them aquatic. Their food is fish. 

L. vulgaris; Mustela lutra, L.3 Buff. VII, xi. (The Com- 
mon Otter.) Brown above, whitish round the lips, on the 
cheeks and the whole inferior surface of the body. It is some- 
times found spotted and whitish. From the rivers of Europe. 

Several Otters differ but little from the above. That of Ca- 
rolina, L. lataxina, Fr. Cuv., becomes a little larger, is some- 
times more deeply coloured, and has a brownish tint beneath ; 
very frequently, however, there. is no difference even in the 
shades of colour. In Brazil there are others similar in every 
respect to those of Carolina. That of the East Indies the Z. 
nair, Fr. Cuy., (The Pondicherry Otter) appears a little 
smoother, and is somewhat pale about the eye-brows, but it is 
scarcely perceptible. The Indians employ it for fishing, as we 


(1) It is better figured, Hist. des Mammif. of Fr.Cuv.. The Chili Skunk, Buff. 
Supp. VII, pl. lvii, appears to be amere badly preserved variety of the same. See 
my Ossemens Foss. LV, 469, 

N.B. This is the same animal with the immediately preceding species, and has 
been called the V. conepatl and V. chinche. No two individuals of this species are 
alike, being sometimes even wholly white or the reverse. 4m. Ed. 


104 MAMMALIA. 


do the Dog for hunting. That of Java, LZ. leptonyx, Horsf. 
(The Javanese Otter) has a whiter throat, and this whiteness 
ascends on the sides of the head so as to surround the eye. In 
that of the Cape, Z. capensis, Fr. Cuy. the white on the throat, 
sides of the head and neck is purer and more extended ; the end 
of the nose is even marked with it: what particularly distin- 
guishes it, however, is that, at least at acertain age, it has no 
nails, a character on which M. Lesson has founded his genus 
Aonyx. Young individuals however have been brought from 
the Cape that have nails ; it remains to be ascertained whether 
or not they are of the same species. 

Mustela lutra brasiliensis, Gm. (The American Otter.) 
Brown or fawn-coloured; throat white or yellowish; a little 
larger than the European Otter; the body is also longer, and 
the hair shorter. It is distinguished by the end of the nose, 
which is not naked as in most animals, but is covered with 
hair like the rest of the chanfrin. From the rivers of both 
Americas. 

Mustela lutris, L.; Schreb. CKXVIII.(1) (The Sea-Otter.) 
Size, double that of the European species; body much elon- 
gated; tail one-third the length of the body; the hind feet very 
short. There is sometimes white about the head. It has only 
four incisors below, but the molars are like those of the other 
Otters. Its blackish velvet looking fur is extremely valuable, 
to obtain which the English and Russians hunt the animal 
throughout the northern parts of the Pacific ocean. 


In the second subdivision of the Digitigrada there are two 
flat tuberculous teeth, behind the superior carnivorus tooth, 
which is itself furnished with a large heel. ‘They are car- 
nivorous, but do not exhibit a courage proportioned to their 
powers, and frequently feed on carrion. The cecum is al- 
ways small. 


Canis, Lin. 


Dogs have three false molars above, four below, and two tuber- 
culous teeth behind each of the carnivori; the first of these upper 
tuberculous teeth is very large. Their superior carnivorus has 
only a smal) inner tubercle, but the posterior portion of the inferior 


(1) This figure, apparently drawn from a badly prepared specimen, presents an 
exaggerated resemblance to the Seal, a circumstance by which some naturalists 
have been induced to believe it should be placed near that genus—its whole or- 
ganization, however, is that of the Otter. See Lv. Home, Phil. Trans. 1796. 


CARNARIA. 105 


is altogether tuberculous. The tongue is soft; the fore-feet have 
five toes, and the hind ones four. 

C. familiaris, L. (The Domestic Dog.) Distinguished by 
his recurved tail, otherwise varying infinitely, as to size, form, 
colour and quality of the hair. He is the most complete, sin- 
gular and useful conquest ever made by man; the whole spe- 
cies has become his property; each individual is devoted to his 
particular master, assumes his manners, knows and defends his 
possessions, and remains his true and faithful friend till 
death—and all this, neither from constraint nor want, but solely 
from the purest gratitude and the truest friendship. The swift- 
ness, strength and scent of the Dog have rendered him Man’s 
powerful ally against all other animals, and were even, perhaps, 
necessary to the establishment of society. Of all animals, he 
is the only one which has followed Man through every region 
of the globe. 4 

Some naturalists think the Dog is a Wolf, and others that he 
is a domesticated Jackal, and yet those dogs which have become 
wild again in desert islands resemble neither the one nor the 
other. The wild dogs, and those that belong to savages, such 
as the inhabitants of New Holland, have straight ears, which has 
occasioned a belief that the European races, which approach the 
most to the original type, are the Shepherd’s Dog and Wolf 
Dog; but the comparison of the crania indicates a closer affinity 
in the Mastiff and Danish Dog, subsequently to which come the 
Hound, the Pointer, and the Terrier, differing between themselves 
only in size and the proportions of the limbs. The Greyhound 
is longer and more lank, its frontal sinuses are smaller, and its 
scent weaker. The Shepherd’s Dog and the Wolf Dog resume 
the straight ears of the wild ones, but with a greater cerebral 
development, which continues to increase together with the 
intelligence in the Barbet and the Spaniel. The Bull Dog, on 
the other hand, is remarkable for the shortness and strength of 
his jaws. The small pet-dogs, the Pugs, Spaniels, Shocks, &c. 
are the most degenerate productions, and exhibit the most strik- 
ing marks of that power to which man subjects all nature.(1) 

The dog is born with his eyes closed ; he opens them on the 
tenth or twelfth day ; his teeth commence changing in the fourth 
month, and his full growth is attained at the expiration of the 
second year. The period of gestation is sixty-three days, and 
from six to twelve pups are produced at a birth. The dog is 


(1) See Fr. Cuy. Ann. Mus. XVIII, p.333 et seq. 
Vou. I1.—O 


106 MAMMALIA. 


old at fifteen years, and seldom lives beyond twenty. His vigi- 
lance, bark, singular mode of copulation, and susceptibility of 
education are well known to every one. 

C. lupus, L.; Buff. VII, i. (The Wolf.) A large species, 
with a straight tail; legs fawn-coloured, with a black stripe on 
the fore-legs when adult;(1) the most mischievous of all the 
carnaria of Europe. Itis found from Egypt to Lapland, and 
appears to have passed into America. ‘Towards the north, in 
winter, its fur becomes white. It attacks all our animals, yet 
does not exhibit a courage proportioned to its strength. It 
often feeds on carrion. Its habits and physical development 
are closely related to those of the dog. 

C. lycaon, L.; Buff. 1X, xli. (The Black Wolf.) Also inha- 
bits Europe, and is sometimes, though rarely, found in France.(2) 
The fur is of a deep and uniform black, with a little white at the 
end of the muzzle, and a small spot of the same colour under the 
breast. It is said to be more ferocious than the common wolf. 

C. mexicanus, L. (The Mexican Wolf.) Reddish grey, 
mixed with black; circumference of the muzzle, under part of 
the body and the feet white ; size that of the Common Wolf.(3) 

C. jubatus, Cuv.; Agoura-Gouazou, Azzar. (The Red Wolf.) 
A fine cinnamon-red; a short black mane along the spine. 
From the marshes of South America. 

C. aureus, Lis; Schreb. XCIV. (The Chacal or Jackal.) 
Less than the preceding ; the muzzle more pointed ; of a grey- 
ish brown; thighs and legs of a light fawn colour; some red 
on the ear; the tail scarcely reaching further than the heel. It 
is a voracious animal, which hunts like the Dog, and in its con- 
formation and the facility with which it is tamed, resembles the 
latter more closely than any other wild species. Jackals are 
found from the Indies and the environs of the Caspian sea, as 
far as, and in Guinea; it is not certain, however, that they are 


(1) This stripe is more or less strongly marked on the Jackal, Mexican Wolf, 
&e. 

(2) We have seen four individuals taken and killed in France. It must not be 
confounded with the Black Fox, among whose synonymes Gmelin has placed it. 
[See Append. VI of Am. Ed.] 

(3) This character is taken from a specimen brought from Mexico, and pre- 
sented to the Cabinet du Roi by M. de Humboldt. Those which have beendrawn 
by authors from the bad figure of Recchi inserted in Hernandez, p. 479, must be 
rejected. Messrs Say and Harlan, Faun. Amer., mention two other species of 
Wolves, Can. latrans and Can. nubilus, which require to ta ‘examined and com- 
pared. [See Append. ut sup. of Am. Ed.) 


CARNARIA. 107 


all of one species. Those of Senegal for instance, C. anthus, Fr. 
Cuv. Mammif., stand higher, appear to have a sharper muzzle, 
and the tail a little longer. 

Foxes may be distinguished from the Wolf and Dog by a longer 
and more tufted tail, by a more pointed muzzle, by pupils, which, 
during the day, form a vertical fissure, and by the upper incisors 
being less sloping. They diffuse a fetid odour, dig burrows, and 
attack none but the weaker animals. This subgenus is more nume- 
rous than the preceding one. 

C. vulpes, L.; Buff. VII, vi. (The Common Fox.) More or 
less red; tip of the tail white; found from Sweden to Egypt. 
Those of the north have merely a more brilliant fur. There is 
no constant difference to be observed between those of the East- 
ern continent and those of North America. The C. alopez, 
Schreb. XCI, or the Collier, which has the end of the tail black, 
and is found in the same countries as the common one; the 
Renard croisé, Id. XCI, A, or the Cross Fox, which is only 
distinguished by a streak of black along the spine and across the 
shoulders ; the Fox the French furriers call the Zurk, which is 
of ayellowish grey, with the end of the tail white, are, perhaps, 
mere varieties of the common one. The following species how- 
ever are very distinct. [See App. VII of Am. Ed.| 

C. Azarz, Pr. Max.; Aguarachai, Azz. (The Brazil Fox.) 
Grey; sides of the neck reddish; a black line commencing on 
the nape of the neck, and extending along the middle of the tail. 

C. corsac, Gm.; Buff. Supp. Il, xvi, under the name of 
Adive. (The Corsac.) A pale yellowish grey; a few blackish 
waves at the base of the tail; tip of the tail black; jaw white. 
Common on the vast heaths of central Asia, from the Volga to 
India. It has the habits of the Fox, and never drinks. I sus- 
pect the 2bouhossein of Nubia—Canis pallidus, Ruppel, p!. xi—is 
the same animal. 

There is also in the prairies of North America, a little Fox, 
C. veloxr, Har. and Say; F. Am., 91, which lives in bur- 
rows, but which appears to differ from the Corsac by the 
colours: a blackish tail, &c. 

C. cinereo-argenteus, Schreb. XCII, A. (The Tri-coloured 
Foxof America.) Ash-coloured above; white beneath ; a cinna- 
mon-red band along the flanks. From all the warm and tem- 
perate parts of the two Americas. 

C. argentatus. (The Silver or Black Fox.)(1) Black; tips 


(1) Gmel. has confounded it with the Black Wolf, under the name of Canis 
lycaon. 


—— ee 


108 MAMMALIA. 


of the hairs white, except on the ears, shoulders, and tail, where 
they are ofa pure black. The end of the tail is all white. From 
North America. Its fur is most beautiful, and very costly. 

C. lagopus, L.; Schreb. XCIII. (The Blue Fox or Isatis.) 
Deep ash-colour ; the under surface of the toes hairy;(1) often 
white in winter. From the north of both continents, particu- 
larly from Norway and Siberia; much esteemed for its fur. 

C. mesomelas,(2) Schreb. XCV. (The Cape Fox.) Fawn- 
coloured on the flanks; middle of the nose black, mixed with 
white, terminating in a point behind; the ears red as well as 
the feet; the two posterior thirds of the tail black, &c. 

The interior of Africa produces Foxes remarkable for the size of 
their ears, and the strength of the hairs of their mustachios 5 they 
are the Mecatoris of Illiger. There are two known, the 

C. megalotis, Lalande; a Cape species, something smaller 
than our common Fox, higher on its feet ; yellowish grey above, 
whitish beneath; the feet, tail and a dorsal line black. 

C. zerda, Gm., or Fennec of Bruce; Buff. Supp. III, xix. 
Ears still larger; a small species of an almost white fawn co- 
lour, which burrows in the sands of Nubia;(3) its hair is 
woolly, and extends under the toes. 

Finally, we may place after the Dogs, as a fourth subgenus, dis- 
tinguished by the number of toes, which is four to each foot, the 

Hyena venatica, Bursch.; H. picta, Temm., An. Gen. des Sc. 
Phys. III. (The Wild Dog of the Cape.) It has the dental 
system of the Dog and not that of the Hyena; a long and thin 
form ; the fur mottled, with white and fawn colour, grey and 
black ; size of the Wolf, large ears with black tips, &c. It is 
gregarious, and frequently approaches Cape Town, devastating 
its environs. 


VIVERRA. 


The Civets have three false molars above and four below, the an- 
terior of which sometimes fall out ; two tolerably large tuberculous 
teeth above, one only below, and two tubercles projecting forwards 
on the inner side of the inferior carnivorus, the rest of that tooth 


ESS ie 

(1) Several of the Foxes, and even the common one, haye hair under their 
feet in the north. 

(2) Gmelin has confounded it with the adive of Buffon, whichis a factitious spe-, 
cies, and does not differ from the Jackal. 

(3) Bruce’s figure, copied by Buffon, and subsequently by all his compi- 
lers, greatly exaggerates the size of the ears. We have at last a good figure 
and exact description of this animal in the Voy. of Ruppel, Zoolog. pl. iii. 


CARNARIA. 109 


being more or less tuberculous. The tongue is bristled with sharp 
and rough papillez. Their claws are more or less raised as they 
walk, and near the anus is a pouch more or less deep, where an 
unctuous and frequently an odorous matter oozes from peculiar 
glands. They are divided into four subgenera. 


Viverra, Cuv. 


In the true Civets the deep pouch situated between the anus and 
the organ of generation, and divided into two sacs, is filled with — 
an abundant pommade of a strong musky odour, secreted by glands 
which surround the pouch. This substance is an article of com- 
merce, and is used by the perfumers. It was more employed when 
musk and ambergrease were unknown. The pupil of the eye re- 
mains round during the day, and their claws are only semi-retrac- 
tile. 

V. civetta, L.; Buff. 1X, xxxiv. (The Civet.) Ash-coloured, 
irregularly barred and spotted with black ; the tail less than the 
body, black towards the end, with four or five rings near its 
base; two black bands encircling the throat, and one surround- 
ing the face ; a mane along the whole length of the spine and 
tail that bristles up at the will of the animal. From the hot- 
test parts of Africa. 

V. zibetha, L.; Buff. 1X, xxxi. (The Zibet.) Ash-coloured, 
spotted with black; black half-rings on the whole tail; black 
bands on the sides of the neck; no mane. From the East In- 
dies. 


GENETTA, Cuv. 


In the Genets the pouch is reduced to a slight depression formed 
by the projection of the glands, and has scarcely any visible excre- 
tion, although an odour is diffused from it that is very perceptible. 
In the light the pupil forms a vertical fissure, and the nails are com- 
pletely retractile, as in the Cat. 

V. genetta, L. (The Common Genet.) Grey, spotted with 
brown or black, the muzzle blackish; white spots on the eye- 
brows, cheeks and each side of the end of the nose; tail the 
length of the body, annulated with black and white, the black 
rings being from nine to eleven in number. Found from the. 
south of France to the Cape of Good Hope, differing in the size 
and number of the spots in the bands along the shoulder and 
neck, as well as in the lines on the nape of the neck, &c.(1) It 


(1) The best figure of a Genet is that given by Pennant, Synops. No. 172, 
Hist. No. 280, under the improper name of Fossane. It is the variety most fre- 


— ——SE ee CC 
SE eEeeEeEeEeeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEEeEeEeoerereoerrrereeeeeeeeeeeel eee 


110 MAMMALIA. 


frequents the edges of brooks, near springs, &c. The skin 
forms an important article of trade. 

V. linsang, Hardwick, Lin. Trans. XIII, pl. xxiv; Felis gra- 
cilis, Horsf. Java. (The Javanese Genet.) Several irregular, 
brown, transverse bands on the body, and seven rings round the 
tail. ; 

V. fossa, Buff. XIII, xx. (The Fossane of Madagascar.) 
Tail, flanks, and all above fawn colour ; the legs and all beneath 
a yellowish white ; reddish brown spots, those on the back 
forming four longitudinal bands ; tail semi-annulated with red, 
and only half the length of the body.(1) 

V. rasse, Horsf. Jav. (The Rasse.) Legs brown; body 
greyish brown, with small brown spots united on the crupper, 
and forming five longitudinal lines. Tail shorter than the 
body, annulated with black and white, the black rings six or 
seven innumber.(2) The hair is harsher than in the preceding 
species. The 


Parapoxurus, Fr. Cuyv. 


Has the teeth and most of the characters of the Genets, with 
which it was a long time confounded; it is however more stout- 
limbed ; the feet are semi-palmate, and the walk nearly plantigrade, 
but what particularly distinguishes it is the spiral inclination of the 
tail, which is not prehensile. Only one species is known, the 

P. typus, Fr. Cuv. (The Pougouné of India.) A yellowish- 
brown, with some spots of a deeper brown than the rest; the 
feet, muzzle and part of the tail blackish ; eye-brows white, and 


rr er cee 


quently brought from the Cape. There is another taken from a young specimen, 
Brown, Ill. pl. xliu, still under the name of Fossane. ‘It is distinguished by its whi- 
tish and not brown legs, and we have seen a similar one from Senegal. That of 
Buff. IX, xxxvi, has not the bands on the neck and shoulders sufficiently 
marked. The number of black rings on the tail varies from nine to eleven. 
The Civette de Malacca of Sonnerat, Voy. II, pl. xxxix, which is the same as the 
Genette du Cap, Buff. Supp. VII, pl. viii, and the Chat bisaam of Vosmaer, of 
which Gmelin has made as many species, appear to be common Genets. 

(1) Description taken from the original sent to Buffon by Poiyre, and engraved, 
Hist. Nat. XII, pl. xx. The description of Daubenton is correct so far as re- 
gards the distribution of the spots; but he calls them black, whereas they are red- 
dish. Besides, this animal can hardly be the fossa of Flacourt, which that author 
states is the size of the Badger. The Fossane has the same furrow as the Genet, 
notwithstanding the assertion of Poivre to the contrary. 

(2) Itis probably Panimal du musc of La Peyronie, Acad. des Sc. 1728, pl. 
xxiv, p. 464, which had been confounded with the Zibeth—but that animal is 


larger, and has other colours. To this division we must refer the Viv. fasciata, 
Gm.; Buff. Supp. VII, lvii. 


CARNARIA. ltt 


a white spot under the eye. The French of Pondicherry call it 
the Palm Martin or Marte des palmiers.(1) 


Maneusta, Cuv.—Herpvestss, Illig. 


The pouch voluminous and simple ; the anus pierced in its depth. 
The hairs are annulated with light and obscure tints, which deter- 
mine their general colour on the eye. 

The Mangouste of Egypt, so celebrated among the ancients. 
under the name of J/chneumons; Viverra ichneumon, L.3 Buff.. 
Supp. UI, xxvi, is grey, with a long tail terminated with a 
black tuft; it is larger than our Cat, and as slender as a Mar- 
ten. It chiefly hunts for the eggs of the Crocodile, but also 
feeds on all sorts of small animals; brought up in houses, it 
hunts Mice, Reptiles, &c. By the Europeans at Cairo it is 
called Pharaoh’s Rat; by the natives, Nems. The ancient tra- 
dition of its jumping down the throat of the Crocodile to de- 
stroy it, is entirely fabulous. 

The Mangouste of India; Viv. mungos, Lin.; Buff. XIII, xix, 
and that of the Cape, Viv. cafra, Gm.; Schreb. CXVI, B, are 
smaller, both having a pointed tail, and a grey or brown fur, 
the latter being more of an ashy, and the former more of a fawn 
colour, having besides some red about the cheeks and jaws. 

The Mangouste of India is celebrated for its combats with 
the most dangerous serpents, and for having led us to the 
knowledge of the Ophiorhiza mongos as an antidote to their 
poison. 

There. is also the Mangouste of Java—H. Javanicus, red- 
dish brown; cheeks of a chesnut-red; throat more fawn co- 
loured: a large one from the marshes of the Cape—H. palu- 
dinosus, of an almost uniform reddish-brown, verging to a 
black, a little lighter on the chin: a third from the Cape—H. 
penicillatus, of a greyish fawn colour, tip of the tail white: one 
from Senegal—H. albicaudus, grey, tail all white: it is difficult, 
however, to establish very specific differences between these 
animals. 


Ryzana, Illig. 


The Surikates have a strong resemblance to the Mangoustes, even 
to the tints and transverse streaks of the hair, but are distinguished 
from them and from all the Carnivora of which we have hitherto 
' spoken, by having only four toes to each foot. They also are higher 


(1) It is the pretended Genette de France of Buffon, Supp, III, pl. xlvii, the Cz- 
vette ad bandeau of Geoff. 


112 MAMMALIA. 


on their legs, and they have not the small molar immediately be- 
hind the canine tooth. Their pouch extends into the anus. 
One species only is known, a native of Africa—Viv. tetradac- 
tyla, Gm.; Buff. XIII, viii, a little less than the Mangouste of 
India. (1) 


Crossarcuus, Fred. Cuv. 


The muzzle, teeth, pouch, and walk of the Surikates, the toes and 
genital organs of the Mangoustes. 

One species only is known—Crossarchus obscurus, Fred. Cuv., 
from Sierra Leone, of the size of the Surikate; greyish brown ; 
cheeks a little paler, and a hairy tail. 

We should here mention a singular animal from the south of 
Africa, known only while young, which, to the five anterior toes, 
and the four hind ones, and the slightly elongated head of the 
Civets, adds the raised feet, the short hind ones, and the mane 
of the Hyena; it also singularly resembles the striped Hyena 
in the colours of its fur. The thumb of the fore foot is short 
and higher; it is the Proteles Lalandii, Isid. Geoff. Mem. du 
Mus. XI, 354, pl. xx. Inhabits caverns. 

The individual specimens that have been examined, and which 
were all young, had but three small false molars, and one small 
tuberculous posterior molar. It seems as though their teeth 
had never come to perfection, as often happens in the Genets.(2) 


The last subdivision of the Digitigrada has no small teeth 
of any kind behind the large molar of the lower jaw. The 
animals contained in it are the most cruel and sanguinary of 
the class. They form two genera. 


Hyzna, Storr. 


The Hyenas have three false molars above and four below, all 
conical, blunt, and singularly large; their superior carnivorous 
tooth has a small tubercle within and in front, but the inferior has 
none, presenting only two stout trenchant points: with these pow- 
erful arms they are enabled to crush the bones of the largest prey. 
The tongue is rough, each foot has four toes like that of the Suri- 
kate, and under the anus is a deep and glandular pouch, which in- 
duced some of the ancients to consider them as hermaphrodites. 
So powerful are the muscles of the neck and jaw, that it is almost » 


(1) The Zénik of Sonnerat, Voy. II, pl. xcii, appears to differ from the Surikate 
merely because it is roughly drawn. 
(2) See my Ossemens Fossiles, tom. IV, p. 388. 


CARNARIA. 113 


impossible to wrest any thing from between their teeth that they 
have once seized, and, among the Arabs, their name is the symbol 
of obstinacy. It sometimes happens that an anchylosis of the cer- 
vical vertebrz is the consequence of these violent efforts, and this 
has caused it to be said that they have only one single bone in the 
neck. They are nocturnal animals, inhabiting caves ; are extremely 
voracious, and feed chiefly on dead bodies, which they seek for even 
in the grave. A thousand superstitious traditions are connected 
with them. Three species are known, the 
H. vulgaris, Buff. Supp. Ill, xlvi. (The Striped Hyena.) 
Grey ; blackish or brown stripes crosswise; a mane along the 
whole of the nape of the neck, and black, that stands erect 
when the animal is angry. It is found from India to Abyssinia 
and Senegal. 
H. brunnea, Thunb., Acad. of Stockh. 1820, part I, pl. 
ii; H. villosa, Smith. Lin. Trans. XV, pl. xix. (The Brown 
Hyena.) Ofadeep greyish brown; black stripes on the legs 
only. From the south of Africa, where the inhabitants of the 
Cape call it Je Loup du rivage, or the Shore Wolf. 
H. crocuta, Schreb. XCVI, B. (The Spotted Hyena.) 
Grey or reddish, sprinkled with black spots. It is likewise 
from the south of Africa, and is the Ziger Wolf of the Cape. 
There have lately been found in several caverns of France, 
Germany, and England, many bones of a lost species of Hyena 
—ZH. spelxa, which appears to have resided ‘there, and to have 
left the bones of many other animals, which bear evident marks 
of its teeth, and even its own feces.(1) 


Fe.is, Lin. 


Of all the Carnaria the Cats are the most completely and power- 
fully armed. Their short and round muzzle, short jaws, and parti- 
cularly their retractile nails, which, being raised perpendicularly, 
and hidden between the toes, when at rest, by the action of elastic 
ligament, lose neither point nor edge, render them most formidable 
animals, the larger species especially. They have two false molars 
above, and two below: their superior carnivorous tooth has three 
lobes, and a blunted heel on the inner side, the inferior, two pointed 
and trenchant lobes, without any heel: they have but a very small 
tuberculous tooth above, without any thing to correspond to it be- 
low. The species of this genus are very numerous and various 
with regard to size and colour, though they are all similar with re- 


(1) See Buckland, Reliquiz Diluvianz, and Vol. 1V of my Oss. Foss. 2d ed. 
Vor, I.—P 


114 MAMMALIA. 


spect to form. We can only subdivide them by referring to the dif- 
ference of size and the length of the hair, characters of but little 
importance. 

At the head of the genus we find 

fF. leo, L.; Buff. VU, i, 11. (The Lion.) Distinguished by 
its uniform tawny colour, the tuft of hair at the end of the tail, 
and the flowing mane which clothes the head, neck, and shoul- 
ders of the male. Of all beasts of prey, this is the strongest and 
most courageous. Formerly scattered through the three parts 
of the old world, it seems at present to be confined to Africa and 
some of the neighbouring parts of Asia. The head of the Lion 
is more square than that of the following species. 

Tigers are large, short haired species, most commonly mark- 
ed with vivid spots. 

F. tigris, Buff. VIII, ix. (The Royal Tiger.) As large as 
the Lion, but the body is longer, and the head rounder; of a 
lively fawn colour above; a pure white below, irregularly cross- 
ed with black stripes ; the most cruel of all quadrupeds, and the 
scourge of the EastIndies. Suchare his strength and the velocity 
of his movements, that during the march of armies he has been 
seen to seize a soldier while on horseback, and bear him to the 
depths of the forest, without affording a possibility of rescue. 

F. onea, L.; Azzar. pl. ix; Fred. Cuv. Mammif. (The 
Jaguar.) Nearly the size of the Royal Tiger, and almost as 
dangerous ; a lively fawn colour above ; the flank longitudinally 
marked with four rows of ocellated spots, that is, with rings 
more or less complete, having a black point in the middle ; 
white beneath, transversely striped with black. Sometimes indi- 
vidual specimens are found black, whose rings, of a deeper hue, 
are only perceptible in a particular light. 

F. pardus, L.; the Pardalis of the ancients; Cuv. Ménag. 
du Mus. 8vo,I, p. 212. (The Panther.) Fawn coloured above; 
white beneath ; with six or seven rows of black spots, résembling 
roses, that is, formed by the assemblage of five or six simple 
spots on each flank; the tail is the length of the body, minus 
that of the head. 

This species is scattered throughout all Africa, the southern 
parts of Asia, and the Indian Archipelago. 

’ In some of them the ground of the fur is black, with spots of 
a deeper black—/. melas, Pér., but they are not a distinct spe- 
cies. We have frequently seea black and fawn coloured young 
ones suckled by the same mother.(1) 


(1) Temminck calls this species Melis leopardus. 


CARNARIA, 115 


F, leopardus, L. (The Leopard.) From Africa; similar to 
the Panther, but has ten rows of smaller spots.(1) 

These two species are smaller than the Jaguar. Travellers 
and furriers designate them indiscriminately by the names of 
Leopard, Panther, African Tiger, &c.(2) 

There is a third, peculiar to the distant parts of the East In- 
dies, that is a little lower; tail equal in length to the body and | 
head; spots smaller and more numerous; the F. chalybeata, 


Herm.; Schreb. CI.(3) 

fF. discolor, L.; Buff. VIII, xix. (The Couguar or Puma.) 
Red, with ‘small spots of a slightly deeper red which are not 
easily perceived. From both Americas, where it preys on 
Sheep, Deer, &c.(4) 

Among the inferior species, we should distinguish the Lynxes, 
which are remarkable for the pencils of hair which ornament 


their ears. 
Four or five different kinds of them are known in commerce 


by the name of Loups Cerviers, which have long been con- 
founded by naturalists, (Felis lynz, L.) and whose specific 
limits are even not yet perhaps well ascertained. They all 
have a very short tail, and a skin more or less spotted. 

The most beautiful, which are as large as a Wolf—F. cervaria, 
Temm., come from Asia by the way of Russia, and have a 
slightly reddish-grey fur, finely spotted with black. 

Others from Canada and the north of Sweden—F. borealis, 


(1) The same naturalist considers our Leopard as a variety of our Panther, and 
confounds them under his Felis leopardus. 

(2) Buffon has mistaken the Jaguar, which he took for the Panther of the eas- 
tern continent, and has not well distinguished the Panther and the Leopard, and 
for this reason we cannot positively quote his pl. xi, xii, xiii and xiv of Vol. VIII. 

(3) It is to this species that Temminck affixes the name of Panther, because he 
thinks Linneus alluded to it, when speaking of his Felis pardus in the ‘‘cauda 
elongata.” There is one thing very certain, and that is, that the Panther, so well 
known to the ancients, and which was so often produced at the Roman games, 
could not possibly have been an animal from the extreme parts of oriental Asia. _ 

The Once of Buff. 1X, pl. xiii, (Felis uncia, Gm.) differs from the Panthers and 
Leopards by the inequality of the spots, which are more irregularly distributed, 
and partly crenate or annulated, &c. It appears to be found in Persia. We only 
know it by the figure of Buffon, and that which Mr Hamilton Smith has inserted 
in the work of Griffith, taken from a specimen that was living in London. 

(4) That this animal, our common Panther, does not, always confine itself to 
Sheep, &c., is well known, and has lately been proved, January 1830, by an un- 
provoked attack upon an unfortunate woman in Pennsylvania. The ferocious 
brute seized upon her as she was passing along the road, and killed her in an 
ingapts See Griff. part V, p.438. “Am. Kd. 


eet 


116 MAMMALIA, 


Temm., have the fur very much tufted, extending even under 
the feet ; of an ash-coloured grey, and with scarcely any spots. 

The Lynx of the temperate parts of Europe—F. lynx, Temm., 
which has almost disappeared from its populous districts, but 
which is still found in the Pyrenees, in the mountains of Na- 
ples, and, as it is said, even in Africa; has a red fur, spotted 
with brown. 

In these three species or varieties, the end of the tail is black. 
It is thought there is a Lynx of the south of Europe—Felis par- 
dina, Oken, which may be considered distinct. It is smaller, 
not so hairy, fur red mottled. with black, and the tail spotted 
like the body. 

We find also in North America the . 

F. rufa, Gild. Schreb., CIX, B; #. montana, L. (The Bay 
Lynx.) A reddish fawn or greyish colour, mottled with brown ; 

‘ brown waves on the thighs ; tail annulated with black or brown 5 

rather smaller than the Lynx.(1) 
| F. chaus, Giild.; Schreb. CX. (The Chaus, or Lynx of the 
, Marshes.) Is of a yellowish grey-brown ; the hind part of each 
| leg blackish ; tail reaches to the hamstrings, and is annulated 
at the extremity with black. Inhabits the Caucasian marshes, 
those of Persia and of Egypt, pursues Birds, &c. 

It is now thought we should separate from the above species 
the Booted Lynx—¥F. caligaia, ‘Temm., Bruce, pl. xxx, which 
is somewhat smaller, and has a little longer tail; the external 
surface of its ears is red. It is, at least, a closely allied spe- 
cies, and has the same habits. 

F. caracal, L.3; Buff. IX, xxiv, and Supp. III, xlv. (The 
Caracal.) Of an almost uniform vinous red. From Persia, 
Turkey, &c. It is the true Lynx of the ancients. 

The inferior species, which are deprived of the pencils on the 
ears, are more or less similar to our common Cat}; such are 

F. pardalis, L.; Buff. XII, pl. xxxv andxxxvi. (The Ocelot.) 
Rather lower on its legs than most of the others; grey, with 
large fawn coloured spots bordered with black, forming ob- 
lique bands on the flank. From America. 

Ff. mitis, Fr. Cuv. (The Chati.) Marked with unconnected, 
triangular, fawn coloured spots, edged with black. 


(1) M. Rafinesque also indicates a Lynx fasciatus, a L. aureus, a L. floridanus, 
a ZL. montanus, and M. Temminck a Felis awrata, which must all belong to this little 
fribe. 

N.B. They are most probably all one species. Am. Ed. 


CARNARIA. 117 


F. cafra. (The Cat of Caffraria.) Stands high on its legs ; 
grey, transversely striped with black. 

F. serval, Buff. XIII, xxxv. (The Serval.) Yellowish, with 
irregular black spots. From Africa. 

F. jaguarondi, Azzara, Voy. pl. 9. (The Jaguarondi.) Body 
long ; and altogether of a blackish brown. From the forests of 
South America. 

F. catus, L.; Buff. VI, i, et seq. (The Domestic Cat.) Is 
originally from the forests of Europe. In its wild state, it is of 
a greyish brown, with darker transverse undulations; below 
pale; the insides of the thighs and of all the feet, yellowish 5 
three bands on the tail, its inferior third blackish. Ina domes- 
tic state it varies, as is well known, in colours, in the length and 
fineness of the hair, but infinitely less so than the Dog; it is 
also much less submissive and affectionate.(1) 

We might also place in a separate subgenus, a species whose 
head is rounder and shorter, and whose nails are not retractile, 
the Felis jubata, Schreb. 105, and better, Fel. guttata, Id. 105, 
b, (The Hunting Leopard) which is the size of the Leopard, 
but longer bodied, and stands higher; the tail long, annulated 
at the end; the fur fawn colour, mottled with small uniform 
black spots, a black streak reaching from the eye to the angle 
of the mouth. The disposition of this animal differs from that 


of the remainder of the genus in being extremely mild and do- 
cile. The 


AMPHIBIA 

Will form the third and last of the small tribes into which 
we divide the Carnivora. ‘Their feet are so short and so en- 
veloped in the skin, that the only service they can render 
them on land, is to enable them to crawl; but as the inter- 
vals of the fingers are occupied by membranes, they are ex- 
cellent oars; and in fact, these animals pass the greater portion 
of their time in the water; never landing, except for the pur- 
pose of basking in the sun, and suckling their young. ‘Their 


(1) The species, more or less allied to the Cat, are very numerous in the two 
continents ; but all those that are given in catalogues are very far from being au- 
thentic, and sufficiently distinguished from each other. We may, however, con- 
sider as such, those of which we have good figures. The Margay, Buff.; Felis 
tigrina, Gm., Buff. XIII; Schreb. 106.—Fe/. macrowra, Pr. Max., Brazil, pl. xi.-— 
Felis sumatrana, Horsf.—Fel. javanensis, td. —Fel. torquata, Fred. Cuvy.—Fel. colo- 
colo, Fred. Cuv. Mammif., &c. 


118 MAMMALIA. 


elongated body; their very movable spine, which is provided 
with muscles that strongly flex it; their narrow pelvis; their 
short hair, that adheres closely to the skin, all unite to render 
them good swimmers; and all the details of their anatomy con- 
firm these first indicia. 

We have as yet distinguished two genera only, Phoca and 
Trichechus. 


| Puoca, Lin. 


Seals have six or four incisors above, four or two below, pointed 

| canini and grinders to the number of twenty, twenty-two, or twenty- 
four, all trenchant or conical, and without any tuberculous part what- 
ever ; five toes to all the feet, the anterior ones regularly decreasing in 
length from the thumb to the little toe, while in the hinder feet the 
thumb and the little toe are the longest, and the intermediate ones 
the shortest. The fore feet are enveloped in the skin of the body as 
far as the tarsus, the hinder ones almost to the heel. Between the 
latter is a short tail. The head ofa Seal bears a resemblance to that 
of a Dog, whose intelligence and soft expressive look it also pos- 
sesses. It is easily tamed, and soon becomes attached to its keeper, 
or those who feed it. The tongue is smooth, and sloped at the end, 
the stomach simple, cecum short, and the intestinal canal long, and 
tolerably regular. These animals live on fish; always eat in the 
water, and close their nostrils when they dive by a kind of 
valve. As they remain a long time under water, it was supposed 
that the foramen ovale remained open, as in the human foetus—but 
it is not so: there is, however, a large venous sinus in the liver, 
which must assist them in diving by rendering respiration less ne- 
cessary to the motion of the blood. Theirblood is very abundant 
and very black. 


Puoca, properly so called, or without external ears. 


The true Phoce have pointed incisors; all the toes enjoy a certain 
degree of motion, and are terminated by pointed nails planted on the 
edge of the membrane, which unites them. 

They are subdivided, from the number of their incisors. The 

-Canocrruara, Fr. Cuv. have six above and four below; such is the 

Phoca vitulina, L.; Buff. XIII, xlv, and Supp. VI, xlvi; Ph. 
littorea, Thienem. pl. vi. (The Common Seal.) From three 
to five feet in length; of a yellowish grey, more or less shaded 
‘and spotted with brown, according to its age; sometimes 
brownish, with small yellow spots. When very old it becomes 
whitish. Common on the coast of Europe in great herds. It 
is also found far to the north ;) we are evenassured that it is this 4. 

feat . ‘ 2 


CARNARIA. 119 


species which inhabits the Caspian sea, and the great fresh 
water lakes of Russia and Siberia, but this assertion does not 
appear to be founded on an exact comparison. In fact, the 
European seas contain several Phocz, which have long been 
confounded, some of which are perhaps mere varieties of the 
others. 

Thus, some of them have the back covered with small cloud- 
ed, confluent, brownish spots, on a yellowish ground—PA. his- 
pida, Schreb. 86.(1) These are the most common ones of the 
northern ocean. In others again the ground is dark, traversed 
with undulating lines, which sometimes form rings—Ph. annel- 
lata, Nils., Thienem. pl. ix—xii; Ph. foetida, Fabr.(2), &c. 

A species more easily recognised is the 

Ph. groenlandica, and P. oceanica; Eged. Groenl. fig. A, 
p- 623 Lepechin, Act. Petrop. I, part I, pl. vi—vii.; 
Thieneman, pl. xiv—xxi. (The Harp Seal.) Yellowish grey, 
spotted with brown when young, afterwards marked by an ob- 
lique black or brown scarf on each flank; the head of the old 
male is black ; length five feet. From the whole north of the 
globe. 

Ph. barbata, Fabr.; Thienem. pl. i—iv. (The Bearded Seal. ) 
From the North, and surpasses all the preceding ones in its 
size, which is from seven to eight feet; it is grey; browner 
above, with a longitudinal blackish line that forms a sort of 
cross upon thechanfrin. Its mustachios are thicker and stronger 
than the others. 

Ph. leucopla, Thienem. pl. xiii. (The White-nailed Seal.) 
Is of a yellowish grey. 

Ph. lagura, Cuv. (The Hare-tailed Seal.) Has the tail 
white and woolly, &c.(3) 


STENorurINcus, Fred. Cuyv. 


Four incisors above, and four below, the molars deeply notched 
into three points. 
One species only is known, and that is from the Austral seas 
—Ph. leptonix, Blain. Size of the barbata; greyish above ; 
yellowish beneath; nails small. 


(1) I suspect we should refer to it the Ph. scopulicola, Thienem. pl. v. 

(2) It is one of those represented by Fr, Cuv. under the name of * Phoque 
commun.”? 

(3) I only wish to mention those species which I consider sufficiently ascertain- 
ed. The long catalogues of the Phoce, recently published, seem to me to multi- 
ply them a great deal too much. 


120 MAMMALIA, 


Prtacus, Fred. Cuv. 


Four incisors also, above and below, but their grinders are ob- 
tuse cones, with a slightly marked heel before and behind. There 
is one of them in the Mediterranean. 

Ph. monachus, Gm.; Buff. Supp. VI, pl. xiii.(1) (The Monk.) 
From ten to twelve feet in length, of a blackish brown, with a 
white belly. It is particularly found among the Grecian and 
Adriatic Islands, and is, most probably, the species best known 
to the ancients. 


StemMMatTopus, Fred. Cuv. 


Four superior incisors, and two inferior; grinders compressed, 
slightly trilobate, supported by thick roots. Such is the 

Ph. cristata, Gm.; Phoca leonina, Fabr.; Eged. Groenl. pl. 
vi;{Dekay, New York Lyc. I, pl. vii. (The Hooded Seal.) 
Seven or eight feet long; a piece of Joose skin on the head, 
which can be inflated at the pleasure of the animal, and is 
drawn over the eyes when it is menaced, at which times the 
nostrils also are inflated like bladders. From the arctic 
ocean.(2) 

Finally, the Macrorurnus, Fr. Cuv., has the incisors of the pre- 
ceding, obtuse conical molars, and the muzzle resembling a short 
movable proboscis or snout. The largest seal known is of this 
subgenus ; the 

Ph. leonina, L.; Sea-Lion of Anson; Sea-Wolf of Pernetty, 
&c. Peron’s Voy. I, xxxii. (The Elephant Seal.) From twenty 
to twenty-five feet in length; brown, the muzzle of the male 
terminated by a wrinkled snout, which becomes inflated when 
the animalis angry. It is common in the southern latitudes of 
the Pacific Ocean, at the Terra-del-Fuego, New Zealand, Chili, 
&c. It constitutes an important object of the fisheries, on ac- 
count of the oil in which it abounds. The 


Oranriss, Péron. Seals with external ears 


Are worthy of being formed into a separate genus ; because, inde- 
pendently of the projecting external ears, the four superior middle 
incisors have a double cutting edge, a circumstance hitherto un- 


(1) It is the same individual described by Hermann, Soc. des Nat. de Berl. 
IV, xii, xiii, under the name of monarchus. 

(2) The mechanism by which this inflation is effected is not yet well under- 
stood. See Dekay and Ludlow, Annals of the New York Lyceum, Vol. I, pp. 94 
and 99. 


“eS 


CARNARIA. ba | 


known in any animal ; the external ones are simple and smaller, and 
the four inferior bifurcated. All the molars are simply conical, and 
the toes of the fore feet almost immovable; the membrane of the 
hind feet is lengthened out into a slip beyond each toe; all the nails 
are flat and slender. 

Ph. jubata, Gm.; Sea-Lion of Steller, Pernetty, &c.3 Buff. 
Supp. VII, xlviii. From fifteen to twenty feet, and more, in 
length ; fawn coloured ; the neck of the male covered with hairs 
that are more frizzled and thickly set than those on the rest/of 
the body. It might be said to be found in all the Pacific Ocean, 
were it not that those from the straits of Magellan seem to dif- 
fer from such as are taken at the Aleutian islands. 

Ph. ursina, Gm.; Buff. Supp. VII, xlvii. (The Sea Bear.) 
Eight feet long, no mane, varying from brown to whitish. 
From the north of the Pacific Ocean. Other Seals are found in 
that sea which only differ from the ursina in size and colour : 
such is the Petit phoque noir of Buffon(Ph. pusilla), Buff. XIII, 
liii; the Yellow Seal of Shaw, &c. 


Tricnecuus, Lin.(1) 


The Morse resembles the Seal in its limbs, and the general form of 
the body, but differs widely from it in the teeth and head. There 
are no incisors nor canini in the lower jaw, which is compressed an- 
teriorly to pass between two enormous canini or tusks, which issue 
from the upper one, and which project downwards, being sometimes 
two feet long, and of a proportionable thickness. The enormous 
size of the alveoli, requisite for holding such tremendous canini, 
raises up the whole front of the upper jaw, giving it the shape of a 
huge inflated jowl, the nostrils looking upwards, and not terminat- 
ing the muzzle. The molars are all short, obliquely truncated 
cylinders; there are four of them on each side, above and below, 
but, at a particular age, two of the upper ones fall out. Between 
the canini are two incisors, similar to the molars, which most authors 
have not recognised as such, although they are implanted in the 
intermaxillary bone. Between these again, in the young animal, 
are two more small pointed ones. 

The stomach and intestines of the Morse are very similar to those 
of the Seal. It appears that the fucus constitutes part of its food, 
along with animal matters. One species only is as yet ascertained, the 

Trich. rosmarus, L.;(2) Buff. XIII, liv; and better, Cook, 


(1) Trichechus, from reiZ (hair), a name invented by Artedi for the Sea Cow. 
(2) Shaw, however, suspects that there may be two distinguished by the greater 
or less size of their trunks, and by their being more or less convergent. 


Vou. I.—Q 


is 
bh 


12 MAMMALIA, 


Voy. III. (The Sea-Cow.) It inhabits the Arctic seas, sur- 
passes the largest Ox in size, attains the length of twenty feet, 
and is covered with a short yellowish hair. It is sought for on 
account of its oil and tusks; the ivory of which, although 
rough grained, is employed in the arts. The skin makes ex- 
cellent coach braces.(1) 


ORDER IV. 
-MARSUPIALIA. 


So many are the singularities in the economy of the Marsu- 
pialia or pouched animals, as they are termed, which we for- 
merly placed at the end of the Carnaria as a fourth family of 
that great order, that it appears to us they should form a se- 
parate and distinct one, particularly as we observe in them a 
kind of representation of three very different orders. 

The first of all their peculiarities is the premature produc- 
tion of ‘their young, whose state of development at birth is 
scarcely comparable to that of an ordinary foetus a few days 
after conception. Incapable of motion, and hardly exhibiting 
the germs of limbs and. other external organs, these diminutive 
beings attach themselves to the mammz of the mother, and 
remain fixed there until they have acquired a degree of de- 
velopment similar to that in which other animals are born. 
The skin of the abdomen is almost always so arranged about 
the mamme as to form a pouch in which these imperfect lit- 
tle animals are preserved as in a second. uterus; and to which, 
long after they can walk, they always fly for shelter at the 
approach of danger. ‘Two particular bones attached to the 
pubis, and interposed between the muscles of the abdomen, 
support the pouch. ‘These bones are:also found in the male, 
and even in those species in which the fold that forms the 
pouch is scarcely visible. 


(1) Previous to my arrangement, the Lamantins and Dugongs, much more 
nearly allied to the Cetacea, were very improperly united with the Morses. 


MARSUPIALIA. 123 


The matrix of the animals of this family does not open by a 
single orifice into the extreme end of the vagina, but commu- 
nicates with this canal by two lateral tubes resembling handles. 
The premature birth of the young appears to depend upon 
this singular organization. The scrotum of the male, contrary 
to what obtains in other quadrupeds, hangs before the penis, 
which, when at rest, is directed backwards. 

Another peculiarity of the Marsupialia is, that notwithstand- 
ing a general resemblance of the species to each other, so stri- 
king, that for a long time they were considered as. one genus, 
they differ so much in the teeth, the organs of digestion and 
the feet, that if we rigorously adhered to these characters, we 
should be compelled to separate them into several orders. 
They carry us by insensible gradations from the Carnaria to 
the Rodentia, and there are even some animals which have the 


pelvis furnished with similar bones; but which, from the want 
of incisors or of all kinds of teeth, have been approximated to _ 


the Edentata, where, in fact, we shall leave them, under the 
name of Monotremata. ; 

In a word, we would say that the Marsupialia form a dis- 
tinct class, parallel to that of Quadrupeds, and divisible 
into similar orders: so that if we were to arrange these two 
classes into two columns; the Sarigues, the Dasyuri, and the 
Perameles would be opposite to the insectivorous Carnaria 
with long canini, such as the Tenrecs and the Moles; the Pha- 
Jangers and the Potoroos, opposite to the Hedge-hogs and 
Shrews; the Kanguroo, properly so called, cannot be com- 
pared with any thing; but the Phascolomys should be opposite 
to the Rodentia. Finally, if we were to consider the bones 
of the pouch only, and regard as Marsupialia all the animals 
that possess them, the Ornithorinci and the Echidne would 
form a group parallel to that of the Edentata. 

Linneus arranged all the species he was acquainted with 
under his genus’ Didelphis, a word signifying double uterus. 
The pouch in some respects is in fact a second one. 

The first subdivision of the Marsupialia is marked by long 
canini, and small incisors in both jaws, back molars bristled 
with points, and all the characters in general of the insecti- 


se 4 


124 MAMMALIA. 


vorous Carnaria; the animals that compose it are also perfectly 
similar to the latter in their regimen. 


Dipevruts, Lin. 


The Opossums,(1) which of all the Marsupialia have been the longest 
known, form a genus peculiar to America. They have ten incisors 
above, the middle ones being rather the longest, and eight below; 
three anterior compressed grinders and four posterior bristled 
grinders, the superior ones triangular, and the inferior oblong, 
_ which, with the four canini, make in all fifty teeth, the greatest num- 
* ber hitherto observed in Quadrupeds. Their tongue is papillated, 
and their tail prehensile and partly naked. Their hinder thumb is 
long and very opposable to the other four toes, from which circum- 
stance these animals are sometimes styled Pedimana; they have no 
nail. Their extremely wide mouth, and great naked ears give them a 
very peculiar physiognomy. The glans penis is bifurcated. They 
iy are fetid and nocturnal animals, whose gait is slow; they remain on 
trees, and) there pursue Birds, Insects, &c., though not despising 
~ fruit. Their stomach is simple and small, their cecum of a mid- 
~ dling size and without any enlargements. 
The females of certain species have a deep pouch in which are the 
mammez, and in which they can enclose their young. 

Did. virginiana, Penn. Hist. Quadr. 302.(2) (The Opos- 
sum.) Almost the size of a Cat; fur, a mixture of black and 
white; ears, one side black, and the other white; head nearly all 
bwhite. Inhabits all America; steals at night into villages; at- 
tacks fowls, eats their eggs, &c. The young ones at birth, 
sometimes sixteen in number, weigh only a grain each. Al- 
though blind and nearly shapeless, they find the mammz by 
instinct, and adhere to them until they have attained the size 
of a Mouse, which happens about the fiftieth day, at which 
epoch they open their eyes. _ They continue to return to the 
pouch till they are as large as Rats. The term of gestation in 
the uterus is but twenty-six days.(3) 

Did. Azzare, Temm. (The Gamba, or the Great Opossum 
of Paraguay and Brazil.) Differs from the preceding in the 


(1) Carigueia, according to Marcgrave, is their Brazilian name, whence we haye 
Sariguoi, Cerigon, Sarigue. ‘They are called Micouré in Paraguay; Manicou in the 
islands ; Opossum in the United States ; 7’hlaquatzin in Mexico. 

(2) It is the Sarigue des. Illinois, and the Sarigue @ longs poils ; Buff. Supp. VU, 
p- Xxxili and xxxiy ; Did. marsupialis, Schreb. pl. cxlv. 

. (3) See the letter of Dr B. S. Barton to M. Roume on the gestation of the Opos- 
| sum. 


MARSUPIALIA. 125 


black which marks the muzzle and nearly the whole of the 
ears; the tail is also longer. 

Did. marsupialis, and Did. cancrivora, L.; Buff. ais 5 IIT, liv. 
(The Crab-eating Opossum.) Size of the sreeedivies ; yelldivish, 
mixed with brown, with brown hairs; a brown streak on the 
chanfrin. It frequents the marshes of the sea coast, where it 
feeds chiefly on Crabs.(1) 

Did. opossum, L.; Buff. X, xlv, xlvi. (The Four-eyed Opos- 
sum.) .Chesnut above, white below, a white or pale yellow spot 
over each eye 3 posterior third of the tail white; larger than a 
large Rat. 

Other species possess no pouch, having a mere vestige of it in a 
fold of the skin on each side of the abdomen. They usually carry 
their young on their backs, the tails of the latter being entwined 
around that of the mother. 

Did. nudicauda, Geoft.; D. myosuros,Temm. (The Bare- tailed 
Opossum.) Fawn coloured; tail very long, and naked even at 
its base; two whitish spots over each eye, one beneath. 

Did. cayopollin,(2) Did. philander, and Did. dorsigera, L.s 
Buff. X, lv. ‘(The Cayopollin.) A greyish fawn colour’ the 
circumference of the eyes and a longitudinal band on the chan- 
frin brown; tail marked with black ; size that of the Norway 
Rat. The superior third of the tail furnished with hairs. 

Did. cinerea, Temm., (The Cinereous Didelphis.) A 
light ash colour, with blackish reflections ; some red on the 
breast; the posterior half of the tail white ; of the same size as 
the preceding. From Brazil. ; 

Did. murina, L.3; Buff. X, lii, liii. (The Marmose.)(3) Fawn 
coloured grey ; a brown stripe, in the middle of which is the 
eye; tail immaculate; less than a Rat. 


(1) It is the pretended Great Oriental Philander of Seba of which Linnzus has 
made his Did. marsupialis. Buffon, who has described the male, Supp. IH, pl. 
lili, erroneously thought the female had no pouch, which was the cause of the 
improper establishment of a second species, Did. cancrivora, Gm., carcinophaga, 
Bodd. The Crab-eater is called at Cayenne pian, or puant. 

(2) Cayopollin, the name of.a species that inhabits the mountains of Mexico; it 
has, somewhat arbitrarily, been applied to this species in particular. " 

(3) Marmose, a name adopted by Buffon from a typographical error in the French 
translation of Seba, who assures us in the text that it is called Marmot in Brazil. 
The truth is, that the Dutch, in the time of Marcgrave, calledit Wooud-Rat, and the 
Brazilians Zuibi; Fat-de-bois is also its name among the French at Ravens Seba 
must have rendered Bosch-ratte by Marmot. 

N.B. There has been found, in the plaster quarries near Paris, the fossil skele- 
ton of a Didelphis allied to the Marmose. 


126 MAMMALIA. 


Did. brachyura, Pall., Buff. Supp. VU, Ixi. (The Touan.) 
Black, blackish ; flanks of a vivid red; belly white ; tail shorter 
than the body. Less than a Rat. The three latter species are 
from South America. 

Finally, there is one known with palmated feet, which must 
be aquatic; it is not ascertained whether or not it has a pouch 
—it is the 


CuironeEcTEs, Illig.(1) 


Did. palmata, Geoff.; Lutra memina, Bodd.; La petite Loutre 
de la Guiane, Buff. Supp. III. xxii. Brown above, with three 
transverse grey bands, interrupted in the middle, and white 
below ; larger than a Norway Rat. 

All the other Marsupialia inhabit eastern countries, New Holland 
particularly, a land whose animal population seems chiefly to belong 


to this family. 


TuyLacinus, Temm.(2) 


The Thylacini are the largest of this first division. They are 


distinguished from the Opossums by the hind feet having no thumb 


ahairy, non-prehensile tail, and two incisors less in each jaw; their 
molars are of the same number. They consequently have forty-six 


‘teeth; but the external edge of the three large ones is projecting and 


trenchant, almost like the carnivorous tooth of a Dog; their ears 
are hairy, and of a medium size. One species only is known, the 
Did. cynocephala, Harris, Linn. Trans. IX, pl. xix, 1, and 
Ency. Method., Mammif. Supp. pl. vii, f. 3. Size that of a 
Wolf, but stands lowers grey; transverse black stripes on the 
crupper. It is very carnivorous, and pursues all small quadru- 
peds. From Van Dieman’s Land. 


PuascoGaLr, Temm. 


The same number of teeth as the Thylacini, but the middle inci- 
sors are longer than the others, and the back molars more bristled, 
circumstances which approximate them more closely to the Sarigues. 
They are also allied to them by their small size; their tail however 
is not prehensile ; their hind thumb, though very short, is still very 
apparent. ‘ 

Did. penicillata, Shaw, Gen. Zool. I, ii, pl. 1133 Schreb. 
CLII, B, L. Ash coloured; tail furnished with long black 


(1) Chironectes, i. e. swimming with hands. 
(2) Thylacinus, from 6vaaxcs purse. A species of Thylacinus has also been 
found in the plaster quarries of Paris. 


MARSUPIALIA, 127 


hairs; size that of the Norway Rat: lives on the trees in New 
Holland, and pursues insects. : 

Dasyurus minimus, Geoff., Schreb. pl. 152, B. C. «(The Dwarf 
Phascogalis.) Scarcely larger than a mouse, fur soft and red- 
dish. From the south of Van Dieman’s Land. 


Dasyurus, Geoff.(1) 


Two incisors and four grinders in each jaw less than the Opossums, 
so that they have only forty-two teeth ; their tail, every where cover- 
ed with long hairs, is not prehensile. The thumb of the hind foot 
is reduced to a tubercle, or has even totally disappeared. They are 
from New Holland, where they feed on insects and dead bodies 5 
they penetrate into houses, where their voracity is very inconvenient, 
&c. Their mouth is not so wide, their muzzle not so pointed as 
those of the Opossums ; their hairy ears arealso shorter. They do 
not climb trees. 

Did. ursina, Harr. Lin. Trans. IX, xix, f. 2, and Encycl., 
Supp. f. 6. (The Ursine Opossum.) Long rough black hairs, 
with some irregularly placed white spots ; the tail half as long 
as the body, almost naked underneath. Inhabits the north of 
Van Dieman’s Land, and is nearly the size of the Badger. 

Das. macrourus, Geoff., Peron. Voy. pl. xxxiii, Schreb. CLIT, 
B, a. (The Long-tailed Dasyurus.) Size of a Cat; tail as 
long as the body ; fur brown, spotted with white, both on the 
body and tail. The tubercle of the thumb is still well marked 
in this species, but in the following ones it can no more be 
seen. , 

Das. Maugei, Geoff., Voy. de Freycin. Zool. pl. iv, Schreb. 
CLII, B, b. <A kind of olive colour, spotted with white; no 
spot on the tail; a little smaller than the preceding. 

Did. viverrina, Shaw., Gen. Zool. CXI; White, Bot. Bay, 
App. 285; Schreb. CLII, B, c. Black, spotted with white ; 
no spots on the tail; a third less than the first. 


PERAMELES, Geoff.(2)—Tuytacis, Illig. 


The thumb of the hind foot short, like the first Dasyuri, and the 
two following toes united by the membrane as far as the nails 5 
the thumb and the little toe of their fore feet are simple tubercles, 
so that there seem to be but three toes. They have ten incisors 
above, the external ones separate and pointed, and only six below; 
but their molars are the same as in the Opossums, so that they have 


_ 


(1) Dasyurus, hairy tail. See Mem. de M. Geoff., Ann. du Mus. II, p. 353, and 
XV, p. 301. 


(2) Pera, purse, Meles, Badger. See Mem. Geoff. Ann. du Mus. tom. IV. 


128 MAMMALIA. . 


forty-eight teeth. Their tail is hairy, and not prehensile. The 
great claws of their fore feet announce their habit of digging in the 
earth ; and the tolerable length*of their hind ones, a swiftness of 
gait. Bi 

P. nasutus, G., Ann. du Mus. IV. The muzzle much elon- 
gated ; ears pointed ; fur a greyish brown. At the first glance 
it resembles a Tenrec.(1) 


The species belonging to the second subdivision of the Mar- 
supialia have two broad and long incisors in the lower jaw with 
pointed and trenchant edges sloping forwards, and six cor- 
responding ones in the upper jaw. Their superior canini 
are also long and pointed, but all their inferior ones consist of 
teeth so small that they are frequently hidden by the gum; 
they are sometimes altogether wanting in the lower jaw of the 
last subgenus. 

Their regimen is chiefly frugivorous ; consequently their 
intestines, the cecum particularly, are longer than in the 
Opossum. ‘The thumb is very large in all of them, and so 
widely separated from the toes that it seems to slant back- 
wards almost like that of Birds. It has no nail, and the two 
following toes are united by the skin as far as the last pha- 
lanx. ‘It is from this circumstance that these animals have re- 
ceived the name of Phalangers.(2) 


PHALANGISTA. 
PuHatancista, Cuv.—-Barantia, Illig.(3) 


The true Phalangers have not the skin of the flank extended ; four 
back molars in each jaw, with four points in two rows; in front a 
large one, conical and compressed, and between it and the superior 
canine two small and pointed ones, to which correspond the three 


(1) The Péraméle Bougainville of Quoy and Gaymard does not differ specifically 
from the nasutus. The Peram. obesula, Geoff. is not so authentic. ro 

(2) The name of Phalanger was given by Buffon to two individuals he had ob- — 
served, on account of the union of the two toes of the foot. That of Philander is 
not, as might be thought, derived from the Greek, but from the Malay word Pé- 
landor, which means Rabbit, applied by the inhabitants of Amboyna to a species 
of Kanguroo. Seba and Brisson have used it indiscriminately for all the pouched 
animals. The Phalangers, in the Moluccas, are called Couscous or Coussous. The 
earlier travellers not having properly distinguished them from the Sarigues, gave 
cause to believe that this last genus was common to the two continents. 

(3) Balantia, from Bzaayriov, purse or pouch. 


es 


MARSUPIALIA. 129 


very small lower ones, of which we have just spoken. Their tail is 
always prehensile. 

The tail in some of them is in a great measure scaly. They live 
on trees in the Moluccas, where they feed on Insects and fruit. At 
the sight of a man they suspend themselves by their tails and if he 
gaze at them steadily for some time, they fall through lassitude. 
They diffuse a very unpleasant odour, notwithstanding which their 
flesh is eaten. 

There are several of them known, of various sizes and colours, 
all of which are embraced under the Didelphis orientalis of Lin- 
nus. M. Temminck thinks he can separate them into species 
as follows: Ph. ursina, T. (The Ursine Phalanger.) Nearly 
the size of the civet; fur close, and of a blackish-brown; the 
young ones a fawn-coloured brown. From the woods of the 
island of Macassar. 

Ph. chrysorrhous, T. (The Golden-cruppered Phalanger.) 
Size of a large Cat; fur of an ash brown; white beneath; a 
golden fawn colour on the croup. From the Moluccas. 

Ph. maculata, T.; Buff. XIII, pl. ii; Voy. de Freycin. pl. vils 
Voy. du Duperr. pl. iv. (The Spotted Phalanger.) Size of a 
Cat ; whitish, irregularly spotted or marbled with brown. 

Ph. cavifrons, T.; Buff. pl. x, the female; and Voy. de Du- 
perrey, the male. (The Hollow-fronted Phalanger.) The male 
white ; the female fawn coloured, with a brown stripe along the 
back. To these we must add 

Ph. Quoy, Voy. de Freycin. pl. vi. (The Quoy Phalanger.) 
A greyish-brown ; a blackish-brown longitudinal band on the 
croup; top of the head a cinnamon-red ; cheeks, throat and 
breast white.(1) 

In others, which have hitherto been found in New Holland only, 
the tail is hairy to the tip. 

Ph. vulpina; Did. lemurina and vulpina, Shaw; Bruno of Vicq. 
d’Az.; White, Voy. 278. (The Fox-like Phalanger.) Size of a 
stout Cat; greyish-brown, paler beneath ; tail nearly all black. 

Ph. Cookii, Cook’s last Voy. pl. viii. (The Phalanger of 
Cook.) Less than a Cat ; brown above, white underneath ; head 
and flanks red ; posterior third of the tail white. 

Ph. Bougainvillti. (The Phalanger of Bougainville.) Size of 
a Squirrel; ash coloured above, white underneath; the poste- 
rior half of the tail black ; posterior half of the ear white.(2) 


(1) A very distinct species. 
(2) A new species brought to France by M. de Bougainville from his last expedi- 
tion. 


Vor. I.—R 


130 MAMMALIA. 


Preraurus, Shaw.—Puaranersra, Illig. 


The Flying Phalangers have the skin of the flanks more or less 
extended between the legs, like the Flying Squirrels among the Ro- 
dentia, which enables them to sustain themselves momentarily in the 
air, and make greater leaps. They also are only found in New Hol- 
land. 

Some of the species have inferior canini, but they are very 
small. Their superior canini and their three first molars, above 
and below, are very pointed ; each of their back molars has four 
points. (1) 

Ph. pygmza; Did. pygmza, Shaw, Gen. Zool. pl. 1145 
Schreb. CXLIV, A. (The Flying Dwarf Phalanger.) Of the 
colour and nearly the size of a Mouse; the hairs of the tail 
regularly arranged on its two sides like the barbs of a quill. 

Other species have no inferior canini, while the superior ones are 
very small. Their four back molars present four points, but they 
are slightly curved into a crescent, which is very nearly the form of 
those of the Ruminantia. In front, there are two above and one 
below, less complicated. By this structure they are rendered still 
more frugivorous than all the preceding species. 

Ph. petaurus; Shaw, Gen. Zool. pl. cxii, White, Voy. 288. 
(The Great Flying Phalanger.) Resembles the Taguan and the 
Galeopithecus in size ; its fur is soft and close ; its tail long and 
flattened ; brownish-black above, white beneath. They are of 
various shades of brown; some are variegated, and others per- 
fectly white. 

Ph. sciurea; Shaw, pl. cxiii, 3. (The Bordered Flying Pha- 
langer.) Size of the brown Rat; ash coloured above, white be- 
neath ; a brown line commencing on the chanfrin and running 
along the back; edges of the lateral membrane brown; tail 
tufted ; the length of the body and its posterior portion black. 
From the islands near New Guinea. 

P. Peronii, Desm. (The Hairy-footed Flying Phalanger.) 
A reddish-grey; front of the ears and under part of the body 
whitish ; toes very hairy and brown; tail black, longer than the 
body, and white at the end. 

Ph. macroura; Shaw, pl. cxiii, f. 2. (The Long-tailed Fly- 
ing Phalanger.) A deep brown above, white beneath ; size of 
the brown Rat ; tail slender, about half as long again as the body. 


Our third subdivision has the incisors and superior canini 


(1) It is of this first division that Desmarets has made his genus AcroBaTe, 


MARSUPIALIA. 131 


of the second. The two toes of the hind feet are also simi- 
larly united; but the posterior thumbs and inferior canini are 
wanting. It contains but a single genus. 


Hypsrprymnus, Illig.(1) 


The Potoroos are the last animals of this family which retain any 
trait of the general characters of the Carnaria. Their teeth are 
nearly the same as those of the Phalangers, and they still have 
pointed canini above. The two superior middle incisors are pointed, 
and longer than the others ; the two inferior ones project forwards. 
In front they have a long trenchant denticulated molar followed by 
four others with four blunt tubercles. What particularly distin- 
guishes these animals is their hind legs, which are much larger in 
proportion than the fore ones, that have no thumbs, and the two first 
toes united as far as the nail; so that, at a first glance, it seems as 
though there were but three toes, the middle one having two nails. 
They frequently walk upon two feet, at which times they employ 
their long and strong tail to support themselves. They have then 
the form and habits of the Kanguroos, from which they only differ 
in their superior canine tooth. They are frugivorous; their sto- 
mach is large, divided into two sacs, and has several inflations ; but 
their cecum is rounded and of a middling size. 
Hyps. minor ; Macropus minor, Shaw; White, Bot. Bay, 286 ; 
Voy. de Freycin. pl. 10. (The Kanguroo Rat.) Size of a small 
Rabbit; of a mouse-grey. From New Holland, where it is 
called Potoroo. It is the only species known. 


The fourth subdivision only differs from the third in the 
absence of all canini whatsoever, it is the 


Macropus, Shaw.—Hatmarurvs, Illig.(2) 


The Kanguroos have all the characters we have assigned to the pre- 
ceding genus, except that the superior canine is wanting, and that 
their middle incisors do not project beyond the others. The ine- 
quality of their legs is still greater, so that on all fours they can only 
walk slowly and with difficulty; they make vigorous leaps however 
with their hind feet, the great middle nail of which (almost in the 
shape of a hoof) also serves them for purposes of defence ; for, by 
supporting themselves on one foot and their enormous tail, they can 
inflict a severe blow with that which is at liberty. They are very 


(1) P-fLorreuuves ; i. e. raised behind. 
(2) Halmaturus, tail fit for leaping. 


132 MAMMALIA. 


gentle herbivorous animals, their grinders presenting mere trans- 
verse ridges. They have five teeth in all, the front ones being more 
or less trenchant, and falling out with age ; so that in old Kanguroos 
we frequently find but three. Their stomach consists of two long 
sacs that are inflated at several places like a colon. The cecum 
also is large and has inflations. The radius allows a complete rota- 
tion of the fore-arm. 
In these two genera the penis is not bifurcated, but the female or- 
gans of generation are similar to those of other Marsupialia. 
M. major, Shaw; Didelphis gigantea, Gm.3; Schreb. CLI. 
(The Gigantic Kanguroo.) Sometimes six feet in height. It 
is the largest of the New Holland animals ; was discovered by 
Cook in 1779, and is now bred in Europe. Its flesh is said. to 
resemble venison. ‘The young ones, which at birth are only an 
inch long, remain in the maternal pouch even when they are old 
enough to graze, which they effect by stretching out their necks 
from their domicile, while the mother herself is feeding. These 
animals live in troops, conducted by the old males. They 
make enormous leaps. It appears that we have hitherto con- 
founded under this name several species of New Holland and 
its neighbouring countries, whose fur, more or less grey, only 
varies by a trifling difference of shade.(1) There is another 
species much more anciently known: 
M. Brunii; Did. Brunii, Gm.; Schreb. CLIIL.; called Pelandor 
Aroé by the Malays of Amboyna. (The Kanguroo of Aroé.) 
Larger than a Hare; brown above, fawn coloured beneath. 
Found in the islands near Banda, and in those of Solor. Eu- 
ropean naturalists had not paid sufficient attention to the de- 
scriptions of the above species given by Valentine and Le Bruyn. 
M. elegans; Halma. elegans, Per. Voy. t. xxvii. (The Ele- 
gant Kanguroo.) Size of a large Hare; transversely striped 
with brown on a greyish-white ground. Found at the island of 
St Peter. 


The fifth subdivision has two long incisors in the lower jaw 


(1) M. Geoff. distinguishes the Aanguroo enfumé, in which the grey is deeper ; 
the Kanguroo a moustaches, which has some white on the front of the upper lip ; the 
Kanguroo @ cou roux, a little less than the others, with some red on the nape of the 
neck. Messrs Lesson and Garnotalso describe a brown Kanguroo which they call 
Oualabate, Voy, de Freycin. pl. ix. We shall also probably be obliged to make 
new species of the Kanguroo roux-cannelle, (K. laniger, Quoy and Gaym.) Voy. de 
Freycin. pl. ix ; and of the Kanguroo cendré-blewatre ; but all these Quadrupeds re- 
quire to be examined at various ages, and we must ascertain the influence of age 
and sex upon their colours, previous to a final establishment of the species. 


et ed 


MARSUPIALIA. 138 


but no canini; in the upper, two long incisors in front, a few 
small ones on the sides, and two small canines. \ It compre- 
hends but one genus. 


Koata, Cuv.—Liprurvs, Gold.—Puascotarcros, Blain. 


The Koalz have a short, stout body; short legs, and no tail. The 


toes of their fore feet, five in number, when about to seize any object, 


separate into two groups; the thumb and index on one side, and the 
remaining three on the other. The thumb is wanting on the hind 
foot ; the two first toes of which are united like those of the Phalan- 
gers and the Kanguroos. One species only is known : 

K. cinerea; Lipurus cinereus, Gold.; Schreb. CLV, A, a. (The 
Koala.) Ash coloured ; passes one part of its life in trees, and 
the other in burrows it excavates at their foot. The mother 
carries her young one for a long time on her back. 


Finally, our sixth division of the Marsupialia, or the 


Puascotomys, Geoff.(1) 


Consists of animals which are true Rodentia in the teeth and intes- 
tines, their only relation to the Carnaria consisting in the articu- 
lation of their lower jaw; and in a rigorously exact system, it would 
be necessary to class them with the Rodentia. We should even 


have placed them there, had we not been led to them by a regular- 


uninterrupted series from the Opossums to the Phalangers, from the 
latter to the Kanguroos, and from the Kanguroos to the Phascolo- 
mys ; and finally, were it not that the organs of generation are every 
way exactly similar to those of the Marsupialia. 

They are sluggish animals, with large, flat heads, and bodies that 
look as if they had been crushed. They are without a tail ; have five 
nails on each of the fore feet, and four, with a small tubercle, in 
place of a thumb, on each of the hind ones, all very long and fit for 
digging. Their gait is excessively slow. They have two long in- 
cisors in each jaw, almost similar to those of the Rodentia; and 
each of their grinders has two transverse ridges. 


They feed on grass; their stomach is pyriform, and their cecum 


short and wide, furnished like that of Man, and of the Ourang-Ou- 
tang, with a vermiform appendage. The penis is bifurcated, like that 
of the Opossums. One species only is known, the 


— 


Phas. ursinus ; Didelphis ursina, Shaw; Peron. Voy. pl. xxxviii, — 


(The Wombat.) Size of a Badger; fur abundant, of a more 


(1) Phascolomys, a pouched rat, from pacxaacy and hus. 


134 MAMMALIA. 


or less yellowish brown. It is found in King’s Island to the 
south of New Holland, where it lives in its burrow. Its flesh 
excellent.(1) 


ORDER V. 
RODENTIA. 


We have just seen, in the Phalangers, canini so very small, 
that we cannot consider them assuch. The nutriment of these 
animals, accordingly, is chiefly derived from the vegetable 
kingdom. ‘Their intestines are long and their cecum ample; 
and the Kanguroos, which have no canini whatever, subsist 
upon vegetables only. The Phascolomys might stand first in 
that series of animals of which we are about to speak, and 
which have a system of mastication still less complete. 

Two large incisors in each jaw, separated from the molars 
by an empty space, cannot seize a living prey nor tear flesh ; 
they cannot even cut the food, but they serve to file, and by 
continued labour, to reduce it into separate molecules, in a 
word, to gnaw it; hence the term Rodentia or Gnawers, 
which is applied to animals of this order. It is thus that they 
successfully attack the hardest substances, frequently feeding 
on wood and the bark of trees. ‘The more easily to accom- 
plish this object, the incisors have no thick enamel except in 
front, so that their posterior edges wearing away faster than 
the anterior, they are always naturally sloped. Their pris- 
matic form causes them to grow from the root as fast as they 
wear away at the edge; and this tendency to increase in 


(1) M. Bass has described an animal, externally similar to the Phascolomys, and 
to which he also gives the name of Wombat, but which has six incisors, two canines 
and sixteen molars in each jaw. If there isno erroneous combination of the two 
different descriptions, it will form an additional subgenus to place near the Péra- 
méles. Iliger has already established it under the name of Amblotis, from auBarwrus, 
abortus. See Petersb. Mem. 1803—1806, p. 444, and the Bulletin des Sc. No. 72, 
An. XI. 


———. 


RODENTIA. 135 


uy ae 
avi! 


length is so powerful, that if one of them be lost a 
its antagonist in the other jaw having nothing to opp ose or 
comminute, becomes developed to a most monstrous extent. 
The lower jaw is articulated by a longitudinal condyle, in 
such a way as to allow of no horizontal motion, except from 
back to front, and vice versa, as is requisite for the action of 
gnawing. The molars also have flat crowns, whose enamelled 
eminences are always transverse, so as to be in opposition to 
the horizontal motion of the jaw, and to increase the power of 
trituration. 

The genera in which these eminences are simple lines, 
and the crown is very flat, are more exclusively frugivorous ; 
those in which the eminences of the teeth are divided into 
_ blunt tubercles are omnivorous; while the small number of 
such as have no points more readily attack other animals, and 
approximate somewhat to the Carnaria. 

The form of the body in the Rodentia is generally such, 
that the hinder parts of it exceed those of the fronts so that 
they rather leap than walk. In some of them this dispropor- 
tion is even as excessive as it is in the Kanguroos. 

The intestines of the Rodentia are very long; their stomach 
simple, or but little divided; and their cecum very volumi- 
nous, even more so than the stomach. In the subgenus My- 
oxus, however, this intestine is wanting. 

In the whole of this class the brain is almost smooth and 
without furrows; the orbits are not separated from the tem- 
poral fosse, which have but little depth, and the eyes are al- 
together directed laterally. ‘The zygomatic arches, thin and 
curved below, announce the weakness of the jaws; the fore- 
arms have nearly lost the power of rotation, and their two 
bones are often united; in a word, the inferiority of these ani- 
mals is visible in most of the details of their organization. 
Those genera however which possess stronger clavicles have 
a certain degree of dexterity, and use their fore feet to con- 
vey their food to the mouth. 

Some of them even climb with facility: such is the 


136 " MAMMALIA, 


Scrurus, Lin. 


Squirrels are distinguished by their strongly compressed inferior 


incisors, and by their long tail furnished with hairs. They haye four | 


toes before, and five behind. The thumb of the fore foot is some- 
times marked by a tubercle. They have in all four grinders, vari- 
ously tuberculated, and a very small additional one above in front, 
that very soon falls. The head is large, and the eyes projecting and 
lively. They are light and active animals, living on trees, and feed- 
ing on fruits. 


Scrurus, Cuv. 


In the Squirrel, properly so called, the hairs of the tail are ar- 
ranged on the sides, so as to resemble a feather.. There are a great 
many species in the two continents. 

Sc. vulgaris, Buff. VIL, xxxii, Schreb. pl. 212. (The Common 
Squirrel.) The back of a lively reds belly white; ears 
terminated by a tuft of hair. Those of the north, in winter, 
become of a beautiful bluish ash colour, producing the fur 
called minever when taken only from the back, and vair (by the 
French) when it consists of the whole skin. 

The American species have no pencils to their ears. Such 
are 

Sc. cinereus, L.3 Petit-Gris, of Buff. X, xxv. (The Grey 
Squirrel of Carolina.) Larger than that of Europe; ash co- 
loured, with a white belly. See Append. VIII of Am. Ed. 

Sc. capistratus, Bosc.3;(1) Sc. cinereus, Schreb. CCXIII, B. 


(The Masked Squirrel.) Ash coloured; head black; muzzle, 


ears and belly white. Both these species vary in being more 
or less brown—they are sometimes entirely black.(2) 

The greater number of the species belonging to the eastern 
continent are also destitute of these pencils. One of the most 
beautiful is the 

Sc. maximus and macrourus,(3) Gm.; Buff. Supp. VII, Ixxii. 
(The Large Squirrel of India.) Nearly the size of a Cat ; above 
black ; the flanks and top of the head of a beautiful bright ma- 
ronne; the head, and all the under parts of the body, and the 


(1) See Append. VIII for some observations on our author’s arrangement of the 
American Squirrels. dm. Ed. 

(2) The Sc. vulpinus, the carolinensis, and the niger appear to be mere varieties 
of this species. [See Append. VIUT of Am. Ed.) 

(S) A comparison ofthe figure of Pennant with that of Sonnerat is sufficient to 
prove that they represent the same animal. 


RODENTIA. (3% 


inside of the limbs pale yellow ; a maronne coloured band behind 
the cheek. It inhabits the palms, and is extravagantly fond of 
the milk of the cocoa-nut. ' 

There are, also, several Squirrels in warm climates, that are 
remarkable for the longitudinal bands which vary their fur. 
Such are the 

Sc. getulus, L.; Buff. X, xxvi. (The Barbaresque.) The 
bands of which extend to the tail, and even on it. 

Sc. palmarum, L.; Buff. X, xxvi. (The Palmist.) On which 
the stripes are confined to the back. 

It is probable that we shall have to separate from the Squirrels 
certain species which have cheek-pouches like the Hamsters, and 
pass their lives in subterraneous holes, the Tamia of Mlliger. For 
instance the 

Sc.. striatus, L.; Buff. X, xxviii. (The Ground Squirrel. ) 
Which is found throughout all the north of Asia and America, 
particularly in the pine forests. The tail is more scantily sup- 
plied with hairs than that of the European Squirrel; the ears 
smooth, and skin brown, with five black stripes and two white 
ones. 

We ought also, most probably, to distinguish the Guerlinguets, 
a species with a long, and almost round tail, and an enormous pen- 
dant scrotum. They are found in both continents.(1) 

The following have been separated already. 


Preromys, Cuv.(2) 


Or the Flying Squirrels, to which the skin of the flank, extending 
between the fore and hind legs, imparts the faculty of supporting 
themselves for a moment in the air, and of making very great leaps. 
There are long bony appendages to their feet, which support a part 
of this lateral membrane. ; 

There is a species in Poland, Russia, and Siberia. 

Sc. volans, L.; Schreb. CCXXIII. (The Flying Squirrel.) 
Ash-coloured grey above; white underneath; size of a Rat; 
the tail only half the length of the body. It lives solitarily in 
the forests. 

One from North America. 

Sc. voluccella, L.; Buff. X, xxi. (The American Flying 
Squirrel.) Reddish-grey above; white beneath ; size less than 


(1) We have found however in the Tumix and Guerlinguets the same kind of 
teeth as in the Squirrels and Pteromys. 
(2) Pteromys, Winged Rat. 
Vou. I.—S 


138 MAMMALIA. 


that of the preceding; tail three-fourths as long as the body. 
It lives in troops in the prairies of North America. 

There is one found in the Indian Archipelago, that is nearly 
the size of a Cat; the male of a fine lively maronne above, and 
red underneath; the female brown above and whitish under- 
neath. It is the 

Sc. petaurista, L.3 Buff. Supp. II, xxi, and VU, Ixvii. (The 
Taguan.) The same place produces another small one, the 

Sc. sagitta, L. A deep brown above; white beneath ; distin- 
guished from other species, the small ones especially, by its 
membrane, which, as in the Taguan, forms an extremely acute 
projecting angle behind the tarsus.(1) 

M. Geoffroy has very properly separated from this genus the 


Cuerromys, Cuy. (2) 


Or the Aye-Ayes, whose inferior incisors, much more compressed, 
and above all, more extended from front to back, resemble plough- 
shares. Each foot has five toes, of which four of the anterior are 
excessively elongated, the medius being more slender than the 
others ; in the hind feet the thumb is opposable to the other toes 5 
so that they are in this respect among the Rodentia, what the Opos- 
sums are among the Carnaria. The structure of their head is 
otherwise very different from that of the other Rodentia, and is re- 
lated to the Quadrumana in more points than one. ‘ 

There is only one species of the Aye-Aye known. It was dis- 
covered at Madagascar by Sonnerat. Itis the Cheir. Madagas- 
cariensis ; Sc. Madagascar., Gm.; Buff. Supp. VI, Ixviii. (The 
Aye-Aye.) Size of a Hare, of a brown colour, mixed with yel- 
low ; tail long and thick, with stout black bristles; ears large 
and naked. It is a nocturnal animal, to which motion seems 
painful; it burrows under ground, and uses its slender toe to 
convey food to its mouth. 

Linnzus and Pallas united in one single group, under the name of 


Mus, Lin., 


All the Rodentia furnished with clavicles, which they could not dis- 
tinguish by some very sensible external character, such as the tail 
of the Squirrel or that of the Beaver, from which resulted the utter 
impossibility of assigning to them any common character; the 
greater number had merely pointed lower incisors, but even this was . 
subject to exceptions. 


(1) Add Pt. hudsonius, Gm. Am. Ed. 
(2) Chetromys, arat with hands. 


RODENTIA. 139 


Gmelin has already separated from them the Marmots, Dormice, 
and the Jerboas; but we carry their subdivision much further, from 
considerations founded on the form of their grinders. 


Arcromys,(1) Gm. 


The Marmots, it is true, have the inferior incisors pointed like 
those of the greater number of animals comprehended in the great ge- 
nus Mus; but their grinders, like those of the Squirrel, amount to five 
on each side above, and four below, all bristled with points ; accord- 
ingly, some species are inclined to eat flesh and feed upon insects, 
as well as grass. There are four toes and a tubercle in place of a 
thumb to the fore feet, and five toes to the hind ones. In other re- 
spects these animals are nearly the direct reverse of the Squirrels, 
being heavy, having short legs, a middle sized or short hairy tail, 
and a large flat head, passing the winter in a state of torpor, and 
shut up in deep holes, the entrance of which they close with a heap 
of grass. They live in societies, and are easily tamed. Two spe- 
cies are known in the eastern continent. 

Arct. alpinus; Mus alpinus, L.; Buff. VIII, xxviii. (The 
Alpine Marmot.) Large as a Hare; tailshort; fur yellowish 
grey, with ash coloured tints about the head. It lives in high 
mountains, immediately below the region of perpetual snow. 

Arct. bobac; M. bobac, I..; Pall. Glir. V; Schreb. CCIX. 
(The Bobac.) Size of the preceding; of a yellowish grey, 
tinted with red about the head. Inhabits low mountains and 
hills, from Poland to Kamschatka, and frequently digs its bur- 
row in the hardest soil.(2) 

America also produces some species. 

Arct. monax; Buff. Supp. Il], xxviii. (The Maryland 
Marmot.) Grey ; tail blackish, as well as the top of the head. 

Arct. empetra, Pall.; Schreb. CX. Less than the preceding ; 
grey; red beneath. 


SPERMOPHILUS, Fred. Cuv. 


We apply this name to those Marmots that have cheek pouches. 
The superior lightness of their structure has caused them to be 
called Ground Squirrels. Eastern Europe produces one species: 

M. citillus, L.; Buff. Supp. III, xxxi. (The Souslik or Zizel.) 
A pretty little animal, of a greyish brown, watered or mottled 


(1) Arctomys, Bear-Rat. 

(2) Russian Travellers in Bucharia mention some other Marmots, Arct. fulvus, 
Arct. lepto-dactylus, Arct. musogaricus, which are not yet perhaps sufficiently distin- 
guished from the Bobac or from the Souslik. 


140 MAMMALIA. 


with white, the spots very small, which is found from Bohemia 
to Siberia. It has a peculiar fondness for flesh, and does not 
spare even its own species. 

North America has several species of them, one of which is 
remarkable by the thirteen fawn coloured stripes which extend 
along the back on a blackish ground. It is the Thirteen striped 
Souslik, Arct. 13-lineatus, Harl.; or Sciurus 13-lineatus, Mitchell ; 
or Arct. Hoodii, Sabine, Lin. Trans. XIII, pl. xxix.(1) 

There is one of the Rodentia which it appears we must approxi- 
mate to the Marmots, that is remarkable for living in large troops 
in immense burrows, which have even been styled villages. It is 
called the Prairie Dog or Barking Squirrel, the latter appellation 
arising from its voice, which resembles the bark of a small Dog. 
It is the Arct. ludovicianus, of Say, Jour. to the Rocky Mountains, 
I, 451. M. Rafinesque, who states it has five toes to each foot, 
makes it the type of his genus Cynomys. 


Myoxus, Gm.(2) 


The Dormice have pointed lower incisors, and four grinders, the 
crown of each of which is divided by enamelled lines. 

They are pretty little animals, with soft fur, a hairy and even 
tufted tail, and a lively eye, which live on trees like Squirrels, and 
feed on fruit. Of the numerous order of the Rodentia, this is the 
only subgenus in which there is no cecum. They become torpid in 
winter like the Marmots, and pass through it in the most profound 
lethargy.(3) 

M. glis, L.; Buff. VIII, xxiv. (The Fat Dormouse.) Size 
of a Rats ashy grey-brown above, whitish underneath ; of a 
deeper brown around the eyes; tail very hairy the whole of its 
length, and disposed somewhat like that of a Squirrel, and fre- 
quently a little forked at the extremity. It inhabits the south 
of Europe, and nestles in the hollows of trees and fissures of 
rocks. Itsometimes attacks small birds. This is probably the 
Rat, fattened by the ancients, among whom it was considered a 
delicacy of the very highest description.(4) 


(1) Add “rect. Parrii, Richards., App. Parry’s Voy.—Several of the Marmots 
announced in the travels of Lewis and Clarke, Parry, Franklin, &c. Arct. Frank- 
linti, Richardsonii, pruinosa, seem to belong to this subgenus. See Sabine, Lin. 
Trans. XIII, pl. xxvii, xxviii, &c. 

(2) Myoxus, Rat with a pointed nose. 

(3) So natural is this to them, that a dormouse from Senegal, (M. Coupeii) 
which had never experienced it in its native country, fellinto a profound sleep in 
Europe the moment it was exposed to the cold. 

(4) The M.dryas of some authors (Schreb. 220, B) does not appear to me to 
differ from the Fat Dormouse. 


RODENTIA. 141 


M. nitela, Gm.; Buff. VII, xxv. (The Garden Dormouse.) 
Somewhat less than the preceding; greyish brown above ; 
white underneath 3 black round the eye, which extends to the 
shoulder ; tail tufted and black, tuft white. Common in the 
gardens of Europe, where it shelters itself in holes about the 
walls, and does much injury to trees. 

M. avellanarius, L.; Buff. VIII, xxvi. (The Common Dor- 
mouse.) Sizeofa Mouse ; cinnamon red above ; white beneath ; 
hairs of the tail somewhat disposed like a feather. From the 
forests of all Europe. It constructs its nest of grass on low 
branches, to bring up its young; the rest of the time, and par- 
ticularly during winter, it remains in the hollows of trees.(1) 

We should place near the Dormice, the 


Ecuimys, Geoff.—Loncueres, Illig.(2) 


Four grinders also, but formed in a peculiar way ; the upper ones 
consisting of two blades, bent into the shape of a V, and the under 
ones of one blade only that is bent, and of another that is simple. 
The fur of several species is harsh, and intermixed with flattened 
spines or prickles, like sword blades. From America. One of them, 

Ech. chrysuros, Schreb. CLXX, B ; Lerot 2 queue dorée, Buff. 
Supp. VII, 72. (The Golden-tailed Echimys.) More than 
twice the size of the Brown Rat; it is a beautiful animal, of a 
chesnut brown colour; white belly ; an elongated crest of hairs, 
and a white longitudinal band on the heads; the tail is long and 
black ; the posterior half yellow. From Guiana. 

Ech. rufus; Rat épineux, Azzara, Voy. pl. xiii. (The Red 
Echimys.) Size of a Rat, and of a reddish grey; tail shorter 
than the body. It is found in Guiana, Brazil, and Paraguay. 
It excavates long subterraneous galleries. 

Others, again, have merely the ordinary kind of hair, more or less 
rough. The most remarkable is the 

Ech. dactylicus, Geoff. (The Long-toed Echimys.) Which 
is still larger than the chrysuros, and has the two mid- 
dle toes of the fore feet double the length of the lateral ones. 
Its scaly tail is longer than the body; its fur is a yellowish 
grey, and the hairs on its nose form a crest directed in front.(3) 


(1) Add Myoxus Coupeti, Fred. Cuy. Mammif. 

(2 Echimys, or Spiny Rat. dm. Ed. 

(3) Add the Echimys of Cayenne, the Silky Echimys. I suspect the Mus. para- 
doxus, Thomas, Lin. Trans. XI, (Hztzromys, Lesson) differs from the Echimys in 
its cheek-pouches only. However, not having seen its teeth, I cannot arrange it. 


142 MAMMALIA. 


Hypromys, Geoff. 


The Hydromys have many external points of relation to the Echi- 
mys, but they are distinguished from all other Rats by their hind 
feet, two-thirds of which are palmated; their two molars have also 
a peculiar character in the crown, which is divided into obliquely 
quadrangular lobes, whose summits are hollowed out like the bowl 
ofaspoon. They are aquatic. 

Several of these animals have been sent to Europe from Van 
Dieman’s land, some of which have the belly white, and others 
fawn coloured, but all of a deep brown above, with a long tail 
which is black at the base, and the posterior half white. They 
are sometimes double the size of the brown Rat. Hydromys 
leucogaster, and Hyd. chrysogaster, Geoff. An. Mus. VI, pl. 
XXXVI. 


Carpromys, Desmar. 


The Houtias have four molars every where with flat crowns, the 
enamel of which is folded inwards so that it forms three angles on 
the external edge, and one only on the internal edge of the upper 
teeth, and the inverse in the lower ones. The tail is round and 
scantily pilose; they have, like the Rats, five toes to the hind foot, 
and four, with the rudiment of a thumb, to the fore feet ; their form 
is that of a Rat; as large as a Rabbit or Hare. ‘T'wo species are 
known. 

Cap. fournieri, Desmar., Mem. de la Soc. d’Hist. Nat. de 
Par. I, 1823. (The Congo Houtia.)(1) Brown; muzzle and 
top of the neck whitish; tail brown, but half the length of the 
body. 

Cap. prehensilis, Peessig. Less than the preceding ; brown, 
with a whitish throat ; tail red, as long as the body, and partly 
naked at the end. Both species inhabit the island of Cuba, and 
together with the 4goufis, at the time of the discovery, consti- 
tuted the principal game of the Indians. 


Mus, Cuv. 


The true Rats have three molars every where, of which the ante- 
rior is the largest; its crown is divided into blunt tubercles, which 
by being worn, give it the shape of a disk, sloped in various direc- 
tions; the tail is long and scaly. These animals are very injurious 
from their fecundity, and the voracity with which they devour every 


(1) This is the Jsodon pilorides, Say, Zool. Journ, No. 2, p. 229. 


— 


RODENTIA. 143 


thing that comes within their reach. There are three species which 
have become quite common in our houses, viz. 

M. musculus, L.; Buff. VII, xxxix. (The Common Mouse. ) 
Universally known. 

M. rattus, L.; Buff. VII, xxxvi. (The Black Rat.) Of which 
no mention is made by the ancients, and which appears to have 
entered Europe in the middle century. It is more than double 
the size of the Mouse in each of its dimensions. The fur is 
blackish. Several individuals have been occasionally found 
connected by the interlacing of their tails; constituting what 
the Germans style the King of Rats.(1) 

M. decumanus, Pall.;. Buff. VII, xxvii. (The Norway or 
Brown Rat.) Which did not pass into Europe till the eigh- 
teenth century, and is now more common in large cities than 
the Black Rat itself. It is larger than the latter by one-fourth, 
and differs from it also by its reddish-brown hair.(2) 

These two large species appear to have originated in the 
East, and have been transported in ships, together with the 
Mouse, to all parts of the globe. 

Eastern Tartary and China have a Rat equal to the decu- 
manus. 

M. caraco, Pallas, Glir. XXIII; Schreb. clxxvii. (The Ca- 
raco Rat.) Of a light colour ; tail alittle shorter than the pre- 
ceding, and the jaws stronger. 

There is another in India, one-fourth “mete than the Brown 
Rat, the Rat perchal, Buff. Supp. VII. Ixix, which is of a red- 
dish brown. There is a large one in the Indian Archipelago, 
the 

M. setifer, Horsf. Jay. Of a blackish brown. These last 
two species are bristled over with setaceous hairs, which ex- 
tend beyond the others. 

One of the largest and most mischievous Rats known is the 

M. pilorides, Pall. and Gm. (The Musk-Rat of the Antilles.) 
Fifteen inches in length without the tail, which is still longer 
than the body; hair coarse, of a deep black above, and whitish 
beneath.(3) 


en 


(1) See Bellerman on the King of the Rats (in German), Berlin, 1820. 

(2) It appears to belong to Persia, where it lives in burrows. It was not till 
1797, that, after an earthquake, it arrived at Astracan, by swimming across the 
Volga. 

(3) Pallas and Gmelin erroneously describe it as being entirely white. The 
earlier historians of the colonies attribute to it the above colours, which are pre- 
cisely such as we have seen on the animal. 


144 MAMMALIA. 


Fewer species have been observed of the size of the Mouse. 

M. cahirinus, Geoff., Descr. de VEg. Mammif. (The Cairo 
Mouse.) Spines on the back in place of hairs—noticed by 
Aristotle. 

One species only is known in France that does not reside in 
houses, the JZ. sylvaticus. (Field Mouse.) Buff. VII, xli, 
which is hardly larger than the Mouse, and is distinguished 
from it by its red fur. It does much injury to trees, and some- 
times penetrates into gardens. 

It seems, however, that in some of the provinces there is a 
smaller and grey species, which has also been observed in Eng- 
land, (MZ. messorius, Shaw, Vol. II, Part 1, Frontisp.) and a 
third still more diminutive (M/Z. pumilus, Fr. Cuv. Mammif.).(1) | 

Warm climates produce Rats, similar in every particular to those . 
of which we have just spoken, except that their tails are more 
hairy.(2) 


Gerpitius, Desm.—MeEnrtonss, Illig. 


The Gerbils have molars that differ very little from those of Rats, 
merely becoming sooner worn, so as to form transverse elevations. 
Their superior incisors are furrowed with a groove; their hind feet 


(1) To this division, most probably, belong the M. agrarius, M. minutus, M. so- 
ricinus, M. vagus, M. betulinus, M. striatus, M. barbarus, Schreb. 

Here also should come the enormous Mus giganteus, Hardw. Linn. Trans. VII, 
XXVIII. 

There should be likewise added the M. pumilio, Sparm. the M. cyanus, Molina, 
and several other species, some of which are not even mentioned by authors, and 
others which are described with too little comparison. This is the reason why most 
of the Rats of Azzara cannot be properly classed until they are re-examined. The 
same observation applies to a great many of the Rodentia of M. Rafinesque. Their 
descriptions are too short to be of any use. 

(2) Hypudzus variegatus, Lichtenst. var. flava. = Merones syenensis, Id. to which 
must be added the .Arvicolu messor, Le Conte, Arv. hortensis, Harl. or Sygmodon, 
Say, distinguished however by hairy ears, like the Otomys. 

Another group, with hairy tails also, but whose teeth wear away faster, will in- - 
clude the Hypudeus obesus, Lichtenst. the Mus ruficaudatus, Id. His Meriones se- 
riceus should form a third, characterized by the projecting ridges of the molars, 
which alternately catch in each other. 

We then have to group the Weotoma floridanum of Say, or the Arvicola florida- 
nus of Harlan, and the Arvicola gossypina, Le Conte, two Rats which, size excepted, 
are very similar even in their colours, whose teeth, provided with roots, if worn a 
little, have crowns formed like those of the Arvicola. 

These animals, however, previous to a definite classification, require to be com- 


pletely examined and compared, internally as well as without. [See Append. IX 
of Am. Ed.| 


RODENTIA. 145 


are somewhat longer in proportion than those of Rats in general, 
and their thumb and little toe slightly separated. Their tail is long 
and hairy. The sandy and warm parts of the eastern continent 
produce several species. 
G. indicus; Dipus indicus, Hardw., Linn. Trans. VIII, pl. 
vii; Hérine, Fred. Cuv. Mammif. (The India Gerbil.) Size 
of the fat Dormouse 3; fawn coloured above, whitish beneath 5 
tail longer than the body, and blackish at the end. To this 
species should be approximated the 
G. meridianus ; D. meridianus, Schreb. 231. (The Torrid 
Gerbil.) Which is about the same colour, but a little smaller. 
G. tamaricinus ; D. tamaricinus, Schreb. 232. (The Tamarisk 
Gerbil.) The tail is annulated with brown. 
G. pyramidum; D. pyramidum, Oliv. (The Gerbil of the 
Pyramids.) The hind feet more elongated ; size of the fat Dor- 
mouse ; red above, whitish beneath. 
There is one in Senegal of a livelier red and a purer white. 
Another at the Cape a little larger, reddish, and the tail less 
hairy at the end. 
A third in Nubia, about half the size, of a light red above, 
and a beautiful white beneath. The 


Menrriones, Fred. Cuv. 


Which we separate from the other Gerbils, have the hind feet 
still longer ; the tail nearly naked, and a very small tooth before the 
superior molars; characters which approximate them to the Jer- 
boas. Their upper incisors are grooved like those of the Gerbils, 
and their toes also are similar. There is a small species in North 
America, the 

Mus canadensis, Penn.; Dipus canadensis, Sh. II, part 1, pl. 
161; Dipus americanus, Barton. Size of a Mouse; fawn co- 
loured grey; tail longer than the body. A very active animal, 
that shuts itself up in its burrow, and passes the winter in a 
state of lethargy.(1) 


Cricetus, Cuv. 


The Hamsters have’ nearly the same kind of teeth as Rats, but 
their tail is short and hairy, and the two sides of their mouth are 
hollowed into sacs or cheek pouches, in which they transport the 
grain they collect to their subterraneous abodes. 

C. vulgaris; M. cricetus;: Li; Marmotte d’ Allemagne, Sc. 5 


(1) Add Gerbillus labradorius, Havl., or M. labrad., Sabine, Frankl. Voy. p. 661. 
Vou. I.—T 


146 MAMMALIA. 


Buff. XIII, xiv. (The Common Hamster.) Larger than the © 
Rat; of a reddish-grey above, black on the flanks and under- 
neath, with three whitish spots on each side. The feet, a 
spot under the throat, and another under the breast white ; 
some individuals are all black. This animal, so agreeably varied 
in colour, is one of the most noxious that exist, gathering large 
quantities of grain with which it fills its burrow that is some- 
times seven feet deep. It is common in all the sandy regions, 
that extend from the north of Germany to Siberia. 

This last country produces several small species of Hamsters 
described by Pallas.(1) 


Arvicota, Lacep. 


The Arvicolz, like the Rats, have three grinders every where, but 
without roots, each one being formed of triangular prisms, placed 
on two alternate lines. They may be subdivided into several 
groups, viz. 


Fiser, Cuy. 


The Ondatras or Field Rats having semi-palmated hind feet, a long, 
scaly and compressed tail, of which one species only is well known. 
F. vulgaris ; Castor zibeticus, L.; Mus zibeticus, Gm.; Buff. X, 
i. (The Canadian Musk-Rat or Ondatra.) As large as a Rab- 
bit, of a reddish-grey. In winter they construct, on the ice, a 
hut of earth, in which several of them reside together, passing 
through a hole in the bottom, for the roots of the acorus on 
which they feed. They neither dive nor swim well. It is this 
habit of building which has induced some authors to refer the 
Ondatra to the genus Castor. The second subdivision -is 
that of 


ArvicoLa, Cuv.—Hyrupaus, Illig. 


Our common Field Rats, which have a hairy tail, about the length 
of the body, and simple or not palmated feet. 
A. vulgaris ; Mus amphibius, L.; Buff. VII, xliii. (The Water 
Rat.) A little larger than the Common Rat, of a deep greyish- 
brown; tail the length of the body. Inhabits the banks of rivers, 
&c. and burrows in marshy places. 
A. terrestris ; Mus terrestris, Lin. (The Schermaus.) Seems 
to differ from the Water Rat only in being somewhat smaller 5 
its tail also is shorter. It lives under ground like the Mole, 


(1) M. accedula.a—M. arenarius.— M. plcrits, —M. songarus.—M. furunculus. 
See Pall. Glir. and Sch. 


RODENTIA. 147 


preferring the bottom lands of high grounds. It excavates 
galleries, and removes the earth to some distance from the open- 
ing. Its magazines, which are principally filled with the roots 
of the wild carrot cut into two inch pieces, are frequently two 
feet in diameter. 

1. arvalis 3; Mus a ee L.; Buff. VII, xlvii. (The Campag- 
nol.) Size of a Mouse; ofa readies ash colon 3 tail not so long 
as the body. It inhabits holes which it excavates in the earth, 
where it collects grain for the winter. The multiplication of 
this animal is sometimes so excessive as to cause much injury. 

Al. ceconomicus, Mus wconomicus, Pall. Glir. XIV, A; 
Schreb. cxc. (The Meadow Campagnol.) A little darker 
coloured, and the tail somewhat shorter. It lives in a sort of 
oven-shaped chamber formed under the turf, from which issue 
several narrow and ramifying canals running in various direc- 
tions; other canals communicate with a second cavity which 
contains its provisions. From all Siberia. It is thought to 
have been found in Switzerland and in the south of France, 
particularly, as we are assured, in the potatoe fields.(1) See 
Append. X of Am. Ed. 


Gerorycuus, Illig. 


Or the Lemmings, Cuv. have very short ears and tail, and the 
toes of the fore feet peculiarly well formed for digging. 

The two first species have five very distinct nails to each of 
the fore feet, like the Rat-Moles and the Jumping-Hare. 

G. lemmus ; Mus lemmus, L.; Pall. Glir. XII, A. B. Schreb. 
cxcy. (The Lemming.) A northern species, as large as a Rat, 
with black and yellow fur, very celebrated for its occasional 
migrations in innumerable bodies. At these periods they are 
said to march in a straight line, regardless of rivers or moun- 
tains ; and while no obstacle can impede their progress, they 
devastate the country through which they pass. Their usual 
residence appears to be the shores of the Arctic ocean. 

G. vulgaris ; Mus aspalax,Gm., Pall. Glir. X, Schreb. CCV. 
(The Zocor.) Reddish-grey; the three middle nails of the fore 
feet long, arcuate, compressed and trenchant, for cutting earth 


(1) Here most probably would come the M. saxatilis, alliarus, rutilus, gregalis 
and socialis, Pall. Glir. But the M. lagurus and torquatus come nearer to the 
Lemmings. ‘There are several Field-Rats or Campagnols in North America, such 
as the Arvicola xanthognatha, Leach, Miscel. I, pl. xxvi—Arvicola pennsylvanica, 
Wilson, Amer. Ornith. VI, pl. 1, F. 3.—Arv. palustris, Harl. &c. Better figures 
and new and comparative descriptions of the preceding species are much wanted. 


148 MAMMALIA. 


and roots. Thelimbs are short ; there is scarcely any tail; and 
the eyes are excessively small. From Siberia; where it always 
lives under ground like the Mole and Rat-Mole. It feeds prin- 
cipally on the bulbs of different Liliacez. The third species, like 
the other animals comprised in the great genus of Rats, has 
merely the rudiment of a thumb on the fore foot. 

G. hudsonius ; Mus hudsonius, Gm., Schreb. CKCVI. (The 
Lemming of Hudson’s Bay.) A light pearly-ash colour 3 with- 
out tail or external ears; the two middle toes of the fore foot of 
the male seem to have double claws, which is owing to the skin 
at the end of the toe being callous and projecting from under 
the nail, a disposition of the part hitherto unknown, except in 
this animal. It is the size of a Rat, and lives under ground in 
North America. 


Oromys, Fred. Cuv. 


The Otomys are nearly allied to the Field Rats, and have also 
three grinders, but they are composed of slightly arcuated laminz 
arranged in file.(1) Their incisors are grooved with a longitudinal 
furrow, and the tail is hairy, as well as the ears, which are large. 

O. capensis, Fred. Cuv. (The Cape Otomys.) Size of a Rat; 
fur marked with black and fawn coloured rings ; tail a third 
shorter than the body.(2) 


Drieus, Gm. 


The Jerboas(3) have nearly the same kind of teeth as the true 
Rats, except that there is sometimes a very small one immediately 
before the upper molars. The tail is long and tufted at the end ; 
the head large ; the eyes large and prominent; but their principal 
character consists in their posterior extremities, which, in compari- 
son with the anterior, are of a most immoderate length, and above 
all, in the metatarsus of the three middle toes, which is formed of 
one single bone, resembling what is called the tarsus in Birds. It 
is from this disproportion of the limbs that they were named by the 
ancients Biped Rats, and in fact they seldom move otherwise than 
by great leaps on their hind feet. There are five toes to each of the 


(1) They are exact models, in miniature, of the grinders of the Elephant. 

(2) It is the same animal described and represented in the essay on the genus 
of Rats, by M. Brantz, Berlin, 1827, under the name of Huryotis irrorata. 

(3) There has lately appeared an excellent paper on the Jerboas, by M. Lich- 
tenstein, in which that learned naturalist describes and figures ten species. I 
can only refer my readers to the paper itself. It is inserted in the Journal of 
the Acad. of Berlin. 


RODENTIA. 149 


fore feet, and in certain species, besides the three great toes to the 
hind feet, there are small lateral ones. They live in burrows, and 
become torpid during the winter. 

D. sagitta; M. sagitta, L.; Buff. Supp. VI, xxxix and xl. 
The Jerboa has only three toes, and is the size of a Rat; a 
light fawn colour above ; white beneath ; tuft of the tail black, 
the tip white. Is found from Barbary to the north of the Cas- 
pian sea. 

D. hertipes, Licht. (The Hairy-footed Jerboa.) The head 
more compressed ; only three toes to the hind feet, as in the 
Jerboa, but they are more hairy. From Africa.(1) 

D.jaculus ; M. jaculus, Pall. Glir. XX, Schreb. CCX XVIII. 
(The Alactaga.) Two small lateral toes; ears longer than 
those of the Jerboa, but is nearly of the same colour. Pallas 
has observed them of three sizes, from that of a Rabbit to that 
of a Rat: they are probably as many species.(2) One or the 
other is found from Barbary to the Eastern Ocean, and as far 
as the north of India. 


Hexiamys, F, Cuv.—Peperss, Illig.(3) 


The Jumping Hares, like the Jerboas, have a large head, and 
great eyes, a long tail, and the anterior part of the body extremely 
small, in comparison to the posterior, although the disproportion is 
much less than in the true Gerboas. The peculiar characters of the 
Helamys are four grinders every where, each one composed of two 
lamine ; five toes to the fore-feet, armed with long and pointed nails, 
and four to their great hind ones, all separate, even to the bones of 
the metatarsus, and terminated by large nails, almost resembling 
hoofs. This number of toes is the inverse of that most common 
among the Rats. Their inferior incisors are truncated, and not 
pointed like those of the true Jerboas, and of the greater part of 
the animals comprised under the genus of Rats. One species only 
is known, the . 
H. caffer.; Mus. caffer., Pall.; Dipus caffer., Gm., Buff. Supp. 
VI, xli, and better, Fred. Cuy. Mammif. It is the size.of a 
Hare, of a light fawn colour, and has a long tufted tail, with a 
black tip. Inhabits deep burrows at the Cape of Good Hope.(4) 


(1) Add the Dip. telum, D. platurus, and D. lagopus of Eversman, Voy. de 
Mayendorf en Boucarie, p. 390. 

(2) Pallas has latterly distinguished the small Alactagasby the name of Dip. 
acontion. 

(3) Pedetes, jumper, Helamys, Jumping-Rat. 

(4) See Append. XI of Am. Ed. 


150 MAMMALIA. 


SPALAX, Gulden. 


The Rat-Moles have also been very properly separated from the 
Rats, although their grinders are three in number, and tuberculous, 
as in the true Rats, and the Hamsters, and are merely a little less 
unequal. Their incisors, however, are too large to be covered by 
the lips, and the extremities of the lower ones are trenchant, recti- 
linear, and transverse, not pointed. Their legs are very short; 
each foot has five short toes, and as many flat and slender nails. 
Their tail is very short, or rather there is none ; the same observa- 
tion applies to their external ear. They live under ground like the 
Moles, raising up the earth like them, although provided with much 
inferior means for dividing it, but they subsist on roots only. 

S. typhus 3 M. typhus, Pall. Glir. pl. viii, Schreb. 206. (The 
Zanni, Slepez or Blind Rat-Mole.) A singular animal, which, 
from its large head, angular on the sides, its short legs, the 
total absence of a tail and of any apparent eye, has a most 
shapeless appearance. The eye is not visible externally, and 
we merely find beneath the skin a little black point, which ap- 
pears to be organised like one, but which cannot serve for the 
purpose of vision, since the skin passes over it without opening 
or even growing thinner, and being as much covered with hair 
as any other part. It is rather larger than our Rat; its fur is 
smooth, and of an ash colour, bordering onared. This is the 
animal, in the opinion of Olivier, to which the ancients alluded 
when they spoke of the Mole as being perfectly blind. 

The islands in the straits of Sunda produce a Rat-Mole as 
large as a Rabbit, of a deep grey colour, with a white longitu- 
dinal stripe on the head, the Spalax j avanus. 

From the Rat-Moles themselves should have been separated the 


Batuyereus, Illig.—Orycrerss, Fr. Cuv. 


Which, with the general form, feet, and truncated incisors of that 
genus, have four grinders throughout. Their eye, though small, is 
visible, and they have a short tail. 
B. maritimus; Mus maritimus, Gm.; Taupe des dames, Buff. 
Supp. ‘VI, xxxviil. (The Maritime Rat-Mole.) Nearly the 
size of a Rabbits the superior incisors furrowed with a groove, 
and the hair of a whitish grey. 
B. capensis; M. capensis, Gm.3; Taupe du Gap., Buff. Supp. 
VI, xxxvi. (The Rat-Mole of the Cape.) Hardly as large as 
the Guinea-Pig; brown, with a spot round the ear, another 
round the eye, anda third on the vortex, together with the end 
of the muzzle, white. The incisors are smooth. 


RODENTIA. 151 


B. hottentottus, Less. and Garn., Voy. de la Coquille, pl. ii. 
(The Hottentot Rat-Mole.) Smaller; grey; incisors smooth ; 
hardly as large asa Rat. The 


Geomys, Rafin.—Pseupostoma, Say.—Ascomys, Lichten. 


Which have four compressed prismatic molars throughout; the 
first double, the remaining three simple ; the upper incisors furrowed 
with a double groove in front ; five toes to each foot; the three 
iddle anterior nails, that of the medius particularly, very long, 
crooked, and trenchant. They are low animals, and have very deep 
cheek-pouches, which open externally, enlarging the sides of the 

head and neck in a singular manner. One species only is known, 
G. bursarius; Mus bursarius, Shaw.(1) (The Canada Ham- 
ster.) Size of a Rat;{fur of a reddish grey; tail naked, 
and but half the length of the body. Inhabits deep burrows in 

the interior of North America. 


DieLosroma, Rafin. 
The Diplostome are almost precisely similar to the Geomys, but’ 
they have no tail. (2) 


These animals are also from North America. The species 
before us is reddish, and ten inches in length. 


We now pass to larger Rodentia than those of which we 
have hitherto-spoken, but of which several still have well 
defined clavicles. Of this number is the 


Castor, Lin. 


The Beavers are distinguished from all other Rodentia by their 
horizontally flattened tail, gvhich is nearly of an oval form, and 
covered with scales. ‘They have five toes to each foot: those of the | 
hinder ones are connected by membranes, and that next to the thumb ; 
has a double and oblique nail. Their grinders, to the number of 
four throughout, and with flat crowns, appear as if formed of a 
doubled bony fillet, or so as to show one sloping edge at the internal 


(1) The figures of this animal, first published Trans. Lin. Soc. Vol. V, pl. viii, 
and Shaw, Vol. Il, part I, pl. 138, represent it with the internal skin of the 
cheek-pouches turned inside out, as though it had two sacs to the sides of the 
head. There is nothing like it in nature. It is well represented, Acad. Berlin, 
1822 and 1823, pl. ii. ‘ 

(2) M. Rafinesque describes them as having only four toes to each foot. The 
European species has five, lilke the Geomys. 


152 MAMMALIA. 


extremities of the upper row, and three at the external ; in the lower 
ones it is exactly the reverse. 

Beavers are large animals, whose life is completely aquatic ; their 
feet and tail aid them equally in swimming. As their chief food is 
bark, and other hard substances, their incisors are very powerful, 
and grow as rapidly from the root, as they are worn away at the 
point. With these teeth they cut trees of every description. 

Large glandular pouches which terminate on the prepuce pro- 
duce a highly odorous oily substance, employed in medicine under 
the name of Castor. The organs of generation in both sexes termi-_ 
nate in the extremity of the rectum, so that there is but a single 
external opening. 

C. fiber, Buff. VIII, xxxvi. (The Beaver.) Larger than the 
Badger, and of all quadrupeds the most industrious in ‘con- 
structing a dwelling, to effect which these animals act in con- 
cert. They are found in the most solitary parts of North 
America. 

Beavers choose water of such a depth as is not likely to be 
frozen to the bottom, and, as far as possible, running streams, 
in order that the wood which they cut above, may be carried 
downwards by the current to the spot where it is to be used. 
They keep the water at an equal height, by dams composed of 
branches of trees, mixed with clay and stones, the strength of 
which is annually increased, and which finally, by the progress 
of vegetation, becomes converted into a hedge. Each hut 
serves for two or three families, and consists of two stories ; 
the upper is dry for the residence of the animals, and the lower 
under water for their stores of bark, &c. The latter alone is 
open, and the entrance is under water, having no communica- 
tion with the land. The huts are a kind of rude wicker-work, 
being made of interwoven branches and twigs of trees plastered 
with mud. There are always several burrows along the bank, 
in which they seek for shelter when their huts are attacked. 
They only reside in these habitations during the winter; in the 
summer they separate, and live solitarily. The Beaver may be 
easily tamed, and accustomed to feed on animal matters. It is 
of a uniform reddish brown colour, and the fur, as is well 
known, is in great demand for hatters. It is sometimes found 
flaxen coloured, at others black, or even white. 

Notwithstanding we have carefully compared the Beavers 
which burrow along the banks of the Rhone, the Danube, and 
the Weser, with those of North America, we are unable to de- 
termine whether the former are distinct species, or are pre- 
vented from building by the vicinity of man. 


RODENTIA. 153 


Myororamus, Commer. 


The Couias resemble the Beaver in size, in their fournearly similarly 
composed molars, in their powerful yellow-tinted incisors, and in 
their five-toed feet, the hinder ones of which are palmated; but their 
tail is round and elongated. They are aquatic animals also. One 
only is known, the 

M. coipus; Mus coipus, Molin., Geoff. Ann. Mus. VI, pl. 
xxxv. (The Couia.) Which lives in burrows along the banks 
of rivers throughout a great part of South America. The fur, 
which is of a yellowish grey, mixed with down at the root, is 
employed by the hatters like that of the Beaver, and is conse- 
quently an important article of commerce. Thousands of their 
skins are sent to Europe. 


Hysrrix, Lin. 


The Porcupines are known at the first glance by the stiff and sharp 
spines, or quills (as they are called) with which they are armed, like 
the Hedgehogs among the Carnaria. Their grinders are four through- 
out, with flat crowns, variously modified by plates of enamel, between 
which are depressed intervals. Their tongue is bristled with spiny 
scales, and their clavicles are too small to rest upon the sternum 
and scapula, being merely suspended by ligaments. They live in 
burrows, and have many of the habits of Rabbits. To their grunt- 
ing voice, and thick truncated muzzle, are they indebted for being 
compared to the Pig, and for their corresponding French appellation 
of porc-epic. 


Porcurings, properly so called, 


Have the head more or less convex or vaulted, by the development 
of the bones of the nose. They have four toes before, and five be- 
hind, all armed with stout nails. 

H. cristata, L.; Buff. XII, pl. li and lii. (The Common Por- 
cupine.) Inhabits the south of. Italy, Spain, and Sicily; it is 
also found in Barbary. The spines are very long, and annu- 
lated with black and white; a mane composed of long hairs 
occupies the head and neck. The tail is short, and fur- 
nished with hollow truncated tubes, suspended to slender pedi- 
cles, which make a noise when shaken by the animal. The 
chanfrin of the bony head is extremely convex. There are 
other species not very different, but with a less convex head, in 
India and in Africa. 

We separate from the true Porcupines the 


Vor. L—U 


154 MAMMALIA. 


ATHERURUS, Cuv. 


Where neither the head nor muzzle is inflated, and in which we 
observe a long non-prehensile tail; the toes are like those of the true 
Porcupines. 

Hyst. fasciculata, L.; Buff. VII, 773 Schreb. 170.(1) (The 
Pencil-tailed Porcupine.) The upper part of the spines on the 
back grooved, and the tail terminated by a bundle of flattened 
horny slips, constricted from space to space. 


Ererison, F. Cuy. 


The Ursons have a flat cranium; the muzzle short, and not con- 
vex ; the tail of a middle size, and the spines short, and half hidden 
in the hair. One species only is known, the 


Hystrix dorsata, L.; Buff. XII, lv. (The Urson.) From 
North America.(2) 


SYNETHERES, F’. Cuv. 


The muzzle short and thick; the head vaulted in front, and the 
spines short; the tail long, naked at the extremity, and prehensile, 
like that of an Opossum or Sapajou. There are only four toes, all 
armed with claws ; they climb trees. 

Hyst. prehensilis, L.; Cuendu, Marce., Hoitztlaquatzin, Her- 
nand.(3)’ (The Prehensile-tailed Porcupine.) Hair of a brown- 
ish-black ; spines black and white. 

Hysirix insidiosa, Lichtenst.; the Couiy of Azzara; Pr. 
Max. Brazil. Smaller; the spines partly red or yellow, and 


hidden during a part of the year under its long greyish-brown 
hair. 


Lerus, Lin. 


Hares have a very distinctive character in their superior incisors, 
which are double, that is, each of them has a smaller one behind 


aw 


(1) This figure, copied from Seba, I, 52, i, istoo short. That of Buff. is better, 
but the slips at the end of the tail are not represented with sufficient distinct- 
ness. We can conjecture no reason by which De Blainville and Desmarets refer 
this species to the genus of Rats; it has the teeth, and other characters of the 
Porcupines, external as well as internal. 

(2) The pretended Coendou of Buffon is also an Urson, but a ppiguted specimen 
that had lost itshair. See Buff. XII, 54. 

(3) This word, in the Mexican language, means Spiny ‘Ongesum. It is the long 
tailed Coendou of Buff. Supp. VI, 785 but the muzzle in the figure is too short. 
The figure of Hernandez conveys a much better idea of the animal. 


RODENTIA. 155 


it.(1) Their molars, five every where, are individually formed of 
two vertical lamine soldered together, and in the upper jaw there 
is a sixth, simple and very small. They have five toes before and 
four behind ; an enormous cxcum, five or six times the size of the 
stomach, furnished internally with a spiral fillet, which traverses its 
length. The inside of their mouth, and the under part of the feet 
are lined with hairs like the rest of the body. 


Lepus, Cuv. 


Or the true Hares, have long ears 3 a short tail; the hind feet 
much longer than the fore ones; imperfect clavicles, and the infra- 
orbitary spaces in the skeleton reticulated. ‘The species are so 
numerous and similar, that it is difficult to characterise them. 

L. timidus, L.3 Buff. VII, xxxviii. (The Common Hare.) 
Of a yellowish grey ; the ears one-tenth longer than the head; 
ash coloured behind; black at the tips; tail the length of the 
thigh, white, with a black line above. 

Every one knows this animal, whose dark flesh is excellent 
food, and whose fur isuseful. It lives solitarily, never burrows, 
sleeps on the open ground, when hunted describes large’ circles, 
and has never yet been domesticated. 

L. variabilis, Pall., Schreb. CCKXXV, B. (The Variable 
Hare.) Somewhatlarger than the preceding, with rather shorter 
ears and tail, the latter white at all seasons; the rest of the fur 
is grey in summer, and white in winter. This animal, which is 
found in the North, and on the high mountains of the south of © 
Europe, has the habits of the common Hare, but its flesh is 
insipid.(2) 

LL. cuniculus, L.; Buff. VI, 1. (The Rabbit.) Less than the 
Hare ; the ears somewhat shorter than the head ; tail not so long 
as the thigh; fur of a yellowish-grey; some red on the neck ; 
throat and belly whitish; ears grey, without any black; some 
brown on the tail. This animal, said to be originally from | 
Spain, is now found throughout all Europe. It lives in troops, ~ 
in burrows, to which it flies for shelter when pursued. Its flesh, 
which is white and agreeable to the palate, differs considerably 
from that of the Hare. In a domestic state the Rabbit multi- 
plies prodigiously, and varies as to colour and fur. t 

. Other countries furnish several species which can only be 


(1) There is even a period when they are shedding their teeth, during which 
they appear to have three incisors, one behind the other, six in all. 

(2) This species inhabits all the northern and colder part of the American conti- 
nent. Am. Ed. 


156 MAMMALIA. 


distinguished from that of Europe by the closest attention. 
Such are the ; 

L. tolai, Gm., Schreb. CCXXXIV. (The Siberian Rabbit.) 
Which is intermediate between the Hare and Rabbit as to pro- 
portions, and which occasionally surpasses the former in size. 
It makes no burrows, but seeks shelter in the clefts of rocks or 
other cavities. 

L. Americanus and Braziliensis, Gm.; Lepus nanus, Schreb. 
CCXXXIV. (The American Rabbit.) Nearly similar in size 
and colour to the European species ; feet reddish; no black on 
either ears or tail. Nestles in the hollows of trees, up which it 
sometimes ascends as far as the branches. Flesh soft and in- 
sipid.(1) i 

L. capensis, Gm.3; Geoff., Quadr. d’Egypte. (The African 
Hare.) The ears a fifth longer than the head ; size and colour 
nearly those of the European species; the feet however are a 
little longer and somewhat reddish. It appears to be found 
from one extremity of Africa to the other, at least the one from 
Egypt does not differ from that of the Cape. 


Lacomys, Cuyv.(2) 


Moderate ears; legs nearly alike; the hole below the eye sim- 
ple; clavicles nearly perfect, and no tail: they often utter a sharp 
cry. They have hitherto been found in Siberia only, and it is to 
Pallas (Glir. p. 1 et seq.) that we are indebted for their discovery. 

Lepus pusillus, Pall. Glir. 1, Schreb. ccxxxvii. (The Dwarf 
Lagomys.) Of a greyish brown; the size of a Water-Rat. 
Lives in small burrows, in fertile countries, on fruit and birds.(3) 

Lepus ogotonna, Pall, Glir. III, Schreb. ccxxxix. (The Grey 
Lagomys.) A very light grey, with yellowish feet ; a little larger 
than the preceding; nestles among heaps of stones, in the fis- 
sures of rocks, &c., where it collects hay for the winter. 

Lepus alpinus, Pall. Glir. 1, Schreb. ccxxxviii. (The Lago- 
mys Pica.) Size of a Guinea-Pig, and of a yellowish red. In- 
habits the summits of mountains, where it passes the summer 
in selecting and drying the plants of which it makes its pro- 
vision for the winter. Its hay-stacks, which are sometimes six 
or seven feet high, are a valuable resource for the horses of the 
sable hunters. 


(1) Add the Black-Necked Rabbit of India, &c. 

(2) Lagomys, i. e. Rat-Hares. 

(3) Pallas describes another still smaller species from the north-eastern extre- 
mity of Asia, Lepus hyperboreus, Zoog. Russ. I, 152. 


RODENTIA. 157 


The fossil bones of an unknown species of Lagomys have been 
discovered in the osseous breccia of Corsica. Cuy. Oss. Foss. 
IV, p. 199. Ay 

After the two genera of Porcupines and Hares, come the Roden- 
tia, united by Linnzus and Pallas, under the name of Cavra 3 but to 
which it is impossible to affix any other common and positive cha- 
racter than that of their imperfect clavicles, although the species of 
which they are composed are very analogous to each other, both in 

body and habits. They are all from the western continent. 


Hyprocuerus, Erxleb. 


Four toes before and three behind, all armed with large nails, and 
united by membranes ; four grinders throughout, of which the pos- 
terior are the longest, and composed of numerous, simple and paral- 
lel laminz ; the anterior laminz, forked towards the external edge 
in the upper, and towards the internal one in the lower teeth. Only 
one species is known, the 
Hf. capybara; Cavia capybara, L.; Capybara, Marcg.; Capiy- 
goua, Azzar.; Cabiai, Buff. XII, xlix. (The Capybara.) Size of 
Siam Pig; the muzzle very thick ; legs short; hair coarse, and 
of a yellowish brown; no tail. Inhabits the rivers of Guiana 
and the Amazon, where it lives in troops. The Beaver only 
approaches it in size. 


Cavia, Illig.—Anaa, Fr. Cuv. 


The Cobayes, or Guinea-Pigs, are miniature representations of the 
Cabiais ; but their toes are separated, and each of their molars has 
only one simple lamina, and one that is forked on the outside in the 
upper ones, and on the inside in the lower. The species best 
known, ‘i Ms ; ‘ 
C. cobaia, Pall.; Mus porcellus, L.; Buff. VII, i, (The Gui- 
nea-Pig) is now very common in Europe and America, where 
it is brought up in houses, because its odour is thought to 
drive away Rats. Like all domesticated animals, it varies in 
colour. There is reason for believing it proceeds from an 
American animal called perea, which is of the same size and 
form, but with a uniform reddish-grey fur. It is found'in the 
woods of Brazil and Paraguay. 
: 


Kerropon, Fred. Cuv. 


The Mocos have rather simpler grinders than the Cobayes, each 
being formed of two triangular prisms. 


158 MAMMALIA, 


The only species known is also from Brazil, somewhat sur- 
passes the Guinea-Pig in size, and is of an olive-grey. 


Cutoromys, Fr. Cuv.—Dasyrrocra, Tllig. 


The Agoutis have four toes before and three behind ; four grinders 
throughout, almost equal, with flat crowns irregularly furrowed, 
rounded borders notched on the internal edge in the upper jaw, and 
on the external one in the lower. In disposition, and in the nature 
of their flesh, they resemble Hares and Rabbits, which they may be 
said to replace in the Antilles and hot parts of America. 

C. acuti; Cavia acuti, L.; Buff. VII, 1,1. (The Common 
Agouti.) The tail reduced to a simple tubercle ; fur brown. 
The male fawn coloured on the croup; as large as a Hare. - 

C. acuchi ; Cavia acuchi, Gm.; Buff. Supp. III, xxxvi. (The 
Acouchi.) Six or seven vertebre in the tail; brown above, 
fawn coloured beneath ; size of a Hare. 

C. patagonicus; Cavia patagonica, Penn. and Schreb. ; the 
Pampas Hare of the Creoles of Buenos Ayres. This animal 
appears to be a species of Agouti, with longer ears, and a 
very short naked tail ; but its molars are not known. 


CaLogenys, Fr. Cuv.(1) 


The Pacas, in addition to teeth very like those of the Agoutis, have 
a very small toe on the internal edge of the fore foot, and one on each 
side, equally small on their hinder one, making five toes every where. 
Besides this, there is a cavity formed in their cheek which dips un- 
der the border formed by a very large and projecting zygomatic 
arch,2) which gives a very extraordinary aspect to the bony head. 
Their flesh is said to be very good. 

There is one species or variety fawn coloured, and another 
brown, both of which are spotted with white, the Cavia paca, 
L.; Buff. X, xliii; Supp. II, xxxv. 

Finally, there remains an animal perhaps nearly allied to the 
Cavias, and possibly more so to the Lagomys or the Rats, which 
we are unable to dispose of, on account of our ignorance of its teeth : 
I mean the Chinchilla, thousands of whose skins are to be had, but 
of which we have never yet been able to procure the entire body. It 


ib 


a“ 


(1) Anema, without strength; Chloromys, yellow rat; Dasyprocta, nite but- 
tock ; Calogenys, hollow cheek ; Hydrocherus, water-pig. 

(2) Dr Harlan (Faun. Americ., p. 126) has made a new genus from a head pre- 
served in the Philadelphia Museum, which he names Osteopera; but from the de- 
scription, it appears to us to be nothing more than that of the Paca. Desmarets 
has already made the same observation. 


8o 


RODENTIA. 159 


is about the size of a small Rabbit; is covered with long, close and 
fine hair, the softest that is known among common furs. The ears 
are large and half naked ; the tail, one-third the length of the body, 
is furnished with stiffer hairs, so arranged as to give it the appear- 
ance of being laterally compressed. The fore feet have four toes 
with a vestige of a thumb; the hinder ones have only three. This 
quadruped inhabits the mountains of South America. 

The Viscache, as described by Azzara (Quadr. du Parag., Tr. Fr. 
Il, p. 41), and such as we have seen it figured, can hardly be any 
other than a large species of Chinchilla, with shorter and coarser 


fur.(1) 


ORDER VI. 
EDENTATA. 


The Edentata, or quadrupeds without front teeth, will 
form our last order of unguiculated animals. Although united 
by a character purely negative, they have, nevertheless, some 
positive mutual relations, and particularly large nails, which 
embrace the extremities of the toes, approaching more or less 
to the nature of hoofs: a slowness, a want of agility, obviously 
arising from the peculiar organization of their limbs. There 
are, however, certain intervals in these relations, which ren- 
der it necessary to divide the order into three tribes. . The 
first of these is the 


TARDIGRADA. 


They have a short face. Their name originates from their 
excessive slowness, the consequence of a construction truly 
heteroclite, in which nature seems to have amused herself by 


producing something imperfect and grotesque. The only 
genus how in existence is,” 


(1) The figures were communicated tous by M. Hamilton Smith and M. Brookes. 
It is the animal described under the name of Gerboise géante, by De Blainville, in 
Desmarets’ Mammal., 315, and Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. XL, 117, and figured in 
Griffith’s ed. of the present work, under that of Marmot Diana. 


160 MAMMALIA. 


Brapyrvs, Lin. 


The Sloths have cylindrical molars, and sharp canini longer than 
those molars, two mammez on the breast, and fingers united by the 
skin, and only marked externally by enormous compressed and 
crooked nails, which, when at rest, are always bent towards the 
palm of the hand, or the sole of the foot. The hind feet are ob- 
liquely articulated on the leg, and rest only upon their outer edge $ 
the phalanges of the toes are articulated by a close ginglymus, and 
the first, at a certain age, become soldered to the bones of the meta- 
carpus or metatarsus, which also, in time, for want of use, expe- 
rience the same fate. To this inconvenience in the organization of 
the extremities is added another, not less great, in their proportions. 
The arm and fore-arm are much longer than the thigh and leg, 
so that when these animals walk, they are compelled to drag them- 
selves along on their elbows. The pelvis is so large, and their 
thighs so much inclined to the sides, that they cannot approximate 
their knees. Their gait is the necessary effect of such a dispropor- 
tioned structure.(l) They live in trees, and never remove from the 
one they are on until they have stripped it of every leaf, so painful 
to them is the requisite exertion to reach another. It is even asserted 
that to avoid the trouble of a regular descent, they let themselves 
fall from abranch. The female produces but a single young one 
at a birth, which she carries on her back. 


The viscera of these animals are not less singular than the rest of - 


their conformation. The stomach is divided into four sacks, ana- 
logous to the four stomachs of the Ruminantia, but without leaflets 
or other internally salient parts, while the intestinal canal is short, 
and without a cecum. 
M. Fr. Cuvier applies the name of Acuevs to those species that 
have three nails to the fore feet; they have a very short tail. 
Bradypus tridactylus, L.; Buff. XIII, v and vi. (The Ai.) A 
species in which sluggishness and all the details of the organiza- 
tion which produce it are carried to the highest degree. The 
thumb and the little toe, reduced to small rudiments, are hidden 
under the skin, and soldered to the metatarsus and meta- 
carpus; the clavicle, also reduced to a rudiment, is firmly 


(1) M. Carlisle has observed that the arteries of the limbs commence by splitting 
into an infinitude of ramifications, which afterwards unite in one trunk, from which 
the usual branches proceed. This structure being met with i in the Loris, whose 
gait is almost equally sluggish, it is possible’ that it may exert some influence on 
this slowness of motion. Independently of this, the Loris, the Ourang-Outang, 
the Coaita, all very slow animals, are remarkable for thelength of their arms. 


EDENTATA. 161 


united to the acromion. The arms are double the length of the 
legs ; the hair on the head, back, and limbs is long, coarse, 
and non-elastic, something like dried hay, which gives it a most 
hideous aspect. Its colour is grey, the back being frequently 
spotted with white and brown. It is as large as a Cat, and is 
the only mammiferous animal known which has nine cervical 
vertebre. 

There is an Ai called the Dos brulé, from the circumstance 
of having between the shoulders a black spot, surrounded with 
fawn colours but, according to Temminck, it is only a variety ; 
the appearance alluded to resulting from the wearing away of 
the long hair on the shoulder. The Black Collared i, how- 
ever, — brad. torquatus, Geoff. Ann. Mus., Schreb, LX XIV, A, 
is a species that is very distinct, even in the bony structure of 
the head. 

M. Fr. Cuvier applies the name of Brapyrus to those species 
only which have two nails to the fore feet, the Cuotzpus, Illig. 
Their canini are larger and more pointed, and they are wholly des- 
titute of a tail. There is but one known. 

B. didactylus, L.3; Buff. XII, i. (The Unau.) Which is 
somewhat less unfortunately organized than the Ai. Its arms 
are not so long, and its clavicles are completes; there are fewer 
bones of the feet and hands which become soldered together ; 
the muzzle is more elongated, &c. It is larger than the Ai by 
one half, and is of a uniform greyish-brown, which sometimes 
has a reddish tint. 

These two animals are natives of the hot parts of America, 
and, long ere this, would probably have been destroyed by the 
numerous Carnivora of that country, had they not possessed 
some means of defence in their nails.(1) 


Fossil skeletons of two Edentata of great size have been 


(1) It is singular that the B. didactylus was not known before the time of Seba, 
and that fora long time naturalists obstinately persisted in referring it, on the au- 
thority of that ignorant collector, to Ceylon. Erxleben has maintained its African 
origin, having mistaken it for the Poto of Bosmann, which isaGalago. (See this 
last genus.) It is a fact that the Unau is only found in South America, 

Shaw, Gen. Zool., under the name of Brad. ursinus, has described an animal of 
which Mliger has made his genus Prochylus. M. Buchanan, Tray. in the Mysore, 
Vol. li, p. 198, has shown it to be a true Bear, and in fact we have satisfied our- 
selves by inspecting the cranium of the very individual described by Shaw, that it 
was a Bear of the species termed thick-lipped, which had lost its meisors. See 

Ursus, &c. 
Vor. I.—V 


162 MAMMALIA. 


discovered in America, one of which, the MeGaTHERIUM, 
Cuv. Oss. Foss. tom. v, parti, p. 174, has a head very similar to 
that of the Sloths, but deficient as to canini, and approaching 
in other parts of the skeleton, partly to the Sloths, and partly 
to the Ant-eaters. It is twelve feet long, and six or seven 
high. ‘The other, the Mrcatonyx, Ib. p. 160, is rather 
smaller, and the toes are the only parts of it that are well 
known, but they strongly resemble ‘those of the preceding. 
The second tribe comprehends the 


EDENTATA ORDINARIA. 


Or the Ordinary. Edentata with a pointed muzzle. Some 
of them still have cheek teeth. They form two genera. 


Dasyrus, Lin. 


The Armadillos(1) are very remarkable among the Mammalia, by the 
scaly and hard shell formed of compartments resembling little paving 
stones, which covers their head and body, and frequently their tail. 
This substance forms one shield over the forehead, a second very 
large and convex over the shoulders, a third on the croup similar to 
the second, and between the two latter several parallel and movable 
bands, which allow the body to bend. The tail is sometimes fur- 
nished with successive rings, and at others, like the legs, merely 
with tubercles. These animals have large ears, and sometimes four, 
and at others five great nails before, but always five behind. The 
muzzle is pointed, the grinders are cylindrical, seven or eight in 
number throughout, separated from each other, and without enamel 
on the inside. The tongue is smooth, and but slightly extensible, 
and there are a few scattered hairs between their scales, or on those 
parts of the body not covered by the shell. They dig burrows, and 
live partly on vegetables, and partly on insects and dead bodies ; 
their stomach is simple, and there is no cecum. .They all belong 
to the hot, or at least to the temperate parts of America. 

They may be divided into subgenera from considerations drawn 
from the structure of their fore feet and the number of their teeth. 
Most of them have only four toes to the anterior feet, the two mid- 
dle ones of which are the longest. Of this number is the 


(1) Tatow is their Brazilian name. The Spaniards called them rmadillo, from 
their armour; the Portuguese, Lncuberto, for the same reason. They are also called 
quirquincho. Dasypus (hairy feet) was one of the Grecian appellatives of the 
Hare or Rabbit. 


A Af 


EDENTATA. 163 


Cacuicamus, Cuyv. 


Which has only seven teeth on each side, and in each jaw. The 
muzzle is pointed; the tail long, and encircled with bony rings. 
Dasypus novemeinctus, L.; Cachichame, Buff. X, xxxvii; Ta- 
tou a longue queue, Id. Supp. TI, lviii; Zatuwete, Schreb. Ixxiii ; 
Tatupeba, Marcg. (The Nine-banded Armadillo.) With nine, 
sometimes eight intermediate bands, generally blackish; the 
body fifteen inches in length, and the tail the same. 
Das. 7-cinctus; Schreb. LX XII; Tatow mulet, Azzar. (The 
Seven-banded Armadillo.) But seven bands, and is smaller ; its 
tail also is proportionably shorter. Those of the 


Apara, Cuv., 


Have the toes of the Cachicami, and nine or ten teeth throughout. 
Das. tricinctus, L.; Tatou Apara, Marcg.; Apar, Buff.; Mataco, 
Azzar.; Schreb. LXXI, A. (The Three-banded Armadillo.) 
Three intermediate bands; tail very short, and the compart- 
ments regularly tuberculated. By enclosing its head and feet be- 
tween its plates, it possesses the faculty of rolling itself into a 
complete ball, like certain species of Oniscus. It is from Para- 
guay and Brazil, and is one of those found farthest to the south. 
Size, middling. In other Tatous, such as the 


EncouBERTUusS, Cuv., 


There are five toes to the fore feet, the three middle of which are 
the longest. - The greater part of their tail is covered with scales, 
arranged in quincunx. There are nine or ten teeth throughout. In 
this subdivision is 

Dasyp. sexcinctus and octodecimcinctus, L.; Encoubert and Cir- 
quinson, Buff.;(1) Tatou poyou, Azzar.; Buff. X, xlii, and Supp. 
III, xlii. (The Six-banded Armadillo.) Distinguished from all 
the rest of the genus by having a tooth on each side in the in- 
termaxillary bone. The shell has six or seven bands ; its com- 
partments are large, smooth and angular; the tail is of a mid- 
dling length, and annulated only at the base ; there are five toes 
to each foot. The Pichiy of Azzara resembles this species, 
except that there are no intermaxillary teeth, that its posterior 
shield is denticulated, and that the parts not defended by the 


(1) The Weasel-headed Tutow of Grew; Cirquinson of Buff.; Das. octodecimeine- 
tus, L., is the Encoubert, or Six-banded Armadillo; but Grew considered the rows 
of scales on the croup as movable. If we count them we shall find but sixteen, 
and his own figure exhibits no more. 


164 MAMMALIA. 


shell are furnished with longer and more thickly set hairs. A 
neighbouring species is the Hairy Tatou of Azzara. A third 
subdivision of the Tatous, or the 


Canassous, Cuv., 


Has five toes to the fore feet, but directed obliquely, so that the 
thumb and index are slender, and the latter the longest; the middle 
one has an enormous trenchant nails; the following one has also a 
nail, but a shorter one, and the last toe is the shortest of all. This 
form of the foot enables these animals to divide the earth, and bur- 
row into it with rapidity, or at any rate to cling to it with such 
tenacity that it is extremely difficult to tear them from it. They 
have but eight or nine teeth on each side, and in each jaw. 

Das. unicinctus, L.; Le Cabassou propre, Bufl.; Tatouay, Azz. 
(The Tatouay.) Twelve intermediate bands ; the tail long and 
tuberculous ; the compartments of the bands and shields 
square, broader than long 3 five toes every where, of which the 
four anterior have enormous nails with trenchant external 
edges. It attains a great size. 


Priopon, Fr. Cuv. 


The toes more unequal, and the nails more enormous than in the 
preceding subgenus 5 twenty-two to twenty-four small teeth through- 
out, or ninety-four or ninety-six in all. Such is the 

Dasypus gigas, Cuv.; Tatou géant, Geoft.; Great Tatou, Azzar.; 
Deuxieme Cabassou, Buff. X,xlv. (The Giant Armadillo.) Twelve 
or thirteen intermediate bands; the tail long, and covered with 
tiled scales ; the compartments square, more broad than long. 
It is the largest of the Tatous, being sometimes more than three 
feet in length, exclusive of the tail. 

Finally, we should place after the Tatous, as a very distinct sub- 
genus, the 


Ciamypuorus, Harl., 


Which has ten teeth throughout, and five toes to each foot; the 
nails of the fore feet very large, crooked and compressed, furnishing, 
as in the Cabassous, a powerfully trenchant instrument. The back » 
is covered with a suite of transverse rows of scaly plates, without 
any solid shell before or behind, forming a sort of hauberk which is 
only connected with the body along the spine. The hinder part of 
the body is truncated, and their curved tail partially attached to the 
under part of the body.(1). One species only is known, the 


(1) We only know this animal by the description of Dr Harlan, Ann. of the New 
York Lyc. 1, p. 235 and pl. xxi. 


EDENTATA, 165 


C. truncatus, Harl.(1) which is five or six inches in length, 
and is found in the interior of Chili, where it passes the most 
of its time under ground. 

It appears that the fossil bones of a Tatow of gigantic size, being 
ten feet long exclusive of the tail, have been found in America, See 
Cuv. Oss. Foss. V. part 1, p. 191, note. 


Orycreropus, Geoff.(2) 


The animals of this genus were for a long time confounded with the 
Ant-Eaters on account of their using the same kind of food, having 
a similar head, and a tongue somewhat extensible ; but they are dis- 
tinguished from them by being furnished with grinders and flat 
nails, formed for digging and not trenchant. The structure of their 
teeth differs from that of all other quadrupeds; they are solid cy- 
linders traversed like reeds, in a longitudinal direction, with an infini- 
tude of little canals. Their stomach is simple, and muscular near 
the pylorus, their cecum small and obtuse. There is only one spe- 
cies known. 
Oryct. capensis ; Myrmecophaga capensis, Pall.; Buff. Supp. 
VI, xxxi. (The Cape Ground-Hog.) So called by the Dutch 
of that colony. It is an animal about the size of the Badger or 
larger ; stands low; has short hair, and is of a brownish-grey. 
The tail is not so long as the body, and is covered with equally 
short hairs. It has four toes before, and five behind. Inhabits 
burrows, which it excavates with great facility. The flesh is 
eaten. 


The other ordinary Edentata have no grinders, and conse- 
quently no teeth of any description. ‘They also form two 
genera. 


Myrmecopuaea, Lin. 


The Ant-Eaters are hairy animals with a long muzzle terminated 
by a small toothless mouth, from which is protruded a filiform tongue 
susceptible of considerable elongation, and which they insinuate into 
Ant-hills and the nests of the Termites, whence these Insects are 
withdrawn by being entangled in the viscid saliva that covers it. 
The nails of the fore feet, strong and trenchant, and varying in num- 
ber according to the species, serve to tear up the nests of the Ter- 
mites, and afford the means of defence. When at rest, these nails are 


(1) Its osteology, as given by M. Yarrel, (Zool. Journ. No, 12,) is closely allied 
to that of the Cabassous. Over each eye-brow there is a singular ridge. 
(2) Orycteropus, fect fitted for digging. 


166 MAMMALIA. 


always half bent inwards, resembling a callosity of the tarsus ; hence 
the animal can only bring the side of the foot to the ground. The 
stomach of the Ant-Eaters is simple and muscular towards its py- 
lorus ; their intestinal canal moderate, and without a czecum.(1) 

They all inhabit the hot and temperate parts of the western conti- 
nent, and produce but a single young one at a birth, which they carry 
on their back. 

M. jubata; Buff. X, xxxix, and Supp. III, lv. (The Tama- 
noir.) More than four feet long, with four nails before and 
five behind; the tail is furnished with long hairs vertically di- 
rected, both above and beneath; the fur is of a greyish-brown, 
with an oblique black band edged with white on each shoulder. 
It is the largest of the Ant-Eaters ; and it is asserted that it even 
defends itself against the Jaguar. It inhabits low places, never 
climbs trees, and moves slowly. 

M. tamandua, Cuy.; M. tetradactyla, and M. iridactyla, L.; 
Schreb. LXVI. (The Tamandua.) The form and feet of 
the preceding, but not half its size ; the tail, on which the hair 
is short, is prehensile and naked at the end, and enables the ani- 
mal to suspend itself to the branches of trees. Some of them 
are of a yellowish-grey, with an oblique band on the shoulder 
that is only visible in a certain light ; others are fawn coloured 
with a black band; some are fawn coloured and striped, with 
the croup and belly black; and finally, some are entirely black- 
ish. Whether these differences are specific or not, is as yet 
unknown. 

M. didactyla, L.; Buff. X, xxx. (The Two-toed Ant-Eater.) 
The size of a Rat, with woolly hair, fawn coloured ; a red line 
along the back; the tail is prehensile, and naked at the end ; 
only two nails before, one of which is very large, four be- 
hind.(2) 


Manis, Lin. 


The Pangolins,(3) or Scaly Ant-Eaters as they are called, are desti- 
tute of teeth, have a very extensible tongue, and live on Ants and Ter- 
mites like true Ant-Eaters; but their body, limbs and tail are clothed 


(1) Daubenton has discovered in the M. didactyla two very small appendages, 
which, in strictness, may be considered as ceca. I have ascertained that there 
are none in the Tamandua. 

(2) The Myrme. tridactyla, L.; Seba, pl. F, is a Tamandua, badly drawn. The 
M. striata, Shaw, Buff. Supp. I, pl. lvi, is a Coati, disfigured by the stuffer. 

(3) Pangoeling, according to Seba, in the language of Java signifies an animal 
that rolls itself into a ball. In Bengal, it is called Badjarkita or Stone Reptile ; it 
is also called the Land Carp. The Dutch sailors called it the Devil of Formosa. 


EDENTATA. 167 


with large trenchant scales arranged like tiles, which they elevate 
in rolling themselves into a ball, when they wish to defend them- 
selves from an enemy. There are five toes to each foot. Their 
stomach is slightly divided in the middle, and there is no cecum. 
They are confined to the eastern continent. 

M. pentadactyla, L.; M. brachyura, Erxl.; Buff. X, xxxiv. 
(The Short-tailed Pangolin.) Three or four feet long ; the tail 
shorter than the body. From the East Indies. It is the Phat- 
tagen of Ailian, lib. xvi, cap. vi. 

M. tetradactyla, L.; M. macroura, Erxl.; Phatagin, Buff. X, 
xxxiv. (The Long-tailed Pangolin.) Three or four feet in 
length; the tail double that of the body, and the scales armed 
with points. From Senegal, Guinea, &c.(1) 


The third tribe of the Edentata comprehends those animals, 
designated by M. Geoffroy, under the name of 


MONOTREMATA. 


So called, because they have only one external opening for 
the seminal fluid, urine and other excrements. Their organs 
of generation present extraordinary anomalies; for though they 
have no pouch under the belly, their pubis is furnished with 
the same supernumerary bones as the Marsupialias; the vasa 
deferentia terminate in the urethra which opens into the 
cloaca; the penis, when at rest, is drawn into a sheath, which 
opens by a hole near the bottom of the cloaca. The only 
matrix consists of two canals or trunks, each of which opens 
separately and by a double orifice into the urethra, which is 
very large and terminates in the cloaca. As naturalists have 
not yet agreed as to the existence of their mammex;(2) 
whether they are oviparous or viviparous remains to be 
ascertained.(3) The singularities of their skeleton are not 


(1) We have verified the habitat of the Long-tailed Pangolin, by the statement 
of M. Adanson and other travellers. 

(2) M. Meckel considers as such two glandular masses he found greatly de- 
veloped in a female Ornithorhynchus. M. Geoffroy thinks they are rather glands, 
analogous 'to those on the flanks of the Shrews. 

(3) Travellers have lately asserted, that it has been ascertained that these ani- 
mals produce eggs. Should this prove to be the case, the Monotremata must, in 
some sort, be considered asa separate class of animals; but it is to be wished that 
some able anatomist would exactly describe these eggs, their internal origin, and 
their development after being produced. We must expect it from some one 


168 MAMMALIA. 


less remarkable; a sort of clavicle especially, which is common 
to both shoulders, placed before the ordinary clavicle, and 
analogous to the fourchette in birds. Finally, besides their five 
nails to each foot, the males have a spur on the hinder ones, 
perforated by a canal which transmits the liquid secreted by 
a gland situated on the inner surface of the thigh. It is 
asserted that the wounds it inflicts are envenomed. These 
animals have no external conch to their ears, and their eyes 
are very small. 

The Monotremata are only found in New Holland, and 
have been discovered since the settlement of the English. 
Two genera of them are known. . 


Ecutpna, Cuv.—Tacuyewossus, Illig. 


The elongated slender muzzle of the Spiny Ant-Eaters, terminated 
by a small mouth, contains an extensible tongue similar to that of 
the Ant-Eaters and Pangolins, and like them, they feed on Ants. 
They have no teeth, but their palate is furnished with several rows 
of small recurved spines. Their short feet have each five very long 
and stout nails fitted for digging; and the upper surface of the 
body is covered with spines like that of the Hedgehog. It appears, 
that when in danger, they also possess the faculty of rolling them- 
selves into a ball. Their tail is very short; their stomach ample 
and almost globular, and their cecum moderate; the penis is ter- 
minated by four tubercles. There are two species. 

E. hystrix ; Ornithorhynchus hystrix, Home ; Myrmecophaga 
aculeata, Shaw. (The Spiny Echidna.) Completely covered 
with large spines. 

E. setosas; Ornithor. setosus, Home. (The Bristly Echidna.) 
Is covered with hair, among which the spines are half hidden. 
Some naturalists consider it as a mere variety from age. 


_Ornitrnoruyncuus, Blumenb.—Puatypvus, Shaw. 


The elongated, and at the same time singularly enlarged and flat- 
tened muzzle of the Ornithorhynchi presents the closest external 
resemblance to the bill of a Duck, and the more so as its edges are 


among the numerous physicians who daily visit the colony of Port Jackson. As to 
the anatomy of the Ornithorhynchus, see the detailed monography on that subject, 
published by M. Meckel, also the Memoirs of Sir Ev. Home, my Lessons of Com- 
parative Anatomy, Vol. V, and the Memoirs of M. Geoffroy St Hilaire, Mem. du 
Mus. tome XV. , 


EDENTATA. 169 


similarly furnished with small transverse lamine. They have no 
teeth except at the bottom of the mouth, where there are two 
throughout, without roots, with flat crowns, and composed like 
those of the Orycteropus, of little vertical tubes. There is a mem- 
brane to the fore feet, which not only unites the toes, but extends 
far beyond the nails; in the hind feet the membrane terminates at 
the root of the nails; two characters, which, with the flattened 
tail, make them aquatic animals. Their tongue is in a manner 
double: one in the bill bristled with villosities ; and a second on the 
base of the first, which is thicker, and furnished anteriorly with two 
little fleshy points. The stomach is small, oblong, and has the py- 
lorus near the cardia. The cecum is small; and many salient and 
parallel laminz are visible in the intestines. The penis has only 
two tubercles. The Ornithorhynchi inhabit the rivers and marshes 
of New Holland in the neighbourhood of Port Jackson, 

Two species only are known, one with smooth, thin, reddish 
fur, the Ornithorhynchus paradoxus, Blumenb., and the other 
with blackish-brown, flat and frizzled hair. Probably these are 
only varieties of age. Voy. de Peron, I, pl. xxxiv. 


ORDER VII. 
PACHYDERMATA. 


The Edentata terminate the series of unguiculated animals, 
and we have just seen that there are some of them whose 
nails are so large, and so envelope the extremities of the toes, 
as to approximate them in a certain degree to the hoofed 
animals. They still, however, possess the faculty of bending 
these toes round various objects, and of seizing with more or 
less force. The total deficiency of this faculty characterizes 
the hoofed animals. Using their feet merely as supporters, 
they are never furnished with clavicles; their fore-arm is 
always in a state of pronation, and they are reduced to the 
necessity of feeding on vegetables. Their forms and habits 
present much less variety than those of the Unguiculata, and 
they can hardly be divided into more than two orders, those 


which ruminate, and those which do not; but these latter, 
Vou. I.—W 


170 MAMMALIA. 


which we designate collectively by the term Pachydermata, 
admit of subdivision into families. 

The first is that of the Pachydermata which have a pro- 
boscis and. tusks. 


FAMILY I. 
PROBOSCIDIANA.(1) 


The Proboscidians have five toes to each foot, very com- 
plete in the skeleton, but so encrusted by the callous skin 
which surrounds the foot, that their only external appearance 
is in the nails attached to the edge of this species of hoof. 
They have no canini or incisors properly so called, but in 
their incisive bone are implanted two tusks, which project 
from the mouth, and frequently attain to an enormous size. 
The magnitude requisite for the alveoli of these tusks ren- 
ders the upper jaw so high, and so shortens the bones of the 
nose, that the nostrils in the skeleton are placed near the top 
of the face; but in the living animal they are continued out 
into a cylindrical trunk or proboscis, composed of several 
thousands of small muscles, variously interlaced, extremely 
flexible, endowed with the most exquisite sensibility, and ter- 
minated by an appendage resembling a finger. This probos- 
cis is to the Elephant what the hand is to the Monkey. 
With it he seizes every thing he wishes to convey to his 
mouth, and sucks up the water he is to drink, which, by the 
flexure of this admirable organ, is then poured into his throat, 
thus supplying the want of a long neck, whose weakness 
would have rendered it unable to support so large a head and 
such heavy tusks. Within the parietes of the cranium, how- 
ever, are several great cavities, which render the head lighter ; 
the lower jaw has no incisors whatever; the intestines are 
very voluminous, the stomach simple, caecum enormous, and 


(1) The Proboscidians have various affinities with certain Rodentia: 1, their 
great incisors; 2, their grinders frequently composed of parallel laminz ; 3, the 
form of several of their bones, &c. 


PACHYDERMATA. 171 


the mammzx, two in number, placed under the chest. The 
young suck with the mouth, and not with the trunk. 
But one living genus of the Proboscidiana is known, that of 


Everuas, Lin. 


Or the Elephant, which comprehends the largest of the terrestrial 
Mammalia. The astonishing nature of his trunk, an instrument 
at once agile and powerful, the organ of touch as well as of smell, 
forms a singular contrast with his clumsy aspect and heavy pro- 
portions; and as this is joined to a very imposing physiognomy, 
it has contributed to exaggerate the intelligence of these ani- 
mals. After studying them for a long time, we have not found it 
to surpass that of the Dog, or of several other carnivorous animals. 
Naturally of a mild disposition, Elephants live in herds, which are 
conducted by old males. Their food is strictly vegetable. 

Their distinctive character consists in the grinders, the bodies of 
which are composed of a certain number of vertical laminz, each 
one being formed of a bony substance, enveloped with enamel, and 
cemented together by a third substance, called cortical; in a word, 
similar to those we have already seen to exist in the Cabiais and 
other Rodentia. These grinders succeed each other, not vertically, 
or as our permanent teeth succeed the first ones, but from behind 
forwards, so that as fast as one tooth becomes worn, it is pushed 
forward by that which comes after its; hence it happens that the 
Elephant has sometimes one, sometimes two grinders on each side, 
or four or eight in all, according to circumstances. The first of 
these teeth are always composed of fewer laminz than those which 
replace them. It is asserted that certain Elephants thus shed their 
teeth eight times—their tusks, however, are changed but once. 

The Elephants of the present day, clothed with a rough skin nearly 
destitute of hair, are only found in the torrid zone of the eastern 
continent, where hitherto only two species have been ascertained. 

E. indicus, Cuv.; Buff. XI, i, and Supp. III, lix. (The Ele- 
phant of India.) An oblong head ; the crown of the grinders pre- 
senting transverse undulating fillets, which are sections of the 
lamine which compose them worn by trituration. This spe- 
cies has rather smaller ears than the next one, and has four nails to 
the hind foot. It is found from the Indus to the Eastern ocean, 
and in the large islands in the south of India. They have been 
used from the*earliest ages as beasts of draught and burden, 
but it has hitherto been found impossible to make them propa- 
gate in a domestic state, although the assertion respecting 
their modesty and repugnance to copulate before witnesses is 


172 MAMMALIA, 


wholly without foundation. The females have very short tusks, 
and in this respect, many of the males resemble them. 

L. africanus, Cuv.; Perrault, Mem. pour I’Hist. des An., and 
F. Cuv. Mammif. (The African Elephant.) A round head; 
convex forehead ; large ears; the crowns of the grinders divided 
into lozenges ; it appears very frequently to have but three nails 
to the hind foot. Found from Senegal to the Cape of Good 
Hope. Whether they ascend the eastern coast of Africa, or 
whether they are replaced there by the preceding species is not 
known. The tusks of the female are as large as those of the 
male, and the weapon itself, generally speaking, is larger than 
in the Indian species. The African Elephant is not now tamed, 
though it appears that the Carthaginians employed it in-the 
same way that the inhabitants of India do theirs. 

In nearly every part of the two continents, are found, under 
ground, the bones of a species of elephant allied to that of India, 
-but with narrower and straighter coronal fillets, the alveoli for 
lodging the tusks much longer in proportion, and the lower jaw 
more obtuse. A specimen recently taken from the ice on the 
coast of Siberia, by Mr Adams, appears to have been thickly 
covered with hairs of two kinds, so that it is possible this spe- 
cies may have lived in cold climates. It has long disappeared 
from the face of the earth. See Cuy. Oss. Foss. tom. I. 

The second genus of the Proboscidiana, or the 


Masropown, Cuv. 


Has been completely destroyed, nor is there a single individual liv- 
ing. It had the feet, tusks, trunk, and many other details of con- 
formation in common with the Elephant ; but differed from it in the 
grinders, the crown of which, from above the gum, being bristled 
with large conical points, presented in proportion to their detri- 
tion, larger or smaller disks, which represented sections of those 
points.(1) These teeth, which succeed each other from behind, like 
those of the Elephant, presented also so many more pairs of points 
as the animal was the more advanced in age. 

M. giganteum, Cuv. loc. cit. The Great Mastodon, in which 
the sections of the points are lozenge-shaped, is the most cele- 
brated species. It equalled the Elephant in size, but with still 
heavier proportions. Its remains are found in a wonderful state 
of preservation, and in great abundance throughout all parts of 


(1) This conformation, common to the Mastodon, Hippopotamus, Hog, &c., has 
occasioned the erroneous idea of the first being carnivorous. 


PACHYDERMATA. 173 


North America. They are infinitely more rare in the eastern 
continent. | } 

M. angustidens, Cuv. loc. cit., or the Narrow-toothed Mas- 
todon, whose grinders, narrower than those of the preceding 
species, when worn down, formed trefoil-shaped disks, and have 
thereby been confounded by some authors with the teeth of the 
Hippopotamus, was a third less than the great Mastodon, and 
much lower onits legs. Its remains are found throughout the 
greater part of Europe and of South America. In certain 
places, the teeth, tinged with iron, become of a beautiful blue 
when heated, forming what is called the oriental turquoise. (1) 


_ FAMILY II. 
PACHYDERMATA ORDINARIA, 


Or the ordinary Pachydermata, have four, three or two 
toes. 


Those in which the toes make even numbers have feet 
somewhat cleft, and approximate to the Ruminantia in various 
parts of the skeleton, and even in the complication of the sto- 
mach. ‘They are usually divided into two genera. 


Hiprororamus, Lin. 


Four nearly equal toes, terminated by little hoofs, to each foot ; six 
grinders throughout, of which the three anterior are conical; the 
three posterior bristled with two pairs of points, which, when worn, 
assume a trefoil shape; four incisors to each jaw, the superior of 
which are conical and recurved, the inferior cylindrical, long, pointed 
and sloping forwards ; a canine tooth on each side above and below, 
the superior straight, and the inferior very large and curved, the 
two rubbing against each other. 

These animals have a very massive and naked body; very short 
legs; the belly reaching nearly to the ground; an enormous head 
terminated by a large inflated muzzle, which encloses the apparatus 
of their large front teeth; the tail short; the ears and eyes small. 
Their stomach is divided into several sacs. They live in rivers, 


(1) Other less widely dispersed species have been discovered; see Oss, Foss.: 
and very lately, some remarkable ones have been brought from the Birmese em- 
pire, a description of which we are expecting from M. Buckland, Mast. latidens, 
M. elephantoides, &c. 


174 MAMMALIA. 


upon roots and other vegetable substances, and exhibit much fero- 
city and stupidity. One species is only known. 

H. amphibius, L.; Buff. Supp. HI, 4and 5. (The Hippopota- 
mus. Now confined to the rivers of the middle and south of 
Africa. It formerly found its way into Egypt by the Nile, but 
has long disappeared from that country. 

The bones of a species of Hippopotamus very similar to that 
of Africa, and those of two or three other successively smaller 
ones, have been found in Europe. See my Rech. sur les Oss. 
Foss. tom. 1. 


Sus, Lin. 


Each foot of the Hog consists of two large middle toes armed with 
strong hoofs, and two much shorter lateral ones that hardly reach 
the ground ; there is a variable number of incisors, the inferior of 
which always slant forwards; the canini project from the mouth 
and curve upwards; the muzzle terminates by a sort of truncated 
button fitted for turning up the earth ; the stomach is but slightly 
divided. 

Hogs, properly so called, have twenty-four or twenty-eight grind- 
ers, of which the posterior are oblong with tuberculous crowns, and 
the anterior more or less compressed, and six incisors in each jaw. 

S. scropha, L.; Buff. V, xiv and xvii. The Wild Hog, 
which is the parent stock of our Domestic Hog and its varie- 
ties, has prismatic tusks that curve outwards and slightly up- 
wards ; the body short and thick ; straight ears ; the hair bristled 
and black; the young ones striped black and white. It does 
great injury to fields in the vicinity of forests, by ne up the 
ground in search of roots. 

The Domestic Hog varies in size, in the height of its legs, in 
the direction of its ears, and in colour, being sometimes white, 
and at others black, red or varied. The great utility of this 
animal from the facility with which it is fed, the flavour of its 
flesh, the length of time it can be preserved by means of salt, 
and finally, from its fecundity, which greatly surpasses that of 
any other animal of its size, the female frequently producing 
fourteen at a litter, is well known to every one. The period of 
gestation is four months, and they produce twice a year. The 
Hog continues to increase in size for five or six years, is pro- 
lific at one, and sometimes lives for twenty. Although naturally 
savage, they are social animals, and know how to defend them- 
selves against Wolves by forming a circle, and showing a front 
to the enemy in every direction. Voracious and clamorous, 
they do not even spare their own young. This species is spread 


PACHYDERMATA. 175 


throughout the globe ; and none but Jews and Mahometans re- 
fuse to eat its flesh. | 

S. larvatus, Fr. Cuv.; S. africanus, Schreb. CCCXXVII; 
Sanglier de Madagascar, Daub. MDCCCLXXXV3 Samuel 
Daniels, Afric. Scenery. (The Masked Sanglier.) Tusks like 
the common Hog; but on each side of the snout, near the tusks, . 
is a large tubercle, nearly similar to the mamma of a woman, 
supported by a bony prominence, which gives it a very singular 
appearance. It inhabits Madagascar and the south of Africa. 

S. babirussa, Buff. Supp. II, xii. (The Babiroussa.) Higher 
and lighter than the others; the tusks are long, slender, and 
turned vertically upwards; the upper ones inclining spirally 
backwards. From some of the islands in the Indian Archi- 
pelago. We may separate from the Hogs the 


Puacocuzrvus, Fred. Cuy.(1) 


Grinders composed of cylinders, cemented together by a kind of 
cortical substance, very similar to the transverse laminz of those 
of the Elephant, and like them succeeding each other from behind. 
The cranium is remarkably large ; the rounded tusks, inclined late- 
rally upwards, are of a frightful magnitude; and on each of their 
cheeks hangs a thick fleshy lobe, which completes the hideousness 
of their figure. They have only two incisors above, and six below. 

Those brought from Cape Verd generally have the incisors very 
complete—S. africanus, Gm.: in such as are from the Cape of Good 
Hope—S. exthiopicus, Gm.; Buff. Supp. III, xi, they are scarcely 
visible, some vestiges however exist under the gum. This differ- 
ence may arise from age, which may have worn them away in the 
latter, or it may indicate a different species, more especially as the 
head of those from the Cape of Good Hope is somewhat larger 
and shorter. 


With still more propriety do we separate from the Hogs the 


Dicoty1E, Cuy.(2) 


Or the Pecaries, which have, it is true, grinders and incisors very 
similar to those of the Hog properly so called, but their canini, di- 
rected like those of animals in general, do not project from the 
mouth, and they have no external toe to their hind foot. There is 
no tail, and upon the loins is a glandular opening from which a fetid 
humour is excreted. The metatarsal and metacarpal bones of their 
two great toes are soldered together like those of the Ruminantia, 


(1) Phaco-cherus, Hog with a wart. 
(2) Dicotyle, double navel, from the opening on the back. 


176 MAMMALIA, 


to which their stomach, divided into several sacs, evidently allies 
them. It is singular that the aorta of these animals is often found 
very much enlarged, but at different parts of it, as though they were 
subject to a kind of aneurism. 

Only two species are known, both from South America, which 
were ascertained by Azzara: Linnzus confounds them under the 
name of Sus tajassu. 

Dic. torquatus, Cuy.; Buff. X, iiiand iv. (The Patira.) Hair 
annulated with grey and brown; a whitish collar, stretching 
obliquely from the angle of the lower jaw over the shoulder ; 
half the size of the Wild Hog. 

Dic. labiatus, Cuv.; the Tagniacati, Taitetou, Tajassou, &c.; 
larger, brown, and with white lips. 


Here may come a genus now unknown in the living crea- 
tion, which we have discovered, and named 


ANOPLOTHERIUM, 


It presents the most singular affinities with the various tribes of 
the Pachydermata, and approximates in some respects to the 
order of the Ruminantia. Six incisors to each jaw, four canini 
almost like the incisors, and not projecting beyond them, and 
seven molars throughout, form a continuous series without any in- 
tervening space, a disposition of the teeth seen in Man only. The 
four posterior molars of each side are similar to those of the Rhino- 
ceros, the Daman, and the Palzxotherium; that is, they are square 
above, and form double or triple crescents below. Their feet, ter- 
minated by two great toes, as in the Ruminantia, differ in this—the 
bones of the metatarsus and metacarpus always remain separate, or 
without being soldered together. The composition of their tarsus 
is the same as in the Camel. 

The bones of this genus have hitherto only been found in the 
gypsum quarries near Paris. We have already ascertained five 
species: one the size of a small Ass, with the low form and 
long tail of the Otter—.4. commune, Cuv., to the internal edge 
of whose fore foot was affixed a small accessary toe: another of 
the size and light carriage of the Gazelle—/. medium: a third 
of the size, and about the proportions of the Hare, with two 
small accessory toes to the sides of the hind feet, &c. See 
Cuy. Rech. Oss. Fos. tom. III. 


The ordinary Pachydermata which have not cloven feet, 
comprehend, in the first place, three genera, very similar to 


ie 


PACHYDERMATA. 177 


each other in their grinders, having seven upper ones on each 
side, with a square crown and various salient lines, and seven 
lower ones, the crown of which forms a double crescent, and 
the last of all a triple one; but their incisors vary. 


Ruinoceros, Lin. 


The species of this genus, in this particular, éveh vary among them- 
selves. They are large animals; each foot is divided into three 
toes, and the bones of the nose, which are very thick, and moulded 
into a sort of arch, support a solid horn which adheres to the skin, 
and is composed of a fibrous and horny substance, resembling ag- 
glutinated hairs. They are naturally stupid and ferocious, frequent 
marshy places, and feed on herbs and branches of trees. Their 
stomach is simple, intestines very long, and the cecum extremely 
large. 

Rh. indicus, Cuv.3; Buff. XI, vii. (The Rhinoceros of India.) 
Has, in addition toits twenty-eight grinders, two strong incisors 
in each jaw, two other small ones between the lower, and two 
still smaller again outside of the upper ones. It has but one 
horn, and the skin is remarkable for the deep folds into which 
itis thrown behind and across the shoulders, and before and 
across the thighs. It inhabits the East Indies, and chiefly be- 
yond the Ganges. 

Rh. javanus, Cuv.; Fr. Cuv. Mammif. (The Rhinocerds of 
Java.) With the large incisors and single horn of the preced- 
ing, has not so many folds in the skin, though one of them on 
the neck is larger; but what is most remarkable, is, that the 
whole skin is covered with small compact angular tubercles. 
It has hitherto been found in Jaya only. 

Rh. sumatrensis, Cuv.; Bell. Philos. Trans. 17933; F. Cuv. 
Mammif. (The Rhinoceros of Sumatra.) The same four 
great incisors as the preceding, but there are scarcely any folds 
of the skin, which moreover ‘is sk and has a second horn 
behind the first. 

Rh. africanus, Cuv.; Buff. Supp. VI, vi. (The Rhinoceros of, 
Africa.) Furnished with two horns, like the preceding ; has no.” 
fold of the skin, nor any incisor teeth, its molars occupying 
nearly the whole length of the jaw. This deficiency of i incisors ~ 
might warrant its separation from its congeners.) ; sgn A 

There have been found, under ground, in $ gehagand 3 in fiela 
ferent parts of Germany, the bones of a two-h hinoceros, 


eae 


the cranium of which, besides being much moi € elongated than 
that of any living species, is also distinguished by. a bony ver- 
Vou. L.—X 


178 MAMMALIA. 


tical partition that supported the bones of the nose. It is a lost 
species ; and a nearly entire body, which was taken from the ice 
on the banks of the Vilhoui in Siberia, showed that it was 
covered with tolerably thick hair. It is possible then that its 
habitat was to the north, like that of the fossil Elephant. 

In Tuscany, and in Lombardy, there have been disinterred, 
still more recently, other Rhinoceros bones, which seem to 
approximate much nearer to that of Africa. 

Some have been found in Germany with incisors like the 
Asiatic species; and lastly, some of their bones have been dis- 
covered in France, which announce a size hardly superior to 
that of the Hog. 


Hyrax, Herm. 


The Damans, as they are termed, have long been placed among the 
Rodentia, on account of their small size; if, however, we examine 
them closely, we shall find, the horn excepted, that they are Rhino- 
ceroses in miniature, at least they have similar molars; but their 
upper jaw is furnished with two strong incisors curved downwards, 
and at an early age with two very small canini; the lower one has 
four incisors, but no canini. There are four toes to the fore feet, 
and three to the hind one, all except the internal posterior, which is 
armed with a hooked and oblique nail, terminated by a kind of very 
small, thin, and rounded hoof. The muzzle and the ears are short ; 
they are covered with hair, and have a tubercle in lieu of a tail. 
Their stomach is divided into two sacs, and besides a large cecum 
and several dilatations of the colon, there are two appendages about 
the middle of the latter analogous to the two czca of birds. 
There is one species known which is as large as a Rabbit, of 
a greyish colour, and tolerably common among the rocks of all 
Africa, where it frequently becomes the victim of birds of prey, 
and which also appears to inhabit some parts of Asia; at least 
we cannot perceive any certain difference between the Ayrax 
capensis and the H. syriacus, Buff. Supp. VI, xlii, xliii, and VII, 
Ixxix.(@) /-The 


PaLZoTHERIUM, Cuv., 


Is also a lost genus, with the same grinders as the two preceding, 
six incisors, and two canini in each jaw, like the Tapirs, and three 


(1) I have strong doubts of the authenticity of the Hyrax hudsonius, Bewick, 
407, and Schreb. GCXL, ¢.,. It has only been seen ina Museum. 


t. ed 
a 4 
Vb ei ly 


PACHYDERMATA. 179 


visible toes to each foot; they had also, like the Tapirs, a short 
fleshy proboscis, for the muscles of which the bones of the nose were 
shortened, leaving a deep notch underneath. We discovered the 
bones of this genus péle-méle with those of the Anoplotherium in 
the gypsum quarries near Paris. They also exist in many other 
parts of France. 
Eleven or twelve species are known already. At Paris alone 
we find them of the size of a Horse, of a Tapir, and of a small 
Sheep, while near Orleans are found the bones of a species that 
must have been as large as the Rhinoceros. These animals 
appear to have frequented the shores of lakes and marshes, for 
the rocks which conceal their bones also contain fresh water 
shells. See Cuv., Oss. Foss., tom. III. The 


Loruiopon, Cuv., 


Is another lost genus, which appears to be closely allied to the pre- 
ceding one; its inferior grinders, however, have transverse ridges. 
Ten or twelve species have been extracted from our old fresh water 
formations, the same in which the Palzotherium is found. See my 
Oss. Foss., tom. III. ; 

To these genera should succeed the genus 


r Taprr, Lin., 


In which the twenty-seven molars, before they are worn, present 
two transverse and rectilinear prominences ; in front, there are, in 
each Jaw, six incisors and two canini, separated from the molars by 
an empty space. The nose resembles a small fleshy proboscis ; 
there are four toes to the fore feet, and three to the hind ones. For 
a long time but a single species was known, 

T. americanus, L.; Buff. Supp. VI, i. (The American Tapir.) 
Size of a small Ass; skin brown and nearly naked; tail moder- 
ate ;neck fleshy, forming a sort of crest on the nape. Common 
in wet places, and along the rivers of the warm parts of South 
America. The young ones are spotted with white like the 
fawn. ‘The flesh is eaten. 

Within a few years a second species has been discovered in 
the eastern continent. 

TY. indicus, Farkharie, Soc. Asiat., tom. XIV; Horsfield, Jav. 
Miaba, Fr. Cuy. Mammif. (The Tapir of India.) Larger than 
that of America, of a black-brown ; the back of a whitish grey. 
It inhabits the forests of Malacca, Sumatra, &c. 

Fossil Tapirs are also scattered throughout Europe; and 
among others is a gigantic species, which in size must have 


180 MAMMALIA. 


nearly equalled the Elephant ; Tap. giganteus, Cuv:, Oss. Foss. 
tom. II.(1) 


FAMILY Hl. 
SOLIPEDES. 


The Solipedes are quadrupeds which have only one appa- 
rent toe, and a single hoof to each foot, although under the 
skin, on each side of their metatarsus and metacarpus, there 
are spurs representing two lateral toes. One genus only is 
known, that of 


Eauus, Lin., 


The Horse has six incisors in each jaw, the crowns of which, at an 
early age, are marked with a fossula, and six molars throughout, 
with a square crown, marked by laminz of enamel which dip into 
them, with four crescents, and in the upper ones, with a small disk 
on the inner edge. The male has also two small additional canini 
in the upper jaw, and sometimes in both, which are almost always 
wanting in the female. Between these canini and the first molar 
is that unoccupied space which corresponds to the angle of the lips 
where the bit is placed, by which alone Man has been enabled to 
subdue and tame this powerful animal. The stomach is simple and 
moderate, but the intestines are very long, and the czcum enor- - 
mous. The mamme are between the thighs. 

E. caballus, L.3 Buff. 1V,i. (The Horse.) This noble asso- 
ciate of Man, in the chase, in war, and in the works of agricul- 
ture, the arts and commerce, is the most important and care- 
fully attended of all the animals he has subdued. It does not 
seem to exist in a wild state at the present time; those places. 
excepted, where Horses formerly domesticated have been set at ° 
liberty, as in Tartary and America, where they live in troops, 
each of which is led and defended by an old male. The young 


a peop SF ES nL ne ee DD Le EES 

(1) Dr Roulin has lately discovered in the Cordilleras a new species of Tapir, 
black, and covered with hair; the bones of its nose are more elongated, which, 
somewhat approximates it to the Palzotherium. 

M. Schleyermacher has obtained a lower jaw bone of the great fossil animal that 
was supposed to be a gigantic Tapir. It turns out that it is possessed of enormous 
canini which must have projected from the mouth ; consequently, it must form a 
separate genus. Its size may have been greater than that of the Hippopotamus, 
hy. one half. 


PACHYDERMATA. ; 181 


males, forcibly expelled as soon as they have reached the age of 
puberty, follow the troop at a distance, until they are joined by 
some of the younger mares. 

The domestic colt sucks six or seven months, and the sexes 
are separated at two years; at three they are handled, and at 
four broken to the saddle, &c. at which time also they can 
propagate without injury to themselves. The period of gesta- 
tion is eleven months. 

A Horse’s age is known by the incisors. The milk teeth 
begin to grow about fifteen days after the colt is foaled ; at two 
years and a half the middle ones are replaced; at three and a 
half the two following ones ; at four and a half the outermost or 
the corners. All these teeth, with an originally indented crown, 
gradually lose that mark by detrition. When seven or eight 
years old they are entirely effaced, and the Horse is no longer 
marked. 

The lower canini are produced at three years and a half, the 
upper ones at four; they remain pointed till six ; at ten they be- 
gin to peel off. ‘ 

The life of the Horse seldom extends beyond thirty years. — 

Every one knows how much this animal varies in size and 
colour. The principal races even exhibit sensible differences 
in the form of the head, in their proportion, and in their fitness 
for the various uses to which they are applied. 

The most beautiful and swift is the Arab, which has been 


instrumental in improving the Spanish race, and along with the. 


Jatter has contributed to form the English; the largest and 
strongest are from the coasts of the North seas the smallest 
from the north of Sweden and Corsica. Wild Horses have a 
large head, frizzled hair, and ungraceful proportions. 

E. hemionus, Pall., Schreb. (The Dzigguetai.) <A species 
which, as to its proportions, is intermediate between the Horse. 
and the Ass, and lives in troops in the sandy deserts of central 
Asia. It is of an isabella or light bay colour, with a black 
mane, and a dorsal line of the same colour; the tail is termi- 
nated by a black tuft. It is probably the Wild Mule of the an- 
cients. ; ¥ 
_ &.asinus, L.3 Buff. TV, xi. (The Ass.) Known by its long: 
ears, the tuft which terminates the tail, and the black cross on 
the shoulders, which is the first indication of the stripes which 
distinguish the following species. Originally from the great 
deserts of central Asia, it is still to be found there in a wild 
state, and in innumerable troops, ranging from north to south 
according to the season; hence it thrives but poorly in the 
more northern climates, Its patience, sobriety, robust tem- 


182 MAMMALIA. 


perament, and the services it renders, are all too well known to 
needacomment. The hoarseness of its voice, or bray, depends 
upon two small peculiar cavities situated at the bottom of the 
larynx. 

E. zebra, L.; Buff. XII, i. (The Zebra.) Nearly the same 
form as the Ass; the whole animal regularly marked with 
black and white transverse stripes, originally from the whole 
south of Africa. We have seen a female Zebra successively 
produce with the Horse and the Ass. 

E. quaccha, Gm., Buff. Supp. VII, vii. (The Couagga.) Re- 
sembles the Horse more than the Zebra, but comes from the 
same country. The hair on the neck and shoulders is brown, 
with whitish transverse stripes ; the croup is of a reddish grey; 
tail and legs whitish. The name is expressive of its voice, 
which resembles the barking of a Dog. 

E. montanus, Burchell; the Onagga or Dauw, Fred. Cuv. 
Mammif. (The Onagga.) An African species, smaller than 
the Ass, but having the beautiful form of the Couagga ; its co- 
lour is a light bay, with black stripes, alternately wider and 
narrower, on the head, neck and body. ‘Those behind slant 
obliquely forwards ; legs and tail white. 


ORDER VIII. 
RUMINANTIA.(1) 


This order is perhaps the most natural and best determined 
of the class, for nearly all the animals which compose it have 
the appearance of being constructed on the same model, the 
Camels alone presenting some trifling exceptions to the gene- 
ral characters. 

The first of these characters is the total absence of incisors 
in the upper jaw, they being found only in the lower one, and 
nearly always eight in number. A callous pad is substituted 
for them above. Between the incisors and the molars is a. va- 
cant space, where, in some genera only, are found one or two 
canini. The molars, almost always six throughout, have their 

SINS, 


Nee eee 


(1) The Pecora, Lin. 


RUMINANTIA. 183 


crown marked with two double crescents, the convexity of 
which is turned inwards in the upper, and outwards in the 
lower ones. 

The four feet are terminated by two toes and two hoofs 
which face each other by a flat surface presenting the appear- 
ance of a single hoof which has been cleft, whence the name of 
cloven-footed, bifurcated, &c. which is applied to these animals. 

Behind the hoof are sometimes found two small spurs, the 
vestiges of lateral toes. ‘The two bones of the metatarsus and 
metacarpus are united into one called the cannon, but in cer- 
tain species there are also vestiges of lateral metatarsal and 
metacarpal bones. 

The term Ruminantia indicates the singular faculty possessed 
by these animals of masticating their food a second time, by 
bringing it back to the mouth after a first deglutition. This 
faculty depends upon the structure of their stomachs, of which 
they always have four, the three first being so disposed that 
the food may enter into either of them, the cesophagus termi- 
nating at the point of communication. 

The first and largest is called the pawnchs it receives a 
large quantity of vegetable matters coarsely bruised by a first 
mastication. From this it passes into the second, called the 
honeycomb or bonnet, the parietes of which are laminated 
like a honeycomb. This second stomach, very small and globu- 
lar, seizes the food, moistens and compresses it into little pel- 
lets, which afterwards successively ascend to the mouth to be 
re-chewed. The animal remains at rest during this opera- 
tion, which lasts until all the food first taken into the paunch 
has been submitted to it. The aliment thus re-masticated 
descends directly into the third stomach called the leaflet, 
( feuzllet) on account of its parietes being longitudinally lami- 
nated or like the leaves of a book; and thence to the 
fourth or the caillette, the sides of which are wrinkled, and 
which is the true organ of digestion, analogous to the simple 
stomach of animals in general. In the young Ruminantia, or 
so long as they subsist on the milk of the mother, the caillette 
is the largest of the four. The paunch is only developed. by 
receiving increased quantities of grass, which finally give it 


184 MAMMALIA. 


an enormous volume. ‘The intestinal canal is very long; 
though there are but few enlargements in the great intestines. 
The cecum is likewise long and tolerably smooth. The fat of 
ruminating animals hardens more by cooling than that of other 
quadrupeds, and even becomes brittle. It is called tallow. 
Their mammez are placed between the thighs. 

Of all animals, the Ruminantia are the most useful to man. 
They furnish him with food, and nearly all the flesh he con- 
sumes. Some serve him as beasts of burden, others with their 
milk, their tallow, leather, horns, &c. The two first genera 
have no horns. 


Came us, Lin. 


The Camels approximate to the preceding order rather more thai 
the others. They not only always have canini in both jaws, but 
they also have two pointed teeth implanted in the incisive bone, six 
inferior incisors and from eighteen to twenty molars only; peculiari- 
ties, which, of all the Ruminantia, they alone possess, as well as that 
of having the scaphoid and cuboid bones of the tarsus separate. In- 
stead of the large hoof flattened on its internal side which envelopes 
the whole inferior portion of each toe, and which determines the 
figure of the common cloven-foot, they have but one small one, 
which only adheres to the last phalanx, and is symmetrically formed 
liked the hoofs of the pachydermata. Their tumid and cleft lip, 
their long neck, prominent orbits, weakness of the crupper, and the 
disagreeable proportions of their legs and feet, render them some- 
what deformed, but their extreme sobriety and the faculty they pos- 
sess of passing several days without drinking, make them of the 
highest importance. t 

The faculty just mentioned probably results from the large masses 
of cells which cover the sides of their paunch, in which water is con- 
stantly retained or produced. The other Ruminantia have nothing 
of the kind. 

The Camel urinates backwards, but the direction of the penis 
changes 7m coitu, which is effected with much difficulty, and while 
the female lies down. In the rutting season a fetid humour oozes 
from their head. 


CamELus, Cuv. 


Camels, properly so called, have the two toes united below nearly 
to the point by a common sole, and the back furnished with lumps 
of fat. They are large animals of the eastern continent, of which 


RUMINANTIA. 185 


two species are known, both completely reduced to a domestic 
state.(1) 

C. bactrianus, L.; Buff. XI, xxii. (The Two-Humped Camel. ) 
Originally from central Asia, and which descends to the south 
much less than the 

C. dromedarius, L. Buff. XI,ix. (The One-Humped Camel.) 
Which has spread from Arabia into all the north of Africa, a 
great part of Syria, Persia, &c. 

The first is the only one employed in Turkestan, Thibet, &c.; 
it is sometimes led as far as lake Baical. The second is well 
known for crossing the desert, and as the only means of com- 
munication between the countries which border on it. 

The two-humped Camel walks with less difficulty than the 
other in humid grounds; it is also larger and stronger. At the 
regular period it sheds the whole of its hair. It is the single- 
humped Camel that is the most abstemious. The Dromedary, 
properly speaking, is a lighter variety of it, and better calcu- 
lated for expedition. 

The flesh and milk of the Camel serve as food, and its hair 
for garments, to the people who possess it, In stony countries 
both species are useless. 


AvucHEnIA, Illig, 


In the Lamas the two toes are separate; they are without humps. 
But two distinct species are known, both from the western continent, 
and much smaller than the two preceding ones. 

Camelus lacma, L.; Guanaco, Buff, Supp. VI, xxvii. (The 
Lama.) As large as a Stag; the hair coarse and of a chesnut 
colour, but varying when domesticated. It was the only beast 
of burden in Peru at the time of the conquest. It can carry a 
hundred and fifty pounds, but makes short journeys, The 
Alpaca is a variety with long woolly hair. 

Cam. vicunna, L.; Buff. Supp. VI, xxviii. (The Paco.) The 
size of a sheep, covered with fawn coloured wool, extremely 
soft and fine, of which valuable stuffs are manufactured. 


Moscuus, Lin. 


The Musks are much less anomalous than the Camels, differing 
from the ordinary Ruminantia only in the absence of horns, in hay- 


(1) Pallas, on the authority of the Buchares and Tartars, states, that in the de- 
serts of central Asia wild Camels are still to be found; we must recollect, how- 
ever, that the Kalmuks are in the habit of giving freedom to all sorts of animals 
froma religious principle, DTPA | ; 


VoL. 1—yY 


186 MAMMALIA. 


ing a long canine tooth on each side of the upper jaw, which in the 
male issues from the mouth, and finally in having a slender pero- 
nus, which is not found even in the Camel. These animals are 
remarkably light and elegant. 

M. moschiferus, L.; Buff. Supp. VI, xxix. (The Musk.) This 
is the most celebrated species, and the size of a Goat, has 
scarcely any tail, and is completely covered with hairs so 
coarse and brittle that they might be termed spines. What 
particularly distinguishes it, however, is the pouch situated 
before the prepuce of the male which produces that odorous 
substance so well known by the name of musk. This species 
appears to belong to that rugged and rocky region from which 
descend most of the Asiatic rivers, and which is spread out 
between Siberia, China and Thibet. Its habits are solitary and 
nocturnal, its timidity extreme. It is in Thibet and Tunkin 
that it yields the best musk; in the north, it is almost inodorous. 

The other Musks have no musk-pouch, and inhabit the warm 
parts of the eastern continent 5(1) they are the smallest and the 
most-elegant of all the Ruminantia.(2) 


All the rest of the Ruminantia, the males at least, have two 
horns, that is to say, two prominences of the frontal bones 
which are not found in any other family of animals. 

. In some, these prominences are covered with an elastic 
sheath composed as if with agglutinated hairs, which increases 
by layers and during life; the name of horn is applied to the 
substance of this sheath, and the sheath itself is called the 
corne creuse. ‘Vhe prominence it envelopes grows with it, 
and. never falls. Such are the horns of Oxen, Sheep, Goats 
and Antelopes. 

In others, the prominences are only covered with a hairy 
skin, continuous with that of the head; nor do the prominen- 
ces fall, those of the Giraffe excepted. 

Finally, in the genus of the Stags, the prominences covered 
for a time with a hairy skin, similar to that on the rest of the 


(1) The Moschus americanus established from Séba, is merely the young or the 
female of one of the Guiana Deer. The same may be said of the M. delicatulus of 
Shaw, Schreb. 245, D. It isthe fawn of an American Deer. 

(2) Moschus pygmeus, Buff. X11, xiiii—Moschus memina, Schreb. CCXL, iii 
Moschus j juvanicus, Buff. Supp. VI, xxx. 


RUMINANTIA. 187 


head, have at their base a ring of bony tubercles, which, as 
they enlarge, compress and obliterate the vessels of that skin. 
It becomes dry and is thrown off; the bony prominences, being 
laid bare, at the expiration of a certain period separate from 
the cranium to which they were attached; they fall and the 
animal remains defenceless. Others, however, are re-pro- 
duced generally larger than before, and destined to undergo 
the same fate. ‘These horns, purely osseous, and subject to 
periodical changes, are styled ané/ers. 


Cervus, Lin. 


The Stags, consequently, are the only Ruminantia which have heads 
armed with antlers ; the females, however, the Rein-Deer alone ex- 
cepted, are always without them. The substance of these antlers, 
when completely developed, is that of a dense bone without pores 
or sinus. Their figure varies greatly according to the species, and 
even-in each, species at different ages. These animals are exces- 
sively fleet, live commonly in the forest, and feed on leaves, buds, 
grasses, &c. 
We distinguish in the first place those species whose antlers are 
either wholly or partially flattened, viz. 
C. alces, L.; Elk or Elend, in the north of Europe; MMoose- 
Deer of the Americans ; Original of the Canadians; Buff. Supp. 
VII, Ixxx. (The Moose.) As large as a horse and sometimes 
larger ; stands very high; the muzzle cartilaginous and in- 
flated; a sort of goitre, or pendulous swelling, variously 
shaped, under the throat; hair always very stiff and of a more 
or less deep ash-colour. The antlers, at first simple, (en dague,) 
and then divided into narrow slips, assume, in the fifth year, 
the form of a triangular blade, denticulated on the external edge 
and mounted on a pedicle. They increase with age so as to 
weigh fifty or sixty pounds, and to have fourteen branches to 
each horn. The Moose lives in small troops, and inhabits the 
marshy forests of the north of both continents. Its skin is valua- 
ble for various purposes. 
C. tarandus, L., Buff. Supp. III, xviii, bis. (The Rein-Deer.) 
Size of a Stag, but has shorter and stouter legs; both sexes 
have antlers, divided into several branches, at first slender and 
pointed, and terminating by age in broad denticulated palms ; 
the hair, which is brown in summer, becomes white in winter.(1) 


(1) It is probably owing to this change that the ancients were induced to be- 
lieve that the ¢arandus could assume any colour it wished. 


——————_ 


a SS ee ee ee ee ee 


i 
¥ 


188 


MAMMALIA. 


The Rein-Deer is confined to the glacial countries of both conti- 
nents, and is the animal so highly celebrated for the services it 
renders to the Laplanders, who have numerous herds of them 
which in the summer they lead to the mountains, and in winter 
bring back to the plains. They are their only beasts of burden 
and draught; their flesh and milk serve them for food, their 
skins for clothing, &c. 

C. dama, L., Buff. VI, xxvii and xxviii. (The Fallow-Deer.) 
Less than the Stag; in winter of a blackish brown, in summer 
fawn coloured, spotted with white ; the buttocks always white, 
bordered on each side with a black stripe; tail longer than the 
Stag’s, black.above, white underneath. The horn of the male 
is round at base, with a pointed antler, and throughout the rest 
of its length flattened, with the outer edge denticulated. After 
a certain age it shrinks, and splits irregularly into several slips. 
This species, which is the Platiceros of the ancients, has become 
very common in all Europe, although it seems to be originally 
from Barbary.(1) A black variety without spots is sometimes 
‘to be found. ‘Those species which have round antlers are more 
numerous ; such as inhabit temperate climates also change their 
colour, more or less, during the winter. 

C. elaphus, L.; Buff. VI, ix, x, xii. (The Common Stag.) 
A fawn coloured brown in summer, with a blackish line along 
the spine, and on each side a range of small light yellow spots ; 
in winter of a uniform greyish brown; the crupper and tail 
always of a pale yellow. It is a native of the forests of all Eu- 
rope, and of the temperate parts of Asia. The antlers of the 
male are round, and appear in the second year, at first simple, 
and then with tines or branches on their inner face, which in- 
crease in number as they advance in age, forming a kind of 
palm with many small points. When very old the Stag be- 
comes blackish, and the hairs on the neck lengthen and stand 
erect. The horns are shed in the spring, the old ones losing 
them first; they are reproduced in the summer, during the 
whole of which period they live separately. When they are 
grown again, the rutting season commences, at which period 
the males become furious. Both sexes unite in large herds to 
pass the winter. The hind carries eight months, and brings 
forth in May. The fawn is spotted with white. 

C. canadensis, Gm.3; C. strongyloceros, Schreb. 246, A, 247, 
F,G; Wapiti, &e. (The Elk.) <A fourth larger than the Elk 


(1) Since the publication of the second ed. of my Oss. Foss., we have received 
a wild C, dama, killed in the woods to the south of Tunis. 


RUMINANTIA. 189 


of Europe, and nearly of the same colour, but the disk of the 
crupper broader and paler ; the antlers equally round, but more 
developed, and without a palm. Inhabits all the temperate 
parts of North America. 

C. virginianus, Gm.; Schreb. CCXLVII, H. (The Virginia 
Deer.) Less than the Fallow Deer of Europe, and of a more 
graceful figure ; the muzzle more pointed ; of a light fawn colour 
in summer, reddish-grey in winter ; the under part of the throat 
and tail white at all times; inferior third of the tail black with 
a white tip. The horns of the male, shorter than in the Eu- 
ropean species, are round, smooth, whitish, and bend outwards, 
forming an arc of a circle inwards and forwards ; the tines are 
inserted into their posterior face, that at the base excepted; 
they sometimes amount to five or six.(1) 

The species inhabiting warm climates do not change their 
colour. There are several of these in South America, of which 
we have as yet no complete account, nor sufficiently compara- 
tive characters. Such are 

C. paludosus, Desm.; Gauzou-Poucou, or Great Red Stag, Azz. 
It appears to have straighter horns than the preceding ; skin of 
a bright bay, with a black stripe on the forehead, and black 
rings round the point of the feet. It prefers marshy grounds. 

C. campestris, Fr. Cuv.3; Guazouti, Azz. Antlers short and 
straight, with tines front and back, which become numerous 
(Oss. Foss. IV, pl. ili, f. 46—48); fawn coloured ; belly, inner 
sides of the thighs, buttocks and tip of the tail, white.(2) 

There are also several in the East Indies. 

C. avis, L.; Buff. X1, xxxviii, xxxix. (The Indian Stag or Axis.) 
Fawn coloured at all times, spotted with pure white ; under part 
of the throat and that of the tail white; tail fawn coloured, 
edged above with white; round antlers, which become very 
large with age, but which never have more than one tine 
near the base, and the point forked. Originally from Bengal, 
but propagating easily in Europe. It was known to the Romans. 

Several other Stags with two tines like the Axis are found in 
India, which have been distinguished but lately. There is one 
of them, 

C. Aristotelis, Cuv., which has long hairs on the neck and 


(1) See my Oss. Foss. IV, pl. v, f 1—17. The Cervus mexicanus, Penn., and 
Oss. Foss. pl. v, f. 25, may have been a very old Virginia Stag. 


(2) Add Cervus nemoralis, Ham. Smith. [Add also Cerv. macrotis, Say. Am. 
Ed.) 


190 MAMMALIA. 


throat, and which, inhabiting the north of India, must corres- 
pond with the Hippelaphus of Aristotle.(1) 

C. capreolus, L.; Buff. VI, xxxii, xxxili. (The Roebuck of 
Europe.) With but two tines to its antlers ; of a fawn coloured 
grey; buttocks white ; without lachrymal sinuses, and scarcely 
any tail. Some individuals are of a very vivid red, and others 
blackish. This species lives in couples; inhabits the high 4 
mountains of the temperate parts of Europe; sheds its antlers 
towards the close of autumn, reproduces them during the win- 
ter; copulates in November, and is gravid five months and 
a half. The flesh is held in much more esteem than that of 
the Deer. There are none in Russia. 

C. pygargus, Pall., Schreb, CCLIVI. (The Roebuck of Tar- 
tary.) Similar to that of Europe, but the horns are more spi- 
nous at the base; the hair is longer 3 and it is almost as large 
as the Deer. It inhabits the high grounds beyond the Volga. 

It appears that there are some Roebucks in America, whose 
antlers always remain simple or without tines. 

C. rufus, F. C.; Gouazoupita, Azz. Red; lips, hinder part 
of the belly, and under part of the tail, white. Canini in both 
jaws. Inhabits the forest.(2) 

We might separate from the other Roebucks certain small species 
of India, which have sharp canini and antlers supported by pedicles 
which are covered by hairs on the forehead. Such is 

C. muntjac, Gm.; Buff. Supp. VII, xxvi. (The Kijang.) 
Smaller than that of Europe. Found in small herds at Ceylon 
and Java(3) 


CamMELOPARDALIS, Lin.; Buff. Supp. VII, Ixxxi. 


The Giraffe is characterized in both sexes by conical horns, always 
covered with a hairy skin, and which are never shed. Their bony 
-nucleus, when young, is articulated with the os frontis by a suture. 
On the middle of the chanfrin is a tubercle or third horn, broader 
and much shorter, but likewise articulated by a suture. It is more- 
over one of the most remarkable animals in existence, from the 
length of its neck and the disproportioned height of its fore legs. 
Only one species is known, 


our 


(1) Add the C. hippelaphus; C. Wallichit; C. Mariannus; C. Lechenaulti ; C. 
Peronii; C. equinus ; and with respect to these species, see my Oss. Foss. tom. IV, 
and the figure of Hamilton Smith in the work of Griffith. 

(2) Add the Gouazou-Bira Us menor vagus, F. Cuy.); the Nowazou-Apara (C. 
simplicicornis, Ham. Smith). . 

(3) Add C. philippinus, Ham. Sm.—C. moschatus, Id. &e. 


RUMINANTIA. 191 


C. girafa, F. Cuv. Mammif. (The Giraffe.) Which is con- 
fined to the deserts of Africa, and has short grey hair sprinkled 
with fawn coloured angular spots, and a small fawn coloured 
and grey mane. It is the tallest of all animals, for its head is 
frequently elevated eighteen feet from the ground. Its disposi- 
tion is gentle, and it feeds on leaves. Heliodorus gives a good 
description of it, and one or two were brought into Italy in the 
middle century. Several have lately been sent to Europe from 
Egypt.(1). The 


RUMINANTIA WITH HOLLOW HORNS 


Are more numerous than the others, and we have been 
compelled to divide them into genera from characters of but 
little importance, drawn from the form of their horns and the 
proportions of their different parts. ‘To these M. Geoffroy 
hgs advantageously added those afforded by the substance of 
the frontal prominence or the bony nucleus of the horn. 


Anvitore.(2) 


The substance of the bony nucleus of the horns of the Antilopes is 
solid, and without pores or sinus, like the antlers of the Stag. They 
resemble the Stags moreover in the lightness of their figure and 
their swiftness. It is a very numerous genus, which it has been 
found necessary to divide, and principally according to the form 
of the horns. 


a. Horns annulated, with a double curvature directed forwards, inwards 
or upwards. 


A. dorcas, L.3 Buff. XII, xxiii. (The Gazelle.) Round, 
large and black horns, and the size and graceful shape of the 
Roebuck; light fawn colour above; white beneath; a brown 
band along each flank; a tuft of hair on each knee, and a deep 
pouch in éach groin. It inhabits the north of Africa, and lives 
in large herds, which form a circle when they are attacked, 
presenting their horns at all points. It is the usual prey of the 


(1) M. Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, from some differences in the spots, and in the 
curvature of the cranium of the few individuals in Europe, thinks that the Giraffe 
of Nubia and Abyssinia is not of the same species as that from the Cape. 

(2) This name is not ancient; it is a corruption of ntholops, a word found in 
Eustathius, who wrote in the time of Constantine, and which seems to refer to the 
beautiful eyes of the animal. The common Gazelle was well described by lian 
-. under the name of Dorcas, which is properly that of the Roebuck. We calls it the 

Dorcas of Lybia. Gazel is an Arabic word. 
‘ ' 


192 


MAMMALIA. 


Lion and Panther. The soft expression of its eye furnishes 
numerous images to the Arabian poets. 

A. corinna, Gm.; Buff. XII, xxvii. (The Corinna.) Only 
differs in the horns, which are much more slender. It is per- 
haps a mere variety of sex. 

A. kevella, Gm.; Buff. XII, cclxxv. (The Kevel.) Also very 
similar; but its horns are compressed at the base, and havea 
greater number of rings. The only mark in which it is even 
pretended that it differs from the hu of Kempfer, or the 
Tseyrain of the Persians and Turks, (2. subgutturosa, Gm.,) is 
a slight swelling under the throat of the latter. 

A. gutturosa, Pall.; Deseren of the Mongoles; Hoang Vang, 
or Yellow Goat of the Chinese; Schreb. CCLXXV. Nearly 
similar colours, and the same kind of horns as the Gazelle pro- 
perly so called; but it is nearly as large as the C. dama, and there 
is a considerable protuberance in the male produced by the 
larynx, and a large pouch under the belly. The female has no 
horns. This species lives in herds, in the barren plains of cen- 
tral Asia, and avoids both the forest and water. 

A. euchore, Forster; the Pouched Gazelle; Buff. Supp. VI, pl. 
xxi. (The Springbock.) The south of Africa is filled with 
herds of this species. It is larger than the Gazelle, but of the 
same form and colour ; it is distinguished by a fold of the skin 
of the croup covered with white hairs, which opens and enlarges 
at every bound the animal makes. 

A. saiga, Pall.; Colus of Strabo; Schreb. CCLXXVI. (The 
Saiga.) Which inhabits the heaths of the south of Poland and 
Russia, has horns similar to the Gazelle, but yellowish and 
transparent. It is as large as the Deer, fawn coloured in sum- 
mer, and of a whitish grey in winter; its cartilaginous, thick 
and vaulted muzzle, with very expanded nostrils, compels it to 
retrograde in feeding. The herd sometimes consists of more 
than ten thousand individuals. 

A. dama, Pall., Acad. of Berl. 1824, pl. iii and iv. (The 
Nanguer.) Size of the C. dama; white ; the forehead, neck and 
part of the back red; horns small and slender. From Nubia 
and Senegal.(1) 


b. Horns annulated, and with a triple curve. 


1. cervicapra, Pall., Buff. Supp. VI, xviii and xix. (The An- 


(1) The only specimen known to Buffon (tom. XII, pl. xxxiv) was a young one 
with horns curved simply forwards, which induced him te believe it was the Dama 
of Pliny. 


RUMINANTIA. 193 


telope of India.) Is also very like the Gazelle, but its horns 
have a triple flexure. They are used in India as weapons, formed 
by uniting them pair to pair, with the points facing in opposite 
directions. They are deficient in the female. 

4. addax, Lichtenst.(1) Acad. Berl. 1824, pl. xi, and Ruppel. 
pl. vii. (The Antelope of Nubia.) Also three curves in its 
horns, which are longer and more slender than those of the pre- 
ceding ; it is whitish, tinged with grey on the back, and has a 
large brown spot on the forehead. 


c. Horns annulated, with a double curve, but winding in an opposite di- 
rection to those of the preceding ones, the points directed backwards.— 
The Damauts of Smith, in part. 


A. bubalis, L.; Bubalis of the ancients ; Buff. Supp. VI, xiv; 
vulg. the Barbary Cow. (The Bubalis.) More heavily formed 
than the others; the head long and thick ; as large as the Stag 5 
fawn coloured, except at the end of the tail which is terminated 
with a black tuft. Common in Barbary. 

A. caama, Cuv.3 vulg. Cape Stag of the Hollanders; Buff. 
Supp. VI, pl. xv. (The Caama.) Similar to the preceding, 
but the curves of the horns more angular; the circumference 
of their base, a band on the bottom of the forehead, a line on 
the neck, a longitudinal stripe on each leg, and the tip of the 
tail black. Common at the Cape. 


d. Small, straight, or but slightly curved horns, less than the head—in 
the greater number of species found only on the male. 


A. lanata, Desmar.; Reebock or Roebuck of the Hollanders of 
the Cape. (The Woolly Antelope.) Somewhat smaller than the 
C. dama ; hair woolly; grey above, white beneath ; some black 
on the external face of the limbs, and at the extremity of the 
lower jaw. 

A. mergens, Blainv.; Duiker-Bock of the Hollanders. (The 


(1) M. Lichtenstein gave it this name, under the idea that it is the same as the 
Addax or Strepsiceros of Pliny. It is seen on several of the ancient monuments of 
Egypt. 

To this subdivision also belong the Kevel gris, F. Cuv. Mammif.—The Purple 
Antelope or Bonte-Bock of the Hollanders, (2. pygarga) Schreb. CCLXXIII.—The 
Black-footed Antelope or Pallah, Sam. Daniels, Afric. Scen. pl. ix (4. melampus, 
Lich.); Schr. 274.—The Coba, (.4. senegalensis) of which we have nothing but the 
horns, Buff. XII, pl. xxxii, 2, unless it be the same as the Pallah.—The .2. suturo- 
sa.—The 4. mytilopes, H. Smith, and bese the Kob of Buff. which is probably 
the 4. adenota, Ham. Smith. 

Vou. I.—Z 


194 MAMMALIA, 


Plunging Antelope.) A light fawn coloured brown ; some white 
beneath the under jaw; a black line on the external face of the 
limbs. It derives its name from the manner in which it plunges 
into the bushes when pursued. 

Al. oreotragus, Forst.; Klip-Springer of the Hollanders; Buff. 
Supp. VI, pl. xxii Schr. 259. (The Rock-Springer.) Distin- 
guished by its stiff brittle hair, which is of a greenish yellow.(1) 

The smallest Antelopes are comprehended in this division. 

A. grimmia, L..3 F. Cuv. Mammif. (The Grimme.) Fawn 
coloured grey; the forehead blackish; a small tuft of hair on 
the top of the head. 

A. pygmea, Pall.; F. Cuv. Mammif.(2) (The Guevei.) Ash 
coloured; a pale blackish line along each side of the forehead. 


e. Annulated horns with a simple curve, the points directed forwards. 
The Revuncaz of Smith. 


Al. redunca, Buff. XII, pl. xlvis; Schreb. 265. (The Nagor.) 
Reddish brown. From Senegal.(3) 


f. Horns annulated, straight or but slightly curved,and longer than the 
head. The Oryx of Smith, in part. 


2. oryx, Pall.; erroneously termed Pasan by Buff. Supp. VI, 
pl. xvii ; Cape Chamois of the Hollanders.(4) (The Oryx.) As 
large as a Stag, with slender horns two or three feet long, 
straight, pointed, round, the lower third obliquely annulated and 
smaller in the female; hair ash coloured ; head white, barred 
with black ; a black band on the spine and one on each flank; a 
deep chesnut spot on the shoulder, and one on the thighs ; tail 
long and blackish, and the hairs of the spine directed towards the 
neck. It is found to the north of the Cape, and in the interior 
of Africa. The length of its hoofs, which is greater than in the 
other species, enables it to climb rocks, and it prefers moun- 
tainous districts.(5) 


(1) Add £4. quadriscopa, Ham. Smith. 

(2) The figure of Schreb. 260, b, is too red; in that of Shaw, Gen. Zool. Vol. I, 
Part II, pl. clxxxviii, the horns are too large. 

(3) Add the Ritbock (4. eleotragus).—The Ourebi (4. scoparia). It is very neces- 
sary to observe that many Antelopes, while young, have horns of this form bent 
forwards. 

(4) M. Lichtenstein has remarked, that as this Antelope with long straight horns 
is only found in the south of Africa, itis not probable it isthe Oryx. It is rather 
the following species. 


(5) The 2. leucoryx, Schr. CCLVI, B, or the White Antelope of Penn. taken | 


seed oe 


RUMINANTIA. 195 


A. gazella, L.; Ant. leucoryx, Licht., Acad. Berl. 1824, pl. i. 
(The Algazel.) Horns long, slender, and slightly curved into an 
arc of a circle; hair whitish, variously tinged with a fawn or 
reddish colour. Found in north Africa, from Nubia to Sene- 
gal. It is often sculptured on the monuments of Egypt and 
Nubia; and M. Lichtenstein thinks it is the true Oryx of the 
ancients.(1) 


g. Horns annulated with a simple curve, the points directed backwards. 


A. leucophea, Gm.; improperly called Tseiran, Buff. Supp. 
VI, pl. xx. (The Blue Antelope.) A little larger than the 
Stag, of a bluish ash colour; large horns in both sexes, uni- 
formly curved, and with upwards of twenty annuli. 

A. equina, Geoff. (The Equine Antelope.)(2) As large asa 
horses; of a reddish grey; brown head; a white spot before 
each eye; a mane on the neck; large horns, &c. 

A. sumatrensis, Shaw; Cambing-Outang or Goat of the 
Woods of the Malays; Fr. Cuv. Mammif.; and Marsden, Su- 
mat. 2d Ed. pl. x. (The Antelope of Sumatra.) Size ofa large 
goat; black; a white mane on the neck and withers; the 
horns pointed and small.(3) 


h. Horns encircled with a spiral ridge. 


A. oreas, Pall.; Elk of the Cape of the Hollanders ; impro- 
perly called Coudous by Buff. Supp. VI, pl. xii. (The Canna 
or Impooko.) As large as the largest horse ; large, conical, 
straight horns, surrounded by a spiral ridge; hair greyish; a 


from a drawing made in Persia in 1717, appears to be a mere variety of the Oryx, 
or perhaps of an Algazel viewed in front. 

(1) The English speak of an Antelope with almost straight horns, stiff hairs 
woolly at their base, which sometimes loses one of its horns, from the mountains 
of Thibet, which was pointed out to them as corresponding with the Unicorn, 
which is one of the supporters of their coat of arms. Itis called Chiru. M. Ham. 
Smith thinks it may be the Kemas of lian, I, xiv, c. 14. 

(2) We have definitively ascertained that it is the Equine Antelope which is 
now called the Koba in Senegal. The A. redunca or Nagor of Buff. is there 
called the Mibill. 

(3) Add the 2. goral, Hardw. Lin. Trans. XIV, pl. xiv, and in the Mammif, F. 
Cuyv. under the name of Bouquetin de Nepaul; the 2. sylvicultriz. There should, 
also, probably, be added the American woolly species, with long hair and very 
small horns, (4. lanigera, Smith) Lin. Trans. XIM, pl. iv, and perhaps the 
one Séba represents, I, pl. xlii, x, iii, and which M. Ham. Smith calls 4. mazama. 
There is nothing, however, to prove that the Mazames of Hernandez are not the 
Stags and Roebucks of America, as is observed by that author, who compares them 
to the Stags and Roebucks of Spain. | 


196 MAMMALIA. 


small mane along the spine; a kind of dewlap under the neck; 
the tail terminated by a tuft. It lives in troops in the moun- 
tains north of the Cape.(1) 


i. Horns bifurcated. Anti.ocapre of Ord.—Dicranoceros of Ham. 
Smith. 


Of all the forms of hollow horns this is the most singular; acom- 
pressed fork is given off from their base or trunk, almost like the 
tine or antler of a Deer; the pointed tips curve backwards. The 
most known species is, 

A. furcifera, Ham. Smith, Lin. Trans. XIII, pl. ii; the 
Cabril of the Canadians. It inhabits the vast prairies of the 
middle and western parts of North America, where it roams in 
large herds. Its size is about that of the Roebuck; hair thick, 
undulated and reddish ; the tine of the horns is about the mid- 
dle of the height.(2) 


k, Four horns.—Terrracera, Leach. 


This subdivision, lately discovered in India, was not unknown to 
the ancients. lian speaks of it, XV, c. xiv, by the name of 
the Four-horned Oryx: the anterior pair are before the eyes, the 
posterior completely behind the frontal. 

1. chicarra, Hardw.3; Lin. Trans. XIV, pl. xv; and F. Cuy. 
Mammif.(3) (The Tchicarra.) About the size of a Roebuck, 
and of an almost uniform fawn colour. The female has no 
horns. Found in the forests of Hindostan.(4) 


l. Two smooth horns. 


4. picta, and trago-camelus, Gm.; Buff. Supp. VI, pl. x and 
xi. (The Nylgau.) As large as a Stag or larger; the horns 


(1) Near the Canna should be placed the Guib, (4. scripta) Buff. XII, pl. 
xl.—The Bosch-Bock, (A. sylvatica) Buff. Supp. VI, xxv. 

(2) The 4. palmata, Smith, 1b. pl. i, is only known to me by its horns, which 
have the antlers close to the base; perhaps they had been cut off. Some authors 
have considered these Antelopes also as the Mazames of Hernandez. 

(3) I should remark here, in relation to the observations at page 523, Lin. 
Trans. tom. XIV, that it was not the fault of the late M. du Vaucel, that the figure 
and description of the Tchiearra were attributed to him in the Hist. des Mammif- 
His consignments were not always complete; a drawing frequently arrived without 
any description or explanation, and his premature death prevented him from sup- 
plying what was deficient in his memoirs. 

(4) The 2. 4-cornis, Blainy., is only known to me by a cranium, the anterior 
horns of which are proportionally larger, Jour. de Phys. Aout 1815. Perhaps it 
is merely a difference arising from age, 


RUMINANTIA., 197 


short and bent forwards; a beard under the middle of the neck; 
hair greyish; double, black and white, strongly marked rings 
on all the feet just above the hoof. The female has no horns. 
This species is from India. 

4. rupicapra, L.; Buff. XII, pl. xvi; Ysard in the Pyrenees. 
(The Chamois.) The only ruminating animal in the west of 
Europe that can be compared with the Antelope, having how- 
ever peculiar characters: its straight horns are bent suddenly 
backward like a hook; behind each ear, under the skin, is a 
sac, whose only external opening is a small orifice.(1) Its size 
is that of a large Goat. The hair is of a deep brown, with a 
black band descending from the eye towards the muzzle. The 
swiftness of its course among rocks and precipices is wonder- 
ful, and it remains in small herds in the middle region of the 
highest mountains. 

M. Smith separates from the Antelopes, under the generic name 
of CarosLepas, the 

A. gnu, Gm.; Buff. Supp. VI, pl. viii and ix. (The Gnou.) 
A very singular being, which, at the first glance, seems to be a 
monster composed of parts of different animals, It has the body 
and croup of a small Horse, covered with brown hairs ; the tail 
furnished with long white hairs, like that of the Horse, and on 
the neck a beautiful straight mane, the hairs of which are white 
at the base and black at the tip. The horns, approximated and 
enlarged at the base like those of the Cape Buffalo, descend out- 


wardly, and turn up at the point; its muzzle is large, flat, and © 


surrounded with a circle of projecting hairs ; under the throat 
and dewlap is another black mane; the feet have all the light- 
ness of the Stag’s. Horns in both sexes. Inhabits the moun- 
tains to the north of the Cape, where it is rather rare, although 
the ancients appear to have had some knowledge of it.(2) 


The three remaining genera have the bony core of the 
horns principally occupied with cells, which communicate with 
the frontal sinuses. The direction of their horns furnishes 
the characters of the divisions. 


(1) It was perhaps a mistaken idea respecting the indication of this orifice 
which led the ancients to say, that, according to Empedocles, Goats breathed 
through the ears. 

(2) This species most probably gave rise to the catoblepas. See Pliny, lib. 
VIII, cxxxii, and Aélian, lib. VU, c. v. 

The most complete work on the subject of the Antelopes is that of M: Ham. 
Smith, inserted in the work of Griffith, and I regret that the want of sufficient 
subjects for observation have prevented me from giving all its details. 


; 


198 MAMMALIA. 


Capra, Lin. 


The horns of the Goats are directed upwards and backwards; the 
chin generally furnished with a long beard, and the chanfrin almost 
always concave. 

C. egragus, Gm.; Cuv. Menag. du Mus. 8vo, II, 177. (The 
figagrus or Wild Goat.) Appears to be the stock of all the 
varieties of our Domestic Goat. It is distinguished by its 
horns, trenchant in front, very large in the male; short, or 
altogether wanting in the female, which is also sometimes the 
case in the two species of Ibex. It lives in herds on the moun- 
tains of Persia, (where it is known by the name of paseng,) and 
perhaps on those of other countries, even in the Alps. The 
oriental bezoar is a concretion found in its intestines. 

The Goats, and our domestic species (Capra hircus, L.) vary 
infinitely in size, colour, and in the length and fineness of the 
hair; in the size of the horns, and even in their number. The 
Angora Goats in Cappadocia have the longest and most silky 
hair. Those of Thibet are renowned for the admirably fine wool 
which grows among their hair, with which the celebrated 
Cachemires are manufactured. There is a race in upper Egypt 
with short hair, convex chanfrin, and projecting lower jaw, 
which possibly is hybrid. The Goats of Guinea, called Mam- 
brines and Whida, are very small, the horns inclining back- 
wards. All these animals are stout, capricious, and fond of 
wandering ; sensible of their mountain origin, they prefer dry 
and wild places, feeding on coarse grass and shoots of young 
trees. They do much injury to the forests. The Kid only is 
eaten, but their milk is useful in several diseases. ‘The female 
can produce at seven months; her period of gestation is five, and 
she generally has two kids at a birth. 

 C. ibex, L.3 Buff. XII, pl. xiiis Schreb. CCLKXXI. (The 
Ibex.) Large horns, square in front, marked with transverse 
and prominent knots. It inhabits the most elevated sum- 
mits of the highest ranges of mountains in the whole of the 
eastern continent. 

C. caucasica, Guldenst., Act. Petrop. 1779, II, pl. xvi, xvii; 


Schr. CCLXXXI, B. (The Caucasian Ibex.) Distinguished 


by its large triangular horns, obtuse, but not square in front, 
and knotty like those of the preceding. The two species mix 
with the Domestic Goat.(1) 


(1) Addthe Bouguetin d’Ethiopie, F. Cuy. Mammif.—The African Maned Ibex, 
Tackhaitse, S. Daniels, Afric. Scenery, pl. xxiv. 


a 


= 


RUMINANTIA. 199 


Ovis, Lin. 


The horns of Sheep are directed backwards, and then incline spi- 
rally, more or less forwards: the chanfrin is more or less convex, 
and there is no beard. They are so slightly entitled to a gene- 
ric separation from the Goats, that the two produce a prolific off- 
spring. As in the Goats, there are several wild races or species 
very nearly allied. 

Ov. ammon, L.s3 Pall. Spic. XI, is Schr. CCLXXXVIII. 
(The Argali of Siberia.) The male of which has very large 
horns, with the base triangular, angles rounded, flattened in 
front, and striated transversely ; those of the female are com- 
pressed and falciform. In summer the hair is short, and of a 
fawn coloured grey; in winter it is thick, rigid, and of a red- 
dish grey, with some white about the muzzle, throat, and under 
the belly. There is always, as in the Stag, a yellow space 
about the tail, which is very short. This animal inhabits the 
mountains of all Asia, and attains to the size of the Fallow Deer. 

Ov. musimon, Pall.; Mufione of Sardinia; Muffoli de Corse; 
Buff. XI, pl. xxix; Schreb. CCLXXXVIII, A. (The Mouflon 
of Sardinia.) Appears to differ from it only in its inferior size, 
and in the deficiency or smallness of the horns in the female. 
It is said to be also found in Crete. There are some varieties, 
totally or partially black, and others more or less white. It is 
probable that the 

Ov. montana; Geoff., Ann. Mus. II, pl. Ix; Schr. CCXCIV, 
D, (The Mouflon of America) is a species of Argali, which 
may have crossed the sea on the ice. Its horns are very stout, 
and are more perfectly spiral than those of the common spe- 
cies. (1) 

Ov. tragelaphus, Cuv.; Penn. XII; Shaw, pl. ccii, 23 Schr. 
CCLXXXVIiI, B. (The Mouflon of Africa.) Soft and red- 
dish hair, with a long mane hanging under the neck and another 
at each ankle; the tail is short $ it appears to be a distinct spe- 
cies. It inhabits the rocky districts of all Barbary; and M. 
Geoffroy has observed it in Egypt. 

It is from the Mouflon or the Argali that we are supposed to 
derive the innumerable races of our woolly animals, which, 
next to the Dog, are most subject to vary. We have some of 
them in Europe, with common and fine wool; large and small; 
with big or little horns, wanting in the females, and in both 
sexes, &c. &c. The most interesting varieties are those of 


(1) This is indubitably identical with the Ovis ammon, L. Am. Ed. 


200 MAMMALIA. 


Spain, which have a fine curly fleece, with large spiral horns on 
the male, now beginning to be diffused throughout Europe, and 
that of England, whose wool is fine and long. 

The most common variety in southern Russia has a very long 
tail. Those of India and of Guinea, which also have long tails, 
are distinguished by their long legs, very convex foreheads, 
pendent ears, want of horns, and short hair. 

The north of Europe and of Asia has almost every where a 
breed of small Sheep with a very short tail. In the race of Per- 
sia, Tartary, and China, the tail is transformed into a double 
globe of fat ; in that of Syria and Barbary it is long, but loaded 
with an immense mass of the same substance. In both the ears 
are pendent, the horns of the males large, those of the females 
moderate, and the wool is mixed with hair. 

Sheep are valuable for their flesh, suet, milk, skin, and wool; 
well managed flocks are every where the sources of wealth. 
Lambs are weaned at two months, and shed their milk teeth 
between the first and third year. The period of gestation is 
five months, and two lambs are produced at a birth. 


Bos, Lin. 


The horns of the Ox are directed laterally, inclining upwards or 
| forwards, in the form of a crescent; it is a large animal, with a broad 
| muzzle, short and thick body, and stout legs. 

B. taurus, L.; Buff. IV, xvi. (The Common Ox.) Its spe- 
cific characters are a flat forehead, longer than broad, and round 
horns, placed at the extremities of the salient line or ridge 
which separates the forehead from the occiput. In the fossil 
crania, which appear to have belonged to this species in a wild 
state, (the Urus of the ancients) the horns curve forwards and 
downwards; but in the numberless domestic varieties, they 
have very different directions, and are of as many sizes—some- 
times they are even totally wanting. The common races of 
the torrid zone have, all, a lump of fat upon the shoulders, and 
some of them are not larger than the Hog. The utility of these 
animals for labour, and the value of their flesh, fat, milk, hide, 
and horns are known to every one. The period of gestation is 
nine months. 

B.urus, Gm.; Urus or Bison of the ancients; Zubr of the 
Polanders; Gesn. CLVII. (The Aurochs.) Generally, but 
erroneously, considered as the wild stock of our horned cattle. 
It is distinguished from them by its convex forehead, which is 
wider than it is high, by the insertion of its horns below the 
occipital crest, by the length of its legs, by an additional pair 


RUMINANTIA. 201 


of ribs, by a sort of curly wool, which covers the head and neck 
of the bull, forming a short beard under the throat, and by its 
grunting voice. Itisa savage animal that has now taken refuge 
in the great marshy forests of Lithuania, of the Krapacs and of 
Caucasus, but which formerly inhabited all the temperate parts 
of Europe. It is the largest quadruped proper to Europe. 

B. bison, L.3 B. americanus, Gm.; Buff. Supp. HI, v3 F. 
Cuv. Mammif. (The Buffalo or Bison of America.) The bony 
head very similar to that of the Aurochs, and covered like it, 
the neck and shoulders also, with frizzled wool, which be- 
comes very long in winter; its legs and tail are shorter. Inha- 
bits ail the temperate parts of North America. 

B. bubalus, L.; Buff. XI, xxv3 Wild Ox of Arachosia, of Aris- 
totle. (The Buffalo.) Originally from India, and brought into 
Egypt, Greece, and Italy during the middle century; has a 
convex forehead, higher than wide, the horns directed side- 
ways, and marked in front by a longitudinal ridge. This animal 
is subdued with difficulty, but is extremely powerful, and prefers 
the marshy grounds, and coarse plants on which the Ox could 
not live. Its milk is good, andjthe hide very strong, but the 
flesh is not esteemed. 

There is a race of them in India, whose horns include a space 
of ten feet from tip to tip: it is called Arni in Hindostan, and 
is the Bos arni of Shaw. 

B. frontalis, Lambert, Linn. Trans. VII, pl. 45 and F. Cuv. 
Mammif. (The Gyall.) Resembles the domestic Ox in the 
greater part of its characters, but its horns are flattened from 
before backwards, and are without angular ridges. They are 
directed sideways and more or less upwards, but not backwards. 
The hair is short and black, except on the forehead, and on a 
line along the back, where it is grey or fawn-coloured, and on 
the legs, where it is white. It is a domestic race in the moun- 
tain districts of the north-west of India, and which is perhaps 
descended from the Buffalo and the common species. 

B. grunniens, Pall.; Horse-tailed Buffalo; Grunting Cow of 
Tartary, &c.; Sch. CCXCIX, A. B. (The Yack.) A small 
species, with the tail completely covered with long hairs like 
that of the Horse, and a long mane on the back. Its head 
appears to resemble that of the Buffalo, but the horns have not 
been sufficiently described. This animal, of which lian has 
spoken, is originally from the mountains of Thibet. Its tail 
constitutes the standards still used by the Turks to distinguish 
the superior officers. 

B. caffer, Sparm.; Schr. CCCI. . (The Cape Buffalo.) Very 

Vou. I1.—2 A 


202 MAMMALIA. 


large horns, directed outwards and downwards, ascending from 
the point, flattened, and so wide at their base that they nearly 
cover the forehead, merely leaving between them a triangular 
space, the point of whichis above. It is a very large animal, 
of an excessively ferocious disposition, inhabiting the woods of 
‘Caffraria. 

B. moschatus, Gm.; Schr. CCCII; La Tete, Buff. Supp. VI, 
ili. (The Musk Ox of America.) The horns approximated and 
similarly directed, but meeting on the forehead in a straight 
line; those of the female are smaller and more widely separated; 
the forehead is convex, and the end of the muzzle furnished with 
hairs. It stands low, and is covered with tufted hair that 
reaches to the ground. The tail is extremely short. It diffuses 
more strongly than any other species the musky odour common 

' to all the genus. It is only to be met with in the coldest parts 
of North America, though it seems that its cranium and bones 
have been carried by the ice to Siberia. ‘The Esquimaux make 
caps of the tail, the hairs of which, falling over their face, 
defend them from the Musquitoes. 


ORDER IX. 
CETACEA. 


The Cetacea are mammiferous animals without hind feet; 
their trunk is continued by a thick tail, terminating in an hori- 
zontal, cartilaginous fin, and their head is united to the trunk 
by a neck, so thick and short, that no diminution of its diame- 
ter can be perceived, and composed of very slender cervical 
vertebre, which are partly anchylosed or soldered together. 
The first bones of the anterior extremities are shortened, and 
the succeeding ones flattened and enveloped in a tendinous 
membrane, which reduces them to true fins. Their external 
form is altogether that of fishes, the tail fin excepted, which 
in the latter is vertical. They always therefore remain in 
the water; but as they respire by lungs, they are compelled 
to return frequently to its surface to take in fresh supplies of 
air. Independently of this, their warm blood, their ears, 


CETACEA. 203 


with external, though small, openings, their viviparous genera- 
tion, the mammez with which they suckle their young, and 
all the details of their anatomy sufliciently distinguish them 
from fishes. 

Their brain is large, and its hemispheres well developed ; 
the petrous portion of the cranium which contains the internal 
ear is separated from the rest of the head, and only adheres 
to it by means of ligaments. There are no external ears, nor 
hairs upon the body. | 

The form of their tail compels them to flex it from above 
downwards to produce a progressive motion; it also greatly 
aids them in rising in the water. 

To the genera of the Cetacea hitherto admitted, we add 
others formerly confounded with the Morses. 


FAMILY I. 
CETACEA HERBIVORA. 


The teeth of these animals have flat crowns; this determines 
their mode of life, and the latter induces them to leave the 
water frequently, to seek for pasture on shore. They have 
two mamme on the breast, and hairy mustachios; two circum- 
stances which, when observed from a distance as they raise 
the anterior part of the body vertically from the water, may 
give them some resemblance to human beings, and have pro- 
bably occasioned those fabulous accounts of Tritons and Sirens 
which some travellers pretend to have seen. Although in the 
cranium the bony nostrils open towards the top, the orifices 
in the skin are pierced at the end of the muzzle. Their 
stomach is divided into four sacs, of which two are lateral, 
and they have a large cecum. | 


Manatus, Cuv. 


The Lamantins, or rather the Manati, have an oblong body, termi- 
nated by an elongated oval fin; the grinders, eight in number through- 
out, have a square crown, marked with two transverse elevations; 
there are no incisors nor canini in the adult; but when very young, 
we find two very small pointed teeth in the intermaxillary bones, 


a 


204 MAMMALIA. 


which soon disappear. Vestiges of nails are discoverable on the 
edges of their fins, which they employ with tolerable dexterity in 
carrying their young, and in creeping; hence the comparison of 
these organs with hands, and the name of Manutus applied to the 
animal, of which Zamantin is a corruption. From their manner of 
living, they are also called Sea Cows, &c., and from their mammz, 
Mermaids, &c.—Trichechus manatus, Lin.; Buff. XIII, lvii. 

They are found near the mouths of rivers in the hottest parts 
of the Atlantic Ocean, and it appears that those of the American 
rivers are specifically different from those of Africa.(1) They 
grow to the length of fifteen feet. Their flesh is used as food. 


Haxicorg, Illig.(2)—Dueone, Lacep. 


Grinders composed of two cones laterally united; the teeth implanted 
in the incisive bone are permanent, and increase to such an extent 
as to become true pointed tusks, but covered by thick fleshy lips, 
bristled with mustachios. The body is elongated, and the tail 
terminated by a crescent-shaped fin. One species only is known, the 
Hal. dugong; Siren; Sea Cow, &c.; Renard, Poiss. des Indes, 
pl. xxxiv, f. 180; Home, Phil. Trans. and F. Cuv. Mammif. 
(The Dugong.) It inhabits the Indian Ocean, and is frequently 
confounded by travellers with the Manatus. 


STELLERUS, Cuv.—RyrTina, Illig.(3) 


The Stelleri appear to have but a single compound grinder on each 
side, with a flat crown, and bristled with plates of enamel. Their 
fins have not even the little nails observed on those of the Manatus. 
According to Steller, the first, and hitherto the only one who has de- 
scribed them, their stomach also is much more simple. 
One species only is known, which is confined to the north 
part of the Pacific Ocean.(4) 


FAMILY I. 
CETACEA ORDINARIA. 


The Ordinary Cetacea are distinguished from the preceding 
by the singular apparatus from which they have received the 


(1) See Oss. Foss. tom. I. 

(2) Halicore, Maid of the Sea. 

(3) Rytina, wrinkled. 

(4) Nov. Comm. Petrop. IT, 294, et seq. It has never been figured. 


CETACEA. 205 


name of Blowers. As a large quantity of water passes into 
their huge mouths along with their prey, some way was neces- 
sary by which they could get rid of it; accordingly, it passes 
through the nostrils by means of a peculiar disposition of the 
velum palati, and is accumulated in a sac situated at the exter- 
nal orifice of the cavity of the nose, whence, by the compres- 
sion of powerful muscles, it is violently expelled through a 
narrow opening on the top of the head. It is in this way they 
produce those jets d’eau observed by navigators at so great a 
distance. Their nostrils, continually bathed in salt water, 
could not be lined with a membrane sufliciently delicate to 
enable them to detect odours, and accordingly, they have none 
of those projecting lamin found in the nasal cavities of other 
animals; the olfactory nerve is deficient in several, and if there 
be any which enjoy the sense of smell, it must be in a very 
slight degree. Their larynx, of a pyramidal form, penetrates 
into the posterior nares to receive air and conduct it to the 
lungs, without compelling the animal to raise its head and 
throat above the water for that purpose: there are no salient 
lamin in the glottis, and the voice is reduced to a simple low- 
ing. They have no vestige of hairs, but their whole body is 
covered with a smooth skin, under which is that thick layer 
of blubber abounding in oil, the principal object for which 
they are pursued. Their mammz are near the ans and. their 
fins are incapable of grasping. 

The stomach is divided into five and sometimes into seven 
distinct sacs ; instead of one single spleen, they have several, 
small and globular ; those which are possessed of teeth, have 
them all conical and alike; they do not chew their food, but 
swallow it rapidly. 

Two small bones suspended in the flesh, near the anus, are 
the only vestiges of posterior extremities. 

Several have a vertical fin on the back, composed of a ten- 
dinous substance, but unsupported by bone. Their eyes, flat- 
tened in front, have a thick and solid sclerotica ; the teguments 
of the tongue are soft and smooth. 

They may be again divided into two small tribes: those in 


206 MAMMALITA. 


which the head bears the usual proportion to the body, and 
those in which it is immoderately large. The first compre- 
hends the Dolphins and the Narwhals. 


Detrninus, Lin. 


The Dolphins have teeth in both jaws, all simple, and almost always 
conical. They are the most carnivorous, and, in proportion to their 
size, the most cruel of their order. There is no cecum.(1) 


Dexpuinus, Cuy. 


The Dolphins, properly so called, have a convex forehead, and the 
muzzle forming a kind of rostrum, or snout, in front of the head, 
more slender than the rest. 3 

D. delphis, L.; Lacep. Cet. pl. xiii, f. 1. (The Common Dol- 
phin.) The snout depressed and armed on each side of the jaw 
with from forty-two to forty-seven teeth, slender, arcuate, and 
pointed; black above, white beneath; from eight to ten feet in 
length. This animal, found in numerous bodies in every sea, 
and celebrated for the velocity of its motion, which sometimes 
precipitates it on the decks of vessels, appears really to have 
been the Dolphin of the ancients. The entire organization of the 
brain seems to indicate the docility they attributed to it. 

D. tursio, Bonnaterre; vulg. le Souffleurs; Lacep. XV, f. 2. 
(The Great Dolphin.) Snout short, broad and depressed; from 
twenty-one to twenty-four teeth throughout, conical, and often 
blunted. Individuals have been seen fifteen feet in length, and 
it appears that they are found in the Mediterranean as well as 
in the Ocean. (2) 

D, dubius, Cuv. Only thirty-six or thirty-seven teeth through- 
out, but as fine and pointed as those of the Common Dolphin, 
which it also resembles in its colours. 

D. frontalis, Duss. Very similar to the preceding, but colour- 
ed somewhat differently, and has thirty-four teeth throughout. 
Discovered by M. Dussumier, at the Cape de Verd Islands. 

D. frontatus, Cuv. But twenty-one teeth throughout, larger 


(1) There is no family of the Mammalia more difficult to observe, of which 
we have more imperfect descriptions, and whose synonymes are more fluctuating 
than that of the Cetacea. I have endeavored to select authentic species. 

(2) The Whale or Capidolio of Belon, and the Orca, of the same author, which 
very probably is that of the ancients, belong also to the division of Dolphins 
with snouts, and are much larger than the above mentioned species; but their cha- 
racters are not sufficiently determined. The Dauphin féres of Bonnaterre is pro- 
bably referable to one of the two. 


CETACEA. 207 


than those of the preceding; the muzzle is also longer and more 
compressed; its origin is not known. 

D. plumbeus, Dussum. The muzzle with the same compressed 
form, but armed throughout with thirty-seven teeth. From 
Malabar.(1) 

D. velox, Dussum. A somewhat longer muzzle, and forty-one 
teeth throughout. From Ceylon. 

D. longirostris, Dussum. Surpasses even the Common Dol- 
phin in the number of its teeth, having from fifty-five to sixty 
throughout. From the coast of Malabar.(2) 

M. de Blainville separates from this first division of Dolphins, 
under the name of Dr.pHinoruyncuus, those species in which the 
snout, though long and slender, is not separated from the forehead 
by a decided furrow. One of them, 

D. micropterus, Cuv., was thrown upon the coast of France; 
it is remarkable for its dorsal fin, which is also placed very 
far back. It grows to the length of fifteen feet, and loses all its 
teeth at an early age.(3) 

D. rostratus, Cuy. A slender muzzle, and externally all of a 
piece with the head; twenty-one teeth ea Its OES 
fin is of the usual size.(4) 

D. gangeticus, Roxburg, (The Dolphin of the Ganges) should 
be distinguished from this first group. Its spiracle is longitu- 
dinal, and the jaws slender and inflated at the end. It ascends 
the Ganges to a great distance, and is probably the Platanista 
of Pliny. 


Puocana, Cuv. 


The Porpoises(5) have no rostrum, but a short, and uniformly con- 
vex muzzle. 


(1) I suspect this D. plumbeus to be the same as the D. malaianus of MM. 
Lesson and Garnier, Voy. de la Coq. pl. ix, f. 5. 

(2) We cannot, in this work, give a place to species which have been only seen 
at a distance, and of which no part has been produced; we therefore mention, 
merely as indications, the D. albigena, Quoy and Gaym., Yoy. de Freye. pl. xi, or 
D. superciliosus, Lesson and Garn., Voy. de la Cog. pl. ix, f. 2.—The D. eruciger, 
Quoy and Gaym. Ib. f. 3 and 4, which is at least closely allied to the D. bivittatus, 
Less. and Garn. f. 3.—The D. lunatus, Less. and Garn. f. e —Still less can we admit 
species which have not even been figured. 

(3) Blainville, Nouv. Bullet. des Sc. IV, p. 139, and Fr. Cuv. Mammif. under the 
very improper name of D. de Dale, which belongs to the Hyperoodon. 

N.B. The D. rostratus of Shaw is the gangeticus. 

(4) Add the Dauphin couronné, Freminyille, Nouv. Bullet. des Sc. U1, No. 56, 
pl. 1,82. 

(5) Porpoise, from porcus piscis, hog-fish. 


208 MAMMALIA. 


D. phocena, L.3 Lacep. XII, f. 2.. (The Common Por- 
poise.) ‘The teeth compressed, trenchant and rounded, from 
twenty-two to twenty-five on each side in each jaw; blackish 
above, white beneath. It isthesmallest of the Cetacea, seldom 
exceeding four or five feet in Jength; very common in all our 
seas, where it is found in large troops. 

D. capensis, Dussum. (The Cape Porpoise.) Similar to the 
preceding, but has twenty-eight teeth throughout, cylindrical, 
slightly pointed, and not compressed like those of the common 
species. From the Cape seas. 

D. orca and D. gladiator; Buts-kopf and Schwerd-fisch of the 
Hollanders and Germans; Lacep. XV, 1, and not so well, V, 3. 
(The Grampus.)(1) Teeth, thick, conical and slightly hooked, 
eleven every where; the posterior ones flattened transversely; 
the body black above, white underneath; a white spot on the 
eye in the form of a crescent; the dorsal fin elevated and pointed. 
It is the largest of the Dolphins, being frequently found from 
twenty to twenty-five feet in length, and is the most relentless 
enemy of the Whale. They attack it in troops and torment it 
until it opens its mouth, when they devour the tongue. 

D. aries, Risso; Ann. Mus. XIX, pl.i, fig. 4. A smaller spe- 
cies sometimes seen upon the coast of France, which soon loses 
the upper teeth and preserves only a few of the lower ones. 
Its dorsal fin is lower and further back than that of the Gram- 
pus.(2) 

D. globiceps, Cuv.(3) Ann. Mus. XIX, pl. i, fig. 2 and 3; D. 
deductor, Scoresby. (The Round-headed Grampus.) Top of 
the head so arched as to be globular; long, pointed, - pectoral 
fins; it is more than twenty feet in length; black, with a white 
stripe from the throat to the anus. It lives in troops of several 
hundreds, led by the old males, and is sometimes thrown upon 
the coasts of Europe. It has from nine to thirteen teeth through- 
out, but loses them all with age. 


(1) Grampus, a corruption of grand poisson. Buts kopf, or rather Boots kopf, sig- 


nifies that its head is made like a long-boat. Schwerd jisch, Sword-fish, from its 
dorsal fin. 


(2) The Epaulard ventru of Bonnaterre, Lacep. XV, 3, copied from Hunter, 
Phil. Trans. presents a similar form; but Hunter’s specimen was eighteen feet 
long, and ours never exceeds ten. 

The D. griseus, Ann. Mus., XIX, pl. i, f. 1, is merely a bad drawing of this D. 
aries, Ib. f. 4. The true aries of the ancients is the Grampus. 

(3) It is the head of the D. globiceps deprived of its teeth, which is engraved in 
Bonnaterre, Cetol. pl. vi, f. 2: and in Lacep. pl. ix, f. 2, under the name of 
Cachalot swinewal; and in Camper, Cet. pl. xxxii, xxxili and xxxiy, under that of 
the Toothless Narwhal. 


CETACEA. 209 


De.rninaprerus, Lacep. 


Only differs from the Porpoises in having no dorsal fin. 

D. leucas, Gm.; D. albicans, Fabr.; Huid fisk of the Danes; 
Scoresby, Arct. Ree: II, pl. xiv. (The Beluga.) Nine teeth 
throughout, thick and blunt at the end; skin of a yellowish 
white; head, externally convex, like that of a Porpoise; as large 
as the Grampus. Found in the Frozen Ocean, whence it often 
ascends rivers to some distance.(1) 

D. leucoramphus, Peron.; Voy. de la Coq. pl. ix. (2) Inhabits 
the South seas; the head is convex and pointed; the muzzle, a 
part of the pectoral fins, and the whole under part of the body 
of a beautiful white. The back is blue, and it has from thirty- 
eight to forty-two teeth throughout. The 

D. phocenoides is a species’ of this subgenus, discovered by 
M. Dussumier at the Cape; it has the round head, and the 
compressed and obtuse teeth of the Porpoise.(3) 


Hyrreroopon, Lacep.(4) 


The body and muzzle very similar externally to those of theDolphin 
properly so called; but the cranium is elevated at itsedges by vertical 


bony partitions; they are generally found to have but two small teeth 


in front of the lower jaw, which do not always appear externally; 
their palate is studded with small tubercles. 

One species only is known, which attains a length of from 
twenty to twenty-five feet, and perhaps more. It is taken in 
the British Channel and the North Sea, and is often called the 
Baleine @ bec.(5) 


(1) Rondelet, under the name of peis-mular and of senedette, represents a Ceta- 
ceous animal very similar to the Beluga; but he does not say it is white. He 
also applies to it the Italian name of capidolio. It would be one Delphinapterus 
more, if the figure were not ideal; but I fear such is the case, and the more so as 
this name of mular and that of capidolio belong properly to the Cachalot. Be- 


‘sides this, the Beluga has occasioned the formation ofa little white Cachalot, from 
. the circumstance of so soon losing its upper teeth. See its head, Voy. de Pallas, 


Atl. pl. Ixxix. 

(2) The muzzle in this figure is too pointed. The White Dolphin with black 
extremities of Commerson must be nearly allied to it. 

(3) M. Rafinesque speaks of a Dolphin with two dorsal fins, and MM. Quoy 
and Gaymard saw one they have named D. rhinoceros, Voy. de Freycinet, I, f. 1; 
but they saw it at a distance, and half merged in the waves, so that there may 
have been some optical illusion. 

(4) Hyperoodon, teeth in the palate. 

(5) This animal, described by Baussard, Jour. de Phys. March 1789, (Delph. 
edentulus, Schr.) to which Bonnaterre pas transferred the name of buts-kopf, which 

Vou. IL.—2 B 


210 MAMMALIA. 


Monopon, Lin. 


The Narwhals have no teeth properly speaking, but mere long, 

straight and pointed tusks, implanted in the intermaxillary bone, 

‘and directed in the line of the axis of the body. The form of their 

body and that of their head greatly resemble that of the Porpoises. 
One species only is well known, the 

M. monoceros, L.; Scoresby, Arct. Reg. pl. xv.(1) The Nar- 

whal.) The tusk of this animal, which is spirally furrowed and 

sometimes ten feet in length, was for a long time called the 

horn of the Unicorn. It has, it is true, the germs of two tusks, 

but it is very seldom that both become equally developed. That 

of the left side usually attains its full growth, while the other 

always remains hidden in its alveolus.(2) According to the 

description of the Narwhal, it is hardly more than twice or 

thrice the length of its tusks; the skin is marbled with brown 

and a kind of white; the muzzle is arched; mouth small; spira- 

cle on top of the head, and no dorsal fin, but merely a salient 

crest along the spine. The tusks are sometimes found perfectly 


smooth.(3) 


The other Cetacea have the head so large as to constitute 
one third or one half of the length of the whole body; but 
neither the cranium nor the brain participate in this dispro- 


belongs to the Grampus, is the same as the Z'wo-toothed Dolphin of Hunter; Baus- 
sard expressly mentions its two teeth. It is also the Balena rostrata of Klein and 
of Chemnitz, Besch. der Berl. ges. 1V, p. 183; of Pennant, Brit. Zool. No. V; of 
Pontoppidan, Nor. I, 120; the Bottle-head of Dale, &c. Chemnitz found one of 
the teeth. See Oss. Foss. tom. V, p. 1, f. 324. 

(1) The Narval microcephale, Lacep. pl. v, f. 2, is nothing more than a common 
Narwhal, not quite so badly figured as in pl. iv, f.3, whichis copied from a bad 
drawing of Klein, Pisc. per Pulm. Resp. pl. ii, fig. c, from ar individual captured 
in the Elbe in 1736, afterwards stuffed and exhibitedin Dresden. Anderson gives 
a rather better figure of the same individual. Fr. Tr. I, p. 108. 

(2) We have found this small tusk in several crania, and verified the statements 
of Anderson on this subject. It is prevented from being developed by its internal 
cavity becoming too rapidly filled with the matter of the ivory, which thus obliter- 
ates its gelatinous core. 

(3) The Monodon spurius of Fabricius, or @narkak of Greenland, (Ancylodon, 
lllig.) which has but two small curved teeth in the upper jaw and a dorsal fin, 
cannot be far removed from the Hyperoodon. Val, wale, in all the languages de- 
rived from the Teutonic, signifies Whale, and is often employed for the Cetacea in 
general; nar, in the language of the Icelanders, means cadaver, or dead body, 
and it is pretended that such is the food of this genus. 


CETACEA. yA i 


portion, which is altogether owing to an enormous develop- 
ment of the bones of the face. 


PHYSETER, Lin. 


The Cachalots(1) are Cetacea with a very voluminous head, exces- 
sively enlarged, particularly in front, in whose upper jaw there is 
neither whalebone nor tooth, or if any, very small, and not projecting; 
the lower jaw, narrow, elongated, and corresponding to a furrow in 
the upper one, is armed on each side with a range of cylindrical or 
conical teeth, which, when the mouth is closed, enter into corres- 
ponding cavities in the upper jaw. The superior portion of their 
enormous head consists almost entirely of large cavities, separated 
and covered by cartilages, and filled with an oil which becomes 
fixed as it cools, well known in commerce by the name of spermaceti, 
a substance for which they are principally sought; the body not 
having much fat, and consequently yielding but little oil. These 
cavities, however, are very distinct from the true cranium, which 
is rather small, is placed under their posterior portion, and contains 
the brain as usual. It appears that canals, filled with this sperma- 
ceti, or adipocire as it is called, are distributed to several parts of 
the body, communicating with the cavities which fill the mass of the 
head; they even ramify through the fat or blubber that is found 
beneath the skin. 

The odorous substance, named ambergris, appears to be a con- 
cretion formed in the intestines of the Cachalot, particularly during 
certain states of disease, and it is said, chiefly in the czecum. 

The species of the Cachalots are far from being well as- 
certained. That which appears to be the most common, the 
macrocephalus of Shaw and Bonnaterre, (Lacep. X)(2) in lieu 
of a dorsal fin, has a mere callous prominence. There are from 
twenty to twenty-three teeth on each side of the lower jaw, and 
some small conical ones hidden beneath the gum in the upper 
one. Its spiracle is single, and not double as in the greater 
part of the other Cetacea ; neither is it symmetrical, but is di- 
rected towards. the left, and terminates on that side, on the front 

of the muzzle, which is truncated.(3) In addition to this, it is 
said that. the left eye is much.smaller than the other, and that 


(1) Physeter as well as physalus, signifies blower. Cachalot is the name used by 
the Biscayans ; from cachau, which in the Cantabrian dialect means footh. 

(2) Itis not the macrocephalus of Linnzus. 

(3) We have verified on two crania this want of symmetry in the spiracle, an- 
nounéed by Dudley, by Anderson and by Swediauer, which inclines us to credit 
the inequality of the eyes mentioned by Egede. 


212 MAMMALIA. 


the whalers always endeavour to attack the animal from that 
quarter. If this species alone furnishes, as is asserted, all the 
spermaceti and ambergris of commerce, it must be very widely 
diffused, for these articles are drawn from the North and the 
South. Cachalots, without dorsal fins, have been taken even in 
the Adriatic.(1) The 


PuysEter, Lacep. 


Is a Cachalot with a dorsal fin. Two species only are distinguished 
among them, microps, and tursio or mular, and those, from the very 
equivocal character of teeth, arcuated or straight, sharp or blunt.(2) 

They are found in the Mediterranean as wellasin the Arctic 
Ocean. Those of the latter are said to be the most inveterate 
enemies of the Seals. 


Bauzwna, Lin. 


The Whales are equal in size to the Cachalots, and in the propor- 
tional magnitude of the head, although the latter is not so much 
enlarged in front; but they have no teeth. ‘The two sides of their 
upper jaw, which is keel-shaped, are furnished with thin, compact, 


(1) We perceive no real difference between this Cachalot, of which we haye 
good figures and several parts of the skeleton, and that of Roberson, Phil. Trans., 
Vol. LX, of which Bonnaterre has made a species under the name of lrumpo, 
which is applied, at Bermuda, to a Cachalot, without any more precise indication. 

As to the Little Cachalot, P. catodon, Lin., no other difference is mentioned 
besides that of size, than that the teeth are sharper, a circumstance that may depend 
uponage. It is not even certain that those which have been produced are not 
those of some large Dolphin. 

The Physeter macrocephalus of Linneus, Cach. cylindrique of Bonnaterre, (genus 
Puysatus of Lacep.) would have a good character in the distant location of its 
spiracle; but this species merely rests on a bad figure of Anderson, and no one has 
ever seen any thing like it. 

The albicans of Brisson, huid-fisk of Egede and Anderson, converted by Gmelin 
into a variety of the macrocephalus, is the beluga dolphin, which sheds its teeth at 
avery early age, a fact we have ascertained. 

(2) The only one tolerably well ascertained, is from a bad figure of Bayer, 
Act. Nat. Cur. [f1, pl. 1, taken from an animal thrown on shore at Nice. The 
name mular has been very vaguely applied to it; the mular of Nieremberg is a 
Cachalot, it is true ; but there is nothing to prove it is one species more than 
another. ' 

As to the different indications of the Cachalots of authors, see my Oss. Foss. 
tom. V, p- 328, etseq, Add to them the figure given in the Journ. des Voyages, 
of February 1826, and that in the Voy. de Freycinet, pl. xii. | With respect to 
the Cachalots described by M. de Lacepede, Mem. du Museum, tom. IV, from 
Japanese drawings, the very nature of the document on which they rest forbids 
me from giving them a place here. ; 


CETACEA. 213 


transverse laminz, called whalebone, formed of a kind of fibrous 
horn, fringed at the edges, which serve to retain the little animals 
on which these enormous Cetacea feed. Their lower jaw, supported 
by two osseous branches arched externally and towards the summit, 
and completely unarmed, lodges a very thick and fleshy tongue, and 
when the mouth is closed, envelopes the internal part of the upper 
jaw, and the whalebone with which it is invested. These organs do 
not allow whales to feed on such large animals as their size might 
induce us to imagine. They live on fish, but principally on Worms, 
Mollusca, and Zoophytes, selecting, it is said, the very smallest, 
which become entangled in the filaments of the whalebone. Their 
nostrils, better organised for the sense of smell than those of the 
Dolphins, are furnished with some ethmoidal plates, and appear to 
receive some small filaments from the olfactory nerve. Their cecum 
is short. . 

Bal. mysticetus,(1) L.3; Lacep. Cet. pl. 2 and 3, under the name 
of Nord-Caper, and Scoresby, Arct. Reg. II, pl. 12. (The Com- 
mon Whale.)(2) It has long been considered the largest of all 
animals; but from the late observations of captain Scoresby, it 
appears that it scarcely ever exceeds seventy feet, a length fre- 
quently surpassed by the wrinkle-bellied whales. It has no dor- 
sal fin. To procure its fat or blubber, which is sometimes seve- 
ral feet in thickness, and contains immense quantities of oil, 
whole fleets are annually equipped. Formerly sufficiently bold 
to venture into our seas, it has gradually retired to the extreme 
North, where the number is daily diminishing. Besides oil, 
it produces black and flexible whalebone, eight or ten feet in 
length, each individual having from eight to nine hundred strips 
on each side of the palate. One hundred and twenty tuns of oil 
are obtained from a single whale. Shell-fish attach themselves 
to its skin, and multiply there as on a rock, and some of the 
Balanus family even penetrate into it. It is asserted that these 


(1) The ¢2ave of Aristotle and #lian, which was an enemy of the Dolphin, 
appears to have been a large cetaceous animal armed with teeth; the only true 
Whale known to Aristotle was his mysticetus, which had, says he, sete in the 
mouth in place of teeth ; most probably the Whale, with the wrinkled throat, of the 
Mediterranean. It is thought, however, that Juvenal alludes to the common 
Whale in the following line, 

**Quanto delphinis balena britannica major;” 
but the Latins applied the term Balena, in a general way, to all the great Cetacea, 
just as the people of the North do that of Whale, or Wall, and its derivatives, a 
remark essentially requisite to those who study their writings. 

(2) The old figure of Martens, recopied Lacep. I, pl. 1, and in all other authors, 
represents the head too long. 


214 MAMMALIA. 


enormous animals feed exclusively on very small Mollusca, 
which abound, it is true, in the seas they inhabit. Their excre- 
ment is of a beautiful red colour, and affords a tolerable die.(1) 
Other species (BaLznorrera, Lacep.) have a dorsal fin: they are 
also again subdivided into such as have a smooth belly, and those in 
which it is wrinkled. The 


BaLznoprera, With a smooth belly, 


Are closely allied to the Whales proper. One only is cited, the 
Balena physalus, Finnfisch of the Hollanders ; copied from 
Martens by Anderson, Bonnaterre, and others ; Lacep. I, fig. ii. 
| (The Gibbar.) As long as the Common Whale, but more 
| slender ; very common in the same latitudes, but shunned by the 
‘fishermen on account of its extreme ferocity, and the paucity of 

its oil; to capture it is a difficult, and for small vessels a danger- 
| ous undertaking, on account of the violence of its motions when 
attacked. It is far from certain that it is not a Jubarta, whose 

name has been corrupted. The 


BaLanopTera, with a wrinkled belly, or Rorquats,(2) 


Have the skin of the underpart of the throat and chest folded longi- 
tudinally into plice, forming very deep wrinkles, and consequently 
susceptible of great dilatation, the use of which is unknown. It 
appears that the seas of Europe contain two species. 


Bal boops, L.; Jubarte of the Biscayans; Lacep. I, f.3,— 
IV, f. land 2,—V, f. 1, and VIII, 1 and 2. (The Jubarta.) 


Superior in length to the Common Whale, but has all the 
dangerous propensities of the Gibbar. 

Bal. musculus, Lin.; Lacep. pl. vi and vii. (The Rorqual of 
the Mediterranean.) Which only differs from the Jubarta in 


some of the details of its proportions. (2) 


(1) It is from an erroneous interpretation of certain passages of Martens and 
Zorgdrager, that naturalists have made a peculiar species of the Nord-Caper, which 
should be a northern whale more slender than the common one ; but in the Antarc- 
tic Seas there isa species very similar to the Common Whale, which the Hollanders 
of the Cape also call Nord-Caper. See Oss. Foss. p. 361, 363. 

(2) Rorqual, whale with tubes, from its plice. 

(3) The Balena rostrata of Hunter, of Fabricius and of Bonnaterre, or the Boops, 
is very different from that of Pennant and of Pontoppidan, which is the Hyrzroo- 
DON. 

The Balena gibbosa and the gibbosa B. or nodosa of Bonnaterre, should be better 
determined; but they are only known through Dudley, Phil. Trans. 387, and 
we are not sure they were precisely in theirnatural state. See Oss. Foss. loc. cit. 


2 


OVIPARA. 215 


OF THE OVIPAROUS VERTEBRATA. 


Although the three classes of the Oviparous Vertebrata 
differ greatly from each other in their quantum of respiration, 
and in all that relates to it, viz. the power of motion and the 
energy of the senses, they present several common characters 
when opposed to the Mammalia, or Viviparous Vertebrata. 

The hemispheres of their brain are very slender, and are 
not united. by a corpus callosum; the crura of the cerebellum 
do not form that protuberance called the pons Varolii; the 
nates—at least in two of these classes—become greatly de- 
veloped, contain a ventricle, and are not covered by the hemi- 
spheres, but are visible below, or on the sides of the cere- 
brum; their nostrils are less complex; the ear has not so 
many small bones, which in several are totally wanting; the 
cochlea, when it exists, which is only the case in Birds, is 
much more simple, &c. Their lower jaw, always composed 
of numerous pieces, is attached by a concave facet to a salient 
process, which belongs to the temporal bone, but separated 
from its petrous portion; the bones of their cranium are more 
subdivided, although they occupy the same relative places, 
and fulfil similar functions; thus the os frontis is composed 
of five or six pieces, &c. The orbits are merely separated 
by an osseous lamina of the sphenoidal bone, or by a membrane. 
When these animals have anterior extremities, besides the 
clavicle, which is frequently united to its fellow on the oppo- 
site side, and is then called fourchette, the scapula also rests 
upon the sternum, by a very broad and long coracoid apophy- 
sis. The larynx is more simple, and has no epiglottis; the 
lungs are not separated from the abdomen by a perfect dia- 
phragm, &c. ‘To render all these affinities sensible, however, 
it would be necessary to enter into anatomical details, which 


216 OVIPARA. 


do not belong to this first part of our work. It is sufficient 
that we have here pointed out the mutual analogy of the Ovi- 
para, which, as regards the plan on which they are constructed, 
is greater than that of any one of them with the Mammalia. 

Oviparous generation consists, essentially, in this—the 
young animal is not attached by a placenta to the parietes of 
the uterus, or of the oviduct, but remains separated from it 
by its most external envelope. Its aliment is prepared before 
hand, and enclosed in a sac attached to its intestinal canal; 
this is what is called the vitellus, or yolk of egg, of which the 
young animal is a sort of appendage, at first imperceptible, 
which is nourished and augmented by absorbing the fluid of 
that yolk. Such of the Ovipara as breathe with lungs have 
the egg furnished with a highly vascular membrane, which 
appears to serve for the purposes of respiration; it is con- 
nected with the bladder, and is analogous to the allantoid of the 
Mammalia. It is neither found in Fishes nor in the Batrach- 
ians, which latter, when young, respire, like Fishes, by bran- 
chie. 

Many of the cold-blooded Ovipara do not bring forth their 
young until they are developed and extricated from their 
shell, or other membranes, which separated them from the 
mother. ‘These are called false Ovipara. 


¢ 


217 


CLASS II. 


AVES. 


Birds are Oviparous Vertebrata, with double systems of cir- 
culation and respiration, organized for flight. 
Their lungs, undivided and attached to the ribs, are enve-— 
loped by a membrane pierced with large holes, which allow 
the air to pass into several cavities of the chest, lower part of 
the abdomen, arm-pits, and even of the interior of the bones, 
so that not only is the surface of the pulmonary vessels bathed 
in the ambient fluid, but that also of an infinitude of vessels 
in other parts of the body. Thus, in certain respects, Birds 
respire by the branches of the aorta, as well as by those of 
the pulmonary artery, and the energy of their irritability is 
in proportion to their quantum of respiration.(1) The whole 

body is so constructed as to profit by this energy. 
Their anterior extremities, destined to sustain them in 
flight, could neither serve them for standing, nor for pre- 
hension; they are bipeds then, and pick up objects from the 
earth with their mouth; their body, consequently, is inclined 
before their legs, the thighs directed forwards, and the toes 
elongated, to form asuflicient base for it. The pelvis is very 
much extended in length, in order to furnish points of attach- 
ment to those muscles which support the trunk upon the 
thighs. ‘There is even a suite of muscles reaching from the 
pelvis to the toes, passing over the knee and heel, so that the 
simple weight of the bird flexes the toes; it is thus that they 


(1) ‘wo common Swallows consume as much pure air.as a Guinea-Pig. Lavoi- 
sier, Mem. de Chimie, I, 119. 
Vou. 1.—2 C 


218 AVES. 


are enabled to sleep in security, while perched on one foot. 
The ischia, and particularly the ossa pubis are lengthened out 
behind, and the interval between them is widened, in order 
to allow the necessary space for the development of the ovum. 

The neck and the beak are elongated to reach the ground, 
but the former has the requisite flexibility for bending back- 
wards when at rest,—consequently, it has many vertebrz. 
The trunk, on the contrary, which serves as a point @appui 
to the wings, has but little mobility; the sternum, particularly, 
to which are attached the muscles which lower the wings in 
flight, is of great extent, and has its surface still more enlarged 
by a salient process in its middle. It is originally composed 
of five pieces: a middle one, of which this salient lamina 
makes a part; two triangular, anterior, lateral ones, for the 
articulations of the ribs, and two posterior, which are lateral 
and bifurcated, to increase its surface. The greater or less 
degree of the ossification of the notches of these last, and the 
extent of the interval they leave between them and the princi- ” 
pal bone, denote a relative strength of wing and power of 
flight. ‘The diurnal Birds of prey, the Swallows and the 
Humming-birds, lose, as they grow old, all traces of these 
unossified spaces. 

The fourchette produced by the junction of the two clavi- 
cles, and the two powerful stretchers formed by the coracoid 
apophyses, keep the shoulders apart, notwithstanding the 
efforts requisite for flight, that act in an opposite direction ; the 
greater the power of flight, the more open and strong is the 
fourchette. The wing, supported by the humerus, fore-arm 
and hand, the latter of which is elongated, and has one finger — 
and vestiges of two others, is furnished throughout its length 
with a range of elastic quills, which greatly extends the sur- 
face that resists the air. ‘Those which belong to the hand are 
termed primaries, and there are always ten ; those attached to 
the fore-arm are called secondaries, but their number varies ; 
weaker feathers appended to the humerus are called scapulars ; 
the bone, which is analogous to the thumb, is also furnished 


AVES. 219 


with what are termed bastard quills. Along the base of the 
quills is a range of feathers named coverts. 

The bony tail is very short, but has a range of large quills, 
which,, when spread out, assist in supporting the bird ; they 
are generally twelve in number, sometimes fourteen, and in 
the Gallinacez eighteen, 

The legs have a femur, a tibia and a fibula, which are con- 
nected with the femur by an articulation witha spring, which 
keeps up the extension without any effort on the part of the 
muscles. The tarsus and metatarsus are represented by one 
single bone, terminating below in three pullies. 

Most commonly there are three toes before, and a thumb 
behind ; the latter being sometimes deficient. In the Mar- 
tins it is directed forwards. In the Climbers, on the contrary, 
the external toe and the thumb are directed backwards. 
The number of articulations increases in each toe, commencing 
with the thumb, which has two, and ending with the exter- 
nal toe, which has five. 

Birds are generally covered with feathers, a kind of tegu- 
ment best adapted for defending them from the rapid varia- 
tions of temperature to which their movements expose them. 
‘The air cavities which occupy the interior of their body, and 
even supersede the marrow in the bones, increase their 
specific lightness. The sternal, as well as the vertebral portion 
of the ribs is ossified, in order to give more power to the di- 
latation of the chest. To cach rib is annexed a small bone, 
which soon becomes soldered to it, and is directed obliquely 
towards the next one, thereby giving additional solidity to the 
thorax. 

The eye is so constructed, in Birds, as to distinguish, with 
equal facility, objects at a distance, or in its immediate vicin-. 
ity; a vascular and plaited membrane, which stretches from 
‘the bottom of the globe to the edge of the crystalline, proba- 
bly assists in effecting this, by displacing that lens. The ante- 
rior surface of the ball is also strengthened by a circle of bony 
pieces, and besides the two ordinary eye- -lids, there is always 
a third one placed at the internal angle, which, by a remark- 


220 AVES. 


able muscular apparatus, can be drawn over the eye like a - 


curtain. ‘The cornea is very convex, but the crystalline is 
flat, and the vitreous humour small. 

The ear has but a single small bone, formed of oneybranch 
that adheres to the tympanum, and of another terminating in 
a plate that rests upon the fenestra ovalis; the cochlea is a 
slightly arcuated cone; but the semi-circular canals are 
large, and lodged in a part of the cranium where they are 
completely surrounded by air cavities, which communicate 
with the arca. Nocturnal Birds alone have a long external 
conch, which, however, does not project like that of Quadru- 
peds. The external meatus is generally covered with feathers, 
whose barbs are more fringed than the others. 

The organ of smell, concealed in the base of the beak, usu- 
ally has but three cartilaginous ossa turbinata, which vary in 
complication ; although there are no sinuses within the pari- 
etes of the cranium, it is extremely sensible. The breadth of 
the osseous openings of the nostrils determines the strength of 
the beak; and the cartilages, membranes, feathers and other 


teguments which narrow down those apertures, influence the 


power of smell, and the nature of the food. 

There is but little muscular substance in the tongue, which 
is supported by a bone articulated with the hyoid ; in most 
Birds this organ is not very delicate. 

The feathers, as well as the quills, which only differ i in size, 
are composed of a stem, hollow at base, and of barbs, which 


are themselves furnished with smaller ones; their tissue, lustre, - 


strength, and general form vary infinitely. The touch must 
be feeble in all such parts as are covered with them, and as 
the beak is almost always corneous, and has but little sensi- 
bility, and the toes are invested with scales above, and a callous 
skin underneath, that sense can have but little activity in this 
class of animals. 

Birds moult twice a year. In certain species, the winter 
plumage differs in its colours from that of summer; in the 
greater number, the female differs from the male in an infe- 
rior vividness of tints, and when this is the case, the young of 


eae 


AVES. yd 


both sexes resemble the former. When the adult male and 
female are of the same colour, the young ones have a livery 
- peculiar to them. 

The brain of Birds has the same general characters as that 
of other Oviparous Vertebrata, but is distinguished by its very 
great proportionate size, which often surpasses even that of 
this organ in the Mammalia. ‘This volume principally depends 
upon tubercles, analogous to the corpora striata, and not upon 
the hemispheres, which are narrow and without circumvolu- 
tions. The cerebellum is tolerably large, and almost without 
lateral lobes, being chiefly constituted by the vermiform pro- 
cess. 

The rings of the trachea are entire; there isa glottis at its 
bifurcation most commonly furnished with peculiar muscles, 
which is called the ¢nferior larynx; this is the spot where 
the voice of birds is produced; the immense volume of air 
contained in the air sacs contributes to its strength, and the 
trachea, by its various forms and motions, to its modifications. 
The superior larynx, which is extremely pinaples has but little 
to do with it. 

‘The face, or upper mandible of Birds, consisting chiefly of 
their intermaxillaries, islengthened out behind into two arches, 
the internal of which is composed of the pterygoid and palatine 
bones, and the external of the maxillaries and jugals, both of 
which rest on a movable ¢ympanic bone, commonly called the 
square bone, analogous to that of the drum of the ear 5 above, 
this same face is articulated with the cranium, or united to it 
by elastic laminz, a kind of union which always allows the parts 
some degree of motion. 

The horny substance which invests the two mandibles, per- 
forms the office of teeth, and is sometimes so jagged as to re- 
semble them ; its form, as well as that of the mandibles which 
support it, varies extremely, and according to the kind of food 
used by each species. 

The digestion of Birds is in proportion tothe activity of their 
life, and the force of their respiration. The stomach is com- 
posed of three parts: the crop, which is an enlargement of 


rn 


222 AVES. 


the esophagus; a membranous stomach, in the thickness of 
whose parietes are a multitude of glands whose juices humect 
the aliment; and finally, the gizzard, armed with two power- 
ful muscles, united by two radiated tendons, and lined inter- 
nally with a cartilaginous kind of velvet. The food is the 
more easily ground there, as birds constantly swallow small 
stones, in order to increase its triturative power. 

In the greater part of the species which feed exclusively 
on flesh or fish, the muscles and villous coat of the gizzard 
are greatly attenuated; and it seems to make but a single sac 
with the membranous stomach. 

The dilatation of the crop is also sometimes wanting. 

The liver pours its bile into the intestine by two ducts, 
which alternate with the two or three through which the 
pancreatic fluid passes. The pancreas of Birds is large, but 
their spleen is small; the epiploon is wanting; its functions, 
however, are partly fulfilled by the partitions of the air cavi- 
ties; two blind appendages are situated near the origin of the . 
rectum, and at a short distance from the anus; they are longer 
or shorter, according to the regimen of the genus. In the 

‘Herons it is short; in other genera, that of the Woodpeckers 
for instance, it is totally deficient. 

The cloaca is a pouch, in which the rectum, ureters, sper- 
matic ducts, and in the female, the oviduct, terminate 5 it 
opens externally, by the anus. Strictly speaking, Birds do 
not urinate, as that excretion mingles with their solid excre- 
ment. In the Ostriches alone, is the cloaca sufficiently dilated 
to allow of an accumulation of the urine. 

In most genera, coition is effected by the simple juxta- 
position of the anus; the Ostriches, and several of the Palmi- 
pedes, however, have'a penis furrowed with a groove, through 
which the semen passes. The testes are situated internally, 
and near the lungs; only one oviduct is develops? the other 
is reduced to a small sac. 

The egg, detached from the ovary, where it consists merely 
of yolk, imbibes that external fluid, called the white, in the 
upper part of the oviduct, and becomes invested with its shell _ 
at the bottom of the same canal. The chick contained within 


AVES. 229 


it is developed by incubation, unless the heat of the climate 
suffices for that purpose, as is the case with the egg of the 
Ostrich. The young Bird has a little horny point at the 


» extremity of the beak, with which it splits open the shell, and 


which falls off a few days after it is hatched. 


h 


The industry and skill exhibited by Birds in their variously 
constructed nests, and their tenderness and care in protecting 
their eggs and young, are known to every one}; it is the prin- 
cipal part of their instinct. Their rapid transitions through 
different regions of the air, and the vivid and continual action 
of that element upon them, enable them to anticipate atmos- 
pheric changes, to an extent of which we can form no idea, 
and caused the ancients, in their superstition, to attribute to 
them the power of prescience or divination. It is unques- 
tionably on this faculty, that depends the instinct which acts 
upon the Birds of passage, prompting them to seek the south 
on the approach of winter, and the north on the return of 
spring. ‘They have memory, and even imagination—for they 
dream. ‘They are easily tamed; may be taught to render 
various services, and retain the air and words of songs. 


& 
Division of the Class of Birds into Orders. 


Of all classes of animals, that of Birds is the most 
strongly characterized, that in which the species have the 
greatest mutual resemblance, and which is separated from all 
others by the greatest interval; circumstances which, at the 
same time, render its subdivision the more difficult. * 

Their distribution is founded, like that of the Mammalia, on 
the organs of manducation or the beak, and on those of pre- 
hension, that is, on the beak, and particularly on the feet. 

The first that arrest our attention are the palmated feet, or 
those in which the toes are connected by membranes, which 
distinguish all Swimming Birds. The position of these feet 
behind; the length of the sternum; the neck, often longer 
than the legs to enable it to reach below; the dense, polished 


: 


224 AVES. 


plumage, impermeable to water, all concur with the feet in 
making good navigators of the Palmipedes. 

In other birds, which most commonly are partially web- 
footed, at least between the external toes, we observe elevated 
tarsi; legs divested of feathers at their lower extremities; a 
long, thin shape, and in fine, all the requisites for wading 
along the shores of rivers to seek their food. Such, in fact, 
is the regimen of the greater number; and although some of 
them inhabit dry grounds, they are called, Shore-irds, or 
Waders. 

Among the true land birds, the Gallinacez, like our domes- 
tic Cock, have a heavy carriage, a moderate beak, the upper 
mandible of which is arched; the nostrils partly covered by a 
soft and inflated scale ; the toes almost always indented on the 
edges, and short membranes between the bases of the anterior 
ones. ‘They fly heavily, and but a short distance at a time. 
Their chief food is grain. 

Birds of prey have a hooked beak, the point of which is 
sharp, and curved downwards; the nostrils pierced in a mem- | 
brane which invests the whole base of that beak, and feet 
armed with vigorous talons. ‘They live on flesh, pyrsue other 
birds, and are consequently, for the most part, vigorous in 
flight. The greater number have still a slight web between 
the external toes. 

The Passerine comprise many more species than all the 
other families; but their organization presents so many analo- 
gies that they cannot be separated, although varying greatly 
in size dnd strength. Their two external toes are united at 
the base, and sometimes for a part of their length. 

Finally, the name of Scansoriz, or Climbers, has been 
given to those birds whose external toe, like the thumb, is 
directed backwards, because the greater number profit, by a 
conformation so favourable to a vertical position, to climb 
trees.(1) 


(1) From my first Tableau Elementaire, in 1798, I was obliged to suppress the 
Linnean order of the Picz, which has no one determined character. Illiger and 
the greater number of late naturalists have assented to this suppression. 


AVES. 225 


_ Each of these orders is subdivided into families and genera, 
and principally from the conformation of the beak. But these 
different groups frequently pass into each other by almost 
imperceptible gradations, so that there is no other class in 
which the genera and sub-genera are so difficult to limit. 


ORDER I. 
ACCIPITRES, Lin. 


Birds of prey are known by their hooked beak and talons, 
powerful weapons, with which they pursue other birds, and 
even the weaker quadrupeds and reptiles. They are among 
Birds what the Carnivora are among Quadrupeds. The 
muscles of their thighs and legs indicate the strength of their 
claws 3 their tarsi are rarely elongated; they have, all, four 
toes; the nail of the thumb and that of the internal toe are 
the strongest. 

They form two families, the diurnal and the nocturnal. 

The eyes of the diurnal Birds of prey are directed sideways 5 
they have a membrane called the cera, covering the base of 
the beak, in which the nostrils are pierced 5 three toes before, 
one behind, without feathers, the two external ones almost 
always united at base by a short membrane; the plumage 
dense, the quills strong, and great power on the wing. Their 
stomach is nearly altogether membranous, their’ intestines of 
but small extent, their cecum very short, their sternum broad 
and completely ossified in order to give more extended attach- 
ments to the muscles of the wings, and their fourchette semi- 
circular and widely separated, the better to resist the violent 
flexions of the humerus necessary to a rapid flight. 

*Linneus comprehended them all under two genera, which 
are so many natural divisions, the Vultures and the Falcons. 
Vou. I.—2 D 


226 AVES. 


VutTor, Lin. 


The Vultures have eyes even with the head, and reticulated tarsi, 
that is, covered with small scales ; an elongated beak, curved only at 
the end, and a greater or less portion of the head, or even of the 
neck, divested of feathers. The strength of their talons does not 
correspond with their size, and they make more use of their beak 
than of their claws. Their wings are so long, that in walking they 
keep them in a state of semi-extension. They are a cowardly genus, 
feeding oftener on carrion than ona living prey; when they have 
fed, their crop forms a great protuberance above the fourchette, a 
fetid humour flows from their nostrils, and they are almost reduced 
to a state of stupid insensibility. 


4 


Vuttur, Cuv. 


The Vultures, properly so called, have a large and strong beak, 
the nostrils pierced transversely at its base; the head and neck 
without feathers or caruncles, and acollar of long feathers, or of 
down, at the root of the neck. They have hitherto been found only 
in the eastern continent. 

V. fulvus, Gmel.; V. trencalos, Bechstein; Le Percnoptere, 
Buff. Enl. 326, and Le Grand Vautour, Id. Hist. des Ois. I, in 
Ato, pl. V3(1) Zhe Vulture, Albinus, HI, i; Nauman, pl. 2. 
(The Fulvous Vulture.) Grey, or of a brown verging upon 
fulvous; the down on the head and neck, cinereous; collar 
white, sometimes mixed with browns; quills of the wing and 
tail, brown ; beak and feet lead coloured; belly of the adult 
white. It is the most universally diffused species, and is 
found on the mountains of the whole of the eastern continent. 
Its body surpasses in size that of the swan.(2) 

V. cinereus, Gmel. Col. 425; Nauman, pl. v3 Viellot, Gall. pl. 
i; Arrian of La Peyrouse; Black Vulture, Cinereous Vulture, &c. 
(The Brown Vulture.) A blackish brown ; the collar mounting 
obliquely towards the occiput, which is furnished with a tuft of 
feathers ; the feet and the membrane of the base of the beak of 


(1) The history of the Grand Vautour of Buffon belongs to the following species, 
but the figure is that of the fulvus. 

(2) The Vautour des Indes, Lath. and Sonnerat, Tem. Pl. Col. 26, is at least a 
closely allied species, as well as the Chassefiente, Vaill. Affr. pl. 10. Add V. egypius 
Tem. Col. 407.—V. imperialis, lb. 426. 

N.B. The Fawn-coloured Vulture is the genus Gres of Savigny. The Brown 
Vulture is the type of his genus Heyrrus. 


ACCIPITRES. pay 


a bluish violet. It is equally common with the preceding, and 
and is still larger, frequently attacking living animals. (1) 

V. auricularis, Daud.; Vaill. Afr. pl. ix. (The Oricou.) 
Blackish; a longitudinal fleshy crest on each side of the neck, 
above the ear. From Africa.(2) 

America produces Vultures remarkable for the caruncles which 
surmount the membrane of the base of their beak; the latter is as 
large as in the preceding species, but the nostrils are oval and lon- 
gitudinal. They constitute the Sarcorampuus of Dumeril.(3) 

Vult. papa, L.3 Enl. 428; Viellot, Gal. 3; Zrubi Cha, Azz. 
(The King of the Vultures.) As large as a goose; blackish 
when young, (Spix. pl. 1) then variegated with black and fawn 
colour, (Vaill. Afric. 13) and finally, in the fourth year, has a 
fawn coloured mantle, and black quills and collar. The naked 
parts of the head and neck are vividly tinged, and the caruncle 
is denticulated like the comb of a cock. It inhabits the plains 
and other hot parts of South America. Its name is derived 
from the circumstance of the Urubus retiring, through fear, 
when he stoops upon a body which they have already begun to 
devour. 

Vult. gryphus, L.; Humb. Obs. Zool. pl. viii, and Tem. Pl. 
Col. 133 and 408. (The Condor.) Blackish; a great part of 
the wing ash coloured ; collar silky and white; the male, in 
addition to his superior caruncle, which is large and entire, has 
another under the beak, like the cock. While young, it is of a 
cinereous brown, and without a collar. The caruncles are defi- 
cient in the female, which is of a brownish grey. This species 
has been rendered famous by exaggerated reports of its size ; it 
is, however, but a little larger than the Leemmer-geyer, to which 
it assimilates in habits. It is found in the most elevated moun- 
tains of the Andes in South America, and flies higher than any 
other bird. The 


Caruarres, Cuv.—Gat.inazes, or Caruarisres, Viellot, 


Have the beak of the Sarcoramphus, that is, large, and with oval and 


(1) The V. monachus, Edw. 290 ; Vaill. 12 and Col. 13, only differs from the 
Brown Vulture in the beak, which is somewhat shorter. The Crested Vulture (V. 
eristatus, Gm.) is only known to me by a bad figure of Gesner, probably taken 
from some species of Eagle. The V. barbarus is the same as the Laemmer-Geyer, 
Falco barbatus. 

(2) The Pondicherry Vulture, Sonnerat, pl. cv, or V. ponticerianus, Pl. Col. 2, 
is nearly allied to the Oricou. Its lateral crests do not ascend so high, and its 
beak is not so strong. 

(3) M. Vieillot has changed this name into Zoppilota or Gypagus. 


se Le ee 


228 AVES. 


longitudinal nostrils, but no fleshy crest ; their head and neck are 
without feathers. 

V. californianus, Sh.; Tem. Col. 31. (The Vulture of Califor- 
nia.) Approaches the Condor in size, but its wings are pro- 
portionably longer; the plumage is entirely brown. 

V. aura, L., Enl. 1875 Viellot, Am. Sept. 2 and Galer. 4. 
(The Turkey Buzzard.) Black; tail cuneiform ; as large asa 
cock. See App. XII of Am. Ed. 


Prrcnorrervus,(1) Cuv.—Gyparros, Bechstein. —Neropuron, Savig. 


The Percnopteri have a slender, long beak, slightly inflated above 
its curvature ; the nostrils oval and longitudinal, and the head, but 
not the neck, divested of feathers. They are birds of a moderate 
size, and very far removed, as to strength, from the true Vultures ; 
thus they fall more furiously upon carrion and other species of filth, 
which attract them from afar ; they do not even disdain to feed upon 
excrement. They were comprehended by Illiger, along with the 
preceding, among his Caruarres. 

Vult. percnopterus, L.3; V. leucocephalus and V. fuscus, Gm. 
Enl. 407 and 429; Vieillot, Galer. 2; Naum. pl. 3; Vult. de 
Gingi, Sonn. and Daud.; Origourap, Vaill. Afr. 143; Rachamah, 
Bruce ; Pharaoh’s Bird, in Egypt. As large as a crow 3 throat 
and cheeks naked ; the adult male white, quills of the wings 
black ; the young and the female, brown. This bird is found 
throughout the whole of the eastern continent, and is particu- 
larly common in warm countries, where it is an excellent sca- 
venger, purifying them from carrion, &c. It follows the cara- 
vans in the desert to devour all that dies. The ancient Egyp- 
tians held it in respect on account of the services it renders to 
the country, and frequently sculptured it on their monuments. 
Even at the present day it is exempt from injury, and pious 
Mussulmen sometimes bequeath sums of money for the main- 
tenance of a certain number. 

V. jota, Bonap.; Vieillot, Am. Sept. pl. 1. (The Urubu.) 
Of the size and form of the preceding ; the beak stronger; the 
whole body of a brilliant black; the entire head naked. Com- 
mon in all the hot and temperate parts of America, where it 
renders similar services as the Percnopterus in Egypt ; flocking 
round dead bodies, and consuming eyery kind of filth.(2) 


(1) Perenopterus, black wings, the name of the Egyptian species, among the 
ancients. 

(2) This bird has been confounded for a long time with the aura, but its beak 
is much more slender. Add the Catharte moine, Pl. Col. 222. 


ACCIPITRES. , 229 


GYPAETOS, Storr.—PHENE, Savigny. 


The Griffins, placed by Gmelin in the genus Falco, are more nearly 
allied to the Vultures in their habits and conformation ; their eyes 
are even with the head; their talons proportionably weak 5 wings 
half extended when at rest; the crop, when full, projecting at the 
bottom of the neck; but their head is completely covered with 
feathers. Their distinguishing characters consist in a very strong, 
straight beak, hooked at the end, and inflated on the curve ; nostrils 
covered by stiff hairs, directed forwards, and a pencil of similar 
ones under the beak; their tarsi short and feathered to the toes ; 
their wings long, the third quill being the longest. 
Vult. barbarus and Falco barbatus, Gm. Pl. Col. 4313 Edw. 
106; Vieillot, Gal. pl. 8; Nauman, pl. 4 and 53 Nisser of 
Bruce, Abyss. pl. 31. (Zhe Lemmer-geyer.) The largest 
bird of prey belonging to the eastern continent, inhabiting 
the high chains of mountains, but not very common. — It 
builds its nest on inaccessible acclivities, attacks lambs, goats, 
the chamois, and, as it is said,even man, when it finds him 
asleep ; it is asserted that children have been carried away by 
it. Its usual mode of attack is to force its prey from some pre- 
cipice, which it then devours, being killed and mangled by the 
fall. It does not, however, reject dead bodies. Its length is 
nearly four feet, the distance from the tip of one wing to that of 
the other being from nine to ten. The mantle is blackish, with 
a white line on the middle of each feather ; the neck, and all 
the under part of the body are of a light and brilliant fawn-co- 
lour ; a black band surrounds the head. The neck and breast 
of the young, until the fourth year inclusive, are of a brown 
colour, more or less deep. This bird is the Phéne of the Greeks, 
and the Ossifraga of the Latins.(1) 


Fauco, Lin. 


The Falcons form the second, and by far most numerous division 
of the diurnal birds of prey. Their head and neck are covered with 
feathers ; their eye-brows project, which occasions the eye to appear 
sunk, and gives to their physiognomy a character very different 
from that of the Vultures: the greater number prey on living ani- 
mals, but they differ in the courage with which they pursue it. Their 
first plumage is often very differently coloured from that of the adult, 


(1) Savigny, Ois. d’Egyp. et de Syrie, p. 18, in the great work on Egypt, was 
the first who firmly established this synonyme. 


230 | AVES. 


which is only assumed in their third or fourth year, a circumstance 
which has occasioned a great multiplication of species. The female 
is generally one-third larger than the male, which, on this account, 
is styled a darsel, or tercel. We should, first of all, subdivide this 
genus into two great sections. 

* 


NOBLE BIRDS OF PREY. 


“*” 


Fatco, Bechst. Fatcons, properly so called. 


The true Falcons constitute the first,and, in proportion to their 
size, are the most courageous, a quality which is derived from the 
power of their arms and wings; their beak, curved from its base, 
has a sharp tooth on each side of its point, and the second quill of 
their wings is the longest, the first nearly equalling it, which ren- 
ders the whole wing longer and more pointed. From this, also, 
result peculiar habits : the length of the quills of their wings dimin- 
ishes their vertical power, and compels them, in a calm state of the 
atmosphere, to fly obliquely forwards, so that when they wish to 
rise directly upwards, they are obliged to fly against the wind. 
These birds are the most docile of all those employed by falconers, 
who teach them to pursue game, and to return at their call. Their 
wings are longer than their tails. 

F. communis, Gm.(1) (The Common Falcon.) As large as 

a hen, and distinguished by a triangular, black moustache on 

the cheek, larger than that of any other species of the genus $ 

it varies as to colours nearly in the following manner : when 

| young, it is brown above, the feathers edged with reddish ; un- 

derneath whitish, with longitudinal brown spots. As it increases 

in age, the spots on the belly and thighs have a tendency to form 
transverse blackish lines, and the white increases on the throat 
and root of the neck; the plumage on the back, at the same 

time, bécomes more uniform, and is of a brown, transversely \ 

striped with a blackish ash colour ; the tail is brown above, 

with pairs of reddish spots, and beneath with pale bands which 

diminish in width with age; the throat is always white; the 

feet and the cera of the beak are sometimes blue and sometimes 

yellow. These variations may be followed, Enl. 470, the young $ 


(1) We must take especial care not to refer to this species the pretended varie- 
ties of the Falco communis given by Gmelin. Thus the var. 2, Frisch. 74, is a Buz- 
zard ; d, Id. 75, is a Booted Buzzard; ¢, Id. 80, the Falco pygargus, L.; 6, Id. 76, 
a Buzzard somewhat paler than usual ; x, Aldroy. 494, a very distinct species, &c. 
On the contrary, the F*. islundicus, barbarus and peregrinus may all be the Common 
Falcon at different periods of moulting. 


ACCIPITRES. Zak 


421, the old female; 450, the old male;(1) Nauman, pl. 24 
and 25, and Wils. Am. IX, pl. Ixxvi. 

Those called Faucons pélerins, Enl. 469, and Wils. Amer. IX, 
pl. 76—F. stellaris, F. peregrinus, Gm., appear to be young ones 
rather blacker than the rest. 

It is this celebrated species which has given its name to that 
kind of hunting in which birds of prey are used. It inhabits 
the whole north of the earth, and builds in the most elevated and 
inaccessible cliffs. Such is the velocity of its flight, that there 
is scarcely a spot on the globe it does not visit. The Falcon 
stoops vertically on its prey, as though it fell from the clouds, 
and consequently can only capture birds while on the wing, 
otherwise it would dash itself against the ground, &c. with fatal 
violence. The male is used for taking Pies and other small 
birds; the female against Pheasants, and even Hares. 

F. lanarius, L.; F. sacer, Naum. pl. 28. (The Lanner.) A 
somewhat larger species, which appears to come from the East 
rather than the North. Its plumage is nearly the same as that of 
the young falcon, except that its moustache is narrower, and 
less marked, and that its throat is mottled ; 1t approaches the 
Gerfalcon in the tail, which is longer than the wings: it is 
principally taken in Hungary. 

Europe produces also six smaller species, three of which have the 
form and qualities of the true falcon on a reduced scale. 

F. subbuteo, L.; Enl. 432; Naum. 26. (The Hobby.) Brown 
above ; whitish, spotted longitudinally with brown beneath ; 
thighs and lower part of the abdomen red; a brown streak on 
the cheek. 

F. zsalon, L.; Enl. 468; Naum. 27. (The Merlin.) Brown 
above; whitish beneath; longitudinally spotted with brown, even 
on the thighs ; the smallest of the European birds of prey. F. 
lithofalco, L.; Enl. 447; ash coloured above; reddish white spot- 
ted longitudinally with pale brown underneath, is merely an ae ; 
old male of the same species. Builds among the rocks. f 

The toes of the three remaining species are shorter, and their 
tubercles less salient. Their flight is not so rapid, and they pursue 
Mice, Insects, and seize Birds upon the perch. The most common is, 

F. tinnunculus, L.; Enl. 401 and 471; Naum. 30. (The Kes- 
trel.) Red; spotted with black above; white longitudinally, 
spotted with pale brown beneath ; the head and tail of the male 

* 


(1) Frisch only gives a young falcon, pl. Ixxxiii, Edw.; the old female, pl. lil 5 
the young, pl. iv. 


a it 


232 AVES. 


ash coloured. The name is derived from its shrill as ; builds 
in old towers, &c. 

F. cenchris, Frisch and Naum.; F. tinnunculoides, Schintz and 
Temm.; Naum. 29; Frisch, 89. (The Little Kestrel.) Immac- 
ulate above; otherwise similar to the Kestrel ; wings rather 
longer, and talons white. This species, long confounded with 
the preceding, prefers the south of Europe. 

F. rufipes, Beseke; F. vespertinus, Gm.; Enl. 431; Naum. 28. 
(The Grey Kestrel.) The male is of a deep ash colour; the 
thighs and inferior part of the abdomen red; the back of the 
female ash coloured, spotted with black ; the head, and all be- 
neath, more or less red. Still smaller than the preceding ; 
most common in eastern Europe, common, also, in Siberia— 
rare in Germany and France.(1) 


Hreroratco, Cuv.(2) 


The Gerfalcons have wing quills similar to those of the other noble 
birds, which they perfectly resemble in disposition ; but their beak 
has only an emargination like that of the ignoble ones;(3) their long 
and displayed tail extends considerably beyond their wings, although 
the latter are very long; the superior third of their tarsi, which are 
short and reticulated, is furnished with feathers. Only one species 
is well known. 


(1) Of foreign species add, Ist, allied to the Kestrel : Le Montagnard, Vaill. 35 
(F. capensis, Sh.).—F. sparverius, Enl. 465, Wils. II. xvi, 1, and IV, xxxii, 2, and 
two or three species, whose wings, otherwise similar to the noble birds of prey as 
to the relative proportion of the feathers, are shorter than the tail ; such as the 
F. punctatus, Cuv. Col. 45.—F. columbarius, Wils. Il, xv, 3. 

2d. Allied to the Hobby : F. czrulescens, Edw. 108, Vieill. Gal. 18, and Col. 97, 
hardly larger than a swallow ;—F’. aurantius, Lath., rufogularis, Ejd., thoracicus, 
Illig. Col. 348 ;—F. bidentatus, Lath., or Bidens rufiventer, Spix. VI, which is dis- 
tinguished by a double tooth in its beak, Col. 38, and the young, Col. 358, or Bid. 
albiventer, Spix. VII, but with the wings too short ;—F. diodon, Col. 198 ;—F. fe- 
moralis, Teram. Col. 121 and 343, and Spix. VIL ;—F. Aldovandii, Reinw. Col. 
128. 

3d. Allied to the True Falcon: the Chiquera, Vaill. Afric. 30 (F. chiquera, Sh.);— 
F. biarmicus, T. Col. 324;—the F. huppé (F. frontalis, Daud., F. galericulatus, 
Sh.), Waill. Afric. 28 ;—the F. huppart, T. (F. lophotes, Cuv.) Enl. 10 ;—the F. 
a culotte noire, Vaill. 29 (£. tibialis, Sh.). 

(2) Mierax, Hiero-falco, Sacred Falcon, &c. names connected with. the supersti- 
tions of the Egyptians respecting certain birds of aeey Gerfalcon is a corruption 
of Mero-falco. 

(3) Nauman, I, p. 278, asserts that it is the falconers who round the tooth of the 
beak in the Gerfalcons. In that case, and with the bare exception of their long 
tail, they would re-enter the catalogue of the other Falcons, and the Lanner should 
be associated with them. 


ACCIPITRES. 233 


F. candicans and F. islandicus, Gm.; Buff. Enl. 210, 456, 462; 
Naum. 21, 22. (The Gerfalcon.) One fourth larger than the 
Falcon, and the most highly esteemed by falconers. Itis chiefly 
obtained from the north; its usual plumage is brown above, 
with an edging of paler points on each feather, and transverse 
lines on the coverts and quills; the tail is striped brown and 
greyish; but it so varies in the proportion of the brown and 
white, that the body of some of them is altogether white, and 
all that remains of the brown is a spot on the middle of each 
feather of the mantle; the feet and the membrane of the beak 
are sometimes yellow, sometimes blue.(1) 

"The second section of the great genus Falco is that of the 


IGNOBLE BIRDS OF PREY. 


Socalled, because they cannot be easily employed in falconry; a tribe 


% much more numerous than that of the Nobles, and which it is also 


¢ 


eo 


€ 


necessary to subdivide considerably. The fourth quill of their 
wings is almost always the longest, and the first is very short, which 
produces the same effect as if their wing had been obliquely trun- 
cated at the tip, whence, cceteris paribus, result diminished powers 
of flight; their beak also is not so well armed, there being no lateral 
tooth near its point, but a mere slight emargination about the middle 
of its length. 


Aaquita, Briss. 


The Eagles, which constitute the first tribe, havea very strong beak, 
straight at base and only curved towards the point. Among them 
we find the largest species of the genus, and the most powerful of all 
the birds of prey. 


AquiLa, Cuv. 


Eagles, properly so called, have the tarsi feathered down to the root 
of the toes; they inhabit mountains, and pursue Birds and Quadru- 
pedss; their wings are as long as the tail, their flight as high as it is 
swift, and their courage superior to that of all other Birds. 

F. fulvus, F. melanaétos, F. niger, Gm.;(2) Enl. 409; Naum. 


(1) Add as a foreign species, the Cinereous Gerfalcon, (F. atricapillus,) Wils. VI, 
lii, 3, of which the Cinereous Buzzard, Edw. 53, (F. cinerews, Gm.;) is possibly a 
young specimen. 

(2) The real species is well represented, Enl. 409; it is Fale. fuluus. At certain 
stages of moulting, the white at the base of the feathers may be seen ; it then 
forms the F. fulvus canadensis, Edw. 1, As to the £. melanaétos, it is merely 
based upon some vague indications of the ancients, and the same only is quoted 


VoL. I.—2 E 


234 


AVES. 


pl. 8 and 93 Wils. VI, lv, 1. (The Common Eagle.) More 
or less brown; the occiput fawn coloured; the superior half of 
the tail white, and the remainder black. The most common 
species in all mountainous countries. 

F. chrysactos, Enl. 410. (The Ring-Tail Eagle.) Only differs: 
from the preceding in its blackish tail, marked with irregular 
ash coloured bands. We are assured that it is the Common 
Eagle, with its perfect plumage.(1) 

F. imperialis, Bechst.; F. mogilnik, Gm.; Aguila hatin, 
Savig. Eg. Ois. pl. xili; ‘Vieillot, Gal. 9; Nauti pl. 6 and 7. 
Tem. Col. 15 and 152. (The Imperial Eagle.) Still longer 
wings; a large whitish spot on the scapulars; the nostrils trans- 
verse; the tail blacks the superior portion undulated with grey. 
The female is fawn coloured, with brown spots. Its port is 
heavier than that of the Common Eagle, and it is a still more 
fearful object to other Birds. It inhabits the high mountains 
of the south of Europe, and is the true subject of the exagger- 
ated tales propagated by the ancients, relating to the power, 
courage, and magnanimity of their Golden Eagle. 

F. nevius, and F. maculatus, Gm.; Naum. pl. 10 and 115 
Aq. melanaétos, Savig. Eg. Ois. pl. 1 and pl. 2,f. 1. (The 
Spotted Eagle.) A third less than the two others; tarsi more 
slender; plumage brown; tail blackish, with paler bands; pale> 
fawn coloured spots, form a band on the small coverts; one at 
the tips of the large ones which mounts to the scapulars, and 
one at the tips of the secondary quills. The superior part of 
the wing is sprinkled with fawn colour. The old birds become 
all brown. Thisspecies is common in the Apennines, and other 
mountains of the south of Europe; but is rarely seen in the 
north; it attacks the weaker animals only. It has been found 
sufficiently docile to be employed in falconry, but is said to fly 
from and be vanquished by the Sparrowhawk. 

It has been thought proper to place among the Eagles a bird 
of Eastern Europe—Falco pennatus, Gm.; Col. 33.3; Briss., 
Suppl. pl. 1, which scarcely resembles them in any thing except 
the plumed tarsi and pointed feathers of the vertex, but which 
is not as large as the Buzzard, and has a beak almost as much 
curved; its plumage is fawn coloured spotted with brown, its 
feet blue. Very rare in France and Germany.(2) 


in pl. 


Enl. 409. Finally, the F. Niger, or Plack-backed Eagle of Brown, is merely 


a slight difference of age. 
(1) Temm. Man. d’Ornith. I, p. 39. 
(2) A living specimen, however, was taken near Paris in 1828. M. Temm- 


ACCIPITRES. 235 


New Holland produces Eagles similar in form to those of 
Europe, the tail excepted, which is cuneiform (efagée).(1) 


Haurztus, Savig.—The Fisuer Eacrss, Cuv. 


The Fisher Eagles have the same wings as the preceding, but only 
the upper half of their tarsi invested with feathers, the remainder 
being semi-scutellated. They frequent the shores of rivers and of 
the sea, and feed chiefly on fish. 

F. ossifragus, F. albicilla, and F. albicaudus, Gm. (The Ossi- 
fragus and Pygargus.) Form but one species, which atfirst has 
a black beak; tail blackish, spotted with white, and the plumage 
brownish, with a deep brown streak on the middle of each 
feather, (Enl. 112 and 415; Naum. 14; the / ossifragus,) and 
which, when older, becomes of a uniform brownish grey, paler 
on the head and neck, with an entirely white tail, and the beak 
of a pale yellow. (Frisch, Ixx; Naum. 12 and 13—the / albi- 
cilla.(2) It generally attacks fish, and is found in the whole 
north of the globe. 

F. leucocephalus, L.; Enl. 4113 Wilson, IV, xxxvi, and VIL, 
ly, 2. (The Bald Eagle.) A uniform deep brown; head and 
tail white; beak yellowish, and almost as large as the Common 
Eagle of Europe. It inhabits North America, and is continually 
occupied in fishing. It appears occasionally in the north of 
Europe. When young, the head and body are of a cinereous 
brown. It must not be confounded, however, with the old 
White-Headed Pygargus. 

F. ponticerianus, Gm.; Enl. 416; Vieillot, Gal. 10. (The 
Garuda.) Less than a Kite; of a fine lively chesnut red ; head, 
neck and breast, white, or pearl grey. It is from India, and is 
the Garuda Eagle, which, in the religion of the Bramins, is 
sacred to Vishnu.(3) 


makes an European species of the Aigle Bonnelli, Col. 288 ; but we have not got 
it in all its states, 

Add the Griffard, Vaill. Afric. I, (F. armiger, Sh.);—the Malay eagle, (F. 
malaiensis, Reinw.) Col. 117;—the Petit Aigle de Senegal, (F. Senegallus, Cuy.) 
similar to the Spotted, or Little Eagle of Europe; the nostrils not so round, nume_ 
rous small, grey bands underneath the tail of the young.—The Petit Migle du Cap, 
(F. nzxvioides, Cuv.) variegated with brown fawn colour and blackish. 

(1) F. fuscosus, Col. 32. 

(2) This change has been verified more than once in the menagerie of the 
museum. As to the Little Pygargus, F. Albicaudus; it is merely the male of the 
great one, F’. albicilla. 

(3) Here should come the Blagre, Vaill. Afric.5, (Fale. blagrus, Sh.) which is pro- 
bably the F. leucogaster, Lath. or Aigle oceanique, Col. 49;—the vocifer, Vaill. Af. 4, 
(CF. vocifer, Sh.;) the Aigle de Macé of Bengal, (F. macet, Cuy.) Col. 8 and 223;—the 


q 
f 


236 AVES. 


Panpion, Savigny. 


The Ospreys have the beak and feet of the Fisher Eagles; but their 
claws are round underneath, while in other birds of prey they are 
grooved or channelled; their tarsi are reticulated, and the second 
quill of their wings is the longest. . 

Only one species is known, which is found along the shores of 
fresh waters in almost every part of the globe, varying but little in 
plumage: it is the 

Falco haliztus, L.; Enl. 414, and better, Catesby, II; Wils. 
V, xxxvii; Vieillot, Gal. ii; Naum. 16. (The Osprey.) A third 
smaller than the Ossifragus; white, with a brown mantle; a 
brown band descending from the angle of the beak towards the 
back; brown spots on the head and neck, also a few on the 
breast; the cera and feet, sometimes yellow, and sometimes blue. 
The species of the genus 


CircarEtus, Vieillot, 


Are in a manner intermediate between the Fisher-Eagles, the Os- 
preys and the Buzzards. They have the wings of the Eagle and 
Buzzard, and the reticulated tarsi of the Osprey. 

F. gallicus, Gm.; F. leucopsis, Bechst.; F. brachydactylus, 
Tem.; Enl, 413; Naum. 153 Jean le Blane. Superior in size to 
the Osprey; the curvature of its beak is more sudden than in 
the other Eagles, and the toes are shorter in proportion. It is 
brown above, white beneath, with pale brown spots; three light 
bands on the tail. Its carriage is rather that of a Buzzard than 
of an Eagle, and it feeds chiefly on Frogs and Serpents. 

F. ecaudatus, Sh.; Le Bateleur, Vaill. Afric. 7 and 8. An 
African species, remarkable for the extreme shortness of its 
tail, and its beautifully variegated plumage. The cera of its 
beak is red.(1) a 

America produces Eagles with long wings, like the preceding 
ones, and naked scutellated tarsi, in which a more or less considera- 
ble portion of the sides of the head, and sometimes of the throat, is 


Aigle aguia, (F. aguia, T.) Col. $02;—the F. ichtyxtus, Horsf. Jav.;—the Milva- 
£0 ochrocephalus, Sp. 1, or Chimachima, Azz. or F. degener, lig. We should also 
remember that the transition from the Eagles to the Buzzards is effected by insen- 
sible gradations. 

(1) Add the Crowned Eagle, Azz. (F. coronatus, Tem.) Col, 234;—the Circaéte 
du Sénégal, (C. cinereus,) Vieill. Gal. pl. xii;—the Caracara funebra, (F. Nove Ze- 
landiz, Lat.) Col. 192 and 224, 


¢ 


ACCIPITRES. 237 


destitute of feathers. They have received the common name of 
Caracara.(1) Li aig : 
F. braziliensis, Gm.; Polyborus vulgaris, Vieillot, Galer. pl. 
7; the young, Spix, I. Large as an Osprey; striped trans- 
versely, with white and black; feathers long and slender, and 
white on the throat; a black calotte slightly elongated into a 
crest; the wing covers, thighs, and tip of the tail, blackish. 
The most common bird of prey in Paraguay and Brazil.(2) 
F. aquilinus, Gm.; Enl. 417 ; Jbycter lewco-gaster, Vieillot, Ga- 
ler. 6. Black; the abdomen and inferior coverts of the tail 
white; throat, naked and red. The 


Harpyia, Cuy.(3) 


Or Fisher-Eagles with short wings, are also American Eagles, 
whose tarsi are very thick, strong, reticulated, and half covered 
with feathers like those of the true Fisher Eagles, from which they 
only differ in the shortness of their wings; their beak and claws are 
even stronger than those of any other tribe. 

The Great Harpy of America; Aigle destructeur of Daudin; 
Grand Migle de la Guiane of Mauduit, and probably the Falco 
harpyia and the /. cristatus, Lin.; F. Harpyia and imperialis, Sh. 
Col. 14.(4) Of-all birds, this possesses the most terrific beak and 
claws ; it is superior in size to the common eagle; the plumage 
is ash coloured on the head and neck ; the mantle and the sides 
of the breast, a blackish brown; whitish above, and striped with 
brown on the thighs : it has a black tuft on the back of the head, 
formed of long feathers, and when it erects them and removes 
those on the cheeks, its physiognomy greatly resembles that of 
the Strix ulula, Gm. Its external toe is also very frequently di- 
rected backwards, like the thumb. Such are its powers, that 


(1) Azzara, Voy, ili, p. 30, et seq. 

(2) It is the true Caracara of Marcgrave, though it could never be recognized 
from the description. A better one may be found in Azzara. Our own is taken 
from nature. The F. cheriway, Jacq. Beyt. p. 15, No. 11, may easily bea variety 
from age. Add the Black Caracara, Tem. (F. aterrimus, T.) Col. 37 and 342, or 
Daptrius ater, Vieill. Gal. pl. v;—Gymmnops fasciatus, Spix,1V. His Gymnops strigi- 
latus is the young of the same. 

N. B. It is from my Caracaras that Vieillot has made his genera Darrrivs, Inye- 
TER, and Poryzorvs, according to the greater or less extent of the bare spot on 
the head. 

(3) Vieillot has adopted this genus and name. 

(4) It is most certainly the Yzquautzli of Fernandez; but that author greatly ex- 
aggerates its size in comparing it to a sheep. Itis also the V. cristatus of Jacq., 
and consequently the Fale. Jacquini of Gmelin. 


238 AVES. 


it is said to have cleft a man’s skull with its beak; its ordinary 
food is the Sloth, and it frequently carries off Fawns. 


Morupnus, Cuy.(1) 


The Morphni, like the preceding, have wings shorter than the 
tail; but their elevated and slender tarsi compel us to separate 
them. 

Some of them have naked and scutellated tarsi. 

F. guianensis, Daud.; Petit Aigle de la Guiane, Maud. Encyc. 
It has singular resemblance in colour and crest to the Great 
Fisher Eagle of the same country ; but it is not so large, and its 
naked and scutellated tarsi sufficiently distinguish it ; the man- 
‘tle is blackish, sometimes variegated with a deep grey ; abdo- 
men white, undulated more or less strongly with fawn colour; 
head and neck sometimes grey, and sometimes white ; the occi- 
pital tuft, long and blackish. 

F. urubitinga, L.3; Spix, I. Black ; no crest; rump and base of 
the tail, white. When young, brown above; fawn coloured, sprin- 
kled with brown beneath (Col. 55). This beautiful bird hunts 
on inundated grounds.(2) 

Others have elevated tarsi feathered throughout. 

F. occipitalis, Daud.; Huppart, Vaill. Afr. I, iis Bruce, 
Abyss. pl. xxxii. As large as a Crow; black; a long crest or 
tuft pendent from the occiput; the tarsi, borders of the wings, 
and of the bands under the tail, whitish. Throughout all Africa. 

fF. ornatus, Daud.3(3) F. superbus and coronatus, Sh.; Crested 
Goshawk, Vaill. Afric. I, xxvi; Spizaetus ornatus, Vieillot, 
Galer. 213 digle moyen de la Guiane, Maud. Encyclop.; Booted 
Sparrowhawk, Azz. Calotte, and crests black ; sides of the 
neck of a bright red ; mantle black, variegated with grey, un- 
dulated with white; above, white; flanks, thighs, and tarsi 
striped with black ; tail, black, with four grey bands. A beau- 
tiful bird of South America, varying from black and white to 
a deep brown.(4) 


(1) Morphnus, the Greek name foran undetermined bird of prey, It is from my 
Morphnus that Vieillot has made his Spizaetes. 

(2) The Filol longipes, Ulig.; the Ag. picta, Spix, 1, appear to me to be young 
Urubitinge.—Add the igle-autour moucheté, (4g. maculosa,) Veill. Amer. pl. iii, 
bis;—the Panema, (.4q. milvordes) Spix, Id. 

(S) This is certainly the Urutawrana of Marcgrave; but that author describes it 
as being of the size of an Eagle, which is at least one-third too large. The Har- 
pyia braccata, Spix, Il, is the young bird of the same species. 

(4) Add here, of crested species, the blanchard, Vaill. Afr. 3, (F. albescens, Sh.;) 


ACCIPITRES. 239 


Finally, America produces birds with beaks similar to the pre- 
ceding ones; very short reticulated tarsi half covered with feathers 
in front ; wings shorter than the tail, and whose most distinguishing 
character consists in their nostrils, which resemble fissures. We 
may form them into a small tribe under the name of Cymrvpis, Cuv. . 
(1) Such is 

F. Cayennensis, Gm. ; Le Petit Autour de Cayenne, Buff. Enl. 
4733 Spix, VIII. It has another peculiar character in a small 
tooth at the spot where the beak curves. The adult is white, 
with a bluish-black mantle, cinereous head, and four white bands 
on the tail; in the young bird the mantle is variegated with 
brown and red, and the head is white, with some black spots.(2). 


Astur, Bechst.—DarpEtion, Savig. 


The Goshawks, which form the second division of the Ignobles,. 
like the last three tribes of Eagles, have wings shorter than their tail; 
but their beak is curved from its base, as in all those which are to 
follow. We particularly designate as Gosuawks those which have 
rather short and scutellated tarsi. 

F. palumbarius, L.; Enl. 418 and 4613; and the young £. galli- 
narius, Gm. Enl. 425; and Frisch, LXXII; Naum. 17 and 
18.(3) (The Common Goshawk.) The only species in France; 
brown above, with white eye-brows; white beneath; the adult 
transversely striped with brown; longitudinally sprinkled when 
young; five browner bands on the tail. It equals the Gerfalcon 
in size, but not in courage; always stooping obliquely upon its 
prey. Falconers, however, sometimes use it for the weaker kinds 
of game. Common in hills and low mountains. 

Among foreign Goshawks, we may remark that of New Hol- 
land, Falco Nove Hollandiz, White, Voy. p. 250, which is 
very often entirely of a snow white; but it seems that it is a va- 


—F. tyrannus, Pr. Max. Col. 73 ; L’Autour cristatelle, Temm. Col. 285: of species 
without crests, ?’Jutour neigeux, Temm. Col. 127;—/’.Aut. incolore, Id. ib. 134, or 
Falco lineatus, Horsf. Java. 

(1) Cymindis, the Greek name for an undetermined bird of prey. 

(2) I am not sure whether it is not a young Cymindis that is represented in the 
Buse mantelée, (F. palliatus, Tem.) Col. 204, very different from that which has 
the same French name, Col. 437. 

Add the F. hamatus, Wig. Col. 61 and 231, F. deucopygus, Spix, I, the F. 
uncinatus, Id. Col. 103, 104, 105. These birds vary greatly in colour with age. 

N. B. The Gottingen Eagle, (F. glaucopis, Merrem. Beytr. H, pl. vii, ) is a Com- 
mon Buzzard. The White Eagle (F. albus, Sh.; John White, Voy.) isa Goshawk. 

(3) Also probably F. gyrfalco, F. gentilis, Gm. ;—so badly determined were the 
birds of prey at the period of the first edition. 


240 AVES. 


riety of a bird of the same country, which is ash coloured above, 
white beneath, with vestiges of grey undulations. (1) 
We may also approximate to the Goshawks some American birds 
with short wings and tarsi; the latter, however, reticulated. 
#. cachinnans, L.; Nacagua, Azz.; Vieill. Gal. 19; Spix, II. 
(The Laughing Falcon.) So called from its cry; white; the man- 
tle and a band which extends from the circumference of the eye 
to the neck, where it joins a corresponding one on the opposite 
side, brown; brown and white bands on the tail. From the 
marshes of South America, where it feeds on Reptiles and Fish.(2) 
The name of Sparrownawsk, (Nisus, Cuv.) is generally appro- 
priated to those whose tarsi are higher and scutellateds; but the tran- 
sitions from one division to the other are almost insensible. j 
F. nisus, L.; Epervier Commun, Enl. 412 andj467; Naum. 19, 
20. (The Common Sparrowhawk.) Coloured like the Goshawk, 
but its legs are longer, and it is a third less in size. It is employ- 
ed however by falconers. The spots beneath on the young bird 


red and arrow-shaped, or like elongated tears—the feathers of — 


its mantle are also edged with red. 

There are foreign species still smaller3(3) but there are some 
also much larger. 

F. musicus, Daud.; Faucon chanteur, Vaill. Afric. xxvii. As 
large as the Goshawk; cinereous above; beneath, and the rump, 
white, streaked with brown; brown, varied with red; when 
young. Found in Africa, where it pursues partridges and hares, 
and builds on trees. The only bird of prey known that sings 
agreeably.(4) 


(1) Other foreign goshawks, F. poliogaster, Tem. Col. 264 and 295;—F-. trivirga- 
tus, Tem. Col. 303;—F. leucauchen, Tem. Col. 306 ;—F. radiatus, Lath. Col. 123, 
Aut. poliosome, Quoy and Gaym. Voy. de Freycin. pl. xiv ;—~F /eucorrhous, 1b. 


pl. xiii; —F. wnicinctus, Tem. col. 313. These three last, in shape, closely resemble » 


the urubitinga. The F. pennsylvanicus, Wils. IV, liv, 1 ;—the F. borealis, L. Vieill. 
Am. pl. xiv, bis; Wils. li, 1 ;—/. leverianus, Wils. lii, 2;—F. striolatus, T. Col. 
87 and 294, or Asturine cendrée, Vieill. Gal. 20 ;—F. monogrammicus, T. Col. 314; 
—F. Dussumiert, T. Col. 308 and 386. The latter conduct us insensibly to the 
Sparrowhawks. 

N. B. The F. cxrulescens forms the genus Hrurax of Vigors: the species with 
two teeth, as the bidentatus, &c. or the Bivens of Spix, are the Harracus of the 
same gentleman. 

(2) Here comes the F. melanops, Lath. Col. 105. It is from this subdivision that 
Vieillot has made his Herp raoTuenss. 

(38) As the Gabar, Vaill. Afr. 33, (#. Gabar, Sh.) Col. 122 and 140;—the F. mi- 
nullus, Sh. 

(4) Other Sparrow-Hawks foreign to Europe: The Mixed Lead-colowred Buzzard, 
Azz. No. 67, (F. hemidactilus,T.) Col. 3 and 91; Fale. magnirostris, Enlum. 460, 


4 il I 


ACCIPITRES. 241 


Mitvus, Bechstein. 


The Kites have short tarsi, and weak toes and nails, which, added 
to a beak equally disproportioned to their size, render them the 
most cowardly species of the whole genus; they are distinguished 
by their excessively long wings, and their forked tail, which give 
them great powers of flight. 

Some of them have very short tarsi, which are reticulated and half 
invested with feathers above, like the last small tribe of eagles (the 
Exvanus, Savigny). Such are, 

Falco melanopterus, Daud.; Le Blac, Sav. Eg. Ois. pl. 2, f. 2; 
Vaill. Afr. xxxvi and xxxvii; Bonap. Am. II, xi, 1. As large 
as a Sparrowhawk; plumage soft and silky; tail but slightly 
forked ; cinereous above ; white beneath; the small wing coverts 
blackish : the young is brown, varied with fawn colour. This 
bird is common from Egypt to the Cape, and appears to be 
found in India, and even in America.(1) Insects are almost its 
only game. 

F. furcatus, L.; The fork-tailed Kite, Catesb. iv; Wils. li, 2 3 
Vieillot, Am. 10. White ; wings and tail black ; the two exter- 
nal quills of the latter very long ; larger than the preceding. 
It attacks reptiles.(2) ‘ 


Kires, properly so called, 
Have stronger and scutellated tarsi. 

F. milvus, L.; Milan commun, Enl. 422 ; Naum. 31, f.1. Fawn 
coloured; quills of the wings, black ; tail, red; of all the birds 
of Europe this remains longest and most tranquilly on the wing. 
It usually attacks nothing but reptiles.(3) 


Col. 86 ;—Falco columbarius, Catesb. 4, Vieill. Am. pl. 2 and Wils. I. xv, 3 ;— 
Ep. tachiro, Vaill. Afr. 24, (F. tachiro, Daud.) Col. 377 and 420;—F. cuculoides, 
Temm. Col. 110 and 129 ;—F. xanthothoraz, T. Col. 92; F virgatus, T. Col. 
109;—F. brachipterus, T. Col. 14 and 116, or F. concentricus, Wlig.;—F. pileatus, Pr. 
Max. Col. 205 ;—F. gymnogenys, Col. 307; F. pennsylvanicus, Wils. V1, xlvi,1 ; 
very different from the Goshawk so called, Id. pl. liv, and the young, col. 67 ;—P. 
velox, Wils. VI, xlv, 1, is the young female of it, according to Charles Bonap. ;— 
F. lineatus, Wils. V1, liii, 3 ;—F. hiemalis, Wils. IV, xxxv, 1;—F. striatus, 
Vieill. Am. pl. 14 ;—F. niger, Vieill. Gal. 22. See Append. XIII of Am. Ed. 

(1) This we consider a mistake of our author; it has never been found in this 
country. The bird alluded to has been ascertained by Temminck to be a distinct 
species, and is called by him F. dispar. Am. Ed. 

(2) Add the F. riocourii, Vieill. Col. 85 ;—the Irregular-tailed Kite, (F. dispar, 
Tem.) Col. 319. 

(3) Add the Parasite, Vaill. Afr. 22, or the Milan noir, Enl. 472, Naum. 31, f. 
2; Savigny, Eg. Ois. pl. ii, f. 1, is the Fale. ater, F. xgyptius, and the Falc. Fors- 

Vou. I.—2 F 


242 AVES. 


Pernis, Cuv. (1) 


The Honey-Buzzards, with the weak beak of the Kites, have a very 
peculiar character in the space between the eye and the beak, which, 
in all the rest of the genus Falco, is naked, and simply furnished 
with a few hairs, but in these is covered with a dense plumage, the 
feathers of which are cut like scales ; their tarsi are half feathered 
above and reticulated : their tail is equal, wings long, and their beak 
curved from its base like all those which follow. There is but one 
species in Europe. 

F. apivorus ; la Bondrée Commune, Enl. 420; Naum. 35, 36. 
(The Common Honey-Buzzard.) Somewhat smaller than the Buz- 
zard 3 brown above ; variously undulated with brown and whitish 
beneath ; the head of the male ash coloured at a certain age. It 
pursues Insects, and, principally, Bees and Wasps. 

There are some others in foreign countries. 

P. cristata, Cuv. (The crested Honey-Buzzard of Java.) All 
brown; head, ash coloured, like that of Europe; but it has a 
black tail, with a whitish band on the middle ; a brown crest on 
the occiput. Brought from Java by M. Leschenault.(2) 


Burro, Bechstein. 


The Buzzards have long wings; the tail equal; the beak curved 
from its base; the space between it and the eyes, naked ; the feet, 
strong. 

The tarsi of some of them are feathered down to the toes. They 
are distinguished from the Eagles by the curving of their beak from 
the base, and from the Goshawks, or Goshawk-Eagles, with feather- 


_ ed tarsi, by their long wings. 


F. lagopus, Gm.;(2) the Booted Buzzard, Frisch, Ixxv; 
Vaill. Afr. xviii ; Wilson, IV, xxxiil, 1; Naum. 34. Irregularly 
variegated with a darker or lighter brown, and a more or less 
yellowish white. It is one of the most universally diffused birds 5 


kahlii, Gmel., the F. parasiticus, Lath. and Shaw;—F. mississipiensis, Wils. 111, 
xxxy, 1, or the Jctinie ophiophage, Vieill. Galer. pl. 17. 

N. B. The Fale. austriacus, Gmel., is the young of the Common Kite. 

(1) Pernis or pernes, according to Aristotle, the name of some bird of prey. 

N. B. The F-. riocourii forms the genus Navctervs of Vigors. 

(2) M. Temminck has figured this bird, (Col. 44,) under the name of Buse piil- 
orinque. 

(3) Itis the Falco lagopus, Brit. Zool. Ap. vol. i; the Falco communis ¢ leucocepha- 
lus, Frisch, 75; the Falco Sancti Johannis, Arct. Zoo}, pl. ix; the Fale. communis 
fuscus, F. variegatus, F’. albidus, I’. versicolor, Gm. are merely different states of the 
Common Buzzard. 


ACCIPITRES. 243 


it is found every where, and has almost always been considered 
as a variety of some other bird.(1) 
But the greater number of Buzzards have naked and scutellated 
tarsi. The only one in Europe is, 

F. buteo, L.3 la Buse Commune, En). 419; Naum. 32, (The 
Common Buzzard.) Brown; belly and throat more or less un- 
dulated with white; the most noxious and common bird of 
prey in Europe. It remains the whole year in the forests, 
souses upon its prey from the top of a tree, and destroys much 
game.(2) 

Some species are crested. 

Le Bacha, Vaill. Afric. pl. xv. Size of the preceding ; 
brown ; small, white, round spots on the sides of the breast, 
and on the abdomen ; a black and white crest ; a broad white 
band on the middle of the tail. A very savage bird of Africa, 
which preys chiefly on the Hyraces.(3) 


Circus, Bechstein. 


The Harriers differ from the Buzzards in their elevated tarsi, and in 
a kind of collar on each side of their neck, formed by the tips of the 
feathers which cover their ears. 

There are three species in France, which have been multi- 
plied by the nomenclaturalists on account of the variety in their 
plumage. 

F. pygargus, L.3 LaSoubuse, Enl. 443 and 480; Naum. xxxviii, 
2, and xxxix, 1 and 2. Brown above; underneath, fawn coloured, 


(1) Add the Buse acalotte noire, (F. atricapillus, Cuv.) Col. 79, or the Buteo me- 
lanoleucos, Vieill. Galer. 14;—the Black Buzzard (F. niger,) Wils. VI, lili, 1 and 
2, which M. Ch. Vonap. thinks is the F. Sanct. Johan. of Pennant. 

(2) Addthe Rouw-noir, Vaill. Afr. 16 (F. jackal, Daud. and Sh.);—the Tachard, 
Id. 19 (F. tachardus, Sh.);—the Buseray, Id. 20 (F. bursarellus, Sh.);—the Grey 
cheeked Buzzard (F. polygenis, Tem.) Col. 325.—the Rrown buzzard, (I. fuscus) 
Vieill. Am. 5;—the Tuchiro, Vaill. 24 (#. tachiro, Sh.)\—the Milan Cresserelle, 
Vieill. Am. 10, bis, and the young female, Col. 180; a species of which the F. 
plumbeus, Spix, VIII, is perhaps the adult, and in which the lateral festoon, in 
some individuals, is sharpened into a tooth, although the quills are those of the 
ignobles.—The Long-winged Buzzard (F. pterocles, Tem.) Col. 56 and 139.—The 
Buse a dos tacheté (F. pzxcilonotos, Cuv.), Col. 9.—La Buse mantelée, (F. lacer- 
nulatus, T.) Col. 427.—La buse pale, (F. liventer, 'T.) Col. 438.—La Buse ad queue 
ferrugineuse, (But. ferruginicaudus, ) Vieill. Am. 6. 

Also, F. borealis, Wils. pl. li, f. 1. Am. Ed. 

(3) Add the White-crested Buzzard of India, (F. albidus, 'T.) Col, 19. 

N.B. The Buse roussatre, Tem. Col. 25, somewhat approaches to the Harrier 
by its elevated tarsi, but is deficient in the collar; the transitions between these 
two divisions, also, are almost insensible. 


244 AVES. 


longitudinally spotted with brown ; the rump white. The Hen 
Harvier—Falco cyaneus and F. albicans,(1) En). 450; Naum. xxxix, 
1; cinereous, with black wing quills, is merely the male in its 
second year. This species builds on the ground, keeps con- 
stantly in the fields, flies near the earth, and towards night 
hunts rats, young partridges, &c. 

F. cineraceus, Montag.; Le Busard Cendré, Naum. 40 ; Vieill. 
Galer. pl. 13. More slender than the Soubuse, and with longer 
wings; the old male is cinereous; its primary quills, and a 
band on the secondary ones, are black ; both male and female, 
in the second year, are brown above, white beneath, with brown- 
ish streaks on the breast; the whole under part of the young 
bird is red. Its habits are much like those of the preceding 
species. 

fF. rufus, L.; La Harpaye; Enl. 470 ; Naum. 37, 1. Brown- 
ish and reddish 3 the tail, and primary quills of the wings, cine- 
reous. The busard du marais—Falco cruginosus, Enl. 424 ; 
Naum. 38, brown, with a light fawn colour on the head and 
breast, is considered as the same bird at a more advanced age ; 
but some observers pretend it is a different species. Both of 
them keep within reach of water courses, in order to hunt rep- 
tiles.(2) Finally, the 


SERPENTARIUS, Cuv.—GypocEranvs, Illig.(3) 


The Snake-Eater, or Secretary, is an African bird of prey, 
whose tarsi are at least double the length of those of the prece- 
ding ones, which caused some naturalists to place it among the 


(1) It is also the F. communis, F. albus, Frisch, pl. Ixxv; the F. montanus, B, 
the F. griseus, Gm. and even his F. bohemicus. 

N. B. The M. cresserelle, of Vieillot has become his genus Icrrnta. 

(2) Add the Acoli, Vaill. Afr. 31 (F. acoli, Sh.);—the Tehoug, Id. 32, and Son- 
nerat, If, 182 (F. melanoleucos).—F. palustris, Pr. Max. Col. 22.—The Frogeater, 
Vaill. Afr. 28 (F. ranivorus, Sh.).—The Busard roux, Vieill. Amer. pl. ix, which 
this author considers as identical with the #. hudsonius, Edw. 107.—The Busard 
@hiver, (Circus hyemalis,) Vieill. Amer. 71, which does not appear to be the F. 
hiemalis, Wils. 1V, xxxv, 1.*—The Busard @ croupion blane (Cire. ewropogistus, ) 
Vieill. Amer. 8.—Probably, also, the /. wliginosus, Edw. 291, belongss to this sub- 
genus, but until the changes of plumage, produced by age, are ascertained, it will 
be very difficult to determine its species. M. Ch. Bonaparte says that the F. wli- 
ginosus is ayoung female of the cyaneus. 

(S) M. Vieillot has changed these names into OrnroTuenss, Gal. pl. 260. 


* Our author here seems to be in error; the bird figured by Wilson, Vol. 1V, 
pl. xxxv, fig. 1, isthe true Falco hyemalis,Gm. Am. Ed. 


ACCIPITRES. 245 


Grallatorie, or Waders ; but its legs completely invested with 
feathers, its hooked and cleft beak, projecting eye-lids, and all 
its anatomical details place it in the present order. The tarsus 
is scutellated, its toes short in proportion, and the circumfer- 
ence of the eye naked ; it has a long stiff crest on the occiput, 
and the two intermediate quills of the tail extend much beyond 
the others. It inhabits the dry and open grounds in the 
vicinity of the Cape, where it hunts reptiles on foot ; its claws 
consequently become much worn. Its chief strength lies in the 
leg. It is the Falco serpentarius of Gmel. Enl. 7213 Vieill. 
Galer. 260. The inhabitants of Martinique have endeavoured to 
multiply the breed, in order to destroy the Lance-headed Viper 
with which that island is infested. 


THE NOCTURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 


Have a large head; great eyes, directed forwards, sur- 
rounded by a circle of fringed feathers, the anterior of which 
cover the cera of the beak, and the posterior, the opening of 
the ear. Their enormous pupil permits the entrance of so 
many rays of light, that they are dazzled by that of day. 
Their cranium, which is thick, but formed of a light substance, 
is excavated by large sinuses, which communicate with the 
ear, and which probably assist in strengthening the sense of 
hearing ; but the organs of flight are not very vigorous ; their 
fourchette is weak ; their feathers being soft, and covered with 
a fine down, make no noise in flying. ‘They can direct their 
external toe either forwards or backwards. These birds are 
chiefly on the wing during twilight, and when the moon shines. 
When attacked in the day time, they do not fly off, but stand 
more erect, assume odd postures, and make the most ludicrous 
gestures. 

Their gizzard is tolerably muscular, although their prey is 
wholly animal, consisting in mice, small birds, and insects; 
but it is preceded by a large crop; their ceca are long and 
wide at bottom, &c. Small birds have a natural antipathy to 
them, and frequently assemble from all quarters to attack 
them. They form but one genus, 


Strix, Lin. 


Which may be divided by their tufts, the size of their ears, the extent 


ee 


246 AVES. 


of the circle of feathers which surrounds their eyes, and some other 
characters. 

Those species which have a large and complete disk of fringed 
feathers round the eyes, itself encircled by a ring or collerette of 
scaly feathers, between which is a large opening for the ear, are 
further removed, as to form and habits, from the diurnal birds of 
prey, than those in which the ear is small, oval, and covered by 
fringed feathers, which spring from under the eye. ‘Traces of these 
differences may be seen even on the skeleton. Among the first spe- 
cies we will particularize, 


Ortus, Cuv. 


The Horned Owls, or those which have two tufts of feathers on 
the forehead, (vulg. horns,) which they can erect at pleasure; the 
conch of whose ear extends in a semicircle from the beak to the 
top of the head, and is furnished in front with a membranous oper- 
culum. Their feet are feathered down to the nails. Suchin Europe 
are the 

Str. ascalaphus, Savig. Eg.; Brit. Zool. tab. B, 3. A fourth 
larger than the common one, and like it, fulvous spotted with 
brown, and vermiculated on the wings and back; but the belly 
transversely striped with narrow lines, and the crests or tufts 
very short. It properly belongs to Africa, but is sometimes 
seen in Europe.(1) 

Str. otus, L.; Moyen Duc, Buff.; Frisch, lxxxix; Brit. Zool. 
tab. B, iv, f. 13 Naum. 45, 1. (The Common Owl.) Fawncolour- 
ed, with longitudinal brown spots on the body and underneath 
wings and back vermiculated with brown ; horns half the length 
of the head ; eight or nine bands on the tail. 

Str. ulula and Str. brachyotos, Gm.; Moyen Duc a huppes 
courtes, Enl. 438 3 Frisch, c ; Naum. 45, 23 Brit. Zool. tab. B, 
iv, f. 2; Wils. IV, xxxiii, 3. As to colouring, nearly similar 
to the preceding; back, not reticulated; narrow longitudinal 
lines on the belly, and four or five brown bands on the tail. 
The tufts or horns are only found on the male, and are so small 
and so seldom erected, that this bird was for a long time left 
among the species without tufts, and even formed two species. 
Found almost every where.(2) 


(1) Witness the one represented in Brit. Zool. whose figure has so much em- 
barrassed the naturalists. 

(2) Add the American Owl, (Str. mexicana,) Gm. or Str. clamator, Vieill. Am. 
20, or Str. longirostris, Spix, 1X, which only differs from our Common Owl in the 
greater blackness of the spots.—The Hibou tacheté du Cap, (Str. africana, T.) 


ACCIPITRES. 247 
We may reserve the name of 


Uxuta, Cuv. 


Or the Howlers, for those species which have the beak and ears of 
the Otus, but not the horns. There are none such in France, but 
they are to be found in the north of both continents, viz. 

Str. laponica, Gm. Almost as large as the Grand Duc of 
France ; above, grey and brown mixed, whitish ; longitudinal 
brown grey spots beneath. Inhabits the mountains in the north 
of Sweden.(1) 


Srrix, Savigny. 


The ear as large as in Otus, furnished with a still larger opercu- 
lum ; but the elongated beak is only curved near the end, while in all 
the other subgenera it is arcuated from the point. They have no 
horns ; their tarsi are feathered, but they have only hairs on the toes. 
The mask formed by the fringed feathers, which surround the eyes, 
has a greater extent, and renders their physiognomy more singular 
than that of any other nocturnal bird. 

The species common in France, Str. flammea, L.; Enl. 440 ; 
Frisch, Ixxxxvii, Naum. 47, 2, appears to be diffused over the 
whole globe. The back is shaded with a fawn and an ash co- 
lour, or brown, prettily picked in with white points, each of 
which is enclosed by two black ones ; the belly is sometimes 
white, sometimes fawn coloured, with or without brown spots. 
It builds in steeples, towers, &c., and is particularly considered 
by the vulgar as a bird of ill omen.(2) 


Syryium, Savigny. 


The mask and collerette of the preceding ; but the conch is re- 
duced to an oval cavity which does not extend to half the height of 
the cranium ; they have no aigrettes, and the feet are feathered down 
to the nails. 

Str. aluco and stridula, L.; Chat-huant, Chouette des bois, &c.; 


Col. 56, or Str. maculosa, Vieill. Gal. 23—The Hibou @ gros bec, (Str. macrorhyn- 
chos, T.) Col. 62.—The Hibou @ joues blanches, (Str. leucotis, T.) Col. 6.—The 
Yellow-cheeked Owl, (Str. otus,) Wils. VI, li, 3, differs from the Otus of Europe.— 
The Spotted Owl of America, (Str. nevia, Lath.) Wils. III, xix, 1, of which the Sér. 
asio, Id. IV, xlii, 1, is probably the young bird, or the female. 

(1) Add the Chouette grise du Canada, (Str. nebulosa, Gm.) Vieill. 17, Wils. IV, 
XXXlil, 2. 

(2) Add Str. badia, T. Col. 54.—-N. B. The Chouette d queue fourchue du Bré- 
sil, Col. 432, does not appear to differ from the Str. flammea, except in the varia- 
tion caused by stuffing. 


248 ' AVES. 


Enl. 441, 437; Frisch, Ixxxxiv, Ixxxxv, Ixxxxvi; Naum. 46 and 
47,1. Somewhat larger than the Common Ow]; covered with lon- 
gitudinal brown spots, transversely denticulated on the sides; 
white spots on the scapulars, and towards the anterior edge of 
the wing. The ground of the plumage in the male is greyish, 
in the female reddish, from which circumstance they were con- 
sidered for a long time as two species.(1) They build in the 
woods, frequently lay their eggs in other birds’ nests, and keep 
themselves in the hollows of old trees. (2) 
We reserve the name of 


Buso, Cuv. 


Or Ducs, for those species, which, with as small a conch as that 
of the Syrnii, and the disk of feathers less strongly marked, are fur- 
nished with tufts. Those which are known have large feet feathered 
to the nails; such is 

Str. bubo; The Grand Duc of naturalists; Enl. 4343; Frisch, 

Ixxxxiii; Naum. 44. The largest of the nocturnal birds; fawn 

_ coloured, with a brown streak, and lateral points on each fea- 

ther; the brown predominates above; fawn coloured underneath; 
tufts almost entirely black.(3) 


Tue Turrep Cuoverss, Vaill. Afr. xliii, 


Are mere Ducs, whose tufts more widely separate, and placed 
farther back, can scarcely be elevated above a horizontal line. They 
are found in both hemispheres. (4) 


Nocrva, Savigny. 


Neither tufts, nor an open or deeply set conch; opening of the ear 
oval, and hardly any larger than in other birds; the disk of fringed 


(1) The Str. sylvestris, rufa, noctua, alba of Scopoli, andthe Str. soloniensis, which 
Gmelin has intercalated in his system, are too undetermined to be considered other 
than varieties, and probably of the stridula. It is well to know that in the whole 
of this genus the females are redder than the males—by not attending to this, the 
species have been improperly multiplied. 

(2) Add the Str. pagodarum, Tem. Col. 220. 

(3) We cannot admit the Sér. scandiaca, L. whose only foundation is a figure of 
Rudbeck, probably taken from a variety of the Grand Duc. Add Str. magellanica, 
Enl. 585, from which the S¢r. virginiana, Daud. H, 13, and Wils. Am. VI, I, 1, or 
Str. pinicola, Vieill. Am. 19, only differs in being of a more reddish tint. —/Str. 
lactea, T. Col. 4. 

(4) Str. griseata, Sh.; Vaill. Afr. 43, of Guiana.—Str. strepitans, T. Col. 174, and 
of Batavia, 229. 

Add Str. cinerea, Gm., Bonap. Am. Orn. pl. xxii, f.2. Am. Ed. 


— 


ACCIPITRES. 249° 


feathers is smaller, and less perfect than in the Bubo, Cuv. Their 
relations to the diurnal birds of prey are very evident, even in ets 
habits. 

Some of them are remarkable for along, cuneiform tail, and have 
the toes thickly clothed with feathers; they are the Surnra, Dumer. 
It appears that there exist in all the North some closely allied’ spe- 
cies or varieties, but imperfectly distinguished under the names of 
Str. funerea, hudsonia, uralensis, accipitrina, &c. 

The best known species, S¢r. nisoria, Wolf.; Enl. 473; Naum. 
42. 2, from the north of the whole globe, is about the size of 
the Sparrowhawk; blackish brown above, with small white 
spots on the head, which form transverse bars on the scapulars3 
transversely striped with brown and white beneath, with ten 
transverse white lines on the tail. It hunts more during the 
day than the night. 

The species from the Uralian mountains, S¢r. wralensis, Pall. 
Naum. 42, 1, is nearly as large as the Harfang; brown, with white 
spots, above; white, with long brown spots, beneath; five trans- 
verse grey bands onthe tail. It also hunts during the day, and 
is sometimes seen in Germany. It is probably the Hybris or 
Ptynx of Aristotle, 1. ix, c. 12. 

The species, called of Acadia, Str. acadica, Naum. 43, 1 
and 2; Wils. Am. IV, xxxiv, 1, is also sometimes found there, 
but it belongs to the whole north of the globe. It is the small- 
est of the Ululz, and is hardly larger than the Common Finch. 
It does not fear the light of day, but Vaillant has described one 
of these Surniz from Africa, (Choucou, No. xxxviii,) all white 
beneath, with fourteen or fifteen lines on the tail, and which, 
according to his account, is more nocturnal than the other 
Ulule. 

There are other Noctuze which have a short tail and feathered 
toes. The largest, and in fact the largest of all the nocturnal birds 
without tufts, is 

Sir. nyctea, L.; Le Harfang, Enl. 458; Wils. IV, xxxii, 1; 
Naum. 41. (The Snowy Owl.) This bird almost equals the 
Grand Duc in size. Its snow-white plumage is marked with 
transverse brown spots, which disappear with age. It inhabits 
the north of both continents, builds upon high rocks, and pur- 
sues Hares, Grouse, &c.(1) 

There are some smaller species, such as 

Str. tengmalmi, Gm.; Str. dasypus, Bechst.; Naum. 48, f. 2 


() The Chouette blanche, Vaill. Afric. 45, is only an old Harfang. The alleged 
difference in the proportions depends upon the stuffing. 


Vou. IL.—2 G 


‘250 AVES. 


and 3. Back brown, sprinkled with white spots; underneath 
paler, with larger white spots ; four white lines across the tail; 
lives in the woods. The Str. passerina, Meyer and Wolf, is its 
female. 


* 


The greater number, however, of these small species have only a 
few scattered hairs on the toes, such as 

Str. passerina, Gm.; Str. pygmza, Bechst. Enl. 439; Naum. 
48, 1. Somewhat smaller than the preceding, but with nearly 
the same plumage. The tail a little shorter, and with five larger 
pale bars: it lives in old walls. There, are several closely allied 
species in America, the Indies, &c.(1) 

Some of these naked-toed Noctuz are nearly as large as the Hu- 
lotte. Cayenne produces several beautiful species, and particularly 
the three following: » i 

Str. cayennensis, Gm.; Enl. 442. A fawn-coloured ground, 
irregularly, transversely, and finely striped with brown. 

Str. lineata. Sh.; the Huhul, Vaill. Afr. XLI.; Str. lineata, Sh.; 
Str. albomarginata, Spix, X, a. Transversely striped with white 
on a black ground; four white lines on the tail. So little does 
it fear the light, that it is styled the Diurnal Chouette. The 
size of these two species is that of the common Chouette of 
France. 

Str. torquata, Daud.; Vaill. Afr. XLII. Brown above; whitish 
beneath; circumference of the eyes and a band on the breast, 
brown. It is larger than the Chat-huant, and is the Nacurutu 
without tufts of Azzara. 

There are others again in America, whose tarsi are naked as well 
as their toes, the Cheveche nudipéde for instance—Str. nudipes, Daud. 
Vieill. Amer, XVI. Finally, we have 


Scops, Savigny, 


Which, in addition to the prominent ears, imperfect disk and 
naked toes of the preceding, have tufts similar to those of a Bubo. — 
There is one of them in France, Sr. scops, Enl. 436; Naum. 

43, 3, hardly as large as a Thrush, with cinereous plumage, 
more or less shaded with fawn colour; prettily variegated with 
little narrow black streaks, and with transverse vermicular grey 


(1) Str. brama, T. Col. 68, which scarcely differs from the passerina.—Str. 
Sonnerati, Col. 1.—Str. urucurea, 1d. of which the Str. grallaria, ld. Col. 136, is 
the female. —Str. castanoptera, Hoff. or Str. spadicea, Reinw. Col. 98.—Str. pumila, 
Illig. or cabouré of Azz. Col. 39, of which the Str. passerinoides, Col. 344, is pro- 
bably the male.—Str. ferruginea, Pr. Max. Col. 199.—Str. hirsuta, T. Col. 289.— 
Str. occipitalis—The Str. maugei, Col. 46, is already tolerably large. 


» 


“ie, 


ACCIPITRES. 251 


lines; a suite of white spots on the scapulars, and six or eight 
feathers in each tufts; a beautiful little bird.(1) 

Certain large species have the legs naked as well as the 
toes.(2) 


ORDER ILI. 
PASSERIN &. 


This order is the most numerous of the whole class. _ Its 
character, at first, seems purely negative, for it embraces all 
birds which are neither swimmers, waders, climbers, rapa- 
cious, nor gallinaceous. By comparing them with each other, 
however, we soon perceive a great mutual similarity of struc- 
ture, and particularly such insensible transitions from one 
genus to another, that it is extremely diflicult to separate them 
into subdivisions. 

They neither have the violence of the birds of prey, nor 
the fixed regimen of the gallinacee, nor of the water-birds 5 
insects, fruit, and grain constitute their food, which consists 
the more exclusively of grain, in proportion to the largeness 
of their beak, and of insects, as it is the more slender. Those 
which have strong beaks pursue even small birds. 

Their stomach is a muscular gizzard. They have, gene- 
rally, two very small ceca. Among them we find the singing 
birds, and the most complicated inferior larynx. 4 

The proportional length of their wings, and their power of 
flight are as various as their habits. 


(1) We can find no difference between the Str. zorca of Cetti, the Sir. carniol- 
ica of Scopoli, the Str. pulchella of Pallas and the Scops; these gentlemen must 
have considered their birds as distinct, because Linnzus described the tuft of his 
as consisting of a single feather. Add the S¢. nudipéde, (Bub. nudipedes,) Vieill. 
Amer. 22.—The Str. atricapilla, T. Col. 45, or Str. crucigera, Spix, 1X.—The Str. 
noctula, T. Col. 99. ; 

(2) The Str. ketupa, TV. Col. 74, and the Sir. Leschenauldt, 1d. Col. 20, will be 
found at most to form but one species. 


252 AVES. 


‘The adult sternum usually has but one notch on each side 
of its lower edge. There are two, however, in Coracias, 
Alcedo, and Merops, and it is totally wanting in Cypselus and 
Trochilus. : 


Our first division is founded upon the feet; we then have’ 


recourse to the beak. 

The first and most numerous comprehends those genera in 
which the external toe is united to its fellow by one or two 
phalanges only, 


FAMILY I. 


DENTIROSTRES. 


In this family the beak is emarginate on the sides of the 
point. It is in this family that we find the greatest number of ~ 


insectivorous birds, though almost all of them likewise feed 
on berries and other soft fruits. | ' 
The genera are determined by the general form of the 


beak, which is strong and compressed in Lanius and in. 


Turdus, depressed in Muscicapa, round and thick in Tanagra, 


slender and pointed in Motacilla; but the change from one — 


of these forms to the other is so gradual, that it isan extremely 
difficult matter to fix the limits of the genera. 


Lantus, Lin. 


The beak conical or compressed, and more or less hooked at the 
point. 4 
‘ 


Lantus, properly so called. 


The true Shrikes have a beak triangular at base, and compressed 
on the sides. 

Shrikes live in families, and fly irregularly and precipitately, 
uttering shrill cries; they build on trees, lay five or six eggs, and 
take great care of their young. They have a habit of imitating, on 
the spot, a part of the songs of such birds as live in their vicinity. 
The upper part of the females and of the young is marked with 
fine transverse lines. ° 

Some of them have the upper mandible arcuated; those in which 
its point is strong and much curved, and in which the notch forms 


PASSERINE. 253 


a small tooth on its sides, are so courageous and cruel, that many 
naturalists have thereby been induced to place them among the birds 
of prey. In fact, they pursue small birds, and successfully defend 
themselves against the larger ones, even attacking the latter when it 
is necessary to remove them from their nests.(1) 

There are four or five species of this subdivision in France. 

Lanius excubitor, L.; Enl. 445; Naum. 49. As large as a 
thrush; ash coloured above; white beneath; wings, tail, and a 
band around the eye, black; some white on the scapulars, the 
base of the wing-quills, and on the external edge of the lateral 
quills of the tail. It remains in France the whole year. 

In the south of Europe there is a race, or perhaps a species of a 
deeper colour, with a vinous tint underneath—Zan. meridionalis, 
Temm. There are others in America still more closely allied to 
it.(2) 

Lan. excubitor minor, Gm.; Enl. 32, 13; Lan. minor, Naum. 50. 
(The Little Shrike.) Somewhat smaller than the Common 
Shrike, the beak shorter and thicker, wings and tail similar; 
cinereous above; reddish on the belly; the black bands of the 
eyes united, on the forehead, in a large bandeau. A very dis- 
tinct species. 

Lan. collurio-rufus, and Lan. pomeranus, Gm.;3 Enl. 9, 2; 
Lan. rutilus, Lath.; Lan. ruficollis, Sh.; Lan. rufus, Naum. 
51. (The Red Shrike.) The bandeau, wings and tail of the 
preceding; not quite so large; top of the head and neck, a 
vivid red; back black; the scapulars, belly and rump, white. 

Lan. collurio, Gm.; Enl. 313 Naum. 52. (The Butcher Bird.) 
Still smaller; top of the head and rump ash coloured; back and 
wings fawn coloured; whitish above; a black band over the 
eye; wing-quills black edged with fawn colour, those of the tail 
black, the lateral ones white at base. It destroys small Birds, 
young Frogs and great numbers of Insects, which it sticks upon 
the thorns of bushes, in order to devour them at leisure, or to 
find them again when wanted. 

The last three species leave France during the winter. 

Other countries have several of these Shrikes with arcuated beaks, 


(1) It is from this first subdivision that M. Vicillot has made his genus Lanius, 
Gal. pl. cxxxy. ‘hay 

(2) Lan. carolinensis, Wils., 1, xxii, 5,and his Lan. excubitor, 1, v. 1, which he 
considers as the same. M. Ch. Bonaparte makes two species of them, and refers 
them to the Lan. ludovicianus, and Lan. septentrionalis of Gm.; or to the Lan. 
ardesiacus and borealis of Vieillot, Am. 51 and 50; we must confess, however, that 
there is but little resemblance between these different figures. 


254 ; | AVES. 


the points of which latter diminish, and become weak, according to 
the species so gradually, that it is impossible to fix a limit between 
this subgenus and the Thrushes.(1) 

' There are other Shrikes, whose superior mandible is straight, and 
only hooked at the tip. Their form passes by insensible gradations 
to that of the Fauvets and other Motacillz.(2) 


(1) The species with the strongest beaks are, for instance: the Cape-Shrike, 
(Lan. collaris, Gm.); Enl. 477, 1; Vaill. Afric. pl. lxi, lxii—The Boubou, Vaill. 
68 (Lan. boulboul, Sh.).—The Brubru, Vaill. 71 (Lan. capensis, Sh.).—La Petite 
Pie-gr. de Madag. (Lan. madagascariensis, Gm.) Enl. 299.—La Petite Pie-gr. 
bleue (Lan. bicolor, Gm.}; Enl. 298.—La Pie-gr. dela Louisiane, (Lan. americanus,) 
Enl. 397.—The Sourciroua, Vaill. 76, 2, or the Tangara verderoux of Buff. ( Tana- 
gra guianensis, Gm.).—The Black-Headed Shrike of the Sandwich Islands, (Zan. 
melanocephalus, Gm.) Lath. Syn. 1, 165.—La Pie-gr. d queue pointue, (Lan. pyrr- 
honotos,) Vieill. Gal. 135. 

The genus Lanro of Vieill. is founded on an arcuate-beaked Shrike; the edges 
of whose upper mandible are somewhat angular. It is the Twngara mordoré of 
Buff. Enl. 809, 2 (Lan. atricapilla, Gm.). | 
' Among those species most nearly allied to the Thrushes, we may admit the Mus- 
cicapa tamnophiloides, Spix, 26, 1.—L’Oliva of Vaill. 75 and 76,1 (Lan. oliva- 
ceus, Sh.)—The Gonolec, (Lan. barbarus, Gm.); Enl. 56, Vaill. 169.—Yhe Lan. 
gutturalis, Daud. Ann. Mus. IU, 144, pl. xv; or the Pie-gr. Perrin. Vaill. 286.— 
Le Merle a plastron noir (Turdus zetlonus, Gm.); En). or the Bacbakiri, Vaill. 67 
(Lan. bacbakiri, Sh.).—La Cravatie blanche, Vaill. 115 (Motac. dubia, Sh.).—The 
Turdus crassirostris, Gm.; Lath. Syn. U, 34, which is the same as the Tunagra 
capensis, Sparm. Carls. pl. xlv, and several others quite as equivocal. It is from 
this subdivision, with weak bills, that Vieill. has established his genus Laniarius, 
Galer. 143. % 

His Vireo only. differs from it in the beak being a little shorter and more slender, 
Vir. flavifrons, Vieill. Am. 54, or Muscic. sylvicola, Wils., 1, vii, 3.—V. musicus, 


Vieill. 52, or Music. cantatrix, Wils. I, xviii, 6, or Music. noveboracensis, Gm.—, 


V. olivaceus, Ch. Bonap., or Museic. oliv. Wils. Ul, xii, 3, or tamnophilus agilis, 
Spix, 34, 1.—V-giluus, Ch. Bonap., or Muse. melodia, Wils. V, xlii,2. They lead 
us almost directly to the true Fauvets. 

(2) Le Blanchot, Vaill. Afr. 285, (Lan. icterus, Cuv.) or Thamnophilus, Vieill. Ga- 
ler 139.—The Grand battara, Azz. or Thamnophilus magnus, Pr. Max. or Th. albi- 
venter, Spix, 32.—The tchagra, Vaill. 70, (Lan. senegalensis, Spix, Lan. collurio 
melanocephalus, Gm.) Enl. 479, 1 and 279, 1.—The Fourmillier huppé, Buff. (Tur- 
dus cirrhatus, Gm.) The Pie-gr. a huppe rousse d’Amerique, (Lan. canadensis, Gm. ) 
Enl. 479, 2, is the female.—The Tachet, Vaill. 77, (Lan. punctatus, Sh.).—The 
Pie-gr. rayée de Cayenne (Lan. doliatus) Enl. 297, 2, or radiatus, Spix, 35, 2.—The 
Pie-gr. bridée, (Lan. virgatus, Tem.) Col. 256, 1.—The Pie-gr. masquée, (Lan. per- 
sonatus, 1d. or Lan. nubicus, Licht.) Col. 256, 2.—The Thamnophilus lineatus, 
Spix, 33.—Th. strigilatus, 1d. 36, 2.—Th. melanoceph. 1d. 39, 1—Th. leuconotos, 
Ib. 2. 

The Pie-gr. rousse de Madag. (Lan. rufus, Gm.) En, 298. 

It is also among these straight beaked Shrikes that must be placed the Geaz 
longup., Vaill. 42, (Lan. galericulatus, Cuy.), but it leads to the Vanga. 


a 


<# 


iH 


aol 


PASSERINE. 255 


In some of these straight-beaked Shrikes, that organ is very stout, 
and its lower mandible much inflated. (1) . 

Others, whose beak is straight and slender, are remarkable for 
vertical tufts of feathers.(2) 

Around these Shrikes, properly so called, some other subgenera, 
which differ from them more or less, form natural groups. Such 
are the 


Vanca, Buff. 


Which have a large beak, very much compressed throughout, its 
tip much hooked, and that of the inferior mandible bent down- 
wards.(3) 


Ocyprerus, Cuv.(4) 


The beak, conical, rounded, without a ridge, slightly arcuated 
towards the end, with a very fine point slightly notched on each 
side; the feet rather short, and the wings as long as the tail, and 
longer; from which circumstance their flight is rendered similar to 
that of the Swallow; but they have the courage of the Shrikes, and 
do not fear to attack even the Crow.(5) 

Numerous species inhabit the coast and islands of the Indian 


L also place here that bird which has been so bandied about by naturalists, the 
Merle de Mindanao of Buff. Enl. 627, Turdus mindanensis, Lath and Gm. the 
same as their Gracula sawlaris, Little Pie of the Indies, or Dial-bird, Albin. Iil, 17 
and 18, Edw. 181, Vaill. Afr. 109 (Sturnus solaris, Daud.)——and even the Terat 
boulan (Turdus orientalis), Enl. 273, U1, might be approximated to it, but is also 
very closely allied to the Turdoides. 

The genus Tuamnoraitus or Battara of Vieillot is formed by one of these 
straight beaked Shrikes, but is so badly determined that other authors have refer- 
red to it, Vireos, &c. 

(1) Lanius lineatus, Leach, Zool. Miscell. pl. vi.—Thamnophilus guttatus, 
Spix, 35. 

(2) The Geoffroy, Vaill. Afr. 80 and 81, and Vieill. Gal. 142 (Zan. plumatus, Sh.), 
of which Vieill. has made his genus Prionors, or Bogadais, Galer. 142 and the 
Manicup. Buff. Enl. 707 (Pipra albifrons,Gm.)}, which has nothing more in common 


with the Pipra than a somewhat unusual prolongation of the union between the 


two external toes. Vieill. has made his genus Pirmys, Galer. 129, from it. 

(3) The Vanga, Enl. 228, (Lan. ecurvirostris, Gm.) and new species, such as the 
‘V. destructeur, Cuv. Col, 273.—The V. strié huppé, Voy. de Freyc. pl. xviii and 
xix, or Thamnophilus Vigorsii, Zool. Journ. Supp. VIL and VIIt. 

(4) Ocypterus or oxypterus—rapid wings, pointed wings—the Greek name of 
anunknown bird, very applicable to these. It is from this genus that Vieill. has 
made his ArTamus. | 

(5) Sennerat, Pr. Voy. p, 56. 


256 AVES. 


Ocean, where they are constantly and rapidly flying about in 
pursuit of Insects.(1) 


Barira, Cuv.(2)—Cassicans, Buff. 


A large conical beak, straight and round at base, which scallops out 
‘a circular notch in the feathers on the forehead; round back, tom- 
pressed sides, hooked point, and sloped laterally. The nostrils, 
small and linear, are not surrounded by a membranous space. 

They are large birds of New Holland and its neighbouring 
islands, which have been arbitrarily placed in several genera. 


They are said to be very noisy and clamorous. They pursue 
small Birds.(3) 


Cuatypzus, Cuv. 


A beak similar to that of the Baritz, but somewhat smaller at base, 
and the nostrils pierced in a large membranous space. The species 
known are from New Guinea, and are remarkable for their beautiful 
tints, which resemble browned steel. 

C. paradiszeus, Cuv.; Paradisea viridis, Gm.3; Enl. 634. The 
feathers on the head and neck like curled velvet, —which, added 
to the lustre of its hues, has caused it to be placed among the 
Birds of Paradise. 

C. cornutus, Cuv.; Barita Keraudrenit, Less. and Garn. Voy. 
de Duperr. pl. 13. Two pointed tufts of feathers on the occi- 
puts its trachea forms three circles, before it reaches the lungs. 


Psaris, Cuv.(4)—Brcarpes, Buff. 


The beak conical, very stout and round at base, but does not scallop 
out the feathers on the forehead; the point slightly compressed and 
hooked. From South America. The best known species is the 


(1) Here come Lan. leucorhynchos, Gm. Enl. 9, 1, the same as Lan. dominicanus, 
Sonnerat, Voy. I, pl. xxv.—Lan. viridis, Enl. 32, 1-—Ocyp. cinereus, Val.—Ocyp- 
terus fuscatus.—Ocyp. rufiventer. Consult the monography of M. Valenciennes 
cn this genus published in the Mem. du Mus. tom. VII, p. 20, pl. 7, 8, 9. 

(2) Barita, the Greek name of an unknown Bird. M. Viellot has given to my 
Baritx, the name.of Cracrices. 

(3) We place here the Cassican, Buff. (Coracias varia, Gm.; Gracula varia, 
Sh.) Enl. 628.—Le jltiteur, (Coracias tibicen, Lath. second suppl.; Gracula tibicen, 
Sh.) Voy. de Freycin. pl. xx.—Corvus graculinus, J. White; Coracias strepera, 
Lath. Ind. Ornith.; Gracula strepera, Shaw; Réveilleur de Isle de Norfolk, Daud. ; 
Gr. calybé, Vaill. Ois. de Par. 67; Vicill. Galer. 109, and one species with a taper- 
ing tail, Bar. anaphoresis, Temm. 

(4) Psaris, the Greek name of an unknown Bird. ‘ Vieill. has changed it into 
Tiryra, Galer. 134, 1; Spix into Pachyrhynchus, Av. Brasil, 44. 


4 


PASSERINE. 257 


. Lanius cayanus, Gm.; Enl. 304 and 307; Vieill. Galer. 1345 
| Spix, 44, 1. Cinereous; head, wings and tail, black. Its habits 


are those of the Shrikes.(1) 
* 


Gravcatus,(2) Cuv.—Cuovucanis, Buff. 


The beak less compressed than in the Shrikes; the upper ridge 
‘is sharp »pointed, and regularly arcuated, the commissure slightly 
so. The feathers which sometimes cover their nostrils have caused 
them to be referred to the Ravens, but the emargination of their 
beak removes them from that genus. From the remotest parts of 
the Indian Ocean.(3) 


Beruytus, Cuv.(4) 
The beak stout, short, arched every where, slightly compressed 
near the point. 
One species only is known, which, as to shape and colour, is 
a miniature resemblance of the common European Magpie.(5) 


Faucuncuuus, Vieill. 
The beak compressed, nearly as high as it is long; the upper ridge 
arcuated. 


"The species known,—Lanius frontatus, Lath.; Second Suppl. 
Col. 77; Vieill. Galer. 137, is of the size of the Finch, and 


(1) Buffon has improperly extended the name of Bécarde, (Psaris, C.) to a 
Tyrannus (Lan. sulfuratus), and to a Shrike closely allied to the Thrushes 
(Lan. barbarus). Add Pachyrhynchus semifasciatus, Spix, 44, 2, which is the 
Psaris Cuvieri, Swains.—the Psaris er ythrogenis, Selby, Zool. Jour. I, p. 484.— 
The Pachyrhynchus, niger, Cuvieri, cinerascens, rufescens, ape 45 and 46, have 
a smaller beak but the same form. 

(2) Graucalus, the Greek name of an ash-coloured Bird; three out of four of 
these being of this colour. Vieillot confounds them with his Coracrna, which 
comprize the Gymnoderus and Gymnocephalus, of which we shall speak hereafter. 

(3) Corvus papuensis, Gm.; Enl. 630; Vieill. Galer. 113.—Corvus nove Guinex, 
Enl. 629.—Corvus melanops, Lath. Rollier 2 masque noir, Vaill., Ois. de Par., &c. 
86.—Another, entirely of a brilliant violet of browned steel, the female greenish, 
which forms the genus Prroin of Temm., or Prironornyncuvs of Kuhl, founded 
on the head feathers being more like velvet. The genus SpuecorHere Of Vieill., 
Galer. 147, Choucari vert of the Voy. du Freycinet, pl. xxi, only differs from the 
others in being’a little more naked about the eye. 

(4) Bethylus, the Greek name of an unknown Bird: Vieillot has changed it 
into that of Pillurion or C1ssoris. 

(5) It is the Pie-griéche, Vaill. Afr. 60, and Vieill. Galer, 140. ZLanzus leveri- 
anus, Sh. Lanius picatus, Lath. Uliger makes a Tangara of it. We may approxi- 
mate to it the Lan. corvinus, Sh.; Vaill. Afr. 78, the beak of which, however, is 
more compressed. 


Vor. L.—2H 


. 
7 


258 AVES. 


coloured nearly like the Parus major. The feathers on the 


head of the male form a tuft. From New Holland. 


fe 


ParpaLotus, Vieill. 


The beak short, but slightly compressed; upper ridge sharp- 
pointed, and arcuated; the point emarginate. Very small Birds, 


with a short tail. 7 
The best known species, Pipra punctata, Sh. Zool. Misc. IIT; 
Col. 78; Vieill. Gal. pl. 73, is partly sprinkled with white. 
From New Holland.(1) 


Muscicapa, Lin. 
The Fly-Catchers have a horizontally depressed beak, furnished 


a) 
= 


with hairs at its base, and the point more or less hooked and emar- | 


ginated. Their general habits are those of the Shrikes, and they 
live on small Birds or Insects, according to their size. The weakest 
of them gradually approach the form of the Wagtails. We divide 
them as follows: 


Tyrannus, Cuv.(2) 


The Tyrants have a very stout, long, straight beak; the upper 
ridge blunt; the point curved suddenly into a hook. They are 
American Birds, as large as the European Shrikes, and equally 
courageous. They defend their young even from the Eagle, and 
drive all Birds of prey from their nest. The larger species feed on 
small Birds, and do not always despise carrion.(3) 


(1) Add Pardal. ornatus, Temm., Col. 394, 1.—P. percussus, Id. 394, 2. They 
lead us to the first subdivision of the Tanaers. 

(2) Vieillot has adopted this name and genus, Galer. 133. 

(3) The bentaveo, or Spoon-billed Tyrant of Brazil, Enl. 212 (Lanius pitangua, 
Gm. ).—Le Tyran a ventre jaune, (Lan. sulfuraceus, Gm.) Enl. 296, the same as 


the Garlu or Geai a ventre jaune de Cayenne, (Corvus flavus, Gm.) Enl. 249.— — 


The Muse. velata, Spix, 22.—Musc. polyglotta, 1d., 24.—Musc. similis, 1d., 25, of 
which his Muse. rufina, Ib. 131, is the young.—The Musc. cinerea, Spix, 26, 2.— 
Le Tyran 4 ventre blanc, (Lan. tyrannus, Gm.) Enl. 537 and 676, Vieill. Galer. 
153.— Muse. cinerascens, Spix, 22.—Le T'yran @ queue rousse, (Muse. audax, Gm.) 
Enl. 453, 2; Wils. Am. II, xiii, 1—Le Petit tyran, (Musc. ferox, Gm.), Enl. 571, 
1, or Muse. furcata, Spix, 18. The Musc. vetula, Spix, 18.—Le T'yran a queue 


fourchwe de Cayenne, (Muse. tyrannus, Gm.), En]. 471, 2.—Le F. a q. f. du Mexique;. 


(Muse. forficata, Gm.) Enl. 677... The Fork-Tailed Tyrant of Brazil, (Muse. longi- 
cauda, Spix, 17) Zool. Journ. H, pl. iv—Le Tyran @ huppe verte (Muse. crinita, 
Gm.) Enl. 569; Wils. Am. H, xiii, 2? 

Add also Musc. verticalis, Am. Orn. Bonap. I, pl. ii, f. 2. dm. Ed. 


PASSERINE. 259 


» Muscipera, Cuv. 


The beak long, much compressed, double its height in breadth, 

even at its base; the ridge very obtuse, sometimes however very 
vacute; the edges slightly curved; the point and emargination weak; 
long sete or mustachios at its base. 

They are too powerless to capture any thing but Insects, and sev- 
eral of them are ornamented with long tail feathers, beautiful crests 
on the head, or at least with brilliant colours. The greater num- 
ber inhabit Africa and the Indies.(1) 

Some species allied to the Muscipete, (PLaryRuyNcuus,) are dis- 
tinguished by a still broader and more depressed beak.(2) 


(1) We should first of all distinguish the Roz des Gobe-mouches, Buff. (Todus regius, 
Gi.) Enl. 289. Then we have the crested species, and which have long feathers 
in the tail, such as the Moucherolle de paradis (Musc. paradisi and Todus paradisia- 
cus, Gm.), Enl. 234. N.B. All these figures represent females; the tail of the 
males is much longer.—Le Petit Moucherolle de Paradis or Schet of Madagascar 
(Muse. mutata). Two birds which Buffon describes elsewhere under the name 
of Vardiole or Pie de paradis.—Then follow those species without crests, whose 
tail feathers are somewhat elongated ; The Moucher, Yetapa (Muse. psalura, T.), 
Col. 286 and 296, or Muse. risora, Vieill. 131; the Moucher 2 queue de cog; Gallita 
of Azz.; Muse. alector, P. Max.; Col. 155, Vieill. 132.—Plathyrh. filicauda, 
Spix, 14. 

Some species are distinguished by a membranous circle round the eye: Muse. 
melanoptera, Gm.; Enl. 567, 3.—M. telescophtalma, Less. and Garn., Voy. de Du- 
perr., Zool., pl. xviii. 

Others are remarkable for a long, flat, and obtuse beak, similar to that of the 
Todies, but it has a notch which is wanting in the true Todies, whose feet also are 
differently formed. T° cinereus, Desmar. or T’. melanocephalus, Spix, ix, 2. The 
young is, 7’ cinereus, Spix, x, 1 and JT! maculatus, Desm.—T" griseus, Desm. 

Finally, a multitude of other species, as the mantelé, Vaill. 151 or Muse. borbon- 
ica, Enl. 573, 1.—WM. cristata, 573, 2, and Tchitrec, Vaill., Afr., II, 142, 1.—Musc. 
cerulea, Enl. 666, 1.—Todus leucocephalus, Pall., Sp., VI, pl. iii, f. 2, or Muse. dom- 
inicana, Spix, 29, 2. M. albiventer, Id. 30, is its female.—T. sylvia, Desm.—Pla- 
tyrhinchus chrysoceps, Spix, XI, 2.—Plat. ruficauda, Ib. 1.—Plat. hirundinaceus, 
Spix, 13, 1.—Plat. cinereus, Ib. 2.—Musc. barbata, Enl. 830, 1, of which M. xan- 
thopygus, Spix, IX, 1, appears to be the female—Musc. coronata, Enl. 675.—The 
molenar, Vaill. 160, 1, 2, or M. pistrinaria, Vieill.—The G. m. @ lunettes, Ib. 152, 
1.—M. flammiceps, Tem. Col. 144, 3.—M. mystax, Spix, 31.—M. murantia, 
Enl. 331, 1—WM. querula, Vieill. Am. 39, from which the Plat. cinereus, Spix, 
XIII, scarcely differs.—M. cucullata, Lath., &c. 

N.B. The Mus. barbata has become the genus Tyrannusa, Swainson; and 
the M. querula the Myracnra of Vigors and Horsfield. 

(2) It is from this division that M. Vieillot has made his genus Platyrhynchos, 
Gal. 126. Such are Muse. aurantia, Enl. 831, 1—Todus macrorhynchos, Lath. 
Syn. I, pl. xxx, or Todus rostratus, Lath., Desmar. and particularly Todus platyr- 
hynchos, Pall., Spic., VI, pl. iii, c. We see that many of the Muscipete have 


260 AVES. . ' . 

Others, whose beak is also broad and depressed, are remarkable 
for their long legs and short tail. Two or three only are known, all 
from America; they feed on Ants, which caused them to be united 
to the little tribe of Thrushes called Ant-catchers, Myothere of Illi- 
ger.(1) 


Muscicapa, Cuv. 


The Flycatchers, properly so called, have shorter mustachios 
and a narrower beak than the Muscipete; it is still, however, de- 
pressed with an acute ridge above, straight edges, and a slightly 
hooked point. 

Two species of this subgenus are found in France during the 
summer, and lead a melancholy life on high trees. The most 
common is, 

M. grisola, Gm. Enl. 565, 1.. (The Grey Fly-catcher.) Grey 
above, whitish underneath, with a few greyish spots on the 
breast. In some countries it is kept in houses to destroy flies. 
The other, 

M. albicollis, Tem.; Gobe-mouche a collier, Enl. 563, 2 and 3: 
and better, Hist. des Ois. tom. IV in 4to, pl. 25, f. 2, the male 
in wedding plumage; Naum. 65, in its different states. (The 
Collared Flycatcher.) Very remarkable for the changes of the 
male’s plumage. Similar in winter to the female; that is, grey, 
with a white band on the wing. In the nuptial season it be- 
comes agreeably variegated, with pure black and white; calotte, 
back, wings and tail, black; the forehead, collar, and all the 
upper part of the body, a large spot on the wing, a smaller one 
in front, and the external edge of the tail, white. It builds on 
the trunks of trees.(2) 


A species subject to the same changes has lately been disco- 


been placed among the Todies, and although Pallas has set us the example of 
doing so, the notch in the beak, and the separation of the external toe forbid it. 
Add, Plat. olivaceus, T. Col. XU, 1, or sulfurescens, Spix, XII.—Plat. cancromus, 
Id. Ib. 2. 

(1) Here come T'urdus auritus, Gm., Enl. 822, and Vieill. Gal. 127, the same as 
Pipra leucotis, but which is neither a Thrush nor a Pipra..—Pipra nexvia, Enl. 823, 
f. 2. It is upon this distinction that Vieill. has founded his genus Conororuaca, 
Galer. 127. 

(2) The ancients knew this bird by the names of Sycalis and Ficedu/a, in its ordi- 
nary plumage, and by that of Melancorhynchos and Atricapilla, in its wedding livery; 
but as the name of Bec-figue (Becca-/ico), is given in the south, and in Italy, to 
various species of Fauvet and Anthus, naturalists have applied the united attributes 
of these birds to a certain 'state of this Flycatcher, and formed the imaginary spe- 
cies presented by this same name of Bec-figue in Buffon, and in those who have 


PASSERINE. 261 


vered; the neck of the male, however, in the nuptial season, be- 
ing as black as the back, and wanting the little white spot on 
the edge of the wing. It is the 
M. luctuosa, Tem.; Naum. 64; Edw. 30, 1; The female, Enl. 
668, 1. Which is found farther north than the preceding. 
A small reddish species has lately been discovered in Ger- 
many. WM. parva, Bechst.; Naum. 65, 3. 
The beak of the Flycatchers becomes more and more slender, and 
finally approaches that of several species of Regulus.(1) 
Some species in which the ridge is somewhat higher, and arched 
towards the point, lead to the forms of the Saxicolz.(2) 
Various genera or subgenera of birds are closely allied to certain 


links in the series of Flycatchers, although they greatly exceed them 
in size, viz. 


GyMNocEPHALUs, Geoff. 


Or the Bald Tyrants. They have a beak similar to that of the 
Tyrants, except that its ridge is somewhat more arcuated; a great 
part of their face is destitute of feathers. 


followed him. It is very certainly the WM. albicollis, and not the M. luctuosa, that 
is the Becca-fico of Aldrovandus, Ornith. Il, 758 and 759. 

(1) Wealso refer to the true Flycatchers, the Gillit (Musc. bicolor), Enl. 675, 1. 
—Le Pririt, Vaill. 161; Enl. 567, 1 and 2 (M. senegalensis, Gm.).—M. albicapilla, 
Vieill. Am. 37.—M. armillata, tb. 4, 2.—M. diops, Tem., 144, 1—M. eximia, tb. 
2.—M. ventralis, Id. Col. 275, 2.—M. virescens, Ib. 3.—M. obsoleta, Ib. 1. M. flabel- 
lifera, Tb., Gmel. Lath. Syn. I, partI, pl. 49.—M. serita, Vaill. Afr. 154.—M. 
ruticilla, Gm. Enl. 556: Vieill. Am. 35 and 36; Wils. I, vi, 6—Platyr. paganus, 
Spix.—Pl. marinus, Id. 2.—Pipra eluta, Id. VII, 2. See App. XIV. of Am. Edit. 

(2) Such are the Oranor, Vaill. TV, 155, and several neighbouring species, simi- 
lar to the Muse. ruticilla, so far as regards the distribution of colours, but differ- 
ing in the beak, such as Musc. miniata, Tem. or Turdus speciosus, Lath. Col. 156. 
—M. flammea, Forst. Zool. Ind. 25 and Tem. Col. 263, or Parus malabaricus, Lath. 
—WM. hyacinthina, Col. 30.—The Azuroux {M-azurea), Vaill. Afr. 158, 2—M. niger- 
rima, Vieill. Dict. Spix, 18, 1—M. galeata, Spix, 17, a different species.—J. stel- 
lata, Vieill., Vaill. 157, 2. MZ. longipes, or the Miro-Miro of New Zealand, Less. 
and Garn. Voy. de Duper. Zool. pl. 19, 1. AM. chrysomelas, Ib. pl. 18.—M. nivea, 
Spix, 29,1. M. icterophis, Vieill., Dict.—M. mirundinacea, Tem. Col. 119.—The 
Musc. multicolor, Gm. Lath. Syn. 2, is so intermediate between the Flycatchers and 
the Mot. phenicurus, that we hesitate to assign its position. 

The species of this type which have the strongest beaks appear to constitute 
the Drimoruizes of M. Temminck. 

N.B. The Mus flabellifera has become the genus Riripura of Vig. and Horsf. 
and the WW. ruticilla, the Seroruaca of Swainson. The AL sternura, T. Col. 167, 
3, is the SrernvRa of Swains.: andthe species whose head is enlarged by feathers, 
such as the ©. australis, White, p. 239, his genus, Pacuycrrnana, The neigh- 
bouring genus, Sx1sura, is formed from the J'urdus volitans, Lath. 


262 AVES. 


One species only is known, which is the size of a rook, and 
the colour of Spanish snuff. From Cayenne.(1) 


CrPHALOPTERUs, Geoff. 


In this subgenus, on the contrary, the base of the beak is furnished 
with feathers which open at top, and form a large panache resem- 
bling a parasol. mn 

One species only is known; it is as large as a Jay, and blacks; 
the feathers at the bottom of the breast form a sort of pendent 
dewlap. From the banks of the Amazon; Cephalopterus ornatus, 
Geoff., Ann. du Mus. XIII, pl. xvs Coracina cephaloptera, 
Vieill. Galer. 114; Temm. Col. 2553 Corac. ornata, Spix, LIX. 
See App. XV of Am. Ed. 


AmPE is, Lin. 


The Crown-Birds have the depressed beak of the Flycatchers, but 
it is somewhat shorter in proportion, tolerably broad and slightly 
arcuated. 

Those in which it is the most pointed and strong, have still a de- 
cidedly insectivorous regimen: they are called Pravuav from their 
note—the Queruta, Vieill. They inhabit America, where they pur- 
sue Insects, in flocks.(2) 


Tue Common Crown-Birps, 


Whose beak is rather weaker, besides insects, feed on berries and 
tender fruits. They inhabit the low grounds of America, the males 
being remarkable, at the nuptial season, for the brilliancy of their 
purple and azure plumage. During the rest of the year both sexes 
are grey or brown. 

A. carnifer, L.3 L’Ouette, Enl. 3783 Spix, V. The calotte, 
rump and belly scarlet; the rest brownish red; fourth quill of the 
wing narrowed, shortened and tough, or something like horn. 

A. pompadora, L.; Le Pompadour, Enl. 279. A fine light 
purple; wing-quills white; the barbs of the great coverts are 


(1) It is the Choucas chauve, Buff., Enl. 521 (Corvus calous, Gm.), the Oiseau 
mon pére of the negroes of Cayenne, Vaill., Ois. d’Am. et des Indes, pl. xxix. 

(2) Here comes the Common Piauhau; black, with a purple throat, (Muse. rubri- 
collis, Gm.) Enl. 381; Vieill. Gal. 115, and the Great Piauhaw entirely purple (Co- 
tinga rouge, Vail., Ois. d’Afr. et des Indes, pl. xxv, and xxvi, Coracias militaris, 
Shaw). La Cotinga gris (Amp. cinerea), Enl. 699, is more nearly allied to the Prau- 
haus than the common Crown-birds. 

The Piauhau a gorge aurore (Coracias scutata, Lath. or Coracina scutata, T,), Col. 
40, has a narrower beak, and approaches more to Cephalopterus. 


PASSERINE. 263 


~ stiff and arranged on two planes in an acute angle like a 
roof. 

A. cotinga, L.; Le Cordon bleu, Enl. 186 and 188. Of the 

most beautiful ultramarine, with a violet breast, frequently tra- 


by versed by a large blue band and spotted with dark yellow.(1) 


Tersina, Vieill. 


This subgenus consists of Crown-Birds whose beaks are a little 
wider at base.(2) 


Crsiepyris, Cuy.(3) 


Has, in addition to the beak of the Crown-Birds, a singular cha- 
racter which consists in the somewhat prolonged, stiff and spiny 
stems of their rump feathers. They are found in India and Africa, 
where they feed upon caterpillars which they collect upon the highest 
trees, but they have nothing of the lustre of the true Crown-Birds. 
Their tail somewhat forked in the middle is sloped on the sides.(4) 

We may also separate from them, 


Bompycit1a, Briss. 


The Chatterers, in which the head is ornamented with a toupet of 
feathers somewhat longer than the rest, possessing moreover another 
singular character in the secondary quills of the wing, the ends of 
the stems being enlarged into an oval, smooth, and red disk. There 
is one in Europe, named, we know not why, 

A. garrulus, L. Enl. 261. (The Bohemian Chatterer.) Some- 
what larger than a finch; plumage of a vinous grey; throat black; 
tail black, edged with yellow at the tip; wings black, varie- 
gated with white. This bird visits Europe in flocks, at long 
intervals, and without regularity, from which circumstance, 
its presence, for a long time, was considered as an evil omen. 
It is very stupid, is easily captured and brought up; eats of 
every thing, and a great quantity. Its habitat is thought to be 
the extreme North. The flesh is esteemed a great delicacy. 


(1) Add .2. cayana, Enl. 624.—4. maynana, Enl. 299.—A. cucullata, t., Col. 365, 
Swains. Zool. tl. 37.—A. caprea, Merremic. Av., 1, 2, appears to be a variety of 
the carnifex. 

(2) 4. tersa, Gm., La Tersine, Buff., Vieill., 119 or Procné tersine, ‘Tem., Col. 5, 
or Procnias hirundinacea, Swains. Zool. Ill. MW, 21. 

(3) The Greek name ofan unknown bird. Vieillot has since given to this genus 
the name of Campephaga. 

(4) Such are the Muse. cana, Gm., Enl. 541, or the Echenilleur cendré, Vaill. 
Afr., pl. clxii, Vieill., Galer. 130; the Echenilleur noir, Vaill. lxiv. His Ech. jaune 
is the young of the Turdus phenicopterus, Tem. Col. 71.—Add Cel. fimbriatus, 
Tem., Col. 249, 250. 


ae." 


tye 


264 AVES. 


There is another species in America extremely similar, Rut 
rather smaller, mpelis garrulus, b, Lin.; Amp. Americana, * 
Wils. I, vii, 1; Bombycilla Seralinerten Wils.; Bomb. cedrorum, 
Vieill., Gal. 118; Vaill., Ois. de Par., I, pl. 50. : 

There is also one in Japan, B. phanicoptera, Tem.; Col. 450, 
which has no appendages to the wings, and the tips of Weer 
tail and little wing-coverts are red. 


Hofmansegg and Illiger, with equal propriety, separate from the 


Crown-Birds, 


Procnias, Hofman. 


The commissure of whose beak, which is weaker. and more de- 
pressed, extends under the eye. They inhabit America and feed on 
Insects. ‘ 

We may subdivide them still more. 

The Proonias, properly so called, have the throat furnished with 
feathers. 

One species, Ampelis carunculata, Gm., Enl. 793, is distin- 
guished by a long, soft caruncle on the base of the beak. In 
the perfect state it is white, at other times greenish. 

The Averanos (Casmaruyncnos, Tem.) are Procnize with anaked 
throat. 

In one species, the naked portion of the male’s throat is co- 
vered with fleshy caruncles. It is the 4verano of Buff. IV, p. 
4573; Amp. variegata, Lin.; Col. 51. 

Another, Procn. araponga, Pr. Max. Col. 368, and 383, or 
Casmar ecarunculatus, Spix, 4,only has some very small, thinly 
scattered feathers in that place. These birds are white in their 
perfect state; the young male and the female are greenish. 

Finally, directly after the Crown-Birds, should come 


GymnopveErus, Geoff. 


Where the beak is but very little stronger; but the neck is partly 
naked, and the head covered with velvet feathers, The species 
known is also from South America. It is mostly frugivorous, is of 
the size of a Pigeon, black, with bluish wings; it is the Gracula nu- 
dicollis, Sh.; the Corvus nudus and the Gracula fetida, Gm. Enl. 
609.(1) 


(1) The species of Vaill., Ois. de ?Ameriq. et des Indes, pl. xlv, and xlvi, is 
perhaps different. 

N.B. Vieillot unites Graculus, Gymnoderus and Cephalopterus, in his genus Co- 
RACINA. 


Ys ¢ "8 


«a 


* i 


a 


one 
~ 


4 


PASSERINE. 265 


Epouivs, Cuv.(1) 


Belongs also to the great series of the Flycatchers; the beak is de- 
pressed and emarginate at the end; its upper ridge is acute; but 
what distinguishes it is, that both mandibles are slightly arcuated 
throughout their length; the nostrils are covered with feathers, and 
there are, besides, long hairs forming mustachios. 

The species are numerous in the countries bordering on the 
Indian Ocean. They are generally of a black hue, have a forked 
tail, and live on insects; some of them, it is said, sing as sweetly 
as the Nightingale.(2) 


PuiBaLura, Vieill. 


The ridge of the beak arcuated as in Edolius, but the beak itself 
is one half shorter than the head. 
The species known, (Ph. flavirostris,) Vieill. Gal. 74; Tem. 
Col. 118; Ph. cristata, Goains. Zool. Il. pl. 31, is from Brazil. 
The tail is much forked; the plumage is spotted with black and 
yellows the feathers of the head with red, recalling to our minds 
certain Tyrants and Flycatchers. 


Tanaera, Lin. 


The Tanagers have a conical beak, triangular at base, slightly arcu- 

» ated at its ridge, emarginate near the end; wings and flight short. 
They resemble the Finches in habits, and feed on grain as well as on 
berries and insects. The greater number are remarkable for their 
bright colours. We subdivide them as follows.(3) 


(1) Vieillot has preferred the name of Dicrurvs. 

(2) Species. Lanius forficatus, Gm., Enl. 189, Vaill. Afr. IV, 166 and Vieill. 
Gal. 141.—Zanius malabaricus, Shaw, Vaill. 1V, 175, Sonnerat, Voy. aux Indes et 
a la Chine, pl. xcvii, which is also the Cuculus paradiseus, Briss. IV, pl. xiv, A. 1. 
—Lanius ceruléscens, Gm., Edw. pl. xlvi, Vaill. Afr., LV, 172.—Corvus balicassius, 
Gm., Enl. 603.—The Drongolon, Vaill. IV, 171.—The Drongo bronzé, Id. 176, and 
several new species. 

N. B. The Bec-de-fer, Vaill. Afric., 79, from which Mliger has made his genus 
Sparactes, and which is copied, Vieill. Gal., pl. cxxxi, having been examined by 
Temminck, is found to be a Pogonias, to which other feet had been added, to- 
gether with a crest. This was done by,a dealer, in joke, to impose upon the late 
M. Raie de Breukelewaerd, a rich Dutch amateur. 

(3) For this genus and those of Pipra and Todus, see the work of M. Desmarest 
and of Pauline de Courcelles, now Madame, Knip. 

Vou. I.—2 1 


TAT Ny 


as Meee Ai 


266 AVES. 


Buiurincn TANAGERS. 
A short beak, when viewed vertically, showing an enlargement on 
each side of its bases the tail proportionably shorter. (1) 
GrossBEak TANAGERS. 
The beak conical, thick, convex, as broad as itis high, the back 
of the upper mandible rounded.(2) 
TanaGErs, properly so called. 
A conical beak, shorter than the head, as broad as it is high, the 
upper mandible arcuated, somewhat pointed.(3) 
Orr1oLe TANAGERS. 


The beak conical, arcuated, pointed and notched at the end.(4) 


CARDINAL TANAGERS. 


Beak conical, somewhat vaulted, an obtuse salient tooth on the 
side.(5) 


(1) Tanag. violacea, Enl. 114, 1, 2—T. cayennensis, Ib. 3—Pipra musica, Enl. 
809, 1— Tun. diademata, Natterer, Col. 243 or Lindo bleu, Azz., or Bouvreuil azuré, 
Vieill. Gal. 54—The Lindo bleu doré, Azz. (Tun. chrysogaster, Cuv.)— Tan. viridis, 
Vieill. Col. 36, 3. 

(2) Tan. magna, Enl. 205.— Tan. atra, Enl. 714, 2.—Coracias cayennensis, Enl. 
616.—Tun. flammiceps, Pr. Max. Col. 177.— Tan. superciliosa, Spix, 57, 1.—Tan. 
psittacina, Ib, 2.—Tun. atricollis, Id. 56,2. It is on this division that Vieillot has 
founded his genus Hasra. 

(3) Zan. talao, Enl. 127, 2.—tricolor, Enl. 33.—mexicano, 290, 2 and 155, 1.— 
gyrola, Enl. 201, 2, and 290, 1.—episcopus, Enl. 178.—celestis, Spix, 55, 1.— 
varia, Desm. ( Motacilla velia, L.) Enl. 669, 3, of which the 7. Schrankii, Spix, 51, 
is probably the young.—7Z° punctata and siaca, Enl. 133, L —TZ. multicolor, Vieill. 
Gal. 76, or Fring. zena, L. Catesby, I, 42.—T. thoracica, Tem. Col. 42, 1.—T. citrt- 
nella, Ib. 2.—T. vittata, Ib. 48.—T* penicillata, Spix, 49.—T. auricapilla, Id. 52.— 
T. vittata, T. Col. 48.—T" leucoptera, or Oriolus leucoperus, Lath. Syn. 

(4) The 7: gularis, Enl. 156; pileata, 720, 2, and speculifera, Spix, 36, 1, ap- 
proach the Motucillz in their more slender beak. 7! nigricollis, 720, 1, is a true 
motacilla, a sort of Regulus with a rather large beak. 

(5) T. cristata, Enl. 7, 2 and 301, 2, of which the 7% brunnea, Spix, 49, 2, is the 
young.—nigerrima, Enl. 179, 2 and 711.—olivacea.—archiepiscopus, Desm. Spix, 
56, 2.—Tun. rufiventer, Spix, 50, 1—rufigularis, 1d., 56, 5.—Saira, Id. 48, 1.— 
viridis, lb. 2. This division has been named Tacuypuonvs, by Vieillot, Gal. 82. 

But we should also refer to it, his genus PyRanea, which is solely founded on an 
individual deformity. We will name his species Tan. cyanictera. 

The Palmiste, Buff. Enl.. 509, 1 (Turd. palmarwm, Gm.), Vieill. Am. IJ, 69, also 
belongs to it; its notch is scarcely sensible, and it almost wholly disappears in a 
neighbouring species, of which Vieillot has made his genus Icreria, Sct. dumicola, 


oF 


PASSERINE. 267 


ve, Rampnoceine TanaGers.(1) 


_. A conical beak, the branches of whose lower mandible are enlarged 
.. ‘behind.(2) 


Turpus, Lin. 


The Thrushes have a compressed and arcuated beak, but its point 
is not hooked, and its emarginations do not form such deep notches 
as in the Shrikes; as we have already stated, however, there are 
gradual transitions from one genus to the other. 

Their regimen is more frugivorous, generally feeding on berries. 
Their habits are solitary. 

The term Thrush is more particularly reserved for those species 
in which the colours are uniform, or are distributed in large masses. 
The most widely disseminated is, 

7. merula, L., Naum. 71. (The European Blackbird.) The 
male, (Enl. 2,) is entirely black, with a yellow beak; the female, 
(Enl. 555,) is brown above; reddish brown beneath; the 
breast spotted with brown. It is a very mistrustful bird, but 
is easily tamed, and can be taught to sing well, and even to 
speak. It remains in Europe during the whole year. 

A neighbouring species, which, however, is a bird of pas- 
sage, and prefers the mountains, is, 

T’. torquatus, L.; Le Merle a plastron blane; Enl. 168 ‘and 
182; Naum. 70. (The Ring Ouzel.) Feathers, black, partly 
edged with white; the breast marked with a shield of the same 
colour. ° 

The high mountains in the south of Europe contain two 
species, the 7. savatilis, L.; Enl. 562; Naum. 73, and the 7. 
cyaneus, L.3 Enl. 250; Naum. 72, from which the 7. solitarius, 
L. does not differ.(3) The first, which is most frequently found 


Vieill, Am. and Gal., pl. Ixxxv, or Pipra polyglotta, Wils., 1, vi, 2. This spe- 
cies leads to Ploceus. Tbunagra mississipiensis, Kn]. 742, or T: xstiva, Wils. Am. 
VI, 3, 4.—T7" rubra, 156, 1.—T" ludoviciana, Wils., Tl. xx, 1. 

N.B. Swainson separates the 7: ¢afao and some others from the Tanagers under 
the name of Acrara, and makes a genus of my Tanagers a bec fin, called Srrnr- 
MAGRA. . 

(1) From this Vieill. has made his Jacara, or Rampnocetes, Galer. 79. 

(2) Tanagra jacapa, Eni. 128.—T- brasilia, nl. 127, 1.—T. nigrogularis, Spix, 
47. 

N.B. The Tunagra atricapilla, 809, 2 and the guyannensis ar@#Shrikes. The 
T. cristatella, Spix, or F'ringilla cristata, Gmel., 7. graminea and T. ruficollis, Spix, 
are Buntings. 

(3) Obs. Bonnelli. 


268 AVES. 


” 
in the North, is the best known; it nestles on inaccessible © ty 
cliffs, in ruins, and sings well. The head and neck of the male of 
are of a blue ash colour, the back brown, rump white; beneath, a 5 
and the tail, orange.(1) “ty 


The name of Grives is given, in France, to those species, whose 
plumage is what is termed in that country grivelé, that is to say, 
marked with small black or brown spots. There are four of them in | 
Europe, all with brown backs, and spotted breasts; they are singing 
birds, which live on insects and berries, migrate in large flocks, 
and whose flesh is an agreeable food. 

T. viscivorus, L.; La Drenne. (The Missle Thrush.) Enl. 

‘4893 Frisch, xxv; Naum. 66, 1. Is the largest; the underpart 
of its wings is white; it is extremely fond of the misletoe, and 
contributes to the dissemination of that parasitical plant. 

T. pilaris, L.3 La Litorne, Enl. 490; Frisch, xxvi; Naum. 
67, 2. Which is chiefly distinguished from the Viscivorus by 
the ash colour on the top of its head and neck. 

T. musicus, Li; La Grive, properly so called, Enl. 4065 
Frisch, xxvii; Naum. 66, 2. Underpart of the wings yellow; 
the best songster of the four, and the one most commonly eaten. 

T. iliacus, L.; Le Mauvis, Enl. 51, Frisch. xxviii; Naum. 
67, 1. (The Mavis.) The smallest of the whole number ; 
under part of the wings and flanks, red.(2) 

The species of the genus Thrush, foreign to Europe, are very 
numerous. We will particularly notice 

T. polyglottus, L.; Catesb. xxvi. (The Mocking-Bird.) From 
North America; ash coloured above, paler beneath, with a white 
band onthe wing. It is celebrated for the astonishing facility 
with which it imitates the notes of other birds, and even all 
kinds of sounds.(3) 


(1) It is possible, as is observed by Shaw, that it was by confounding it with the 
Siberian Jay, that Linneus attributed to it the habits of a Harpy, and at one time 
calls it Corvws, and at another, Lanius infaustus. 

We may approximate to the saxatilis the Rocar, Vaill. Afr. 101 and 102 ;—the 
Espionneur, Id. 103. 

‘The other species, allied to the Solitary Thrushes by their speckled plumage, 
are Turdus manillensis, Enl. 636; probably the same as 7! violaceus, Sonnerat, 2d 
Voy. pl. cviii;—Z. eremita, Enl. 339;—T" varius, Horsf. ;—Myjiothera Androme- 
dx, 'Tem. Col. 392. 

(2) Two additional species have been taken, though very rarely, in Germany; 
the Thrush, with the back and flank spotted with red (T. Nawmanni), Naum. 68, 
and that with Mitidek breast and throat ('T. Bechsteinit), Naum. 69. ; 

(3) The Little Mocking-bird, (T. orpheus), Edw., 78; Le Moqueur de St Domingue, 
(T. dominicus), Enl. 558, 1, are very closely allied to it, as well as the 7° gilvus, 
Vieill. Am. 68. 


PASSERINE. 269 


Some of these birds appear to approach the Shrikes, in habits, 
although there is nothing in the form of their beak which can dis- 
tinguish them from other Thrushes.(1) 

There are no sensible characters by which we can distinguish cer- 
tain African Thrushes, which live in flocks, are extremely clamor- 
ous, feed on insects, and do much mischief in gardens. Several of 
them are remarkable for the brilliant tints of their plumage, which 
is of a browned steel colour,(2) and one of the former, by its cunei- 
form tail, which is one-third longer than the body.(3) 


Add, of species foreign to Europe, with the breast or under part of the body 
spotted; T! rufus, Gm., Enl. 645, and Vieill. Am. 59;—TZ" fuscatus, Vieill. Am. 
57, bis;—Ti minor, Gm. or JT: mustelinus, Wils., or Gr. tanneé, or Gr. solitaire, 
Vieill. Am. 62 and 63; JZ! interpres, Kuhl., Col. 458. 

With the throat only spotted, at least in the adult, 7’. migratorius, L. Enl, 556; 
Catesb. 29; Vieill. Am. 60, 61;—7"' ocrocephalus, Col. 136;—TZ' plumbeus, Enl. 
560, Vieill. Am. 58;—7 Falelandiz, T.;—T. olivaceus, Gm.;—the grivron, Vaill. 
Afr. 98;—T7" campestris, Pr. Max. 

With the flanks only spotted, 7: punctatus, Sh. Zool. N. Holl. I, pl. ix, which is 
the genus Cincrosoma, Vig. and Horsf., Lin. Trans. XV, p. 219. 

Of those not spotted underneath, 7” brasiliensis, Lath.;—T. perspicillatus;—T. 
melanotis, or Reclameur of Vaill. or T. vociferans, Zool. 11. 179:—7T". nevius, Vieill. 
Am. 66;—T". lividus, or Catbird of Wils. 14, 2 ;—T. citrinus, Tem. Col. 445;—T- 
rubripes, Id. 409;—T. leucogaster, Enl. 648, 1;—T. madagascariensis, Enl. 557, 1;— 
T. australasiz, Sh. Nat. Miscel. 1013;—Malurus frenatus, Tem., Col. 385;—T. 
pectoralis, Enl. 644, 1; T. cinnamomeus, Enl. 560, 2;—T. rujifrons, Enl. 644, 10. 
These last three species have been improperly referred by Buffon to the Ant- 
catchers. 

N.B. Turdus aurocapillus, Lath., Enl. 398, 2 and Vieill. Am. 64, (Motac. aurocap., 
L.,) is a true Motacilla, and must be placed with the Fauvets;—7'wrdus calliope 
(Lath. Syn. Supplement, fig. of the title), should go with the Redbreasts;— Turdus 
eayanus, Enl. 515, is a female Ampelis;—7! guyanensis, Enl. 398, fig. 1, is a female 
of the Zaunagra dominica, Enl. 156, 2, of which Vieill. has made his Dudus palma- 
yum, Gal. 146. See App. XVI of Am. Ed. 

(1) We have already spoken, while on the Shrikes, of some species ‘usually 
placed among the Thrushes, such as, J’urdus zeilonus, Enl. 272. It seems we 
might also approximate to it the 7. cafer, Enl. 563, Vaill., 107, which differs very 
little even in colouring fromthe Lanius jocosus, En]. 508. These two species would 
also take along with them the 7! capensis, Enl. 317, Vaill. 105, andthe 7° chrysorr- 
heus, Tem., Vaill. 107. 

On the other hand, it would be difficult to separate from the zeilonus, the Hausse- 
col noir, Vaill. Afr., 110, and the Cravatte noir, Id. 115. 

(2) Particularly T’urdus auratus, Enl. 540 (Nabirop, Vaill. Afr. 89), and T'ur- 
dus nidens, Enl. 561, (Cowigniop, Vaill., 90.) 

Here also come the Oranvert (T. chrysogaster, Gm.) Enl. 358;—the Sprédo (T. 
bicolor, Gm.), Vaill., Afr., 83, or the Corvus rujfipennis, Sh.; and probably the 
Eclatant, Vaill. 85, and the Chowcador, Id. 86, (Corvus splendidus, Sh. ) 

(3) Turdus zneus, Enl. 220 (Vert doré, Vaill., 87). 


270 AVES. 


We consider it proper to approximate to it the Thrush of 
New Guinea, whose tail is three times the length of the body, 
and has a double tuft on the head, which has been considered a 
Bird of Paradise—Paradissea gularis, Lath., and Shaw; Par. 
nigra, Gmel.; Vaill. Ois. de Par. 20 and 21; Vieill. Ois. de Par. 
pl. viii, and Galer. 107, simply on account of the singularity 
and incomparable magnificence of its plumage.(1) 

Other Thrushes, with brilliant plumage, have the feathers of the 
occiput pointed like the Starling; they are the Srournrs or Lampro- 
rornis of Temminck.(2) 

Some of them have so slender a beak, that they approach the Saxi- 
cole—the Turporprs, or Ixos, Temm.;(3) others again have a 
slender but strong and straight beak, and among them are some with 
a widely forked tail, Entcurrs, T.(4) 

There are some of them also, which are distinguished by the 
height of their legs, which gives them the appearance of Waders, 
they are the Gratiines of Vieill. Galer. 1503; or the Tanyrus of 
Oppel. Mem. Acad. Munich, 1812, pl. viii. 

The Crinicer, Temm., comprehends those Thrushes, which have 
very strong setz on the beak, and whose neck feathers sometimes 
have a setaceous termination. Such is the Criniger barbatus, Col. 
88. 

Buffon has very properly separated from the Thrushes, the 


MyorueEra, Illig.(5) 
The Ant-Catchers are known by their long legs and short tail. They 


(1) Vieillot has given to this bird the generic name of AsTRapra. 

N.B. I think it is proper to approximate to the Thrushes which are allied to 
the Shrikes, the Muscicapa carinata, Swains., Zool. Ul., 147, of which Vigors and 
Horsfield make their genus Monancna. ; 

(2) Turdus mauritianus, Gm., Enl. 648, 2 and Col. 149;—7" cantor, Sonnerat, 
Voy. I, pl. lxxiii;—Lamprotornis metallicus, Tem. Col. 266. We should distin- 
guish the Lampr. erythrophris,on account of its beautiful red eye-brows formed of 
cartilaginous feathers. 

(3) Such are the Podobé (7: erythropterus, Gm.), Enl. 334 ;—the Janfredic, Vaill. 
Afr. 111;—the Grivetin, Id., 118;—the Coudor, Id., 119;—the T'urdus trichas, nl. 
709, 2. The Terat-boulan (Turdus orientalis, Gm. Enl. 273, 2,) approximates this 
group to the straight-beaked Shrikes. 

Add, Ixos chalcocephalus, Tem. Col. 453, 1;—J. squammatus, Ib. 2;—R. atriceps, 
Col. 137, and particularly 7’ dispar, Col. 137, which has red cartilaginous feathers 
under the throat similar to the appendages of the wing of the Chatterer. 

(4) Enicurus coronatus, Tem. Col. 113, or Turd. Leschenaultit, Vieill. Gal. 145, 
or Motacilla speciosa, Horsf.;—.Hnic. velatus, Tem. Col. 160. There is quite as 
much reason for approximating them to the’straight-beaked Shrikes. 

(5) Vieill. has changed this name into MrrmoTHEra. 


438 
; ‘% “ti 
COME SEER ta 
¥, hy eis 
CAR iy 


: PASSERINE. 271 


live on insects, and chiefly on ants. They are found in both conti- 
nents. 

Those of the eastern world, however, are remarkable for the 
brilliant colours of their plumage: they are the Breves of Buf- 
fon(1)—Corvus brachyurus, Gm., Enl. 257 and 258; Edw. 324, 
to which have been added since, several other beautiful spe- 
cies.(2) We must also add the 4zurin—Turdus cyanurus, Lath., 
and Gmel.; Corvus cyanurus, Shaw, Enl. 355,(3) which only 
differs in the tail, which is somewhat pointed. 

The species belonging to the western continent, are much more 
numerous, their tints are of a deeper brown, and they vary as to 
strength, and the length of the beak. They obtain their living from 
the enormous ant hills which abound in the woods and deserts of 
that countrys; the females are larger than the males. These birds 
seldom fly, and have a sonorous cry, which, in some species, is 
even extraordinary. 

Among those with a thick and arcuated beak, we remark, 

M. rex; Turdus rex, Gm.; Corvus grailarius, Shaw, Enl. 
702. (King of the Ant-Catchers.) The largest of all, and 
stands the highest; its tail, on the other hand, is the shortest, 
and at the first glance it might be taken for a Waders it is 
about the size of a Quail, and its grey plumage is agreeably 
chequered. Itis more solitary than the others.(4) 

The species with a straighter, but still tolerably strong beak are 
allied to the Shrikes, with a similar one.(5) 


(1) Vieillot has given to these birds the name of Prrra. 

(2) Such as the Pitta erythrogaster, Cuy., Enl. 212;—P. gigas, Tem. Col. 217;— 
P. cyanoptera, 1d. Ib., 218;—P. superciliosa, C.—P. strepitans, Leadbeater, Col. 
333. 

N.B. The Breve des Philippines, Enl. 89, is not, as Vaillant says, that of Angola, 
Edw., 324, with the head of a Thrush artificially attached to it; we have a natural 
specimen of the same. 

(3) The Azurin is not from Cayenne, as Buffon declares it to be, but from the 
East Indies. It is the Pitta cyanura, Vieill., 153. Add Myiothera affinis, Horsf. 
and even his J'’urdus cyaneus, which is the Bréve-blewet, Tem. Col. 194, but which 
leads to the straight-beaked Shrikes. 

The Pitta thoracica, Tem., Col. 76, which Messrs Horsf. and Vigors make the 
type of their genus Turmatra, is but little removed from the azurin, if we except 
its sombre hues and its beak, which latter diminishes more regularly in front, and 
thereby approaches the Tanagers. 

(4) M. Vieillot has taken his genus Gratraria, Galer. 154, from this bird. 

Add the Grand beffrai ( T'urdus tinniens), Enl. 706, 1 of which Vieill. makes his 
genus Myornera: its beak is smaller;— Myrmothera guttata, Vieill. Gal. 155. 

(5) Such are the Tetema (T'urdus-colma, B.) Enl. 821;—the Palicour (T: formi- 
evvorus,) Enl. 700, 1;—the Petit beffrot (Turdus lineatus), Enl. 823, 1;3—the Tham- 


212s AVES. 


Others have a slender, sharp beak, which, with their striated tail, 
approximates them to the Wren.(1) 

The Orruonyx, Tem. may be approximated to the Ant-catchers. 
They have the beak of a Thrush, but, it is short and slender; their 
legs are long, the nails almost straight, and the quills of the tail 
terminate in a point like those of the Creepers. 

We must also separate from the Thrushes: 


Cincius, Bechst.(2) 


Or the Water-Thrushes, which have a compressed, straight beak, 
with mandibles of an equal height, nearly linear, and becoming 
sharp near the point; the upper one hardly arcuated. There is but 
one in Europe. 
Sturnus cinclus, L.; Turdus cinclus, Lath.; Enl. 940; Vieill. 
Gal. 152. (The Water Thrush.) Legs rather long, and a short 
tail, which approximate it to the Ant-catchers. It is brown, 
with a white throat and breast, and has the singular habit of 
descending into the water, not swimming, but walking about on 
the bottom in search of the litthe animals which constitute its. 
food. ; 
Africa, and the countries bordering on the Indian Ocean, produce 
a genus of birds neighbours of the Thrushes, which I call 


nophilus stellaris, Spix, 39;—Thamn. myotherinus, 1d.42. The M. leucophris, Tem. 
Col. 448, although from Java, seems to approach this group. The Brachypteryx 
montana, Horsf. Jay. also approximates to it in the height of its legs, but its tail is 
longer in proportion, and the beak is somewhat allied to that of the Saxicole. 

(1) Such are the Bambla (Turd. bambla), Enl. 703; the 4rada (T'. cantans), Enl. 
706, 2. Here comes the genus Ruampnocens, Vieill. 9, 128. 

We are compelled, however, to replace among the Thrushes, several species 
which Buffon arranged with the Ant-catchers, on account of some relative simi- 
larity of colour, viz. the Carillonneur ( T. tintinnabulatus), Enl. 700, 2;—the Merle 
a cravatte (T. cinnamomeus), Enl. 560, 2;—those of the pl. Enl. 644, 1 and 2, which, 
contrary to all appearances, he considers as varieties of the formicivorus. I place 
in the same class the Thamnophilus griseus, Spix, 41, 1 and 48, 2 ;—striatus, Id., 
40, 2;—melanogaster, 1d., 43, 1. The Myothera capistrata, melanothorax, Tem. 
Col. 185, [and M. obsoleta, Bonap. I, p. 1, 2. .4m. Ed.}. We must also send back to 
the Thrushes, notwithstanding their smallness, the long-tailed species, called by 
Buffon Fourmilliers rossignols (T. coroya and T\ alapi, Gm.), Enl. 701, as well as 
the Myiothera malura, Natterer, Col. 953 and the M. ferruginea and rufimarginata, 
Col. 132, which are even closely allied to the 7: punctatus and grammiceps;—the 
M. gularis and pyrrhogenis, Tem. 442, 448. 

The Myiothera mentalis and strictothorax, Natterer, 179, appear to me should be 
placed among the Shrikes. There is no group which has been more overloaded 
with species foreign to it, than that of the Ant-catchers. We must confess, how- 
ever, that it is not more rigorously limited than the other groups of the Dentirostres. 

(2) Vieillot has changed this name into that of HyproparTa. 


PASSERINE. 273 


PuHitepon.(1) 


Their beak is compressed, slightly arcuated throughout its length, 
and emarginate near the point; nostrils large, and covered by a car- 
tilaginous scale; their tongue terminated by a pencil of hairs. 

The species, generally remarkable for some singularity of con- 
formation, have been bandied about by authors in all kinds of genera. 

Some of them have fleshy bobs at the base of the beak.(2) 

In others, portions of the skin on the cheeks are divested of feath- 
ers.(3) ' 

Even in those which are completely feathered, we still observe, at 
times, a singular disposition of the plumage.(4) 


(1) Commerson had an idea of thus naming the Polochion (Merops moluccensis, 
Gm.), which is of this genus. See Buff. Hist. des Ois., VI, 4to, p. 477. Vieillot 
places the greater number of these birds in his genus Polochion, and in Latin he pre- 
fers calling it Philemon rather than Philedon, Gal. 189. The genus Mexrenaca of 
Lewin also is comprised in it. 

(2) Here comes the New Holland bird called by Daudin, Ornith. I, pl. xvi, Pie 
a@ pendeloques, or Corvus paradoxus, Vieill. Gal. 24, the same as the Merops caruncu- 
latus of Phillip., of Latham and of Shaw, but which has not the feet of a Merops, 
and whose beak is notched, the tongue pencillated, and nostrils without feathers. 
The Sturnus carunculatus, Lath. and Gm., or Gracula carunculata, Daud. and Shaw 
(Lath. Syn., Ill, pl. xxxvi), and the Certhia carunculata, Lath. and Gm. (Vieill. 
Ois. Dor., I, pl. xix), also appear to me to belong to it. The latter bird, it is 
said, sings delightfully, and belongs to the Friendly Islands. It is from this sub- 
division that Vieillot has taken his genus Crzapron, Gal. 94. 

(3) The Merops phrygius of Shaw, Gen. Zool. VIU, pl. xx;—the Goruck, Vieill. 
Ois. Dor., IT, pl. lxxxviii (C. goruck, Sh.);—the Fuscalbin, td. lb., pl. 1xi, (C. luna- 

_ta);—the Graculé, Id. tb., pl. ixxxvii, (C. graculina);—the Polochion of Buff. (Me- 
rops moluccensis, Gm.);—the Ph. a oreilles jaunes, Less. Voy. de Duperrey, pl. 21, 
bis, and some new species belong to this division. 

(4) Particularly in the Merops Nove Hollandix, Gm. and Brown, Ill. ix, or Merle 
a cravatte frisée, Vaill., Afr., or Merops circinnatus, Lath. and Shaw, Gen. Zool. 
VUI, pl. xxii. They are the feathers of the ears which become frizzled, as they 
descend to almost in front of the breast.— Melliph. auricornis, Swains., Zool. Ll. p. 43. 

Add Certh. auriculata, Vieill. Ois. Dor. 85;—€. Nove Hollandizx, Ib. 7. 

The species which have none of these singularities are the Certhia xantotus, Sh. 
Vieill. Ois. Dor., I, pl. 84;—C. australasiana, tb. 55;—C. mellivora, 1b. 86;—C. 
cerulea, Ib. 83 ;—C. seniculus, lb. 50. I am even of opinion that the Cap noir, 
Vieill. pl. 60, (Certhia cucullata, Sh.) belongs to them, notwithstanding the length 
of its beak;—Merops niger, Gm. or fasciculatus, Lath. or, Gracula nobilis, Merrem. 
Beytr. Fasc., I, pl. ii, is still more likely to be one of »them—at all events it 
is no Merops. I also place in this genus the Verdin de! la\Cochinchine, Enl. 643, 
which is the second 7'urdus malabaricus, No. 125 of Gm.—for the first, No. 51 is 
a Gracula, Cuv.—and the Certh. cocincinica, Sh. Vieill. 77 and 78.—Add the Philed. 
cap négre, Tem. (Certhia atricapilla, Lath.), Col. 335, 1;—Philéd. moustae. (Mel- 
liph. mystacalis, Tem.) Ib. 2;—the Philéd. grivelé (Melliph. maculata,T.), Col. 29, 1; 

Vox. 1.—2 K 


274 AVES. 


EvLABEs, Cuy. 


The birds. of this genus are closely allied to those of the preceding 
one. Their beak is nearly that of a Thrush; their nostrils are round 
and smooth. Their distinguishing mark consists in broad strips of 
naked skin on each side of the occiput, and a bald spot on the cheek. 

Linnzus has confounded two species of them under the name of 
Gracula religiosa.(1) 

E. indicus, Enl. 268, the species of India, is the size of a 
Thrush; black, with a white spot near the base of the pri- 
maries. The feet, beak, and bald parts of the head, yellow. 

E. javanicus, Vieill. Gal. 95, has a broader beak, the commis- 
sure extending higher up, more hooked at the end, and without 
a notch—consequently, it should come after Colaris, Cuv.; but 
in every thing else it is precisely similar to the other and par- 
ticularly in the strips of bare skin about the head.(2) Of all 
birds, this one is said to imitate most completely the language 
of man. 


GracuLa, Cuv.(3) 


Is another genus allied to the Thrushes. The species inhabit Africa 
and the countries bordering on the Indian Ocean. Their beak is 
compressed, very little arcuated, and slightly emarginate; its com- 
missure forms an angle like that of the Starling.’ The feathers on 
the head are almost always narrow, and there is a naked space round 
the eye. They have the habits of Starlings, and like them, pursue 
insects in flocks. 
One species is occasionally seen in Europe, 
Turdus roseus, L.; Pastor roseus, Meyers Merula rosea, Naum. 
633 Enl. 251; Vaill. Afr. A brilliant black; back, rump, scapu- 
lars and breast of a pale rose; feathers of the head narrow, and 


Phil. réticulé (Melliph. reticulata\, Ib. 2;—the Ph. & jowes blanches (M. leucotis), Col. 
435;—Phil. Dumerilii, Voy. de Duperr. pl. xxi, and perhaps the White headed Ixos, 
Ruppel, Av. 4. 

N.B. The Creavion or Pie a pendeloques is the genus ANraocuxeRA of Swainson, 
to which he joins the Merops phrygius, &c. The long and slender billed Phile- 
dons, such as the Certhia cucullata, Vieill., form the genus MyzomeExa of Swainson. 

(1) This appellationiof religious was only given to it on account of a peculiar 
trait in its character, telated by Bontius (Med. Ind. or. p. 67,) and foreign to its 
natural habits. I have made it my generic name by translating it into Greek. 

(2) Nothing can possibly be more perplexing to methodists than this difference 
between the beaks of two such similar birds. 

(3) Vieillot has changed this name into that of CrrvotnEres, Galer. 148. 


oe 
. 


PASSERINE. 275 


lengthened out intoatuft. It is of great use in warm climates, 
by destroying Grasshoppers. (1) 

Another species, Paradisea tristis, Gm.; Gracula tristis, Lath. 
and Shaw; Gracula gryllivora, Daud. Enl. 219, has become cel- 
ebrated for similar services rendered to the Isle of France. It 
feeds, however, on every thing, builds on the Palms, and is very 
docile. Its size is that of a Thrush; brown, blackish about the 
head; a spot near the tip of the wing; the lower part of the abdo- 
men and the tips of the lateral tail quills are white.(2) 


(1) Since my first edition was published, I have satisfied myself of the certainty 
of the generic affinity of this species with the Gracula, Cuy. 

(2) Itis difficult to imagine how Linnzus was induced to make it a Bird of Para- 
dise. To this genus also belong the Gracula cristatella, Enl. 507 and Edw. 19, 
which can hardly be considered a variety of the common one;-—-the Porte lambeaua, 
Vaill. Afr. pl. xciii, and xciv, which is the Gr. carunculata, Gm., or the Gr. larvata, 
Shaw, or the Sturnus gallinaceus, Daud.;—the Martin brame, Turdus pagodarum, 
Vaill. Afr., 95, and Vieill. Gal. 148. The first 7° malabaricus, the T. ginginianus, 
the J! dominicanus, Enl. 627, 2; the Martin gris de Fer, Vaill. Afr. 95, 1, and the 
Sturnus sericeus, Gm. also belong to it, as well as some new species. [ also refer 
to it, conjecturally, the Z'urdus ochrocephalus, Lath. (Sturn. ceylanicus, Gm.) 
Brown, Il, xxii. 

N.B. We cannot ascertain what type’was taken by Linnzus and his followers 
for their genus Gracuta. Linnzus first formed it in his tenth edition of seven very 
discordant species, viz. 1, religiosa, Eulabes, C.; 2, fetida, which I suspect to be the 
Col nu, that is to say allied to Ampelis; 3, barita, and 4, quiscala, which belong to 
Cassicus; 5, cristatella, which is a Gracula, Cuv.; 6, sawlaris, or rather solaris, which 
is a straight-beaked Shrike, and the same bird as 7. mindanensis, Enl. 627, 1; 
finally, 7, Atthis, which is a ‘Thrush. 

In the 12th ed. he added the Gracula calva, and placed the common gracula, Cuy. 
among the birds of Paradise. 

Gmelin, in imitation of Pallas, added a xanthornus (Gr. longirostra.).* He also 
placed there the porte-lambeaux (Gr. carunculata), still leaving the common one 
among the Birds of Paradise; finally, he placed there the Gr. cayennensis, which 
isa Creeper. M. Latham has transferred to it the Gr. tristis, the Col. nw (Gr. nuda) 
and one of my Philedons (Gr. icterops).{ Daudin has placed some species after 
the said Gracula which in fact resemble it, and two of which Gmelin had left among 
the Thrushes (Z'urdus pagodarum and malabaricus). Finally, Shaw has put the 
finishing touch to the matter, by transferring to the genus in question three Baritz, 
(his Gr. strepera, varia and tibicen,) and adding to them the T'alapiot, which is a 
Creeper or a Nuthatch (Gr. picoides). Genera, thus formed, certainly excuse the 
ill humour of the enemies of systems, if they do not justify it. See the Mem. of M. 
Lichtenstein, Acad. of Berlin, 1817. 


* T do not know the Gracula sturnina of Pallas. 
{ Neither doI know the Grac. melanocephala and viridis of Latham; but I suspect 
they also belong to my Philedons. 


276 AVES. 


Manoruina, Vieill. 


The beak much compressed, but little arcuated, and slightly 
sloped; large nostrils, almost entirely closed by a membrane, which 
reduces the opening to a narrow slit; the neck is short. The feathers 
on the forehead, which are as soft as those of young birds, incline 
partly over the nostrils.(1) 


Pyrruocorax, Cuv.(2) 


The compressed, arcuated, and sloped beak of the Thrushes; but 
their nostrils are covered with feathers, as in the Crows, to which 
they were for along time united. There is one in Europe about the 
size of the Corv. monedula. ; 

Corvus pyrrhocoraz, L.; Chocard des Alpes, Eni. 531; Vieill. 
Galer. 106; Naum. 57,1. All black; the beak yellow; feet, 
brown at first, then yellow and red in the adults builds in rocky 
fissures of the highest mountains, whence, in the winter, it de- 
scends into the valleys in large flocks. It feeds on insects, snails, 
grain, and fruit, and does not despise carrion. 

There is another in India, 

Pyrr. hexanemus, Cuv.; the Sicrin, Vaill. Afr. pl. Ixxxii. 
Distinguished by three barbless stalks as long as the body, which 
grow oneach side among the feathers which cover the ear. 

{ can find no character sufficient to warrant removing from the 
Thrushes 


Oriouus, Lin. 


Or the Orioles, whose beak, similar to that of the Thrushes, is 
merely alittle stronger; the feet a little shorter, and the wings a little 
longer, in proportion. Linnzus, and most of his followers, impro- 
perly united Cassici with them, to which they have no other resem- 
blance than that of colours. 

O. galbula, L.; Le loriot d’Hurope, Enl. 26; Golden Thrush, 
Fellow Thrush of the Germans, &c. Somewhat larger than the 
Thrush. The male is of a fine yellow; wings, tail, and a spot 
between the eye and the beak, black; tip of the tail yellow. 
During its two first years, however, the yellow is replaced by 
-an olive, and the black by a brown, which is always the case 
with the female. This bird suspends its skilfully wrought nest 
to branches of trees, feeds on cherries and other fruits, and in 
the spring on insects. It is very shy, remains in France but a 
little time during the summer, and travels in pairs, or by threes. 


(1) Manorhina viridis, Vieill. Gal. 149;—Merops albifrons, Shaw ? 
(2) Vieill. has adopted this name and genus. 


9 


PASSERINE. 277 


India produces some species tolerably similar to the prece- 
ding,(1) but we must particularly distinguish from among that 
number the Oriolus regens, Col. 320—WSericula regens, Less. 
which is of the finest silky black, with beautiful orange yellow, 
velvet feathers on the head and neck, and a large spot of the 
same colour on the wing.(2) 


Gymnops, Cuv. 


The same strong beak as the Orioles; the nostrils round, without 
scales or surrounding membrane; a great part of the head naked.(3) 

Some of them have prominences on the beak.(4) In these the 
tongue is pencillated as in Philedon. 


Mzura, Shaw. 


These Birds, whose size has induced some authors to refer them to 
the Gallinacex, by the separation of their toes, (the first joint of the 
external and middle ones excepted, ) evidently belong to the order of 
the Passerine, and approach the Thrushes in their beak, which is 
triangular at base, elongated, slightly compressed, and emarginate 
near the point. The membranous nostrils are large, and partly 
covered over by feathers, as inthe Jays. They are distinguished by 
the great tail of the male, which is very remarkable for the three 
sorts of feathers which compose it, viz. the twelve common ones 
with very fine and widely separated barbs; two more in the middle 
only one side of which is furnished with thickly set barbs, and two 
external ones curved into the figure of an S, or like the arms of a 
lyre, whose internal barbs, large and thickly set, form a kind of 
broad riband, while those that are external are very short, becoming 


(1) Oriolus chinensis, Enl. 570;—Or. melanocephalus, Enl. 79, or Loriot rieur, 
Vaill. Afr. 263;—the Loriot d’or, Vaill., 260; Vieill. Gal. 83;—the Couwdougnan, 
Vaill., 2, 61;—the Oriolus xanthonotus, Horsf. Jay. 

(2) M. Lesson (Voy. Duperr., pl. xx,) gives as its female, a Thrush-coloured 
bird which differs considerably i in its proportions. 

(3) The Goulin gris (Gracula calva, Gm.), Enl. 200;—the Goulin vert (Mino Du- 
montii, Less. ), Voy. de Duperr., pl. xxvy;—the Goulin olive (Gracula cyanotis, Lath.; 
Merops cyanotis, Shaw). 

(4) The Corbicalao, Vaill., Ois. d’Am. et des Indes, pl. xxiv (Merops corniculatus, 
Lath. and Shaw,) and a neighbouring species whose larger tubercle is directed 
towards the front (Mer. monachus, Lath.). These two New-Holland birds are 
neither Horn-bills nor Bee-eaters, for their external toes are not more united 
than those of the most common Passerinz. 

N.B. The Or. regens is the Melliphaga regia of Lewin and the Sericulus chryso- 
cephalus of Swainson. 

The Corbicalao forms the genus Trorrpornyncuvs of Swainson. 


I 
| 
| 
| 


278 AVES. 


longer only near the tip. The female has only twelve ordinary 
quills. 
This singular species, Meenura lyra, Vieill. Ois. de Par. pl. 
xiv, xv, and Gal. 192, Sh. Nat. Misc. 577, inhabits the rocky 
districts of New Holland; its size is somewhat less than that 
of the Pheasant. 


Moraciuua, Lin. 


The Warblers form an excessively numerous family, known by the 

beak, which is straight, slender, and similar to a bodkin. When 

slightly depressed at base, it approaches that of the Flycatchers; 

when compressed, and its point is curved a little, it leads to the 

straight beaked Shrikes. An endeavour has been made to divide 

them as follows: : 
Saxicota, Bechst.(1) 


The beak a little depressed, and rather broad at base, which partic- 
ularly allies these birds to the last small tribe of the Flycatchers. 
They are lively, and stand tolerably high. The French species build 
on the ground, or under it, and feed exclusively on insects. 

Motacilla rubicola, L.; Le Traquet, Enl. 678; Naum. 90, 3, 1, 
5. A small brown bird, with a red breast, black throat, and 
some white on the sides of the neck, on the wing, and on the 
rump. It is constantly flitting about the bushes, and its weak 
note resembles the tick-tack of a mill, whence its French name. 

Mot. rubetra; Le Tarier, Enl. 678; Naum. 89, 3, 4. Closely 
resembles the preceding; but the black is on the cheek instead 
of under the throat. Itis somewhat larger, and keeps more on 
the ground. France. 

Mot. ceanthe; Le Motteuz, Enl. 554; Naum. 89,1, 2. (The 
Wheat-Ear.) The rump, and the half of the lateral tail feathers, 
white. The male is ash coloured above, reddish-white beneath; 

the wing, and a band over the eye, black. In the female, all is 

brownish above, and reddish beneath. It is found in the ploughed 
fields, where it feeds on the worms turned up with the furrow. 
France. 

We should distinguish from them, 

Saxicola strapasina, T.; M. roux, Buff.; Naum. 90,1, 2. A 
species from the south of Europe that sometimes visits France. 


There is a bird in the south of France that should be placed » 


near this species, which is black, the rump, and the two supe- 
rior thirds of the tail, white, and which has been referred to the 


(1) Vieill. has changed this name to Motteux (7EnanTHE). 


—— 


PASSERINE. 279 


Thrushes. It is the Zwrdus leucurus, Lath., Synops. II, pl. 
$83(1) or the Sazicola cachinnans, Tem. 


Sytvra, Wolf and Meyer.—Ficrputa, Bech. 


The beak a very little narrower at base than in the preceding. 
They are solitary birds, generally nestling in holes, and feeding on 
insects, worms and berries. There are four species in France. 

Mot. rubicola, L.; Rouge-gorge, Enl. 361, 1; Naum. 75, 1, 2. 
(The Stonechat.). A brown grey above; throat and breast red; 
belly white; builds near the ground in the woods, is prying and 
familiar. Some of them remain during the winter, and seek 
for refuge from the extreme cold in houses, where they soon 
become tamed. 

Mot. suecia, L.; Gorge-bleue, Enl. 361, 2; Naum. 75, 3, 4, 5. 
Brown above, blue throat, red breast, white belly; rarer than 
the preceding, nestles on the edge of woods and marshes. 

Mot. phenicurus, L..3; Rossignol de muraille, Enl. 351; Naum. 
79, 1, 2. Brown above; throat black; breast, rump, and lateral 
quills of the tail, light red; it nestles in old walls, and has a 
soft song, with something of the modulations of the Nightingale. 

Mot. erithacus, tytys, gibraltariensis, atrata, Gm.; Edw. 29; 
Naum. 79, 3, 4. Differs from the preceding, and principally 
in the breast, which, as well as the throat, is black. It is much 
more uncommon.(2) 


Currvuca, Bechst. 


A straight beak, slender throughout, slightly compressed before; 
the upper mandible a little curved near the point. The most cele- 
brated of this subgenus is 


(1) Add to the saxicole, Mot. caprata, Enl. 235;—M. fulicata, Enl. 185, 1;—M. 
philippensis, Ib. 2;—the patre, Vaill. Afr. p. 180. 

And to the wheat-ear, M. leucothoa, Enl. 583, 2;—the zmitateur, Vaill., Afr. 181, 
Id.;—the familer, Id. 183 ;—the montagnard, Id. 184;—the fourmillier, 186;—Mot. 
leucomela, Falc. Voy. Il, xxx, and Col. 257, 3. Add, Saxic. aurita, t., Col. 257, 
1;—S. monacha, Col. 359, 1;—S. deserti, Ib. 2. 

The Mot. cyanea, Gm., Lath., Syn. Hl, pl. liii, has the beak of a Saxicola, and 
only differs from it in having a rather longer tail. Vieill. Gal. 163, has placed it in 
his genus Merton or Maturvs, afterwards converted into a receptacle forall kinds 
of birds with elongated and cuneiform tails, such as the Mérion bridé, Tem. Col. 
385, which is a Thrush;—the M. natté and the M. leucoptere, Quoy and Gaym. Voy. 
de Freycin. pl. 23, which approach the Coly; the flateur of Vaill. (ML. africana), 
Afr. 112, which is closely allied to Synallazxis, &c. 

(2) Add the Blue bird of Amer. Mot. sialis, Enl. 590; Mot. Caer Lath. Syn. 
Supp. I, front. [See 2pp. XVIT of Am. Ed.) 


280 AVES. 


Mot. luscinia, L.; Enl. 615, 2; Naum. 74, 2. (The Nightin- 
gale.) A reddish brown above; whitish grey beneath; the tail 
somewhat redder. Every one knows this songster of the night, 
and the varied melody with which it fills the woods. It builds 
on trees, and does not begin to sing until the young ones are 
hatched. The male, then, as well as the female, is occupied in 
providing them with food. 

The eastern part of Europe produces a Nightingale, which 
is a little larger, and whose breast is slightly variegated with 
greyish tints. Mot. philomela, Bechst.; Naum..74, 1. 

The remaining species have the common name of Fauvettes; they 
are, nearly all, good singers, lively and gay in their manners, con- 
stantly flitting about in pursuit of insects, and building in bushes, 
generally in the vicinity of water, among reeds, &c. 

I place a species at the head of the list, which is so large that 
it has been almost always classed with the Thrushes.(1) It is 

Turdus arundinaceus, L.; Sylvia turdoides, Enl. 515; Naum. 
81,1. Reddish brown above; yellowish beneath; throat white: 
a pale streak over the eye; a little less than the Mavis, (Turd. 
iliacus, L.) and the beak almost as much arcuated. It nestles 
among the reeds, and feeds almost exclusively on aquatic 

-, insects. 

-... Mot. arundinacea, Gm.; La Petite Rouserolle, Naum. 81, 2. 
Similar to the preceding in habits and colour, but not so large 
by a third. 

Mot. salicaria, Gm.; La fauvette de Roseaux, Enl. 581, 2. 
Still smaller than the last, and the beak proportionably shorter; 
an olive grey above; very pale yellow beneath; a yellowish 
streak between the eye and the beak. 

There are also several small Spotted Fauvettes, inhabiting 
marshes, &c., which were long confounded under that general 
name, (Mot. nxvia, Gm.) and which are not yet satisfactorily 
distinguished.(2) 


(1) There are some intermediate Fauvettes between the Mot. arundinacea, Gm 
and the Z'urd. arundinaceus, L., and between the former and the- Mot. saliemen 
Gm., so that, in my opinion, it is impossible to separate the latter from the Fau- 
vettes, although Lacknowledge the result is an almost insensible transition between 
the Thrushes and the Motacille, just as there is between the latter and the straight 
beaked Shrikes, and between the Thrushes and the Shrikes with arcuated beaks. 
All these genera are closely allied. 

(2) See the S. phragmitis, Naum. 82, 1;—S. cariceti, Id. 2, 3;—¥. aquatica, Id. 
4 and 5;—S. fluviatilis, Id. 83, 1;—S. locustella, Id. 84, 2, 3. Compare them with 
the S. locustella, Roux, 229;—S. Schenobenus, 1d. 230;-—S. paludicola, Id. 231,—S. 
cysticola, Id. 232 ; as wellas the figures of Buff., Brisson, Bechstein, &c. There is 


PASSERINE. 281 


Of the above, we will merely notice the F. cysticole—/’. cys- 
ticola, Tem. Col. 6, 3, with a fawn coloured back, spotted with 
black, a light fawn colour beneath; the tail cuneiform, each 
feather of which has a black spot on its inferior surface. ‘This 
species is from the south of Europe, and makes its nest by 
approximating the leaves of a tuft of grass or carex, which it 
sews together with the filaments of various seeds.(1) 

Among the species which prefer the higher grounds, we observe 
first, 

Mot. atricapilla, L.; Fauvette a téte noire, Enl. 580, 1 and 23 
Naum. 77, 2, 3; Roux, 205, bis. Brown above; whitish beneath3. 
a black calotte on the male, a red one on the female. 

Mot. orphea, Tem.; La Fauvette, Enl. 579, 13 Naum. 76, 3, 
4; S. grisea, Roux, 213. One of the largest; ashy brown above, 
whitish beneath; some white on the tip of the wing; two-thirds 
of the external quills of the tail white, the succeeding one 
marked with a spot at the end, and the rest with a selvage. 
There have. been distinguished within the last few years, 

Sylvia nisoria, Bechst.; Fauvette rayée:; Naum. 76, 1, 2, Roux, 
922. Which has much less white on the tail, the abdomen of 
the female being transversely undulated with grey; the largest 
of the European species. 

Mot. curruca, L.3 Brit. Zool. pl. v, No. 4; Frisch. 21; Naum. 
77, 13 Roux, 216. (The White Throat.) Smaller than the 
preceding ones, and the beak more slender, but the same white 
ona great part of the first quill of the tail. The head is ash 
coloured, back brownish. 

Mot. sylvia, Gm.; S. cinerea; Fauvette roussdtre; Naum. 78, 
1, 23 Riet-vink, Nosem. II, pl. 97; Enl. 579, 33; Roux, 220. 
Reddish brown-grey above, white beneath; the white on the 
tail as in the two preceding ones; the quills and coverts of the 
wings edged with red. 

Mot. salicaria, L.; Sylv. hortensis, Bechst.; La petite Fau- 
vette, Naum. 78, 3; Nosem. 723 Enl. 579, 2; Roux, 221. Has 


no genus which stands more in need of a monography and an approximation of the 
synonymes of different authors, than this. 

Add to the aquatic Fauvettes of Europe, Sylv. galactodes, T. Col. 251, 1;—S. 
luscinioides, Savi. Egypt. Ois. XII, A;—S. cetti, Marmora or la Bouscarle, Enl. 6, 
55, 2; Roux, 212;—S. melanopogon, Tem. Col. 245, 2. 

(1) See Notizia sul nido del Beccamorchino (Sylvia cysticola, Tem.) by S. P. Savi. 
Pisa, 1823. 

Vou. L—2L 


282 AVES. 


no white on the tail, and is of a brownish grey, or olive above, 
and of a yellowish white beneath.(1) , 
Bechstein has separated from the other Fauvette his Accrnror, 
which is the Fawvette des Alpes, Buff.—Mot. alpina, Gm.; Enl. 668, or 
the Pegot, Vieill. Gal. 156; Naum. 92, 13(2) because the edges of its 
slender beak, which is more exactly conical than that of the other yi 
Motacillz, are slightly depressed. ; 

It is a fulvous bird, with a white throat, sprinkled with Black: 
two rows of white spots on the wing; some bright red on the 
flanks. It is found in the pastures of the upper Alps, where \ 
it feeds on insects, and whence, in winter, it descends into the 4 

“ 
‘ 


i 


ES 
= 


villages in search of grain, &c. 

I think I have observed the same beak inthe Fauvette d’hiver. 

Mot. modularis, L.; Traine-buisson, &c.3; Enl. 615, 1; Naum. 4 
92, 3, 4.(3) The only species that remains in France during 
the winter, and that in some measure relieves the dreariness of 
the season by its delightful notes. It is of a fawn colour, spot- 
ted with black above, and a slaty ash colour beneath. It builds A 
twice a year, and in the summer proceeds to the North, and” 
seeks the mountain forests. During the winter, or where insects 
are not to be had, itis contented with grain. . 

The gizzard of these two birds is more fleshy than that of 
the other Fauvettes.(4) We may add to them, 

Ace. montanellus, Tem.; Naum. 92. <A bird from the south- | 
east of Europe. , 

We may also distinguish some long and cuneiform tailed j 
Motacille, which have been left among the Fauvettes.(5) 


— 


(1) The descriptions of the Fauvettes are so vague, and the greaterpart oftheir 
figures—those of Nauman excepted—are so bad, that it is almost impossible to de- 
termine their species. Each author arranges them differently. Our descriptions; 
therefore, may be confidently depended upon, but our synonymes not so much so; 
we think, however, we agree with Mess. Nauman and Roux. ° 

To the species abovementioned, must; be added: Sylv. ruscicola, Roux;—S. 
passerina, Col. 24, 1;—S. sarda, Ib. 2;—S. Nattereri, Ib. 3;—S. subalpina, Bon- 
nelli, or Lewcopogon, Meyer, Col. 6, 2. and 251, 2 and 3, Roux, 218. 

N.B. According to Savi the S. passerina, Tem. Col. 29, 4, is the young male of > , 
the S. subalpina.—The Pitchou (S. ferruginea), Enl. 635, 1; Roux, 219. Thesmall 
species lead to Reeutus. ; 

(2) It is also the Sturnus montanus, and the S. colluris of Gmelin. 

(3) I see this approximation has been adopted by Mess. Temm. and Nauman. i 

(4) Nitsch., ap. Naum., II, p. 939. hy 

(5) Mot. fuscata, Gm. Enl. 584, 1; ;—Motacilla macrourd, Gm. Enl. 752, 2; or the 
Capolier, Vaill. 129, 130, 1;—Malurus galactodes, 'T., Col. 65, 1; Mal. marginalis, 

T. Ib. 2;—Mal. clamans, Ruppel. pl. 2;—Mal. squamiceps, Id. xii.—Mot. subflava, 
. Gm. Enl. 584, 2, probably the same as the Citrin, Vaill., Afr., 127;—the Double 


PASSERINE. 283 


Some of the species are very skilful in the construction of 
their nests, with cotton or other filaments, which they arrange 
with much art.(1) 


Rrcuuus, Cuyv. 


The beak slender, forming an extremely perfect and a very sharp 
pointed cone; when viewed from above its sides even appear slightly 
concaye. They are small birds, which live among trees and pur- 
sue Gnats. ‘There is in France, 

Mot. regulus, L.; the Roitelet, Enl. 651, 3; Naum. 93, 1, 2, 3. 
The smallest of the European birds; an olive colour above, a 
yellowish white beneath; head of the male marked with a beau- 
tiful spot of a golden yellow, edged with black, the feathers of 
which are erectile. It constructs on trees a globular nest, with 
a lateral opening, suspends itself to the branches in every posi- 
tion like a Parus, and keeps near our houses in winter.(2) 

A still smaller species has lately been observed, the yellow of 
which inclines more to the orange, and which has a black streak 
before and behind the eye.—Regulus ignicapillus, Naum. 93, 
Ol 

Motac. trochilus, L.; Le Pouillot, Enl. 651, 1; Naum. 80, 3, 
Somewhat larger than the roitelet, of the same colour, but 
without the crown; its habits are similar, but it has a more 
agreeable song, and it removes on the approach of winter. 

Motac. hypolaiss; Le grand Pouillot; Bechst. WI, xxiv; Enl. 
581,23; Naum. 81, 1. Is still a little larger, and the abdomen 
more on a silver.(3) 

The species foreign to Europe are extremely numerous, and 
are very often agreeably coloured. (4) 


ey 


sourcil, Id. 128. It is partly from this subdivision that Mess. Vieill. and Temm. 
have taken their genus Merion or Malurus; I should not, however, like the former, 
place in it the Mot. cyanea, Gm. which has the beak of a Saxicola. 

N.B. The Malurus galactodes, Tem. has become the genus Mreaturus of 
Vigors and Horsfield. 

(1) Certain Fauvettes, such as the 8. sarda, have a little circle round the eye. 
They form the genus Zosterors of Vigors and Horsfield. 

(2) Add the Roitelet omnicolor, Vieill. Galer. 166. 

(3) Add of European species: Mot. sibilatrix, Col. 245, 3; Naum. 80, 2;—M. 
Jjitis, Naum. 80, 3;—M. rufa, Naum. 80, 4. 

(4) Such are the Tscheric, Vaill. 111, 121;—the Couw-jaune (Mot. pensilis), Enl. 
685, 5;—WMot. zxstiva, Enl. 58, 2;—the Mot. ludoviciana, Enl. 731, 2;—the Fig. 
@ poitrine jaune (Mot. mystacea), Enl. 709, 2, Edw. 237, 2;—the Fig. cendré du 
Canada (M. Canadensis), Enl. 685, 2;—the Fig. de Visle de France (M. mauritiana, 
Enl. 705, 1;—the Plastron noir, Vaill. 111, 123;—Sylia venusta, Tem. Col. 293, 


284 AVES. 


TroGLopytes, Cuv. 


The only difference between the Wrens and the present subgenus 
is, that in the latter the beak is still a little more slender and slightly 
arcuated. But one species is found in Europe. 

Mot. troglodytes, L.; Rottelet, Enl. 651, 2; Naum. 83, 4. (The 
European Wren.) Brown, transversely striated with black; 
some white on the throat and the edge of the wing; a turned-up 
and short tail. It builds on the ground, and cheers us with its 
pleasing song even in the middle of winter.(1) 


Moracitta, Bechst. 


The Wagtails, to a still slenderer beak than that of the Fau- 
vettes, add a long tail which they are continually raising and de- 
pressing, long legs, and scapular feathers sufficiently extended to 
cover the tip of the folded wing, which gives them an affinity with 
the greater number of Waders. 


Moraciiia, Cuv. 


The true Wagtails still have the nail of the thumb curved like 
the rest of the group. They live along the shores of water courses... 
That of France (Mot. alba and cinerea, L.), Enl. 652, is ash 
coloured above, white beneath; a calotte on the occiput; throat 

and breast, black. i, 
The south of Europe produces one which when old has a 
black back, but resembling the preceding when young. It is 

the Mot. lugubris, Roux, 194. 


Bupytes, Cuv.(2) 


In addition to the other characters of the true Wagtails, the nail 
of the thumb is here elongated and but slightly arcuated, which 
approximates these birds to the Larks. They generally remain in 


1;—S. speciosa, 1b, 2;—S. palpebrosa, Ib., &c. &c. Those whose beak is somewhat 
broad at base, are closely allied to the narrow-beaked Flycatchers. For the cata- 
logue of species in the United States, see the paper by M. Ch. Bonaparte. Ann. 
New York Lyc. July 11, 1826, p. 76, etseq. See App. XVIII of Am. Ed. 

(1) The Wrens foreign to Europe are allied to the Ant-catchers on the one 
hand, and to the Creepers on the other. Add the Thriotore 2 long bec (Thr. lon- 
girostris, Vieill. Gal. 168, or Kampylorhynchus scolopaceus, Spix, 79). [Add 
Trog. aedon. Wils, I, pl. iii, f. 3;—Trog. palustris (Thyothorus arundinaceus, 
Vieill.), Wils. II, pl. xii, f. 4;—T'rog. ludovicianus (Sylvia ludoviciana, Lath.) 
Wils. I, pl. xii, fi v. Am. Ed.) 

(2) Budytes, from its being seen among cattle. 


PASSERINE. 285 


pastures, and pursue insects among the cattle. The most com- 
mon is, 
Mot. flava; Bergeronnette de printems; Enl., 674, 2. Ash- 
coloured above, olive on the back, yellow beneath; the eyebrow 
and two-thirds of the lateral quills of the tail, white.(1) 


Antuus, Bechst. 


The Meadow Larks were long united to the Larks (Alauda), on ac- 
count of the long nail oftheir thumb; but their slender and emarginated 
beak approximates them to the other Warblers, at the same time that 
their secondary quills and coverts, which are as short as usual, will 
not allow them to be confounded with Budytes. Those which still 
have the nail somewhat arcuated are in the habit of perching. 

1. arboreus, Bechst.; Alauda trivialis and minor, Gm.3 the 
Pipi; Enl. 660, 13(2) Naum. 84, 2, Roux. Olive-brown above, 
reddish-grey beneath; breast spotted with black; two pale, trans- 
verse bands on the wing. 

The thumb nail of others is exactly that of an alauda, and they ge- 
nerally remain on the ground. 

A. pratensis, Bech.; 4lauda pratensis, Gm.; Alouette de pré, Enl. 
661, 23(3) Naum. 84, 3 and 85, 1. Olive-brown above, whitish 
beneath; brown spots on the breast and flanks; whitish eye- 
brows; edges of the external quills of the tail, white. It prefers 
low or inundated meadows, and builds among reeds and tufts 
of grass. It becomes excessively fat in autumn by feeding on 
grapes, and is sought for at that period in France by the name 
of Bec-figue and Vinette.(4) 


We will terminate this family of the Dentirostres with some 
birds distinguished from all preceding ones by their two exter- 
nal toes, which are united at base for about a third of their 
Jength, a circumstance which approximates them to the family 
of the Syndactyli. 


(1) Add the Mot. boarula, L. Edw., 259, and Vieill. Gal. 162. 

(2) Under the false name of Farlouse; the Pivote ortolane, Buff. Enl. 642, 2 (Mo- 
tacilla maculata, Gm.), isthe young bird. See Roux, 288. 

(3) Improperly called Alouette pipi; Nauman refers this figure to his Anthus 
aquaticus, of which he thinks it is the young male. We may observe that the 
synonymes of this subgenus are not less obscure than those of the Fauvettes. 

(4) Add the Anthus aquaticus, Naum., 85, 2, 34;—La Rousseline, (Anth. Cam- 
pestris), Enl. 661, 1; Naum., 84, 1; or Jlauda mosellana, Lath. of which the young 
is called Fist in Provence, Enl. 654, 1 (Motac. massiliensis, Gm.) See Roux, p. 
292 ;—the Anth. Richardi, Vieill. Id. 101, and Roux, 189, 190. Among those 
foreign to Europe place the Alauda capensis, Enl. 504, 2;—Al. rufa, Ib. 238, 15 
probably the rubra, Edw., 297 ;—.Anthus rufulus, Vieill. Gal. 161. 


a 


286 AVES. 


Pipra, Lin. 


The Manakins havea compressed beak, higher than it is broad, and 
emarginateds large nasal fosse. Their feet and tail are short; the 
general proportions of their form have long caused them to be 
considered as very similar tothe Titmouse. At their head, butina 
separate group, should be placed, 


a.” 


Rupicoua, Briss. 


The Rock Manakins, or Cocks of the Rock, which are large birds, 
and have a double vertical crest on the head, formed of feathers 
arranged like a fan. The adult males of the two American species, 
Pipra rupicola, Gm. Enl. 39 and 747; Vieill. Gal. 189, and Pip. pe- 
ruviand, Lath. Enl. 745, are of a most splendid orange colour; the 
young of an obscure brown. They live on fruit, scratch the ground 
like the common Hen, and construct their nests with pieces of dry 


wood, in the depths of rocky caverns. The female lays two eggs. © 


Catypromenss, Horsf. 


Only differs from the preceding by the feathers on the head not 
being disposed like a fan; this same character, in a minor degree, 
may be observed in the Pip. peruviana. 


There is a species found in the archipelago of India of the 


most beautiful emerald green—Cal. viridis, Horsf. Jay. which 
is not larger than a Thrush. 
Prpra, Cuv. 


The Manakins proper are small, and remarkable in general for 
their lively colours.(1) They live in small flocks, in forests, on low 
grounds. 


Euryuaimus, Horsf. 


Toes similar to those of the Manakins and the Rock Manakins; but © 


the beak, as strong as that of the Tyrants, is enormously broad and 
depressed, the base even surpassing the width of the forehead. The 


point is a little hooked, and slightly emiarpimate on each side; the 
ridge is blunt. 


(1) Pipra militaris, Sh. Nat. Misc., 849 ;—Pipra caudata, Sh. Nat. Misc., 153, 
Spix, 6;—Pipra jilicauda, Spix, 8;—Pipra pareola, Enl.j 637, 2, and 303, 2;— 
superba, Pallas, Sp. 1, pl. iii, f. 1;—erythrocephala, Enl. 34, 1;—aureola, 34, 3, and 
302 ;—rubrocapilla, Col. 54, 3 or cornuta, Spix, 7, 2;—-coronata, Sp. 7, 1, 2 ;—se 
rena, Enl. 324, 2, and Vieill. Gal. 72 ;—gutturalis, 324, 15 lewcoeapilla, 34, sh ele 
nacus, 302, 1 and 303, 1;—strigilata, Pr. Max. Col. 54, 1, 2. 


¥ 


" 


‘th 


PASSERINA. 287 


These birds inhabit the archipelago of India. The ground of 
their plumage is black, variegated with patches of bright colours, 
_and they have something of the air of the Bucco, a genus of a very 


different order. They live near water, and feed on insects.(1) © See 
App. XIX of Am. Ed. 


FAMILY IL. 


FISSIROSTRES. 


The Fissirostres form a family, numerically small, but very 
distinct from all others in the beak, which is short, broad, hor- 
izontally flattened, slightly hooked, unemarginate, and with 
an extended commissure, so that the opening of the mouth is 
very large, which enables them to swallow with ease the in- 
sects they capture while on the wing. 

They are most nearly allied to the Flycatchers, and to the 
Procniz in particular, whose beak only differs from theirs in 
being emarginate. 

Their decidedly insectivorous regimen eminently qualifies 
them for birds of passage, which leave us in the winter. 

They are separated, like the birds of prey, into two divi- 
sions, the diurnal and the nocturnal. The genus 


Hirunpo, Linn. 


Or the Swallow, comprehends the diurnal species, all of which are 
remarkable for their dense plumage, extreme length of wing, and 
velocity of flight. Among them we distinguish, 


CypsE.us, Illiger. 


Of all birds, these have the longest wings in proportion to their 
size, and the greatest powers of flight. Their tail is forked; their 
extremely short feet have this very peculiar character: the thumb is 
directed forward almost as much as the other toes, and the middle 


(1) Todus macrorhynchos, Gm., Lath., Syn. I, pl. xxx and Col. 154, under the 
name of Huryl. nasutus;—Euryl. javanus, Horsf., and Col. 130 and 131, under the 
name of Luryl. Horsfieldii;—Eur. cucullatus, Tem. Col. 261 ; Zur. Blainvillii, Less. 
and Garn. Voy. de la Coquille, pl. xix,f. 2. The character of the beak is excess- 
ively developed in the Eur. corydon, Temm. Col. 297. 


i a 


288 AVES. 


‘and external ones consist each of three phalanges like the internal 
one. ! 
The shortness of their humerus, the breadth of its apophyses, — 
their oval fourchette, their sternum not emarginate beneath, all in- 
dicate, even in the skeleton, their fitness for vigorous flight; but the 
shortness of their feet, together with the length of their wings, pre- 
vents them, when on the ground, from rising, and consequently they 
pass their lives, if I may so express it, in the air, pursuing in flocks, 
and with loud cries, their insect prey through the highest regions 
of the atmosphere. They nestle in holes of walls, or fissures in 
rocks, and climb along the smoothest surfaces with great rapidity. 
The common species, Hirundo apus, L., Enl. 541, 1, is black, 
with a white throat. 
That from high mountains, Hirundo ree: L.; Edw. 273 Vaill. 
Afr. 243; Vieill. Gal. 121, is larger, brown above, and white be- 
neath, with a brown collar under the neck.(1) 


Hrrunpo, Cuv. 


The Swallows proper have the toes and sternum disposed like 
those of the Passerine generally. In some of them the feet are in- 
vested with feathers down to the nails; the thumb still exhibits a 
disposition to incline forward; the tail is forked, and of a moderate 
size. 

H. urbica, L.; Hirondelle de fenetre, Enl. 542, 2. The Mar- 
tin.) Black above; underneath, and the rump, white. The 
substantial nest it constructs of earth, at the angles of windows, 
under eaves of houses, &c. is well known to every one.(2) 

Others have naked toes, and the forks of the tail very often ex- 
tremely long. 

H. rustica, Enj. 543, 1. (The Chimney Swallow.) Black 
above; forehead, eyebrows, and throat, red, all the remaining 
under part white. The name is derived from its usual place of 
residence. 

Hi. riparia; Hirondelle de rivage; Enl. 453, 2. (The Sand 
Martin.) Above, and the breast brown; the throat, and under- 
neath, white. It lays in holes along the banks of rivers. That 


(1) Add Mir. sinensis;—the Martinet a crowpe blanche, Vaill. Afr. 244, 1?— 
the Martinet velocifere, Id. Ib. 244, 2?—the Martinet @ moustaches (Cyps. mysta- 
ceus, Less. and Garn.), Voy. de la Coquille, No. 122 ;—the MM. coiffé (C. comatus, 
T.), Col. 268 ;—the M. longipenne (Hir. longipennis, 'T.), Col. 83, 1. [Add Cyps. 
pelagicus, Wils. V, pl. xxxix, f.1. Am. Ed.] 

(2) Add Hirundo cayennensis, Enl. 725, 2 ;—Hir. ludoviciana, Nob. Enl. 725, 1, 
and Catesby, 1, 51—Hir. montana;—the same as the rupestris- 


PASSERINE. 289 


it becomes torpid during the winter, and even passes that season 
under water in the bottom of marshes, appears to be certain. 
Among the Swallows foreign to Europe, we should remark, 

Hir. esculenta, L. A very small species from the Archipelago 
of India, with a forked tail; brown above; beneath, and the tip 
of the tail, whitish; celebrated for its nest, composed of a 
whitish gelatine, arranged in layers, and constructed with a 
particular species of fucus which it previously grinds and ma- 
cerates. The nutritious qualities attributed to these nests in 
China, have rendered them an important article in the com- 
merce of that country.(1) 

There are some Swallows in which the tail is nearly square,(2) 
and others where it is short, square, and the quills terminating in a 


point.(3) 
Caprimu.eus, Lin.(4) 


The Goatsuckers have the same light, soft plumage, shaded with 
grey and brown, that characterizes the nocturnal birds. Their eyes 
are large; the commissure of the beak extending still higher up than 
that of the Swallow, and furnished with stiff mustachios, is capable 
of engulphing the largest insects, which are retained there by a 
glutinous saliva; the nostrils, formed like small tubes, are at its 
base. Their wings are long; their feet, short, with feathered tarsi, 


(1) Here come: Hir. americana, Wils., V, xxxviii, 1, 2, or rufa, Vieill., Am. 
3;—another Mir. rufa, Enl. 724, 1;—Mir. fulva, Vicill. Am. 32 ;—Hir. fasciata, 
Enl. 724, 2 ;—Hir. violacea, Enl. 722, or H. purpurea, Wils., V, xxxix, 1, 2;— 
Hir. chalybzxa, Enl. 454, 2;—Hir. senegalensis, Enl. 310 ;—Hir. capensis, Enl. 7253, 
2;—Hir. indica, Lath. Syn. I, pl. lvi;—Hir. panayana, Sonner. Voy. I, pl. 
Ixxxvi;—Hir. subis, Edw., 120 ;—Hir. ambrosiaca, Briss., I, pl. lxv, fig. 4;-—Hir. 
tapera, Ib., fig. 3;—Hir. nigra, Id. pl. Ixvi, fig. 3 ;—Hir. daurica ;—Hirondelle a 
front roux, Vaill. Afr..245, 2 ;—Hir. de marais, Id. Ib. 246, 2 ;—Hir. huppée, 1d. Ib. 
247 ;—Cyps. senex, T. 397 ;—Hir. fucata, Tem., Col., 161, 1 ;—Hir. jugularis, Pr. 
Max., Col., 209, 2;—Mir. javanica, Lath. Col. 85, 2 ;—Hir. melanolenca, Pr. Max., 
Col. 209, 2 ;-——Hir. minuta, Pr. Max., Col. Ib., 1 ;—Hir. bicolor, Vieill. Am. 31, or 
A. viridis, Wils., V, xxxviii, 3 

(2) Hir. dominicencis, Enl. 545, 1 ;—Hir. torquata, Enl. 723, 1 ;—Hir. leucoptera, 
Enl. 546, 1 ;—Mr. francica, Enl. 544, 2 ;—Hir. berbonica ;—H. americana ;—Hir. 
fauve, Vaill. Af. 246, 1. 

(3) Hir. acuta, Enl. 544, 1;—Cypselus giganteus, Col. 364 ;—Hir. albicollis, 
Vieill., Galer. 120, or Cyps.. collaris, Pr. Max., Col. 195. " 

(4) Caprimulgus, Goatsucker, gothelas, names which derive their origin 8 from 
the whimsical idea entertained by the vulgar, of their sucking Goats and even 
Cows. 

N.B. M. Vigors and Horsfield make a genus (ceorueLes,) of the Caprimulgus 
Nove-Hollandiz, Philip., Bot. B., 270. 

Vou. I.—2 M 


290 AVES. 


and their toes united at base by ashort membrane. The thumb itself 
is thus united to the internal toe, and can direct itself forwards; the 
middle nail is often dentated on its inner edge, and the external 
toe has but four phalanges, a conformation very rare among birds. 
Goatsuckers live solitarily, and never venture abroad, except at twi- 
light, and in the night during fine weather. They hunt Phalene and 
other nocturnal insects, and lay a small number of eggs on the bare 
ground, without taking any pains in the construction of a nest. The 
rushing of the air into their immense mouth, while on the wing, pro- 
duces a very peculiar humming sound. There is but one species in 
Europe, 

Capr. europzus, L.3 Enl. 193. (European Goatsucker.) Size of 
a Thrush; of an undulated greyish-brown, mottled with blackish 
browns; a whitish band reaching from the beak to the neck. It 
builds in the furze or long grass, and lays only two eggs. 

America produces several of these birds with a round or 
square tail, one of which is as large as an Owl, Caprim. grandis, 
Enl. 3253 and another, C. vociferus, Wils. V, xli, celebrated on 
account of its loud and peculiar cries in the spring of the 
year.(1) One of them is found in New Holland. 

There are some also in Africa,(2) part of which have a 
pointed tail,(3) and others a forked one, an additional indication 
of the affinity between this genus and that of the Swallows.(4) 
There is even one in America, the forks of whose tail are longer 
than the body3(5) the middle nail of these fork-tailed species is 
not dentated. 

One species, likewise from Africa, but with a round tail, is 
very remarkable for a feather twice the length of the body, 
which arises from near the carpus of each wing, and is barbed 


only near theend: the Caprim. longipennis, Shaw, Nat. Miscell., 
265. 


ee 


(1) Add, Capr. virginianus, Edw., 63, or americanus, Wils. V. xl, 1, 2, which 
appears to me at any rate very nearly allied to the guyanensis, Enl. 733; it has 
been confounded with the vociferus ;—Capr. carolinensis, Catesb., 8, Wils. V, liv, 
2, a species very closely allied to that of Europe ;—C. jamaicensis, Lath., Syn. II, 
pl. lvii ;—C. rufus, Enl. 735 ;—C. semitorquatus, Enl. 734 ;—C. cayenensis, Enl. 
760 ;—C. acutus, Enl. 752 ;—C. Nattereri, Col. 107 ;—C. diurnus, Pr. Max. Col. 
182 ;—C. mystacalis, Tem. 

(2) C. “infuscatus, Ruppel., pl. vi;—C. isabellinus, T. Col. 379 ;—C. eximius, 
Ruppel. Col. 398. 

(3) C. climacurus, Vieill. Galer. 122. 

(4) Capr. furcatus, Cuv. Vaill. Afr. 47 ;—C. pectoralis, Id. Ib. 94. 

(5) C. psalurus, Tem. Col. 117, 151. 


PASSERINE. 291 


Popareus, Cuv. 


The form, colour, and habits of the Goatsuckers; but the beak is 
stouter, and there are neither membranes between the toes, nor is 
the middle nail dentated.(1) 

P. Cuviert; P. cendré; Vieill. Galer. 123. Variegated with 
ash, whitish and blackish colours; size of a Rook. 

P, javanensis, Horsf. Jav.. Red, varied with brown; a white 
band along the scapulars. 

P. cornutus, T., Col. 159. Red, varied with white; large 
tufts of feathers at the ears. 


FAMILY III. 
CONIROSTRES. 


The Conirostres comprehend genera with a strong beak, 
more or less conical, and unemarginate; the stronger and 
thicker their beak, the more exclusively is grain their food. 
The first genus to be distinguished is, 


ALAuDA, Lin. 


The Larks are known by the nail of their thumb, which is straight, 
strong, and much longer than the others.(2) They are granivorous 
birds, and pulverators. They build on the ground, and generally 
keep there. ~ 
The beak of the greater number is straight, moderately stout and 
pointed. 
Al. arvensis ; Alouette des champs, Enl. 368, 13 Naum. 100, 
1. (The Sky Lark.) Universally known by its perpendicular 
mode of soaring, accompanied by its varied and powerful song. 
It is brown above; whitish underneath; spotted throughout, 
with a deeper shade of brown; the two external quills of the 
tail white outside. | 
Al. cristata; Le Cochevis, Enl. 503, 1; Naum. 99, 1. (The 
Crested Lark.) Nearly the same size and plumage; but it has 
the power of erecting the feathers on the head into a tuft; not 


(1) M. Vigors considers this subgenus as connecting Caprimulgus with Ulula. 
(2) This character is more or Jess marked in Bupyrxs, Azavpa, AnTuvus, and 
in the Emberiza nivalis. 


292 AVES. 


so common asthe preceding, and frequents the vicinity of 
villages, &c. 

Al. arborea; Al. nemorosa; Cujelier; Enl. 503, 23; Naum. 100, 
2. (The Woodlark.) <A small, but not so strongly marked 
tuft; it is smaller, and is otherwise distinguished by a whitish 
streak round the head, and a white line on the little coverts; 
prefers the heaths in the interior of the forests.(1) We some- 
times see in Europe, 

Jl. alpestris, Al. flava, and Al. sibirica, Gm.; Alouette a hausse- 
col noir, Enl. 652, 2 Naum. 99, 2, 3; Wils. I, v, 4.. From Si- 
beria and North America; forehead, cheeks, and throat yellow, 
with black streaks; a large, black, transverse spot on top of the 
breast; a small pointed tuft behind each ear of the male. 

Some of them have so stout a beak, that, with respect to it, we 
might approximate them to the Sparrows. Such are 

Al. calandra; La Calandre; Enl. 363, 2; Naum. 98, 1. The 
largest of the European species; brown above; white beneath; 
a large blackish spot on the breast of the male. From the south 
of Europe, and the deserts of Asia. 

Al. tartarica, and mutabilis, and Tanagra sibirica, Gm.— 
Alouette de Tartarie; Sparm. Mus. Carls. pl. xix; Vieill. Galer. 
106. The plumage of the adult black, undulated above with 
grey. It occasionally wanders into Europe.(2) 

In others, the beak is elongated, slightly compressed, and arcuated, 
_ which connects them with Upupaand Promerops. Such is 

Al. africana, Gm.; Le Sirli; Bnl. 712; Vieill. Galer. 159. 
Common in all the sandy plains of Africa; its plumage scarcely 
differs from that of the Arvensis.(3) 


Parus, Lin. 


The Titmouse has a slender, short, conical and straight beak, fur- 
nished with little hairs at the base, and the nostrils concealed among 
the feathers. It is a genus of very active little birds, which are 
continually flitting and climbing from branch to branch, suspending 


(1) Add, of European species, the Girole (Al. italica) ;—the Coquillade (Al. un- 
data), Enl. 662; Al. brachydactyla, Naum. 98, 2. Species foreign to Europe, the 
Bateleuse, Vaill. Afr. 194;—the Dos roux, Id. 197;—the Calotte rousse, Id., 198. 

N.B. The Al. magna, Catesb., I, 33, is the Sturnus ludovicianus. 

(2) Add, the T'racal, Vaill. Afr. pl. cxci ;—the Al. gros bec, Id., pl., cxciii. 

(3) Add, .4l. bifasciata, Rupp., pl., 5; Col., 393. 

N.B. Swainson separates from Ataupa the Bateleur of Vaill. pl. 194, under the 
name of Bracnonyx ; his Sentinelle, 195, under that of Macronyx ; and of my di- 
vision with long beaks he makes his Certnrnavpa. 


PASSERINE. 293 


themselves therefrom in all sorts of positions, rending apart the 
seeds on which they feed, devouring insects wherever they see them, 
and not sparing even small birds when they happen to find them sick, 
and are able to put anend to them. They lay up stores of seeds, 
build in the holes of old trees, and lay more eggs than any of the 
Passerine. There are six species of Parus, properly so called, in 
France. 

P. major, L.; La Charbonniere; Enl. 3, 1; Naum. 94, 1. (The 
Great Titmouse.) An olive colour above; yellow beneath; the 
head, as well as a longitudinal band on ,the breast, black; a 
white triangle on each cheek. Very common in gardens, &c. 

P. ater, L.; La petite charbonniere; Frisch, I, pl. xiii, 23 
Naum. 94, 2. Smaller than the preceding; an ash colour in 
place of the olive, and whitish apatpad of the yellow. , Prefers 
the great pine forests. 

P. palustris, L.; La Nonnetie; Enl. 3, 3; Naum. 94, 4. (The 
Marsh Titmouse.) Ash coloured above; whitish beneath; a 
black calotte. 

P. ceruleus, L.; La M. a téte bleue; Enl. 3, 23; Naum. 95, }, 
2. (The Blue-Headed Titmouse.) Olive above; yellowish be- 
neath; top of the head a fine blue; the cheek white, surrounded 
with black; forehead white. A pretty little bird, very common 
in the underwood. ; . 

P. cristatus, L.; Le M. huppé, Enl. 502, 2. (The Crested 
Titmouse.) Brownish above; whitish beneath; throat and cir- 
cumference of the cheek, black; alittle tuft mottled with black 
and white. 

P. caudatus, L.3; Le M. a@ longue queue, Enl. 502, 33 Naum. 
95, 4, 5, 6.. (The Long-tailed Titmouse.) Black above; wing- 
coverts, brown; upper part of the head and all beneath, white; 
tail longer than the body. It builds its nest on the limbs of 
small trees, and roofs it over.(1) The 


(1) Several species of the European Titmouse are also represented in the work 
of M. Roux, pl. cxvii—cxxiv. Add, Parus bicolor (Catesb. I, 57) ;—P. cyanus 
(Noy. Comm. Petrop., xiv, pl. xiii, fig. 1, and 23, fig. 2) and P. sxlbyensis (Sparm. 
M. Carls., pl. xxv) which appear to Bechstein to be the two sexes of one same spe- 
cies. Vieill. Gal. 68; Naum. 95, 6 ;—P. atricapillus (Briss. iti, pl. xxix, fig. 1) ;— 
P. sibiricus, (Enl. 708, fig. 3) and P. palustris, B. (Enl. 502, 1) which are three 
varieties, or very closely allied species ;—P. atriceps, Horsf.; Col. 287, 2 

The Parus malabaricus (Sonner. Voy. Il, pl. cx, 1)and the coccineus (Sparm. 
Mus. Carls., 48, 49), P. furcatus, Col. 287, 1, are Saxicolz or Flycatchers, neigh- 
bours to the Oranor, Vaill., the Mot. ruticilla, L., and the Turdus speciosus, Lath. 
It may be observed, that in every instance where the characters of a bird are not 
well defined, it has been bandied about from one genus to another. 


294 AVES. 


BrearDED TirmMousE 


‘Differs from the true ones in the upper mandible of the beak, 
the end of which is slightly bent upon the other. There is but one 
in France. 

Par. biarmicus, L.; La Moustache; Enl. 618, 1 and 23 Vieill. 
69; Naum. 96. (The Bearded Titmouse.) Fawn coloured; 
head of the male cinereous, with a black band which surrounds 
the eye, terminating in a point behind. It builds among rushes, 
and is found, though rarely, throughout the whole of the eastern 
continent. 


REmiz. 


The «beak more slender and pointed than that of the common 
Titmouse, and there is generally more art displayed in the construc- 
tion of its nest. There is but one found in France. 

Par. pendulinus; Le Remiz; Enl. 618, 33 Vieill. 70; Naum. 
79. Cinereous; wings and tail brown; a black band on the fore- 
head, which, in the male, is continued to behind the eyes. 
This little bird, inhabiting the south and east of Europe, is 
celebrated for the pretty, purse-shaped nest, formed of the 
down from the poplar and willow, and lined with feathers, 
which it suspends to the flexile branches of aquatic trees.(1) 


Emperiza, Lin. 


The Buntings have a very distinct character in their conical, short 
and straight beak, the upper mandible of which is narrow, sinks 
into the lower, and has a projecting, hard tubercle on the palate. 
They are granivorous, and unsuspicious birds, which run into every 
snare that is laid for them. 
E. citrinella, L.; Bruant commun; Enl. 30, 13 Naum. 102, 1, 
2. (The Yellow Bunting.) Fawn coloured back, spotted with 
black; head and all the under part of the body yellow; the 
inner edge of the two external quills of the tail, white. It 
builds in hedges, and approaches our dwellings in winter, in 
numberless flocks, along with the Finches, &c. 
E. cia, L.; Bruant fous Enl. 30, 2; Naum. 104, 1,2. (The 
Foolish Bunting.) Differs from the preceding, in being reddish- 


(1) Parus narbonensis (Enl. 708, 1) appears to be the female of the pendulinus; 
add, the Parus capensis, (Sonner. Voy. Il, pl. cxii,) whose nest, made of cotton 


and shaped like a bottle, has a kind of spout on the edge of the neck, for the male 
to perch on. 


AS 


PASSERINE. . 295 


grey beneath, and having the sides of the head whitish, sur- 
rounded by black lines, forming a triangle. From mountainous 
districts.(1) 

E. cirlus, L.; Bruant des Hates Enl. 653; Naum. 102, 3, 4. 
(The Hedge Buen.) Throat black; sides of the head yel- 
low. Builds in the underwood on the borders of fields.(2) 

E. scheniclus, L.3 B. de roseaux; Enl. 247, 23; Naum. 105. 
(The Reed Bunting.) A black calotte on the head; spots of the 
same colour on the breast; back, red. Builds at the foot of a 
bush on the brink of a stream, eS The largest species in 
France is, ' 

E. miliaria, L.; Le Proyer; Enl. 233; Naum. 101, 1., (The 
Common Ruhtintt ) Brownish-grey, every where spotted with 
a deeper brown. Builds in grass, among grain, &c. The most 
celebrated for the flavour of its flesh is, 

E.. hortulana, L.; Enl. 247, 1; Naum. 103. (The Ortolan.) 
The back, olive-brown; throat yellowish; the inner side of the 

‘two external feathers of the tail, white. Builds in ag is 
very fat and common in autumn.(4) 

E.. melanocephala, Scop.; Naum. 101, 23 Fring. crocea, Vieill., 
Ois. Tab. 27. (The Black-headed Bunting.) Fawn-colour aboves 


yellow underneath; black head. Is sometimes seen in the south 
of Europe. Also, 


(1) The Emb. lotharingica, Enl. 511, 1, is the same. 

(2) The Emb. passerina is also referred to it; and perhaps the Emb. provincialis, 
Enl. 656, 1, and lesbia, Ib. 2, are only accidental varieties of the same. See Roux, 
p. 176 and 178. 

(S) M. Wolf thinks that the Limb. chlorocephala, and the Emb. badensis, should. 
be united with it. 

(4) The Emb. melbensis, Sparm. Mus. Carls., 1, 21, is merely a young Orintan: 

Notwithstanding all the synonymes we have pointed out, we are still compelled 
to remove from this genus the Lmb. brumalis, which is the same bird as the Fringill. 
eitrinella, Enl. 658, 2 ;—£. rubra, the same as Fring. erythrocephala, Enl. 665, 1, 
2 ;—all the widows, as I shall hereafter remark ;—Emb. quadricolor, Enl. 101, 2 ;— 
Emb. cyanopis, Briss. I, pl. viii, fig. 4 ;—Emb. cerulea, 1d. Ib. xiv, 2, the same as 
cyanella, Sparm. Carls. If, 42, 43, which are three cross-beaks ;—Emb. quelea, Enl. 
223, 1;—Emb. capensis, Enl. 158 and 564 ;—Hmb. borbonica, Enl. 321, 2 ;—Emb. 
brasiliensis, Ib. 1, which are four Finches ;—Emdb. ciris, Enl. 158, which is a Lin- 
net ;—and, finally, Lmb. oryzivora, Enl. 388, which has the beak of a Linnet, inde- 
pendently of the species I have not been able to examine. But we must certainly 
place in the genus Emberiza, the Emb. gubernator, T., Col. 63, the same as the 
Emb. cristatella, Vieill. Gal. 67 ;—Emb. striolata, Ruppel. Av., pl. 10, a ;—Hmb. 
cxsia, Id. Ib., 6;—The Tunagra cristatella, graminea, ruficollis, Spix, 53, are also 
Buntings. 

The Empenrzoines, Tem., Col. 114, appear to be long and taper-tailed (etage) 
buntings whose beak approaches semewhat to that of the Finches. 


296 AVES. 


E. pithyornis, Pali.; Naum. 104, 3. (The Pine Bunting.) The 

throat, and a streak on the side of the head, red chesnut colour. 

M. Meyer distinguishes those buntings which have the nail of the 

thumb elongated like that of the Lark, by the name of Piecrro- 
PHANES. Such is 

Emb. nivalis, L.; Bruant de neige; Enl. 511; Naum. 106 and 
107. (The Snow Bunting.) Known by a broad, longitudinal, 
white band on the wing. A northern bird, which becomes nearly 
all white in winter.(1) To this we should add, 

Fring. laponica, Gm. or calcarata, Pall. Fr. Tr. III, pl. 1, 15 
Grand Montain of Buff.; Naum. 108. (The Lapland Bunting.) 
Spotted with black, on a fawn coloured ground, the throat and 
upper part of the breast of the male, black. Inhabits the same 
countries as the preceding, is sometimes, but rarely, seen’in 
France during the winter. 


FRINGILLA, Lin. 


The Sparrows have a conical beak, more or less thick at base; but 
its commissure is not angular. They feed generally on grain, and 
are for the most part voracious and noxious. We subdivide them 
as follows: 


Pioceus, Cuv.(2) 


The Weavers are provided with such a large beak, that they have 
been partly classed with the Cassici; its straight commissure dis- 
tinguishes them from the latter. The upper mandible is moreover 
slightly convex. They are found in both worlds, and most of those 
in the eastern continent are very skilful in the construction of their 
nest, which they form of intertwined blades of grass, from which 
circumstance they receive theirname. Such is 

neat philippina, L.; Toucnam-Courvt des Philippines; Enl. 

. Yellow, spotted with brown; black throat. Its nest, which 

is a pitaeoanal sphere, is pierced by a vertical canal, opening 

underneath, which communicates with a cavity on the side .in 
which the young ones are lodged.(3) 


(1) The Limb. montana, and the Emb. mustelina, are aii different states of 
the Snow Bunting. : 

(2) Tlacxevs, Weaver,—Vieill. has adopted this name and genus, pl. Ixxxiv. 

N.B. The Emsenrzorwes of Temm. have become the Tarntvora of Swainson, 
and the Emb. oryzivora forms the genus Doricnonyx of the same naturalist. 

(3) Add, the Capmore, Buff. (Oriolus textor, Gm.), Enl. 375 and 376 ;—Fringilla 
erythrocephala, Enl. 665; Vieill., Ois. ch., 28 ;—the pretended Tangara de malimbe, 


a  e—t—s 


PASSERINE. 297 


Some of them form a single mass of a great number of individual 
nests, which contains several distinct apartments. Such is 

Loxia socia, Lath.; Paters. Voy. pl. xix. (The Republican.) 
An olive brown; yellowish beneath; head and quills brown or 
blackish. 

Among those of the western continent, we may remark, 

Oriolus niger, Or. oryzivorus, Corvus surinamensis, Gm.; Mau- 
geur de riz; Cassique noir, &c.3 Enl. 534; Brown, Ill. X; Wils. III, 
Xxi, 4, which, in immense flocks, devastates the fields of seve- 
ral of the warmer portions of America. Its colour is a changea- 
ble black, reflecting all the magnificent tints of burnished steel.(1) 


Daud. An. Mus. I, p. 148, pl. x, or Malimbe huppé, Vieilk. Ois. ch. 42 and 43 ;— 
the Malimbe orangé, Id. 44 ;—Malimbe a gorge noir, Id. 45 ;—the Tiss. a front d’or, 
(Ploc. aurifrons, Tem., Col. 175, 176);—the Baglafecht (Lox. abyssinica);—the 
Nélicourvi (Lox. pensilis), Sonn. Voy. I, pl. cix;—the Worabee (Fring. abyssinica, 
Gm.), Vieill. Ois. 28;—Fring. erythrocephala, Gm., Vieill. Ib., 28. We might dis- 
tinguish the Ploc. alecto, Tem. Col., 446, which has an inflation at the base of the 
beak. 

(1) Nomenclators have not yet succeeded in putting in order the black birds 
of America more or less nearly allied to the Cassici, for the want of sufficiently 
detailed descriptions. We think it right to indicate the principal ones here, and 
at the same time to point out such of their synonymes as appear to be the most 
clearly ascertained. 

1. The Cassique noir 4 mantelet, as above. 

2. The bird mentioned above, well drawn, but painted without its reflected 
tints, Enl. 534, and quoted under Oriolus niger. The Oriolus ludovicianus, Enl, 
646, is only an albino variety of the same. It is evidently the Corvus surinamensis, 
Brown, III, pl. x. The Little Choucas of Jamaica, Sloane, Jam. I, 299, pl. cclvii, 


1, quoted by Pennant as Gracula barita and as quiscala, is this same bird again. 


On the other hand, it is impossible to doubt that Latham had it before him when 
he described his Oriolus oryzivorus. 

3. The true Carouge noir, with purple changes, beak rather short, but very 
straight, given as a Tanager, Enl. 710, and from which the Tan. bonariensis has 
been made; but this figure really represents the Oriolus minor. The fig. 2, Enl. 
606, is given, but erroneously, for the female, which has a very different appear- 
ance. m 

4. A true Icterus of a deep black with violet reflections, sharp-pointed and some~ 
what arcuated beak, whose tail is hollowed out like a boat. It is the Boat-tailed 
Grakle of Fenn: and Latham, which both those gentlemen consider as synonymous 
with the Gracula barita, and yet it certainly is the bird of Catesb. pl. 12, of which 
Lin. made his Gracula quiscala; but Catesby has given a bad drawing of the beak. 

5. A black bird with violet and green reflections, somewhat cuneiform, (etagée) 
tail, and the beak of an Icterus, but more arcuated near the point, &c. 

N.B. The bird quoted from Wils., II, xxi, 4, is nota Ploceus. It is the Quis- 
calus versicolor, Bonap., or the Gracula quiscala, L. Am. Ed. 


Von. ‘I.—2 N 


298 AVES. 


Pyreira, Cuv.(1) 


In the Sparrows proper the beak is shorter than in the preceding 
birds, conical, and merely a little convex near the point. 

Fringilla domestica, Enl. 6, 1; Naum. 115. (The Common 
Sparrow.) Builds in holes of walls, and infests inhabited places 
by its audacity and voracity. Brown, spotted with black above, 
grey underneath; a whitish band on the wing; sides of the calotte 
red in the male; his throat black. 

There is a species, or a variety, in Italy, of which the male’s 
head is entirely chesnut colour—Fr. cisalpina, Tem.; Fr. Jtaliz, 
Vieill. Galer. 68. The black on the throat sometimes extends 
to the breasts it is then the Fr. hispaniolensis. } 

Fr. montanas Le Friquet; Enl. 267, 13 Naum. 116, 1,2. The 
Mountain Linnet remains further from our habitations. It has 
two white bands on the wing, a red calotte and the side of the 
head white with a black spot.(2) 


FRriInGILLA, Cuv. 


The beak of the Finches is somewhat less arcuated than that of the 
Sparrows, a little stronger and longer than in the Linnets. Their 
manners are more lively, and their song more varied than those of 
the former. There are three species in France. 

Fring. celebs, L.; Pincon ordinaires Enl. 54, 1; Naum. 118. 
(The Chaffinch.) Brown above; beneath, a vinous-red in the 
male, greyish in the female; two white bands on the wing; some 
white on the sides of the tail. Feeds on all sorts of grain and 
builds indiscriminately on all kinds of trees. 

Fring. montifringilla, L.; Pincon de montagne; Enl. 54, 2; 
Naum. 119. (The Mountain Finch.) Black, mottled with fawn 
colour above; fawn coloured breast; under part of the wing of 
a beautiful lemon. This bird, which varies greatly, builds in the 
thickest forests, and never visits the plains till winter. 

. Fring. nivalis, L.; Niverolle; Briss. II, xv, 1; Naum. 117. 


(1) Pyrgita, the Greek name for the Domestic Finch. 

(2) The Hambouvreux, Buff. (Loxia hamburgia, Gm.) is merely the ind dis- 
figured by Albin., Ois. IH, pl. 24. 

We should add to the ordinary Sparrows, the birds that have been scattered 
about by naturalists as follows, viz. Fringilla arcwata, Enl. 230, fig. 1, where it is 
much too red; its true tints are those of the Sparrows;—f'r. crucigera, Tem. 269;— 
Emberiza capensis, c, Eni. 389, 2 and g, Enl. 664, 2;—Tanagra silens, Enl. 742, 
of which Vieill. has made his genus Arnumon, Gal. 78;—F'ring. elegans, Enl. 205, 
1, Vieill. Gal. 64;—Le pape, Emberiza ciris, Enl. 159, which forms the genus Pas- 
serina, Vicill., Gal. 66;—Lovia oryx, Enl. 6, 2;—Low. ignicolor, Vieill. Ois. Chant.; 
59;—Louia dominicana, Enl. 55, 2, and the other species, Enl. 103;—Fringilla 


PASSERIN A. 299 


(The Snow Finch.) Brown, mottled with a paler tint of the 
same colour above; whitish beneath; head, ash coloured; co- 
verts of the wings, and nearly all the secondary quills, white. 
The throat of the male, black. From the rocks of the upper 
Alps, where it only descends in the middle of winter to the lower 
mountains. [See App. XX of Am. Ed. | 


CarpDvuELis, Cuv. 


The Linnets and Goldfinches have an exactly conical beak without 
the least convex protuberance at any point. They live on grain. 
Those which have a little longer and more pointed beak are styled 
GoLDFINCHES. 

Fring. carduelis, L.; Enl. 4; Naum. 124, 1, 2. (The Common 
Goldfinch.) One of the prettiest birds in Europe. Brown 
above, whitish beneath; the mask’of a beautiful red; a fine yellow 
spot on the cheek, &c. It is also very docile, quickly learns to 
sing and to play all kinds of tricks.(1) 


Linarta, Bechst. 


The Linnets also have an exactly conical beak, but it is shorter and 
more obtuse than in the Goldfinches. They feed on seeds of plants; 
those of flax and hemp in particular. 

There are some species in Europe, brown, tinted with red, which 
are more peculiarly styled Linnets. The quantity of red in the young 
birds and females is very various, and sometimes is totally wanting. 
‘The beak of the first 4 is almost as pointed as that of the Goldfinch. 
It is, 

Fr. linaria, L.; Le Sisserins Enl. 485, 23 Vieill. Gal. 65; Naum. 
126. (The Redpoll.) Brown, spotted with black above; two 
white bands across the wing; black throat; top of the head as 
well as the breast of the adult male, red; the rump is sometimes 
of the same colour. A northern bird, of which it is supposed 
two races have lately been detected. a large and a small one.(2) 

Fr. cannabina, L., Enl. 485, 1; Naum. 121. (The Linnet.) 
Back, fawn coloured brown; quills of the wing and tail, black 


cristata, Enl. 181;—the Dioch (Emb. quelea) Vieill. Ois. Chant. 23;—the Dioch 
rose, Id., 24;—Lozx. capensis. The latter begins to approach the Grosbeaks. 

To these should be added, Pyr. orythrophthalma, Wils. II, pl. x, f. 5;—P. iliaca, 
Wils. I, p. xxii, f. xiv. Am. Ed, 

(1) Add, F'r. psittacea, Lath., Syn. Il, p. 48; —-F'r. boas Edw., 128 and 272;— 
Fy. coccinea, Vieill. Ois. ch. pl. xxxi;—Wr. leucocephala,,Lath. Id. 26; —Fr. magel- 
sae Id. 30. 

- (2) See the Mem. de M. Nae ioes ‘pebiit de Turin, tom. xxiii, p.°193, ee seq. 


300 AVES. 


edged with whites whitish underneath; a fine red on the head 
and breast of the old male; beak, grey. Builds among the 
vines, bushes, &c. 

An intermediate species, most nearly allied however to the 
second, Fring. montium, Gm., Naum. 122, is occasionally seen 
from the North. Its beak is yellow, and there is some red on the 
rump of the male. 

There are other species, more or less greenish, which are called 
by the French Serins or Tarins. The 

Fring. spinus, L.3 Tarin commun; Enl. 485, 33 Naum. 125. 
(The Siskin.) Also has a beak more like that of the Goldfinch, 
and is even similar in many points to the Redpoll. It is of an 
olive colour above; yellow beneath; calotte, wings and tail, black; 
two yellow bands on the wing. It builds on the very summits of 
the tallest pines. ° 

The other species have the shorter beak of the Linnet. 

Fring. citrinella,'L.; Le Venturon; Enl. 658, 23 Vieill. Gal. 625 
Naum. 124, 3, 4. Olive above; yellowish beneath; back of the 
head and neck ash coloured. 

Fring. serinus, L.3 Le Cini; Enl. 658, 1; Naum. 123. Olive 
above; yellowish beneath; spotted with brown; a yellow band on 
the wing. Two birds from the mountains of the south of Europe, 
about the size of the Fr. spinus. 

Fring. canaria, L. Enl. 202, 1. (The Canary Bird.) Is larger, 
and the facility with which it breeds, in a state of confinement, 


together with its melodious and powerful song, have dissemi-- 


nated it every where, and caused it to vary so much in colour, 
that it is difficult to ascertain its original hue. It mixes with 
most of the other species of this genus.(1) ij 


(1) Among the birds foreign to Europe, which cannot be distinguished from the 
Linnets by any generic character, we place, Fring. lepida;—F'r. tristis, Enl. 202, 
2;:—Fr. ictera, Enl. 364;—#'r. nitens, Enl. 224;—F. senegalla, Vaill. Ois. ch. pl. 
ix;—F. amandava, Enl. 115, 2 and3;—F. granatina, Enl. 109, 3;—F. bengalus;— 
F. angolensis, Enl. 115, 1;—Carduelis eweullata, Swains. Zool. Ill. There are other 
species also, called astrils, bengalis and senegallis, in the work of Vieillot, entitled 
Ois. chant. de la zone torride, such as the F’r. bicolor, pl. ix;—F'r. tricolor, pl. xx;— 
cinerea, 6;—cxrulescens, 8;—melpoda, 7 ;—viridis, 4;—erythronotos, 14;—-quinticolor, 
15;—rubriventris, 13;—frontalis or Lox. frontalis, L. 16;—F. guttata, 3;—add 
Fring. melanotis, Temm. Col. 151, 1;—F'r. sanguinolenta, Ib. 2;—Fr. polyzona, Ib. 
3;—Fr. otoleucus, Tem. ‘Col. 269, 2, 3;--Fr. simplex, Lichtenst. Col. 358;—F'r. 
lutea, Col. 365;—Fr. ornata, Pr. Max. Col. 208. The pretended Emberiza oryzi- 
vord, Enl. 388, has also the same beak; but the stiff and pointed quills of the tail 
distinguish it. tab , 

See also the numerous Finches described by M. Ch. Bonaparte, Ann. of New 
York Lyc. II, December 1826, p. 106, et seq. [See App. XXT of Am. Ed.] 


Any a aR 


PASSERINE. 301 | 


Vipvua, Cuv.(1) 

The Widows, as they are termed, are birds of Africa and India, 
which have the beak of a Linnet, sometimes slightly inflated at the 
base, and distinguished by having some of the quills of the tail, or 
of its upper coverts, excessively elongated in the males.(2) 

There is a gradual transition, and without any assignable interval, 
from the Linnets to,(3) 


, CoccornrausteEs, Cuy. 


Or the Grosbeaks, whose exactly conical beak is only distinguished 
by its excessive size. 

Loxia coccothraustes, L., Enl. 99 and 100; Naum.114. (The 
Common Grosbeak.) Is one of those that are most truly worthy 
of the name. Its enormous beak is yellowish; back and calotte 
brown; rest of the plumage greyish; throat and quills of the 
wings, blacks; a white band on the wings. It inhabits the moun- 


(1) It is not easy to see why Linnzus and Gmelin arranged them with the Bunt- 
ings, by the names of Emberiza regia, (Enl. 8, 1);—Hmb. serena, (Ib-, 2);—Emb. 
paradisea (Enl. 194);-—Hmb. panayensis (Enl. 647 );--Emb. longicauda (Enl. 635). 
Add, Fringilla superciliosa, Vieill. Gal. 61. If we do not leave the Widows with 
the Linnets, there is no other place for them except among the Grosbeaks. 

(2) In the Vewe a épaulettes (V. longicauda) the coverts only are elongated; in 
the others, it isthe quills. N.B. The Emb. principalis, (Edw. 270) and the Emb. 
vidua (Aldrow. Orni. II, 565) appear to me to be the same bird in different states 
- of plumage. The Emb. psittacea, Seb. I, pl. xvi, fig. 5, is not very authentic. The 
angolensis, Salern. Orni. 277; the Veuve chrysoptére, Vieill. Ois. ch. pl. xli, and the 
Lox. macroura, Enl. 283, 1, which, perhaps, do not differ from it, are not Widows, 
but common Grosbeaks. 

(3) This transition is effected, in the species I have been able to examine, in 
the following order, the beak always increasing in size: Loxia quadricolor, (Ember., 
Lin.) 101, 2, the same as the Gros bec longicone, Tem. Col. ;--L. sanguinirostris, 
Enl. 183, 2;—Z. molucca, Enl. 139, 2;—L. variegata, Vieill. 51;—L. punctulata, 
Ib. 1;—Z. maja, Enl. 109, 1;—L. striata, Enl. 153, 1;—Z. nitida, Vieill. 50;—L. 
malacca, Enl. 139, 3;—L. astrild., Enl. 157, 2;—L. bella, Vieill. 55;—L. constans, 
Id. 57;—L. oryzivora, Enl. 152, 1;—L. fuscata, Vieill. pl}. lxii;—L. atricapilla, id., 
53;—L. nigra, Catesb. 1, 68; Vieill. Gal. 57;—Z. brasiliana, Enl. 309, 1;—L. pe- 
tronia (Fring. petronia, L.) Enl. 255;—L. chloris, Enl. 267, 2:—L. hematina, 
Vieill. pl. Ixvii, where the beak is too slender; LZ. guttata, Id. 68, is a variety of 
the same;—Z. quinticolor, Id. 54;—L. fasciata, Brown, Il., xxvii;—L. madagas- 
cariensis, Enl. 143, 2;—Z. cerulea;—L. cardinalis, Enl. 37;—L. melanura; —L. 
coccothraustes, Enl. 89 and 100;—LZ. ostrina, Vieill. Ois. ch. 48, Gal. 60;—L. rosea, 
Vieill., pl. Ixiii. 

Add, L. vespertina, Bonap. Il, pl. xiv, f. 1;—L. ludoviciana, Wils. Il, pl. xvii, f- 
1;—L. cerulea, Wils., I, pl. xxiv, f. vi;—Z. purpurea, Wils. I, pl. vii, f. 4. 
Am. Edit. " 


302 AVES. 


tain forests, builds upon the beech, and eats almonds and all 
sorts of fruits. 

There are two species with smaller beaks in Europe. 

Loxia chloris, L.; Le Verdier; Enl. 672, 23 Naum. 120. (The 
Green Grosbeak). Greenish above; yellowish beneath; external 
edge of the tail, yellow. Inhabits the underwood, &c., and eats 
all sorts of seeds. 

Fring. petronia, L.; La Soulcie ; Enl. 225; Naum. 116, 3, 4. 
(The Ring Finch.) Which is commonly classed with the Finches, 
whose colours it bears; but independently of its great beak, a 
whitish line round the head, and a yellowish spot on the breast, 
afford an evident mark of distinction. (1) 

There are some species that should be distinguished from the 
Grosbeaks. ; 


Piryius, Cuv. 


The beak quite as large, slightly compressed, arcuated above, and 
sometimes a salient angle on the middle of the edge of the upper 
jaw.(2) 

Naturalists have long separated from them, 


» Pyrruvuta, 


The Bullfinches, which have a rounded, inflated heak, echo? in 
every direction. There is one in France. 
Loxia pyrrhula, L.3 Enl. 1453 Vieill. Gal. 563 Nain: LU. 
(The Common Bullfinch.) Cinereous above; red beneath; calotte _ 
black; reddish grey superseding the red in the female; builds on. 
various trees, and among the bushes along the road. It is natu- 
rally a sweet songster, is easily tamed, and may be taught to 
speak. There is a race of them known, a third larger.(3) 


Lox1A, Briss.(4) 


The Crossbills have a compressed beak, and the two mandibles so 
strongly curved, that their points cross each other, sometimes on 


(1) It is very evident, that the petronia is not less a Grosbeak than the chloris. 

(2) Such are Lox. grossa, Enl. 154;—-L. canadanensis, Enl. 152, 2;—L. erytro- 
melas, Lath. I, pl. xlvii, and Vieill. Gal. 59;—Z. portoricensis, Daud. Ornith. I, 
pl. xxix, or Pyrrhula auranticollis, Vieill. Gal. 55. ‘ 

(3) Add, Low. lineola, Enl. 319, 1;—M> minuta, tb. 2;—L. collaria, Enl. 393, 
3;—L. sibirica, Falk. Voy. If, pl. xxviii;s—Pyr. cinereola, Tem. Col. Il, 1;—P. 
falcirostris, Ib. 2;—P. orthaginea, T. Col. 400;—P. mysia, Vieill., Ois. ch. pl. xlvi, 
and the pl. lix and Ix of Spix. [Add. P. frontalis, Bon. I, p. vi, f.1, 2. Am. Ed.] 

(4) Lowia from rc£o¢ (curve) the name invented for this bird by Conrad Gesner. 
Linneus applied it to the Grosbeaks generally. 


PASSERINE. 303 


one side, sometimes on the other. This singular beak enables them 
to tear out the seeds from under the scales of the pine-cones. 

The European species is very common wherever there are 
evergreen trees; it is, 

Loxia curvirostra, L., Enl. 218. (The Crossbill.) The 
plumage of the young male is of a vivid red, with brown wings; 
that of the adult, and of the female, is greenish above, yellowish 
beneath. Two races of them, also, are known, which differ as 
to size, and even, as it is said, in their notes, and in the form 
of the beak, Lox. curvirostra, Naum. 110, and Low. pytiopsitta- 
cus, Bechst., Naum. 109.(1) 

We cannot remove from the Bullfinches and the Crossbills 


Coryruus, Cuv.(2) 


The point of whose completely arched beak curves over the lower 
mandible. The most known species, .° 
Loxia enucleator, L.3 Enl. 135, 13 or better, Edw. 123, 1243 
Vieill. Gal. 53; Naum. 112. The Pine Grosbeak inhabits’ the 
north of both continents, and lives in the same way as the Cross- 
bill. It is red, or reddish, the feathers of the tail and wings 
black edged with white.(3) 
The north of the globe produces neighbouring species of 
equal beauty as to colour, individuals of which sometimes find 
their way into Germany.(4) 


Coxtus, Gm.(5) 


The Colies also approximate considerably to the preceding birds. 
Their beak is short, thick, conical, and somewhat compressed, its 
two mandibles being arcuated, but without extending beyond each 
other; the quills of their tail are cuneiform, and very long; their 
thumb, as in Cypselus, is capable of being directed forwards like 
the other toes; their fine and silky feathers are generally cinereous. 
They inhabit Africa and India, climb something in the manner of 


(1) Add Loa. leucoptera, Lath. Vieill. Gal. 53, and Wils. Am. Ornith. A 

(2) Corythus, Greek name of an unknown bird.  Vieillot has changed. this 
name into that of STROBILIPHAGA. 

(3) Loxia flamingo, (Sparm. Mus. Carl. pl. xvii,) appears to me to be a mere 
albino variety of the enucleator. The Lox. psittacea of the Sandwich Islands, Lath. 
Syn. Il, pl. xlii, or Psirracrrosrra icterocephala, ‘Temm. Col. 457, appears to 
differ from Corythus only in a little greater prolongation of the curved point of the 
beak. ; 

(4) Lox. erythrina, Pall. or F'ringilla flammea, L., Naum. 113, 1, 2;—Low. rosea, 
Pall. Naum. 113, 3;—/'r. purpurea, Wils. I, vil, 4 ? 

(5) Koaosos, the Greek name of a small species of Crow. 


304 AVES. 


Parrots, live in flocks, build many of their nests on the same bush, 
and sleep suspended to its branches in crowds, with the head down- 
wards. They feed on fruit.(1) 

Here also come the 


Bupnaga, Briss. 


The Beef-eaters form a small genus in which the beak is of a mode- 
rate length, cylindrical at the beginning, and inflated (both mandibles) 
near the end, which terminates in a blunt point. They use it to 
compress the skin of cattle in order to force out the larve of the 
CEstrus lodged in it, on which they feed. 
One species only is known, and that is from Africa; brownish, 
with a moderate sized cuneiform tail; as large as a Thrush. 
Buphaga africana, Enl. 2933 Vaill. Afr. pl. 973 Vieill. Gal. 


“* Cassicus, Cuv. 


A large and exactly conical beak, thick at base, and very sharp at the 
point; small round nostrils, pierced on the sides; the commissure of the 
mandibles forms a broken line, or is angular like that of the Star- 
lings. They are American birds, whose manners are similar to those 
of the last mentioned ones, living like them in flocks, frequently 
constructing their nests close together, and sometimes with much 
art. They feed on grain and Insects, and do great injury to culti- 
vated grounds. Wesubdivide them as follows: 


Cassicus,(2) properly so styled. 


The base of the beak mounts on the forehead, encroaching on the 
plumage, and forming a semicircular notch in it. The largest spe- 
cies belong to this subgenus.(3) 


(1) Col. capensis, Enl. 282, 1; Vaill. 258, and the young, 256. This latter is 
the C. striatus, and the C. panayensis;—Col. erythropus, Gm.; leuconotus, Lath. 
Vaill. 257;—-Col. gularis, Vaill. 259. 

I place near the Colies the birds called Meriow natté (Malurus textilis, Less.) 
and Merion leucoptére (M. leucopterus, Id.), Voy. de Freycin. pl. 23. 

(2) Vieill. has adopted this name and genus. 

(3) Cassicus bifasciatus, Spix, LXI, a;—Cassic. aneudtifiogs, Id, LXII;—Cass. 
nigerrimus, Id. LXII, 1;—Oriolus cristatus, Enl. 344;—y 328;—hemorrhous, 482;— 
persicus, 184. (N.B. That it is not from Persia, but from America, like the others. )j-— 
A black species, with metallic reflections, the plumes of whose neck are erectile, 
and form a kind of mantle. It is the Grand troupiale of Azz. Voy. JII, p- 167. 


PASSERINE. 305 


wt 


IcrErus.(1) 


The beak arcuated throughout its length, and only forming a small 
notch in the feathers on the forehead.(2) 


XANTHORNUS.(3) 


Only differs from the preceding in the perfect straightness of the 
beak.(4) 

We should distinguish among the number a species with a 
somewhat shorter beak, which therein approaches the Frin- 
gilla, Cuv. 

Icterus pecoris, Tem.; Emberiza pecoris, Wils. II, xviii, 1, 2, 
and Enl. 606, 1. (The Cow Bunting.) A violet black; head 
and neck a brown grey. Lives in flocks among the cattle; but 
the most peculiar trait in its habits is that, like the Cuckoo, it 
lays its eggs in other birds’ nests.(5) 


(1) Vieillot has changed the French term of the above subdivision, Troupiale, 
into Carouge, which I had adopted for the following subgenus. He translates 
Carouge by Pendulinus, Galer. pl. 186. 

(2) Oriolus varius, Enl. 607, 1;—Or. cayanus, 535, 2;—Or. capensis, Enl. 607. 
(N.B. It is from Louisiana, and not from the Cape;)—Or. chrysocephalus, Merr. 
Beytr. I, pl. iii, Vieill. Gal. 86;—Or. dominicensis, Enl. 5, 1;—and a species of a 
changeable black, whose tail assumes all kinds of shapes, according to the direc- 
tion of its lateral feathers, which are sometimes in the same plane with the rest, 
and at others turned up, &c. (Quiscalus versicolor) Vieill. Gal. 108; Wils. TI, 
xvi, 3. It appears to be both the Gracula quiscala, L., Catesb. pl. xii, and the 
Gracula, barita, Lath. I, pl. xviii, or the Pie de la Jamaique : it is found in all the 
Antilles, Carolina, &c. It has been confounded with the Rice Eater (Ploceus 
niger). 

We should separate the Icterus sulcirostris, Spix, LXIV, the lower jaw of whose 
much larger beak is obliquely furrowed at base. 

(3) M. Vieill. calls these birds, Baltimore and Yphantes, Galer. pl. Ixxxvii. He 
separates some of them, which he names more particularly TJ'roupiales, or Acx- 
uarvs, pl. Ixxxviii. 

(4) Oriolus icterus, Enl. 532;—Oriolus minor and Tanagra bonariensis, Enl. 710; 
the same bird;—Oriolus citrinus, Spix, 76;—Le Car. gasquet, Quoy and Gaym. 
Voy. de Freycin. pl. xxiv;—Oriolus pheniceus, Enl. 402;—Or. americanus, 236, 2;— 
Or. lewcopterus, Lath. Syn. I, frontisp.;—Or. bonana, Enl. 535, 1;—Or. cayenensis, 
Ib. 2;—Or. icterocephalus, 342;—Or. xanthocephalus, Ch. Bonap, 1, IV, 1, 2;—Or. 
mexicanus, Enl. 533;—Or. xanthornus, 5, 1;—Or. baltimore, 506, 1; Vieill. Galer. 
87, and Wils. I, 1, 3;—Or. spurius, Enl. 2, and Wils. I, iv, 1—4;—Or. melancholicus, 
Enl. 448, of which Ov. guyanensis, Enl. 536, Vieill. Galer. pl. 88, is the adult. 

Add Or. agripennis, Bonap. (Enlb. oryzivora, of others) our common Reed 
Bird. Am. Ed. 

(5) Gmel. cites fig. 606, 1, of the Pl. Enl., as Oriolus minor; it is a mistake. 


Vou. I.—2 O 


EE EE ee ee ee 


306 AVES. 


Oxyryncuus, Tem. 


The conical and Lg hae beak of Xanthornus, but it is shorter than 
the head. 
The species icon. Oxyr. flammiceps, T.; O. cristatus, 
Swains. Ill. III, 49; Col. 125, has a partly red tuft on the head, 
like several of the Tyrants. The 


Dacnis, Cuv.—Pir-Pirs, Buff. 


Resemble Xanthorni in their conical and short beak. They con- 
nect that subgenus with Regulus. The species known, Mot. cayana, 


L.; Enl. 6695 Vieill. Gal. 165, is a small blue and black bird. [See 
App. XXII of Am. Ed.) 


STurNus, Lin. 


The Starlings only differ from the Xanthorni in having a beak 
that is depressed, especially near the point. 

S. vulgaris, L.3; Enl. 75; Naum. 62. (The Common Biri 

Black with violet and green reflections, every where spotted 
with white or fawn colour. The young male is of a brown grey. 

It is found in great numbers throughout the whole of the eastern 
continent, feeds on insects, and is of use to cattle by relieving 
them from their attacks. It flies in large and crowded flocks, 


is easily tamed, and may be taught to sing and even to speak. 


It leaves France in winter. Its flesh is disagreeable.(1) 


We can find no sufficient character to enable us to distinguish 


(1) Add the Sturnus unicolor of the south of Europe, Tem. Col. 3; Vieill. Gal. 
pl. xci;—St. capensis, Enl. 280, from which the St. contra, Albin. IU, 21, does 
not differ, but which is from the Indies, and not from the Cape;—St?. militaris, Enl. 
113;—St. ludovicianus, Enl. 256, the same as the Alawda magna, Gm. Catesb. 1 
33, or the Stowrnelle a collier, Vieill. Gal. pl. xc, and Wils. UI, xix, 2;—the Etour- 
neau a camail rouge ( Oriolusruber, Gm.) Sonner. Nouy. g. pl. Lxviii, or Amblyram- 
phus tricolor, Leach, Zool. Miscel. pl. xxxvi; a beautiful species from the steppes 
of Buenos Ayres, and not from India, as stated by Sonnerat. 

N.B. The St. cinclus forms, as we have seen, a genusallied to the Thrushes ; 
the St. sericeus, Brown, Ill, 21, is rather a Gracula, Cuy.; the St. collaris is the 
same as the Fauvette of the Alps (accentor). The St. carunculatus should, I think, 
go along with Philedon. 

The species of Osbec, Hernandes, &c. are not well authenticated; as to those of 
Pallas, it is to be regretted that we have no figures of them. The Stournes of 
Daudin must be replaced with the Thrushes, or the Philedons, and his Quiscales, 
partly with the Graculz, Cuv. and partly with Cassicus. Daudin, generally speak- 


ing, compieted the confusion of this genus, sufficiently entangled by his prede- 
cessors. 


‘9 


PASSERINA, 307 


from the Conirostres with certainty and precision, the differ- 
ent genera of the family of the Crows, all of which have a 
similar internal structure and external organs, only differing 
in a (generally) greater size, which sometimes enables them 
to hunt small birds: their strong beak is most commonly com- 
pressed on the sides. 

These genera are three in number, the Crows, Birds of Pa- 
radise, and the Rollers. 


Corvus, Lin. 


The Crows have a strong beak, more or less laterally flattened, 
nostrils covered with stiff feathers, which incline forwards. They 
are very cunning, their sense of smell is extremely acute, and they 
have, generally, a habit of purloining articles totally useless to 
them, such as pieces of money, &c., and even of hiding them. 

We more particularly call Crows or Ravens, the large species 
whose beaks are the strongest in proportion, and in which the ridge 
of the upper mandible is the most arcuated. Their tail is either 
round or square. 

C. corax, L.; Naum. 53, 1; Vaill. Afr. pl. 51.(1) (The Raven.) 
Is the largest of the Passerine which inhabit Europe. Its size 
is equal to that of the Cock. Its plumage is entirely black, the 
tail is rounded, and the back of the upper mandible arcuated 
near the point. It is a more solitary bird than the other species, 
flies well and high, scents carrion at the distance of a league, 
aud feeds also on fruit and small animals. It sometimes carries 
off poultry, builds on the tops of high trees or rocky cliffs, is 
easily tamed, and may be taught to speak tolerably well. It 
appears to be found in every part of the globe. In the north its 
plumage is frequently varied by a mixture of white (Ascan. Ic. 
Nat. pl. viii); it is then the Corvus leucophzus, Temm., Vieill. 
Gal. 100. 

C. corone, L.3 La Corneille; Enl. 495; Naum. 53, 2.(2) (The 
Carrion Crow.) A fourth smaller than the Raven; the tail more 
square, and the beak less arcuated above. 

C. frugilegus, L.; Le Freux; Enl. 484; Naum. 55, (The 
Rook.) Still smaller than the preceding, with a straighter and 
more pointed beak. The circumference of the base of the lat- 


(1) N.B. Enl. 495 appears to be nothing more than a C. corone, and 483 a 
young Rook. M. Temminck thinks that the quoted fig. of Le Vaillant is a partic- 
ular species peculiar to Africa, which he names C. montanus. 

(2) M. Temminck thinks there is a difference between the Crow of Europe and 
that of the Cape (Vaill. 52,) which he calls C. segetum. 


308 


AVES. 


ter, except when very young, is divested of feathers, which is 
probably occasioned by its habit of thrusting it into the ground 
in search of food. 

These two species live in large flocks, numbers of them build- 
ing together. They feed as much on grain as on insects, and 
are found throughout all Europe; remaining in the winter, how- 
ever, only in the warmer districts. 

C. corniz, L.; Corneille mantelée; Enl. 76; Naum. 54. (The 
Royston Crow.) Cinereous; head, wings, and tail, black. It isless 
frugivorous, frequents the sea-shore, and feeds upon shell-fish, 
&c. Naumanassures us that it often couples with the Black Crow. 

C. monedula, L.; Le Choucas, &c.3 Enl. 525; Naum. 56, 1. (The 
Jackdaw.) A fourth smaller than the preceding ones; about the 
size of a Pigeon; of a less intense black, which around the neck 
and under the belly, even verges on cinereous; sometimes all 
black. It builds in steeples, old towers, &c., lives in flocks, 
feeds on the same substances as the Crows, and is frequently 
found with them. Birds of prey have no enemy more vigilant 
than the Jackdaw.(1) 


Pica, Cuy. 


The Pies are less than the Cornix; the upper mandible is also 
more arcuated than the other, and the tail long and cuneiform. 


Corvus pica, L.; Enl. 488; Naum. 56,2. (The Magpie of 


Europe.) <A beautiful bird, ofa silky black colour, with purple, © 


blue, and gold reflections; the belly is white, and there is a large 
spot of the same colour on the wing. Its eternal chattering has 
rendered it notorious. It prefers living in inhabited places, 
where it feeds on all sorts of matters, sometimes attacking the 
smaller birds of the poultry-yards.(2) 


(1) The Jackdaw terminates the tribes of the true Crows, because its upper 
mandible is hardly more arcuated than the lower one. Add to this tribe the Cor- 
vus jamaicensis, or Corneille a duvet blane;—Le C. dauricus, Enl. 327; the C. scap- 
ulatus, Daud. Vaill. 53, which M. Temm. thinks differs from the preceding; the 
albicollis, Lath. or Corbivau, which, from its high, compressed, trenchant- 
backed beak, might constitute a separate subgenus, Vaill. 50;—the C. splendens 
of India, Vieill. Col. 425, remarkable for the instinct which prompts it to search 
for lice among the feathers of the Vulture, (the Chagoun) who willingly permits it;— 
The C. columbianus, Wils. II, xx, fig. 2;—the C. nasicus, Tem. Col. 413;—the 
C. ossifragus, Wilg. V, xxxviii, f. 2, if it really differ from the corniz. 

(2) Add the Corvus senegalensis, Enl. 538;—C. ventralis, Sh.; Vaill. Afr. 58;—C. 
erythrorhynchos, Enl. 622, and better Vaill. Afr. 57;—C. cayanus, Enl. 378;—C. 
peruvianus, Enl. 625;—C. cyaneus, Pall. Vaill. Afr. 58, 2;—C. rufus, Vaill. Afr. 
59;—the Acahe, Azz. (Corvus pileatus, Mig.) Col. 58, or Pica chrysops, Vieill. Gal. 
101;—the G. gubernatriz, Tem. Col 436;—the Corv. azureus, T. Col. 168;— 
the Pre geng. (C. cyanopogon, P. Max.) Col. 169. 


PASSERINE. 309 


GarRRULUvS, Cuv. 


The two mandibles of the Jays are but little elongated, terminat- 
ing in a sudden, and nearly equal curve; when the tail is cuneiform, 
it is not very long, and the loose and slender feathers of the forehead 
stand more or less erect when the bird is angry. 

Corvus glan@urius, L.; Enl. 481; Naum. 58, 1. (The Jay of 
Europe.) Is a fine bird of a vinous grey, with mustachios, and 
the quills of the tail, black; particularly remarkable for a large 
spot of dazzling blue, striped with a deep shade of the same 
colour, which marks a part of the wing coverts. It feeds chiefly 
on the acorn, and of all birds shows the greatest penchant for 
imitating all kinds of sounds. It builds in the woods of Europe, 
and lives in pairs or in small flocks.(1) See pp. XXIII of Am. 
Ed. 


CaryocaractrEs, Cuy.(2) 


The Nutcrackers have the two mandibles straight, equally pointed, 
‘and without any curve. There is only one species known. 

_» Corvus caryocatactes, L.; Enl. 50; Naum. 58, 23 Vieill. Gal. 

~ 105. (The Common Nutcracker.) Brown; the whole body 
spotted with white. It builds in the hollows of trees, in dense 
mountain forests, climbs trees and perforates their bark like the 
Woodpeckers, feeds on all kinds of fruit, insects, and small 
birds. Flocks of them sometimes descend into the plains, 
but at-very irregular intervals. It is celebrated for its confi- 
dence.(3) 


(1)'Add Corvus cristatus, Enl. 529, Vieill. Gal. 102;—Corv. Stelleri, Vaill. Ois. de 
Par. &c. I, 44;—Corv. sibiricus, Enl. 608;—C. canadensis, Enl. 530, and a variety, 
Vieill. 48;—C. cristatellus, or C. cyanoleucos, P. Max.; Col. 193;—C. ultramarinus, 
T. Col. 439;—C. torquatus, 'T. Col. 44;—C. floridanus, Ch. Bonap. I, xiii, 1. 

(2) Vieill. has changed this name into Wucifraga. 

(3) N.B. The Corvus hottentottus,'226, appears to us to be allied to the Tyrants;— 
C. balicassius, 603, is a Drongo;—C. calvus, Enl. 521, a Gymnocephalus;—C. Nove 
Guinex, Enl. 629 and C. papuensis, Enl. 630 belong to Graucalus, Cuy.;—C. spe- 
ciosus of Sh. is the Rollier de la Chine, Enl. 620, and belongs to the Dentzrostres. 
Temm. makes a Pyroll of it, Col. Enl. 401;—C. flaviventris, Enl. 249, isa Tyrant;— 
C. mexicanus is probably a Cassicus or a Weaver, and C. argirophtalmus, Brown, 
Ill., 10, is certainly one;—C. rufipennis, Enl. 199, is a Thrush, the same as T'urdus 
morio;—C. cyanurus, Enl. 355, C. brachyurus, Enl. 257 and 258, and C. grallarius, 
of Shaw, Enl. 702 are Ant-catchers;—C. carunculatus, Daud., a Philedon. 

We have approximated ©. pyrrhocoraz, Enl. 531, to the Thrushes and C. gra- 
culus, Enl. 255 to Upupa. We are of opinion that C. eremita does not exist. 
The €. caribeus, Aldrov. 788, is a Bee-eater, the account of which has been stolen 
by Dutertre to describe an object of which he had no recollection: finally, C. 
gymnocephalus, Tem. Col. 327, appears to us to belong to the family of the Den- 
tirostres. 


310 AVES~, 


Tenia, Vaill.(1) 


The tail and carriage of the Pies, with an elevated beak, whose 
upper mandible is arched, the base furnished with velvet feathers 
almost like the Birds of Paradise. 

The most anciently known, Corvus varians, Lath.; Vaill. Afr. 
563 Vieill. Gal. 106, is of a bronze green, “It is found in Africa 


and in India.(2) 


Guavucopris, Forster.(3) 


The same beak and carriage, but there are two fleshy caruncles 
under the base of the former. 
The species known, Glaucopis cinerea, Lath. Syn. I, pl. xiv, 
is from New Holland, and is the size of a Pie; blackish, with a 
cuneiform tail. It feeds on insects and berries, and perches but 
seldom. Its flesh is highly esteemed. 


Coracras, Lin.(4) ‘ 


The rollers have a strong beak, compressed near the point, which 
isa little hooked. The nostrils are oblong, placed at the edge of 
the feathers, but without being covered by them; the feet short and 
stout. They belong to the eastern continent, and are like the Jays 
in their habits and in the loose feathers on the forehead. Their co- 
lours are vivid, but rarely harmonious. Some peculiarities of their 
anatomy approximate them to the Kingfishers and Pies, such as two 


emarginations in their sternum, a single pair of muscles to their’ 


inferior larynx, and a membranous stomach.(5) 


Tuer Rotiers, properly so called, 


Have a straight beak, every where higher than wide. There is 
one in Europe. 

Coracias garrula, L.; Enl. 486. (The Common Roller.) Sea- 
green; back and scapulars fawn-coloureds; pure blue on the tip 
of the wing; about the size of the Jay. It is a very wild bird, 
although sociable enough with its fellows, noisy, nestles in the 


(1) Vieillot has changed this name into Cryrsrrra, Gal. 106; Horsfield into 
that of Parenorrrx. Temminck unites Temra with Gravcorts. 

(2) Add. Glaucopis leucoptera, Tem. Col. 285;—Gi. temnura, Id. Col. 337. 

(3) Bechstein substitutes the term Callwas for that of Glaucopis. 

(4) This name, consecrated by Linnzus, has been changed by Vieillot into that 
of Garcatus, which, among the ancient Latins, belonged to tlie Oriole. 

(5) Nitsch, ap. Nauman, II, p. 156. ' 


— 


PASSERINE. 311 


hollows of trees, and migrates in winter. It feeds on worms, 
insects and small frogs. 

There are some Rollers foreign to Europe, which have a 
square tail(1); the external quills in that of the European spe- 
cies, however,‘are somewhat elongated in the male, the first 
indication of their great length in several others.(2) 


Cotaris, Cuy.(3) 


Differs from Coracias in a shorter and more arcuated beak, and 


particularly in the enlargement of its base, which is more broad 
than high.(4) 


Parapis@aA, Lin. 


The Birds of Paradise, like the Crows, have a strong, straight, 
compressed beak, without any emarginations, and with covered nos- 
trilss; but the influence of the climate they inhabit, an influence ex- 
tended to birds of several other genera, gives a velvet tissue to the 
feathers which cover these nostrils, and frequently a metallic lustre, 
at the same time that it singularly developes those which cover 


several parts of the body. They.are natives of New Guinea and of 


the adjoining islands; and as it is difficult to obtain them except from 
the savage inhabitants of those countries, who prepare them by cut- 
ting off the wings and feet, it was thought for some time that the 
first species was really destitute, of those members, and lived con- 
stantly in air, supporting itself there by its long feathers. Tra- 
vellers, however, having succeeded in obtaining perfect individuals 
of certain species, it is now known that their feet and wings indicate 
their claim to the place we have assigned to them. They are said 
to live on fruits, and to be particularly fond of aromatics. 


(1) Coracias bengalensis, Enl. 285, is evidently the same as the indica, Edw. 326 
and as the fig. of Albin. I, 17, quoted under caudata;—Coracias viridis, Nob. ; 
Vaill. 1, 31; Vieill. Gal. 110;—C. Teminckii, Vaill., pl. G. 

(2) Coracias abyssinica, Enl. 626, and its variety C. senegala, Enl. 326, Edw. 
327. C. caudata is merely an individual of the same species, disfigured by the ad- 
dition of the head of a bengalensis (Vaill. loc. cit., p. 105).—Cor. cyanogaster, Nob., 
Vaill., loc. cit. pl. xxvi. 

N.B. Cor. caffra, where Shaw quotes Edw. 320, can only be a Thrush (7'urdus 
nitens);—C. sinensis, Enl. 620, by its emarginated beak also approaches either the 
Thrushes or the Shrikes. M. Shaw. thinks that C. wiridis, Lath. is an Alcedo.—C. 
strepera and C. varia, Lath. are Cassicans; C. militaris and C. scutata, Shaw, 
Piauhaus;—C. mexicana, Seb. 1, pl. Ixiv, f. 5, is the Jay of Canada;—C. cayana, 
Enl. 616, a Tanager. 


(3) Colaris is the Greek name of an unknown bird. ray eallot has changed it into 
that of Eurysromvus. 


(4) Coracias orientalis, Enl. 619;—Cor. madagascariensis, Enl. 501;—Cor. afra, 
Lath. Vaill. loc. cit., pl. xxxv. 


312 AVES. 


The feathers on the flanks of some of them are silky, and singu- 
larly extended into bunches longer than the body, which give such a 
hold to the wind that they are very often swept away by it. There 
are also two bearded filaments adhering to the rump, which are as 
long, and even longer than the feathers on the flanks.(1) | 

P. apoda, L.3 Enl. 2543 Vaill. Ois. de Par. pl. 13 Vieill. Ois. # 
de Par. pl. 1. Size of a thrush; maronne; top of the head and 
neck yellow; circumference of the beak and throat of aneme- 
rald green. It is the male of this species which is ornamented 
with those long bundles of yellowish feathers, employed by the 
ladies as plumes. ‘There is a somewhat smaller race. 

P. rubra, Vaill. pl. 63 Vieill. pl. 3. The fascicles of flank 
feathers of a beautiful red, and the filaments broader and con- 
cave on one side. 

In others we still find the filaments, but the feathers on the flanks, 
although somewhat elongated, do not extend beyond the tail. 

P. regia, Enl. 496; Vaill. 7; Vieill. 5, and Galer. 96. Size 
of a finch; a fine purple maronne; white belly; a band across 
the breast, the tips of the flank-feathers, and the barbs which 
widen the extremities of the two long filaments, emerald- 
green.(2) : | 

P. magnifica; Sonnerat, 98; Enl. 631; Vaill. 9; Vieill. 4. 
Maronne above; green beneath and on the flanks; quills of the 
wings yellow; a fascicle of straw-coloured feathers on each side 
of the neck, another of a deeper yellow opposite to the fold of 
the wing. 

Some have the slender feathers on the flanks, but they are short, 
and the filaments on the rump are wanting. 

P. aurea, Gm.; P. sexsetacea, Shaw; Beuncrart pl. 97; Enl. 
635s. V-aill. 128 Vieill. 6,and Galer. 97. Size of a Thrush; black; 
a golden-green spot on the throat; three feathers from each ear 
extended into long filaments, terminated by a small disk of barbs 
of the same colour as the spot on the throat.(3) 

Others again have no filaments, nor are the feathers of the flanks 
elongated. In 

P. superba, Sonnerat, 96; En]. 6323; Vaill. 14; Vieill. 7; Ga- 

ler. 98(4), the feathers of the scapulars are prolonged, how- 

ever, into a kind of mantlet which can be laid so as to cover the 
wings, and those of the breast into a sort of pendent and forked 
coat-of-arms. With the exception of this latter, which is of a 


(1) M. Vieillot has made a genus of my first division, which he calls Samarra. 
(2) Vieillot makes his genus CrncrinnuRus of this species. 

(3) This species constitutes the genus Parotr4, Vieill. Gal. 97. 

(4) This species forms the genus LorHorina, Gal. 98. 


PASSERINE. 313 


brilliant burnished ‘steel-green, the whole of the plumage is 
. black. 

P. aurea, Sh.3 Oriolus aureus, Gm.; Edw., 1123 Vaill. 183 
Vieill. 11, has none of the preceding extraordinary develop- 
ments of plumage, and is only distinguishable by the velvet fea- 
thers which cover its nostrils. The male is of the brightest 
orange; the throat, and primary quills of the wings, black; in 
the female, a brown takes the place of the orange.(1) 


FAMILY IV. 


TENUIROSTRES. 


This family comprehends the remaining birds of the first divi- 
sion; those in which the beak is slender, elongated, sometimes 
straight, and sometimes more or less arcuated, and without any 
emargination. They are to the Conirostres what the Mota- 
cillz are to the other Dentirostres. 


Sirra, Lin. 


The Nuthatches have a straight, prismatic, pointed beak, com- 
pressed near the point, which they employ like the Woodpeckers to 
perforate the bark of trees, and in withdrawing the larve contained 
in it; but their tongue is not extensible, and although they climb in 
every direction, they have but one toe behind, which, it is true, is a 
strong one. The tail is of no use in supporting them, as is the case 
with the Woodpeckers and True Creepers. There is but one in 
France. 
S. europea, L.3 Enl. 623, 13 Naum. 139. (The European Nut- 
hatch.) Bluish ash colour above; reddish beneath; a blackish 
band descending behind the eye; size of a Rouge-gorge.(2) 


(1) £ refer the Parad. gularis, Lath., or nigra, Gm.; Vaill. 20 and 21; Vieill. 8, 
9, and the git Lath. to the Thrushes;—the Par. Chalybea, Enl. 633, Sonn. 
97; Vaill., 23; Vieill., 10, to the Cassicans;—the cirrhata, Aldroy. 814, is too much 
mutilated to be characterized, and the furcata, Lath. appears to be an imperfect 
specimen of the supereas 

(2) Add the S. @ sowrcil blane (S. canadensis, Briss.) Enl. 623, 2;—the Black: 
headed N. (8. canadensis, L.), Catesb., I, xxii; Vieill. Gal. 171;—S. frontalis, Swains. 
Zool. Ill. 2, or S. velata, Tem., Col. 72, 3, or Orthorynchus frontalis, Horsf. Jay. ;— 
S. chrysoptera, Lath., 3d Supp. 327;—S. pusilla, Id. 

Vou. I.—2 P 


314 AVES. 


It has been thought necessary to separate from the Sittz, the 


Xenops, Illig.(1) 


Which only differs in the beak being rather more compressed, 
and the inferior ridge more convex.(2) 


ANABATES, Temm. 


In which, on the contrary, the superior ridge of the beak is some- 
what convex, almost like the beak of a Thrush which has no emar- 
gination. The tail, in some, is long and cuneiform, and occasionally 
worn, a proof that it supports them in climbing.(3) 


SynaLiaxis, Vieill. 


A straight beak, but little elongated; very much compressed, slen- 
der, and pointed; the tail generally long and pointed.(4) 

There are even some of them in which the stems of the tail-quills 
are very stout, and project beyond the barbs.(5) 

Those birds which have received the name of 


Cerruia, Lin. 


Or the Creepers, have an arcuated beak, but that is the only com- 
mon character they possess. 


We separate from them in the first place, 


Crerruia, Cuv. 


The True Creepers, so called from their habit of climbing trees, 
like Woodpeckers, in doing which they make use of their tail as 
a prop or supporter; they are known by the quills of the tail, which 
are worn, and terminate in a stiff point, like those of the same birds. 

There is one found in Europe, 


(1) Vieillot has changed this name into Weops. 

(2) Xenops rutilus, Licht., Col. 72,2, or Neops ruficauda, Vieill. Gal. 170;— 
Xenops Hofmanseggii, Col. 150, 1, Vaill. Prom. 31, 2; Ree anabatordes, Col. 
150; 2: 

(3) Anabates cristatus, Spix, 84;—An. rufifrons, Id. 85, 1;—Philydor ruficollis, 
Id. 75;—Phil. albogularis, 1d.,74;—Phil. superciliaris, Id. 73; perhaps the same as 
the Anabates amaurotis, Tem. Col. 238, 2;—Sphenura striolata, Spix, 83, 2,, or 
Anabates striolatus, Tem. Col. 23, 1. , 

(4) Synallaxis ruficapilla, Vieill. Gal. 174, or Panilis ruficeps, Spix, 86, from 
which the Syn. albescens, Tem. Col. 227, 2, and the cinerascens, lb., 3, do not appear 
to me to differ specifically;—Syn. rutilans, Col. 227, 1;—Syn. tessellata, Col. 311, 
1;—Syn. setaria, Ib. 2;-—Prinia familiaris, Horsf. Jav.’—The Fluteur, Vaill. Afr. 
112, or Malurus africanus, Swains. Ill. 170, merely has a somewhat higher beak. 

(5) Dendrocolaptes sylviellus, Temm. Col. 72,1. Vaill. prom. 31, 2. 


PASSERINA. Md 315 


C. familiaris, L.; Enl. 681, 13 Naum. 140. (The European — 
Creeper.) A small bird with whitish plumage, spotted with 
brown above; rump and tail tinged with red. It builds in the 
hollows of trees, and climbs with great rapidity, searching for 
insects and larve in the cracks of the bark, under mosses, 
&c.(1) 


America produces several True Creepers of a large size, called, 


Denprocotapres, Herm.(2)—Grimpars, Vaill. 


Whose tail is the same, but their beak is much stronger and 
wider.(3) 

There is even one of them which approaches the Nuthatches 
in its straight and compressed beak; it might be taken for a 
Sitta with a worn tail.(4) 

The beak of another, twice as long as the head, is only arcu- 
ated at the end.(5) 

That of a third is long, slender and as much arcuated as in 
Melithreptus.(6) 


TicHoproma, Illig.(7) 


The tail not worn, although they climb along walls and rocks 
just as the common Creepers do upon trees, but they cling to them 


(1) Add, ©. cinnamomea, Vieill. Ois. Dor. 62, and Galer. 173;—Motacilla spini- 
cauda, Lath. oe Il, pl. 52? 

(2) Dendrocolaptes, the Greek name of the Woodpecker. Vieillot has changed 
it into Denprocopvs, Gal. 175, and applied it to another division. 

(3) The Picucule, Buff. (Gracula cayennensis, Gm.; Grac.scandens, Lath. & Sh.). 
Enl. 621 and Vieill. Ois. Dor. 76, to which the Dendroc. decumanus, Spix, 87, and 
falcirostris, 88, are at least closely allied. Add, the Grand Grimpart, Vaill. 42;— 
Dendrec. tenuirostris, Spix, 91, 2;—D. bivittatus, 90, 1;—D. Wagleri, 90, 2;—the 
Gr. maillé, Vaill. 29, 2;—the Grimpart flambé, Vaill. Prom. 30, or Dend. platyros- 
tris, Spix, 89?—the Gr. enfumé, Vaill. 28. 

N.B. The Fluteur of Vaill., Afr.112, is the genus Dasyornis of Swainson. 
The Dendrocolaptes Sylviellus, Tem. is his genus Srrrasomus and the Certhia 
maculata of Wils. 11, xix, 3, his genus Oxyexossus. 

The Dendroprocurvus, Tem. is the genus IPH OREEN ORE, eran and the Za- 
pie his genus DenpRoriex. 

* (4) The Talapiot, Buff.; Oriolus picus, Gm. and Lath.; Gracula picoides, Sh., Enl. 
605, or Dendrocolaptes guttatus, Spix, 91,1. 

(5) The Nasican, Vaill., Prom., etc., 24. 

(6) The Grimpart promerops (Dendrocolaptes procurvus,) Tem. Col. 28 or Den- 
drocopus faleularius, Vieill. Gal. 175. i 

(7) These birds are called Echelettes in some of the French provinces. Vieillot 
has changed this name into Picchion, and that of Illiger into PerropRoma. 


316 AVES. 


with their great claws. The beak is triangular and depressed at 
base, very long and very slender. 

One species only is known, which inhabits the south of Eu- 
rope, Certhia muraria, L.; Enl. 372; Naum. 141. It is a pretty 
bird of a light ash colour, the coverts and edges of a part 
of the wing-quills bright red. The throat of the male is 
black.(1) 


Necranrinia, Illig. 


Tail not worn, nor are these birds climbers, but their moderately 
long, arcuated, pointed and compressed beak resembles that of the 
Creepers. They are all foreign to Europe. 

The name of Gurreuirs is more particularly applied to cer- 
tain small species, the males of which are ornamented with 
lively colours. Their tongue is filamentous and bifid.(2) 

We may separate from them the largest and least beautiful 
species, whose tongue is short and cartilaginous. 

Merops rufus, Gm.; Enl. 739; Figulus albogularis, Spix, 78. 
A bird from South America, the size of a Kingfisher, reddish 
above, with a whitish throat, which constructs a nest upon 
shrubs, arched over like an oven.(3) 


Diczum, Cuv.(4) 


The tail not worn, neither do they climb; their sharp pointed, 


(1) Certh. fusca, Lath. Vieill. 65, appears to me to belong to this subgenus. 

(2) Certh. cyanea, Enl. 83, 2; Vieill., 41, 42, 43 and Gal. 176;—cerulea, Edw. 
91, Vieill., 44, 45, 46, two American species, to which we must probably add 
some from the East, most of which are red, as C. sunguinea, Vieill. 66;—C. cardi- 
nalis, Id., 54, 58;—C. borbonica, Enl. 681, 2;—Vieill. Gal. 167, has giyen to these 
birds the name of Cornzsa. 

N.B. ©. armillata, Sparm. 36;—C. cayana, 682, 2, &c. are mere varieties of the 
cyanea or of the czrulea. 

(S) This bird is the type of the genus Oputz or Operiornyncnos of Tem.; Fur- 
warivs, Vieill. Gal. 182. The genus Fieutus, Spix, does not differ from it. Add 
the Picchion-baillon, Viell, Gal. 172;—Pomatorhinos montanus, Horsf. Jay.;—Po- 
mat. turdinus, T. Col. 441;—Pom. trivirgatus, T. Col. 443;—Climacteris picum- 
nus, Tem. Col. 281, 1;—Clim. scandens, Ib. 2;—Certhia jlave eola, Edw. 122, 362, 
Vieill. 51;—C. varia (Mot. varia, L.), Kdw. 30, 2; Vieill. 74, which is the Mnio- 
tille varié, 1d. Gal. 169;—C. semitorquata, Vieill. 56;—the Promerops olivatre, 
Vaill. Huppes et Prom. pl. v (Mer. olivaceus, Sh. ).—Here, also, is the place, I sus- 
pect, for the C. virens, Vieill. 57 and 58, and sannio, Id. 64, which I have not 
seen, but which are distinguished by their slightly forked tails. 

(4) The name of a very small bird in the Indies, according to #lian. To this 
subgenus belong, Certh. erythronotos, Viell. 11, 35. The C. cruentata, Edw. 81, 
is probably a different age of the same;—C. rubra, Vieill. pl. liv, of which the C. 


PASSERINA. 317 


arcuated beak, which is not longer than the head, is depressed and 
widened at base. They inhabit the East Indies, are very small, and 
generally have some scarlet in their plumage. 


Meuirurertus, Vieill. 


The tail not worn; beak extremely long, and curved almost into a 
semicircle. From the South Sea Islands. One of them, 

Certhia vestiara, Sh.; Vieill. Ois. Dor. II, pl. 52, and Gal. 181, 
is covered with scarlet feathers used by the Sandwich islanders 
in the manufacture of the beautiful mantles of that colour,. 
which they so highly prize.(1) 


Cinnynris, Cuv.(2) 


Tail not worn; edges of the two mandibles of the long and very 
slender beak, finely serrate; the tongue, which is susceptible of 
protrusion, terminates in a little fork. They are small birds, the 
males of which, during the nuptial season, are ornamented with 
metallic colours, approaching in lustre to those of the Humming- 
bird, of which, in this respect, they are the representatives in the 
eastern continent, they being principally found in Africa and the 
archipelago of India. They live on the nectar of flowers, which 
they suck up with their bills; their disposition is lively, and their 
notes very agreeable. The beauty of their plumage has made them 
a common ornament of our cabinets, but as it is very different in 
both sexes during the winter, &c. it becomes an extremely difficult 
matter to characterize the species. 

The tail, in most of them, is equal.(3). 


erythropygia, Lath. 2d supp., is probably the female;—the MNectarinia rubicosa, 
Tem. Col. f. 2 and 3, does not appear to differ from it.—C. tanzata, Sonner. I, 
Voy. pl. cvii, fig. 3;—C. cantillans, Ib. Id. 2;—Motacilla hirwndinacea, Sh. Nat. 
Misc. No. 114. 

(1) Add Certh. obscura, Vieill. Ois. Dor. II, pl. liti;—C. pacifica, Id. pl. 1xiii; the 
other species of this naturalist belong to very different genera, chiefly to the Phi- 
ledons, &c. 

(2) The Greek name of some very small unknown bird. The natives of Mada- 
gascar call them Soui-mangat, i. e. eat-sugar. Vieillot has adopted the above 
name and genus, Gal. 177. 

(3) Certh. splendida, Sh. Vieill. 82;—C. caffia, Edw. 347;—C. superba, Vieill. 
29;—C. lotenia, Enl. 575, 2,3, Vieill. 34;—amethystina, Vieill. 5 and 6;—-chalybza, 
Enl. 246, 3, Vieill- 10, 13, 18, 24, 34, 80;—ommnicolor, Seb. I, 69, 5;—cuprea, 
Vieill. 23;—purpurata, Edw. 265, Vieill. 11;—cyanocephala, Vieill. 7;—Z. zetlon- 
ica, Enl. 576, 4; Vieill. 29, 30;—dubia, Vieill. 81;—senegalensis, Vieill. 8;—spe- 
rata, Enl. 246, 1, 2; Vieill. 16, 32, of which the /epida of Sparm. 35, is the female ;— 
madagascariensis, Vieill. 18;—currwcaria, Enl. 576, 3, Vieill. 31;—rubro-fusca, 
Vieill. 27;—fuliginosa, Vieill. 20;—maculuta, Vieill. 21;—venusta, Vieill. 79;— 


318 AVES. 


In some, the two middle feathers are the longest in the 
male.(1) 

We may also distinguish those which have a str anit — or 
one that is nearly so.(2) 


ARACHNOTHERA, Temi. 


The long and arcuated beak of the Cinnyris, but stronger, and 
without emargination; the tongue short and cartilaginous; they are 
only found in the Archipelago of India, and feed on Spiders.(3) 


Trocuius, Lin. 


The Hummingbirds, so celebrated for the metallic lustre of 
their plumage, and chiefly for those plates, brilliant as precious | 
stones, which are formed by scaly feathers of a peculiar structure, 
on their throat or head, have a long slender beak, enclosing a tongue, 
which they can protrude at will, like that of the Woodpeckers, 
(and by the same mechanism,) which is split almost to its base, 
forming two filaments employed, as is asserted, in taking up the nec- 
tar from flowers. They also, however, feed on small insects, for we 
have found their stomach filled with them. Their very small feet, 
broad tail, excessively long and narrow wings, short humerus and 
large sternum, which is without emargination, all contribute to form 
a system adapted for great power of flight, similar to that of the 
Swallows. The narrowness of their wing is caused by the rapid 
abbreviation of its quills. By these means, they balance themselves 


gutturalis, 578, 9;—Nectarinia solaris, Tem. Col. 341, 3;—eximia, Tem. Col. 138, 
1, 2;—pectoralis, Id. Col. 138, 3;—/lepida, Lath., Col. 126, 1, and Vieill. Gal. 177, 
2;—Hasselti, T. Col. 376, 3;—coccinogaster, Tem. Col. 388, 3;—Cinn. eques, 
Less. and Garn. Voy. de la Coq. pl. xxxi, f. 1;—javanica, Zool. Ill. 121; some of 
which birds are probably mere varieties of the others. 

(1) Certhia famosa, L. Enl. 83, 1;—C. pulchella, Enl. 670, 1;—C. violacea, 670, 
2;—the Sucrier cardinal, Vaill. Ap. 291;—the Sucrier figuier, Id. 293, f. 2;—WNecta- 
rinia metallica, Licht. Ruppel., pl. vii and Col. 347, 1;—Nect. mystacalis, T. Col. 
126, 3;—V. Kuhlii, T. Col. 376, 1, 2. / 

(2) Cinnyris elegans, Vieill. Gal. 177, or Certh. rectirostris, Id. Ois. Dor. I, pl. 
Ixxy. 

(3) Arachnothera longirostra, Tem. Col. 84, 1;—.4. inornata, Id. Ib. 2. 

N.B. After all these distinctions, we have still to remoye from the great genus 
Cerrura, the C, Junata, Vieill. 61;—C. Novex-Hollandiz, J. White, New S. W. pl. 
xvi and Ixy; Vieill., 57, and 71;—C. australasiana, Vieill. 55;—C. carunculata, 
Vieill. 69, 70;—C. auriculata, Vieill. 85;—C. cocincinica, Enl. 643, Vieill. 77, 78; 
C. spiza, Enl. 578, 2, Edw. 25;—C. seniculus, Vieill. 50;—C. graculina, Vieill. 
87;—C. goruck, Vieill. 88;—C. cxrulea, Vieill. 83;—C. xanthotis, Vieill. 84;—C. 
mellivora, Vicill. 86; which, by their emarginated beak and pemmirlike tongue, 
are all Philedons. 


PASSERINE, 319 


in air with nearly as much facility as certain Flies, and it is thus 
that they hum about flowers and fly with more proportionate ra- 
pidity than any other bird. Their gizzard is very small, and they 
have no cecum, an additional mark of their affinity with the Wood- 
peckers. They live singly, defend their nests with courage, and 
fight desperately with each other. 

The name of Trocuitus, Lac., is especially reserved for such as 
have the beak arcuated; some of them are distinguished by the pro- 
longation of the intermediate quills of their tail. We will mention 
but one of the largest and most beautiful. 

Troch. pellas; Colibri Topaze, Enl. 596. Purple-maronne; head, 
black; throat of the most brilliant topaz-yellow, changing into 
green, surrounded by black.(1) 

The lateral quills of the tail are very long in others;(2) several 
have tails moderately forked;(3) in the greater number it is round 
or square.(4) We call, 


ORTHORHYNCHUS, Lacep. 


Such as have a straight beak; some of them have tufted heads.(5) 
Others have tufts or elongated feathers on the sides of the head (6) 
and among them are found some with a pointed and very long tail.(7) 


(1) Add Jr. superciliosus, Enl. 600, 3; Vieill. 17, 18, 19;—Z'r. lewewrus, Enl. 
600, 3;—7T. squalidus, Natterer, Col. 120, f. 1;—7'r. brasiliensis, Lath. Col. 120, 
£2: 

(2) Tr. forficatus, Edw. 33, Vieill.. 30;—polithmus, Edw. 34, Vieill. 67, and 
particularly the magnificent Peruyian species, with the refulgent gold tail, Tr. 
chrysurus, Cuv. 


(3) Zr. elegans, Vieill. 14. ‘ 

(4) Tr. mango, L.; Enl. 1, 680, 2 and 3, Vieill. 7;—TZ. nexvius, Dumont, Col. 
120, f. 3; Tr. gutturalis, Enl. 671;—T'. tawmantias, Enl. 600, 1;— Tr. violaceus, Enl. 
600, 2;—T'r. cinereus, Vieill. 5;—T'r. melanogaster, Vieill. 75;—T'r. jugularis, Sh. 
Edw. 266, 1; Vieill.4;—7'r. holosericeus, Sh., Vieill. 6 and 65;—T'r. punctatus, Sh., 
Vieill. 8;—7'%. pectoralis, Sh. 9 and 70;—7'. aurulentus, Sh. Vieill. 12;—T'r. awreo- 
viridis, Sh., Vieill. 15;—T'r. hirsutus, Gm. or brasiliensis, Sh. Vieill. 20;—7'r. albus, 
Vieill. 11;—TZ'r. viridis, Vieill. 15;—Tr. margaritaceus, Enl. 680, 1, Vieill. 16;—7'r. 
multicolor, Gm. or Harlequin Hummingbird, Lath. Supp. pl. cxi, Vieill. 79;—T'r. 
lazulus, Vieill » Gal. 179. 

(oy .2r: cristadm Edw. 37; Enl. 227, 1; Vieill. 47, 48;—7'r. pileatus (puniceus, 
Gm.) Vieill. 63;—77r. Lalandii, Vieill. 18, f. 1.and 2;—Orthor. stephanioides, Less. 
and Garn. Voy. de la Coquille, pl. xxxi, No. 2. 

(6) Zr. ornatus, Enl. 640, 3, Vieill. 49, 50;—T%r. chalybeus, Vieill. 66, f. 2=— 
Tr. petasophorus, P. Max. Col. 203, 3:-—T>. scutatus, Natter., Col. 299, 3;—7'r. 
magnificus, Ulig. Col. 299, 2;—T'r, mesoleucos, Temm. Col. 317. 

(7) Tr. bilophus, Temm. 

N.B. M. Swainson has named those of our Hummingbirds, the middle quills of 
whose tail are elongated, Pa#tornis; those with a round or square tail, Lamronr- 


320 AVES. 


The stems of the primary wing-quills are singularly widened in 
some of them,(1) and among those which have none of these orna- 
ments, we may still distinguish the fork-tailed species,2) some of 
which have their very long lateral quills widened at the end.(3) 

Among those which have a square or slightly emarginated 
tail, there is one worthy of notice from its extreme smallness, 
the 

Troch. minimus, Enl. 276, 1; Edw. 1053 Vieill. 64. It is of a 
violet-grey colour, and about the size of a Bee. 

Another, on the contrary, because it is the largest of the whole 
genus, the 

Troch. gigas, Vieill., Gal. 180, which is almost equal in size 
to the Hirundo apus.(4) . 


Upura, Lin. 
In this genus we will first place, 


Freerius, Cuyv.(5) 


Where the nostrils are covered with feathers directed forwards, 
from which circumstance several authors have placed these birds 
with the Crows, which they also somewhat resemble in their man- | 
ners; their beak is a little longer than the head. 

Corvus graculus, L.; Le crave d’ Europe, Enl. 255; Naum. 57, 
23 Vieill. Galer. 163. The size of a Crow; black; red feet and 
beak; wings reaching to the end of the tail or extending beyond 


nis; the straight beaked ones, in which the quills of the wings are inflated, 
Cameysorterus; and those with a forked tail, Cynantuus. 

(1) Zr. latipennis, Enl. 672, 2; Vieill. 21;—7Z'r. ensipennis, Swains. Zool. Ul. 
107;—T'r. falcatus, Ib. 82. 

(2) Z'r. mellivorus, Enl. 640; Edw. 35, Vieill. 23, 24;—T'r. amethystinus, Gm. . 
Enl. 672, 1;-—7%. furcatus, Enl. 509, 2; Vieill. 34;—T'. forficatus, Vieill. 60;—T*r. 
smaragdo-saphirinus,V ieill. 36, 40;—T'r. colubris, Edw. 38; Catesb. 65; Vieill. 31, 32, 
33;—Tr. Maugeanus, Vieill. 37, 38;—Tr. Langsdorifit, Vieill. 66, 1;—T'r. entcurus, 
Vieill. 66, 3;—T%r. mediastinus, Tem. Col. 317;—Orthor. cora, Less. and Garn. 34, 4. 

(3) Tr. platurus, Vieill. 52. 

(4) Other species with square, or but slightly emarginated tails: Tr. mosquitus, 
L., Enl. 227, 2;—7'r. carbunculus, Vieill. 54;—T'r. ourissia, Enl. 297, 3;—Tr. mel- 
lisugus, L. Enl. 640, 2;—T'r. rubineus, Gm. Enl. 276, 4, Vieill. 27;—TJ'r. auritus, 
Sh. Vieill. 25;—7T'"r. collaris, Vieill. 61, 62;—T'r. superbus, Sh.; longirostris, Vieill. 
59, Col. 299, 1;—T'r. mellivorus, 1, Enl. 640, 2;—T'r. leucogaster, Gm. Vieill. 43;— 
Tr. imbricatus, Gm. Vieill. 221;—7T'. albirostris,Vieill. 45;—T’. viridis, Vieill. 41;— 
Tr. maculatus, Vieill. 44;—T'r. saphyrinus, Sh. Vieill. 35 and 97, 2;—Tr. squa- 
mosus, Tem. Col. 203, 1;—T'r. albicollis, 1, Col. 203, 2;— Orthor. Amasili, Less. and 
Garn. Voy. de la Cog. 31, 3. 

(5) Vieillot has changed this name for Coractas, which, according to Linnzus, 
is that of the Rollers. 


PASSERINE. 321 


it. It inhabits the highest ridges of the Alps and Pyrenees, 
nestling there among the cliffs or in the fissures of the rocks like 
the Chocard; it is less common, however, and does not so often 
unite in flocks. It feeds both on fruit and insects, and when it 
descends into the valleys, snow or bad weather may be ex- 


pected.(1) 
Upupa, properly so styled.» 


The Hoopoes have an ornament on the head formed of a double 
range of long feathers, which they can erect at will. There is one 
in Europe, 

» U. epops, L.3 Enl. 52; Naum. 142. (The Hoopoe.) A vinous- 
reds wings and tail, black; two transverse, white bands on the 
coyverts of the wings, and four on the quills. It seeks insects in 
humid earth, lays its eggs in holes of trees or of walls, and | 
leaves France,in winter.(2) 

Uz. capensis; Enl. 697. (The Cape Hoopoe:) More particu- 
larly allied to Fregilus by the anterior, short, and immovable 

_ feathers of its tuft which incline forwards and cover the nostrils. 


« , 
Promerors, Briss. 


No crest on the head, and a very long tail; the tongue, extensible 
and forked, enables it, as is affirmed, to live on the nectar of flowers, 
like the Cinnyris and the Hummingbirds. (3) 


(1) It is impossible to say what combination of the history of this bird with.im- 
perfect figures, perhaps of some Curlew, gave birth to the ideal species of the 
Cravé huppé or Sonneur (Corvus eremita, L.), a pretended bird of Switzerland, which 
has never been seen by any one since Gesner. But the Corv. affinis, Lath. appears 
to be a true Fregilus, and we have a totally black species from New Holland. 

(2) Add the African species, Upupa minor, Vieill. Prom. pl. ii, and Gal. pl. 184; 
~ Vaill. Prom. 23. 

(3) Vieill. Galer. pl. clxxxv, has changed Promerops into Falcinellus. The only 
one well known is the Upupa promerops or Merops caffer, E:nl. 637, which is the 
Sucrier du protea, Vaill. Afr. 139. M. Vaill. is of opinion that the Up. fusca, Gm., 
or papuensis, Lath. Enl. 638, is the female of the Epimaque 2 parements frisés, Enl. 
639.—The Up. paradisea, Seb. I, pl. xxx, 8, is the Muscicapa paradisi, with an ill 
drawn beak. The Up. aurantia, Seb. I, Ixvi, 5, according to all appearance a 
Cassicus. The mexicana, Seb. I, xlv, 3S, is not from Mexico as Seba makes it out, 
by applying to it a passage of Nieremberg, lib. x, c. 44, in which he merely speaks 
of a Duck. Iam in doubt whether to place here the Promerops cwruleus, Shaw; 
Prom. bleu, Vieill.; Upwpa Indica, Lath. or to approximate it to the Up. erythro- 
rhynchos. 

Vou. I.—2 Q 


322 AVES. 


Epimacuus, Cuys(1) 


The beak of the Upupa and Promerops along with scaly or velvet 
feathers which partially cover the nostrils, as in the Birds of Para- 
dise; they are natives of the same countries, and their plumage 
equally brilliant. The flank-feathers of the male are also more or less 
elongated. 

Upupa magna, Gm.; U. superba, Lath.; Pepimaque @ pare. 
frisés, Enl. 6393; Vaill. Prom. 153. Black; tail tapered, thrice the 
length of the body; the feathers on the flanks, elongated, turned 
up, frizzled, the edges of a burnished steel-blue, which also 
glistens on.the head and belly.(2) 7 ‘ 

Naturalists have distinguished the square-tailed species, PTILoRIs 
of Swainson, such as, ‘. 

Ep. albus; Paradis. alba; Blumen. Abb. 96; Vaill. Ois. de 
Par. pl. 16 and 17, and better Promer. 173 Vieill. pl. 13, and 
better Gal. 185, which, for a long time, was placed among the 
Birds of Paradise, on account of the long bunches of white 
plumes, which decorate its flanks, the stems of these plumes 
being continued out, forming six filaments on each side. The 


body is usually of a violet black, and the feathers on the bottom 


of the breast have an edging or border of emerald green. It 


appears, however, that there are varieties with an entirely white. 


body. The primaries of the wing are short, and much less nu- 
merous than in birds generally. 

Epim. magnificus, Cuv.; Epimaque proméfil, Vaill., Prom. 16. 
Velvet-black; tail, slightly forked; head and breast of a most 
brilliant steel-blue; feathers on the flanks, long, fringed, and 
black. 

Epim. regius, Less and’ Garn., Voy. de Duperr., pl. 283 Pti- 
loris paradiszeus, Swains. A purple black; top of the head and 
upper part of the breast of a fine brilliant green; feathers on the 
flanks, rounded and edged with green. 


The second and smallest division of the Passerine compre- 
hends those in which the external toe, which is nearly as long 


(1) Epimachus, the Greek name of a beautiful undetermined East Indian bird. 

(2) I hardly know whether I should place the Promerar, Vaill., 8 and 9;—the 
Promerup, Vaill., 11 and 12, and his Promerops sifflewr, 10, here, or near the Up. 
erythorhynchos. These beautiful birds of New Guinea, which are very rare in our 


collections, are usually deprived of their feet, which renders it impossible to class 
them with certainty. 


e 


id 


PASSERINA. 323 


as the middle one, is united to it as far as the penultimate ar- 
ticulation. We make but a single group of them, the 


SYNDACTYLE, 


Which has long been divided into five genera. 


Meroprs, Lin. 


The Bee-eaters have an elongated beak, triangular at base, slightly 
arcuated and terminating in a sharp point. There is a double emar- 
gination on each side of the hind part of the sternum. Their long, 
pointed wings, and short feet render their flight similar to that of 
Swallows. They pursue insects in great flocks, especially bees, 
wasps, &c. and it is remarkable, they are never stung by them. 
There is a species, common in the south of Europe, but rare 
towards the north, the JZ apiaster, L.; Guépier commun, Enl. 
938; Naum. 143; Vaill., Guep., 1 and 2. (The Common Bee- 
eater.) A beautiful bird with a fawn coloured back; front and 
belly of a sea-green blue; throat yellow, surrounded with black. 
It builds in holes excavated by itself along the banks of streams, 
‘which are from four to five feet in depth. The young birds re- 
main a long time in this retreat with their parents, which in- 
duced the ancients to believe that the former supported the 
latter when worn out with age. 
The two middle quills of its tail are somewhat lengthened, 
the first indication of a much greater elongation in the greater 
» part of the species foreign to Europe.(1) 
The tail of several species, however, is nearly square(2) or 
slightly forked,(3) though this sometimes depends upon their 
condition when killed. 


(1) Such are: Mer, viridis, 740, Vaill. 4;—ornatus, Lath.;—superbus, Nat. Misc. 
78;—senegalensis, Enl. 314, and badius, 252, Vaill. 12, 13;—superciliosus, 259, Vaill. 
19.—M. nubicns: Vaill. 5, Enl. 649; this individual a been deprived of its long 


- quills.—. Savignii, Vaill. 6—M. Cuvieri, Vaill. 9, and Swains, Ill. 76, under the 


name of Savignit.—M. Lamark, Vaill. 10. 
(2) Merops philippinus, Enl. 57;—M. cayennensis, 454 (N.B. That it is not from 


Cayenne).—M. nubicus, 649;—M. erytropterus, 318;—M. malimbicus, Sh. or bicolor, . 


Daud. Ann. du Mus, I, xii, and Vaill. 5, Vieill. Gal. 186;—W. gularis, Nat. Misc. 
387;—M. amictus, T. Col. 310;—M. Daudin, Vaill. 14.—M. coromandus, Lath. Son- 
nerat, Voy. 2, 105, or G. cytrin, Vaill. 11;—M. quinticolor, Vaill. 15;—JZ. minulus, 
Vaill. 17;—M. Lechenaud, Vaill. 18;—M. Bullock, Vaill. 20. 

(3) M. taiva, Vaill. 8—M. urica, Swains. Zool. Hl. 8. N.B. The Merops conge- 
ner, Aldr. I, 876, is not very authentic;—the cafer, Gm. is the Upupa promerops;—the 
brasiliensis, Seb. 1, xvi, 1, is most probably an Icterus;—the M. monachus, cornicu- 
latus, cyanops, are Gymnops;—the Mer. phrygius, cincinnatus, cucullatus, cyanops, 


324. AVES. 


We should approximate to the Bee-eaters certain long-tailed 
birds, with metallic-coloured plumage, hitherto classed with Pro- 
merops, but whose two external toes are almost as extensively 
united as those of the former.(1) 

There appears to be none of this genus in America, where they 
are represented in some respects by the 


PRIONITES, Illig. 


The Motmots have their feet and carriage, but differ in the beak 
which is stronger, the edges of both mandibles being serrated, and in 
their tongue, which, like that of the Toucans, is barbed. They are 
beautiful birds, as large as the Magpies the plumage on the head, 
loose as in the Jays, and a long cuneiform tail; the stems of the two 
middle quills being stripped of their barbs for a short distance near 
the extremities, gives to the whole a singular appearance. They fly 
badly, are solitary, build in holes, feed on insects, and even on small 


birds.(2) ea 


ALceEpDo, Lin. 


The Kingfishers have shorter feet than the Bee- cages and the 
beak much longer, which is straight, angular, and pointed; the 


tongue and tail are very short. There are two emarginations in their 


sternum, as in those of the Bee-eaters and the Rollers. They feed 
on small fish which they capture by precipitating themselves into 
the water from some branch where they have remained perched, 
watching for their prey. Their stomach is a membranous sac. They 
nestle like Bee-eaters in holes on the banks of streams, and are found 


in both continents. The European species, 
A. ispida; Eni. 77; Naum. 144. The size of a Finch; greenish 


garrulus, fasciculatus, carunculatus, of Lath. appear to us to be Philedons; we have 
even ascertained this to be the fact with respect to most of them;—the M. cine- 
reus, Seb. XXXI, 10, is along tailed Cinnyris or Sout-manga. 

(1) The Promerops moqueur, Vaill. Prom. 1, 2, and 4 (ipa er ythrorhynchos, 
Lath.). The young bird has a black beak.—The Prom. namaquois, Vaill. 5 and 6, 
or Falein. cyanomelas, Vieill. 

(2) The Blue-headed Motmot, or the Houtou of Guyana, Guira, guaynumbi of 
the Brazilians, according to Marcgrave (Ramphastos momota, Gm.); or Pr. brasili- 
ensis, Wig. Enl. 370; Vaill. Ois. de Par. &c. I, pl. xxxvii and Xxxvili;—the Motmot 
a tete rousse or of Peru; Motmot dombey, Vaill. loc. cit. pl. xxxix, and Vieill. Gal. 
pl. exe;-—Pr. Marcii, Spix, 9;—the T'utre of i aia Azz. No. 52, are, to say the 
least, closely allied to it. 

Motmot, according to Fernandez, is the Mexican name of the first. Prionitis, 
from 7e:y, saw, aname given by illiger. M. Vieillot has changed it into Barr- 


PILONUS, 


© 


PASSERINE. ’ 325 


waved with black above; underneath, and a band on each side 
of the neck, reddish; a wide band of the most cane aqua- 
marina blue along the back. | 

The species foreign to Europe have also a smooth plumage 
variegated with different shades of blue and green. 

They may be distinguished among themselves by the eit 
which in some is simply straight and pointed as in the common 
species,(1) and in others, has an inflated lower mandible.(2) 

Of those found in New Holland and its neighbouring coun- 
tries, some have a mandible hooked at the point.(3) The greyish 
and dull plumage of several of the latter is an indication of their 
not visiting the water, and in fact they feed on insects. 


Cryx, Lacep. 
Kingfishers with the usual beak, but in which the internal toe is 
deficient. Three species are found in India.(4), 
Topvus, Lin. 


The Todies are small birds of America resembling the King- 
fishers in their general form as well as in their feet and elongated 


_ beak, but the latter is horizontally flattened, and obtuse at the point. 


rigs 


(1) Ale. (afra, Sh.) maxima, Enl. 679;—aleyon, 715 and 593, and Wils., Am. 
Ill, xxxiii, 1;—/orquata, 284;—rudis, 62 and 716;—bicolor, 592;—americana, 591;— 


- bengalensis, Edw., ;—ceruleo-cephala, Enl. 356, 2;—cristata, 756, 1;—madagas- 


cariensis, 778, 1;—purpured, 778, 2;—superciliosa, 756, 1 and 2;—cinerifrons, Vieill. 
Gal. 187 ;—Biru, Horsf. Jay., and T. Col. 289, 1;—semi-lorquata, Swains. Ill. 154;— 
asiatica, Ib. 50. . 

(2) Al. eapensis, 599;—atricapilla, 673;—smirnensis, 232 and 894, one of the two 
species distinguished by Aristotle;—dea, 116, of which Vigors makes his genus , 
Tanysiprers;—chlorocephala, 783, 2;—coromanda, Somer. 218; prateucoeen fate (ja- 


waniea, Sh.), 757;—senegalensis, 594 and 356;—cancrophaga, Sh. 334;—melanor- 
hyncha, T. Col. 391;—omnicolor, T. Col., 135;—diops, Id. Col. a, ;—Dacelo con- 


creta, 1d. Col. 346;—Dacelo cinnamominus, Swains. Ill., 67. 1t is from this division 
that M. Leach has made his genus Daceto. 

N.B. In several of the fig: Enl. the beaks are not sufficiently inflated. 

(3) Alcedo fusca (gigantea, Sh.), Enl. 663; Vieill. Gal. 188;—Dacelo pulchella, 
Horsf. Jay. and T. Col. 262;—Dac. Gaudichaud, Quoy and Gaym. Voy. de Freycin. 
pl. xxv... 

N.B. M. Lesson separates the species with denticulated beaks from the, King- 
fishers, by the name of Syma; and by that of Topiramruzs, those whose beak is a — 
little depressed and without a ridge, such as lcedo sacra, Lath. See his Mem. ~ 
among those of the Soc. d’Hist. Nat. tom. II, pl. xi and xii. 

(4) Alcedo trydactyla, Pall. and Gm.; Pall., Spic., VI, pl. 11, f. 2; Sonner. i 
xxxii;—Ale. tribrachys, Sh. Nat. Misc. XVI, pl. 681;—Alc. mes Horsf., Col. 
239, 2. 


326 AVES. 


The tarsus also is higher, and the tail not so short. They feed on 
flies and build on the ground.(1) 

We terminate the history of this order with the most singular 
of its genera, a genus which has not as much resemblance to the 
other Syndactylz as they have to each other, and one which may very 
properly be made to form a particular family. It is the 


Buceros, Lin. 


The Hornbills are large birds of Africa and India, whose enormous 
dentated beak is studded with excrescences which sometimes equal 
in size the beak itself, and which are always of considerable ex- 
tent above. This renders them very remarkable, and allies them 
to the Toucans, while, at the same time, their carriage and habits 
approximate them to the Crows, and their feet to the Bee-eaters 
and the Kingfishers. The shape of these excrescences on the beak 
varies with age, and in the very young bird they are not even visi- ‘ 
ble; the interior is generally cellular. The sternum is slightly emar- Sf 
ginated behind, on both sides. The tongue is small and placed at . 
the bottom of the throat; they live on all sorts of food, eat soft fruits 
hunt mice, small birds, reptiles, and do not even despise carrion.(2) 


yt? ge \ 

(1) Zodus viridis, Enl. 585, 1 and 2, and Vieill. Gal. 124;—T7" ceruleus, Ent. 
(istine 

AiGes have very improperly placed among the dies, true Muscipete, with, wes) 
an emarginated beak and the external toe free, such as the Todus regius, Enl. * 
289;—paradiseus, Ib., 234; ;—leucocephalus, Pall. Spic., VI, iii, 2;—the two Pra- 
ryrutncr of Desmarets, which are the 7'od. rostratus and nasutus of Shaw, or T'od. 
platyrhynchos and macrorhynchos, Gm. Vieill., gives the first, Gal. 126. 

(2) Horneitts witu Excrescences. Buc. rhinoceros, Enl. 934, Vaill. Callaos, 
. Land 2; B. africanus, Vaill., pl. 17, f. 2, may be a mere variety from age; niger, 
Vaill., 13, according to Tem. is a badly preserved specimen of the same;—meno- 
ceros, Sh. Enl. 873; Vaill. 9, 10, 11, 12;—cassidix, Temm. Col. 210;—malabaricus, 
Lath. VI, ii, or albirostris, Sh.; Waill. Col. 14;—buccinator, T. Col. 284;—gingianus, 
Sonn. Voy. Il, pl. cxxi; Vaill., 15;—bicornis, Vaill. 7, the adult female; cavatus, 
Id. 4, is the male ata middle age. The pl. 3 and 5 are altered specimens of the 
same.—B. hydrocorax, Enl. 282, the young bird; Col. 283, the adult;—violaceus, 
Id. 19;—abyssinicus, Enl. 779, the middle age; Vaill. Afr, 230, 231, the adult; 
Vieill. Gal. 191;—suleatus, T. Col. 6$;—panayensis, Enl. 780, the female, and 781 
‘the old male; Vaill. Col. .16, 17, 18; manillensis, Enl. 891, should be the eee 
bird;—fasciatus, Vaill. Afr. 233;—exaratus, T. Col. 211. 

Hornbitts witsour excrescences. B, javanicus, Vaill. Cal. 22, the young 
male; Afr. 239, the old male, same as the Cal. de Waidjiou, Labill. Voy., B. undu- 
latus, Vaill. Cal. 20 and 21, are females of the same; B. erythrorhynchos, Enl. 260; 
Vaill. Afr. 238, the young one;—Aastatus, Cuv.! En]. 890, Vaill. 236, 237;—coro- 
natus, Vaill. Afr. 234, 235;—bengalensis, Cal. 93. 


SCANSORIE. 327 


ORDER III. 
SCANSORLA. 


This order is composed of those birds whose external toe’ 
is directed backwards like the thumb, by which conformation 
they are the better enabled to support the weight of their 
bodies, and of which certain genera take advantage in cling- 
ing to and climbing upon trees. It is from this that they 
have received the common name of Climbers, which in strict- 
ness is not applicable to all of them, as there are many true 
Climbers which by the disposition of their toes cannot belong 
to this order, instances of which we have already seen in the | 
Creeper and Nuthatch. . 

The Scansoriz usually nestle in the hollows of old trees; 
their powers of flight are middling; their food, like that of 
the Passerine, consists of insects or fruit, in proportion as 
their beak is more or less stout; some of them, the Wood- 
peckers for instance, have peculiar means for obtaining it. 

The hind part of the sternum, in most of the genera, has a 
double emargination; in the Parrots, there is merely a hole, 
', and very often that is completely filled up. 


GALBULA, Briss. 


The Jacamars are closely allied to the Kingfishers by their elon- 
gated sharp-pointed beak, the upper ridge of which is angular, and 
by their short feet, the anterior toes of which are almost wholly 
united; these toes, however, are not precisely the same as those of 
the Kingfishers; their plumage moreover is not so smooth, and 


N.B. The B. galeatus, of which we only have the head, Enl. 933, and which 
Vaillant erroneously considers as an aquatic bird, is a true Hornbill, but whose 
excrescence on the beak is invested with an. excessively thick ie the anterior 
portion of it particularly. 

See the general article onthe Hernbills, by Temminck, in the text of the Planches 
Coloriées. P.S. It is to General Hardwick that we are at length indebted for a 
knowledge of the B. galeatus, which proves to be, in fact, a true Hornbill, with a 
long cuneiform tail; black; white belly; the tail yellowish, with a black band near 
the end. Lin. Tr. XIV, pl. xxviii. 


r 
328. AVES. 


alwags has a metallic lustre. They are solitary birds, that live in 
wet forests, feed on insects, and build on low branches. _ 

The American species have a longer and perfectly straight 
beak.(1) ' 

There are some species in the Archipelago of India, whose 
shorter, stouter and slightly arcuated beak approximates them 
to the Bee-eaters. Their anterior toes are more separate. 
They constitute the Jacamerors of Vaillant,(2) who even gives 
a figure of one that has no ridge above.(3) 

Finally, there are others—the Jacamar-Alcyon, which have 
only three toes. They inhabit Brazil.(4) . 


Picus, Lin.(5) 


‘The Woodpeckers are well characterized by their long, straight, 
angular beak, the end of which is compressed into a wedge, and 
fitted for splitting the bark of trees; by their slender tongue, armed 
near the tip with spines that curve backwards, which by the action 


of the elastic horns of the hyoid bone, can be thrust far out of the 


beak, and by their tail, composed of ten quills(6) with stiff and 
elastic stems, which acts as a prop in supporting them while they 
are climbing. They are Climbers par excellence: they wander over 


trees in every direction, striking the bark with their beaks, and in- ~ 
sinuating their long tongue into its cracks and creyices to obtain | 
the larvz of insects, on which they feed. This tongue, besides its. ’ 
armour, is constantly covered with a viscid fluid, secreted by large 


salivary glands: it is drawn back into the beak by two muscles, 


' which are wound round the trachea like ribands; in this state of re-~ | 


traction, the horns of the hyoid ascend under the skin and round the 
head, as far as the superior base of the beak, and the sheath of the 
tongue is doubled into folds’in the bottom of the throat. Their 


(1) Alcedo paradisxa (Galbula paradisea, Lath.), Enl. 271;—Alcedo galbula, L. 
(Galb. viridis, Lath.) Enl. 238;—Galb. ruficauda, Nob. Vaill. Ois. de Par. &c. II, 
pl. 1; or G. macroura, Vieill. Gal. 29;—Galb. albirostris, Lath. Vaill. pl. li; Vieill. 
Ois. Dor. I, pl. iv;—Galb. albiventris, Vaill. xlvi. 

(2) Alcedo grandis, Gm.; Galbula grandis, Lath. Vaill. pl. liv. 

(3) The Grand Jacamar, Vaill. I, cit. pl. li. 

Jacamaciri is the Brazilian name of these birds, according to Marcgrave. Gal- 
bula, among the Latins, appears to have indicated the Oriole, it was Mehring who 
transferred it to the Jacamars. 

(4) Vaill. Jac. Sup. f. 1, and Spix, 57, 2, by the name of Aleyon tridactyla. ‘ 

(5) Picus, the Latin name for these birds, given to them, it is said, by a king of 
Latium. 

(6) Strictly speaking, there are twelve;, but the lateral ones, which are very 
small, are not counted. 


, 


w 4 
SCANSORI A. 329 


stomach is nearly membranous, and they have no ceca, still they also 
eat fruit. Fearful and wary, they pass most of their time in a soli- 
tary manner, but during the nuptial season they may frequently be 
heard summoning their females by loud and rapid tapping on a dry 
branch. They build once a year in holes of trees, and each sex alter- 
nately broods upon the eggs until they are hatched. There are six 
or seven species in Europe. 

P. martius, L.; Grand Pic noir; Eni. 596; Naum. 131. (The 
Great Black Woodpecker.) “ Almost as large as a Crow, and 
entirely black; a beautiful red forms a calotte in the male, but 
a mere spot on thé occiput in the female. It prefers the pine 
forests of the North. 

P. viridis; Pie vert; En}. 3713 Naum. 132. (The Green 

* Woodpecker.) Size of a turtle-dove; green above; whitish be- 

neath; the calotte red; rump, yellow; one of the most beautiful 
birds of Europe. The young are marked with black spots be- 
neath, and with white ones onthe mantle. It prefers inhabiting 
the woodland plains, and is partial to the beech and elm. It 
also seeks food on the ground. 
a” P. canus, Gm.; Edw. 65; Naum. 133. A species closely 
allied to the preceding, but smaller, more of an ash colour, the 
beak more slender, and with a black moustache. The only red 
about the male is on the top of the head, and there is none on 
the female. It is not found far tothe south, and is*more rarely 
seen in France than the preceding, of whose habits it partakes. 
Its favourite food consists of ants. 

P.. major; L’ Epeiche; Enl. 196, the male, 595, the female; 
Naum. 134. (The Great Spotted Woodpecker.) Size of a 
Thrush, varied with black and white above; black back and 
rump; white beneath; red about the vent; a spot of the same _ 
colour on the occiput of the male. The calotte of the young 
bird is almost wholly red; it prefers evergreen trees, frequently 
approaches our dwellings, but never lights on the ground. 

P. medius; Moyen Epeiche; Enl. 611; Naum. 136, f. 1 and 2. 
Somewhat less; the whole calotte red in both sexes; rump, 
black; under part of the tail, reddish. Inhabits temperate and 
southern Europe. 

P. minor; Petit Epeiche; Enl. 598; Naum. 136, f. 2 and 3. 
(The Little Spotted Woodpecker.) Size of a Finch; varie- 
gated with black and white above; greyish-white beneath; some 
red on the head of the male only. From the north and middle 
of Europe. It is asserted that it searches for ants on foot; but 
Naumann assures us that such is not the fact. 

P. lewconotos, Bechst.; Naum. 135. A spotted Woodpecker 

Vou. 1.—2R 


330 AVES. 


from the north-east of Europe, somewhat larger than the major 
and very similar to its but the lower part of the back and rump 
are always white, and the calotte of the male red. It sometimes 
wanders as far as Germany. 

The species foreign to Europe are very numerous, and have a 
great mutual resemblance, which even extends to certain dis- 
tributions of colour; the red on the head for instance.(1) 

There are certain species of Woodpeckers called by Lacépéde 
Picorpes, in which the external toe is wanting; having, consequent- 
ly, but two before, and one behind; but, in all other respects, they 
are similar to the common ones. There is one of them in the north 
and east of Europe. 

P. tridactylus; Edw. 114; Naum. 137. Intermediate, as to size, 


(1) Species analogous to the Black Woodpecker: P. pileatus, L. Enl. 718;— 
P. lineatus, L. Eni. 717;—P. principalis, L. Enl. 690;—P. galeatus, Natter. Col. 
171, four closely allied species, to one of which probably belongs the P. melano- 
leucos, Gm.; Lath. Syn. I, 2, t. xxv;—P. rubricollis, Gm. Enl. 612:—P. robustus, 
Spix, 44;—P. albirostris, Id. 45;—P. validus, T. Col. 378, and the female, 402;—P. 
erythrocephalus, L. Enl. 117;—P. pulverulentus, T. Col. 389;—P. concretus, Reinw. 
Col. 90;—P. chilensis, Voy. de la Coq. 32;—P. torquatus, Wils. Am. III, xx, 3;—P. 
dominicanus, Spix, 50. 

Species analogous to the Green Woodpecker: P. percussus, T. Col. 390 and 
424, the female;—P. bengalensis, L. Enl. 695, of which P. aurantius, Gm. Briss. 
IV, pl. vi, f. 1, is probably a mere variety;—P. goensis, Gm. Enl. 696;—P. auru- 
lentus, Mig. Col. 59, fig. 1, or macrocephalus, Spix, 53, 2;—-P. puniceus, Horsf. 
Col. 423;—P. mentalis, Col. 384;—P. ceylonus, N. Nat. Forsch. 14, pl. 1;—P. 
goertan, Gm. Enl. 320;—P. manillensis, Gm.; Sonner. pl. xxxvi;—P. senegalensis, 
Gm. Enl. 345, f. 2;—P. passerinus, Gm.; Briss. IV, t. iv, f. 2;—P. luzonicus, Nob. 
Sonn. pl. xxxvii;—P. miniatus, Gm. Ind. Zool. t. VI;—P.. chlorocephalus, Gm. 
Enl. 784;—P. exalbidus, Gm. Enl. 509;—P. cinnamomeus, Gm. Enl. 524;—P. pal- 
alaca, Nob. Enl. 691;—P. jumana, Spix, pochraceus and flavicans, Id. 51. 

Species analogous to the Spotted Woodpeckers: P. rubriventris, Vieill. Gal. 
27;—P. hirundinaceus, L. En). 694;—P. varius, Gm. Enl. 785;—P. villosus, Gm. 
Enl. 754; Wils. I, ix, 3;—P. wndosus, N. Enl. 533;—P. pubescens, Gm. Catesb. 
31, 11; WilS. I, ix, 4. 

Species with a transversely striped beak: P. moluccensis, Gm. Enl. 748, f. 2;— 
P. bicolor, tb. f. 1,—P. rufus, Gm. Enl. 694, f. 1, closely allied to the P. undatus, 
Gm.; Edw. 332;—P. carolinus, Gm. Enl. 597 and 692;—P. cayennensis, Gm. Enl. 
613;—P. melanochloris, Gm. Enl. 719;—P. striatus, Gm. Enl. 281 and 614;—P. 
superciliaris, T. Col. 443;—P. flavescens, Gm.; Brown, II, pl. xii, and Spix, 49;— 
P. cardinalis, Sonn., pl. xxxv;—P. querulus, Wils., Am. IL, xv, 1;—P. campestris, 
Spix, 46;—P. mace?,.T. Col. 59, 2. 

We should observe, that these distinctions of analogy, particularly when taken 
from colours, are but of little importance, and that itis very possible that among 
the above species, several may be found to constitute but one. 

N.B. The Picus auratus has become the genus Coxartes of Swainson. 


SCANSORIAE. 331 


between the Great and Little Spotted Woodpeckers black, spot- 
ted with white above; calotte of the male orange; that of the fe- 
male, white. 

We might also make a subgenus of those species whose slightly 
arcuated beak begins to approach the Cuckoos.(1) One of them 
always seeks its food on the ground, although its tail is similar to 
the others.(2) 


Yunx, Linn.(3) 


The Wrynecks have the protractile tongue of the Woodpeckers, 
which is also moved by the same kind of mechanism, but the spines 
are wanting; their straight and pointed beak is nearly round, and 
without any angles; the quills of their tail are like those of birds in 
general. Their mode of life is that of the Woodpeckers, except that 
they climb but seldom. There is one of them in Europe. 

Y. torquilla, L.; Enl. 698; Naum. 138. (The Common Wry- 
neck.) The size of a Lark; brown above, prettily vermiculated 
with small blackish waves, and longitudinal fawn coloured and 
black streaks; whitish, transversely striped with black beneath. 
It derives its name from its singular habit, when surprised, of 
twisting its head and neck in opposite directions. 

The Picumni, Temm. can scarcely be said to differ from the Wry- 
necks, except in their very short tail. They are very small birds,(4) 
some of which have but three toes like the Picoides.(5) 


Cucutvs, Lin.(6) 


The Cuckoos have a middling, well cleft, compressed, and slightly 
arcuated beak; the tail, long. They live on insects, and are birds 
passage. We subdivide this numerous genus as follows: 


(1) Such as the Picus auratus (Cuculus auratus of the 10th Ed.) Enl. 695 and 
Wils. I, ii;—Picus cafer, Lath. or proméipic, Vaill. Prom. 32;—P. poicilophos, T. 
Col. 198, f. 1. 

(2) Picus arator, Nob., Vaill. Afr. pl. cclv and cclvi. 

» The only additional abstraction that we make from the genus Picus, is the P. 
minutus, Lath. (Yunx minutissimus, Gm. Enl. 786, 1; Vieill. Gal. 28), which in 
fact is a Wry-neck. 

(3) Xunx, the Greek name of this bird, Torauiztxa the Latin one. 

(4) P. minule, T. (Yunx minutissima) Gm. Enl. 786, 1;—P. @ towpet (Picum- 
nus cirrhatus, T.) Col. 371, 1; Vieill. Gal. 28;—P. mignon (P. exilis, T.); Col. 
571, 2. 

(5) P. abnormis, T., Col. 371, 3. 

(6) Koxxvé, cuculus, cuckoo, expresses the cry of the European species. 


332 AVES. 


Tue True CucKcoos 


Have a moderately strong beak, short tarsi, and ten quills in the 
tail. They are celebrated for the singular habit of laying their eggs 
in the nests of other insectivorous birds, and; what is not less extraor- 
dinary, these latter, which are often a considerably smaller species, 
take as much care of the young Cuckoo as of their own true offspring, 
and that too, even when its introduction has been preceded, which’ 
often happens, by the destruction of their eggs. The rationale of this 
phenomenon, which is unique in the history of birds, is unknown. 
Hérissant has attributed it to the position of the gizzard, which, in 
fact, is placed much farther back in the abdomen, and is less pro- 
tected by the sternum than in other birds. The ceca are long, and 
the lower larynx has but a single muscle proper. There is one of 
them very generally found throughout Europe, — 

C. canorus, L.; Enl. 811. (The Common Cuckoo.) An ash 
coloured grey; white belly, striped transversely with black; sides 
of the tail spotted with white; a red takes the place of the grey 
in the young bird. But another species, 

C. glandarius, Edw. 57; Naum. 130, the male; Col. 414, the 
female,(1) which is sometimes seen in Europe, has a more sono- 
rous note, and is crested and spotted. 

The warm countries of both hemispheres pe several 
others.(2) 

Africa, in particular, has several beautiful species, of a green 
colour, more or less gilded; their beak is rather more de- 
pressed than that of the Common Cuckoo.(3) 

In others, mostly spotted, the beak is vertically higher.(4) 
The 


(1) Cuculus pisanus, Gm. is the young. 

(2) Cuculus capensis, Vaill. Afr. pl. 200, which is probably nothing more thana 
variety of the common one;—solitarius, Nob., Vaill. 206;—radiatus, Sonner. Voy. 
I, pl. 79;—clamosus, Nob. Vaill. 204, 205;—edolius, Nob. Vaill. 207, 208. N.B, 
Cuc. serratus, Sparm. Mus. Carls. 3, is the male; melanoleucos, Enl. 272, the female; 
—coromandus, Enl. 274, 2andavar., Vaill. a ane 1CANUS, Enl. 816, or carolinen- 
sis, Wils. III, xxviii, 1;—erythrophtalmus, Wb., 2?—flavus, Enl! 814. 

N.B. The C. mindanensis, Enl. 277, and its male C. orientalis, Enl. 274, 1, are 
separated from them by M. Vigors and Horsf. under the generic name of Eupy- 
NAMYS. 

(3) Cue. auratus, Enl. 657, Vaill. 211; ee Vaill. 210;—/ucidus, Lath. Syn. 

I, pl. xxiii, and Col. 102, f. 1;—capreus, Id. Supp. 134, and Vieill. Gal. 42;—chal- 
cites, T. Col. 102, f. 2, the female. 

(4) Cuc. punctatus, Enl. 771, and scolopaceus, 586, and perhaps even maculatus, 
764, are varieties;—honoratus, Enl. 294, Vaill. 216;—/aitentis, Sparm. Mus, Carls. 


SCANSORLA. 388 


Covas, Vaill. 


Only differ from the Cuckoos in their elevated tarsi.(1) They 
build in hollow trees, and do not lay their eggs in strange nests; a 
fact, so far as’regards those species whose mode of breeding is 
known, that cannot be denied. 

We may separate from them an American species with a long 
beak, that is only curved near the tip.(2) 

M. Le Vaillant has already, and very properly, separated from the 
other Cuckoos the 


Centrorvs, Illig. 


Or the Coucals,(3) species of Africa and India, in which the thumb 
nail is long, straight and pointed, asinthe Larks. Those which are 
known belong to the eastern continent. They also build in hollow 
trees.(4) 

We should also distinguish with that naturalist, the 


Covrots,(5) or Vouroupriovus of Madagascar, 


In whose thick, pointed, straight and compressed beak, which is 
but slightly arcuated at the point of its upper mandible, the nostrils 
are pierced obliquely in the middle of each side. Their tail is com- 
posed of twelve quills. They live in the woods, and build like the 
preceding birds. They are said to.be mostly frugivorous.(6) 


32;—mindanensis, Enl. 277;—gaira, Vieill. Gal. 44; Freycin. Voy. Zool. 26. Why 
Vieillot makes an Anis of it, it is impossible to say. 

(1) From this division Vieillot makes his genus Coceyzus, Gal. 41. It is the 
Macrorus of Spix, Cuc. madagascariensis, Enl. $25;—C. Lalandii, T. Col. 440;— 
cristatus, Enl. 589; Vaill. 217;—cexruleus, 295, 2; Vaill. 218;—nzvius, Enl. 812;— 
cayanus, Enl. 211;—C. brachypterus, T. or Macropus caixana, Spix, 43;—C. seni- 
culus, Enl. 813;—Macropus phasianellus, Spix, 42. 

(2) Cuc. vetula, Enl. 772. Itis upon this distinction that Vieill. has founded his 
genus SavroTueEra, Galer. 38. 

(3) Coucal, compounded of Cuckoo and Lark (Coc. and Alouette); centropus, feet 
with spurs. Vieill. has changed it into Coryvontz, and Leach into Poporuitus. 

(4) Cuculus egyptius and senegalensis, Enl. 332; Vaill. Afr. 219;—philippensis, 
Nob. Enl. 824, or C. bubutus, Horsf. Jav. ;—nigro-rufus, Nob. Vaill. Afr. 220;—tolu, 
Enl. 295; Vaill. 219;—bengalensis, Brown, Tl. XU1;—rujinus, Nob., Vaill. 221;— 
zthiops, Nob. Vaill. 222;—gigas, Nob. Vaill. 223;—atralbus, Voy. de la Coq. 
Zool. 34. : 

(5) Courol, from Cuckvo and Roller. From this division Vieill. has made his genus 
Lerrosomus, Gal. 29. 

(6) Cuculus afer, Enl. 387, the male, whose beak is badly. drawn, and 588, the 
female, where it is better, Vaill. 226, 227. 


334 | AVES. 


InpicaTor, Vaill. 


The Indicators are also inhabitants of Africa, and, as they feed 
on honey, have become celebrated for guiding the natives to the 
retreats of the wild bees, which they seek with loud cries. Their 
beak is short, high, and nearly conical, like that of the Finch. Their 
tail of twelve quills is at once slightly cuneiform, and partly forked. 
Their singularly hard skin shields them from the stings of the 
bees, which, being continually persecuted, sometimes kill them 
by attacking their eyes.(1) The 


Barzacovus, Vaill.(2) 


Have a conical, elongated beak, but little compressed, and slightly 
arcuated at the end, whose base is furnished with slender feathers 
or stiff hairs, which ally them to the Barbets.(3) 


Ma cona, Vaill.(4) 


A very stout beak, round at base, and arcuated near the point, with 
a large naked space about the eyes. The nostrils of some(5) are 
round, and placed near the base of the beak, in others they are nar- 
row and situated near its edge.(6) They are natives of Ceylon, and 
as it is said, live chiefly on fruit. 

It is probable that we should distinguish those species in which the 
beak is not so stout, and which have scarcely any of the naked space 
about the eyes.(7) 


ScytTuropes, Lath. 
The beak still longer and stouter than that of Malcoha, and 


(1) Cuculus indicator, Vaill. Afr. 241;—minor, Nob. Id. 24;—albirostris, T. Col. 
367. Vieill. has adopted this name and genus, Gal. 45. 

(2) Barbacou, composed of barbet and cuckoo. From it Vieill. has made his genus 
MonastA, Gal. 36. 

(3) Cuculus tranquillus, Enl. 512; Spix, 41, 2;—C. tenebrosus, En]. 505, and 
Col. 328, 2;—C. rufalbinus, T. Col. 323;—Monasa personata, Vieill. Gal. 36, or 
Bucco albifrons, Spix, 41. 

N.B. We should also observe, that the Cuc. paradiszus, Briss. IV, pl. xiv, A, 1, 
is the Drongo de Paradis (Lanius malabaricus), and that the Cue. sinensis, Id. Ib. A, 
2, is the Corvus erythrorhynchos. ‘These two remarks are from Le Vaillant, who 
has done more. to elucidate the history of the Cuckoos than any other naturalist. 

(4) Vieill. calls the Malcoha, Pucntcorumvus, Gal. 37, — 

(5) The Malcoha Rouverdin, Vaill. Afr. 223. , 

(6) The Malcoha, 1d., 224; or Cuc. pyrrocephalus, Forster, 3, Vieill. Gal. 37. 

(7) The Malcoha @ bee peint (Phenicopheus calyorhynchus, T.) Col. 349;—Phe- 
nt. pavanicus, Horsf, Jay. 


SCANSORIA. 335 


grooved on each side with two shallow longitudinal furrows ; cir- 
cumference of the eyes naked; nostrils round. These birds approach 
the Toucans in their beak; but their simple tongue, which is not 
ciliated, separates them. One species only is known, which is as 


large as a Crow, whitish, with a grey mantle; found in New Hol- 
land.(1) 


Bucco, Lin.(2) 


The Barbets have a thick conical beak, inflated on the sides of its 
base, and furnished with five bundles of stiff hairs directed forwards; 
one behind the nostril, one on each side of the base of the lower 
jaw, and the fifth under its symphysis. The wings are short, and 
their proportions are heavy, as is also their flight. They live on 
insects, and will attack small birds; they also eat fruit. They build 
in the hollows of trees. We may divide them into three subgenera: 


The Barsicans, Buff.—Pocontas, Illig.(3) 


Have one or two strong teeth on each side of the upper mandible, 
the ridge of which is blunt and arcuated; the hairs on the beak are 
remarkably rigid. They are more frugivorous than the other spe- 
cies, and are found in India and Africa.(4) 


Bucco, Cuv.(5) 


In the true Barbets, the beak is simply conical and slightly com- 
pressed, with a blunt ridge, somewhat raised in the middle. They 
are found in both continents, and several of them are ornamented 
with bright colours. During the nuptial season they fly in pairs, 
and the remainder of the year in small flocks.(6) 


(1) Scythrops nove-hollandizx, Lath. or Scyth. australasiz, Sh., Philip. 165 and 
John White, p. 142; two bad figures. Those are better in Col. 290, and Vieill. 
Gal. 39. 

(2) Bucco, the name given to this genus by Brisson, on account of the inflation 
of the mandible at its base, from bucca (cheek). 

(S) Barnrieans, because they are connected with both the Barbets and the 
Toucans: Pogontas, from zayay, beard; but the latter has long been applied to a 
genus of fishes by Lacépéde. 

(4) Bucco dubius, Gm. (Pogonias sulcirostris), Leach, Zool. Misc., II, 76, Enl. 
602; Vaill., Ois. de par. etc. IL, pl. xix;—Pog. erythromelas, Vieill. Gal. 32;—P. 
levirostris, Leach, 77; Vaill., pl. K; Le barb. a ventre rose, Vaill. loc. cit. pl. A, is its 
young;—P. personatus, T. Col. 201;—P. niger, Enl. 688, 1; Vaill., 29, 30, 31;— 
P. rubicon, Vaill. pl. D. 

(5) Vieillot has changed this name into Carrro. 

(6) Bucco grandis, Enl. 871;—viridis, Enl. 870;—flavifrons, Nob. Vaill., I, cit. 
55;—cyanops, Nob., Id., Ib., 21, or Capito cyanocollis, Vieill. Gal. 35;—Lathami, 


336 AVES. 


Tamaria, Cuv.(1)/ | 


The extremity of the upper mandible of the beak, which is some- 
what more elongated and compressed, is curved downwards. The 
large head, short tail and great beak of these birds give them a stupid 
appearance. All the known species are from America, and live on 
insects. Their natural disposition is sad and solitary.(2) 


Trogon, Lin.(3)_ 


The Couroucoui, along with the hairy fasciculi of the Barbets, have 
a short beak, which is more broad than high, and curved from the 
base, its upper ridge arcuated and blunt. Their small feet, feathered 
nearly down to the toes, long broad tail, fine light and dense plu- 
mage, give them quite a different air. Some part of their plumage 
usually has a metallic lustre, the remainder being coloured more or 
less vividly. They build in hollow trees, live on insects, and remain 
in a solitary and quiet mood on low branches in the centre of marshy 
forests, never being seen on the wing except during the morning 
and evening. They are found in both continents. 
The edges of the mandibles, in the American species, are 
dentated.(4) In those of the eastern world, they are more 
entire.(5) 


Lath., Syn. I, pl. xxii;—philippensis, En). 333;—rubricapillus, Brown, Ill., xiv;— 
rubricollis, Nob. Vaill. 35, should they not prove to be three varieties; forquatus, N., 
Vaill., 37;—vroseus, N., Vaill., 53;—miger, Enl. 688, 1; Vieill. Gal. 33;—mayanen- 
sis, Lath.;—elegans, Gm. Enl. 618;—barbiculus, N., Vaill., 56;—-parvus, Mas., Vaill., 
32, female, Enl. 746, 2;—erythronotos, Nob. Vaill., 57;—zeylanicus, Brown, II, 
XV ;—cayanensis, Enl. 206;—peruvianus, Nob. Vaill., 27;—nigrothorax, 'T., Vaill., 
28, which may also prove three varieties;—fuscus, Vaill., 43;—armillaris, T. Col., 
89, 1;—gularis, Id., Ib., 2;—chrysopogon, T. Col., 285;—versicolor, T. Col., 309;— 
Mystacophanes, T. Col. 315, Vaill. pl. C,—auro-virens, T., Vaill. pl. E. 

(1) Tamarta, the Brazilian name of one of these birds, according to Marcgrave. 
In Paraguay, Azzara says, they are called Chacurus. It isto them that Temminck 
applies the term Carrro. 

(2) Bucco macrorhynchos, Enl. 689;—melanoleucos, Enl. 688, 2;—collaris, En. 
395;—tamatia, Enl. 746, 1, Vieill. Gal. 34 (Lamatia maculata, Nob.);—Cap. me- 
lanotis, T. Col. 94;—Cyphos macrodactylus, Spix, 39, 2. 

(3) Curoucou expresses their cry, and is their Brazilian name; that of Trogon 
was conferred on them by Mehring. : 

(4) In America: Trogon curucui, Enl. 452, Vaill., cowrouc, 1, 2;—T*r. rosalba, 
Vaill. 6, or variegatus, Spix, 38;—viridis, Enl. 195, Vaill. 3, 4, Spix, 36;—violaceus, 
Noy.;Comm. Petr. XI, pl. xvi, f. 8;—sérigilatus, Enl. 765;—rufus, Enl. 736, Vaill. 
9;—Tr. atricollis, Vieill. Gal. 31, or oranga, Vaill. 7, 8, 15, or sulfuraceus, Spix, 
38;—T'r. domicellus, Vaill. 13;—Tr. albiventer, Vaill. 5. 

(5) In Asia, Trogon fasciatus, Ind. Zool: pl. v;—T. oreskios, T. Col. 181;—T. 
Reinwardii, T. Col. 124;—T* Duvaucelii, T. Col. 291, Vaill. 14;—7' condea, T. 


SCANSORIA. ey faa 


One of them is remarkable for the figure of its tail; Zr. tem- 
nurus, T., Col., 3263 and another for the length of, the tail co- 
verts, which nearly equals that of the body, Zr. pavonius, 'T., 

Col. 372; Spix, 35. Itis celebrated in the mythology of the 
Mexicans, and much in request among them for ornamental 
purposes. 


CrororuaGa, Lin. . 


The Ani(1) are known by their beak, which is thick, compressed, 
arcuated, entire, elevated, and surmounted with a vertical and 
trenchant crest. 

Two species are known, both from the hot and low districts 
of America. Their tarsi are strong and elevated, the tail long 
and rounded, and the plumage black. Crotophaga major, and 
Croto. ani, Enl. 102, fig. 1 and 2, Vieill. Gal. 43, 

These birds feed on insects and grain, and live in flocks, seve- 

_ ral couples laying their eggs, and even brooding over them in 
the same nest, which, together with the branches that support 
it, is of a size proportioned to the number of couples that have 
constructed it. They are easily tamed, and may be taught to 
speak, but their flesh has a disagreeable odour. 


Rampnastos, Lin.(2) 


' The Toucans are easily distinguished from all other birds by their 
enormous beak, which is almost as thick and as long as their body, 
light and cellular internally, arcuated near the end, and irregularly 
indented along its edges; and by their long, narrow, and ciliated 
tongue. They are confined to the hot climates of America, where 
they live in small flocks, feeding on fruit and insects; they also de- 
vour other birds’ eggs, and their callow offspring. The structure 
of their beak-compels them to swallow their food without mastica- 
tion. When they have seized it, they toss it into the air to swallow 
it with more facility. Their feet are short, and their wings have 


+ 


Col. 321;—7T. Temminckii, Vaill. 12;—In Africa, Zr. narina, Vaill. Afr. 228, » 2295 
and Cour. 10 and 11. 

We may be allowed to doubt if the Tvogon maculatus, Brown. Hl. XIE, oe a 
true Couroucou. 

(1) Ani, Anno, names of these birds in Guiana and Brazil. Crotornacus was 
formed by Brown (Nat. Hist. Jamaic.), from the circumstance of the Ani in that 
island flying on the cattle in pursuit of the Tabanus and the Tick. _ Kgorav, musea 


» caning. 


(2) Toucan fro om their Brazilian name T'uca; Rhamphastos, a name invented by 
Linneus, from ez“¢goc, beak, on account of the enormous size of that organ. 


Voi: kh—2'S 


338 AVES. 


. 


but little extent; their tail is tolerably sa They build in the hol- 
lows of trees. 


Tuer Tovucans, properly so called, 


Have a beak larger than their head; they are generally black, with 
lively colours on the throat, breast, and rump. These parts of their 
plumage were employed, formerly, in a kind of embroidery.(1) 


Preroctossus, Illig—Aracanri, Buff. 


The beak not so thick as the head, and invested with a more 
solid horn; their size is less, and the ground of their plumage green 
with some red or yellow on the throat and breast.(2) 


Psirtracus, Lin. 


The Parrots have a stout, hard, solid beak, rounded on all sides 
and enveloped at base by a membrane in which the nostrils are 
pierced, and a thick fleshy and rounded tongue; two circumstances 
which give them the greatest facility in imitating the human voice. 
Their inferior larynx, which is complicated and furnished on each 
side with its three muscles, also contributes to this facility. Their 
vigorous jaws are set in motion bya greater number of muscles than 
is.found in other birds. Their intestines are very long, and they 
have no cecum. ‘They feed on all sorts of fruit, climb among the 
branches of trees by the aid of their beak and claws, and build in 
hollow trees. Their voice is naturally harsh and disagreeable, and ~ 
they are almost universally ornamented with the brightest colours, 
hardly any of them being found beyond the torrid zone. They exist 
however in both continents, the species of course differing in each. 
Every large island even has its peculiar species, the short wings of 
these birds not allowing them to cross any great extent of water. 
The Parrots, consequently, are very numerous: they are subdivided 
by the forms of their tails and some other characters. 


(1) Ramphastos toco, Enl. 82, Vaill. 2;—carinatus, Wagler, Edw. 329;—tucanus, 
Enl. 307;—piscivorus, L. or Callorhynchus, Wagler, Edw., 64;—maximus, Nob., 
Vaill. Touc. pl. vi;—pectoralis, Sh. or Tucat, Lich. Enl. 269;—Aldrovandi, Sh., 
Alb., Il, 25;—erythrorhynchos, Sh., Enl. 262, Vaill. 3;—Valantii, Wagler, Vaill. 
4;— Tocard, Id. Vaill. 9;—vitellinus, Id. Vaill. 17, Swains. Zool. Ill. 56;—dicolorus, 
Wagler, or chlororhynchos, Temm. Vaill. 8: 

(2) Ramph. viridis, Enl. 727, 728, Vaill. 16, 17;—aracari, Enl. 166, Vaill. 10, 
11, Vieill. Galer. 30;—piperivorus, L. or Culik, Wagler, Enl. 577, 729, Vaill. 13 
and 14;—Pterogl. sulcatus, Swains. Zool. Ill. 44, Col. 356;—picatus, Albin. I, 
25;—Azzarex, Vaill. Suppl. A;—inscriptus, Swains. Zool. Ul. 90;—badlloni, Vaill. 
18;—macalirostris, Vaill. 15, and Suppl. AA. 


> 


SCANSORIE. 339 


Among those which have a long cuneiform tail, we first distinguish 


‘ 


Ara, Kuhl. 


The Aras or Maccaws, whose cheeks are divested of feathers. 
They are American species, most commonly very large, and their 
plumage extremely brilliant, on account of which many of them are 
sent alive to Europe.(1) 

The other long-tailed Parrots have the common name of 


Cornurus, Kuhl, 


Or Paroquets. Le Vaillant divides them into the 


ARrA-PAROQUETS, 


‘Which have a naked space round the eye; they inhabit America 
like the Ara:(2) and into the 


$ ARROW-TAILED PAROQUETS, 


‘Where the two middle quills extend far beyond the others.(3) 
Such is the first species known in Europe, where it was — 
brought by Alexander; Psittacus Mexandri, L., Enl. 642. It is 
of a fine green, with a red collar on the neck, and a black spot 
under the throat. The third subdivision of Le Vaillant is the 


(1) Psttt. macao, L., Vaill. 1;—Ps. wracanga, Enl. 12, Vaill. 2;—Ps. tricolor, 
Vaill. 5;—Ps. hyacinthinus, Lath., or AnodorhynchusMaximiliant, Spix, XI;—Ps. 
ararauna, Enl. 36;—Ps. militaris, Vaill. 4;—Ps. severus, Vaill. 8, 9, 10;—Ps. 
macawuanna, Enl. 864, Vaill. 7;—4rara purpureo-dorsalis, Spix, XX1V. 

(2) Ps. guyannensis, Enl. 167, 407, Vaill. 14, 15;—Ps. squamosus, Shaw, Mis- 
cell. 1061;—Ps. vittatus, Vaill. 17;—Ps. versicolor, Enl. 144, Vaill. 16;—Ps. 
solstitialis, Vaill. 16—19, or 4ratinga cree cephalus, Spix, XIV. His Aratinga 
ere is a variety. 

(3) It is this division which furnished MM. Vigors and Horsfield with their genus 
ae Sa We should place in it, 

Ps. torquatus, Briss. Enl. 551;—Ps. Alexandri, L. Enl. 642, Vaill. 30; Edw. 
292, the young of which, according to Kuhl, is Ps. ewpatria, L., Vaill. 73, Enl. 
239;—Ps. annulatus, Bechst. Vaill. 75, 76,—Ps. erythrocephalus, .L.., gingianus, 
Lath. Vaill. 45, Edw. 233;—Ps. malaccensis, Gmel.;—Ps. barrabandi, Swains. TI, 
59, or barbulatus, Bechst. Enl. 888, Vaill. 72;—Ps. bengalensis, Gm. Enl. 888, 
Vaill. 74;—Ps. papuensis, Sonner. Nouy., Guin., W1;—Ps. rujirosiris, Enl. 580;— 
Ps. hematodus, Enl. 61, or cyanocephalus, Enl. 192, or moluccanus, Enl. 743, or 
cyanogaster, Shaw, Gen- Zool., VIII, pl. lix, and J. White, p. 140, all varieties of 
age. MM. Vigors and Horsfield having observed in this last certain sete under 
the tip of the tongue, erected it into a genus by the name of Tricnogxossus. It 
would be a matter of some interest to ascertain if many other Paroquets do not 
possess this same character. 


@ 


340 AVES. 


ParoqueEts, with a tail widened near the end:(1) 


And the fourth, that of the Common Paroaquets, whose tail is 
equally cuneiform.(2) ‘To these may be added, those species whose 
tail is square; the two middle quills of which are elongated, the 
lengthened part however being without barbs, except at the tip.(3) 

Among the short and equal-tailed Paroquets we distinguish the 


Cocxaroos.(4) 


Marked by a crest formed of long and narrow feathers, placed on 
two lines, which can be raised or depressed at the will of the bird. 
They inhabit the most remote parts of India; the plumage of the 
greater number is white. and of all the different species they are.the 
most docile. They prefer marshy grounds.(5) ; 


There are some species lately discovered in New Holland, whose 


—. $$ 


(1) Ps. niger, Enl. 500, Edw., 5;—Ps. vasa, Vaill. 51;—Ps. masearinus, 3, Enl. 
5, Vaill., 139;—Ps. erythropterus, Shaw, Nat. Miscell., 653;—Ps. eximius, Vaill. 
28, 29, Sh. Misc. 93:—Ps. Pennanti, Lath., J. White, p. 174 and 175, or elegans, 
Gm. Vaill., 78, 79, or gloriosus, Shaw, 53;—Ps. Brownti, Kuhl, Vaill., 80;—Ps. 
scapulatus, Bechst. Vaill., 55, 56, Enl., 240;—Ps. tabuensis, Lath., or atropurpu- 
reus, Sh., Lev., Mus, 34;—Ps. amboinensis, Gm, Enl., 240, and J. White, p. 
168, 169. 

It is from this division that MM. Vigors and Horstield have made their eps, 
PLarycences. 

(2) Ps. guaruha, Kuhl, or: luteus, Lath., Vaill. 20, or Aratinga caroline, Spixh 
xii;—Ps. guyanensis, Gm., or macrognathes, Spix, xXv;—Ps. ludovicianus, Enl. 
499, or carolinensis, Wils., Ill, xxvi,, 1;—Ps. pertinax, Enl. 528, Vaill. 34, 37;— 
Ps. aureus, L., Vaill., 41, Edw., 235;—Ps. eanicularis, Enl. 767, Vaill., 40;—Ps. 
zruginosus, Edw., 177;—Ps. bucealis, Vaill. 67;—Ps. virescens, Enl. 359, Vail 
59;—Ps. sosova, Enl. 456, 2, Vaill., 58, 59, and Ps. tovi, Enl. 190, 1;—Ps. ma- 
rinus, Enl. 768, Vaill. 38;—Ps. ponticerianus, Enl. 517,, Vaill., 31;—Ps. xanthoso- 
mus, Bechst., Vaill., 61;—Ps. capistratus, Bechst., Edw., 232, Vaill. 47;—Ps. or- 
natus, Enl. 552, Waill. 52, Edw. 174;—-Ps. marginatus, Vaill. 60, or olivaceus, Enl. 
287;—Ps. macrorhynchus, Ent. 713, Vaill 83;—Ps. grandis, Enl. "518 and 683; bet- 
ter, Vaill. 126, 127, 128;—Ps. incarnatus, Vaill. 46;—Ps. borneus, Vaill. 44;—Ps. 
Nove-Guinex, Vaill. 49;—Ps. concinnus, Vaill. 48;—Ps. pusillus, Vaill. 63;—Ps. 
humeralis, Vaill. 50;—Ps.. discolor, V. 62;—Ps. undulatus, Sh. 673;—Ps. chrysos- 
tomus, Kubl, pl. 1;—Ps. pulchellus, Vaill. 68;-——Ps. zonarius, Sh. 657. 

(3) Ps. setarius, Temm. Col. 15. 

(4) Vieillot has named this division Prycroropuvs. 

(5) Ps. cristatus, Ent. 265;—Ps. philippinarum, Ent. 191;—Ps. malaccensis, 
Enl. 498;—Ps. sulfureus, Enl. 145 ;—Ps. galeritus, White, 237;—Ps. nasicus, T. 
Col, 351, 


— 
~ 


ee 


SCANSORIA. 341 
, ; 


tufts are more simple, less mobile, and composed of broad feathers 
of a moderate Iength. They live ea on roots.(1) 

In others, the crest merely consists of a few pendent feathers, fur- 
nished with slender barbs near the tips only, which form a kind of 
tufted bunch.(2) w 

But in the greater number, there is no crest whatever. The species 
best known for its aptness in learning to speak is, 

Psitt. erythacus; Jaco; Enl. 311; Edw. 163; Vaiil. 99—103, 
(The Grey Parrot.) Cinereous, with ared tail. From Africa. 
The species with green plumage are the most numerous.(3) 

The name of Loris has been applied to those species, the ground 
of whose plumage is red, which have a tail somewhat wedge-shaped, 
and which closely approach certain Paroquets. They are only found 
in the East Indies. (4) There are some small species with a very 
short tail, Psrrracutus, Kuhl, which are also, but improperly, call- 
ed Paroquets. (5) 


(1) Ps. Banksii, Lath., Syn. Supp. 109, Shaw, Misc. 50;—Ps. funereus, Shaw, 

Misc. 186;—Ps. Cookii, Tem., or Leachii, Kuhl, pl. iiij—Ps. roseus, Kuhl, Col. 81. 
This division has become the genus CatyeroruyNncuus of M Vigors and Horsfield. 

(2) Ps. galeatus, Lath., Suppl. 

(3) Ps. melanocephalus, Enl. 527; Vaill. 119, 120;—Ps. signatus, Vaill. 105;— 
Ps. menstruus, Fnl. 384; Vaill: 114, or flavirostris, Spix, xxxi;—Ps. purpureus, 
Enl. 408; Vaill. 115;—Ps. sordidus, Vaill. 104;—Ps. amazonicus, Enl. 13, 120, 312; 
Vaill. 98, 99;—Ps. xstivus, Enl. 547, 879; Vaill. 110 and 110 bis;—Ps. exrulifrons, 
Sh., Edw. 230; Vaill. 135;—Ps. cyanotis, Tem. or brasiliensis, Lin., Edw. 161; 
Vaill. 106;——Ps. dominicensis, Enl. 792, or vinaceus, Pr. Max., or columbinus, Spix, 
xxvii;—Ps. Dufresnianus, Kuhl, Vaill. 91;—Ps. autumnalis, Edw. 164; Vaill. 111; 
Ps havanensis, Enl. 360; Pail. 122;—Ps. leucocephalus, L., Enl. 335, 548, 549; 
Vaill. 107, 108, 108 bis, 109;-—Ps. albifrons, Mus. Carls. 52;—Ps. pulverulentus, 
Enl. 861; Vaill. 92;—Ps. festivus, Enl. 840; Vaill. 129;—Ps. accipitrinus, Enl. 520, 
and Spix, Xxxil, a;—Ps. senegallus, Enl. 288; Vaill. 116, 118;—Ps. Levaillantii, 
Lath.; or infuscatus, Sh.; Waill. 130, 131;—Ps. gramineus, Enl. 862; Vaill. 121;— 
Ps. sinensis, Edw. 231, Enl. 514, Vaill. 132;—Ps. Geoffroii, Vaill. 112, 113, or Ps. 
Bega: Sh. oe seein Spits ena NS mitr pigiet Pr. Max.; Col. 207, or 


(4) Ps. ee ae Vaill. 125:—Ps. ssi Enl. 119; Vaill. 94, 95;—Ps. lori, 
Enl. 158; Vaill. 123, 124;—Ps. garrulus, F.nl. 216; Vaill. 96;—Ps. cyanurus, Sh., 
Vaill. 97. 

(5),Ps. passerinus, Enl. 455, 1; Schaw., Misc., 893, and Spix, XXXII;—Ps. 
tut, Enl. 456, 1; Vaill. 70;—Ps. melanopterus, Enl. 591, 1; Vaill. 69; Sh., 132;— 
Ps. pileatus, Enl. 744; Vaill. 135;—Ps. Barrabandi, Vaill. 134;—Ps. canus, Enl. 
791, 2; Sh. 425;—Ps. swindernianus, Kuhl, pl. ii;—Ps. galgulus, Enl. 190, 2;— 
Ps. philippensis, En). 520;—Ps. vernalis, Mus., Carls., 29;— Ps. indicus, Edw. 6;— 
Ps. torquatus, Sonner., N. Guin., 393;—Ps. simplex, Kuhl, Sonner., Tb. 38, 1;— 
Ps. pullarius, ¥.n\. 60;—Ps. miecropterus, Sonner, 41;—Ps. taitianus, Gm. Enl. 
455, 2; Vaill. 65, or Ps. porphyrus, Sh. Misc. Tihs, sparmannt, Mus., Carls.. 27; 


342 AVES. 


All this variety of size and colours can hardly authorise any 
generic distinctions. There are only the 


PAROQUETS A TROMPE, Vaill. 


Which possess characters sufficiently well marked to claim a 
separation from the others. ‘heir short, square tail, and their 
crest composed of long and narrow feathers, assimilate them to the 
Cockatoos. Their cheeks are naked, as in the Ara, but their enor- 
mous upper mandible, and the very short lower one, which cannot 
be made to close, their cylindrical tongue, terminated by a small 
horny knob, split at the apex, and susceptible of being greatly pro- 
truded from the beak, their legs, naked a little above the heel, and 
finally, their short and flat tarsi on which they often rest in walking, 
distinguish them from all other Parrots. But two species are 
known, both natives of the East Indies.(1) A subgenus might also 
perhaps be made of the 


Przororus, Illig.—Prrrucues Incamsgs, Vaill. 


Which have a weaker beak, more elevated tarsi, and straighter 
nails than the other parrots. They walk about on the ground, and 
seek their food among the grass.(2) 


There are two African birds, closely allied to each’ other, 
and generally placed among the Scansori#, which appear to 
me to have some analogy with the Gallinacexe, and especially 
with the Hoccos. 

They have the tail and wings of the Hoccos, and like them 
perch on trees; the beak is short, and the upper mandible 
gibbous; there is a short membrane between the fore-toes, 
but the external one, it is true, is often directed backwards 


Vaill. 66;—Ps. fringillaceus, Vaill. 71, or porphyrocephalus, Sh. Misc., 1;—Ps. 
phigy, Vaill. 64;—Ps. xanthopterigius, Spix, XXXIV, 12;—Ps. gregarius, Spix, 
XXXIV, 3, 4. 

(1) Pstttacus aterrimus, Gm., or Ps. gigas, Lath. Edw. 316;—Ps. goliath, Kuhl, 
or [Ara noir a trompe, Vaill. per. 1, pl. xii and xiii;—L’4ra gris a trompe, Id. Ib. 
pl. ii, is perhaps a variety of the same. The name of trompe is not exactly cor- 
rect. The tongue is not hollow, and in fact all that can be properly styled tongue 
is the little horny piece which invests the extremity of the cylinder. See Geoff. 
Saint-Hill. Ap. VJ, Gal. 4. 

From this subdivision M. Vieillot has made his genus Microexossus, Galer. 
pit. 

(2) Ps. formosus, Vaill., I, 32; Sh. Mise., 228;—Ps. Nove-Zelandizx, Lath., 
Mus. Carls., 28;—Ps. cornutus, Lath., Syn. Supp. II, pl. viii. 


Spe 


i 


SCANSORIZ. : 343 


like that of the Ulule. Their nostrils, also, are simply pierced 
in the horn of the beak, the edges of the mandibles are 
dentated, and the sternum (at least that of the Touraco) hasnot 
those large emarginations, so common in the Gallinacee. 
There are two genera of these birds : the first is, 


CoryTHArx, Illig.(1) 


Or the Touracos, in which the beak does not mount on the fore- 
head, and the head is furnished with an erectile tuft. The most 
common species, 

Cuculus persa, L.; Enl. 601; Vaill., Prom., &c., 16 and 17, is 
found in the vicinity of the cape of Good Hope. It is a beauti- 
ful green, with part of the quills of the wings crimson. It 
builds in hollow trees, and feeds on fruit.(2) The second is the 


Mosopnaca, Isert. 


Or the Plantain-eaters, so called, because their principal food is the 
fruit of the banana. They are characterised by the base of the beak 
forming a disk, which partly covers the forehead. The species 
known is 
M. violacea, Vieill. Galer. 47; Touraco violet, Vaill., Pro- 
mer., &c., pl. 18. Circumference of the eyes naked and red; 
violet-coloured plumage; occiput and primary quills of the 
wings, crimson; a white line passes below the naked space round 
theeye. Inhabits Guinea and Senegal. 


ORDER IV. 
GALLINACEA.—Gatuiwa, Lin. 


These birds areso called from their affinity with the Domestic 
Cock, and like it, generally have the upper mandible arched, the 


(1) Vieillot has changed this name into Opmraus:. 

(2) Add the Touraco-géant, Vaill., Prom. and Guép., pl. 19;—the Touraco Pau- 
line, Temm., Col. 23, or Opxthus erythrolophus, Vieill. Galer. 49;—the Touraco 
brun (Phasianus africanus, Lath.) Vaill., 20, or Musophage varié, Vieill. Galer. 48. 


Std | AVES. 


ea pierced in a ‘get membranous space at the base of the 
beak and covered by a cartilaginous scale; a heavy carriage, 
short wings, and the bony sternum diminished by two emargina- 
tions, so. wide and deep that they occupy nearly the whole 
sides, its crest being truncated obliquely forwards, so that the 
sharp point of the fourchette is only joined to it by a liga- 
ment, circumstances which, by greatly impairing the strength 
of the pectoral muscles, render it difficult for them to fly. 
Their tail generally consists of fourteen quills, and sometimes 
of eighteen. The lower larynx is very simple, and conse- 


quently there is none of them that sings agreeably. They 


have an extremely large crop, and a very vigorous gizzard. 
With the exception of the Hocco, they all lay their eggs on 
the ground, on a few carelessly arranged blades of straw or 


grass. Each male usually has several females, and takes no sort 


of trouble either with the nest or the young ones, which com- 
monly are very numerous, and most usually able to run as 
soon as they have left the shell. 

This order is chiefly composed of one very natural family, 
remarkable for having furnished us with most of our domestic 


poultry, and abundance of excellent game; one in which the. 


anterior toes are united at base by a short membrane, and in- 
dented along the edges, and which it is impossible to divide 
into genera, except by having recourse to characters of but 
little importance, drawn from some of the appendages of the 
head. In order, however, to avoid an excessive multiplica- 
tion of beings, we will associate certain genera with them 
whose feet are deficient in that membrane, some of which, the 


Pigeons, connect the Galliacee with the Passerine, while | 


the others, the Hoazins, Buff., somewhat approximate to the 
‘Touracos. 

Avecror, Merr.(1) 
The Hoccos are large Gallinacez of America, which resemble 


Turkeys, with a broad, rounded tail, formed of large and stiff quills. 


¥ 
(1) Alector is the Greek name of the Cock. 


agF $F Ss ee ae et ee oe ecg BR. Po Pa 


a 


GALLINACE. 345 


There is a singular conformation in the trachea of several of them. 
They live in the woods, feed on buds and fruit, perch and build on 
trees, are very social and easily domesticated. Gmelin and Latham 
have divided them into Hoccos and Yacous, but upon very undeter- 
minate characters. We subdivide them in the following manner. 


Tue Hoccos, properly so called, Buff.—Mrrovs, of Brazil, &c.— 
Crax, Lin. 


Have a strong beak, its base surrounded with a skin, which is 
sometimes highly coloured, in which the nostrils are pierced; on 
the head is a tuft of long, narrow, erect feathers, curled at the 
tips. They are the size of Turkeys, and like them fly up into trees. 
They are bred by the Americans; and individuals are sometimes sent 
to Europe, so variously coloured, that we are at a loss how to cha- 
racterize their species. The most common, or 

Crazx alector, L.; Mitou-Poranga, Marcgr.; Buff. Ois., I, pl. 
xiii; Vieill. Galer., 199. Black; the lower part of the belly 
white; cera of the beak, yellow. The trachea makes but one 
slight curve before it enters the thorax. Some of these birds, 
such as 

Crax globicera, L., Enl. 86; Edw., 295, 1, have a larger or 
smaller globular tubercle on the base of the beak. Among both 
of these species individuals are to be found in which the body is 
irregularly striped with white or fawn colour. Albin‘, II, 32.(1) 
The whole upper part is sometimes fawn'coloured.(2) Those of 

_ Peru, 

Craz rubra, L., Enl. 125, are all ofa vivid chesnut colour above, 
the head and neck being variegated with black and white.(3) 


Ourax, Cuv. 


The Pauxi(4) have a shorter and thicker beak, the membrane of its 
base, as well as the greater part of their head being covered with 
a short and dense plumage resembling velvet. The most common 
species, 

Crax pauxi, L.; Pierre, &c.; Enl. 78; Vieill. Galer. 200 (The 
Stone Bird), has an oval tubercle on the base of its beak, of a 


(1) This appears to be the true Mexican Hoazin of Hernandez. 

(2) Such is the female described by Azzara, Voy. IV, p. 169. From the ac- 
counts of other travellers, it appears that the females, also, are fawn coloured. 

(3) See also Craw fasciolata, Spix, LXU, a;—C. Blumenbachii, id, LXIV. Add, 
Crax globulosa, 1d. LXV and LXVI;—C. rubirostris, 1d.. LX VIL. 

(4) Patxiis the name by which Hernandez designates them. Ouraa, the Athe. 
nian name for the Heath-Cock. 


Norwida—2 -T 


346 AVES. 


light blue colour and a stony hardness, almost as large as its 
head. Itis black; the lower part of the belly and the tip of the 
tail, white. It lays its eggs on the ground. Its original habitat 
is not exactly known. The trachea descends externally along 
the right side to behind the sternum, where it inclines to the 
left, and ascends to enter the thorax, through the fourchette. All 
its rings are compressed. 

There is another species, which, instead of the tubercle on 
the beak, has a red salient crest. The belly and tip of the tail 
are chesnut colour. It is the true Mittu of Marcgrave; Ourax 
mittu, Tem. Col. 153; Crax galeata, Lath.; Crax tomentosa, Spix, 
Ixiii.(1) 


PENELOPE, Merr. 


The Guans or Yacous(2) have a slenderer beak than the Hoccos; 
the circumference of the eyes is naked, as well as the under part of 
the throat, which is generally susceptible of being inflated. 

Several varieties of colour are found also among these birds, 
between which it is very difficult to establish specific limits. 
Those which have a tuft are sometimes of various shades of 
brown or bronze—Penelope jacupema, Mer. II, xi; sometimes 
spotted on the breast—VPenelope cristata, L., Edw. 133(3) some- 
times black, with the same spots, and more or less.white on 
the tuft and coverts of the wings—Penelope leucolophos, Merr. 
II, xii, or Pen. cumanensis, Gm.; Jacq. Beytr. pl. 103; Bajon, 
Cay., pl. 5, or Pen. jaculinga, Spix, pl. Ixx. Some of them are 
intermediate between these two extremes,—Pen. pipile, Jacq. 
Beytr. pl. xi. 

The trachea, at least in the first, descends under the skin far 
behind the posterior edge of the sternum, ascends, is again 
flexed, and then continues its course towards the fourchette, 
through which, as usual, it gains access to the lungs. <A spe- 
cies almost without crest, 

Pen. marail, Enl. 338, Vieill. Gal. 198, greenish-black, with 


(1) Add, Crax tuberosa, Sp. LX VII, a;—Cr. uramutum, Id., LXIl. N.B. The 
Chacamel, Buff. (Crax vociferans) founded on a vague indication of Hernandez, cap. 
XLI, is not authentic. Sonnini even thinks it may be the Falco vulturinus. The 
Caracara of Buff. and Dutertre is the Agumi (Psoruta). * 

(2) Gouan and Yacou are the names of these birds in Guiana and Brazil. That 
of Penelope, given to them by Merrem, designated among the Greeks a species of 
Duck, which, according to them, had saved the wife of Ulysses from drowning 
when a child. : 

(8) The P. jacuaza, jacucaca, jacupeba, jacubemba, guttata, and arra cuan, of 
Spix, LXVIII—LXXV, closely approach the P. cristata, if they are not mere vari- 
etiesofit. The P. marail, Vieill., Gal., 198, corresponds most with the jacupeba. 


GALLINACES. 347 


a fawn coloured belly, appears very distinct. Its trachea, in 
both sexes, forms a curve at the upper part of the sternum, 
just before it dips into the thorax. 


Orratipa, Merr. 


Or the Parraquas, only differ from the Yacous by having but 
little of the naked space on the throat, and about the eyes. 

Only one species is known; of a bronze-brown above, whitish- 
grey beneath; top of the head red—Catraca, Buff.; Phasianus 
motmot, Gm., and Phas. parragua, Lath., Enl. 1463;(1) Bajon, 
Cay. pl. 1. The cry of this bird is very loud, and articulates 
its name. The trachea descends under the skin as low as the 
abdomen, and then ascends to enter the thorax. 

With these different Hoccos naturalists usually associate the 


Oprstuocomus, Hoffmanseg.—Hoazin, Buff. (2) 


An American bird of similar carriage, with a short and thick 
beak, the nostrils pierced in the horn, and destitute of membrane; 
the head ornamented with a tuft of long and very narrow and slen- 
der feathers, which is distinguished from all the true Gallinacez, 
by having no membrane between the base of the toes. It is the 
Phasianus cristatus, L., Enl. 3373 Vieill. Galer. 193; greenish-brown, 
variegated with white above; front of the neck and tip of the tail 
fawn coloured; the belly chesnut. It is found perching along the 
margin of inundated places in Guiana, where it feeds on leaves and 
the seeds of a species of Arum. Its flesh smells strongly of castor, 
and is only employed as a bait for particular fishes. 


Pavo, Lin. 


The Peacocks are characterized by an aigrette or crest on the head, 
and by the coverts of the tail of the male being larger than its 
quills, and capable of being erected so as to form a circle. The 
shining, lax and silky barbs of these feathers, and the ocellated spots 
that decorate their extremities, are well known in the 

P. cristatus, L.; Paon domestique, Enl. 433 and 434. (The 


(1) N.B. The fig. in the Pl. Enl. is bad, in as much as it represents the tail 
pointed. 

(2) This term was applied to the above bird by Buffon, without any proof, from 
an indication of Hernandéz, Mex. 320, ch. 10. 

Vieill. Galer., 193, calls it Sasa cristata, and improperly represents the beak as 
notched near its commissure. It forms a genus very distinct from that of any other 
of the Gallinacez, and when its anatomy is known, may become the type of a par- 
ticular family. 


348 AVES. 


Common Peacock.) A species in which the head is ornament- 
ed with an aigrette of vertical feathers widened at ‘the tips. 
This superb bird, originally from the north of India, was intro- 
duced into Europe by Alexander. Its magnificent plumage is 
even surpassed in brilliancy by that of the wild ones. “A rich 
blue supersedes the gold-green specks along their back, and on 
their wings; their tail also is more plentifully furnished with 
feathers. 

The Pavo spiciferus, improperly styled by Linnzus P. muti- 
cus, for it also has spurs, is a distinct species. The feathers of 
its aigrette are long and narrows; its neck is not blue, but green, 
watered and gilt; the tail almost as magnificent as that of the 
common species.(1) Vieill. Galer. 202; Shaw, Nat. Misc. 641. 
Another species, 

P. bicalcaratus and thibetanus, Gm.; L’Eperonnier, Enl. 492 
and 493; Vieill. Galer. pl. 203 (The Chinquis), is much 
smaller, and has a short thick tuft on the head; each of the 
tarsi of the male is armed with two spurs; the coverts of the 
tail, which are not so long, are marked with double spots, and 
those of the scapulars with simple ones.(2) A neighbouring 
species, Polypl. albocellatum, T. is marked with simple blue 
spots, surrounded by a whitish circle. A third, Pol. chalcurum, 
T. has blue quills, but its coverts are only marked with fawn- 
coloured and black stripes. 


LornorHorus, Tem. 


The head surmounted with an aigrette similar to that of the Pea- 
cock, and a flat tail, the coverts of which are not prolonged, other- 
wise resembling the preceding birds in the lustre of the metallic 

‘colours of the male. The circumference of the eye, and even the 

cheeks, are naked as in the Pheasants, and the tarsi are armed with 

strong spurs. A species is known from the mountains of the north 
of India, 

L. refulgens, T.; Phasianus impeyanus, Lath. Syn. Supp. pl. 

1143; Monaul, Sonnin.; Vieill. Gal. 208. Black; size of a Tur- 

key; the aigrette and dorsal feathers of changeable colours, 

reflecting tints of gold, copper, sapphire, and emerald; quills of 


(1) It was only known, fora long time, by a bad drawing from Japan, in the six- 
teenth century, (Aldrov., II, av., 33, 34,) but Messrs Duvaucel and Diard having 
sent several of the birds from Sumatra to France, M. Vieillot has given his figure 
from them. 

(2) M. Temminck makes a genus of it by the name of PoryrLectrum; Vieillot 
has changed it into DierecTRon. 


GALLINACE. 349 


the tail red. The young, and the female, are brown, dashed 
with grey and fawn-colour.(1) . sd 


Me veagris, Lin.(2) 


The Turkeys have their head and upper part of the neck invested with 
a plumeless and papillated skin; an appendage under the throat, and 
another conical one on the forehead, which, in the male, when.ex- 
cited by passion, becomes so inflated and long, as to hang over the 
point of the beak. From the lower part of the neck of the adult male 
hangs a tuft or tassel of stiff hairs; the coverts of the tail shorter and 
stiffer than in the Peacock can be erected and displayed in the same 
way. ‘The tarsi of the male are armed with weak spurs. But one 
species was known for a long time. a 

Meleagris gallo-pavo, L.3; Enl. 97. (The Common Turkey.) 
Introduced into Europe from America in the sixteenth century. 
The size of this noble bird, and the goodness of its flesh, have 
rendered it extremely common. The Wild Turkey of America, 
Vieill. Gal. 201, is of a greenish brown, with a copper gloss. 
A second species, however, 

MM. ocellata, Cuv. Mem. Mus., VI, pl. 1; Col., 112, has lately 


» been described, almost equal to the Peacock in the brilliancy of 


its colours, and particularly in the sapphire coloured spots, sur- 
rounded with circles of gold and ruby, which decorate the tail. 
It was captured in the bay of Honduras. , 


Numipa, Lin.(3) 


The Guinea-fowls, or Pintados, have a naked head, fleshy wattles 
at the bottom of the cheeks, a short tail, and the cranium generally 
surmounted with a callous crest. Their feet are without spurs; their 
short, pendent tail, and the quantity of feathers on the rump, give a 
spherical air tothe body. The common species, 

N. meleagris, L.; Enl. 108 (The Common Guinea-Hen), 
originally from Africa, has a slate-coloured plumage, every 


(1) #lian appears to have previously known and described it, Hist., anno. L. 
XVI, c. 2. Add the lophophore, Cuv., Tem. Col. pl. 1, with a pendent crest, black 
body, and the edges of the dorsal feathers white; discovered by M. Duvaucel. It 
is, perhaps, the Phasianus lewcomelanos of Lath. The female is brown, edges of 
the feathers on the breast whitish. 

(2) Mrrzacris is the Greek name of the Guinea-Hen, erroneously applied by 
Linnzus to the Turkey. 

(3) These birds were called Meleagrides by the ancient Greeks, who supposed 
them to have sprung from the metamorphosis of Meleager’s sisters. They looked 
upon the spots on the feathers as traces of tears. The Romans called them Afri- 
can Hens, &c. They have been found no where by the moderns except in Guinea. 


350 AVES. 


where sprinkled with small, white, round spots. Its noisy and 
quarrelsome disposition render it a very unwelcome guest in 
poultry-yards, although its flesh isyexcellent. Ina wild state 
they live in large flocks, and prefer the vicinity of marshes. 
There are also two species, 

N. cristata and N. mitrata, Pall., Spic., IV, pl. ii and iii, fig. 
1; Vieill. Galer., pl., ccix, in the first of which the head is 
ornamented with a plumed crest, and in the second with a conical 
helmet. A third has lately been discovered in which the helmet 
is very small, and which has a small tuft on the base of the beak, 
composed of short stems, almost without barbs. NV. ptylorhyn- 
cha, Licht. The great genus, 


Puastanus, Lin. 


Or that of the Pheasants, is characterized by the cheeks being 
partly destitute of feathers, and covered with a red skin, and by the 


tectiform tail, in which the feathers are variously disposed. We first, 


distinguish, 


GALLUS, 


The Cock, in which the head is surmounted with a vertical and 


fleshy crest, and each side of the lower mandible furnished with 
fleshy wattles. The quills of the tail, fourteen in number, are ele- 
vated on two vertical planes, placed back to back; the coverts of that 
of the male are extended into an arch over the tail proper. The spe- 
cies so common in our barn-yards, 

Phas. gallus, L.; Enl. 1 and 49 (The Common Cock and 
Hen), varies infinitely as to colour, and even greatly as to sizes 
in some races the crest is replaced by a tuft of feathers, or a 
top-knot; in others the tarsi, and even the toes, are feathered; 
in one race the crest, wattles, and periosteum of the whole skele- 
ton are black, and in others, by a kind of monstrosity, we find 
five, and even six toes, for several generations. 

Several species of wild Cocks are known. The first, 

Gallus Sonneratii, Tem. Col., 232 and 233 (The Jungle Cock), 
was described by Sonnerat, Voy. II, Atl., 117, 118, and is very 
remarkable for the feathers on the neck of the male, the stems 
of which widen at the bottom into three successive disks of a 
horny nature. The crest is denticulate. It is found in the 
gauts of Hindostan. 

Two others have been brought from Java by M. Lechenaud, 
one of which, Gall. Bankiva, Tem., has a denticulated crest like 
the preceding; all the feathers of the neck being long, pendent, 
and of the most beautiful golden red; it appears to me to bear 


GALLINACEE, 351 


the greatest resemblance to our Domestic Cock. The other, 
Phas. varius, Shaw, Nat., Misc., 353; 4jamalas; Gall. furcatus, 
Tem. Col. 374, is black, with a cupreous-green neck; speckled 
with black; the crest entire, and a small kind off dewlap, with- 
out lateral wattles. ” 


PueEasanTs, properly so called, 


Have along cuneiform tail, each of its quills being inclined on two 
planes, and covering each other. The most common, 

P. colchicus, L.; Enl, 121, and 122 (The Common Pheasant 
of Europe), was brought into Europe by the Argonauts, as it is 
said, from the banks of the Phasis. It is now spread through- 
out all temperate Europe, where it requires, however, a great 
deal of care. The head and neck of the male are of a deep 
green, with two small tufts on the occiput; the rest of the plu- 
mage is of a golden fawn colour, speckled with green. The fe- 
male is brownish, speckled and variegated with a darker brown. 

China has lately furnished us with three other species, which, 
with the Peacock, form the ornaments of our aviaries, viz. 

Ph. torquatus, which scarcely differs from the common one, 
except in having a brilliant white spot on each side of the neck. 

Ph. nycthemerus, L. (The Silver Pheasant.) White, with 
very fine blackish lines on each feather, and the belly entirely 
black. 

Ph. pictus, L. Enl. 217. (The Golden Pheasant.) So remark- 
able for its magnificent plumage; the belly is of a bright red; a 
beautiful crest of a golden colour hangs from the head; the neck 
is clothed with a collerette of orange, speckled with black; the 
upper part of the back is green, the lower part of the rump 
yellow; the wings red, with a beautiful blue spots the tail very 
long, brown, spotted with grey, &c. It appears to me that 
Pliny’s description of the Phcenix, lib. x, cap. 2, was taken from 
this beautiful bird. 

The females of all these species have shorter tails than the 
males, and the plumage variously marked with different shades 
of grey or brown.(1) 

One of the most singular of all birds is, 

Ph. Argus, L.; L’Argus, Vieill., Galer., pl. cciii. (The 
Argus.) A large Pheasant from the south of Asia, whose head 
and neck are nearly naked. The tarsi are without spurs; a very 
long tail to the male; the secondary quills of the wings exces- 
sively elongated, widened, and covered throughout with ocel- 


(1) Add the Faisan versicolor,—Phas. Diardi, Tem., discovered by Messrs Di- 
ard and Duvaucel, Vieill. Gal. pl. ccv. 


352 AVES. gy 


lated spots, which, when spread, give to the bird a most extra- 
ordinary aspect. It inhabits the mountains of Sumatra, and of 
some other countries of the south east of Asia. It forms the 
genus Arcus, Tem., Gallin. 

There is reason to believe that a bird exists in the interior of 
China, the feathers of whose tail are still more elongated, at- 
taining a length of four feet, whitish, changing to red on the 
edges, with numerous tranverse black or maronne lines. It is . 
thought to be figured on some of the Chinese paper hangings. 
M. Temminck calls it Phasianus superbus; Gall. II, p. 336. The 


HovupriFEREsS, Tem., 


With the naked cheeks common to this genus, have the vertical 
tail and arched coverts peculiar to the Cock, and feathers on their 
head which they can erect, forming an aigrette similar to that of the 
Peacock. The inferior edge of the naked skin on the cheeks, which’ 
is salient, supplies the place of wattles. The tarsi are armed with 
strong spurs. 

Only one species is known; it is from the straits of Sunda, is 
the size of a Cock, of a brilliant black, with a golden red rump; 
the two superior tail-coverts yellowish or whitish, the flanks 
spotted with white or fawn-colour; Phas. ignitus, Sh. Nat. 
Misc., 321; Vieill., Galer., pl. ccvii. The female is brown, 
finely striped with black above, and dashed with white beneath. 
She has also a crest. 


Tracopan, Cuv. 


The head of the male most fantastically ornamented; it is almost 
naked, and behind each eye is a small slender horn; a wattle under 
the throat susceptible of inflation; the tarsi of both sexes armed with 
short spurs. 

Only one species is known, a native of the north of India, the 
Nepaul or Faisan cornu, Buft.; Penelope satyra, Gm.; Meleagris 
satyrus, Lath. Edw. 1163 Vieill., Galer. 206. As large as a 
Cocks; of a brilliant red, sprinkled with small white tears. 
The female and the young are of different shades of brown.(1) 

We should separate from the Pheasants the 


Cryrronyx, Tem.(2) 


In which the nakedness of the head is confined to the circum- 


(1) The Tragopan of Pliny, lib. x, c. 49, was probably imagined from this bird. 

(2) Vieillot has changed this name into Lironyx. 

There is a species of Cryptonyx at Malacca, mentioned by Dussumier, which 1s 
black, crestless, and without the papillated space about the eye. 


GALLINACE. 353 


* ference of the eye; the tail is moderate and plane, and the tarsi with- 


out spurs; the principal character, however, consists in the absence 
of the thumb nail. vee 
There is only one species well known, the male of which has 
a long tuft of slender red feathers, and long upright filaments, 
without barbs on each eye-brow. It is the Rowlouwl de Malacca, 
Sonner. Voy. II, pl. 1003 Cript. coronatus, Tem., Col. 350 and 
3513 Columba cristata, Gm. and Lath.; Phasianus cristatus, 
Sparm., Mus. Carls. III, 64. Green; somewhat larger than a 
Quail. The female, which merely has a vestige of a tuft, is the 
Tetrao viridis, Lath., Syn. II, pl. 67.(1) 


; Tetrao, Lin. 


This also is a great genus, characterized by a naked and most gene- 
rally red band, which occupies the place of the eye-brow. It is di- 
vided into subgenera as follows. 


Terrao, Lath. 


The feet of Grous are covered with feathers, and are without spurs. 
Those to which this name is more particularly applied have a round 
or forked tail and naked toes. There are two large species of them 
in France. ‘ 

ZT. urogallus, L.; Grand Cog de Bruyéres; Enl., 73 and 74. 
(The Great Heath-Cock.) The largest of all the Gallinacez, 
and superior in size to the Turkey. Its plumage is slate- 
coloured, transversely and finely striped with black; the female 
is fawn-coloured, the cross lines brown or blackish. Found in 
the heart of mountain forests, builds among the heath-grass, or 
in newly cleared grounds, and feeds on berries and buds. Its 
trachea makes two curves before it dips into the lungs. The 
flesh is delicious. 

T. tetriz, L.; Cog de Bouleau; Enl. 172 and 1733 Frisch, 109; 
Naum. Ist Ed., 18, f. 37 and 38. (The Black Cock.) The 
male is more or less black, with some white on the coverts of: 
the wings and under the tail, the two forks of which diverge 
laterally. The female is fawn-coloured, transversely striped 
with blackish and whitish. Their size is that of the Cock, and 
they are found in mountain forests. 


(1) The Columba cristata, B., Gm., Lath., Syn. I, pl. lviii, appears closely 
allied to it; but the figure represents it as having a large nail to the thumb. This 
is perhaps an error, as in the Galer. Vieill, tom. II, pl. ccx. 


Vou. I.—2 U 


354 AVES. 


An intermediate species appears jto exist in the north of 
Europe,—7Z. intermedius, Langsdorf, Mém. de Petersb., tom. 
III, pl. xiv; Sparm. M. Carls., pl. xv, which is larger than the 
preceding, with the tail less forked, and the breast spotted 
with white. Found inthe marshy districts of Courland, Ingria, 
&ce.(1) 

In the woods of temperate Europe we find, 

T. bonasia, L.; La Gelinotte; Poule des Coudriers;(2) Enl. 
Av4 and 475; Frisch. 1123; Naum. 20, f. 39. (The Hazel 
Grous.) Which is buta little larger than the Partridge, and is 
prettily variegated with brown and white, grey and red; alarge 
black band near the tip of the tail; throat of the male. black, 
and his head slightly tufted.(3) 

America produces some neighbouring species, such as 

Tet. canadensis and canace, 1.3 Gelinotte noire d’Amer., Enl. 
131 and 132; Edw. 118 and 71. Brown, verging more or less 
on a black:.tip of the tail red. 

In some,’ the feathers on each side of the neck of the males 
are turned up like a mantlet, or two scrolls: their habits have an 
affinity with those of the Turkey. » Such/are, 

Tetr. umbellus and togatus, Gm.; Cog. de Bruy. @ fraise, Enl. 
104; Edw. 248; Wils. pl. xlixs called Partridge in New England, 
and Pheasant in Pennsylvania. Variegated with red, grey, and 
black; a large black spot at the bottom of the neck, on each 
side; a black band edged with white on the tip of the tail; lower 
part of the tarsi naked. Found in the mountain forests; the 
voice of the male in the nuptial season resembles the roll of a 
drum. 

Tetr. cupido, Gmi, Catesb. Suppl. 1; Wils, pl. xxvii; Vieill. 
Galer. 219. (The Pinnated Grous.) Variegated with brown and 
fawn colour; tail brown; tarsi feathered down to the toes; the 
feathers on the bottom of the male’s neck turn up into two 
pointed scrolls, beneath which is a naked skin, which, in the 


(1) It appears to be at once the T¥tras 4 plumage variable, and the Tetras a 
queue pleine, of Button. 

(2) Bowasra, or Bonasa, name of the Gelinotte in Albertus Magnus and other 
authors of the middle ages. 

(3) The Altagas of Buff., Attagen of Aldrov., Ornith., II, p. 75; Gelinotte huppée, 
Briss., appears to me after much research, even in Italy, to be nothing more than a 
young or female Gelinotte. It is the same individual painted by Frisch, pl. 
cxii. The Tetrao canus, Gm. (Sparm. Mus. Carls., p. 16) is only an albino variety 
of the Gelinotte. Neither have I any confidence in the authenticity of the Teér. 
nemessianus, nor in that of the T'etr. betulinus of Scopoli. They are females, or 
the young of the Tetr. tetrix, or disfigured Gelinottes, 


GALLINACEA) } 355 


genial season, he inflates like a bladder; his voice sounds like a 
trumpet. Found on extensive plains, and is such delicious 
food that laws have been passed to preserve the breed.(1). The 
name of Nl 


Lagorus, 


Or Ptarmigan, is more particularly applied to those species which 
have a round or square tail; whose toes are feathered as well as the 
legs. The most common become white in winter. 

Tetr. lagopus, L.; Lagopéde ordinaire,(2) Enl. 120 and 494; 
Brit. Zool. pl. M, 3, M, 4; Naum. Ist Ed. Supp. 61, f. 115, 
116. (The Ptarmigan or White Grous.) Its summer plumage 
is fawn coloured, marked with small black lines.(3) From high 
mountains, where it remains during the winter, in holes which 

_ it forms under the snow. ; 

Tetr. albus, Gm., called of Hudson’s Bay; 7. salicett, Tem., 
Edw. 723 Frisch, 110, 111. (The White Ptarmigan.) From the 
whole north; is larger, and its summer plumage more red; its 
belly remains white.(4) 

There is a Ptarmigan in Scotland, however, which does not change 
its plumage in winter; it is, 

Tetr. scoticus, Lath.; Poule de marais; Grous, &c. Albin. 1, 
23, 24; Brit. Zool. pl. M, 3; Vieill. Galer. 221. (The Red Ptar- 
migan.) Above, variegated with fawn colour, brown and black; 
a deep red, striped with blackish beneath; legs cinereous, and 
but few feathers on the toes. 

We may separate by the name of 


Ganea or ArracGEn.(5)—PrErocirs, Tem. 


Those species which have a pointed tail and naked toes. The cir- 
cumference of their eyes only is naked, but it is not of a red colour; 
their thumb is very small. 

Tetr. alchata, L.; Ganga, Enl. 105 and 106; Edw. 249.(6) 
The size of a Partridge; the plumage scalloped with fawn co- 


(1) Add Tet. wrophasianus, Bonap. II, pl. xxi, f. 2;—Tet. obscurus, Bonap. II, 
pl. xviii. Am. Ed. 

(2) Lacorvus—hare’s foot, hairy foot—is the ancient name of this bird. 

(3) In this summer livery it is the Tetr. rupestris, Lath. 

(4) The summer plumage forms the Tetr. lapponicus, Lath. 

(5) Attagen, the Greek name of a heavy bird, somewhat larger than the Par- 
tridge, with the plumage of a Woodcock, probably designated the Ganga. 

(6) Ganga is its Catalonian name; Alchata, or rather Chata, its name among the 
Arabs. 


¥ 


356 AVES. 


lour and brown; the two middle quills of the tail much elongated 
and terminating ina point; throat of the male, black. Found in 
the south of France, and all round the Mediterranean.(1) 


Peroprix, Briss. 


Partridges have the tarsi naked like the toes. Among them the 


Francotinus, Tem. 


Is distinguished by a longer and stronger beak; a larger tail, and, 
generally speaking, by stout spurs. The south of Europe produces 
one, 

Tetrao francolinus, L.(2) Enl. 147, 1483 Edw. 246. With red 
feet; neck and belly of the male, black, with round white spots; 
a bright red collar.(3) R 

Some of these birds foreign to Europe are remarkable for a 
double spur,(4) or for the naked skin of their throat.(5) In 
others these characters are united,(6) and in certain large beak- 
ed species the spurs are altogether wanting.(7) The 


Ccmmon PARTRIDGES 


Have a somewhat weaker beak; the spurs of the males are either 
short, or mere simple tubercles; they are deficient in the female. 


ee ee ee a ar 


(1) Add of those species which have filaments to the tail, Tetr. senegalus, or 
Pterocles guttatus, Tem., Enl. 130, and the female 345;—Pterocles exustus, Tem. 
Col., 354 and 360:—Of those whose tail is simply pointed, Teir. arenarius, Pall., 
Noy. Com. Petrop., XIX, pl. viii, or Pterocles arenarius, Col. 52 and 53, the same 
as the Perdix arragonica, Lath. —Pterocles Lichtensteinii, T. Col. 355 and 361. 
The male 355 is at all events closely allied to the Tetr. indicus, Lath.; Sonner. If, 
96;—FPterocles coronatus, Tem. Col. 339 and 340;—Pterocles quadricinctus, Tem. or 
Oenas bicinctus, Vieill. Galer. 220;—finally the largest species, the Tetr. fasianel- 
lus, Gm. or Long-tailed Gelinotte of Hudson’s Bay, Edw. 117. 

(2) Francolino, the name of the blind made for the purpose of killing the bird 
whose appellation it bears, is applied in Italy to several species, such as the Geli- 
notte and this one. 

(3) Add the Tetrao ponticerianus, Sonner. Voy. U, 11, 165, Tem. Col. 218;— 
perlatus, Briss., pl. xxviii, A, fig. 1; Vieill. Galer. 213; the same as the madagasca- 
riensis, Sonn. I, 166, pl. xcvii. 

(4) Tetrao bicalearatus, L., Enl. 137;—Perdix Clappertoni, Rupp., pl. ix, can 
hardly be said to differ from it;—spadiceus, Sonn. II, 169;—zeilonensis, Ind. Zool. 
pl. xiv.—The Perdix cruenta, Tem. Col. 322, has three and even four spurs, and 
bright colours foreign to the rest of the genus. 

(5) Vetrao rubicollis, Eni. 180. 

(6) T'etrao nudicollis. 

(7) Tetrao javanicus, Brown, Ul., xvii, (a bad figure); there is a better one, 
Col. 148, under the name of Pedrix ajanham, Temm. 


* 
GALLINACER. 357" 


Letrao cinereus, L.3 Enl. 27; Frisch, 114; Naum. Ist Ed. pl. 
3, f. 3. (The Grey Partridge.) Beak and feet ash coloured; head 
fawn coloured; the plumage of various shades of grey; a maronne 
spot on the breast of the male. This common bird, which con- 
stitutes so important an item in the luxuries of the tables of Eu- 
ropeans, lives and builds in their fields. 

Tetr. rufus, L.; Enl. 150. (The Red Partridge.) Beak and feet 
red; brown above; flanks speckled with red and cinereous; throat 
white, surrounded with black; prefers the hills and rising 
grounds. The flesh is white and dry. The south of France 
produces 

Perdix greca, Briss.; Per. saxatilis, Meyer; La Bartavelle, 
Enl. 231; Frisch. 116. ° Which only differs from the Red Par- 
tridge in its superior size and more ash coloured plumage. It 

_is found along the great mountain ranges.(1) 


Corurnix. 


Quails are smaller than Partridges, with a slenderer beak and 
shorter tail; no red eye-brow nor spurs. Every one knows 

Tetrao, coturnia, L.; Eni! 1703 Frisch, 1173 Naum.. 4} £4. 

(The Common Quail.) Back brown, waved with black; a point- 

ed white stripe on each feather; throat brown, eyebrows whitish; 

Found in the fields of Europe, and celebrated for its migrations; 

during which this heavy bird finds means to cross the Mediter- 
ranean.(2) The 


PARTRIDGES AND Quaits of AMERICA 


Have a stouter, shorter, and more convex beak; the tail is some- 
what larger.(3) They perch on bushes, and, when disturbed, even 
on trees. Several of them migrate like the Quails of Europe. 


(1) Add the Red Partridge of Barbary, a very distinct species, ( Tetr. petrosus, 
Gm.) Edw., 70;—the Perdrix de montaigne, (Tetrao montanus), Enl. 136, Frisch. | 
114, B, is only, according to Bonnelli, a variety of the Grey Partridge;—the Perdriz 
de haye, Tem. Col. 328 and 329;—Perd. personata, Horsf. Jav.;—Perd. @ gorge 
rousse (Perd. gularis, T.);—Perd. oculea, 1d.;-—Perd. fusca, Vieill. Gal. 212. 

(2) Add the petite Caille de la Chine (Tetr. chinensis, L.), Enl. 126, F, 2, of 
which the Tetr. manillensis, Gm., Sonner. Voy. I, pl. xxiv, is the female;—the 
Caille australe (Perd. australis, T.), Vieill., Galer. 215;—the Cazlle nattée (Perd. 
teatilis, Temm.), Col. 35;—the Tetr. coromandelicus, Sonner. Il, 172;—T° striatus, 
Sonner., II, pl. xcxviii, and Temm. Col. 82, very different from that of Lath. Syn. 
Il, pl. lxvi;—the Pedrix de gingi( Tetr. gingicus), Sonner. II, p. 167, also appears 
to belong to this subgenus. 

(3) Among the species, the size of the Partridge, we may remark the Tcro, or 
Perdrix de la Guiane, Buff. (Tetr. guwyanensis, Gm.) or Perd. dentata, Tem. or 


358 AVES. 


It is impossible to avoid separating from the whols eenus Tetrao 
the 


‘TripactyLes, Lacép.—Eemrropivus, Tem., 


In which the thumb is wanting, and whose compressed beak forms 
alittle projection under the lower mandible. They cannot, how- 
ever, be properly classed until their anatomy is better known. They 
are polygamous, and inhabit sandy districts. Some of them, the 


Turnix, Bonnat.—Orrvcis, Illig. 


Have still all the appearance of Quails; their toes are completely 
separated down to the very base, and are without the small mem- 
branes. , j 

The natives of Java use one species for fighting, as Cocks are used 
in England; it is the Hemip. pugnaz, T., Col. 602.1) Others, such 
as the 


SyRRHAPTES, Illig., 


Are so far removed from the general type of the Gallinacez, that 
we are tempted to doubt the propriety of placing them in this order. 
Their short tarsi are covered with feathers as well as the toes, which 
are also very short and partly united; their wings are extremely long 
and pointed. 

One species only is known, and that is from the deserts of 
central Asia—TZetrao paradoxus, Pall., Voy., Fr. Trans. 8vo, 
tom. III, pl. 1, page 18; Vieill. Galer., pl. 222; the Hetero- 
clite, Tem., Col., pl. 95. 


Odontophorus rufus, Vieill. Galer. pl. ccxi, which is not a J%namou, 2s Gmelin 
asserts. Among those the size of the Quail : Tetrao mexicunus, Enl. 149, Frisch. I. 
the same as marylandicus, Albin. I, xxviii, and as virginianus, or Perdix borealis, 
Vieill. Galer. 214;— Tetr. Falklandicus, Enl., 222;—Tetr. cristatus, Enl. 126, f. 1;— 
the Colin Sonnini (Perd. Sonnini, T.) Col. 75, and Jour. de Phys., Il, 217, and pl. 
2;—the Colin a aigrette de Californie, Tetr. californius, Sh., Nat. Misc. IX, pl. 345, 
and Atl. Voy. de Ja Peyrouse, pl. xxxvi;—the Perd. rousse-gorge (Perd. cambayen- 
sis, Tem.) Col. 447;—Perd. australis, Vieill. Gal. 215. 

(1) Add Tetrao nigricollis, Enl. 171;—Tetr. andalusicus, Lath., Syn. II, part 2, 
fig. of the title page;—TZ'etr. luzoniensis, Sonn. Voy. I, pl. xxiii;—Hemipodius ni- 
grifrons, Tem. I, 610, and Vieill. Gal. 218;—Hemip. thoracicws, Tem. U1, 622, or 
L'urnix maculatus, Vieill. Gal. pl. 217;—-Hemip. Meiffrenii, T. Col. 60, 1, of which 
Vieill., Gal. 300, makes his genus Torricettr, and places it among the Waders, 


inasmuch as the lower part of the tibia is without feathers;—the Hemip. nivosus, » 


Swains. Zool. Ill., 163, must also belong to it;—the Tvir. suscitator, or Léveil-matin 
of Java is also a Turnix. See Bontius, Med. Ind. p. 65. 


ee’ GALLINACEA. 359 
It is equally necessary to separate from Tetrao, the 


Trvamus, Lath.—Cryprurus, Ilig.—Ynamsus, Azz.(1) 


Or the Tinamous, a genus of American birds very remarkable for a 
slender and long neck, (although their tarsi are short) covered with 
feathers, the tips of whose barbs are slender and slightly curled, 
which gives a very peculiar air to that part of their plumage. The 
beak is long, slender, and blunt at the end; somewhat arched, with 
a little groove on each side; the nostrils are pierced in the middle of 
each side, and penetrate obliquely backwards. Their wings are 
short, and they have scarcely any tail. The membrane between the 
base of the toes is very short. Their thumb, reduced to a spur, 
cannot reach the ground. The circumference of the eye is partly 
naked. They either perch on low branches of trees, or hide among 
tall grass; they feed on fruits and insects, and their flesh is good. 
Their size varies from that of the Pheasant down to that of the 
Quail, some of them are even still smaller. 

One portion of them,—Przus, Spix, is still furnished with a 
small tail concealed under the feathers of the rump.(2) 

In the other—Tinamus, Spix, every vestige of a tail is annihi- 
lated.(3) Their nostrils are placed a little farther back. 

We should distinguish the Rynonorus, Spix, whose beak, which 
is stronger, has no groove, and is slightly arcuated and depressed; 
the nostrils are pierced near the base.(4) 


Cotumsa, ‘Lin. 


The Pigeons may be considered as forming a slight transition from 

the Gallinacee to the Passerine. . Like the former, their beak is 

vaulted, the nostrils perforated in a broad membranous space, and 
« 


(1) Except his Choro, which is a Gallinula; and his Uru, which i is the Jocro al- 
ready spoken of among the Partridges. 

(2) Tetr. major, Gm., or Tn. brasiliensis, Lath., or the Tin. magoua, Tem.; 
Buff. Enl. 476, and much better, Hist. des Ois., IV, 4to, pl. xxiv; it is the Pezus 
serratus, Spix;—Tetr, cinereus;—Teir. variegatus, Enl. 328, from which the 7J'n, 
wndulatus, T., or Cryptura sylvicola, Vieill. Gal. 216, can differ but little; —Z%n. 
apequia (T'. obsoletus, Tem.) Col. 196;—T'in. tataupa, Swains. Il. 19, or T. plum- 
beus, 'T. Col. 196, or Pezus niamba, Spix, 78, a;—T'inamus noctivagus, Pr. Max., 
or Pezus zabele, Sp., 77;—Tin. macaco or vermiculé (T. adspersus, T.), Col. 369, or 
Pezus ‘vapura, Sp. 78;—Tetr. sovi, Gm., or Tin. sovi, Lath. Buff., Enl. 829. 

(3) Tin. inambui, Azz. (T. maculosus,1.), or T. major, Sp., 80;—T! medius, 
Spix, 81;—-7" boraquira, Sp. 7 9;—T" carape, (T. pavoninus, T.) of which the Zinam. 
minor, Sp. 81, appears to be the female. These three species are very similar. 

(4) The Tinamow isabelle (T. rufescens, T.), Col. 412; or Rhinchotus fasciatus, 
Spix, 76. 


360 AVES. P 


covered with a cartilaginous scale, which even forms a bulge at the 
base of the bill; the bony sternum is deeply and doubly emarginated, 
although somewhat differently; the crop extremely dilated, and the 
lower larynx furnished with but a single proper muscle; but there is 
no other membrane between the base of their toes than that which 
results from the continuity of the edges. Their tail is composed of 
twelve quills. They fly well, live in a state of monogamy, build on 
trees or in fissures among rocks, and lay but few eggs at a time, 
generally two; it is true they lay frequently. The male assists his 
mate in the business of brooding. They nourish their young by 
disgorging macerated grain into their crop. They form but one 
genus, which naturalists have attempted to divide into three sub- 
genera, from the greater or less strength of the bill and the propor- 
tions of the feet. The 


Cotumsi-Ga.uines, Vaill. 


Approximate to the ordinary Gallinacez still more than the other 
_ subgenera, by their more elevated tarsi and their habit of living in 
flocks, seeking their food on the ground, and never perching. Their 
beak is thin and flexible. 

One species is even allied to the Gallinacee by the caruncles 


and naked portions of skin that distinguish its head; it is the 


Columba carunculata, Tem. pl. 113; Columbi-galline, Vaill. 
278. 

A second is at all events connected with them by its size, 
which about equals that of the Turkey; it is the Crowned Pigeon 
of the Archipelago of India; Goura, Tem.; Colombihocco, Vaill.; 
Col. coronata, Gm.; Sonn. 104; Enl. 118; Tem., Pigeons, pl. 
1; Vieill., Galer. 197, Altogether of a slate-blue, with some 
chesnut and white on the wing; the head 8rnamented with a 
vertical tuft of long slender feathers. It is bred in the poultry 

yards at Java, &c., but does not propagate in Purope.(1) 

A third claims an alliance with them, from the long pendent 
feathers which ornament its neck, like that of the Cock. It is 
the Pigeon de Nincombar; Col. nincombarica, L.3; Enl. 491, and is 
of the most brilliant golden-green, with a white tail. Found in 
several parts of India.(2) The 


CoLuMB£, 


Or Common Pigeons, have shorter feet than the preceding birds, 


(1) This large Crowried Pigeon constitutes the genus goura, or Lorurrus of 
Vieill. Galer. pl. 197. 


(2) Species placed in this genus which are not, perhaps, sufficiently deter- 


az 


GALLINACE. 361 


but the same thin and flexible beak. Four wild species are found in 
Europe. 
Col. palumbus, L.; Le Ramier, Enl. 316. (The Cushat.) Is 
the largest, and inhabits the forests, preferring those of Pines, 
»  &c. It is ash-coloured, more or less blue; breast of a vinous 
red, and is distinguished by white spots on the sides of the 
neck and on the wing. 
Col. enas, L.; Le Colombin; Frisch, 139. (The Stock Dove.) 
A slate-grey, the breast vinous; sides of the neck a changeable 
green; somewhat smaller than the preceding, but has similar 
habits. 
Col. livia, Briss.; Biset or Pigeon de roche; Enl. 510. (The 
Rock Dove). Slate-grey; circumference of the neck a changea- 
ble green; a double black band on the wing; rump, white. This 
species is the parent stock of our Common Pigeon, and most 
probably of all our innumerable domestic races, in whose pro- 
duction the mixture of some neighbouring species may also have 
had some influence. 
Col. turtur, L.; Tourterelle; Enl. 394. (The Turtle Dove.) A 
fawn coloured mantle spotted with browns neck bluish, with a 
spot on each side speckled with white and black. The smallest 
of the wild, European species. It inhabits the woods. 
Col. risoria, L.3 Rieuse; Enl. 244; Frisch, 44; Tem. 44. (The 
Ring Dove.) Appears to be originally from Africa. It is of a 
flaxen colour, paler beneath; a black collar round the neck.(1) 


mined: Columba cyanocephala, Enl. 174, Vaill., 281; Tem. 3;—Col: montana, 
Edw. 119; Tem. 4;—Col. martinica, Enl. 141, 162; Vaill. 282; Tem. 5 and 6;— 
Col. erythrothorax, Tem. 7;—Col. cruenta, Sonn. 20, 21; Tem. 8 and 9;—Col. ja 
mazcensis, Tem. 10;—Col. talpacoti, Tem. 12;—Col. passerina, Enl. 243, 2, Ca- 
tesby, 26;—Col. minuta, Enl. 243, 1;—Col. hottentotta, Tem., Vaill. 283;—Col. 
cobocola, and Col. griseola, Spix, LXXV, 2. 

N.B. The C. passerina and sqguamosa form the genus Cuammretta of Swain- 
son; the C. cinerea, T., the genus Prristera, and the C. migratoria, the genus 
EororistTEs. r 

(1) Other Columbz with a square or round tail, Col. spadicea, Tem. 1;—Col. 
zned, Enl. 164, Tem. 3 and 4; Voy de Freycin., 29, of which, according to Tem- 
minck, Col. pacifica is the male;—the Col. océanique, Less. and Garn. Voy. de Du- 
perre, isa neighbouring species;—Col. arcuatrix, Vaill. Afr.; Tem. 5;—C. armillaris, 
Tem. 6;—C. littoralis, Sonn. 103; Tem. 17;—C. chalcoptera, Vem. 8;—C. cristata, 
Tem. 9;—C. caribxa, Tem. 10;—C. leucocephala, Catesb. 65; Tem. 13;—C. speciosa, 
Enl. 213; Tem. 14;—C. corensis, Tem. 15;—C. guinea, Edw. 75; Vaill. Afr. 265; 
Tem. 16;—C. madagascariensis, Enl. 1; Vaill. Afr..266; Tem. 17;—C. gymnoph- 
talmos, Tem. 18;—C. Francixv, Sonner. 101; Tem. 19;—€. rubri-capilla, Sonner. 
97; Tem. 20;—C. elegans, Tem. 22;—C. cincta, Tem. 23;—C. rujina, Tem. 24;— 
C. lewcoptera, Edw. 76; Tem. 25;—C. javanica, Enl.177; Tem. 26; Sonner. 66;— 

Vor. I.—2 V 


362 AVES. 


The species of this division are numerous, and may be still more 
subdivided, according to the greater or less nudity of their tarsi, and 
from the naked space found round the eyes of some of them.(1) 

Some have even caruncles, and other naked parts on the head. 
Such is the Col. auricou; Col. auricularis, Tem., 21. 
We can also separate some species with pointed tails.(2) | 
But the best of all the divisions that have been made among the 


Pigeons, is that of, sah ae 
eRe 


Vinaco, Cuy.—Cotumpars, Vaill.(3) 

Known by the bill, which is thicker, formed of a solid substance, ay 

and compressed on the sides; the tarsi are short, the feet wide and 

well bordered. They all feed on fruit, and inhabit forests. But few 

species are known, all of which are from the torrid zone of the east- 
ern continent.(4) Some of them have a pointed tail.(5) 


C. jamboo, Tem. 27 and 28;—C. violacea, Tem. 29;—C. melanocephala, Enl. 2145 
Tem. 30;—C. larvata, Vaill. Afr. 269; Tem. 31;—C. holosericea, Tem. 32;—C. 
stnica, Albin, UI, 46;—C. viridis, Enl. 142;-—C. erytkroptera, Temm. 55;—C. mys- 
tacea, T. 56;—C. superba, T. 33;—C. tympanistria, Vaill. 272, Tem. 36;—C. 
cerulea, 'T. 37;—C. afra, Enl. 160; Vaill. 271; Tem. 38 and 39;—C. Geoffroy, T 

—C. cinerea, T. 58, and the female, Col. 260;—C. bitorquata, T. 40;—C. vinacea, 
T. 41;—C. tigrina, Sonner., 102;—C. cambayensis, Vaill. 270; T. 45;—C. mala- 
barica, Col. brame, 'T.;—C. alba, Tem. 46;—C. sqguamosa, T. 59;—C. malaccensis, 
Mus. Carls. 67; Edw. 16; Tem. 47;—C. macroura, Enl. 329;—C. porphyrea, Tem. 
Col. 106;—C. dilopha, T. Col. 162;—C. magnifica, T. Col. 163;—C. locuiriz, Pr. 
Max.; Col. 166;—C. leucomela, T. Col. 186;—C. scripta, T. Col. 187;—C. Dussu- 
miert, T. Col. 188;—C. leucotis, T. Col. 189;—C. xanthura, Cuy.; Col. 190;—C. 
pieturata, T. Col. 242;—C. sperspicillata, Col. 246;—C. luctuosa, Reinw.; Col. 
247;—C. hyogastra, R.; Col. 252;—C. monacha, R.; Col. 253;—C. humilis, T. Col. 
258;—C. pinon, Quoy and Gaym., Voy. Freycin., 28;—C. pampusan, Ib. 30;—C. 
araucana, Less. and Garn. Voy. de Duperr. 40;—C. cyanovirens, tb. 42;—C. Zox, 
tb. 29. 

Add, Col. fasciata, Bonap. I, pl. lxxvii, f. 3;—Col. zenaida, Bonap. MU, pl. xv, 
{)2.>) Am. bd. 

(1) M. Swains. calls Prrzixorvs those species which have feathered tarsi, such 
as the C. purpurata, T. Col. 34, &e. 5 

(2) Col. migratoria, Enl. 176; Frisch, 142; Tem. 48.and 49;—Col. carolinensis, 
Ib. 175; Tem. 50; Catesb. 24; Edw. 15;—Ool. Reinwartii, Tem. Col. 248;—C. 
humeralis, Ib. 191;—C. amboinensis, Ib., 100;—C. lophotes, Ib. 142;—C. venusta, 
Ib. 341, 1, or Col. strepitans, Spix, xxv, 1;—Col. dominicensis, Ib. 487; Tem. 51; 
—Col. capensis, Ib. 140, &c.; Vaill. 273, 274; Tem. 53, 54;—C. eo Tem, 
52;—Col. macquaria, Quoy and Gaym., Voy. de Freyc., 31. 

(3) Vinago, the Latin name of the C. 2nas—Vieill. has changed it into Trrnon. 

(4) Col. abyssinica, or Wallia of Bruce, Vaill. 276, 277; Tem. 8 and 9;—Col. 
australis, Enl. 3, Tem. 3;—Col. aromatica, Enl. 163; Tem. 57; Brown, Zool. Ml. 
20;—Ool. vernans, Enl. 158; Tem. 10 and 11;—Col. militaris, Tem. 1 and 2;—C. 
psittacea, Tem. 4;—C. calva, Tem. 7;—C. olax, T. Col. 241;—€. Capellei, tb. 143, 

(5) Col. oxyura, T. Col. 240. 


GRALLATORIZ. 363 


ORDER V. 
GRALLATORIZ.—Gratza, Lin. 


The birds of this order derive their name from their habits, 
and from the conformation which causes them. They are 
known by the nudity of the lower part of their legs, and most 
generally by the height of their tarsi; two circumstances which 
enable them to enter the water to a certain depth without 
wetting their feathers; to wade through it and seize fish by 
means of their neck and bill, the length of which is usually 
proportioned to that of the legs. Those which are furnished 
with a strong bill, feed on fish and reptiles ; while such as have 
a weak one, consume worms and insects. A very few feed par- 
tially on grain, and they alone live at a distance from rivers, &c. 
The external toe is most commonly united at its base with that 
of the middle one, by means of a short membrane $ sometimes 
there are two similar membranes, and at others they are en- 
tirely wanting, and the toes are completely separated; it 
sometimes also happens, though rarely, that they are border- 
ed all along,. or palmated to the very end; in fine, the thumb 
is deficient in several genera; circumstances, all of which have 
an influence on their mode of life, which is more or less 
aquatic. Almost all these birds, the Ostriches and Cassowaries 
excepted, have long wings, and fly well; during which action 
they extend their legs backwards, differing in this from all 
others, which fold them under the belly. 

In this order we establish five principal families, and some 
insulated genera. 


FAMILY Lc - 
BREVIPENNES: 
These birds, although similar in general to the other Gral- 


latoriz, differ from them greatly in one point—the shortness 
of the wings, which renders’ flight impossible. ‘The beak 


364 AVES. 


and regimen give them numerous aflinities with the Galli- 
nacez. ae 

It appears as if all the muscular power which is at the com- 
mand of nature, would be insufficient to move such immense 
wings as would be required to support their massive bodies in 
the air. The sternum is a simple buckler, and is deficient in 
that ridge which is found in all other birds. The pectoral 
muscles are thin and delicate, but the posterior extremities 
regain what the wings have lost—the muscles of the thighs, 
and of the legs in particular, being enormously thick and stout. 

The thumb is always deficient.(1) They form two genera. 


STRUTHIO, Lin. 


The Ostriches have wings furnished with loose and flexible feathers, 
but still sufficiently long to increase their speed inrunning. Every 
one knows the elegance of these slender-stemmed plumes, the barbs 
of which, although furnished with little hooks, always remain sepa- 
rate, contrary to what takes place in most other birds. Their beak 
is horizontally depressed, of a moderate length, and blunt at the end; 
their tongue short, and rounded like a crescent; their eye large, and 
the lid fringed with lashes; their legs and tarsi very long. They have 
an enormous crop, a large sac between the crop and gizzard, volu- 
minous intestines, long ceca, and a vast reservoir in which the urine 


accumulates as in a bladder, being the only birds which can be said 


to urine. The penis is very large, and is frequently exposed. (2) 
But two species are known, each of which might form a separate 
genus. , 
Struthio camelus, L.; Enl. 457.(3) (The Ostrich of the East- 
ern Continent.) But two toes, the external of which is one half 
shorter than its fellow, and has no nail. This bird, so highly 
celebrated from the earliest ages, abounds in the sandy deserts 
of Arabiaand Africa. It attains the height of six or eight feet, 
lives in great troops, lays eggs, each weighing nearly three 


(1) The number of the phalanges is as follows, commencing with the inter- 
nal toe : 

Ostrich, 4, 5: 

Nandou and Cassoway, 3, 4, 5: 

Which amounts to the numbers common, among birds. 
' (2) For the genito-urinary organs of birds, and those of the Ostrich in particu- 
lar, consult the Mém. of Geoffroy Saint- Hillair e, Mém. du Mus., tom. XV. 

(3) See also the beautiful figure’ drawn ‘by Maréchal in the Menag. du Mus. 
of Lacep. and Cuvier, copied Vieill. Galer. pl. 223. 


aa, eee eee ee RS tae SB 


ae a 


Sead 


GRALLATORIA. 365 


pounds, which, in very hot climates, it is contented with expos- 
ing in the sand to the warmth of the sun, but over which, out 
of the tropics, it broods with great care, defending them cou- 
rageously every where. ‘The Ostrich feeds on grass, grain, &c., 
and so obtuse is its sense of taste that it swallows pebbles, pieces 
of iron, copper, &c. When pursued it dashes stones behind 
it with great violence. No animal can overtake it in the race. 

Struth. rhea, 1.;(1) Nandou, Churi, &c., Hammer. An. Mus. 
XII, xxxix; Vieill. Galer. 224. (The American Ostrich.) “Is - 
about one half smaller, with more thinly furnished feathers, of 
a uniform grey colour, and particularly distinguished by its 
three toes, all having nails. Its plumage is greyish, browner 
on the back: a black line along the back of the neck in the male. 
It is as common in the southern parts of South America, as the 
preceding one is in Africa. When taken young, it is easily 
tamed. . Several females, it is said, lay in the same nest, or 
rather the same hole, yellowish eggs, which are hatched by the 
male. It is only eaten when very young. 


Casuarius, Briss. 


The Cassowaries have wings still shorter than those of the Ostrich, 
and totally useless, even in running. There are three toes to all the 
feet, each furnished with a nail; the barbs of their feathers are so 
poorly provided with barbulz, that at a distance they resemble pen- 
dent hairs. Two species are known, each of which might also con- 
stitute a genus. 

Struthio casuarius, L.; Emeu,(2) Enl. 313, and better Frisch, 
105.(3) (The Cassowary.) The beak laterally compressed; 
head surmounted by a bony prominence, covered with a horny 
substance; skin of the head and top of the neck naked, of an 
azure-blue and a fiery red colour, with pendent caruncles like 
those of the Turkey; some stiff stems in the wings, without barbs, 
which the bird uses as weapons.in combat; nail of the internal 
toe much the strongest. It is the largest of all birds, next to 
the Ostrich, and differs considerably from it in its anatomy, for 


(1) Brisson and Buffon, following Barrére, have improperly applied to it the 
name of Towyou, or rather of Z'owiowiow, which belongs to the Jabiru. It is the 
genus Rhea of Brisson. The Portuguese of Brazil haye transferred to it the name 
of Emeu, which properly belongs to the Cassowary. 

(2) Casswwaris, the Malay name of this bird. Eme, or Emeu, its peculiar appel- 
Jation in Banda. 

(3) There is also an excellent figure of it by Maréchal in the Menag. du Mus. 
copied Vieill. Galer. pl. 225. 


366 » AVES. 


its intestines are short, and the czca small; the intermediate 
stomach between the crop and gizzard is wanting, and its cloaca 
is not larger in proportion than that of other birds. It feeds 
on fruit and eggs, but not grain. The female lays a small 
number of green eggs, which like the Ostrich she abandons to 
the solar heat. Found in different islands ofa the Archipelago 
of India. 


Cas. Novze-Hollandiz, Lath.; Voy. de Paton: Atl. part 1, pl. i 


* xxxvi; Vieill. Galer. pl. 226.(1) (The Cassowary of New Hol- 
land.) A depressed beak; no helmet on the head; a little naked 
skin about the ear; plumage brown and more of it; more barbs 


to the feathers; no caruncles, or spurs on the wing; nails of 


the toes about equal. Its flesh resembles beef. Its speed is 
greater than that of the swiftest greyhound. The young ones 
are striped with brown and black.(2) 


FAMILY I. 
PRESSIROSTRES. 


This family comprises genera with long legs, without a 
thumb, or in which the thumb is too short to reach the ground. 
The bill is moderate; but strong enough to penetrate the earth 
in search of worms; hence we find those species in which it is 
weakest frequenting meadows and newly ploughed grounds to 
obtain that sort of food with more facility. Such as have 
stronger beaks, also feed on herbs, grain, &c. 


(1) This constitutes the genus Emov, or Dromatvs of Vieillot. 

(2) N.B. I cannot allow room in this work for species so little known, and even 
so poorly authenticated, as those which form the genus Dinus of Linnzus, 

The first, or the Didus ineptus, is only known from a description drawn up by 
the first Dutch navigators, and given by Clusius, Exot., p. 99, and from an oil 
painting of the same period, copied by Edwards, pl. 294; for the description of 
Herbert is puerile, and all others are copied from Clusius and Edwards. It seems 
that the species has completely disappeared, nothing remaining of it at the present 
day but a foot preserved in the British Museum (Shaw, Nat. Misc. pl. 143), and a 
head in very bad condition possessed by the Asmolean Museum of Oxford (Id. Ib. 
pl. 166.) The beak bears some resemblance to that of the Penguins, and the foot, 
if it were palmated would be like that of the Aptenodytes. 

The second species, Didus solitarius, rests on the bare testimony of Leguat, 
Voy. I, p. 98, a man who has disfigured well known animals, such as the Hippo- 
potamus and the Lamantin. 

The third, Didus nazaremus, is only known from the account of Frangois 


GRALLATORIA. 367 


Oris, Lin. 


The Bustards, in addition to the massive carriage of the Gallina- 
cex, have a long neck and legs, and moderate beak; its superior 
mandible being slightly arcuated and arched, which, as well as the 


very small membranes between the base of the toes, again recal the 


idea of the Gallinacee. But the nakedness of the lower part of their 
legs, their whole anatomy, and even the flavour of their flesh, place 
them among the Grallatoriz, and as they have no thumb, the smaller 
species approximate closely to the Plovers. Their tarsi are reticu- 
lated, and their wings short; they fly but seldom, hardly ever using 
their wings, except to assist themselves in running. They feed in- 
differently on grain and herbs, worms and insects. | 

O. tarda, L., Enl. 245. (The Great Bustard.) Back, of a 
bright fawn colour, crossed with numerous black streaks, the 
remainder greyish. The feathers of the ears of the male, which 
is the largest bird in Europe, are lengthened out on both sides, 
forming a kind of large mustachios. This species, which 
is considered as being among the best game of that country, 
frequents its extensive plains, building on the ground among 
the grain. 

O. tetrax, L.; Enl. 25 and 10. (The Little Bustard.) More 
than a half smaller, and much less common than the tarda; 
brown above, sprinkled with blacks whitish beneath; neck of 
the male black, with two white collars. 

The beak of most species foreign to Europe is more slender 
than that of those which belong to it. » Among the former we 
may remark, 

O. houbara, Gm.; Le Houbdara, Desfontaines, Acad. des Sc., 
1787, pl. xs Vieill. Galer., pl.’ coxxvii. (The Houbara.) So 
called on account of the ruff of elongated feathers which orna- 
ments both sides of its neck.’ From Africa and Arabia.(1) 


Cauche, who. considers it to. be the same as the ineptus, giving it however but 
three toes, while all the others allow the former to possess four. No one has been 
able to obtain a sight of any of these birds since the time of the above named tra- 
vellers. 

Of all birds, that which has its wings the most completely reduced to a simple 
vestige, is the Jplerya, represented by Shaw, Nat. Misc. 1055 and 1057. Its ge- 
neral figure is that of an Aptenodytes, its size that of a Goose. The feet would be 
those of the former, were they not described as wanting the web. The beak is 
very long, slender, marked with a longitudinal groove on each side, and having a 
membrane at base. The wing is reduced to a little stump, terminated by a hook. 


From New Holland. 
(1) I leave among the Bustards all Latham’s species, such as the Afra, Lath. 


es 


ae 


368 AVES. 


Cnuaraprius, Lin.(1) 


The Plovers have no thumb; the beak is moderate, compressed, and 
enlarged at the point. 
They may be divided into two subgenera; viz. 


(Epicnemus, Tem.(2) 


In which the end of the beak is inflated above as well as beneath, 
and the fosse of the nostrils only extend half its length. They are 
larger species which prefer dry and stony places, and feed on snails, 
insects, &c. They have some affinity with the smaller species of 
Bustards. Their feet are reticulated, and there is a short membrane 
between each of their three toes. 

Cidic. crepitans, Tem.; Charadrius wedicnemus, L.; Courlis ide 
terre; Enl. 919; Frisch, 215; Naum. Ed. I, 9, f. 13. (The Thick- 
knee.) Size of a Woodcock; a fawn coloured grey, with a brown 
streak on the middle of each feather; white belly; a brown 
streak under the eye.(3) 


Cuaraprius, Cuv. 


The beak of the True Plovers is only inflated above, and has two- 
thirds of its length occupied by the nasal fossx, which render it 
weaker. They live in large flocks, and frequent low grounds, where 
they strike the earth with their feet, in order to set in motion the 
worms on which they feed. 

The species of France are only found there, in transitu, during 
the autumn and in the spring: near the sea coast, some of them 
remain until the beginning of winter. Their flesh is excellent, 
and with various other species, they form a tribe with reticulated 
legs, the most remarkable of which are: 

Char. pluvialis, L., Eni. 904; Frisch, 2163 Naum. I, c. 10, f. 


Syn. Il, pl. lxxix;—the benghalensis, Edw. 250;—the Arabs, 1d, 12;—but I with- 
draw the G@dienemus, which, on account of its compressed beak, enlarged at the 
end, begins the following genus.—Add, Otis nuba, Rupp. pl. 1; ;—Ot. denhami;— 
Ot. torquata, Cuv., a new species from the Cape. 

(1) Char adrius, the Greek name of a nocturnal aquatic bird, comes from wage 
dea. Gaza translates it by Hiaticula. 

(2) Wdicnemus (swelled leg), a name invented by Belon for the Thick-knee. 

(3) Add the Gdienéme tachard (Cid. maculosus, Cuv.) Col. 2925 -—the (d. 2 
Jongs pieds (Cid. longipes, Geoff.,) Vieill. Gal. 228, or (Ed. echasse, Tem. Col. 
386;—the (ud. 4 gros bee (Ed. magnirostris, Geof. ), Col. 387, might, from the form 
of its beak, be placed at the head of a particular series to which would belong a 
closely allied species with a slightly recurved upper mandible: Ed. recurvirostris, 
Cuv.:—Char. crassirostris, Spix, 94. 


GRALLATORIA. 369 


14; Wils. VII, lix, 5. (The Golden Plover.) Blackish; the edges 
of its feathers dotted with yellow; white belly. It is the most 
common of all, and is found throughout the whole globe. The 
north produces one which scarcely differs from it except in its 
black throat; it is the Char. apricarius, Edw. 1403; Naum. II, f. 
15; Wils. VII, lvii, 4. Some authors assert it is the young of 
the other. 

Char. morinellus, L.3; Le Guignard, Enl. 832; Naum. 12, f. 
16, 17. (The Dotterel.) Grey or blackish; feathers edged with 
fulvous-grey; a white streak over the eye; breast and upper part 
of the belly of a bright red; lower part of the belly white. 

Char. hiaticula, L.3; Pluvier 2 collier, Enl. 920; Frisch, 2145 
Brit. Zool. pl. P; Wils. V, xxxvii, 2. (The Ring Plover.) 
Grey above; white beneath; a black collar round the lower part 


of the neck, very broad in fronts the head variegated with black 


and whites; bill, yellow and black. Three or four species or 
races are found in France differing in size, and in the distribu- 
tion of the colours on the head.(1) This same distribution, with 
but little variation, is found in several species foreign to Eu- 
rope. (2) 
Many Plovers have scutellated legs; they form a small division, 
most of its species having spines to their wings, or fleshy wattles 
on the head; some of them have both these characters.(3) 


VaANELLUS, Bechst.—Trinea, Lin.(4) 


The Lapwings have the same kind of beak as the Plovers, and are 


(1) Ch. minor, Meyer, Enl. 921; Wils. VII, lix, 3; Naum, 15, f. 19, or Ch. cu- 
ronicus, Lath., with an entirely black beak;—Ch. cantianus, Lath., or aldifrons, 
Meyer, of which the Ch. zgyptius may possibly be the female. Its collar is inter- 
rupted. 

(2) Char. vociferus, Enl. 286; Wils. VII, lix, 6;—Char. indicus, Lath.;—Char. 
Azarai, T., Col. 184;—Char. melanops, Vieill., Gal. 235, or Ch. nigrifrons, Cuv. 
Col. 47, 1;—Char. Wilsonit, Wils. IX, Ixiii, 5.—Add, of closely allied species, 
although without collars: Ch. pecuarius, T, Col. 183;—Ch. nivifrons, Cuv.;—Char. 
ruficapillus, T. Col. 47, 2;—Ch. monachus, Tem. ;—Ch. griseus, Lath. 

Add Ch. semipalmatus, Wils. VIII, pl. lix, f. 3;—Ch. melodus, Wils. V, pl. 

xxvii, f. 3. Am. Ed. 
_ (3) Species with unarmed, scutellated feet: Char. coronatus, Enl. 800;—Ch, me- 
lanocephalus, Enl. 918, Savigny, Egypt., Ois., pl. vi, f. 4, of which Vieillot makes 
his genus Puvyranus, Gal. pl. xxiii—its beak is somewhat stouter than the others. 
Armed species: Char. spinosus, Enl. 801;—Ch. cayanus, Enl. 833. Species with 
wattles: Char. pileatus, Enl. 834;—Ch. bilobus, Enl. 880. 

The Char. cristatus, Edw. 47, appears to be the same as the spinosus. 

(4) Tringa, or rather Trynga, the Greek name of a bird the size of a Thrush, 
which frequents the shores of rivers, and is constantly moying its tail, Arist. It 


Vou. I.—2 W 


3709 AVES. 


only distinguished from them by the presence of a thumb; but it is 
so small that it cannot reach the ground. 

In the first tribe, that of the Lapwine-PLovers, (SquaTARoLa, Cuv. )} 
it is even scarcely visible. It is distinguished by the bill, which is 
inflated underneath, and its nasal fossa being short like that of an 
Cidicnemus. The feet are reticulated: all those of France have the 
tail striped with white and black, forming, as is asserted, but one 
species whose great diversity of plumage has occasioned its multi- 
plication. It is always found with the Plovers. 

Tringa squatarola; Le Vanneau gris, Enl. 854. (The Grey 
Lapwing.) Greyish above, whitish with greyish spots beneath, 
is the young bird before it has moulted. The Variegated Lap- 
wing, (Tringa varia,) Enl. 923, white, spotted with greyish; 
blackish mantle dotted with white, comprises the two sexes in 

_their winter plumage. The Vanneau suisse, (Tringa helvetica, 
Enl. 853, Naum. Ed. I, 62, f. 117,) black and white spots above, 
black beneath from the throat to the thighs, is the male in his 
wedding livery. 


VANELLUS, Cuv. 


The true Lapwings have a rather more decidedly marked thumb, 


the tarsi scutellated, at least partially so, and the nasal fossz extend- 
ing two-thirds the length of the beak. They are equally as industrious 
in the pursuit of worms as the Plovers, procuring them in the same 
manner. 

The European species, 7ringa vanellus, L., is a pretty bird, 
as large as a Pigeon, of a bronze-black, with a long and slender 
crest. It arrives in France in the spring, lives in the fields and 
meadows, builds there, and departs in autumn. The eggs are 
considered a great delicacy.(1) 

Warm climates also have some species of this bird, whose 
wings are armed with one or two spurs, and others which have 
caruncles or wattles at the base of the beak: their tarsi are scu- 
tellated. ‘They are very noisy animals, screaming out at every 
sound they hear. They live inthe fields, and defend themselves 
against birds of prey with much courage.(2) 


was Linnzus who applied it thus; but he placed many other birds in his genus 
Tringa, besides the Lapwings, the Sandpipers, (Calibris, Cuy.,) especially. 

(1) Add the Vanneau @ écharpe (Vann. cinctus), Less. and Garn. Voy. Duperr. 
pl. xliii;—Le V. @ pieds jawnes ( Vann. flavipes), Savigny, Egypte, Ois., pl. 6, f. 3. 

(2) They are the first nine species of Parra, Gmel., particularly Parra cayen- 
nensis, Enl. 836;—P. goensis, Enl. 807;—P. senegalla, Enl. 362, or better Vanellus 
albicapillus, Vieill., Gal. 236;—P. ludoviciana, Enl. 835, from which: Vann. galli- 
naceus, Tem., does not perhaps specifically differ, &c.; their habits, legs, beak, 


GRALLATORLAE. O81 


. 


. Hamatoprus, Lin. 


The Oyster-catchers have a somewhat longer beak than the Plovers 
or the Lapwings; it is straight, pointed, compressed into a wedge, 
and sufficiently strong to enable them to force open the bivalve shells 
of the animals on which they feed. They also seek for worms in 
the earth. The nasal fosse, which are very deep, are only half the 
feneth of the beak, the nostrils resembling a small slit in the 
middle. Their legs are of a moderate length, their tarsi reticulated, 
and their feet divided into three toes. 
Hematop. ostralegus, L.; Enl. 9293; Brit. Zool., pl. D; Catesb. 
I, 85, is the European species, also called Pie de mer on account 
of its plumage, which is black; the belly, throat, base of the 
wings and tail being of a fine white. The white on the throat 
disappears insummer. It is about the size of a Duck; bill and 
feet, red. 
There is a species in Brazil with a longer bill, and no white 
under the throat, the Hxm. palliatus, Tem., which Wils. VIII, 
Ixiv, 2, confounds with the common one; another in the Ma- 
louines, where the black extends farther down on the breast, the 
Heem. luctuosus, Cuv., and a third in the antarctic hemisphere, 
which is entirely black, the (Hem. niger, Cuvy.,) Hem. ater, 
Vieill. Gal. 230; Quoy and Gaymard, Voy. de Freycinet, pl. 
XXXiv. 
It is impossible to avoid placing near the Plovers and Oyster- 
catchers, the 


Cursorius, Lac.—Tacuypromus, Illig. j 


Whose beak, more slender, but equally conical, is arcuated, has 

no groove, and is moderately cleft; the wings are shorter, and their 

legs, which are longer, are terminated by three toes without mem- 
branes, and without a thumb. 

There has been seen both in France and England, although 

very rarely, a species, belonging to the north of Africa, of a 

light fawn-colour, with a whitish belly, the Charadrius gallicus, 

Gm.; Cursorius isabellinus, Meyer, Enl. 795; and another has 

been brought from India of a brownish-grey, with a red breast, 

the Ch. coromandelicus, Curs. asiaticus, Lath., Vieill. Gal. 232, 


Se a aa a a Sa ar i ee 


form, and eyen the distribution of their colours, resemble those of the Lapwings 
and Ployers, and there can be no possible reason for placing them among the = 
canas, whose characters differ on almost every point. 

Add 7'r. macroptera, anew species from Java; grey; head and belly black; armed, 
and with caruncles; the wings extending considerably beyond the tail. 


° 


B12 AVES. 


“Enl. 992. Each of them has a black streak and a white one be- 
hind the eye. Their name is derived from the swiftness with 
which they run. Nothing is known with respect to their 
habits.(1) 

As far as we can judge from their exterior, it is here that we can 
most conveniently place the 


Carrama, Briss. —Micropactyius, Geoff.—DicHoLopuvus, 
Ilhig.(2) 


Whose beak is longer and more hooked, the commissure extend- 
ing under the eye, which gives them somewhat of the physiognomy 
and disposition of birds of prey, and approximates them somewhat 
to the Herons. Their extremely long and scutellated legs are ter- 
minated by very short toes, slightly palmated at base, and by a 
thumb which cannot reach the ground. 

One species only is known, and that is from South America, 
the Micro. cristatus, Geoff.; Palamedea cristata, Gm.; Saria, 
Azzar.; Ann. du Mus. d’Hist. Nat., XIII, pl. xxvi; Col. 237, and 
Vieill. Gal. 259. Itis larger than the Heron, and feeds on lizards 
and insects, which it hunts for on high grounds and along the 
edges of forests. Its plumage is a fawn- coloured grey, waved 
with brown; some slender feathers on the base of the beak form 
alight tuft which inclines forwards. It flies but seldom, and then 
badly; its loud voice resembles that of a young Thekey. As its 
flesh is much esteemed, it has been domesticated in several 
places. 


FAMILY III. 


CULTRIROSTRES. 


This family is recognized by the thick, long, and strong 
beak, which is most generally trenchant and pointed, and is 
almost wholly composed of the birds comprised i in the genus 


Arpea of Linnzus. In a great number of species, the trachea 


’ 


(1) Add the Coure-vite a ailes violettes (Curs. Chalcopterus, T.), Col. 298;—the C. 
ad double collier (C. bicinetus, T.), Man. Orn.;—Curs. Teminckii, Swains. Zool. 11.106. 

(2) Microdactylus, short-finger. Dicholophus, crest in two rows. Hzematopus, 
blood-coloured feet. M. Vicillot has preferred the barbarous name of Cariama, 
which must be pronounced eariama. ’ : 


§ 


GRALLATORIA. Sta 


of the male forms various curves; their ceca are short, and 
even the true Herons have but one. 

We subdivide it into three tribes, the Cranes, the true 
Herons, and the Swans. The first tribe forms but one great 
genus. 


Grus, Lin. 


The Cranes have a straight beak, but slightly cleft; the membra- 
nous fosse of the nostrils, which are large and concave, occupy 
nearly one half of its length. Their legs are scutellated, and the 
toes moderate; the external ones but slightly palmate, and the thumb 
hardly reaching to the ground. <A more or less considerable por- 
tion of the head and neck is destitute of feathers in nearly all of 
them. Their habits are more terrestrial, and their food more vege- 
table than those of the following genera: consequently they have a 
muscular gizzard, and Jong ceca. Their lower larynx has but one 
muscle on each side. At the head of this genus we place with Pal- 


las,(1) 
Psoputa, Lin., 


Or the Trumpeters, which have a shorter beak than the other 
species; the head and neck are merely invested with down, and the 
circumference of the eye is naked. They live in the woods, and feed 
on grain and fruit. 

The species best known is from South America, and is called 
the Trumpeter, (Psophia crepitans, L.,) Enl. 169, from its faculty 
of producing a low, deep sound, which at first seems to proceed 
from the anus. It is the size of a capon; the plumage is black- 
ish, which, on the breast, reflects a brilliant violet hue; the 
mantle is ash coloured, shaded above with fawn colour. It is 
a very grateful bird, and as susceptible of attachment to man as 
adog. It is even said to be so docile as to take the command 
of the poultry-yard. It flies badly, but runs fast, and builds‘on 
the ground at the foot of atree. Its flesh is eaten.(2) 


(1) Spicil. Zool., IV, 3 

(2) At Cayenne, according to Barrere, it is ied Agami; Caracara in the An- 
tilles, according to Dutertre. As the name of Z'rumpeter is also given in Africa 
to a Calao, Fermin (Descrip. de Surin.) absurdly transfers to the Agami the cha- . 
racter of both beaks at once. The Agami was for a long while confounded with 
the Macucagua of Marcgraye, which is a Zinamou. Psophia is a name coined by 
Barrere from ¥ogeo, to make a noise. 

Add, Psophia viridis, Spix, 83, and Ps. leucoptera, Id. 84. 


374 AVES. 


Certain Cranes, foreign to Europe, with a shorter beak than is 
found in those that belong to it, should come next. 

Ardea pavonia, L.3 Grue couronné; Enl. 265, and the young, 
Vieill. 257. (Lhe Crowned Crane.) Figure, light and graceful; 
four feet in height; ash coloured, black belly, fawn coloured 
rump, and white wings; its naked cheeks are tinged with white, 
and a bright rose-colour, and its head is crowned with a bundle 
of yellow, slender feathers, which it opens and displays at plea- 
sure. This beautiful bird, whose voice resembles the clang of 
a trumpet, inhabits the western coast of Africa, where it is fre- 
quently kept in the huts, and fed on grain. In a wild state it 
frequents inundated places, and preys on small fish. 

Ardea virgo; Demoiselle de Numidie; Enl. 246. (The Numi- 
dian Crane.) Similar to the preceding in form, and almost in 
size; ash coloured;'a black neck with two beautiful whitish 
aigrettes, formed by the prolongation of the slender feathers 
which cover the ears. Those which have been observed ina 
state of captivity were remarkable for their fantastic and affect- 
ed gestures. (1) , 

The Common Cranes have a beak as long as the head, or longer. 
. Ardea grus, L.; Grus cinerea, Bechst., Enl. 769; Frisch, 1943 
Naum. Ed. I, 2, f. 2. (The Common Crane.) Four feet and 
upwards in height; ash coloured; black throat; top of the 
head, red and naked; the rump ornamented with long, recurved 
and frizzled feathers, partly black. This bird has been cele- 
brated from the earliest ages for its regular migrations from 
north to south inthe autumn, and vice versa in the spring, 
which it effects in immense and well ordered bodies. It feeds 
on grain, but prefers the worms and insects of marshy grounds. 
This species is often mentioned by the ancient writers, because 
the course of its migrations seems to be through Greece and 
Asia Minor.(2) 
Between the Cranes and Herons we must place 
Ard. scolopacea, Gm.; Le Courlan, Enl. 848,(3) whose beak, 


(1) The anatomists of the Institute had applied to this bird, on account of its 
gestures, the names of Scops, Otus, and Asio, by which the ancients designated . 
the Ducs of Europe (Bubo). Buffon, who had so well refuted this error as re- 
garded the Ducs, falls into it himself when speaking of the Ard. virgo. 

(2) To this genus also belong rd. canadensis, Edw. 133; the Grue a collier, — 
Enl. 865, and the Crane of India, Edw. 45, (4rd. antigone) Vieill., Gal. 256;—the 
Grue blunche, Enl. 889, (4rd. americana) and the Ard. gigantea, Pall., It., Il, No. 
50, t. I, which does not appear to us to differ in the least from the white one;— 
finally, the Ard. carunculata, which is not a Heron, as supposed by Gmelin. 

(S) Vieillot has made his genus Aramus, Gal. p. 252, from this bird; Spix, pl. 
91, calls it Rallus ardeoydes. 


: 


GRALLATORIA. ; 375 


thinner and more cleft than that of the Cranes, is inflated near 
the last third of its length, and whose toes, all tolerably long, 
are without any intervening membrane whatever. It has the 
habits, and is the size of a Heron; the plumage is brown, with 
two white pencils on the neck. 

Ard. helias, L.; Le Caurale (Evryeyea, Illig.);(1) Oiseau du 
soleil, &c. Enl. 702. (The Sun-Bird.) The commissure of its 
bill, which is more slender than that of the Cranes, but fur- 
nished with similar nasal fosse, extends to beneath the eyes, 
like that of the Herons, but the beak itself is destitute of the 
naked skin at its base. Itis about the size of a Partridge, and 
its long slender neck, broad and open tail, and rather short legs 
giveita very different appearance from that of any other Wader. 
Its plumage shaded in bands and lines with brown, fawn-colour, 
red, grey and black, recalls to our minds the colouring of the 
most beautiful of the nocturnal Lepidoptera. It is found on 
the banks of the rivers in Guiana. 


The second tribe is more carnivorous, and is known by its 
stronger beak and larger toes: we may place at its head, 


Cancroma, Lin. 


The Boat-bills, which would closely approach the Herons in the 
strength of their beak and in the regimen resulting therefrom, but 
for the extraordinary form of that organ, which we shall find, how- 
ever, by close examination, to be nothing more than the beak of a 
Heron or Bittern, very much flattened. In fact, it is very wide from 
right to left, and is formed like two spoons, the concave. sides of 
which are placed in contact. The mandibles are strong and trench- 
ant, the upper one having a sharp tooth on each side of its points 
the nostrils, situated near its base, are continued on in two parallel 
grooves to near the point. There are four toes to the feet, long, and 
almost without membranes, and accordingly we find that these birds 
- perch upon trees on the banks of rivers, whence they precipitate 
themselves upon the fish, which constitute their customary food. 
Their gait is slow, and in their attitudes, they resemble the Herons. © 
The species known is, ° 
Cancr. eochlearia, L.; Enl. $8 and 3693 Vieill. Gal. pl. 249. 
(The Boat-bill.) Size of a hen; whitish; grey or brown back; 
red belly; a white forehead, followed by a black calotte, which, 


(1) Vieillot has changed this name into that of Helias. 


376 AVES. 


in the adult male, is changed into a long tuft: inhabits the hot 
and marshy parts of South America.’ 
Then comes, 


ARDEA, Cuv. 


Or the Herons, the cleft of whose beak extends to beneath the eyes, 
a small nasal fossa continuing on in a groove close to its point. 
They are also distinguished by the internal edge of the nail of the 
middle toe, which is trenchant and denticulated. Their legs are 
scutellated; the thumb and toes tolerably long, the external web con- 
siderable, and the eyes placed in a naked skin which extends tothe 
beak. Their stomach is a very large, but slightly muscular sac, 
and they have but one very small cecum. They are melancholy 
birds, which build and perch on the banks of rivers, where they de- 
stroy great numbers of fish. ‘There are many species in both conti- 
nents, which can only be divided by a reference to some details of 
plumage. 

The true Herons havea very slender neck, ornamented below with 
long*pendent feathers. 

Ard. major, and Ard. cinerea, L.3 Enl. 755 and 7873 Frisch, 
198, 199; Naum. Ed. I, 25, f. 33, 34. (The Common Heron.) 
Bluish ash colour; a black tuft on the occiput; fore-part of the 
neck white, sprinkled with black tears; a large bird, whose 
depredations on the fish, in the rivers of Europe, render it 
highly prejudicial. It was formerly much celeprareg for the 
sport it afforded to falconers. 

Ard. purpurea, Enl. 788; Naum. Ed. I, Supp. 45, f. 89, 90.(1) 
(The Purple Heron.) Grey and red, or purple; belongs also to 
Europe. 

The name of Craseaters, (Crabiers,) has been applied to the 
smallest Herons, with shorter feet. The species most common in 
France, and found in its mountain districts, is, “a 

Ard. minuta and danubialis, Gm.; Le Blongios; Enk. 3233 j 
Frisch, 207; Naum. Ed. I, 28, f. 37. Fawn coloured; calotte, 
back, and quills black. It is hardly larger than a Rallus, and 
frequents the vicinity of ponds. bl 


(1) The 2rd. purpurea, purpurata, rufa, Gm., and the africana, Lath., accord- 
ing to Meyer, are mere varieties of the purple Heron. 

Add 4. herodias, Gm.; Wils. VIII, Ixv, 2, the young of which is, perhaps, Enl. 
858;—A. cocoi, Lath.; Spix, XC, under the false name of Ard. maquari;—A. sibila- 
trix, T. Col. 271;—.4. ludoviciana, Gm. Enl. 909, from which the 2. virescens does 
not specifically differ; —A. Nove-Guinz, Lath. Enl. 926, approaches somewhat to 
the .4. scolopacea, Gm. in the beak. 


GRALLATORLA. 377 


The Onorxs, to the form of the Crabeaters, add the size of the 
true, Heron, and the colour of the Bitterns.(1) 

The Ecrers are Herons whose feathers, on the lower part of the 
back, at a certain period become long and attenuated. 

The most beautiful species, whose feathers are employed for the 
purpose which the name of these birds indicates, are: 

Ard. garzetta; Enl. 901. (The Little Egret.) But half the 
size of the Heron. It is all white, and its slender feathers do 
not extend beyond the tail. 

Ard. alba; En\. 886. (The Great Egret.) This one is also en- 
tirely white, but larger. Both these species are found in Europe, 
where a third inhabits, whose tarsi are shorter, and whose at- 
tenuated feathers extend considerably beyond the tail; it is the 
A. egretta, Enl. 925.(2) 

We have also thought it proper to approximate to the Egrets the 

Ard. comata, Gm.; Enl. 348; Naum. Ed. I, 22, f. 45. (The 
Crabeater of Mahon.) A bird of southern Europe, with a red- 

-dish-brown back, and white belly and tail. The adult has a 
yellowish neck, and a long tuft on the occiput.(3) 

The feathers on the neck of the Brrrrrns are loose and separated, 

which increases its apparent size. They are usually spotted orstriped. 

A. stellaris, Enl. 789; Frisch, 2053 Naum. Ed. I, 27, f. 36: 
(The European Bittern.) A golden fawn-colour, spotted and 
dotted with black; beak and feet greenish; is found among the 
reeds, whence it sends forth that terrific voice which has enti- 
tled it to the name of Bos taurus. Its attitude, when at rest, is 
singular; the beak being raised towards the heavens.(4) 


(1) A. lineata, Gm. Enl. 860;—A. figrina, Id. Enl. 790, which appears to be the 
young of 4. flava, Gm. 

(2) Temminck thinks that the 2. alba is the young of the 4. egretia, and that 
the pl. Enl. 901 does not represent the Little Egret of Europe, but that of America. 

(3) From the exact observations of Meyer, the 2. castanea, Gm. or the ralloi- 
des, Scopol. 3A. squaiotta;—A. Marsigli;—A. pumila, and even 2. erythropus, and. 
A. malaccensis, Gm. Enl. 911, are all mere varieties, or different ages of the Crab- 
eater of Mahon, or 4. comata. The A. senegalensis, Enl. 315, is also a young age 
of the same bird. It is perhaps the true Crane of the Balearic Islands of Pliny, 
XI, 37. 

Add, A. candidissima, Wils. LXIII, 4;—the Garde-boeuf, A. bubulcus, Savign. Eg. 
Ois., pl. viii;—A. leucocephala, Gm. Enl. 910;—A. jugularis, Forster, or gularis, 
Bosc., Act. de la Soc. d’Hist. Nat. fol. pl. ii, or albicollis, Vieill. Galer. 253;—4. 
cerulea, Enl. 349, of which the 2. xguinoctialis, Catesb. may probably be the 
young, notwithstanding the difference of colour;—A. rufescens, Gm. Enl. 902;— 
A. lewcogaster, Enl. 350;—A. agami, nl. 859. [Add A. Pealit, Bonap. and R. 
ludoviciana, Wils. VU, pl. Ixiv, f. 1. ° Am. Ld] 

(4) Add 4. minor, Wils. VIM, Ixv, 3, or 2. stellaris, B. Gm.; Edw., 136;—2. 

Vou. L.—2 X 


378 AVES. 


The adult Nicur-Herron, with the port of the Bitterns, and a beak 
proportionably thicker, has a few slender feathers on the occiput. 
There is but one species found in France, 
Ard. nycticorax, L.; Bihoreau d’Europe(1) Enl. 758; Frisch, 
203; Naum, Ed. I, 26, f. 35. (The Night Heron.) The male 
is white; back and calotte black; the young bird, Enl. 759, grey 
with a brown mantle and a blackish calotte. (2) 
We must observe, however, that these various subdivisions of the 
Herons are of but little importance, and are by no means well 
marked. " 


The third tribe, besides having a thicker and smoother 
beak than is found in the second, has tolerably strong and 
almost equal membranes between the base of the toes. 


Crconra, Cuv. 


The Storks have a thick beak, moderately cleft; no fossz or grooves; 
the nostrils pierced towards the back and near the base; an extremely 
short tongue. Their legs are reticulated, and the anterior toes 
strongly palmated at base, particularly the external ones. The light 
and broad mandibles of their beak, “by striking against each other, 
produce a clash which is almost the only sound that proceeds from 
these birds. Their gizzard is but slightly muscular, and their ceca 
so small that they are scarcely perceptible. Their lower larynx has 
no peculiar muscle; their bronchiz are longer than common, and 
composed of more than the usual number of rings. There are two 
species in France, 
Ardea ciconia,.L.3; Enl. 8863 Frisch, 196; Naum. Ed. I, 22, f. 
31. (The White Stork.) White; quills of the wings black; feet 
and beak red. A large bird, held in great veneration by the 
people, a distinction arising from the fact that it destroys 
snakes and other noxious reptiles. It prefers building its nest 
on towers, in steeples, &c.; and after having once constructed 


undulata, Gm. Enl. 768;—A. philippensis, Gm. Enl. 908. [Add, also, 4. volacea, 
Wils. VII, pl. Ixy, f. 1;—2. cerulea, Wils. VU, pl. Ixii, f.3;—A4. virescens, Wils. 
VII, Ixi, f. 1;—.2. exilis, Wils. VII, pl. lxv, f. 4. Am. Ed.) 

(1) According to Meyer, the results of whose labours we still follow, the Ard. 
grisea, A. maculata, and the 4. badia of Gmel. are different states of the 4. nycti- 
corax. 

(2) Add A. pileata, Lath., or 2. alba, @; Gm., Enl. 907;—A. caledonica, Lath. ;— 
A. cayennensis, Enl. 899, or violacea, Wils. VIII, lxv, 1, of which 2. jamazcensis, 
Gm. is the young;—A. sibilatrix, T. Col. 271.—The Pouacre, Buff. (Ard. Gardeni, 
Gm.) Enl. 309, appears to be the young of an ash coloured Night Heron, with a 
bronze-black calotte and back. It is the same as the 2. maculata, Frisch, 202. 


GRALLATORIZE. 379 


it, returns to the same spot in the spring, passing the winter in 
Africa. 
Ard. nigra, L.; Enl. $993 and the young, Frisch, 197; Naum. 
23, f. 32. (The Black Stork.) Blackish, with purple reflec- 
tions; belly, white. Haunts solitary marshes, and builds in 
forests.(1) 
Among various species we may distinguish, 


The Bare-necked Storks, 


Which have a thicker beak than the others, but one composed of 
a light substance; and among them 


The Pouched Storks, Ard. dubia, Gm.—Ard. algala, Lat. 


Which have an appendage under the middle of the throat, resem- 
bling a thick sausage, and from under whose wings are procured 
the feathers forming those light plumes called by the French, Ma- 
vabous. They are the largest birds of the genus; their belly is white, 
and their mantle a bronze-black. There are two species, 

~ Cic. marabou, Tem., Col. 300, from Senegal, with a uniform 
mantle, and Cic. dedale Tem., Col. 301, from India, whose 
wing-coverts are edged with white. By means of their broad 
bill, they are enabled to capture birds on the wing.(2) 


Mycrerta, Lin. 


The Jabirus, separated from Ardea by Linnzus, are closely allied to 
the Storks, and much more so than the latter are to the true Herons; 
the moderate opening of their beak, the nostrils, the reticulated 
envelope of the tarsi, and the extent of the membranes between the 
toes are the same as in the Storks; their mode of life is also similar. 
Their peculiar character consists in a beak slightly curved upwards 
near the extremity. 

Myct. americana, L.3;(3) Enl. 817 (The American Jabiru), 


(1) To this genus also belongs the Maguari, or American Stork, (4. maguart) 
Vieill. Galer. 254; and Spix, LXXXIX, under the wrong name of Ciconia jubura, 
which, with the exception of its ash coloured beak, differs but little from our 
White Stork;—the little C. noire de Nubie (Cic. Abdimii, Lichtenst.) Ruppel. 8;— 
the C. violette (C. leucocephala, Gm.) Enl. 906. 

(2) Add the Cigogne chevelue (C. capillaia,T.), Col. 312. 

(3) Touyouyou in Cayenne; Avavai in Paraguay, Collier rouge, &c. Barrere has 
confounded 'it with the American Ostrich, which has caused the name of Touyouyou, 
or Touyou, to be transferred to that bird by Brisson and by Buffon, 

Mycteria, a name derived by Linnzus from “uxrrp, nose, proboscis, on account 
of its large beak. 


380 AVES. 


is the most known species. It is very large; white; head and 
neck naked, and invested with a black skin, the lower part of 
which is red; a few white feathers on the occiput. only; beak and 
feet black. Found along the borders of ponds and marshes in 
South America, where it preys upon reptiles and fish.(1) 


Scopus, Briss.(2) 


The Umbres are only distinguished from the Storks bya compress- 
ed beak, whose trenchant ridge is inflated near the base, and whose > 
nostrils are continued by a groove, which runs parallel with the 
ridge to its end, the latter being slightly hooked. Only one species 
is known, 
Scop. umbretia, Enl. 7963 Vieill. Galer. 250 (The Umbre), 
which is the size of a Crow, and of an umber colour. The 
occiput of the male is tufted. Found throughout Africa. 


Hans, Lacep.—Anastomvs, Illig? 


frie 


These birds are only separable from the Storks by a charac er of 
about equal consequence with that of the Jabiru. Their two “man- 
dibles only come in contact at the base and point, leaving an inter- 
val between the middle of their edges. Even this seems to be the 
result of detrition, for the fibres of the horny substance of the beak, 
which appear to have been worn away, are very visible. 

They are from the East Indies. One is whitish, Ardea pon- 
ticeriana, Gm., Enl. 932; and Vieill. Gal. 251, and the other a 
brown-grey,—“@rdelia coromandeliana, Sonner. It., II, 219. The 
quills of the wings and tail are black in both. Perhaps the 
last one may be the young of the first. A third, of an irised- 
black, Bec-ouvert a lames; tn. lamelliger, Tem. Col. 236, is re- 
markable because the stem of each of its feathers terminates in 
a narrow horny plate, which extends beyond the barbs. The 


Dromas, Paykull, 


Strongly resembles the preceding birds, having the same feet and 
carriage, but its compressed beak, the under part of which is some- 
what inflated at base, is perforated by oval nostrils, and its edges 
join closely. 

Dromas ardeola, Payk., Stockh. Mem., 1805; pl. 8; Col. 362. 
The only species known. Its plumage is white; part of the 


(1) Add, Mye. senegalensis, Lath., Vaill. Gal. 255, from which the Ciconia 
ephippirhyncha, Rupp. Av. 3, only differs in being drawn from the recent specimen, 
and showing two tufts or bobs at the base of the beak. 

(2) Scopus, from Xxomes, sentinel. 


GRALLATORIE. 381 


mantle and wings black. From the shores of the Red Sea, and 
of the Senegal river.(1) 


Tantauus, Lin. 


The Wood-Pelicans have the feet, nostrils and beak of the Stork; 
but the back of the beak is rounded, its point curved downwards, 
and slightly emarginated on each side: a part of their head and 
sometimes of the neck, is destitute of feathers. 

T. loculator, L.; Enl. 868; Wils. VII, Ixvi, 1. (The Wood- 
Pelican of America.) Is the size of a Stork, but more slender; 
white; quills of the wings and tail, black; beak and feet, as well 
as the naked skin of the head and neck, blackish. It inhabits 
both Americas, arriving in each country about the rainy season, 
and frequenting muddy waters, where it chiefly hunts for eels. 
It is a stupid bird, whose gait is very slow. 

T. ibis, L. Enl. 339. (The Wood-Pelican of Africa.) White, 
lightly shaded with purple on the wings; beak yellow; skin of 
the face red and naked. This is the bird which has long been 
considered by naturalists as the Jbis of the ancient Egyptians, 
but recent researches have proved that the Ibis is a much smaller 
bird, of which we shall speak hereafter. The Tantalus is not 
even usually found in Egypt; the specimens we possess are 
brought from Senegal. 

T. leucocephalus; Tantale de Ceylan, Encyc. Method. Orn. pl. 
66, fig. 1; Vieill. Gal. 247 (The Wood-Pelican of Ceylon), is 
the largest of all, and has the stoutest beak. This beak and 
the skin of the face are yellow; plumage white, with black 
quills; a black cincture round the breast; long rose-coloured 
feathers on the rump, which are shed during the rainy sea- 
son.(2) 4 


PLATALEA, Lin.(3) 


The Spoonbills approximate to the Storks, in the whole of their 
structure; but their bill, whence they derive their name, is long, 
flat, broad throughout, becoming widened and flattened, particularly 
at the end, so as to form a spatula-like disks; two shallow grooves, 
originating at its base, extend almost to the end, but without being 


ee 


(1) Dupont, Ann. des Sc. Nat. tom. IX, pl. xlv. It is the Erodia amphilensis, 
Salt., Voy. in Abyss., Atl. pl. xxxi. 

(2) Add the 7. dacteus, T. Col. 352. 

(3) Platalea, or Platea, Latin names, sometimes used as synonymous with Pelr- 
canus. 


382 AVES. 


parallel to its edges. The nostrils are oval, and situated at a short 
distance from the origin of each groove. Their small tongue, reti- 
culated legs, the extent of the membranes of their feet, their two 
very small czca, their but slightly muscular gizzard, and their lower 
larynx destitute of peculiar muscles, are the same as in the Storks, 
but the expansion of their bill deprives it of all its strength, and 
renders it fit for nothing but turning up mud, or capturing small fish 
or aquatic insects. 

P. leucorodia, Gm.3 Enl. 405; Naum. Supp. 44, f. 87. (The 
White Spoonbill.) All white, and a crest on the occiput; it is 
found throughout the eastern continent, where it builds on high 
trees. The “ Spatule blanche sans huppe,”’ Buff. Hist. des Ois. 
tom. VII, pl. 24, according to Bail, is but the young of this 
species. Besides the absence of the crest, it is distinguished by 
the quills of the wings having a black edge. 

P. aiaias La Spatule rose; Enl. 1653 Vieill. Gal. 248. (The 
Roseate Spoonbill.) The face is naked, and the plumage tinged 
with various shades of a bright rose-colour which becomes more 
intense with age. It is peculiar to South America. 


FAMILY IV. 
LONGIROSTRES. 


This family is composed of a multitude of Waders, most of 
which were included in the genus Scolopax of Linneus, and 
the remainder confounded in that of Tringa, L., though partly 
in opposition to the character of this genus, which consists in 
a thumb too short to reach the ground. A small number were 
placed among the Plovers on account of the total absence of a 
thumb. All these birds have nearly the same form, similar 
habits and very frequently even a similarity in the distribu- 
tion of their colours, which renders it a difficult matter to dis- 
tinguish one from another. Their general character is a long, 
slender, and feeble bill, the use of which is restricted to search- 
ing in the mud for worms and insects; the different gradations 
in the form of this bill serve to divide them into genera 
and subgenera. 

According to his own principles, Linneus should have 
united most of these birds in the great genus 


GRALLATORIA. 383 


Scotopax, Lin. 


Which we divide as follows, according to the variation in the 
form of the bill.(1) The 


Isis, Cuv. 


Separated by us from the Zantaius of Gmelin, because the bill, 
though arcuated like that of Tantalus, is much more feeble, and 
has no emargination near its point; the nostrils also, perforated near 
the back of its base, are severally prolonged in a groove which ex- 
tends to the end. Besides, this bill is tolerably thick and almost 
square at base, and some part of the head or even of the neck is 
always destitute of feathers. The external toes are considerably 
palmated at base, and the thumb is sufficiently large to bear upon 
the ground. ‘ 

Some of them have short and reticulated legs; they are usually 
the stoutest, and have the largest beak. 

Ibis religiosa, Cuy.; 4bou-Hannes, Bruce, It., pl. 353 Tantalus 
ethiopicus, Lath.;.the adult, Cuv., Oss. Foss. tom. I, and the 
young, Savign. Descript. de Egypte, Hist. Nat. des Ois., pl. 
7 (The Sacred Ibis), is the most celebrated species. It was 
reared in the temples of ancient Egypt, with a degree of respect 
bordering on adoration; and, when dead, it was embalmed. 
This, according to some, arose from its devouring serpents, 
which otherwise might have infested the country; others again 
are of opinion that it took its origin from some relation between 
its plumage and one of the phases of the moon; while a third class 
of authors attribute it to the fact that its appearance announced 
ed the overflow of the Nile.(2) The Tantalus of Africa was 
for a long time considered as the Ibis of the Egyptians; it is now 
known to be a bird of the present genus, as large as a Hen, with 
white plumage, the tips of the wing-quills excepted, which are 
blacks; the barbs of the last coverts are slender, and of a black 
colour, with violet reflections, and cover the tips of the wings 
and the tail. The bill and feet, as well as the naked part of the 
head and neck, are black: this part, at an early age, is covered 
with small blackish feathers, or, at all events, its upper surface 
is thus furnished. Found throughout Africa.(3) 


(1) This is another of these distinctions and names borrowed by Vieill. (Gal. 
246) without any acknowledgement, although my memoir upon the Ibis,in which I 
establish it, is dated fifteen years prior to any of his writings upon birds. 

(2) Savigny, Mem. sur I’Ibis. 

(3) There is a neighbouring species in the Moluccas which has a longer beak, 


384 AVES. 


Others have scutellated legs; their beak, most commonly, is more 
slender. 

Ib. rubra; Scol. rubra, L.3 Tantal. ruber, Gm.; Enl. 80 and 815 
Wils, VIII, Ixvi, 2. (The Red Ibis.) A bird found im all the 
hot parts of America, remarkable for its bright red colour; the 
tips of the wing-quills are black. The young ones, at first co- 
vered with a blackish down, become cinereous, and, when ready 
to fly, whitish; in two years the red makes its appearance, and 
continues to increase in lustre with age. This species does not 
migrate, and lives in flocks in marshy spots in the vicinity of 
estuaries. . It is easily domesticated. 

Scol. falcinellus, L.3 Courlis vert, Enl. 819; Naum. Ed. I, Supp. 
28, Savig. Eg. Ois. pl. vii, f. 9. (The Green Ibis.) A purple 
brown-red; mantle of a deep green; the head and neck of the 
young marked with whitish dots. It is a beautiful bird of south- 
ern Europe, and of northern Africa, and most probably the spe- 
cies denominated by the ancients the Black Ibis.(1) 


Numenivus, Cuv.(2) 


The Curlews have the beak arcuated like that of the Ibis, but it 
is more slender, and round throughout: the tip of the upper man- 
dible extends beyond the end of the,lower one, and projects a little 
downwards in front of it. The toes are palmated at base. 

Scol. arcuata, L., Enl. 8183 Frisch, 224; Naum. 5, f. 5. (The 
Curlew of Europe.) Is the size of a Capon; brown; the edges of 
all the feathers, whitish; rump, white; tail, striped with white 
aud brown. Common along the coast of Europe, and in transitu 
in the interior. Its name is derived from its cry.(3) 


the coverts less slender, and partly varied with white; long and pointed feathers 
on the upper part of the breast, (Jdis molucca, Cuv.) and another in Bengal, with 
but slightly attenuated ash coloured coverts (bis bengala, Cuvs). 

Add Ib. papillosa, T. Col. 304;—Tant. calvuus, Gm., Enl. 867;—Zbis nudifrons, 
Spix, 86;—Lb. oxycercus, 1d. 87;—T" albicollis, Gm. or Curicaca of Marcgr., Enl. 
976;—Tant. cayennensis, Gm., Enl. 820;—Ibis plumbeus, T. Col. 235;—T'ant. 
melanopis, Gm.; Lath., HI, pl. Ixxix;—JZé. chalcoptera, Vieill. Gal. 246, or T'ant. 
hogedash, Lath. 

(1) Add Tantalus albusand T. coco, Gm.; Enl. 195;—T" cristatus, id. ; Enl. 841;— 
Ibis leucopygus, Spix, 88, if it should not prove to be the young of the ruber;— 
T'ant. leucocephalus, Lath., TH, pl. Ixxx, 2. [N.B. The 7. fuscus of Gm. is the 
young of the 7”. albus, Id. Am. Ed.] 

(2) Numenius, derived from néoménie, new moon, on account of its crescent 
shaped beak. 

(3) Add the Courlis a méches étroites of the Cape (Num. virgatus, C.), Enl. 198;— 
the C. a m. ét. of India (WV. lineatus);—the Mum. longirostris, Wils. of America, 
Am. Orn. Il, xxiv, 4;—Wum. hudsonius, Id. LXVL, f. 1. 


* 


GRALLATORIA. 385 


Seol. Pheeopus, L.3; Petit Courlis; Enl. 1423; Edw. 307; Frisch, 
225; Naum. 10,f. 10.(1) Half the size of the preceding, but 


has nearly the same plumage.(2) ‘ 


Scoropax, Cuy.(3) 


The Snipes have a straight beak, the nasal furrows extending to 
near its point which is a little inflated externally to reach beyond the 
lower mandible, and on the middle of which there is a simple 
groove; this point is soft and very sensible, and when dried, after death, 
assumes a punctured appearance. Their feet are not palmated. A 
peculiar character of these birds consists in their compressed head 
and large eyes placed very far back, which gives them a singularly 
stupid air, an indication which is confirmed by their habits. 

Scol. rusticola, L.; La Bécasses; Enl. 885; Frisch, 126, 227; 
Naum. Ed. I, I, f. 1. (The Woodcock.) The well known 
plumage of this bird is variegated above with grey, red and 
black spots and bands; grey beneath, with transverse blackish 
lines. Its distinguishing character consists of four broad, trans- 
verse, black bands, which succeed each other on the back part 
of the head. During the summer it inhabits lofty mountains, 
and descends into the woods in the month of October. It lives 
either singly or in pairs, particularly in bad weather, and feeds 
on worms and insects. Few of them remain on the plains during 
summer.(4) x 

Scol. gallinago, L.; La Bécassine, Enl. 8833; Frisch, 2295 
Naum. 3, f. 3. (The Snipe.) Smaller than the preceding, and 
with a longer beak; is distinguished by two broad, longitudinal 
black bands on the head, by the neck spotted with brown and 
fawn colour, by a blackish mantle with two longitudinal fawn 


(1) Phaopus (ash-coloured foot), a name composed by Gesner. 

(2) Add the Num. tenwirostris, Ch. Bonap.;—the Num. rufus, Vieill. Gal. 245; 
—the Courlis demi-bec (Num. brevirostris, T.), Col. 381. 

N.B. In this genus, and almost in the whole of this family, the beak becomes 
lengthened by age. 

(3) Scolopax, the Greek name of the Woodcock, from cxoro}, stake, on ac- 
count of its straight and pointed beak. Vieillot has changed it into Rusrrcota. 

(4) Adda closely allied species of North America (Sco/. minor, Gm.), Arct. Zool. 
HI, pl. xix; Vieill. Gal. 242; Wils., VI, xlviii, 2;—Scol. sabint, Vig., Lin. Trans. 
XIV, pl. xxi, if a true species. 

(5) Add the Bécassine muette of Eur., Scol. Brehmii, Kaup., fsis., 1823;—Scol. 
paludosa, Gm. Enl. 895, which is the Se. gallinago, Wils. V1, xlvii, 1;—WScol. gigan. 
tea, Tem. Col. 403. — 

The Brunetie of Buffon, Scol. pusilla, Dunlin of the English, is only the Tringa 
alpina, Gm. 

Vou. I.—2 Y 


386 AVES. 


coloured bands, by its brown wings watered with grey, by a 
whitish belly, the flanks watered with brown, &c. It frequents 
marshes, edges of rivulets, &c. and ascends out of sight, pour- 
ing out its piercing note from a great distance, which sounds 
like the bleating of a goat. It is found in nearly the same state 
in all parts of the globe. 

Scol. major, Gm.; La double Bécassine; Frisch, 228; Naum. 
2, f. 2. (The Great Snipe.) Is distinguished from the preceding 
by being a third larger, and by the grey or fawn coloured un- 
dulations above being smaller, and the brown ones beneath 
larger and more numerous. 

Scol. gallinula, Gm.; La Seourde; Enl. 884; Frisch, 2313 
Naum. 4, f. 4. (The Jack Snipe.) Nearly one half smaller than 
the Scol. gallinago; has but one black band on the head; the 
ground of the mantle reflects a bronze-green; a grey demi-collar 
on the neck; the flanks spotted like the breast with brown; it 
remains nearly the whole year in the marshes of Europe. We 
should distinguish from all others, the 

‘Sc. grisea, Gm.; Wils. VII, lviii, 13 Sc. Paykullii, Nils. Orn. 
Suec. II, pl. 2, and in summer plumage, Scol. Noveboracensis, 
Lath. (The Red-breasted Snipe.) Which differs in the external 
toes being semi-palmated. It is more ash-coloured in winter, and 
more reddish in summer, the rump always white, spotted with 
black. It is also seen in Europe.(1) 


Ruyncu#za, Cuv.(2) 


Birds of India and Africa, whose nearly equal mandibles are 
slightly arcuated at the end, and in which the nasal fossz extend to the 
tip of the upper one, which has no third groove. Their feet are not 
palmated. To the port of Snipes they add more lively colours, 
and are particularly remarkable for the ocellated spots which de- 
corate the quills of both wings and tail. 

These birds are found of various colours, and Gmelin, consi- 
dering them as varieties, unites them under the name of Scol. 


capensis. MM. 'Temminck also considers them as different ages 
of one bird.(3) 


(1) It appears that Vieillot restricts the name of Scolopazx to this subdivision, that 
is, if, as I think, his pl. 241 represents this bird; it is not, however, exact. M. Leach 
makes his genus Macroramrnvs of it. 

(2) Vieillot has adopted this name and genus, Gal. pl. 240. 

(3) Scol. capensis, , Gm. Enl. 922, should be the adult; Scol. capensis, y, Enl. 
881, or Rynchexa variegata, Vieill., Galer. 240, the young, and Enl. 270, an inter- 
mediate age. The Chevalier vert, Briss. and Buff. (Rallus benghalensis, Gm.), Al- 
bin. III, 90, is.also of this genus, and does not even appear to differ from the va- 


at 


GRALLATORIE. 387 


Lrnosa, Bechst.(1) 


The Godwits have a straight beak, longer than the Snipes, and 
sometimes even slightly arcuated near the top. The nasal groove 
extends close to the tip, which is blunt and somewhat depressed; no 
third groove or punctation on its surface. The external toes are pal- 
mated at base. Their form is more slender, and their legs longer 
than those of Snipes; they frequent salt marshes and the sea-shore. 

Scol. leucophea, Lath., and laponica, Gm.; Barge aboyeuse; 
the young, Brit. Zool. pl. xiii; Briss. V, pl. xxiv, f.2; the adult 
in summer plumage, Enl. 900.(2) (The Common Godwit.) In 
winter, a deep brown-grey, the feathers edged with white; the 
breast, a brown-grey; whitish above; rump, white striped with 
brown, &c. In summer it is red, with a brown back. The tail 
is always striped with white and black. 

Scol. zegocephala and belgica, Gm.; Limosa melanura, Leisler; 
in winter plumage, Enl. 874; in that of summer, Ib. 916. (The 
Black-tailed Godwit.) In winter a cinereous grey, browner on 
the backs; white belly; in summer, head, neck, and breast, red; 
the mantle, brown spotted with red;° beneath, striped with 
brown, red and white bands; tail always black, edged with 
white at the tip. These two birds are double the size of the 
Woodcock, and their changes of plumage have occasioned va- 
rious multiplications of the species. The last, during the sum- 
mer, covers the plains of New Holland. Its cry is very shrill 


and resembles that of a Goat.(3) 
; ‘ 


Catipris, Cuv.—Trinea, Temm.(4) 


The bill of the Sandpipers is depressed at the end, and the nasal 


riety represented, Enl. 922. N.B. This last plate is the only one that gives a cor- 
rect representation of the beak peculiar to this little subgenus. Add, a very dis- 
tinct species from Brazil, Rhynchzxa hilarea, Val., Bullet. des Sc. de Ferussac, 
Cc. 2. 

(1) Vieillot has changed this name into Limicuna, Gal. 243, 

(2) Gmelin has made the young of this bird a variety of the following species, 
and quotes the fig. of Brisson, by the name of Scol. glottis, which is a Ruff. 
The adult is his Scol. laponica. The Limosa Meyeri, Leisl. and Temm., is this 
species in its winter livery, and Lim. rufa, the same in its summer plumage. 

(3) Add Scol. fedoa, L.; Wils. VIL, pl. lvi, 4, or the Limicula marmorata, Vieill. 
Galer. 243. We might distinguish the Scol. terek or Sc. cinerea, Gm.; Guldenst., 
Nov. Act. Petrop., XIX, pl. xix, whose beak is curved upwards, and whose feet 
are semi-palmated. It leadsto the Recurvirostres. 

(4) Calidris, <‘an ash coloured and spotted bird, frequenting rivers and 
woods,” Aristotle. Brisson has applied it to the Great Sandpiper. 


388 AVES. 


fosse are very long as in the Godwits, but this bill is not usually 
longer than the head; their slightly bordered toes have no mem- 
branes at base, and their thumb can hardly reach the ground; their 
moderately long legs and short figure give them a heavier carriage 
than that of the Godwits. They are also much smaller. 

Tringa grisea, Tr. cinerea, and T'r. canutus, Gm.; La Mau- 
béche, Enl. 366; Edw. 276; Wils. VII, lvii, 2. (The Sandpi- 
per.) Winter plumage ash-coloured above, white beneath, with 
blackish spots on the front of the neck and breast. In its sum- 
mer livery, 7. islandica, Gm., or Tr. rufa, Wils. VIX, lvii, 5, 
it is spotted above, fawn colour and blackish; underneath, red. 

The 7. nevia, Enl. 365, is an intermediate state. The coverts 
of the tail are always white striped with black, and its quills 
grey. Nearly as large as a Snipe. 

Tr. maritima, Brun.; 7. nigricans, Montag., Lin. Trans. IV, 
pl. 11, f. 25 Brit. Zool. in fol., pl. c. 2, f. 1. Somewhat less 
than the preceding; grey; the mantle blackish; wings undulated 
with whitish; whitish belly. It is common on the coast of Hol- 
land, rare in France. Always settles on stones.(1) 


ARENARIA, Bechst.—-Catrpnis, Vig. 


The Sanderlings resemble the Sandpipers in every point but one, 
viz. they have no thumb, as is the case with the Plovers. 

The species known, Charadrius calidris, Gm. Briss. V, pl. 

xx, § 2; Vieill. Gal. 234, is, in winter, greyish above; front and 

underneath white; blackish wings, varied with white; Wils., 

VII, lix, A. In summer, its back is spotted with fawn-colour 

and black, and its breast dotted with blackish,—Char. rubidus, 
Wils., VII, Ixiii, 3.(2) 


Pevipna, Cuv. 


The Pelidne are merely small Sandpipers, with a bill somewhat 
longer than the head. The edging of their feet is insensible. 

Tringa cinclus and alpina; Alouette de mer (The Sea-Lark), is 

a third smaller than the Great Sandpiper, and like it, in winter, 


(1) Add of European species: 7'r. Temminckit, Leisler, Col. 41, 4;—T'r. minuta, 
Leisl. Naum. 21, f. 50. Of species foreign to that country: J'r. leucoptera, Gm., 
Lath. Syn. III, pl. Ixxxii;—T'r. albescens, Tem. Col. 41, 1;—T'r. maculosa, Vieill. 
Dict.x—TZ'r. pusilla, Wils., pl. xxxvii, 4. 

Add T'r. islandica, L., Wils. VII, p. lvii, f.2, 5. Am. Ed. 

(2) It has been confounded with the Alouette de mer, in its winter plumage, 
otherwise the little Sandpiper, or Z'r. arenaria. Brisson, in particular, gives the 
figure of the one, and the description of the other. The Calidris tringotdes, 
Vieill. Gal, 234, seems to be abad figure of this bird in its summer liyery. 


a 


GRALLATORIE. 389 


is ash-coloured above, white beneath, and the breast shaded 
with grey; in summer, its plumage is fawn-coloured above, 
spotted with black, small black spots front of the neck and 
breast, and a black patch under the belly. It is then the 77. 
alpina, Gm., or Tr. cinclus, B. Enl. 852; Wils., VII, lvi, 2. 
The 77. cinclus, L., Enl. 851, is an intermediate state.(1) 

The Cocortt only differs from the Sea-larks by its beak being 

slightly arcuated. ; 

The species known, Scolopax subarcuata, Gm.; Numenius afri- 
canus, Lath.; Naum. 21, f. 28 and 20; f. 27, is, in winter, black- 
ish cbove, undulated with grey and whitish beneath; in summer 
the back is spotted with black and fawn-colour, the wings are 
grey, and the head and under part of the body red. It is found 
everywhere, though very rarely. The 


FALcINELLvS(2) 


Has a beak somewhat more arcuated than that of the Cocorli; the 
thumb, moreover, is deficient. 
One species only is known, Scol. pygmea, L., a native of 
Africa, but which has sometimes been seen in Europe. 


Macuerss, Cuy.(3) 


The Ruffs are true Sandpipers in their bill and carriages; the 
membrane between their external toes, however, is nearly as exten- 
sive as in Totanus, Limosa, &c. 

One species only is known, the 7ringa pugnax, L., Enl. 305, 

306. It is somewhat smaller than a snipe, and celebrated for 

the furious combats which take place among the males in the 
nuptial season. At this period the head is partly covered with 
red papille, the neck is surrounded with a thick collar of fea- 
thers, so variously arranged and coloured, and projecting in 
such fantastic positions, that no two individuals can be found 
alike; even before this epoch there is so much diversity in their 
plumage, that many imaginary species have been described by 
naturalists.(4) Their feet are always yellowish, which with 


(1) This is most probably the place for the Z'ringa macroptera, Spix, XCII. 
|Add Am. Spec. Z'r. Schinzii, Brehm.;—T'r. pectoralis, Bonap.;—T'r. platyr- 
hinca, Temm. Am. Ed. 

(2) Vieillot has changed this name into Erotra. It is not, as has been asserted, 
destitute of a thumb. 

(3) Mayulns, pugnator. Teasdyos, fuscus. 

(4) The Chevalier varié, Buff., Sp. IV; Briss. V, pl. xvii, 2 (Z'ringa littorea, 
L.; T'ringa ochropus, B.; littorea, Gm.). The Chevalier, properly so called, Buff. 


390 AVES. 


their beak and their semi-palmated external toes, furnish a mark 
which may assist us to recognize them. This bird, common 
to the whole north of Europe, is also found on the coast of 
France, particularly in the spring, but it does not build 
there.(1) 

There are some small birds in America resembling the Sand- 
pipers, whose feet are semi-palmated anteriorly; (the Hemrra- 
taMA, Bonap.) Zvringa semi-palmata, Wils., VII, I\xiii, 4; 
Tringa brevirostris, Spix, xciii. 

It appears that it is near the Sandpipers we must place the 


Evurinoruyncuus, Wilson. 


Which is distinguished from them by its depressed bill, widened 
at the end almost like that of the Spoonbill, the only known species 
of which, 

Platalea pygmea, L.; Eurinorhynchus griseus, Wils., Thunb., 
Acad., Suec., pl. VI, is one of the rarest in existence, for only 
a single individual has been found: it is grey above, white be- 
neath, and hardly as large as a Pelidna. 


PHALARopUs, Briss.(2) 


Small birds, whose bill, though flatter than that of the Sandpipers, 
is similarly proportioned, and has the same grooves; the toes also 
are bordered with wide membranes like those of Fulica. The spe- 
cies known, 


Phal. fulicarius, Bonap.; Tringalobata and Tr. fulicaria, L.(3): 


has a very large beak for a member of this family.’ In winter, 
it is ash-coloured above; beneath, and the head, whitish; a 
black band on the neck: it is then the 7’. lobata, Edw. 308. In 
summer it becomes black, streaked with fawn colour above, and 
reddish beneath: there is at all times a white band on the wing, 
which is blackish: it is then the Phalaropus rufus, Bechst. and 


Sp. Il; Briss. V, pl. xvii, fig. 1, quoted by Gmel. under Scol. calidris; the true 
Maubéche, Briss. V, pl. xx, fig. 1 (T'ringa calidris, Gm.): the bird of Frisch, pl. 
238, are all ruffs in different states of plumage, many other varieties of which 
might still be represented. 

According to Meyer, the T'ringa grenovicensis, Lath. is also a young Ruff. 

(1) A true Ruff was shot on Long Island a few weeks ago (May 1830). It is 
the only one ever found in this country. Am. Ed. 

(2) Vieillot has changed this name into Crymoruite, Gal., pl. 270. 

(3) Meyer improperly confounds this bird, Edw. 308, with the 7'ringa hyper- 
borea and the T'ringa fusca, which have the beak of a Totanus, and of which we 
make our Lonirss. 


Se 


.. tx, uf 
eee tee ee 


GRALLATORIA. 391 
ge 


Meyer; Zringa fulicaria, L., Edw. 142;(1) Crymophile roux, 
Vieill., Gal., 270. This bird is rare in Europe. 


STREPSILAS.(2) 


The Turn-stones stand rather low; the bill is short, and the toes 
are without membranes, like those of the true Sandpipers; but this 
bill is conical, pointed, without any depression, compression, or in- 
flation, and the nasal fosse do not extend to more than half its 
length. The thumb barely reaches the ground. Their bill, which 
is stronger and stiffer in proportion than that of the preceding birds, 
enables them to overturn stones, beneath which they find worms. 

The mantle of one species is varied with black and red; head 
and belly, white; cheeks and breast, blacks; it is disseminated 
throughout both continents, and is the Zringa interpres, L., 
Enl. 856. There is also one varied with grey and brown, which 
is perhaps but the same species at a different age—Enl. 340 
and 857; Vieill. Gal. 237.(3) 


Toranus, Cuv.(4) 


The beak of these birds is slender, round, pointed and solid; the 
nasal fosse do not extend beyond the half of its length, and the 
upper mandible is slightly arcuated near the end. Their form is 
light and their legs long; but a small part of their thumb rests on 
the ground; their external web is well marked. Each of the species 
is found throughout almost the whole of the globe. 

Scol. glottis, L.; Chevalier aux pieds verts; Albin. Il, 69; Al- 
drov. Orn. III, 535; Brit. Zool. pl. c. 1? As large asa Limosa, 
beak thick and strong, a brown ash colour above and on the 
sides; edges of the feathers dotted with brown; white rump and 
belly; tail marked with narrow and irregular grey and white 
stripes; the feet green. In summer the neck and breast are 
spotted with brown; in winter the whole under part of the body 
is white. It is the largest of all the European species. Scol. 
fusca, L.3 Cheval noir; Barge brune; Buff. Enl. 875; Frisch, 
236,(5) has the graceful form of the Godwit, and in summer is 
a blackish brown above and slate-coloured beneath; the feathers 


(1) Gmelin has increased the confusion by quoting this bird as a variety of the 
hyperborea. 

(2) Vieillot has changed this name into that of Arznarta, Gal. pl. 237. 

(3) See Edw., 141; Naum., Suppl. 62, f. 118; Wils. VIL, lyii, 2. The Chevalier 
varié, Enl. 300, referred by Meyer to Strepsilas, is merely a Ruff. 

(4) Totano, the Venetian name of a Limosa or Totanus. 

(5) According to Meyer, the Scol. curonica and cantabrigiensis, and the T'ringe 
atra, Gm. should be referred to this bird. The two first are the young ones. 


392 


AVES. 


bordered or dotted on the edge with whitish; the rump white, 
and the tail striped with brown and white, two characters which 
exist more or less in all the species of Europe; feet of a reddish 
brown. In winter the belly and breast become white, when it 
is almost ash coloured above, with red feet. It is then the 
Grand Chevalier a pieds roges, Scol. calidris, L. Enl. 876.(1) 

Tringa gambetta, Gm. Gambetie; Enl. 845; Frisch, 240, 
Naum. 9, f. 9. In summer, brown above, with black spots, and 
some few white ones, on the edges of the feathers; white be- 
neath with brown spots, particularly on the breast and neck; 
red feet; numerous brown and white stripes on the tail. In win- 
ter its spots are nearly effaced, and the mantle i is of an almost 
uniform grey; in this state it is the fig., Enl. 827. Its size is a 
third less. 

Totanus stagnatilis, Bechst.; Chevalier a longs pieds, Bonelli. 
Something smaller than the preceding, but has longer and more 
slender legs: in summer its back is brown, with irregular black 
spots; its belly white, and brown spots mark the neck and 
breast. In winter the mantle becomes of a uniform grey, and 
the under part of the body white. The stripes on the tail are 
irregular and parallel to its edges. 

Tringa ochropus, L.; Le Bécasseau; Enl. 843. A bronze-black 
above, the edges of the feathers dotted with whitish; white be-. 
neath, spotted with grey on the forepart of the neck and on the 
sides; only three black bands on the lower half of the tail; feet, 
greenish; still smaller than either of the two preceding ones. 
It is much esteemed as game, and is common along the banks 
of rivulets in Europe, although it is rather a solitary bird. 

Tringa glareola, Gm.; Bécasseau des bois, chiefly differs from 
the preceding in having from seven to eight blackish stripes 
along the whole length of the tail. The pale spots on its back 
are broader. The spots on the neck and breast almost totally 
disappear in winter. 

Tot. macularius, Wils. VII, lix, 1, 2°(2) Tringa hypoleucos, 
L.; La guignette, Enl. 850. The smallest of the European spe- 
cies, being about as large as a Pelidna (Zr. alpina, Gm.); 
a bronzed greenish-brown, with transverse, fawn coloured 
and black marks on the wings; beneath and in front, white; 
rump, and the middle quills of the tail, colour of the back, the 
lateral ones only being striped with black and white as in the 


(1) Under the wrong name of Barge grise. 
(2) This mark of doubt may be removed: it is not the Tot. macularius, Wils. 
Am. Ed. 


oe 


ae 


GRALLATORIAZ. 393 


other species. The feathers of the beak as well as the small 
Wing-coverts, when young, have a light fawn coloured edging. 
Its habits are the same as those of the preceding. 

Among the species foreign to Europe, we should particularly 
notice that of North America, with the large beak and semi- 
palmated feet, Scolopax semipalmata, L.; Ency. Method. PI. 
Ornith., pl. Ixxi, fig. 1; Wils. VII, lvi, 3, which is nearly as 
large as the one first named, with a shorter and thicker beak, 
plumage brown-grey above, whitish beneath; brownish spots on 
the neck and breasts; toes well bordered with equal and consi- 
derable membranes.(1) The 


LopirEs, Cuv.(2) 
We think requires to be separated from Phalaropus, because al- 
though the feet are similar, the bill is that of a Totanus; such is 

Tringa hyperborea, L.; Lobipéde a hausse-col; Enl. 766, of 
which the 7ringa fusca, Edw. 46, is probably the female or the 
young. This little bird, which is grey above, white beneath, 
and has its scapulars tinged with red, has a broad red gorget 

round its white throat.(3) 


Himanropus,(4) Briss. 
The bill round, slender and pointed, even more so than that of a 


(1) It is on this character that M. Ch. Bonaparte founds his subgenus Caror- 
rropnorus. Addto the common species, Tot. speculiferus, which resembles the 
semipalmatus, but stands higher, and has a longer beak, with the usual feet;— 
Tot. vociferus, Wils. VII, lviii, 5, or Zot. melanolewcos, Ord, Ib.;—Tot. flavipes, 
Wils., LVI, 4;—~7ot. solitarius (Tot. glareolus, Wils.), Wils., VU, lviii, 3. [See 
App. XXIV of Am. Ed.] The Tot. Bartramius, Wils., VU, lix, 2, has a propor- 
tionally shorter beak than the other species, although in every thing else its 
characters are the same. 

N.B. This genus, mixed up by Buffon with several varieties of Ruffs, has been 
distributed by Linnzus, without any reason, among his two genera Scolopax and 
Tringa. ‘This confusion is not yet dissipated, as I had no opportunity of observ- 
ing all the foreign species. Itis easy to see, however, that I could not retain the 
genus Aritts of Illiger. 

I should also observe, that the most exact descriptions will not suffice for dis- 
tinguishing the species with certainty, until those of my Toranus are separated 
from my Sandpipers and Godwits, according to the forms of the beak, as above 
mentioned. Itis this which has prevented me from giving all the synonymes of 
Bechstein and Meyer. 

(2) M. Vieillot, to have the air of producing a change, retains here the name of 
Phalaropus. i 

(3) Add the Phal. frenatus, Vieill. Gal. pl. 271, or Phal. liseré, T. Col. 270; 
Wils., IX, pl. lxiii, f. 3? Itis the subgenus Hoxoronrus of Ch. Bonap. 

(4) Himantopus, feet like a string, (alluding to their weakness) is the name 
given to this bird in Pliny. 

Vou. I.—2 Z 


394 AVES. 


Totanus, and the nasal grooves occupy but half its length. The ex- 
cessive length and tenuity of the legs which are reticulated and des- 
titute of a thumb, and the weakness of their bones, which is so ex- 
treme as to render walking painful to them, are what principally 
distinguish the species of this subgenus, and give rise to their 
name. 
One species only is known in Europe,—Charadrius himantopus, 
L., Enl. 878, which is white, with a black calotte and mantle, 
and long red feet; it is a rare bird whose habits are but im- 
perfectly known.(1) 
This is perhaps the only place for the 


Recurvirostra, Lin. 


Or the Avosets, although their feet, which are webbed to near the 
ends of the toes, almost entitle them to a situation among the Pal- 
mipedes; but their high tarsi and half naked legs, their long, slen- 
der, pointed, smooth, and elastic bill, together with the mode of life 
resulting from this conformation, equally approximate them to the 
Snipes. What particularly characterizes, and even distinguishes 
them from all other birds, is the strong upward curve of their beak. 
Their legs are reticulated, and their thumb much too short to reach 
the ground. 
_ The European species,—Recurv. avocetia, L., Enl. 353, is 
white; a black calotte and three bands on the wing of the same 
hue; feet, lead-coloureds it is a pretty bird of a graceful form, 
found in winter on the sea shore. The American species,—R. 
americana, Wils. VII, Ixiii, 2; Leach, Zool. Misc., pl. 101, 
differs from it in a red hood. 
The coasts of the Indian seas produce a third which is white, 
with black wings and red feet, the #. orientalis, Cuv.(2) 


FAMILY V. 
MACRODACTYLI. 


This family is farnished with very long toes, fitted for walk- 
ing on the grass of marshes, and even for swimming, in those 
numerous species especially, in which they are bordered with 
a membrane. ‘There are no membranes, however, between 


(1) Add, Him. nigricollis, Wils. VII, pl. lviii, 2, and Vieill. Gal. pl. 229. 
(2) Vieillot has changed this name into Recurvir. leucocephala, Gal. pl. 272. 


GRALLATORIA. 395 


the bases of their toes, not even between the external ones. 
The beak, more or less compressed on the sides, is lengthened 
or shortened according to the genus, never, however, becom- 
ing as slender or as weak as that of the preceding family. 
The body of these birds is also singularly compressed, a cir- 
cumstance which is owing to the narrowness of the sternum 3 
their wings are moderate or short, and their flight feeble. 
They all have a long thumb. 

They have been divided into two tribes according to the 
armature or non-armature of their wings ; but this character is 
liable to exceptions. . 


JacaNas, Briss.—Parra, Lin.(1) 


The Jacanas are greatly distinguished from the other Grallatoriz 
by having four very long toes, separated down to their root, the 
nails of which, that of the thumb in particular, are also extremely 
long and pointed, from which peculiarity, they have received their 
vulgar name of Swrgeons. The beak is similar to that of the Lap- 
wings in its moderate length, and in the slight inflation of its end. 
Their wing isarmed with a spur. They are noisy and quarrelsome 
birds, which inhabit marshes of hot climates, where they walk with 
ereat facility by means of their long toes. 

America produces some species in which the base of the bill is 
covered by a flat, naked membrane, which extends to part of the 
forehead. 

P. jacana, L. Enl. 322. (The Common Jacana.) Black, with 
ared mantles the primary wing-quills green; fleshy wattles under 
the beaks; very sharp-pointed spurs. It is the most common 
species in all the hot climates of America.(2) 

Some of the same description are also found in Asia, 


(1) Jacana, or Jahana, is properly, in Brazil, the name of the Galhinule. The 
Surgeons are there called quapwazos, because they walk over the aquatic plants 
called Aquape (Azzar.). It is possibly through an error of transcription that one 
of themin Marcgrave is named Aguapeccaca. 

Parra is the Latin name of some unknown bird. 

(2) The J. varié (P. variabilis), Enl. 846, is only the common species at an early: 
age. “The, P. brasiliensis and the P. nigra exist only on the somewhat equivocal 
authority, of Marcgrave. The P. wiridis, which also rests on the description of 
Maregrav €, appears to me, from the description itself, to be a Porphyrio. ‘The P. 
africana, Lath. scarcely differs. As for the P. chavaria, see the following article 
on the Palamedee. a ph G10 

en MP wie tt pe 


4 
te a ee 


396 AVES. 


P. znea,(1) with a black body reflecting blue and violet tints; 
mantle bronze-green; rump and tail blood-red; anterior quills 
of the wing green; a white streak behind theeye. Its spursare 
blunt and small. 

Others have been discovered in the East, in which this membrane 
is deficient, and which are otherwise remarkable for some singular 
differences in the proportions of their quills. 

P. chinensis; Jacana a longue queue; Encycl. Method., Orn. 
pl. 61, f. 1; Vieill. Gal. 265. (The Long-tailed Jacana.) Brown; 
head, throat, front of the neck and coverts of the wings whites 
back of the neck furnished with silky feathers of a golden yel- 


low; asmall pediculated appendage to the end of some of the 


wing-quills; four quills of the tail black, and longer than the 

body. The Chirurgien de Lucon of Sonnerat, (P. luzoniensis,) is 

the young of the same: independently of some difference in the 
colours, it has not yet acquired its long tail. 

The East produces others which are tufted, and in which the spur 
on the wing is deficient, P. gallinacea, Tem. 464. 


PALAMEDEA, Lin. 


The Kamichi resemble the Jacanas, but on a very large scale, in 
the two strong spurs of each of their wings, in their long toes and 
strong nails, that of the thumb in particular, which is long and 
straight as in the Larks; but their beak, whose aperture is small, is 
but slightly compressed, and is not inflated; the upper mandible, 
also, is somewhat arcuated. Their legs are reticulated. The species 
known, 

P. cornuta, L., Enl. 4513 Vieill. Gal. 2613; Anhima in Brazil; 
Camouche at Cayenne, &c. is larger than the Goose, blackish, 
with a red spot on the shoulder, and a singular appendage on 
top of the head, consisting of a long, slender, mobile and horny 
stem. There are no membranes between the toes. This bird is 
found in the inundated places of South America, and has a very 
loud cry. It is a strict monogamist. It has been said that it 
hunts reptiles, but though its stomach is but slightly muscular, 
it rarely feeds on any thing but aquatic plants and seeds.(2) 

A distinct genus has been made of another, 


Cuauna, Illig.(3) 
Parra chavaria, L.; Chaia of Paraguay, Azzar.; Col. 2195 


(1) Vieillot has changed this specific name into melanchloris, Gal. 264. It is 
also the P. superciliosa, Horsf. Jav. 

(2) Bajon., Mem. sur Cayenne, II, 284. 

(3) Vieillot has changed this name into OrrsroLornvs. 


GRALLATORLA. 397 


Vieill. Gal. 267, which has no horn on the vertex, and whose 
occiput is ornamented with a circle of erectile feathers. The 
head and upper:part of the neck are only covered with down, 
and it has a black collar. The rest of its plumage is lead-co- 
loured, and blackish with a white spot on the tip of the wing, 
and a second over the base of some of the large quills. The ex- 
ternal toes are considerably palmated. It chiefly feeds on aquatic 
plants, and the Indians of Carthagena always keep some of them 
among their geese and chickens, as it is sufficiently courageous, 
according to them, to repulse even the Vulture. A singular 
circumstance attending this bird is, that air is every where in- 
terposed between the skin and muscles, even on the legs, in 
such a quantity as causes it to crackle under the finger. 
Although there is scarcely any part of the leg naked in(1) 


Mrecaropivs, 


We still think it should be placed near Palamedea. It is a genus 
lately discovered in New Guinea, in which the bill is arched and 
slightly compressed, the membranous nostrils occupying about the 
one half; the legs are strong, high, and scutellated; the thumb and 
toes long, and terminated by large nails somewhat flattened; the tail 
is short, the circumference of the eye partly naked, and there is a 
small tubercle on the carpus, the first and slight vestige of the spur 
of the Palamedez. The membrane between the external toesis very 
short; between the internal ones it is somewhat larger. The eggs 
are very disproportionate in size to that of the bird. 

One species is tufted almost like the Chavaria,—the Megap. 
Duperrey, Less. and Garn., Voy. de Duperr. Zool., pl. 37. Two 
others, the WZ. de Freycinet and M. de Lapeyrouse, Quoy and Gaym. 
Voy. de Freycin. pl. 28 and 27, and Col. 220, are destitute of 
the tuft.(2) A fourth, which is smaller, the Alectelie de Dur- 
ville, Voy. de Dup., pl. 38, appears to have no tail. 


Of the tribe whose wings have no armature, Linnzeus com- 
prises in his genus Fuliea such as have their beak prolonged. 
into a sort of shield, which partly covers the forehead; and 
in his genus adlus, those in which this peculiarity does not 
exist. [See App. XXV of Am. Ed.] 


(1) There is scarcely any part of the leg naked in the Rallus Crex. 
(2) The Mégap. Duperrey is called Tavon in Manilla. Although hardly as large as a 


Partridge, it lays an egg equal in size to that of a Goose. Add the Mégap. a pieds 
rouges, Col. 411. 


398 AVES. 


Rauuwus, Linn. 


The Rails, which, in other respects, have a strong, mutual re- 
semblance, present bills of very different proportions. 
Among the species in which it is longest, the Ratius, Bechst., is 
placed 
Ral. aquaticus, L.3; Rale d’eau d’Europe, Enl. 749; Naum. 20, 
f.41. (The Water Rail.) A fawn coloured brown, spotted with 
blackish above; bluish ash colour beneath; the flanks striped 
with white and black; common in ponds, &c., where it swims 
well, and runs lightly over the leaves of aquatic plants; it feeds 
on small shrimps, and its flesh has a marshy odour.(1) 
Other species have a shorter beak, Crex, Bechst., among which 
we find 
Ral. crex, L.3 Le Rale de genéts, Enl. 7503 Frisch, 212, B; 
Naum. 5, f. 5. Fawn coloured brown, spotted with black above; 
greyish beneath; flanks streaked with black; red wings. It lives 
and builds in the fields, running through the grass with great 
celerity. Its name, Crez, expresses the sound of its note. It 
has been called the Quail-King, because it arrives and departs 
with those birds, and leads a solitary life on the same grounds, 
from which arose the conjecture that it was their leader. It 
feeds on grain, as well as on worms and insects. 
Ral. porzana,L.; La Marouette, Enl. 7513 Frisch, 2113; Naum. 
31, f. 42. (The Little Spotted Rail.) A deep brown dotted 
with white; flanks marked with whitish stripes; found in the 
vicinity of ponds, and constructs a nest with reeds, that has the 
form of a wherry, which it fastens to the stem of some one of 
those plants; it is a good swimmer and diver, and does not leave 
France till the middle of winter.(2) 


(1) There is a variety or species at the Cape, Rallus cxrulescens, Cuv., the 
black and white stripes of whose abdomen are merely a little more extended. Add 
ofthe Water Rails: al. virginianus, Edw., 729; Wils. LXII, 1;—crepitans, 1b. 2;— 
longirostris, Enl. 849;—variegatus, Enl. 775;—philippensis, Enl. 774;—torquatus;— 
striatus;—the Fulica cayennensis (which is a true Rail), Enl. 352, as well as the 
Gallinula gigas, Spix, xcix;—sarracura, Id. XCVIN;—mangle, Id. XCVIL;—ru/ji- 
ceps, Id. XCVI, and ceria, Id. XCV.—The Ral. fuscus, Enl. 773, begins to have a 
shorter bill. : 

(2) There are two other Rails in Europe with short beaks, smaller than the 
porzana, R. Baillioni, Vieill. Dict., and A. pusillus, Naum., 32, F. 45. Among 
these short beaked Rails may be placed the fal. cayennensis, Enl. 753 and 368;— 
minutus, Enl. 847;—jamaicensis, Edw. 278;—noveboracensis, Vieill. Gal. 266;— 
nigro-lateralis, Lichten.;—carolinus, Edw. 144, Wils. 48, 2;—Gallinula eurizona, 
T: Col. 417;—G. rubiginosa, Id. Col. 387. 

The Ral. benghalensis, Gm., isa Rhynchze. 


GRALLATORIA. 399 


Fouica, Lin. 


The Coots may be divided as follows, from the form of the beak 
and the appliances of the feet. 


Gauinuta, Briss. and Lath. 


Or the Water Hens. The beak very similar to that of the Ground- 
Rail, from which these birds are distinguished, by the shield on the 
forehead, and by very long toes, furnished with a very narrow 
border. ; 

Fulica chloropus, L.3 La Poule d’Eau commune, Enl. 877; 
Frisch, 209; Naum. 29 and 38. (The Water-Hen.) A deep 
brown above; slate-grey beneath, with some white on the thighs, 
along the middle of the lower part of the abdomen, and on the 
external edge of the wing. The young, Fulica fusca, Gm., Pou- 
lette d’eau, Buff., are more lightly coloured, and have a larger 
frontal escutcheon.(1) 


Porruyrio, Briss. 


The beak higher in proportion to its lengths very long toes, with- 
out any very sensible borders; the frontal shield large, rounded in 
some, and square above in others. ‘These birds stand on one foot, 
using the other to convey their food to the beak. Their colours are 
usually fine shades of blue, violet and aqua-marina. Such is 

Fulica porphyrio, L.; Poule Sultane Ordinaires Edw. 87, a 
beautiful African bird, now naturalized in several islands and 
coasts of the Mediterranean.(2) Its beauty would render it an 
ornament to our pleasure grounds. 


Fuuica, Briss. 


The True Coots, in addition to a short beak and a large frontal 
shield, have their toes much widened by a festooned border that 
renders them excellent swimmers, in consequence of which their 


(1) The Poule d’eaw ardoisée de ? Inde, Vieill. Gal. 268, hardly differs from the 
common one;—the P. d’eaw tachetée, or the Grinette, F. nevia, Alb., I, 73, is only 
a young ftal. crex. Add Ral. phxnicurus, Enl. 896. 

Add Gal. martinica, Gm.; Wils. IX, pl. Ixxiii, f. 2. Am. Ed. 

(2) The Ful. maculata, flavipes and fistulans, originally rest on some bad 
figures of Gesner, from drawings which had been sentto him. But the Fud. mar- 
tinica and flavirostris are true Rhyncheas. The mariinica is in Vieill. Gal. 267. 
Add the Taléve d manteau verd (Porph. smaragnotus, T.), En}. 910;—the 7! ¢ man- 
teau noir (Porph. melanotos, T.);—the JT. meunier (P. pulverulentus, T. ), Col. 
405;—the T. emeraudine (P. smaragdinus, T.) Col. 421;—the P. albus, L. Philip. 
Voy. to Bot. Bay, p. 273; J. White, p. 238. 


400 AVES. 


lives are passed in ponds and marshes. Their polished plumage is 
not less adapted to this kind of life than their conformation, and 
these birds establish an evident link between the order of the Gral- 
latoriz and that of the Palmipedes. There is but one in Europe, 
fF. atra, F. aterrima, and F. ethiops, Gm.; La Foulque, Enl. 
197, Frisch. 208, Naum. 30, f. 40. (TheCoot.) The shield of 
a deep slate colours; edge of the wings whitish; in the nuptial 
season the shield becomes red: found wherever there is a 
pond.(1) 


We will terminate this sketch of the Grallatoriz with three 
genera, which it is diflicult to associate with any other, and 
which may be considered as forming separately so many small 
families. 


Curonis, Foster.—Vacinatts, Lath. 


Or the Sheath-Bills. Their legs are short, almost like those of the 
Gallinacee; their tarsi scutellated, their bill stout and conical, hav- 
inga hard substance enveloping its base, which, it appears, the bird 
has the power of raising and depressing. 
Only one species is known, and that is from New Holland, 
Vag. Chionis, Lath. III, pl. 89, Chionis necrophaga, Vieill. Gal. 
258. Itis the size of a Partridge, with entirely white plumage. 
It haunts the sea-coast, where it feeds on the dead animals 
thrown up by the waves. 


GLAREOLA. 


The beak of the Pratincoles is short, conical, arcuated throughout, 
has a large opening, and resembles that of the Gallinacez. Their 
excessively long and pointed wings remind us of the Swallows,(2) 
or of the Palmipedes of the high seas; their legs are of a moderate 
length, their tarsi scutellated, and their external toes somewhat pal- 
mated; their thumb touches the ground. Aquatic worms and insects 
constitute their food. The European species, 

Glar. austriaca, Enl. 8823; Glar. pratincola, Leach, Lin. 
Trans., XIII, pl. xii; Naum., 29, F. 59, is brown above, white 
beneath and on the rump; a black circle round the throat; feet 
and base of the beak, reddish. It appears to be found in all the © 
north of the eastern continent.(3) . 


ig 0 . ae 
ye 


(1) Add the Coot of Madagascar (Ful. cristata, Gm.) Enl. 797; Vieill. Gal. 269. 

Add also F’. americana, Gm.; Wils. IX, pl. Ixxili, f..1. . Am. Ed. 

(2) Linnzus (Edit. XII) even placed the"common species in the genus Hirundo, 
under the name of Hir. pratincola. os 

(3) Glareola nxvia, Gm. , is the young of the common species. See Leach, Lin. 


GRALLATORI&, A401 
Our last genus will be that of 


Puanicorrerus, Lin. “e 


Or the Flamingos, one of the most extraordinary and insulated of 
all birds. The legs are excessively long; the three anterior toes are 
palmated to their ends, and that of the hind one is extremely short; 
the neck, quite as long and slender as the legs, and their small head 
furnished with a beak whose lower mandible is an oval longitudinally 
bent into a semi-cylindrical canal, while the upper one, oblong 
and flat, is bent crosswise in its middle, so as to join the other 
exactly. [he membranous fossz of the nostrils occupy nearly all 
the side of the part which is behind the transverse fold, and the 
nostrils themselves are longitudinal slits in the base of the fosse. 
The edges of the two mandibles are furnished with small, and very 
delicate transverse laminz, which, with the fleshy thickness of the 
tongue, creates some affinity between them and the Ducks. Were 
it not for the length of their tarsi, and the nudity of their legs, we 
might even place them among the Palmipedes. They, feed on shell 
fish, insects, and the spawn of fishes, which they capture by means of 
their long neck, turning the head on one side to give more-effect to 
the hook of the upper mandible. They construct their nest of earth 
in marshes, placing themselves astride of it to hatch their eggs, a 
position to which they are forced to resort, by the length of their 
legs. The species known, 

Ph. ruber, Enl. 68 (The Red Flamingo), is from three to four 
feet in height; ash coloured, with brown streaks, during the 
first year; in the second there is a rosy hue on the wings, and 
in the third it acquires a permanent purple-red on the back, and 
rose-coloured wings. The quills of the wing are black; the 
beak yellow, with a black tip, and the feet brown. 

' This species is found in all parts of the eastern continent be- 
low 40°. Numerous flocks are seen on the southern coast of 
France, and they sometimes ascend as far as the Rhine. 
M. Temminck thinks that the American Flamingo, which is alto- 
gether of a bright red, Wils. VIII, 66, and Catesb. 73, is a different 
species from that of Europe.(1) 


Trans. XIII, pl. xii, f. 2. Add Glar. australis, Leach, loc. cit. pl. xiv, or Glar. 
isabella, Vieill. Gal. 263;—Glar. orientalis, Leach, X1Il;—Glar. lactea, Tem. 
Col. 399. 

(1) M. Temminck has positively ascertained that the Flamingo of America is 
different from that of Europe. The latter he calls Phen. antiquorum, but the 
American species Ph. ruber. Am. Ed. 


Vou. I.—s A 


402 AVES. 


ORDER VI. 
PALMIPEDES. 


These birds are characterized by their feet, formed for 
natation, that is to say, placed far back on the body, attached 
to short and compressed tarsi, and with palmated toes. Their 
dense and polished plumage saturated with oil, and the thickly 
set down which is next to their skin, protect them from the 
water in which they live. They are the only birds whose 
beak surpasses—which it sometimes does to a considerable ex- 
tent—the length of their feet, and this is so, to enable them to 
search for their food in the depths below, while they swim on 
the surface. ‘Their sternum is very long, affording a com- 
plete guard to the greater part of their viscera, having, on 
each side, but one emargination or oval foramen, filled up 
with membrane. Their gizzard is usually muscular, the ceca 
long, and the inferior larynx simple; in one family, however, 
the latter is so inflated as to form cartilaginous capsules. 

This order admits of a tolerably precise division into four 
families. 


FAMILY I. 
BRACHYPTERZ. 


A part of this family has some external affinities with that of 
the Gallinule. Their legs, placed further back than in any 
other birds, renders walking painful to them, and obliges them, 
when on land, to stand vertically. In addition to this, as 
most of them have but feeble powers of flight, and as some of 
them are wholly deprived of that faculty, we may consider 
them as exclusively attached to the surface of the water: 
their plumage is extremely dense, and its surface frequently 
polished, presenting a silvery lustre. ‘They swim under wa- 
ter, using their wings with almost as much effect as though 
they were fins. Their gizzard is muscular, and their c#ca 


aa 


PALMIPEDES. 403 


moderate ; the lower larynx is furnished on each side with 
a peculiar muscle. 


Co.tymsus, Lin.(1) 


The only particular character of the Divers is a smooth, straight, 
compressed and pointed bill, and linear nostrils; but the differences 


in the feet have caused them to be subdivided. 
» 


Popicrers, Lath.—Cotymeus, Briss. and Illig. 


The toes of the Grebes, instead of being palmated, are widened 
like those of the Coots, the anterior ones only being united at base 
by membranes. The middle nail is flattened, and the tarsus strongly 
compressed. ‘The semi-metallic lustre of their plumage has caused 
it to be occasionally employed as fur. Their tibia, as well as that 
of the succeeding subgenera, is prolonged above into a point which 
gives a more efficient insertion to the extensors of the leg. 

These birds live on lakes, &c., and build among the rushes. 
In certain circumstances, it appears that they carry their young ones 
under their wings. Their size and plumage are so much changed 
by age, as to have caused an improper multiplication of species. 
M. Meyer reduces those of Europe to four. 

Col. cristatus, Gm., Enl. 400 and 944; Frisch, 1833; Naum. 
69, F. 1063 Col. urinator, Gm., Enl. 941; Edw. 36 (The Crested 
Grebe), is the size of a duck; blackish-brown above, silver-white 
beneath; a white band on the wing; it acquires with age a double 
black tuft, and the adults have in addition a broad red collarette 
on the upper part of the neck, edged with black. 

Col. cornutus, Enl. 404, 2; Col. obscurus, Enl. 9423; and Col. 
caspicus, Gm., Vieill. Gal. 281; Edw. 145 (The Horned 
Grebe), resembles the preceding in form, but the collarette of 
the adult is blacks its tufts and the front of its neck red. It is 
much smaller. 

Col. subcristatus; and the young, parotis and rubricollis, Enl. 
931; Lath. Supp. I, 118; Naum. 70, f. 107 (The Grey-cheeked 
Grebe), also has the front of its neck red, but the tufts of the 
adult are small and black, and its collarette very short and grey. 

- Intermediate, as to size, between the two last. 

Col. minor, Gm. Enl. 905 (The Little Grebe), is as large as 
a Quail, and has neither crest nor collarettes; its plumage is 
brown, more or less shaded with red, the breast and belly ex- 
cepted, where itis asilver-grey. The throat of the young bird 
is white. (2) 


(1) Colymbus, the Greek name of these birds. 
(2) Add the Pod. carolinensis, Lath., Catesb. 41, 91, Enl. 93;—the Gr. aux 


404 AVES. 


Hetiornis, Bonnat.—Popoa, Illig.—Gresirou.tques, Buff. 


The feet lobulate as in the Coots and Grebes, but the tail more 


developed than in either of the two; the nails also are sharper.(1) 
[See App. XXVI of Am. Ed. 


Mercus, Briss.(2)—Cotymsus, Lath.—Evpyrss, Illig. 


The true Divers have the feet of ordinary Palmipedes, along 
with all the forms of the Grebes, that is, the anterior toes are united 
to their ends by membranes, and are terminated by pointed nails. 
They are northern birds, which rarely breed in France, where they 
arrive in winter, at which season is occasionally seen on the coast, 

Col. glacialis, L., Enl. 9523 Col. immer, Gm., Wils. Am. IX, 
Ixxiv, 3; Naum. 66, f. 103. (The Great Northern Diver.) 
The adult is two feet six inches in length, its head and neck 
black, changing to a green with a whitish collars back, a black- 
ish brown dotted with whitish; white beneath; the lower man- 
dible, which has a slight curve upwards, is marked by a groove 
beneath. The young birds, Col. immer, Gm., Briss., VI, x, 1, 
which more frequently visit the fresh waters, differ considerably 
as to the extent of the black on the neck, and of the grey or 
brown on the back, which, added to their diminished size, has 
occasioned a multiplication of the number of species. We dis- 
tinguish 

Col. arcticus, L., Edw. 146; Naum. Supp. 30, f. 60; and the 
young, Enl. 914 (The Black-throated Diver), ‘which is some- 
what smaller; the back of the neck ash-coloured, and the lower 
mandible straight and without a groove. The young resemble 
those of the preceding. 

Col. septentrionalis, Enl. 308; Edw. 97; Naum. 67, f. 94; Vieill. 
Gal. 282; Col. stellatus, Gm.; Buff. VIII, xxi; Enl. 992, Naum. 
Supp. 31, f. 62. (The Red-throated Diver.) The adult male is 
brown above, white beneath; face and sides of the neck ash-co- 
loured; front of the neck red. The female and the young are 
brown dotted with white above, and all white beneath. 


belles joues (Pod. kalipareus, Less. and Garn.), Voy. de la Coq., Zool. No. 45;—the 
Gr. Rolland (Pod. Rollandi), Quoy and Gaym., Voy. de Freycin., Zool., pl. xxxvi. 
(1) Plotus surinamensis, Gmel., Enl. 893;—Heliornis senegalensis, Vieill. Gal. 
280. M. Ch. Bonap. as wellas Gmelin, thinks that this genus should be approx- 
imated to that of Anhinga. 
(2) Mergus (diver), the Latin name of some sea-bird difficult to determine. Lin- 
neus, following Gesner, has applied it to the Merganser. Hudytes, a Greek word 


composed by Hliger, has the same meaning. 


PALMIPEDES. 405 


Uri, Briss. et Illig.(1) _ 


The Guillemots have a bill, which, though of the general form 
of the preceding, is covered with feathers down to the nostrils; there 
is also an emargination at the point which is somewhat arcuated. 
Their chief character, however, consists in the absence of the thumb. 
Their wings, much shorter than those of the divers, scarcely enable 
them to flutter. They feed on fish, crabs, &c, and are sais among 
rocky precipices when they breed. 

The large species called the Great Guillemot, Colymbus troile, 
L., Enl. 903; Brit. Zool., pl. H; Edw. 359, 15 Frisch, 185, is 
the size of a Duck, the head and neck brown, back and wings 
blackish, and a white belly; there is a white line upon the wing 
formed by the tips of the secondary quills. It inhabits the ex- 
treme North, although it breeds on the rocky coasts of England 
and Scotland. In very hard winters it is seen on those of 
France. 

There is a smaller species which is black, with the upper 
part of the wing white, Col. Grylle, L.; Vieill. Gal. 294; Choris., 
Voy. aut. du M., Isles Aleut., pl. xxii, sometimes mottled 
throughout with white, C. marmoratus, Frisch, Suppl. B., pl. 
185, Edw. 50 and Penn., Arct. Zool., II, xxii, 2. Individuals 
are sometimes seen, all white, C. /acteolus, Pall.(2) 

We may also separate from the Guillemots the 


Crpuus,(3) 
Vulgarly called Greenland Divers, which have a shorter bill with 
a more arcuated back, but without any emargination. The symphysis 
of the lower mandible is extremely short. Their wings are larger, 
and the membranes of their feet well indented. 

The species most known, called the Little Guillemot or Green- 
land Dove, Colymbus minor, Gm.; Enl. 9173; Mergulus Alle, 
Vieill. Gal. 295; Brit. Zool. pl. H, 4, f. 13 Edw. 913 Naum. 
Ed. I, 65, f. 102, is the size of a large Pigeon, black above, 


(1) Uria, the Greek, or rather Latin name of an aquatic bird which appears to 
have been either a Diver ora Grebe. Guillemot, the English name, would seem 
to indicate its stupidity. 

(2) Add the G. a grosbee (Uria Prunnichii, Sabine), Choris, Voy. aut. du M. pl. 
xxi;— Uria lacrymans, Lapil., Ib., ¥X11—consult the article inserted there on this 
genus by M. Valenciennes. 

(3) Cephus, the name of some sea bird often mentioned by the Greek writers, 
which appears to have been a species of Petrel or Gull. Mchring, and subse- 
quently Pallas, applied it to the Divers and Guillemots. Vieillot has changed it 
into Mergulus, Gal. 295. 


406 AVES. 
white beneath, with a white line on the wing as in the Guille- 
mot. Its bill is black, and feet red. Inhabits all the northern 
coasts, and builds under ground. It is sometimes seen on the 
French coast in winter. 


ALCAS Link 


The Auks are known by the very much compressed, vertically 
raised bill which has a trenchant back, and is usually grooved 
transversely;*and by the feet which are completely palmated, and 
have no thumb like those of the Guillemot. All these birds inhabit 
the northern seas. We may divide the genus into two subgenera. 
ah 
FRATERCULA, Briss.—Mormon, Illig. 


Or the Puffins, whose bill, shorter than the head, is as high and 
higher at base than it is long, which gives it a very extraordinary 
form; a folded skin usually covers its base. The nostrils placed near 
the edge are mere slits. Their small wings can just sustain them 
for a moment; they live upon the ocean and breed on the rocks. 

The most common species, .Z/ca arctica, L. and labradoria, 
Gm.; Mormon fratereula, Tem. Enl. 275; Brit. Zool., pl. H; 
Edw. 358, 1; Frisch, 192; Naum. 65, f. 101, is the size of a Pi- 
geon, and has a black calotte and mantle; white beneath. It 
sometimes breeds among the cliffs on the English coast, and is 
very common on those of France during the winter.(1) 

M. Temminck distinguishes, under the name of Stariques (Pua- 
LERIS) those species which have a less elevated bill.(2) 


Auca, Cuv.(3) 


The true Auks have a more elongated bill, resembling in form 
the blade of a knife; it is covered with feathers as far as the nos- 
trils. Their wings are decidedly too small to support them, and 
therefore they never attempt to fly. 

Alca torda and pica, Gm.; Pingouin commun, Enl. 1004, the 
adult 1003, in summer plumage, Edw. 358, 2, Briss. VI, VIII, 
2, Brit. Zool. pl. H, 1. (The Common Auk.) Black above, white 


SSS ee a ee ee ee a 


(1) Add 2. cirrhata, Pall. Spic., V, pl. 1; Vieill. Gal. 299. 

(2) Alca cristatella, Vieill. Gal. 297, or Starique cristatelle, T. Col. 200, and Pall., 
Spic. Zool., V, pl. 1, of which 2. pygmea is the young;—. psittacula, Pall. Spic., 
V, pl. 2, of which J. tetracula, Ib. pl. 4, is the young. 

(3) Alea, Aik, Auk, the name of these birds in the Feroe Islands, and in the north 
of Scotland. That of Penguin, first given to the Aptenodytes of the south by the 
Dutch, indicates the oily nature of their fat. See Clusius, Exot., 101. It was 
Buffon who transferred this name exclusively to the northern Auks. 


PALMIPEDES. 407 


beneath; a white line on the wing and one or two on the bill. 
The throat of the male is black, and there is a white line reach- 
ing from the eye to the bill. Its size is that of a duck. 

Alca impennis, L.; Le Grand Pingouin, Buff. 1X, xxix; Enl. 
367. (The Great Auk.) Nearly as large as a Goose, the colours 
very similar to those of the preceding species; but the bill is 
entirely black and marked with eight or ten grooves, and there 
is a white oval spot between the bill and the eye: its wings are 
shorter in proportion than those of,any other species of this 
genus. It is said to lay but one large egg, spotted with purple. 


APTENODYTES, Forst. 


The Penguins are even less capable of flying thanthe Auks. Their 
little wings are covered with mere vestiges of feathers, which at the 
first glance resemble scales; their feet, placed farther behind than 
those of any other bird, only support them by bearing on the tarsus, 
which is widened like the sole of the foot of a quadruped, and in 
which are found three bones soldered together at their extremities. 
They have a small thumb directed inwards, and their three anterior 
toes are united by an entire membrane. They are only found in 
the Antarctic Seas, never going on shore except to breed. They 
can only reach their nests by drawing themselves along on their 
bellies. The difference in their bill authorizes their division into 
three subgenera. 


ApTENODYTES, Cuv. 


A long, slender, and pointed bill; the upper mandible a little 
arcuated near the end; covered with feathers to one-third of its 
length where the nostril is placed, from which a groove extends to 
the point. 

Apt. patagonica, Gm.; Le Grand Manchot, Enl. 975. (The 
Great Penguin.) Is the size of a Goose, slate-coloured above, 
white beneath; a black mask surrounded with a lemon-coloured 
cravatte. Found in large troops near the straits of Magellan, 
and as far as New Guinea. The flesh, though black, is eatable. 


CaTARRHACTEs, Briss. 


The Gorfus(1) have the bill stout, but little compressed, pointed, 
rounded on the back, and its point somewhat arcuated; the groove 


(1) Gorfu, a corruption of goir fugel, the name of the Great Auk in the Feroe 
Islands. See Clusius, Exot., 367. Catarrhactes is the Greek name of a very dif- 
ferent bird, which could fly well, and precipitated itself from a height on its prey. 
It was most probably a species of Gull. 


408 AVES. 


which arises from the nostril terminates obliquely on the inferior 
third of its edge. 
Apt. chrysocoma, Gm.; Le Gorfou sauteur, Enl. 9845 Vieill. 

Gal. 298. (The Tope Gorfu.) As large as a stout 
Duck, black above, white beneath, and has a white or yellow 
tuft on each side of its occiput. Found in the vicinity of the 
Falkland Islands and of New Holland. It sometimes leaps out 
of the water while swimming, and jaye its eggs in a hole on the 
shore.(1) ; 


SpHentscus, Briss.(2) 


A compressed and straight bill, irregularly furrowed at base; 
end of the upper mandible hooked, that of the lower one truncated; 
the nostrils exposed and placed in the middle. 

Apt. demersa, Gm.; Sphénisque du Cap, Enl. 382, and 1005. 
Black above, white hameach: the bill brown with a white band 
on the middle; the male has a white eye-brow, black throat and 
a black line on the breast, which continues along each flank. — 
Found near the cape where it breeds among the rocks.(3) 


FAMILY II. 
LONGIPENNES. 


This family includes those birds of the high seas, which 
from their immense strength of wing are to be met with in 
every latitude. They are known by the freedom or nullity 
of the thumb, by their very long wings, and by their bill 
which is not notched but hooked at the point in the first ge- 
nera, and simply pointed in the others. Their inferior larynx 
has but one peculiar muscle on each side, their gizzard is mus- 
cular and their ceca short. 


Proce.Luaria, Lin. 


The Petrels have a bill hooked at the end, the extremity of which 


(1) Add Apt. catarrhactes, Edw., 49;—A. papua, Sonner. Voy. I, pl. 115, and 
Vieill. Gal. 299;—.4. minor, Lath. Syn. III, pl. 103. 
(2) Spheniscus, a name given by Mcchring to the Oidemia, and by Brisson to the 
Penguins; from =ouv (wedge). 
F (3) Aptenod. torquata, Sonner. Voy. 1, 114, appears to be the female of the Apt. 
emersa. 


PALMIPEDES. 409 


a 
seems to consist of a distinct piece articulatedewith the remainder. 
Their nostrils are united and form a tube laid on the back of the 
upper mandible; there is a nail planted in the heel, but no thumb. 
Of all the Palmipedes, these remain most constantly at a distance 
from land, and when a tempest supervenes, they are forced to seek 
shelter on reefs and ships, from which circumstance they derive 
their name of Storm Birds: that of Petrel—Little Peter—has been 
given to them on account of their habit of walking on the water, 

twhich they effect by the aid of their wings. They make their nests 
in holes of rocks, and eject on those who attack them an oily fluid 
with which their stomach seems to be always filled. The greater 
number inhabit the Antarctic Seas. 

Those species are more particularly called Perrers—Procet- 
LARIA—whose lower mandible is truncated. 

Proc. gigantea, Gm.; Petrel géant; Quebranta huessos; Lath. 

Syn. III, pl. 100 (The Giant Petrel), is only found in the South 
Seas. It is the largest of all the species, surpassing the Goose in 
size. Its plumage is blackish, though there are some varieties 
in which it is more or less white. : 
_ Proc. capensis; Petreldu Cap, &c. Enl. ‘964 (The Cape Petrel), 
is the size of a small Duck, white above, spotted black and 
white beneath. It is found in the same seas as the preceding 
species, and is frequently spoken of by navigators.(1) 

Proc. glacialis; Fulmar; Petrel de Saint- Kilda, Enl. 593; Brit. 
Zool. pl. M,f.1. (The Fulmar.) White, with an ash-coloured 
mantle; bill and feet yellow; size of a stout duck. It breeds 
among the cliffs on the coasts of the British islands, and of the 
whole north.(2) 

Certain small species, with a somewhat shorter bill and 
rather longer legs and black plumage, the THaLassrproma, 
Vigors, are particularly designated by sailors under the name 
of Storm Birds.(3) 

The most common, Proc. pelagica, Briss. V1, xiii, 1; Wils. 
VII, lix, 634Edw., 90, is scarcely larger than a Lark; stands 
high; all brown except the rump which is white, and a white 
line on the end of the great wing-coverts. When it seeks shel- 


(1) Better known to mariners as the Cape Pigeon. Am. Ed. 
(2) Add the Petrel hartie, Temm., Col. 416;—the Petrel bérard, teat 375— 
Proc. cinerea, Lath. ;—Proc. desolata, 1d.;—Proc. turtur, Forst. 
(3) The “Mother Carey’s Chickens” of the English and American seamen. 
- "Am. Ed. * 
Vou. I.—3 B F 


= 


AT AVES. 
-#@ 
ter on a vessclg it may be considered as the forerunner of a 
hurricane.(1) 
We separate, with Brisson, under the name of 


PUFFINUS, 


Or Puffins, those in which the end of the lower mandible is 
curved downwards along with that of the upper one, and in which 
the nostrils, although tubular, do not open by one common orifice, 
but by two distinct holes. Their bill also is proportionally longer. 
Proc. puffinus, Gm.; Puffin cendré, Enl. 962. Cinereous 
above; whitish beneath; wings and tail blackish: the young is 
darker. Its size is that of a Crow. Very common in almost 
every sea.(2) %, 
There is a species, long confounded with the preceding one, 
which is not larger than a Woodcock, and which breeds in im- 
mense numbers on thenorthern coasts of Scotland and the neigh- 
bouring islands, whose inhabitants salt them for their winter 
provision. It is black above and white underneath, the Procel- 
laria Anglorum, Tem. Edw., 359. . 
Navigators occasionally speak of some birds of the Antarctic seas” 
by the name of Petrels, which may constitute two separate genera. 
They are the 


PELEcANOIDES, Lacep.—Hatoproma, Illig., 


Which have the bill and figure of the Petrels, with a dilatable 
throat like that of the Cormorant, and are without the vestige of a 
thumb like the Albatross. Such is Procellaria urinatrix, Gm. 


PacuyrtiLa, Illig. 


Or the Prions, Lacep., which, similar in other respects to the 
Petrels, have separate nostrils like a Puffin, the bill widened at 
base, and its edges furnished internally with very delicate, vertical 
and pointed laminz, analogous to those of Ducks. Such are the 
Blue Petrels, Proc. vittata and cerulea, Forst. 


(1) The fig. Enl. 933 is a closely allied species of the South Seas (Proc. ocean- 
ica, Forst.)—Add Proc. Leachity Tem. Act. de phil., VI, pl. 9, f. 1;—Proc. Wil- 
sonii, Ch. Bonap.; Wils. VU, lxx, 6, Id. Act. de phil. VI, pl. 9, f. 2;—Proc. fre- 
gatta, Lath., Rochef., Antill., p. 152;—Proc. marina, Vieill. Gal. 292. 

(2)eAdd Proce. obscura, Vieill, Gal. 301;—and Proc. pacifica, or Sfuliginosa; 
White, 252, which perhaps does not differ from the Proc. xquinoctials, Edw., 89. 


PALMIFEDES. 411 


Ps : 
DiomepgEA, Lin.(1) 
The Albatross is the most massive of all aquatic birds. The large, 
strong and trenchant bill is marked with sutures, and is terminated 
®by a stout hook, which seems to be articulated with it. The nostrils 
resemble short rolls laid on the sides of the beak; there is no thumb, 
not even the small nail that is observed in the Petrels. They inhabit 
the South seas, and feed on Mollusca, &c. 

D. exulans, L., Enl. 2373; Vieill. Gal. 293, is the species best 
known to navigators, who, on account of its size, white plumage, 
and black wings, and because it is particularly common beyond, 
the tropic of Capricorn, have called it Zhe Cape Sheep. The 
English also style it the Man of War Bird, &c. It is the great 
enemy of the Flying-fish. It constructs a high nest of earth, 
and lays a number of eggs, which are considered good food. 
The cry of this bird is said to be as powerful as that of the 

@ Ass.(2) 

Various Albatrosses, more or less brown or blackish, have 
been observed; but whether they form varieties of the exulans, 
or are distinct species, has not yet been ascertained.(3) 


Larus, Lin.(4) 


The Gulls have a compressed, elongated, pointed bill, the superior 
mandible arcuated near the end, and the inferior forming a salient 
angle beneath. The nostrils, placed near its middle, are long, nar- 
row, andsbored quite through; their tail is full, their legs tolerably 
long, and their thumb short. They are cowardly and voracious 


(1) Diomedea, the ancient name of certain birds of the Island of Diomedes, near 
Tarentum, which were said to receive the Greeks favourably, and to attack the 
barbarians. As to the word Albatross, I find that the early Portuguese navigators 
called the Boobies and other oceanic birds Alcatros, or Mcatrass. Dampier applied 
this name to the present genus, Grew changed it into Albitross, and Edwards into 
Albatross. 

(2) The cry of the Albatross has béen quite as much exaggerated as its size. I 
have repeatedly heard it when within a hundred yards of the bird, and from various 
individuals, some of large size, and consequently adults—it is a piping kind of 
clang, deeper than that of a Goose, but something like it. Im. Ed. 

(3) Such is the Diom. spadicea—Add D. brachyura, Tem. Enl. 963;—D. melano- 
phris, T. Col. 456;—D. chlororhynchos, Lath. V, ae xciv, Gol. 468; —D. Suliginosa, 
Col. 469. 

(4) Larus, the Greek name of these birds, Gavia in latin, whence Gabian in 
Provence; they are called Mawves, or Mouettes, in French, from their German 
name Maeve, 


412 AVES. 


birds, which swarm along the sea coasts, feeding on fish, the flesh 

of dead bodies, kc. ‘They breed in the sand, or in clefts of rock, 

laying but few eggs. When they fly into the country, bad weather 

may be expected. Several species are found on the coast of France, 

and, as their plumage is greatly changed by age, the number has, 
been still more increased. When young, they are usually spotted 

with grey. Buffon calls 


GoE.anps,(1) 


The large species whose size exceeds that of a Duck. One of the 
largest is, 
Lar. marinus and nevius, Gm.; Goéland a manteau noir, Enl. 
990 and 266 (The Great Black-backed Gull), which, at first 
spotted with white and grey, afterwards becomes all white, with 
a black mantle; the beak is yellow, with a red spot underneath; 
feet, reddish. 
Lar. glaucus, Gm.; Burgomestre; Naum. Ed. I, 36, is neanky 
as large, and only differs from it in the mantle, which is a light 
ash colour. Its young also are spotted.(2) The 


Mavves or Movetrres 


Are the smallest species. 

Lar. fuscus, L.; Lar. flavipes, Meyer, Frisch, 218; Masten 
Eid. J; /f.,.5.15)..0- (The Silver Gull.) Is all white; the mantle 
excepted, which is black; the feet are yellow. 

Lar. eburneus, Gm.; Mouette blanche, Enl. 994. (The Ivory 

ull.) All white, with black feet. * From Spitzberg and Green- 
land: sometimes wanders into Europe. 

Lar. cyanorhynchus, Meyer; Mouette a pieds bleus, Enl. 977, 
Briss. VI, xvi, 2. (The Common Gull.) When old, of a beauti- 
ful white, with a light ash coloured mantle; the primary quills 
of the wing partly black, with white spots at their tips, the feet 
and bill, lead coloured. Feeds on shell fish. 

Lar. ridibundus, L.; L. hybernus, and L. erythropus, Gm.; La 
M. a pieds rouges, Enl. 969 and 970; Briss. VI, xvii, 1. Is very 
similar to the preceding, except that when young the tip of the 
tail is black, and that there are some black and brown on the 
wing: in spring the head of the adult becomes brown, and re- 


(1) Goéland, a corruption of Gull, Gull-ent. 

(2) M. Temminck distinguishes the Lar. argentatus, Lath. En]. 253.—Add the 
Goéland leucomele, Vieill. 61, and the Goél. @ téte noire du Bengale. [Add L. ca- 
pistratus, Temm.;—L. canus, L. Enl. 977;—L. argentatus, Brunn. Enl. 253;—L.- 
argentatoides, Brehm. Am.Ed.} 


* 


PALMIPEDES. ’ 413 


4 
mains so during the summer—Enl. 9703; the feet and beak are 
more or less red. It has been called, from its note, the Laugh- 
ing Gull.(1) . 

Lar. tridactylus, and Lar. rissa, Gm.; La M. a trois doigts, 
Briss. VI, xvi, 1, and xvii, 2, is also very similar to the preced- 
ing species, but may be distinguished by its very short and im- 
perfect thumb. When young it is more or less spotted with 
black or brown, Enl. 387. 


Lesrnis, Illig.(2)—Srercorarivs, Briss.—Lazpes, Buff. 


These birds have very properly been separated from the Common 
Gulls. Their membranous nostrils, larger than those of the latter, 
open nearey to the point and edge of the beak; their tail is pointed. 
They pursue the small Gulls with singular ferocity to rob them of 
their food, and, Atal is said, to devour their excrement. Hence their 
name. AJ 

Lar. parasiticus, Gm.; Labbe a longue queue, Enl. 762; Edw. 
148. (The Arctic Gull.) A deep brown above, white beneath; 
the two middle quills of the tail are double the length of the 
others. Itis very rare in France. When young it is all brown, 
and is then the Zar. crepidatus, Gm.; Enl. 991, or better, Edw. 
149.(3) 

The arctic regions produce a species the size of a Goéland, 
which is brown, with the base of the wing-quills white, Lar. ca- 
taractes, Gm., Brit. Zool. pl. L., 6; and another the size of a 
Mouette, brown above, white underneath, with a brown collar 
on the breast, the Lestris pomarinus, Tem.(4) 


Sterna, Lin.(5) 


The Terns, or Sea-Swallows, derive this latter appellation from 
their excessively long and pointed wings and from their forked tail, 


(1) Add Lar. atricilla, Pall. Noy. Com. Petr., XV, xxii, 2; Catesb., I, 89; Wils. 
1X, Ixxiv, 4, by the name of ridibundus;—Lar. leucopterus;—L. cirrhocephalus, 
Vieill. Gal. 289, or poliocephalus, Licht.;—L. leucophthalmus, Licht. Col. 366;—L. 
Sabini, Leach;—L. minutus, Falk. Voy. WI, xxiv;—JL. melanurus, T. Col. 459, 
and Tiles, Voy. de Krusenst., pl. lvii.. 

(2) Anspis, thief, the name of these birds among the Swedish fishermen. Vieil- 
lot has changed these names to STERcoreEvs. 

(3) This is clearly a mistake. The LZ. crepidatus, Brehm. is identical with the L. 
Buffonii, Boie, Enl. 762. Am. Ear 

(4) I cannot affirm the identity of the Lestris catarractes, Freycin., 38, and of 
the Stercoreus pomarinus, Vieill. Gal. 288, with the above species. 

(5) Stern, or Tern, is their English name, latinized as above by Turner, and ad- 
mitted by Gesner. 


414 : AVES. 


which render their flight and carriage analogous to those of Swal- 
lows. Their bill is pointed, compressed, and straight, without 
curve or projection; the nostrils, placed near its base, are oblong 
and pierced quite through; the membranes which unite their toes 
are deeply emarginate, consequently they swim but seldom. They 
fly over the waves in every direction and with great rapidity, uttering 
loud cries, and skilfully raising from the surface of the water the 
Mollusca and small Fish on which they feed. They also penetrate to 
the lakes and rivers of the interior. The most common species that 
is found on the fresh waters of France in the spring is, 

St. hirundo, L.; Le Pierre-Garin, &c., Enl. 9873; Frisch, 2195 
Naum. 37, f. 52; Wils. VII, Ix, 1. (The Common Tern.) In 
the adult state, white with a light ash-coloured mantle, black 
calotte, red feet, and red bill with a black point. It is about 
one foot long, and two feet from the tip of onggving to that of the 
other. @ 

St. minuta, L.; Petit Hir. de mer,’ Enl. 996; Wils. V, lx, 23 
Naum. 38, f. 55. (The Smail Tern.) Only differs from the pre- 
ceding by being a third smaller, and having a white forehead. 
St. cantiaca, Albin. II, lxxxviiis Hir. de mer a bec noir, is larger 
than §. hirundos; the beak is black, with a yellow point: the St. 
striata, Gm., Lath. VI, pl. 98, is its young. 

St. caspia, Pall. Sparm., Mus. Carls., Ixiis Meyer, Ois. d’Al- 
lem., II, vi; Sav., Egypt., Ois. pl. ix, F. 1. (The Caspian Tern.) 
The largest of the European species;*white, with an ash colour- 
ed mantle; occiput, black and white mixed; red beak and black 
feet. 

St. nigra, fissipes and neevia; Hir. de mer noire, Enl. 338 and 
924; Frisch, 220. (The Black Tern.) The tail less forked; 
when young, its mantle is spotted with blacks the adult is al- 
most entirely of a blackish ash colour. 

Among the species foreign to Europe, we should notice the 
Hir. de mer a aigrettes, St. inca, Less. and Garn., from the coast | 
of Peru, Voy. de la Coq., Zool. pl. 47, which is black; red bill 
and feet; a band on the cheek, and the feathers of the ear pen- 
dent and white. (1) 


(1) Add of Europ. Spec.: S¢. Dougalii, Montag.; Vieill., Gal. 290;—St¢. anglica, 
Id., or aranea, Wils. VIU, Ixxii, 6;—S¢. arctica, Tem.;—St. leucopareia, Natter. ;— 
St. leucoptera, Tem., Schinz., Ois., de Suisse, frontisp. 

Of spec. foreign to Europe: St. cayana, Enl. 998;—S¢t. melanauchen; Tem. Col. 
427;—St. melanogaster, 1d, Col. 434;—St. fuliginosa, Wils. 


PALMIPEDES. . £ha 
We may also distinguish from the other Terns, 


Tue Noppigs, 


Whose tail is not forked, and is nearly as long as the wings. 
There is a slight projection under their bill, the first indication of 
that in the Mauves. But one species is known, : 

St. stohida, L.; Noddi noir, Enl.997 (The Noddy), which is 
a blackish brown, top of the head whitish. Celebrated for the 
blundering manner in which it throws itself on vessels.(1) 


Ruyncuops, Lin. 


The Skimmers resemble.the Terns in their small feet, long wings 
and forked tail, but are distinguished from all birds by their extra- 
ordinary bill, the upper mandible of which is shorter than the other, 
both being flattened so as to form simple blades, which meet without 
clasping. Their only mode of feeding is by skimming their aliment 
from the surface of the water with the lower mandible, which they 
effect while on the wing. One species, 

Rhym. nigra, L., Enl. 357 (The Black Skimmer), is white, 
with a black mantle .and calotte; a white band on the wing; 
outside of the external quills of the tail white; bill and feet red; 
hardly as large as a Pigeon. From the vicinity of the An- 
tilles.(2) 


FAMILY II. 
. TOTIPALMAT. 


The birds of this family are remarkable for having the thumb 
united with the toes by one single membrane, a mode of  or- 
ganization that renders their feet complete oars, notwithstand- 
ing which, they perch upon trees, being almost the only Palmi- 
pedes who do so. They all fly well and have short feet. 
Linneus separated them into three genera, the first of which 


it was necessary to subdivide. 
¥ 


(1) The St. philippensis, (Sonner. Voy. I, pl. Ixxxv,) does not appear to differ 
from the stolida;—the St. fuscata, Lath., Briss., VI, pl. xxi, 1, also seems to be- 
long to this subgenus, as wellas the St. tenuirostris, T. Col. 202. 

(2) Add Rhyn. flavirostris, Vicill. Gal. 291;—Rh. cinerascens, Spix, CH; Re." 
brevirostris, Id. CII. 


ANG: AVES. 


vi 


Prvecanus, Lin. 


The Pelicans comprise all those in which the base of the bill is 
found to have some part destitute of feathers. Their nostrils are 
fissures, the apertures of which are scarcely perceptible. The skin 
of their throat is more or less extensible, and their tongue very 
gmall. Their thin gizzard, with their other stomachs, forms a large 
sac. Their ceca are moderate or small. 


Prtecanus, Illig—Onocroratus, Briss.(1) 


The bill of the True Pelicans is very remarkable for its extreme 
length, its straight, very broad and horizontally flattened form, for 
the hook which terminates it, and for the lower mandible whose 
flexible branches sustain a naked membrane, susceptible of being 
dilated into a large sac. Two grooves extend along its length, in 
which the nostrils are concealed. The circumference of the eye is 
naked, and the tail round. 

P. onocrotalus, L.; Enl. 873 Edw. 923 Frisch, 186. (The Com- 
mon Pelican.) As large as a Swan, entirely white, slightly tinged 
with flesh colour; the hook of the bill of a cherry-red; is more 
or less disseminated throughout the eastern continent, breeds 
in marshes, and feeds exclusively on living Fish. It is said to 
transport both food and water in its sac. The different changes 
this bird undergoes from age are not sufficiently ascertained to 
render certain the species of its genus that are enumerated. (2) 


. * 
Puatacrocorax, Briss.—Carso, Meyer.—Hatievs, Illig. 


The Cormorants(3) have an elongated and compressed beak, the 


(1) Pelecanus and Onocrotalus are two Greek names of this bird Latinized. 

(2) I see no difference between the Common Pelican and the Pelec. roseus, Son- 
ner. Prem. Voy. pl. liv. As to the Pelec. manillensis, 1d. LIM, Sonnerat himself 
says he thinks it is the young of the voseus. Neither can I find any difference be- 
tween the fuscus, Edw. 93, and that of the PI. Enl. 965, called rosews, but which is 
much more like the manillensis. Temminck thinks this figure represents the young 
of the common species. TNWe philippensis, Briss., VI, pl. lvi, is the, same specimen 
from which the P]. Enl. 965 was taken, so that both are the young of the onocrota- 
lus. That of pl. 957, also called fuscus, appears fo be really a species identical 
with that of Vieill. Gal. 276.—Add the Pel. 2 lunettes (P. perspicillatus, T.) Col. 
276. 

(3) Cormorant, from Cormoran, a cowruption of Corbeau marin, on account of its 
black colour. Itis in fact the Aquatic Crow of Aristotle. Phalacrocorax (Bald 
_ Crow) is the Greek name of this bird, indicated by Pliny, but is not employed by 
Aristotle. That of Carbo is only used by Albert, who perhaps derived it from the 
German name Scharb. To all these names Vieillot has added that of Hydrocorax, 
Gal. 275. 


’ 
a 
4 


PALMIPEDES. 417 


end of the upper mandible hooked, and that of the lower one truncat- 
ed; the tongue is very small, and the skin of the throat less dilatable; 
the nostrils resemble a’small unpierced line, and the nail of the mid- 
dle toe is notched like a saw. 

The Trur Cormorants have a round tail composed of fourteen 
quills. 

Pel. carbo, L., Enl. 9273 the young, Frisch, 187 and 1885 and 
Brit. Zool. pl. L, 1. (The Cormorant.) Black-brown, undulated 
with jet black on the back, and mixed with white near the end 
of the bill and front of the necks; circumference of the throat 
and the cheeks, white, in the male, which also has a tuft on the 
occiput. Its size is that of the Goose. It breeds in holes among 
the rocks or upon trees, and lays three or four eggs. 

Pel. graculus, Gm.; Enl. 974, the young. (The Little Cor- 
morant.) Is somewhat smaller, of a deeper black and more 
bronzed; no white on the front of the neck; the feathers on the 
back more pointed; not so common as the preceding species.(1) 


Tacuyreress, Vieill. 


The Frigate Birds differ from the Cormorants in their forked tail 
and short feet, the membranes of which are deeply emarginated; in 
an excessive length of wing, and in a bill both of whose mandibles 
are curved at the point. So powerful are their wings, that they fly 
to an immense distance from all land, principally between the tro- 
pics, darting upon the Flying Fish and striking the Boobies to make 
them disgorge their prey. 

One species only is well known, the Pelecanus aquilus, L., Enl. 
961, Vieill., Gal., pl. 274, whose plumage is black, the hide part 
of the throat and neck more or less varied with white, and the 
bill red. Its wings, when expanded, are said to measure from 
ten to twelve feet.(2) 


Sura, Briss.—Dysrorus, Illig. 


The Boobies(3) have a straight, slightly compressed, pointed 
bill, the point slightly arcuated; its edges are serrated, the teeth 


(1) Add the Cormoran longup., Tem. (Pel. cristatus, Olafs.), Voy. en Isl., tr. 
fr. pl. xliv, Col. $22, and Vieill. Gal. 27 6;—Pel. africanus, Lath.; Sparm. Mus. 
Carls., I, 10;—Pelec. pygmezus, Pall., Voy., App., pl. 1. 

(2) Naturalists have, somewhat gratuitously, raised to the rank of species the 
Pelec. minor, Edw. 309, and lewcocephalus, Buff. Ois., VII, pl. xxx, and perhaps 
even the P. Palmerstoni, Lath. 

(3) Suda is the name of the common species at the Feroe Islands, Hoyer, Clu- 
sius, Exot. 36. Booby, their English name, from their stupidity, ut sup. 


Vous 1.—3 € 


418 . AVES. 


inclining backwards; the nostrils are prolonged by a line which ex- 
tends to near the point. The throat is naked as well as the circum- 
ference of the eye, the former not being susceptible of much dilata- 
tion; the nail of the middle toe is serrated, the wings much smaller 
than those of the Frigates, and the tail somewhat wedge-shaped. 
They are called Boobies on account of the excessive stupidity with 
which they permit themselves to be attacked by men and birds, the 
Frigate Birds particularly, which, as already stated, force them to 
yield up the fish they have captured. The most common is, 
Pelecanus bassanus, L.; Enl. 2783 Vieill.; Brit. Zool. pl. L.; 
Naum. Sup. 56, f. 106. (The Common Booby). White; the pri- 
mary quills of the wings and the feet, black; the beak greenish; 
nearly as large as the Goose. It is called the Bassan Booby 
from a small island in the gulf of Edinburgh, where it is very 
abundant although it lays but a single egg. It is frequently seen 
on the coast of France during the winter. The young is brown 
spotted with white, En]. 986. The remaining species are not 
yet sufficiently ascertained.(1) 


Piorus, Lin.(2) 


The Darters have the body and feet very similar to those of a Cor- 

morant; a long neck and small head, with a straight, slender, pointed 

beak, whose edges are denticulated: the eyes and nudity of the face, 
as in the Pelicans; their habits also are similar, perching on trees. 

Several species or varieties are known from the hot climates 

of both continents. They are not larger than the Duck, but 
they have a longer neck.(3) [See pp. XXVIJ of Am. Ed. | 


PuztTon, Lin. 


The Tropic Birds are known by two very long and narrow feathers 
that flow from their tail, which at a distance resemble so many 
straws. There is no naked part about the head. Their bill is 
straight, pointed, denticulated, and tolerably strong; their feet short 
and their wings long: their powers of flight are consequently great, 
and as they rarely quit the torrid zone, their presence announces to 
the mariner his vicinity to the tropics. On land, where they seldom 
resort except to breed, they perch on trees. 


(1) Add the Fou brun (Pelec. sula, L.), Enl. 973, Catesb. I, 875 Vieill. Gal. 277. 
[See App. XXVI of Am. Ed.) 

(2) Plotus, or plautus, signifies, in Latin, flat-foot. Klein has employed it for 
one of his families of the Palmipedes. Linnzus applied it to the Darters. 

(3) Plot. melanogaster, Enl. 959 and 960; Vieill. Gal. 278; Wils. TX, Ixxiy, 1, 2;— 
Enl. 107;—Lath. Syn. VI, pl. 96:— Anhinga Levaillant, T. Col. 380. 


PALMIPEDES. 419 


A few species or varieties only are known, whose white plu- 
mage is more or less varied with blackish, and which are not 
larger than Pigeons.(1) 


FAMILY IV. 
LAMELLIROSTRES. 


In this family we find a thick bill, invested with a. soft 
skin rather than with true horn; its edges are furnished with 
lamine or little teeth; the tongue is broad and fleshy, the 
edges notched. The wings are of a moderate length, They 
pass more of their time on fresh waters than at sea. The tra- 
chea of the male, in the greater number, is inflated near its 
bifurcation into capsules of various forms. ‘The gizzard is 
large and very muscular, the ceca long. The great genus, 


Anas, Lin. 


Comprises those Palmipedes, the edges of whose large and broad 
bill are furnished with a range of thin salient Jaminz, placed 
transversely, which appear destined to allow the water to pass off 
when the bird has seized its prey. They are divided into three sub- 
genera, whose limits, however, are not very precise. 


Cyenus, Meyer. 

The bill of the Swans is of an equal breadth throughout, higher 
at base than it is wide; the nostrils about the middle of its length; 
the neck is very long. They are the largest birds of the genus, and 
feed chiefly on the seeds and roots of aquatic plants. Their intes- 
tines and ceca in particular are consequently very long. There is 
no inflation of the trachea. ‘Two species are found in Europe, 

Anas olor, Gm.; Cigne @ bec rouge, Ent. 913. (The Red-billed 
or Domestic Swan.) Beak red, edged with black, surmounted 
at base by a rounded protuberance; the plumage snow-white. 
When young, the beak is lead-coloured and the plumage, grey. 
This is the species, when domesticated, that forms the orna- 
ment of our ponds and grounds. Its elegance of form, graceful 
movements, and snow-white plumage have rendered it the em- 
blem of innocence and beauty. It feeds both on fish and vege- 


(1) Pheet. xtherius, Enl. 369: and 998;—Ph. phenicurus, Enl. 979, Vieill. Gal. 
pl. 279. ‘ 


420 AVES. 


tables, flies extremely high and with great swiftness, using its 
wings, which are a powerful weapon, in striking its enemies 
when attacked. It breeds among the reeds in ponds, and lays 
six or eight eggs of a greenish-grey. _ 

An. cygnus, Gm.; Edw. 150; Brit. Zool. pl. 2; Naum., Ed. 
I, t. 13, f. 27. (The Black-billed Swan.) Bill black with a yel- 
low base; the body white tinged with a yellowish grey—when 
young, all grey. This species, which is very similar externally 
to the preceding one, differs essentially from it internally, in 
the trachea, which is bent over and penetrates to a considerable 
extent in a cavity of the keel of the sternum, a peculiarity com- 
mon to both sexes which does not exist in the domestic Swan. 
The latter is also erroneously called the Wild Swan, and the 
Singing Swan. The tale of its singing on the approach of death 
is a fable. 

An. plutonia, Sh.; A. atrata, Lath.; Cigne noir; Nat. Misc. pl. 
108; Vieill. Gal. 286 (The Black Swan), has been lately dis- 
covered in New Holland; it is the size of the common species, 
but its carriage is less graceful and elegant; it is all black, the 
primary quills excepted, which are white, and the bill with 
the naked skin on its base, which is red.(1) 

It is impossible to separate from the Swans, certain species, much 
less elegant it is true, but which have the same kind of bill. Se- 
veral have a tubercle at its base. The most common, 

An. cygnoides, L.; Oie de Guinée, Enl. 347, is bred in poultry 
yards, where it mixes with the Geese. It is a whitish grey with 
a brown grey mantle; the male is recognised by a feathered ap- 
pendage which hangs under his bill, and by a large tubercle 
which surmounts its base. Another species, much rarer, called 
by its first describers 

An. gambensis, L.; Oiede Gambie; Lath. Syn. III, p. 2, pl. 102, 
is remarkable for its size, long legs, tubercle on the forehead, 
and for two large spurs with which its wing is armed. Its plu- 
mage is a purple black, the throat, front, and under part of the 
body and wings, white.(2) 


(1) The Ote @ cravatte (An. canadensis, L.) Enl. 346, Wils., LXVII, 4, appears 
to me to be atrue Swan. 

(2) Buff. has confounded this Goose’ with a variety of the Oie d’Hgypte, Enl. 
982. The figure of Latham is defective, inasmuch as it shows but one spur; the 
helmet also is not salient. 

This is also the place for the Oie bronzée 4 créte sur le bec, Ipecati apoa, of Marcgr. 
(An. melanotos), Enl. 937, Vieill. 285. . 


PALMIPEDES. 421 


. 
— 


Anser, Briss. 


‘Geese have a moderate or short bill, narrower before than be- 
hind, and higher than wide at base; their legs, being longer than 
those of the Ducks, and placed nearer the centre of the body, increase 
their facility in walking. Several of them feed on sceds and plants. 
There is no inflation at the root of the trachea, nor is Ho any 
curve in that organ in any of the species known. 


Gerse, properly so called, 


Have a beak as long as their head; the ends of the lamellz extend 
to its edges, appearing like pointed teeth. 

An. anser, L. (The Common Goose), which has acquired all 
sorts of colours in our poultry-yards, originates from a wild 
species that is grey, with a brown mantle undulated with grey 
and an orange-coloured beak, the Ans. cinereus, Meyer; Albin., 
90; Naum. Ed. I, pl. 41, f. 60. “There is another species, how- 
ever, which arrives late in the fall, and which may be known by 

. its wings being longer than the tail, and by some white spots on 
the forehead; its bill is orange with a black base and point. 

Ans. segetum, Meyer, Enl. 9853 Frisch, 155; Naum., I, C. 42, 
fe OY: 

Anas albifrons, Gm. 3 LI’ Oie rieuse; Edw. 153; Naum. Ed. I, 
43, f. 62. (The White-fronted Goose.) Is sometimes seen in 
France during the winter. It is grey, with a black belly and 
white forehead. . 

The north of both continents produces a fourth species. 

An. hyperborea, Gm.3 Wils. VIII, Ixviii, 5; and the young 
ixix, 5; Naum. Ed. I, Sup. pl. 23, f. 46. (The Snow-Goose. ) 
White; feet and bill red; tips of the wing-quills black. It 
sometimes wanders into the temperate parts of Europe during 
the prevalence of heavy gales in winter. The young bird is 
more or less grey. It is the Mn. cwrulescens, Gm., Edw. 152. 
The 


BrrnaciEs(1) 
Are distinguished from the Common Geese by a shorter and 
slenderer bill, the edges of which conceal the extremities of the 


lamine. 
France is sometimes visited during the winter by that species 
from the north of Europe, which is so celebrated by the fabu- 


ap RE A PE TET em 


(1) Bernacle, Scotch name of the 2. leucopsis. 


422 AVES. 


lous story of its growing on trees like fruit—/nas erythropus, 
Gm., or better An. leucopsis, Bechst. En]. 885; Frisch, 1895 
Naum. I, c. 39, f. 77. Its mantle is ash-coloured, its neck 
black; cheeks, throat, belly and forehead white; the bill black 
and the feet grey. 

An. bernicla, Gm.; Le Cravant,(1) Enl. 3423; and better Frisch, 

156; Naum. I, c. 39, f. 78; Wils., VIII, lxxii, 1 (The Brant), 
is from the same country. The head, neck, and quills of the 
wings are black, the mantle a brown-grey; a spot on each side 
of the upper part of the neck, and the under part of the tail, 
white; the bill black and feet brown. 

An. egyptiaca, Gm.; Le Bernache armée; Oied’ Egypte, Sc. Sc. 
Enl. 379, 982, 983 (The Egyptian Goose), remarkable for 
the lustre of its colours and the small spur attached to its wing, 
also belongs to this subgenus; it is sometimes domesticated, 
but always retains a propensity to return to its wild state. It 
is the Chenalopex or Fox Goose, held in veneration among the 


ancient Egyptians on are ante of its attachment to its young.(2) 
The 


CrreEopsis, Lath. 


Is a New Holland bird very similar to the Bernacles, with a still 
smaller bill, the membrane of which is much broader, and extends 
a little upon the forehead. 

Cer. cinereus, Lath., Col. 2063 Vieill. Gal. 284, is the only one 
known. It is the size of a Goose, and of a grey colour. 


Lvs Meyer. 


Ducks, te Ne so called, have the bill broader at base than it 
is high, and wider at the end than towards the head; the nostrils 
nearer to its back and base. ‘Their legs being shorter than those of 
Geese, and placed farther back, renders walking more difficult to 
them than to the latter. Their neck also is shorter; the trachea is 
inflated at its bifurcation into cartilaginous capsules, the left of 
which is usually the largest. 

The species of the first division, or those whose thumb is bor- 


(1) Cravant, a corruption of grau ent, grey Duck. 

(2) Geoff. St. Hillaire, Ménag. du Mus. d’Hist. Nat. art. Oie d’Egypte. 

Add the An. magellanica, Enl. 1006;—.4n. antarctica, which is closely allied to 
it, Mus., Carls., 37, and Voy. de la Cog. Zool. 50;—.4n. leucoptera, Brown., Ill. 
40;—A. rujicollis and torquata, Pall. Spicil., VI, pl. iv, which is said to penetrate 
as faras Germany;—/n. coromandelica, Enl. 949, 950;—An. madagascariensis, 
Enl. 770. 


PALMIPEDES, 423 


dered with a membrane, have a larger head, a shorter neck, the 
feet placed farther back, smaller wings, a stifier tail, more com- 
pressed tarsi, longer toes, and the membrane of the feet more entire. 
»They walk with more difficulty, feed more exclusively on fish and 
‘insects, and dive more frequently.(1) Among them we may distin- 
© guish’ the 


fe Ormemia, Fleming. 
_ By the breadth and inflation of the bill. 

Anas nigra, L.; La Macreuse commune, Enl. 9723; Naum. 
Supp. 14, f. 28 and 29; Brit. Zool. pl. 2, 6; Wils. VIII, Ixxii, 
2 (The Scoter), is all black, greyish when young; the bill 
very broad with a protuberance on its base. It is found in 

. large flocks on the coast of France, where it feeds chiefly on 
muscles. The An. cineraceus, Naum., I, C. 60, f. 91, 92, is the 
young female. 

An. fusca, L.; La double Macreuse, Enl. 9565 Frisch, 165; 
Naum. I, c. Shipp. f. 15 and 16; Wils. LX XII, 3 (The Hebvet 
Duck), differs in its superior size, a white spot on the wing, 
and a white streak under the eye. There is a circular, vertically 
flattened inflation in the middle of its trachea. 

An. perspicillata, L.; Enl. 995; Edw. 1553; Wils. VIII, Ixvii, 
1. (The Black Duck.) Some white on the occiput and behind 
the neck; the naked and yellow skin of the base of its bill also 
surrounds the eyes. 

New Holland produces a speckled species, remarkable for a 
large fleshy appendage that hangs under its bill, 4n. lobata, 
Nat. Misc., VIII, pl. 255,’and Col. 406.(2) 

We may also separate 


Cuanecuta, Leach. 


In which the bill is short and narrower towards the end; and 
place first on the list, those species the middle quills of whose tail 
are the longest, which renders it pointed. Such are 

An. glacialis, L., Enl. 1008; Edw. 280; Naum. 52, f. 76; Wils. 
VIII, Ixx, 1, 2; the young male, Enl. 999; Naum. 52, f. 76, B; the 
adult in wedding livery, Edw. 156. (The Long-tailed Duck.) 


(1) This division constitutes the genus Puaryrus, Brehm.; or HypRropares, 
Tem.; or Funreuta, Ch. Bonap. 

(2) Add the Anas mersa and leucocephala, Voy. de Pall. fr. tr., pl. v and wi; 
Naum. Sup. 40, f. 79, 80;—the dn. brachyptera, Lath., Voy. de Freycin. pl. 
XXXix. 


424 AVES. 


White; a fawn-coloured spot on the cheek and side of the neck; 
breast, back, tail, and partof the wing black. Ofall the European 
Ducks, this has the shortest bill. Its trachea, ossified near the 


root, has on one side five square membranous spaces resembling. 


so many panes of glass, above which it is inflated set, an Os- 
seous capsule. aa 
An. histrionica, L.; Enl. 7983; Wils. VIII, xxii, 4; Edw. 993 
Naum. I,.c. 52, 1. 115 and the female, 4n. minuta, 799; Edw. 
197. (The Haniuin Duck.) Ash-coloured; the male fantasti- 
cally streaked with white; eyebrows and flanks red. Each of the 
preceding species is occasionally seen in France, but at very 
long intervals. 
Then comes the common species with a round or square tail. ° 
An. clangula, L.; Le Garrot, Enl. 802; the young, An. glau- 
cion, L.(1) Frisch, 181, 182; Naum. I, c. 55, f. 81, 823 Wils. 
VIII, Ixvii, 6. (The Golden-eye.) White; head, back, and tail, 
black; a small spot before the eye and two bands on the wing, 
‘white; the bill blackish. The female is ash-coloured with a 
brown head. The middle of the trachea is considerably dilated, 
the two arches of the sac, however, preserving their flexibility. 
It becomes singularly widened near the bifurcation.(2) 


SomaTeERiA, Leach. 


The Eiders have a bill longer than that of the preceding sub- 
genus, and ascending more on the forehead where it is emarginated 
by an angle of feathers, but still narrower before than at base. 

An. molissima; L’ Eider, Enl. 208, 209, the adults of both 
sexes, Mus. Carls. 39; the three*year old young male, Edw. 98; 
Wils. VIII, xci, 2, 3; Naum. 64, f. 79, 80. (The Eider Duck.) 
Whitishs; calotte, belly and tail, black; the female grey, speckled 

- with brown. Celebrated for furnishing us with that valuable 

article called eider down. (3) 
After all these distinctions there remains the 


Futicuia, Leach, 


Whose beak is broad and flat, but presents no other peculiarity. 
Several species are found in France, in all of which the trachea ter- 


SRP ee Pee Se Ln en Ng eR TE Onc ed ON Cn 


(1). Glaueion, the Greek name of a Duck, so called on account of the colour of 
its eyes. 

(2) Add An. albeola, Enl. 948, the same as An. bucephala, Catesb., 1, 95;—An. 
brachyptera, Voy. de Freycin. pl. xxxix. 

(3) Add An. spectabilis, Sparm. Mus. Carls, U, pl. xxxvi; Edw. 154; Naum. 40, 
f. 58, 59. 


4 
| 
} 


mein 


PALMIPEDES. 425 


minates in nearly similar inflations, forming on the left a partially 
membranous capsule, supported bya frame and ramifications of bone. 
| An. ferina, L.; A. rufa, Gm.; Millouin commun, Enl..803; 
Naum. I, c. 58, f. 87, 88; Wils. VIII, xc, 6. (The Red-head. ) 
Ash-coloured, finely striated with blackish; head and top of the 
neck red; lower part of the neck and the breast brown; the bill 
a light lead-colour. Sometimes breeds among the reeds in the 
ponds of France. Its trachea is of an equal diameter. 

An. rufina, L.; Mill. huppé, Enl. $28; Naum. I, c. 32, f. 63, 
64. (The Pochard Duck.) Black; the back brown; some white 
on the wing and flank; the head red, the feathers on its summit 
turned up into a tuft; red bill. From the borders of the Caspian 
sea, and occasionally driven by the winds as far as France. 
There are two successive inflations of its trachea, besides the 
capsule of the bifurcation. 

An. marila, L., Enl. 1002; Brit. Zool. 2; Wils. VIII, Ixix, 3; 
Naum. 59,f. 90; the female, in. freenata, Mus. Carls. 38; Naum. 
59, f. 90, B. (The Scaup Duck.) Ash-coloured, striated with 
black; head and neck black, changing to green; black rump and 
tail; the belly and spots on the wing ‘white; the bill lead- 

coloured; found in small flocks in France during the winter, but 
is from the remote parts of Siberia. Its trachea is very wide 
at the commencement, and then narrow. 

An. nyroca, Gm.3 A. leucophtalmos, Bechst.; the female, 4. 
africana, Gm.; Le Petit Millowin, Enl. 1000; Naum. I, c. 39, f. 
89. _ Brown; head and neck red; a white spot ‘on the wing; belly 
whitish; a brown collar on the bottom of the male’s neck. 
Breeds in the north of Germany, and is rarely seen in France. 
Its trachea is very much inflated about the middle. 

An. fuligula, L.; Le Morillon, Eni. 1001; Frisch, 1713 Naum. 
I, c. 56, f. 83, 84; Wils. VIII, Ixvii, 5; the young, Enl. 1007; 
‘ln. scandiaca, Frisch, V1, xxxvi, 1, 2. (The Tufted Duck.) 
Black; the feathers of the occiput lengthened out into a tuft; the 
belly and a spot on the wing white; bill lead-coloured. Found 
in France every winter, where it proceeds from the North.(1) 

The Ducks of the second division,(2) whose thumb is not border- 
ed with a membrane, have a more slender head, narrower feet, 


(1) Add of species foreign to Europe: An. spinosa, Enl. 967,968;—An., Stelleri, 
Pall. Spic., VI, pl. v;—A4n. labradora, Wils. VII, |xix, 6;—-An. valisneria, Ib. LXX, 
5;—n. rubida, Ib. LUXXI, 5, 6, of which, on account of its pointed tail, M, Ch. 
Bonap. makes his genus Oxyura. 

(2) It is to this second division that M. Ch. Bonap. particularly applies the 
name of Anas. 


Vor... Ls D 


426 “AVES. 


longer neck, the bill more equal, and not so thick a body; they walk 
better, and feed on aquatic plants and seeds as much as on fish, &c. 
The inflations of their trachea consist of a bony and cartilaginous 
homogeneous substance. They also admit of some subdivisions. 


Ruyncuaspts, Leach. 


A subgenus very remarkable for a long bill, the upper mandible 
of which, forming the exact half of a perfect cylinder, is widened at 
the end. Its lamelle are so long and delicate that they resemble 
hairs. These birds feed on small worms, which they obtain from 
the mud on the edge of brooks, &c. 

An. clypeata, L.; Souchet commun, Enl. 971, 9723 Frisch, 161, 
162, 163; Wils. VIII, Ixvii, 7; Naum. 49, f. 70, 71 (The Shove- 
ler). A beautiful duck, with a green head and neck, white 
breast, red belly, and brown back; the wings are variegated with 
white, ash colour, green, brown, &c. It visits France in the 
spring, and is excellent game. The lower part of its trachea is 
but slightly inflated. It is the Chenerotes of Pliny. 

An. fasciata, Sh., Nat. Misc. pl. 697, is another species found 
in New Holland. The edges of its upper mandible are extended 
on each side into a membranous appendage. 


Taporna.(1) 


The bill very much flattened towards the end, and bulging into 
a salient lump at base. 

An. tadorna, Lis; Enl. 533 Frisch, 166; Naum. I, c: 55, -f. 103 
and 104.- (The Shieldrake.) The most highly coloured of all the 
European Ducks: white: the head green; a cinnamon-coloured 
cincture round the breast; the wing varied with black and white, 
red and green. Common on the shores of the North Sea, and 

of the Baltic, where it lays in the downs, and frequently in holes 
abandoned by rabbits. Its bifurcation is inflated into two nearly 
similar osseous capsules. 
Some Ducks of this second division have some naked parts about 
the head, and very often a lump on the base of the bill. 

An. moschata, L., Enl. 989, commonly but improperly called 
The Muscovy Duck; originally from South America, where it is 
still found in its wild state, and where it perches on trees; is 
now very common in our poultry yards, where it mixes with 


(1) Tudorne, the name of this bird in Bélon. Buffon, following Turner, mis- 
took it for the Chenalopex of the ancients. 


PALMIPEDES. 427 


the Common Duck. Its capsule is very large, circular, verti- 
cally flattened, and all on the left side. 
Some of them have pointed tails. 
An. acuta, L.; Le Pilet, Enl. 954; Wils. VIII, xviii, 3; Frisch, 
160 and 168; Naum. 51,f.74 and 75. (The Pintail.) Ash colour- 
ed above and on the flanks, finely striped with blacks; white be- 
neath; the head tawny, &c. The capsule of the trachea is small. 
The males of others have some of the feathers of the tail recurved. 
An. boschas, L.(1) Enl. 776, 777; Wils. VIII, Ixx, 7; Frisch, 
158 and 159 (The Mallard), is known by its pale yellow feet, 
yellow bill, the beautiful changeable green of the head, and 
rump of the male, &c. In our poultry-yards it varies in colour, 
like all other domestic animals. ‘The wild breed is common in 
the marshes; it builds among the reeds, in the hollow trunks of. 
willows, and sometimes upon trees. Its trachea terminates be- 
low, in a large osseous capsule. 
A singular variety is found in the Hook-billed. Duck, the An. 
adunca, L. 
Some of them have a crested head, and a bill somewhat more 
narrow at the end, which, though foreign, are reared in all the avia- 
ries of Europe. . Such are, 

An. sponsa, L.; Enl. 980 and 981; Wils. VIII, lxxviil, 3 (The 
Summer Duck): and Jn. galericulata, L., Enl. 805 and 806; 
Vieill., Gal. 287:(The Chinese Duck). Some of the wing-fea- 
thers in the male of this latter species are widened and turned 
up vertically, in addition to those of the tail. Their capsules 
are rounded, and of a moderate size. 

There are other species which to the bill of a Duck add legs, even 
longer than those of a Goose; they build and perch on trees.(2) 
Some of this number have but semi-palmated feet.(3) Finally among 
those which have no peculiar mark is the 

An. strepera, L.; Le Chipeau; Enl. 958; Naum. I, c. 45, f. 655 
Wils. VIII, lxxi, 1. (The Gadwal.) Reticulated and finely 
striped with black; wings, red with a green spot and a white 
one. The capsule of the trachea is small. 

An. Penelope, Li.3 Le Siffleur; Enl. 825; Frisch, 164 and 169; 
Naum. f. 72 and 73.(4) (The Whistler.) Finely striped with 


: 


(1) Booxas, Greek name of the Mallard. 

(2) An. arborea, Enl. 804;—autumnalis, 826;—viduata, 808. [The nas sponsa 
and the 2. moschata likewise build on trees. Am. Ed.) 

(3) An. semipalmata, Lath.; Cuv. Mém. du Mus. 

(4) Penelope, the Greek name of a red headed Duck, either the sinseent spe- 
cies or the ferina, L. 


428 AVES. 


black; vinous-coloured breast; red head; pale forehead; the wing 
white, green, ana black. The capsule is rounded, moderate, 
and very bony.(1) 
There are several small species designated. by the general name 
of TEAL. 
Jin. querquedula, L.; La Sarcelle ordinaire, Enl. 946, and the 
old male, n. circia, Frisch, 176; Naum. 47, f. 66 and 67. 
(The Garganey Duck.) A grey ground, reticulated with blacks 
a white line round, and at the end of the eye, &c. Common on 
ponds, &c. Its ‘capsule is a pyriform enlargement. 
Jn. crecca, L.3 La petite Sarcelle; Enl. 9473 Frisch, 174; Naum. 
48, f. 68, 69; Wils. VIII, Ixx, 45 Brit. Zool. pl. 2. (The Com- 
mon Teal.) Finely striped with blackish; the head red; a green 
band at the corner of the eye edged with two white lines, &c. 
_ The capsule resembles a pea.(2) 


Mereus, Lin. 


The genus of the Mergansers comprehends those species in which 
the bill, thinner and more cylindrical than that of the Ducks, is 
armed along its edges with small pointed teeth resembling those of 
a saw and directed backwards; the tip of the upper mandible is 
hooked. Their carriage and even plumage are those of Ducks, pro- 
perly so called; but their gizzard is less muscular, and their intes- 
tines and ceca shorter. The inflation of the lower larynx inthe males * 
is enormous, and partly membranous. They live on lakes and ponds, 
where they are very destructive to fish. 

Three species are found in France during the winter, whose 
variations of plumage have induced some naturalists to increase 
» the number.» It is said that they breed in the North among the 
rocks or reeds, and lay a great many eggs. 
_ Merg. merganser, L.; Le Harle vulgaire; Enl. 951; Naum. I, 
c. 61, f. 93, Brit. Zool. pl. Ns; Frisch, 190; Wils. VIII, Ixviii, 1 
(The Goosander), is the size of a Duck, and has red feet 
and a bill of the same hue. The head of the old male is of a 
deep green, the feathers on its summit forming a sort of toupee; 
the mantle is black, with a white spot over the wing; under- 


(1) Add An. rutila, Pall. Nov. Com. Petrop,, XIV, xxii;—n. cana and casarca, 
Brown, fll. 41 and 42;—.An. pecilorhyncha, Indian Zool. pl. xiv;—the Jensen (An. 
americana), Enl. 955, Wils. VILL, lxix, 4;—the Maree (An. bahamensis), Catesb. 
93;—An. obscura, Wils. VIM, xxii, 5;—An. arcuata, Gm. or paturi, Spix, C. 

(2) Add, An. discors, Enl. 966 and 403;—An. manillensis, Sonner. Voy. I, 
pl. ly. 


PALMIPEDES. 429 


neath and the neck, white, slightly tinged with rose-colour. 
The young and the females—Merg. castor, Enl. 9533; Frisch, 
191; Naum. 61, f. 93, B, are grey with a red head. 

Merg. serrator, L.3 Harle huppé; Enl: 207; Edw. 95; Naum: 
I, c. 61, f. 903; Wils. VIII, Ixix, 2. (The Red-breasted Mergan- 
ser.) Bill and feet red; the body variegated with black, white, 
and brown; head of a black-green; a pendent tuft on the occi- 
put. The young and the females,—Harles noirs, H. a manteau 
noir; Naum. 62, f. 95, have a brown head. 

M. albellus, L.; La Piette; Enl. 449; Frisch, 172; Naum. 63, 
f. 97; Brit. Zool. pl. N. 1; Wils. VIII, xci, 9. (The Smew.) 
Bill and feet blue; body white, varied with black on the man- 
tle; a black spot near the eye, and one on the occiput. The 
young males and the females,—WMerg. minutus, mustelinus, &c. 


Enl. 4503 Brit. Zool. pl. N. 23 Naum. 63, f. 98, are grey with 
a red head.(1) 


(1) Among the Mergansers foreign to Europe, the only ones well ascertained 


are the M. cucullatus of Carolina, Enl. 935 and 936, and the M. brasiliensis, Vieill. 
Gal. 283. 


APPENDIX 


OF THE AMERICAN EDITOR... 


i. 


Vesp. carolinensis, Geoff. Anterior upper fore-teeth sub-simple, 
larger than the posterior; remarkable for a strong odour resembling 
that of a Fox. 

V. lucifugus, L. C. Anterior upper fore-teeth bilobates; body 
above dark brown, beneath cinereous; nose sub-bilobate; face with a 
nakedish prominence on each side; ears oblong, naked, tragus sub- 
linear, half as long as the ears; tail projecting a little beyond the 
membrane; length to the insertion of the tail two inches and a quar- 
ter; tail one inch and a quarter. 

V. noctivagans, L.C. Anterior upper fore-teeth bilobate, the 
posterior sub-simple; colour black or dusky cinereous; hair on the 
back and belly tipped with greys ears short, naked, roundish; tragus 
short and roundish; nose sub-bilobate; tail projecting a little beyond 
the interfemoral membrane, which is hairy; length two inches and 
five eighths; tail one and three eighths. 


“TL: 


Add Plec. macrotis, L. C. Upper fore-teeth, four, trilobate, dis- 
tant by pairs, the posterior smaller; ears very long, pointing for- 
wards; tragus subulate, half the length of the ears.(1) 


(1) There is another species with equally long ears, which are not united on the 
cranium; which of these is the megalotis of Raffin., it is impossible to say. 


432 APPENDIX. 


Il. 


Nyc. noveboracensis. Easily known by its short and round ears, 
and by the interfemoral membrane being hairy and including the 
whole of the tail. There is a white spot at the insertion of the wing 
and another at the base of the thumb; these marks are constant. 
This species varies much in colour, and has been called V. lasiurus 
by Schreber, V. monachus by some, and is figured Wils. Orn. VI, 
pl. 4, whence it has been quoted by M. Cuvier as the T'aphizous. 

Nyct. crepuscularis, L. C. Above brown, beneath paler; a small 
black wart above each eye; nose somewhat bilobate; chin with a 
small double wart; ears moderate; tragus small, subulates tail pro-. 
jecting a little beyond the membrane. 

Nyct. cynocephala, L. C. The posterior fore-tooth on each ae 
smaller than the rest which are emarginate; nose furnished on the 
top and sides with stiff short bristles; lips very large, somewhat 
pendulous; ears broad, round, naked; tragus not apparent; tail long, 
extending far beyond the membrane; outer and inner toes of the hind 
feet woolly on the outside; the rest with each two long hairs on the top. 


IV. 


Meles europxa; Ursus meles, L. (European Badger.) Above, grey, 
beneath, black; a blackish band on each side of the head. 

Meles labradorias; Ursus labradorius, L. (American Badger.) 
Above grey, beneath paler; head brown, with a narrow white line 
on the top; under jaw and throat white. From a comparison of 
these two descriptions it will be seen, that it is impossible that they 
can be but one species. They are totally distinct. 


WV 


This is the animal called the Mink in the United States, and is 
identical with the Vison. We have another, the Must. Pennanti, 

Erxl., the Fisher, as it is commonly called, which in its manners 
resembles the Must. martis. 


Vi 


Add to the description of Canis lycaon, “ found also in America, in 
the Missouri country and in Canada.”’ The other. species, C. latrans, 
and C. nubilus, mentioned in note (3), page 106, are probably varie- 
ties of C. lupus. This animal always hunts in company, and barks 
when in pursuit of its prey. It varies much in colour, being grey, 


> 


APPENDIX. 433 


reddish, black, mixed black and grey, grey and reddish, and grey, 
reddish and black, and in size fr om | that of a small dog to that. of the 
largest mastiff. 


VII. 
div, ie 

The Canis fulvus of some authors, the American Red Fox, is 
identical with the European, and was introduced’ (at least into the 
United States) by some Englishmen, who thought it afforded better 
sport than the American species: not many years ago persons were 
living who remembered when: they were first brought to New Eng- 
land. . 


This is an error. The Se. Cinereus, L. "(The Cat Squirrel), of our 
country is cinereous above, beneath white, tail less distichous than 
that of other species, longer than the body and striped with black; 
length twelve inches, tail fifteen. ‘There are but four teeth in the 
upper jaw oneach side. Inhabits the northern and middle states, 

Se. car olinensis, L. (Little Grey Squirrel.) Above mixed white, 
blackish and rusty; beneath white; cheeks rusty; tail as long as the 
body, edged with white; upper jaw teeth, five on each side. This is 
the species described by our author as the cinereus. 

Sc. vulpinus. (The Fox Squirrel.) Length fourteen inches, tail six- 
teen; very much resembles the Sc. cinereus, but differs in size and in 
the texture of the fur which is coarser and longer, the hair having 
frequently the appearance of being twisted or even geniculate. The 
Se. capiseeatis i is a variety of this species, and so, most probably, is 
the rufiventris. Some individuals are entirely of a rusty colour, 


~ others wholly black, and others again varied like a tortoise-shell cat. 


All these have been found together in the same nest. The Sc. niger 
of some:authors is the black variety of these three species. The Sc. 
cinereus is sometimes found entirely white with black eyes. 

The other species found in the United States are Sc. macrourus, 
Say;—Se. grammarus, Id.;—Sc. 4-vittatus, Id.;—Sc. lateralis, Id.; 
= Se. hudsonius, Gin. 


IX. 


Some confusion appears to exist in this note with respect to the 
Vou. L—3 E 


434 APPENDIX. 


location of several American species, which truly belong to the 
Arvicota, Cuv. or, Hypupaus of Illiger. 


Da 


Add, of American an species, Hypudzus xanthognatus, Leach;—Hyp. 
riparius 2 Ord.* A subdivision of ‘this group will embrace the Hyp. 
hispidus (Sigmodon, Say), and Hyp. messor, L. C: and another sub- 
division, Hyp. floridanus (Neotoma, Say), and Hyp. gossipinus, L. C. 


6 
: 


XI. 


; > - E 
Here should come the new genus Psammomys, Le Conte, described 


Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. of New York, III, 3, pl. 2, which differs from 
all the preceding in,the form of the jaw teeth. The eyes are very 
small, and the ears scarcely visible... It burrows like the Sorex. 

But one species has yet been found—P. pinetorum, L. C.—which 
inhabits the pine forests of Georgia. Its hair is a dark shining 
cinereous colour, tipped above with brown, beneath a very pale ash; 
head large and blunt; tail round and hairy.(1) 


as 


Sy 


Cathartes aura. (Turkey Buzzard.) Black, with a bluish gloss; 
neck feathered equally all round; a, red, bill white. The other 
species Cathartes iota, Vieill. which by our author is arranged in 
the genus Percnopterus, undoubtedly belongs to the same genus with 
the C. aura. Its vulgar name is the Carrion Crow. Its colour is 
black, neck more feathered above than beneath; head black; bill 
horn-colour. Both these species are common in the warm, parts of 
our country: the first, however, ranges more to the north than the 
other; it is sometimes seen at New York. They prey upon carrion 
and excrementitious matters, but never attack living animals excep 
they perceive them helpless or unable to defend themselves. 


e. 
RTL 


These citations, from F. pennsylvanicus, Wils. to F. hyemalis, Wils. 
' P 


a _ 


(1) On examining the work of Ruppel lately received at the Ac. of Nat. Sc. of 
Philad., I find that he has anticipated Major Le Conte in the generic use of the 
word Psammomys. As the rule of priority should be inexorably adhered to in these 


cases, | would propose for the American animal the generic‘appellation of Prry- 
Mys, or Pine-mouse. 


APPENDIX. 435 


IV, xxxv, 1, are wrong. Instead of them should be inserted #. penn- 
sylvanicus, Wils. VI, pl. liv, f. 1; —&. velox (Shate-coloured Hawk), 
Wils. VI, pl. xlvi, f. 1;—/. dubius, Gm. These three birds are con- 
sidered (Syn. Am. Birds of Ch. Bonap.) as the same, and as identi- 
cal with the #. fuscus of Gmel. 


XIV. 
Add M. Sayi, Bonap. Am. Or. I, ph. ii; f. 3;—M. fusca, Gm. 
Wils. Orn. I, pl. Ixiii, f. 53. acadica; Gm. Wiis. 1, pl. xiii, f. 3. 


KV. 

Here should come the genus Vireo, Vieill. (Muscicapa, L., &c.). 
These have a bill like the Muscicapa, but it is shorter, not so much 
depressed, but mateer compressed; bristly at base; upper mandible 
curved at the tip; tongu ifid at the tip. The colour of all the spe- 
cies is olive, more or less inclining to, yellow. 

V. flavifrons, Vieill. (Wils. II, pl. 7, f. 3, MZ. sylvicola). Throat, 
breast, forehead, and circle round the eyes, yellow. 

V. solitarius, Vieills(M. solitaria, Wils. I, pl. xvii, f. 6). Head, 
bluish; cir cle round the eyes white, breast pale ash, belly white. 

V. noveboracensis, Vieill. (MM. noveboracensis, Gm., M. cantatriz, 
Wils. Il, pl. xviii, f. 6). Spot at the base of the upper mandible, 
and circle round the eyes, yellow; eye-lids white. 

V. gilvus, Bonap. (Sylvia gilva, Vieill., 1. melodia, Wils. V, pl. 
pic EB ni A line over the eyes, and body beneath, white; eye-lids, 
brown. 

» V. olivaceus, Vieill. (M.olivacea, L. Wils. II, pl. xii, f. 3). Crown, 
cinereous, bounded on the sides with blacks line over the eyes, white; 
eye-lids, rufous. 


XVI. 


The Z. minor, Gm., is quoted in this note as a synonyme of the 
T. mustelinus, Wils., when in fact it is the solitarius, Wils., V, p. 
xliii, f. 2. The 7. mustelinus, Gm., is the 7. melodes, Wils. I, p. ii, 
f. 1. The 7. mustelinus, Wils., isthe 7. Wilsonit, Bonap. Wils. V, 
p: xlili, f. 3. 


436 APPENDIX. 


XVII. 


Add to this note for American species; J. aurocapilla, L. Wils. 
II, pl. xiv, f. 2;—M. noveboracensis, Lath. Wils. III, pl. xxiii, f. 5;— 
M. coronata, Wils. II, ‘pl. xvii, f. 45 M7. palmarum, Bonap. I, pl. x, 
f. 2;—M. maculosa, Lath. (Syl. magnolia, Wils.) Wils. U1, pl. xxiii, 
f. 2;—M. maritima, Wils. VI, pl. li, f. 8;—M. pardalina, Bonap. 
(Musc. canadensis, Wils.), Wils. III, pl. xxvi, f. 2;—. mitrata, Bo- 
nap. (Musc. cucullata, Wils.) Wils. Ill, pl. xxvi, f. 33—JZ. pensilis, 
(Syl. flavicollis, Wils.) Wils. Il,, pl. xii, f. 6;—JZ. virens, Wils. I, 
pl. xvii, f. 3;—M. Blackburnee, Wils. I, pl. xxviii, f, 5;—M. icte- 
rocephala, Lath. (Syl. pennsylvanica, Wils.) Wils. I, pl. xiv, f. 53— 
M. castanea, Wils. I, pl. xiv, f. 4;—. striatay Wils. IV, p. xxx, f. 
33;—WM. varia, Lath. (Certhia maculata, Wils.) Wils. III, p. xix, f. 3;— 
M. pinus, Wils. Il, pl. xix, f. 451. parus, Wils. V, p. xliv, f. 33 
—WM. tigrina (Syl. montana, Wils.) WilsV, p. xli, f. 2;—/M/. rara, 
Wils. III, pl. xlvii, f. 23—M. discolor (Syl. minuta, Wils.) Wils. IIT, 
pl. xxv, f. 4;—. zstiva (Syl. citrinella, Wils.) Wils. II, p. xv, f. 63 
—WM. petechia, Wils. pl. xxviii, f. 4;—/. americana (Syl. pusilla, 
Wils.) Wils. IV, p. 28, xxviii, f° 3;—/. genes Wils. II, pl. 
xv, f. 73—M. agilis, Wils. V, pl. xxxix, f. 4,;—M. formosa, Wils. III, 
pl. xxv, f. 33—M. itinale: Wils. THe pl. xxiii, f. 4;—M. trichas, 
Wils. I, pl. vi, f. 1 and 2, pl. xviii, f. 4;-—-J/. philadelphica, Wils. Th 
pl. xiv, f. 6;—J. sphagnosa, Bonap. Wils. V, pl. xliii, f. 4;—M. azu- 
rea, Steph., Bonap. II, pl. xi, f. 2, and Wils. I, pl. xvii, f..5;—J/. 
cerulea, Wils. II, pl. xviii, f. 5;—M. minuta, Bonap. (Musc. minuta, 
Wils.) Wils. VI, pl. 1, f. 5;—. Wilsonii, Bonap. (Muse. pusilla, 
Wils.) Wils. III, pl. xxvi, f. 4. 


XVIII. ‘ 
The Mot. pensilis, zestiva, ludoviciana, and canadensis quoted in 
this note by our author, do not belong to this subgenus. There 


should, however, be added for American species, M. calendula, 
Wils. I, p. v, f. 3;—M. cristatus, Wils. I, p. viii, f. 2. 


XIX. 


It may be as well to insert here the genus Icrrrta of, Vieillot, 
which, from its. resemblance to many of the preceding genera, al- 


» 


APPENDIX. 437 


though it wants the emargination on the upper mandible, cannot be 
more appropriately arranged. | 

* Bill strong, convex, somewhat curved, compressed, almost entire, 
bristly at base; mandibles sub-equal, edges somewhat bent in; nos- 
trils round, half covered by a membrane; tongue slightly bifid at the 
tip; intermediate between Turdus, Muscicapa, Vireo and Tanagra. 
There is but one species known, Jct. dumicola, Vieill. which inhabits 
the United States (Pipra polyglotta,, Wils. 1, p. vi, f. 2). It is olive- 
green, with the throat and breast yellow; belly white; circle round 
the eyes, and line above them yellow. 


XX 


Add for American species: #. amena, Bonap. I, p. viii, f. 4;— 
F. cyanea, Wils. I, p. vi, f. 5;—/. ctris, Wils. IIT, p. xxiv, f. 1 and 
23;—F. americana, Wils. I, p. iii, f. 23—F. leucophrys, Wils. I, p. 
xxxi, f. 45—/. grammaca, Bonap. I, p. v, f. 23—F. pennsylvanica, 
Wils. II, p.. xxii, .f. 23—F. sramined, Wils. IV, p. iil, f. 5;—F. 
melodia, Wils. II, p. xvi, f. 4:—F. savanna, Wils. IV, p. xxxiv, f. 
4;—F. passerina, Wils. II, p. xxiv, f. 5;—F. canadensis, Wils. II, 
p- xvi, f. 3;—F. socialis, Wils. U,opoxvi, f. 5;—. palustris, Wils. 
Ill, p. xxii, f. 1;—F'. caudacuta, Wils. IV, p. xxxiv, f. 3;—F. mari- 
tima, Wils.»p. xxxiv, f. 2.° © 


fa 


XXI1. 


. = a ’ é 


Add F. psaltria, Bonap. I, p. vi. f. 33—F. pinus, Wils. II, p. 
lvii, f.01. | 


a 


XXII. 


Add for American species: D. vermivora, Wils. II, p. xxiv, f. 
4;—D. prothonotarius, Wils. III, pl. xxiv, f. 2;—JD. solitaria, Wils. 
Il, p. xv, f. 4;—D. chrysoptera, Wils. II, p. xv, f. 2;—D. peregrina, 
Wils. Ill, p. xxv, f. 2;—JD. rubricapilla, Wils. M1, p. xxvii, f. 3;— 
D. celata, Bonap. I, p. v, f. 2. All the birds of this genus are more 
nearly allied to Muscicapa and Sylvia, and ought to be arranged 
with them. 


XXIII. 


The genus Quiscatvus of Vieillot should find a place between this 
genus and Caryocatactes. Its characters are as follows: 


438 APPENDIX. 


Bill large, compressed from the base, entire, the edges angular, 
hardly bent in; upper mandible curved from the middle, longer than 
the lower, with an osseous prominence in the middle; tongue bifid 
at tip; nostrils half closed by a membrane. 

Q. major, Bonap. I, p. iv, f. 1 and 2 (Gracula barrita of authors, 
Jackdaw of the south). Black, with a blue gloss mixed with purple; 
head and neck purple; iris yellow. Female dusky; back, wings 
and tail with a slight bluish gloss; head and neck dark brown; throat, 
breast and belly, brown. 

Q. versicolor, Vieill. Wils. III, p. xxi, f. iv (Grac. quiscula of au- 
thors). Black, with a bluish gloss, mixed with purple; head and 
neck with a purple gloss; iris yellow. Female more dusky. Both 
these species are similar in their manners, are gregarious, and com- 
mit great devastation in fields of grain. 

Q. ferrugineus, Bonap. Wils. III, p. xxi, f. 3 (Grac. ferruginea of 
authors). Black, with feathers more or less tipped with ferruginous. 

N.B. Previous to the labours of M. C. Bonaparte, these three 
birds were not understood. It is needless to occupy any space in 
commenting on the errors that have hitherto existed respecting 
them. 


XXIV. 


Add, Tot. macularius, Temm. Wils. VIII, p. lix, f. 1. The Pha- 
laropus frenatus alluded to by our author in note (8) is not figured in, 
Wilson, IX, p. Ixiii, f. 3. The bird there represented is the Lobipes 
Wilsonii of Sabine. ' 


XXV. 


Here should come the genus Aramus, Vieill. characterized as 
follows.—Bill much longer than the head, cleft beneath the eyes, 
compressed, straight, curved, and somewhat turgid at tip; upper 
mandible slightly furrowed, the lower turgid towards the middle, 
angular beneath, acute; nostrils in wide orifices, linear, pervious; 
lores naked; feet longs toes divided to their base, hind toe long. 

“Ar. scolopaceus, Vieill. Brown glossed with green; feathers longi- 
tudinally white in the middle; rump, quill, and tail feathers imma- 
culate. Inhabits Georgia and Florida, Bonap. Syn. p. 308. 


# 


APPENDIX, « 439 


a 


XXXVI. 


The Pel. sula, .., The Brown Booby, Enl. 973, is the Sula fusca, 
Briss. 


XXVII. 


Closely allied to the genus Pxiorus is the HEtrornis of Vieillot 
which chiefly differs from it in having a shorter and slenderer bill, 
the edges of which are entire, not denticulate. But two species are 
known, the H. suwrinamensis, Enl. 893. Brown, beneath whitish; sides 
of the neck striped with black and white; bill and feet dusky, the 
latter semi-palmate and barred with black. The other is the # 
senegalensis, Vieill. Gal. 280. Brown, beneath white; sides of the 
neck and back speckled with black; bill and feet red; toes connected 
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CATALOGUE 


OF 


THE MAMMALIA AND BIRDS OF THE UNITED 


STATES. 
MAMMALIA. 
CARNARIA. 
CHEIROPTERA. 

Vespertilio carolinensis Nycticea noveboracensis 
lucifugus, L. C. crepuscularis, L. C. 
noctivagans, L. C. cynocephalus, L. C. 

Plecotus macrotis, L. C. 

INSECTIVORA. 
Sorex(1) Scalops aquaticus 
Condylura cristata 
CARNIVORA. 
PLANTIGRADA. 

Ursus americanus Meles labradoria 

horribilis Gulo luscus 


Procyon lotor 


(1) We have many species of this genus in the United States, but not one that 
has yet been properly determined. 
Vou. I.—3 F 


442 CATALOGUE. 


DIGITIGRADA. 
Putorius vulgaris Canis lupus 
erminea lycaon 
lutreola vulpes 
Mustela martes cinereo-argenteus 
Pennantii Felis discolor 
Mephitis putorius rufa 
Lutra brasiliensis borealis 
AMPHIBTA. 


Phoca vitulina 


MARSUPIALTIA. 


Didelphis virginiana 


RODENTIA. 

Sciurus carolinensis Meriones canadensis 
cinereus + labradorius 
vulpinus Fiber zibethicus 
macrourus Hypudzus xanthognathus 
grammarus riparius? Ord 
4-vittatus hispidus 
hudsonius messor, L. C. 
striatus floridanus 
lateralis gossypinus, L, C. 

Pteromys volucella Psammomys pinetorum, L. C. 

hudsonia Saccomys bursarius 

Arctomys monax Castor fiber 

Hoodii Hystrix dorsata 

Mus musculus Lepus variabilis 

rattus americanus 
decumanus 


Cervus alces 
canadensis 


RUMINANTIA. 


Cervus virginianus 
macrotis 


Antilope lanigera 
furcifer 


Delphinus Delphis 
phocena 


Cathartes aura 


tNoBILEs 

Falco communis 
Cooperi, Bonap. 
sparverius 
fuscus 
columbarius 

+tHIEROFALCONES 

Falco atricapillus 

TttAQuiLz 

Falco fulvus 
haliztos 
leucocephalus 

ttttAsSTURES 


+Orr 
Strix nevia 
otus 
brachyotus 
TttSTRIGES 
Strix flammea 
ttt Busones 
Strix magellanica 


CATALOGUE. 443 


Ovis Ammon 
Bos bison 


CETACEA. 


Delphinus orca 
Balena mysticetus 


ee 


AVES. 
ACCIPITRES. 
DIURN®. 


VULTURINE. 


Carthartes jota 


FALCONES. 


Falco palumbarius 
pennsylvanicus 

tttttMinvr 

Falco furcatus 
dispar, Temm. 
plumbeus, Gm. 

TtttttBuTrEoNnEs 

Falco lagopus 
Sancti Johannis 
borealis 

tttttttCiror 


Falco hyemalis 
pygargus 


NOCTURN &. 


Strix cinerea 
tHtNoorvz 
Strix funerea 
nyctea 
cunicularia 
acadica 
tttttULuLz 
Strix nebulosa 


444 CATALOGUE. 
PASSERINE. 
DENTIROSTRES. 
Lanius ludovicianus Motacilla maculosa 
septentrionalis maritima 
tTyrannvus pardalina, Bonap. 
Muscicapa tyrannus mitrata 
crinita pensilis 
verticalis, Bonap. virens 
forficata Blackburniz 
ttMuscicapa icterocephala 
Muscicapa Sayi, Bonap. castanea 
fusca striata 
virens varia 
ruticilla pinus 
Vireo flavifrons parus 
solitarius tigrina 
noveboracensis rara 
gilvus discolor 
olivaceus zstiva 
Bombycilla garrula pulchra 
americana americana 
carolinensis canadensis 
Tanagra estiva agilis 
rubra formosa 
ludoviciana autumnalis 
Turdus polyglottos trichas 
migratorius philadelphica 
lividus sphagnosa, Bonap. 
rufus azurea 
minor coerulea 
mustelinus +HttREGULI 
Wilsonii, Bonap. Motacilla calendula 
Myothera obsoleta, Bonap. cristata 
tSaxicoLz Trogiodytes aedon 
Motacilla sialis europzus 
ttSyLviz palustris 
Motacilla aurocapilla ludovicianus 
noveboracensis Anthus spinoletta 
coronata Icteria dumicola 
palmarum 


CATALOGUE. 445 


FISSIROSTRES. 
tCyYpsELi Hirundo bicolor 
Hirundo pelasgia riparia 
ttHrrunpines Caprimulgus carolinensis 
Hirundo purpurea virginianus 
rufa vociferus 
fulva 
CONIROSTRES. 
Alauda alpestris tttCaRDUELES 
Parus bicolor Fringilla tristis 
atricapillus psaltria 
Emberiza nivalis pinus 
linaria 


Pyrgita iliaca 
erythrophthalma 

{SpPizz 

Fringilla amoena, Bonap. 
cyanea 
ciris 

ttPassERES 

Fringilla americana 
leucophrys 
grammaca 
pennsylvanica 
graminea 
melodia 
savanna 
nivalis 
passerina 
laponica 
canadensis 
socialis 
pusilla 
palustris 
caudacuta 
maritima 


Corvus corone 
corax 
ossifragus 


Coccothraustes cardinalis 
vespertina, Bonap. 
ludoviciana 
cerulea 
purpurea 

Pyrrhula frontalis, Bonap. 

Loxia curvirostra 

leucoptera 

Corythus enucleator 

Xanthornus baltimorus 

spurius 
phoeniceus 
xanthocephalus 
pecoris 
agripennis 

Dacnis vermivora 

prothonotarius 
solitarius 
chrysoptera 
peregrina 
rubricapilla 
ciliata, Bonap. 

Sturnus ludovicianus 


CORACES. 


Corvus columbianus 
pica 
Garrulus cristatus 


446 CATALOGUE. 


Garrulus floridanus Quiscalus versicolor 

canadensis ferrugineus 

Quiscalus major 

TENUIROSTRES. 

Sitta canadensis Certhia familiaris 
carolinensis Trochilus colibris 
pusilla Alcedo alcyon 

SCANSORLE. 

Picus auratus Picus pubescens 
principalis querulus 
pileatus torquatus 
erythrocephalus tridactylus 
carolinus Cuculus americanus 
varius erythrophthalmus 
villosus Psittacus carolinensis 

GALLINACEE. 
Meleagris gallopavo Perdix virginiana 
Tetrao canadensis californiana 
obscurus | Columba fasciata, Bonap. 
urophasianus, Bonap. zenaida, Bonap. 
umbellus leucocephala 
cupido passerina 
phasianellus migratoria 
albus carolinensis 
GRALLATORI/A. 
PRESSIROSTRES. 
Charadrius semipalmatus, Bonap. Charadrius pluvialis 
melodus Squatarola helvetica 
Wilsonii Hematopus ostralegus 
vociferus 
CULTRIROSTRES. 
Grus canadensis tARDEE 


americana Ardea Herodias 


Ardea alba 
Pealii, Bonap. 
candidissima 
ludoviciana 
é ttBorauri 
Ardea violacea 


CATALOGUE. 


Ardea nycticorax 
coerulea 
minor 
virescens 

Tantalus loculator 

Platalea ajaja 


LONGIROSTRES. 


. Ibis rubra 
alba 
Numenius longirostris 
hudsonicus 
borealis 
Scolopax minor 
paludosa 
Limosa zgocephala 
fedoa 
Calidris maritima 
Temminckii 
minuta 
pusilla 
islandica 
Arenaria calidris 
Pelidna alpina 
subarcuata 
Schinzii 
pectoralis 
platyrhynca 
maritima 


Machetes pugnax 


447 


Hemipalama semipalmata, Bonap. 
Phalaropus fulicarius, Bonap. 


Totanus semipalmatus 
melanoleucus 
flavipes 
Bartramius 
solitarius 
macularius 

Lobipes hyperborea 


Wilsonii, Bonap. 


Himantopus nigricollis 
Recurvirostra americana 
Rallus crepitans 
virginianus 
carolinus 
noveboracensis 
Gallinula martinica 
chloropus 
Fulica americana 
Phoenicopterus ruber 


PALMIPEDES. 


BRACHYPTERZ. 

Podiceps cristatus Uria troile 
subcristatus Brunnichii, Sab. 
cornutus Cephus alle 
carolinensis Fratercula cirrhata 

Colymbus glacialis arctica 

septentrionalis Alca torda 


Uria grylle 


448 


CATALOGUE. 


LONGIPENNES. 


Procellaria Wilsonii, Bon. 


Leachii, Bonap. 


Larus marinus 
Lestris cataractes 


glacialis pomarina 
Larus minutus Buffonii 
capistratus paradisea 
atricilla Sterna cayana 
tridactylus anglica 
canus hirundo 
eburneus arctica 
fuscus minuta 
argentatus nigra 
argentatoides fuliginosa 
leucopterus stolida 
glaucus Rhynchops nigra 
PALMATE. 
PELECANI. 
Pelecanus onocrotalus Sula bassana 
fuscus fusca 
Phalacrocorax carbo Plotus melanogaster 
graculus Heliornis surinamensis 
cistatus Phaeton ethereus 


Tachypetes aquilus 


Cygnus musicus 
Anser hyperboreus 
albifrons 
segetum 
canadensis 
leucopsis 
bernicla 
Anas nigra 
glacialis 
fusca 
perspicillata 
histrionica 
Stelleri 
clangula 
albeola 
mollissima 
spectabilis 
ferina 


-LAMELLIROSTRES. 


Anas valisneriz 
marila 
fuligula 
labradora 
rubida 

clypeata 
acuta 
boschas. 
sponsa 
strepera 
americana 
obscura 
crecca 
discors 
Mergus merganser 
serrator 
cucullatus 
albellus 


EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 


Plate I. The Quadrupeds of this plate are sufliciently de- 
scribed in the text, for which refer to the genera by the Index. 


Plate II. This plate exhibits the osteology of the head of 
two anomalous Mammalia. : : 

‘Fig. i, 2,3. The Aye-Aye (Cheiromys, C.), which, with the 
teeth of the Rodentia, possesses a head very similar to that of 
the Quadrumana, and principally as relates to the zygomatic 
arch, the orbit, &c. 

Fig..4,-5,-6. The Phascolomys, which also has the teeth of 
the Rodentia united to a head very analogous to that of the 
Carnaria, and evidently closely allied to that of the Phalangers. 


Plates HI andIV. The Birds of this plate are sufficiently 
described in the text under their respective genera. 


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