* in it . teuewe ee vv DEA 7 ; J tesla eee eretet.® eee eeecent ae taete bie # e648 0.8 FY hei ve vee Vece T S€eSTO0 THEN D MUO IOHM/198W ANIMAL LIFE IN THE YOSEMITE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA [GRINNELL-STORER] PLATE 1 SreRRA NEVADA Rosy FINCH ANIMAL LIFE IN THE YOSEMITE AN ACCOUNT OF THE MAMMALS, BIRDS, REPTILES, AND AMPHIBIANS IN Ay CROSS SECTION: OF THE SIERRA NEVADA BY JOSEPH GRINNELL AND TRACY IRWIN STORER UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA 1924 Copyricut, 1924 BY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Museum or VERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY J. GrinnELL, Direcror Issued April 17, 1924 PREFACE The national parks of America render as their most important service a full free opportunity to all who will to find in them a complete recreation, physical, mental, esthetic. In performing this service the animal life existing within their borders constitutes a valuable asset. For the best recreative forces in nature are those which serve most quickly to call into play latent or seldom used faculties of mind and body whose exercise tends to restore to normal balance the human mechanism that has been disturbed by special or artificial conditions of living. Foremost among these forces are the living things that move and utter sounds, exhibit color and changing form, and by these qualities readily attract and fix our interest. To seek acquaintance with those primal objects of interest is to know the joy of vigorous muscular activity; better still, it is to realize the pos- session of the generally neglected senses of far-seeing and far-hearing, and to invite an esthetic appeal of the highest type and an intellectual stimulus of infinite resource. Of the thousands who each year visit the Yosemite Valley and its environs, a certain proportion are already interested in natural history; and anyone who leaves the region without gathering some definite knowledge of its natural history has failed to get adequate gain from his opportunities. The geology, topography, and botany of the Yosemite have been studied with some care; and there are instructive and stimulating manuals available dealing with these subjects. But heretofore only a few brief accounts have appeared in print concerning the bird life of the region, and practically nothing has been made available regarding its mammals, reptiles, and amphibians. It was in an effort to supply this deficiency that a survey of the vertebrate natural history of the Yosemite region was under- taken by the California Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. The present volume deals with the results of that survey. The principal objects. in view in undertaking the survey were: To find out what species of mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians exist, or have within modern times existed, in the circumscribed area selected for study; to learn as much as possible concerning the local distribution of each of these species, and to map out the general life areas within the region; to learn as much as time permitted of the food relations, the brecding habits, and the behavior, individually, of each of the species; and finally to put all this information on permanent record, in a form accessible to, and generally assimilable by, the public, both lay and scientific. In attempting the achievement of this last aim the authors have brought together their materials with every precaution to insure accuracy of fact and correctness of inference. No sacrifice of precision has been made consciously with the end merely of affording ‘attractive reading.’ At the same time, technical terms, where the same ideas could be expressed in words familiar to every reader of fair education, have heen avoided. Ideally, we have tried to present our science, perfectly good science, in straightforward, readable form. JOSEPH GRINNELL. Tracy IRWIN STORER. BERKELEY, July 6, 1922. [v] ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The Museum of Vertebrate Zoology is under obligation to numerous persons and organizations for support and assistance in the prosecution of the Yosemite survey. The greatest aid from any one source has come from Miss Annie M. Alexander, who made the enterprise possible through her unstinted financial support of the Museum during the several years in which the field and office work has been under way. Her unswerving faith in the worthiness of the undertaking served continually to encourage and energize those who were concerned with its conduct. When the plan was first outlined it was put before Dr. William F. Badé, then President of the Sierra Club. Its merits and feasibility were enthusiastically endorsed by him and subsequently by the Sierra Club formally. This endorsement went far toward bringing the enterprise to the favorable attention of the people in Washington and in Yosemite Valley, to whom we later found it needful to appeal for material help of various kinds. Mr. Stephen T. Mather, Director of National Parks, besides personally con- tributing to the fund for field work, has rendered aid in other ways. Financial help, at a time when this was most needed, was received also from Mr. George W. Marston of San Diego and from Mr. James D. Phelan of San Francisco. The National Park Service of the Federal Government granted the special permits necessary for the taking of specimens within the boundaries of the Yosemite National Park. Many of the local employees of the same Service ren- dered valuable aid. To Mr. Gabriel Souvelewsky, then Supervisor of Yosemite Park, we owe grateful acknowledgment for immediate and practically expressed interest in our program of field work in the winter of 1914-15. Among others in the Valley who have helped us materially we may mention in particular Messrs. W. B. Lewis, E. P. Leavitt, Forest S. Townsley, Ansel F. Hall, Charles C. Bull, Charles W. Michael, N. L. Guiberson, and the late George W. Bell. Information on specific and general questions has been freely furnished by these men, and many valuable specimens have been secured through them for the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. Many of the organizations engaged in business connected with Yosemite Valley aided our enterprise by granting special privileges. Among these are to be named the Yosemite Valley Railroad Company, The Yosemite Transportation Company, The Sentinel Hotel, and The Curry Camping Company. The Sierra Club, during the field season of 1915, gave us the use of their pack train. The colored and wash drawings used for illustrating the present volume were executed by Major Allan Brooks upon the basis of Yosemite materials. The skill of Mrs. Frieda L. Abernathy was very helpful in preparing the line drawings. The photographs used were taken in course of our regular field work except four whose outside sources are acknowledged in their respective captions. To Professor Oliver M. Washburn, Manager of the University of California Press, we are indebted for important help in assembling the illustrations that appear in this book. And to Mr. Joseph W. Flinn, Superintendent of the University Printing Office, we hereby express our appreciation of his personal interest in guiding the work through the press. [vi] The United States Bureau of Plant Industry and the University of California Division of Forestry aided in the determination of seeds found in the cheek pouches of chipmunks. The United States Bureau of Biological Survey determined the crop and gizzard contents of a number of birds. Dr. Harvey M. Hall identified numerous plants submitted to him. Much information and many vertebrate specimens have been obtained from Mr. Donald D. McLean, whose home is at Dudley, on Smith Creek, six miles (air- line) east of the town of Coulterville. Mr. McLean’s parents and uncle, Mr. and Mrs. John L. McLean and Mr. Walter Dudley, also aided us in many ways while field work was going on in their neighborhood. [ vii ] CONTENTS PAGE List:of. plates; colored. ,...¢..cecescs.ccccseks eeoride coe wo a arate oh ee Ree xV List of plates; halftone.) ica cteccjscuccgeacaalreseouste dos roth acre ntee eae eae Xv1 Thist;-Of text: MoUPe see sce ace cero ee eee ee ear ee ee A een aE xvii 1 re 0X6 1 (610 (0) 0 eR Sar ec en ese ee ee el ee ee sence 1 Distribution of animal life im the Yosemite seetionr....2...-0. ce ee 4 Table of occurrence, according to life zone, of the mammals, breeding birds, reptiles, and amphibians of the Yosemite section. : ocx... ..s.cco sre) certo ee eee ee eee 14 Censuses of birds invthe yY osemlite Section ':.2.0.....7s)<.2%:-ccacecrae tag cee ee 22 The interrelations of ‘living things. .:.isccs0.0ceh coca ee screen acme fe phat ho ee ea ee ee 36 Scope of theyspecies accounts) :....:.<.ssc5 4 oes eases es cen 40 ADEE MANGO AES 59). 5 3 0c chief oes ool Se de ee ce 43 Moles? Scapanus latimanus. 05:05 0c teers cee ee ee 43 Yosemite Mole, Scapanus latimanus sericatus San Joaquin Mole, Scapanus latimanus campi Mono Mole, Scapanus latimanus monoensis SMP EWS REMUS SOLER 5 14.5 68 Nios Aces ccse totes oe ee oe eater cn ase ccc eee a 47 Dusky Shrew, Sorex obscurus obscurus Adorned Shrew, Sorex ornatus Yosemite Shrew, Sorex montereyensis mariposae Sierra Nevada Shrew, Sorex vagrans amoenus Lyell Shrew, Sorex lyelli Navigator Shrew, Neosorex palustris navigator...................00::c000 eee, ns. 50 Little California. Bat, Myotis califormicus califormicus:.......... Hy co ggee oD bid eet a 90 Striped Skunk, Mephitis occidentalis. .............::.:..c::c.esssnneeesee ert iste eae 91 @alitormamsadcers MaxtdeaytaxlismMeclectay..10...5.cse. cleat eee ee arena nan. 92 Northwestern Mountain Lion, Felis oregonensis OregonenslIs..........0..0006..c0cccccceeeeeeeeeeveeeeeees 95 @ahioria Wildcat, Lynx eremicus califormicus:)...-....2...< fr m < nm ra Cascade Red Fox Yellow-haired Porcupine Allen Chipmunk Sierra Wolverine Nl Sierra Least Weasel iN Mountain Lemming Mouse | Southern Sierra Marmot Belding Ground Squirrel Ee ["] = lil [| Alpine Chipmunk Yosemite Cony macee Sj @) E> Ge Ue qs erin ee eee OS AO atl gu Fi ek Sa) A A, oO = eo) @ gia es eS g 7 ©) 2 ZS fo) = 2 Zan Pe mw = Fa Alpine Chipmunk ip Yosemite Cony Mono Chipmunk Mono Mole Short-tailed Grasshopper Mouse Great Basin Pocket Mouse Pale-faced Kangaroo Rat Mono Kangaroo Mouse Desert Jack Rabbit ; Sagebrush Chipmunk Washington Cottontail Rabbit CUM) 6 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE YOSEMITE We may express the facts in another way. The large number of kinds of animals present in the entire Yosemite section is due to the great range of physical conditions (temperature, moisture, soil, light, and perhaps others) with the accompanying diversity of vegetational features. Man is able to traverse the whole gamut of these conditions, even with benefit to himself by reason of the stimulus change produces, adjusting his mode of dress and behavior to them and earrying his food with him. But animals and plants are more or less directly in contact with the conditions around them; they are, as a rule, far less adaptable; and they are vitally affected by differences in temperature, in moisture, in food supply, and so on. The interesting thing is that in many species the degree of sensitiveness is so great that they can maintain existence only within a relatively narrow range of the critical conditions. Such underlying reasons as those just suggested help to explain what impresses the traveler in ascending the west slope of the Sierras, namely, the correlation, roughly, with respect both to animals and plants, of zonation with altitude and, therefore, temperature. And it is because of this inter-correlation that the student is led to the conelusion that it is the factor of temperature which has most to do with the causation of life zones. Reference to our map and cross-section diagram (pls. 61, 62) will show the application, to the Yosemite section, of the system of recognizing these belts of animal and plant life as some naturalists have worked them out and named them. Each life zone is a belt of relatively uniform constitution with respect to species. At the same time, we must emphasize that there is rarely an abrupt line of demarcation between any two adjoining zones. There is, as a rule, along the meeting ground more or less mixing or over- lapping of the specific elements. This is especially true where the slope is very gentle, broad, and all facing in one direction. The steeper the slope, or the more abrupt the change of exposure (say from west to north), the sharper will be the boundary between the two adjacent zones. To enter here into a further discussion of the life-zone concept is not necessary. We will simply refer the inquiring reader to some of the literature relating to the subject! and confine the present treatise to the 1C. Hart Merriam, Life Zones and Crop Zones of the United States (U. S. Dept. Agric., Div. Biol. Surv., Bull. no. 10, 1898), 79 pp., 1 colored map. C. Hart Merriam, Results of a Biological Survey of Mount Shasta, California (U. 8. Dept. Agric., Div. Biol. Surv., N. Am. Fauna, no. 16, 1899), 179 pp., 5 pls., 46 figs. in text. H. M. Hall, A Botanical Survey of San Jacinto Mountain (Univ. Calif. Publ. Bot., vol. 1, 1902), pp. 1-140, pls. 1-14. J. Grinnell, An Account of the Mammals-and Birds of the Lower Colorado Valley, with Especial Reference to the Distributional Problems Presented (Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool., vol. 12, 1914), pp. 51-294, pls. 3-18, 9 figs. in text. J. Grinnell, A Distributional List of the Birds of California (Pac. Coast Avifauna, no. 11, 1915), 217 pp., 3 maps. H. M. Hall and J. Grinnell, Life-Zone Indicators in California .( Proce. Calif. Acad. Sci., ser. 4, vol. 9, 1919), pp. 37-67. ‘SoU0Z-9FI] V[SUIS 0} pozTUIT] DISTRIBUTION OF THE ANIMALS = S =) 3 3 °o Ss = =) = rs) o r=) cS o Qo i=) oO i=) = Texas Nighthawk : ° f Dari Gowmiind California Least Vireo California Blue Grosbeak Western Mockingbird 3 ‘Sl Nuttall Woodpecker Interior California Jay Bell Sparrow Northern Brown Towhee Hutton Vireo California Thrasher San Joaquin Bewick Wren Plain Titmouse Pallid Wrentit Western Bluebird S\N = ‘== = S| California Pigmy Owl — Band-tailed Pigeon eA California Purple Finch a Cassin Vireo = Calaveras Warbler = Black-throated Gray Warbler ~\ | Tolmie Warbler Y\ | Western Winter Wren = \— <3 = 13A37 was Sierra Grouse Western Goshawk Williamson Sapsucker Hammond Flycatcher Cassin Purple Finch Mariposa Fox Sparrow Townsend Solitaire Uy Arctic Three-toed Woodpecker California Pine Grosbeak = (*] 2 lil [] Hudsonian White-crowned Sparrow re KS @yess Cait ae tne SER er Ae a a Up Za ee Bo cn oO. 10 : : Gis tae SZAP SN Sierra Nevada Rosy Finch ye eS rz O02) zy 9 is m wp 5 Zz Hudsonian White-crowned Sparrow Mono Fox Sparrow Sage Hen Gray Flycatcher Pifion Jay Brewer Sparrow Nevada Sage Sparrow ore ‘Wosves Sutpoorq oy} UL “YOrYM spa oUIOS SuTMOYS WOTSeI ojTUIASOK OY} Ysno1q} VpeaeN BILETG 94} JO UWOT}des-Ssouy 8 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE YOSEMITE particular state of affairs found in the Yosemite region. Since all animal life is more or less directly dependent upon plant life for its existence, the zoologist who seeks to explain the distribution of animals must concern himself attentively also with the botany of the region he is studying. A very useful essay on the distribution of plant life on the upper western slope of the Yosemite section is contained in Professor and Mrs. Hall’s Yosemite Flora®; and further valuable data on the distribution of plants in the Sierras will be found in a report by Dr. Smiley.* All of the six life zones in the Yosemite region are represented in full measure on the western slope of the section. There the distance involved in the slope is so great, over seventy miles, that there is plenty of room for the development of a separate representation of species, both plant and animal, in each zone. But on the eastern slope the situation is some- what different; and we find the zonation there obscure. Indeed, in our field work below the Hudsonian Zone we met with much trouble in diagnosing many of the localities; for instance, whether to call the upper meadows on the Farrington ranch (pl. 19a), Canadian or Transition; the south face of Williams Butte (pl. 19b), Transition or Upper Sonoran. On the basis of the facts obtained within the eastern boundary of our Yosemite section alone, the situation would be exceedingly difficult, even impossible, of explanation. But when we take into account the east-Sierran region generally, especially toward the southern end of the Sierran ridge in the vicinity of Walker and Tehachapi passes, it becomes fairly easy to see why conditions are as we find them between Mono Lake and Mono and Tioga passes. Base-level in the Mono Basin is high, averaging 7000 feet in altitude. Furthermore, the distance between Mono Lake and the high Sierran crest, which is 10,000 to 13,000 feet in altitude, is short. In other words, this slope is abrupt; in fact, close to the divide, a declivity. The life zones, in so far as characteristic representatives of them are to be found, are crowded together—telescoped, as it were. There is a well established law that a sequestered faunal area can be too small to support a permanent, distinctive fauna of its own, even though conditions be otherwise wholly propitious. The Sierra Nevada, which by area is of mainly western slope, supports a large mass of ‘boreal’ plant and animal life; the Great Basin area to the east is the metropolis of a highly developed ‘austral’ assemblage of species. These two major areas adjoin one another at the steep eastern declivity of the Sierras. On the long western slope where austral adjoins 2H. M. Hall and C. C. Hall, A Yosemite Flora (Paul Elder, San Francisco, 1912), pp: vili+ 282, 170 text figs., 11 pls. 3. J. Smiley, A Report upon the Boreal Flora of the Sierra Nevada of California (Univ. Calif. Publ. Bot., vol. 9, 1921), pp. 1-423, pls. 1-7. DISTRIBUTION OF THE ANIMALS g boreal there is not only a well-marked belt of overlapping (comprising the Transition Zone) but in this belt there are numerous species closely restricted to it. On the eastern slope, however, Canadian and Upper Sonoran are jammed so closely together by reason of the steepness that the belt of intermingling of elements is very narrow or at best indistinct ; there is scarcely if any room for the existence of restrictedly Transition Zone species. Although presenting a strongly Great Basin aspect, the Mono basin, doubtless because of its high altitude, does not show a pure representation of austral life. It does contain a number of elements (that is, species) which from a study of their entire ranges we know to belong predominantly to the upper division of the austral, namely Upper Sonoran. But there are also present about as many, or as dominant, boreal elements. Frankly, we found difficulty in assigning some parts of the Mono portion of the Yosemite section to one life zone rather than to another. This was particularly true of the south, sun-facing slope of Williams Butte (pl. 196), which is clothed with pifon. This tree to the southward along the Sierras forms a belt which through Walker Pass is continuous with the digger pine belt of the west slope of the Sierras; and as a rule we can safely diagnose this belt by reason of this one plant indicator as Upper Sonoran. But on Willams Butte the pifons are mixed with western junipers, Jeffrey pines, mountain mahogany, and certain shrubby plants which are accepted as diagnostic of Transition, Canadian, or even Hudsonian. We found in this anomalous assemblage of plants such ‘good’ Upper Sonoran birds as bush-tits and Woodhouse jays in close association with mountain chickadees and Clark nuterackers. This was after the breeding season; and, of course, there was a chance that in the case of the last-named species, at least, the individuals observed had moved down from the higher altitudes but a very few miles to the westward. In the case of small mammals, which are incapable of quickly traversing considerable stretches of territory, we found, on Williams Butte, True white-footed mice, which are typically Upper Sonoran, in the same trap-line with Mono chipmunks, which find their metropolis in the Canadian life zone. Another tract in the Mono country which was for similar reasons perplexing occupies the lower slope down toward the lake shore from Mono Mills. There, pale-faced kangaroo rats, Stephens soft-haired ground squirrels, and desert jack rabbits were found, species which belong to groups whose habitats lie chiefly within the Upper Sonoran Zone, but here were found in company with animals and plants of more northern, Transition or even Canadian, predilections. The sage-hen, to cite one of these latter, is a ‘good’ Transition bird. 10 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE YOSEMITE In the nature of the case, as regards these exceptional localities, we trust that the reader will understand why it is impossible for us to make positive statements with regard to their zonal complexion. Two persons, with some difference in perspective—that is, with a different understanding of the ‘importance’ of indicators—would very probably weight their find- ines differently. Our conclusion, as shown on our map and in our life-zone table, namely, to call the western part of the Mono Lake basin, that part included within the Yosemite ‘section,’ Transition, is therefore presented tentatively. The margin of determination is so small, with regard especially to Wilhams Butte and the tract immediately south of Mono Lake, that someone else, working the territory more intensively and listing the critical species statistically (by individual composition, which we did not), might find adequate grounds for mapping it as Upper Sonoran. Returning to the Sierran divide: The Hudsonian Zone is found to be well characterized on the east slope down to an average of about the 9500- foot contour. This zone simply mantles the Sierras, save for the Aretic- Alpine ‘islands’ which rise above timber line. Below the Hudsonian, good Canadian is represented, with marked resemblance florally to that on the western slope, in the lower part of Bloody Canon. Moisture conditions are there more exactly as they are on the west flank of the Sierras. Else- where, Canadian is rather different in aspect from what it looks like on the western slope, because of the prevailing aridity. Jeffrey pines and mountain mahogany predominate in the place of red firs and aspens. The steepest declivities, close to the Sierran divide, involve a lowering of altitude to about the 8000-foot contour; thence east to Mono Lake the slopes involved in the long, lateral moraines are gentle, and the blending of Canadian through Transition with ‘austral’ takes place gradually over several miles of territory. Here is where most trouble was experienced in fixing upon a boundary between Canadian and Transition—and for the same reasons as given above with respect to the Transition-Upper-Sonoran boundary. Good Canadian extends east along the cold streams, where it is marked conspicuously by thickets of aspen, well down toward the shores of Mono Lake—to as low as 7000 feet; Transition extends west up toward the foot of the east Sierran face, especially along the south-facing slopes of glacial ridges, to 9000 feet. Thus at Walker Lake one finds the interest- ing situation of the Canadian Zone occupying the cool, shaded bed of the glacial groove, with Transition on the south, sun-facing wall above it: the usual zonal relationship is. reversed. Facts such as this strengthen our belief that the prime physical factor accounting for zonation is not altitude, or moisture, or soil, per se, but temperature. DISTRIBUTION OF THE ANIMALS 11 As is clearly set forth in some of the literature we here cite for perusal by the inquiring reader, the limitation of species on the basis of the life- zone concept is not the only sort of segregation which occurs. Indeed, locally, as in Yosemite Valley proper, often a far more conspicuous manner of delimitation is manifest, the delimitation which takes place on the basis of ‘associations.’ These minor units involve each a certain type of environment within one zone; furthermore, closely similar or even identical associations may recur, or be continuous, in two or more adjacent zones. Not rarely, associational restriction seems to be transcendent over zonal restriction, as in the case of the badger, western chipping sparrow, and rock wren. Appropriate discussion of these cases will be found in the chapters (pp. 92, 452, 550) treating of these species. Some of the more important associations of animal with plant or sub- stratum conditions that it has proved useful to recognize in the Yosemite section are as follows, classified by zones. The names chosen are those of some predominating feature, usually of the vegetation. (Consult plates 13 to 19, 36a, and figure 21.) ASSOCIATIONS WITHIN THE LOWER SONORAN ZONE Open-water (two types, River and Rose-thicket Slough) Valley-oak Riparian (Willow—cottonwood) Hog-wallow prairie Marsh Rock outcrop Meadow ASSOCIATIONS WITHIN THE UPPER SONORAN ZONE Stream Digger-pine Riparian (Willow) Blue-oak Meadow Dry grassland Live-oak Rocky-slope Chaparral (two types, Adenostoma and Ceanothus cuneatus) ASSOCIATIONS WITHIN THE TRANSITION ZONE Swift-stream Black-oak Riparian (two types, Willow-cotton- Golden-oak wood and Alder) Yellow-pine Meadow Silver-fir Dry grassland Boulder-talus Chaparral (two types, Sticky-man- Cliff zanita and Buckthorn) ASSOCIATIONS ON THE ARID EAST SIDE OF THE SI BERRA, IN THE GREAT BASIN FAUNAL DIVISION OF THE TRANSITION ZONE Alkali-lake Sagebrush Riparian (Willow) Pinon-juniper Rose-thicket Cercocarpus Shepherdia 12 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE YOSEMITE ASSOCIATIONS WITHIN THE CANADIAN ZONE Swift-stream Red-fir Riparian (two types, Willow and Lodgepole-pine Cornus pubescens) Jeffrey-pine Aspen Granite outcrop Meadow Cliff Chaparral (three types, Red-cherry, Arctostaphylos patula, and Huckleberry-oak) ASSOCIATIONS WITHIN THE HUDSONIAN ZONE Lake Lodgepole-pine Shore Hemlock Swift-stream Whitebark-pine Riparian (Willow) Talus (or Rock-slide) Meadow Cliff Heather ASSOCIATIONS WITHIN THE ARCTIC-ALPINE ZONE Swift-stream Dry grassland Willow-thicket Talus (Rock-slide) Meadow Cliff Within each general association there is often plainly to be seen still further restriction in the habitat preferences of species. For example, in the major association, ‘‘coniferous forest,’’ in its minor division (within the Canadian Zone) known as the red-fir association, we find several species of birds and of mammals, each adhering closely to a yet smaller division of the general environment. The Sierra Creeper keeps to the larger tree trunks, the Short-tailed Mountain Chickadee to the smaller twiggery, the Western Golden-crowned Kinglet to the terminal leafage, and the Ham- mond Flycatcher to the most prominent twig-ends and the air-spaces between branches and between trees. The Tahoe Chipmunk is largely arboreal, the Allen Chipmunk terrestrial. In final analysis, no two species well established in a region occupy precisely the same ecologic space; each has its own peculiar places for foraging, and for securing safety for itself and for its eggs or young. These ultimate units of occurrence are called ‘‘ecologic niches.’’ If two species of the same ecologic predilections are thrown into the same environ- ment, one or the other will quickly disappear through the drastic process we call competitive replacement. Thus it comes to pass that the amplitude of the general environment—the number and extent of distinct ecologic niches it compasses—determines the richness of the fauna, both as regards number of species, and the number of the individuals to the unit of area representing each species. This principle may be abundantly verified by any student who will carry on active field observations a season or two over even a small part of the Yosemite section. 14 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE YOSEMITE TABLE OF OCCURRENCE, ACCORDING TO LIFE ZONE, OF THE MAMMALS, BREEDING Birps, REPTILES, AND AMPHIBIANS OF THE YOSEMITE SECTION Nore.—It is intended, in the using of this table, that comparison be made with the life-zone map and profile, plates 61, 62. Width of bar indicates relative abundance of the species concerned; in other words, the widest place in the bar indicates the place, zonally, where the popula- tion is believed to be densest. In ease there is some reason to suppose that a species ranges beyond what is shown by the actual facts at hand, such extension is indicated by a broken line. Some of the species which are listed in the present work are omitted from the table because they are non-native, extinct, or of unknown or doubtful status. Water birds are omitted entirely, as are also non-breeding land birds. It must be distinetly understood that this table of zonal distribution is based on our findings in the Yosemite region only; it must not be inter- preted as setting forth the distributional situation in the Sierra Nevada generally, or in the State at large, though this may approximately be true in the great majority of cases. The zonal diagnoses of species apply primarily to the long, western slope of the Sierra Nevada; many of the species occur only on that side. Exclusively east-side species are so indi- cated by foot-note reference; and where these latter are known to extend into the Transition Zone from the Upper Sonoran Zone (hence beyond the limits of our section) this fact is indicated by cutting off the bar squarely at the vertical line of demarcation between these two zones. DISTRIBUTION Yosemite Mole, Scapanus 1. sericatus San Joaquin Mole, Scapanus l. campi *Mono Mole, Scapanus l. monoensis Dusky Shrew, Sorex o. obscurus Adorned Shrew, Sorex ornatus Yosemite Shrew, Sorex m. mariposae *Sierra Nevada Shrew, Sorex v. amoenus Navigator Shrew, Neosorex p. navigator Little California Bat, Myotis c. californicus High Sierra Bat, Myotis !. altipetens Long-legged Bat, Myotis l. longicrus Fringed Bat, Myotis thysanodes Merriam Bat, Pipistrellus h. merriami Large Brown Bat, Eptesicus fuscus Hoary Bat, Nycteris cinerea Pacific Pallid Bat, Antrozous pacificus Mexican Free-tailed Bat, Nyctinomus mexicanus American Black Bear, Ursus americanus Mountain Coyote, Canis l. lestes Cascade Red Fox, Vulpes cascadensis San Joaquin Kit Fox, Vulpes m. mutica : California Gray Fox, Urocyon c. californicus California Ring-tailed Cat, Bassariscus a. raptor California Coon, Procyon l. psora Sierra Pine Marten, Martes c. sierrae Pacific Fisher, Martes p. pacifica Sierra Nevada Wolverine, Gulo l. luteus Mountain Weasel, Mustela arizonensis Sierra Least Weasel, Mustela muricus Pacific Mink, Mustela v. energumenos California Spotted Skunk, Spilogale p. phenax Striped Skunk, Mephitis occidentalis California Badger, Tazxidea t. neglecta Northwestern Mountain Lion, Felis 0. oregonensis California Wildcat, Lynz e. californicus Gambel White-footed Mouse, Peromyscus m. gambeli *Sonora White-footed Mouse, Peromyscus m. sonoriensis Boyle White-footed Mouse, Peromyscus b. boylii Gilbert White-footed Mouse, Peromyscus t. gilberti * On east side of Sierras only. OF THE ANIMALS 15 Sonoran Sonoran Transition Upper be © e A Canadian | Hudsonian Alpine- Arctic 16 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE YOSEMITE *True White-footed Mouse, Peromyscus t. truet Parasitic White-footed Mouse, Peromyscus c. californicus *Short-tailed Grasshopper Mouse, Onychomys l. brevicaudus Long-tailed Harvest Mouse, Reithrodontomys m. longicauda Streator Wood Rat, Neotoma f streatori Gray Bushy-tailed Wood Rat, Neotoma c. cinerea Yosemite Meadow Mouse, Microtus m. yosemite Tule Meadow Mouse, Microtus c. aestuarinus Mariposa Meadow Mouse, Microtus c. mariposae Sierra Cantankerous Meadow Mouse, Microtus m. sierrae *Short-tailed Meadow Mouse, Lagurus curtatus Mountain Lemming Mouse, Phenacomys orophilus Fresno Pocket Gopher, Thomomys b. pascalis Digger Pine Pocket Gopher, Thomomys b. mewa Yosemite Pocket Gopher, Thomomys a. awahnee Sierra Nevada Pocket Gopher, Thomomys m. monticola *Fisher Pocket Gopher, Thomomys q_ fisheri California Pocket Mouse, Perognathus c. californicus San Joaquin Pocket Mouse, Perognathus 1 inornatus *Great Basin Pocket Mouse, Perognathus p olivaceus Heermann Kangaroo Rat, Dipodomys h. heermanni Merced Kangaroo Rat, Dipodomys h dixoni *Pale-faced Kangaroo Rat, Dipodomys leucogenys *Mono Kangaroo Mouse, Microdipodops polionotus Allen Jumping Mouse, Zapus p alleni Yellow-haired Porcupine, Erethizon e. epixanthum Sierra Mountain Beaver, Aplodontia r californica Southern Sierra Marmot, Marmota f sierrae California Ground Squirrel, Citellus b beecheyr Belding Ground Squirrel, Citellus beldingi *Stephens Soft-haired Ground Squirrel, Citellus m. stephensi Sierra Nevada Golden-mantled Ground Squirrel Callospermophilus c. chrysodeirus Tahoe Chipmunk, Futamias s frater Allen Chipmunk, Futamias senex Mariposa Chipmunk, Lutamias m. mariposae Long-eared Chipmunk, Hutamias quadrimaculatus Alpine Chipmunk, Eutamias alpinus *Mono Chipmunk, Eutamias a. monoensis *Sage brush Chipmunk, Hutamias pictus * On east side of Sierras only. ke Oo = ° i Sonoran Upper Sonoran Transition Canadian Hudsonian Alpine- Arctic DISTRIBUTION OF THE ANIMALS California Gray Squirrel, Scturus g. griseus Sierra Chickaree, Sciurus d. albolimbatus Sierra Flying Squirrel, Glaucomys s. lascivus Golden Beaver, Castor c. subauratus Yosemite Cony, Ochotona s. muirt California Jack Rabbit, Lepus c. californicus *Desert Jack Rabbit, Lepus c. deserticola Sierra White-tailed Jack Rabbit, Lepus t. sierrae Sacramento Cottontail, Sylvilagus a. audubonii Washington Cottontail, Sylvilagus n. nuttallii Mariposa Brush Rabbit, Sylvilagus b. mariposae Mule Deer, Odocoileus h. hemionus ‘Mountain Quail, Oreortyx p. plumifera Valley Quail, Lophortyz c. vallicola Sierra Grouse, Dendragapus 0. sierrae *Sage-hen, Centrocercus urophasianus Band-tailed Pigeon, Columba f. fasciata Western Mourning Dove, Zenaidura m. marginella Turkey Vulture, Cathartes a. septentrionalis Sharp-shinned Hawk, Accipiter velox Cooper Hawk, Accipiter cooperi Western Goshawk, Astur a. striatulus Western Red-tailed Hawk, Buteo b. calurus Red-bellied Hawk, Buteo 1. elegans Swainson Hawk, Buteo swainsoni Golden Eagle, Aquila chrysaetos American Sparrow Hawk, Falco s. sparverius Barn Owl, Tyto pratincola Long-eared Owl, Asio wilsonianus California Spotted Owl, Strix o. occidentalis Great Gray Owl, Scotiaptex n. nebulosa Saw-whet Owl, Cryptoglaux acadica Southern California Screech Owl, Otus a. quercinus Pacific Horned Owl, Bubo v. pacificus Burrowing Owl, Speotyto c. hypogaea California Pigmy Owl, Glaucidium g. californicum Road-runner, Geococcyx californianus Western Belted Kingfisher, Ceryle a. caurina Modoc Woodpecker, Dryobates v. orius * On east side of Sierras only. Sonoran Transition | Canadian | Hudsonian | Alpine- 1 Arctic fod 18 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE YOSEMITE Willow Woodpecker, Dryobates p. turati Nuttall Woodpecker, Dryobates nuttalli Northern White-headed Woodpecker, Xenopicus a. albolarvatus Arctic Three-toed Woodpecker, Picoides arcticus Sierra Red-breasted Sapsucker, Sphyrapicus v. daggetti Williamson Sapsucker, Sphyrapicus t. thyroideus Northern Pileated Woodpecker, Phloeotomus p. abieticola California Woodpecker, Melanerpes f. bairdi Red-shafted Flicker, Colaples c collaris Dusky Poor-will, Phalaenoptilus n. californicus *Nuttall Poor-will, Phalaenoptilus n. nuttalli Pacifie Nighthawk, Chordeiles v. hesperis Texas Nighthawk, Chordeiles a. texensis Northern Black Swift, Cypseloides n. borealis White-throated Swift, Aeronautes melanoleucus Black-chinned Hummingbird, Archilochus alexandri Anna Hummingbird, Calypte anna Calliope Hummingbird, Stellula calliope Western Kingbird, Tyrannus verticalis Ash-throated Flycatcher, Myiarchus c. cinerascens Black Phoebe, Sayornis nigricans Olive-sided Flycatcher, Nuttallornis borealis Western Wood Pewee, Myiochanes r. richardsont Wright Flycatcher, Empidonax wrighti Hammond Flycatcher, Eempidonax hammondi Traill Flycatcher, Empidonaz t. trailli Western Flycatcher, 2mpidonax d. difficilis *Gray Flycatcher, Empidonax griscus California Horned Lark, Otocoris a. actia *Black-billed Magpie, Pica p. hudsonia Blue-fronted Jay, Cyanocitta s. frontalis Interior California Jay, Aphelocoma c. immanis *Woodhouse Jay, Aphelocoma woodhouset Clark Nuteracker, Nucifraga columbiana *Pifion Jay, Cyanocephalus cyanocephalus Dwarf Cowbird, Molothrus a. obscurus *Nevada Cowbird, Molothrus a. artemisiae Bi-colored Red-winged Blackbird, Agelaius p. californicus *Nevada Red-winged Blackbird, Agelaius p. nevadensis * On east side of Sierras only. S £ = | s Ll a Canadian Hudsonian Alpine- Arctie DISTRIBUTION OF THE ANIMALS Kern Red-winged Blackbird, Agelaius p. aciculatus Tri-colored Blackbird, Agelaius tricolor Western Meadowlark, Sturnella neglecta Bullock Oriole, Icterus bullockt Brewer Blackbird, Huphagus cyanocephalus Califor Evening Grosbeak, Hesperiphona v. californica California Pine Grosbeak, Pinicola e. californica California Purple Finch, Carpodacus p. californicus Cassin Purple Finch, Carpodacus cassini California Linnet, Carpodacus m. frontalis Sierra Nevada Rosy Finch, Leucosticte t. dawsoni Willow Goldfinch, Astragalinus t. salicamans Green-backed Goldfinch, Astragalinus p. hesperophilus Lawrence Goldfinch, Astragalinus lawrencei Pine Siskin, Spinus p. pinus *Western Vesper Sparrow, Pooecetes g. confinis *Nevada Savannah Sparrow, Passerculus s. nevadensis Western Grasshopper Sparrow, Ammodramus s. bimaculatus Western Lark Sparrow, Chondestes g strigatus Hudsonian White-crowned Sparrow, Zonotrichia 1. leucophrys Western Chipping Sparrow, Spizella p arizonae *Brewer Sparrow, Spizella brewert Sierra Junco, Junco o. thurberi Bell Sparrow, Amphispiza belli *Nevada Sage Sparrow, Amphispiza n. nevadensis Rufous-crowned Sparrow, Aimophila r. ruficeps *Modoc Song Sparrow, Melospiza m. jisherella Northeastern Lincoln Sparrow, Melospiza l. lincolni Mariposa Fox Sparrow, Passerella i..mariposae *Mono Fox Sparrow, Passel 1. monoensis Sacramento Spurred Towhee, Pipilo m. falcinellus *Nevada Spurred Towhee, Pipilo m. curtatus Northern Brown Towhee, Pipilo c. carolae Green-tailed Towhee, Oberholseria chlorura Pacific Black-headed Grosbeak, Zamelodia m. capitalis — California Blue Grosbeak, Guiraca c. salicarius Lazuli Bunting, Passerina amoena Western Tanager, Piranga ludoviciana Cliff Swallow, Petrochelidon 1. lunifrons * On east side of Sierras only. Lower Sonoran | Transition 19 Canadian Hudsonian Alpine- Arctic 20 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE YOSEMITE Sonoran Upper Sonoran Transition 5 5 4 Barn Swallow, Hirundo e erythrogaster Tree Swallow, Jridoprocne bicolor Northern Violet-green Swallow, Tachycineta t. lepida Rough-winged Swallow, Stelgidopteryx serripennis Phainopepla, Phainopepla nitens California Shrike, Lanius l. gambeli *White-rumped Shrike, Lanius l. excubitorides Western Warbling Vireo, -Vireosylva g. swainsoni Cassin Vireo, Lanivireo s. cassini Hutton Vireo, Vireo h. huttoni Gaifonus Least Vireo, Vireo b. pusillus Calaveras Warbler, Vermivora r gutturalis Lutescent Warbler, Vermivora c. lutescens *Rocky Mountain Orange-crowned Warbler, Vermivora c. orestera California Yellow Warbler, Dendroica a. brewsteri Audubon Warbler, Dendroica a. auduboni Black-throated Gray Warbler, Dendroica nigrescens Hermit Warbler, Dendroica occidentalis Tolmie Warbler, Oporarnis tolmiet Tule Yellowthroat, Geothlypis t. scirpicola Long-tailed Chat, Icteria v. longicauda Golden Pileolated Warbler, Wilsonia p. chryseola American Dipper, Cinclus m. unicolor *Sage Thrasher, Oreoscop{es montanus Western Mockingbird, Mimus p. leucopterus California Thrasher, Torostoma r redivivum Rock Wren, Salpinctes 0 obsoletus Dotted Cafion Wren, Catherpes m. punctulatus San Joaquin Bewick Wren, Thryomanes b drymoecus Western House Wren, Troglodytes a. parkmani Western Winter Wren, Nannus h. pacificus Sierra Creeper, Certhia f. zelotes Slender-billed Nuthatch, Sitta c, aculeata Red-breasted Nuthatch, Sitta canadensis Pigmy Nuthatch, Sitta p. pygmaea Plain Titmouse, Baeolophus 1. inornatus Short-tailed Mountain Chickadee, Penthestes g. abbreviatus California Bush-tit, Psaltriparus m. californicus Pallid Wren-tit, Chamaea f. henshawi * On east side of Sierras only. Canadian Hudsonian Alpine- Arctic DISTRIBUTION OF THE ANIMALS Western Golden-crowned Kinglet, Regulus s. olivaceus Western Ruby-crowned Kinglet, Regulus c. cineraceus Western Gnateatcher, Polioptila c. obscura Townsend Solitaire, Myadestes townsendi Russet-backed Thrush, Hylocichla u. ustulata Sierra Hermit Thrush, Hylocichla g. sequoiensis Western Robin, Planesticus m. propinquus Western Bluebird, Sialia m. occidentalis Mountain Bluebird, Sialia currucoides Western Fence Lizard, Sceloporus o. occidentalis *Pacifie Blue-bellied Lizard, Sceloporus o. bi-seriatus Tenaya Blue-bellied Lizard, Sceloporus o. taylori Mountain Lizard, Sceloporus g graciosus California Horned Toad, Phrynosoma b. frontale San Diego Alligator Lizard, Gerrhonotus s. webbit Sierra Alligator Lizard, Gerrhonotus palmert California Whip-tailed Lizard, Cnemidophorus t. mundus Western Skink, Plestiodon skiltonianus Rubber Snake, Charina bottae Pacifie Garter Snake, Thamnophis s. infernalis Mountain Garter Snake, Thamnophis o. elegans Western Ring-necked Snake, Diadophis a. amabilis Coral King Snake, Lampropeltis multicincta Boyle King Snake, Lampropeltis g. boylit California Striped Racer, Coluber lateralis Valley Gopher Snake, Pituophis c. heermanni Pacific Rattlesnake, Crotalus oreganus Pacific Mud Turtle, Clemmys marmorata Pacific Coast Newt, Notophthalmus torosus Mount Lyell Salamander, Lurycea platycephala Arboreal Salamander, Aneides 1. lugubris Slender Salamander, Batrachoseps attenuatus *Western Spade-foot Toad, Scaphiopus h. hammondii California Toad, Bufo b halophilus Yosemite Toad, Bufo canorus Pacific Tree-toad, Hyla regilla California Yellow-legged Frog, Rana b boylii Sierra Yellow-legged Frog, Rana b sierrae California Red-legged Frog, Rana a. draytonti * On east side of Sierras only i=] 8 E aa ae) Hm | Upper | Sonoran Transition Canadian 21 Hudsonian Alpine- Arctic 22 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE YOSEMITE CENSUSES OF BIRDS IN THE YOSEMITE SECTION To convey an adequate idea of the bird life of any given area, enumer- ations of species are not alone sufficient ; the numbers of individuals of each species must also in some way be indicated. The usual terms ‘‘abundant,”’ rare,’’ and the lke, are unsatisfactory in that their meaning varies both with the person employing them and with the kinds of birds considered. In the latter regard, the Western Chipping Sparrow and the Western Red-tailed Hawk might both be put down as ‘‘common,’’ whereas ed XSi ‘“common, the sparrow may have been observed in actual numbers ten times those of the hawk. Counts of individual birds are fairly practicable when made in the breeding season on the basis of some unit of area such as an acre. At that season each adult pair is settled within a particular circumscribed locality, and the male is in song. But as soon as the young are out, and from then on throughout the year until the beginning of the next nesting season, most species of birds are moving about incessantly. Counts of individuals are then very difficult to make and furthermore are likely to be misleading because of their great variation in any small area from hour to hour and from day to day. And so, in our field work in the Yosemite region, we put into effect the following different method. Instead of using a unit of area, we used a unit of time. Birds were listed, as to species and individuals, per hour of observation. In a general way this record involved area, too. Our censuses were practically all made on foot, and the distance to the right or left at which the observer could see or hear birds did not differ, materially, in different regions. The rate of the observer’s travel did, of course, vary some; for example, when climbing a steep trail, or going through chaparral, progress was slower than when hiking straightaway along open ridges. Also, in some places, the greater density of the vegetational cover acted to limit the range of sight. But for each of these adverse features of the method there were certain compensations. For recording a census, a piece of cardboard and a pencil were carried, the names of the various species of birds jotted down, and their numbers checked, as they came to notice. The presence of no species was assumed ; but probabilities were given consideration in making identifications. In cases where birds were seen or heard, but their identity was not established with certainty, provisional names were entered, each followed by a question CENSUSES OF BIRDS MUSEUM OF VERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY CENSUS SHEET : Nature of route| (cone fauraascaciations) Maelo Wee) eer e | Riparian and open ___ Observer shoes da Stare. we village to Happy Dales, Burs... Ren Side Read, Wenmoyar Whe ty village Approximate no. miles 5 | Weather (tor, warm, Sumy, slight west wind Species Hours > 2° 2 PPRe345 yam. | ‘| Totals Blue fronked Sag ! Srna Juneo Ce nd (ae © 13 TOTALS (hourly and grand) 203+ Fig. 3. A sample census sheet. 23 24 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE YOSEMITE mark. Occasionally the bird could be identified only as to its general grouping, as ‘‘hawk.’’ Species of very close resemblance were sometimes grouped together in a joint entry; for example, the crowned sparrows (Zonotrichia). The plus sign indicated that more were present than the actual number entered: the birds could not be counted with certainty ; flocking birds, for instance, frequently could not be counted accurately. At the close of the day or of the period of observation, we were accus- tomed to transfer our censuses from the field sheet (more or less seribbled, in lead pencil) to our permanent notebooks. If but few species of birds had been seen, these were entered seriatim with numbers of each observed, and comments; if a goodly census had been secured we entered the results in more formal, tabular style, on special sheets printed for this pur- pose (fig. 3). In either case, record was kept of exact time involved, approximate distance covered, nature of territory traversed, and weather conditions. Totals were computed, both of species and individuals. Comparisons of these totals for different parts of the Yosemite region and for different seasons have brought forth some interesting conclusions. Outstanding among these generalizations are the following: The greatest bird popu- lation, both summer and winter, is found in the Upper Sonoran Zone. Next come the Lower Sonoran and Canadian zones. The Transition Zone has a fairly large population in summer, but its population drops far down in winter. The Hudsonian has the sparsest summer population, except, of course, for the Alpine-Arctic. The winter population below the snow line consists more largely of seed and berry eaters than of insect feeders; the summer population everywhere contains a predominating proportion of insect-eating birds. We present below a series of censuses, selected from the more than 250 in our notebooks. The censuses given are chosen to illustrate, first, the nature of the avifauna in various representative parts of the Yosemite section, and, second, the marked changes in bird life taking place in Yosemite Valley from season to season through the year. The series of censuses given for Yosemite Valley is more complete than for any other station in the section. It begins at the height of the nesting season with two censuses on separate days in two different parts of the Valley, embracing widely different sorts of habitats (associations) and consequently unlike assemblages of birds. The decline of song and general activity at the end of the nesting season is indicated in the census of July 30. That for October 25 shows replacement of the summer visitants by winter invaders. The censuses of December 10 and February 29 show how completely the Valley is deserted by birds with the advent of the midwinter snows; there are scarcely one-fourth as many birds present CENSUSES OF BIRDS 25 there in midwinter as in early summer. Return of summer species is already much in evidence in the list made on April 29. In the census at Mono Lake Post Office on May 31 a ‘wave’ of migration is indicated in the numbers of species and individuals of warblers seen, which are in excess of what would be present there a month later, in the height of the nesting season. The census on the Big Oak Flat Road in December exhibits the congregation, in a favorable situation, of berry- eating species such as the Townsend Solitaire and Western Bluebird. Had it not been for the berry-laden mistletoe in the golden oaks on the talus slope (pl. 16a) this census in all likelihood would have been no larger than the one taken at the same season on the floor of the Valley. The census-taker is struck by the variation in his records from hour to hour during the day, irrespective of kind of territory covered and of his own degree of alertness. This fluctuation is due in large part to the fact that there are two daily periods of marked activity on the part of birds, namely, in the early morning, within an hour or so after sunrise, and in the late afternoon, about two hours before sunset. Of these two periods, that in the morning is the most impressive; in other words the observer, by selecting the earlier hours for his census-walk, will make the highest score and also the most representative one. It is quickly apparent that in comparing the enumerations for different days and for different localities, allowance should be made for this daily double fluctuation in the visibility and audibility of birds. ; It is the earnest recommendation of the authors that observers in a position to do so will get into the habit of taking bird censuses. The method here advocated is a practicable one; we believe it can be adopted to advan- tage by anyone possessed of a fair acquaintance with bird species. A ‘eollection’ of census records will afford basis for much future satisfaction. On the one hand, is the pleasure of recalling to mind pleasant days afield spent among the most attractive things in nature; and on the other hand is the intellectual enjoyment derived from comparing bird populations in kind and size from place to place and season to season, and from endeavoring to account for the fluctuations which are shown, on the basis of all the factors known to control the birds’ existence. 26 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE YOSEMITE SNELLING, altitude 250 feet, Lower Sonoran Zone, riparian association; January 6, 1915, 9:30 a.M.-12:00 M.; rain the night previous, the morning somewhat cloudy; dis- tance covered about 3 miles, within a mile east of the town. Pied-billediGrebe me 1 California Great Blue Heron ............ 4 Mid hen, 33.218. 2oests sae eevee ee eee eae il American Sparrow Hawk ................---- 2 Black Phochbes.=-= 2 ee 6 Imterior, (Calitornian Jaye 8 IBre were blaek it dies ee eee 100+ Californian inne Gee eee 10+ WVabbkonay Collebrnnvel ny, ee eee 6+ Green-backed Goldfinch -...................-. 4 Intermediate White-crowned Sparrow 10 Golden-crowned Sparrow ..............-.... 10+ Total: species 24, individuals 237+. Song Sparrows (2 subsp.) ............... 12+ Northwestern Lincoln Sparrow .......... 2 Sacramento Spurred Towhee -.............. 8 Northern Brown Towhee ................-..- 4 Californias Shrike eee 2 Orange-crowned Warbler .................... 2 Mil em Wellowib ht 02: tie sees eee eee 10 Western Mockingbird .................--.-----. 6 San Joaquin Bewick Wren ................ it Western House Wren ..............--:..------- 1 California; (Sus abit) ee -ee eee eee 15+ Western Ruby-crowned Kinglet ........ 12 SNELLING, 250 feet, Lower Sonoran Zone, riparian association; May 26, 1915, 6:00— 9:00 A.M.; warm, sunny; distance covered about 3 miles, close to Merced River, within a mile east of the town. California Great Blue Heron .............. 3 Black-crowned Night Heron .............. 1 NESCI GC @ 1yp eee eeere oe ee eter ee te eee 2 Walley <@ wail eran ee ee eatin 4 Western Mourning Dove ...................- 40+ Tur Ke yaaViUNG Une eee eaten eer eee il Red-bellied Tele wee eee eee 1 American Sparrow Hawk .................. 2+ California Woodpecker ..................------ 2 Tews Woodpecker ----=.-----e ee 1 Red shat bed mh eke rye seeseee eae emreeeee 12+- Wiesbernig ein opin dieses eee aes 10 Ash-throated Flycatcher ...................- 6+ Blacks Phoebe stn rae eee 6 Western Wood Pewee ...........-..------------ 12+ eRe eure iy cits Cre reese eee rae mee 10+ Interior California, Jay <----.2---2-------- 4 WeSbermin Cn OW eres eceerec seer eee 2 Bi-colored Red-winged Blackbird ...... 87+ Western Meadowlark .................----+---- 12+- BS lOc Kas Or Gee eee 20 Total: species 41, individuals 427+. Tider Jee Velomeel eee 8 @ailifomnilayliamm ein eee 50+ Waililo;wee Grol d fim heeeeeee eee 40+ Green-backed Goldfinch ...................... 6 Western Lark Sparrow ...............-.-.-.. 1 Western Chipping Sparrow ...............- 1 Sacramento Spurred Towhee .............. 10+ Northern Brown Towhee ...............-.-.- a Pacific Black-headed Grosbeak .......... 10 California Blue Grosbeak .................... 6 TBE Aw IT 1 BAU NIN T Ye eee cese cre nliennce ss 10+ Barn Swallow...) 4 Western Warbling Vireo ..................- 1 California Weash Vireo == 4 California Yellow Warbler ...-..........--.. + Mules vel owns ates eee 8+ Wong-taileds Chat oases eee eeseaee 6+ Western Miockamebindie eens il San Joaquin Bewick Wren ..............-- 6 Russet-backed\ his hye cee eee 2 CENSUSES OF BIRDS bo ~I PLEASANT VALLEY westward toward Forty-nine Gap and return, 600 to 1100 feet, Upper Sonoran Zone, blue-oak, chaparral and grassland associations; February 27, 1916, 7:30-9:30 a.M., and 10:30 a.m.—12:00 mM. (actual census time 3 hours 30 minutes) ; cloudy, with rain 9:30-11:30; distance covered about 6 miles, all on foot, chiefly along roadways. Viel Tey) vi aii ieee een cee eee ee 1 urkeyew ulturets 0s -2 oon neers! 5 Western Red-tailed Hawk .................. 1 Nuttall Woodpecker =---.-....:--2.0-------c--- 1 California Woodpecker ........................ Hal Red-shafted Flicker ............:...........--.-- 4 Bla ckaPhoebe estes. enue oh ene 2 California Horned Lark ...................... 33 iBlue-fronted May, a8-2tt.2t tect 1 Interior California Jay .....................-. 15 Western Meadowlark ...........-....:.--...-.--- 37 JByRE\V ASLO, LEVEY) oy 6 [ease ee yee 2 Califormiasinnet q Bg lishy Sparro wesc x.-t \ W/o) 0) Kas pane pe ee nee eee 4 Western ellowibhtOat sess eseneee eee 3 Pileolateds Warbler cess. eee 57 Western’ House, Wrens 3 Western: EO D1TIN ee sean eee 13 Mountain liebind eee 5 36 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE YOSEMITE THE INTERRELATIONS OF LIVING THINGS That forests afford the means of existence for a great number of animals, with reference to both species and individuals, is a trite statement which no one is. likely to question. We would offer, however—albeit with some caution—a second statement: Forests depend, for their maintenance in the condition in which we observe them in this age of the world, upon the activities, severally and combined, of the animals which inhabit them. Beginning at the root of the matter, in a double sense, as we have emphasized beyond in the chapter on the pocket gophers, mammals which burrow are of importance to forests. The pocket gophers, the ground squirrels, the moles and the badgers, are natural cultivators of the soil (see p. 142), and it is, in considerable degree, the result of their presence down through long series of years that the ground has been rendered suit- able for the growth of grasses and herbs, and even of bushes and trees, particularly in their seedling stages. A host of insects, also, which live in the ground at least part of their lives, contribute to rendering the soil more productive of vegetable life. Vegetable materials, leaves, twigs and trunks of trees as well, contribute to soil accretion by reason of their being torn to pieces by animals (see p. 322), their particles scattered by animals, and these finally overlaid by the earth brought up by animals from deeper substrata. The animals which figure conspicuously in this process are the woodpeckers, chickadees, and nuthateches, the tree squirrels, chipmunks, and poreupines, the burrowing beetles, the termites, and the ants, and then the burrowing and burying mammals already referred to. This process of incorporating humus into the soil, accomplished in large measure by animals, is of direct and lasting importance to the forests. We do not make any claim that all animal life is directly beneficial to the forests. For many insects may be seen to feed upon the foliage, the bark, and even the live wood of individual trees, and in so doing such insects shorten the lives of these trees, or even sometimes kill them outright within a single season. It is obvious that a sudden overabundance of such destructive insects would bring serious injury to the forests. But observation has led us to recognize, in certain groups of birds, natural checks to undue increase of forest-infesting insects. Insects of one category inhabit the bark of a tree or the layers of wood immediately beneath ; others pursue their existence among the smaller twigs; still others INTERRELATIONS OF LIVING THINGS 37 live amid the foliage of the tree. In all these cases the substance of the tree is levied upon by the insects for food, and if levied upon unduly, the trees suffer commensurately. But, as counteracting factors, we find corre- sponding categories of birds, each specially equipped to make use of one of these categories of insects. The woodpeckers, nuthatches, and creepers search the tree trunks and larger limbs; the chickadees comb the finer twigs; while the kinglets and warblers go over the foliage leaf by leaf. The great value of the bird to the tree comes when the harmful insects have begun to multiply abnormally ; for birds are well known to turn from other food sources and concentrate upon the one suddenly offering in generous measure. It is to the interest of the forest at large that a reserve nucleus of birds be maintained constantly, as a form of insurance, to be ready at just such a critical time. Incursions of insects from neighboring areas, as well as eruptions of endemic species, have probably occurred again and again from remote times. In other words, as we see the situation, it is an advantage to the forest that a continual moderate supply of insects be maintained for the support of a standing army of insectivorous birds, which army will turn its attention to whatever insect plague happens suddenly to manifest itself. We would claim, then, a nice interdependence, an adjustment, by which the insect and the bird, the bird and the tree, the tree and the insect, all are, under average circumstances, mutually benefited. Such a balance is to be found in the primeval forest, where thoroughly ‘natural’ conditions obtain as a result of long ages of evolution on the part of all the animate things there touching upon one another’s lives. These relations may, of course, be entirely upset where man has interfered, directly or indirectly ; as, for instance, when he brings in insects or plants alien to the original fauna and flora. Then an entirely new program, one of readjustment, begins. After a good deal of study, and contemplation of the modes of life of various kinds of animals, naturalists have come to recognize as essential three factors which seem inseparably bound up with the successful existence of any one species of vertebrate animal. These factors are: (1) presence of safe breeding places, adapted to the varying needs of the animal; in other words, depending upon the inherent powers of construction, defense, and concealment in the species concerned. (2) Presence of places of temporary refuge for individuals, during daytime or night-time, or while foraging, when hard pressed by predatory enemies, again correlated with the inherent powers of defense and concealment of the species involved. (3) Kind of food supply afforded, with regard, of course, to the inherent structural powers in the animal concerned to make it available. 38 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE YOSEMITE To say all this a bit more simply, not alone food is necessary to the bird life or the mammal life in our forests, but also safe places for rearing young, and places of refuge when needed, for the grown-up individuals themselves. Referring again to the relationships borne between certain insects, birds, and trees: The White-headed Woodpecker (see p. 320) is a species which does practically all of its foraging on trees which are living, gleaning from them a variety of bark-inhabiting insects. But the White- headed Woodpecker lacks an effective equipment for digging into hard wood. It must have dead and decaying tree trunks in which to excavate its nesting holes. If, by any means, the standing dead trees in the forests were all removed at one time, the White-headed Woodpecker could not continue to exist past the present generation, because no broods could be reared according to the inherent habits and structural limitations of the species. Within a woodpecker generation, the forests would be deprived of the beneficent presence of this bird. The same, we believe, is true of certain nuthatches and of the chickadees—industrious gleaners of insect life from living trees. They must have dead tree trunks in which to establish nesting and roosting places, safe for and accessible to birds of their limited powers of construction and defense. We would go so far, even, as to urge that down timber, fallen and decay- ing logs, are essential factors in upholding the balance of animal life in forests. Certain kinds of chipmunks, and rats and mice of various kinds, find only in fallen logs homes adapted for their particular ways of living. And these chipmunks and other rodents have to do with seed scattering, with seed planting, and with humus building, again directly affecting the interests of the chaparral, of the young trees, and even of the older trees of the forest. It is true that there are some kinds of birds and mammals which at times directly injure trees to an appreciable extent. The birds of the genus of woodpeckers called sapsuckers (see p. 327) drain the vitality of the trees they attack. An overabundance of these birds would bring disaster to the forest at large. An overabundance, likewise, of tree squirrels (see pp. 202, 208) would probably play havoe with certain trees, beyond the powers of these trees to meet the crisis. Just as in the case of the leaf-eating insects and of the kinglets in the arboreal foliage, these birds and mammals of the sapsucker and tree- squirrel category are kept in check by other, predatory birds and mammals. In the Sierran woods are Great Gray Owls and Spotted Owls, Cooper Hawks, Martens, and Weasels, levying upon the vertebrate life about them, and each equipped by size, degree of alertness, or time of foraging, to make use of some certain sort of prey. The longer we study the problem the clearer it becomes that in the natural forests, which, happily, are being INTERRELATIONS OF LIVING THINGS 39 preserved to us in our National Parks, a finely adjusted interrelation exists, amounting to a mutual interdependence, by which all the animal and plant species are within them able to pursue their careers down through time successfully. The opportunity here to moralize is tempting. If the above course of reasoning be well founded, then, to realize, esthetically and scientifically, the greatest benefit to ourselves from the plant and animal life in Yosemite Park, its original balance must be maintained. No trees, whether living or dead, should be cut down beyond what it may be necessary to remove in building roads or for practical elimination of danger, locally, from fire. Dead trees are in many respects as useful in the plan of nature as living ones, and should be just as rigorously conserved. When they fall, it should be only through the natural processes of decay. The brilliant- hued woodpeckers that render effective service in protecting the living trees from recurrent scourges of destructive insects, in other words, in keeping up the healthy tone of the forest, depend in part on the dead and even the fallen trees for their livelihood. No more undergrowth should be destroyed anywhere in the Park than is absolutely necessary for specific purposes. To many birds and mammals, thickets are protective havens which their enemies find it difficult or impossible to penetrate. Moreover, the majority of the chaparral plants are berry-producing and give sustenance to mountain quail, to wild pigeons, to robins and thrushes, to chipmunks and squirrels, and this, too, at the most critical times of the year when other foods for these animals are scarce or wanting. The removal of any of these elements would inevitably reduce the native complement of animal life. Nor do we approve, as a rule, of the destruction of carnivorous animals—hawks, owls, foxes, coyotes, fur-bearers in general—within the Park. Each species occupies a niche of its own, where normally it carries on its existence in perfect harmony on the whole with the larger scheme of living nature. 40 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE YOSEMITE ACCOUNTS OF THE SPECIES SCOPE In the chapters to follow, dealing with the three hundred and fifty-five kinds of terrestrial vertebrate animals in the Yosemite section, general uniformity of treatment has been one aim. For each species there is given, first, the accepted or approved vernacular name; then the scientific name, chosen with regard to the best technical usage. The order in which the chapters follow one another is essentially that in which the species are classified in the standard lists of North American vertebrates; namely, for mammals, Miller’s List of North American Land Mammals in the United States National Museum, 1911; for birds, the American Ornithologists’ Union Check-list of North American Birds, edition 3, 1910; and for reptiles and amphibians, Stejneger and Barbour’s Check List of North American Amphibians and Reptiles, 1917. Departures from these authorities, either in sequence or in names employed, have been made occasionally by us, but only when justified by special study. The present volume is not a systematic treatise in the sense of relating primarily to descriptive zoology or to classification. Hence, technicalities along these lines are reduced to a minimum, being mentioned briefly, or restricted to small-type footnotes. The theme of the present book is natural history—that which relates to the living animal. The ‘‘field characters’’ are intended to include the chief features by which each species may be recognized out of doors. They do not have to do with the scientific ‘specimen,’ such as constitutes the basis of the usual descriptive account. Ideally, our ‘‘field characters’’ are such as are dis- cernible in the living animal at the ordinary eye-range into which a person ean approach the animal under normal conditions. The great majority of these characterizations have been derived from our own observations in the Yosemite region, as recorded in our notebooks. Exceptionally, we have drawn upon our experience elsewhere; or, in the few cases where experience was lacking altogether, we have drawn upon specimens for characters inferred to be useful in the field. In small mammals and in reptiles and amphibians, the field character- ization has been amplified to cover their appearance and proportions when in hand; for opportunity to capture these animals often presents itself to an out-of-doors observer. Even in these cases, however, it is exclusively SCOPE OF THE ACCOUNTS 41 the external, macroscopic features of the animal that are set forth in the paragraph on “‘field characters.’’ Field characters may consist in relative size, in proportions of parts, in general color tone, in pattern of contrasted markings, in peculiarities of movement (flight, gait, mannerisms), in voice, and, with many mammals, in ‘sign’ (foot-prints, tooth-marks, droppings). Measurements are given, more especially with mammals, and are stated as a rule in both inches and millimeters. Otherwise, size is indicated by comparison with some animal commonly familiar. Since size impressions in the field are likely to asso- ciate themselves in memory with the best known animals, comparisons among birds are most often made with the robin; among mammals, with the house mouse, house rat, or house eat. Our paragraph on ‘‘occurrence’’ relates explicitly to the Yosemite section. The status we give of each species is as based on actual findings in the Yosemite section, not upon inference from conditions in the sur- rounding territory. It must not be supposed to apply to the Sierras gen- erally or to any larger area. ‘‘Occurrence’’ is intended to cover concisely the concepts: season, relative abundance, and distribution by geography, life zones, and vegetational tracts. In the general, large-type account next following, there will often be found one or more paragraphs discussing some or all of the field characters, especially in comparison with similar species with which confusion in the field might occur. In some eases, characters are discussed with relation to the distinctive habits of the species in question; in other words, corre- lation of structure and function may be dealt with. But, let it be emphasized by repetition that, save for only occasional general statements, each account is limited to what was found out by us in the Yosemite region. This will explain the very uneven magnitude of the accounts. Their relative degree of comprehensiveness merely reflects our own varying opportunities of observation. A number of well-known species of the Sierras at large are given but meager attention here because opportunity did not present itself for studying them adequately in the Yosemite ‘section.’ Each general account, where the facts have been fully available, has been drawn up, with regard to its subject-matter, on a more or less definite plan of presentation. An introductory paragraph gives local names, other than the accepted vernacular, and an epitome of the leading facts about the species. Comparisons with related species are then made. There follows a discussion of its distribution in the Yosemite region and the special nature of its habitat preferences. Then comes a description of the animal’s behavior ; its voice; nests, or dens; eggs, or young; care of young; and its feeding habits. We give as much as we have learned with respect 42 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE YOSEMITE to the food of the species, and its relation to plant life in general; also, its relation to other animals, as predator or victim. And, finally, though not appearing at any definite point in the account, we attempt to point out where general biological principles are illustrated. The facts observed have been gathered together in orderly sequence, and every effort has been made to secure accuracy of expression. Where these facts, thus assembled, point toward some generalization, we have felt free to set it forth. At the same time, we have tried to refrain from idle speculation. The study of natural history should develop the power of insight— keenness, not only in seeing what animals do, but in determining why those things are done. The interrelations existing between any animal and its environment are exceedingly manifold and vital. To understand these, even in some small degree, brings into play a superior type of intellectual activity, and, we believe, leads to enhanced powers of perceiving and solving human problems. We therefore recommend to the reader that he take advantage of his opportunities to observe and infer without limit beyond whatever we may have set forth herein, to the end that he find both pleasure and profit. THE MAMMALS Moues. Scapanus latimanus (Bachman)! Field characters.—Total length 6 to 634 inches (150-170 mm.), tail about 1% inches (38 mm.) ; body short and cylindrical; snout long and pointed (fig. 4); forefeet with greatly expanded and flattened palms and long heavy claws (fig. 5a); tail scantily and coarsely haired; no eyes or ears visible. Pelage short, soft, plush-like in texture; coloration uniform, dark brown, gray, or blackish (accord- ing to subspecies), appearing silvery when smoothed down. Habits: Strictly subterranean; live in tunnels formed by the animals themselves in the ground. Workings: Low raised ridges (containing runways) along the surface of ground; also, less commonly, mounds of earth with irregu- lar surface, erupted from underground tunnels, and with no indication left of any opening to burrow (fig. 22). Occurrence.—Present in small to moderate numbers locally across the Yosemite region; noted from Snelling eastward to Mono Mills and up to an altitude of 9500 feet Fig. 4. Snout of Yo- (in Lyell Canon); especially common in meadows of Yo- semite mole, from below, 3 E showing elongate tip be- semite Valley.1 Individuals live and work independently. yond Ponte atet meee (incisor) teeth, and heavy The mole and the pocket gopher, and the re- Covering a ae Beare spective workings of the two, are often confused in the popular mind. The two animals, and their workings, however, are entirely distinct in practically all respects save that both inhabit the ground. In most places in California, and this includes the Yosemite region, moles are much less common than gophers. This fact probably accounts for some of the misunderstanding which has arisen. By careful searching we found some evidence of moles at almost every locality which we visited in the section (below the 9500 foot contour) from the San Joaquin Valley eastward across the mountains to Mono Lake. On the floor 1 Three slightly differing subspecies of moles occur in the Yosemite section. These, with their principal external characters, and ranges, are as follows: YOSEMITE MOLE, Scapanus latimanus sericatus Jackson, distinguished by relatively large size and blackish coloration, is found in the Transition and Canadian zones, spar- ingly in the Hudsonian, from 3 miles east of Coulterville eastward to Tuolumne Meadows. It is abundant in Yosemite Valley. San JOAQUIN MOLE, Scapanus latimanus campi Grinnell and Storer, a smaller, paler and more brownish colored form, occurs in the Lower Sonoran Zone, at Snelling. “Mono MOLE, Scapanus latimanus monoensis Grinnell, a still smaller and grayish-toned subspecies, was found near Williams Butte; its workings were noted at Mono Mills. The workings of these three races are alike in all respects, save for differences con- ditioned by the various sorts of ground in which they occur. Thus the forage runways of monoensis in the dry sandy soil of the Mono Lake region are more likely to be caved in than are those of sericatus on the damp forest floor in the mountains. [43] 44 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE YOSEMITE of Yosemite Valley there is an unusually large mole population, and, as gophers are present also in considerable numbers, the habits of the two may there be studied and compared to good advantage. The mole is rather more strictly subterranean than the gopher. The latter animal is not infrequently seen at the mouth of its burrow, and oceasionally it comes clear out on the top of the ground. The mole, how- ever, habitually stays below the surface. All of its foraging is done in the ground; even when excavating a burrow, the animal itself is not exposed to view from above. Moles are said to run about on the surface of the ground at mating time, but of this we have no direct knowledge. K Ww Xy. Fig. 5. Forefoot of (a) Yosemite Mole and of (b) Sierra Nevada Pocket Gopher. The Mole’s palm is greatly expanded and the claws are relatively huge, which features together with powerful arm and shoalder muscles make it possible for the animal almost literally to swim through the earth; the Gopher’s foot is less extreme, yet with elongated claws for special service in digging and with hairs between the toes which serve to inerease the area of the foot when loose earth is being pushed out of or along the burrow. Natural size. In physical configuration the mole is admirably suited for life under- ground (pl. 27c). Its nose is long and pointed and equipped with numerous fine sensory bristles. The mouth opens on the under side of the head where dirt is less likely to enter when the animal is burrowing. The head joins directly onto the firm stout cylindrical body without any constriction at the neck region. The body as a whole is an ‘entering wedge.’ The forelegs are extremely short so that the feet lie close along- side the head. The front feet are highly modified to form ‘spades,’ the palms being enlarged into thickened dises and turned outward, and the nails or claws being elongated and very stout. By means of these broad strong members the mole literally swims through the loose surface soil. The hind feet are much smaller and quite normal in shape and function. The body ends behind abruptly, and there is a short tail but scantily haired. The whole body of the mole is densely covered with short hairs of remark-. ably uniform length and texture which give a silky plush-lke effect to the pelage. This sort of coat enables the animal to pass through the ground with a minimum of resistance; in other words, it acts as a lubricant. The mole makes and uses two distinct sorts of underground passage- ways. One of these is the ‘surface’ runway, actually a subsurface run or subway, an inch or less below the top of the ground. The mole ‘swims’ along by strokes of the forefeet; its feet and body push the soil up in a low MOLES 45 ridge, leaving numerous small lengthwise cracks showing on the outside (pl. 28a). These runs go here and there along the ground, between rocks and beside logs; they are made when the mole is searching for the worms and ground-dwelling insects which it uses as food. The second type of © shelter, formed by actual excavation as in a gopher’s burrow, is a regular underground tunnel, circular in section, and situated at a greater depth in the ground. The mole’s tunnels are not so extensive and are of less diameter than those of any of the gophers of the region. To make these deep burrows the mole must force the loosened earth out onto the surface of the ground. This it does through laterals constructed at short intervals. Earth is loosened below ground (by the use of the forefeet?), then is forced along the existing tunnel way presumably by the joint use of forefeet and chin (though the actual method of operation has yet to be seen), and it is then forced up a lateral. As we stated before, there is never any direct opening to the exterior. Each fresh lot of earth is forced into the vertical or nearly vertical lateral, pushing the earth already there out on top of the ground to topple over in one direction or another (see pl. 280 and fig. 22). Because of this method of digging, there are usually six inches or so of earth between the mole and the outside world. The freshest earth forms a central ‘core’ in the molehill. This core, of whose position there is seldom any external indication, can often be distinguished if the mound be sectioned in a vertical plane. Practically all of our specimens of moles were taken in special mole traps designed to be set over a surface runway, and the use of such traps gave some information concerning the use of these runways. Sometimes a trap set over a newly made runway would catch a mole within a few hours; in other instances the trap remained several days before being disturbed. These facts indicate that there is considerable variation in the frequency with which the surface runways, once made, are traversed. On still other occasions no reoccupation of the run was noted. After one mole was caught in a runway, another individual sometimes appropriated the vacated system to its own use. On November 18, for example, a mole was taken in a run on the forest floor of Yosemite Valley. On the nine- teenth the trap was sprung again, and being reset, caught a second mole on the twenty-first. It is believed that ordinarily but one individual inhabits a particular system of runways and tunnels at any one time. Evidence of the activity of moles was found below the 5000-foot contour during every month of the year. In the summer and the fall months both surface runs and molehills indicative of deeper excavations were observed in Yosemite Valley; and at the end of December new runways were noted in places in the Valley where the ground was not frozen. During the height of winter in the high mountains when the ground is frozen to a 46 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE YOSEMITE considerable depth, conditions would certainly seem unfavorable for active existence of moles. But whether or not those animals become dormant, as do the chipmunks, we do not know. Though there is no one kind of territory save solid rock where moles are absent, more of their work is to be found in dryish meadowlands than elsewhere. One runway was found in the gravelly ground beneath the boulder talus along the base of the north wall of Yosemite Valley. The dry needle- and leaf-strewn ground of the forest floor is often extensively marked by surface runways. The concentration of moles in these places is undoubtedly due to the greater abundance and accessibility there of suitable food. The breeding season of moles generally, in California, is in the early spring. A male captured at Snelling January 9, 1915, was in breeding condition; a nearly grown young male was collected at the same place on May 29, 1915. Two individuals collected on June 2, 1915, 3 miles east of Coulterville and in Yosemite Valley, respectively, were, to judge by the unworn condition of their teeth, animals born during the current season. Another juvenal mole was obtained 3 miles east of Coulterville on June 6. These data suggest that the breeding season at the levels indicated is early, probably just at the end of the winter months. As already intimated the mole’s diet consists almost exclusively of animal matter. In lowland districts, earthworms probably constitute a large portion of its fare. For example, the stomach of a mole trapped by one of our party at Snelling, January 9, 1915, contained ‘‘long sections of earthworms’’ together with some ‘‘dirt.’’ As earthworms are relatively scarce or absent in the higher mountains the moles there must feed on other sorts of ‘worms.’ Elsewhere it is known that they eat the larvae of certain insects, such as cutworms (moth larvae), and it is probable that, in the higher mountains, too, such larvae form part of the mole’s bill of fare. A ‘‘Macabee’’ gopher trap set in a surface runway of a mole on the sandy ‘second bottom’ at El Portal on November 27, 1914, caught a mole during the night. When the trap was examined on the following morning the trapped mole had been completely defleshed, the skull was almost clean save for ligaments, and the skin was turned inside out leaving an almost perfect skeleton. This probably was the work of another mole, though there is the possibility that a shrew, following the mole’s run, was responsible. The mole, it will be seen from the above account, occupies a very different niche from that of the gopher. Yet the two inhabit the ground; -and in their regular existence both promote in various ways the develop- ment of soil and, consequently, conditions that are favorable to plant growth. This principle has been set forth in detail in the chapter on the gopher. (See p. 141.) SHREWS 47 SHREws. Genus Sorex? Field characters.—Size varying, but always less than half that of House Mouse. Head and body not over 3 inches (75 mm.) long, tail 2 inches (50 mm.) or less. Snout long and pointed (pl. 20); eyes and ears inconspicuous; pelage short, dense and smooth- appearing. Forefeet like hind feet, not specialized for digging. Coloration uniform, brown above (varying in tone according to the species), lighter, sometimes whitish, on under surface. Occurrence—Common from upper margin of Upper Sonoran Zone up to upper edge of Hudsonian Zone; recorded from Dudley, on Smith Creek (east of Coulterville), east- ward to vicinity of Mono Lake.2 (See fig. 6.) Live chiefly in damp situations along stream banks or in meadows, but sometimes found in protected situations at considerable distances from water. Shrews are present in the Yosemite region in large numbers, yet because of their small size and secretive habits they are much less well known than are the majority of other small mammals, such as meadow mice. The shrews leave little or no visible evidence of their activity, and it takes much 2 Five species of true shrews (Genus Sores) occur in the Yosemite region. The general appearance and the habits are much the same in all of these, though but little information other than that gained by trapping is available regarding their life histories. The species, their ranges, and their chief characters are as follows: Dusky SHREW, Sorex obscurus obscurus Merriam, a wide-ranging species found both in the Rocky Mountains and in the Sierra Nevada south to Tulare County, is common in the Canadian and Hudsonian zones of the Yosemite region from Mono Meadow (near Glacier Point) and from East Fork of Indian Cafion eastward to Warren Fork of Leevin- ing Creek and to Williams Butte. Extreme altitudes of capture were 6900 and 10,800 feet. It lives not only along streams and in marshy places but also about logs on the forest floor. Total length about 4 to 4% inches, tail 1% inches, hind foot % inch (12.2-13.0 mm.); coloration dull sepia brown above, ashy on under surface. (See pl. 20c.) ADORNED SHREW, Sorex ornatus Merriam, is found in mountainous parts of southern California and on the lower west slope of the Sierra Nevada, from the Mexican boundary north to the Yosemite region. Locally it is common at El] Portal, and one individual was taken at Dudley, 6 miles east of Coulterville. Lives both along streams and on hillsides covered with live oaks and brush. Total length 4 inches, tail 134 inches, hind foot about % inch (12-13.5 mm.). Coloration dull brown above, whitish beneath. YOSEMITE SHREW, Sorex montereyensis mariposae Grinnell, lives in the Transition Zone and lower part of the Canadian Zone on the west flank of the Sierra Nevada. It was found from Sweetwater Creek and Merced Grove Big Trees eastward to East Fork of Indian Cafion and to Merced Lake; it is the only shrew recorded for the floor of Yosemite Valley. Extreme altitudes of occurrence, 3800 and 7500 feet. It inhabits almost exclusively damp places near streams. Total length 4% to 5 inches, tail 2 inches, hind foot somewhat more than 144 inch (14-15 mm.). Largest local shrew of the genus Sorex. Coloration mixed hair brown and drab gray above, drab gray below with a silvery sheen. (See pl. 20b.) SIERRA NEVADA SHREW, Sorex vagrans amoenus Merriam, of wide distribution along the northern Sierra Nevada, was found by us only at Williams Butte and Mono Lake Post Office. Lives near streams or in meadows. Total length about 4 inches, tail usually less than 114 inches, hind foot about % inch (11.5-13 mm.). Pelage sooty brown, grizzled with lighter brown above; under surface buffy white. The relatively short tail as compared with the tail of other shrews is a fairly good distinguishing feature. LYELL SHREW, Sorex lyelli Merriam, is a rare species, known at present only from the general neighborhood of the peak for which it is named. Single specimens were taken by our party at Vogelsang Lake, 10,350 feet altitude, September 1, 1915, head of Lyell Cafion (slopes of Mount Lyell) at 9800 feet, July 24, 1915, and near Williams Butte, at 6900 feet, September 20, 1915. Inhabits moist situations, near streams, in grass or under willows. Total length about 4 inches, tail 14% inches or more, hind foot less than 4% inch (11-12 mm.). Light hair brown above, paler on under surface. 48 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE YOSEMITE observation, and usually trapping, to demonstrate their presence. Shrews and moles have many features of structure and behavior in common and are classed together in an order known as Insectivora, a term which indicates their principal food. The two groups are quite distinct, however ; the shrews exhibit none of the peculiar specializations for digging possessed by moles, being in general much like small mice. N.p.navigator N.p.navigator x-S lyelli ! ' i} ' ’ 1 1 LIFE ZONES ARCTIC ALPINE HUDSONIAN CANADIAN TRANSITION UPPER SONORAN LOWER SONORAN SEA LEVEL Fig. 6. Cross-section of the Sierra Nevada through the Yosemite region showing general zonal and altitudinal distribution of the shrews (genera Sorex and Neosorex). The shrews live and do most of their foraging above ground, yet they keep beneath cover of varying kinds such as is afforded by matted vege- tation and prostrate logs. Sometimes when foraging they invade the runways and even the burrows of other mammals—meadow mice, for instanece—but none of our local species of shrews are known to make runs - of their own or to put up mounds as do moles. Most kinds of shrews regularly patrol the sides of streams where often there are lttle beaten paths close under the overhanging banks. The Dusky Shrew, and to a less degree, the Adorned Shrew, are to be found away from water, sometimes a hundred yards or more, on hill slopes covered with trees and rocks. But none is known to inhabit the dry foothill chaparral, or the sagebrush tracts. The nose of a shrew (pl. 20) is long and slender and equipped with numerous sensory hairs or vibrissae. The snout with its equipment is in almost constant motion when the animal is active. The eyes, while dis- cernible, are small and do not seem to be of much use to the animal. The external ear also is small though the sense of hearing of shrews is said to be acute. The body of the shrew is cylindrical as in the mole, but the forefeet are normal in appearance like the hind feet. The tail, though varying somewhat according to the species, usually occupies slightly less than half the total length; it is thinly haired and has a constriction or narrowing at the extreme base where it joins with the body. This latter feature is not possessed by any of the mice. The teeth of shrews are sharply pointed and serve well in holding and killing insects or tearing the flesh of other sorts of prey. | SHREWS 49 The shrews, though of small bodily size as individuals, constitute, by reason of their numbers and their great activity, an important biological group in the fauna of the Yosemite region. They are actually ‘‘micro- carnivores’’ and exhibit an even greater degree of voracity than do the larger and better known flesh-eating species such as weasels, martens, and wildeats. Shrews kept in captivity have been known to eat more than their own weight of flesh in twenty-four hours. If they do this while in confinement there is no reason to suppose that their capacity would be any less (but rather more) when they are traveling about with full freedom in the wild. It is a common experience among naturalists who are trapping to find each morning one or more of the specimens in the traps mutilated to a greater or less degree. Numerous cases of this kind came to notice while we were engaged in field work in the Yosemite region. A part at least of this work may fairly be attributed to shrews, though various species of small rodents are known to eat maimed, trapped, or dead individuals of their own kind. Where only a beginning on the feast has been made, it is usually the brain of the trapped animal that is eaten. But not infre- quently the work is done so completely that only a few fragments remain— searcely enough to identify the victim. Not only rodents but even trapped shrews suffer from attacks of this sort. And this cannibalistic tendency has been reported by observers who have kept shews in captivity. When any of the large carnivorous mammals, such as a coyote or a fox, raids a trapped specimen, the trap and all frequently disappear; if carnivorous beetles go after such prey, they accomplish but little in a single night; but if the shrews find the victim, they are apt to make short work of it, and without disturbing the trap in any way. Evidence of several kinds shows that shrews forage to some extent by day as well as during the hours of darkness. It is likely that they depend less upon sight in searching for prey than upon the senses of smell, touch, and hearing. As an indication of the density of population among the small mammals in a favorable location, and also of the extent to which shrews (in this ease the Dusky Shrew) ‘police’ the ground in search of food, a record of trapping near Porcupine Flat may be cited. A line of traps set in a small meadow there from June 27 to July 3, 1915, produced the following mammals: Meadow Mouse, 3; Allen Jumping Mouse, 3; Sierra Nevada Pocket Gopher, 4; Dusky Shrew, 6; total, 16, in six nights of trapping. And the traps were still catching specimens when the line was taken up. This particular meadow had a total area of about 7350 square feet—the size of a large city lot (50147). The vegetation consisted of grasses, lupines, and a species of orchid. It is possible that so large a number of shrews did not live and forage exclusively within so limited a tract. Only 50 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE YOSEMITE two or three may have been resident in the meadow; the others may have wandered in from adjacent territory. The bodies of shrews have a distinctive odor, similar to that possessed by moles. This odor is currently presumed to be disagreeable to the flesh- eating birds and larger mammals, and so is of value to the shrews in saving them from attack. Examination of the stomach contents of hawks and owls elsewhere has shown that but few ‘insectivores’ are taken by predatory birds. As an exception, however, a Sparrow Hawk collected by us in Yosemite Valley on October 25, 1915, had the remains of a shrew in its stomach along with parts of a meadow mouse and some insects. Perhaps each individual carnivore has to make one trial in order to learn that a shrew is an undesirable article of food. We learned nothing with regard to the breeding places of shrews. As to season of birth and the numbers of young in a litter, only the following records can be offered: (1) Sierra Nevada Shrew, Mono Lake Post Office, May 21, 1916: 6 embryos. (2) Yosemite Shrew, Chinquapin, June 13, 1915: 4 small embryos. (38) Dusky Shrew, Mount Hoffmann, June 27, 1915: 6 large embryos; Poreupine Flat, June 29, 1915: 4 large embryos; Tuolumne Meadows, July 7, 1915: 5 large embryos; Merced Lake, August 24, 1915: 2 embryos. NAVIGATOR SHREW. Neosorex palustris navigator (Baird) Field characters.—Size about that of House Mouse; total length 6 to 6% inches (150-165 mm.), tail about 3 inches (75 mm.) long. Snout pointed; fore and hind feet of about same size and structure; ear inconspicuous. Pelage short, fine in texture; hind toes fringed with short close-set hairs (pl. 20a). Coloration black or hoary black above, often with a distinct sheen; whitish on under surface. Occurrence——Common in Canadian Zone and parts of Hudsonian Zone, on both slopes of Sierra Nevada. Recorded from Merced Grove Big Trees (5500 feet altitude) and Chinquapin, eastward to Mono Lake Post Office and Walker Lake. Highest station, 10,350 feet altitude at Vogelsang Lake. Lives in and near swift-flowing streams. Solitary. The Navigator Shrew is larger than any of the other shrews in the Yosemite section and is more strictly an inhabitant of aquatic situations. We did not find even one of the animals that was more than four feet from running or standing water, and most of our specimens were taken imme- diately at the water’s edge. In structure the Navigator Shrew exhibits marked adaptations for existence in and near streams. The feet are large (pl. 20a); the toes of the hind foot are obliquely placed and margined with close-set fringes of hairs which serve like webbing to increase the surface of the foot. Further- more, the pelage is of a rather distinctive type, like that found in aquatic SHREWS 51 or semi-aquatie animals; it does not soak up water, but holds air within its surface. An animal swimming beneath the water presents a shining silvery appearance because of this ‘envelope’ of air. This is the species which fishermen, patrolling the banks of Sierran trout streams, often see swimming in the water. The fact that this shrew is active during the daytime is thus attested. The breeding season of this shrew occupies the summer months. In 1915, suckling females were captured at Merced Grove on June 11, in Indian Cafion on June 20, and at Poreupine Flat on June 26 (this latter individual contained 6 small embryos). A female containing 7 embryos nearly large enough to be born was taken on June 23, 1915, in Hast Fork of Indian Cafion. Since none of the individuals collected in the fall months was sufficiently small to be classed on superficial inspection as young-of- the-year, the adult size must be attained rapidly. At Mono Lake Post Office two specimens of Navigator Shrew were collected, on June 30 and July 2, 1916. These were taken in grass along ‘a stream through a poplar grove, while in the sagebrush not over 100 feet away, specimens of the Great Basin Pocket Mouse were captured. The capture of this species of shrew at such a low station on the east side of the central Sierras was unusual and also furnished a striking example of how species of animals with totally different habitat preferences may occur in close proximity because of the juxtaposition of their respective niches. LirTLe CALIFORNIA Bat Myotis californicus californicus (Audubon and Bachman) Field characters.—Size small, much smaller than House Mouse (slightly larger than Merriam Bat, about 14 size of Large Brown Bat). (See pl. 21¢.) Total length about 3 inches (75-80 mm.), tail about 144 inches (30-39 mm.), hind foot %4 inch (6-7 mm.), spread of wings about 814 inches (220 mm.). Coloration dark brown above, slightly paler on under surface; flight membranes, ears, lips, and muzzle brownish black. Flies with rapid fluttering of wings and marked indirection of course. Occurrence-—Common in Upper Sonoran and Transition zones on west slope of Sierra Nevada. Recorded from Pleasant Valley eastward to Yosemite Valley. Extreme alti- tudes, 600 and 4500 feet. Forages about foliage of oaks and other trees, and around larger brush plants; keeps usually less than 25 feet from the ground. Not colonial. The Little California Bat is probably the most common of the bats in the Yosemite region. It is relatively abundant on the floor of Yosemite Valley and so is likely to come to the attention of summer visitors there who go walking beneath the oaks and pines at twilight. This species does its foraging close about the foliage of the trees and larger shrubs, and ordinarily it stays within a few feet of the ground. It is seemingly oblivious to human presence, so that its actions may be watched at close range. ANIMAL LIFE IN THE YOSEMITE an. bo Often this is the first species of bat to appear abroad in the evening, though it is sometimes preceded by the Merriam Pipistrelle. At El Portal on November 22, 1914, a Little California Bat was out at 5:10 p.m. At Pleasant Valley, late in May (24th to 27th) of the year following, the species was still among the first to appear, though at that season indi- viduals did not come out until much later, 7:25 to 7:45 p.m. The strength of the hght was about the same at the two hours mentioned. The bats evidently stayed in their retreats for some 214 hours longer in summer than in winter. Little California Bats are to be found in the Yosemite region throughout the year. Our records include nine of the twelve months and are so distributed as to indicate continued residence by the species, at least below the 3500-foot contour. But whether the same individuals are present at all seasons or whether, like the fox sparrows, the summer population moves out and is replaced by another contingent which comes in from the north and winters here, is a point still to be determined. In Yosemite Valley bats believed to be of this species have been seen out as late as Oetober 27. — At Pleasant Valley the species was recorded abroad definitely on Decem- ber 5 (1915), and a dead individual was picked up on Smith Creek, 6 miles east of Coulterville, on February 7, 1916. These bats find shelter in a variety of situations. In Yosemite Valley, at 6 p.m. on August 10, 1915, a Little California Bat, after circling over and drinking at a pool near the foot of Yosemite Falls, was seen to take refuge in a crevice between boulders. On May 30, 1911, the smoke of a fire built in a rocky cavern near the foot of Illilouette Falls routed out a Little California Bat which had been hanging in a crevice overhead. . CHIPPING SPARROW 455 altitudes, nesting comes later, probably because, due to the persistence of a low temperature there to a later date in the spring, sufficient food is not available earlier. But the discrepancy from this cause is not so great as might be supposed. At the lower levels the chipping sparrows nest after the first burst of bloom from the herbaceous plants is over, whereas around the high mountain meadows the birds have their nesting already well under way when the alpine flowers have only begun to appear. Thus, to a certain degree, the spring calendar for the birds is different from that for the flowers. The birds maintain their own body temperature in spite of the prevalent conditions about them, and may therefore be controlled more directly by other factors, such as that of available supply of food. At El Portal on the morning of April 27, 1916, a male chipping sparrow was seen in courting display before a female. He uttered notes sharper than the usual ones, more like the syllable tsd, uttered singly or trilled in series. As the notes were given, each was accompanied by a slight shrug of the body and downward movement of the tail. The two birds passed back and forth, hopping and flying, amid red-bud, buckeye, and live oaks. A majority of the nests of this bird are placed between 4 and 6 feet from the ground; very few are more than 12 feet up. The lowest nest found by us in the Yosemite section was only 2 feet above the ground and the highest approximately 16 feet. Almost any sort of tree or large bush is used for a site. In a bush or small tree the nest is most often placed near or at the top; while in a large tree it is situated near the end of a lower outreaching branch. We saw nests in blue oak, live oak, incense cedar, yellow pine, lodgepole pine, and orchard trees, as well as in deer brush and wild rose, and once in a cultivated blackberry vine. The nests of the Western Chipping Sparrow are of such an unique type that they may be readily identified without the necessity of seeing the makers. No other bird of the Yosemite region builds a nest of the same form or constituency. The foundation is of long fine weathered stems of grasses and other plants, so laid together and interlaced that they con- stitute a firm yet porous structure not easily shaken to pieces. Internally, the nest proper is of a deep cup-shape, walled with a neatly woven layer consisting solely of long mammal hairs, wound about so as to produce a perfectly smooth interior surface. This inner lining is so well woven that it ean be lifted free of the foundation part of the nest and still retain its shape, almost like a piece of hair cloth. This type of nest seems well adapted to the kind of site preferred by the chipping sparrow, namely, the outer loose foliage of trees, upon a large area of which the nest platform ean rest without danger of disintegration or of falling from place. The nest cavity measures in ascertained cases 17% inches in diameter by 114 456 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE YOSEMITE inches deep. Externally there is naturally much variation in dimension; one nest measured in place was 314 inches in diameter and 214 inches high. Four is the usual number of eggs laid; none of the nests seen by us held more. Several nests held only 3 to 2 eggs or young, but in these cases there is the possibility that some of the clutch or brood had been lost. During the nesting season chipping sparrows are as fearless as at other times. The observer can often approach very close to a nest before the sitting bird will leave. We have set up our camera, unscreened, within two feet of a nest, and the female remained on the nest during most or all of the manipulations incident to the taking of a picture. After the broods are reared, parents and young join in family parties and wander about in their daily quest for food. Sometimes several of these groups gather in a loose flock of a score or more. After the late- summer molt, there is no renewal of the song, as with some sparrows; only the weak call notes are given. In early autumn the ‘‘chippies’’ quietly take their leave, and by the first week in October the observer finds the species no more among the birds recorded in his daily census. BREWER Sparrow. Spizella breweri Cassin Field characters.—Size, proportions, and coloration close to those of Chipping Spar- row. No reddish brown on crown or distinct light line over eye. (See pl. 8e.) Top of head, like back, brownish gray streaked with black; lower surface plain ashy white. Voice: Song of male more varied and more musical than that of Chipping Sparrow, remindful of some themes in song of tame canary; call note, a weak tseet. Occurrence.—Common summer visitant along east side of Sierra Nevada, in vicinity of Mono Lake. Recorded from Silver and Walker lakes eastward. Occurs, also, in spring migration, along west base of Sierra Nevada, as at Lagrange (May 6, 1919) and Smith Creek, east of Coulterville (March 23, 1916). Noted in Yosemite Valley, September 18, 1917 (Maillard, 1918, p. 17). A few appear at higher altitudes in early fall, as near Merced Lake (August 25 and September 5, 1915). Habitually in sagebrush. In pairs while nesting; in loose flocks at other times. The Brewer Sparrow is a common and characteristic summer visitant in the great inland sea of sagebrush which covers the floor of the Great Basin. It is a near relative of the Western Chipping Sparrow, but wears still duller colors, having none of the bright markings on its head which characterize the latter bird. (See pl. 8e.) The general tone of its whole coloration is subdued to a pale tint of gray which closely matches the gray eolor of the brush in which it lives. The time at which the Brewer Sparrow arrives in the Yosemite region has not been ascertained closely. Birds which were undoubtedly migrants were observed at Smith Creek, 6 miles east of Coulterville, on March 23, 1916, and near Lagrange, on May 6, 1919. About Mono Lake, in 1916, BREWER SPARROW 457 the first were observed, near Williams Butte, on May 6, although they may have arrived there somewhat earlier. Southeast of the Mono Lake region the migration begins in late March or early April. On September 18, 1917, Mr. Joseph Mailliard (1918, p. 17) identified one of these birds among some Western Chipping Sparrows on the floor of the Yosemite Valley. Throughout the summer months Brewer Sparrows are to be seen every- where in the sagebrush country perhaps more commonly than any other bird species. In early autumn the number of birds about Mono Lake seems to be augmented, either by the arrival of migrants from the north or by a post-aestival movement toward the Sierras from the drier flats and valleys to the east. Whatever the cause of increase in local population, our censuses at that season record 10 to 36 of these birds an hour in sage-covered areas. The Brewers were still abundant when we quitted the Mono Lake country on September 23, 1915. The wintering grounds of these birds are on the deserts of the Southwest and so their migration, whatever the date of departure from the Mono region, is not a very exten- Sive one. A nest of the Brewer Sparrow was found only about 10 inches above the ground in a sagebush near the mouth of Rush Creek on June 3, 1916. It held two blue eggs, far advanced in incubation; the sitting bird flushed as the observer grazed the side of the bush in passing. On June 30, 1916, adults were seen carrying food to young in the nest. The young, with the streaked breasts of the juvenal plumage, do not appear abroad in numbers until slightly later, that is in July; by the middle of August many of them have already completed the fall molt which brings them into a plumage almost exactly like that of the adults. Brewer Sparrows occasionally work up into the high eastern portions of the Sierra Nevada in much the same way that many other kinds of birds which nest at the west base of the mountains move up to Yosemite Valley or beyond in late summer. But with the Brewer the movement is not so general and when the birds do thus appear out of their normal range they seek out, and keep close to, their accustomed shelter plant. On August 25, and again on September 5, 1915, flocks of a dozen or more of these sparrows were seen in some stunted sagebrush on a sun-heated gravelly bench between Echo and Sunrise ereeks, not far from Merced Lake. 458 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE YOSEMITE BLACK-CHINNED SPARROW. Spizella atrogularis (Cabanis) Field characters.—Size near that of Chipping Sparrow. Tail as long or longer than body. Head and neck and most of under surface of body plain dark gray; middle of back reddish brown, streaked with black; wings and tail plain blackish brown. Chin black and bill reddish brown in male. Voice: Song of male a series of high-pitched wiry notes, all on about the same key, beginning slowly but running together at the end, tseey, tseey, tsey, tse, se-se-se; call note a low sharp chit. Occurrence.—One bird heard in song near Black’s Creek, west of Coulterville, May 11, 1919. Possibly present in small numbers as a summer visitant in Upper Sonoran Zone on west side of mountains. Lives in greasewood chaparral. Our inclusion of the Black-chinned Sparrow as a member of the Yosemite avifauna rests upon our hearing the characteristic song of the male repeatedly on the one occasion instanced above. This sparrow is moderately common on many of the chaparral covered hillsides of southern California, but it has not previously been reported from any locality along the west flank of the Sierra Nevada. Careful search of the greasewood brush (Adenostoma) between Pleasant Valley and Coulterville would likely reveal the presence of the species in small numbers. SLATE-COLORED JUNCO. Junco hyemalis hyemalis (Linnaeus) Field characters.—As for Sierra Junco (which see), but coloration more slaty black, the adult male being entirely without reddish brown on either sides or back. Female much as in Sierra Junco, but less distinctly pinkish on sides and less brown on back. Habits like those of Sierra Juneo. Occurrence.—Irregular winter visitant. Definite records (specimens taken) are as follows: Gentrys, on Big Oak Flat Road, December 30, 1914 (one); Yosemite Valley near Rocky Point, November 12, 1915 (two individuals) ; Smith Creek, 6 miles east of Coulterville, January 28, 1919, and March 9, 1919 (one in each case). Most likely to be associated as single individuals in flocks of Sierra Junco. Individuals of the Slate-colored or ‘eastern’ Junco turn up almost every year in different parts of California, so it was no great surprise to find a few of this species in the Yosemite region. When this bird is found within our boundaries it is usually only to the extent of an individual or two in a large flock of the common wintering species, the Sierra Junco. This was the ease with the birds obtained by us and with those taken by Mr. Donald D. McLean at his home east of Coulterville. When seen in association with its relative, the Slate-colored Junco immediately impresses the close observer as being darker, more slaty in color. Its habits do not seem to differ in any appreciable way from those of the Sierra Junco. JUNCOS 459 Stprra JuNco. Junco oreganus thurberi Anthony”* Field characters—A small sparrow (total length about 6 inches, tail about 21% inches long). Head, neck, and breast covered by solid black (most intense in males, grayish toned in females and immatures), sharply set off from white on under surface of body. Bill whitish-appearing. Back and wings dark brown, unmarked; tail black centrally, two outer feathers on each side pure white. Juvenile birds lack the black ‘cowl’ and have the whole head and body, both above and below, streaked. When on ground, hops about rapidly in zigzag course; if flushed, rises quickly, spreading tail so that white margin shows conspicuously; usually takes refuge within nearby trees or large bushes. Voice: Song of male a quavering trill, metallic in quality, rapid in utterance, eetle, eetle, eetle, eetle .... continued for from one to three seconds, weakening in intensity toward the end; repeated at irregular intervals. Call of both sexes a low seep or sharper tsick; one of these notes often given several times in quick succession as birds of a family or flock rise from ground. Occurrence.—Abundant summer visitant throughout the Transition, Canadian, and Hudsonian zones on both sides of Sierra Nevada. Recorded in summer from 3 miles east of Coulterville and from Bullion Mountain eastward across the mountains to Parker Creek (at 7500 feet) and Warren Mountain. As a rule the range of this bird is limited altitudinally at timber line; the highest elevation at which we saw it was 11,000 feet on Parsons Peak, September 6, 1915. In winter descends to below the level of heavy snow, occupying the whole of foothill and lowland country; a few may remain as high as Yosemite Valley. Jfound in numbers in winter at El Portal and 6 miles east of Coulterville and from there westward to Lagrange and Snelling. In summer lives in and about openings in forest or along open stream banks; in winter ranges widely, but not onto open prairie. In pairs at nesting time, but in flocks of varying size during other parts of year. The Sierra Junco or Snowbird has proved, by actual census, to be the most abundant species of bird in the Yosemite section. During the summer season it is common throughout the forested portions of the mountains embracing the Transition, Canadian, and Hudsonian zones, on both slopes, while in winter it is abundant in the Upper Sonoran foothills of the west slope, and occurs in some numbers in the Transition and Lower Sonoran zones as well. Because it is thus a species of wide occurrence, and in addition possesses a distinctive type of coloration, we have chosen it for our standard of comparison in discussing the other small birds of the region. The whole forepart of the Sierra Junco’s body is covered by a solid dark cowl, jet black in the adult males, but grayish toned in female and immature birds. This black ends below abruptly against the white of the belly. The back and wings lack contrasted markings of any sort, but when 28 In addition to the prevalent Sierra Junco there is present in winter in small numbers another subspecies of the ‘Oregon’ Junco, the Shufeldt Junco, Junco oreganus shufeldti Coale, which summers in northwestern North America interiorly. This race has the wing and tail somewhat longer, the sides more dusky (less pink tinged), and the back of a duller brown than has the Sierra’ Junco. Specimens are at hand from Dudley (on Smith Creek), six miles east of Coulterville, taken December 25, 1918, and January 27, 1919. 460 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE YOSEMITE the bird takes to flight the tail is seen to be broadly margined with white. The young in the juvenal plumage, which they acquire in the nest and wear until the first fall molt, are streaked over the whole body, and they lack any indication of the black cowl, but their white outer tail feathers are just as conspicuous as those of the parent birds. The middle of the back and sides of the body are reddish brown in the adult Sierra Junco, a feature which helps to separate this species from the near-related Shu- feldt and Slate-colored juncos. No other bird is likely to be confused with the junco. The Spurred Towhee has a black cowl similar to that of the junco, but the former is a much larger bird, has white spots on the black wings and tail, and stays almost exclusively within heavy brush, instead of foraging out on open ground. The Sierra Junco, in summer, is found throughout the main forest belt of the Sierra Nevada. It eschews dense growths of timber, preferring to live in clear areas beneath the larger trees or between tracts of timber, but always where there is convenient cover close by, to be sought if danger threatens. The bird gains the greater portion of its forage on open ground and nests there, but it uses the trees and large bushes as song perches and as safety refuges. In winter a lesser degree of restriction in habita- tion is evident, for then the juncos invade all sorts of vegetational environ- ments save open prairie where no cover of any sort is available. The total juneo population on the Sierra Nevada during the summer months is in excess of that of any other one species of bird. Three to five an hour will usually be seen at this season in any part of its range, save perhaps in Yosemite Valley. The Sierra Junco is outnumbered by the Western Chipping Sparrow on the floor of the Valley, but it is much better represented in the zones above, especially in the Canadian. The junco population is larger, relatively as well as absolutely, on the west slope of the Sierras than on the east slope. The winter distribution is less uniform. Then the birds are in flocks and their inclusion in a census depends upon the observer’s meeting one of these companies, which may ageregate 15 to 50 birds. Many juncos remain in the highlands through the crisp fall weather, and the birds are then present literally in droves in the red fir territory immediately above and surrounding the Yosemite Valley. But the first flurry of snow, forecasting the approach of winter, starts them down-slope rapidly and soon relatively few remain even as high as Yosemite Valley. Some depart for the lower altitudes by October; these are joined later by those which linger until they are literally forced out of the high mountains by the snow mantle which covers up their food supply there. The bulk of the population at this season is concentrated in the foothills, but some go down still farther to the west, into the San Joaquin Valley. JUNCOS 461 It is during the fall and winter months that individuals of the Slate-colored and Shufeldt juncos are occasionally encountered in flocks of the Sierran birds. These have probably traveled all the way from summer localities in British Columbia and beyond. In the fall of 1915 we remained in Yosemite Valley through the first real snowfall of the season which began on the evening of November 8 and continued into the following day. On the morning of the 9th juncos were in active migration down the Valley. They did not fly along continuously nor did they alight in the snow, but from the clear ground about the base of one thick-folaged tree they dashed on a few rods to another similar shelter and hopped about there for a minute or so before moving farther. Each individual was moving independently, yet all in the flock were going in the same general direction. One bird would fly ahead, loiter a minute, and be passed by others previously left behind, and so on. At any one point there would be a rapid succession of jJuncos while the flock as a whole moved more slowly. It was quite evident that the birds from the plateau above the Valley were migrating down-slope and westward, as more juncos were seen on that morning passing one place on the north side of the Valley than had been seen all told in the preceding month on the whole floor of the Valley. On December 26 and 28, 1914, when the early snows of that season had largely melted off on the north (sunny) side of the Valley, several companies of juncos were observed there, and it is possible that ameliora- tion of conditions had led them to come in again from the westward. Some of the birds were around the buildings of the old Presidio, foraging far back within the open basements. Subsequently, a resident of the Valley reported that about 25 juncos had stayed around his house during the winter of 1915-16, as he thought, because of the food continually put out for them. In general demeanor the junco is more active than many of the spar- rows. On the ground it gets about with quick movements, turning first to one side and then the other, but not often hopping many paces before stopping to examine its surroundings. It does little scratching, and indeed neither its claws nor its bill are of the stout type found in birds such as the fox sparrows which dig out their food. The Sierra Junco, like the Western Chipping Sparrow, is a surface forager and gets its provender by moving about rapidly and scanning a relatively large area of ground. This is as true of the members of a winter flock as of individual birds in summer. When frightened, a junco flies directly to cover, taking shelter usually within trees or large bushes. Its general procedure is to fly along a short distance above the ground, usually reaching the nearest foliage at the first 462 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE YOSEMITE flight ; then, after a pause, and some hopping about from branch to branch, it descends again to the ground near by. If badly scared the bird will make off to a distance, though usually going from one tree to another rather than making a continuous, direct flight in the open. While foraging on the ground a junco opens and shuts the tail shghtly from time to time, so that the white margins show for an instant. Upon taking flight either from the ground or a tree the bird spreads its tail widely and then the white shows broadly and conspicuously. Some natural- ists believe that the bird’s flashing of these contrasting areas serves to apprize other members of the species of the particular individual’s location and of the direction taken by it when it moves off; any threatening danger seen by one bird may thus be reported to other juncos in the vicinity which, in turn, seek safety. Accompanying the display of white when an alarmed juneo flies up are the well-known call notes given in rhythm with the wing-beats and movements of the tail; and these notes are believed to be of similar purport. The sense of hearing is thus brought into service to supplement that of sight. The song of the male junco is to be heard throughout the spring and early summer months; it usually ceases some time in July. It is a quaver- ing trill, pleasing to the human ear, given rapidly and possessing a tinkling quality. The syllables are practically alike, eetle, eetle, eetle, eetle; on about the same key, but with the intensity lessening toward the end. In spring the male gives his song at practically any hour of the day, perhaps not so much at dawn and dusk as during the mid-day hours. Yet we have heard it as early at 5:15 a.m. (June 2), in Yosemite Valley, and sometimes the birds break out in song in the middle of the night. The sharp call note, seep or tsick, uttered by both sexes, is usually repeated several times as the birds rise from the ground, and if given while foraging there, its utterance is often accompanied by momentary flashing of the white outer tail feathers. A heavier note, of alarm, is also given, tswp. The courting of the junco is not so elaborate or varied a performance as that of some birds. The pursuit of females by males or of rival males by one another may occasionally be observed, but for the most part the birds are rather quiet. Occasionally males either on the ground or perched, when females are close by, will hold the tail spread for some seconds so that the white margin shows forth with extraordinary brilliance. The song seems to be the principal factor in courting. In order to study this subject satisfactorily, an observer would need to keep track of flocks just before they break up in the spring and then watch the behavior of the pairs during the whole course of the development of the mating instincts. When the first rush of human travelers reaches the Yosemite region in May the juncos are preparing to nest, and by early June many pairs JUNCOS 463 of the birds have their nesting well under way. Our earliest record of a completed nest with eggs was made on June 10 (1915) at Chinquapin. But earlier instances will doubtless be found upon further search; for we saw a bird carrying nest material on May 20 (1919). The peak of nesting activity is reached in June, during which month, in 1915, we found, without special search, over a dozen nests. The first young noted out of the nest in that year were observed in Yosemite Valley on June 21, soon after which new broods were common. But nesting does not cease at an early date. Hither some pairs are delayed, through accident or other cause, or else they rear more than one brood. A nest found at Merced Lake on August 20, 1915, held two young not old enough to fly; and bob-tailed youngsters were seen near Washburn Lake on August 24 the same year. The majority of the nests observed were located either at the margins of wet meadows, or along open creek banks. The birds seemingly prefer to be able to fly to and from the nest unimpeded by vegetation. The nest is a compactly woven cup, about three inches in outside diameter and the same in depth. It is almost invariably sunk in the ground so that the rim is flush with the surface. Sometimes it is placed at the side of a log or beneath a fallen branch, but as often it is on open ground amid the grasses, and one nest was seen in the center of a traveled road. As an exception to the general rule may be cited a nest placed on an overhead beam under the roof of a painted cottage porch in Yosemite Valley. This nest was bulkier than usual, and the materials composing it straggled down the side of the beam. It was evidently built in good faith because two eges were laid ere a gust of wind east it to the ground. The average nest is composed largely of small plant or grass leaves and stems compactly woven together. The larger pieces are on the out- side, and the size of the pieces of material gradually decreases as the center is approached. The inside lining is usually of horse hair, but occasionally shed hairs from some of the native mammals are used. Four is the usual number of eggs laid and no more than this complement were seen in any nest examined by us. Sometimes but three seemed to constitute the com- pleted set. During the summer the members of a pair of Sierra Juncos keep in close company, and if the vicinity of their nest is approached the two will often exhibit a high degree of concern. If the female is incubating she will usually leave in a flurry, with the tail widely spread (whereby the eye catches the white quickly), and then trail along the ground, giving an appearance of being injured in an effort to focus interest upon herself and draw attention from the nest. Soon the male, if not already at hand, will appear and the two will hop excitedly about either on the ground or 464 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE YOSEMITE among the low branches of an adjacent conifer, repeating their call notes with an intonation which suggests extreme anxiety. After the broods are reared the adults continue to guard and eare for their charges for some time; in some eases, at least, the family stays together through the fall molt. From this initial grouping it is but a step to the formation of the flocks in which the birds spend the winter. Flock formation persists until the birds seek their nesting grounds again the following spring. From late April until July pairs are the rule. Then young begin to appear in numbers and family parties are of common observation. Such eroups were seen at Merced Lake on August 23, and in Yosemite Valley even as late as September 24 (1915). Flock formation is under way about the latter date; one band of 20 was seen in Yosemite Valley on Septem- ber 25, and several of 20 to 50 each in Tioga Pass, September 28, 1915. The flocks hold together through the winter months, sometimes becoming mixed with those of Chipping Sparrows in the valleys, but more often keeping by themselves. At Pleasant Valley on February 27 and 28, 1916, bands of 12 to 35 were seen; and a flock of 15 was observed in Yosemite Valley on February 29 the same year. By April 27, the time of our next visit, the lowlands were cleared of juncos, and the birds seen in Yosemite Valley on April 28, 1916, were not in flocks. On May 14, 1919, juncos at Hazel Green were paired and the males were trilling their songs. Beit Sparrow. Amphispiza belli (Cassin) Field characters.—Size of Junco or Linnet; tail as long as body. Upper surface plain dull brown, becoming iron gray on head; area in front of eye, and conspicuous stripe down side of neck from bill, black (pl. 87) ; spot on each side of brow, lower cheek, and throat and under surface of body, white; a distinct black spot on center of breast. Voice: Song of male a set utterance of tinkling quality, tweesitity-slip, tweesitity-slip, swer; also a faint one-syllabled call note, seet. Occurrence.—Common resident in Upper Sonoran Zone over western base of Sierras. Lives almost exclusively in greasewood chaparral. Observed by us at Pleasant Valley, near Coulterville, and near El] Portal. To be seen in pairs or scattered family parties. The Bell Sparrow is closely associated with that type of chaparral, made up almost purely of the greasewood, which clothes so much of the dry foothill country flanking the west base of the Sierra Nevada. Since this is a bird of dull colors and retiring habits, it will not likely be seen by a person passing quickly along any of the dusty roadways through this ‘chamisal.’ The bird student interested in forming an acquaintance vith this sparrow will need to tarry at some place in the foothills and spend a few hours amid the greasewood itself. BELL SPARROW 465 In 1914 and 1915 we saw but little of the Bell Sparrow, and that only incidentally, as we were endeavoring to get a general idea of the fauna in the vicinity of El Portal and Pleasant Valley; but in 1919 some time was spent at Blacks Creek, west of Coulterville, in seeking a special acquaint- ance with this species. To do this we left the beaten roadway and grassy clearings and pushed our way up onto the slopes covered solidly with greasewood. Here we followed a growth of young bushes which had sprung up where once a narrow clearing had been made for miles across the country beneath a power line. Our field notes of this day, May 12, 1919, are substantially as follows. The hillside was a dry, south-facing one, of slaty formation covered with a typical California chaparral composed of greasewood (Adenostoma fasciculatum) with seattering bushes of wedge-leafed ceanothus (Ceanothus cuneatus) and manzanita (Arctostaphylos mariposa). Here a Bell Spar- row was found, its headquarters proving to be on a subsidiary ridge running down into an oak lined ravine. We located the bird first by hearing from a distance its tinkling song. This may be variously written, inksely-inksely-inksely-ser, or tweesitity-slip, tweesitity-slip, swer, or sweesely-swer, sweesely-swer, swer, according to different attempts at transcription. The rhythm of this utterance was notable. The bird sang every 9 or 10 seconds, each song lasting about 214 seconds. The song would be repeated for several minutes from one perch and then the bird would change to another location. It would perch on the topmost shoot of a greasewood bush, facing away from the wind, its feathers blown out- ward somewhat, and would rock back and forth in keeping its balance on the swaying twig. This individual bird seemed to be centering his attentions on some particular portion of the hillslope, for he circled about within a radius of not over 150 feet, singing from one perch, then changing to another. Between song periods he would disappear, presumably to forage, within the mantle of brush, where also probably was his mate, though she kept well out of our sight. Searching around amid the smaller greasewood bushes on the one-time clearing, we found 8 old nests belonging undoubtedly to this species. These ranged from 6 to 30 inches above the ground, but most of them were not more than 10 inches up. All were in small ereasewood bushes, not over 24 inches tall, and placed within the cluster of upright stems. The nests were composed of small twigs of the greasewood, with the dry whitish stems of some annual plant as a felting for the interior. A typical weathered nest measured approximately 3 inches in outside diameter. So large a number of nests found in the one area (not over 150 feet in diameter) would suggest continued occupancy of the little tract of an acre or so for a number of years by this one pair of birds or their ancestors. 466 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE YOSEMITE No other bird of any species was encountered during our stay in this area of an acre or more. It would seem that the Bell Sparrow, at least at nesting time, closely restricts itself to a type of territory such as is not sought out by other birds; it is not consequently bothered by competition. Moving on to the next little hillslope we observed another singing male Bell Sparrow; a careful examination of the many hillsides in the basin of Blacks Creek would probably have revealed a pair of Bell Sparrows on each one. Hence, while the number of Bell Sparrows to be found in any one limited area is small, the total population in the entire greasewood belt of the western foothills must be large. As already stated, not one of these birds is likely to come to the attention even of the careful bird student save as he or she makes particular effort to find the species. NEVADA SAGE Sparrow. Amphispiza nevadensis nevadensis (Ridgway) Field characters.—Slightly larger than Junco or Bell Sparrow. Whole bird gray- toned; upper surface of body, wings and tail, ashy brown; head pure ashy gray (pl. 8h) ; under surface white with a dusky spot on center of breast; a broad streak of dull black runs from bill through eye, and there is a narrower dark gray stripe on each side of throat. Voice: As for Bell Sparrow. Occurrence.—Common summer visitant to Transition Zone east of Sierra Nevada. Observed widely about Mono Lake and around Mono Craters. Habitually in sagebrush. In pairs or scattering companies; never in close flocks. The Nevada Sage Sparrow is the counterpart of the Bell Sparrow and takes the niche of that bird on the east side of the Sierra Nevada, where sagebrush takes the place of the greasewood of the west slope. In various portions of the plains-like, sage-covered country about Mono Lake these Sparrows were seen in moderate numbers during mid-September, 1915. In the spring and early summer of 1916 they were met with only once, on June 20, close to the old Salmon Ranch near Mono Lake Post Office. Sage sparrows do all their foraging upon the ground between bushes, where they hop about in a peculiar hesitating manner. When alarmed they run with astonishing celerity, being able easily to keep several bushes between themselves and their pursuers. If closely pressed they take to flight and scatter out, to drop out of sight again shortly. When singing, and often at other times, individuals will perch many minutes at a time at the tips of tall bushes, where they are visible considerable distances over the sea of sage. RUFOUS-CROWNED SPARROW 467 RUFOUS-CROWNED Sparrow. Aimophila ruficeps ruficeps (Cassin) Field characters.—Size of Juneco, but tail and wings shorter. No contrasted white markings; top of head reddish brown (rufous) (pl. 82); plumage brown toned, tinged with rufous on back; line over eye ashy gray; chin buffy white, bordered on each side by black line extending a little way downward from bill; otherwise no streaks or mark- ings of any sort beneath. Movements quick and frequent. Seldom flies far; keeps closely within protection of low bushes. Voice: Song of male resembling in general effect song of Lazuli Bunting; both sexes utter a slow series of notes, kiew, kiew, kew-kew-kew; last of the series fainter, and quality throughout nasal. Occurrence.—Resident in small numbers and locally, in Upper Sonoran Zone. Found by us at Pleasant Valley and El Portal. Lives on dry sun-facing hillsides among low scattered shrubs (not in dense or high chaparral). To be met with in pairs or singly, never in flocks. The Rufous-crowned Sparrow is a bird of the chaparral belt, but, unlike the Wren-tit, it lives exclusively in open stands of low bushes on the driest slopes. Such tracts are to be found on the sun-facing slopes at the heads of the smaller ravines. The bird is not known to us to occur in the dense brush at any time. These areas of dwarf chaparral are quite limited in extent in the Yosemite section and the Rufous-crowned Sparrows are restricted in like measure. They seem to be strictly resident and are as likely to be found in the particular locality of their choice in winter as in summer. We observed the birds at only two places, Pleasant Valley and El Portal, but careful search of the foothill districts would doubtless show them to be present in many other localities of similar nature. The Rufous-crowned Sparrow resembles in some ways the Bell and Nevada Sage sparrows, but yet it differs from these birds in certain note- worthy respects. It is decidedly brown rather than grayish in tone of color, it possesses a reddish brown crown patch (pl. 8/), and it has no dark spot on the chest. Its niche is different from that of either of the species named, and it does not habitually perch in prominent view on the tops of bushes as do the other two birds. The song of the male Rufous-crowned Sparrow is rarely heard. It is somewhat like that of the Lazuli Bunting but is weaker and less elaborate. For singing the bird will perch a foot or so above the ground on the top of one of the small bushes of the neighborhood, where it will sing a few times and then take itself off to forage. Its curious whining or nasal call note, as described above, is uttered by both sexes and as a rule without any apparent cause, such as danger. Nesting activities with the Rufous-crowned Sparrows are evidently commenced in April. We found no occupied nests, but on the 25th of May, 1915, near Pleasant Valley, we obtained a fully fledged juvenile bird. The young birds do not differ greatly in appearance from their parents. 468 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE YOSEMITE The plumage, as is generally the case with juvenile birds, is laxer, the crown is not so bright and the breast is narrowly streaked with blackish. These differences, accompaniments of immaturity, disappear at the first fall molt. Our attention was attracted to the young bird just mentioned by our hearing a pair of adults uttering their nasal notes in a rapid scolding series, unlike the usual slow enunciation. Meanwhile the birds kept hopping about in a concerned manner in the low brush on a ravine side. A Bell Sparrow and a Lazuli Bunting were calling close by, but the notes of these birds did not indicate so great a degree of solicitude as was evinced by the voices and behavior of the adult Rufous-crowns. While we were cautiously approaching the focus of the commotion, a California Gray Fox suddenly broke from cover in the bottom of the little canon. The parent Rufous-crowns were quite justified in finding his presence a cause of concern; there were evidently other juveniles of that species in the brush beside the one we found. A Rufous-crowned Sparrow was seen in some thick brush on the side of a small cafion near El Portal on the morning of November 25, 1914. Its brownish coloration, light stripe over eye, light throat, and quick move- ments reminded the observer of the San Joaquin Bewick Wren. While moving close about the observer and on the alert, this sparrow was seen to fluff out and then press down its feathers; and the rufous feathers of the crown of the head were held continually in a slightly elevated position. The faint call note was given several times while the bird was in view, and from time to time other birds of the same species were heard calling in the vicinity. Sona Sparrows. Melospiza melodia (Wilson) ?° Field characters—Somewhat larger than Juneco. Body streaked both above and below; ground color above dark, below white; a distinct dark spot on breast; no white marks on wing or tail; a light stripe over each eye and another over mid crown. Tail short-appearing, not longer than body, habitually carried up at decided angle with back. A quick-moving sparrow, almost as active as a wren. Voice: Song of male set as to theme, much varied as to rendering; begun with two or three separate clear notes, followed by a buzz and ended with a trill; both sexes utter various call notes. 29 Four subspecies of the Song Sparrow were found in the Yosemite region. The case with these birds is different from that with the Fox Sparrows, as one subspecies of song sparrow is much more numerously represented than the others, both winter and summer, and there are very few if any Song Sparrows present in the western portion of the region during the summer months. Furthermore, in summer, the Song Sparrow occurs altogether below the range of the Fox Sparrow. The subspecies represented are as follows: Mopoc Sone Sparrow, Melospiza melodia fisherella Oberholser, a gray-toned form with light brown streaking, is a summer visitant to the Great Basin region east of the mountains where it was found by us at Mono Lake Post Office, near Williams Butte, and at Silver and Walker lakes. Single individuals (strays?) noted at Gem Lake, 9036 feet, SONG SPARROWS 469 Occurrence.—Winter visitant in small to moderate numbers at various places on west slope of Sierra Nevada below 4500 feet altitude. Also present during summer season locally east of the mountains, around Mono Lake; in fall stragglers reach to 9000 feet on east slope.29 Inhabits bushes and thickets nearly always close to water or over damp ground. Solitary except when pairs are engaged in nesting. The Song Sparrow is not so conspicuous a member of the avifauna in the Yosemite section as it is in many other parts of North America. In summer, it is present only east of the mountains, while in winter, when some representatives of the species do occur on the west side of the Sierra Nevada, its numbers are never large, as compared for instance with those in the coastal region of California. This deficiency is due perhaps to the relative dearth of suitable stream-side cover. Both summer and winter the Modoe Song Sparrow (Melospiza melodia fisherella) is the most abundant of the several subspecies of song sparrow occurring in the Yosemite region. East of the mountains, in the spring of 1916, it was found near Willams Butte as early as April 29, and in the fall of 1915 it was still present on September 20. It probably leaves the east side of the mountains during the winter months, though it doubt- less returns there as soon as weather conditions permit. In Yosemite Valley, our earliest fall record for song sparrows was made on October 10 (1914), when two were noted in some willows. o> Ss / ee’ \H Mi so“ OD} 554 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE YOSEMITE The song of the Cahon Wren is one of its most notable features. Many wrens have throaty or bubbling songs; but only in its call note does this species utter anything lke the notes of its relatives. The song is a series of clear undulating musical whistles, starting high and, with individual notes well separated but with lessening intervals, descending gradually in pitch to an abrupt low ending. Some songs studied in detail in- eluded ten to fifteen notes. The call, a rather hoarse, low-pitched bzert, is uttered now and then when the birds are foraging. The song is to be heard at any time of day, from dawn until dark, throughout the nesting season; and it does not entirely cease when the broods are reared, for we have heard it during late July and August. There is a revival or con- tinuance of song in winter. For instance, on December 19, 1914, one of these birds on the cliff near Yosemite Falls gave three full songs at late dusk (5:05 p.m.) when the air was freezing cold and icicles two feet in length were hanging from the rocks. The nest of the Canon Wren is commonly placed on ledges in rock caverns, but in the foothills of the Yosemite country situations in weathered buildings are sometimes used. Near Lagrange, on May 8 and 9, 1919, a pair of these birds was engaged in carrying food to a brood of young in a downward slanting crevice at the base of an earth bank in a ravine. The nest was not in sight but was evidently located somewhere below the level of the ground outside. At Pleasant Valley a nest under construction on May 17, 1915, was situated inside a storehouse, on a beam beneath the gable and about fifteen feet from the floor. On May 25 there were 3 fresh eggs which by May 30 had been increased to 5, 3 of which at that time showed the beginnings of incubation. The base of the nest was composed of a pile of irregularly placed twigs, upon which had been heaped seraps of rotted wood and other débris, while the inner wall was thickly felted with old cotton and then lined separately with mammal hair. Another nest, in which a brood had been reared, was in the station house at the same place. Two fully fledged young birds were seen there on May 29, 1915. Fe 7D) cr uJ 2 Z 5) a Hermit Thrush err le S C. h us Thr i. . Townsend a TOWNSEND SOLITAIRE 599 and early October of 1915, solitaires had congregated in considerable numbers to feast on the then abundant, ripening berries of the western juniper. The birds were busiest in the morning and along toward evening, but the middle of the day brought only slight diminution in their activity. Just as the sun came up over the rocky ridges to the east and touched the tips of the junipers, the solitaires would break forth in song nearly or quite as ecstatic as that of early summer, excelling in both quality and volume all other voices in the Glen. Sometimes during the mid-day hours one individual would give chase to another and occasionally a third bird joined the pursuit. Not infrequently one or another of the group would burst into song as it flew. No other bird of the Yosemite, except perhaps the American Dipper, seems to have quite such a revival of song in the fall as does the solitaire. The pleasant warmth of the mid-day sun and the melodious songs of the solitaires made it difficult to believe that the season was autumn. Only when one noted the dead dry herbage and the falling leaves was the near approach of winter manifest. Examination of the ground beneath the trees where these birds were assembled revealed many berries of the season, still green, which had been pulled off, crushed in the bill, and then dropped. Not only were these numerous, but dried berries of previous crops were found with similar ‘bill marks,’ indicating that in years gone by the solitaires had resorted to these same trees during the fall months. > For descriptions of these species, see text, pp. 144, 146, 149. [693 | a PLATE 27 a. Yosemite Pocket Gopher, posed to show important external features, such as pro- jecting incisor teeth, lack of any ‘‘neck,’’ short legs with heavily clawed fore feet, and short nearly hairless tail. b. Yosemite Pocket Gopher, showing broadness of head, fur-lined cheek pouches, and white patches beneath. c. Yosemite Mole, showing sharp snout, wedge-shaped head, laterally placed ‘‘hands,’’ and short hairy tail. Yosemite Valley. For diseussion of adaptive features of Pocket Gopher and Mole, see pp. 44, 154, 156. All 24 natural size; photographed from animals freshly trapped on the floor of [694] b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA [695 | [GRINNELL—-STORER] PLATE eats il PLATE 28 Surface workings of Mole and Pocket Gopher as photographed in Yosemite Valley; all about 14 natural size. a. ‘‘Subsurface’’ forage run of Mole. b. A Mole hill. c. An earth mound made by a Pocket Gopher. For comparative descriptions, see pp. 44, 157. | 696 | PLATE ) 1 [GRINNELL—ST ORE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA ] ‘ [69 PLATH 29 Yosemite Pocket Gopher in action, showing (c) method of digging with fore feet, (b, d) manner in which earth is pushed out from burrow, and (@) way in which gopher keeps part of its body in the burrow when alert to events above ground. The prominent forward-projecting vibrissae (‘‘whiskers’’), the small eyes placed on upper surface of head, and the small ears are shown to advantage. For discussion see text, p. 137. [698 | UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA [GRINNELL-STORER] PLATE 29 tna ‘. a b [ 699 | PLATE 30 Winter earth cores made by Pocket Gophers. a. Cores on surface of meadow three miles east of Chinquapin, May 20, 1919, as left after departure of winter snow. b. Manner in which superimposed earth cores put up in snow during winter serve to bury rocks and thus develop a surface layer of soil. (Photo taken in Lyell Canon, nals 2a LOuW5>) c. Fresh workings put up during an eight-inch fall of snow in Yosemite Valley. (Photo taken ofter a thaw, November 11, 1915.) d. Rain-beaten cores covering up pine needles and branches on slopes near Tuolumne Meadows. (Photographed July 10, 1915.) SEE WE fos Ike) [700 | [GRINNELL-STORER] PLATE 8 CALIFORNIA UNIVERSITY OF b 01] 7 [ UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA [GRINNELL-STORER] PLATE 931 a. Living Sierra Mountain Beaver (Aplodontia) captured near head of Lyell Canon, July 17, 1915. Note the small eye and ear, the apparent lack of tail, and the sluggish appearance of the animal. The matted condition of the pelage is due to its being wet. b. Mouth of burrow of Sierra Mountain Beaver in boggy ground at Poreapine Flat. Photograph taken July 2, 1915. See text, p. 156. [702] UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA [GRINNELL—-STORER] PLATE 32 a. Southern Sierra Marmot, photographed in rock slide in Lyell Canon, July 20, 1915. b. Typical perch of Marmot in glade near margin of Tuolumne Meadows, photo- graphed July 8, 1915. For account of the species, see text, p. 158. [703 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA [GRINNELL-STORER] PLATE 33 h a. Long-eared Chipmunk, at feeding place on Glacier Point. Photographed by Mr. Walter L. Huber. See text, p. 187. b. California Gray Squirrel in characteristic pose when on the ground. Photographed by Mr. Charles D. Holliger on floor of Yosemite Valley, December 24, 1914. See text, [Ds Wee [704 } G4 [GRINNELL-STORER] PLATE CALIFORNIA UINIME ISIC lr Valley. g@ movements, in text, Yosemite ascending the trunk of a black oak in California Gray Squirrel See description of climbin Walter L. Huber. rraphed by Mr. « > hoto | } Wi ). ‘ PLATE 35 a. Pile of 484 white fir cones gathered by the junior author from an area on the forest floor 50 by 50 feet, where they had been severally ‘‘cached’’ by a Sierra Chickaree. Photograph taken in Aspen Valley, October 18, 1915. b. Twig-tips of lodgepole pine to the number of over 350 cut down by a Sierra Chickaree from a single tree. Photographed near Porcupine Flat, June 29, 1915. lor general discussion, see text, pp. 206, 210. [706 | UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA [GRINNELL=STORER] PLATE 35 PLATE 36 a. Granite talus in head of Lyell Canon, altitude about 10,000 feet; Hudsonian Zone. The home of the Sierra Pine Marten, Gray Bushy-tailed Wood Rat, and Yosemite Cony. b. Kitchen middens on a prostrate log where red fir cones had been customarily dissected by a Sierra Chickaree. Photograph taken on Porcupine Flat, July 1, 1915. See description in text, p. 208. [708 | UN VERSITY OF CALIFORNIA % xtir i ae b [GRINNELL—-STORER] PLATE St 09 | 7 [ PLATE 37 ua. Werk of Yellow-haired Porcupine on branches of prostrate lodgepole pine. Photo- graphed at Porcupine Flat, 8100 feet altitude, July 1, 1915. See text, p. 153. b. Dam made by Golden Beaver in slough formed by gold dredger in the Merced River bottom near Snelling. Photograph taken January 9, 1915. Although small, this dam shows typically the method of construction employed by this rodent. See text, p. 216. [710] { UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA [GRINNELL-STORER] PLATE 3 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA [GRINNELL—-STORER] PLATE 38 b a. Yosemite Cony, about % natural size; photographed from specimen freshly trapped at Ten Lakes, October 11, 1915. Note the small eye, large rounded ears, short legs, small feet, and the lack of tail. See text, p. 218. b. Habitual ‘‘lookout’’ station of a Cony, with numerous droppings and stains on the granite; photographed in a talus at Ten Lakes, October 8, 1915. See text, p. 220. [712 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA [GRINNELL—-STORER] PLATE 39 b a. Mountain Coyote captured at foot of Yosemite Falls trail, in Yosemite Valley, December 31, 1914. See text, Dates b. Mule Deer, doe, in forest near Merced Lake. Photographed by Mr. W. H. Van Zwoll. See text, p. 231. [713] PLATE 40. Records in the road: a. Valley Quail, in dusty road near Coulterville, May 13, 1919. See text, p. 270. b. Pacific Rattlesnake (which was traveling to left), on Wawona Road near Chin- quapin, May 19, 1919. See text, p. 645. ce. Heermann Kangaroo Rat (prints of hind feet and tail as traveling to left), in road near Coulterville, May 13, 1919. See text, p. 146. d. Mule Deer, probably old doe, in mud of Glacier Point Road east of Chinquapin, June: 12; TIS Seestext;p. 2o1F [714] UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA [GRINNELL-STORER] PLATE 40 a d PLATE 41 California Gulls on Paoha Island, Mono Lake. Photographed by Joseph Dixon (ax Mayezit. HOU Oe rcs dulysrs Oils) a. Adults, in altercation. b. Downy young, newly hatched. c. General view, with many partly grown young herded off-shore by the old birds. See text, p. 249. a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA [GRINNELL-STORER] PLATE 41 b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA [GRINNELL—-STORER] PLATE h Lone-eared Owls as photographed at the Farrington ranch, near Williams Butte. g i gray : a. Female sitting on eggs in depression on an old magpie’s nest, May 4, 1916. b. Young about eighteen days old, in another magpie’s nest, May 19, 1916. See text, p. 301. [718] UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA a. Band-tailed Pigeons feeding on grain se: Photographed May 1, 1916. See text, p. 276. Photograph taken near Williams Butte, June 2 Owl (crippled). Photographed at Mono Mead [719] [GRINNELL-STORER] PLATE 483 ittered in chickenyard in Yosemite Valley. b. Nuttall Poorwill resting on ground. 2, 1916. See text, p. 344. c. Great Gray ow, June 19, 1915. See text, p. 306. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA [GRINNELL-STORER] PLATE 44 The principal diurnal birds of prey of the Yosemite region, as seen overhead in flight: a. Marsh Hawk, male adult. b. Western Goshawk, male adult. c. Western Red-tailed Hawk, male adult. d. Golden Eagle, immature. e. Turkey Vulture, adult. f. Sharp-shinned Hawk, male adult. g. Cooper Hawk, male adult. h. Swainson Hawk, male adult. 7. American Sparrow Hawk, male adult. j. Prairie Faleon, female adult. For comparative descriptions and accounts, sce text, pp. 279-296. h ad h UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA a. Nest and eggs of Swainson pee text, p. 290. b. ‘‘Nest’’ and eggs of Texas Nighthawk. pa 1919. See text, p. 348. Hawk. [721] [GRINNELL-STORER] PLATE 45 PLATE 46 9 Hummingbirds which nest in the Yosemite region (see text, pp. 352, 355, (l. b. . Black-chinned Hummingbird, male adult; El Portal, May 2, 1916. all about % 9 natural size. Calliope Hummingbird, male adult; Yosemite Valley, June 8, 1915. Anna Hummingbird, female adult; Pleasant Valley, May 23, 1915. Swallows and White-throated Swift compared (see text, p. 351) ; all about % natural size. . Cliff Swallow; Pleasant Valley, May 27, 1915. . Barn Swallow; Pleasant Valley, May 24, 1915. Northern Violet-green Swallow; Pleasant Valley, May 24, 1915. White-throated Swift; Yosemite Point, June 25, 1915. “I to ho UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA [GRINNELL-STORER] PLATE 4€ d ( if g UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA [GRINNELL-STORER] PLATE 47 b a. Nest of Cliff Swallow, one of a colony on rock wall of gully near Snelling. Photo- graphed May 28, 1915. b. Nest of California Linnet in old broken Cliff Swallow’s nest, in same colony as above. See text, pp. 426, 498. [724] b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA [GRINNELL-STORER] PLATE 43 a. Mariposa Fox Sparrow; Yosemite Point, June 4, 1915. b. Green-tailed Towhee; Yosemite Point, June 4, 1915. c. Sacramento Spurred (Spotted) Towhee; El Portal, December 8, 1914. All photographed, about 54 natural size, from freshly taken specimens, to show diagnostic features. All are ground dwellers; a@ and ¢ are preéminently ‘‘scratching’’ sparrows. See text, pp. 473, 478, 482. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA [GRINNELL-STORER] PLATE 49 b a. Nest of Green-tailed Towhee in snow bush at Tamarack Flat, May text, p. 483. b. Nest of Northeastern Lincoln Sparrow near Porcupine Flat, June text, p. 471. [726] 26, 1919. See PANE algalisy, Skee a [GRINNELL-STORER| PLATE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA The Vireos of the Yosemite section. Photographed from freshly taken specimens, about 44 natural size. a. Cassin Vireo; Pleasant Valley, May 23, 1915. b. Western Warbling Vireo; Pleasant Valley, May 23, 1915. c. Hutton Vireo; El Portal, December 8, 1914. d. California Least Vireo; Snelling, May 29, 1915. For discussions of comparative field characters, see pp. 909, 512, 513, 514. — Pl bo as | bod O UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA [GRINNELL-STORER] PLATE 51 _ a. Nest of California Least Vireo near Lagrange; photographed May 9, 1919. See text, p. 515. b. Nest and eggs of Tolmie Warbler in Yosemite Valley; photographed June 24, 1915. See text, p. 536. [728] UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Ame [GRINNELL-STORER] PLATE Ses PLATE 53 a. Western Mockingbird; Lagrange, December 10, 1915. / b. California Shrike; same data. Both from fresh specimens, about 1; natural size. See text, pp. 547, 506. c. Dotted Canon Wren; Yosemite Valley, December 29, 1914. d. San Joaquin Bewick Wren; Snelling, May 29, 1915. Both from freshly taken specimens, about *4 natural size. See text, pp. 552, 555. [730 | UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA [GRINNELL-STORER| [731] PLATE (60) PLATE 54 Western House Wrens; photographed by Joseph Dixon at the Farrington ranch near Williams Butte. a. Carrying stick to nest hole in dead tree; June 2, 1916. b. Taking food to brood of young in nest in old oil can; June 25, 1916. See text, p. 557. [732] UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA a [GRINNELL D STORER] PLATE 54 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA [GRINNELL-STORER] PLATE 55 ad. May b. Road one mile east of Chinquapin; photographed June 12 b Nest and eggs of Western Robin; photographed near Mono Lake Post Office, BP 30; 19165 See text, jp Gli: Nest and eggs of Townsend Solitaire in cut bank at up-hill side of Glacier Point 2, 1915. See text, p: 598. [734] UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA [GRINNELL-STORER] PLATE 56 a. Young Black-billed Magpie; photographed near Williams Butte, June 21, 1916. See text, p. 378. b. Female Mountain Bluebird perched near her nest in a building; photographed at Mono Lake Post Office, May 30, 1916. See text, p. 624. a b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA a. Mountain Lizard; Merced Grove b. Western Fence Lizard; Yosemite c. California Whip-tailed Lizard; n See text, p. 632. All photographed, about 4 natural [GRINNELL-STORER] PLATE 57 Big Trees, June 15, 1915. See text, p. 628. Valley, June 8, 1915. See text, p. 626. var Kinsley, at 2700 feet altitude, June 14, 1915. size, from freshly collected specimens. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA [GRINNELL-STORER]| PLATE 58 ; t } F a b c d a. Western Skink, adult; Pleasant Valley, May 28, 1915. b. San Diego Alligator Lizard, tail regenerated; Yosemite Valley near the village, May 19, 1919. c. Sierra Alligator Lizard, immature with tail complete; Yosemite Valley, May 19, 19T9! d. Sierra Alligator Lizard, adult with regenerated tail; Chinquapin, June 14, 1915. All photographed, about °4 natural size, from freshly collected specimens. See text, pp. 630, 633. PLATE 59 a. Valley Gopher Snake—harmless; Pleasant Valley, May 29, 1915. See text, p. 643. This and the lower figure, about % natural size. b. Pacifie Rattlesnake; Pleasant Valley, May 27, 1915. For full discussion of char- acteristics and of steps to be taken in case of being bitten, see text, pp. 645-650, [738] a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA b [GRINNELL—-STORER] PIR AVGE 59 PLATE 60 Some amphibians of the Yosemite section: California Toad; Pleasant Valley, May 25, 1915. Sierra Yellow-legged Frog; Porcupine Flat, June 27, 1915. Western Spade-foot Toad; Farrington ranch, near Williams Butte, May 5, 1916. Yosemite Toad, young female; three miles east of Chinquapin, May 20, 1919. Yosemite Toad, adult female; Poreupine Flat, June 27, 1915. Mount Lyell Salamander; head of Lyell Canon, July 19, 1915. For text accounts, see pp. 652-665, | 740 | UNIVERSITY OF b CALIFORNIA [741 | [GRINNELL—-STORER | PLATE 50 ae i o ’ UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA [GRINNELL-STORER] PLATE 61 = Mt Lyell Mt Dana 1309) 13050 13000 i ‘ 2 Florence Mt. os “-s~ Warren Mt ae 12507 ZN AN 12337 Mt. Clark tte Conness Mt. 11000 A \1506 12556 MtHoffmann ge 10921 a Tioga Pass 10000 3541 Clone vane Craters 164 9000 Tuolumne Meadows alll. = Boundary Hill Tenaya Lake 8600 Williams Butte 8600 8147 aes 8000 ae : = ~ Porcupine Flat _ Washburn Lake ‘Welitee le 7000 sie s ie Pilot Peak Chinquapin Yosemite Falls Merced Lake 6600 egpe a oo 6256 Ea Nevada Falls 6000 Mono Lake 6412 t= =) Hazel Green 5665 —— Merced Grove 5506 5000 Bullion Mt. Yosemite Village 4215 4045 4000 3000 Penon Dango Ridge Smith Creek YOSEMITE VALLEY LIFE ZONES aay 3000 El Portal ' 2000 Acpine-Arctic () Transition Coulterville U PPER SONORAN Pleasant Valley 1650 Pl HUDSONIAN a E 1000 — = 5509 in GD Canavan Lower SONORAN Lower Canyon of Merced River 2000 SEA LEVEL Cross-section of the Sierra Nevada in the latitude of Yosemite Valley showing the extent and location of the several life zones in the region and the zonal position of important points of interest. The section proper follows the Merced River up through Yosemite Valley and through Tenaya Cafion. From Tenaya Lake eastward it follows the Tioga Road. Peaks to the south of the section are indicated by dotted lines. cr UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Map of the Yosemite “+eclion'” of the Sierra Nevada, showing the area covered in the accompanying report, the collecting’stations ovcupied, the routes of travelffollowed by members of the Museum field party, and the life-zones of the region. Base taken from United States G al Survey Topograp Orange=Lower Sonoran Zone. Yellow=Upper Sonoran Zone. Blue="Transition Zone. Green=Canadian Zone. Violet=Hudsonian Zone. — White=Alpine-Areti¢ ‘ollaotin to of esloredon IN DEX" A Accipiter cooperi, 17, 284-286 velox, 17, 282-284 Actitis macularia, 263-265 Aeronautes melanoleucus, 351-352 Agelaius phoeniceus, 400-407 phoeniceus aciculatus, 19, 400, 403 phoeniceus californicus, 18, 400, 404, 405 phoeniceus nevadensis, 18, 400, 404, 405 tricolor, 19, 407-408 Sete nhils ruficeps ruficeps, 19, 467-468 Ammodramus savannarum bimaculatus, 19, 443 Amphispiza belli, 19, 464-466 nevadensis nevadensis, 19, 466 Anas platyrhynchos, 253 Aneides lugubris lugubris, 21, 653 Antelope, American, 231, 242 Pronghorn, 241, 242-243 Anthus rubescens, 542-543 Antilocapra americana americana, 242-243 Antrozous pacificus, 15, 60-61 Aphelocoma californica immanis, 18, 387- 3892 woodhousei, 18, 392 Aplodontia, 155, 209, 702 Aplodontia rufa californica, 16, 155-158 Aquila chrysaetos, 17, 292-294 Archibuteo ferrugineus, 291-292 Archilochus alexandri, 18, 352-353 Ardea herodias, 256-258 herodias hyperonea, 256 herodias treganzai, 256 Ash-throat, 360, 361 Asio wilsonianus, 17, 300-3038 Astragalinus lawrencei, 19, 437 psaltria hesperophilus, 19, 435-437 tristis salicamans, 19, 434-435 Astur atricapillus striatulus, 17, 286-287 Asyndesmus lewisi, 341-342 B Badger, California, 15, 92-95, 680, 691 Baeolophus inornatus inornatus, 20, 572- 574 Baldpate, 253 Bassariscus astutus raptor, 15, 87 Bat, Free-tailed, 53, 58 Fringed, 15, 57 High Sierra, 15, 55-56, 686 Hoary, 15, 53, 54, 58, 59-60, 686 Large Brown, 15, 51, 55, 56, 57, 58-59, 60, 61, 62, 686 Little California, 15, 51-55, 56, 57, 58, 60, 61, 686 Long-legged, 15, 56-57 Merriam, 15, 51, 57-58, 60, 686 Mexican Free-tailed, 15, 61-63 Pacifie Pallid, 15, 60-61 Pallid, 53, 56, 59 * Italicized numbers refer to main account. [743] Batrachoseps attenuatus, 21, 654 Bear, American Black, 15, 63-68 Black, 69, 71, 688 Grizzly, 68, 64, 68-71 Beaver, Golden, z 17, 215-218, 710 Sierra Mountain, 16, 132, 155- 158, 702 Bibliography, 667 Bighorn, 243, 246 Bird, Cedar, 505 Bittern, American, 256 Least, 256 Blackbird, Bi-colored Red-winged, 18, 26, 400, 402, 406, 408 Brewer, 19, 23, 26, 27, 29, 35, 286, 375, 401, yl 3-41 6 Kern Red-winged, 19, 400 Nevada Red-winged, 18, 35, 400, 402 Red-winged, 398, 399, 400, 401, 402, 403, 407, 597 Tri- colored, 19, 401, 407-408 Yellow-headed, 399-400 Blackbirds, Red-winged, 400-407 Bluebird, Arctic, 622 Mountain, 21, 34, 35, 616, 618, 622-625, 680, 735 Western, 7, 21, 25, 27, 28, 30, 31, 32, 283, 291, 490, 529, 573, 615-622, 623, 670 Bob-cat, 98, 99 Bowibe cil ‘cedrorum, 504-505 garrula, 504 Botaurus lentiginosus, 256 Bubo virginianus pacificus, 17, 309-310 Bufo boreas boreas, 655 boreas halophilus, 21, 655-657 canorus, 21, 657-660 Bunting, Lazuli, 19, 26, 27, 28, 29, 35, 80, 467, 468, 490, 491-493, 516 Bush-tit, 617 California, 20, 26, 27, 28, 579-582 Lead-colored, 580, 582 Buteo borealis calurus, 17, lineatus elegans, 17, 289 swainsonl, 17, 290-291 Butorides virescens anthonyi, 258-259 Buzzard, 279 Turkey, 279, 280, 281, 287, 288 C Callospermophilus chrysodeirus deirus, 16, 1638, 173-176 Calypte anna, 18, 353-354 Canis latrans lestes, 15, 71 ochropus ochropus, 71 287-289 chryso- -76 Carpodacus cassini, 19, 423- pe DA mexicanus front: alis, 19, 4 425-427 purpureus californic us, 19, 420-422 Castor canadensis subaur Abus. 17, 215-218 INDEX Cat, California Ring-tailed, 81 Civet, 90 Ring-tailed, 5, 15 Cathartes aura septentrionalis, 17, 279-281 Catherpes mexicanus punctulatus, 20, 552- 555 Centrocercus urophasianus, 17, 274-275 Certhia familiaris zelotes, 20, 561-564 Cervus nannodes, 241-243 Ceryle aleyon caurina, 17, 313-315 Chaetura vauxi, 350 Chamaea fasciata henshawi, 20, 582-586 Charina bottae, 21, 635-636 Chat, Long-tailed, 20, 26, 27, 403, 539-540 Chickadee, Mountain, 9, 23, 322, 323, 575, 576, 577, 579, 587 Short-tailed Mountain, 12, 20, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 574-579, 678, 682, pl. 10 Chickaree, 196 Sierra, 17, 158, 203-211, 367, 384, 614, 678, 680, 706, 708 Chipmunk, Allen, 5, 12, 16, 177, 178, 183- 185, 188, 194, 285, 286, 678, pl. 3 Alpine, 5, 16, 177, 178, 180, 184, 190-194, 195, 680, pl. 3 Long-eared, 5, 16, 177, 178, 183, 184, 186, 187-190, 648, 704, pl. 3 Mariposa, 16, 177, 178, 184, 185-187, 188, 648, 649, 674, pl. 3 Mono, 5, 9, 16, 177, 178, 190, 194-195, pl. 3 Sagebrush, 5, 16, 177, 178, 195-196, pl. 3 Tahoe, 12, 16, 89, 176-183, 188, 190, 191, 194, 678, 680, pl. 3 Yellow-headed, 174 Chondestes grammacus strigatus, 19, 444- 446 Chordeiles acutipennis texensis, 18, 347- 348 virginianus hesperis, 18, 346 Cinclus mexicanus unicolor, 20, 543-546 Circus hudsonius, 281-282 Citellus beecheyi beecheyi, 16, 76; 162-168 beldingi, 16, 163, 168-173 mollis stephensi, 16, 173 Clemmys marmorata, 21, 650 Cnemidophorus tigris mundus, 21, 632-633 Cock-of-the-woods, 334 Colaptes cafer collaris, 18, 342-343 Coluber constrictor flaviventris, 643 lateralis, 21, 641-642 Columba fasciata fasciata, 17, 275-278 Colymbus nigricollis californicus, 247 Cony, Yosemite, 5, 17, 89, 161, 218-221, 680, 708, 712 Coon, California, 15, 81-82 Coot, 261 Copperhead, 169, 174 Cormorant, Farallon, 251-252 Corvus brachyrhynchos hesperis, 392 corax sinuatus, 392 Cottontail, Sacramento, 17, 227-228 Washington, 17, 227-228 Cougar, 95 Cowbird, Dwarf, 7, 18, 398, 399 Nevada, 18, 35, 398, 399 Cowbirds, 398-399 Coyote, California Valley, 72 Mountain, 15, 64, 71-76, 86, 95, 176, 239, 713 Valley, 72, 73, 74, 75 Creeper, Sierra, 12, 20, 23, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 35, 305, 561-564, 579, 587, 588, 678, pl. 10 Crossbill, Sierra, 31, 32, 423, 428-430 Crotalus oreganus, 21, 645-650 Crow, 393, 548 Clark, 393, 396 Fremont, 393 Western, 26, 392-393 Cryptoglaux acadica, 17, 307-308 Cyanocephalus cyanocephalus, 18, 397-398 Cyanocitta stelleri frontalis, 18, 379-387 Cypseloides niger borealis, 18, 349-350 1B) Dafila acuta, 254 Deer, Mule, 17, 96, 97, 98, 231-240, 246, Dt (Ld, (4. Rocky Mountain Mule, 76 Dendragapus obscurus sierrae, 17, 272-274 Dendroica aestiva brewsteri, 20, 521-523 auduboni auduboni, 20, 524-529 coronata hooveri, 523-524 nigrescens, 20, 529-531 occidentalis, 20, 532-533 townsendi, 531 Diadophis amabilis amabilis,21, 639 Dipodomys, 146-149 heermanni dixoni, 16, 146, 147 heermanni heermanni, 16, 146, 147, 149 leucogenys, 16, 146, 147 Dipper, 544 American, 20, 30, 33, 34, 543-546, 551, 599, 674, 729 Dog, Water, 651 Dove, Western Mourning, 17, 26, 27, 28, 33, 35, 278-279 Dryobates nuttalli, 18, 319-320 pubescens turati, 18, 317-319 villosus orius, 17, 315-317 Duck, Harlequin, 253, 255-256 EK Eagle, Golden, 17, 31, 34, 279, 288, 292- 294, 720 Elanus leucurus, 281 Elk, Dwarf, 231, 241-243 Tule, 231, 241 Empidonax difficilis difficilis, 18, 372-373 griseus, 18, 373-374 hammondi, 18, 370-371 trailli trailli, 18, 371-372 wrighti, 18, 367-369 Eptesicus fuscus, 15, 58-59 Erethizon epixanthum epixanthum, 16, 151-154 Eumeces gilberti, 634 Euphagus cyanocephalus, 19, 415-416 Eurycea platycephala, 21, 652 INDEX Eutamias alpinus, 16, 176, 177, 178, 180, 183, 190-194 amoenus monoensis, 16, 176, 177, 178, 191, 194-195 merriami mariposae, 16, 176, 177, 178, 185-187 pictus, 16, 176, 177, 178, 194, 195-196 quadrimaculatus, 16, 176, 177, 178, 180, 183, 187-190 senex, 16, 176, 177, 178, 180, 183-185, 187, 285 speciosus frater, 16, 176-183, 194 F Faleo columbarius columbarius, 295-296 mexicanus, 294 peregrinus anatum, 294-295 sparverius sparverius, 17, 296-297 Falcon, Prairie, 33, 294, 720 Felis oregonensis hippolestes, 97 oregonensis oregonensis, 15, 95-98 Finch, California Purple, 7, 19, 28, 29, 30, 31, 420-422, 423, 425, 429, pl. 7 Cassin Purple, 7, 19, 32, 33, 34, 420, 421, 423-424, 429, 431, 604, 678, pl. 7 House, 425 Purple, 420, 421, 422, 425, 426, 510 pire Nevada Rosy, 7, 19, 34, 430-433, pl. 1 Fisher, Pacific, 15, 83-85, 274, 690 Flicker, 623, 624 Red-shafted, 18, 23, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 61, 93, 286, 335, 342-348, 557, 661, pl. 5 Flycatcher, Ash-throated, 18, 26, 27, 28, 360-361 Gray, 7, 18, 373-374 Hammond, 7, 9, 18, 31, 33, 370-371, 373, 374, 678 Olive-sided, 18, 27, 31, 32, 33, 364-365, 366, 598 Traill, 18, 26, 28, 29, 35, 371-372, 373 Western, 18, 29, 30, 31, 305, 379-373 Wright, 18, 27, 29, 31, 32, 34, 358, 367- 369, 370, 371, 372, 373, 374, 385, 477 Fox, California Gray, 5, 15, 77, 78-80, 468 Cascade Red, 5, 15, 77 Gray, 78, 100, 269, 271 Red, 78, 79 San Joaquin Kit, 15, 77-78 . Frog, California Red-legged, 21, 666 California Yellow-legged, 21, 663 Red-legged, 664, 666 Sierra Yellow-legged, 21, 663, 740 Frogs, Yellow-legged, 663-665 Fulica americana, 261 G Gallinago delicata, 263 Geococcyx californianus, 17, 313 Geothlypis trichas, 538-539 trichas occidentalis, 538, 539 trichas scirpicola, 20, 538 Gerrhonotus, 630-632 palmeri, 21, 631 scincicauda webbii, 21, 630 < [745 ] Glaucidium gnoma californicum, 17, 311- 312 Glaucomys sabrinus lascivus, 17, 163, 211- 215 Gnatecatcher, Western, 21, 27, 28, 33, 391, 548, 593-595, 672 Goldfinch, Green-backed, 19, 26, 27, 28, 352, 435-437, 642 Lawrence, 19, 435, 486, 437 Willow, 19, 26, 480, 434-435, 436 Gopher, Digger Pine Pocket, 5, 16, 135, 672 Fisher Pocket, 16, 135 Fresno Pocket, 5, 16, 135 Sierra Nevada Pocket, 16, 44, 49, 76, 135 Yosemite Pocket, 5, 16, 135, 303, 312, 676, 694, 698 Gophers, Pocket, 134-143 Goshawk, 253, 284, 288 Western, 7, 17, 274, 286-287, 720 Grebe, American Hared, 35, 247, 248 Eared, 247, 295 Pied-billed, 26, 248 Grizzly, Henshaw, 69 Grosbeak, Black-headed, 23, 418, 419, 485, 486, 487, 488, 489, 595, 597, 609 Blue, 490, 491 California Blue, 7, 19, 26, 490-491, 616 California Evening, 19, 31, 32, 417-419, 423, 429, 431 California Pine, 7, 19, 419-420, 596 Evening, 417, 418, 419 Pacific Black-headed, 19, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 35, 484-490, 510, 672 Pine, 419, 420 Grouse, Sierra, 7, 17, 31, 33, 34, 35, 272- 274, 286, 678 Guiraca caerulea salicarius, 19, 490-491 Gull, California, 35, 248-250, 716 Gulo luscus luteus, 15, 85-86 Hare, Sierra, 224 Hawk, American Sparrow, 17, 26, 30, 35, 296-297, 720 California Squirrel, 292 Cooper, 17, 27, 32, 38, 271, 283, 284-286, 287, 288, 289, 300, 415, 720 Duck, 294-295 Ferruginous Rough-legged, 291-292 Marsh, 35, 281-282, 288, 720 Northern Pigeon, 295-296 Red-bellied, 17, 26, 288, 289 Red-tailed, 279, 281, 282, 290, 291, 293, 294, 297, 358, 381, 392, 396 Sharp-shinned, 17, 29, 32, 282-284, 287, 288, 382, 720 Sparrow, 50, 283, 288, 289, 294, 295, 296, 625 Swainson, 17, 288, 290-291, 573, 720, 721 Western Red-tailed, 17, 22, 27, 32, 287- 289, 720 Heron, Anthony Green, 258-259 Black-crowned Night, 26, 259 California Great Blue, 26, 256 Great Blue, 256, 259 Pallid Great Blue, 256 INDEX Herons, Great Blue, 256-258 Hesperiphona vespertina californica, 19, 417-419 Hirundo erythrogaster erythrogaster, 20, 499-500 Histrionicus histrionicus, 255-256 Horned Toad, California, 630 Hummingbird, Allen, 355-356 Anna, 18, 27, 28, 353-354, 356, 357, 722 Black-chinned, 18, 35, 352-353, 357, 722 Calliope, 18, 29, 31, 32, 356-358, 678, 722 Rufous, 354-356, 356, 357 Hydrochelidon nigra surinamensis, 251 Hyla regilla, 21, 661-663 Hylocichla guttata, 602-605 guttata guttata, 602 guttata nanus, 602 guttata sequoiensis, 21, 602 ustulata ustulata, 21, 600-601 I Icteria virens longicauda, 20, 539-540 Icterus bullocki, 19, 411-413 Iridoprocne bicolor, 20, 500-501 Ixobrychus exilis exilis, 256 Ixoreus naevius meruloides, 614-615 J Jay, Blue-fronted, 18, 23, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 283, 286, 305, 379-387, 396, 397, 570, 592, 616, 678 California, 176, 30.5, 359, 379, 381, 384, 387-392, 396, 397, 481, 548, 616 Interior California, 7, 18, 26, 27, 28, 387-392, 670, 672 Mountain Blue, 379 Pifion, 7, 18, 35, 379, 387, 394, 397-398, 616, 682 Steller, 379 Woodhouse, 9, 18, 379, 387, 392, 397, 616, 682 Junco, Shufeldt, 459, 461 Sierra, 19, 23, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 391, 422, 454, 458, 459-464 Slate-colored, 458, 460, 461 Junco hyemalis hyemalis, 458 oreganus shufeldti, 459 oreganus thurberi, 19, 459-464 Kk Killdeer, 26, 27, 34, 264, 265-267, 680 Kingbird, Western, 18, 26, 27, 35, 286, 359- 360, 391, 415 “Kingfisher, Belted, 23, 314 Western Belted, 17, 29, 30, 33, 313-315 Kinglet, Golden-crowned, 23, 305, 307, 518, 563, 581, 587, 588, 591, 595, 678 Ruby-crowned, 23, 305, 306, 312, 354, 385, 513, 518, 587, 589, 590, 591, 592, 593, 595, 678 Western Golden-crowned, 12, 21, 30, 31, 32, 38, 586-589, pl. 10 Western Ruby-crowned, 21, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 589-593, pl. 10 Kite, White-tailed, 251 L Lagurus curtatus, 16, 133 Lampropeltis getulus boylii, 21, 640-641 -multicincta, 21, 640 Lanius ludovicianus, 506-508 eet excubitorides, 20, 506, 507, ludovicianus gambeli, 20, 506, 507, 508 Lanivireo solitarius cassini, 20, 511-513 Lark, California Horned, 18, 27, 374 Dusky Horned, 35, 374 Larks, Horned, 374-376 Larus californicus, 248-250 Lepus californicus, 221-224 californicus californicus, 17, 221, 222 californicus deserticola, 17, 221, 222, 224 townsendii sierrae, 17, 224-226 Leucosticte, 431, 482, 483 Leucosticte tephrecotis dawsoni, 19, 430- 433 Linnet, 283, 420, 421, 422, 423, 426 California, 19, 26, 27, 28, 35, 420, 423, 425-427, 547, 618, 724, pl. 7 Lion, Mountain, 64, 74, 76, 99, 239, 240 Northwestern Mountain, 15, 95-98 Rocky Mountain, 97 Lizard, Alligator, 631, 632 California Whip-tailed, 21, 627, 632-633, 736 Fence, 627, 629 Mountain, 21, 627, 628-630, 736 Mountain Alligator, 627, 678 Pacific Blue-bellied, 21, 626, 627 San Diego Alligator, 21, 630, 737 Sierra Alligator, 21, 627, 631, 737 Tenaya, 627, 629 Tenaya Blue-bellied, 21, 626, 627, 628 Western Fence, 21, 626, 736 Lizards, Alligator, 630-632 Blue-bellied, 626-628 Lobipes lobatus, 261-262 Lophortyx californica vallicola, 17, 270- 272 Loxia curvirostra bendirei, 428-430 Lynx eremicus californicus, 15, 98, 99-101 M Magpie, American, 376 Black-billed, 18, 35, 301, 376-379, 682, 735 Yellow-billed, 376 Mallard, 253, 254, 255 Mareeca americana, 253 Marmot, Sierra, 93, 151, 159, 220 mre Sierra, 5, 16, 158-162, 680, 703, pl. 2 Marmota flaviventer sierrae, 16, 155-162, 163 Marten, Pine, 84, 89 Sierra Pine, 15, 82-83, 220, 274, 680, 690, 708 Martes caurina sierrae, 15, 82-83 pennanti pacifica, 15, 83-85 Martin, Bee, 359 Western, 497 INDEX Meadowlark, 409, 411 ees 19, 26, 27, 28, 35, 409-411, 412, 54 Melanerpes formicivorus bairdi, 18, 337- 341 Melospiza lincolni, 470-472 lincolni gracilis, 470, 471 lincolni lincoln, 19, 470, 471 melodia, 468-470 melodia fisherella, 19, 468, 469, 470 melodia heermanni, 469 melodia merrilli, 469 melodia rufina, 469 Mephitis occidentalis, 15, 91-92 Merganser, American, 252 Red-breasted, 252 Mergus americanus, 252 Mice, Big-eared, 111-112 California Meadow, 126-129, 131 Common White-footed, 104-109 Pocket, 144-146 ‘ Microdipodops polionotus, 16, 149 Microtus californicus, 123, 126-129 californicus aestuarinus, 16, 726, 127,130 californicus mariposae, 16, 123, 126, 127, 130 montanus yosemite, 16, 122-126, 130, 300 mordax sierrae, 16, 129-133 Mimus polyglottos leucopterus, 20, 547- 548 Mink, Pacific, 15, 87, 89-90 Mockingbird, Western, 7, 20, 26, 547-548, 597, 730 Mole, Mono, 5, 15, 43 San Joaquin, 15, 43 Yosemite, 15, 43, 44, 676, 694 Moles, 43-46 Molothrus ater, 398-399 ater artemisiae, 18, 398 ater obscurus, 18, 398 Mouse, Allen Jumping, 16, 49, 149-151, 693 Boyle, 107, 110, 113 Boyle White-footed, 15, 100, 105, 106, 110-111, 112, 672, 674, 692 California Pocket, 5, 16, 144, 145, 146, 147, 693 Cantankerous Meadow, 122, 123, 134 . Common White-footed, 105, 106, 107, 108, 672, 692 Gambel, 106, 107 Gambel White-footed, 15, 76, 93, 102, 104, 105, 112, 150, 661, 692 Gilbert, 110, 111, 112, 113 Gilbert White-footed, 5, 15, 105, 107, 711 Great Basin Pocket, 5, 16, 51, 144, 145, 146 Harvest, 102 House, 101-103, 106, 692 Jumping, 149 Long-tailed Harvest, 16, 174-115 Mariposa Meadow, .5, 16, 122, 124, 126, 128 Meadow, 49 Mono Kangaroo, 5, 16, 149, 693 Mountain Lemming, 5, 16, 131, 133-134 Parasitic, 112, 113 Parasitic White-footed, 5, 16, 105, 107, 112-113 San Joaquin Pocket, 5, 16, 144, 145, 146, 693 Sierra Cantankerous Meadow, 16, 123, 129-183, 674 Short-tailed Grasshopper, 5, 16, 113 Short-tailed Meadow, 16, 133 Sonora, 106, 107 Sonora White-footed, 15, 104, 109, 113 Abresre, UE True White-footed, 9, 16, 107, 1/1 Tule Meadow, 5, 16, 122, 126 White-footed, 303, 305, 645 Yosemite Meadow, 16, 122-126, 127, 131, 132, 300, 303, 676, 680 Mud-hen, 26, 35, 261 Mus musculus, 101-103 Mustela arizonensis, 15, 86-89 muricus, 15, 89 vison energumenos, 15, 89-90 xanthogenys, 86 Myadestes townsendi, 21, 595-599 Myiarchus cinerascens cinerascens, 18, 360-361 Myiochanes richardsoni richardsoni, 18, 365-3867 Myotis californicus californicus, 15, 41-55 longicrus longicrus, 15, 56-57 lucifugus altipetens, 15, 55-56 thysanodes, 15, 57 N Nannus hiemalis pacificus, 20, 558-560 Neosorex palustris navigator, 15, 48, 50-51 Neotoma cinerea cinerea, 16, 120-122 fuscipes streatori, 16, 116-120,305 Newt, Pacific Coast, 21, 627, 651 Nighthawk, Pacific, 18, 34, 346, 347, 680 Texas, 7, 18, 347-348, 659, 721 Notophthalmus torosus, 21, 651 Nucifraga columbiana, 18, 393-396 Nutcracker, Clark, 9, 18, 32, 33, 34, 35, 379, 380, 393-396, 397 Nuthatch, Pigmy, 20, 31, 35, 565, 567, 569, 571, pl. 10 Red-breasted, 20, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 385, 562, 565, 567, 568-570, 571, 678, 1. 10 Siuaion billed 20, 27, 28, 32, 35, 323, 564-568, 569, 571, 670, pl. 10 Nuttallornis borealis, 18, 364-365 Nycteris cinerea, 15, 59-60 Nycticorax nycticorax naevius, 259 Nyctinomus mexicanus, 15, 61-63 O Oberholseria chlorura, 19, 482-484 Ochotona schisticeps muiri, 17, 218-221 Odocoileus hemionus hemionus, 17, 76, 231-240 Onychomys leucogaster brevicaudus, 16, c INDEX Oporornis tolmiei, 20, 534-538 Oreortyx picta plumifera, 17, 267-269 Oreoscoptes montanus, 20, 546-547 Oriole, Bullock, 19, 26, 27, 28, 411-413 Osprey, 288 American, 297 Otocoris alpestris, 374-876 alpestris actia, 18, 374, 376 alpestris merrilli, 374, 376 Otus asio quercinus, 17, 308-309 Ouzel, Water, 23, 544, 729 Ovis canadensis slerrae, 243-246 Owl, Barn, 17, 298, 299 Billy, 310 Burrowing, 17, 165, 299, 310-311 California Pigmy, 7, 17, 30, 299, 311- 812, 323, 592 California Screech, 311 California Spotted, 17, 299, 304-805, 592 Golden, 298 Great Gray, 17, 38, 299, 305-307, 309, 326, 592, 719 Great Horned, 304, 309 Ground, 310 Horned, 271, 309 Long-eared, 7, Bia, 2A}S) 300-303, Sill 718 Monkey-faced, 298 Pacific Horned, 17, 299, 304, 307, 309- 310 Pigmy, 307, 309, 312 Saw-whet, 17, 299, 307-308, 589 Screech, 307, 348 Southern California Screech, 17, 299, 308-3809 Spotted, 38, 309 Oxyechus vociferus vociferus, 265-267 P Pandion haliaetus carolinensis, 297 Panther, 95 Passer domesticus, 439-440 Passerculus sandwichensis, 442-443 sandwichensis alaudinus, 442 sandwichensis nevadensis, 19, 442 sandwichensis sandwichensis, 442 Passerella iliaca, 472-477 iliaca altivagans, 472, 473 iliaca insularis, 472 iliaca mariposae, 19, 472, 473 iliaca megarhyncha, 473 iliaca monoensis, 19, 472, 473 iliaca schistacea, 472, 473 iliaca sinuosa, 472, 473 iliaca unalaschcensis, 472 Passerina amoena, 19, 491-493 Pelecanus erythrorhynchos, 252 Pelican, White, 252 Penthestes gambeli abbreviatus, 20, 574- 579 Perognathus, 144-146 californicus californicus, 16, 144 inornatus inornatus, 16, 144 parvus olivaceus, 16, 144 [ 748 ] Peromyscus boylii boylii, 15, 106, 107, 110- wa, californicus californicus, 1138, 645 maniculatus, 104-109 maniculatus gambeli, 15, 76, 104, 107 maniculatus sonoriensis, 15, 1045 10m 109 truei, 111-112 truei gilberti, 15, 107, 111 truei truei, 16, 107, 711 Petrochelidon lunifrons lunifrons, 19, 497- 499 Pewee, Western Wood, 18, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, 365-367 Wood, 107, 209, 366, 367 Phainopepla, 20, 27, 505-506, 670 Phainopepla nitens, 20, 505-506 Phalacrocorax auritus albociliatus, 252 Phalaenoptilus nuttalli, 343-345 nuttalli californicus, 18, 343 nuttalli nuttalli, 18, 343 Phalarope, Northern, 261-262 Wilson, 262 Phenacomys orophilus, 16, 133-134 Phloeotomus pileatus abieticola, 18, 334- 3387 Phoebe, Black, 18, 26, 27, 28, 362-363, 499 Say, 35, 362, 598 Phrynosoma blainvillii frontale, 21, 630 Pica nuttalli, 376 pica hudsonia, 18, 376-379 Picket-pin, 88 Picoides arcticus, 18, 326-327 Pigeon, Band-tailed, 7, 17, 23, 29, 30, 275- 278, 301, 307, 382, 398, 674, 719, pl. 4 Pinicola enucleator californica, 19, 419-420 Pintail, 254 Pipilo crissalis carolae, 19, 480-481 maculatus, 477-479 maculatus curtatus, 19, 477, 478 maculatus falcinellus, 19, 477, 478 Pipistrelle, Merriam, 52 Pipistrellus hesperus merriami, 15, 57-58 Pipit, 375, 376, 441, 508, 543 American, 34, 542-543 Piranga ludoviciana, 19, 493-497 Pisobia minutilla, 263 Pituophis catenifer heermanni, 21, 643-645 Planesticus migratorius propinquus, 21, 605-614 Plestiodon skiltonianus, 21, 633-635 Podilymbus podiceps, 248 Polioptila caerulea obscura, 21, Pooecetes gramineus, 440-442 gramineus affinis, 440 gramineus confinis, 19, 440 Poor-will, California, 344 Dusky, 18, 343, 344, 345 Nuttall, 18, 343, 345, 719 Poor-wills, 348-845 Porcupine, Yellow-haired, 5, 16, 151-154, 680, 710 Procyon lotor psora, 15, 81-82 16, 107, 112- 25 1- 593-595 INDEX Progne subis hesperia, 497 Pronghorn, 242 Psaltriparus minimus californicus, 20, 579-582 plumbeus, 582 Puma, 95 Q Quail, Mountain, 17, 28, 31, 32, 33, 35, 80, 267-269, 271, 272, 273 Valley, 17, 26, 27, 28, 80, 100, 267, 270- 272, 313, 714 Querquedula cyanoptera, 253-254 R Rabbit, California Jack, 17, 221, 222, 223 Desert Jack, 5, 9, 17, 221 Mariposa Brush, 5, 17, 228-231 Sacramento Cottontail, 5, 229 Sierra White-tailed Jack, 17, 224-226, 680 Snowshoe, 224, 225 Washington Cottontail, 5 White-tailed Jack, 222, 225, 226 Rabbits, Black-tailed Jack, 221-224 Racer, Blue, 643 California Striped, 21, 531, 627, 637, 641-642 Western Yellow-bellied, 637, 643 Yellow-bellied, 648 Raccoon, 313 Rail, Virginia, 260-261 Rallus virginianus, 260-261 Rana aurora draytonii, 21, 666 boylii boylii, 21, 663, 665 boylii sierrae, 21, 663, 665 Rat, Alexandrine, 103-104 Alexandrine Roof, 116 Black, 103 Brown, 103 Bushy-tailed Wood, 83, 89, 117, 161, 220 Gray Bushy-tailed Wood, 16, 116, 120- 122, 680, 708 Heermann Kangaroo, 5, 16, 145, 1 fe 147, 148, 714 Kangaroo, 313 Merced Kangaroo, 5, 16, 145, 146, 147, 693 Norway, 103 evr Kangaroo, 5, 9, 16, 145, 146, 1 Roof, 103 Streator Wood, 16, 100, 104, 116-120, 122, 198, 672, 674 Rats, Kangaroo, 146-149 Rattlesnake, 640, 643, 644 Pacific, 21, 165, 645-650, 714, 738 Rattus rattus alexandrinus, 103-104 Raven, Western, 392 Red-wing, 400-407, 408, 413, 415 Bi-colored, 402 Regulus calendula cineraceus, 21, 589-593 satrapa olivaceus, 21, 586-589 Reithrodontomys megalotis longicauda, © 16, 114-115 Road-runner, 17, 313, 633 Robin, Oregon, 615 Western, 21, 23, 27,28, 29, 30; 31, 32; 33, 34, 35, 100, 167, 286, 358, '396, 598, 605-614, 615, 670, 734 Rough-leg, Ferruginous, 288 S Sable, American, 82 Sage-hen, 7, 9, 17, 274-275 Salamander, Arboreal, 21, 627, 653 Mount Lyell, 21, 627, 652, 653, 740 Slender, 21, 653, 654 Salpinctes obsoletus obsoletus, 20, 550-552 Sandpiper, Least, 263 Spotted, 34, 263-265, 680 Sapsucker, Red- breasted, 3829, 330, 333, 354, 591, 613 Red-naped, 830 Sierra Red-breasted, 18, 31, 327-330, Sole splao Williamson, 7, 18, 33, 34, 391-334, pl. 5 Sayornis nigricans, 18, 362-363 sayus, 362 Scapanus latimanus, 43-46 latimanus campi, 15, 43 latimanus monoensis, 15, 43 latimanus sericatus, 15, 43 Scaphiopus hammondii hammondii, 21, 654-655 Sceloporus graciosus graciosus, 21, 627, 628-630 occidentalis, 626-628, 629, 635 occidentalis bi-seriatus, 21, 626 occidentalis occidentalis, 21, 626, 627 occidentalis taylori, 21, 626, 628, 629 Sciurus douglasii albolimbatus, 17, 163, 203-211 griseus griseus, 17, 163, 196-203 Scotiaptex nebulosa nebulosa, 17, 305-807 Selasphorus alleni, 355-356 rufus, 354-355, 356 Sheep, Domestic, 244, 245 Mountain, 241, 243 Sierra Mountain, 232 Sierra Nevada Mountain, 243-246 Shoveller, 254 Shrew, Adorned, 5, 15, 47, 48, 674 Dusky, 15, 47, 48, 49, 50, 685 Lyell, 47 Navigator, 15, 50-51, 685 Sierra Nevada, 15, 47, 50 Yosemite, 5, 15, 47, 50, 676, 685 Shrews, 47-50 Shrike, ‘California, 20, 26, 27, 506, 507, 508, 730° Loggerhead, 506 White-rumped, 20, 506 Shrikes, 506-508 Sialia currucoides, 21, 622-625 mexicanus occidentalis, 21, 615-622 Siskin, Pine, 19, 23, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 436, 438-439, 678 Sitta canadensis, 20, 568-570 carolinensis aculeata, 20, 564-568 pygmaea pygmaea, 20, 571 INDEX Skink, Western, 21, 633-635, 640, 674, 737, pl. 12 Skunk, California Spotted, 15, 90-91 Hydrophobia, 90 Little Spotted, 90, 91 Spotted, 81 Striped, 15, 90, 91-92, 98 Snake, Black, 643 Boyle King, 21, 640-641 Bull, 648 Coral King, 21, 627, 640, 641, 674, pl. 12 Giant Garter, 636, 637 Milk, 641 Mountain Garter, 21, 636 Pacific Garter, 21, 636 Rubber, 21, 627, 635-636 Valley Gopher, 21, 643-645, 738 Wandering Garter, 636, 639 Western Gopher, 165 Western Ring-necked, 21, 639 Snakes, Garter, 636-639 Water, 637 Snipe, Wilson, 263 Solitaire, 420 Townsend, 7, 21, 25, 30, 31,.32, 33, 419, 595-599, 609, 613, 621, 734, pl. 11 Sorex, 47-50 lyelli, 47, 48 montereyensis mariposae, 15, 47, 48 obscurus obscurus, 15, 47, 48 ornatus, 15, 47, 48 vagrans amoenus, 15, 47, 48 Sparrow, Alberta Fox, 473 Aleutian Savannah, 442 Fel 7, 19, 80, 464-466, 467, 468, 672, pl. 8 Black-chinned, 453, 458 Brewer, 7, 19, 35, 453, 456-457, 682, pl. 8 Chipping, 454, 456, 458, 464, 494 English, 27, 439-440 Forbush, 470, 471 Fox, 448, 472, 477 Gambel, 447 Golden-crowned, 26, 27, 30, 32, 448, 450-452, 474, 484, 617, pl. 8 Heermann Song, 469 Hudsonian White-crowned, 7, 19, 33, 34, 35, 132, 446, 447, 449, 680 Intermediate, 27, 447, 448, 449, 450, 451, 474, pl. 8 Intermediate White-crowned, 26, 35, 446, 447, 450 Kadiak Fox, 32, 472 Lark, 448, 451 Lincoln, 469, 470, 471 Mariposa Fox, 7, 19, 31, 32, 33, 473, 477, 482, 483, 489, 613, 725 Merrill Song, 469 Modoe Song, 19, 35, 468, 469, 639 Mono Fox, 7, 19, 35, 473, 477 pees Sage, 7, 19, 35, 466, 467, 682, pl. 8 Nevada Savannah, 19, 35, 442, 443, pl. 8 Northeastern Lincoln, 32, 33, 470, 471, 726 Northwestern Lincoln, 19, 26, 470, 471 Oregon Vesper, 440, 441 Rufous-crowned, 19, 80, 467-468, pl. 8 Rusty Song, 469 Savannah, 441 Shumagin Fox, 472 Slate-colored Fox, 473 Thick-billed Fox, 473 Valdez Fox, 473 Western Chipping, 19, 22, 23, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 452-456, 457, 460, 461, 579, 642, 661, 680, pl. 8 Western Grasshopper, 19, 443, pl. 8 Western Lark, 19, 26, 27, 28, 35, 444- 446, 483 Western Savannah, 441, 442 Western Vesper, 19, 35, 440, 441, 444 White-crowned, 88, 420, 430, 440, 446, 470, 474, 483, pl. 8 Sparrows, Fox, 472-477 Lincoln, 470-472 Savannah, 442-443, 446 Song, 468-470, 473 Vesper, 440-442 White-crowned, 446-450, 451 Spatula clypeata, 254 Speotyto cunicularia hypogaea, 17, 310- 311 Sphyrapicus thyroideus thyroideus, 18, 331-334 varius daggetti, 18, 327-330 varius nuchalis, 330 Spilogale phenax phenax, 15, 90-91 Spinus pinus pinus, 19, 438-459 Spizella atrogularis, 458 brewer, 19, 456-457 passerina arizonae, 19, 452-456 Spoonbill, 254 Sprig, 254 Squirrel, Belding, 169, 174 Belding Ground, 5, 16, 88, 94, 162, 163, 168-173, 174, 175, 176, 680, pl. 2 Bummer, 204 California Gray, 17, 196-203, 204, 209, 305, 382, 384, 414, 674, 704, 705 California Ground, 16, 76, 94, 159, 162- 168, 170, 171, 174, 176, 197, 577, 597, 674 Douglas, 204 Golden-mantled Ground, 76, 109, 163, 680 Gray, 100, 101, 182, 196-203, 415 Pine, 204 Red, 88, 182, 184, 196, 198, 203, 213 Sierra Flying, 17, 211-215, 323, 678 Sierra Nevada Golden-mantled Ground, 16, 173-176, pl. 2 Stephens Ground, 164 Stephens Soft-haired Ground, 9, 16, 17 Steganopus tricolor, 262 Stelgidopteryx.serripennis, 20, 503 Stellula calliope, 18, 356-358 Sterna forsteri, 251 Strix occidentalis occidentalis, 17, 304-305 Sturnella neglecta, 19, 409-411 Swallow, Barn, 20, 26, 27, 498, 499-500, 722 [750] INDEX Cliff, 19, 27, 426, 497-499, 500, 722, 724 Northern Violet-green, 20, 27, 28, 29, 501-508, 722 Rough-winged, 20, 498, 503 Tree, 20, 498, 500-501 Violet-green, 291, 350, 352, 498, 501, 502 Swift, Black, 349 Northern Black, 18, 349-350 Vaux, 350 White-throated, 18, 28, 29, 31, 351-352, 501, 722 Sylvilagus audubonii audubonii, 17, 227- 228 bachmani mariposae, 17, 228-231 nuttallii nuttallii, 17, 227-228 rE Tachycineta thalassina lepida, 20, 501-503 Tanager Louisiana, 494 Western, 19, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 286, 385, 477, 493-497, 510 Taxidea taxus neglecta, 15, 92-95 Teal, Cinnamon, 253-254 Telmatodytes palustris plesius, 560-561 Tern, Black, 251 Forster, 251 Thamnophis, 636-639 ordinoides couchii, 636 ordinoides elegans, 21, 636 ordinoides vagrans, 636 sirtalis infernalis, 21, 636 Thomomys, 134-143 alpinus awahnee, 16, 135, 139, 303 bottae mewa, 16, 134, 735, 1388, 139 bottae pascalis, 16, 134, 735, 1388, 139 monticola monticola, 16, 76, 135, 138, 139 quadratus fisheri, 16, 135, 139 Thrasher, California, 7, 20, 27, 78, 377, 545, 548-550, 597, 672 Sage, 20, 35, 546-547, 682 Ap ee Alaska Hermit, 30, 31, 602, 603, 6 Dwarf Hermit, 602, 603 Hermit, 473, 600 Northern Varied, 31, 32, 614-615 Russet-backed, 21, 26, 27, 29, 31, 371, 600-601, 602, 603, pl. 11 Sierra Hermit, 21, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 602, 603, 604, 609, 680, pl. 11 Varied, 599, 602, 615 Thrushes, Hermit, 602-605 Thryomanes bewicki drymoecus, 20, 545- 556 Titmouse, Plain, 7, 20, 27, 28, 291, 548, 572-57 4, 575, 592, 620, 670 Toad, California, 21, 165, 318, 655-657,. 658, 664, 740 California Horned, 21, 627, 630 Northwestern, 655, 656, 657 Spade-foot, 627, 655, 664 Western Spade-foot, 21, 654-655, 740 Yosemite, 21, 655, 657-660, 664, 740 [751 ] Towhee, Brown, 422, 480, 481, 573 Green-tailed, 19, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 473, 476, 482-484, 682, 725, 726 Nevada Spurred, 19, 477 Northern Brown, 7, 19, 26, 27, 28, 480- 481, 672 Sacramento Spurred, 19, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 286, 477, 725 Spurred, 88, 303, 384, 460, 478, 479, 481, 482, 605 Towhees, Spurred, 477-479 Toxostoma redivivum redivivum, 20, 548- 550 Tree-toad, Pacific, 21, 661-663, 664 Troglodytes aedon parkmani, 20, 556-558 Turtle, Pacific Mud, 21, 650 Tyrannus verticalis, 18, 359-360 Tyto pratincola, 17, 298 U Urocyon cinereoargenteus californicus, 15, 78-SO Ursus americanus, 15, 63-68 henshawi, 68-71 V Vermivora celata, 519-520 celata lutescens, 20, 519 celata orestera, 20, 519 ruficapilla gutturalis, 20, 516-519 Vireo, California Least, 7, 20, 26, 27, 509, 514-516, 727, 728 Cassin, 7, 20, 23, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 305, 373, 385, 509, 511-513, 579, 674, 727 Hutton, 7, 20, 27, 28, 31, 305, 509, 513- 514, 590, 727 Least, 403, 513, 514, 515, 539 Warbling, 512, 513, 579 Western Warbling, 20, 23, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 305, 372, 385, 508-510, 511, 518, 676, 727 Vireo belli pusillus, 20, 514-516 huttoni huttoni, 20, 513-514 Vireosylva gilva swainsoni, 20, 508-510 Vole, Cantankerous, 130 Vulpes cascadensis, 15, 77 macrotis mutica, 15, 77-78 Vulture, Turkey, 17, 26, 27, 279-281, 292, 293, 720 W Warbler, Alaska Myrtle, 523-524, 526, 527 Alaska Pileolated, 35, 540, 541 Audubon, 20, 23, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 60, 286, 385, 516, 517, 518, 523, 524-529, 530, 533, 581, 591, 618, 670, 678, pl. 9 Black-throated Gray, 7, 20, 28, 29, 30, 31, 305, 516, 517, 518, 529-531, 533, 579, 642, 674, pl. 9 Calaveras, 7, 20, 23, 29, 31, 32, 33, 516- 519, 520, 532, 534, pl. 9 INDEX California Yellow, 20, 23, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 35, 286, 492, 521-523, 676, pl. 9 Eastern Orange-crowned, 519 Golden Pileolated, 20, 31, 32, 33, 516, 540, 542, pl. 9 Hermit, 20, 23, 29, 31, 32, 516, 517, 518, 527, 532-533, pl. 9 Lutescent, 20, 33, 519, 520, 521, 528, pl. 9 Macegillivray, 534 Myrtle, 524, 526 Orange-crowned, 26, 520 Pileolated, 35, 517, 518, 534, 541 Rocky Mountain Orange-crowned, 20, 35, 519, 520 © Tolmie, 7, 20, 29, 32, 35, 516, 517, 518, 534-638, 541, 728, pl. 9 Townsend, 27, 35, 5380, 531, 532 Yellow, 284, 403, 516, 517, 518, 520, 521, 522, 541, 549 Warblers, Orange-crowned, 519-520 Pileolated, 540-542 Waxwing, Bohemian, 504 Cedar, 504-505, 621 Weasel, California, 86 Least, 89, 192, 220 Mountain, 15, 86-89, 93, 158, 173, 220, 680 Sierra Least, 5, 15, 87, 89 Yellow-cheeked, 86 Widgeon, American, 253 Wildcat, 269, 271 California, 15, 99-101, 614, 674 Wilsonia pusilla, 540-542 pusilla chryseola, 20, 540, 541 pusilla pileolata, 540, 541 Wolverine, Sierra Nevada, 5, 15, 85-86, 95, 690 Woodpecker, Arctic Three-toed, 7, 18, 326-327, 680, pl. 5 California, 18, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 291, 305, 317, 329, 331, 337-341, 354, 385, 670, 674, pl. 5 Downy, 317 Hairy, 327 Lewis, 26, 27, 35, 340, 341-342, pl. 5 Modoeg, 17, 28, 29, 30, 32, 33, 34, 315- 317, 318, 319, 321, 676, pl. 5 Northern Pileated, 18, 32, 334-337 N onthe White-headed, 18, 28, 320-326, pl. Nuttall, 7, 18, 27, 316, 319-320 Pileated, 335, 337 White-headed, 38, 320-325, 331, 567, 577 Willow, 18, 23, 28, 30, 316, 317-319, 320, 329, 385, 676, pl. 5 Wren, Bewick, 555, 556, 617 Canon, 551, 552 Dotted Cafion, 20, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 552-555, 730 House, 555, 557 Parkman, 23, 556 Rock, 20, 27, 34, 550-552, 553 San Joaquin, 555, 557 San Joaquin Bewick, 7, 20, 26, 27, 28, 468, 555-556, 557, 730 Vigors, 555 Western House, 20, 26, 28, 35, 470, 510, 556-558, 732 Western Marsh, 560-561 Western Winter, 7, 20, 31, 558-560, 561 Winter, 117, 557, 559 Wren-tit, 363, 391, 467, 617 Pallid, 7, 20, 27, 28, 30, 582-586, 672 x Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus, 399-400 Xenopicus albolarvatus albolarvatus, 18, 320-326 Yellowthroat, Tule, 20, 26, 538, 539 Western, 35, 538, pl. 9 Yellowthroats, 403, 538-539 Z Zamelodia melanocephala capitalis, 19, 484-490 Zapus pacificus alleni, 16, 149-151 Zenaidura macroura marginella, 17, 278- 279 Zonotrichia coronata, 450-452 leucophrys, 446-450 leucophrys gambeli, 446, 447, 450 leucophrys leucophrys, 19, 446, 447 i i . aan 7 Ys : — i» ta ‘ » » oe ach ee ) Ape, Swi) ea). oe & vee Pay ON Ao rn 15 GP Pile «ie SRK : us ‘ a “% , 7 2 . pie fee ee oat $0940 084 aaee e0e bun teas eens ae * epee enh ee oF oo Pe $ at Mattie fatacarecgrasteee tsa sehreattets ee wy me DG y + ry er *, i at ot ts i o .‘ iSetatateisce! fats 3 2 at . 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