as eae teo4 ss s ae : istses ane eit : eee 2383}, OF ee we ore e ye 5 t+ at ‘y ioere rt “ee io rete 0m A oie bdo. an i . Cae Petar a et a os teh =—ate t er hre rh partoseta tees prara tees STE tex rd Torry : Presrsy tr aoe eee of hy he a X ar ao et rt + , ener en et hn? Leartetdy, Mor lees tte a » * Feststes = ay tragie te 3 oy veeaet™ fatty ei Sheets Bit eapanaens “ok oe ed ber pases wy om nf Sy irs Sy oe tt Pebete oc ete meses ett seter eer ee ted cys beewee eke * sores > arrestee ty oe Sates ere Th resents oot ta! seretit el pais of ests eyarte sas It ete ape aie fe oy ae ee bak Re es a ae ee pchabetat Sth te tos yt a iat yeeanantast ; yi Tst ie Se: ise Sas ed ci =A OES OH Cokie he hae he eee od rt, ae ate fete ceed pour wa. Lytes) ott o pines rks ee + att ep reres aori yor i eee ahr pte! eis plusreeatststanetay ia seMrirtaecstas tic tes are rey ae ad iis Sete tetas Sateen ees th eke ae waeie ieee ce S padudetinedeAdy-chdetinkaa rt om Vim te tone eee te et ve ws —n. mine Ue Gs eee te 5one" eo bene Blake she t. Sab mas wm tee tate ee : eee Sireciete eee hee Miarie hare ioe pvteA eS 4 A SEAT A. oo THA ’ f at Myr ececes a mrs nee atrteee pee Ona et st 1S is non bales re : : Seek ot ; “r tne - + roan oe seats tite praet, iit ee rtatete seer" a4 trie rttt oh tirscaserser tat ts S ae etityte aa : iit o nese Se Tee le hew ors acer te He eeheteee ene aoe eee rs Mets brits “~ praurt ae ra oe 4 sty ts He Bhet—botete hols tala neem te * bs saat at et es eit i oe it ay ‘ THE ANNALS AND MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY, é INCLUDING ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, ann GEOLOGY. (BEING A CONTINUATION OF THE ‘MAGAZINE OF BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY, AND OF LOUDON AND CHARLESWORTH'S ‘MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY. ) CONDUCTED BY Sir W. JARDINE, Bart., F.L.S.—P. J. SELBY, Esa., F.LS., GEORGE JOHNSTON, M.D., CHARLES C. BABINGTON, Esa., M.A., F.LS., F.G.S., J. H. BALFOUR, M.D., Reg. Prof. Bot. Glasg., AND .RICHARD TAYLOR, F.L.S., F.G.S. LONDON: PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY R. AND J. E. TAYLOR. SOLD BY S. HIGHLEY; SIMPKIN AND MARSHALL; SHERWOOD AND CO.; W. WOOD, TAVISTOCK STREET; BAILLIERE, REGENT STREET, AND PARIS: LIZARS, AND MACLACHLAN AND STEWART, EDINBURGH } CURRY, DUBLIN: AND ASHER, BERLIN. 1845. ‘‘Omnes res create sunt divine sapientie et potentie testes, divitie felicitatis humane :—ex harum usu bonitas Creatoris; ex pulchritudine sapientia Domini; ex ceconomia in conservatione, proportione, renovatione, potentia majestatis elucet. Earum itaque indagatio ab hominibus sibi relictis semper estimata; a vere eruditis et sapientibus semper exculta; male doctis et barbaris semper inimica fuit.”— LINN. CONTENTS OF VOL. XV. NUMBER XCV. I, On the Anatomy of Zolis, a genus of Mollusks of the order Nu- te dibranchiata. By Ausany Hancocx and Dennis Emeteron, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., Lecturer on Anatomy and Physiology in the Newcastle- upon-Tyne School of Medicine. (With five Plates.) ...seecssecseeeseeees 1 II. Memoirs on Geographic Botany. By Ricnarp Brinstey Hinps, Surgeon R.N., F.R. Coll. Surg. .......csccccseoscsescscneceosees pepe aoabas gos 11 III. On the Occurrence of the genus Pollicipes in the Oxford Clay. By Joun Morris, Esq. (With a Plate.) ccccscsceessscseeceecs ngewaisd s4 Nukes 30 IV. Description of some new species of the genus Ancyloceras. By Joun Morris, Esq. (With a Plate.) ..ccccccessecsseeeees depajsereseegncs ans V. Descriptions of a new genus and some new species of Homopte- rous Insects from the East in the Collection of the British Museum. By Apam Wuire, Assistant Zool. Dep. Brit. Mus. ......cscscscersccceeees 34 VI. Descriptions of two apparently new species of Lamellicorn Beetles. By Apam Wuire, Assistant Zool. Dep. Brit. Mus. ......... 38 VII. Description of a new species of Aelanogaster. By C. E. Broome, Esq. .......0+0 UNNI RNY Sage On? SRR aR a A 41 VIII. On the Laws which regulate the Geographical Distribution of Littoral Mollusca. By M. Acre D’ORBIGNY csccceessenereseecservecees 42 New Books :—Elements of Comparative Anatomy, by Rud. Wagner, M.D.; translated from the German by Alfred Tulk, M.R.C.S.E.. 45 Proceedings of the Zoological Society ; Botanical Society of Edinburgh ; Geological Society ......seseeeees Mabe oedceeeivenenncrsceduarnenesas sh 46—68 Submarine Explorations by M. Milne Edwards; Observations on some Polypes ; Food of the Australian Natives; Mr. Schomburgk’s Col- lections in Guiana; Meteorological Observations and Table ... 68—72 NUMBER XCVI. IX. Description of some Animals found amongst the Gulf-weed. By Harry D. S. Goonsir, M.W.S. (With a Plate.)...ccccccccssseseevececsees 73 iv CONTENTS. Page X. On the Anatomy of Eolis, a genus of Mollusks of the order Nu- dibranchiata. By Autsany Hancock and Dennis Emsieron, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., Lecturer on Anatomy and Physiology in the Newcastle- upon-Tyne School of Medicine ...........seseeee gris twicdcesn see pay ees 77 XI. Memoirs on Geographic Botany. By Ricuarp Brinsitey Hinps, Surgeon R.N., F.R. Coll. Surg. (Continued.)........cccsecevecseceecess we ee XII. On the Preservation of Objects of Natural History for the Microscope. By the Rev. M. J. Berxexey, F.L.S. ...........ceeeceeeee 104 XIII. A Century of new Genera and Species of Orchidaceous Plants. Characterized by Professor LINDLEY ......cccccerescecceeeeees dkaaenl beene VE AMancock, del: SDC Sowerby Se. Anatomy of Eolis. THE ANNALS MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY. S6i . iensacenatecil per litora spargite muscum, Naiades, et circim vitreos considite fontes ; Pollice virgineo teneros hic carpite flores ; Floribus et pictum, dive, replete canistrum. At vos, o Nymphe Craterides, ite sub undas ; Ite, recurvato variata corallia trunco Vellite muscosis e rupibus, et mihi conchas Ferte, Dez pelagi, et pingui conchylia succo.” Parthenit Ecl.1. No. 95. JANUARY 1845. em Te Tae yee It is highly important that the amount of the vegetable world should be ascertained, as it becomes the basis on which numerous * In the ‘ Historical and Descriptive Account of British India,’ published in the ‘ Edinburgh Cabinet Library,’ vol. iii. p. 162, is the tollowing paragraph from the pen of Dr. Greville :—*“ Itis extremely difficult to form an estimate of the probable extent of the Indian flora, the vegetation of many parts of the country being entirely unknown, and almost everywhere very imperfectly explored. In fact, in the remote districts, little more has been done than to follow the courses of rivers. ‘The herbarium in the Museum of the Kast India Company contains about 9000 species, including those known and de- scribed by Roxburgh in his manuscript catalogue, most of which were at that time new. To this amount remain to be added a considerable number of new species in the collection of Dr. Wight. * * * Dr. Wallich obtained, from his own personal exertion, in the valley of Nepaul, and within an area of about sixty miles in circumference, upwards of 2500 species. Twelve months was the space of time devoted to this labour, and it cannot be sup- posed that he succeeded in discovering all the vegetable productions of that district. From these and other data it has been calculated by Dr. Wallich that we are not acquainted, at the present moment, with more than the eighth part of the flora of India; an estimate by no means improbable, but which gives to India itself as many species of plants as we find described in bota- nical works.” Mr. R. B. Hinds on Geographic Botany. 15 calculations are to be raised. In fixing it at 134,000 species, we have attempted to do for botany what Swamson has done for zoo- logy ; but in a comparison between the two, the number of plants is found to be considerably less than that of animated beings. The . great amount of the latter is however chiefly composed of insects, the above author limiting them at 550,000, whilst he computes the rest of the animal kingdom at 27,600; the whole clothing the surface of the globe with 711,600 different and distinct forms of organized matter. The following will give some idea of the distribution of vege- table forms in round numbers, in the six natural divisions of the world, and their relative amount to the extent of surface :— Square miles. Europe . . . 11,200 . . 2,793,000 Aste so oa BE ROO 5: 5 122.18,000 Africa's) 6... 0! 26,2800). vi 8,500,000 North America . 14,400 South America . 40,000 f° ° 11,146,000 Australasia . . 7,200 . . 8,100,000 134,000 37,657,000 As might be expected, by every one the least acquainted with _ the physical conditions of these sections of the world, there is no connexion between the extent of surface and the proportion of vegetation it supports. From the gross result it appears that for every species there is a superficies of 281 square miles of dry land ; a space amply sufficient for the repetition of species in the form of individuals, the very numerous multiplications of which clothe the land with vegetation, and is a character which must not be undervalued, as plants vary much in the number of indi- viduals which are comprehended under different species, and whose abundance constitutes the value of the latter. Linnzeus was the first naturalist who ventured an opinion as tothe manner in which the earth was originally covered with spe- cies; he imagined them to have spread from a common centre. There is no ground for supposing otherwise than that all the kingdoms of nature had a similar origin and distribution, and that the laws obeyed by one were common to all; the views of Linneeus extended to all of them equally. Several theories have been since proposed, but they al’ may be regarded as one great theory, gradually formed as information accumulated, and step by step enlarging to suit the new facts continually brought to light. The earth beg furnished with vegetation at the period mentioned in the sacred writings, no event occurred likely to have a material influence on it, and the botanist, bemg once acquainted as to the manner of the first distribution, has every reason to re- 16 Mr. R. B. Hinds on Geographic Botany. main satisfied with his knowledge. With the zoologist it is dif- ferent ; the catastrophe of the deluge necessarily swept all ani- mated beings from the surface of the earth, excepting those pre- served in the ark; an opmion strengthened by geologists, who regard the deluge as having been universal. At the subsiding of . the waters the animals emerged from a focus, whence they were to spread to all regions. As it is allowed that plants and animals were distributed by the same laws, and the universality of the deluge being also allowed, there is wanting something in the hi- story of animals and plants to place them under the same condi- tions. As we shall presently see, plants did not spread from one or several centres, but simultaneously covered everywhere the dry land. The inferences urging this conclusion are numerous and satisfactory, and this point once established to the conviction of botanists, the animal kingdom must be left to. the inquiries of the zoologist. It was imagined by Linnzus that all plants, birds and beasts diverged from one centre ; indeed, that all organized beings were created in one spot, whence they spread far and wide to beautify and people the earth.. This region enjoyed a mild and lovely cli- mate, and to secure those varieties of temperature necessary for the existence of many, it was provided with a range of mountains and intervening valleys, where each could enjoy that climate most congenial to its habits. It would be useless to attempt to refute this, as its inaccuracies are evident on the shghtest inspection ; even the facts adduced for its support cannot be admitted at the present day. It is evidently the offspring of the imagination of the author, which always adorned his conceptions and writings, . but in this, as in other instances, was destitute of the necessary solidity. Perhaps no similar class of men were ever so devoted to science as the pupils of Linneus ; many of them were travellers, and by their researches in distant countries the study of plants became greatly extended. As facts poured in, the hypothesis of Linneeus gradually lost ground, for it was discovered that the state of botany in different countries did not bear it out. Instead of one centre it was now maintained that there had been several, whence all organized beings were disseminated, more particularly plants. _ Willdenow was the most conspicuous promoter of this view, but it was merely a transition to the opinions received at present. . It was however still maintained that those centres were mountain- chains, now regarded rather as barriers to a flora than fit surfaces for its diffusion. . . The present state of our knowledge invites us to the conclusion, that wherever there existed a suitable combination of circum- stances, there vegetation sprung up. Whatever might have been the state of the surface, whether valley, mountain or plain, it made Mr. R. B. Hinds on Geographic Botany. 17 no difference ; if no unfriendly agents were at hand the soil was covered with plants. It seems highly probable that plants like animals are furnished with constitutions, having a nice perception of external circumstances, and though the inquiry assumes a mi- croscopic tendency, we do not despair of discovering some very interesting facts, when a minute inquiry shall be instituted on the state of the different regions of alpine vegetation and the in- fluences under which they flourish. On the other hand, if plants were diffused from one or more mountain-chains, the inquiry would end totally unproductive. Those circumstances which tend to establish the present view may be advantageously considered in detail. 1. The authority of the sacred writings.—The language of the Bible is brief, but there is no reason for limiting its meaning ; the earth is stated, and why should not the whole earth be received ? as bringing forth herbs and trees. That omnipotence which could call life into existence and cluster it around one centre was equally capable of spreading it over the whole earth. 2. The physical impediments presented by the distribution of land and water to the diffusion of species.—Since man has been an inhabitant of the globe, the changes in the relation of the seas and continents have been trifling, no event having occurred to disturb it ; as they were at the creation they may be looked on as being now. That this disposition is such as powerfully to limit vegetation we shall presently see. Linnzeus rested his hypothesis chiefly on the facilities, as he supposed, with which plants can be dispersed. He called to mind the great number of seeds and seed-vessels furnished with appendages presenting surfaces to the winds, and it must be acknowledged that the number of plants which nature has provided with organs for the diffusion of their seeds is very considerable. Nor can it be denied for an instant that Erigeron canadense was spread over Europe in every probability by the winds, assisted by the favourable structure of its seed- vessel ; and next it may stand the fact, that Canna indica, though unprovided with any suitable organization, has been found a na- tive alike of Asia, Africa and America. These however are but casualties, instances of departure from a general law, the excep- tions which give birth to a rule; they are not the models repre- senting the diffusion of species generally. There is every reason to suppose that the surface over which these plants are spread is confined, in spite of their highly favourable organization. It has often appeared to me, that birds, though furnished with such admirable organs for rapid locomotion, are very local in their habits. Every sportsman is acquainted with this circumstance, and is influenced by it in his search for game. If birds then with great locomotive powers are confined within restricted limits, Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Vol. xv. C 18 Mr. R. B. Hinds on Geographic Botany. what may not be expected from plants, even though assisted by a favourable structure? Among these plants instances may be found which enjoy a very contracted habitat ; Carduus cyanoides is one of these, and is found on two spots only in Germany. This plant has attached to its seed-vessel a brush of bristly hairs, like many other of its congeners, the use generally as- signed to which is to assist diffusion, and which it often admira- bly accomplishes, though not in the. present instance. Numerous instances are related of seeds being carried by cur- rents on the swell of the ocean across extensive seas from tropi- cal coasts to the shores of northern countries. Fruits have often been picked up on the coasts of Scotland, Denmark and Sweden, which there is not the least doubt were shed within the tropics. Nor does the sea-water in all cases destroy the power of germi- nation, as plants have occasionally been reared from them im our own country, and on the sandy beaches within the tropics the seeds of Mucuna pruriens are sometimes found in quantities in active germination, yet washed about by every rising tide. A more powerful agent has been man, who in his migrations has spread a number of plants in every place where he has fixed his residence; the proportion of these to the flora is however small, and they have seldom given a character to the vegetation*. It is therefore only in a few cases that it can be admitted plants have been thus diffused; the mass of vegetaticn has not moved over the world by this or similar methods. A slight inspection of the tracery on a globe exhibits a certain relation in the distribution of water and dry land: towards the north a mass of land occupies the Arctic circle extending around the pole; traversing the globe on all sides towards the equator, divisions in the surface are gradually observed, increasing in size as they descend, and when arrived within the tropics, mostly en- larged into seas and oceans. The intervals between the masses of land beyond the equator more resembling processes shooting into the ocean, still increase, and towards the south are lost in a vast encircling sea. The tropical portions of each of the great divisions of the world are nearly isolated, whilst in the northern regions the consolidation is considerable, and the whole admits of a comparison, perhaps rather a rough one, of the manner in which the spread fingers are united at their base to the palm of the hand. In each of the divisions the vegetation of the tropics is rich and varied, but the identity in the productions of one with * At Valparaiso in Chili, among a vegetation where they were in every respect strangers, I found the following plants:—Linum catharticum ; Son- chus oleraceus ; Polygonum persicaria; Geranium molle, G. dissectum ; ; Rumex pulcher ; Mentha pulegium; Viola odorata; Equisetum palustre, Similar instances are frequently mentioned in the writings of travellers. Mr. R. B. Hinds on Geographic Botany. 19 the other is extremely slight; nor does this increase as we ad- vance to the south. ‘To the north, on the contrary, there is a gradual increase in the number of species oceurring in the dif- ferent divisions, and where the union of the land is great, many of the species have wide ranges of growth. It is stated that of the native flora of the United States, upwards of a seventh of the phanerogamic plants are common to Europe, and still further to the north the proportion is much greater. In the visits of Cap- tain Beechey to Kotzebue’s Sound in the Blossom ship of war, 233 species were collected ; of these 117, or as nearly one-half as is pos- sible, are met with in the north of Europe. Hence it appears that the large seas have been barriers to the-diffusion of the pre- sent flora of the earth. 3. In confirmation of the views just expressed, we will men- tion some of the statements made by botanists respecting the frequency with which species are repeated, or in other words, the value of duplicates in those portions of the earth which have been subject to their investigations. It is not unusual to meet with passages like the following in the narratives of even the most distinguished navigators. The author, the unfortunate La Perouse, is speaking of the vegetation around Port de Frangais, in 58° 37' N.L.: “Among these pot- herbs we saw almost all that are common in the meadows and mountains of France ;” and again in the same page, “ No vege- table production of this country is unknown in Europe.” The latter part of this is so far from being the case, that on this coast, and very near Port de Francais, new species may still be dis- covered. It is most true that the general character of the vege- tation is strikingly like that of France, England, or the North of Europe, and the traveller recognizes with much pleasure very si- milar plants to what he has been accustomed to see in his own country. But on a minute inspection, characters are discovered which distinguish many of them from their European represen- tatives; whence we learn the importance of accurate and skilful observation in ascertaining what plants are to be considered as distinct from, or identical with, those of another country. In many instances this task is so difficult as to require all the judge- ment and experience of a practised botanist. It is only in the writings of the most sagacious travellers that we can hope to find that correctness in details worthy of implicit confidence. The world may be divided into six sections, constituting so many distinct provinces of the vegetable kingdom, and having the watery barrier which separates them more or less complete. Europe is the first of these, and the isolation is less than in any of the others; Asia with its islands; Africa, including Madagas- car and some islands ; North America, extending as far south as C2 20 Mr. R. B. Hinds on Geographic Botany. the isthmus of Panama; South America, with which are in- cluded the West India islands and the barren Falklands ; Au- stralasia, composed of New Holland, New Zealand, and the Poly- | nesian islands. ach division possesses certain characters pecu- liar to itself which distinguish it from the others, and may be con- veniently regarded as a source of comparison. No travels of modern date are better known than those of Humboldt and Bonpland in Equinoctial America, and none have been attended with such copious and accurate observations ; though they frequently encountered, especially on elevated sta- tions in the Andes, species of genera common in Europe, yet throughout their whole travels they never saw one exogenous plant which was found equally in the old and new world. Twenty- four species alone were discovered which occurred in the latter, and all these were Graminee or Cyperacee. Among 4160 spe- cies met with in New Holland by Dr. Brown, 166 were to be found in Europe ; 15 of these are Hxogene ; 121 belong to Cryp- togamia, being nearly two-thirds of the number ; and 80 to Gra- minee or Cyperacee. On a portion of the north-west coast exa- mined by Mr. Cunningham he collected 1500 plants, and only 52 of these were repeated either in India or South America. Adanson in his ‘Voyage to the Senegal’ mentions, that he only saw two plants in the neighbourhood of that river which he had seen in Europe, tamarisk and purslain. At another river on the same coast, the Congo, of 600 species collected, Dr. Brown has stated that about a twelfth only were met with in South America and India. In high latitudes alone do we find that ex- tensive diffusion which refuses to every restricted spot its own flora. A list of 409 species belonging to Greenland contains only nine peculiar to that country. So far then we find little reason to conclude that vegetation originated in one or a few centres, since there is so little identity among plants of different countries. 4, Had the migration proceeded from a few localities, we should have expected to find, in all situations with similar climates, the identically same species of plants.—That such is not the case is evident from the preceding, but a few moments will be well occupied in showing what does happen here. It is a fundamental principle in geographic botany, that everywhere under similar circumstances similar, but not identical, species exist ; this is a well-known fact, which the daily acquisitions to our knowledge continue to confirm. There is a marked resem- blance in their productions, though the localities under compa- rison may be widely separated; the productions of the Asiatic tropic strongly resemble those of the American; the temperate extremity of Africa has many points of similarity with. the tem- Mr. R. B. Hinds on Geographic Botany. 21 perate portion of New Holland; and the southern extremity of America possesses many circumstances to remind the botanist of the North of Europe or America. Occasionally these characters are conveyed by the presence of natural families, and their value increases inversely to the num- ber of species they contain. A small family, composed but of a few species, has less means of being represented in different loca- lities than a more bulky one. The closest connexions are fur- nished by genera, these being founded on a more minute view of their organization, and on characters shared by a smaller number of vegetable forms. IX.—Description of some Animals found amongst the Gulf-weed. By Harry D. 8. Goopstr, M.W.S. [ With a Plate. ] Tue animals described in the followimg communication are chiefly Mollusca and Crustacea, and were all found attached to the Gulf-weed, Fucus natans. I am indebted to my friend Professor Edward Forbes of King’s College, London, and Mr. A. G. Melville, Assistant Demonstrator of Anatomy in the University of Edinburgh, for the opportunity thus afforded me of examining the creatures found in such a ha- bitat. The contents of the bottle received from Prof. E. Forbes were taken between the parallels of 25° and 36° north, and in about 40° west long. ; and the specimens received from Mr. Mel- ville were all taken about 40° north lat. during the course of one day’s sailing. It will be observed that the animals from both of the above districts are generically and in most instances specifi- cally similar. Nautilograpsus minutus, Edwards. PJ. VII. fig. 1. Inter-orbital space slightly hollowed in the mesial line, serrated very minutely, the teeth being only seen with a magnifier. In- ternal orbital angles rounded, external projecting forward in the form of spines and very acute ; lateral edge of the carapace armed with a single blunt tooth shortly behind the external orbital angle. Description.—The whole body of a straw-yellow, with shades of a reddish blue colour on the carapace ; tips of the eyes black. Carapace almost square, the anterior or inter-orbital space projecting, the posterior part of the lateral edges contracting slightly, the latero-posterior edges of considerable length, and the posterior hardly so extended as the anterior. Dorsal sur- face of the carapace shining, slightly convex, and with the sculp- turing hardly perceptible, but very delicately grooved transversely Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Vol. xv, G 74 Mr. H. D. Goodsir on some Animals with punctured lines running almost parallel to one another. Ambulatory legs of considerable length ; the anterior pair large, the arm extending beyond the lateral edge of the carapace, and having its internal edge very much depressed and thinned, at the anterior angle of which are several strong spines; the remaining legs are all depressed, with the edges of the last three joints armed with long, thick-set hairs, and especially the superior edges. The internal antenne consist of four segments, the last being multiarticulate, and a strong articulated spine arises from the internal edge of the third articulation near its distal extre- mity. The external pair of antenne arise from the mternal angles of the orbit, are multiarticulate and very minute. The ex- ternal foot-jaws are large, but have their internal edges so formed as to leave a lozenge-shaped space between them. The abdo- men in the male of this species is narrow and of a triangular shape ; that of the female large, rounded, and covering almost all the lower surface of the body. It appears to have been found in great numbers both by Mr. Williams and Mr. Melville. 2. Hippolyte ensiferus. Pl. VII. fig. 2. H. with one short tooth projecting forwards from the base of the rostrum; rostrum slightly curved upward with four or five spines at the tip, the third of which from the dorsum is longest. Peduncular scale of external antenne not so long as the rostrum almost by one-third. External foot-jaws not so long as the peduncle of the external antenne ; with the terminal joint flattened, serrated at the apex and on its internal edge. Description.—The whole animal about 1 inch in length, of an ochrey yellow colour except the tips of the eyes, which are black. The internal antenne with the peduncle 3-jointed ; the scale of the external pair very thin and narrowed at the tip, which is also bifurcated. The external foot-jaws have the external edge of the last joint smooth and rather thickened. The first pair of thoracic legs are short, thick, smooth and didactyle; those of the second pair are long, filiform, spined, and also didactyle ; the third arti- culation is very slender. The last three pairs of legs are much longer than any of the preceding, filiform and spined. The mid- dle plate of the tail not so long as the second, armed with two pairs of spines at the tip. Found in considerable abundance between the parallels of 25° and 30° north, and 4° west long., by Mr. Williams. Almost every specimen infested with Bopyrus squillarum. 3. Palemon natator. Pi. VII. fig. 3. P. with the rostrum lanceform, having eleven or twelve large distinct spines on its superior edge, and two small rather indi- found amongst the Gulf-weed. 79 stinct ones on its inferior edge near the tip. Two spines on each side of the carapace near or on the anterior edge. Middle plate of the tail with three obsolete spines on each side and two long spines from the extremity. Description.—The whole animal of a yellow colour; rather more than an inch in length and very robust. Rostrum about the same length as the peduncular scales of external antennae, lanceolate, being rounded and narrowed at the base and dilated near the extremity before ending in a point. The peduncular portion of the superior antennze 4-jointed, the basal joint being large and hollowed out superiorly for the reception of the eyes ; each of the segments of the peduncle end externally and ante- riorly in a spine which projects forwards and outwards. The outermost of the three terminal filaments is the thickest. The peduncular scale of the external antenne does not terminate in a point, but is obliquely truncated ; the terminal filament is longer than those of the superior antenne. First pair of legs very slender, reaching a little beyond the peduncle of external antenne, didactyle. Second pair much stronger, and although the first four joints are delicate, the hand is large and ovate, didactyle ; claws slender and almost straight. The last pair of legs slender. 4. Amphitée pelagica. Pl. VII. fig. 4. A. with peduncle of superior antennz about half the length of the inferior antenne, being almost the same length as the first three joints of the peduncle of the lower antenne. First pair of legs small, second pair with the wrist very much enlarged, and the claw sickle-shaped and moveable, inferior edge having a small tooth with a slight notch on either side of it near the distal ex- tremity ; claw as long as the wrist and tapering very gradually to a point. 5. Bopyrus squillarum. Pl. VII. figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11. B. with posterior edge of last abdominal segment perfect. Description.—Male minute, about 1 line in length or hardly so long, linear. Head small, and about half as long as its greatest breadth. First thoracic joint larger than any of the succeeding. Ambulatory legs very short and chelate. Female broad, flat- tened and pyriform, very much contracted posteriorly and dilated anteriorly. Young almost globular. From beneath carapace of Eippolyte ensiferus. 6. Anatifa sulcata. Pl. VII. fig. 18. The peduncle of this Anatifa is so short as not to be seen without separating the animal from its attachment. The shape is triangular, and the peduncular extremity of the animal is G2 76 On some Animals found amongst the Gulf-weed. slightly concave, with the posterior edges of the latero-peduncu- lar divisions serrated ; the posterior and abdominal angle of this part of the shell is incurvated and pointed, and its external sur- face is deeply sulcated, the sulci all radiating from the posterior abdominal angle to the dorsal edge of the division, where they form small but very distinct serrations. Dorsal division of the shell smooth, extending almost the whole length of the dorsum, and reflected upon the posterior dorsal angles of the latero-pe- duncular division. A small obsolete tooth may be observed upon the dorsal edge near its anterior extremity. The antero-lateral are much smaller than the peduncular divisions of the shell, and are also sulcated, the sulci radiating from the anterior point to- wards the abdominal edge : the ridges formed by these sulci are armed in both divisions with minute teeth, the points of which in the peduncular portion all project towards the dorsum, those in the anterior towards the abdomen. Attached to a portion of Fucus natans. The species now described differs in some points from the figure given by Quoy and Gaimard in the ‘ Voyage de l’Astro- labe,’ which beautiful work I have been able to see through the kindness of Mr. Grut; I thought it unnecessary however to give another specific name. Several specimens of Scyllea pelagica were in the bottle, and the spawn (Pl. VII. fig. 14) of this animal was attached in several places to the Fucus in rather irregular coils; the central extre- mity adhered to a stem of the Fucus, the succeeding parts sur- rounding it in coils, the external extremity being attached in the same manner as the central one. EXPLANATION OF PLATE VII. Fig. 1. Nautilograpsus minutus, nat. size. Fig. 2. Hippolyte ensiferus, mag. three times. 3 Fig. 8. Palemon natator, mag. twice. Fig. 4. Amphitée pelagica, enlarged. Fig. 5. Bopyrus squillarum, female, magnified. Fig. 6. , young. Fig. 7. , male. | Fig. 8. The abdominal surface of the head of male Bopyrus. Fig. 9. One of the ambulatory legs of male Bopyrus. Fig. 10. One of the ambulatory legs of female. Fig. 11. Last abdominal segment of female Bopyrus, showing the entire segment. Fig. 12. Drawing of an ovum, a cluster of which were attached to the Fucus. Fig. 18. Anatifa sulcata, magnified, attached to a portion of the Gulf-weed. Fig. 14. Spawn of Scyllea pelagica. Messrs. Hancock and Embleton on the Anatomy of Eolis. 77 X.—On the Anatomy of Eolis, a genus of Mollusks of the order Nudibranchiata. By Atpany Hancock and Dennis Em- BLETON, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., Lecturer on Anatomy and Phy- siology in the Newcastle-upon-Tyne School of Medicine. [Concluded from p. 10.] The cesophagus, Pl. I. figs. 4c, 6 and 8 b, Pl. II. fig. 9, and Pl. II. figs. 1, 2 and 4c, passes from the posterior dorsal aspect of the buccal mass, and is a much-constricted canal. It is short, longitudinally plicated, and usually bent into the form of an §, so that the apparatus of the mouth can be advanced with facility. It is generally colourless, but in E. coronata and two or three other species it is of a deep rosy hue, appearing as a stain of that colour, immediately behind the dorsal tentacles. It consists of lon- gitudinal and circular fibres, the former of which have been no- ticed in the description of the muscles of the buccal mass. The plicee seem to be formed by the lining membrane, which we take to be a mucous one, and by the muscular coat. The stomach, P\. II. fig.9, and Pl. IIT. figs. 1,2 and 4d, through- out the entire group is a large pyriform pouch which lies diagonally in the body, the lower end approaching the left side; it is continued in the form of a wide, tapering canal, Pl. II. fig. 9, and Pl. IIT. figs. 1, 2 and 4g, along the median line immediately below the dorsal skin, and terminates near the posterior extremity of the body ina blind sac. From the pouch and its continuation branches are given off in pairs, not however in perfect symmetrical order, but always more or less alternating. These branches give off smaller tubes which are continued into the branchial papille. From the upper surface of the posterior extremity of the stomach, just where it is continued into the great central canal, is given off a short intestine, Pl. II. fig. 9, and Pl. IIT. figs. 1, 2 and 4e, which passes backwards, outwards and to the right side, then running for a short distance along the side, turns outwards and upwards and ends abruptly in a nipple-like anus f, generally concealed among the branchial papillz. In E. papillosa, Pl. II. fig. 9, the anus is situate immediately behind the ninth row of papille, and the intestine is considerably dilated a little before its termination: this dilatation is not so conspicuous in other species. In H. coronata, P1. ILI. fig. 1, the anus is placed amidst the papille in the second clump and close behind the fourth row, and in H#. olwwacea, Pl. III. fig. 2, the nipple is seen about midway between the third and fourth rows. In £. despecta, Johnst., Pl. ILI. fig. 4, it is between the first and second branches. This portion of the digestive apparatus, 1. e. the intestine and 78 Messrs. Hancock and Embleton on the Anatomy of Kolis. the anus, appears to have been entirely overlooked by M. de Qua- trefages in his Holidina paradoxum, in which he says there is a very small anus at the termination of the central channel. In all the species we have examined we have not been able to detect such an orifice, but have found the true anus and intestine as above described in at least fifteen examples of the Kolidine. The stomach, PI. III. fig. 7, is composed of three coats, a mu- cous, a muscular, and an external one, which we suppose to be serous. The imner surface of the bulb, of the great central channel, and of the primary and secondary branches, is beset with fine numerous longitudinal ruge or plice, that appear to be formed by projections of the muscular coat covered over by the mucous membrane. In specimens that have been some time in spirits, the mucous coat presents merely a minutely granular ap- pearance ; but we have every reason to think that in the living state it is lined with a layer of ciliated epithelium. The mus- cular coat consists of minute flattened fibres, passing in nearly all directions, the longitudinal and transverse fibres being most distinct. The serous coat appears to be of more homogeneous texture than the others, and much thinner. In E. papillosa, Pl. I. fig. 9, the branches forming the ante- rior pair arise from about the middle of the dorsal surface of the ‘gastric pouch, and are the only ones which come off anterior to the intestine ; they soon bifurcate, the anterior portion is subdi- vided into four branches, the posterior is continued on without further division ; the second pair have their origin in the upper posterior surface of the stomach, and bifurcate like the first pair ; the anterior portion remains undivided, the posterior bifurcates : the two anterior pairs of branches however are not always sym- metrical, as will be observed by referring to the diagram ; indeed we have scarcely seen them alike in any two individuals. The remaining four pairs of branches arise from the central canal, and simply bifurcate. These branches at their origin are all pointed more or less backward ; after their bifurcation they in- cline obliquely forward along the side of the body, lying nearly parallel to each other. From the whole of these branches con- stricted ducts lead into the interior of the branchial papille. In this species there are from twelve to twenty of these ducts given off from each row or branch. In E. coronata, Pl. III. fig. 1, the ramifications of this curious digestive apparatus are somewhat modified. The anterior pair arise from the superior aspect of the lower extremity of the sto- machal bulb, close in front of the origin of the intestine, and each trunk passing forward gives off seven branches, the poste- rior of which is the largest and supplies about seven papille. There are five or six other pairs, all of which originate in the Messrs. Hancock and Embleton on the Anatomy of Kolis. 79 great central trunk, and divide in the same way as the anterior pair, but the branches diminish in number and in size towards the posterior extremity of the body. It may be remarked, that the first and second pairs of branches in this and in most other species are more widely separated than the rest, and in the in- terval the heart is usually placed. Another modification is seen in H. olivacea, Pl. III. fig. 2; in this species there are six pairs of branches, all of which are sim- ple except the first or anterior pair ; these arise as usual from the stomach, and are each divided into three branches. In E. de- specta, Pl. III. fig. 4, the arrangement is still more simplified : after the branches of the first pair come off in the ordinary way from the stomach and pass on undivided, each to a single pa- pilla, the central trunk passes to its termination in a zigzag di- rection, giving off a branch at each angle to a large clavate pa- pilla. There are in all four of these papille on each side ; they are not in pairs however, but alternate. Other slight variations might be cited, but the above are the chief modifications, and are perhaps sufficient to show to what extent the digestive system varies in the genus Holis. We have searched in vain for the lateral vessel described by M. de Quatrefages, and have little hesitation in pronouncing its non-existence in the genus. We have seen several species with the ramifications coloured, and in none of them have we observed the slightest indications of such a vessel. In dissecting EL. pa- pillosa we made every endeavour to detect it, but without success ; and in a small specimen of that species we have since seen the very terminations of the branches, and are quite satisfied that they are isolated : the branches mostly ended in free blind sacs of va- riable length ; others had their ends prolonged, bent outwards and received into small papille, which seemed to be in process of de- velopment ; hence we inferred, that the glandular apparatus in the interior of the papille was formed originally from the free ends of the branches from the stomach. We are also of opinion that when the animal is mature, the ends of all the branches will be found to enter papille. We have observed the termination of branches in papille in a species which had their minute ramifi- cations coloured : this species belongs to that portion of the ge- nus of which E. coronata is the type. It is therefore probable that M. de Quatrefages has been deceived by the doubling of the skin at the sides of the body, caused by the pressure necessarily used during the mode of investigation adopted by that gentle- man: we have seen under such circumstances what might be readily mistaken for a vessel. The prolongations of the branches from the gastric cavity that are continued into the papill are considerably modified in form 80 Messrs. Hancock and Embleton on the Anatomy of Folis. in the various species, and from the variety and brilliancy of their colouring form the chief attraction of these very elegant animals. These prolongations appear on a superficial examination to be exca, but when investigated under favourable circumstances and with a lens, they are found to be tubes with more or less compli- cated follicular walls, Pl. IV. fig.9a: the upper extremity of the tube, where the follicular structure ceases, becomes suddenly deli- cate, transparent and minute, fig. 9b, and is continued on to com- municate with a minute ovate vesicle, fig. 9 c, which lies within the extreme apex of the papilla, and opens externally by a minute circular foramen, fig. 9d: the inner surface of the follicular or glandular part, which we take to be the liver, is lined with a gra- nular matter. The simplest form of this peculiar organ is met with in FZ. con- cinna, P\.1V. fig. 1. In this species it is a mere dilated tube with its wall slightly waved, and having the inner surface sprinkled with darkish granules. In #. Farrani, fig. 2, it still maintains a considerable simplicity of structure, but becomes decidedly sac- culated, and with some degree of regularity. The complexity of this organ is however much increased in EL. olivacea, fig. 3, in which it is deeply and regularly produced into follicles or sacculi, which are much and variously puckered ; but in E. papillosa, fig. 4, it appears to attam its highest development. The central channel is somewhat tortuous, and gives off on all sides variously sized, irregularly shaped blind sacs, which are crowded with little compound follicles. The whole of the inner surface of this com- plicated biliary organ is lined with a thickish layer of what ap- pears to be a granular substance through an ordinary magnifier, but which on examination with the microscope is found to be composed of large irregular vesicles or globules, Pl. V. fig. 7, disposed without any manifest arrangement, and filled with nu- merous granules. These last when submitted to a still higher magnifying power are seen to be transparent, rounded, and of various sizes, and nucleated, fig. 8. The larger bodies or glo- bules have a diameter of ==4,5th of an inch. The largest of the granules measure about z>',9th of an inch in diameter. The compound follicular nature of this gland is best observed in the living papilla fresh plucked from the animal, and submitted to a slight action of the compressor. In papille that have been some time in spirits the gland is somewhat contracted, its divi- sions approximated, and thus a more uniform surface of follicles is presented. In describing this gland or liver M. de Quatrefages has the following passage: “ Mais les ceecums qui partent des branches de l’intestin pour pénétrer dans les cirrhes s’entourent, en en- trant dans leur cavité d’une espéce de fourreau irrégulier formé Messrs. Hancock and Embleton on the Anatomy of Eolis. 81 dune substance granuleuse bien moins transparente que le reste des tissus. I] m’a semblé reconnaitre en outre l’existence de trés petits orifices s’ouvrant dans ’intérieur du cecum.” Now in the numerous species we have examined, we have seen nothing to war- rant the idea here laid down. From our statement above it will be seen, first, that we believe these prolongations of the branches of the digestive cavity not to be ceca, and secondly, that they are not simple tubes having a granular substance coating them, but we find that the walls of the tubes are more or less bulged or thrust outwards into the form of simple or compound follicles, and that the walls are lined throughout by the granular matter we have already described ; in fact, that each papilla contains a perfect gland of distinctly follicular type. Pl. IV. fig. 5. shows a lon- gitudinal, and Pl. IV. fig. 7. a cross section of a papilla of E. pa- pillosa ; a in each represents the great central channel from which on all sides branch off large canals that end in small imperforate diverticula. The whole internal surface of this compound gland is furnished with minute vibratile cilia, as likewise the small canal that leads to the oval vesicle ; the cilia do not appear to be continued into the vesicle. We have however seen, on examining these parts under pressure, small granules which had accidentally passed into the tube, driven by the ciliary motion into the vesicle. Having described the glandular apparatus, we now passon tothe | vesicle at the extremity of the papilla. This vesicle is of an ovoid form ; its long diameter in the largest specimens measures about zeoths of an inch, its narrow end lying within the very apex of the papilla; both ends are perforated ; the narrow end opens ex- ternally through a round aperture in the skin covering the apex of the papilla, the opposite extremity communicates with the gland by means of the slender tube, of variable length, which has already been noticed. The walls of the vesicle, which are seen of an opake white in those species which have transparent.skin, is fused with the inte- gument of the papilla round the external orifice ; and below this stout muscular bands, Pl. IV. fig. 9e, attach the vesicle to the skin, so that during the contractions of the papilla the vesicle is held secure in its position. In EL. papillosa the wall of the vesicle, Pl. V. fig. 12, consists throughout of a strong thick layer of finely interwoven circular muscular fibres. The contents appear to be arranged in longitudinal masses, as represented in the longitu- dinal section, Pl. V. fig. 1, which in a cross section, Pl. IV. fig. 8, have a triangular outline, the apices not quite reaching the axis of the vesicle. There is therefore a free space corresponding to the long axis. If we take out a portion of the contents of the vesicle and place it under the ith-inch object-glass of the micro- 82 Messrs. Hancock and Embleton on the Anatomy of Kolis. scope, we find it to consist of numerous transparent, long, narrow, slightly bent, elliptical bodies, Pl. V. fig. 11, having a double longitudinal faint marking extending from one end nearly to the other; and globules of various sizes, Pl. IV. fig. 6, containmg either one nucleus or several small granules in their interior. These are imbedded and adhere to a tenacious, obscurely granular mucus-like matter. The largest elliptical bodies measure in length Toyoths of an inch, the smallest 55'55thof an ich. The largest globules have a diameter of <355th of an inch. On placing a papilla recently severed from the living E. papillosa in acompressor, and establishing a slight degree of pressure, there were observed to be ejected at intervals from the terminal ori- fice, little transparent ellipsoidal membranous bags, Pl. V. fig. 9, containing half a dozen or more of the elongated bodies already spoken of. Immediately after expulsion most of these bags burst, and the contained bodies becoming scattered, each shot forth from the end that first appeared a slender hair-like filament, fig. 10 aa, with astonishing velocity to a length far exceeding the diameter of the field of the microscope. Other bags did not become rup- tured till a second or two after their expulsion ; from these the filaments proceeded very slowly and in a perfectly regular serpen- tine line, so that their advance could be followed by moving the stage of the microscope, and was observed to resemble closely the progression of many small Annelida. These filaments becoming stationary retained a serpentine form, fig. 105 4; other filaments were minutely spirally twisted at their junction with the elliptical body, fig. 10 cc. The faint double line seen in the interior of the elliptical body we suppose to be the part that contains the filament. The elliptical bodies pressed out from papille which had been in spirits were never observed to emit filaments ; we presume therefore that this phenomenon is a vital manifestation. These bodies we find to differ in form in different species : thus in E. coronata, Pl. V. figs. 2 and 3, they are slightly bent, but shorter and thicker than in FZ. papillosa, and enlarged at their posterior extremity ; they are provided with a similar filament at one end. The bags, fig. 6, contain a considerable number of these, and also numerous other bodies of much larger size, of elliptical form, flattened and transparent, but having in their interior a peculiar marking which is represented in fig. 5. In E. olivacea the bodies with filaments, fig. 4, are rather stouter, but strongly resemble those of EL. coronata. On several occasions we have witnessed the expulsion of these bodies from the living animal, which at the time was suffering slight pressure, so slight indeed that the animal was able to move Messrs. Hancock and Embleton on the Anatomy of Eolis. 83 its papillee, and in one instance an H. Drummond: crawled from one side of the compressor to the other. The expulsion was ef- fected by the walls of the vesicle, and recurred at intervals ; small masses of the bodies were ejected with considerable force, and to some distance. We do not feel ourselves at present in a position to decide upon the true nature of these bodies, but we may say that they resemble Spermatozoa more than anything else ; we may add, that we have obtained bodies to all appearance Spermatozoa from the genital organs of E. papillosa, which dif- fered only from those obtained from the papille in bemg more rounded as to their bodies, and altogether inferior in size. They are shown in Pl. V. fig. 13, as seen under deficient magnifying ower. 3 We shall now revert to the follicular gland of the papilla. We think there can be no doubt of its being a secreting organ pour- ing its secretion into the digestive cavity, and we agree with M. de Quatrefages in the opinion that the entire series of these glands represents the liver, which in the Mollusca is characteris- tically large, but in the Holidine has disappeared from the abdo- minal cavity. The central canal of the gland opens inferiorly by a short duct, Pl. IV. figs. 2,3, 4a, into one of the ramifications of the digestive cavity, and superiorly by the delicate canal before described into the ovate vesicle. We have no doubt that by the lower opening the secretion of the gland finds its way into the gastric ramifications ; but as to the nature of the communication or connexion between the gland and the ovate vesicle, we confess our entire ignorance. iRivoms To give a general idea of the digestive apparatus, we should say that the compound follicles of the papillee represent the liver ; the small tubes leading from them are their ducts, by which their secretion is carried into the gastric organ consisting of the pyri- form pouch, the great central canal, and their main branches. In some species however the structure and functions of the se- veral parts seem somewhat modified. In E. despecta the central canal, all the ramifications and the glands of the papille are co- loured and granulated alike ; it is therefore probable that the whole of these parts perform the same function. The stomach and intestine are the only parts that are transparent in this re- markable species. In E. gracilis, E. rufibranchialis, E. Northum- brica and others, either the extremity of the great central canal or the ends of the lateral ramifications are slightly coloured like the glands of the papillee. | This view of the matter is somewhat corroborated by what is observed to take place during digestion. The food enters the stomachal bulb in large masses, and is there broken up and mixed } 84 Messrs. Hancock and Embleton on the Anatomy of Eolis. with the fluids of the digestive cavity. In this state it is driven _ throughout the alimentary system by the alternate contractions of the pyriform pouch and the great trunks leading from it. These contractions are only of a nature to produce an oscillatory motion which serves to promote that intimate mixture of the ali- mentary matters with the hepatic and other secretions neces- sary to the process of digestion. We have watched this action with great care in E. coronata, and have observed on several occasions in individuals that were free and moving about at pleasure, and in which the action of the parts was natural, currents passing rapidly backwards and for- wards through the stomach, and larger ramifications obeying the various contractions of the parts, and holding in suspension large, crude, irregular particles varying in size and shape. We had the satisfaction also to see more than one individual take its food, which we have found to be always of an animal nature, and could perceive the lumps as they were lopped off by the jaws pass along the cesophagus and enter the stomach. We have likewise fre- quently seen the track of the ¢rue intestine marked out by the dark colour of the feces it contained, and have witnessed also the expulsion of the same from the anus. : M. de Quatrefages supposes that the refined products of di- gestion pass into the branchial ceca as he terms them, and also into the ovoid vesicle, though in the latter he has seen no float- ing corpuscles. Through the walls of the ceca, and especially through those of the vesicle, he believes that the chyle for the support of the body transudes. Again, he makes the branchial ceca surrounded by a granular mass performing the office of liver, thus cumulating in the same organ function upon function. We have already stated that we agree with M. de Quatrefages in taking the glands of the papille, as we term them, to represent the liver, and we now subjoin, that we see no reason to believe them to be also the organs by means of which the chyle is con- veyed from the digestive to the circulatory system. We have our- selves seen crude particles of the alimentary matters mixed with regular corpuscles pass into the glands of the papillz, and on one occasion even a large angular fragment was forced through the narrow duct at the base of a gland, entering its cavity and after- wards passing out again. But in all these cases, our specimens, as well as those of M. de Quatrefages, were suffering considerably from the action of the compressor, and consequently the fluids of the stomach and other parts may have been forced into unnatural channels. We do not put much faith in examinations conducted in this way, and indeed the only satisfactory method of investi- gating this subject is to watch the progress of digestion when the Messrs. Hancock and Embleton on the Anatomy of Kolis. 85 animal is moving freely about ; and until this be done, all theo- rizing appears to us idle, and likely to lead to error and confu- sion. Salivary glands.—These in Eolis are very small and difficult to detect; they lie concealed between the corneous plates and the muscular mass of the cheek, as previously noticed. On removing either of the corneous plates in E. papillosa, the gland will be found lying exposed in a depression on the upper third of the external surface of the cheek-mass, corresponding to about the centre of the corneous plate, Pl. III. fig. 6 a. The gland is composed of a small cluster of roundish, yellow, irregular folli- cles, fig. 5, and frequently a little way in advance of this there is a smaller one made up of two or three follicles. The two parts are connected by a long slender duct, which passing backwards opens into the mouth at the commencement of the cesophagus. We have likewise detected this gland in E. coronata. This gland differs conspicuously in size, position and character from the same organ in Holidina, figured and described by M. de Quatrefages. All we can say is, that in our researches we have observed nothing like the representation given by him of the salivary glands of that species. It is certainly not likely that in animals so closely allied these organs should be so widely different. We would suggest therefore the possibility of that naturalist having mistaken some portion of the generative organs for them. We are inclined to do this the more since he has entirely mis- understood the sexual apparatus, and figured and described only a small portion of it, and since we have sometimes observed, when examining these animals in the compressor, portions of that ap- paratus not altogether unlike M. de Quatrefages’ figure of the salivary glands of Kolidina paradoxum. Since writing the above, we have had much satisfaction in gathering from the Observations of M. Souleyet on the Gaste- | ropod Mollusca, forming the proposed order Phlebenterata of M.~ de Quatrefages, translated in the November Number of the ‘An- nals,’ that our views have been almost altogether verified. With respect however to the anatomy of the gland of the pa- pille, M. Souleyet appears to adopt the opinion of M. de Qua- trefages, who states that the prolongation of the digestive cavity into the papilla is coated with a granular layer—the liver. We have shown above that this view is inaccurate, and in confirma- tion of this we may as well state, that on the papille being sub- jected to pressure, the granular structure of the gland invariably becomes ruptured internally; but if the view taken by these gentlemen be correct, we should apprehend that the rupture would take place externally into the vascular canal ‘surrounding the gland. : 86 Messrs. Hancock and Embleton on the Anatomy of Kolis. EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. Prate I. All the anatomical figures in this plate are from Z. papillosa. Fig. 1. Eolis papillosa, Johnst., a little above natural size. Fig. 2. E. coronata, Forbes, nearly double naturai size. Fig. 3. E. olivacea, Alder and Hancock, four times natural size. Fig. 4. Section of the lips with buccal mass attached : a, outer lip; b, inner lip ; c, esophagus; d, corneous plates of buccal mass; ¢, channel of mouth ; f, circular belt of muscle at the attachment of outer lip; 9 9, muscles passing from the circular belt to foot and skin of head ; h, muscular bands passing from circular belt to posterior margin of horny plates ; 7, foot. Fig. 5. Vertical section of buccal mass, showing the muscles of the tongue, the external APE being removed: a, muscle which assists in ro- tating tongue forwards, arising from upper margin of horny plate, and passing downwards to inferior surface of b, muscle which ro- tates the tongue backwards, being inserted by its ends into the posterior end of tongue and into the inferior extremity of cutting blades e; c, muscle attached to both ends of tongue, which it will approximate ; it will also assist a in rotating the tongue forwards; d, strong layer of short transverse muscles which bind together the external layers of muscle, and form a fulcrum for the semicircular rotators ; f, eesophagus ; g, corneous plates ; h, ridge of the tongue ; i, cutting-jaws ; 4, the hinge or fulcrum of horny plates; /, anterior extremity of muscular cheek-mass. Fig. 6. Nearly vertical section of buccal mass: a, horny plate ; a’, cutting- edge; 6, inner lip; c, hinge or fulcrum; c’, transverse muscles that close the jaws; d, transverse muscles that open the jaws; e, inferior transverse muscles that assist in closing the jaws; f, wedge-shaped mass of tongue, supporting spiny ridge and showing the two ex- ternal layers of muscles ; g, muscular cheek-mass ; h, fold of lining membrane of mouth; 72, outer lip; 44%, circular muscular belt at base of outer lip ; /, cesophagus. Fig. 7. Upper aspect of buccal mass: a a, corneous plates ; b, muscular bands Fig. 8. on the external surface; c, cesophagus; d, transverse muscles be- fore fulcrum ; e, transverse muscles behind fulcrum; the dark line between the two sets of muscles indicates fulcrum; ff, muscles arising from upper part of horny plates, and passing down behind mass of tongue marked a in fig. 5. View of cavity of buccal mass from above, the fulcrum being divided, and the horny plates aa drawn apart ; a' a’, cutting-edges of jaws ; b, inner lip; c, spiny ridge of tongue; d, wedge-shaped muscular mass of ditto; e, muscular cheek-mass; f, flat upper border of ditto; g, anterior attachment of ditto to cutting-jaws ; h, folds of lining membrane of mouth ; 7, fulcrum of horny plates; &, ante- rior and posterior transverse muscles ; /, oesophagus. Fig. 9. Upper aspect of buccal mass with superficial muscles removed : a a, corneous plates; b, triangular process forming fulcrum ; ¢, cut- ting-edges of horny plates; d, ridge dividing surface of fulerum into anterior and posterior parts; e, muscle of left side which pease down to be attached below to tongue-mass, fig. 7 ff; f, thin ayer of muscular fibres which pass from edge of horny plate, con- verging to form longitudinal fibres for cesophagus, g. Fig. 10, Vateral aspect of buccal mass obliquely viewed, with part of the muscles removed : a, exposed surface of corneous plates; 6, poste- Messrs. Hancock and Embleton on the Anatomy of Eolis. 87 rior transverse muscles to open jaws; ¢, anterior ditto to close jaws; d, inferior ditto to close jaws. Fig. 11. Same view as fig. 10: a, corneous plates; 6, muscles of inner lip ; c, inner lip. Puarte II. All the anatomical figures in this plate are from Z. papillosa unless other- wise stated. Fig. 1. Two views of transversely arched plates from ridge of tongue, mag- nified, to show the spines. © Fig. 2. Anterior aspect of buccal mass, with lips and lateral muscles re- moved: a, cutting-edges of jaws; b, superior anterior transverse a od c, inferior ditto; d, tongue appearing between cutting. lades. Fig. 3. Lateral view of buccal mass of £. coronata. Fig. 4. Muscular cheek-masses inclosing a, the tongue; the horny plates have been removed ; @, flat upper free border of masses; c, ante- rior pointed extremity of muscular masses attached to lower end of cutting-blades ; d, oesophagus. Fig. 5. External lateral view of horny plate, all muscles removed : a, ridge giving origin to muscles of inner lip; c, portion of same giving origin to muscles of outer lip ; 6, cutting-blade. Fig. 6. Same view of horny plate of Z. coronata. Fig. 7. Interior view of horny plate of Z. papillosa: a, fulcrum or hinge ; b, cutting-blade; c, line dividing the origin of the anterior and posterior superior transverse muscles. Fig. 8. Front view of horny plates of E. coronata. Fig. 9. Digestive apparatus of £. papillosa, the glands of the papillz re- moved: a, buccal mass; 6 6, corneous plates of same ; c, cesopha- gus; d, bulb of stomach ; e, true intestine; f, anus; g, great central canal leading from stomach and ending posteriorly in a blind sac; h, a primary branch from digestive cavity ; 2, secondary branches; k, ducts from glands of papille. Fig. 10. Teeth of E. nana. Fig. 11. Spiny ridge of tongue of Z. alba. Fig. 12. Upper aspect of three plates of same. Fig. 13. Portion of spiny ridge of EZ. olivacea. Fig. 14. Upper aspect of two plates of same. Prare III. Fig. 1. Digestive apparatus of EZ. coronata; the letters correspond to those of fig. 9, Pl. II. Fig. 2. Digestive apparatus of Z. olivacea ; letters as above. Fig. 3. Upper aspect of two plates of spiny ridge of tongue of Z. nana. Fig. 4. Digestive apparatus of E. despecta; letters as in fig. 9, Pl. II. Fig. 5. Salivary gland and duct of E. papillosa, highly magnified. Fig. 6. Lateral view of buccal cavity and cheek-mass of £. papillosa, one horny plate removed: a, salivary gland; 6, horny plate; ce, part of cheek-mass attached to horny plate; d, flattened upper border of cheek-mass; e, anterior extremity of cheek-mass passing to its attachment to inferior points of cutting-blades; f, free part of ex- ternal surface of cheek-mass. Fig. 7. Stomach of E. papillosa laid open, showing ruge of internal sur- face of bulb, central canal, primary and secondary branches. Puate lV. Fig. 1. Papilla with gland of E. concinna. 88 Messrs. Hancock and Embleton on the Anatomy of Kolis. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 6. Fig. 7. Fig. 8. Fig. 9. Fig. 1. Papilla with gland of EF. Farrani. Ditto ditto of £. olivacea. Ditto ditto of £. papillosa. Longitudinal section of papilla of Z. papillosa, showing interior of gland, &c.: a, great central channel; 4, diverticula therefrom. Globules from ovate vesicle, highly magnified. Transverse section of gland of papilla of . papillosa: a, great cen- tral vessel; 65, diverticula from it. Transverse section of ovate vesicle. Highly magnified representation of a papilla of Z. papillosa: a, the gland ; 8, fine vessel leading from gland to ovate vesicle ¢; d, ori- fice at apex of papilla; e, muscles attaching vesicle to wall of pa- pilla; ff, external wall of space in which the blood circulates in contact with the external surface of.the gland; g g, muscular bands inclosing cellular spaces between ff and the skin of the papilla ; h, skin of papilla; 2, vibratile cilia on external surface of ditto ; kk k, circular and longitudinal muscular fibres of skin. Puate V. Longitudinal section of ovate vesicle. Figs. 2 and 3. Spermatozoid bodies from ovate vesicle of E. coronata. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 6. Fig. 7. Fig. 8. Fig. 9. Spermatozoid bodies from ovate vesicle of E. olivacea. Elliptical bodies inclosed in bags or utriculi with the spermatozoid bodies of E. coronata. . Utriculus or bag from ovate vesicle of Z. coronata, containing the two kinds of bodies mentioned under fig. 5. Vesicles or globules containing granules from the gland of papilla of E. papillosa. The granules more highly magnified. Utriculi from ovate vesicle of £. papillosa, containing the sperma- tozoid bodies. Figs. 10 and 11. Spermatozoid bodies from same: aaaa, bb, cc, different Fig. 12. Fig. 13. Fig. 14. Fig. 15. Fig. 16. appearances presented by the filaments or tails of the spermatozoid bodies of EZ. papillosa. Part of a transverse section of the wall of ovate vesicle of Z. papil- losa, showing the interlacing muscular fibres. Spermatozoa from generative organs of E. papillosa, Anterior view of Lolis papillosa from spirits: c, cutting-jaws; b, inner lip; d, folds of lining membrane, &c. of channel of mouth ; e, outer lips; f, fold of integument external to outer lips; g, labial tentacles; /, dorsal tentacles; 7, anterior margin of foot. Inferior view of head of Zolis olivacea in its natural state. The letters in this fig. as far as they go are as in fig. 14. General view of viscera, &c. of Eolis papillosa from above, the dorsal skin alone having been removed: a, buccal mass ; 5, cere- bral ganglia with the nerves passing off from them ; ¢, ganglia at the base of dorsal tentacles, supposed to be olfactory ; d, cesophagus ; e, stomachal bulb; f, great central canal; ggg, primary and se- condary branches from ditto; h, true intestine; 2, anus; &, por- tions of male generative organs; /, ovarium ; m, ventricle of heart, with aorta passing forwards from it; m, auricle of heart. Mr. R. B. Hinds on Geographic Botany. 89 XI.— Memoirs on Geographic Botany. By Ricnarp BrinsLey Hinps, Surgeon, R.N., F.R. Coll. Surg. [Continued from p. 80. } Ir it has been ever the reader’s fortune to traverse an extensive ocean, he must have felt at the end of the voyage that all his previous ideas respecting space had undergone a considerable modification. During the voyage he has often gone on deck to view the vessel hastening through the water, and to gaze on the unchanging horizon ; day after day he beholds the vessel hurrying on, but the scene around remains the same. As his observations extend, he compares the velocity of his ship and the unchange- able nature of the scene, till he becomes insensibly impressed with the extent and vastness of the surface over which he has travelled. He has had a practical proof of a circumstance, which it is very true his reason might have partially displayed to him, but it has made a much firmer impression on his mind than any effort of intelligence could have produced, and the importance is proportionately increased. In fact, he concludes his voyage with his ideas of space greatly enlarged, and the world he inhabits seems to him larger than he ever thought it was before. A very similar feeling possesses the traveller as he penetrates an extensive forest. Every morning he commences his journey, patiently pursuing the winding pathways through interminable multitudes of trees and shrubs, till, when evening arrives, he is hardly less fatigued with the monotony of the scene than with the exertions of the day. His feelings are the same as those at sea,—he is surprised at the interminable character of the scene, and his ideas of space are measured by a greater standard. He wonders at the vast multitudes of vegetable beings ; whence they could possibly have drawn nourishment to rear such solid struc- tures ; he speculates on their age, and lastly on their use. In both cases the ideas of space are the same, but they have received an impulse from the novelty of the scene; perhaps assisted also by » the perfect stillness which reigns so completely in deep forests, and during the heat of the day the silence is more painful than on the wide ocean. The chief difference between the two is, that one is a sea of waters, the other a sea of trees. The reader who has confined his travels to his own country, [ would recommend to open a map of the two Americas. Let him trace them throughout from north to south, and he will scarcely find a spot which does not support a vegetation of some kind or other; the deserts and ungenial spots bemg few and limited. A great part is covered with forest-trees of unequalled growth, and where a smaller vegetation prevails, the number of individuals is greater than ever. It is not merely the tropic regions which Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Vol. xv. H 90 . Mr. R. B. Hinds on Geographic Botany. are prolific; the temperate regions have also their dense and gloomy forests ; in fact it is beyond all human possibility to form any numerical estimate of the amount of the vegetable kingdom ; it would be like counting the sands of the Great Sahara. Let the imagination picture all it can of multitude, space, and prolific increase, and some conception may be conveyed to the mind. Every botanical region of the globe possesses a flora having features which proclaim relations with other regions; these vary according to the nature of the relationship and the circum- stances under which the respective floras exist. The value of the points of connexion fluctuates as the comparisons are drawn from groups of plants united by general characters, or from others less common and more intimately connected with their existence. The modes of relation are three in number, corresponding in a general manner with the three assemblages of vegetable forms known as families, genera, and species. By the families are esta- blished the most distant and general resemblances, constituting analogy ; by the genera a closer approximation, or affinity ; and by the species the most perfect accordance of characters, or identity. Generally these modes of resemblance coincide with the paral- lel groups ; but there are instances of analogy and affinity, which must be admitted as such, and yet are not so closely limited. As an instance of this kind, as regards analogy, may be men- tioned the existence of Ficoidee chiefly in South Africa, and of Cactee almost entirely in the two Americas. The analogical re- semblance arises from the great succulence met with in these two families, together with a certain correspondence in their organic structure. A further illustration occurs in the alpine flora of the Canaries and Mount Etna; in the former Semper- vivum has numerous species, and not one is indigenous to the latter, where Sedum is nearly equally abundant. Whilst then it is admitted that there is some difficulty in fixing the precise limitation of these terms, they may be considered, as a rule, to display the coincidence expressed above. Whenever an analogy exists, it by no means follows that there should be a further connexion by affinity or identity, for the na- ture of the analogical resemblance does not require this. On the other hand, when there is an affinity between two regions, it presupposes also an analogy ; and when the relation is so intimate as to establish an identity, there is necessarily both an analogy and an affinity. The sources of analogy being derived from natural families, and the latter as we have seen usually widely diffused, they are abundant in all vegetable regions, founded on latitude, which approach each other. In the tropical regions throughout, there is a great similarity in the families, those existing in one or more being often common to the others. In the subtropic and other Mr. R. B. Hinds on Geographic Botany. ae regions it is the same, from the general similarity of controlling circumstances. Sometimes an analogy will be established be- tween two regions not parallel, when external circumstances are peculiar: the temperate (Iroquois) region of North America presents some analogous features to the subtropic portion of Europe ; the tropics also establish an analogy with temperate and subtropic Europe and America, by the latter possessing indige- nous species of Palme and Cinchonacee, these families being chiefly tropical. Between corresponding regions in the north and south hemispheres the analogy is also great, since under similar circumstances we everywhere find a similar assemblage of plants. When tracing affinity, a closer view of vegetable organization is required, since its existence is drawn from genera, Generally it is found to follow analogy in similar regions; thus we find it strongly developed in parallel regions in the same hemisphere, and in analogous regions in different hemispheres. The latter offer some highly interesting comparisons, as also do the resem- blances of affinity between regions which are not parallel. Punica granatum, originally indigenous on the northern shore of Africa, though since spread over the warmer portions of the globe, acknowledges a congener from Guiana, P. nana; the former being an inhabitant of the European subtropic region, the latter of the American north tropic. In this instance the value of the relation is increased, since none are found elsewhere and the means of affinity are few, Punica having but two species. Nowhere is affinity so admirably maintained as between different mountain ranges, the resemblances in their different alpine floras being so extensive and so similar in widely-spread ranges. The genera existing on one of these is frequently repeated by kindred species on others, whilst the whole contents of a zone will bear a close comparison with those of a similar zone elsewhere. Alpine vegetation, always fascinating, is again linked by interesting affi- nities with various regions: if on elevations within the tropics, the zones passed through in ascent will respectively resemble the subtropic, temperate, and arctic regions. Draba has several species in the mountains of Mexico, connecting the flora with the temperate regions of Europe and Asia where the species are abundant. In the relation of identity we possess the closest resemblance in the productions: as the word implies, it consists in the co- existence of some of exactly the same forms in different regions, some of the species of one being indigenous to another. Between parallel regions the identity is of course greatest, but the different parallel regions vary in the intensity of this character. From ob- servations on a great number of species, the average of duplicates H 2 92 Mr. R. B. Hinds on Geographic Botany. in the six great divisions or provinces is 1 in 825, and the amount fluctuates in different countries on both sides of this estimate, ac- cording to physical circumstances. Within parallel tropical regions the amount is smallest, and increases as we advance towards the north, through the subtropic and temperate regions, till the max- imum is attained in the arctic. This progressive increase in the northern hemisphere is no doubt due to the configuration of the land, the large continental masses here closely approximating, and forming almost a continuous surface about the arctic circle, assisted also by the great similarity of climate. In the southern hemisphere there is precisely an opposite distribution of land and water, the continents gradually growing narrower towards the south, and yielding to the ocean of waters, which at the ant- arctic circle is scarcely broken by land. Of 233 species col- lected in Kotzebue’s Sound one half are found in Europe, whilst a similar proportion crosses Behring’s Straits, and are repeated in Siberia. ‘Though the affinity between similar regions in the two hemispheres, or between distant mountain chains, is strongly characterized, the relations of identity are extremely slight ; m the latter particularly so, where it is rare to meet with species identically the same as those of the plains. It is by these three methods of relation that the flora of one region or country is to be compared with another, and an ana- lysis established, conclusive and satisfactory, whence its import- ance as an isolated flora, or compared with others, is ascertained. Alpine vegetation judged by these characters loses some of its importance, its relation being chiefly that of affinity, the species belonging to genera whose maximum exists near the level of the sea; hence peculiar groups, as genera and families, are very rarely limited to them. The features of the vegetation of the lowlands are repeated in accordance with controlling cireum- stances, marked and peculiar characters bemg seldom met with. To illustrate more fully these different relations, we will sketch an outline of the flora of the Sandwich islands, which, from their solitary situation in a wide ocean, are well adapted for this pur- pose. These islands, eleven in number, including two which are scarcely more than rocks, stretch obliquely across a point inter- sected by 21° N.L. and 157° W.L. They are distant 2900 miles from America, 3500 from Asia, and nearly the same from the most projecting part of New Holland. Numerous islands intervene be- tween the two latter of these continents, but those towards the Sandwich islands are mostly small and unimportant. The climate is extremely equable and not disagreeably warm; in 1838 the mean temperature was 77°, and the range of the thermometer from 85° to 66°, being nineteen degrees. Much rain falls in some of the Mr. R. B. Hinds on Geographic Botany. 93 deeper valleys, but varies greatly in quantity in different situations and different islands. On the plain on which the capital is built, twenty-one inches fell in the above year ; but this is considerably less than what falls more towards the interior of the island, and on the elevated parts. The surface is very irregular, has but little level land, and consists chiefly of mountain ranges of moderate height, intersected by numerous deep and fertile valleys ; the superficies of the whole is about 7000 square miles. The soil, resulting from the decomposition of several varieties of lava, is very fruit- ful, but requires much water ; supplied with plenty of the latter, its productiveness is unlimited. Their geographical position bestows on them a tropical flora, whilst the irregularities of surface ensure variety. For the present, however, we are confined to the plains. Cinchonacee, Guttifere, Sapindacee, arborescent Euphorbiaceae, tree-ferns, and a solitary representative of Palme, omitting the cocoa-nut, with other families equally tropical, but not quite so abundant, stamp its general features. The relations of the flora to the American and. Asiatic tropic are so nicely balanced, that it is difficult to decide of which it most partakes; the sources of analogy are perhaps most numerous with the Asiatic. With more distant regions it has also relations through some members of Crucifere, Saxi- fragee and Umbellifere, families abounding in temperate regions, and presenting an analogy the tropics do not often display. Each of these families is but feebly represented: Crucifere has-two species of genera belonging to the European temperate region, hence an affinity with that portion of the globe: this is further supported by an umbelliferous plant, Hydrocotyle interrupta, which is regarded in the islands as originally a native plant, and is also widely diffused elsewhere: the genus supplies another affinity to temperate regions, whilst the species acknowledges an identity with several others. The saxifrageous plant, Broussaisia arguta, supplies an analogy alone; the genus and species are found only in the Sandwich islands. Like other islands they have a multitude of ferns. An analogy, stronger than usually prevails in tropical countries, is established with subtropical re- gions through shrubby Composite, Labiate, and some others. The affinities are numerous, and very equally distributed be- tween New Holland, Asia and America. In common with Asia are the genera Cyrtandra, Santalum, and Eleocarpus ; with Ame- rica, Clusia, Brunellia, and Heliotropium; and with New Holland, Metrosideros, Cyathodes, Pittosporum, and Exocarpus. Few of their species are the same, the relations ceasing chiefly with the genus. The repetition of species indigenous elsewhere is also consider- able: taking one hundred and sixty-five of the phenogamous, 94 Mr. R. B. Hinds on Geographic Botany. fourteen were’ found to be American, twelve Asiatic, thirteen common with New Holland, twenty with the other Polynesian islands, and thirteen with Europe. Some of the ferns are Ame- rican, a few Asiatic. Of the whole flora, about a moiety of the species are found beyond the islands. Much of the vegetation is thus identical with other countries, but is distributed among them with surprising impartiality. The grounds on which its peculiarities rest, and on which its individuality as an independent flora depends, may be briefly hinted. The islands are without any plants which are likely to confer on them an exclusive natural family. Cyrtandracee and Scevolee they possess in comparatively greater imtensity than others. Their only considerable genus is Kadua; it has eight or nine species. ‘There are besides a few other genera limited to the islands, but they have chiefly a solitary species each, rarely as many as two or three. About one half the species as yet known are confined to their own shores, but as a further acquaint- ance is gained with the flora, this number will be most probably increased. Those extensive compact forests of bulky and lofty trees, which it is customary to find in tropical countries, have no existence in the Sandwich islands. Their trees are not usually of large growth, and they crowd up the sheltered and moist val- leys. The plains are comparatively bare or only thinly wooded, the trees preferring the precipitous sides of the mountains. Nor has the vegetation that variety of shades of green to be expected ; the leaves are of a dull lurid colour, generally they are small in size, and more or less entire. The flowers are equally mconspi- cuous for size, and do not possess much richness of colours: the xanthic varieties greatly prevail, often rendered dull by a greenish hue. Leguminose are said to be proportionately rare in the Polynesian islands; in this group they are far from abundant. As far as is yet known, no Orchidacee are indigenous, a circum- stance the more remarkable, since they are not uncommon in the Society islands. We look in vain to these islands for evidence of the migration of their flora. Though their own proper vegetation is below the average, and is mixed largely with species common to other lands, the number still remains sufficiently great to place any ideas of its individuality beyond a doubt. They must be regarded as possessing an original vegetation, which, whilst it has received species from other countries, has sent occasionally some of its members abroad to colonize the coral islands as they gradually emerge from the ocean. In all probability, the solitary species of Kadua found on Romanzoff island has wandered from its na- tive soil ; and Chamisso collected fifty-two species on the Radack chain, a third of which are found on the Sandwich islands. Mr. R. B. Hinds on Geographic Botany. 95 The part which vegetation performs in the economy of nature is in every way capable of exciting our admiration at the harmony and mutual dependence existing among the several kingdoms. In the connexion of the latter with each other, it is not easy to discover a point where it can be said these cease or begin. We learn that a portion of the earth became dry land, and was thus prepared for the clothing of vegetation with which it was imme- diately invested. The heavenly bodies were rolled into their sta- tions, and that variety of light and temperature required by plants was bestowed on them. ‘The vegetable kingdom left in this con- dition would have flourished in boundless luxuriance, but without any very apparent use, and another host of organized beings was soon added, to keep its vigour in check, and to derive nutriment from it. Among the countless myriads of animals now called into existence, it is impossible to say how far they depress the exube- rance; the multitudes of insects constantly feeding on the foliage, the flocks of birds always on the search for seeds, and the herbaceous animals tearing the branches from the trees and the roots from the soil, must cause vast quantities to disappear. Even with all these, however, a very slight impression can ever be made, and a limit to its excess is derived from the property of all plants to run through a certain course and then die. Plants, like all organized beings, have a determinate period to their existence. This varies greatly ; some scarcely survive be- yond a few hours, others.a few months, and some extend through many years, even through ages, each in its existence performing an assigned set of functions. very species is endued with a certain period of vitality which it receives from its organization. Among trees, the ash and. the elder do not attain the longevity of the oak. Individuals, besides the specific attributes conferred on them, are liable to casualties which may extend or contract their duration. Among the natural causes are, the varying influence of climate within the range of their growth, situation, whether in the interior or margins of forests, and certain injuries to which they are exposed from animals. The removal of plants from one climate to another is capable of converting annuals into biennials and the reverse, and cultivation will sensibly protract the life of others. The larger vegetation when assembled in masses will be observed to carry with it certain appearances indicative of age, and in this state of things climate seems the chief agent. Two spots on the same latitude, and with coeval forests, may in one have every appearance of great age and longevity, and in the other all the signs of youth and vigour. Dissolution at length overtakes all organized beings, the prin- ciple of life is withdrawn, and they are resolved into their consti- tuents. With the removal of life organization ceases, chemical 96 Mr. R. B. Hinds on Geographic Botany. affinities assume activity, and the inorganic kingdom claims the rest : this is now the magazine whence future plants are to draw their food, and derive vigour to pursue their functions. With regard to the chemical effects it is capable of producing, these are perhaps but slight. Vegetation has a salutary fluence over the atmosphere by the removal of carbon; this agency is confined to the green organs, those parts coloured giving it out, but not in the same proportion. A positive prejudicial action is sometimes exerted over the health of man: the rank luxuriance of the vegetation of warm climates, where there is abundant moisture, creates a malarious atmosphere which fully balances its otherwise good effects. It cannot be concealed that some countries are so extremely fatal to human life, as to make them almost uninhabitable. When the vegetation of an unhealthy spot is removed, and the soil exposed for a time to the sun’s heat, it becomes comparatively healthy, as has been the case at Sierra Leone. Man has without doubt been powerfully affected by the nature of the vegetation. It 1s so often combined with climate that it is not easy to estimate the power of each separately, and yet there is a wide difference between the herbivorous man of the South who scarcely ever touches animal food, and the carnivorous being of the North, whose frame requires the stimulus of a large pro- portion of meat. The Indian of the Pampas lives on horse-flesh, and sometimes beef; his disposition is as untameable as his food is gross. The Hindoo is usually content with vegetable food, and presents in every respect a strong contrast of character. The pastoral habits of the tribes of Asia Minor, the adjacent countries, and of some portions of North America, are forced on them by the nature of the vegetation. To prevent the chances of starva- tion for themselves and their flocks and herds, they traverse the plains in pursuit of vegetation. But how much does this imply! every circumstance around them must be adapted to their migra- tory habits—limited personal property, hardihood, patient en- durance, skilfulness in resources, and a recklessness which emi- nently fits them for the vicissitudes of their checkered life. We shall now conclude by referring briefly to some of those external characters of vegetation which contribute towards its phystognomy. The surface of the globe presents a great diversity in its fea- tures, attributable to the extremely irregular physical distribu- tion of its parts, and its unequal exposure to the heavenly bodies, especially the sun. Throughout the kingdoms of nature this variety is distinctly marked, and the general impression conveyed is so universally acknowledged, that any person, totally unac- quainted with the principles of natural history, feels no hesitation Mr. R. B. Hinds on Geographic Botany. 97 in pointing’ out the native country of any quadruped, bird, or insect, with distinctive general characters. With plants it is the same ; only a little closer observation is required, since they do not fix themselves so firmly in the mind as the animal kingdom. Still a well-informed person will form a correct judgement of the part of the globe whence many of the plants im a collection of exotics may have been obtained; he will easily separate the plants of the tropics from those of colder regions, and not un- likely will discriminate between the plants of different continents in the same parallels. The varieties which are thus so generally evident become multiplied in the eyes of a botanist after a little examination, and he can trace certain points of distinction and resemblance, which render them highly interesting and often important to our subject. | In the vegetable kingdom, the peculiar organization which gives rise to this diversity of appearance im different regions does not originate in those characters which are taken for the purposes of classification, but is due to others of a more general kind, and which we shall attempt to explain. It depends also on a more extensive view of the flora, influenced by the method of grouping, the general outlines of individuals, and their shades of colour. The impressions conveyed by these constitute what has been termed the physiognomy of vegetation ; expressive of its powers of giving a bias to a scene or landscape. It must be con- fessed, that though the eye catches any peculiarities, and can convey to the mind a correct impression of the same, it is often extremely difficult to express them in language, and in fact they are so deficient of positive characters, that any words we have cannot express them. Who is there that would pretend to de- scribe in language the exact groupmg of a mass of clouds, or give a shape to the waves of the ocean, or to the foam they dash from their crests? The painter however can do this ; he can closely represent the clouds and waves, whilst he also can express on canvas the physiognomy of a landscape. If we turn to the rural scenes of our best artists, what delight do they convey from their correctness, and from portraying to us so exactly what we may every day see in nature! How faithful are the landscapes of Titian and Claude Lorraine, and how happily have they caught and expressed the outlines and ‘groupings of vegetation! Not merely have artists succeeded in representing a particular land- | scape, but certain species of trees and shrubswith such correctness, that they are evident on the slightest inspection. But it must be acknowledged, that while the artist does seize many of these features with his brush, which the naturalist is unable to describe with his pen, the former is enabled to select his subjects from the 98 Mr. R. B. Hinds on Geographic Botany. whole vegetable world, whilst every plant claims equally the atten- tion of the latter. It may be interesting to mention a difficulty of this kind which I experienced ; and I shall give it in the same words I used at the time, when a luxuriant tropic vegetation was before me, and the impressions were fresh on the mind. After some experience among tropical vegetation, the duties of my profession removed me to high northern latitudes, and I thought a return to the tropics a particularly favourable opportunity of seizing the more prominent features, without the mind beg induced to picture too freely from the novelty of the subject. A portion of my remarks was as follows :—“ After looking on the vegetation of high lati- tudes for some months past, | felt more alive on our return to the tropics to the characteristic features of their vegetation. It is very plain that this has peculiarities easily distinguishable by the eye, but which it has puzzled me to find adequate language to express. The most prominent circumstance is its superior denseness, added to which there is, when looking on distant masses, a roundness and fullness of outline not shared with floras of other regions. Of course I now speak only of its pictorial characters as seen from a distance, and the general features it is capable of giving to a landscape. What are generally called tropical views contain some near representation of particular ob- jects, as palms, tree-ferns, &c., and form no part of what I wish to express. I expected to find a greater richness of colouring, but I do not discover that the tropical forests surpass in the least the rich deep-green fir-forests of North-west America illumined by a mid-day sun. The only ground of surpassing excellence is the occasional variety of tints, and the green generally presents that shade which artists obtain by a greater admixture of yellow.” Perhaps it is owing to the variety in the shades of green, in plants of different latitudes and places, that artists have suc- ceeded so well in representing them. Every region will offer some difference in this, to some extent confined to itself. The deep-green forests of the North are peculiar to them; those of the tropics have a yellower or more autumnal tint; in the sub- tropic regions the shade of colour of the leaves is of an olive-green; maritime vegetation also has its glaucous hue. Physiologists have attempted to account for these different tints: Mustel, Chevreul, and Senebier represent that, though carbon is apparently black, on examination it will really be found to be blue. The latter also maintains that the vegetable tissue is not exactly white, but of a pale yellow; hence, as in similar cases, it is easy to comprehend how the mixture of the blue and the yellow produces the green. To support this opinion, he cites the green which is obtained by Mr. R. B. Hinds on Geographic Botany. 99 mixing together China ink and gamboge, and that by varying the proportions, all the shades of green are produced which are found in the foliaceous organs of plants. DeCandolle adds, that though this explanation is somewhat mechanical, it is very likely to be correct. The Chinese, with that practical application of facts to pur- poses of utility which so pre-eminently distinguishes them as a nation, have availed themselves of some of these features in their landscape gardening. ‘To convey the appearance of distance, trees of the loftiest and largest growth with foliage of the deepest green are selected for the foreground. Others of smaller stature and more subdued shades are placed in the distance; whilst to vary the surface and increase the apparent extent, groups of suitable trees, selected also with a due regard to the influence of the seasons, are judiciously scattered about. To aid the effects produced by vegetation, representations of old ruins, receding walls, and time-worn rock-work, are all made ayailable. All the species which enter into the flora of a country do not equally assist to give a certain physiognomy ; and they will vary considerably among themselves as to their power of doing so. Trees and shrubs from their size will surpass herbaceous plants, whilst these also will excel each other according to any pecu- liarities of organization they may possess. ‘The prevalence of certain families in particular regions will often be highly charac- teristic : none would feel at a loss when surrounded by Crucifere and Umbellifere; or when traversing a plain covered with Hri- cacee, a grove of Chamerops palmetto, or a thicket of Melastoma. When plants become gregarious, especially those of larger growth, they deeply impress features on the scenery around them. An impression of this kind is also liable to occur from an opposite cause. Supposing in a forest where the trees possess a similar aspect and manner of growth, there occur one or two, or more individuals of a totally different character; these latter will obtain a prominence which is not due to them from their num- bers, but from their peculiarities. A circumstance of this kind strongly impressed me in the Brazilian forest, when encountering a few individuals of Araucaria braziliensis in the midst of trees not distinguished for their physiognomy. To obtain some numerical value for those plants which appeared to give a character, I assembled a number of different species in Devonshire, and after carefully examining them, and making the freest allowances, I came to the conclusion that in 100 species, forty-eight might be considered as contributing to the physio- gnomy of the flora, and fifty-two were too insignificant to assist in this. It occurred to me to repeat the observation within the tropics, where I found the numbers very similar, though the pro- 100 Mr. R. B. Hinds on Geographic Botany. portions were reversed: in 100 species they were respectively fifty-three and forty-seven. The general contour of the stems of trees, with the mode of division of their ramifications, often present peculiarities. In tem- perate regions there are many trees thus distinguished, as the species of Quercus, Populus and Salix, to which may be added Pinus and Cupressus, which are so eminently expressive in a land- scape. Omitting the more tropical forms, as palms, huge her- baceous Endogene, and others which are equally unique, this region contains trees of singular habits of growth. It would be difficult to fix on the most marked. Some might select many of the species of Ficus, and point out the complex appearance of their main stems, the immense horizontal extension of their branches, with the great proportionate lowness of the whole tree; and what seems more curious than all, the immense number of smaller stems in every stage of development, some just pro- truding from the horizontal branches, others pendent midway between the canopy and the soil, displaying on each thick rounded extremity an enormous spongiole; many too have reached the soil, and having attained strength and size, act as columns to support the whole structure. The tropical forest abounds with these in every variety of growth and apparent distortion. Again, there is the gigantic Bombax ceiba: the trunk of this tree re- sembles a cone greatly elongated, and stretching above the sum- mits of all the other trees, whilst from its base spread huge processes diverging on all sides, and taking a powerful hold of the earth; where these are lost in the trunk it is of great girth, and continues upwards gradually diminishing in size, and some- times enlarging for a space, till high im the air it sends forth its branches, chiefly in a horizontal direction. The greater part of the year these are destitute of leaves, and support a number of pendent pods, filled with the silky threads surrounding the seeds. Humboldt speaks of a forest of Cactus, not mere herbaceous plants, but tall trees with stems yielding wood suitable for do- mestic purposes. Equally characteristic and far more beautiful is a forest consisting of bamboos. There is one kind of palm which must present a strange appearance to the botanist, accustomed to regard the straight naked stems of this tribe: this is the dourn palm (Cucifera thebaica) of Egypt and Abyssinia, whose trunk is branched in a dichotomous manner. I should perhaps hardly appreciate the novel feature this must present to the traveller, had I not seen in Mexico a tall full-grown palmetto, forked at about the middle of its length, and remember the mo- mentary surprise I felt at the circumstance. Subsequently, in New Ireland, I twice noticed this circumstance in a Cycas. Leaves are characteristic from several circumstances :— - Mr. R. B. Hinds on Geographic Botany. 101 1. They vary greatly in their size or dimensions.—The largest leaves are found among Endogene, where they are frequently distinguished for their extent of surface. Aquatic plants have often large leaves. Among terrestrial plants, some of the species of Magnoliacee, Melastomacee and Solanee are remarkable. Lappa glabra, Heracleum spondylium, and Panax horridum have large leaves for high latitudes. Within the tropics a great num- ber of the leaves of shrubs and trees are compound, and very frequently composed of a multitude of small leaflets, which give a most pleasing appearance ; the numerous species of Mimosa and Acacia usually possess them. In others these organs hardly deserve the name of leaves: in Erica they are much contracted, and in Pinus and Abies more resemble petioles destitute of laminz, being in fact needle-shaped. In Tamariscinee, Casua- rina and Ephedra, the leaves are reduced to scales or mere points. 2. The outline, or method in which they are separated into lobes or divisions.—Very striking is the appearance of that useful tree the Artocarpus incisa, with its large leaves divided into deep and numerous laciniz. Clustered as this tree is in groves around the habitations of the natives, it conveys an aspect to the scenery strictly Polynesian. As further instances may be mentioned the species of Platanus, some Sterculig, and the characteristic Carica papaya. 3. As to consistence.—The leaves of herbaceous plants, espe- cially those of the wet season of warm climates, are frequently very soft and flaccid, and filled with a quantity of aqueous juice. Evergreen trees have their leaves chiefly of a tough and leathery consistence; many of the trees and shrubs bearing this kind of leaves are natives of subtropical regions, as the evergreen oaks, many Phallyree, and Olea europea. In some the mesophyll is more than usually developed, as in Hoya carnosa; and in the members of Crassulacee and Ficoidee it is carried to excess in their shapeless and succulent leaves. 4. It would be difficult to describe the numerous shades of green, though, when masses of vegetation are contrasted, they are thrown out and become prominent. During the vigour of vege- tation other shades are occasionally developed. In some species of Fuchsia, Begonia and Amaranthus, the leaves possess a very decided pink. Some have a silvery hue on their under surface, though this appearance may be sometimes dependent on the presence of hairs. It is chiefly in the autumn that leaves take on their different colours, and which are often excessively varied ; but as "vitality is then ceasing, these appearances are rather attendant on disorganization. 5. As to the direction of their surfaces.—It is usual with ex- 102 Mr. R. B. Hinds on Geographic Botany. ogenous plants to have their leaves horizontal, thus forming a right angle with the stem, or with their points inclining towards the horizon. Some depart from this, as the Salix babylonica, and the weeping variety of Fraxinus excelsior. In endogenous plants, on the contrary, the leaves generally tend towards a vertical po- sition, which perhaps their weight prevents them from attaining ; so that it is customary to find them forming an angle of 45° with the horizon. The mixture of the large herbaceous Endogene with a vegetation chiefly exogenous, conveys a remarkable character to the physiognomy. Besides the peculiar features offered by leaves, there are others which will be occasionally prominent. They may be found in the unusual development, or some idiosyncrasy, of the various organs, and are perhaps only discoverable in particular instances. Sometimes the inflorescence is the source ; at others the flowers, fruit, or floral appendages. Very different is the appearance of the trees of some species of Cassia laden with their long slender black pods and light pale foliage, from a grove of Hibiscus and Psidium in the Pacific, or of Melastoma in the Brazils. A general impression is conveyed by the prevalence of certain colours in flowers ; in some situations nothing but yellow flowers are seen, in others only white or blue, till the repetition is almost tiring. The varieties of colours, being dependent on the presence of heat and light, alter with the latitude ; hence a relation between the two can be established. For the same reason there will exist a similar relation with the seasons of the year. Colours have been arranged by Schubler and Funk under two series which they have called oxidized and deoxidized ; but DeCandolle pro- posed to call them respectively xanthic and cyanic, from the ge- neral prevalence of the coloursin each. This arrangement * ap- pears to have been chosen with considerable happiness, since most flowers range themselves under one or the other, and it affords a basis by which colours can be compared. and. their re- lative importance ascertained. There is one variety of coloration which they take no notice of further than to give their reasons for not assigning it a place in their series, and this is white. The reasons seem good and philosophical in theory, but in practice it will sometimes be impossible to assign every white flower to some particular colour, as is recommended; I shall therefore venture to use it as a colour for the present, according to general opinion. White or pale-coloured flowers prevail over all others ; they are * These series are developed in their ‘Untersuchungen tiber die Farben der Bluthen,’ 1825. Some details may be met with in DeCandolle’s ‘ Phy- siologie Végétale,’ tom. ii. pp. 901-924, and in the Library of Useful Know- ledge, Botany, pt. 4. pp. 120-124, by Dr. Lindley. Mr. R. B. Hinds on Geographic Botany. * 103 abundant in all latitudes particularly high ; among the plants of the spring they are more numerous than those of the autumn. Though common in the tropics they are rarer than in northern latitudes, and are more frequent in alpine situations than in the plains. The xanthic series of colours are most numerous in situ- ations exposed to the heat and brilliancy of the sun’s rays ; hence their comparative abundance within the tropics in the autumn, and in the plains over the mountains. This latter circumstance seems to have been noticed by the inhabitants of Peru, for we are told that in referring to the colours of the fiowers, it is com- mon for them to say, Oro en la costa, plata en la sierra (gold on the coast, silver in the mountains) ; in the truth of which they are borne out by nature. Yellow is frequent in some natural families, as Composite, where it very generally prevails. Though flowers of the cyanic series are plentifully mixed with the xanthic, their preponderance is in other latitudes or different seasons. Some of the intense blues and violets delight in the clear skies of subtropic regions, whence might be inferred a partiality to a clear transparent atmosphere over one, though warmer, yet often teem- ing with aqueous vapour. Myrtaceae, essentially a tropical family, has not a single blue flower. Fruits, coloured branches or stems, the internal woody structure, can all be ranged under these two heads; thus the number of xanthic woods within the tropics is considerable. I could not neglect the opportunities which have occurred to me to obtain some statistical details respecting the colours of flowers, and a portion of my observations are subjoined in the Table. Colours. ean gx ing es a erry Pasa ee L. 10° N.|L. 21° N.|* 97 "iL, 26° N.| L. 3° S. | L. 22° N January.| June July Nov. | August.] February Ry a we MER Soba hy paepbe (ate Aah ilies egy eres Greenish-blue ... Bet Ue paeicd Bs ships 1 2 8 5 1 2 & < .Violet-blue ......|.+0...0se 2 4 5 2 2 gS AY LOGE waetasseess 1 1 1 3 1 1 Violet-red ...... 10 7 12 12 7 8 io Pepe ye 2 Flees ave 1 ee SAP Ay ee 3 . (Orange-red ...... 1 1 2 Oran g®@ressevedsees 4 4: devenwiedis 4 3 4 = 4 Orange-yellow...| 5 3 4 3 6 5 S, LOUOW pasciecceses 14 12 6 11 7 11 Yellow-green ...| 4 10 S fo Coren eee 7 4 WY IRS | S5iig tte 8 7 11 6 15 10 50 50 50 50 50 50 104 On the Preservation of Odjects of Natural History. Or— | Cyanic. Xanthie. White. Central America .........008 2 eRe ts pike Fila kcnibidie 8 Sandwich Islands............ b> he Me pene ek ks btinee 7 OMNES oc nsasncecvtcteboous P Sand sak at Me pexwwanes Il California oe eS ys BE Ae Bee Bera ee 6 New. Guinea, vise. ics .savsike Bares eanreen PEt ah ciides3 15 Hong Kong caccuvsrtreieddves Adis cchueeees BE sassonages 10 In a practical view these colours may be regarded under the three heads of cyanic, xanthic, and white or blanched. The last will be found to bear an unusual proportion in New Guinea, even among its autumn flora, and at a season when the xanthic series 1s predominant ; and this is also important at Hong Kong, but there the month of the year must be taken into considera- tion. In the high latitude of Alashka, as might be expected, the blanched flowers are numerous, and the cyanic series prevails, though in the midst of summer. In California the superiority of the cyanic series over the xanthic is worthy of remark, consi- dering the time of the year, the brilliancy of the atmosphere, its general dryness, and the exposed character of the vegetation ; and still more, as some limited observations made two degrees to the south give an excess to the xanthic series. In Central America January is a month of the dry season and the xanthic colours prevail ; and the same occurs at the Sandwich islands, notwith- standing the general tameness of the flowers of their flora. XII.— On the Preservation of Objects of Natural History for the Microscope. By the Rev. M. J. Burxerey. To Richard Taylor, Esq. My pear Sir, King’s Cliffe, Dec. 28, 1844. I Hap an opportunity a few days since of inspecting Mr. Thwaites’ collection of Algz at Bristol, and as his mode of preparing the specimens is not perhaps generally known, and as regards utility, is far superior to any other I have seen, I think it may not be disagreeable to some of your readers to have a short notice of it in your Journal. The distinguishing peculiarity of the collection is, that the specimens are ready mounted for the microscope, and preserved in a liquid which retains all their characters perfectly, so that at a moment’s notice any species is ready for inspection in as great perfection as when it was first gathered ; and if any un- usual structure occur, the portion of the plant may be set up and re-examined at pleasure, a poimt which was impossible in many cases before. The value of this method will at once be appre- ciated by all practical algologists, who know that scarcely any On the Preservation of Objects of Natural History. 105 tribe of plants suffers so much by drying as Algz, especially the freshwater Algee. The complicated endochrome, for instance, of Zygnema and allied genera is entirely destroyed by drying; whereas by Mr. Thwaites’ method every peculiarity of structure is admirably preserved, even to the cytoblasts which occur in some species. — The method is simple and requires only a little delicacy of ma- nipulation, which indeed may be said of all microscopical prepa- rations. Slips of plate glass of a size convenient for the micro- scope are the best recipient for the specimens. On the centre of these a little square area is insulated with gold size, which must be laid on of greater or less thickness, so as to build up a little wall according to the thickness of the specimen to be mounted. Anumber of these should be prepared ready for use. A solution is then to be made consisting of 1 part alcohol, - 14 parts water, and to be accurately saturated with creasote. This should then be filtered through prepared chalk, and the solution allowed to stand for a month in case any precipitate should form ; it must then be decanted for use and kept in a stoppered bottle, and the small portion wanted from time to time should be passed through a piece of linen to prevent any impurity from spoiling the clearness of the preparation. When then it is requisite to mount a specimen, a drop or two of the fluid is placed in the insulated area, the edge having been first lightly retouched with gold size and the specimen floated in the fluid, care being taken to remove all air-globules ; a slip of tale, or, what is better, microscopic glass, a little exceeding the size of the area, is then dropped upon it and pressed gently upon the size, by which means the specimen is hermetically sealed ; a coat or two of gold size is then put round the edges for greater security, and when the whole is perfectly dry, a coat of sealing-wax varnish. Care of course must be taken that the glass, especially that which covers the specimen, is perfectly clean. The slips are all made precisely of the same size, and are placed vertically in little drawers, on the sides of which grooves are made for their recep- tion. A box of the size of a common writing-desk will hold about 250 specimens. Mr. Thwaites finds this solution answer best for freshwater Algee ; for marine Algz he uses generally Goadby’s solution, the formula for which is given in the ‘ Microscopical Journal’ for - 1842, p.183. It consists of : 4 ounces of bay salt, 2 ounces of alum, 4: grains of corrosive sublimate, 2 quarts of boiling water. Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Vol. xv. I 106 Prof. Lindley on new Orchidaceous Plants. This does not answer however for freshwater Algee. Some of the specimens of marine Alge, mounted in Goadby’s solution, such as Codium tomentosum, Helminthocladia vermicularis, &c., are admi- rable. This method of preparing Algz certainly requires some little expenditure of care and patience, but it will be found so satisfac- tory in its results as amply to compensate any additional pains ; and when once the requisite arrangements have been made, the trouble in the case of individual specimens from time to time will not be found so great as might be expected. It may be remarked that the method is equally applicable to other microscopical objects, and especially to those of vegetable physiology. I am, my dear Sir, faithfully yours, M. J. Berxe.ey. i ate XITI.—A Century of new Genera and Species of Orchidaceous Plants. Characterized by Professor LinDLEY. [Continued from vol. xii. p. 398.] Decade 3. 21. Prevrotuatiis Hartwegit ; caule medio laxe et longe vaginato, folio oblongo sessili amplexicauli, spatha obtusa carinata coriacea, spicis plurimis erectis rigidis secundifloris folio subeequalibus, se- palis disjunctis falcatis intus pubescentibus, labello cordato ovato obtuso basi auriculato (v. trilobo lobis lateralibus brevibus rotun- datis) juxta sinus bilamellato. | Popayan (Hartweg). Very like P. macrophylla. Stem a foot and more high. Leaf a span long. Spikes eighteen to twenty. 22. PLeuROTHALLIS levigata; caule angulato medio laxe et longe vaginato, folio oblongo sessili amplexicauli vernice quasi inducto, spatha acuta carinata coriacea levigata, spicis plurimis erectis ri- gidis secundifloris folio brevioribus, floribus omnino P. Hartwegii sed duplo majoribus. Popayan (Hartweg). Very like P. Hartwegii, but the leaves are more polished, the spikes often shorter, and especially the flowers are twice as large. Perhaps it is a mere variety. 23. Srexis maxima ; folio oblongo obtuso, spica recta basi spathacea triplo longiore, bracteis amplexicaulibus cuspidatis internodiis brevioribus, floribus ventricosis disepalis, sepalis multistriatis con- CAVIS, 45 x 5 0% At the foot of Mount Tunguragua, at the height of 11,000 feet (Hartweg). Prof. Lindley on new Orchidaceous Plants. 107 A beautiful species, with flowers almost half an inch long, and apparently purple. It would be a Pleurothallis if its petals were not truncated and dwarf. 24. Sreuis brevilabris ; caulescens, folio lineari-lanceolato mucro- nato, spicis quadruplo longioribus solitariis erectis secundis strictis, bracteis cuspidatis internodiis brevioribus, sepalis lateralibus acutis supremo oblongo brevioribus. Popayan (Hartweg). Related to St. ascendens and lamellata, but easily distinguished by the drooping, ringent, almost 2-lipped flowers. Can it be St. elon- gata, H. B. K. ? but the description does not agree. 25. PLEuRoTHALLIs convoluta; folio coriaceo convoluto, spicis plu- ribus folio brevioribus erectis, floribus levibus, sepalis marginatis lateralibus ultra medium connatis, petalis duplo brevioribus obtusis diaphanis, labello longiore complicato apice spathulato acuto infra medium utrinque dilatato rotundato. Popayan (Hartweg). 26. PrevrorHaLuis galeata; caule medio longe et laxe vaginato, folio petiolato cordato-oblongo obtuso, spatha subcoriacea obtusa, spicis filiformibus plurimis nutantibus folio brevioribus, sepalis la- teralibus semiconnatis angustis erectis dorsali antico galeato mem- branaceo, petalis linearibus sepalis paulo brevioribus, labello cucul- lato rhombeo angulis rotundatis utrinque bilamellato apice crasso calloso. Popayan (Hartweg). Near Pl. macrophylla. 27. PachyPHyLLuM squarrosum ; foliis recurvis squarrosis, labello obsolete trilobo callo a marginibus Jonge distante. Popayan (Hartweg). Much like P. distichum, except in the leaves and the form and callosity of the labellum. 28. Drauissa, gen. nov. Steli proximum. Calyx tubulosus, bilabiatus, antice ventricosus; labio altero bifido revoluto. Petala nana. La- bellum indivisum, rectum. Columna nana, recta, biauris. Pol- linia 2. Diauissa pulchella, Spithamea et ultra, cespitosa. Caules teretes, monophylli, vaginis tubulosis membranaceis glabris vestiti. Fo- lium petiolatum, lanceolatum, striatum, acutissimum, tridentatum ; racemo striato, basi distanter vaginato triplo brevius. Bractez 4 pollicares, falcatee, acutissimee, perfoliate, canaliculate, glabre, distiche, floribus glabris equales. Sepalum supremum subcorda- tum, erectum. Petala rhombea. Labellum spathulatum, rotun- datum, linea transversa elevata. Popayan (Hartweg). 29. Gasrropopium violaceum. Ramosum, distiche foliosum, foliis carnosis linearibus obtusis mucronulatis, vaginis striatis transverse I2 108 Mr. A. White on a new species of Longicorn Beetle. rugosis. Racemi breves, sessiles, terminales, cernui. Flores parvi, membranacei, violacei. Bractez subulate, membranacee. Sepala conniventia, ovata, libera. Petala lanceolata duplo minora. La- bellum c. columna connatum, ventricosum, ovatum, callo tripar- tito ad basin. Columna brevis pyramidalis, partis liber margi- nibus latis crassis truncatis. Clinandrium nudum. Anthera plana, membranacea, 4-locularis. Pollinia 4, oblonga, collateralia, om- nino sejuncta, filis totidem rectis, nec replicatis, levibus, apice con- natis colligata. Ovarium cuniculatum, antice ventricosum. Popayan (Hartweg). _ This genus is near the true species of Diothonea, and like it in habits. It differs in its naked anther-bed and in the structure of the pollen masses. 30. Restrepra cucullata; foliis oblongo-linearibus coriaceis acutis pedunculis filiformibus erectis brevioribus, sepalis lateralibus in unum lineari-lanceolatum connatis supremo angustissimo, petalis duplo brevioribus linearibus acuminatis, labello carnoso oblongo levi tricarinato, columna cucullata. Popayan (Hartweg). XIV.—Description of an apparently new species of Longicorn Beetle from Mexico in the collection of the British Museum. By Avam Waite, Assistant Zool. Dep. Brit. Mus. [ With a Plate. ] In M. Delessert’s ‘Souvenirs d’un Voyage a Inde,’ a very in- teresting account has been given by M. Perrotet, his companion, of the habits of the Dorysthenes montanus of Guérin, with which I shall commence this paper, more especially as the insect about ‘to be described would be arranged close to it by many authors (such as Laporte de Castelnau), although at present we have no means of ascertaining whether the Prionacalus of this memoir, and Psalidognathus of Mr. G. R. Gray, like the Kast Indian genus alluded to, and unlike the majority of the group to which they belong, live on the ground in elevated places destitute of large trees. The D. montanus begins to appear above the surface of the ground about the end of April, and comes up in immense numbers till the beginning of the rainy season, which lasts from the end of May or during June. They appear in such swarms that the highways and by-paths are covered with them in some places, and it is said that the bears of the country, at the season when they abound, get up to the mountains to feed on them. They have been observed by MM. Delessert and Perrotet coming out of their holes in the ground, especially in the neighbourhood of Coonoor, Kotirgherris and other places amongst the Neelgheries, where they may be seen white, yellow and brown, accordingly as ee ee eee lun. &: Hag. Nat. Mist. Fol. 13.77. Vit. \y WN) Alt Wa My G \ Sf \ \ Carabus (Procrustiwus)Pavata . White. (Lanthus) W Wong, ded. Frionis ( Prvonacalus >) Cacitus White Mexico (Fig: 12. tig:é, 2. Mr. A. White on a new species of Longicorn Beetle. 109 they have been for a short or long time out of the pupa state ; they always keep to the ground and walk slowly. Amongst the Prionide this group, containing Dorysthenes, Cyrtognathus, Cacoscelis, and perhaps Acanthinoderus, Psalidognathus and Prio- nacalus, resembles in habit Dorcadion and allied genera among Lamiada, as Guérin-Meneville very justly remarks (/. c. Mag. de Zool., and Rey. Zool. Cuv. 1840, p. 89 Cyrtognathus). 1 may here add, that the curiously curved jaws and very strong legs with their slender elongated tarsi seem to fit them particularly for getting into the ground, escaping from it and walking on its surface*. | In a small collection of insects from Mexico, purchased last year by Mr. Gray for the British Museum from M. Hartweg, there are three specimens of a subgenus of Prionide, at first sight with very considerable resemblance to the Psalidognathus modestus, Fries, Vetensk. Akad. Handl. 1833, p. 327. t. 9. f. 3, agreeing with that species in many particulars, but to me appear- ing distinct. , From the genus Psalidognathus of Mr. George Gray (Griff. A. K., Insects, il. p. 115. t. 6. f. 14), as characterized both by Mr. Gray and M. Fries, it differs in many particulars, sufficient, if the established subgenera of Prionide be valid, to constitute a new subgenus closely allied to Psalidognathus : in my description any comparisons refer to this latter genus. Prionvs, subg. Prionacalus, White. 6. Head:behind the eyes without a prominent spine ; the la- ake margin behind produced into a slight process directed back- wards. ?. Head midway between the eyes and the posterior edge, with a strong broad spine on each side. 3 ¢. Cheeks where jaws are inserted, without strong tooth on the outside. (See Pl. VIII. fig. 14.) Labium very short (in Psa- lidognathus the labium is elongated). . Jaws very strong (in female widest), with the upper surface rounded, the ends bent downwards, the edges strongly toothed and notched, the terminal tooth fitting into a groove in the other, and the ends probably lapping over each other. Palpi very prominent (PI. VITI. fig. 1acand 2a). Maxillary with terminal joint largest, securiform and much dilated, penul- timate joint much shorter than the third. Labial palpi with the terminal joint much dilated. Antennz 11-jointed, with first joint * The Euchroa dimidiata of Guérin-Meneville, Delesseit, Voyage, p. 57. t. 14. f. 1, and Mag. de Zool., is the Nir@us tricolor of Newman, Mag. Nat: Hist. iv. 194 ; the original specimens, from Mr. Children’s collection, are in, the British Museum. 110 Mr. A. White on a new species of Longicorn Beetle. scabrous and much thickened at the end, second joint puncti- form, third jomt as long as the fourth and fifth together. Elytra covering the abdomen, margined; sides at the base with a curved, somewhat hooked angle near the base ; the lateral margins bulge; elytra very short in the male compared with those of the male of Psalidognathus, apparently soldered along the suture, and both sexes seem to be apterous. Legs of the male with the tibia and femur nearly equal in length and very similar in general thickness ; inside of the tibiz flat and hairy. In the female, the legs, especially the femora, are very large, strong, and compressed ; the tibie at the end 2-spined ; tibiee of fore-legs rounded above, inside flat and hairy, angular beneath, and deeply notched or sinuated at the end ; tarsi of hind- legs most elongated. The species I have named Prionus (Prionacalus *) Cacicus, White. Niger, antennis pedibusque rufis. Hab. Mexico. ¢ ? (Pl. VIII. fig. 1, 2.) m Mus. Brit. (Theod. Hartweg). In the male the antenne, palpi and legs are rufous; the first- mentioned are blackish at the base. Jaws, excepting at the end and on the edges (where they are smooth), roughly punctured. Head, thorax and elytra at the base somewhat roughly punctured, the elytra becoming more delicately punctated towards the end. In the female the antenneze at the ends, the palpi, tibiee at apex and the tarsi are ferruginous; head with the two keels above the eyes shorter. Head, thorax and elytra very roughly vermiculated and dotted, and with a slight shining metallic lustre. M. Fries, in his memoir on Psalsdognathus in the ‘ Vetensk. Akad. Handl. 1833, p. 327, has described under the name of P. modestus what appears to be decidedly a second species of the subgenus above described}. He characterizes it as follows, and on * The latter part of the name is the generic name applied by the late lamented Dalman to the form previously described by Mr. G. R. Gray as Psalidognathus: his species, Psal. superbus, seems to be distinct from the P. Friendii of Mr. Gray. M. Nisser in 1827 sent four specimens from Sant Remedios to the Stockholm Academy, and Dalman named the species Acalus superbus, but was prevented by death from describing it; the name Acalus has been preoccupied, otherwise I would assign it to the subgenus. P. superbus seems to me to be the P. Friendii, var. viridis, of French authors, which has a comparatively shallow groove between the antenne, and has the tibie in the male much more dilated, as well as other characters, which we have not space to give here. Specimens of both are in the British Museum ; Mr. G. Gray’s type specimen of P. Friendii from Mr. Children’s collection, and specimens of P. superbus from the collection of M. Buquet. + I am indebted to the obliging kindness of Mr. Jones, an assistant in the library of the: British Museum, for translating me the memoir from the Swedish. : Mr. A. White on a new species of Longicorn Beetle. 111 the first examination I found myself rather doubtful whether the P. Cacicus was not the same species. The following is the de- scription of M. Fries : Psalidognathus (Prionacalus) modestus ; \a- bium short, bifid. M. Fries had only seen two specimens, a male and female ; the former, from being very small, he imagines must be a very dimi- nutive example of the sex, while he judges that the female must be amongst the largest individuals of the species. In the male the head is smaller than the thorax, with a little pomted spine on both sides, and a sort of hook where the mandibles are attached. Mandibles are as long as the head, resembling those of the female of Psalidognathus superbus; in the middle of the thorax there is an excavation; the elytra have hardly any trace of the reticulated and elevated lines; the humeral hook is very small ; the wings together are as long as the body. In the female the ridge of the head is less marked and ends in a raised point; the appendages on side of head are very short and fine ; the mandibles as in the male; labrum at tip bent in the same as the preceding (?); elytra more thick and firm, without raised lines, deeply pitted and granular; there are no wings. M. Nisser found this very distinct species at Antiochia im Columbia, and deposited the male and female in the Academy Museum. - Jan. 16, 1845. On the same plate are figured two Coleoptera from Xanthus in Asia Minor, found by Charles Fellows, Esq., and now in the Museum collection. Ina subsequent number of the ‘ Annals’ descriptions of these will be given. The smooth Carabus with thick legs and dilated thorax was found close to the “ Horse Tomb” as it has been called, but now more properly denominated the “ Winged Chariot Tomb ;” it was the monument of Paiafa, one of the satraps of Lycia: I have named it Carabus (Procrus- ticus) Paiafa. There are characters that would separate it from both Carabus and Procrustes. The longicorn may be an extreme variety of Cerambyx Keehleri, lL. Syst. Nat. 393. 31, between which and C. Desfontainii, Fabr. 8. H. 274. 37. (Oliv. t. 23. f. 183), it seems tocome. As a small compliment to the distinguished tra- veller and archzologist who found it close to the “ Harpy Tomb,” as well as to mark his fondness for entomology in his youth, I have named it Purpuricenus Fellowsii : it is very common on the trees about Xanthus.—A. W. 112 Mr. W. King on a British Shell of the genus Circe. XV.—Note on a British Shell of the genus Circe. By W1LL1aM Kine, Curator of the Museum of the Natural History Society of Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Tue Linnean genus Venus has of late been very much subdi- vided by some conchologists, so that in addition to Lamarck’s Cytherea and Poli’s Artemis, we have now the genera Circe, Chione, Meroe, and several others. Chione, as its name implies, is represented by such shells as Cy- therea Chione and C. Erycina. Circe, according to some shell-labels in the British Museum, is represented by Cytherea scripta and C. divaricata. Circe somewhat resembles Chione in its teeth, but it differs from the latter in the pallial impression being slightly inflected, and in the cartilage fulera being deeply sunk. There appear to be three or more sections of the genus Circe. In one the species have transverse ribs (C. (Cytherea) arabica) ; in another they are furnished with diverging longitudinal ribs (C. (Cytherea) divaricata) ; and in the third they are very much compressed, especially at the umbones (C. (Cytherea) scripta). I have entered upon this note with the view of showing that a British shell which has hitherto been called Cyprina triangularis* belongs to the genus Circe. I was first led to this opinion from examining some specimens belonging to Mr. J. Alder, who dredged them in Oban Bay during the last summer. The so-called Cyprina triangularis is decidedly a Circe, mas- much as it possesses what appear to be the distinguishing cha- racters of the genus, namely deeply-sunk cartilage fulcra, and a slight sinus in the pallial line. I may even go so far as to say, that it belongs to the section represented by the transversely ribbed species. As regards the dental character of the Oban shell, it is precisely that of the genus in general,—consisting of three diverging cardinal teeth in each valve, and an anterior tooth in the left one. It also possesses a well-defined lunette as in the Venuses, with which it further agrees in the absence of an epi- dermis. In the deeply sunk cartilage fulera, and the dental character just given,—in the possession of a well-defined lunette+, and in the want of an epidermis, the Oban shell is essentially different from all the true Cyprinas, either recent or fossil{. Leaving out * Turton’s Shells of the British Islands, p. 136. tab. 11. figs. 19 and 20, + According to a figure in D’Orbigny’s ‘ Terrains Crétacés,’ pl. 271, a species of Cyprina has a well-defined lunette. t The genus Cyprina may be safely considered as represented by C. islandica (recent), C. rustica (Suffolk crag), and C. angulata (greensandq). Many of the so-called Cyprinas do not appear to belong to this genus: Cy- prina consobrina (D’Orbig.), notwithstanding its want of a pallial sinus, I consider a Venus; and Cyprina Morrisii (J. de C. Sow.) has teeth after the type of Cytherea Lamarckii. ; On the Boring Apparatus of the Carnivorous Gasteropods. 113 of consideration the anterior tooth which it possesses in common with some other genera, Cyprina has only two cardinal teeth in each valve : another difference consists in the left valve of this ge- nus being provided with a posterior callous tooth which fits ito a broad depression in the opposite valve. The Oban shell may be said to have a posterior tooth, as there is a small groove for one of the kind in the right valve, but it does not differ from that of many of the Venuses*. The only character which the Oban shell possesses to induce one to consider it a Cyprina is its slight pallial sinus ; but, as be- fore observed, this is general to the Circes, and it even belongs to some of the Venuses. I am not aware who proposed the genus Circe; it is adopted by Mr. J. E. Gray in the Catalogue of the British Museum, and appears to be a good one. XVI.—Note on the Boring Apparatus of the Carnivorous Gaste- ropods, and of the Stone- and Wood-burrowing Bivalves. By AuBpany Hancock, Esq. Durine the investigation of the anatomy of the Kolide by Dr. Embleton and myself, we ascertained, as appears in the last Number of the ‘ Annals,’ that the teeth of these animals are com- posed of silex. Directed by this interesting fact, I was induced to examine the nature of the instrument by which the carnivo- rous Gasteropods pierce the testaceous covering of bivalve and other shells. I found this apparatus in Buccinum undatum to be composed of rows of stout, much-curved spines or teeth, of great brilhancy, and as glossy and transparent as glass, and certainly to have no appearance whatever of horny tissue. They are so similar to those of olis, that there could be little doubt that they are formed of the same material; and accordingly, after subject- ing them to the action of acid, such was found to be the case. Their capacity to drill holes in calcareous matter is therefore easily understood, without the necessity of supposing the aid of a solvent requisite, as surmised by Cuvier. This result was to be expected after the discovery of the sili- ceous nature of the teeth of Kolis ; but that the wood- and stone- burrowing Bivalves should work out their excavations by an in- strument provided with the same material may, perhaps, appear somewhat startling. Such however I believe is the fact; a fact which if established will at once explain all the phenomena at- tending this much-controverted problem. It is not my intention * T am acquainted with a greensand Venus which has a posterior tooth and depression as large as in Cyprina. . 114 Mr. J. Gould on a new species of Platycercus. at present, to enter into details; all that I now wish to commu- nicate is the result at which I have arrived; and in a short time I hope to have the pleasure of publishing, at length, my observa- tions in connexion with this interesting subject. The excavating instrument of Pholas and Teredo is formed of the anterior portion of the animal, in the surface of which are im- bedded siliceous particles. The particles penetrating the skin give to it much the character of rasping-paper. The whole forms a rubbing surface, which being applied closely to the bottom of the cavity by the adhesion of the foot, enables the animal to rub down, and so penetrate, shale, chalk, wood, or even the hardest limestones and marble. 3 Sazicava rugosa is also furnished with a rasping surface co- vered with siliceous particles. This surface, however, in this spe- cies 1s formed entirely of the anterior portion of the mantle, the margins of which being united are much thickened, forming a sort of cushion capable of considerable protrusion at the will of the animal. The foot is small, and passing through a much-con- stricted orifice, gives origin to a byssus, which anchors the shell close to the base of the excavation, and thus holds the rubbing apparatus in immediate contact with the part to be excavated. XVII.—On a new species of Platycercus. By Joun Govutp, F.R.S. &e. DEAR SIR, 20 Broad Street, Golden Square, Jan. 11, 1845. My collector, Mr. Gilbert, has lately sent me the description of a new Platycercus discovered on the Darling Downs at the back of Moreton Bay, on the east coast of Australia, and which he states far surpasses in beauty every other species of the genus yet discovered. I have therefore thought it of sufficient importance to the ornithologist to send you a copy for insertion in the ‘ An- nals of Natural History.’ | Band across the forehead half an inch in breadth, scarlet, fading around the eyes, lores and cheeks into pale lemon-yellow, which again gradually blends with the green of the under surface ; crown of the head and nape blackish brown ; sides of the neck to the shoulders verdigris-green with yellowish reflexions ; back grayish brown; rump and upper tail-coverts verditer-blue, the longer coverts with a band of black at their extreme tip ; prima- ries and secondaries black edged with bluish green ; shoulders with a spot of rich vermilion ; under wing-coyerts and edges of the pinions verditer-blue ; two middle tail-feathers olive-brown at the base, gradually passing into greenish blue at the tip with olive reflexions ; the three outer feathers on each side with a narrow zig- On the means by which Animals walk on polished Surfaces. 115 zag band of black at about half their length from the base, then greenish blue to the tip, the imner webs fading into white near the extremity ; throat and chest yellowish emerald-green, each feather tipped with verditer-blue ; middle of the breast and the sides verditer-blue; abdomen and under tail-coverts scarlet ; irides dark brown ; bill horn-colour, becoming blackish gray at the base ; legs and feet yellowish brown. Length about 12 inches ; bill 3; wing 54 ; tail 73 ; tarsi 4. Nearly allied to Platycercus hematogaster. In habits it is a truly grass-feeding parrakeet. For this beautiful species I propose the name of Platycercus pulcherrimus, : And remain, dear Sir, yours truly, To R. Taylor, Esq. JoHN GOULD. XVIII.—On the Means by which various Animals walk on the Ver- tical Surfaces of highly polished Bodies. By Joun BuackwaALt, F.LS. PERCEIVING among eminent naturalists and physiologists in this country not only a disinclination to adopt the explanation of the means by which animals of various species ascend the vertical surfaces of highly polished bodies, published in the ‘ Transactions of the Linnean Society,’ vol. xvi. pp. 487, 767, but also a dis- position to adhere to the old and exploded view of the subject, which has been recently introduced into important works on zoo- logy and physico-theology, in the course of last autumn I made several experiments bearing directly upon the remarkable phe- nomenon under consideration, the particulars of which I shall proceed to state. Having captured vigorous specimens of the following insects and spiders, Coccinella vigintiduo-punctata ; the common earwig, Forficula auricularia ; the hive-bee, Apis mellifica ; the common wasp, Vespa vulguris; the house-fly, Musca domestica ; the large flesh-fly, Musca vomitoria, Philodromus dispar, and Drassus seri- ceus; and having ascertained that they could walk with facility upon the perpendicular sides of a well-cleaned glass-jar, I put into a perfectly dry and clean phial a sufficient quantity of nitrate of silver in a very finely pulverized state to cover the bottom of it to the depth of about one-twelfth of an inch; then holding the phial at various degrees of inclination to the plane of the horizon and turning it round, I distributed in this manner many of the finer particles of the caustic over the whole of its inner surface. Into the phial thus prepared I introduced, in succession, the in- sects and spiders sige above, taking care to renew the nitrate 116 Mr. J. Blackwall on the means by which various Animals of silver whenever its efficacy appeared to be diminished, and after they had remained in it a sufficient time for the caustic to act upon the pulvilli of the former and the tarsal brushes of the latter, they were removed into the glass-jar, the vertical sides of which they had previously ascended without difficulty. The re- sult was precisely such as my former researches had led me to anticipate ; the insects and spiders were rendered quite incapable of walking on the sides of the jar, and the cauterized papille connected with the inferior surface of the climbing apparatus never again resumed their function; yet by the help of their claws the animals were enabled to ascend with ease the perpen- dicular sides of objects having a slight degree of roughness. ) Satisfied that the cauterized state of the papille connected with the climbing apparatus was attributable to the agency of the ni- trate of silver operating through the medium of a fluid emitted from their extremities, an experiment occurred to me, which, if carefully conducted, promised to render the fluid apparent to the eye when aided by a powerful magnifier. By subjecting the femur, tibia and tarsus of the large flesh-fly and the common house-fly to a moderate degree of pressure, a change was invariably per- ceived to take place in the appearance of the extremities of the hair-like papille on the inferior surface of their pulvilli, which assumed a silvery lustre, evidently occasioned by an increased reflection of light. On passing a finger gently over the papille several times in succession, and again examining them under the magnifier, the cause of the augmented brilliancy became obvious, numerous granules of gelatinous matter being discovered upon them, plainly consisting of the coagulated fluid emitted in minute quantities from their extremities, and accumulated together into particles of increased magnitude by the action of the finger, the silvery lustre, at the same time, having disappeared. : Thus it is clearly demonstrable that the papille on the climb- ing apparatus of two very common insects, remarkable for the agility of their movements on polished perpendicular surfaces, emit from their extremities in exceedingly small quantities a fluid coagulable on exposure to the atmosphere ; and this deduction from direct experiment may be extended analogically to all those insects and spiders which are capable of walking on the clean, dry, vertical sides of polished bodies. To these recently ascertained facts I add a succinct review of those previously recorded, which have exercised the most decided influence in removing the difficulties which surrounded the subject of this inquiry, in the hope that such an accumulation of valid - evidence, when fairly tested by others, will be considered as esta- blishing the conclusion, that various animals, capable of walking on the clean, dry surfaces of highly polished bodies in opposition walk on the Vertical Surfaces of highly polished Bodies. 117 to gravitation, are enabled to adhere to such surfaces, not by the pressure of the atmosphere on their climbing apparatus, as is commonly supposed, but by a viscous secretion emitted from the papille with which it is provided. A large, clean, open phial of transparent glass, containing the larvee of several species of insects, capable of moving upon po- lished perpendicular surfaces without the help of lines produced by a spmning organ, was placed in the receiver of an air-pump, from which the air was then exhausted by the usual process ; nevertheless, the larvee continued to traverse the inner surface of the phial in every direction. This experiment was made in the summer of 1827 ; in conducting it I was assisted by that distin- guished philosopher and excellent man the late Dr. Dalton of Manchester, who kindly allowed me to use his air-pump, and re- marked, on witnessing the result, that it was physically impos- sible that the larvee could be supported on the sides of the phial by atmospheric pressure. In the next place, I put specimens of the common house-fly into the receiver of an air-pump, and, after having exhausted the air, observed that they walked readily upon its inner surface as long as their vital powers were unimpaired, and that some indi- viduals ultimately died adhering to its sides, from which it re- quired a slight degree of force to detach them. Here, as in the case of the larvee, it is evident that the insects could not be held to the glass by the pressure of the atmosphere, so that this stri- king fact supplies an experimentum crucis by which the insufii- ciency of the popular hypothesis to account for the phenomenon it is intended to explain is rendered manifest. Having cleared the way for a more exact investigation of the subject by the detection of this prevailing error, it occurred to me, that as the adhesion of insects to the upright sides of an ex- hausted receiver cannot be occasioned by atmospheric pressure, or by any exertion of muscular force, some individuals remaining fixed even after life is extinct, it must be caused by the emission of a viscous fluid from the papillz on the inferior surface of their climbing apparatus. In order to ascertain-whether this is the case or not, I placed in clean phials of transparent glass, spiders and various insects in the larva and imago states capable of walking on their upright sides ; then breathing into the phials till the aqueous vapour expelled from the lungs was copiously con- densed on their inner surface, I found that the moisture totally prevented the animals from obtaining any effectual hold on the glass ; and a similar consequence ensued when the flour of wheat or finely pulverized chalk was thinly distributed over their inte- rior surface, the minute particles of those substances adhering to the tarsal brushes of the spiders, the pulvilli of the perfect in- 118 On the means by which Animals walk on polished Surfaces. sects, and the under side of the feet of the larvee, which had their efficiency speedily restored, however, on the removal of the im- pediment by the customary process of cleaning the parts em- ployed by each species. 7 As a further confirmation of the accuracy of my opinion, I may remark, that on careful and repeated examinations made with lenses of moderately high magnifying powers, in a strong light and at a favourable angle, I never failed to discover visible tracks left by spiders and imsects in the larva and imago states when - moving in a vertical direction on clean glass. On submitting the matter constituting the tracks to the direct rays of the sun in the month of July, and to the action of brisk currents of air whose drying power was great, I ascertained that it did not suffer any perceptible diminution by evaporation under those circumstances ; and it has been shown, in the recent experiments made by em- ploying pulverized nitrate of silver instead of flour, or chalk re- duced to powder, and by inspecting under a powerful magnifier the feet of flies when the superior joints of their legs were sub- jected to moderate pressure, that a fluid, coagulable on exposure to the atmosphere, is emitted in minute quantities from the pa- pillee on the climbing apparatus of certain animals having the power of walking on the vertical surfaces of highly polished bodies. In my ‘ Researches in Zoology,’ p. 228, I have stated my con- viction, founded on a minute inspection of specimens preserved in spirit of wine, that tree-frogs, Hyle, and the lizards denomi- nated Geckos, are enabled to move on the perpendicular sides of polished objects by the agency of adhesive matter emitted from papille situated on the inferior surface of their toes ; those of the former resemble the papille on the pulvilli of the house-fly in their distribution ; those of the latter being disposed in transverse fasciee, somewhat in the manner of the papille on the palate of the cow, but with less simplicity ; and whoever compares the two, will be led, by analogy of structure and arrangement, to infer, upon physiological principles, that they perform a similar func- tion, though from the different situations of the parts it cannot be applicable to the same purpose. Such is the brief survey which I proposed to give of the more prominent facts elicited by my investigation of this interesting subject. | It is not at all surprising that a considerable degree of unwill- ingness should be felt to reject a generally-received opinion which has long been regarded as established, or that a novel one sub- stituted for it should be viewed with distrust or assailed with ob- jections; but it certainly is extraordinary that the evidence by which the one is corroborated and the other subverted should be Mr. A. White’s Remarks on Synonyms. 119 suffered to remain without examination. To the simple, satis- factory, and easily-conducted experiments which supply that evi- dence, I again respectfully solicit the attention of naturalists. XIX.—Remarks on the Synonyms of a Homopterous Insect de- scribed in the last Number of the ‘ Annals’ By Apam Wurtz, Assistant Zool. Dep. Brit. Mus. In the last Number of the ‘ Annals’ there are descriptions of some Homopterous insects from the collection of the British Museum. Since the memoir was published, I have seen, for the first time, the text to Guérin’s admirable ‘Iconographie du Régne Animal’ (a work which on the title-page bears the date of 1829-1838, although I see on the wrapper it was not finished till 1844, through some mistake of the printer [?]). I find an exceedingly great number of new genera and species of insects not figured in his plates, and on look- ing over it among the Homoptera saw a description of the Pecilo- ptera circulata, Guérin-Meneville, from the Malay coast, which is certainly the insect I have long subsequently published as the Pe- ciloptera Dianthus, so that this pretty species will now stand as Peciloptera circulata, Guérin, texte Iconogr. du Régne An. p. 361. P. Dianthus, White, Proc. Ent. Soc. 1843 (imed.), Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist. Jan. 1845, p. 36 (cum fig.). Hab. Malay coast (Guérin), Java (Wilson). To my description of Cercopis Charon (1. c. p. 35), 1 should have added ‘‘ very near to, if not a variety of, Cercopis viridans, Guérin in Belanger, Voy. t. 3. f. 7.” In the text of M. Guérin’s work, under the head of the genus Aphena, he complains of the system of changing generic names, such as the one established by him, because not exactly properly com- pounded. The distinguished professor of zoology at Halle, on this ground, has given the genus alluded to the name Aphena, and in his ‘Handbuch der Entomologie,’ ii. (we confine ourselves to the por- tion of his great work dedicated to Rhynchota), he has very fre- quently for similar reasons changed the names. | As a student of Hemiptera and Homoptera I for one raise my pen against this innovation, the more especially as it seems to have been a principle adopted by one of the best French entomologists, the able and amiable Serville, in his work on the Hemiptera in the ‘ Suites & Buffon’; an admirable book, so far as it goes, the joint production of MM. Serville and Amyot. If names are to be altered because improperly compounded, then let the dictum pass into a law, and many of the genera of Linneus, Fabricius and Latreille, the fathers of entomology, must be changed. A fit of radicalism seems to have fallen upon most of the scientific describers of the present day : “If a name has been twice employed,” say some, “in botany or zoology, the name last published must be changed ;” others say, ‘‘ No; if a name be already employed both in botany and zoology, retain them 120 Mr. A. White’s Remarks on Synonyms. both, but take care not to be guilty, if you can possibly help it, of falling into such a mistake again.” If the former of these canons pass as unquestionable law, I believe at least one-sixtieth part of the names used in entomology, and even some of those employed for Crustacea and Aptera, must be changed; and he who is bold enough to publish his catalogue first, will find nobis a well-marked feature onthe page. We are inclined to think, that even if there be (for in- stance) two generic names (Urania) employed, one in botany and the other in zoology, no confusion can result from letting them re- tain their places, far less indeed to our view than must result from changing them; and it is really a sad thing to see, as is not unfre- quently done, the changer have to change his name, because he has found that even i¢ has been already used, so that we have sometimes three generic names, where at all events, on the most latitudinarian view of the subject, two would have been amply sufficient, and on the most narrow calculation, one would have caused no confusion. Thanks to the very useful ‘ Nomenclator Zoologicus’ of Agassiz and his coadjutors, such mistakes are not nearly so likely to take place as they formerly were. In the work of Hahn on the Hemiptera, the name of Bellocoris has been applied to a genus; and this is one in- stance out of many that might be adduced of names compounded, and improperly compounded, of Latin and Greek words ; but if I go, and not knowing whether M. Hahn means to say ‘‘ Pretty Bug” or “ War-Bug,” and change his name, if the former of these popular paradoxes be the hemipterologist’s meaning, to ‘‘ Polemocoris,” I con- ceive I make a most ridiculous blunder ; and changers of names, and even those who too curiously pry into the designed or unintentional etymology of scientific appellations, frequently fall into equally false positions. Instances of this from the work above-quoted might be copiously given ; and we are not sure, that if many of the exceedingly uncouth, but often good-enough, Chinese, Arabic and Sanscrit names imposed on Hemiptera and Homoptera by the truly scientific and amiable Serville and his coadjutor, were strictly analysed by such scholars as were Sir Wm. Jones, the Rev. Henry Martyn, Dr. Mor- rison, or Professor Kidd, many of them would be found equally ill- formed with Greek compounded names of other authors, which the distinguished French entomologists seem to me to have most reck- lessly changed. We wish to see an analysis of every zoological and botanical work and memoir published annually, and really believe that were any society here to join with the scientific societies on the continent, and in America or Asia, a yearly volume of this nature ‘would tend to cement together naturalists, as it would assuredly help to simplify a nomenclature which scientific synonyms, most in- nocently bestowed, really make appalling to every student of zoology and botany. London, Jan. 9, 1845, Royal Society of Edinburgh. 121 PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES. ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. This Society held its first ordinary meeting for the season on Monday the 2nd of December, 1844. Read—1. ‘‘ Account of the late Earthquakes at Demerara.” By N. H. Campbell, Esq. Communicated by M. Pouton, Esq. 2. ‘On the Existence of an Electrical Apparatus in the Flapper- Skate and other Rays.” By Dr. Stark. In this communication the author described a very peculiar organ, which from its situation and structure he believed to be an electrical organ. It ran along each side of the tail of the animal, forming a large pad on each side of the lateral muscles. This organ was much more developed in Raia Batis than in any of the other forms of Ray, and less so in R. clavata. The minute structure of the organ was described as consisting of numerous septa running in the longi- tudinal direction of the organ and forming cones, in the following manner, with intermediate septa running in an opposite direction. The. spaces within the smaller septa were filled with a gelatinous matter, which the author described as similar to the gelatinous matter in the electrical organs of the torpedo and other electrical fishes. The nerves for the supply of these organs were derived from the eighth pair or great lateral nerve, and the terminal filaments formed large regular loops which were suspended in the gelatinous matter. Dec. 16.—1. ‘‘On a possible Explanation of the Adaptation of the Eye to Distinct Vision at different distances.’’ By Professor Forbes. The author stated that the crystalline lens is loosely suspended amidst the fluids of the eye, which are capable of conveying a uni- form pressure to all parts of its surface. This pressure is the result of the action of the recti muscles upon the exterior of the sclerotic coat of the eye-ball, and is communicated to every part of its con- tents. The lens consists of a condensed nucleus surrounded exter- nally by a softer and more gelatinous portion, so that the pressure acting upon the softer and external parts diminishes the vertical dia- meter of the lens, while that in the axis of vision may be increased, thus increasing the curvature of the refracting surfaces and shortening the focus. . 2. ‘Notice of an Ancient Beach near Stirling.” By Charles Maclaren, Esq. This beach consists of a terrace of stratified sand and gravel about two miles in length, extending from the foot of Abbey Crag west- ward to Lecropt Church. It is nearly level on the top, which is ele- vated about 85 feet above the low alluvial plain called the Carse of Stirling. Adding 20 or 25 feet for the height of this plain above the Forth at Stirling, the elevation of the terrace above the level of high tide will be about 110 feet. The breadth of the terrace is about 200 Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Vol. xv. K 122 Zoological Society. feet at Lecropt Church, about 900 feet at Airthrey Mineral Well, and nearly half a mile at Airthrey Castle. Several openings have been cut in it by streams or other agents. The preservation of this por- tion of the ancient sea-bottom may be attributed to the high trap hill of Abbey Crag at its east end, which had protected it from the action of the tide when the sea covered the Carse. A remnant of another terrace at a corresponding level is found at the opposite side of the Carse, two miles southward, near Whitehouse Farm, and small portions of a terrace fifty feet lower are found at Stirling Castle and near Causeyhead. January 6, 1845.—1. “ Further Remarks on the Electrical Organs of the Rays.” By Dr. Stark. 2. ‘‘ Observations on the same subject.”” By John Goodsir, Esq. Mr. Goodsir stated that he had examined the part described by Dr. Stark, It was, as he had suspected, the posterior part of the middle mass of the caudal muscles. The texture of this part differs remarkably from the muscular; it consists of numerous compart- ments formed by the aponeurotic septa of the muscle. Each com- partment contains next its walls a rich festooned arrangement of nervous loops, these loops being generally united three by three ; the sling of each loop is enlarged and contains one or more nu- cleated corpuscules, the limbs passing back into nervous tubes of the usual size. With these nervous loops, blood-vessel loops simi- larly enlarged are intermixed. The centre of each compartment con- tains a gelatinous mass applied externally to the nervous loops, and in its interior containing a vacant space. The gelatinous mass con- sists of areole formed by bars passing in all directions: these bars are thickest where they meet one another: they consist of a series of nucleated cells, which are plump and gelatinous in appearance, and much larger at the points of junction of the bars. These larger cells Mr. Goodsir considers as the germinal spots of the texture. The bars, and consequently the whole arrangement of the gelatinous mass, appear to be covered by a membrane presenting a most re- markable appearance,—a series of grooves or lines, the general di- rection of which is parallel to the bars, but generally slightly in- clined. ‘These grooves resemble the grooves or lines of mother- of-pearl, or the groovings on the dermal plates of some of the older fossil fishes. Mr. Goodsir concluded by stating that this organ had the general appearance of an electrical organ, but that the evidence educed of its electrical properties appeared to him to be insufficient. ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY. June 11, 1844.—George Gulliver, Esq., in the Chair. ‘On the Blood-corpuscles of the Two-toed Sloth, Bradypus didac- tylus, Linn.,” by George Gulliver, F.R.S. From an observation which I have lately made, it results that the Two-toed Sloth is one of the very few animals that has blood-discs Zoological Society. 123 considerably larger than those of Man; its average size in vulgar fractions of an English inch is 1-2865. M. Mandl* discovered that the blood-corpuscles of the Elephant are the largest at present known belonging to the Mammalia, and I subsequently found that those of the Capybara were, as far as we then knew, next in size, as noticed in my Appendix to Gerber’s Anatomy, pages 5, 8, and 50. But it now appears that the blood-corpuscles of the Sloth are larger than those of the Capybara, and, among mammiferous animals, second only in magnitude to the corpuscles of the Elephant. For the sake of comparison, some of my measurements of the average size of the largest blood-discs of Mammalia are here set down in the order of the magnitude of the discs, and in vulgar frac- tions of an English inch. Elephas Indicus, Cuv. .......... 1-2745 Bradypus didactylus, Linn. ...... 1-2865 Balena Boops, Auct. .......... 1-3099 Hydrocherus Capybara, Erxl. .... 1-3216 Phoca vitulina, Linn. .......... 1-3281 Dasypus villosus, Desm. ........ 1-3815 Myopotamus Coypus, Desm....... 1-3355 Pithecus Satyrus, Geoff. ........ 1-8383 Dasypus sex-cinctus, Auct. ...... 1-3457 Numerous other measurements are appended to the English ver- sion of Gerber’s Anatomy. It has been said that the blood-corpuscles are larger in omnivorous than in herbivorous and carnivorous animals. ‘To the facts which I have elsewhere + shown to be at variance with this opinion, it may be added that the oviparous Vertebrata, whatever may be the nature of their food, have larger blood-corpuscles than Mammalia, and that the size of the blood-corpuscles of many carnivorous birds exceeds that of the corpuscles of several of the omnivorous species. Finally, the Two-toed Sloth, which is a purely vegetable feeder, has, excepting the Elephant, the largest blood-corpuscles hitherto observed in any mammiferous animal. ‘“* Mr. Hinds’ resumed description of new Shells, from the cabinets of Sir E. Belcher and H. Cuming, Esq.” Rineicuxa, Deshayes. RINGICULA GRANDINOSA. Rin. testd ovatd, retusd, levigatd, politd ; anfractibus rotundatis, ultimo magno, subquadrato, rotundato ; columelid superné valde callosd, denticulatd. Axis 12 lin. Hab. Bais, island of Negros; in six fathoms, coarse sand: Caga- yan, island of Mindanao; in twenty-five fathoms, sandy mud: Cat- * Anatomie Microscopique, Paris 1838, Prem. Liv. p.17. M. Mandl’s observation refers to the blood-corpuscles of the African elephant; it was those of the Asiatic species that I examined. 4 Appendix to Gerber’s Anatomy, p. 4-5. K 2 124 Zoological Society. balonga, island of Samar ; in ten to thirty fathoms, mud: Sorsogon, island of Luzon :—all in the Philippines. Cab. Cuming. These little shells resemble each other very closely, and it is only by close attention to minute characters and the proportion and form of the last whorl that they can be. satisfactorily discriminated. The present species is perfectly smooth, and the last whorl is large, of a squarish form, and full and rounded. The upper portion of the aperture is strongly denticulated. RINGICULA PROPINQUANS. Min. testd ovatd, retusd, striatd, nitidd ; anfractibus rotundatis, ultimo magno valde rotundato, concinn? striato. Axis 14 lin. Hab. Sual, Philippines ; in five to seven fathoms, sandy mud. Cab. Cuming. Here the last whorl is not so square in shape, but very full and rounded, and is neatly striated in a very regular manner, and the spire is short. ‘Till the light is thrown properly on them, these striz are not very evident, but once discovered they will be found con- stant. Rineicuta cARon. Rin. testd ovatd, acuminatd, striatd, nitidd ; anfractibus rotundatis, ultimo subtransverso, rotundato, distanter striato ; spird exsertd ; aperturd subabbreviatd ; labro corrugato. Axis 12 lin. Hab. Straits of Malacca; in seventeen fathoms, mud. Cab. Belcher. eae The greatest breadth of the last whorl is probably in the transverse direction, and it is grooved with strie placed at regular distances from each other. The spire also is proportionately lengthened. Rine@icuLa ExsERTA. Rin. testd ovatd, acuminatd, levigatd, politd ; anfractibus rotundatis, levigatis ; spird elongata ; labro pone valde incrassato. Axis 12 lin. Hab. Camiguing; in forty fathoms, sandy mud: Sorsogon, island of Luzon ; in six fathoms, coarse sand ;—both in the Philippines. Cab. Cuming. Compared with R. grandinosa, the last whorl is small, but agrees in being quite smooth and round; the spire is elongated, as in R. caron, and the labrum is even rather more reflected than is usual. RINGICULA AUSTRALIS. in. testd ovatd,. acuminatd, levigatd, po- litd ; anfractibus rotundatis, penultimo sensim minore ; spird elon- gatd, infra suturam fascid subalbidd cinctdé. Axis 12 lin. Hab. Port Lincoln, Australia. Cab. Metcalfe. The only specimen before me has not attained its full adult age. In its characters it is rather intermediate ; the spire is not so promi- nently produced, and the penultimate whorl is more than usually developed, so as to be more intermediate in size between the others. All these species are of one uniform glassy semiopake colour, in some individuals being more glassy, in others more opake. Zoological Society. 125 Nera, Gray. Nem#ra tyrata. N., testd suborbiculari, tenui, fragili, diaphand, liris transversis sulcatd, antic? rotundatd; rostro retusissimo ; margine ventrali converd. Long. 4}; lat. 2; alt. 34 lin. Hiab. Basay, island of Sane, Philippines ; in from , to seven fathoms, sandy mud. Cab. Cuming. This species is to Ne@ra exactly what Mactra elegans is among that group, the sculpture and outline of the shells being so very similar. ‘This is of course comparatively a very miniature shell. Nezra TENvIS. N. testd ovali, fragili, diaphand, striis concentricis incrementis rugosa, antice rotundatd, postice retusé rostratd ; mar- gine ventrali antice subemarginatd. Long. 47; lat. 2; alt. 32 lin. Hab. Bais, island of Negros, Philippines ; in seven fathoms, coral sand. Cab. Cuming. Less ventricose than is usual with the species of this group, poste- riorly gradually attenuated into a short blunt beak, and on the ven- tral margin slightly emarginate. NeE#£RA CocHLEARIS. WN. testd majusculd, oblongd, albidd, striatd, prope umbones elevatiusculd, antic? rotundatd, postice attenuate nasutd, liris angustis, versus umbones respectantibus ; margine ventrali valde rotundato, postice emarginato. Long. 114; alt. 8 lin. Hab. Bais, island of Negros, Philippines; in seven fathoms, coral sand. Cab. Cuming. The description is drawn up from a single valve, but this is so large, and the characters so marked, as to render its future identity comparatively easy. June 25,—William;Horton Lloyd, Esq., in the Chair. ‘Description of some new species of Birds brought by Mr. L. Fraser from Western Africa,” by H. E. Strickland, Esq., M.A. Mr. Fraser has placed in my hands for examination and description a portion of the ornithological collection made by him during the Niger expedition, and I now present the names and characters of the new species. Mr. Fraser’s researches in Western Africa have made us acquainted with several new and interesting species of birds, and as he was only able to bring home very few, and in some cases only one specimen of each species, it would be very desirable that full descriptions, illustrated by figures, of these ornithological rarities should be made public, especially as it may be long before the pesti- leutial shores of Western Africa are again explored by naturalists. HirunpDINID&, CypsELINA. Cypselus parvus, Licht., Verz. Doubl. p. 58. A specimen of this bird was brought by Mr. Fraser from Acra; it is probably the smallest species of the genus, the total length being 126 Zoological Society. only 6 inches, wing 4} inches, medial rectrices 13 inch, external 34 inches. Plumage uniform mouse-colour, chin whitish. Acanthylis bicolor (Gray) ; Chetura bicolor, Gray, Zool. Mise. p. 7. A specimen of this elegant little species was obtained in May 1842 at Fernando Po, where it was very common. Turpipa2, Maurin. Prinia oxivackA, Strickl. P. supra viridi-olivacea, remigibus fuscis, olivaceo limbatis, caudd cuneatd, rectricibus duobus inter- mediis fuscis, lateralibus albis, extits fusco marginatis, extimo toto albo ; mento corporeque toto inferno albido, pallide flavo lavato. Rostrum pedesque fuscescentes. The aspect of this bird is that of a Phylloscopus, but the beak 1s longer, more depressed at the base, the culmen carinated, the wings short and rounded, the first quill subspurious, the fourth longest ; tail much graduated, rectrices narrow; tarsi moderately long, acro- tarsia scutate, toes slender, the outer longer than the inner. These characters induce me to class the bird provisionally in the genus Prinia. Total length 44 inches; beak to gape 6 lines, to front 54 lines, breadth 2 lines, height 1} line ; wing 1? inch; medial rectrices 1 inch 10 lines, external 1 inch | line; tarsus 74 lines, middle toe 5} lines, hind ditto 5 lines. Hab. Fernando Po; June 1842. Prinia IcTERICcA, Strickl. P. supra flavo-olivacea, loris, superciliis, genis, margine alarum, tibiis, caudeque tectricibus infernis leté flavis, mento, guld, pectore et abdomine albidis, pallidé isabellino lavatis, hypochondriis flavo-olivaceis, rostro nigro, pedibus rubris. This bird appears to belong to the same group as the last, but the beak is rather more depressed, the tail shorter and less cuneate, and the tarsi rather longer. In all other respects their structures corre- spond. They both have short rictal bristles and the nostrils are large, oblong, and situated in a large membranous depression of the beak.- Possibly they may hereafter form a distinct genus of Malu- rin@, distinguished chiefly by the depressed form of the beak. Total lenyth 32 inches; beak to gape 7} lines, to front 6 lines, breadth 2 lines, height 14 line; wing 1 inch 11 lines; medial rec- trices 14 inch, external 1 ice: tarsus 94 lines, middle toe 64 lines, hind ditto 54 lines. Hab. Fernando Po; June. Mr. Fraser adds: ‘‘ Irides light hazel ; note tweet, tweet, tweet, hop- ping about the topmost branches of a small tree like a wren.” Ina sketch of this bird by Mr. Fraser the tail is erect, as in Troglodytes. TurRDINA. CossypHa PoENsIs, Strickl. C. corpore supra fuliginoso-fusco, remigibus fuscis, omnibus (14 et 24 exceptis) basin versis rufo- ferrugineis, sed scapis fuscis ; rectricibus fuscis, tribus externis utrinque albo terminatis (qui color in rectricis extime pogonio Zoological Society. 127 externo oblique versus basin producitur), corpore toto inferno fer- rugineo, guld obscuriore. Rostrum atrum, pedes flavescentes. Seems to be a typical Cossypha, allied to C. reclamator (Vieill.), with which it agrees in all essential characters. The specimen above described is a male, and was procured at Clarence, Fernando Po. Total length 73 inches; beak to gape 10 lines, to front 7 lines, breadth 4 lines, height 24 lines; wing 4 inches 2 lines; medial rec- trices 34 inches, external 3 inches 4 lines; tarsus 1 inch, middle toe and claw | inch, hind ditto 8 lines, lateral toes equal. Mr. Fraser adds that this bird ‘‘ feeds on the ground; when sitting quiet in a naked bush it is with difficulty to be discovered. Irides hazel.” PyYcNoNOTINA. ANDROPADUS LATIROSTRIS, Strickl. A. corpore supra olivaceo, re- migibus fuscis, extis viridi-olivascente, intis albido, marginatis, rectricibus fusco-brunneis, olivaceo limbatis ; corpore subtis olivas- cente, lateribus menti, ale tectricibus infernis, et abdomine medio stramineis. Rostrum corneum, marginibus pallidis, pedes ungues- que pallescentes. Rostrum depressum, tomiorum dentibus obli- quis 6 vel 7 utringue ; illis maxille distinctis, mandibule subob- - gsoletis. In this species the beak is considerably depressed and formed like that of a Muscicapa; the teeth of the upper mandible are distinct and regular, but disappear about the middle of the beak. The lower mandible is also furnished with five or six serrations, but very low and indistinct. ‘The wing is much rounded, the fifth quill being longest and the rest graduated. The colour and texture of plumage are much like that of the East Indian Pycnonotus flavirictus, Strickl. (Ann. Nat. Hist., June 1844.) Total length 62? inches; beak to gape 11 lines, to front 7 lines ; breadth 4 lines, height 2} lines; wing 31 inches; medial rectrices 3 inches; external 2? inches; tarsus ? inch, middle toe and claw 8 lines, hind ditto 6 lines. The above description is taken from a specimen marked ‘‘ female.”’ In two other specimens in which the sex is not indicated the dimen- sions and plumage are the same, but the yellow streak on each side of the chin is wanting, and the lower mandible wants the serrations, and exhibits only a small subterminal notch. ‘These are probably younger individuals. Hab. Fernando Po; June. ANDROPADUS GRACILIROSTRIS, Strickl. A. corpore toto supra oli- vaceo, remigibus primariis fuscis, extis olivascente, intis pallide ochraceo limbatis, corpore subtis pallide olivaceo-cinerascente, mento guldque albidis, abdomine medio crissoque pallide flavescen- tibus, alarum tectricibus infernis pallide ochraceis. Rostrum pedesque corneo-fusci ; rostrum longiusculum, turdinum, dentibus maxille duobus, mandibule nullis. This species differs from the former one in several points of struc- ture ; the beak is considerably narrower at the base and more slender, 128 Zoological Society. the upper mandible has only two dentations, with a faint trace. of a third, and the lower mandible exhibits only a slight subterminal emargination. The wings also differ, being more pointed; the first quill is subspurious, and the second, third and fourth nearly equal, the third longest. These two species, however, agree in the struc- ture of the tail and feet, and in the texture and almost the colour of the plumage, the rump-feathers being dense, long and downy, as in the true Pycnonoti. The specimen before me is a male; it exhibits. two or three slender nuchal bristles, like those of Pycnonotus and Criniger, which are not traceable in A. latirostris. Total length 7 inches; beak to gape 10 lines, to front 7 lines, breadth 3 lines, height 24 lines; wing 31 inches; medial rectrices 8 inches 1 line, external 2 inches 11 lines; tarsus 94 lines, middle toe and claw 9 lines, hind ditto 6 lines. Hab. Fernando Po; June. ‘“‘Irides white; a pretty songster.”’ Muscicapipa2, MuscicaPrinez. Muscrcapa Frasenrt, Strickl. MM. capite, dorso alisque fuscis, fer- rugineo tinctis, remigibus fuscis, primariis extis basin versus ob- scure ferrugineis, omnibus, 14 et 24 exceptis, pogoniis internis ad basin pallidé rufis, uropygio, caude tectricibus, corporeque toto inferno rufo-ferrugineis, guld pallidiore, rectricibus fuscis, 6 in- termediis strictissimé, lateralibus large, rufo terminatis, externo Sere omnind rufo. Rostrum latum, nigrum, pedes pallide brunnei. The rufous colouring of the plumage reminds us of Tchitrea, Less. (Muscipeta, Auct.), but the beak is much shorter and more trian- gular than in that genus. In its general structure and proportions this bird appears to approach the restricted genus Muscicapa more closely than any other group. The form of the beak is almost ex- actly that of the Muscicapa latirostris, Sw., of India, and the legs are much shorter than is usual in terrestrial birds. Notwithstanding these characters, Mr. Fraser’s notes state that this bird ‘‘ feeds on the ground; has the motions and plump appearance of a robin.” He adds that the irides are hazel, and that it is a beautiful songster. The beak is strong, depressed, very broad, the sides straight when viewed from above, and the base furnished with bristles of moderate length. The first quill is subspurious, 1 inch long; the second is half an inch shorter than the third; the fourth is the longest. Tarsi short, acrotarsia and paratarsia entire ; outer toe slightly longer than the inner one, its first phalanx attached to the middle toe; claws curved, compressed, sharp; tail rounded. ‘The male and female are alike, except that in the specimen before me of the female the narrow rufous tip of the medial rectrices is wanting, and the dimensions are rather less than in the male. Total length 74 inches; beak to gape 9 lines, to front 6 lines, height 23 lines, breadth at gape 6 lines; wing 3 inches 10 lines; medial rectrices 34 inches, external 3 inches 1 line; tarsus 10 lines, middle toe and claw 9 lines, hind ditto 7 lines. Hab. Fernando Po. I dedicate this species to Mr. Louis Fraser, naturalist to the Niger Loological Society. 129 expedition, who succeeded in bringing home many interesting addi- tions to zoological science, notwithstanding the difficulties and dan- gers by which he was surrounded. Laniipa, LANIINA. _ TepHropornis ocreatus, Strickl. 7’, capite supra genisque fusco- atris, dorso toto alisque obscure fusco-plumbeis, remigibus rectri- cibusque fusco-atris, extis plumbeo limbatis, corpore toto inferno albo, gutturis pectorisque plumis cinereo stricté marginatis, alarum tectricibus infernis cinereis albo marginatis. Rostrum pedesque atri, acrotarstis integris. This bird approaches. sufficiently near to the Indian genus Tephro- dornis to be classed with it, the only important structural differences being that the acrotarsia are entire and that the tail is slightly rounded. The beak resembles that of 7. Indica (Gray), but is a trifle shorter ; the nostrils are concealed by incumbent bristly feathers ; the fourth, fifth and sixth quills are nearly equal, the first three graduated, and the outer toe longer than the inner. | Total length 6? inches; beak to gape 11 lines, to front 7 lines, breadth 3 lines, height 24 lines; wing 3 inches 7 lines; medial rec- trices 3 inches, external 2 inches 8 lines; tarsus 10 lines, middle toe 9 lines, hind ditto 7 lines. _ Hub. Fernando Po; June. ‘‘Irides hazel, legs blue.” Mr. Gould laid upon the table a number of Skins of Animals and Birds, being part of a large collection which Mr. Gilbert had lately forwarded to him from Australia. Mr. Gould characterized the fol- lowing species :— MAMMALIA. ~Macrorus eracitis. M. infra incanescens et saturate fuscus ; colli lateribus rufescenti-fusco lavatis ; genis, mento et guld ful- vescente-albis, vellere molli, ad basin cinereo, exinde fusco, dein albo, apice nigro ; pilis longis nigris crebreé interspersis. feet in, Length from tip of nose to the tip of the taill.. 2 6 Aa REUBEN RE SP PPOREA SE SEE SC ERC RORY SUE en eg re Pe} of tarsi and toes, including nails .... O 5 ———~ of arm and hand, including nails .... 0 34 —.— of face from tip of nose to base of ear.. 0 34 ce, A SERS RE Ur a ES yelp aR 0 2} Face and all the upper surface of the body grizzled grey and dark brown, the grizzled appearance produced by each hair being greyish white near its tip; sides of the neck and the outer side of the limbs washed with reddish brown; margin of the anterior edge and the base of the posterior edge of the ear buffy white; line from the angle of the mouth dark brown; line along the side of the face, chin and throat buffy white; under surface buffy grey; tail clothed with short grizzled hairs, similar to the upper surface of the body, and with a line of black on the upper side at the apex for about one-third of its length; the fur, which is somewhat soft to the touch, is grey at the base, then brown, to which succeeds white, the points of the 130 Zoological Society. hairs being black ; there are also numerous long black hairs dispersed over the surface of the body ; feet grizzled grey and rufous. This is a very elegantly formed little animal, and is intermediate in size between Macropus lunatus and Macropus frenatus. Hyrsiprymnus piatyors. H. facie magnopere latd; hdc, corpo- risque lateribus, fuscescente-cinereis ; dorso rufescenti-fusco ; facie, partibusque superioribus pilis longis, et flavido-albis inter vellus crebré adspersis ; corpore inferiore fulvescente-cinereo. feet in. Length from tip of the nose to the extremity of the tail.. 1 7 bee OF tad Sid FSi 2 ee Re SRN GU oh tee f ———- of tarsi and toes, including nails ...... Me Ee wo ee 0.:¢g of arm and hand, including the nails.......... O° 25 — of face from tip of nose to base of ear ...-.... 0 38 pt OE OI 50 5 isk KS, OPN eke ie igs arate pea O 0% Face extremely broad, and, with the sides of the body, brownish grey; back reddish brown; the whole of the face and upper surface beset with numerous long yellowish white hairs, offering a strong contrast to the darker colouring of the fur; all the under surface and limbs buffy grey ; tail brown above, paler beneath. ‘Mor-da,’ aborigines of Western Australia. The above is the description of a female received from Swan River. PERAMELES ARENARIA. PP. vellere rigido et cinerascente-fusco, pilis longis nigris intermixto, his fasciam lateralem viz distinctam, notamque instar ephippit ad dorsum medium efficientibus ; auribus ferrugineis ad basin, in medio saturate fuscis, ad apicem cineras- cente-fuscis ; corpore inferiore fulvescente-albo. inches Length from tip of nose to extremity of tail .... 144 OF AO i TR CE a owe koe 44 from tip of nose to base of ear ........ 34 ——.— of hind-leg, tarsi and toes .....:...... 2 sheen OE TOT CAO ee oe gains kn Bie ed play ates 25 Ha IE ie AN ae ah eS ie Hie aE 13 The fur is harsh to the touch and of a greyish brown hue, inter- spersed with numerous long black hairs, which form a broad indi- stinct band down the flanks, immediately before the hind-legs, and a kind of saddle-like mark on the centre of the back ; ears rather length- ened and of three colours—rusty red near the base, then dark brown, and the apex of a light greyish brown; sides of the muzzle and all the under surface buffy white; line along the upper surface of the tail dark brown, the remainder buffy white; outside of the fore-legs dark brownish grey ; feet and claws buffy white. Hapatotis tonercaupaTa. HH. superné pallide arenacea, pilis longis, nigris, ad caput et dorsum cum vellere intermiztis ; rostri lateribus, et abdomine albis ; caudd pilis brevibus nigris ad basin indutd, apicem versus nigris et elongatis ; apice extremo albo vel- lere molli, adpresso et juxta cutem plumbeo. Zoological Society. 131 inches Length from tip of nose to sare iy teil: cic 16 — of tail . ‘ eG als Pag —_—-— from tip ‘of nose to base of eer. 62000 13 ——— of hind-leg, tarsi and toes ............ 2 setnishehanen OR PONRMIO a ods ee Cipro ges EUR ae 6 os 12 FO MMR Cs wisn sh-o oe yoo ohne Rtn eM RL ee « Of All the upper surface and the outside of the limbs pale sandy, i in- terspersed on the head and over the back with numerous fine black hairs, which, becoming longer on the lower part of the back and ruinp, give that part a dark or brown hue; ears naked and of a dark brown ; sides of the muzzle, all the under surface and the inner surface of the limbs white ; tail clothed with short dark brown hairs at the base, with lengthened black hairs tipped with white on the apical half of its length, the extreme tip being white; tarsi white; whiskers very long, fine, and black; the fur is close, very soft, and of a dark slaty grey at the base, both on the upper and under surface. This species is considerably smaller than Hapalotis albipes, but has a much longer tail and longer hind-legs in proportion to the size of the body. ‘Kor-tung’ and ‘ Goota-was,’ aborigines of Moore’s River, Western i (=) Australia. PHASCOGALE CALURUS. Phasc. cinerea; subtis pedibusque albis, indistinctissime flavo-tinctis ; caudd corpore longiore, dimidio ba- sali pilis brevibus, rufis, apicali pilis longis nigris obsitd ; auribus magnis ad basin pilis flavescentibus obsitis. inch. lin. Length from tip of nose to extremity of tail.. 10 6 Pee MOE sce vcore ays XS Rinse Sha ATK cio, om arate 5 6 from tip of nose to base of ear...... Se Of CRM BEG BOER 6 ihn vin 10d ieee 011 Nites AR MOOD as ss Sadscainelnbasalie slate eink hake 036 0 7% This beautiful species was procured in the interior of Western Australia. It is nearly allied to P. penicillata, but is of smaller size and has the tail less bushy; the portion covered with short hair is extended from the base nearly to the middle of the tail, and is remarkable for its brilliant rusty-red colour; on the apical half of the tail the hairs are long, being on an average about half an inch in length; all the under side is black, very nearly to the root. The fur is soft and moderately long, and its general colour is ashy grey externally, but grey next the skin; the under parts of the body are white, tinted with cream-colour, and this last-mentioned tint is very distinct on the sides of the body; the eye is encircled by a narrow black line, and there is a blackish patch in front of the eye. ‘The ears are large and very sparingly clothed for the most part with very minute dusky hairs, but at the base, both externally and internally, are some long- ish yellow hairs. _ PHASCOGALE cRAssIcAUDATA. ©Phasc. supra. cinerea flavo-tincta ; 132 Zoological Society. corpore subtis, pedibusque albis ; auribus mediocribus, externé ma- culd nigrd ornatis ; caudd brevi crassa. inch. lin, Length from tip of nose to extremity of tail .. 5 7 of tail ........ Baal Rok Vea ena oe 2... irate OF CAT 5. es. ain ae aen Cee SRR EIO SUS « 0 54 — tarsi and toes.) secede Ty 0 7 Hab. Western Australia. This species is about the size of the common mouse, and is not unlike the Mus sylvaticus in its colouring; above grey with a wash of yellow, and on the sides of the body distinctly tinted with yellow ; under parts and feet pure white; tail much swollen, especially in the middle, and clothed throughout with very minute pale hairs; ears clothed with pale hairs, but with a largish black spot externally ; eyes encircled with bldck hairs ; fur moderately long and soft. AVES. TERACIDEA OCCIDENTALIS. Jer. vertice et corpore superiore ferru- gineo-fuscis ; singulis plumis strigd centrali nigrd angusté notatis ; caudd fusco multi-fasciatd ; corpore subtis albo plumis lined fuscd angustd notatis. Crown of the head, back and scapularies rusty brown, with a nar- row stripe of black down the centre ; rump deep rusty brown, crossed by broad bands of dark brown, the tip of each feather buffy white ; wings very dark brown; the inner webs of the primaries with a series of large spots, assuming the form of bars, of a deep rusty brown near the shaft and fading into buffy white on the margin; wing-coverts tipped with rusty red; spurious wing with a row of rusty red spots on either side of the shaft; tail dark brown, crossed by numerous broad irregular bars of rusty red, and tipped with pale buff; ear- coverts and a stripe running down from the angle of the lower man- dible dark brown; chin, all the under surface, and a broad band which nearly encircles the neck, white, with a fine line of dark brown down the centre; thighs deep rust-red, each feather with a line of black down the centre and tipped with buffy white; cere very light greenish flesh-colour; irides wood-brown ; space round the eye pale yellow, becoming brighter near the eye; base of the upper mandible, the under mandible and gape, very light horn-colour; tip of the upper mandible black. Total length, 16 inches; bill, 14; wing, 124; tail, 73; tarsi, 24. Hab. Western Australia. AAXGOTHELES LEUCOGASTER. 4%. quoad colorem Ai. Nov. Hollan- dize consimilis, at grandior, rostro longiore, et abdomine albo. Head black ; crown, lunar-shaped mark at the back of the head, and a collar surrounding the neck, black, freckled with grey in the centre of each feather ; back freckled black and white; wings brown, crossed by numerous bands of lighter brown, freckled with dark brown; pri- maries margined externally with buff, interrupted with blotchings of dark brown; tail dark brown, crossed by numerous broad irregular bands of reddish buff, freckled with dark brown; ear-coverts straw- Zoological Society. 133 white; chin, abdomen and under tail-coverts white ; breast, sides of the neck, and a narrow collar surrounding the back of the neck, white, crossed by numerous narrow freckled bars of black; irides dark brown; upper mandible dark olive-brown, lower white, with a black tip; legs pale yellow, claws black. Total length, 95 inches; bill, 1; wing, 52; tail, 5; tarsi, 1. Hab. Port Essington. Maturus putcuerrimus. Mal. Mas: vertice, et fascid dorsali splendidé violaceo-ceruleis ; orbitis et plumis auricularibus ex erugine ceruleis; guld indico-ceruled, nigro subtis indistincte marginatd ; plumis scapularibus castaneis ; loris, nuchd, et dorso imo holoserico-nigris. Foem.: fusca, subtus pallidior, orbitis ru- bide fuscis. Crown of the head and a broad band across the centre of the back rich glossy violet-blue ; space surrounding the eye and the ear-coverts verditer-blue; throat intense indigo-blue, bounded below by an in- distinct band of black ; lores, collar surrounding the back of the neck, and the lower part of the back, deep velvety black ; scapularies chest- nut; wings brown; tail dull greenish blue, indistinctly barred with a darker tint and slightly tipped with white; abdomen and under tail- coverts white; bill and feet black ; irides dark brown. Female dull brown, paler beneath; tail-feathers like those of the male, but less bright; bill and space round the eye reddish brown. Remarks.—Very similar in its markings and general contour to M. Lamberti; it may however be always distinguished from that species by its larger size and by the deep indigo-blue colour of the throat and chest, which parts are black in M. Lamberti. Total length, 54 inches; bill, ;% ; wing, 2; tail, 34; tarsi, 14. Hab. Western Australia. PacnyceruaLa Giupertit. Puch. Mas: colore saturate olivaceo- fusco; capite plumbeo; loris nigris; guld ferrugined ; humeris subtiis, abdomine medio, crissoque arenaceis. Fom. differt, loris non nigris, neque guld ferrugined. The plumage dark greyish olive-brown ; the head dark slate-grey, and the breast of a lighter grey; the lores black; throat rust-red ; under surface of the shoulder, centre of the abdomen and under tail- coverts sandy buff; irides light brown; bill and feet black. The female is similar in colour, but is destitute of the black on the lores and the red on the throat. ‘ Total length, 63 inches; bill, 44; wing, 34; tail, 33; tarsi, 1. Hab. Western Australia. July 9th.— William Horton Lloyd, Esq., in the Chair. « Descriptions of a number of new species of Shells belonging to the genus Cytherea,” by Sylvanus Hanley, Esq. CyTHEREA VARIANS. C. tesid ovato-cordatd, inequilaterali, subven- tricosd, tenuiusculd, albd, maculis et lineis angulatim flexuosis cas- taneis variegatd, concentrice (et antice presertim) sulcato-striatd ; lunuld magnd, cordatd, lined impressd circumscriptd, albd, maculd 134: Zoological Society. castaned aut livido-purpurascente basi ornatd ; pube castaneo venu- latd ; superficie interna omninod albidd; margine integro ; cardine ut in C. leta. Long. 1; lat. 1°45 poll. Index Test. Sup. t. 15. f. 33. Hab. Brazil. Easily distinguished rai leta and obliquata by its lunule, and from pellucida (to which in colouring and general contour it approxi- mates) by its close and irregular groove-like striz. CyTHEREA OBLIQUATA. C. testd ovato-cordata (interdum oblongo- cordatd), tumidd aut ventricosd, solidiusculd, sublevigatd, albidd, lineis angularibus minutissimis brunneis aspersd; margine liga- mentali convexiusculo, subdeclivi; ventrali subarcuato; lunuld magnd, indistinctd, colorum experte; natibus valde obliquis, candidis ; ligamento angusto ; extremitate posticd obtusd ; superficie internd albd aut albido-rosed ; margine integro. Long. 1°75 ; lat. 2°50 poll. Index Test. Sup. t. 15. f. 24. Hab. ? Mus. Cuming, Hanley, &c. A species which for a long time has been confounded with /eta, whose dentition, lunule and general shape it possesses. It is how- ever a broader shell, with the beaks still more oblique, and its surface invariably speckled with minute scattered linear zigzags, which are more closely congregated near the swollen umbones. CyTHEREA PLEBEIA. C. testd suborbiculari, subquadratd, valde inequilaterali, solidd, compressiusculd, squalide albidd, fulvo varie- gatd (intus lividd), concentricé et confertissimé sulcata ; margine ligamentali convexo et subdeclivi ; postico dorsali paululim subre- tuso et valde declivi; ventrali arcuato ; umbonibus haud compla- _ natis et minimé striis divaricatis instructis ; lunuld lanceolatd, albé ; margine interno subcrenulato. Long. 1; lat. 1°20 poll. Index Test. Sup. t. 15. f. 37. Hab. Catbalonga, Philippines. Mus. Cuming, Hanley. This species is allied to the type of its subgenus, the Circe scripta, but the compressed umbones of that shell at once distinguish it. Minute tawny zigzags adorn the whitish ground of the anterior sur- face, whilst the fulvous hue predominates posteriorly. CYTHEREA PHILIPPINARUM. C. testd cordatd, inequilaterali, ven- tricosd, crassiusculd, pallide lividd, radiis et lineis angulatim flexuosis saturatioribus variegatd, concentricé costellatd ; costellis convexis, confertis ; interstitiis levigatis ; lunuld brevi, cordiformi, albd; rimé livido purpurascente ; margine ventrali integro, arcuato ; superficie internd albidd, maculd lividd sub umbonibus notatd. Long. 0 80; lat. 1 poll. Index ‘Test. Sup. t. 15. f. 36. Hab. Philippines. Mus. Cuming, Hanley. Very distinctly characterized by its crowded narrow ribs. The dentition is that of its subgenus Chione, and the short white lunule, equally with the narrow ligament, is bordered with livid purple. CyYTHEREA DIEMENENSIS. C. testd oblongo-cordatd, convexd, nitidi- usculd, concentrice et obsolet? sulcatd, carneo-fulvd ; radiis angustis Zoological Society. 135 lunuldque lanceolata, colore tinctis saturatiore ; pube albd, strigis flexuosis litteratd ; superficie internd albidd, radio fusco-purpureo obliquo, sub umbonibus ornatd ; margine integro, Long. 0°80 ; lat. 1°20 poll. Hab. Van Diemen’s Land. Mus. Metcalfe. Easily to be distinguished from those allied to it in form by its internal ray. The hinge is that of the section Chione. CyTuHErEA cor. C. testd cordato-trigond, intus extusque albd, con- veriusculd, undique concentrice striata ; striis exilibus, regularibus, confertissimis ; latere postico majore, subcuneiformi ; margine ligamentali valde declivi, convexiusculo ; ventrali subarcuato ; nati- bus acutis; lunuld oblongd, impressd ; margine interno integro. Long. 0°80; lat. 1 poll. Index Test. Sup. t. 15. f. 7. Hab. Africa. Mus. Metcalfe. Not unlike the Venus variabilis of Sowerby in shape and general appearance. ‘The epidermis is of that white velvety texture which we meet with in argentea. Cytuerea Hinpsiu. C. testd trigond, ventricosd, solidiusculd, le- vigatd, nitidd, subequilaterali, albidd, brunneo nebulosd, utrinque obtusd ; latere antico paululim majore ; natibus incurvatis, pallidis ; lunuld magnd, subinconspicud, omnind pallidd; pube fusco stri- gatd ; superficie internd albidd ; margine integro. Long. 1; lat. 1 poll. Index Test. Sup. t. 15. f. 35. Hab. Guayaquil. Mus. Cuming, Hanley. This and the succeeding species belong to the subgenus Trigona, and are easily distinguished from the Mactroides of Born and Chem- nitz by the absence of a purple stain upon the umbones. Sept. 10.—-William Horton Lloyd, Esq., in the Chair. ‘“‘ Descriptions of six new species of Voluta,”’ by G. B. Sowerby, Esq. :— VouutTa MAMMILLA, Gray. Vol. testd ovato-oblongd, tenui, lutes- cente, apice mammillari, obiusissimo, subspirali; anfractibus duobus, ultimo. magno, ovali, maculis lineisque castaneis picto ; aperturd magnd ; columelld plicis tribus. Shell ovate-oblong, thin, brownish-yellow, with a mammillary, subspiral, very obtuse apex ; volutions two, the last of which is large, oval, marked with chestnut-coloured spots and zigzag lines; aper- ture large ; columella with three folds. From New Holland; a single specimen, which appears to be only avery young shell, is in the British Museum. This is a very re- markable species, forming the link that unites Cymba with Melo, the apex of this species being subspiral, while in Cymba the apex is amorphous. Vouvuta pipERITA. Vol. testd obovatd, ventricosiusculd, crassius- culd, pallescente, quinguefasciatd, fasciis posticd mediand et an- ticd brunneo-puncticulatis, strigisque fuscis irregularibus ornatis ; 136 Zoological Society. Ffasciis duabus intermediis pallidioribus, strigis nonnullis lividis, cum strigis fuscis, fasciarum alternarum continuis ; anfractibus quinque, tribus primis papillam efformantibus, papilld levi, postice subgranosd ; ultimo maximo, ovali ; aperturd elongatd, latiori, intus aurantiacd ; columelld plicis 4, validis, labioque columellari auran- tiacis. Shell obovate, rather ventricose and thickish; of a pale colour, with five bands, the posterior, middle and anterior of which are dotted with brown, and ornamented with irregular fuscous streaks ; the two intermediate bands are paler, with livid streaks, which are continuous with the brown streaks of the alternating bands; volutions five, of which the first three form the papillary apex, which is smooth, and slightly granose posteriorly ; the last volution very large, oval; aper- ture elongated, rather wide, orange-coloured within ; columella with four distinct folds, orange-coloured as well as the columellar lip. A single specimen only is known, which is in Mr. Norris's collec- tion, Vouuta Norrisi. Vol. testd ovatd, suboblongd, ventricosd, coro- natd, levi, cinereo-fulvd, maculis parvis niveis aliisyue fuscis ad- spersd, fasciis duabus transversis fuscis, interruptis, hic illic lineis interruptis, longitudinalibus notatis ; spird brevi, apice papillari, granoso ; anfractibus sex, ultimis duobus spinis brevibus acutis coronatis ; aperturd magnd, oblongd, intus fusca ; columelld qua- driplicatd, plicis duabus anticis validioribus. Shell ovate, rather oblong, ventricose, coronated, greyish brown, sprinkled with small snow-white and brown specks, with two trans- verse brown interrupted bands, here and there marked with inter- rupted longitudinal lines ; spire short, with a papillary granose apex ; volutions six, the last two crowned with short sharp spines ; aperture large, oblong, brown within ; columella with four folds, of which the two anterior are prominent. Found on the reefs at low water, on Dupuch’s Island, by J. C. Dring, Esq., R.N. In Mr, Cuming’s sireapmione Wagner has figured this species for V. nivosa. VouuTa meGasPiRA. Vol. testd fusiformi, turritd, tenuiusculd, levi, rufescente-carneolatd, sirigis maculisque castaneis notatd ; spire anfractibus sex, subelongatis, medio ventricosiusculis, primis duobus apicem papillarem efformantibus, 3%, 4%, 5 et 6 obtuse longitudinaliter costatis, ultimo magno, oblongo, anticé attenuato ; apertura oblongd, labio externo subreflero ; columelld quinquepli- catd, plicis posticis obtusis, parvis. Shell fusiform, turrited, rather thin, smooth, of a reddish flesh- colour, marked with chestnut streaks and blotches ; volutions of the spire six, rather elongated and ventricose in the middle, the first two forming the papillary apex, the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th with ob- tuse longitudinal ribs, the last large, oblong, attenuated anteriorly ; aperture “oblong, outer lip slightly reflected ; columella with five folds, the posterior of which are small and obttise: I have only seen a single specimen, which is in Mr. Cuming’s ex- Geological Society. , 137 traordinary collection ; it is probably the same as Kiener’s V. lyri- formis, but it is not the same as Broderip’s, which is identical with Swainson’s Mitra lyriformis. Its papillary apex closely resembles that of V. fulminata. Votuta Guitpinait. Vol. testd oblongd, crassd, fulvescente, line- olis saturatioribus aliisque albis pictd ; spird acuminata, apice ob- tuso; anfractibus 5 ad 6, subventricosis, longitudinaliter costatis, interstitiis costarum transversim striatis, ultimo magno, leviga- tiusculo ; aperturd mediocri, labio externo extus incrassato, albi- cante, intus dente parvo instructo ; columelld plicis quinque ad sex parvis, anticis duabus validioribus. Shell oblong, thick, fulvous, marked with little white lines and others of a darker colour; spire acuminated, with an obtuse apex ; volutions five to six, rather ventricose, longitudinally ribbed, inter- stices of the ribs with transverse strie, the last volution large, rather smooth ; aperture middle-sized, outer lip externally thickened, whitish, furnished with a small tooth internally; columella with five or six small folds, of which the two anterior are more prominent. This is the’ smallest known species of Volute; it was discovered at St. Vincent’s by the late Rev. Lansdown Guilding. In Mr. Cu- ming’s and Mr. Metcalfe’s collections. Votuta Cytirnirormis. Vol. testd parvd, ovatd, crassd, levius- culd, albicante, maculis parvis flavicantibus sparsim ornatd ; spird subconicd, anfractibus sex, postice coarctatis, ad suturam gra- nosis, antice longitudinaliter costatis, ultimo magno, anticé trans- versim striato ; canali parvo, reflexo; aperturd oblongd, labio ex- terno extus incrassato, margine interno intus dente parvo.instructo ; labio columellari antice ruguloso, dentibus tribus parvulis munito. Shell small, ovate, thick, rather smooth, whitish, sprinkled with small yellowish‘specks ; spire somewhat conical, with six volutions, which are contracted posteriorly, granose at the sutures and longi- tudinally ribbed anteriorly ; the last volution is large and anteriorly transversely striated ; canal small, slightly reflected ; aperture oblong, outer lip externally thickened, its internal edge furnished with a small tooth ; columellar lip rugulose anteriorly, furnished with three small teeth. The only specimen I have seen of this curious little shell is in the collection of W. Metcalfe, Esq. In general appearance it nearly resembles a Cyllene. GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Dec. 4, 1844.—A paper was read, entitled, ‘‘ Remarks on the Geology of British Guiana.” By the Chevalier Robert H. Schom- burgk. ; The geology of the district of British Guiana is chiefly confined to primitive rocks. At the mouth of the Orinoco is an extensive delta consisting of blue clay, which, when pierced, gives a supply of water, and Artesian wells have been sunk here in many places with success. Below the clay appear the remains of an ancient forest. The allu- Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Vol. xv. L 138 Geological Society. vial flat is terminated by sand-hills, beyond which occurs granite in- tersected by numerous greenstone dykes, and then commence the savannahs, which are traversed by large beds of conglomerate often containing iron ore, and pierced with lofty porphyritic hills. The savannahs are supposed to be the bed of an ancient lake. A region in which much jasper occurs next succeeds, and then a remarkable range of granitic mountains ; and the author directed especial atten- tion to the insulated rocks of grotesque form abounding in the di- strict. He also remarked on the probability of gold being found in the river-courses, and on the appearance of the well-known diamond- matrix of Brazil. A letter was next read from Mr. Trevelyan, remarking on the oc- currence of polished and scratched surfaces in the neighbourhood of Conway, on the ascent of Moel Siabod, from Capel Carig, on Snow- don, and in other localities in North Wales. Dec. 18.—A paper was read ‘‘ On the Pipes or Sandgalls in the Chalk and Chalk-rubble of Norfolk.” By Joshua Trimmer, Esq. The observations recorded in the present paper were made in chalk pits near Norwich, and the surface of the chalk was observed to be furrowed by irregular cavities, or deep cylindrical conical pipes, en- tering the chalk from the channeled surface. ‘The contents of the furrows appeared to be fine sand mixed with a light-coloured amber or yellow ochre, the former often filling up the cavities both here and elsewhere. The author considers, that although chemical agency may have assisted in the formation of these cavities and pipes, yet that it is necessary to admit also mechanical action, and he refers to several instances of the known effects of rain-water on cliffs, and ex- cavations of basins in river-beds, in proof of the probability of his opinion being correct. Jan. 8, 1845.—The following communications were made :— A paper by Mr. A. G. Bain “‘ On the Geology of the South-East- ern extremity of Africa.” The principal object of this paper was to describe the district in which certain remarkable fossils had been obtained by the author and forwarded to England. ‘The lowest stratified rock in this district is a red sandstone containing fragments of plants, which seem to re- semble a common carboniferous species (Lepidodendron Sternbergi). Over this rock, and conformable to it, is a conglomerate of claystene porphyry containing pebbles, and to it succeeds clayslate. The next is the fossiliferous rock, and it consists of a disintegrated sandstone containing argillaceous matter in septarian nodules, the fossils being found in the nodules. A notice, by Prof. Owen, of one of the genera of animals (Dicy- nodon) whose remains were forwarded by Mr. Bain. The most im- portant character in this genus is the possession of two large tusks like those of the walrus, but the general structure of the bones indi- cates distinctly the reptilian character of the animal. The first of the species described by Prof. Owen was named D. lacerticeps, from its analogies with the lizards. In this species there is an exhibition of unusual strength in the bones of the face, but there is no mark of Botanical Society of London. 139 any other teeth than the two which give the peculiar character to the animal. Prof. Owen considers that the whole of the anterior part of the jaws was sheathed with horn in the same manner as the Chelonians, and this is the more interesting from the other analogies presented with the Chelonians. It appears indeed throughout, that this singular animal united the character of the Lacertians, Chelonians and Crocodilians. The second species described was named D. tes- tudiniformis, and differed from the former in its greater resemblance to the Chelonians. A third species, D. strigiceps, is chiefly remarkable for the singular position of the tusks, placed far back behind the orbit of theeye. The nearest analogue of this singular genus is the Rhyn- chosaurus of the new red sandstone of England. An unexpected point of structure exhibited in these animals is the existence of tusks like those of mammalia, exhibiting no mark whatever of the pre- sence of a succession of teeth, which in all other reptiles known invariably exist. The tusks of the Dicynodon were probably used as weapons of offence and defence, and the habits of the animal seem to have been marine. BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. Jan. 3, 1845.—J.E. Gray, Esq., F.R.S. &c., President, in the Chair. Mr. S. Gibson presented a specimen of Scirpus acicularis (Linn.) with much longer stems than ordinary ; the culms formed a dense tuft about 14 inches high. Mr. Fitt presented specimens of an Ginanthe commonly considered (i. pimpinelloides by the botanists of Norfolk. It is the GW. Lache- nalit (Gmel.) of Babington’s ‘ Manual,’ and the species confused with or mistaken for the true pimpinelloides by most other English botanists since the time of Hudson. Four of the specimens were selected for the Society’s herbarium, as showing variations from the normal character of the root. Some of the tubers were branched ; some: approximated to those of Smith’s “« peucedanifolia”’ in being thicker. and shorter than ordinary. On one specimen the external fruits in the umbellules are very slightly contracted at their base; the ridges being confluent and forming a ring, much like the callous base of the fruit in the true pimpinelloides. The specimens were located from salt-ditches near Yarmouth. The Secretary called the attention of members to a series of spe- cimens of Dryas octopetala (Linn.), which had been sent to the So- ciety some years ago by Mr. Tatham from Arncliff Clonder, York- shire. The sepals or lobes of the calyx varied considerably in length and breadth ; on one specimen the length was scarcely twice the breadth, while in another the length was four times the breadth. The convexity of the base of the calyx also varied much. He re- minded the meeting that Mr. Babington had described a second spe- cies of Dryas (D. depressa, Bab.) found in Ireland, and distinguished from the well-known D. octopetala by exactly the same characters which these specimens proved to be within the range of variation of the true D. octopetala. He had not seen any example of the D. de- 140 Miscellaneous. pressa, described in Babington’s ‘ Manual,’ and could not speak with certainty about its claims to be held a distinct species ; but the pub- lished characters by which it was attempted to be distinguished from the better known species were scarcely sufficient with these examples before the Society. When a series of specimens of D. octopetala are examined, it will be seen that the sepals are usually broader in those which are more advanced in the fruiting stage, as compared with others just opening into flower. Of the specimens before the Society, the one having the broadest sepals was advanced in fruit. But it was proper also to observe, that on this specimen a single sepal was longer than the rest, and had apparently been white and petal-like at its extremity; it might therefore be considered an aberration rather than a healthy variation from the normal form. MISCELLANEOUS. - NOTES IN NATURAL HISTORY*. ‘‘T nave been able to make scarcely any remark worthy of notice on subjects connected with natural history since I left England. One is of the growth of the “ Chicorée+,” as the shells I send you are called, at Séchelles: they are found in the grassy weed which grows on a somewhat muddy bottom, in which they bury themselves almost entirely during the period in which the shell is tender. I send you four, with the shells in progressive stages of development, which I collected and packed with great care, and hope you will receive them safe. ‘In coming from Séchelles hither we touched at Juan de Nova, where I had an opportunity of seeing for the first time an island of purely coral formation. It is of a horse-shoe shape, about twenty- one miles long, and from half to three-quarters of a mile broad, with extensive reefs around it abounding with turtle. Dogs of different kinds have been left there from time to time, and finding abundance of food in the turtle-eggs, young turtle, and sea-fowl, have multi- plied prodigiously, so that there are now some thousands of them. I can testify from personal observation that they drink salt water, and they have entirely lost the faculty of barking. Some of them which have been in captivity several months had not yet lost their wild looks and habits, nor had they any inclination for the company of other dogs, nor did they acquire their voice. You may perhaps have heard of this before ; if so, my notice will confirm your know- ledge; if not, I hope the facts, as being of my own ocular demon- stration, will prove interesting. On the island the dogs congregate in vast packs, and catch sea-birds with as much address as foxes could display. They dig up the turtle-eggs and frequently quarrel over their booty. The greater part of them droop their tails like * Extract from a letter dated Port Louis, Mauritius, Oct. 2nd, 1844, from G. Clarke, Esq. to Thomas Bell, Esq. > Murex saxatilis, Miscellaneous. 141 wolves, but many carry them curled over their backs. ‘They appear to consist of spaniel, terrier, Newfoundland and hound, in various degrees of mixture, and are of all colours except pure white or brindled. «« A most tremendous epizootic has visited us, as you have perhaps seen by the papers. From 10,000 to 12,000 head of bullocks have fallen victims to it, and not three per cent. of those attacked have escaped, nor have any preventive or curative measures whatever been found. It seems to bea kind of catarrhal fever, and is generally fatal in three or four days. Its ravages were fearfully rapid, herds of 200 or 300 being entirely finished in a single week. This calamity is the more sorely felt from its occurring just at the beginning of crop, which is remarkably heavy this year.” EHRENBERG ’S RESEARCHES ON INFUSORIA. M. von Humboldt, in a letter to M. Valenciennes (Potsdam, De- cember 16), gives an account of M. Ehrenberg’s observations on the Infusoria contained in the sea-water brought by Captain Ross from various latitudes, and in the atmospheric dust sent to him by Mr. Darwin (Annals, vol. xiv. p. 169). He adds, ‘‘M. Ehrenberg has also found that the calcareous Bryozoa, of which $ths of the chalk is composed, descend below the Jura formation, in the United States as far as the mountain limestone; but the species which occur in these formations are different from those of the chalk. You also know that notwithstanding the age of the chalk, half of the calca- reous Bryozoa of this formation still live in the Baltic or in the ocean. «The pumice-stone contained in the ¢rass of the Rhine (of vol- canic origin) is filled with siliceous Infusoria. It is to be supposed that the little animals inhabited the pumice-stone fallen into some fresh-water lake, and that these fragments were afterwards enveloped in a muddy ejection. As pumice-stone is formed from obsidian, and as volcanoes are a reaction of that which is in the innermost part of our planet against its outer crust, we cannot admit the pre- existence of the siliceous Polygastrica in craters. We must begin by collecting facts, hypotheses will come afterwards.”— Comptes Rendus, Dec. 23, 1844. Occurrence of the Anoplotherium in the lowest layers of the tertiary period of the Paris Basin. By M. E. Roserr. Amongst the numerous bones of the Lophiodon, crocodile, tortoise, &c. associated with the stems of Yuccacee, which I have collected at different intervals in the central and upper layers of the calcaire gros- sier of Nanterre and of Passy, I have hitherto only been able to sepa- rate a jaw-bone of Anoplotherium leporinum; the rarity of such a fossil might lead us to suppose that the Lophiodons are almost the only ones which are tu be met with much lower than their congeners, the Anoplotheriums and Paleotheriums, in the tertiary layers ; how- ever, beneath the calcaire grossier and in the midst of the plastic 142 Miscellaneous. clay, the workmen have laid bare at Montalets (commune of Meu- don) a left thigh-bone, which, from its characters, appears to me to belong to the most common of the species of Azoplotherium de- scribed by Cuvier; it differs but a very little from it by being a little longer in the bone, and will range under the varieties mentioned by that illustrious palzeontologist. The proportions compared to,those of the commonest species are :-— Commonest species Meudon (Cuvier). species. Length between the head and the inner condylus... 0,36 . 0,40 Breadth between the head and the great trochanter 0,12 0,118 Breadth from one condylus to the other ............ 0,10 0,085 Great diameter of the head............eccecescocssececes 0,047 0,053 Diameter of the bone at its mean part ......... Saeis (OPBOS 0,053 This bone, the largest and best-preserved perhaps which has been found in the inferior layers of our tertiary system, is of a dark brown externally as well as throughout its compact substance; but the spongy tissue is incrusted with iron pyrites ornamented with the richest colours; the tissue is moreover penetrated with very small crystals of sulphate of lime, which mineral incrusted all the bone with lenticular crystals, even disputing the place with some impres- sions of carbonized plants. It will perhaps also be interesting to learn, that in the neighbourhood of its site and a little above it, in the midst of a grayish clay abounding in seeds of Chara transformed into hydrate of iron, a large number of nodules of amber were gathered, as pure and transparent, but more fragile than that found on the coasts of the Baltic.—Comptes Rendus, Dec. 23, 1844. Description of a new species of Australian Bird. By J. Gouxp. Popicers Austratis. P. quoad colorem, P. cristato consimilis, at cristé collari in medio latits et saturatits castaned, et ad apicem lativs nigrd. Crown of the head and occipital tufts black ; frill black at the outer edge and chestnut in the centre, gradually passing into buffy white on the face; upper surface and wings dark brown; scapularies and secondaries pure white; all the under surface silvery white, stained with brown and chestnut on the flanks; irides red; bill dark horn- colour; upper surface of the tarsi and toes dark olive-green; under surface pale yellow. Total length, 24 inches; bill, 22; wing, 74; tarsi, 2}. Hab. Australia and Van Diemen’s Land. Remark.—Nearly allied to P. cristatus, but differs in being some- what larger in size, and in having the frill fuller and of a blacker hue than in that species.—Proc. Zool. Soc. August 13, 1844. BisiioGRAPHICAL NotTICcE. We are informed that Mr. King is preparing for publication a portion of his Lectures on Geology. The subjects treated of may be gathered from the following headings :— 7 A popular view of the production of coal from vegetable matter. Meteorological Observations. 143 On the origin of the North of England coal-field. On the cause of the crystalline structure of the magnesian lime- stone of Sunderland. On the various systems which have been adopted in classifying the Animal Kingdom. ‘The principles of the Chronogenic classification as applied by the lecturer to the Tetrabranchiate Cephalopods*, Reptiles and Mammals in 1841. An outline of the Comparative Histology of Plants. On the vege- tation of the various geological periods. An outline of the science of Conchology. On the Testaceous Mollusks of the various geological periods. The 'Tetrabranchiate Cey halopodous type traced throughout its principal generic modifi- cations. An attempt to graduate the principal reptilian and mammalian groups of the various geological periods into existing forms according to the principles of the chronogenic classification. The work will be illustrated with numerous diagrams and figures ; and it is intended to publish it by subscription. METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR DEC. 1844. Chiswick.— December 1—3. Overcast. 4. Cloudy and cold: sharp frost. 5. Frosty: severe frost at night. 6. Frosty and foggy: severe frost. 7. Hazy: slight frost. 8. Dry and frosty: sleet. 9. Overcast. 10. Cold anddry. 11. Dusky haze : clear and frosty. 12. Foggy: overcast. 13. Thick haze : overcast. 14, Hazy:densely overcast. 15. Slight thaw: foggy. 16. Foggy. 17. Dense fog. 18. Foggy: fine atnight. 19. Drizzly: boisterous. 20. Overcast: clear and cold: boisterous. 21, 22, Cold and dry: overcast, 23. Overcast. 24. Hazy and cold. 25. Overcast. 26,27. Densefog. 28. Fine: overcast. 29. Drizzly: rain, $0. Foggy. %1. Hazy.— Mean temperature of the month 6°°8 below the average. Boston.—Dec. 1. Cloudy. 2. Cloudy: very dark day. 3. Cloudy: rain early a.m. 4. Cloudy. 5,6. Fine. 7. Cloudy. 8. Fine: snowr.m. 9—16. Cloudy. 17. Foggy: rain early a.m. 18. Rain: rainrp.m. 19. Cloudy. 20— 22. Fine. 23—25. Cloudy. 26—30. Foggy. 31. Foggy: rain early a.m. Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—Dec. 1. Bright: cloudy. 2 Cloudy: drops. 3. Cloudy. 4. Bright: clear. 5. Bright: cloudy. 6. Bright: frost : cloudy: frost. 7, 8. Bright: frost: hazy. 9. Showers. 10, 11. Showers: sleet. 12. Cloudy: showers. 13—15. Snow-showers. 16,17. Showers. 18. Showers: clear: frost. 19. Clear: frost: clear: showers. 20. Bright: clear: frost. 21. Clear: frost. 22. Frost: clear: thaw. 23, Cloudy: thaw. 24. Cloudy. 25. Cloudy: showers, 26. Cloudy: frost: cloudy. 27. Cloudy: frost: clear. 28, Cloudy: damp. 29. Fog: damp. 30. Bright: cloudy. 31. Showers: cloudy. Applegarth Manse, Dumfries-shire.— Dec. 1. Fair, but cloudy. 2, 3. Fair and’ mild. 4—11. Frost. 12. Frost: slight fall of snow. 12. Frost. 14, 15. Frost: cloudy. 16, Frost: very slight. 17. Nofrost. 18, No frost; rain. 19—21. Frost. 22. Frost: very mild. 23—26. Frost. 27. 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Nat. Hist Vos. PL. Glycera. g : Fp oa : *) pene British Néretdes. . apes THE ANNALS AND MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY. No. 97. MARCH 1845. - XX.— Miscellanea Zoologica. By Guorce Jounston, M.D., Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh. [With a Plate.]} British NEREIDEs. SYLuis, Savigny. Cuar. Body linear-elongate, slender: head small, lobed more or less in front: eyes four: antenne three, cranial, filiform, submo- niliform, similar to the tentacular cirri, of which there are two pairs: proboscis divided into two distinct portions, the aperture plain, edentulous: segments numerous: feet undivided, armed with jointed bristles ; the superior cirrus elongate, submoniliform, the mferior short, unjointed : tail with two moniliform styles: branchi@é none. 1. S. armillaris ; pale yellowish-brown, unspotted ; head deeply lobed in front, the lobes papillary; superior cirri four times longer than the breadth of the body, submoniliform. (Plate IX. figs. 1, 2, 2h.) Nereis armillaris, Mill. Wurm. 150. tab. 9. fig. 1—5, copied in Encyclop. Méthod. pl. 55. fig. 13—17. Bosc, Vers, i. 168. Turt. Gmel. iv. 86. Hab. Among shells and stones in deep water. Berwick Bay. Dusc. Animal of a pale yellowish-brown colour, dusked in some places from the earthy contents of the intestine, very slender, linear-elongate, tapered at the tail, somewhat compressed. Head distinct, small, deeply lobed in front ; the lobes porrect, papillary, coalescent behind, but separated by a line from the antenniferous portion, which is rounded and slightly convex: antenne slightly tapered, submoniliform, the medial originating from the vertex and rather longer than the lateral: eyes placed in a semicircle, the posterior pair more approximated than the anterior : proboscis long, the outer portion shorter than the basal, smooth : post- occipital segment not larger than the following, with two tentacular — Ann. & Mag. N, Hist. Vol. xv. M 146 Dr. Johnston on British Nereides. cirri on each side, the superior longer than the inferior, submo- niliform : segments very numerous, short, or about as broad as long ; the foot obtuse, undivided, furnished with a single fascicle of colourless bristles, which are jointed and curved near the pointed apex ; the spine conical, straight : superior cirrus at least three times the breadth of the body in length, becoming gra- dually shorter near the tail, slightly tapered, submoniliform : in- ferior cirrus not projecting much beyond the foot, conical, undi- vided : styles of the tail elongate. Length 2 inches ; breadth about a line. This worm is not uncommon. The specimen figured was found among some shells and stones which had been brought up from deep water by the lines of the fishermen. It may be compared, so far as external appearance goes, with the subterranean Geo- philus: its motion is moderately quick and effected in the usual way. To the Scyllis monilaris of Savigny this species is evidently nearly allied, and indeed I find no characters to distinguish it excepting the deeply-lobed front, and the greater comparative elongation of the superior cirri, which, in the figure of S. monilaris given by Audouin and Edwards (Hist. Nat. du Litt. de la France, ii. pl. 4 B. fig. 1—-5), searcely exceed the breadth of the body. By the same characters S. armillaris is separated from the S. fulgu- rans. I have no opportunity of comparing ours with figures of any of the other species of the genus indicated by Audouin and Edwards. Miiller’s figures of this species are very good. Any one acquainted with Annelides will at once be led, from their great development and form, to conjecture that the frontal lobes of this worm are analogous to the exterior antennz of the Nereis ; and it may be considered as giving support to the opinion of Blainville, who had come to this conclusion from the exami- nation of species in which their development is much less re- markable, and where there was little comcidence in their figure. Prats IX. fig. 1. Syllis armillaris, natural size. Fig. 2. The same mag- nified. Fig. 2. The head more highly magnified. 2. S. prolifera; yellowish-brown, unspotted ; head semicircular in front, entire ; superior cirri scarcely twice the breadth of the body, very obscurely jointed, not moniliform. (Plate IX. figs.3, 4.) Nereis prolifera, Mill. Zool. Dan. tab. 52. fig. 5—9, copied in Encyclop. Méth. Vers, pl. 56. fig. 12—15. Turt. Gmel. iv. 90. Bosc, Vers, i.174. Audouin et Edw. in Ann. des Sc. Nat. xxix. 231. note 3; and Hist. du Litt. de la France, ii. p. 209. note 3. Hab. Amongst corallines in deep water. Berwick Bay. Desc. Body rather more than half an inch in length, scolo- pendriform, roundish, of a yellowish-brown colour: head small, Dr. Johnston on British Nereides. 147 distinct, rounded and entire in front, with four eyes placed in a square, the anterior pair more widely set than the posterior : antenne three, elongate, filiform, clothed with minute cilia, un- jomted : proboscis apparently without teeth or other armature : segments numerous, narrow, incised at their junctions ; the post- occipital with a pair of tentacular cirri on each side, one-half the length of the antenne ; the cirrus of the following segment elon- gate, antenniform : feet uniramous, short, entire, armed with a single fascicle of retractile simple unjointed bristles ; the superior cirrus longer than the breadth of the segments, obscurely marked with a few transverse lines or wrinkles, but not in any degree moniliform ; the inferior cirrus small, and not projecting much beyond the foot: tail tapered, tipped with a pair of styles. This little worm always kept its antennz twisted up in a spiral manner, so that it was not easy to get a distinct view of their number and location: they differ remarkably from those of the preceding species in their greater development ; and it was easy to see, with a magnifier of no high powers, that they were clothed throughout with fine cilia. Puate IX, fig. 3. Syllis prolifera of the natural size. Fig.4. The same magnified ; 44, the head and anterior segments; 4s, the middle segments ; 4 t, the posterior extremity and styles. GuLycERA, Savigny. Cuar. Body lumbriciform, attenuated at both ends, the rings numerous, narrow: head conical, bulged at the base, prolonged into a sort of annulated horn with four minute equal antenne on the apex: tentacular cirri none: mouth inferior; the proboscis very large, clavate, two-jomted ; the terminal joint smooth, the basal joint elongate, villose with minute papille: feet uniform, obsoletely biramous, setigerous, with a short superior and infe- rior cirrus, and sometimes branchial papillary processes : tail with a pair of short styles. In all the Nereides which we have hitherto described, the head is to be readily distinguished by its enlarged form and its dissi- milarity from the first segment; but in the Glycera there is no marked line of separation between these parts. The head has the appearance of a small pointed horn, and is indeed so like the an- terior end of the earth-worm, that we cannot but perceive, in this sameness of character, a certain approximation to a junction be- tween the families to which the Glycera and earth-worm respec- tively belong. Yet though this is unquestionable, still the Gly- cera is not the nearest connecting link, for there are other Anne- ides errantes which partake more of the habits and character of the Terricole. 1. G. alba; body most attenuated anteriorly ; jaws four ; supe- M 2 148 Dr. Johnston on British Nereides. rior ramus of the foot pointed on the dorsal aspect, rather longer than the cirrus ; branchie none. (Plate IX. fig. 1—9.) Nereis alba, Miill. Zool. Dan. Prod. 217. Zool. Dan. tab. 62. figs. 6, 7. Aud. et Edw. Litt. ii. 243. Turt. Gmel. iv. 89. Bosc, Vers, i. 172. Hab. In sandy places between tide-marks under stones. Berwick Bay, not uncommon. Desc. Body vermiform, round, or rather somewhat flattened on the ventral surface, tapered anteriorly to a sharp point, less ta- pered at the tail, 21 inches long, smooth, indistinctly annular, of a yellowish-white colour, stained with the contents of the intes- tine, and marked with a red vessel down the back. Head cor- nuted, the apex surmounted with four minute antenna only visible with a magnifier. Proboscis very large, faintly striate in a lon- gitudinal direction ; the teeth brownish-black, corneous, falcate, divided into three processes at the base, inserted into a sort of tubercle forming a square round the plain oral aperture. Seg- ments very narrow, equal and numerous. Feet papillary, obscurely biramous, obtuse, pointed above at the outer angle; the cirri short, the inferior almost obsolete : bristles colourless, jomted near the apex; the spines straight, setaceous, pellucid. Anal segment rounded, apodal, terminated with two minute styles, which are frequently cast off in the animal’s struggles. Glycera alba lives under stones, sometimes buried in the gravel or sand, but the worm never penetrates far below the surface. Its motions in the water and in the sand are slow, but when irritated the contortions of the body are violent, and it very often twists itself so as to form a short spiral column, as we have attempted to show in the first of our illustrative figures. Savigny considers his G. unicornis to be identical with the Nereis alba of Miller. It is more probable, however, that the British species is the same as the Norwegian; the more especially as there is nothing in the description to create any doubts of their identity. The G. unicornis is remarkable for its want of jaws, affording a striking proof that organs of vast importance in the higher classes are here only of secondary consequence, and do not even afford a good generical character. Prarte IX. fig. 1. Glycera alba, natural size, and in a favourite position. Fig. 2. The same, with the proboscis protruded. Fig. 3. The head mag- nified. Fig. 4. A view of the proboscis fully extruded. Fig. 5. The apex of the proboscis viewed in front to show the jaws. Fig. 6. Three views ofa jaw detached and magnified. Fig. 7. A side-view of a foot from near the middle of the body slightly compressed. Fig. 8. A view of two feet from above. Fig. 9. A bristle highly magnified. Fig. 10. The tail magnified. [To be continued. ] ge a the) as Periral nee ne 2 OTs. f« ai Fons Annd Mag. Nat Hist Nols5.PLX. SFDC Sowerby, Ste LkJdenner £7. Ratts det, iyi: f pe j iy Ran ANY VER BEI TNE? s a Regen ae . ea: i ee Oth CR ee LAN Vea SA Site! Ann. & Mag Nat. Hist. Vol.\5. PLAT “vio Onby4 Scenedesmus Desmidium quadrangulatua. J Ralks del. ID.L.Sowerby see Mr. J. Ralfs on the British Desmidiece. 149 XXI.—On the British Desmidiee. By Joun Raxrs, Esgq., M.R.C.S., Penzance*. [With a Plate.] StauRrastRuM, Meyen. Fronds simple, constricted in the middle; end view angular, or circular with the margin lobato-radiate, or in a few instances compressed with a process or mucro at each extremity. Fronds minute, simple, more or less constricted in the middle, so as to form two segments, which are often somewhat twisted, generally broader than long, and in most of the species elongated laterally into a process, so that the constriction on each side is 2 roundish or angular sinus ; in other respects the front view shows the segments quite entire. The end view varies in form; in most of the species it is tri- angular or quadrangular, and the angles are either rounded or elongated into rays; in a few it is circular, with five or more pro- cesses forming marginal rays; and in three species it is compressed, and the extremities terminate in either a process or a mucro. Ehrenberg in his great work has distributed the plants which I shall describe here among different genera, according to the number of angles or processes seen in an end view. Thus he refers those with three angles to Desmidium, and those with four to Staurastrum. He formed his genus Pentasterias for the recep- tion of a plant with five rays, and placed one with two processes in his new genus Arthrodesmus. But this arrangement appears unnatural, not only because it separates nearly allied forms, but also because the number of rays are not constant even in the same species, as Meneghini remarks; whilst Professor Bailey says, when describing an American species, “'The number of arms is usually three, but I have met with specimens in which one cor- puscle had three and the other four arms, others in which both had four, and others again in which both had five arms ;” I have myself seen a frond of Staurastrum paradoxum, one segment of which had four and the other only three rays. I have generally found the Pentasterias margaritifera of Ehrenberg having six rays, but not unfrequently five, and occasionally indeed even seven rays to each segment. In the following description of this genus I have taken as my guide Meneghini’s ‘ Synopsis Desmidiearum,’ the best work on this family which I have seen. Besides the species placed in this genus by Ehrenberg, I have included in it his Pentasterias, and those plants which he has improperly united with Desmidium, and * Read before the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, May 9, 1844. 150 Mr. J. Ralfs on the British Desmidiee. also a plant which he refers to Arthrodesmus. This last plant I was at first inclined to keep distinct, but am unable to do so, as one undoubted species (S. ¢etracerum) has also compressed fronds ; whilst another compressed form added by Meneghini (S. Incus) in its front view so much resembles Staurastrum mucronatum, that I am not sure it may not be a variety of it. A little care will distinguish Staurastrum from the other ge- nera in this family, although some of its species appear at first sight to approach forms which belong to them. It differs from Desmidium in never forming a filament; the species with com- pressed fronds differ from Cosmarium in the front view by having a process or mucro at each side of the segment. Some species have a considerable resemblance to species of Xanthidium, but in Xan- thidium the spines are always situated on the convex surface of the segments, whilst in this genus the rays are elongations of their angles. I have divided, Staurastrum into four sections. In the first, the front view is truncate at the ends, and the an- gles of each segment, prolonged in straight processes, diverge from each other. In the second, the front view shows the processes, if any, of the one segment, either parallel to or converging with those of the other ; the end view is triangular or quadrangular. In the third, the front view also shows the processes, if any, parallel or converging ; but the end view is circular, with five or more marginal rays or lobes. This section also has the central circular portion more distinct from the rays and slightly pro- duced beyond them. In the fourth, the processes, if present, are in the front view converging ; but the end view is compressed, and terminated at each extremity by a process or mucro. * Tn the front view the elongated processes of one segment diverge from those of the other. 1. S. tetracerum. Fronds rough; front view with four slender di- verging processes which are entire at the apex; end view com- pressed, with a process at each extremity. Stawrastrum paradoxum, Ehr. Infus. p. 143. tab. 10. fig. 14; Pritch. Infus. p. 185. figs. 102, 103. Micrasterias tricera and tetracera, Ktz. Synop. Diatom. in Linnea 1833, p. 602. figs. 83, 84 and 85. In pools, Dolgelley and Penzance. Fronds very minute; front view nearly square; the angles elongated into straight, slender, processes, which diverge from each other; frequently, however, a segment may be so twisted that one of its processes is situated behind its companion, and is not seen until carefully looked for; in this case the frond ap- Mr. J. Ralfs on the British Desmidieze. 151 pears to have only three processes in a front view, which seems to have misled Kiitzing, who has made another species of it. The end view is much compressed, and terminated both ways by an elongated process. The frond is rough with mimute granules, which form transverse lines on the processes, and give them a jointed appearance. ‘The colourmg matter is very pale. Ehrenberg and Meneghini unite the “ Micrasterias tetracera”’ of Kiitzing to the “ Staurastrum paradoxum,’ Meyen; but the latter plant has four processes at each end, whilst the present has only two, which, if I am correct in my view of the following spe- cies, differ also in their entire extremities. Puate X. fig. 1. Staurastrum tetracerum: a, front view; 6, end view; c, side view. 2. S. paradoxum, Meyen. Fronds rough; front view with elongated diverging processes which are minutely trifid at the apex; end view quadrangular or sometimes triangular. Meyen, Nov. Act. Leop. Holm. vol. xiv. p. 48. figs. 37, 38; Menegh. Synop. Desmid. p. 227. Micrasterias Staurastrum, Ktz. l. ce. p. 599. In pools and slow streams, Dolgelley and Penzance. Fronds very minute, green, generally much constricted in the middle, the ends truncate ; each segment has generally four elon- gated processes diverging from the processes of the other seg- ment. The end view is sometimes trilateral, but generally qua- drilateral, and shows the angles elongated into rays; I have also seen a specimen in which one segment had four and the other only three rays. In the front view the frond generally rests on one of its sides, when each segment appears to have only two processes, as the other two are covered by them ; sometimes only one process is thus hidden, and occasionally all four may be seen at the same time. The processes are elongated; colourless, and being rough with minute granules arranged in transverse lines acquire a jointed appearance ;. each terminates in three minute oints. ‘ , : When only two processes are seen at each end in the front view, this species bears much resemblance to the preceding ; but its frond is more constricted, larger, of a deeper green, and its processes are thicker and not’ entire at the apex. In the newly-formed segment the processes are merely conical projections. Prats X. fig. 2. S. paradoxum: ja, front view; 6, newly-formed seg- ment; ¢, end view ; d, end view of new segment; e, front and end views of three-rayed variety. 3. 8. bifidum. Frond smooth ; front view with thick diverging pro- cesses which are deeply trifid at the apex; end view triradiate. Desmidium bifidum, Ehr. Infus. p. 141. tab. 10. fig.11. In boggy pools: rare. Dolgelley and Penzance. 152 Mr. J. Ralfs on the British adinidia® Fronds minute, smooth, scarcely constricted in the middle, truncate at the ends; each segment has three elongated, straight processes, which diverge from those of the other segment ; fre- quently in the front view only four processes are visible, as one of those at each end is concealed behind another. The end view is triradiate, the rays hyaline, stout at their base and gradually tapering. In this view, as the frond is generally twisted, the rays of the lower segment may be faintly seen between those of the nearer one. The processes are really deeply trifid at the extre- mity, though in certain positions they appear bifid, in which case the diverging points are forked like the tail of a swallow. This species, even in the front view, may always be known from the two preceding ones by its smooth and divided processes. Prate X. fig. 3. S. bifidum: a, front view; 6, frond dividing; ce, end view ; d, newly-formed segment. ** Front view without diverging processes ; end view triangular or quadrangular. 4. S. orbiculare, Mgh. Fronds smooth; front view suborbicular ; end view bluntly triangular. Mgh. /. ¢. p. 225. Desmidium orbi- culare, Ehr. Infus. p. 141. tab. 10. fig. 9; Pritch. Infus. p. 183. In pools and slow streams. Weston Bogs near Southampton ; Rackham Common, Sussex, and Jack’s Wood Spring near Tun- bridge Wells, Mr. Jenner ; Dolgelley and Penzance. Fronds rather large, smooth, deeply constricted in the middle ; the segments, broader than long, are generally in close approxi- mation for their entire breadth, and hence by their union form a suborbicular frond; their sides are rounded and have no processes. The end view is triangular, with sides straight or slightly concave and angles rounded. Staurastrum orbiculare may be recognised by its smooth frond, angles very blunt and destitute of processes, and the orbicular form of its front view. Puate X. fig. 4, S. orbiculare: a, front view; 5, end view; c, frond di- viding. 5. S. mucronatum. Fronds smooth ; end view three-lobed; lobes in- flated, blunt, mucronate. a. In the front view the segments are transversely elliptic, and the mucro straight. 6. Segments lunate, mucro curved outwards. y. Mucro curved inwards. In shallow pools, not uncommon. Weston Bogs near Southamp- ton; Ashdown Forest, Sussex, Mr. Jenner ; Dolgelley and Penzance. Fronds smooth, deeply constricted in the middle; segments broader than long, rounded at the sides, which are furnished with Mr. J. Ralfs on the British Desmidiez: 153 a mucro. In a. and y. the segments are transversely elliptic, but in 8. they are lunate. The end view shows three mammillate lobes or rays, each of which is terminated by a hair-like mucro. The smooth frond, the peculiar inflated or mammillate form of the lobes in the end view, and the terminal hair-like points, well characterize this species. P.S.—During the past summer I several times observed, scat- tered amongst various Desmidiea, orbicular spinous bodies, the colouring matter of which formed a dense green mass, which tested by iodine assunted a dark blue colour, showing its vege- table nature. On careful examination I found that each of these bodies was usually accompanied by two empty fronds of Stauras- trum mucronatum, and was placed between them, though not in actual contact. Still it appeared so unlike any sporangium I was acquainted with, that I arrived at the conviction that it was the reproductive organ of the Staurastrum, only after repeated obser- vations and tracing the formation from the commencement. I then transmitted specimens to Mr. Jenner. He also at first doubted the connexion between the fronds and the spinous body, but after a minute inspection he confirms my observations in the following words: “I think I can say positively that I have traced them from the first conjugation to the full-formed spmous body, and I now feel satisfied that they are the spores or sporangia of the Staurastrum.” The difficulty in detecting the connexion between the empty fronds of the Staurastrum and the sporangium depends upon the tenuity of the connecting membrane ; the fronds also are gene- rally at a considerable distance, and soon become detached. In the conjugated specimens the fronds are always smaller than usual; I have already noticed a similar fact respecting Tet- memorus granulatus. | _ In Staurastrum mucronatum the conjugated fronds are at first closely connected by the formation of a bag-hke receptacle which is colourless and very thin, and therefore difficult of detection. As this enlarges the fronds become more remote from each other, their segments partially separate at the constriction on the inner side, the endochrome of both passes out, unites and forms an or- bicular body between them. In this state it resembles the spo- rangium formed in some species of Closterium. At first it is m- closed in an orbicular membrane larger than itself, but as it in- creases in size and density, fine hairs make their appearance on the surface and gradually become stout spies, the membrane lastly disappears and the sporangium acquires its perfect state, covered with conspicuous acute spines. In this stage the empty fronds of the Stawrastrum seem scarcely connected with the sporangium ; except that they are on 154 Mr. J. Ralfs on the British: Desmidiez. opposite sides of it, have an opening towards it, accompany it in its movements, and always retain the same relative position. The fronds of the Staurastrum im an end view had sometimes three and sometimes four rays; in conjugating a four-rayed va- riety would often unite with one having three rays, and occa- sionally a frond might be seen having four rays on one segment and three on the other. These facts are another proof that the number of rays on a segment cannot constitute a generic di- stinction in these plants. It is probable that, under fayourable circumstances, conjugation takes place in all the Desmidiee. It is not uncommon in various species of Closterium ; I have seen it inthis genus and in Teéme- morus, and Meneghini mentions its occurrence in Desmidium*. That the sporangia are not more frequently detected may be partly owing to their minuteness, but I believe that once formed they descend to the bottom of the pool and become mixed with the mud. It is well known that in the Conjugate, when all the sporangia are formed, the plant smks to the bottom; and I may remark in support of the opinion I have advanced, that in a small pool at Dolgelley after a shower I could not obtain a single spe- cimen of the Stawrastrum in a conjugated state, although the day before the sporangia were abundant. In a few days the Stauras- trum was again plentiful, but I no longer met with any conju- gated specimens, although I frequently sought for them. Prate X. fig. 5. S. mucronatum: a, front view; b, end view. Fig. 6. a, fronds conjugated ; 6, endochrome uniting between the fronds in order to pies pe sporangium ; ¢, d and e, different stages of the sporangium ; f, per- ect state. 6. S. muricatum, Breb. Fronds muricated; end view triangular with convex sides. Mgh. /.c. p. 226. Binatella muricata, Breb. Alg. Fal. p. 66 (1835). Desmidium apiculosum, Ehr. Infus. p. 142; Pritch. Infus. p. 184. f. Fronds furnished with numerous short spines. Xanthidium del- toideum, Corda, Observ. Microscopiques sur les Animalcules de Carlsbad, p. 29. pl. 5. figs. 38, 39. In small pools. Cheshunt, Mr. Hassall; Weston Bogs, Hants ; Rackham Common near Pulborough ; Piltdown Common near Uck- field; Mayfield and Heathfield, Sussex, Mr. Jenner; Dolgelley and Penzance. 3. Sussex, Mr. Jenner ; Dolgelley. Fronds deeply constricted in the middle; segments broader than long, transversely elliptic, but frequently both are in close apposition for their entire breadth, and by their union form a * Speaking of the joints he says, ‘demum Diatomatum more secedant, hasque simul e latere copulare in speciebus nonnullis detexit cl. Brébisson.”” —Menegh. 1. ¢. p. 203. Mr. J. Ralfs on the British Desmidieee. 155 suborbicular frond ; the sides are rounded and have no processes. The end view is bluntly triangular, with convex sides and rounded angles. In both views the frond is copiously furnished with scattered apiculi; when it is young these are merely rough points, but in the mature plant they resemble short hairs or bristles. The former state may be mistaken for Stawrastrum tricorne by those not familiar with that plant, but the convex sides in the end view distinguish S. muricatum at all stages of its growth. In this and the two preceding species, as the segments are not much twisted, the angles only of the adjacent segment are seen in the end view; they also agree in having rounded angles which are not prolonged into processes in either view. At Dolgelley I once gathered the conjugated state of this spe- cies before the sporangium was formed. Prate XI, fig. 1. S. muricatum: a, front view; 6, end view; c, fronds conjugated ; d, empty frond; e, front and end view of variety, 7. S. tricorne, Mgh. Fronds rough ; end view triangular with con- cave sides and blunt entire angles. Menegh. /.c. p.225. Bina- tella tricornis, Breb. Alg. Fal. p.57 (1835). Desmidium hexaceros, Ehr. Infus. p. 141. tab. 10. fig. 10; Pritch. Infus. p. 184. fig. 99. In shallow pools. Weston Bogs, Hants; Rusthall Common near Tunbridge Wells ; Piltdown Common near Uckfield ; Rackham Com- mon near Pulborough ; Ashdown Forest and Mayfield, Sussex, Mr. Jenner ; Barmouth, Rev. T. Salwey; Dolgelley and Penzance. Fronds rough with minute granules, deeply constricted in the middle, the constriction forming a rounded sinus on each side ; segments obtuse at the sides, about twice as broad as long, trans- versely oblong. The segments are twisted, and in the front view one of them appears shorter and thicker at one of its sides in consequence of the blending together of two of the angles. The end view is triangular, with concave sides and very obtuse entire angles. The conic granules, arranged in transverse lines at the angles, are generally very minute, but m some Sussex specimens gathered by Mr. Jenner they are large, and on the margin produce a den- tate appearance. Staurastrum tricorne connects the three preceding with the two following species. It agrees with the former in having rounded entire angles, but in other respects more nearly approaches the latter. It may be known from all states of S. muricatum by the rounded sinuses of its front view. Prats XI. fig. 2. S. tricorne: a, front view; b, end view; c, empty seg- ment, 8. 8. gracile. Fronds rough; segments in the front view elongated on each side into a slender process, which is terminated by three 156 Mr. J. Ralfs on the British Desmidiee. minute points ; end view triradiate. Huastrum, No.13, Bailey in American Bacillaria, pl. 1. fig. 2—5. Boggy pools, Dolgelley and Penzance. Fronds rough with minute granules, deeply constricted in the middle ; segments two or three times longer than broad, and taper- ing on each side into a slender, straight and colourless process, which is terminated apparently by three minute points: Mr.Jenner, however, informed me that the processes really terminate in four points, although this can only be ascertained when a process is so situated as to present its extremity to the observer. On the pro- cesses the granules are more conspicuous and arranged in trans- verse lines. The end view is triradiate, and the colouring matter is confined to the centre, and forms three rays which often appear bifid. Staurastrum gracile differs from 8. tricorne in its slender pro- cesses, minutely trifid at the apex. The end view somewhat re- sembles that of S. paradoxum, but this species is easily distin- guished by the parallel processes of its front view. Puate XI. fig. 3. S. gracile: a, front view; b, end view; c, empty seg- ment. 9. S. aculeatum, Mgh. Fronds spinulose ; segments in the front view with a process on each side, terminated by three minute spines ; end view triradiate. Mgh. /. ¢. p. 226. Desmidium acu- leatum, Ehr. Infus. p. 142. tab. 10. fig. 12; Pritch. Infus. p. 184. 8. End view quadrangular, with four distorted rays. _. In pools and slow streams, Cross-in-Hand, Sussex, Mr. Jenner ; Dolgelley. f. Woking Common, Surrey, and Piltdown Common, Sussex, Mr. Jenner ; Penzance. Fronds spinulose, much constricted in the middle; segments broader than long, and having at each side a hyaline process which is terminated by three minute spines and frequently dis- torted. The end view is triradiate. The acute, conic spines, scattered over the surface, sufficiently mark the present species. Puate XI. fig. 4. 8. aculeatum: a, front view; b, frond dividing ; c, end view ; d, end view of four-rayed variety ; e, empty frond. 10. S. dilatatum, Ehr. Fronds rough; end view with four short, broad, truncate and entire rays. Ehr. Infus. p. 143. tab. 10. fig. 13 ; Pritch. Infus. p. 185. figs. 100 and 101; Menegh. /. c. p. 227. In pools amongst aquatic plants. Rusthall Common near Tun- bridge Wells, and Rackham Common near Pulborough, Sussex, Mr. Jenner ; Dolgelley. Fronds very minute, rough, with minute granules, deeply con- stricted in the middle, the sinuses rounded; segments trans- Mr. J. Ralfs on the British Desmidiez. 157 versely oblong, twice as broad as long, obtuse at the sides and not elongated into processes. In the end view, which is qua- drangular, the sides are concave, and the angles form short, very broad, truncate rays, on which the granules are arranged in transverse lines. All the specimens of S. dilatatum which I have examined have agreed with the above description, but Meneghini describes the end view as showing from three to five rays. The broad, trun- cate and entire rays of this plant will always distinguish both its three-rayed state from all the preceding species and its five-rayed variety from S. margaritaceum. Puate XI. fig. 5. S. dilatatum: a, front view; 6, end view; c, empty frond. *** Front view without diverging processes ; end view circular, with five or more marginal rays or lobes. 11. S. Arachne. Fronds rough; segments suborbicular with elon- gated, slender, incurved processes; end view with five slender rays. Boggy pool near Dolgelley: very rare. Fronds minute, deeply constricted in the middle; segments about as long as broad, having on each side an elongated process which is hyaline and incurved, and appears as if transversely striated on account of the minute granules. When the frond is viewed obliquely, so that three or four of the long curved pro- cesses are seen at the same time, its resemblance to an insect is considerable. The end view is circular with five slender rays. This plant is remarkable for its slender processes, which will easily distinguish it from S. margaritaceum. It cannot be a five- rayed variety of S. gracile, for the rays are longer, more slender, remarkably incurved, and also entire at the extremity. — Puare XI. fig. 6. S. Arachne: a, front view; 6, end view. 12. S. margaritaceum, Mgh. Fronds rough; front view with short, lateral, converging processes which are entire at the apex; end view with five or more narrow, short, obtuse rays. Meh. J. c. p- 227. Pentasterias margaritacea, Ehr. Infus. p. 144. tab. 10. fig. 15 (1838) ; Pritch. Infus. p. 185. fig. 104. a. Rays five. B. Rays six. y. Rays seven., In peat pools near Dolgelley, J. R.; Ashdown Forest, Sussex, Mr. Jenner. Fronds rough with minute granules; in the front view the segments are convex at the ends and slightly attenuated where they are connected, and on each side is a short, linear, obtuse and 158 Mr. J. Ralfs on the British Desmidice. entire process which is generally somewhat incurved. The end view is elevated in the centre, and has from five to seven short, narrow, obtuse marginal rays. In the front view this species differs from all the preceding by its segments being of a subglobose form and attenuated at their junction, and by the short, linear, obtuse, lateral processes which also appear more distinct from the body of the segment; its end view may be distinguished from that of their many-rayed varie- ties by the elevation of the centre, and the short, narrow, entire rays. Piate XI. fig. 7. S. margaritaceum: a, front view ; b, end view. 13. S. Jenneri. Segments in the front view with a toothed angle at each side ; end view circular, with five or six broad, short, toothed lobes or processes. Mayfield, Sussex, Mr. Jenner. Fronds large, rough, with conic granules which give a den- tate appearance to the outline ; segments about as broad as long, produced into a toothed angle on each side, where also a trian- gular sinus is formed between the angles. The end view is cir- cular and elevated in the centre, and has five or six broad, short, toothed marginal lobes. The transverse view has a large central opening surrounded by a row of large granules. — Pruate XI. fig. 8. S. Jenneri: a, front view; 6, end view; c, transverse view of empty frond. **kk Front view without diverging processes ; end view compressed, and having a process or mucro at each extremity. 14. S. convergens, Mgh. Fronds smooth ; in the front view the seg- ments are elongated at each side into a conic spine which is curved inwards ; end view compressed with a spine at each extremity. Meh. J. c. p. 228. Arthrodesmus convergens, Ehr. Infus. p. 152. tab. 10. fig. 18; Pritch. Infus. p. 190. figs. 112 and 113. Hu- astrum, Bailey, American Bacil. pl. 1. fig. 11. In pools. Brambletye near East Grimstead, and Rackham Com- mon near Pulborough, Sussex, and Rusthall Common near Tunbridge Wells, Mr. Jenner; Dolgelley and Penzance. Fronds smooth, deeply constricted in the middle; segments broader than long ; their spine-like processes, by curving inwards, converge towards each other on the same side. This plant was placed by Ehrenberg in Arthrodesmus (Scene- desmus) ; but it has no affinity with the true species of that genus. Priate XII. fig. 1. S. convergens: a, front view ; b, end view. 15. S. Incus, Mgh. Fronds smooth ; in the front view the segments are lunate and have a mucro at each angle; end view elliptic, with Mr. J. Ralfs on the British Desmidiez. 159 a mucro at each extremity. Mgh. /. c. p. 228. Huastrum, Bailey, Amer. Bacil. pl. 1. fig. 12? Shallow pools. Weston Bogs near Southampton ; Rackham Com- mon near Pulborough, Sussex, Mr. Jenner; Dolgelley and Penzance. Fronds very minute, smooth, deeply constricted in the middle ; segments externally lunate, about twice as broad as long, their angles with a mucro which is generally curved outwards. The end view is elliptic with a mucro at each extremity. The front view of this species bears a considerable resemblance to that of Stawrastrum mucronatum, but the end view is very different. Puate XII. fig. 2. S. Incus: a, front view; 6, frond dividing; c, end view. 16. S.? octocorne. Fronds smooth, compressed ; segments broader than long, with four angles, each terminating in aspine ; end view subelliptic, with a spine at each extremity. Arthrodesmus octo- cornis, Ehr. Infus. p. 152. Boggy pools near Dolgelley : rare. Fronds minute, deeply constricted in the middle; segments broader than long, having four angles, each of them terminated by a slender spine, the intervals between them concave. The spines diverge from each other. Endochrome pale. The newly-formed segments at first have only two spines, and in this state somewhat resemble those of Staurastrum Incus, of which indeed this plant may eventually prove a variety. But S. Incus has only two spines on each segment, and its end is not concave but truncate. Meneghini refers the Arthrodesmus octocornis, Khr., to Micras- terias ; but if the plant above described be identical with Ehren- berg’s, of which I have little doubt, it cannot be placed in a ge- nus distinguished by its deeply lobed and incised fronds, and I therefore presume the Micrasterias octocornis, Mgh., must be a different plant from the Arthrodesmus octocornis of Ehrenberg*. The characters of Stawrastrum are not strictly applicable, but I have placed this plant im that genus because it cannot be sepa- rated from S. Incus. Further examination has indeed led me to doubt whether the two preceding and allied species do not equally require removal, but as their description is already in the press, I must here content myself by stating the change in my views respecting them. * « Arthrodesmus octocornis. Corpusculis viridibus, leviter compressis qua- drangulis binis singulis quadricornubus,” Ehr. ** Micrasterias octocornis, cellulis inciso-radiatis, radiis quatuor, attenuatis, acutis, divergentibus ; e latere elongato-ellipticis, medio compressis, super- ficie levi.” —Mgh. J, e. p. 216. 160 Mr. J. Ralfs on the British Desmidiee. In all three species the frond is compressed, and the acute subulate spines seem more like those present in some species of Xanthidium than the processes which terminate the angles in Staurastrum. They may therefore form a section of Xanthidium, or what is perhaps better, a distinct genus, for which Ehrenberg’s name Arthrodesmus should be retained. Pirate XII. fig. 3. S. octocorne: a, front view; b, frond dividing; c, end view. Analysis. Front view with straight, diverging processes ....... mee Front view with the processes, if any, parallel or con- WETTIG, cs. cccvesereies peeteeteseeeseece @eeeeeeereeeeeetece 4 Processes smooth, deeply divided at the apex ......... bifidum. Processes rough with minute granules, entire or ter- minated by three minute points..........s.seceeeceeees 3 End view compressed and having an entire process at CACH .XtPEMILY.-ceeceoasavaseepbaccns ececccccsccccccccsces LELTACEYUM, 3. ye" End view with three or four rays, each terminated by three minute points.........0000 bdendacnes eaaaphnesas 0. paradoxum. End view compressed and having a spine or mucro at 4 Caich extremity ....is..rcacdvesnadawpesenescastor nenhtaiep sina nt End view with five or more angles OF FASB | oc0.s.cce900, 6 Segments with four spines .......+.... ceesceees secsseseeeee OCLOCOrNE. Be ae : ; Segments with two spines ..........ssseeeeveeeees ocbaveiay 5* Segments transversely elliptic; spines incurved ...... convergens. 5* 4 Segments with truncate ends; spines generally directed UE WRR EB iasssius bos lias casviavad «dd ale ecded eecainds act PMs End view with three or four angles or rays ............ 7 6.4 End view circular, with five or more marginal rays or lobes eeeeeteose COeee SSS eeeesesee eeerteeeeeee @eeteee eeaeteseces ee 13 End view with four broad, truncate, entire rays ...... dilatatum. 7.4 End view with three angles or rays, each of which is either rounded or else terminated by minute spines. 8 8 Each ray terminated by three minute spines ......... 9 End view with rounded and entire asses decsiicudabeo 10 9 Fronds spitmlose 3iiiii. sits ci eate = ABS SON Bit en aculeatum. Fronds rough with minute granules . pp edaseneis de onueeides gracile. 10, { Fronds muricated, or rough with minute granules...... 11 Fronds smooth ...,.....400. dasiencitits Viedakedibavinn tne SPE 11. { End view with Convex Sides .......604 bias ddawesds sesese Muricatum. End view with concave sides .........scsseseeeeeves eeoveee bricorne. ‘12 Angles inflated, mucronate .......... Vedoyack icc Ned dusiee mucronatum. Angles neither inflated nor mucronate ...........sseee0e orbiculare. 13 End view with broad, toothed lobes .........ceseseceeees Jenneri. *'| End view with entire rays s.......e...00. svasoueuiins RAT 14 Processes short, stow$sss <5; .sesecseeiss ddesavancucdossts coves Margaritaceum. Processes long, slender PCC eeSCHeeeeeeeeeseeseeeeeeeeestese Arachne. “ 4 abe Re otc UE na. be Mag. Wat. Hist. Vol.16. PL XU. R.0. Couch del. Mohl ded. CTUSSCS . Mr. R. Q. Couch on the Morphology of Zoophytes. 161 XXII.—On the Morphology of the different Organs of Zoophytes. By R. Q. Coucn, M.R.C.S.L.* [ With a Plate. ] Tux subject which I have to bring under the notice of the So- ciety today is, if it proves true, one of great beauty and unusual interest, inasmuch as the lowest forms of animal life will in the development be found to be governed by the same laws that govern the growth of flowering plants. The vegetable law to which I refer is the metamorphosis of the leaf into the various organs which constitute the perfect plant. This law is now so well established and so generally allowed that nothing is required to be said of it ; on the present occasion I shall therefore proceed to discuss its application to the animal kingdom. To Professor E. Forbes belongs the merit of first promulgating the theory of the morphology of the reproductive system of the Sertularian Zoophytes and its analogy with the reproductive organs of flow- ering plants. This he did at the late meeting of the British As- sociation held at York}. It is an opinion I have long enter- tained, and in elucidation of which I have for some time been examining almost all the species found on our shores. The views were so new that I hesitated to adopt them, and had I not found that they were held and published by others, I should not now have brought them before this meeting. I do so to show how far the theory of Professor E. Forbes is supported by inductive ob- servations ; and that though we pursued in a great measure dif- ferent paths, we yet arrived at similar conclusions. As Professor Forbes confined his observations to the genera Sertularia and Plumularia, they are the ones which will be referred to here, though the same observations may be extended to several genera of the Ascidian Zoophytes; Crista and Cellularia for instance. In making these observations I shall refer to their growth ab ovo, and trace the different parts through their development to the fully formed character. These creatures resemble plants in their ar- borescent appearance, rooted character, and the transient nature of their reproductive organs. The Sertularian genera have an external horny, elastic and irritable sheath, and this incloses a central granular pulp which extends into all the ramifieations and from which all the other parts are formed. On the branches are numerous variously shaped and variously arranged cup-like cells ; but their arrangement and shape are always alike in the same, but different in different species. These are the polype cells, in * Read before the Natural History Society of Penzance, Dec. 3, 1844, and communicated by the author. t As reported in the Atheneum. The entire paper, illustrated by a plate, was inserted in our Number for December 1844. Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Vol. xv. N 162. Mr. R. Q. Couch on the Morphology of Zoophytes. which the polypes or prehensile portions are situated. The polypes are attached inferiorly to the central granular pulp which ramifies through the centre of the trunk and branches, and are indeed formed of it. These are the only portions of the creatures exposed to the influence of the surrounding water, and by these the food is taken, digested, and the nourishment distributed to all the other parts. In many species the polypes are exceedingly numerous, but though they are entirely independent of each other as regards their individual life and nourishment, yet they can- not be considered as distinct animals ; for the whole production seems to be but one compound creature, derived from the same source, the pulp and all tending to carry out the same object. In this respect they resemble trees; each branch is independent of all the others and may be cut off without injury to the whole, and yet all together they constitute the perfect polypidom. At particular seasons, extending from the middle of summer to autumn, and in fine weather to the early parts of winter, there are other and differently shaped cells developed, which are larger than those previously mentioned as containing the polypes. These are the ovigerous vesicles, which after having performed their function drop off and disappear. In this they differ from most other animals, in which the reproductive organs are, in duration, coextended with the lives of the creatures, and offer a remark- able analogy to similar parts in plants both in their decay and periodical re-appearance. “These organs,” Professor Forbes says, “in their nature, have often been discussed but never explained.” By their nature the Professor cannot mean the function they perform in the ceconomy of the creature’s existence, since that is established by numerous and accurate observations ; but rather I presume the nature of the type from which they have undergone their ideal metamorphosis. In this he is certainly correct, and the present observations are intended to elucidate this, and in some measure to extend it. The reproductive gemmules are very minute globular bodies, surrounded by numerous vibratory cilia which are in constant action. The mode in which they are formed will be briefly described hereafter. As soon as they have escaped from the ovigerous capsule into the surrounding water, they move about with great rapidity in a revolving manner, like the earth on its axis. While examining them in a bottle I could perceive that they occasionally stopped, and then again would rapidly move from spot to spot. In this way they move about from one hour to nearly two days, depending apparently on the temperature and the nature of the surrounding surfaces. They would occasionally rest on the glass for a few minutes, and then, as if the spot was an unfavourable one, again start off and revolve as rapidly as before, frequently changing their form from the cir- cular to the oval; sometimes acquiring an hour-glass contraction, Mr. R. Q. Couch on the Morphology of Zoophytes. 168 and at others assuming the appearance of having an enlarged head and a narrow and contracted tail. But having once fixed itself, it remains rooted ever after. From the period it first be- comes fixed it speedily undergoes a change in tint, but this how- ever would hardly be perceptible except to a practised eye. When this has taken place small fibres are given out from the base, or all that portion in contact with the glass. These consti- tute the roots by which the creature becomes fixed. From this point it quickly rises into the arborescent form of the adult. This is a remarkable change ; for here we see a creature in its youngest form moving about with almost the irregularity of voluntary mo- tion, yet in a short time becoming rooted and taking on so much of the vegetable form and appearance, as to have required, at the hand of Ellis, repeated observations and accurate demonstrations to persuade us to the contrary. The seed being fixed, the upper portion becomes elongated without any distinction of parts, and the first joint of the creature is formed. ‘Taking the sea-thread, Laomedea geniculata, as an example best calculated to show the analogies between the formation of the polype cells and ovarian vesicles, the central pulp of the seed becomes the central gra- nular pulp of the adult. After the ovule has become superiorly elongated to a distance equal to the usual length of the cell and its footstalk, it enlarges and becomes bulbous. All is now one undefined mass; but in the course of a few hours the stalk be- comes shrivelled, and the bulbous termination acquires a deeper tint towards the centre and lighter towards the circumference. At first this central shade is slight and indistinct, but it soon be- comes darker and more defined. As this condensation or orga- nization advances, the pulp becomes more transparent at its cir- cumference, and darker towards the centre. At this stage the transparent circumference appears to be drawn into transverse folds, as if from a force acting towards the centre, and leaves be- hind a transparent horny covermg which eventually forms the walls of the future cell. In this way the whole of the pulp be- comes separated from the investing sheath. This being effected, the upper edge of the bulbous portion of the pulp acquires a ser- rated edge, which in a short time becomes more and more di- stinct and enlarged, and finally is produced into finger-like pro- longations forming the tentacula of the polype. It is by an ex- tension of development that the horny cell is opened, and not by any mechanical pressure as has been supposed, since the only source of pressure is from the polype, and that is not in contact with it at the time. In this the polypes are formed from the central granular pulp in all the Sertularian species, having but very slight modifications in the different genera. The prolon- gation of the stem is formed in precisely the same manner, but 164 Mr. R.Q. Couch on the Morphology of Zoophytes. without a bulbous termination. The granular matter or pulp, which is at first diffused, becomes condensed or organized to- wards the centre, leaving the investing sheath in its annular form, and no further development goes on. It is this cessation of growth for the purposes of organization that regulates the length of the mternodes both of the trunk and branches. Hence also arise many of the irregularities so frequently observed. If growing in a variable situation, some of the internodes are short, while others are nearly double the usual length, depending on the vigour with which each portion is developed. These varia- tions are more observable in Sert. pumila than in the Sea-thread (Laomedea). The formation of the ovarian vesicle, in this genus at least, occurs in a very similar manner to what has been described in the polype cell and trunk. The ovarian vesicles are cells formed during the summer and autumn in situations varying with the different species ; and these having performed thei function of reproduction are periodically shed, to be replaced by others at some future time. Their first appearance are small protube- rances or elongations of the part on which they rest. At first a darker appearance of the pulp and sheath is observed on the part in which the vesicle is about to be produced. This is prolonged precisely in the manner noticed in the formation of the polype cell and trunk, and the separation of the pulp from the sheath occurs also in the same manner. It increases in length to the usual length of the vesicle, and with the exception that its axis is larger, resembles a branch in everything. But instead of being produced into a polype as in the polype cell, the surface becomes marked with circular lines, which, as development goes on, as- sumes the form of small grains or globules, more or less em- bossed according to the stage of advancement. They rapidly become more and more defined arid separated from each other, but. remain attached to the central pulp by an umbilical cord. This also becomes more attenuated and finally gives way, and the gemmule remains free in the horny case. These gemmules have a central granular pulp surrounded by a semitranslucent zone or case, and have their surfaces covered from a very early stage of their formation with numerous vibratory cilia. In this free state they remain in the case a short time, for the upper portion of the vesicle opens and the remarkably active gemmules revolve rapidly from spot to spot, as has been previously described. From this it will be perceived that the function of these periodic vesicles is reproduction, and therefore, when Prof. Forbes says that their nature is unknown, he can mean only the zdeal form, from which he supposes them changed during their develop- ment, Mr. R. Q. Couch on the Morphology of Zoophytes. 165 From the foregoing observations it will appear, that in the earliest stages of growth, the stem, the polype cells and the ovarian vesicles of the Sea-threads, Laomedea, are precisely alike, and that at a particular point of their development each assumes its indi- vidual character. The stem advances to one point and is there arrested in its organization ; the polype cell advances to the same point, but instead of being arrested, the pulp becomes developed into a polype and the sheath into a cell. This however seems to be only the case when the termination is bulbous ; for in many instances I have seen that where the pulp was not bulbous, but of the same diameter throughout, and about the size of the stem, that no polype has been developed, but merely a distorted branch. Where specimens grow in unfavourable situations, such distor- tions are not unfrequently to be found; and most of them I be- heve are attributable to this cause. This malformation is most frequently to be seen in Sert. polyzonias, rosacea, and a few other kindred species. | The ovarian vesicle also advances as the branch and cell, but instead of being of equal diameter throughout, as the former, or bulbous at its extremity, as the latter, it is enlarged or bulbous throughout its extent, and is united to the branch or trunk by a narrow and short peduncle. Instead of the vesicle beg arrested in its growth at the same point as the stalk, or organized into a polype as in the cell, it becomes developed into numerous minute globes covered with vibratory cilia as previously mentioned. Here then we see a great similarity between the different organs of these creatures,—a similarity so great as to warrant the supposi- tion of their primary identity and subsequent individualization, even if there were no others. In Sertularia polyzonias I have several times seen a polype cell terminate in a distorted branch ; and on the other side I have seen a branch terminate in a polype cell, showing a convertibility into each other. In all my examinations I have never seen the ovarian vesicle occupied by a polype. Ellis, however, has figured something like this with the polype protruding, but he says nothing of the kind im his text, and 1 am unacquainted with any one who has wit- nessed anything of the sort, though observers have become nu- merous since Dr. Johnston’s work has been published. I have however seen a cell, apparently designed for a vesicle, small in its growth and occupied by a polype. This form of vesicle has been selected for my illustration, because, if I understand Prof. Forbes, it is the one about which he had doubts. At some future time, when I have a little more leisure, I should like to offer a few ior ithe on others and diversified forms of these transitory cells. 166 Mr. J. Blackwall’s Ornithological Notes. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIII. A. Fig. 1. Earliest state of branch. Fig. 8. Perfect form of fig. 2. Fig. 2. Earliest state of polype cell. | Fig. 9. Perfect form of fig. 3. ‘ig. 3. Earliest state of ovarian ve- | Fig. 10. Showing a cell of Sert. poly- sicle. zonias converted into an Fig. 4. A second state of fig. 1. imperfect branch, Fig. 5. A second state of fig. 2. Fig. 11. An abortive branch of Sert. Fig. 6. A second state of fig. 3. polyzonias converted into a fig. 7. Perfect state of branch fig. 1. poiype cell. Chapel Street, Penzance, Dec. 3, 1844. XXIII.—Ornithological Notes. By Joun Buackwatut, F.L.S. The Osprey, Pandion Haliaétus. On the 2nd of November 1844, Lord Edward Thynne obligingly sent to me a specimen of the osprey, which had been shot by Mr. Griffith Jones of Glyn, on the same day, near the banks of the Lleder, a small river in Caernarvonshire, which flows past the village of Dolwyddelan. It was a male bird, and measured five feet and an inch from tip to tip of the extended wings; twenty- two inches from the point of the bill to the extremity of the tail ; and weighed three pounds and a quarter, after the remains of a bull-trout, which, when newly captured, must have weighed about two pounds, had been taken from its craw. Several days previously to the 2nd. of November this bird had been seen flying about the river Conway in the vicinity of Bettws y Coed, and it is a remarkable fact, that three years since another mdividual of the same species was killed within a hundred yards of the spot where this was shot. The Tawny Owl, Syrnium Aluco. A hole in a decayed tree is usually selected by the tawny owl for the reception of its eggs; but in the neighbourhood of Llanrwst, where this species is numerous and decayed trees are comparatively scarce, it frequently deposits its eggs in an old nest of the carrion crow. In May 1844 one of a brood of young owls bred in a erow’s nest accidentally fell to the ground before it was fledged, and was as carefully attended to by the parent birds under this change of circumstances as those were which remained in the nest, beng abundantly supplied with mice and small birds. When any per- son approached the spot where the young owl stood, one of the parent birds, probably the female, invariably made its appearance, and with looks and gestures expressive of the utmost solicitude reiterated a loud sharp cry, and snapped its mandibles together by way of menacing the unwelcome intruder. Mr. J. Blackwall’s Ornithological Notes. 167 Possessing a voice susceptible of considerable modulation, the calls of the tawny owl are, perhaps, more varied than they are generally supposed to be; the cry termed hooting, by which it is most familiarly known, may be heard to the distance of a mile and a half or even two miles under very favourable circumstances, and is attended by a peculiarity deserving of notice. In the first instance a plain hoot is ejaculated, which is soon followed by a tremulous one, and in the terval between the two a low abrupt note occurs, which immediately precedes the latter ; such is uni- formly the order of succession when nothing unusual happens to interrupt it. Some years ago a pair of barn owls reared their young in the deserted nest of a magpie, built in a spruce fir growing in a wood at Blackwall, the family estate, in Derbyshire. The Pied Flycatcher, Muscicapa luctuosa. In my ‘ Researches in Zoology,’ p. 166, I have succinctly no- ticed the fact that the pied flycatcher breeds in Gwydir woods, near Llanrwst. From more extended observations subsequently made in the same district, 1 may now add, that this interesting species is to be seen every summer sparingly dispersed throughout the entire extent of the valley of the Conway. For a long series of years a pair of pied flycatchers had incu- bated their eggs and nurtured their young in security in a small aperture close by the portico to the principal entrance of my father’s residence, Hendre House, Denbighshire, undisturbed, apparently, by the frequent passing and repassing of its inmates. The lively effect of the well-defined and strongly-contrasted black and white plumage of the male, his short .but pleasant song, and the confiding habits of both sexes rendered them objects of great interest to all the members of the family, who did not allow them to be molested on any pretext whatever. Unfortunately, on the 18th of June 1843, a swarm of bees discovered the aperture, which then contained a brood of nestlings nearly fledged, and by hurrying in and out of it and flying about the entrance in large numbers, seemed determined to dispossess the rightful owners. Whenever the parent birds attempted to approach the spot for the purpose of feeding their young, they were instantly attacked and repelled by the excited bees, from which they took refuge among the branches of an oak growing near, and there mani- fested their anxiety by notes and actions expressive of extreme uneasiness. After having been severely stung, the nestlings fluttered to the mouth of the aperture and descended to the ground, where they all perished, their bodies being much swollen. Towards the close of April 1844, the same pair of birds re- 168 Mr. J. Blackwall’s Ornithological Notes. turned to their favourite breeding haunt, and repeatedly visited the aperture so long occupied by their nest ; but being again as~ sailed by the bees, which had removed to a parallel aperture on the other side of the portico, it is probable that the incident re- called the destruction of their progeny in the preceding year, for they eventually deserted the place, and selected a hole in a low stone wall by the side of the avenue leading to the house, in which they constructed a nest and brought up their young. This imstance, and other cases might be adduced, evidently tends to show that the pied flycatcher resorts annually to the same locality for the purpose of continuing its species, and that, hke its congener the spotted flycatcher, it is a very familiar bird during the breeding-season. The Carrion Crow, Corvus Corone. It is evident from repeated inspections of the indigestible parts of objects swallowed by the crow as food, which, like the magpie and birds of the order Raptores, it ejects from the mouth, that vegetable substances form no inconsiderable portion of its ali- ment ; it devours fish also, particularly eels, in pursuit of which it wades mto the shallow water of rivers and brooks that flows over beds of stone and gravel, seizing the object of its search with the bill and conveying it to land, where it is eaten at leisure. Crows thus oecupied may frequently be seen by the salmon-fisher when following his exciting diversion on the banks of the Conway in the picturesque valley which derives its name from the stream. The Rev. John Boulger of Llanrwst informs me that in June last he saw a crow on the wing with a fine living eel in its bill; the contortions of the fish as it endeavoured to escape from its formi- dable enemy and the varied gesticulations of the bird, occasioned by its efforts to retain a prey so muscular, flexible, and shippery, were very grotesque and amusing; at length the eel extricating itself from the grasp of the crow fell to the ground, and as there was not any water in the immediate vicinity, Mr. Boulger availed himself of the opportunity to examine the fish and satisfy his mind that it was not a snake. Though of a much less social disposition than the rook, never- theless the crow is not so solitary in its habits as it is generally represented to be in works on ornithology. When the breeding- season is over, and the young birds are capable of providing for themselves, the crows belongimg to this district assemble in large flocks about the close of day, preparatory to repairing to their roosting-haunts in the higher parts of Gwydir woods; they are very clamorous on these occasions, and do not finally retire to rest till it is nearly dark, but frequently after they seem to have settled for the night, rise suddenly in a body, renewing Mr. J. Blackwall’s Ornithological Notes. 169 their vociferous calls and wheeling about in involved curves, as they are joined by newly-arrived groups, or even without any apparent cause whatever. This habit of congregating in an evening continues till the next breeding season, and I have some- times observed betwen 100 and 200 individuals in a flock. The Rook, Corvus frugilegus. Bewick, in treating upon the rook in his ‘ History of British Birds,’ vol. i. p. 71, has remarked that he is inclined to consider the naked condition of the base of the bill and the anterior re- gion of the head in this species as an original peculiarity, appa- rently intending to intimate thereby a belief that at no period of its existence are the parts in question covered with feathers, a construction of the passage which is countenanced by his having omitted to notice the fact that young rooks, before their first moult, do not exhibit this deficiency of plumage. Now as youn rooks, when they quit the nest, have the base of the bill and the anterior part of the head amply provided with feathers, the ques- tion naturally arises, How is the nudity of these parts in old birds occasioned ? On referring to my ‘ Researches in Zoology,’ p. 174-175, it will be seen that in the year 1834 I advocated the opinion pre- valent among ornithologists, that the loss of the feathers alluded to above is attributable to the habit which the rook has of thrust- ing its bill into the ground im search of food. An extensive examination and comparison of specimens had led me to observe that the nudity extends further and is more com- plete in some individuals than im others; that the more promi- nent and exposed parts are first deprived of feathers, and that short filiform processes, bearing a close resemblance to new feathers enveloped in membrane, frequently occur on the less prominent and less exposed parts, particularly on the flaccid skin which occupies the angle at the base of the lower mandible. In addition to these facts, I may remark that an opportunity had presented itself of imspecting a rook whose mandibles were so greatly curved in opposite directions, and, consequently, so much crossed at the extremities, that it could not possibly thrust its bill into the ground, and the base of that organ and the anterior part of the head did not manifest the least deficiency of plumage. With such evidence in its favour, I was induced to adopt the popular hypothesis, which I now abandon in consequence of having recently proved by experiment that it is erroneous. Being supplied by George Davies, Esq. with two young rooks taken from a nest in his rookery at Cyffdu on the 17th of May 1843, I put them into a large wooden chicken-pen, purposing, when they could take their food without assistance, to remove one of them to a garden enclosed with walls, where it might have 170 Mr. J. Blackwall’s Ornithological Notes. an opportunity of employing the means of procuring sustenance common to the species, and to let the other remain in the pen. This plan was frustrated by the unexpected death of one of the young birds soon after it came into my possession; but the re- sult of the experiment, as will be seen in the sequel, was not at all affected by this untoward circumstance. In the month of August the surviving rook lost only a few feathers from various parts of its body, but did not moult regularly till July and August 1844, when the feathers at the base of the bill and on the ante- rior region of the head were cast off, and have not been renewed to the present hour, though the bird has always been remarkably healthy and has never on any occasion been suffered to leave the pen fora moment. That rooks in a state of liberty usually moult in the autumn of the year in which they are disengaged from the egg may be inferred from the fact, that although numerous indi- viduals, whose shrill voices evidently denote that they are young birds of the season, may be seen in the months of June and July with the base of the bill and anterior part of the head abundantly supplied with feathers, yet for several months prior to the breed- ing-season not one can be perceived, at least as far as my own observations extend, which has not those parts denuded. From what has been stated, it is evident that the phenomenon under consideration has a physiological, not a mechanical cause, though the removal of the plumage may be facilitated by the frequently repeated act of thrusting the bill into the ground, and the circumstances which seemed to support the opposite conclu- sion admit, for the most part, of an easy explanation upon this view of the subject. The difference observable in the extent and completeness of the nudity at the base of the bill and the anterior part of the head of the rook probably depends upon the progress which has been made in moulting, especially among the younger birds; and the earlier denudation of the more prominent parts may be occasioned by the friction consequent upon the manner in which the bill is employed in procuring food. The short fili- form processes so common on the depressed and less-exposed parts present a difficulty of which no satisfactory solution sug- gests itself; but the state of the plumage on the head of that rook whose mandibles were greatly crossed may be accounted for on the supposition that it was a young bird which had not moulted. Had the experiment recorded by Mr. Waterton in his ‘ Essays on Natural History,’ p. 186-139, been successful, this question, upon which public opmion has been so long divided, would have been settled some years earlier ; unfortunately, however, both the young rooks selected for the purpose of deciding it met with un- timely deaths, one before it had begun to moult, and the other soon after it had commenced moulting. On Mr. Waterton’s re- turn from Bavaria, his gamekeeper, to whose care the latter bird Lhe Nrgger. CW Peach, del J Basire, lith . Mr. C. W. Peach on the “Nigger” or “Cotton Spinner.” 171 had been consigned, informed him that at the period when its existence terminated ‘the lower mandible had begun to put on a white scurfy appearance, while here and there a few feathers had fallen from the upper one.” It is to be regretted that the issue of this experiment was not more satisfactory, as from the nature of the case it was impossible to determine whether the feathers lost from the base of the bill would be renewed or not, though feathers shed from other parts in the act of noultnnig are known to be reproduced. The rook visits orchards and gardens when cherries and wal- nuts are ripe, for the purpose of feeding on those fruits; it also devours grain of various kinds, and frequently commits depreda- tions in potato-grounds by abstracting the newly-planted sets ; but I entirely concur with those naturalists who maintain that the injuries it inflicts on the farmer and gardener are vastly more than compensated by the benefits it confers upon them by the destruction of noxious insects. XXIV.—On the “ Nigger” or “ Cotton Spinner ” of the Cornish Fishermen. By Cuaries Witiiam Pracu, of Goran Haven, Cornwall*. [ With a Plate. ] Turoven the kindness of Mr. Couch of Polperro, some time ago, I was gratified with a sight of Professor Forbes’s ‘ History of the British Echinodermata.’ In that interesting work, at page 241, he says, “ We have as yet no representative of the typical Holo- thuria with twenty tentacula in the British fauna.” It is gra- tifymg to me to be able to present to your notice that link, which was then wanting,—a Holothuria with twenty tentacula ; ‘and as it is a new and interesting subject, I trust I shall be pardoned in giving you a lengthened history of its appearance, habits, &c. This Holothuria is very common in deep water off the Dead- man in certain localities (rocky ground), and is called by the fisher- men a “ Nigger,” and at times a “ Cotton Spinner”’ ; it is held by them in great detestation, from its throwing out what they call “ cotton,” of which more by and by, and from its slimy nature, and also because where the “ Niggers ” are numerous and get into the crab-pots, it is very rarely that either crabs or lobsters are caught, and therefore they kill all they come near with their knives, because they do not like to touch them. This is not wonderful, for their appearance is anything but prepossessing ; _yet they are interesting objects to me, and no doubt will prove so to others, after I have described them. * Read before the Royal Polytechnic Institution of Cornwail, and com- municated by the author. 172 Mr. C. W. Peach on the “ Nigger” or “Cotton Spinner” First, then, their appearance, when closed up, very much re- sembles a small. cucumber, the back being dark—almost black at times—and the under part light yellowish green, which, with the thorn-like appendages on the back, make the appearance more complete. On being handled they stain the hand light. green : this colour is not easily washed out. The head is furnished with twenty tentacula, which surround the mouth ; the opening is to- lerably large, and can be very much expanded ; and it is amusing to watch the motions of the tentacula acting as feeders; they place them one by one over the mouth, and when one is about to leave the mouth another may be seen bending to supply its place. — The tentacula vary in colour as well as the animals. Some are very dark brown, and indeed all shades from sienna to rose-colour and delicate pink. If the tentacula are viewed from the upper — part they are club-shaped on the top, this club being placed on a ~ foot-stalk an inch in length, which is retractile, and is invariably of a lighter colour than the top. When seen from the under side, (Pl. XIV. fig. 2,) they appear like the umbels of the elder, and are beautifully branched and tipped, much in the manner of the elder flowers ; indeed they might be mistaken (if large enough) for that flower, only the foot-stalk is so much thicker in proportion. There is a dark spot at the junction of each fork of the umbel, each di-. vision is thrice-branched, and a similar dark spot may be ob- served at the lower part of each tentacle. They can completely close in their tentacula, which they do on being disturbed ; and they use them at times as organs of locomotion. Outside the ten- tacula is a border of spines like processes on a skin, which reaches a short way up the tentacula, and serves as a covering when these are withdrawn. ‘These spines very much resemble the thorns of ' the brier ; the back and sides are covered with similar ones, but — not in rows. Near the tip of each spine is a small calcareous piece which is again tipped with dark. The under side is fur- nished with feelers in very great numbers; these feelers are in four rows, the two centre ones being nearest together. The feelers being in four rows only is singular, being a departure from the ‘usual numbers in the Echinodermata, namely five. Still I saw only four rows in several. It is a most difficult matter to be able to count the rows, from the slimy and decomposing nature of the animal. I will follow this up and try to set the matter at rest ; at present I am satisfied they have only four rows. They very much resemble those of an Echinus, but are not in equal num- - bers in each row, being from one to four, side by side, across the row. These feelers they stretch out to a great length, and attach themselves firmly by them ; so much so, that in trying to detach them the feelers have been frequently left behind. Hach feeler has a small, round, calcareous plate at the tip, which, under the of the Cornish Fishermen. 173 microscope, shows that it is composed of innumerable plates, an object of great beauty; these plates effervesce with acid, and so do the plates of the mouth and tips of the processes. When the softer parts of the feelers are cut transversely, they are composed of fine tubes, and when magnified have very much the appearance of some of the corals. The animal is covered with a dark slimy mucilaginous skin, which peels off freely ; under- neath this it is hght gray, and has a reticulated appearance, re- sembling bird’s-eye maple. They are of various sizes and lengths, often nearly a foot in length and thick in proportion ; they some- times draw themselves almost into a ball, at others are much inflated in the centre. At times they lie motionless, but generally they are in motion. So much for the external appearance. The jaws are composed of five strong calcareous plates, to these the tentacula are attached, and from the under side in the inte- rior of the animal extend five broad muscles, which reach the whole length. These are again held together by a great number of smaller ones placed transversely, until nearly reaching the lower part, when they are diagonal, no doubt for the purpose of closing the opening at the opposite end to the mouth. “They eat portions of dead fish, shells, &c. (I have reasons for believing Terebella). I have found in their intestines a Buccinum incrassatum, with the animal in it, portions of Balani, Echini, Nullipora, sand, &c. The feeces are thrown out with a jerk, and are of an oblong-oval shape, strung together like the eggs of a snake, and are of a dark mud-colour. There is one circumstance connected with these things of in- terest,—they are enveloped in a film so tenacious that it is a dif- ficult matter to rub them to pieces in the water ; on exposure to air they lose their tenacity and crumble to pieces. The circum- stance I allude to is, that this tenacious covering will explain in some measure the preservation of the coprolites of the ancient Saurians found in the blue has; for in all probability they were enveloped in a similar tenacious covering. In Professor Forbes’s work there is a question how the water which is found in the interior enters. If I understand it right this is a doubtful matter ; probably the following may in some measure explain it :—Theyraise the opening at the opposite end to the mouth, open it wide, and | expect create a vacuum ; the water then flows into it freely. After a short time they close this, and ‘by a muscular motion it may be observed as if passing towards the head. This taking in the water is repeated several times with short intervals, and after a little rest the whole of the water, by the same orifice, is thrown out in a continuous stream. It then commences again to take in more. It is extremely irritable, and on being touched or disturbed, throws out a bunch of white tapered threads about an inch in om 174 Prof. Mohl on the Import of the + length and one-eighth in thickness ; these soon become attenuated, either by the agitation of the water or the coming into contact with something, and are drawn into very long threads of great tenacity ; they stick to everything they touch, and from these the animals are called “cotton spinners ” by the fishermen. This small bunch is drawn into a large mass of threads, so small that the finest sewing-cotton is not equal to it, and is no doubt one of the means of defence provided for its preservation ; for I have seen a crab so completely entangled in it as not to be able to move, and a fish only able to get away after a long struggle. If much irritated they throw out the whole of their intestines ; this is invariably the case after being kept in confinement two or three days; and even after they have done so they have lived three days, and their tentacula performed all their offices as if the animal was strong and healthy. They soon decay when dead if left out of the water, and from their peculiar construction it is a difficult matter to preserve or dissect them. To the physiologist they offer a rich treat. I know nothing of this science ; I regret it: my object has been to watch their actions and habits, and I fear I have too long occupied your time. I would here just mention that this Holothuria differs from the Psolus Forbesii of Mr. Couch, noticed in the second part of his ‘ Cornish Fauna,’ in having twenty tentacula instead of eighteen, and the suckers are in rows, which was not the case in his. I therefore claim it as new to the British fauna, which latter circumstance Professor Forbes con- firmed at the late meeting of the British Association at York. The annexed engraving, Plate XIV., represents the “ Nigger” of the natural size; fig. 2, the head with the mouth downwards, showing the tentacula spread out. XXV.—On the Import of the inferior Palee of the Grasses. | By Hueco von Mou.*. [ With a Plate. j TuxERE are few points in vegetable morphology respecting which so great a difference of views prevails as that relating to the origin of the floral envelopes of the Grasses. To remove this dif- ference of opinion, at least with respect to one of the points in question, it is above all requisite to ascertain with certainty whether the inferior palea takes its origm from the same axis as the superior palea (or, according to Robert Brown’s view, the two leaves composing the upper palea), or whether the two result from different axes. In the first case we undoubtedly accede to * From the Botanische Zeitung for Jan. 17,1845. Translated and com- municated by W. Francis, Ph. D., F.L.S. inferior Pale@ of the Grasses. 175 the representation of the inflorescence of grasses which Robert Brown (General Remarks, p. 580) has advanced,—not, it is true, as the only one possible, but as the most probable,—viz. that the two leaves which have cohered to form the superior palea and the inferior palea, notwithstanding the oblique direction of its in- sertion, form a trimerous verticil and the outer leaf circle of a perigonium, the inner circle of which is constituted by the scales (lodiculz) ; but if, on the contrary, it can be proved that the infe- rior and superior palez belong to two distinct axes, it is thus shown that the inferior palea must be considered a bract from whose axis the floral axis takes its origin; a view which has been adopted with various modifications by several authors, and which has been explained in a most lucid manner by Doll (Rhein. Flora, p. 58). The circumstance that a difference of opinion has prevailed on this fundamental point im the morphological consideration of the inflorescence of the Graminee, undoubtedly proves that the exa- mination of the normal flowers of grasses does not afford suf- ficiently certain and convincing proofs to decide with positive certainty the question respecting the derivation of the paleze ; it appears, therefore, to be safest in this case, as in so many. other morphological questions, to look out for monstrosities from which we may be able to deduce the normal structure ; and if I am not very much deceived, the variety vivipara of Poa alpina, so widely diffused in the Alps, is fully adapted to solve the doubt existing on the above question. I trust, therefore, that a description of this monstrosity, drawn up with reference to the morphological relations of the spicula of grasses, will not be without interest. In the viviparous spikes of the Poa alpina I have found the two calycine valves (Pl. XIII. B, fig. 1 to 4¢ c) always perfectly normal, and only the palee deformed; the deviation from the normal structure is generally less in the most inferior flower than in the succeeding one, so that frequently the lowest is still per- fectly normal (fig. 2), or approaches more to the normal structure than the flower situated higher up (fig. 4). The axis of the spicula exhibits the least variations. It is, as far as it bears abnormal flowers, more or less thickened, full of sap, presents an unlimited growth superiorly, and frequently small rootlets shoot out from its inferior internodes ; in short, it has assumed the characters of an axis of vegetation, and perfect resembles with its leaves a small culm of grass (Pl. XIII. fig. 1) ; while its inferior portion, which bears the calycine valves and forms the petiole of the spicula, is of the same small diameter as in the normal spicula, and, like the fruit-bearing spicula, dries up after the flowering season, which admits of the falling off and independent vegetation of the upper deformed portion. In the monstrous flowers the inferior palea presents an increase i76 Prof. Mohl on the Lnport of the in size, and a more or less perfect metamorphosis into the form of a vegetative leaf. Generally, and especially upwards from the second flower, this metamorphosis into a leaf provided with sheath, ligula and lamina is perfect (fig. 4p", fig. 5 p!”); while even when the lowermost flower is partially abnormal, its inferior palea (fig. 4p’, fig. 5 p') frequently forms an intermediate stage between the nor- mal form and that of a vegetative leaf. The latter cases are na- turally best suited for allowing us to obtain an insight into the manner in which the metamorphosis of the palea ito the vege- tative leaf takes place. It is seen by the comparison of several such intermediate stages that the normal palea does not solely correspond, as we might at first be inclined to admit, to the sheath of the vegetative leaf, and that the metamorphosis of the palea into a leaf does not consist in a budding forth of the lamina from the apex of the palea, but that a separation of the various parts of the palea, which are intimately fused together, takes place, and a dismemberment of them one from the other re- sults. The normal palea possesses five nerves, of which the central one extends to the apex of the palea, while the lateral nerves are lost within the transparent scarious membrane. On its meta- morphosis into a leaf the palea becomes elongated ; its inferior portion surrounds the superiorly-situated portion of the spicula in the form of a vagina, while its upper portion bends more or less outwards and becomes changed into the lamina of the leaf (Pl. XIII. B, fig. 1, fig. 2 to 5p"). In those palez in which this metamorphosis is merely indicated, the palea still retains nearly its proper form and the reddish colour which is diffused over the normal palea, and it is only its apex which has become bicker, of a greenish colour, uncinate and recurved superiorly (fig. 4p’, fig. 5 p'): a separation into vagina, ligula and lamina is not yet indicated. When the metamorphosis has advanced further, the whole palea is lengthened considerably, its upper portion has be- come thicker, green and leaf-like, while the lower portion has re- tained its more delicate texture, transparency, and likewise fre- quently the reddish colouring ; the nerves, which are still present to the number of five, have acquired a more parallel position in consequence of the elongation of the leaf, and become confluent towards the uncinately-curved apex of the latter. The margin is scarious as in the normal paler. The separation into the various parts of the vegetative leaf now begins, and is terminated by the development of the ligula and the transverse separation between the upper green and the lower brighter-coloured parts of the © alea. f The formation of ligula frequently occurs only at one part of the leaf, in its central line, or on one of the lateral halves, or on a part of one of these, while in the other portion lamina and vagina inferior Palee of the Grasses. 177 still pass immediately into each other (fig. 6—8). The ligula is formed by the elevation of a transparent scale on the upper sur- face of the leaf in a transverse or somewhat oblique direction. Very frequently it is developed only on the central portion of the leaf, and has then usually a crescent shape (fig. 7) ; in other cases this incipient ligula is only met with on one of the sides of the leaf (figs. 6, 8); very frequently it does not extend to the margin of the leaf, and every trace of its auricle is still wanting (figs. 7, 8); in other cases the auricle is developed without the central portion of the ligula being present. The development of the auricle takes place in the following manner: the scarious margin of the leaflet, which extends at a less advanced stage of transformation to its apex, retracts itself as it were from above downwards, and instead of gradually becoming acute and dis- appearing in the green-coloured margin of the leaf (fig. 6), now projects in the form of a rounded prominence on the margin of the leaflet, and passes into a scale projecting on the upper sur- face of the leaflet (fig.6 a). In this manner the ligula appears, not as a part foreign to the leaf and adnate with it, but as an ex- uberant growth from it like the corona of the petals of a pink. Simultaneously with the perfect development of the ligula occurs the formation of the node between the vagina and lamina, and thereby a distinct separation of the two parts of the leaf. Far more important is the consideration of the base of the metamorphosed palez, as regards the question which principally occupies our attention. While the base of the normal palea al- ways surrounds only a portion of the axis, and consequently leaves it doubtful whether the palea is the product of the primary axis of the gramineous flower, or whether it forms a verticil with the two leaves composing the superior palea, not the least doubt can exist respecting this point in the metamorphosed palea; for not only does its base surround the stem entirely, but both its mar- gins cohere towards its lower extremity (fig.5 p!). Now it is perfectly evident in this case, that the axis which is surrounded by the leaflet, and from which this takes its origin, is the pri- mary axis of the spicula, and that the superior palea belongs to the floral axis, situated in the axis of the inferior palea; conse- quently that the inferior palea must not be considered as a peri- gonial leaf, but as a bract. In proportion as the above-described metamorphosis of the palea into a vegetative leaf advances, the flowering organs de- crease in size. In the axis of the palea of the lowest flower of a spicula, we generally find the whole of the floral parts in a crip- pled state ; the superior palea is generally still very large in com- parison to the other flowering organs, and bifurcate at the apex, but not separated into two distinct leaflets, In the axis of the Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Vol. xv. 178 Botanical Notices from Spain. paleze transformed into perfect vegetative leaves of the flowers situated higher up, all the flowering organs have generally disap- peared without leaving a trace behind them. XXVI.— Botanical Notices from Spain. By Morirz W1LLKoMM*. No. I. Vatencra, middle of May 1844. On the first days of my stay in Valencia, where I arrived on the 5th of May, my operations were confined to making acquaintance with the scientific institutions and the surrounding neighbourhood of the town. I was the more invited to do this, since the continued rainy weather offered an obstacle to longer excursions. Indeed the Valen- cians themselves could scarcely remember it to have rained so abun- dantly and uninterruptedly, and this weather was even a subject of public discussion in the newspapers. The temperature was almost to be called cool; since at this time of year the mean daily tempe- rature is usually 20°C., and it amounted then barely to 15°—17°C. One of my first walks was to the Botanical Garden by the Puerta de Cuarte: into this you enter through arather insignificant building in which the lectures on botany and agriculture are delivered. ‘The garden, laid out in a magnificent style, occupies a very large space, and considering the glorious climate and the uncommon fertility of the soil, might, under the direction of an able man, become one of the most important gardens in Europe, if the government would do something for its maintenance. It has it is true the appearance of a botanical garden, since one sees many rows of labels, but the plants are wanting. What plants there are, are the remnant of those placed there through Cavanilles, and exotic shrubs and trees of a still earlier date. The fault of this lamentable decline of so well-arranged an institution is partly to be laid to the deficiency of interest on the part of the government in all that relates to science, partly and chiefly to the want of a well-informed director. Considering how luxuriantly everything grows up in this happy land in a few years, without any care, much might be accomplished with very little money. Of plant-houses there is no trace; they are indeed super- fluous, since a great number of tropical plants may be cultivated very well here in the open ground; at the utmost only a green-house would be necessary in the short winter. The present director of the garden is named Don José Pezcuerda, so far as I may judge, a tole- rably ignorant man, whose whole knowledge of literature is confined to little more than the works of Linnzus, Cavanilles, Clemente, Lagasca, Buffon and DeCandolle. Of Germany he knew almost nothing; neither does he possess a herbarium. Nevertheless the garden is in somewhat better condition in his hands than under the direction of his predecessor, the present Cathedratico of agriculture, Don Joaquin Carrascosa, formerly Archdeacon in Alicant. Although * Translated from the Botanische Zeitung, Aug. 9, and Oct, 18, 1844, and communicated by A, Henfrey, F.L.S. Botanical Notices from Spain. 179 Don Antonio Blanco, the occupant of the post before him, a younger but very well-informed man who had prosecuted his studies partly in Paris, had begun to arrange the plants according to DeCandolle, Car- rascosa re-introduced the sexual system, which Pezcuerda has re- tained, and has here displayed his ignorance in the grossest blunders against system, since, for instance, he arranges Leguminose in the nineteenth, Crucifere in the sixth class, &c. At last, as Carrascosa had suffered two show-plants of the garden, avery large old specimen of Sophora japonica and another of Parkinsonia aculeata, to be cut down —he having taken them for mulberry-trees (!), it was too out- rageous, and Carrascosa was removed from the directory of the gar- den. The directory was taken from Prof. Blanco last year on political grounds, which is much to be lamented. Of the present condition of the garden, little can be said. The interior is divided into regular compartments, surrounded by orange-hedges; these are sufficiently watered by means of stone water-courses, and separated from each other by an elegant trellis-work of Spanish cane. Each plant, or place where once one has been, is furnished with a label of fire-glazed white clay, on which the number stands, but no name. The names of the classes and orders of the sexual system are marked on larger labels in the Spanish language. ‘There is a special quarter for water- plants, where however I saw only Canna indica and one other appa- rently determined as a fern, but which was only Pteris aquilina cul- tivated. Enormous cypresses, great trees of Cassia corymbosa, Pista- cia Terebinthus, Acacia Farnesiana, Bignonia Catalpa, Melia Azeda- rach, Schinus molle, shrubs of arborescent Malvacee, of Solanum Bo- nariense, Bignonia radicans and other exotic vegetables, ornamented the borders of the garden, —remnants of former splendour! Especially worthy of mention are a beautiful date-palm, and, particularly, an old specimen of Chamerops humilis with a stem 10 feet high, as also a showy Yucca gloriosa with a stem about 6 feet high and nearly 1 foot thick, which were just in full bloom. More directly interesting is the rural or agricultural garden, which is situated behind the botanical garden, and was established six years ago. Its present director is the already often-mentioned Carrascosa, to whom however the credit of having established the garden is not due. Although it has only been laid out six years, there are transplanted into it trees and shrubs already so large, that one would take the garden to be much older,—an evidence of the Inx- uriant fertility of the soil. The garden is divided into twelve com- partments. Two of these are designed for officinal plants, and sur- rounded by a hedge of Cactus Opuntia; L. (sp. Nopal). Here are collected the dye-plants, which are arranged according to the differ- ent colours, the plants which yield soda and potash, as also those used in the manufacture of textile fabrics. Under the latter the ce- lebrated Esparto (Macrochloa tenacissima, Kth.) is especially to be mentioned, which, growing on many of the hills situated near the sea, forms a not unimportant article of trade in South Spain, since this tough grass is used partly for the plaiting of coverings for rooms and balconies, and for making various sorts of baskets, especially 2 180 Botanical Notices from Spain. panniers for mules, chairs, and the peculiar sandals which are worn all over the kingdom ; and partly worked into ropes which are in great request, and for instance, are manufactured in great quantity in Marseilles. In two other quarters of the garden, 400 varieties of apple- and pear-trees are in cultivation, chiefly brought over from North America; also in another, a collection of 95 varieties of apricots, peaches and the like. In one division, surrounded by 36 varieties of almond-trees, are 308 kinds of Spanish vines, which are arranged according to the classical work of Don Roxas Clemente (Ensayo sobre la vin comun). Other quarters are designed for the fodder- plants, for trees and shrubs, which are to be used partly for planting forests, partly for gardens and parks. The back part of the gar- den is closed in by a very long hedge of Agave americana, L. (sp. Pita), behind which stand the collected varieties of olives and algar- robas (Ceratonia Siliqua, L.). ‘The first ground for this garden was laid out in the year 1835; however the money was insufficient to the purchase of the required area, which was first accomplished in the year 1839. ‘There is here a theatre for the lectures on agriculture, also a collection of instruments and models. The chair of agriculture was established by royal command in the year 1834. Since that time nothing more has been done by the government for natural science in the university of Valencia, although this is among the most fre- quented of the Spanish universities, since it numbers at present 1800 so-called students and some 60 professors. The immediate neighbourhood of the city, known and famous as the Huerta de Valencia, is very astonishing to every foreigner. The fertile plain watered by the Rio Turia (in the midst of which lies the city about a mile distant from the sea), is, in a circuit of from three to five miles round, converted by the indefatigable activity of the Valen- cians into a garden verdant throughout the whole year. Innumerable water-courses traverse the Huerta, and numerous water-wheels con- duct this element, so precious in Spain, into all the fields and gardens. The culture of wheat forms the chief branch of agriculture ; besides which, a particularly large quantity of hemp, and westward of Va- lencia, toward the lake of Albufera, a great deal of rice is also grown. The fields are surrounded with rows of mulberry-trees, and in the east and north the Huerta presents extended plantations of olives, which are here much larger and more beautiful than the dwarf shrub- like olive-trees of Provence. It has also many fig, citron and orange trees, especially in the neighbourhood of the country-houses, while the roads and streets are ornamented with rows of elms, Populus ca- nescens, nigra and monilifera. ‘The date-palm is rather a rare object, although it attains here a height of as much as 40 to 60 feet. They are seen most abundantly in the gardens and courts of the numerous monasteries in and around Valencia. For instance, I have seen in the court of the monastery of San Miguel de los Reyes twelve, in that of the Cartucha Ara Christi, not far from Murviedro, about thirty high-stemmed palms. ‘The private estates in the Huerta are mostly surrounded with a hedge of Arundo Donaz, L., which in damp places in the warm region grows wild everywhere, or of Tamariz gal- Botanical Notices from Spain. 181 lica, Li., in the neighbourhood of the sea, as well as of Agave ame- ricana and Cactus Opuntia. The last is also cultivated in many gar- dens for the sake of the cochenille, although it occurs everywhere wild on stony, sunny places in the warm sea-region; for instance, the whole south and east slopes of the castle of Murviedro are co- vered with impenetrable bushes of a man’s height, in which stems of 4 or 5 inches diameter are frequently seen. Of herbaceous vege- tables are grown in the Huerta very many strawberries, artichokes, onions, garlic, beans, peas, Vicia Faba, L., and especially the Garbanzos (Cicer arietinum, L.), so much loved by the Spaniards. ‘The water. courses are almost universally decked with Iris Pseudacorus, and filled with our species of Lemna and Potamogeion. A pretty red- flowered Silene is not uncommon, and on the walls Hyoscyamus alba grows everywhere in luxuriant abundance, while the hedges are over- run with Fumaria capreolata, L., and Rubiacee. All sandy places, particularly the shore of the Rio Turia, are covered with Planiago Coronopus, L., Calendula officinalis, Krodias and Euphorbias. As soon as the weather permitted, I made an excursion to the lake of Albufera, which is situated about two leagues westward of Valencia, and is connected with the sea by a narrow canal. Almost the whole of its shores are covered with rice-fields, yet the strip of land, about three-quarters of a mile broad, which separates it from the sea and which is little else than a mound of sand, is occupied by a wood of Pinus Halepensis, Mill. This little wood is one of the spots richest in plants in the neighbourhood of Valencia, on which account I have often visited it. ‘The ground is covered with a low underwood which is chiefly composed of Quercus coccifera, Myrtus communis and Chamerops humilis; beneath these frequently occur bushes of Juniperus Oxycedrus, L., Rhamnus Lycioides, L., Erica ar- borea, L., Rosmarinus officinalis, L., Ruscus aculeatus, L., Pistacia lentiscus, L., &c. On the shore of the Albufera in loose quicksands are pretty frequently found great bushes of Solanum Sodomeum, L., with stems as thick as a man’s arm, and Trixago Apula, Col., 6. versi- color, Lagurus ovatus, L., &c. clothe the more grassy places. In the interior of the wood occur many Helianthema, Coronilla juncea, L., Urospermum picroides, Desf., and frequently Hleoselinum fetidum, Boiss., which however was not yet in fruit. In the thick bush grows very rarely Lonicera implexa, Ait., and in the neighbourhood of the coast the beautiful Jris filifolia, Boiss., but also very sparingly. The numerous shallow lagoons which occur between the Albufera and the sea are filled with Charas and Potamogetons; these also cover the bottom of the Albufera, and Juncus acutus, L., the margin. The grassy sand-hills in front of the pine-wood are covered over and over with Cistus albidus, L., and C. salvifolius, L., while the bare sand- downs near the sea are overgrown with Asphodelus fistulosus, L., Euphorbias, and Passerina hirsuta, L. In the neighbourhood of the sea Ononis Natriz is pretty well scattered, and a silky-haired Lotus. In the Albufera also the Vallisneria spiralis presents itself, which Cavanilles, and, quite lately, Blanco have found here ; I however have 182 Botanical Notices from Spain. not met with it, although I have often taken a boat on the lake on purpose to look for it. No. II. Vauencra, end of May 1844. Sierra de Chiva. The Sierra de Chiva, so called from the market-town of Chiva, situated four leagues north of Valencia, like all the mountains of the kingdom of Valencia, belongs to the limestone formation, and indeed is chiefly composed of Muschelkalk. It consists of a number of parallel mountain ridges extending from west to east, which are divided by deep cross-valleys (in Spain called Barrancos) ; it is of very considerable breadth, and rises gradually to a height of 6000 feet from the great plain, which is bounded eastward by the Sierra de Murviedro, westward by the Sierra de Cullera and other moun- tains, and is traversed by the Rio Turia. This thinly inhabited, but very romantic mountain district was, it is said, in former times co- vered with dense pine-forests, of which remain only isolated trees of Pinus Halepensis, Mill., and another species of Conifer called by the people Pino Roveno, which however is said to be very rare (I have only seen one low shrub of it). At present the whole of this moun- tainous region is entirely bare, or only covered by a low underwood, which at different heights is composed of different species of plants. The highest peaks want even this, and especially on the north and east aspects, where the moist cliffs are clothed with grasses and her- baceous vegetables. ‘True meadows however are wholly absent here. The whole mountain tract is uncommonly dry ; even in the valleys we find a little brook but rarely ; although there is no want of springs on the declivities, their water wholly evaporates before it can reach the bottom of the valleys. The cause of this is, the very elevated tem- perature produced by the reflexion of the sun’s rays from the white limestone rocks which form the walls of the valleys. Hence the ve- getation in the valleys is far more scanty than on the slopes of the higher mountains ; and even where a brook runs through the valley, the banks are overspread with a broad deposit of sand and pebbles, devoid of vegetation, which makes its first appearance at the foot of the slope bordering the valley. From the investigations of the con- dition of vegetation which I was enabled to make during my fort- night’s sojourn in this mountain district, I am inclined to admit the five following regions in the Sierra de Chiva, which may perhaps be applicable to the other mountains of the province of Valencia; I will endeavour to describe their vegetation as briefly as possible. 1. Lower warm region, to a height of about 500 feet, characterized by the culture of Ceratonia Siliqua, L., and the presence of Agave americana, L., and Cactus Opuntia, L.—To this region belong the immediate environs of Chiva, Cheste and Bufol, as also the plains and outlets of the valleys at the foot of the Sierra. Besides the al- ready-mentioned St. John’s bread-tree, olive, fig, and mulberry trees are universally cultivated, also wheat, hemp, maize, and in hilly Botanical Notices from Spain. 183 places, vines. The streamlets coming from the Sierra and many other springs water this soil, in itself fertile (and, as may be conjectured from its general red colour, containing much oxide of iron), calling forth a tolerably rich vegetation, which however contains no rari- ties. The sandy places on the roads and under plantations are overspread with the splendid Convolvulus altheoides, L., which of itself is quite characteristic of this region; the vine-hills with An- chusa italica, L., Cynoglossum cheirifolium, L., Psoralea bituminosa, L., Gladiolus segetum, Gawl., Mercurialis tomentosa, L., Helianthema, Silenes, Salvie and Cichoracee. I observed here also a flesh-co- loured Orobanche, which however appears more abundant in the higher regions. Among the corn, Arthrolobium ebracteatum, DC., occurs plentifully in company with Scorpiurus vermiculata, L., Hy- pecoum procumbens, L., Papaver Rheas, L., and a Bupleurum. On shady, moist walls, Telephium Imperati, L., is not uncommon, with other Crassulacee, and Adiantum Capillus-Veneris, L., thrives every~ where in the crevices. Under luxuriant hedges of Rubus fruticosus, Rosa canina, Lonicera Caprifolium, Punica Granatum, L., Pistacia Lentiscus, L., Myrtus communis, &c., are found Vinca media, L., Hyoscyamus albus, L., Smilax aspera, L., and other plants, matted together with Rubiacee and Fumaria capreolata, and overgrown with Arundo Donax and Agave americana, which in many places had al- ready shot up a flower-stem from 6 to 8 feet high, I also found pretty abundantly in such shady hedges an Antirrhinum, which ap- pears to be different from A. majus and molle, since it has very slender, linear, channeled leaves, and a very long, almost twining stem; it must therefore be the variety angustifolium of molle, discovered by Boissier in Granada. The banks of the streamlets are densely co- vered with thick bushes of Myrtus communis, Nerium Oleander, Ficus Carica, L., &c.; while the hillocks are clothed with Chamerops hu- milis, L., Hrica arborea, L., Daphne Gnidium, L., Retama spherocarpa, Boiss., various dwarf oaks, Ulex australis, L., and Rosmarinus offici- nalis, L, 2. Upper warm region, from 500 to 2000 feet high, to the limit of Chamerops humilis.—Of cultivated plants, olives, wheat, and espe- cially the vine, are universally grown. To this region belong the calcareous uplands of the Sierra as well as the lower part of the mountains. The soil is far less fertile, mostly very dry (as there are few or no springs in this region), and clothed with low bushes, chiefly composed of Rosmarinus officinalis and Chamerops humilis, and under these Rhamnus lycioides, L., Juniperus Oxycedrus, L., Retama sphe- rocarpa, Boiss., Pistacia Terebinthus, L., Erica arborea, L., Linum Sruticosum, L., Cisti and Helianthema. Of herbaceous plants occur everywhere here, Stipa juncea, Ait., Macrochloa tenacissima, Kunth (not yet in flower), the above-mentioned Orobanche plentifully, Bi- scutella saratilis, Boiss., y. angustifolia (B. levigata, L., var.), a La- vandula, Linum, Leguminose and Crucifere. On some places (castle near Chiva, Barranco de Ballestero) I found Digitalis obscura, L., and on very sunny slopes under bushes Dictamaus Fravinella, Pers., Ruta montana, L., and a Passerina, but all three very sparingly ; while 184, Botanical Notices from Spain. in the valleys in moist shady spots Cerinthe major, L., many Lathyri, a Nigella, Bellis, &c. occur abundantly. 3. Lower mountain region, from about 2000 to 4000 feet high, to the limit of the cultivation of olives and wheat.—Only on the decli- vities of the mountains, in the vicinity of the here tolerably nume- rous springs, are tracts of cultivated land now found, belonging to retired country-houses ; all else is untilled mountain land. ‘To this region belong the upper part of all valleys, the lower peaks of the Sierra, and the wide, waste table-land that stretches between the mountain ridges. The ‘Monte bajo,’ as the so-often-described dwarf underwood is called in Spain, is here composed of pretty much the same plants as in the preceding region, except that here appear the first fir-bushes and shrubs of Juniperus phenicea, L. (here called Sabina), while Juniperus Oxycedrus, Pistacia Lentiscus, Retama sphe- rocarpa and Chamerops humilis are no longer to be met with. In this region occur not unfrequently shrubs of Fravinus excelsior, L., Arbutus Unedo, L., many oaks, especially a peculiar form of Quercus Ilex, Li. Many Labiate, the already-mentioned Lavandula with L. Spica, L., a golden-yellow Teucrium, Thymi, Marrubium sericeum, Boiss. ?, numerous Leguminosa, especially at a height of 3000 to 4000 feet, a blue-flowered prickly Astragalus, species of Ononis and Hip- pocrepis, also Convolvulus saxatilis, Vahl., Silenes, Centauree, and on the higher slopes Orchis mascula, L., and Asphodelus ramosus, L. (which here first began to flower), grow under and among these shrubs. In the neighbourhood of the springs, on damp declivities, occur also meadow-like grassy places, chiefly made up of dgilops triuncialis, L., and species of Medicago and Lotus, which however offer no remarkable vegetation. 4. Upper mountain region, from about 4000 to 5500 feet.—To this: are to be referred the higher peaks of the Sierra, as la Casoleta, el Cerro la Grana, Pico de Pascual, Monte de los Ajos, &c., which are void of all culture. Isolated firs, and a ‘ Monte bajo’ chiefly com- posed of Ulex australis and Juniperus phenicea, L., characterize this region, in which however solitary springs are still met with. Of herbaceous plants occur, particularly, a. Jasione (perhaps foliosa, Cavan. ?), an almost shrubby flesh-coloured Anthyllis, Iberis nana, All. ?; on the declivities Salvia officinalis, L., Orchis mascula, L., and an Ophrys ; and on very rocky places, a Bunium with tubers very deeply implanted in the crevices. About the springs I observed Nasturtium officinale, as it is chiefly in this region that many of our commonest plants appear, ex. gr. Malva sylvestris, Euphorbia Helio- scopia, Lamium amplexicaule, Capsella Bursa-pastoris, Papaver Arge- mone, &c. 5. Alpine region.—This includes in the Sierra de Chiva only the upper part of the highest mountain, called Monte de la Santa Maria. On the very steep and damp eastern slope of this mountain, I found of woody plants chiefly Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi, Adans., not yet in flower, and Taxus baccata, L., abundantly, more rarely a Cotoneaster. A proper ‘Monte bajo’ is wholly wanting here. A Saxifraga thrives in luxuriant tufts on the damp mould at the foot and in the Bibliographical Notices. 185 crevices of the limestone cliffs which encompass the summit, as also on the steep slopes, which were, besides, covered with Asphodelus ramosus, L., the before-mentioned Iberis and Anthyllis. Here too occurred, although but very few specimens, in the region of the Saxi- frages, a pretty Tulipa, which appears to be new, since it differs from 7. Celsiana, which it resembles in the colour of its flower, by “« foliis reflexis, flore nutante (nec erecto) et perigonii segmentis lanceo- latis (nec oblongo-lanceolatis),” setting aside the difference of ha- bitat, since 7’. Celsiana only presents itself in the warm region. Lastly, on the highest rocks of Sta Maria flourish Muscari botry- oides, and especially Armeria alliacea, W., in great abundance. The very small number of Cryptogamia, even in the mountain and alpine regions, is striking. The bark even of the older trees is ge- nerally quite bare, or at the most covered with a layer of Parmelia parietina ; the rocks also are for the greater part devoid of all Lichens. In the springs a Chara is found, yet no Alge, and of mosses and ferns, very few occur in the upper mountain and alpine region. Of ferns I have observed, on the rocks of Sta Maria, only Ceterach officinarum, Asplenium Trichomanes and A. fontanum; of mosses, besides some barren Hypna, only an Encalypta and Frullania hispanica, N. ab Es.; the latter indeed, like the liverworts of our mountains, in thick tufts. The cryptogamic flora is said to be more considerable in winter. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES. Die Kieselschaligen Bacillarien oder Diatomeen. Von Dr.F.T. Kiutzing: Nordhausen, 1844. Tab. 30. p. 152. Tux beauty and correctness of the plates in the ‘ Phycologia Ge- neralis,’ which we have already reviewed in our Journal, has excited the admiration of all who have noticed or consulted the work. Those of the present are equally deserving of praise, and maintain the re- putation of the author as an excellent draughtsman and accurate ob- server. A certain proportion of the figures are professedly copies, but wherever the author has been able to prepare the illustrations himself he has not failed to do so, and the instances to the contrary are not so numerous as to detract from the originality of the work. Dr. Kiitzing, to whose kindness we are indebted for our copy, has profited by all the materials which came within his notice, and if we mistake not also by the criticisms to which his former work was subjected; not indeed as regards the illustrations but in respect of its plan, and especially of his notions of genera and species. In the present instance the species are all defined, the principal syno- nyms noticed, and some details given under each generic head, in all which points the ‘ Phycologia’ was very deficient. It is we under- stand his intention to publish the Desmidiacee in a similar form, and we do not doubt that we shall find the same progressive improve- ment which we so gladly hail in the present instance. He will we know be most grateful to those who have studied this curious and 186 Bibliographical Notices. interesting group for the communication of any new or rare British species. We are also rejoiced to hear that he contemplates pre- paring a ‘ Phycologia Germanica,’ a work which cannot fail to prove most instructive. The points of interest which are presented by the minute objects, of which so many species are here illustrated, are surpassed perhaps in scarcely any order of created beings, and the results which have arisen from their study, which is but yet in its infancy, are as im- portant as unexpected. Not only is the question of their nature and affinity a very interesting one, and the variety and beauty of form most striking, but the study of these organized atoms bids fair to afford the geologist quite a new resource in his investigation of the comparative age or identity of strata. They exist in all climates, and in situations where neither other animals nor vegetables (to which- ever class we assign these beings) can exist. Above 120 species were discovered by Dr. Hooker in very high latitudes, and by sound- ings far beyond the limits of ordinary vegetable or animal forms, and many of these when sent to Dr. Ehrenberg after a long voyage were all but alive. Whole strata are formed of their siliceous skeletons, and it seems that sometimes they are propagated to a certain extent in subterranean strata at the present day. Authors have been much divided as to their nature, and while Dr. Ehrenberg doubts not they are animals, and believes that he has dis- covered within them a digestive apparatus and other organs such as exist in acknowledged infusoria, others, amongst the number of whom we must confess ourselves to be, as decidedly incline to consider them Algz, and as constituting a most important link in the series. This question, like others relating to the group generally, is well dis- cussed by Kiitzing, and we think it may be acceptable to our readers to offer them a translation of his remarks. The following arguments are brought forward by Ehrenberg in favour of their being animals :— 1. They have, in part, a peculiar spontaneous motion which is effected by particular organs. 2. Many have a lateral opening, reund which are seated globular bodies, which, like the ceca of Infusoria, become blue in an infusion of indigo in water, and must therefore be regarded as stomachs. 8. The shells of many Diatomee remind us by their structure and form of that of Gastropods and similar Mollusca. As regards the first it may be remarked, that spontaneous motion also takes place in lower vegetable forms, which likewise is effected by peculiar ciliary organs. Witness the observations of Unger on the spores of Vaucheria clavata, and those of Flotow on Hematococcus pluvialis*. And I may here mention my own in the ‘ Phycologia Generalis’ on Ulothrix zonata and other Algee, which show that in all these lower forms appearances of motion are exhibited, which can- not be distinguished from those which take place in the Infusoria. * To these may be added various observations of Thuret and Decaisne, not only in the lower Alge, but in the acrosperms of Fuci. Bibliographical Notices. 187 The animal nature then of Diatomee is not proved by such spon- taneous motion. As regards the so-called stomachs, I have before proved, that their coloration by indigo is possibly a mere mechanical effect, and that the assertion therefore that they are really stomachs is unauthorized, and the more especially as these parts are so often wanting. As to the third point, the shell has indeed in many cases a great similarity with that of Mollusca in form, structure and marking, but this is not constantly the case, and we find, in the higher families of plants, cells, which in marking, form and other points present simi- lar appearances. Witness the various forms of pollen, in which the angles, spines, openings, &c. are not wanting. In this respect, then, the approximation of Diatomee to different vegetable forms is as great as to that of animals. On the other hand, the following points speak for their vegetable nature :— 1. The great similarity of the compound forms to the Alge and their origination by division. There are indeed also compound Infusoria, for example compound monads and polypidoms ; but these are themselves questionable ani- mals, and there is in them this great difference, that the individual animal extends itself freely beyond its cell, while the Navicule in Eincyonema, Schizonema and Micromega and similar genera grow in the inner substance, and increase there as the cells of plants, and vegetate only as cells. And the individuals in Fragilaria, Melosira, Himantidium, &c. are as confined and unfit for the exhibition of ani- mal motion. 2. The internal soft organic parts, which I have indicated as go- nimic substance, possess, as well in their chemical comportment as in their mode of development, peculiarities which are identical with those of the contents of the cells in conferva-like Alge. This is especially shown in the genus Melosira and its allied ge- nera, which not only in the form but also in the chemical properties of their contents (through the presence of chlorophyll, which is in- deed present in all Diatomee) perfectly agree with Confervee. 3. The formation of seed or fruit takes place similarly in different Algee, never in true animals. 4. The Diatomee, and especially the free motile Navicule, deve- lope under the rays of the sun oxygen, like other decided plants. The evolution of oxygen is indeed remarked also in green monads and Euglena, yet this proves nothing in favour of the animal nature of Diatomee, but makes the real nature of those beings very doubtful, and the more so as late observations show the origination of lower vegetables from monads and Huglene. The weight of argument is we think certainly on the side of Dr, Kitzing, whatever may be thought of particular points, and the whole seems to show, as Dr. Kuitzing had already distinctly stated in a separate pamphlet, and as indeed was indicated in the ‘ Glean- ings of British Algee’ many years since, that there are beings in which vegetable and animal life are so intimately combined, that 188 Bibliographical Notices. . according as the animal or vegetable element is predominant, they can at one time exhibit an animal, at another a vegetable life, without altering their originally received form. In the genus Micromega the author has made some observations, which, if confirmed, are of very great importance, and more than any other point will tend to establish the true position of these beings in a natural system. He informs us that he has seen the navicule or frustules in this genus metamorphosed into green globular spores. An Alga was discovered by Dr. Dickie at Aberdeen, which was al- luded to before in this Journal, which seems to confirm these views ; but Mrs. Griffiths, than whom no one is able to form a better judge- ment, or whose opinion is entitled to greater weight, and Mr. Ralfs are inclined to think that the appearance is produced by parasites of the genus Cocconeis and similar productions. The point cannot therefore be received at present as established, though we ourselves are persuaded that Dr. Kiitzing’s views will be found correct. Our British coasts abound in species of Schizonema and Micro- mega, and we regret much that Dr. Kitzing had not the command of better materials as regards the British species. We fear that some communicated by Binder were not authentically named, and this is the more to be regretted, as far the greater part of the species de- scribed in Harvey’s ‘Manual’ are well understood by the author, and especially by Mrs. Griffiths, who has so largely contributed to the illustration of the genus. In this indeed our friend Dr. Kiitzing is not to be blamed, but the writer of the present remarks is rather inclined to reproach himself for not having, by some inadvertence, communicated specimens when it was in his power todo so, Our only reason for calling attention to the subject is to induce due cau- tion in the examination of this part of the work. We trust that it will receive the support it deserves, and we have little doubt that it will do so, as it is no less indispensable to the geologist than to the botanist. The Botany of the Voyage of H.M.S. Sulphur. Edited by R. B. Hinds, Esq. ‘The Botanical descriptions by G. Bentham, Esq. Nos. 2, 3, 4. We have already noticed the first number of this valuable work, of which three additional numbers have recently reached us. The ex- pectations which were raised by an examination of that number are fully answered by these. Indeed it seems to us that the plates have improved in the successive numbers. The description of the plants of California is concluded, and the remaining portion is occupied with those of Western Tropical America. Several new genera are described and very many new species. It is quite unnecessary to add that these descriptions possess great ex- cellence ; the name of Bentham is a sufficient security on that point. Such books as that now before us are the strongest proof of the value of the assistance of late afforded by Government for the publi- cation of the results in natural science obtained by officers on board Bibliographical Notices. 189 of Her Majesty’s ships; and the general approbation of the scientific world will we hope cause similar applications of small portions of the public money in future. Alge Hibernice. By Wm. M°Calla, Associate of the Edinburgh Botanical Society. Vol. I. Dublin, S. B. Oldham, 8 Suffolk Street, 1845. Under this title Mr. M‘Calla has just published a very handsome volume in large-sized quarto, price 1/., containing beautifully pre- served specimens of fifty different species of Irish Alge ; and pro- poses in future similar volumes to edit the remainder of our species, as well freshwater as marine. The volume is bound in strong boards covered with purple grained cloth, and the specimens are fixed on peculiarly stout and thick paper, so that they may be turned over with great facility and without danger of injury. ‘Those in the pre- sent volume have been collected chiefly in Roundstone Bay, county Galway, a locality well known to science by Mr. M°Calla’s very numerous zoological and botanical discoveries, and are as follows :— 1. Griffithsia multifida, 4g. 26. Ulva bullosa, Roth. 2. corallina, 4g. 27. Conferva rectangularis, G. 3. Callithamnion plumula, Lyngb. 28. Hutchinsiz, Dil. 4. pedicellatum, dg. 29 Kaneana, M°C. 5. —— Hookeri, 4g. 30. Fucus balticus, 49. 6. corymbosum, 49. 31 Mackaii, Zurn. 7 — tetragonum, 49. 32. Gigartina Griffithsie. 8, ——- Arbuscula, 49. 33. Lyngbya majuscula, Harv. 9, ——_—_—_——. Daviesii, 4g. — 34. Schizonema quadripunctatum. 10. polyspermum, 4g. 35. Chylocladia clavellosa, Hook. 11. byssoides, Arn, 36. Rhodomenia bifida, Grev. 12. Delesseria ruscifolia, Lex. 37. Porphyra vulgaris, 4g. 13. ————. Hypoglossum, Lz. 38. Ralfsia deusta, Grev. 14. Berkeleya fragilis, Grev. 39. Haliseris polypodioides, 4g. 15. Cheetophora tuberculosa, Hook. 40. Helminthocladia virescens. 16. Gloiosiphonia capillaris, Carm. 41. Griffithsiana. 17. Nitophyllum punctatum, Grev. 42. Rivularia nitida, 4g. 18. Striaria attenuata, Grev. 43. Ceramium 2 19. Batrachospermum atrum, /7. 44, Polysiphonia byssoides, Gr. 20. moniliforme, 4g. 45. —————— violacea, Grev. 21. vagum, 4g. 46. Bryopsis hypnoides, Za. 22. Dasya Arbuscula, 4g. 47. Sporochnus rhizodes, 4g. 23. Mesogloia multifida, 4g. 48, Laurencia obtusa, Le. 24. Gelidium corneum, Le. 49. Enteromorpha intestinalis, Lf, 25. Ulva crispa, Lightf. 50. Bangia fuscopurpurea. Several in this list are of great rarity, and others very local. Among the first we may mention Gloiosiphonia capillaris (of which Mr. M°Calla’s specimens are the finest we have ever seen), Striaria attenuata, Batrachospermum atrum, Conferva rectangularis, Haliseris polypodioides, Helminthocladia Griffithsiana and Bryopsis hypnoides (very fine); and among the latter, Callithamnion pedicellatum, C. Ar- buscula, Berkeleya fragilis, Dasya Arbuscula, Conferva Hutchinsie, Fucus balticus and Fucus Mackaii. Besides these rarities there is one entirely new species, Conferva Kaneana, M°C., a delicately beau- 190 Linnean Society. tiful plant resembling in many respects Conf. gracilis, Griff., but much more slender, and indeed nearly as soft and fine as an Ecto- carpus. This is dedicated to Mrs. Kane, lady of Professor Kane, who was present at its discovery, and who some years ago published an Irish Flora. Much praise is due to Mr. M°Calla for the zeal and ability with which he has explored the west coast, and the creditable manner in which he has edited the present work. His future volumes will, we doubt not, contain an equal number of interesting plants. He pro- poses, we understand, shortly to visit our northern shores, so famous for the magnificent growth of Floridee, and his second volume will be ornamented with the finest of these. We heartily wish him the success which so praiseworthy an undertaking deserves. Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis, editore et pro parte auctore Alph. DeCandolle. Vol. ix. Paris, 1845. We have just received the new volume of this valuable work, which is far too well known to require any praise from us. The orders Loganacee, Gentianee, Bignoniacee, Cyrtandracee, Polemoniacee, Con- volvulacee, part of Boraginee, and a few lesser orders are included in this volume. A considerable portion is from the pen of the elder DeCandolle, and is illustrated by notes from his son’s hand ; the re- mainder consists of the labours of well-known botanists, each upon that order with which he is best acquainted. The additional observa- tions appended to the specific character of each species seem to be rather fuller than in former volumes. It is stated that vol. x. is in the press. - Works just PusiisHeEp. Descriptions of the Grasses of Britain, illustrated by 210 Figures drawn and engraved by the author, Richard Parnell, M.D., F.R.S.E. The work contains a figure and description of every grass found in Britain, with their agricultural uses, &c. Cornish Fauna, being a Compendium of ‘the Natural History of the County. Part 3: Zoophytes and Calcareous Corallines. By R.Q. Couch, M.R.C.S.L. PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES. LINNZZAN SOCIETY. June 18,1844.—The Lord Bishop of Norwich, President, in the Chair. Read the conclusion of Mr. Griffith’s memoir ‘‘ On the Root- Parasites referred by authors to Rhizanthee, and their Allies.” This extensive memoir, or series of memoirs, commences with « An Attempt to analyse Rhizanthee,” as established by Prof. End- licher and by Prof. Lindley, from which the author deduces the in- ference, “ that in the construction of the group called Rhizanthee, a Linnean Society. 191 remarkable diversity of characters has been sacrificed to an appear- ance resulting from parasitism on roots, and to an assumed absence of any ordinary form of vegetable embryo.”’ In arriving at this conclusion, his line of argument is summed up as having especial reference to the three following points: ‘“ In the first place,” he says, ‘‘ I have endeavoured to extend the objections urged by Mr. Robert Brown, founded on the presence of a vascular system, and the absence of any abstract peculiarity in the embryos of these plants. I have also attempted to show that these plants are not similar in their parasitism, and that even in those which I have examined, there would appear to be two remarkably different types of development of the embryo. Secondly, I have alluded to the op- position presented, as it seems to me, by Rhizanthee to the system of Nature, a chief point of the plan of which seems to me to consist in an extensive interchange of characters, either positively by structure or negatively by imitation of structure. Thirdly, I have adverted to a want of uniformity in opinion of the founders regarding its rank or value, incompatible, as it appears to me, with any group of the system of Nature. And in conclusion, I beg to add that my impres- sion is that Rhizanthee are an entirely artificial group, not even sanctioned by practical facility, which is the only merit of an arti- ficial association, and that its adoption is a retrograde step in the course of philosophical botany.” To the family of Rafflesiacee, Mr. Griffith adds a new genus with the following characters :— . SAPRIA. Cuar. Gen.—Jlores dioici. Perianthium duplici serie 5-partitum, esti- vatione imbricativum; faux corona foraté clausa; tubus intts 20-cari- natus. Mas: Anthere 20, uniseriatim infra caput columne fungiforme verticillate, discretee, 2—3-loculares, apice porose. Ovarii cavitas nulla. em: Anthere castrate. Ovarium 1-loculare ; placente inde- finite, parietales; ovula indefinita. Columne apex fungoideo-dilatatus (e medio conum verrucosum exserens, disco piloso). Fructus Planta parasitica, habitu Rafflesie. Flos magnus, carnis colore, odore putrido. Sarria HiMALAYANA. Hab. in Jugi Himalayani Montibus Mishmee Assamiz Superioris ad lat. Bor. 27° 50, long. Orient. 96° 27!, altit. pedes 3000—5000. The description of this plant is accompanied by observations on its mode of parasitism, on its vascular structure, on the plicz of the inside of the tube of the perianthium (which the author suggests may perhaps be considered to represent a second series of stamina), on the inner membrane of the cells of the anthers, on the obstacles to independent impregnation, and on the natural relations of the ge- nus, and the characters by which it differs from Rafflesia and Brug- mansia, between which Mr. Griffith places it. Mr. Griffith next proceeds to offer some observations on Cytinee, and on the genera Hydnora and Cytinus. He believes that the dif- ference in the direction of the nuclei of the ovula in Cytinee and 192 Linnean Society. Rafflesiacee may perhaps be of some use in discriminating them ; but thinks it necessary to observe that in Nepenthes distillatoria of the Calcutta Botanic Garden, the most marked instances of ovula ana- tropa and antitropa are to be met with in the ovaria at their mature state, to which circumstance he attributes the discrepancies in the accounts of the direction of the radicle of the ripe seed of that genus. His observations on Hydnora were made on specimens of H. africana both in the dry state and in pyroligneous acid sent to him by Mr. Harvey from the Cape of Good Hope. He regards the anthers as indefinite, and describes the stigma as ‘‘ discoideum, trilobum, e la- mellis plurimis in placentas totidem pendulas undique ovuliferas pro- ductis,” a structure which, if correctly determined, appears to him to present another objection to the placentary hypothesis of M. Schleiden. He also notices the apparent opposition of the lobes of the stigma to the lobes of the staminal column. In regard to the composition of the pistillum he hesitates between regarding it as highly compound and analogous to Papaver and Nymphea, the space between each lamella corresponding with a carpellary leaf, and each jamella itself being compound, or considering it as made up of only three parts, to which latter opinion his own observations and those of Mr. Harvey would lead. Mr. Griffith’s observations on Cytinus are derived from specimens of C. divicus, Juss., also sent to him from the Cape of Good Hope by Mr. Harvey. He follows Jussieu and Endlicher in referring the Cape species to the genus Cytinus. He regards the terminal teeth or lobes of the staminal column as productions of the connectivum, and not as rudiments of stigmata; and believes the anthers to be unilocular. To his remarks on Cytinee@ Mr. Grithth appends an account of two Asarineous plants, natives of Malacca, Thottea, Rottb., and Asiphonia. To the description of the former of these given by Rottboll from Keenig’s MSS. he adds several particulars. Of the latter, discovered by himself, he gives the following generic character :— ASIPHONIA. Perianthium eequale, rotatum, tripartitum, tubo nullo. Stamina 8—10, uniseriata; filamentis nullis. Stigma discoideum, sinuoso-lobatum. Pericarpium siliqueforme, 4-loculare, 4-valve, polyspermum. Semina trigona, rugoso-papillosa. Frutex subscandens, facie Piperis fruticose cujusdam ; articulis tumidis. Folia venatione melastomaceo-piperoided. Corymbus terminalis ; spicis paucifloris ; floribus surstm secundis bibracteolatis. ASIPHONIA PIPERIFORMIS. Hab. in Provincia Malacca, ad margines sylvarum primevarum, copiosé versus Ayer Punnus Rhim. Mr. Griffith points out the near relationship of this genus to Bra- gantia,.Lour., from which it is chiefly distinguished by the absence of any tube to the perianthium, its cordate sessile anthers, and dis- coid sinuate stigma. He suggests, however, that it may possibly be Linnean Society. 193 regarded as only a subordinate modification of that genus, and gives an arrangement of the known species in conformity with that view. In connexion with these genera Mr. Griffith gives his views of the nature and composition of the stigma, which are essentially similar to those published by Mr. Brown in the second part of Dr. Horsfield’s ‘Plante Javanice Rariores,’ to which work Mr. Griffith refers in a note stating that he did not become acquainted with it till several months after his own observations were written. He defines the stigma to be ‘ the external communication of the conducting tissue, which itself communicates with the placentz, and is in several cases at least (as in Trewia nudiflora) manifestly a continuation from them.” Of its theoretical origin he desires to speak with caution, but notices two distinct cases of monstrosities affecting two Leguminous plants, in which the stigmatic surface is evidently a continuation of the pla- cental margins of the carpellum. ‘The ordinary relations may, he thinks, be obscured by several causes ; such as separation of parts usually cohering, cohesion of parts usually distinct, division of the stigmatic part of the style, and division of the style of the simple carpellum. The stigmata of each carpellum may be distinct from each other or from those of the next carpellum; or adhesion may take place between stigmatic surfaces ordinarily distinct, whereby the stigmata so resulting appear to alternate with the styles. In- stances of the former occur in Euhalus ; of the latter in Orobanche, if the author’s observations are correct, in Papaveracee, and perhaps in all cases in which the stigmata, being apparently equal in number to the placentz, are said to be opposite to them. The succeeding portion of Mr. Griffith’s memoir relates to Mystro- petalon, Harv., referred by Sir Wm. J. Hooker to the order Rhizan- thee, group Balanophoree. Mr. Griffith, on the contrary, who de- scribes the Mystropetalon Thomiit from specimens obtained from Mr. Harvey, regards it as a plant su ordinis, having no relation to any other plant admitted into Rhizanthee except Cynomorium, to which it seems to him to present considerable resemblance in the structure of the stamen and of the female flower. It also offers, he thinks, curious agreements with Loranthacee, and he would at present con- sider it (doubtfully) as the homogeneous-embryo form of that order which he takes to include Proteacee, Santalacee, &c., and which nearly agrees with Prof. Lindley’s alliance Tubifere. Sarcophyte also is described from specimens transmitted by Mr. Harvey. Mr. Griffith regards its affinities as very obscure ; he ob- jects to its being placed either in Cytinee, Cynomoriacee, or Bala- nophoree, and suggests that on the whole the general tendency of the plant is towards Urticee. Mr. Griffith next examines the family of Balanophoree, and gives distinctive characters of Balanophora, Langsdorffia, Pheocordylis, Helosis and Scybalium. The following are the characters which he assigns to Balanophora and Pheocordylis :— Batanopuora, Forst. Sexus diclines, rarissimé monoclines. Flores masculi bracteati. Perian- Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Vol. xv. r 194 Linnean Society. thium 3—5-sepalum, eestivatione yalvatum. Stamina totidem opposita, monadelpha, bilocularia (in unica specie multilocularia), lores foemi- nei: Ovaria stipitata, receptaculis apice incrassato-glandulosis affixa, nuda, Stylus setaceus, persistens. Stigma inconspicuum, fructus pistilliformes, sicci. Puxocorpy.is, Griff. Seaus diclines. lores masculi ignoti. Flores feeminei: Ovaria in axi sessilia, nuda, pilis paraphysiformibus immixta. Stylus filiformis, ex-- sertus, deciduus. Stigma subcapitatum. Fructus compressi (striati) apice subpapillosi. Of Balanophora he describes as new five species with the follow- ing characters :— B. BuRMANNIcA, squamis laxé imbricatis, bracteis truncatis pariim cana- liculatis, perianthio masculo extis carneo demiim sanguineo, columna staminum elongata, antherarum locellis basi discretis. Hab. in Regno Burmannico, ad fl, Salueen, B. arrinis, squamis et bracteis precedentis, floribus (masculis) pallidis, columna staminum brevi subrotunda, locellis antherarum basi conflu- entibus. ffab. in Collibus Khasiyanis, Preecedenti minor; an yeré distincta ? B. aALVEOLATA, squamis arcté imbricatis, bracteis profundé canaliculatis inter se favi instar dispositis, columna staminum subrotunda, B. dioica, R. Br. in Royle, Illustr. p, 330. t, 99? Hab. in Collibus Khasiyanis. B. picta, squamis distantibus laxis (Iuteis), spicd foemined obscuré san- guinea. Hab. in Montibus Mishmee jugi Himalayani. Bb. (PotypLetia) PoLyANDRA, columna staminea brevi lata, antheris inde- finitis 1-locularibus. Hab. in Collibus Khasiyanis. With reference to these species Mr, Griffith enters at considerable length into their anatomical and external structure, and in the course of his observations directs attention to the resemblance of the pistilla to the pistilla of Musci, and more especially to those of some evaginu- late Hepatice, and to the effects produced by the action of the pollen on the styles. ‘‘ Indeed,” he observes, ‘‘ in the development of the female organ, the continuous surface of the style before fecundation, and its obvious perforation after, Balanophora presents a direct affi- nity to a group of plants, with which otherwise it has not a single analogy.’ On this ground he objects to the association of Balano- phoree with such highly developed families as Rafflesiacee and Cy- tinee. ‘As a mere hypothesis,” he adds, ‘‘I would consider it as the homogeneous-embryo form of Urticine, forming a direct passage in one, and usually the more perfect, structure to Musci and Hepa- lice,” Of Pheocordylis (a name used by him to prevent confusion, as he has not sufficient knowledge of Dr. Wallich’s plant to determine whether his genus is the same as that doubtfully proposed in Dr. Wallich’s list under the name of Sarcocordylis) he describes and Linnean Society. 195 figures a single species, Pheocordylis areolatus, collected in the Kha- siya Hills. He compares its structure with that of Balanophora, no- tices several curious peculiarities, and adverts to the structure of the hairs in which the fruits are imbedded as presenting a remarkable analogy with the paraphysiform appendages of Drepanophyllum and certain Neckere, and also with the bodies which he suspects to be the male organs of Ferns. Lastly, Mr. Griffith adds the description of a new genus which he dedicates to the memory of Mr. Thomas Smith, referred to by Mr. Brown in terms of high commendation in his remarks on Kingia. This genus is characterized as follows under the anagrammatized name of THISMIA. Cuar. Gen.—Perianthium superum, campanulatum (caducum), 6-parti- tum ; laciniis 3 exterioribus (brevibus) oblongis, 3 alternis interioribus (longissimis) subulatis ; fauce annulo semiclausd. Stamina 6, fauci in- serta, perianthii laciniis opposita, deflexa insuper parietem tubi inter- num ; filamenta brevia, discreta; antheree (maxime) secus margines connate, membrana bilamellosa terminate, biloculares, loculis parvis distantibus adnatis. Ovyarium inferum, 1-loculare; placente 3 parie- tales, supra medium ovuligerze; ovula indefinita, anatropa. Stylus brevis. Stigmata 3 bifida. Fructus carnosus, truncato-turbinatus, apice pericarpii cireumscisso dehiscens, 1-locularis. Semina indefinita, pla- centis 3 parietalibus demim liberis affixa. ZEmbryo indivisus, homo- geneus. ue ees Planta pusilla, aphylla, radicum parasitica, aspectu cereaceo. Perianthium luteum, coccineo pictum. TuisM1A BRUNONIS, Hab. ad pedes Bambusarum in humo ligno semiputrido farcto prope Palar Ore Tenasserim, ad grad. lat. bor. 12° 50’, long. orient. 98° 20/.—~ Flor. et fruct. lect. Mense Octobris, 1834, Some observations follow on the mode of venation of the perian- thium, on the dehiscence of the fruit, and on the position of the plant in the natural system, which the author regards as intermediate be- tween Taccee and Burmanniacee. Ue adds that he is disposed to consider it as a Monocotyledonous form of the albuminiform homo- geneous embryo, and as the analogue of Rafflesiacee and Cytinee of Dicotyledons. Associated with Thismia grew a species of Salomonia and a species of Burmannia, both having the ordinary appearance of plants para- sitic on roots. ‘The former is characterized as : SALOMONIA APHYLLA, parasitica, floribus pentandris, The paper was accompanied and illustrated by an extensive series of coloured drawings. November 5.—E. Forster, Esq., V.P., in the Chair, Joshua Clarke, Esq., presented specimens of Galium Vaillantii, DeC.,, gathered by himself at Saffron Walden, in the county of Essex. James Backhouse, jun., Esq., and G, S. Gibson, Esq., presented specimens of Spergula stricta, Swartz, from Widdy y's Teesdale, 2 196 Linnean Society. Yorkshire, and of Hquisetum Drummondii, Hook., from Winch Bridge, Teesdale ; both species gathered for the first time in England. William Borrer, Esq., F.L.S., presented specimens of Leersia ory- zoides, Sw., discovered by himself in Sept. 1844, fringing the ditches in Henfield Level, Sussex. Read, a memoir ‘‘ On the Medusa proboscidalis of Forskahl.”’ By Prof. Edward Forbes, F.L.S. &c. The author met with this Medusa on the coast of Asia Minor, and ‘communicates the result of his examination of its form and structure. The umbrella of the specimen described measured two inches and three quarters in diameter, and was perfectly hemispherical and trans- parent. ‘The margin had a pink border, from which sprung at regular intervals six very long extensile tentacula, at the base of each of which is a minute ocellus. Opposite and above the origin of each of these tentacula, and on the inner surface of the bell, is a phylli- form space, of a different tissue from the rest of the umbrella: these have hitherto been described as stomachs, but are in reality the ova- ries; through the centre of each runs a narrow canal, and between each in the interspace are seven lanceolate, truncate markings. From the centre of the inferior surface springs a proboscis or peduncle, four inches in length, down which the gastric vessels run; this pe- duncle is marked by six longitudinal bands of pinkish contractile tissue ; at its extremity it bears a hollow bell-shaped body, bordered by six triangular lips: the cavity of this is the true stomach; the gastric vessels spring from it, and go to open into a circular vessel surrounding the margin of the umbrella. The author’s observations, demonstrating the true position of the stomach and reproductive organs in this animal, do away with the anomalous definition formerly given of the genus Geryonia, to which it belongs, and require the substitution of a new generic character, which may be expressed as follows :— Grryonra, Eschscholiz. Umbrella hemispherica: ovaria plura phylliformia in circuitu disci: cirrhi marginales distantes: ocelli nudi: pedunculus elongatus, pyra- midatus, ventriculum parvum in extremitate gerens; ore lobato, fim- briato. Type, Geryonia proboscidalis. November 19.—R. Brown, Esq., V.P., in the Chair. Read a Note by William Griffith, Esq., F.L.S. &c., to his paper «On the Ovulum of Santalum, Osyris, Loranthus, and Viscum,” printed in the last Part of the Society’s ‘Transactions. In this note Mr. Griffith states, that ‘“‘ having had opportunities, after my revised examination of Santalum album, of examining a Malacca species of Osyris (belonging to a section characterized by a quinary number of parts of the flower, a less tendency to separation of the sexes, and habit), I find full grounds for believing that the mode of development of the ovulum of Osyris napalensis is altogether like that of Santalum album, the only difference being the unim- Linnean Society, 197 portant one of the short anterior prolongation of the embryo-sac outside the nucleus. The minuteness of the ovulum, and the rapidity with which the anterior exserted part above the septum becomes filled with albuminous tissue, during which the proper membrane of this part of the sac becomes incorporated with the albuminous tissue, must be my apologies for this additicnal and very important error. ‘“‘[ may take this opportunity of stating, that this Malacca Osyris, deducting the great minuteness of the ovulum, has given me as good evidence as Santalum in my opinion has, of the non-existence of any cell or body of or in the embryo-sac, from which the embryo is de- rived, independent of the pollen-tube. ‘The vesicle from which the embryo is to be derived does not appear to exist before the applica- tion of the pollen-tubes to the sac, it being in fact, so far as my means of observation enable me to go, the anterior extremity of the pollen-tube itself.” Read also a paper ‘‘ On the Development of the Ovulum in Avi- cennia,’ by William Griffith, Esq., F.L.S. &c., containing a more detailed description of the process than the note referred to in the ‘Annals,’ vol. xii. p. 209. Mr. Griffith states that Avicennia has, like Santalum and Osyris, a free central placenta with pendulous ovula; the same posterior elongation takes place in the embryo-sac ; and the embryo is, at least when matured, external to the nucleus or body of the ovulum. The ovula of Avicennia appear to be nucleary; their central tissue first becomes denser than the rest, and in this denser tissue, at a period antecedent to fecundation, is found the embryo-sac, having usually an enlarged apex or head and a subcylindrical body. Subsequent to the application of the pollen- tubes to the apex of the sac, and the formation of cellular tissue, the head of the embryo-sac acquires a short prolongation posteriorly in the direction of the axis of the ovu- lum, and its subcylindrical body is also prolonged posteriorly within the inner side of the same organ. While the albuminous tissue in the head of the sac increases in bulk, and.the rudiment of the future embryo is developing, the head enlarges and passes out of the apex of the ovulum, and the prolongation of the subcylindrical body con- tinues to increase in length. At a subsequent period there is formed on the anterior surface of the albuminous mass, now become external to the ovulum, a curved furrow or groove, corresponding with the points of the cotyledons of the young embryo; and the posterior prolongation of the body of the sac passes backwards into the pla- centa, within which it is divided in a digitate irregular manner. In the next stage the points of the cotyledons protrude through the groove, and as the embryo increases in size they become more and more exposed, the part of the albumen situated between the inner cotyledon and the body of the ovulum. becoming at the same time enlarged and flattened, and increasing in length equally with the cotyledons themselves. In the mature embryo the radicle alone re- mains imbedded in the albuminous tissue, the cotyledons being quite naked. 198 Linnean Society. “Tt is curious,” Mr. Griffith observes, ‘‘ that this prolongation [of the etmbryo-sac] has only been observed in association with a particular form of the free central placenta. So far as I know,” he adds, “it is the only instance of ati embryo-sac prolonged posteriorly, it may be said, from two poiiits of its surface.” And further: “In all the really analogous instaiices in which the albumen is exterior to the ovulum, it is always exterior, that part of the embryo-sac in which it is developed being protruded long before any albuminous tissue has been developed*.” : In conclusion, Mf. Griffith refers to the observations of Mr. Brown of the ovula of Avicennia in the ‘ Prodromus Flore Nove Hollandiz,’ and in Dr. Wallich’s ‘ Plante Asiatic Rariores,’ and states that the most important difference between this last account and that which he has given is, that he finds the embryo only to be erect. ‘«« The embryo, in its earlier stages of development, undergoes a degree of change of direction, but only sufficient to enable it to pass up out- side the ovulum in the same direction it would have maintained had it been ordinarily developed.” The paper was illustrated by a series of coloured drawings. December 8.—E. Forster, Esq., V.P., in the Chair. Read, some ‘‘ Remarks on Vegetable Physiology.” By Mr. James Main, A.L.S. Mr. Main’s object in the present paper appears to be the reproduc- tion before the Society of the leading ideas on vegetable growth con- tained in his ‘Illustrations of Vegetable Physiology,’ published in 1833, and to state his objections to some received theories on that important subject. He denies the descent of the sap, and asks, ‘‘ Who has met with sapless branches in winter, or surcharged roots at the same season?” He states that ‘the spring movement of the sap * Ina Memoir by M. Planchon, published at Montpellier, 1844, “ Sur les développements et les caractéres des vrais et des faux arilles, suivi de con- sidérations sur les ovules de quelques Véroniques et de |’ Avicennia,”’ it is shown that in two species of Veronica fr . hederefolia and V. Cymbalaria) (and consequently in plants with the ordinary form of placenta) the nucleary ovula are furnished with embryo-sacs, acquiring during the progress of their growth two tubular prolongations, one from neat each extremity, the upper of which passes into the placenta, and there becomes digitately divided. In these plants also the albuminigerous portion of the embryo-sac becomes, during the progress of its development, external to the nucleus. In other species of the same genus (Ver. agrestis and V. arvensis) the ovula are equally reduced to a nucleary form; but the embryo-sac is much less de- veloped at its extremities, and a tegument derived from the nucleus con- tinues to enclose it 4 to the complete maturity of the sced. Comparing these observations on Veronica with the description given in 1818 by M. A. de St. Hilaire of the development of the ovulum of Avicennia, M. Planchon comes to the conclusion, that “11 devient impossible de ne pas considérer, avec Brown, comme l’ovule lui-méme le corps oblong pris [par M, A. de St. Hilaire] pour un cordon ombilical, et de ne pas voir dans le tubercule arrondi qui sort de la fente du corps oblong, un sac embryonnaire analogue a celui de fa Véronique, et destiné, comme ce dernier, & accomplir, hors du nucelle, toutes ses évolutions.”—SeEcr. Zoological Society. 199 begins (and necessarily must begin) at the top of the tree, and its fluxion is generated gradually downwards until the whole is in mo- tion.” It is by means of this descending fluidity, and not by any descent of the sap itself, that he explains the callosities or swellings observed above a ligature, on the upper edge of a wound, and in various other circumstances. Instead of attributing the formation of the tissues of the plant to the organizable property of the elaborated sap, he believes that the membranes and every other organic part or constituent of the plant have rudimental existence and identity before development. He regards the cambium as the seat of vegetable life and the origin of all vegetable growth. From this living body (which he calls the indusium or vital membrane) he believes that the axis of wood is annually enlarged in diameter, and the bark is thickened ; from this, and this only, buds and roots are produced; and wounds are healed by its gradual extension. ‘The paper concludes by a eas to the opinions of Bonnet, DeCandolle, Mirbel, and Du- trochet. ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY. July 9, 1844.—William Horton Lloyd, Esq., in the Chair. ‘«« Descriptions of new species of Tritons, collected chiefly by H. Cuming, Esq. in the Philippine Islands,” by Lovell Reeve, Esq. Triton GALLINAGO. Tit. testd abbreviato-claveformi, varicibus duobus, rotundis, solidis ; spird breviusculd, acuminatd ; anfracti- bus superne angulatis, tuberculorum serie unicd ad angulum armatis, tuberculis peculiariter plano-vellicatis, aculis, anfractds ultimi valde irregularibus ; anfractibus infra costatis, costis crenulatis, sub tuberculis fleruos? nodulosis, costarum interstitiis elevato- striatis ; alba, varicibus aurantio-fusco vivide tinctis ; columelld rugoso-plicatd, aperture fauce albd, labro intus fortiter denticu- lato ; canali subelongato, ascendente. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 2. f. 5. Hab. Cagayan, province of Misamis, island of Mindanao, Philip- pines (found in sandy mud at the depth of twenty fathoms) ; pra % The ribs of this delicate species are noduled, and more strongly developed on the varices than on the body of the shell; and the cen- tral dorsal tubercle of the last whorl is unusually prominent, with all the appearance of a double tubercle. The canal is much shorter than that of most of the club-shaped Tritons, and is particularly curved or bent upwards. Triton Ranevuoiwes. Trit. iestd Ranelleformi, vuricibus decem nodiferis ; spird elevatd; anfractibus, superficie totd subtilissime reticulaid, supern? depressis, infra nodis grandibus biseriatim, an- fractu ultimo triseriatim, cinctis, nodis inferioribus minoribus ; luteo-albidd, fuscescente varid, teniis subtilissimis fuscescente alboque articulatis, lineis fuscis fortioribus inter nodos, cinotd ; columelld maculd purpured albirugosd superne? tinctd ; aperture fauce albd, labro intus leviter denticulato ; canali brevissimo. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 3. f. 10. 200 Zoological Society. Hab. Matnog, province of Albay, island of Luzon, Philippines (found on the reefs) ; Cuming. Partaking as this shell does in almost equal proportion of the characters of both Triton and Ranedla, it has been a matter of some difficulty to decide to which of the two genera it might with the greater propriety be referred. Triton exiiis. Trit. testd claveformi, varice unico parvo; spird breviusculd ; anfractibus superné angulatis, inferne coarctatis, transversim subirregulariter costatis, costis liris parvis longitudi- nalibus decussatis, tuberculatis, tuberculis grandibus, prominenti- bus, subcompressis ; albd, aurantio-fusco sparsim tincta ; columelld plicatd, plicis superioribus valde majoribus, aperture fauce albd, labro intus rugoso-denticulato ; canali longissimo, superne peculi- ariter contorto. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 4. f. 11. Hab. San Nicolas, island of Zebu, Philippines (found in sandy mud at the depth of ten fathoms) ; Cuming. This highly interesting species has been erroneously published by Mr. Sowerby in his ‘ Genera of Shells,’ and by myself in my ‘ Con- chologia Systematica,’ vol. ii. plate 243. fig. 3, for the Triton clavator, and demonstrates how necessary is the examination of an entire genus by comparison for the proper discrimination of the species. No question as to thé specific difference of these two shells could however be urged, for they vary materially both in form and detail of sculpture. The Triton clavator is comparatively full and ventri- cose, with the upper ribs only moderately tubercled; the Triton ex- ilis is small, peculiarly contracted round the lower part, with the tubercles very prominently developed entirely across the whorls: in the former species there is a varix on the penultimate whorl as well as upon the last whorl; in the latter species, as in the Triton cana- liferus, there is no varix upon the penultimate whorl; lastly, the mouth of the former species is either yellowish or yellowish scarlet, whilst that of the latter exhibits not the slightest indication of colour, and the stains of orange-brown with which it is marked externally are of a character not to be misunderstood. Triton Preirrerianus. Tvrit. testd fusiformi, varicibus- septem prominentibus, acutangularibus ; spird elatd ; anfractibus subirre- gulariter convolutis, conveais, superne plano- depressis, leviter canaliculatis, transversim costulatis, costulis irregularibus, nunc angustis, nunc latioribus, striis elevatis longitudinalibus noduloso- decussatis, anfractuum parte mediand nodosd, nodis distantibus, longitudinaliter subplicatis ; fuscescente, fusco pallide varid ; colu- melld rugulosd, labro intus rugoso-denticulato ; canali subelongato. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 4. f. 14. Reeve, rib Zool. Soc., 1844. Hab. This species may probably be recognised as one of not uncommon occurrence, though not hitherto described; its leading features are the rude manner in which one whorl is deposited on the other, the Zoological Society. 201 prominent sharp-angled structure of the varices, and the delicate granulated sculpture of the ribs where they are crossed by the raised strie ; and its general appearance is altogether peculiar. I take the liberty of dedicating this characteristic species to Dr. Pfeiffer of Cassel, Germany, on account of the diligence that gentle- man has exercised in arranging the synonyms of the genera Triton and Ranella in his ‘‘ Memoir of the genus Tritonium,” Revue Zoolo- gique de la Société Cuviérienne. Triron Sauuix. Trit. testd elongato-conicd, tubeformi, paululim contortd, basim versus subangulato-atienuatd, varicibus novem decemve plano-depressis ; spird acuminata ; anfractibus subangu- latis, nodorum prominentium seriebus duabus infra angulum arma- tis, subtilissime liratis, liris apicem versus minutissime crenulatis ; albido aut lutescente, rubido-fusco variegatd et maculatd ; epider- mide tenui; columelld levi, obsolete plicatd, plicd albd unica su- perne munitd’; labro intus denticulato ; aperturd angulato-ovatd, fauce cerulescente-albd. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 5. f. 17. Hab. Matnog, island of Luzon, Philippines ; Cuming. I was about to figure a somewhat discoloured specimen of this shell, collected by Mr. Cuming at the above-mentioned locality, when a smaller but very richly painted example presented itself for com- parison from the collection of Miss Saul. It is unquestionably di- stinct from any of the trumpet-shaped species, though curiously in- termediate between the Triton variegatus and australis. I now de- dicate it with great pleasure to a much-esteemed collector, whose cabinet bears interesting testimony of her excellent discrimination of species. Triton stnensis. Trit. testa elongato-claveformi, varicibus duobus rotundis ; spird subelatd ; anfractibus costis duplicibus subdistan- tibus undique cinctis, strid unicd elevatd interveniente, costis supe- ris leviter nodosis, costis interstittisque subtilissimé crenulatis ; albidd, lutescente tinctd, varicibus inter costas lutescentibus ; colu- melld multirugosd ; labro denticulato ; aperture fauce albd ; canali elongato, subcontorto. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 6. f. 18. Hab. China. This shell is not uncommon in collections, though it appears to have been singularly neglected by naturalists. It presents a most remarkable modification of the Triton canaliferus : the entire sculpture of the two species—such as, for example, the double rib, the inter- vening raised line, the two only varices, the profusely wrinkled colu- mella, the long slightly twisted canal, &c.—is the same in both; but the canaliculated structure of the sutures, which forms so very im- portant a specific character in the Triton canaliferus, is wanting. The Triton sinensis might therefore be recognised as an example of the Triton canaliferus with the spire pushed out as it were; or one in which the whorls have not been subject to that peculiar depression - which forms so deep and characteristic a channel round the suture, 202 Zoological Society. TRITON GRANDIMACULATUS. Tit. tesid ovato-turritd, crassd, in- ferne coarctatd, varicibus tribus ; spird subobtusd ; anfractibus superne angulatis, transversim eviliter striatis et liratis, liris su- peris tuberculato-nodosis ; fuscescente-fulvd, varicibus et columella parie superiori maculis grandibus nigerrimo-fuscis ornatis ; colu- melid levi vel obsolete plicatd ; labro intus dentato, dentibus niger- rimo-fuscis ; aperture fauce albd; canali breviusculo, subascen- dente. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 6. f. 20. Hab. Matnog, province of Albay, island of Luzon (found on the reefs) ; Cuming: This shell appears at first sight to be nothing more than a casual variety of the Zriton lotorium; it will be found, however, upon ex- amination to differ materially. The large tuberculated humps of the Triton lotorium are here represented by regular series of small rounded knobs, which impart a kind of cancellated structure to the earlier whorls which is very characteristic ; the lower part of the shell is not distorted, and the varices, especially at the back, are vividly painted with large distinct brown blotches. - Triton sarcostoma. Trit. testd subabbreviato- claveformi, varici- bus duobus, rotundis, solidiusculis ; spird brevi, apice subdepresso ; anfractibus superne angulatis, transversim costatts, costis noduloso- crenatis, costarum interstitiis subtiliter crenato-liratis, costis su- peris tuberculatis, tuberculis grandibus, prominentibus, subcom- pressis ; spadiceo-fuscescente, costis inter tubercula albimaculatis ; columella supernt et inferne leviter corrugatd, labro intus fortiter rugoso-denticulato ; columelld labroque carneo eximiz tinctis. Conch. Icon., Titon: a By he 2 Hab, Island of Ticao, Philippines (found on the reefs) ; Cuming. This shell has somewhat the aspect of the Triton cynocephalus ; it differs in being much less ventricose; and in having very prominent tubercles round the upper part of the whorls. The mouth is stained with a pale flesh-tint without any indication of dark colour on the columella, Triton aquatiuis. Trit. testd fuspformi-turritd, varicibus septem octove rotundis, prominentibus ; spird elatd ; anfractibus convexis, transversim costatis, costis duplicibus, subdistantibus, liris undatis tuberculiferis longitudinaliter decussatis ; pallide rufescente-fuscd, Susco maculatd et variegatd ; columelld et aperture fauce carneo- tinctis, albirugosis, labro intus albidenticulato } canali brevi, ascen- dente. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 7. f. 24. Hab. Island of Ticao, Philippines (found on the reefs at low water) ; Cuming. The longitudinal waved ridges which adorn the surface of this interesting species have, in the fine specimen before me, a beautiful ripple- like appearance which is very characteristic. The columella “and interior are covered with enamel of a bright uniform flesh-tint, and the varices are very round and prominent. I have seen several Zoological Society. 208 examples of this species in different stages of growth, all exhibiting the above peculiarities with remarkable specific distinctness. Triton triningatus. Trit. testd clavato Susiformi, varicibus tri- bus ; spird breviusculd ; anfractibus superne angulatis, ad angulum compresso-tuberculatis, transversim plano-liratis, liris subtilissime crenulatis, interstitiis lineis tribus elevatis sculptis ; albidd, fusco variegatd, varicibus fusco-maculatis ; columelld lutescente-alba, costatd ; canali subelongato, leviter ascendente ; labro fortiter den- ticulato-costato ; aperture fauce albd. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 10. f. 31. Hab. Philippine Islands ; Cuming. This is a strongly marked species, with the denticulated sculpture of the lip extending into the aperture after the manner of ribs; and the body of the shell is crossed by flattened ridges, between each of which are three very characteristic raised lines. Triton acrotus. Trit. testd subpyriformi, varicibus validis duo- bus ; spird acutd ; anfractibus superne angulatis, transversim cos- tatis, liris minutis tribus vel quatuor inter costas decurrentibus, costis superis tuberculatis, tuberculis inferné evanidis; albidd, Suscescente maculatd ; columelld plicatd ; canali subelongaio, sub- ascendente ; aperture fauce albd ; labo intus deniiculato, Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 12. f. 42. Hab. China. Care must be taken not to confound this shell with the Triton tri- lineatus, in which the dorsal tubercles are more strongly developed, and which has fo vatix on the back of the penultimate whol. Triton ENcausticus. Trit. testd pyriformi, varice unico depres- siusculo ; spird rotundato-depressd ; anfractibus transversim cos- tatis, tuberculorum seriebus plurimis longitudinalibus armatis, inferioribus minoribus ; albidd, fusco varie tinctd ; columella levi, crassissime encausticd, aurantio-lutescente ; canali elongato, ascen- dente ; labro aurantio-lutescente, intus denticulato. Conch. Icon, Triton, pl. 12. f. 43. Hab. Island of Ticao, Philippines (found on the reefs); Cuming. The enamelled character of the mouth of this shell is somewhat like that of the Triton tuberosus ; the form is that of the Triton re- tusus. Triton ripens. Trit. testd elongato- ovatd, subfusiformi, solidius- culd, distortd, varicibus quinque sexve subindistinctis ; spird acu- minatd ; anfractibus liris angustis elevatis prominentibus distantibus eleganter clathratis, liris transversis duplicatis ; cerulescente-albd, epidermide sericd induté; columelld fortiter rugosd, aurantio tinctd ; canali breviusculo, vie ascendente ; aperturd parvd, coarc- tatd ; labro intus fortiter dentato, albo, aurantio marginato. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 12. f. 46. Hab. Philippine Islands ; Cuming. Although this species exhibits little more than a modification of the characters of the Triton cancellinus, the difference is of good specific 204: Zoological Society. importance. The cancellated sculpture is wider and more prominent, whilst the ridges are more sharply noduled in crossing over each other. The wrinkles and denticulations which surround the aper- ture are much more strongly developed, and the orange-stained co- louring of the enamelled disc is peculiarly characteristic. Triton Tuersires. Tit. testd subfusiformi, varicibus quatuor ; spird exsertd; anfractibus transversim granoso-liratis, angulatis, ad angulum tuberculatis, tuberculis validis, valde prominentibus, anfractuum totd superficie subtilissime granulosa ; columella alba, subexcavatd, leviter rugosd, callositate superne armatd; canali longiusculo, subascendente ; labro intus leviter denticulato. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 13. f. 48. Hab. ? Several shells have been named after the rude enemy of Achilles as significant of their deformity. The Triton under consideration, though it has quite a hump-backed appearance from the prominence of the dorsal tubercles, is however beautifully granulated, the granu- lated ridges being especially neatly sculptured in passing over the tubercles and varices. Tiron moritinctus. Trit. testd ovato-oblongd, ventricosd, varice unico elevato ; spird depressd ; anfractibus superne plano-angulatis, transversim crenulato-costatis, ad angulum fortiter tuberculatis, tuberculis acutis, inferneé evanidis, transversim subtiliter sulcatis ; rubidd, varicibus albimaculatis ; epidermide subsetosd ; columelld rufo-aurantid, maculd grandi, nigricante-purpured, albirugosd, tinctd ; canalt subelongato, subcontorto; aperture fauce rufo- aurantid ; labro intus fortiter dentato. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 13. f. 49. Hab. Philippine Islands ; Cuming. This shell, which is not uncommon in collections, approximates very closely to the Triton cynocephalus ; it is however specifically di- stinct. The whorls of the Triton moritinctus are very strongly tu- bercled, the tubercles being disposed in waved longitudinal rows, whilst in the Triton cynocephalus the tubercles have more the appear- ance of regular nodules. Triton Exaratus. Trit. testd subtrigono-fusiformi, varicibus duobus ; spird elevato-turritd ; anfractibus superné planissimo- angulatis, ad angulum subnodosis, transversim liratis, liris com- pressis, duplicatis, crenulatis, interstittis excavato-sulcatis ; albidd, Suscescente ceruleoque varie tinctd ; columella albd, subrugosé ; canali longiusculo ; apertura rotundd ; labro intus dentato. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 13. f. 50. a and 8. Var. 3. Testa nigricante-fuscd, albibalteatd, Hab. North coast of New Holland. This is a very characteristic species, with the transverse ridges standing out in bold relief, and the upper part of the whorls pecu- liarly flat and indented at the sutures. Triton FicorpEs, Trit. testd trigono-ficiformi, varicibus quinque ; Zoological Society. 205 spird brevi, obtusd ; anfractibus dorsim tumidiusculis, transversim liratis, liris nodosis, super varices duplicatis ; columelld nodosé et rugosd, inferne luteo-sanguineo tinctd ; canali brevi ; labro intus fortiter dentato. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 13. f. 51. Hab. Africa. M. Kiener should have been sure of this shell being the Ranella caudata of Say, before he ventured to question the generic appropri- ation of that species. It is quite another thing, and I much doubt if a shell of such bright’and vivid colour were ever found within the latitude of New York. The Ranella caudata belongs to a small group of Ranelle, of which the R. Muriciformis is the type. Triton acuminatus. Tit. testd subfusiformi, varice nullo ; spird acutissime acuminatd ; anfractibus numerosis, transversim elevato- striatis, longitudinaliter costatis, costis subobliquis, crebriusculis ; columelld subtilissime rugosd; canali breviusculo, ascendente ; aperturd parvd, rotunda ; labro intus denticulato. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 14. f. 54. Hab. China. The Triton acuminatus is another very aberrant form, though be- longing to that interesting section of the genus of which the Triton niveus is the type. Triton @racitis. Tit. testa gracili-fusiformi, varicibus tribus ; spird subelata ; anfractibus tuberculato-nodosis, liris parvis subti- liter decussatis ; lutescente-albd, vel fuscd, albibalteatd, epidermide tenui subsetosd indutd; columella fortiter rugosd, albd; canali subelongato, ascendente ; aperture fauce albd ; labro intus peculi- ariter rugoso-denticulato. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 15. f. 58. Hab. Philippine Islands ; Cuming. A delicate little species, in which the outer lip is peculiarly fully wrinkled within. Triton rLoneatus. Tit. testd elongato-fusiformi, varice unico subindistincto ; spird acuminatd ; anfractibus superne leviter angu- latis, transversim liratis et striatis, liris striisque granuloso- crenatis, equidistanter nodulosis ; cinered, liris livido-purpureis ; columella excavatd, rugosd, callositate superné armatd; canali elongato, subcontorto ; labro intus dentato, dentibus binis. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 15. f. 59. Hab. Philippine Islands ; Cuming. This shell approximates very closely to the Triton vespaceus; so closely indeed, that I may be thought rather venturous to describe it as anew species. The differences however are as follows: the canal is much more elongated, the whorls are not tubercled, and the beaded ridges are of a peculiar livid-purple colour. Triton gemmatus. Tit, testd elongato-oblongd, varicibus quatuor vel quinque; spird subobtusd ; anfractibus liris, pulcherrime gem- matis, cingulatis, interstitiis striis elevatis longitudinalibus et trans- versis eximie clathratis; aurantio-lutescente ; columellé rugosa, 206 Zoological Society. callositate superne armatd ; canali breviusculo ; labro intus dentato, dentibus binis. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 15. f. 60. Hab. Island of Ticao, Philippines (found under stones at low water) ; Cuming. Var. 3. Testd albd, varicibus duobus ad sex ; liris subnodosis. Hab, Island of Annaa (Chain island), South Pacific Ocean, and island of Burias, Philippines (found under stones in both localities at low water); Cuming. The sculpture of this shell is very similar to that of the Triton rubecula; the beaded ridges are however wider apart, and on the varices have three smaller ridges between them. Triton opscurus. Tit. testd elongato-turritd, varicibus unde- cim ; spird acuminatd ; anfractibus transversim granulosis, longi- tudinaliter subobsoleté sulcatis, sulcis creberrimis ; fuscescente, Fusco pallide balteatd, maculis fuscis quadratis perpaucis seriatim pictd, varicibus fusco maculatis ; columelld levi, crassissime en- causticd ; canali brevissimo, labro intus denticulato. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 16. f. 63. Hab. East. Indies ; Lieut. Babb. This shell may have been probably confounded with the Triton maculosus ; it differs however in not being traasversely grooved, in having a different arrangement of the varices, and in other minor particulars. Triton crispus. Tit, testd ovatd, subfusiformi, varicibus duobus vel tribus ; spird breviusculd ; anfractibus liris crispis prominen- tibus, subdistantibus, decussatis, liris ad decussationem nodulosis, interstitiis striis crispis elevatis subtilissime cancellatis ; cinereo- cerulescente, varicibus lirisque albidis ; columella excavatd, rugosd, callositate superné armatd ; canali breviusculo ; labro intus fortiter denticulato. Conch. age Triton, pl. 17. f. 68. Hab. Quite dtutinet from any hitherto described species. Triton EBuRNEUS. Trit. testd ovato-oblongd, varicibus tribus vel quatuor remotiusculis ; spird brevi; anfractibus liris parvis ob- tusis ereberrime decussatis ; intus evtusque albd; columella exca- vatd, inferne subrugosd ; canali brevissimo ; labro intus denticulato. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 17. f. 69. Hab. Island of 'Ticao, Philippines (found under stones at low water) ; Cuming. This shell has somewhat the form of the Triton Quoyi, an inter- esting little New Holland species, which M. Kiener thought to be the recent analogue of Lamarck’s fossil Triton viperinum., Triton verrucosus, Tit. testd subpyramidali-oblongd, varicibus guatuor vel quinque ; spird mediocri ; anfractibus superné impressis, transversim striatis et liratis, liris longitudinalibus prominentiori- bus decussatis, ad decussationem nodosis; aurantio-fuscescente, Zoological Society. 207 anfractuum parle inferiori fusco inter nodos articulatd ; columella excavatd, vie rugosd ; canali brevissimo. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 17. f, 71. Hab. ——? Care must be taken not to confound this shell with the lesser New Holland species, Triton Quoyi. Triton tortuosus. Tit, testd oblongo-turritd, subangustd, vari- cibus octo oblique invicem subsequentibus ; spird tortuosd ; anfrac- tibus granulis parvis subtiliter reticulatis ; lutescente, maculis fuscis grandibus, longitudinaliter undatis, eleganter pictd; colu- mellé excavatd, subgranulosd ; canali brevissimo, recurvo, Conch, Icon., Triton, pl, 17. f, 74. Hab. Island of Burias, Philippines (found under stones at low water) ; Cuming. This interesting species approximates very closely to the Triton distortus; it differs in being of a more delicate and slender form, in the granules being less prominent, and in the peculiar waved style of the painting. Triton scuupTitis. Trit. testd oblongo-turritd, varice nullo ; spird exsertd ; anfractibus longitudinaliter costellatis, costellis angusiis, _interstitiis striis elevatis cancellatis, anfracids ultimi parte infe- riori conopeo carineformi prominente peculiariter ornatd ; albidd, suturis fuscis ; columelld levi ; canali brevissimo. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 18. f, 76. Hab, Island of Capul, Philippines (found under stones at low water) ; Cuming. In addition to the above account of this beautiful species, it may be noticed that the transverse strie are brown upon the ribs and white in the interstices ; the sutures are brown in consequence of the whorls being encircled with a brown line just at the point where one whorl lodges in its spiral growth upon the other, over the basal canopy, as if to mark out the exact plan of convolution. Triton eximius. Trit. testd oblongo-turritd, varice nullo; spird acuminata ; anfractibus costellis minutis eximié cancellatis, longi- tudinalibus majoribus, valde remotioribus ; albd, fuscescente obscure Sasciatd ; canali brevissimo. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 18. f. 77. Hab, Lord Hood’s Island, Pacific Ocean (on the reefs), and island of Capul, Philippines (under stones at low water); Cuming. A neatly cancellated, almost colourless, shell, Triton ecrecius. Trit. testd elongato-ovatd, varice nullo; spird acutd ; anfractibus longitudinaliter costatis, striis elevatis trans- versis cancellatis ; albd, castis medio albis, supra et infra fuscis ; canali brevi, recurvo. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 18. f. 78. Hab. Island of Masbate, Philippines (found under stones at low water); Cuming. The style or arrangement of the sculpture not much unlike the preceding species; the shell is however larger, more globose, and 208 Zoological Society. has a very pretty appearance, arising from the dark brown upper and lower portions of the ribs being crossed by white strie. Triton stpHonatus. Tit. testd fusiformi-turritd, varicibus novem, subindistinctis ; spird acuminatd ; anfractibus creberrimé reticu- latis, ultimo antice quasi siphonato; roseo- aut ceruleo-albidd, aurgntio-fusco sparsim maculatd ; lamind columellari tenui, levi ; aperturd elongato-ovatd ; labro subtilissime denticulato. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 18. f. 81. Hab. ? Chiefly distinguished by its anterior extension. Triton pecapiratus. Tit. testd elongato-turritd, varice nullo ; spird decollaté ; anfractibus longitudinaliter concentricé costellatis, costellis angustis, numerosis, confertis, transversim striatis ; lutes- cente, fusco subindistincté maculatd ; costellis aurantio-fuscis, lined lutescente antice interruptis, anfractu ultimo lineis lutescen- ° tibus duabus ; canali brevissimo. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 18. f. 85. Hab. Island of Burias, Philippines (found under stones at low water) ; Cuming. Care must be taken not to confound this species with the Triton truncatus, in which the ribs are larger and wider apart, and the colour not interrupted. Triron pieitaLe. Trrit. testd oblongd, varice nullo; spird acumi- natd; anfractibus seriatim granulosis, granulis numerosis, confertis, obtusis ; albidd, fuscescente sparsim punctatd ; canali brevissimo. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 19. f. 86. Hab. Island of Capul, Philippines (found under stones at low water) ; Cuming, The sculpture of the shell is much like the granular surface of a thimble. Triton concinnus. Trit. testa oblongd, tenuiculd, varice nullo ; spird subacuminatd ; anfractibus longitudinaliter concentricé cos- tellatis, transversim creberrimé striatis ; lutescente, aurantio- fuscescente peculiariter pictd, apice roseo-purpureo ; canali bre- vissimo. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 19. f. 87. Had. Philippine Islands ; Cuming. The bright orange-brown painting is peculiarly festooned, as it were, round the upper part of the whorl next the suture. Triton ancutatus. Trit. testd oblongd, turritd, varice nullo; spird acuminatd ; anfractibus superne angulatis, longitudinaliter costellatis, transversim striatis, striis prominentibus, confertis ; luted, aut lutescente-albd, rubido-fusco alboque sparsim punctaté ; canali brevissimo. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 19. f. 88. Hab. Island of Ticao, Philippines (found under stones at low water) ; Cuming. Chiefly distinguished by the angular structure of the whorls next the suture. Zoological Society. 209 Triton Lativaricosvs. Trit. testd oblongd, solidd, subcompressd, -waricibus tribus vel quatuor latis ; spird subobtusd ; anfractibus longitudinaliter concentric? costellatis, costellis solidis, subdistan- _ tibus, transversim creberrim® striatis ; canali brevissimo. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 19. f. 90. The varices of this shell are unusually broad, and the ribs are wider apart on the back of the whorls than on the side. Triton tTesseLuatus. Trit. testd elongatd, varice nullo ; spira acuminatd, acutd ; anfractibus striis longitudinalibus et transversis subtilissimé reticulatis; albidd, maculis grandibus rubido-fuscis subirregulariter tessellatd ; canali brevi, subrecurvo. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl.19.f.91. Hab. Island of Burias, Philippines (found under stones at low water) ; Cuming. This shell may be easily recognised by its rude tessellated spots. Triton BacitLtum. Trit. testd elongato-claveformi, solidd, varict- bus duobus ; spird elongatd, subretusd ; anfractibus obtuso-granu- losis ; ca@rulescente-albd ; canali brevissimo, recurvo ; apertura breviusculd. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 19. f. 94. Hab. ? This is the only species of Triton I have noticed with a single varix on each side. Triton carpuvus. Trit. testd globosd, ventricosd, varice nullo ; spird brevi, acutissimd ; anfractibus longitudinaliter costatis, trans- versim striatis, stris valde elevatis, costas super submuricato- nodosis ; albidd, fuscescente varid; columelld excavatd; canali brevi. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 19. f. 95. Hab. A rather thin shell, of very sharply cancellated sculpture. Triton pacopus. Trit. testd pyramidali-ovatd ; spird acuminato- turritd, varice nullo ; anfractibus subventricosis, superné angulatis, transversim creberrime elevato-lineatis, longitudinaliier costatis, costis compressiusculis, subdistantibus; albidd, rubido-castaneo multifasciatd ; canali brevi, valde recurvo ; aperturd rotunda ; labro intus elevato-striato. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 20. f. 97. Hab. Bay of Montija, West Columbia; Cuming. This species partakes more of the character of Nassa than the pre- ceding; it might be referred indeed to that genus with almost as much propriety as to Triton. Triton pictus. Trit. testd oblongo-ovatd; spird subacuminatd, varice nullo ; longitudinaliter creberrimeé costatd, transversim ele- vato-striatd ; rubido-fusco alboque tessellatd ; canali brevi ; aper- turd parva, fauce albd. Conch. Icon., Triton, pl. 20. f. 97. Hab. Gallapagos Islands (found under stones at low water); Cu- ming. An interesting species tessellated with white and very rich dark brown, in which the latter colour greatly preponderates. Triton pecipiens. Tit. testd elongato-ovatd, subfusiformi, dis- Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Vol. xv. ? 210 Royal Institution. tortd, varicibus guingue sexve indistinctis ; anfractibus liris an- gustis elevatis clathratis; albido-lutescente, epidermide sericé indutd ; columelld profundé excavatd, rugosd, subobsoleté umbili- catd, callositatibus plurimis superne armatd, rufo-aurantid ; labre plano-concavo, rufo-aurantio radiato, intus fortiter rugoso-dentate. Conch, Icon., Triton, pl. 20. f. 102. Hab, Island of Mindanao, Philippines; Cuming. I have long hesitated to consider this shell any other than a variety of the Triton cancellinus: the differences, though slight, seem how- ever to remain constant. It is uniformly of smaller size, the trans- verse ridges are not duplicate, and the colour and wrinkled denticu- lations of the columella and outer lip are of a peculiar and distinct character. ROYAL INSTITUTION. Feb. 14, 1845.—W. R. Hamilton, Esq., V.P. and Treasurer, in ae Chair. rn Sei E. Forbes delivered a lecture ‘‘ On some important Ana- logies between the Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms.” The Professor commenced by briefly adverting to the distrust with which, as he was well aware, speculations on the analogies of ani- mated beings were regarded, especially among British naturalists. He stated his own firm persuasion, however, that the transcendental philosophy of natural history was one of the most important deve- lopments of that science. He proceeded to represent the relations on which he was about to discourse as consisting,—1. Of the relation of analogy, depending on the manifestation of common laws relating to animals or vegetables composing a species, or else to the groups under which species are assembled ; and 2. Of the relation of polarity, depending, not on the resemblance, but on the opposition or divergence of beings composing the animal and vegetable kingdoms. ‘This relation of polarity was thus illustrated. The animal is superior in structure and function to the vegetable ; yet, from whatever point of the vegetable kingdom “we may begin, we cannot proceed by a series of continually advan- cing organisms to the highest point of the animal. Thus, instead of finding, as we might expect a priori, the most perfectly developed vegetable bearing the closest resemblance to the lowest animal form, we find, on the contrary, that it is at the lowest points of both sy- stems (the Sponges, &c. in the one, and the marine Fuci in the other) that the closest resemblance exists. Reverting to the relation of analogy, the Professor noticed that every composite organism, as, for instance, a plant in flower, was not a single being, but a doibination of individuals ; that each leaf, in its ordinary form, was an individual, serving one purpose (that of maintaining the existence of the plant), but that, for the purpose of reproduction, it was transformed into flower, petal, stamen, pistil, &c. This metamorphosis was first de- clared by Linneus in the ‘ Philosophia Botanica,’ then maintained by Wolf, and still later by the poet Goethe; and as this principle of morphology had been generally accepted by botanists, the Professor now applied it to zoology. Among the lowest zoophytes there are Royal Institution: 211 found, as the relation of polarity prepares us to expect, animals so nearly resembling sea-weeds, as often to be confounded with them. These are found to be a multitude of individuals, arranged in a defi- nite form on acommon axis. ‘To these branch-like beings, constitu- ting the entirety of the zoophyte, vesicles are suspended, containing eggs, in cup-shaped bodies of various and beautiful forms. Professor Forbes discovered, from a series of elaborate researches in the genus Plumularia, that there was the same analogy between this polype- vesicle and the creature which produces it, that there is between the green leaf and the flower and fruit of the plant. This proposition the Professor illustrated by instancing six orders of zoophytic form, in which this metamorphosis was distinctly traceable. Having thus developed his views on morphological analogy, that of combination, Prot. Forbes entered upon what he admitted to be a more doubtful part of his system—the analogies between parallel groups. Having noticed that organized beings are grouped in types, the. members of each type being formed on the same model, he de- clared his opinion that the members of every type which differ from the typical form, differ by adopting the characteristic of the nearest type. ‘Thus, assuming the Mollusca and Annelida to be parallel types, the Pectenibranchous gasteropod, which is typical of the former, comes into the same group with the shell-less, worm-like nudibranch, which possesses so many of the external characteristics of the latter. [The Professor here laid great stress on the difference between analogy, which chiefly regards form,—and affinity, which respects structure and function. ] Again, in the case of species, whenever any individual of any spe- cies of one group becomes monstrous as to number, this monstrosity is shown by assuming the dominant number of the corresponding group. ‘Thus, the Arachnoderms and Echinoderms are in this rela- tion of parallelism (the former having their organs arranged in mul- tiples of four, the latter in multiples of five). Now, according to Prof. Forbes, whenever a monstrous example of either tribe occurs, the number assumed is that of the parallel tribe (four in the case of Echinoderms, and five in that of Arachnoderms). Again, throughout the parallel groups of nature there is a mutual representation of each other’s characteristics. ‘Thus, the animal is characterized by concentration of essential parts, and by being or- ganized with a view to the development of the individual: the vege- table is characterized by elongation of essential parts, and by being organized with a view to extensive reproduction of the species. In proportion as the animal approaches the vegetable, it does so by as- suming the vegetable characteristics. Thus, while there is a ten- dency to concentration (animal characteristic) in Vertebrata, there is a tendency to extension (vegetable characteristic) in Articulata. Again, there is an universal tendency to the formation of an endo- skeleton in Vertebrata, and of an exo-skeleton in Articulata; so, in the higher plants, there is a tendency to an endo-skeleton and concentra- tion in the erogens, to an exo-skeleton and extension in the endogens. These principles were illustrated by these, among other examples :— The Gasteropodous mollusca contain the Patella and Chiton; the one Q 2 212 Geological Society. characterized by concentration, the other going off to the articulated type byextension. In fishes, the osseous have the strong endo-skeleton of Mammalia, while the cartilaginous have the feeble endo-skeleton, compensated by a tough integument, the analogue of the exo-skeleton of the Articulata. And, as an example from the vegetable kingdom, the Professor finally noticed the parallel groups of Leguminose and Rosacea, orders so truly parallel, that though easily distinguished by habit and non-essential characters, the true line of distinction between them was not made out until investigated by the profoundest of bo- tanists, Mr. Robert Brown, where in the one the exo-skeleton in the fruit is developed at the expense of the endo-skeleton; in the other, there is the concentration of fruit and the development of the endo- skeleton ; the representation of the two spheres being here manifested in the reproductive system, characteristic of the vegetable kingdom, even as in the animal instances it is chiefly exhibited in organisms devoted to the nervous system, characteristic of the animal kingdom, and progressive manifestation of intelligence. In conclusion, the Professor gave the following abstract expressions of the leading ideas which he had endeavoured to illustrate in this communication :— Ist. ‘The unity of the transformations and combinations of indi- vidual animated beings, with a view to physiological ends serving the species. 2nd. The harmonious duality pervading the arrangements of the animal and vegetable kingdoms.— Atheneum, No. 904. GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Jan. 22, 1845.—The following communications were read :— i Geological Features of the country round the Mines of the Tau- rus.’ By W. W. Smyth, Esq. The mines described in this paper appear to be worked in great masses rather than beds or veins. They consist of two, one con- taining ores of copper, and the other argentiferous ores of lead worked for silver. The former at Arghaneh Maden is worked in igneous and altered rocks in the neighbourhood of Diarbekr, the average annual supply being about 3500 tons of ore, producing about 380 tons of copper, but it is thought that the return of metal from the ore might easily be doubled. There are several mines of silver and lead worked at Kiebban Maden, the proportion of silver being about an ounce or an ounce and a half per hundred pounds. About 900 lbs. weight of silver are produced annually, and a small quantity of lead. The geological date of the formations in the Taurus seems to be, in most cases, that of the cretaceous period, but there are also some meta- morphic rocks of more ancient origin. ‘“On the newer Coal Formations of the Eastern part of Nova Scotia.” By J. W. Dawson, Esq. The paper was an appendix to a communication made last year before the Geological Society, and completed the account prepared by the author of the Carboniferous Formation. The paper also con- tained a notice of some footmarks observed in the sandstone, which © were considered by the author to be those of a bird. In an appendix Miscellaneous. 218 a notice was given of the junction of the Carboniferous and Silurian rocks at a locality called M‘Cara’s Brook. Feb. 5.—A paper was read ‘‘ On Raised Retabes and the Shells found in them, occurring on the coast of Essex near Walton.” By J. Brown, Esq., of Stanway. The object of this paper was to direct attention to the fact, that low raised beaches exist on this part of the eastern coast, and that they contain fossils, not only marine but freshwater, and confined to a small number of species, though individuals are very numerous. It was also the wish of Mr. Brown to bring these raised beaches into comparison with the beds called ‘‘ Till” in the Clyde valley. A paper was next read ‘‘ On the Geology of the vicinity of the Wollondilly River, in Argyle County, in the colony of Sydney, New South Wales.” By the Rev. W. B. Clarke. The district described by the author is chiefly occupied by igneous rocks, upon which sedimentary rocks of the carboniferous period repose unconformably. ‘The igneous rocks consist of granite and syenite, of porphyries, basalt and trachyte. They pass into and occasionally intersect one another, and are traversed by numerous dykes of igneous rocks of various kinds. The sedimentary rocks are not less violently disturbed, and have become greatly altered in every place where they have been brought into contact with the granite. A communication was also made by Dr. Fitton, ‘‘ On the Beds of the Lower Greensand of the Isle of Wight.” Dr. Fitton, after describing the general structure of the back of the Isle of Wight, alluded to the numerous fissures or chines found in these localities. He also described the different beds of the lower greensand, and mentioned the fossils most characteristic of each of them.’ He concluded by alluding to some of the fossils from the Neocomian beds of the Continent, and mentioned the fact that these foreign strata are strictly contemporaneous with the lower greensand of England. MISCELLANEOUS. FALCO ISLANDICUS. A specimen of the Iceland falcon (Falco Islandicus) was shot near the North Tyne last week. It was a young male bird of the last year. This species was for a long time considered identical with the Gyr falcon of Greenland, until the difference was pointed out by Mr. J. Hancock, during the week that the meetings of the British Association for the Advancement of Science were held in Newcastle *. It is a very rare species in England, few instances of its capture being on record. In Iceland it appears to be not very uncommon during the summer months, where it breeds, but its equatorial migrations do not generally bring it so far south. The flight of these birds is powerful in the extreme. Montagu reckons that of the peregrine falcon (which is a closely-allied species to the present, but smaller) to be 150 miles an hour. At this speed, the distance from Iceland to this country would be easily performed. The present bird, which * Mr. Hancock's paper will be found at p. 241, vol. ii. of the ‘ Annals.’ 214 Miscellaneous. is now in the possession of Mr. Charles Adamson of this town, was in good condition, weighing 25 pounds.—Morning Chronicle of Feb. 6. ON THE ORIGIN OF THE CORMS OF COLCHICUM,. At the sitting of the Society of the Friends of Natural History of Berlin on the 19th of November, M. Link exhibited a corm of Col- chicum arenarium, on which a flower-bud and the traces of two stems past flowering occurred, one of which was situated in the middle with the root-fibres. This proves that the base of the flower whence the root-fibres take their origin, and which during the flowering period is very small, subsequently increases in size and forms the true corm, traces of the stem of which, raised by the upward growth, are long visible. The growth of the corm, in which many have expected to find some regularity, is very irregular. Colchicum arenarium, which developes more flowers at one time than C. autumnale, exhibits this most distinctly.—Bot. Zeitung, Jan. 10, 1845. INFUSORIAL DEPOSITS IN AMERICA. “Charleston is built upon a bed of animalcules several hundred feet in thickness, every cubic inch of which is filled with myriads of perfectly preserved microscopic shells. These shells however do not, like those beneath Richmond and Petersburg, &c., belong to the sili- ceous infusoria, but are all derived from those minute calcareous- shelled creatures, called by Ehrenberg Polythalamia, and by D’Or- bigny the Foraminifera. You are aware that Ehrenberg proved chalk to be chiefly made up of such shells, and you will doubtless be pleased to learn that the tertiary beds beneath your city are filled with more numerous and more perfect specimens of these beautiful forms than I have ever seen in chalk or marl from any other locality. ‘The following are some of the results I have obtained :-— ‘‘1, The marls from the depth of 110 feet to 193 feet are certainly tertiary deposits, for I found them to contain Polythalamia of the family Plicatilia of Ehrenberg ( Agathestegens of D’Orbigny), which family, as far as is yet known, occurs in zo formation older than the tertiary. : «2. The beds from the depth of 193 feet to 309 feet contain so many species in common with the beds above them, that although I have not yet detected the Plicatilia, I still believe they must also be- long to the tertiary formation. «« 3. The forms found in these beds agree much better with those detected by me in the eocene marls from Panumkey River, Virginia, than they do with miocene Polythalamia from Petersburg, Va., and I am consequently inclined to believe that they belong to the eocene epoch. Me 4. All the marls to the depth of 236 feet present the Polythalamia in vast abundance, and in a state of surprising preservation. The most delicate markings of the shells are perfectly preserved, and some of the forms are so large that they may be easily seen with a common pocket-lens. «5, The lithological characters of the marls from 236 feet to 309 Meteorological Observations. 215 fet differ from those above ; and although the Polythalamia are still abundant, and many of the species appear to be the same as in the strata above, yet they are less easy to observe on account of the greater compactness of the marls, and the adherence of crystalline calcareous particles to the shells. «©6, The marls which you sent from the Cooper River, 35 to 38 miles above Charleston, also abound in Polythalamia, and so many of the species are identical with those found beneath Charleston, that they most probably belong to the same formation. This place on the Cooper River may be the outcrop of the very slightly inclined beds which exist under Charleston. [In this conclusion Prof. Bailey is correct.— J. L. 8.] «7, The Polythalamia, to whose labours South Carolina owes so large a portion of her territory, are still at work in countless thou- sands upon her coasts, filling up harbours, forming shoals, and depo- siting their shells to record the present state of the sea-shore, as their predecessors, now entombed beneath Charleston, have done with re- gard to ancient oceans. ‘The mud from Charleston harbour is filled not only with beautiful Polythalamian shells, but is also very rich in siliceous infusoria.”—Lwtract of a leiter from Prof. Bailey to J. L. Smith, in Silliman’s American Journal, Jan. 1845. METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR JAN. 1845. Chiswick.—January 1. Foggy. 2. Cloudy: frosty. 3, Frosty: cloudy. 4. Overcast. 5. Rain. 6. Very fine. 7, Thick haze: very fine. 8, 9. Foggy. 10. Thick haze: boisterous at night. 11. Boisterous, with rain. 12. Hazy: rain: fine. 13. Overcast: clear. 14. Rain: drizzly: heavy rain. 15. Rain: fine. 16,17. Overcast. 18. Densely clouded: heavy rain. 19, Clear: hail- shower at noon: constant heavy rain at night. 20. Boisterous. 21. Clear and frosty. 22. Sharp frost : hazy : fine: overcast. 23, Overcast: rain, 24. Fine: rain: frosty. 25. Clear and frosty: overcast: boisterous. 26. Boisterous : clear. 27. Rain: boisterous: cloudy. 28. Slight snow: fine, withsun: rain. 29. Over- cast. 30. Hazy: frosty. 31. Frosty: cloudy: frosty.—Mean temperature of the month 2°36 above the average. Boston.—Jan. 1. Foggy. 2. Snow. 3,4, Fine. 5. Cloudy: rain early a.m. 6—10, Cloudy. 11. Windy: rain early a.m.: rain p.m. 12. Foggy. 13. Foggy: raina.M. 14, Cloudy. 15. Cloudy: rain early a.m. 16. Cloudy. 17. Fine. ig. Cloudy: rainrpm. 19. Cloudy. 20. Stormy: rainearly a.m. 21. Fine. 22. Rain. 23. Cloudy. 24,25. Fine. 26. Stormy, 28. Fine: rain a.m. 29. Cloudy. 30, 31. Fine. Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—Jan. 1. Bright: cloudy. 2 Clear: frost: cloudy. 3. Clear: frost: showers, 4. Showers: rain. 5. Showers: cloudy. 6. Showers: clear. 7. Bright: clear: aurora. 8. Clear: frost: clear. 9. Clear: cloudy. 10. Cloudy. 11,12. Bright: clear. 13, Cloudy: drops. 14, Cloudy. 15. Bright: clear, 16. Clear: cloudy. 17. Showers. 18. Bright: cloudy. 19. Bright: frost: clear: frost. 20. Bright: frost: clear: aurora. 21. Cloudy: frost: drops. 22, Bright: showers: halo. 23. Showers. 24. Showers: clear. 25. Rain. 6. Showers: hail-showers. 27. Cloudy. 28. Snow-showers: clear: aurora, 29. Snow-showers: drift, 30. Clear. 31. Showers. Applegarth Manse, Dumfries-shire—Jan. 1. Frost: dull. 2 Slight frost. 8. Thaw: frost a.m. 4. Frost a.m.: raine.M. 5. Rain a.m. 6. Dry and mild. 7. Rainearly a.m. 8. Fair, butdull. 9. Fair: slight frost. 10. Fair, but dull: rain pM. 11. Heavy rain a.m.: flood. 12. Fair and mild. 13. Rain: frost. 14. Fair. 15. Dull and cloudy. 16. Frost. 17. Slight frost: thaw p.m. 18. Rain. 19. Snow: rainr.m. 20. Frost: clear, 21. Frost: thawrpm. 22, Thaw: fog. 23. Rain. 24. Rain early a.m. 25. 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Gani Sahn BS | -yormstyg qho saarys-soryun¢] PS “gormstyD z S “< “Urey *pulm, *19JIULOULLIY T, *“TIJOULOIV S S *KANUQG) ‘asunpy younpuny 7v “uoysNo[D *d ‘Ady 9y7 49 puy SaUIHS-sarurMacy ‘asunpy ypunSarddy yo ‘requng * AA *Aey 247 49 fNoLsOg aw ‘|JRaA AN 49 SuopuoT «vau ‘XOIMSIHD Jy Aja10g Jounynaysojy ayy fo uapsvy ayy yo Uosdwoy J, “AW 49 apow suonwasasg¢) yonBoj0.097a iy THE ANNALS AND MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY. No. 98. APRIL 1845. se XXVII.—On the Penetration of the Cuticle into the Stomata. By Hueo von Mout*, Ture observers have nearly at the same time, and perfectly independent of one another, discussed a point which, notwith- standing the numerous investigations made respecting the sto- mata, had hitherto been entirely overlooked in their anatomy ; they are, however, far from agreeing in the descriptions they give of the circumstance discovered by them. Gugliemo Gasparrinit states, that beneath the stomata of the stem of Cactee, in particular of Cereus peruvianus, of the stem of Euphorbia officinarum, and of herbaceous leaves, there is situ- ated a vesicular organ, which he terms Cistoma. Its walls are said to consist of delicate fibres connected by a membrane, which form a sphincter at the upper end of the cistoma, situated beneath the closed aperture of the stoma. The. vesicular organs the author separated with the cuticle from the epidermis by boiling the latter in dilute nitric acid. Hartig, in his ‘ Lehrbuch der Pflanzenkunde,’ part 4, 1842, describes the same organ as an appendage of the cuticle. To the latter he ascribes a very complicated structure, separating it into three different layers: 1. an external membrane, epichroa; 2. an internal membrane, endochroa ; 3. a central mass situated between these membranes, the central cement, mesocolla. It is stated of the external membrane, that it extends over the entire leaf, pene- trates into the area in front of the stomata, but nevertheless con- tinues further over the stoma itself without interruption, while the inner membrane is immersed in the form of folds between the cells of the epidermis and penetrates in various plants, more or less deeply into the subjacent cellular tissue, in which case it then takes its course through the intercellular passages in the form of vessels (intercellular vessels). In like manner the inner * From the Botanische Zeitung for Jan. 3, 1845. Translated and com- municated by W. Francis, Ph.D., F.L.S. + Rendiconto delle adunanze e dei lavori dell’ Academia delle Scienze, Napoli, 1842. Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Vol. xv. R 218 Prof. Mohl on the Penetration of the membrane is said to penetrate through the stomata into the spiracles, clothe their walls, and extend thence, in the leaves of Narcissus Jonquilla, in the form of vessels into the intercellular passages. Payen* states that the cuticle enters the stomata and, in Cac- tus peruvianus, extends down through the layers of the epidermis as a thin membrane in the form of a muff. This membrane, like the cuticle itself, is said to be coloured yellow by iodine, and to exhibit the same resistance to the action of sulphuric acid. These statements induced me to institute some investigations on the subject in question. For this purpose I adopted the method of soaking the sections of the leaves for examination in tincture of iodine, washing them with water, and then submit- ting them to the action of sulphuric acid. This latter not only heightens the yellow tint of the cuticle coloured by iodine, but it has especially this advantage, that the cells of the epidermis of most plants are disintegrated with the production of a blue colour- ing or entirely dissolved, according to the strength of the acid employed, when the cuticle can be very readily distinguished and separated from them. From these investigations this gene- ral result was obtained, that, as asserted by Payen, a direct con- tinuation of the cuticle penetrates-into the stomata and proceeds down between the porous cells to the spiracles in the form of a tube very highly compressed on both sides. No doubt can be entertained, on a careful examination, that this tube is not closed either at the entrance into the stomata or lower down between the porous cells. Arrived at the inner termination of the sto- matic aperture, this tube dilates into a smaller or larger funnel- shaped expansion, which clothes the inferior surface of the epi- dermis so far as it closes the spiracle externally. Some differences occur with respect to this funnel-shaped ex- pansion in various plants. Generally the expansion of the funnel extends only as far as true cells of the epidermis form the outer wall of the spiracles; and it is cut off short at the limit of the outer wall and of the lateral walls of the spiracles formed of green parenchymatous cells, so that the margin of the funnel presents irregularities corresponding to the rounded-off lateral walls of the parenchymatous cells. In general no appendages penetrate from the margin of the funnel into the intercellular passages running beneath the epidermis and connected with the spiracles ; for instance, in the stem of Euphorbia officinarum, Cacalia Kleinia, Lepismium Myosurus, in the leaves of Agapanthus umbellatus, Nar- cissus Jonquilla, Pothos lanceolata, and in the leaf-lke branches of Ruscus aculeatus. In other cases, on the contrary, appendages proceed from the margin of the funnel-shaped expansion through * Mémoire sur le Développement des Végétaux. Cuticle into the Stomata. 219 the intercellular passages on the inferior surface of the epidermis to neighbouring funnels, and form in this manner connexions with one another ; for instance, on the under side of the leaves of Helleborus niger and viridis, and in the leaves of Euphorbia Caput Medusa. Lastly, it occurs in some plants, for instance, in the leaves of Betula alba and Asphodelus luteus, that such appendages pene- trate into all the intercellular passages situate beneath the epider- mis, and extend in the form of a reticulate membrane over the whole under surface of the epidermis, so that the epidermatous cells are clothed on both sides by a true cuticle, im which the inner cuticle does not, it is true, form a continuous membrane, not pass- ing in between the epidermatous cells and the parenchymatous cells adherent to them, but exhibiting at the place of connexion of every parenchymatous cell with a cell of the epidermis, a void corresponding to the size of the place of connexion. A similar inner perforated cuticle may likewise occur without the epidermis being interrupted by stomata; but this is rare, at least I have hitherto found it only in the epidermatous cells of the upper surface of the leaf of Helleborus niger and viridis. When the epidermis consists of several superposed layers of cells, as in Cereus peruvianus and Cactus Opuntia, the continuation of the cuticle clothes the lateral walls of the portion of the spi- racle situated in this thickened epidermis ; it consequently ap- pears not merely in the form of a wide expanded funnel, but rather in that of a tube, and then constitutes the organ described and figured by Gasparrini under the name of cistoma. In this case the tube-like continuation of the cuticle likewise terminates with an open embouchure at the inferior limit of the epidermis ; although it sometimes appeared to me to continue for a short distance into the portion of the spiracle situated between the green parenchymatous cells; for instance, in Cereus peruvianus and likewise in Protea mellifera, whose leaves, moreover, possess a simple epidermis. This continuation of the cuticle penetrating into the interior of the organs, is acted upon, as already observed by Payen, by iodine and sulphuric acid precisely like the cuticle situated on the outer side of the epidermis. A composition of fibres, which is ascribed to it by Gasparrini, can no more be demonstrated in it than in any other vegetable membrane ; but just in like man- ner as fibre-like thickened bands occur on the cuticle of many plants, so do we find the same circumstance in some of the plants I have examined ; for instance, Cereus peruvianus and Helleborus niger, and likewise on the funnel-shaped membrane clothing the outer side of the spiracles. As, moreover, the cuticle of most plants does not admit of our distinguishing any composition of individual pieces correspondent to the subjacent epicerrnatons, cells, so is it 7 2 220 On the Penetration of the Cuticle into the Stomata. likewise with their appendages situated in the interior of the leaf. It is true they sink into the furrows proceeding between the adja- cent cells, and are frequently provided at these places with pro- jecting bands immersed in the furrows; but a composition of originally distinct pieces is in so far incapable of being detected, as it is impossible to separate them into the individual pieces cor- responding to these divisions by the application of acids. This circumstance will naturally be considered by those phytotomists who, with Treviranus, Schleiden and Payen, look upon the cuticle as a part distinct from the epidermatous cells, as a hardened se- cretion, to support their view; but in reference to this point, it is in my opinion requisite to take the greatest precaution not to be led to a rash conclusion. I have already in my memoir on the cuticle, ‘ Linnea,’ vol. xvi., not by any means denied that important reasons appear to speak in favour of this view, and I am at present just as far from wishing to deny the possibility that this view is correct and the one sup- ported by me erroneous ; but nevertheless I still believe, that the view according to which the cuticle is formed of the outer layers of the epidermatous cells themselves is far more probable. If the cuticle owed its origin to a secretion taking place at the sur- face of the epidermis, it ought to be possible to find the primary membrane of the epidermatous cells beneath it, and observe it pass into the lateral walls of these cells. I have not succeeded in doing this, but, on the contrary, I believe I have traced in many cases the primary membrane of the lateral walls of the epidermatous cells through the cuticle to the surface of the latter, and I thence concluded that the cuticle was not a peculiar membrane distinct from the epidermis, but owed its peculiarities to a metamorphosis of the substance of the outer layers of the epidermatous cells themselves. Undoubted ana- logies may be adduced in support of such metamorphoses of in- dividual parts of the cell-wall (or according to the views of Payen, in favour of a deposition of organic substances in the cellulose of the original cell-wall, whence this acquires different proper- ties). I would especially call to mind, in this respect, the nature of the primary membrane of the prosenchymatous cells of most woods, which membrane originally exhibited all the characters of pure cellulose, while in the developed wood it presents the same property as the cuticle, of being coloured yellow by iodine and of resisting the action of sulphuric acid. I would moreover call to mind the brown-coloured parenchymatous cells which inclose the vascular bundles of ferns, and in which, in some cases, not all the walls, but only that directed towards the vascular bundle and a portion of the lateral wall, undergoes that metamorphosis into a thickened brown substance resisting the action of sulphurie M r. Blackwall on the Functions and Giconomy of Araneidea. 221 acid. But whatever be the case with regard to the origin of the cuticle, I must certainly protest most decidedly against Hartig’s representation that the cuticle consists of three layers, and that the membranes penetrating into the interior of the leaf are a continuation of only one of these layers, the innermost, and that they form hollow, vessel-like tubes in the intercellular passages, since I have not observed a single circumstance that would afford a confirmation of any one of these statements. XXVIII.—Researches into the Structure, Functions and Cico- nomy of the Araneidea. By Joun Buackwatt, F.L.S.* In essaying to give an epitome of some investigations recently made in this country relative to the organization, physiology and ceconomy of the Araneidea, I shall endeavour to accomplish the undertaking in as compendious a manner as may be deemed compatible with a perspicuous statement of the various facts to be detailed, distinguish- ing those already before the public from such as are not by refer- ences to the works in which they have appeared. Without further preface, I proceed to the consideration of those remarkable appendages termed scopule or brushes, with which the tarsi of numerous species of spiders are provided. This apparatus, consisting of coarse, compound, hair-like papilla either distributed along the inferior surface of the tarsi or situated immediately below the claws at their extremity, bears a close analogy to the tarsal cushions of insects, enabling its possessor to ascend the perpendicular surfaces of highly polished bodies and even to adhere to smooth objects in an inverted position by the emission of a viscous secretion. The different plans according to which the papille are disposed upon the tarsi are respectively represented by two common British spiders, Drassus sericeus and Salticus scenicus. Some of the spiders belonging to the families Theriditde and E/péi- ridé have the sides and lower part of the tarsi, at their extremity, supplied with several small, curved, dentated claws, in addition to the three larger ones common to them all. Epéira quadrata, Epéira apoclisa, and, indeed, most of the larger species of Hpéire indi- genous to Great Britain, exhibit this structure to advantage under the microscope; they have, besides, a strong, moveable spine, in- serted near the termination of the tarsus of each posterior leg, on the under side, which curves a little upwards at its extremity, and presents a slight irregularity of outline at its superior surface. These spines, which have been denominated sustentacula, subserve an im- portant purpose. By the contraction of their flexor muscles they are drawn towards the foot, and are thus brought into direct opposition to the claws, by which means the animals are enabled to hold with a firm grasp such lines as they have occasion to draw from the spinners * From the Report of the Meeting of the British Association held at York 1844, + Transactions of the Linnzan Society, vol. xvi. pp. 768, 769. Researches in Zoology, p. 289. 222 Mr. J. Blackwall on the Structure, Functions with the feet of the hind-legs, and such also as they design to attach themselves to *. There are on the superior part of the metatarsus of the posterior legs of all the Ciniflonide two parallel rows of moveable spines com- mencing just below its articulation with the tibia and terminating near its lower extremity. In a state of repose, the spines composing both rows are directed down the joint and are somewhat inclined to- wards each other ; those of the upper row have a considerable degree of curvature and taper gradually to a fine point, those of the lower row being stronger, more closely set, and less curved. Employed to transform, by the process of curling, certain lines proceeding from the spinners into the small flocculi characteristic of the snares of the Ciniflonide, the double series of spines has received the name of calamistrum. When a spider of this family purposes to form a flocculus, it presses its spinners against one of the glossy lines constituting the foundation of its snare, and, emitting from them a small quantity of liquid gum, attaches to it several slender filaments, drawn out by advancing the abdomen a little, and kept distinct by extending the spinning mammule laterally. The posterior legs are then raised above the plane of position, and the tarsal claws of one of them are applied to the superior surface of the metatarsus of the other, near its articulation with the tarsus, and the calamistrum is brought im- mediately beneath the spinners, at right angles with the line of the abdomen. By a slight extension of the joints of the posterior legs the calamistrum is directed backwards across the diverging extre- mities of the spinners, which it touches in its transit, and is restored to its former position by a corresponding degree of contraction in the joints. In proportion to the continuation of this process the in- flected lines of the flocculus are produced, the spider making room for them as they accumulate by elevating and at the same time ad- vancing the abdomen a little, which it effects by slightly extending the joints of the third pair of legs and contracting those of the first and second pairs. When the requisite quantity of inflected filaments is obtained, the spider again applies its spinners to one of the glossy lines and attaches the flocculus to it. In this manner it proceeds with its labours, occasionally employing both calamistra, till the snare is completed. The modus operandi appears to be this. The points of the lower row of spines in passing over the extremities of the spinners draw from them lines which run into numerous flexures in conse- quence of not being kept fully extended, and the purpose subserved by the spines of the upper row is the detachment of these lines from the spines of the lower row by a motion upwards +. If the metatarsus of one of the posterior legs of Ciniflo ferox, a spider of frequent occurrence in the interior of buildings, be ex- amined under the microscope with a moderately high magnifying power, the arrangement of the spines composing the two rows which constitute the calamistrum will be apparent. * Transactions of the Linnean Society, vol. xvi. p. 476; vol. xviii. p. 224, note *, + Ibid. pp. 471-475; vol. xviii. pp. 224, 606, and (iconomy of the Araneidea. 223 Four, six, or eight mammulze, somewhat conical or cylindrical in figure, and composed of one or more joints each, constitute the ex- ternal spinning apparatus of the Araneidea: they are usually closely grouped in pairs at the extremity of the abdomen, and are readily distinguished from each other by their relative positions. The pair situated nearest to the anus may be denominated the superior spin- ners; that furthest removed from the anus, the inferior spinners ; and the mammule placed between these extremes, the intermediate spinners ; distinguishing them, when there are two pairs, by prefixing the terms superior and inferior. Exceedingly fine, moveable papillze or spinning tubes, for the most part dilated at the base, occur at the extremity of the mammule, or are disposed along the inferior surface of their terminal joint, whence issues the viscous secretion of which all the silken lines produced by spiders are formed. ‘The papille connected with the mammule vary greatly in number in different species of spiders, and also differ considerably in size, not only in individuals of the same species, but often even on the same mam- mule. Among our native spiders, the larger species of Epéire have the mammule most amply provided: with papille ; it is probable, how- ever, that the total number does: not greatly exceed a thousand even in adult females of Epéira quadrata, whose weight is about twenty grains, and in many other species it is much smaller. In Tegenaria civilis the total number of papillae does not amount to four hundred ; in Textrix lycosina and Clubiona corticalis it is below three hundred; in Segestria senoculata it scarcely exceeds one hundred ; and in many of the smaller spiders it is still further reduced. A difference in the number and size of the papille connected with the several pairs of mammule in the same species, and with similar pairs in different species, is also very apparent. In spiders of the genera Epéira, Tetragnatha, Linyphia, Theridion and Se- gestria, they are generally much more numerous and minute on the inferior spinners than on the superior and intermediate ones; the last are the most sparingly supplied with them, and in the case of Segestria senoculata each has only three large papille at its extre- mity. An arrangement nearly the reverse of this takes place in some of the Drassi, and is conspicuous in Drassus ater, which has the intermediate spinners abundantly furnished with papille,. those on the inferior spinners being very few in number and chiefly of large dimensions, emitting the viscous secretion copiously. The papilla connected with the short terminal joint of each inferior spinner of this species vary in number with the age of the animal ; the young, on quitting the cocoon, are provided with four only ; individuals which have attained nearly a third of their growth have five or six ; those about two-thirds grown, six or seven; and adults, which have ac- quired their full complement, eight; two of them, situated on the inferior surface of the spinner, at a greater distance from its extre- mity than the rest, are minute and almost contiguous. It is a fact deserving of notice, that the papillz are not always developed simul- taneously on these spinners, six, seven, or eight being sometimes ob- 224: Mr. J. Blackwall on the Structure, Functions served on one, when five, six, or seven only are to be seen on the other; and this remark is applicable, not to the inferior spinners alone, but to the intermediate ones also, which, in mature individuals, are further modified by having the extremities of the terminal joints directed downwards at right angles to their bases. The same law of development holds good as regards the papille connected with the inferior spinners of Drassus cupreus and Drassus sericeus, and though their number is not uniformly the same even in adults of either of these or the preceding species, yet the two minute ones belonging to each mammula are present invariably *. The superior spinners of many spiders are triarticulate; and when the terminal joint is considerably elongated, thickly clothed with hairs, and tapers to a point, the papillze, in the form of hair-like tubes dilated at the base, are commonly distributed along its inferior sur- face, as in the case of Agelena labyrinthica, Tegenaria domestica, and Textrix lyeosina. This deviation from the prevailing structure has induced Lyonnet, Savigny, Treviranus, Audouin, and other skilful zootomists, who have failed to detect the papilla, to regard the su- perior mammule, thus modified, as anal palpi, and to deny that they perform the office of spinners; but if these parts be carefully ex- amined with a powerful magnifier in living specimens during the ex- ercise of their function, the fine lines of silk proceeding from the papille cannot fail to be discerned, and a correct knowledge of their external organization may thus be obtained. Not being aware, ap- parently, of the publication of this discovery in the ‘ Report of the Third Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, held at Cambridge in 1833,’ p. 445, Baron Walckenaer, in the Supplement to the second volume of his ‘ Histoire Naturelle des Insectes Aptéres,’ p. 407, has ascribed it to M. Dugés, whose obser- vations on the subject in the ‘ Annales des Sciences Naturelles,’ se- conde série, t. vi., Zoologie, p. 166, were not published till 1836. One of the most striking peculiarities in the structure of the Cins- onide, which serves to distinguish them from all other animals of the order Araneidea at present known, is the possession of a fourth pair of spinners. ‘These spinners are shorter and further removed from the anus than the rest, being situated at the base of the inferior intermediate pair, by which they are almost concealed when in a state of repose. Their figure is somewhat conical, but compressed and truncated, so that the base and apex are elliptical with long trans- verse axes. Consisting of a single joint only, each is connected with the other throughout its entire length, the extremity alone being densely covered with exceedingly minute papille, which emit the viscous matter that is formed by the ealamistra into a delicate tor- tuous band constituting a portion of every flocculus in the snares of these spiders, and chiefly imparting to them their most important property, that of adhesion+. Arachnologists have not bestowed that degree of attention on the * Transactions of the Linnean Society, vol. xviii. p. 219-224. + Ibid. pp. 223, 224, 606. and Ciconomy of the Araneidea. 225 palpi of spiders to which their diversified structure and important functions undoubtedly entitle them. Much difference is observable in the relative proportions of the several joints of the palpi of female spiders, not only in species con- stituting the same family, but even in those belonging to the same genus ; while, on the other hand, it frequently happens that females belonging to different genera bear a striking resemblance to each other in this particular. It is among male spiders, however, that these péculiarities are the most marked, and to them may be added structural differences and resemblances both of the palpi and sexual organs still more conspicuous. A great similarity in the form of the organs of reproduction, in the simplicity of their structure, and in the manner of their connexion with the digital joint of the palpi, which has no cavity opening ex- ternally, may be seen in certain males of the family Dysderide ; in Dysdera erythrina, Dysdera Hombergii, Segestria perfida, Segestria senoculata, and Oonops pulcher, for example; and this similitude is extended to the males of various species belonging to the family Mygalide. Between the males of Pachygnatha Clerckii and Tetragnatha ex- tensa there is a near approximation in the structure of the palpi and sexual organs, yet these spiders are not included in the same family, the former belonging to the Theridiide, and the latter to the Epéi- ride. If the spiders constituting the genus Clubiona be compared with those of the genus Drassus, and those of the genus Linyphia with the species comprised in the genus Neriéne ; or, extending the investiga- tion still further, if the genera Walckenaéra, Theridion, Epéira, Ere- sus, Salticus, Thomisus, and Philodromus be compared together, numerous instances of correspondence in the relative proportions of the joints of the palpi will be perceived immediately ; at the same time, striking contrasts will present themselves to the eye of the observer, not as regards proportion alone, but organization also, even among nearly allied species. As the full development of the palpi and the organs of generation connected with them indicates a state of maturity in male spiders, the skilful arachnologist js enabled, by attending to this circumstance, not only to distinguish adult males from females, but likewise from immature individuals of both sexes. This knowledge is useful in preventing him from falling into the too common error of mistaking young spiders for old ones, and of describing them, and the sexes of spiders of the same kind, as distinct species. When any doubts exist as to the specific identity of adult spiders of different sexes, they frequently may be set at rest by placing the spiders together in cap- tivity and noticing whether they pair or not. The great diversity of structure observable in the palpi and sexual organs of male spiders supplies excellent specific characters, and, in- deed, frequently presents the only available means of distinguishing species of similar colours and dimensions from each other; but when it is borne in mind that this diversity of structure extends to spiders 226 Mr. J. Blackwall on the Structure, Functions connected by the closest relations of affinity, it is, perhaps, in vain to expect that it will ever be applied with much success to the esta- blishment of genera. From remarks on the structure of the palpi to the consideration of the functions they perform the transition is easy and natural. Many spiders employ their palpi in assisting to collect the slack line which results from their operations when engaged in ascending the silken filaments by which they have lowered themselves from stations previously occupied, or in drawing in such as have been emitted from the spinners for the purpose of facilitating a change of situation in some other direction. The silk collected on these occa- sions is formed into a small heap, which is either attached to some fixed object, or is transferred to the maxille, and, after having been mixed with saliva and reduced in volume by repeated acts of com- pression, is ultimately allowed to fall to the ground. In conjunction with the mandibles, the palpi are employed by females of the species Dolomedes mirabilis and Dolomedes fimbriatus to retain their cocoons under the sternum, in which situation those spiders usually carry them wherever they move. The Lycos@ also avail themselves of the same parts in regaining possession of their cocoons when detached from the spinners. Certain spiders belonging to the genus Mygale have the inferior part of the tarsi furnished with a dense brush of hair-like papillee for the emission of a viscous secretion, which enables them to ascend bodies having smooth perpendicular surfaces. Now, as the females of these species usually have the under side of the digital joint of their palpi, which are remarkably long and powerful, supplied in like manner with papillze, analogy would lead to the conclusion that, in harmony with their organization and distribution, they also con- stitute a climbing apparatus. Various species of Salticide, to which distinctness and accuracy of vision are of the utmost consequence, as they do not construct snares, but capture their prey by springing suddenly upon it from a distance, have the terminal joint of the palpi abundantly supplied with hairs, and constantly make use of those organs as brushes to remove dust, or any other extraneous matter, from the corneous coat of the anterior eyes. The palpi appear to afford direct exsictaines: likewise to spiders in general in securing their prey, in changing its position while they are feeding upon it, and in restraining the action of the wings of all their victims which happen to be provided with them*. With regard to the function exercised by the remarkable organs connected with the digital joint of the palpi of male spiders there exists some difference of opinion. Taking anatomy as his guide, Treviranus arrived at the conclusion that the parts in question are used for the purpose of excitation merely, preparatory to the actual union of the sexes by means of appropriate organs situated near the anterior part of the inferior region of the abdomen. ‘This view of * Report of the Twelfth Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, held at Manchester in 1842; Transactions of the Sections, pp. 67, 68: and Ciconomy of the Araneidea. 227 the subject, which is very generally adopted, is opposed to that de- rived from physiological facts by Dr. Lister and the earlier systema- tic writers on arachnology, who regarded the palpal organs as strictly sexual. Rejecting the opinion of Treviranus, Baron Walckenaer has given his support to that entertained by Lister and the physiologists, having endeavoured to establish its accuracy by pursuing the imperfect method of investigation employed by the latter, which chiefly con- sists in examining the condition of the palpal organs when applied by male spiders to the vulva of females and carefully noticing the changes they undergo ; but as it is possible that such females, should they prove to be prolific, may have been impregnated at a former period, and as other organs than those connected with the digital joint of the palpi may have been instrumental in producing the result, observations of this description appear to be quite inadequate to effect the object proposed. An attempt to relieve the inquiry from objections so weighty is recorded in the ‘ Report of the Third Meeting of the British Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science, held at Cambridge in 1833,’ pp. 444—5, and the result arrived at has a direct tendency to confirm the truth of the opinion promulgated by Dr. Lister. Since that time, researches in connexion with this subject have been greatly extended and varied, and it is satisfactory to add, that they supply a body of evidence which appears to be conclusive as to the agency of the palpal organs. The following is a concise summary of the more important par- ticulars elicited by this investigation. It is an admitted fact, that female Aphides, when impregnated, are capable of producing females which, without sexual intercourse, are prolific through several successive generations. In order to deter- mine whether this is the case with spiders or not, young females of the species Teyenaria domestica, Tegenaria civilis, Agelena laby- rinthica, Ciniflo atrox, Drassus sericeus, Theridion quadripunctatum, Segestria senoculata, &c., were placed in phials of transparent glass and fed with insects. Most of these individuals remained in cap- tivity from one to three years after they had completed their moult- ing and attained maturity ; yet three only, an Agelena labyrinthica, a Tegenaria domestica, and a Tegenaria civilis, produced eggs, and they proved to be sterile, though several of the others, to which adult males were subsequently introduced, laid prolific eggs after coition. It is worthy of remark, that the spiders which produced unfruitful eggs deposited them in cocoons and bestowed the same care upon them as if they had been fertile. This preliminary point being settled, attention was directed in the next place to spiders in a state of liberty, when it was perceived that the males of various species do not bring any part of the abdo- men near the vulva of the females in the act of copulation, and that this is the case with the Lycose in particular ; for example, the male of Lycosa lugubris, after having made the customary advances, springs suddenly upon the back of the female with his head directed towards her spinners and the anterior part of the inferior surface of 228 Mr. J. Blackwall on the Structure, Functions the abdomen resting upon her cephalothorax; then placing the first pair of legs immediately behind her posterior pair, the second pair between her second and third pairs, the third pair between her first and second pairs, and the posterior pair before her first pair, he thus embraces her, and applies the palpal organs to the vulva by inclining to one side or the other as the occasion may require. In this situ- ation the male remains till the act of union is consummated and then quits it with precipitancy, so that his abdomen is not even brought into contact with that part, much less with the vulva, of the female. Precisely the same manner of proceeding is pursued by Lycosa agretyca, Lycosa saccata, Lycosa pallida, and Lycosa obscura; and females of the last species have been seen to receive the embraces of several males in immediate succession, and to copulate even at the time they had cocoons containing newly-laid eggs attached to their spinners, which circumstances serve to support the opinion that some spiders pair oftener than once in the course of their lives. When in captivity, the sexes of Lycosa lugubris sometimes con- tinue paired more than four hours, during which period the male applies the palpal organs several hundred times to the vulva of the female. Notwithstanding the important bearing of these observations upon the physiological problem under consideration, something was still wanting to complete its solution, and recourse was had to direct ex- periment to supply the desideratum. On the 4th of May 1842, an adult male Tegenaria civilis was pro- cured, and, being held by the legs in an inverted position, the in- ferior surface of the abdumen was moistened by applying to it a camel’s hair pencil which had been dipped in water. The entire interval between the plates of the spiracles, supposed by Treviranus to be the seat of the sexual organs in male spiders, and even a con- siderable space below that interval, was then covered with strong, well-gummed writing-paper cut into a suitable form and closely ap- plied, and when the paper became thoroughly dry and firmly at- tached, the spider was placed in a phial with a female of the same species, which had been in solitary confinement from the 2nd of June 1841, and had cast its skin twice during its captivity. With this female the male paired on the same day he was introduced to her, applying the palpal organs to the vulva in the usual manner, and immediately after the union was completed he was removed from her. On the 23rd of May she deposited a set of eggs in a cocoon spun for their reception, and on the 11th of June she constructed another cocoon in which she laid a second set of eggs. All these eggs proved to be prolific, the extrication of young spiders from the first set commencing on the 26th of June, and from the second set on the 13th of July, in the same year. Without renewing her inter- course with the male, this female deposited a set of eggs in a cocoon on the 2nd of April, the 9th of May, the 4th of June, the 22nd of June, and the 9th of July 1843, and on the 22nd of April, the 30th of May, the 29th of June, and the Ist of August 1844, respectively, nine sets in number, all of which produced young. and iconomy of the Araneidea. 229 Another male Yegenaria civilis, after undergoing the same treat- ment exactly as that in the preceding experiment, was introduced, on the 6th of May 1842, to a female of its own species, which had been in solitary confinement from the 25th of January 1840, and had cast its skin three times during its captivity. This female re- ceived the embraces of the male as soon as he was admitted into the phial to her, and laid a set of eggs on the 27th of the same month, all of which were productive, the young beginning to be disengaged from them on the 27th of the ensuing month. In stating a further repetition of this experiment with spiders of the same species, it is only necessary to premise that the female had cast her skin three times in captivity, and that the male had but the right palpus, the other having been removed by amputation. They were placed together on the 16th of May 1842, paired the same day, and were separated as soon as their union was accomplished. On the 19th of June the female deposited a set of eggs in a cocoon, which began to be hatched on the 24th of the following July, and all produced young. Without further sexual intercourse, in 1843 she enveloped a set of eggs in a cocoon on the 7th of April, the 5th of May, the Ist of June, the 18th of June, and the 3rd of July, re- spectively, from all which young were disengaged. Promptness in accommodating itself to the restraint of confine- ment, together with the certainty of being able to procure specimens whenever they might be required, led to the selection of Tegenaria civilis as a suitable subject for the foregoing experiments, from which, conjointly with the preceding ac nnienaatst the following inferences may be deduced :— Ist. That female spiders are incapable of producing prolific eggs without sexual intercourse. 2nd. That females which have not been impregnated occasionally produce sterile eggs. 3rd. That the female of Tegenaria civilis, when impregnated, is capable of producing several sets of prolific eggs in succession with- out renewing its intercourse with the male*, two years or more oc- casionally elapsing before all are deposited, and a period of ten months nearly intervening sometimes between the deposition of two consecutive sets. 4th. That spiders of various species copulate without the abdo- men of the male being brought into contact with that of the female. 5th. That male spiders, in which the part, stated by Treviranus to be the seat of the sexual organs, is entirely covered with strong, well-gummed writing paper closely applied, nevertheless possess the power of exercising the function of generation unimpaired. 6th. Lastly, that males so circumstanced invariably consummate the act by applying the palpal organs to the vulva of females, plainly demonstrating thereby the interesting truth, that those organs, however anomalous their situation may be, are the only efficient * Tegenaria domestica (Aranea domestica, Linn.), Ayelena labyrinthica, and Epéira cucurbitina are endowed with similar powers of production. Vide the Re- port of the Third Meeting of the British Association, p. 445, 230 Mr. J. Blackwall on the Structure, Functions instruments employed by male spiders in the propagation of their species. Before they arrive at maturity spiders change their skin several times: the manner in which these moults are effected may be illus- trated by describing the proceedings of an individual of the species Epéira calophylla. Preparatory to casting its integument, this spider spins some strong lines in the vicinity of its snare, from which it suspends itself by the feet and a filament proceeding from the spinners. After remaining for a short time in this situation, the coriaceous covering of the cephalothorax gives way laterally, dis- uniting at the insertion of the legs and mandibles ; the line of sepa- ration pursues the same direction till it extends to the abdomen, which is next disengaged, the extrication of the legs being the last and greatest difficulty the spider has to overcome. As the suspen- sory filament connected with the spinners of the exuviee is consider- ably shorter than the legs and does not undergo any sensible altera- tion in length, the abdomen, during the process of moulting, be- comes gradually deflected from its original horizontal direction till it assumes a vertical position nearly at right angles with the cephalo- thorax. By this change of posture, attended with numerous contor- tions of the body, and alternate contractions and extensions of the limbs, the spider is ultimately enabled to accomplish its purpose. When it has completely disengaged itself from the slough, it remains, for a short period, in a state of great exhaustion, suspended solely by a thread from the spinners, connected with the interior of the abdominal portion of the cast skin, which is much corrugated. After reposing a little, the spider further attaches itself to the suspensory lines by the claws of the feet, and when its strength is sufficiently restored, and its limbs have acquired the requisite degree of firm- ness, it ascends its filaments and seeks its retreat*. Recent observations establish the fact, that the number of times spiders change their integument before they become adult is not uniformly the same as regards every species. A young female Epéiva calophylla, disengaged from the egg on the 30th of March 1843, moulted on the 8th of the ensuing month in the cocoon, which it quitted on the lst of May; moulting again, in the same year, on the 4th of June, the 22nd of June, the 12th of July, and the 4th of August, respectively, when it arrived at maturity, having cast its skin five times. An egg of Epéira diadema, hatched on the 14th of April 1843, produced a female spider, which moulted in the cocoon on the 24th of the same month ; on the 3rd of May it quitted the cocoon, and moulted again on the 21st of June, the 10th of July, the 3rd of August, and the 23rd of August, in the same year. On the 28th of February 1844 it died in a state of immaturity after having com- pleted its fifth moult. On the 27th of June 1842 an egg of Tegenaria civilis produced a female spider, which underwent its first moult in the cocoon on the 10th of the ensuing July ; quitting the cocoon on the 21st of the * Transactions of the Linnean Society, vol xvi. p. 482-484. and Ciconomy of the Araneidea. 231 same month, it moulted again on the 17th of August, the 4th of September, and the 26th of September, in the same year; and on the 26th of January, the 9th of April, the 24th of May, the 21st of June, and the 5th of August in 1843, when it arrived at maturity, having changed its integument nine times. A male Tegenaria civilis, extricated from the egg on the 27th of June 1842, also moulted nine times, casting its skin in the cocoon on the 10th of the following July; on the 21st of the same month it abandoned the cocoon, moulting again on the 13th of August, the 10th of September, and the 13th of October, in the same year ; and on the Ist of February, the 25th of April, the 17th of June, the 13th of July, and the 17th of October in 1843, when its development was complete. Modifications of food and temperature exercise a decided influence upon the moulting of spiders. A young female Zegenaria civilis disengaged from the egg on the 24th of July 1842, on the 2nd of the following August moulted in the cocoon, which it quitted on the 12th of the same month, casting its skin again on the 29th of Au- gust, and the 10th of October, in the same year ; being scantily sup- plied with nutriment, it increased very little in size, and died on the 4th of July 1843, having changed its integument three times only. Another female of the same species, which was extricated from the egg on the same day as the foregoing individual, and was well-fed, on the 13th of July 1843 had moulted seven times. It is apparent also from the particulars already stated, that the intervals between conse- cutive moults are much shorter when the temperature of the atmo- sphere is high than when it is low. Immature spiders infested by the larva of Polysphincta carbonaria, an insect belonging to the family Jehnewmonide, which feeds upon their fluids, never change their integument*. Like certain animals of the class Crustacea, spiders possess the property of reproducing such limbs as have been detached or muti- lated, and this curious physiological phenomenon is intimately con- nected with the renovation of the integument, as it is observed to take place at the time of moulting only. Exveriments illustrative of this interesting subject have been multiplied to a very great extent ; in introducing some of them to notice, such have been selected, as from the novel and important conclusions deducible from them are best deserving of attention. 1. A young male 7extrix lycosina had half of the terminal joint of each superior spinner amputated, and the posterior leg on the right side detached at the coxa, on the 3rd of August 1838. It moulted on the 10th of September, reproducing the detached parts, which were small but perfect in structure, On the 23rd of Febru- ary 1839 it moulted again and became adult; at the same time a sensible increase took place in the bulk of the reproduced parts, which, nevertheless, were still defective in point of size. 2. On the 23rd of August 1838 a young female Tegenaria civilis * Annals and Magazine of Natural History, vol. xi. p. 1-4. 232 Mr. J. Blackwall on the Structure, Functions had the anterior leg on the right side and the third leg on the left side detached at the coxa, the terminal joint of the superior and in- ferior spinners on the right side being amputated at the same time. This spider moulted on the 27th of September, when the detached parts, of a smaller size than the corresponding parts on the opposite side, but perfect in structure, were reproduced. On the 6th of No- vember it changed its integument a second time, and on the 16th of June 1839 a third time, when it arrived at maturity. The reproduced parts advanced perceptibly in growth at each successive moult, but did not ultimately acquire their full dimensions. 3. A young male Tegenaria civilis had the digital joint of the left palpus, which was very tumid, detached on the 6th of October 1838. It moulted on the 17th of June 1839 and reproduced the left palpus, which, though small, had the radial joint provided with the apophy- sis characteristic of a state of maturity in this species. The sexual organs, however, were altogether wanting, and the digital joint was slightly modified in size and form by this circumstance. It is scarcely necessary to remark that the sexual organs connected with the right palpus were fully developed. 4. The digital joint of the left palpus of a young female Segestria senoculaia was amputated on the 18th of May 1839. This spider cast its integument on the 8th of July, the left palpus, of a small size, being reproduced. It moulted again on the 28th of June 1840, when the reproduced palpus had its dimensions enlarged and the spider arrived at maturity. On the 12th of December 1842 it died, having existed nearly three years and a half in captivity. 5. On the 8th of June 1839 a young female Agelena labyrinthica had the terminal joint of each superior spinner amputated. Bring- ing the extremities of the tarsi of the posterior legs to the mouth, it moistened them with saliva, and repeatedly applied them to the mu- tilated parts. On the 21st of the same month it moulted, and the superior spinners, of a small size, were reproduced. It moulted again on the 12th of the ensuing July, when the reproduced spin- ners were increased in size, and it arrived at maturity. 6. A young male Zextrix lycosina had the terminal joint of each superior spinner amputated, and the third leg on the right side de- tached at the coxa, on the 25th of July 1839. This spider cast its integument on the 6th of the ensuing August, when the stumps only of the mutilated parts were produced. On the 2nd of December, in the same year, it moulted again; the superior spinners and third leg on the right side, of a small size, were then reproduced, and it arrived at maturity. 7. The left palpus of a young male Tegenaria civilis, the digital joint of which was very tumid, was amputated at the axillary joint on the 15th of January 1840. On the 22nd of June, in the same year, it moulted, reproducing the left palpus, which was of small di- mensions. The radial joint was provided with an apophysis, indica- ting the mature state of the spider, but the digital joint was some- what modified in size and form, and the sexual organs were not repro- duced. and Ciconomy of the Araneidea. 233 8. A young male Tegenaria civilis had the right palpus amputated at the axillary joint on the 15th of January 1840. It moulted on the 2nd of the following June, when the detached part, of a small size, was reproduced and the digital joint became very tumid. On the 12th of August, in the same year, it moulted again ; the right palpus was augmented in size, the radial joint was furnished with an apo- physis, and the sexual organs, complete in their organization, were developed ; these several parts, however, were still decidedly smaller than the corresponding parts of the left palpus. 9. On the 25th of January 1840 the left palpus of a young female Tegenaria civilis was amputated at the axillary joint. This spider moulted on the Ist of the ensuing May, at which time the detached part, of a small size, was reproduced. On the 20th of June and the 6th of August, in the same year, it moulted again and arrived at maturity, the left palpus receiving an increase in size at each suc- cessive moult. 10. A young male Ciniflo ferox had the cubital, radial and di- gital joints of the left palpus amputated on the 26th of May 1840. It moulted on the 18th of the following June and reproduced the left palpus, which was small, with the digital joint very tumid. On the 8th of August, in the same year, it moulted again, when the left palpus was enlarged, the apophyses of the radial joint were produced, and the sexual organs were developed. Though the several parts of the left palpus were smaller than the corresponding parts of the right palpus, yet they were perfect in their organization. 1i. The left palpus of a young male Ciniflo atrox was amputated at the axillary joint on the 28th of May 1840. This spider changed its integument on the 27th of the following June, and reproduced the left palpus, which had the digital joint very tumid. On the 11th of August, in the same year, it moulted again, when the apophyses of the radial joint and the sexual organs, perfect in structure, were developed, but all the parts of the left palpus were smaller than the corresponding parts of the right palpus. 12. A young male Linyphia cauta had the right palpus at the axillary joint, the cubital, radial and digital joints of the left palpus, and the tibiz and tarsi of the first, second and third legs on the left side amputated on the 30th of May 1840. On the 25th of the en- suing June it moulted, when the stumps only of the palpi were pro- duced, but the mutilated legs, of small dimensions, were reproduced. It moulted again on the 21st of July, in the same year, and though the palpi still were not reproduced, yet the newly-formed legs were augmented in size and the spider arrived at maturity. 13. The digital joint of the left palpus of a young male Linyphia cauta, which was very tumid, was amputated on the 20th of July 1840. The spider moulted on the 19th of the following August, reproduced the left palpus, of a small size, with the digital joint considerably modified, and at the same time arrived at maturity ; but the sexual organs were not reproduced. 14. A young male Tegenaria eivilis had the right palpus ampu- tated at the axillary joint on the 9th of June 1841. On the 13th of Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Vol. xv. S 234 Mr. J. Blackwall on the Structure, Functions the following July it cast its integument and reproduced the right palpus, which, though small, had the digital joint very tumid. It moulted again on the 20th of August, in the same year, when the dimensions of the right palpus were augmented, the radial joint was provided with an apophysis, and the sexual organs were developed. The organization of the right palpus was perfect in all its parts, but they were smaller than the corresponding parts of the left palpus. 15. On the 25th of June 1841 a young male Drassus sericeus had the cubital, radial and digital joints of the left palpus amputated, the digital joint being very tumid. It moulted on the 16th of the en- suing August and reproduced the left palpus, of a small size; the radial joint was provided with an apophysis, indicating the mature state of the spider, but the sexual organs were not reproduced. 16. A young male Ciniflo ferox had the right palpus amputated at the axillary joint onthe 2nd of July 1841. On the 19th it moulted, but the stump only of the mutilated part was produced. On the 28th of the same month the left palpus was amputated at the axillary joint. The spider moulted again on the 28th of the ensuing August, when both the palpi, of a small size, were produced. 17. The anterior leg on the left side of a young female Tegenaria civilis was amputated at the coxa on the Ist of September 1842. This spider was dissected on the 14th of the following October, when on the point of moulting, as was evident from the deepened hue of the integument and from the perfect structure of the tarsal and pal- pal claws, visible through it. The anterior leg on the left side, which was reproduced, was complete in its organization, /;,ths of an inch in length, and was curiously folded in the integument of the old coxa, which measured only 5/;th of an inch in length. 18. A young male Tegenaria civilis had the posterior leg on the left side amputated near the middle of the tibia on the 24th of April 1843, when it moistened the tarsus of the third leg on the same side with saliva and repeatedly applied it to the mutilated limb. Being about to moult, this spider was dissected on the 5th of the ensuing June ; the posterior leg on the left side, which was reproduced, was found to have its tarsal and metatarsal joints folded in the undetached half of the integument of the old tibia. A recapitulation of the more remarkable results obtained from the experiments, elucidated in several instances by additional facts and observations, will not, it is presumed, be deemed superfluous. Physiologists, in conducting researches relative to the reproduc- tion of the limbs of spiders, seem to have limited their investigations to the legs of those animals ; whereas, in the experiments detailed above, the palpi and spinners, as well as the legs, were operated upon; and all these parts are found to be renewed, and afterwards to have their dimensions enlarged at the period of moulting only ; it appears also that if a part of a limb be amputated, as the tarsus of a leg or the digital joint of a palpus, the whole is reproduced, all the joints of the new limb, though small, being proportionate to those of the corresponding limb on the opposite side, with the exception of the digital joint of the palpi of male spiders when the sexual organs and Ciconomy of the Araneidea. 235 are not reproduced, which is usually somewhat modified in size and form by that circumstance. At the penultimate moult of male spiders the digital joints of the palpi become very tumid, in much the greater number of species, by a sudden and rapid advance towards development in the sexual or- gans, and should those parts be detached during the interval which elapses between that and the succeeding moult, though the palpi, indicating by their organization that the animal has arrived at ma- turity, may be reproduced, yet the sexual organs are always absent. (See experiments 3,7,13,15.) Adult males of the species Lycosa obscura, Dysdera Hombergii, and Philodromus dispar have been found in a state of liberty with the palpi unequal in size and the smaller one entirely destitute of the sexual organs. 3 When the palpi of male spiders, which had been amputated be- fore the penultimate moult, are reproduced, the sexual organs, per- fect in structure, are reproduced also (see experiments 8, 10, 11, 14); unexceptionable evidence in support of this singular fact is to be found in their reduced dimensions and integrity of form, but it will searcely be denied that the original germs of those organs must have been removed with the detached palpi. That the function of the sexual organs is not in the least affected by their reproduction there exists the most satisfactory proof. In the last of those expe- riments, having for their object the determination of the seat of the sexual organs in male spiders, recorded in this report, the male Zege- naria civilis, stated to have possessed the right palpus only when in- troduced to the female, is identical with that which was the subject of experiment 8 in the foregoing series ; consequently, its sexual or- gans had been reproduced, yet the fertility of its mate bore ample testimony to the unimpaired efficiency of their generative agency. * If experiments 6 and 16 be referred to, it will be seen that the stumps only of mutilated parts are occasionally produced at the fol- lowing moult, and that the entire parts, of a small size, are some- times restored at a subsequent moult. : Experiment 12 presents an extraordinary case of the stumps of the palpi being produced at two consecutive moults after they had suf- fered mutilation, though several legs of the same spider, mutilated at the same time, were renewed at the next moult after the infliction of the injury. The fact, that reproduced legs, immediately antecedent to the process of moulting, are folded in the integument of the undetached portion of the mutilated limbs, is clearly established by experiments 17 and 18. With some spiders the duration of life does not exceed the brief space of twelve months, whereas it may be safely inferred from ex~- periment 4 that Segestria senoculata does not even complete its se- veral changes of integument and arrive at maturity in less than two years. The individual there stated to have had the digital joint of the left palpus detached on the 18th of May 1839 was then about two-thirds grown, and must have been disengaged from the egg in the summer of the preceding year, as this species breeds in the 236 Mr. J. Blackwall on the Structure, Functions months of May and June in North Wales. On the 28th of June 1840, the third summer of its existence, it underwent its last moult and became adult. Subsequent experiments made with both sexes of this spider tend to corroborate the accuracy of the above con- clusion. . Variations in the colour and size of spiders of the same kind, re- sulting from differences in age, sex, food, climate, and other condi- tions of a less obvious character, as they conduce largely to the in- troduction of fictitious species, have long engaged the attention of arachnologists, while those arising from extraordinary organic modi- fications, in consequence, perhaps, of their less frequent occurrence, have been almost entirely overlooked. ‘The importance which cases of the latter description possess in relation to physiology and syste- matic arrangement will be best illustrated by a few examples. 1. A supernumerary eye, situated between the two small ones constituting the anterior intermediate pair, has been observed in an adult female Theridion jilipes. The total number of eyes possessed by this individual was nine and their arrangement symmetrical. 2. An immature female Thomisus cristatus had the two lateral pairs of eyes only; the four small intermediate ones were altogether wanting, not the slightest rudiment of them being perceptible even with the aid of a powerful magnifier. 3. A short but perfectly formed supernumerary tarsus, connected with the base of the tarsal joint of the right: posterior leg on its outer side, has been noticed in an adult female Lycosa campestris. 4. Deficiency of the right intermediate eye of the anterior row has been remarked in an adult male Lycosa cambrica. _ 5. The left intermediate eye of the posterior row was perceived to he wanting in an adult female Epéira inclinata, and the right inter- mediate eye of the same row was not half the usual size. 6. An adult female Cinzflo atrox was found to be without the left intermediate eye of the posterior row. 7. The right intermediate eye of the posterior row in an adult fe- male Hpéira inclinata had not one-eighth of the natural size, being merely rudimentary. The particulars stated in the foregoing cases, which serve to esta- blish the fact, that spiders, in common with many other animals, oc- casionally exhibit instances of anomalous structure, derive no small degree of interest from their novelty ; but when it is borne in mind that-all the examples except one have reference to those important organs the eyes, important, not only as regards the function they perform, but also on account of the extensive use made of them in the classification of the Araneidea, that interest becomes greatly augmented. As spiders with four eyes have not yet been found, it is a matter of some consequence to caution observers against mistaking a mere defect in structure, like that recorded in case 2, for such a discovery. Whether there are species provided with an odd number of eyes or not is at present conjectural ; should such exist, symmetry in the ar- rangement of their visual organs certainly may be expected to ob- and Ciconomy of the Araneidea. 237 tain; consequently, cases 4, 5 and 6, which present instances of an odd number of eyes disposed irregularly, would be regarded at all times with suspicion ; as no such objection, however, can be urged against case 1, a solution of the difficulty it presents must be sought for in a more accurate acquaintance with the species. Interesting chiefly in a physiological point of view, cases 3 and 7 show that a liability to irregularity in structure is not limited to the eyes, and that those organs are subject to preternatural variations in size as well as number. The obscurity in which the cause of these remarkable organic mo- difications is involved, careful investigation, conducted upon sound philosophical principles, can alone dispel *. Argyroneta aquatica, Dolomedes fimbriatus, and Lycosa piratica are known to descend spontaneously beneath the surface of water, the time during which they can respire when immersed depending upon the quantity of air confined by the cireumambient liquid among the hairs with which they are clothed. There are, however, some spi- ders of small size, Hrigone atra and Savignia frontata, for example, which, though they do not enter water voluntarily, can support life in it for many days, and that without the external supply of air so essential to the existence of Argyroneta aquatica under similar cir- cumstances. It is probable that this property may contribute to their preservation through the winter, when their hybernacula are liable to be inundated+. Spiders, though extremely voracious, are capable of enduring long abstinence from food. A young female Theridion quadripunctatum, captured in August 1829, was placed in a phial and fed with flies till the 15th of October, in the same year, during which period it accom- plished its final moult and attained maturity. It was then removed to a smaller phial, which was closely corked and locked up in a book- case, its supply of food being at the same time discontinued. In this situation it remained till the 30th of April 1831, on which day it died, without receiving the slightest nourishment of any description. Throughout its captivity it never failed to produce a new snare when an old one was removed, which was frequently the case; and it is a fact particularly deserving of attention, that the alvine evacuations were continued, in minute quantities and at very distant intervals, to the termination of its existence t. When about to deposit their eggs, spiders usually spin for their reception silken cocoons displaying much diversity of form, size, co- lour, and consistency. Those of the Lycose have a lenticular, or spherical figure and compact structure, with the exception of a nar- row zone of a delicate texture by which they are encircled. In con- structing their cocoons, these spiders slightly connect the margins of the two compact portions, beneath which the thin fabric of the zone is folded. ‘This simple contrivance affords an admirable pro- * Annals and Magazine of Natural History, vol. xi. p. 165-168. + Report of the Third Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science held at Cambridge in 1833, p. 446. { Researches in Zoology, pp. 302, 303. 238 Mr. J. Blackwall on the Structure, Functions vision for the development of the young in the fcetal state by an en-. larged capacity in the cocoons consequent on the margins of the compact parts becoming detached by the expansive force within, the eventual liberation of the young being effected by the rupture of the zone. Theridion callens fabricates a very remarkable balloon-shaped co- coon about one-eighth of an inch in diameter. It is composed of soft silk of a loose texture and pale brown colour, inclosed in an irregular network of coarse, dark red-brown silk ; several of the lines composing this network unite near the lower and smaller extremity of the cocoon, leaving intervals there through which the young pass when they quit it, and, being cemented together throughout the re- mainder of their extent, form a slender stem, varying from one-tenth to half of an inch in length, by which the cocoon is attached to the surface of stones and fragments of rock, resembling in its figure and erect position some of the minute plants belonging to the class Cryp- togamia. The eggs are large, considering the small size of the spider, five or six in number, spherical, not agglutinated together, and of a brown colour *. : An elegant vase-shaped cocoon, composed of white silk of a fine compact texture, and attached by a short foot-stalk to rushes, the stems of grass, heath, and gorse, is constructed by Agelena brunnea ; it measures about one-fourth of an inch in diameter, and contains from forty to fifty yellowish-white, spherical eggs enveloped in white silk connected with the interior of the cocoon contiguous to the foot-stalk. Greatly to the disadvantage of its appearance, the entire cocoon is smeared with moist soil, which drying serves to protect it from the weather, and as an additional security, the extremity is closed and directed downwards. Theridion riparium fabricates a slender, conical tube of silk of a very slight texture, measuring from one and a half to two and a half inches in length, and about half an inch in diameter at its lower extremity. It is closed above, open below, thickly covered externally with bits of indurated earth, small stones, and withered leaves and flowers, which are incorporated with it, and is suspended perpendi- cularly, by lines attached to its sides and apex, in the irregular snare constructed by this species. In the upper part of this singular do- micile the female spins several globular cocoons of yellowish-white silk of a slight texture, whose mean diameter is about one-eighth of an inch, in each of which she deposits from twenty to sixty small spherical eggs of a pale yellowish-white colour, not agglutinated together. The young remain with the mother for a long period after quitting the cocoons, and are provided by her with food, which con- sists chiefly of ants. Oonops pulcher constructs several contiguous, subglobose cocoons of white silk of a fine but compact texture in the crevices of rocks and walls, and among lichens growing on the trunks of trees; each * Transactions of the Linnzan Society, vol, xviii. p. 629, + Researches in Zoology, p. 356. and Ciconomy of the Araneidea. 239 measures about one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter and usually comprises two spherical, pink eggs, not agglutinated together. It may be remarked, by way of contrast, that Epéira quadrata fre- quently deposits between nine hundred and a thousand spherical eggs of a yellow colour, in a globular cocoon of coarse yellow silk of a loose texture, measuring seven-tenths of an inch in diameter, which is attached to the stems of heath, gorse, and other vegetable productions in the vicinity of its haunts. Among the silken snares fabricated by spiders for the purpose of capturing their prey, the most elegant are those constructed with the appearance of geometrical precision in the form of circular nets. They are composed of an elastic spiral line thickly studded with mi- nute globules of liquid gum, whose circumvolutions, falling within the same plane, are crossed by radii converging towards a common centre, which is immediately surrounded by several circumvolutions of a short spiral line devoid of viscid globules, forming a station from which the toils may be superintended by their owner without the inconvenience of being entangled in them. As the radii are unadhesive and possess only a moderate share of elasticity, they must consist of a different material from that of the viscid spiral line, which is elastic in an extraordinary degree. Now the viscidity of this line may be shown to depend entirely upon the globules with which it is studded, for if they be removed by careful applications of the finger, a fine glossy filament remains, which is highly elastic, but perfectly unadhesive. As the globules, therefore, and the line on which they are disposed, differ so essentially from each other, and from the radii, it is reasonable to infer that the physical constitution of these several portions of the net must be dissimilar. An estimate of the number of viscid globules distributed on the elastic spiral line in a net of Apéira apoclisa of a medium size, will convey some idea of the elaborate operations performed by the Epéire in the construction of their snares. The mean distance be- tween two adjacent radii, in a net of this species, is about seven- tenths of an inch; if, therefore, the number 7 be multiplied by 20, the mean number of viscid globules which occur on one-tenth of an inch of the elastic spiral line, at the ordinary degree of tension, the product will be 140, the mean number of globules deposited on seven-tenths of an inch of the elastic spiral line; this product mul- tiplied by 24, the mean number of circumvolutions described by the elastic spiral line, gives 3360, the mean number of globules contained between two radii; which multiplied by 26, the mean number of radii, produces 87,360, the total number of viscid globules in a finished net of average dimensions. A large net, fourteen or sixteen inches in diameter, will be found, by a similar calculation, to contain up- wards of 120,000 viscid globules, and yet Epéira apoelisa will com- plete its snare in about forty minutes if it meet with no interruption. In the formation of their snares the E/péire appear to be regu- lated solely by the sense of touch, as various species when confined in spacious glass jars placed in situations absolutely impervious to 240 Mr. J. Blackwall on the Structure, Functions light construct nets which do not exhibit the slightest irregularity of plan or defect of structure *. Dr. Lister supposed that spiders are able to retract the lines they spin within the abdomen, and whoever minutely observes the Apéire, when fabricating their snares, will almost be induced to entertain the same opinion. The viscid line produced by these spiders in their transit from one radius to another is sometimes drawn out to a much greater extent than is necessary to connect the two, yet, on ap- proaching the point at which it is to be attached, it appears to re- enter the spinners, till it is reduced to the exact length required. This optical illusion, for such it is, is oceasioned by the extreme elasticity of the line, which may be extended greatly by the applica- tion of a slight force, and on its removal will contract proportionally. By this property the viscid spiral line is accommodated to the fre- quent and rapid changes in distance which take place among the radii when agitated by winds or other disturbing forces, and by it insects, which fly against the snare, are more completely entangled than they otherwise could be without doing extensive injury to its frame-work ft. Complicated as the processes are by which these symmetrical nets are produced, nevertheless, young spiders, acting under the influence of instinctive impulse, display, even in their first attempt to fabricate them, as consummate skill as the most experienced individuals. Although spiders are not provided with wings, and, consequently, are incapable of flying, in the strict sense of the word; yet, by the aid of their silken filaments, numerous species, belonging to various genera, are enabled to accomplish distant journeys through the at- mosphere. These aérial excursions, which appear to result from an instinctive desire to migrate, are undertaken when the weather is bright and serene, particularly in the autumn, both by adult and immature individuals, and are effected in the following manner. After climbing to the summits of different objects, they raise them- selves still higher by straightening the limbs; then elevating the ab- domen, by bringing it from the usual horizontal position into one al- most perpendicular, they emit from the spinners a small quantity of viscid fluid, which is drawn out into fine lines by the ascending cur- rent occasioned by the rarefaction of the air contiguous to the heated ground, Against these lines the current of rarefied air impinges, till the animals, feeling themselves acted upon with sufficient force, quit their hold of the objects on which they stand and mount aloft. Spiders do not always ascend into the atmosphere by a vertical movement, but are observed to sail through it in various directions ; and the fact admits of an easy explanation when the disturbing causes by which that subtile medium is liable to be affected are taken into consideration. A direction parallel to the horizon will be given by a cussent of air moving in that plane; a perpendicular one, by * Zoological Journai, vel. v. p. 181-188, Transactions of the Linnean Society, vol. xvi. p. 477-479. Researches in Zoology, p. 253-270. + Researches in Zoology, pp. 267, 268. and Ciconomy of the Araneidea. 241 the ascent of air highly rarefied; and directions intermediate be- tween these two will, in general, depend upon the composition of forces. When the horizontal and vertical currents are equal in force, the line of direction will describe an angle of 45°-nearly with the plane of the horizon ; but when their forces are unequal, the angle formed with that plane will be greater or less as one current or the other predominates. The manner in which the lines of spiders are carried out from the spinners by a current of air appears to be this. As a preparatory measure, the spinning mammule are brought into close contact, and viscid matter is emitted from the papille ; they are then separated by a lateral motion, which extends the viscid matter into fine fila- ments connecting the papille ; on these filaments the current im- pinges, drawing them out to a length which is regulated by the will of the animal ; and on the mammule being again brought together the filaments coalesce and form a compound line. Many intelligent naturalists entertain the opinion that spiders can forcibly propel or dart out lines from their spinners ; but when placed on twigs set upright in glass vessels with perpendicular sides contain- ing a quantity of water sufficient to immerse their bases completely, all the efforts they make to effect an escape uniformly prove unavailing in a still atmosphere. However, should the individuals thus insu- lated be exposed to a current of air either naturally or artificially produced, they immediately turn the abdomen in the direction of the breeze, and emit from the spinners a little of their viscid secretion, which being carried out in a line by the current becomes connected with some object in the vicinity, and affords them the means of re- gaining their liberty. If due precaution be used in conducting this experiment, it clearly demonstrates that spiders are utterly incapable of darting lines from their spinners, as they cannot possibly escape from their confinement on the twigs in situations where the air is un- disturbed, but in the agitated atmosphere of an inhabited room they accomplish their object without difficulty. Similar means are fre- quently employed by spiders in their natural haunts for the pur- poses of changing their situation and fixing the foundations of their snares. The webs named gossamer are composed of lines spun by spiders, which on being brought into contact by the mechanical action of gentle airs adhere together, till by continual additions they are ac- cumulated into irregular white flakes and masses of considerable magnitude. Occasionally spiders may be found on gossamer-webs after an ascending current of rarefied air has separated them from the objects to which they were attached, and has raised them into the atmosphere ; but as they never make use of them intentionally in the performance of their aéronautic expeditions, it must always be regarded as a fortuitous circumstance*. * Transactions of the Linnean Society, vol. xv. p. 449-459. Researches in Zoo- logy, p. 229-252. 242 Mr. W. Reckitt on the Preservation of Objects XXIX.—On the Preservation of Objects of Natural History for the Microscope. By Wiii1am Recxirt, M.R.C.S.L. To R. Taylor, Esq. Dear Sir, Havine read in the present Number (February) of the ‘ Annals’ a paper by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley on the mode of mounting objects of natural history for the microscope, I am induced to offer for your perusal a few remarks on the same subject, and to suggest to you what appears to me a surer and a better plan. For the last few years I have been engaged in microscopical in- vestigations, during which time I have frequently had occasion to regret that many of my best preparations were rendered en- .tirely useless by preservation in balsam of Canada, the only me- thod of mounting with which I was acquainted, which was entirely unfitted for exhibiting the structure of vegetable tissues, as well as the delicate parts of insects, frequently converting them into a confused hyaline mass, in which nothing of their structure was recognisable. In the spring of last year I requested the publication of a few remarks on the best mode of mounting im the ‘ Annals,’ which was answered obligingly by the appearance of a paper on the subject by Dr. J. W. Griffith. Consequently I set to work on the plan proposed by that gentleman, but was much disappointed at the length of time which was necessary to allow them to dry. I then made a variety of experiments to invent a varnish which would present the two grand desiderata of perfect fluidity, al- lowing it to be easily applied, together with the property of dry- ing quickly. All my endeavours to succeed in this would I be- lieve have failed, had I not in my inquiries luckily stumbled on a drunken painter, who suggested the employment of old black japan. This, which can be obtained at any painter’s, | have used. ever since, and found to answer every expectation. It is abso- lutely necessary that it should be old to ensure it drying speedily. The object should be mounted in a cell in the way described by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley, however minute it may be, as it pre- vents the varnish from insinuating itself between the upper and lower glasses ; the fluid should be soaked up to the margin of the top glass by a small piece of blotting-paper, and then a very thin delicate coating of black japan is to be applied with a fine camel- hair pencil; this will be perfectly dry on exposure to the atmo- sphere in twenty-four hours, when another coating rather thicker is to be applied, and on the third day another, which should have two days allowed for it to dry in, when the slider may be papered. I usually make a number of cells of different sizes at a time. of Natural History for the Microscope. 243 These are made by merely painting the glass slider with a thin coating of varnish so as to leave an empty clear space of the size desired. These will be ready for use in twenty-four hours. Iftime is an object, they may be placed on the fire “ hob,” and in a quarter of an hour your cell will be ready for use. If a thick cell be re- quired, a second or third coating should be applied : it is far better to make deep cells by three or four coatings, letting the preceding one be quite dry, than to form it at once by a single thick appli- cation of the varnish. And now with regard to the fluid for pre- serving the objects in, Mr. Berkeley and Dr. Griffith recommend Goadby’s solution. This does very well for animal substances, but is totally inadmissible, so far as my experience goes, in a very great number of vegetables. The endochrome of the Zygnema is coagulated by it, and the beautiful spiral in the interior of the cell is destroyed, and the same has been the case in other delicate confervoids where I have tried it; in place of the bright green in many of these, they have presented a dull leaden appearance. Pollen tubes mounted in it are invariably spoiled. This obtains equally where spirit of wine is made use of, even though used in a very dilute state ; it has also the additional disadvantage of cor- rugating and making opake. The fluid I make use of is simply cold water ; perhaps it would be better if previously boiled and allowed to stand for a short time: filtering in my opinion should never be had recourse to with any fluid used for microscopical purposes, as the liquid in passing through the bibulous paper will always carry with it small flocci from the paper, and the presence of these materially inter- fere with the beauty and perfection of the object to be viewed. When the object is varnished down and all contact with the at- mosphere is cut off, it is impossible that decomposition can take place. In the case of marine Alge I make use of salt water which has been allowed to stand for some little time in order that all the impurities may subside. Many hundred objects have been mounted by me in the manner described, which are as perfect in every respect as they were on the day in which they were first prepared, in shape, colour, &c.: probably the most delicate pre- paration I possess is a slider of the cells of the anther of Chara hispida, in which the spermatozoa are beautifully shown, some in the cells, others im the act of quitting the cell, and some spread over the surface of the glass in the cell. Now if decomposition did take place in this method of mounting, it would doubtless have attacked and destroyed long before this these delicate little animalcules, animal matter being much ‘more liable to the de- structive process, ceteris paribus, than vegetable. Many months have elapsed since they were mounted (in May last). Every working microscopist examines with the object immersed 244 Van Beneden on the genera Eleutheria and Synhydra. in a drop of water and covered with a top glass. Now it is a very great advantage to be able at once to mount anything without being obliged to shift the top glass in order to introduce a different fluid ; in doing this the relative positions of parts are frequently changed, or in the case of animalcules the latter may be lost, and many a rare thing have I irrecoverably been deprived of by ha- ving recourse to a different fluid before I was led to adopt my present mode. If any person could discover a method of mount- ing marine Algze so as to prevent the loss of the beautiful tints in many of the more delicate, he would confer a great boon on microscopists. I regret to say that every method of preserving colour in the Griffithsia, the Calithamnia and Ceramia have with me signally failed ; their delicate rose-coloured tints are soon lost, even though the cell is allowed to dry and the preparation ever afterwards kept in a dark place. Inclosed I forward to you a cell, also a slider containing a portion of Batrachospermum vagum according to Sowerby, but in my humble opinion a variety only of B. moniliforme, together with the spiral vessels of the garden Nasturtium. These are all prepared in the manner detailed above, have been mounted nearly a year, and have suffered no change during this time. I have the honour to be, Sir, your obedient servant, WiiraM Reckitt, M.R.C.S.L. Boston, Lincolnshire. XXX.—On the genera Eleutheria and Synhydra. By P. J. Van BreNEDEN, Professor at the University of Louvain*. In order that physiological researches may extend the state of our knowledge in zoology, it is requisite that the limits of the genera and species composing the scale of beings should be well determined. The object of the naturalist should be to become acquainted with the animal in the different phases of its develop- ment. P 2 planta 4. 10. Mus? macropus, mihi.—A water-rat like the last, but twice as large. Distinguished by the largeness of its feet, and also by the fine pelage and the proportions of the last, as well as by a similar bluff face, though less so than in Pyctoris. Above smoky black, below smoky gray. Legs dark ; toes pale. Snout to rump 7% inches ; tail 6; head 2,4,; ears 1;4,; palma plus 1; planta 143 ; weight 6 oz. Mus Horeites, mihii—Dwells in houses and out-houses. Is a small land species with fine pelage, and no peculiarity of physiognomy or proportion. ‘Tail longer than the animal. Co- lour above sordid brown, below sordid white. Snout to rump 4 inches ; tail 44 ; head 1}; ears 74 ; palma 3 ; planta 1. Mics. 12. Mus cervicolor, mihi, Common Field Mouse.—Structure typical. Distinguished by its short tail. Above dull fawn, be- low sordid white. Lining of ears and extremities pale. Snout to rump 3} inches ; tail 27; head 1; ears =2; weight 3 oz. Females less and having ten teats. 13. Mus strophiatus, mibi.—Another field-mouse closely al- lied to the last, but seemingly distinet. Bright fawn above, pure white below; a cross or gorget on the breast. Snout to vent 33 inches ; tail 254, ; head less 1; ears 5% ; weight } oz. 14. Mus. (Vandeleuria) dumeticola, mihi, Wood Mouse.—Te- nants woods and coppices. Remarkable for the extreme length of its tail. Above fawn-colour, below white. Snout to rump 2% inches ; tail 4; head 7; ear 3; weight 4 oz. | 15. Mus dubius, mihi.—A house-mouse, but also found in out-houses and gardens rarely. Alhed to the last by its long tail. Above dusky brown, touched with fawn; below sordid fawn. Snout to rump 21 inches ; tail 23; head 4; ears 3. : 16. Mus homoourus, mihi, Common House: Mouse.—Distin- guished by a tail equal to the animal, being usually quite equal, but sometimes rather less. Coloured like decumanus but purer, or rufescent brown above and rufescent white below. Hands and feet fleshy white. Snout to rump 33 inches ; tail 34 ; head 1,4; ears =, ; palma —?; planta—?; weight $ oz. It has eight teats only in the females? The other mice have ten and the rats twelve. of the Central Region of Nepal. 269 17. Mus urbanus, mihi, City Mouse.—Species usually found in the city of Katmandoo. Allied to dubius in its proportions and colours, and possibly dubius may be the immature. Above embrowned ruddy luteous ; below luteous, more or less rufescent. Feet paler. Snout to rump 23 inches ; tail 82 ; head 1,4, ; ears 5; palma 3; planta 3 ; weight 3 oz. . Mus povensis, mihi, the Powah Mouse.—Procured near the Powah or Caravansery of Jaher Sing ; may be a house or cop- pice species ; allied to dumeticola in proportions and in colours. Distinguished by a tail much longer than the animal. Above bright fawn, below pure white. Extremities nude and pale. Snout to rump 2 inches ; tail3 ; head 43; ears 3; palma—?; planta—?; weight 4 02. SHREWS. : Shrews are rarer in the hills than in the plains, though in th great valley of Nepal proper the species common to both (muri- nus) is perhaps as abundant within the mountains as without them. There are four species with us; whether the other three are found in the plains I do not know. 19. Sorex murinus, the Common House Shrew of the plains and also of the hills, up at least to 6000 feet.—It seldom or never quits houses, is nocturnal, omnivorous, dwells and breeds in holes and crannies and gutters: breeds frequently, and produces four » or five young at a birth, which are nude and blind. Its six teats are inguinal and pubic. It has large anal as well as costal glands and pores, whence issues the strong smell of musk for which the animal is notorious. Its muzzle, ears and extremities are nude. Its tail is covered only with scattered and divergent hairs. The tail is but half the length of the animal, and is rounded and ta- pers from a thick base. Colour uniform slaty blue, with the nude parts.fleshy white. Snout to rump 6 inches; tail 33; weight 2 oz. ; head 12; palma with nails ;% ; planta 1. : aioe 20. Sorex pygmaeus, mihi, Tiny Shrew.—Rarely found in houses. Dwells in coppices and fields. Structure typical, save that no odorous glands were detected, nor had the animal any musky smell. Bolpas sooty brown, paler below. Naked parts of a dusky fleshy hue. Snout to vent less 2 inches; tail 1,5; head 14; palma { ; planta 3. : . Sorex ? nemorivagus, mihi.—Found only in woods and cop- pices. Differs from both the above by a stouter make, by ears smaller and less entirely nude, and by a longer and tetragonal tail. Colour sooty black with a vague reddish smear; the nude parts fleshy gray. Snout to rump 3% inches; tail 2; head 11; palma 3; planta 14; weight less 1 oz. 270 Mr. F. M*Coy’s Contributions to the Fauna of Ireland. 22. Sorex? soccatus, mihi.—Size and proportions of the last nearly, but distinguished by its feet being clad in fur down to the nails, and by its depressed head and tumid bulging cheeks (mystaceal region). Ears large and exposed as in the first two species (murinus and pygmeus), and like them having a rounded tapering tail, but somewhat longer in proportion than theirs. Colour a uniform sordid or brownish slaty blue, extending to the clad extremities. Size nearly of the last. Snout to rump 33 inches ; tail 24; head 1,4; palma } ; planta +3 ; weight ¢ oz: This animal was caught in a wood plentifully watered, but not near the water. I never saw nor heard of it asa tenant of houses, any more than the last-named. It had no musky smell when brought to me dead. I did not examine its glands. P.S.—The above paper completes the notices. of Nepalese Mammals published in India, and, like the papers written there, has been composed without the aid of library or museum. XL.—Contributions to the Fauna of Ireland. By FrepErick M°Coy, Esq., M.G.S.D. [With a Plate.] Norices of some of the following animals were read to the Na- tural-History Society of Dublin at the June meeting for 1844. The Invertebrata are a portion of a large series collected by Mr. MCalla on the west coast of Ireland, and placed in my hands for examination and description by my valued friend Dr. Scouler, whose kindness I have before had to acknowledge for the liberal manner in which he has always allowed me to examine and de- scribe any specimens of interest either in the museum of the Royal Dublin Society or in his own private collection. MAMMALIA. — Vespertilio Nattererit (Kuhl).—The singularly small number of bats found in Ireland only amounting at present to three, of which one (V. Daubentoniz) has occurred but in a single instance, renders any addition to their number of peculiar interest to the Trish naturalist, or to those who take an interest in comparing the fauna of Ireland with that of England. The present species, the reddish gray bat of British authors, has not I believe been hitherto recorded in Ireland ; a specimen however was brought to me last summer by G. Mangan, Esq., and is now in the museum of the Natural-History Society of Dublin ; he killed it near that city, and was of opinion that it was the common species in his neigh- bourhood : whether the pipistrelle (the most common Irish bat) might have been confounded with it on the wing, or whether it Mr. F. M°Coy’s Contributions to the Fauna of Ireland. 271 is really a common species, I cannot say; I can only state the oc- currence of the species, and so add it to the list of Irish animals, AVES. Tringa rufescens, Buff-breasted Sandpiper.—A specimen of this rare bird, shot by J. Hill, Esq. near the Pigeon House, Dublin, is preserved in the Museum of the Natural-History Society of Dublin. The specimen is in the same plumage as those described by Mr. Yarrell; the markings on the under side of the wings are very beautiful. The specimen noticed is the only Irish one I am aware of. : Sterna leucoptera (Temm.).—A specimen of this beautiful tern was shot by J. Hill, Esq. on the Shannon in 1841, in company with the black tern (8. nigra), with which it was confounded ; the specimen was sent along with one of the latter species to the Na- tural-History Society of Dublin, in whose museum they are now preserved ; but from their general resemblance to each other, the present species has remained there undistinguished till the present time. As I believe this to be the first record of the occurrence of this bird in Britain, I subjoin a short description of the spe- cimen and a sketch half the natural size, to assist in drawing the attention of British naturalists to it, as it will probably be found not unfrequent. Measurement—Total length, to extremity of tail, about 8 inches; bill from base 10} lines, from rictus 1 inch 5 lines ; greatest depth of both mandibles 21 lines ; middle toe, in- cluding the claw, 11 lines in length ; tarsus 8 lines ; naked por- tion of the tibia 4 lines. Colours—Legs and feet in the preserved specimen pale pai probably red in the living bird, claws darker ; bill dark blackish brown ; head, neck, breast, abdomen, 272 Mr. F. M¢Coy’s Contributions to the Fauna of Ireland. under wing-coverts and back deep glossy black ; small wing-co- verts, tail, and upper and under tail-coverts pure white ; first three quill-feathers black, with a broad longitudinal band of white on their inner webs ; remainder of the wings ash-gray, becoming darker towards the body. The form, proportions and size of this species are very nearly those of the black tern (S. nigra) ; like that species too the webs of the toes are very deeply indented, being reduced to a mere rudi- ment between the middle and inner toes. The two species are however easily distinguished,—the under wing-coverts of the S. nigra are white, of the S. leucoptera black ; the tail of the former is dark gray, of the latter pure white ; in the S. nigra the throat is white, breast and abdomen dark gray, and the back lead-colour, while in the S. leucoptera all those parts are black. I speak of both species in their perfect plumage. EcHINODERMATA. Priapulus ——? Pl. XVI. fig. 1.—A species of Priapulus is very common in the sand at low water mark in Connemara, and occasionally found on the east coast: as it does not agree with the figures of Miiller or Prof. E. Forbes of the P. caudatus, nor agree exactly with their descriptions, | have made a drawing of a mo- derate-sized specimen for comparison. In a great number of spe- cimens I have examined, the characters seemed to present no variation ; in all of them the trunk is transversely striated, the general proportions thicker and more robust than in P. caudatus ; the body uniformly cylindrical, not dilated at the extremities ; the posterior extremity, instead of being dilated and open, is narrowed and closed ; there_is no longitudinal striation in any of the speci- mens at either end of the body ; the posterior extremity is irre- gularly tuberculated ; the caudal appendage is much thicker and more bushy than in the P. caudatus. As I have not seen living specimens I haye left the species an open question ; if it should prove distinct from the species described by Miiller and Prof. Forbes, it might perhaps be called P. hibernicus. Specimens are in the museum of the Natural-History Society of Dublin, and a large series of them, of every age and size, in the museum of the Royal Dublin Society. | Syrinz granulosus (M°Coy), Pl. XVI. fig. 2.—Sp. Ch. Body nearly smooth, very minutely and uniformly granulated, and ob- soletely striated transversely ; basal half of the proboscis and the posterior extremity of the body roughened by deep concentric ruge and small crowded tubercles ; proboscis from the anal pore to the mouth one-fourth the length of the body, posterior extre- mity mucronate. This fine species is intermediate in character between the S. pa- dnnk Mag. Nat. Hist Vols. PLV7. ~ \ / Friapulus. 2.34, Svrins. try Pat 5 Flt Coy. del . x TDC Sowerby sel Mr. F. M¢Coy’s Contributions to the Fauna of Ireland. 278. pillosus and S. Harveii, the body being entirely without the di- stinct distant papille of the former species ; while on the other hand, instead of being smooth as in the S. Harveii, it is minutely but regularly granulated, the granules being close together and uniformly distributed over the body, except at the posterior ex- tremity and basal half of the trunk, where the surface is rendered rugged by larger tubercles and deep transverse irregular ruge. Colour usually a uniform dull brown. Length about 7 inches ; diameter of body about 9 lines. Very common at Roundstone bay in certain localities. Syring Forbesii (McCoy), Pl. XVI. fig. 3.—Sp. Ch. Posterior half of the body suddenly attenuated; extremity dilated, club- shaped ; trunk slender, dilated towards the extremity, granulated its entire length to the base of the tentacula, remainder of the body perfectly smooth. | The form and proportions of this species are nearly those of the S. nudus, from which it is distinguished by its smaller size, perfectly smooth body, and in having the proboscis granulated to the base of the tentacula. The extremity of the trunk is conical, narrow, surrounded by a circle of short digitate tentacula, behind which the trunk is rather inflated for a short distance and marked with minute granules disposed in circular lines ; the remainder of the proboscis, forming about one-fourth of the entire length of the animal, is of a considerably smaller diameter and covered with a minute crowded granulation ; with the exception of the trunk, the entire animal is perfectly smooth: where the granular portion ceases the body is abruptly dilated to nearly four times the diameter of the trunk, and continues cylindrical for about the same length, when it again diminishes to about one-third its dia- meter, and so continues to the posterior extremity, which is di- lated into a pear-shaped knob. The anal pore is situated on the dilated smooth portion of the body, a little below its junction with the trunk. Not uncommon at Roundstone bay, Connemara, from whence there are specimens in the museum of the Royal Dublin So- ciety. Syrinz tenuicinctus (M°Coy), PI. XfV/ fig. 4.—Sp. Ch. Cylin- drical, diameter of body from the base of the trunk to the poste- rior extremity perfectly uniform ; posterior extremity obtuse, slightly mucronate at the tip; trunk about one-seventh of the entire length ; tip obtuse, surrounded by a few rows of minute puncta ; entire surface of the animal sharply striated concentri- cally : with a lens the trunk and a small portion of the posterior extremity are seen to be also marked with numerous faint, short, rather distant, longitudinal striz. It is only after much hesitation that I have ventured to cha- 274 —- Bibliographical Notices. racterize this pretty species. I had long been struck by its pe- culiar uniform, cylindrical body, short proboscis, blunt posterior end, and tough, finely striated, glossy integument, the species being very common on the west coast of Ireland. I was uncer- tain whether the species might prove to be the young of the S. granulosus which I have just described ; I have however recently been able to examine so large a number of the latter species at all ages, that my doubts are entirely cleared up. The adult length of the S. tenuicinctus seems to be about three and a half inches: young specimens of the S. granulosus of the same size may be readily distinguished by their granulated body (which is proportionably more distinct in the young than in the old individuals), and their posterior extremity being more gradually pointed and remarkably roughened both by transverse wrinkles and granules. From the S. Harveii it is distinguished by its tough striated integument, blunt posterior end, the faint and peculiar character of the reti- culation at the two ends of the body, and in the entire of the trunk being marked in the same manner as its base. The colour is usually a clear, uniform hair-brown; length about 3 inches ; diameter of body 3 limes ; diameter of trunk 1 line. The figure given by Pennant of the Siphunculus nudus seems to belong rather to this species; the Phascolosoma carneum figured by Ruppell from the Red Sea is also similar, but is distinguished by its pink colour, perfectly smooth body and longer proboscis. Specimens are in the collection of the Royal Dublin Society from the west coast. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES. Illustrations of Indian Ornithology. By T.C.Jerdon. No. 1. 8vo. Madras, 1843. London, Richardson, Tus work is intended, when complete, to contain fifty coloured plates of new or unfigured birds from the south of India. The pre- sent number comprises twelve of these plates, lithographed and co- loured by native Indian artists, and in a style which does them great credit. With a few exceptions the designs are well-drawn, and the colouring is executed with a far higher degree of finish than European artists can generally afford to give to their publications. We under- stand however that Mr. Jerdon, anxious to make his work as perfect as possible, has made arrangements for the lithographs in the suc- ceeding numbers to be executed in England, though we think that with the resources which the native talent of India can supply, this step was hardly necessary. The letter-press is drawn up by Mr. Jerdon with much care and attention, comprising ample descriptions of the species figured, with Bibliographical Notices. 275 many interesting observations on their habits, and critical remarks on the labours of other authors in the same field of research. The latter department is one in which naturalists, writing like Mr. Jerdon at a great distance from home, always experience much difficulty, from the want of access to scientific libraries and museums. Never- theless Mr. Jerdon has turned to good account such works on Indian zoology as lay within his reach, and his identifications of species are in general correct. We will proceed to notice briefly the contents of the number before us. Plate 1, Nisaétus grandis, Hodgson, a species which is now consi- dered to be synonymous with the Aguila Bonelli of Europe. 2. Leu- cocerca albofrontata, which, like the other species of Mr. Swainson’s genus Leucocerca, it seems impossible to separate by well-marked generic characters from Rhipidura. 3. Zanclostomus viridirostris, Jerdon, a species which seems to be in fact a Phenicophaus, though the compressed beak and diminution of the bare space round the orbits indicate an approach to the nearly-allied genus Zanclostomus. 4. Accipiter besra, Jerdon ; this appears to be the young state of the A. virgatus, Temm. 5. Picus Hodgsoni, a new and handsome spe- cies, distinguished from the P. javensis, Horsf., by its white rump, and referable to the genus Hemilophus. 6. Prinia cursitans, Frankl., a small bird closely allied to the Drymeca cisticola of Europe, and generically identical with it. 7. Muscipeta paradisi; the specimen here figured is interesting as showing a state of plumage interme- diate between the chestnut-coloured bird called M. indica and the pure white plumage of the adult M. paradisi, and thus proving their specific identity. 8. Turdus Wardi, Jerdon, a rare and beautiful thrush, typical in form, but anomalous in coloration. 9. Scolopar nemoricola, Hodgson, a large species of snipe, presenting in many respects an approach to the woodcock. 10. Pterocles quadricinctus, the true guadricinctus of Temminck and indicus of Gmelin; but its earliest specific name is fasciatus, given by Scopoli. 11. Phenicornis flammeus ; this is certainly the true Muscicapa fammea of Temminck, and consequently inhabits Java and Sumatra as well as Ceylon and S. India; but it is not the Oranor of Levaillant, Ois. Af. 155, as Mr. Jerdon supposes, that bird being the P. peregrinus. 12. Falco shaheen, Jerdon, a handsome species long ago noticed by Brisson as a sup- posed variety of F’. peregrinus, and first defined specifically by Sun- devall under the name of Ff’. peregrinator. Such works as this of Mr. Jerdon are deserving of every en- couragement, for they supply us at small cost with accurate deline- ations and original descriptions of new species, and thus furnish sci- ence with materials intrinsically as valuable as can be found in the most expensive publications. Salictum Britannicum exsiccatum. Fasc. II. By the Rev. J. E. Leefe. We have recently received this fasciculus of Mr. Leefe’s very valu- able collection of dried specimens of British Willows, and have much pleasure in stating that it is fully as deserving of approbation as that 276. | Bibliographical Notices. which preceded it. The different forms contained in this fasciculus are the following :~— 50. S. decipiens. 72. S. tenuior. 51. 73. S. laurina. 52. ; S. fragilis, 74. S. Davalliana? 53. 75. S, propinqua. >* | s, Russelliana 76-\'s. Weigelliana, E. B i ; iS eG: Jali 4 sy } S. Weigelliana, Forb. 5g. (>: alba. 80. 59. 81. } S. Crowiana, 60. 83 61. 82. S. nitens. 64. S. caprea. 84.? a 65. 85. S. tetrapla. 63. S. caprea (androgyna). 86. S. fusca, repens. 66. S. caprea (sphacelata). 87. S. f. prostrata. 67. S. hirta. 88. S. f. ascendens. 68. 89. S. f. argentea. Si S. rupestris. 90. S. arenaria. 71. Many of these plants are identified with those of Koch by the in- spection of authentic specimens, but we are sorry not to see more observations upon the rank as species or varieties which the several plants are entitled to claim. The valuable synoptical table given with the former fasciculus is not continued in that before us; for this however there is one consolation, namely, that the author states his intention of preparing a third fasciculus in which it will be con- tained. We take the present opportunity of publishing some valuable notes upon Mr. Leefe’s Fasc. I. with which we have been favoured by M. W. Sonder, the distinguished botanist of Hamburg. Salictum Britannicum, Fasc. I. 1. Salix pentandra, L.! 2. S. pentandra, L.! 3. S. amygdalina = S. amygdalina 6, Koch! 4—8. S. amygdalina, Koch! 9. S. undulata, Hhrh.! | 10—18. S. purpurea, L., et var. 14. S. Lambertiana = S. purpurea, var. 15, 16. S. rubra, Sm.—15 varietas. 17—-24. Omnes S. viminalis, Z.! Amenta mascula S. Smithiane ab iis S. viminalis valde diversa sunt. ) 25, 26. S. Smithiana = S. Smithiana, Koch, et S. lanceolata, Fries ! 27, 28. S. Smithiana ?=S. Smithiana, Koch, et S. lanceolata, Fries. 29. S. Smithiana ? Ramulos juniores a S. Smithiana distinguere nequeo. 30. S. rugosa, Sm., est S. Smithiana, Koch, §. glabrata, Sonder, quze in ripa Albis prope Hamburg non rara. Royal Society. 277 31—33. S. rugosa est S. Smithiana, Koch. 34. S. rugosa? var. stipularis = S. holosericea, Willd. Mihi gratis- sima est; plantam foemineam antea nondum vidi. 35. S. ferruginea, And., folia—S. holosericea, Willd., valde similis, sed incompleta. 86. S. ferruginea var. = Quoad folia et amenta valde affinis 8S. Smithiane, Koch, sed tamen distincta videtur. Ab icone in Eng. Bot. Suppl. t. 2665. preter squamas rotundatas non di- stinguenda. 37. S. acuminata = An revera S. acuminata, Sm.? que ad sectio- nem §. viminalis pertinet ? Amenta desunt. An forsan varietas S. cinereze ? 38—42. Omnes forme et varietates S. cinerez, L. 43. Salix—an S. aquatica? Longe diversa, est sine dubio forma S. laurinee, Sm., confer amenta. Eandem plantam ex hort. bot. Berolinensi, et ex Silesia possideo. 44. S. oleifolia, Sm.? = Pro var. S. cinerez, L., habeo, sed amenta non vidi. 45. S. aurita, Z. = Forma sylvatica apud nos frequens. 46,47. S. aurita, L.! 48, 49. S. reticulata et S. herbacea. W. Sonper. Hamburg, March 19, 1844. Mr. Van Voorst has just published a very useful ‘“ Catalogue of British Vertebrated Animals, the names derived from Bell’s British Quadrupeds and Reptiles and Yarrell’s British Birds and Fishes: so printed as to be available for Labels.” The label consists of the English and Latin names and a reference to the volume and page of the excellent works above-mentioned. PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION. A History of Infusoria, Living and Fossil: arranged according to “ Die Infusionsthierchen” of C. G. Hhrenberg. By Andrew Pritchard, M.R.I. Microscopic Illustrations of Living Objects, with Researches concerning the Methods of Constructing Microscopes, and Instructions for using them. To which is added, a Supplement on the Verification of Mi- croscopic Phenomena, and an Exact Method of Testing Microscopes. By C. R. Goring, M.D. By Andrew Pritchard, M.R.I. Third Edition. PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES. ROYAL SOCIETY. March 21, 1844.—“ A description of certain Belemnites, pre- served, with a great proportion of their soft parts, in the Oxford clay at Christian Malford, Wilts.” By Richard Owen, Esq., F.R.S., &c., 278 Royal Society. Hunterian Professor of Anatomy and Physiology in the Royal Col- lege of Surgeons. The author describes, in the present paper, specimens of Belemnite, discovered in the Oxford-clay at Christian Malford, Wilts, and which are remarkable for the preservation of many of the soft parts of the animal. After alluding to the various opinions promulgated by different authors respecting the nature and affinities of this ex- tinct animal, he adverts more especially to the discovery of the ink- bag of the Belemnite, which was published in the Zoological 'Trans- actions, vol. ii., and in the Cyclopedia of Anatomy and Physiology (Art. Cephalopoda). This discovery led him, on the strength of deductions from the physiological relations of this organ, to re- move the Belemnite from the Polythalamacea of De Blainville, and place it in the higher order of the naked Cephalopods. The structure of the shell is next discussed, and the spathose dart, or guard, is proved to be the result of original organization, both by its microscopic structure and by the fact that the chambers of the phragmocone have not been infiltrated by mineral substance in any of the specimens described: the name phragmocone being applied to the chambered and siphonated conical division of the compound shell of the Belemnite; and the term alveolus being restricted, in the present paper, to the socket or cavity at the base of the guard, in which the phragmocone is lodged. A detailed description is given of the sheath of the phragmocone and of the structure of the cham- bers.. The state of preservation of the present specimens has enabled the author to describe the form and extent of the mantle—its con- tinuation over the exterior of the shell, and the arrangement of its muscular fibres. The animal is provided with two lateral fins of a semi-oval figure, which are attached to the middle of the mantle, in advance of the spathose dart. The muscular fibres of the fins, the infundibulum and its muscles are next described ; and also the head, the eyes, which are large and sessile, and the cephalic arms, which are eight in number ; together with traces of two slender superadded tentacula. The ordinary arms are furnished with a double alternate row of sharp horny hooks, as in some existing species of Onychoteuthis, but the arms are relatively longer. ‘Their muscular structure is traced in the fossil specimens, and compared with that in the recent Decapoda. The ultimate, or primitive fibres of the muscles of the Belemnite agree in size with those in the Onychoteuthis ; but the character of the transverse strie, which is feebly developed in the primitive muscular fibre of the Ce- phalopods, is not preserved in the fossil. Of the interior organs of the Belemnite, besides the ink-bag and duct, which had been be- fore discovered by Drs. Buckland and Agassiz, the remains of the horny lining of the gizzard are preserved in the present fossils. Thus the deduction that the higher, or dibranchiate type of Ce- phalopodal organization. is necessarily associated with the presence of the atramental apparatus, is established by the demonstration, in these fossil Belemnites, of a fleshy mantle, inclosing the shell, and provided with a pair of muscular fins, of large and sessile eyes, and of few, but large and complex cephalic arms. Royal Society. 279 The author concludes by pointing out the more immediate affini- ties of the Belemnites, and showing that it combines characteristics which are now divided amongst distinct genera: as, for example, first, a complex internal shell, divisible into the same principal parts as that of the Sepia, but one of which has, secondly, the same essen- tial chambered structure as the shell of the Spiruda; thirdly, unci- nated cephalic arms, as in the Onychoteuthis; and lastly, an ad- vanced position of rounded fins, as in the Spirula and Rossia. _ The paper is illustrated by drawings of the specimens described, with microscopic views of the shell and muscular tissue, and a re- storation of the Belemnite according to the data afforded by the pre- sent fossils. June 20.—*“ On the Structure of the Ultimate Fibril of the Muscle of Animal Life.” By Erasmus Wilson, Esq., Lecturer on Anatomy and Physiology in the Middlesex Hospital; in a Letter addressed to Peter Mark Roget, M.D., Sec. R.S. Communicated by Dr. Roget. By resorting to peculiar methods of manipulation, and employing a microscope of more than ordinary power, the author, with the assistance of Mr. Lealand, has succeeded in discovering the real structure of the ultimate muscular fibril, in a specimen taken from the arm of a strong healthy man immediately after its amputation. He finds each fibril to be composed of minute cells, disposed in a linear series, flattened at their surfaces of apposition, and so com- pressed in the longitudinal direction as to leave no marginal in- dentation on the surface; thus constituting a uniform cylinder, divided into minute subdivisions by transverse septa, which are formed by the adherent surfaces of contiguous cells. The diameter of the fibril, in the state of relaxation, is the 20,000th part of an inch. The cells are filled with a transparent substance, to which the author gives the name of Myoline, and which differs in its re- fractive density in different cells. In four consecutive cells the myoline is of greater density than in the four succeeding cells, and this alternation is repeated throughout the whole course of the fibril. In consequence of all the fibrils composing the ultimate fasciculus having the same structure, and the cells, which are in lateral juxta- position, containing myoline of the same density, they act similarly on light, and the whole presents, to the eye of the microscopic ob- server, a succession of strize or bands, dark and luminous alternately, and transverse to the direction of the fasciculus; an appearance which has been noticed by preceding observers, but of which the cause had not hitherto been ascertained. A dark stria may occa- sionally appear as a luminous one, and vice versd, when viewed by light transmitted at different degrees of obliquity. The structure here described, the author remarks, reduces the muscular fibre to the simple type of organization exhibited in the combination of a series of cells, associating it with other tissues of cell formation, and will probably, he thinks, open new sources of explanation of the immediate agency of muscular action, a power hitherto“involved in the deepest mystery. “On the Reproduction of lost parts in Myriapoda and Insecta.” 280 Royal Society. By George Newport, Esq., F.R.C.S., President of the Entomo- logical Society of London, and Corresponding Member of the Phi- apa Society of Paris. Communicated by P. M. Roget, M.D., ec. R.S. : It has long been known that the limbs of Crustacea and Arach- nida, accidentally lost or designedly removed, are, in course of time, replaced by the growth of new limbs; and the same power of re- production has been stated to have been observed in the Phasme, insects which undergo neither metamorphosis nor any change of habits. But whether such a power exists in those insects, such as the Lepidoptera, which undergo a complete metamorphosis, changing not only their form, but also their food and mode of life, in passing from the larva to the adult state, has been considered as very doubt- ful. The instances in which the reproduction of lost parts appeared to have occurred in some of the Myriapoda, were attributed to im- perfect or arrested development. With a view to determine these unsettled points, the author commenced, in the summer of 1841 and 1842, a series of direct experiments on this subject in the Myri- apoda; and in the present summer he has extended them to the Lepidoptera. The results of his labours are given in the present memoir. In some specimens of Iulus, from which he had removed the an- tennee and some of the legs, the lost organs were found to be com- pletely reproduced after the next change of integument; differing from the original organs only in their smaller size, and the incom- plete development of some of their minuter parts. Thesame results followed from similar experiments made on the Lithobris during the earlier periods of its growth. One individual of this genus, which had already acquired the tenth pair of legs, was by accident deprived of the eighth, ninth and tenth pair; at the next change of skin it not only developed two additional pair of legs, but also reproduced the three pair which had been lost. Some time after this it again lost one of the legs of the twelfth pair; a loss which was repaired at the next change by the growth of a new leg, while those pre- viously reproduced acquired an increase of size. The first observation which led the author to believe that true in- sects might possess the power of reproducing lost parts, was that of a specimen of Phasma in the collection at the British Museum, in which the right anterior leg had evidently been reproduced. He then instituted a series of experiments on the larva of the Vanessa urtice, or common nettle butterfly, which belongs to the order Lepidoptera, and undergoes complete metamorphosis. He removed some of the true legs of the larva, sometimes in their tibial portion, and sometimes at their base: in the first case, parts similar to those removed were invariably reproduced in different states of develop- ment, and in the latter, entire new limbs were formed ; in some in- stances, at the second change of the larva, when it passed into the pupa state; but in two or three instances no reproduction took place. At first view, this difference in the results might appear to favour the opinion that this reproduction of limbs depends on the Royal Society. 281 existence of parts especially adapted to perform this function, and which, in those experiments that had failed to exhibit the pheno- menon, had been themselves removed. But the author found that in every instance of the mutilations thus practised, the perfect in- sect possessed a coxa, or basilar part of the limb; and this was the case even in those in which a new organ was not reproduced. From this fact, taken in conjunction with the formation of new entire limbs in the Iulide after the removal of every portion of the previous ones, the author infers that the power of reproduction resides in the whole of the organized tissues. The author found that each newly produced limb is, in every case, composed of all its essential parts, namely coxa, femur, tibia, tarsus and claw; but its development is scarcely ever entirely nor- mal, being either deficient in some of the tarsal joints, or irregular in the development of its armature. The following are the general conclusions which the author de- duces from his investigations. Slight wounds in the larvee of insects always heal, except when the viscera have protruded, or excessive hemorrhage has occurred: severe wounds, such as those attending the excision of a limb, also frequently heal. It is when the wound is in the line of action of the principal muscles of the body that pro- trusion of the viscera takes place. For the healing of wounds, the first requisite is the arrest of the hemorrhage; and this is effected, as in the higher animals, by the coagulation of the blood, and the formation of a clot; and then a complete union of the separated parts takes place beneath the eschar formed by the clot. After this union, the reparation of the injury is commenced by a development, from the injured surface, of parts corresponding to those that had been removed. For the production of a new limb, one change of skin, at least, is necessary. The healing of the wound after the removal of a part, and the subsequent reproduction, although they do not prevent, yet certainly retard the natural changes. Lastly, the author has established the fact, that reproduction of lost parts takes place in metabolic as well as in the ametabolic articulata. Feb. 6th and 13th, 1845.—“ On the Structure and Development of the Blood.—First Series. The development of the Blood-Cor- puscle in Insects and other Invertebrata, and its comparison with that of Man and the Vertebrata.” By George Newport, Esq., F.R.C.S., President of the Entomological Society, &e. Communicated by P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. R.S. The author commences his paper by remarking, that he was led to the present inquiry by some curious facts relating to the blood of insects, which attracted his notice while engaged on the last paper he presented to the Royal Society, on the reproduction of lost parts in insects and Myriapoda. Some of these facts he is desirous of making known at once to the Society, preparatory to his offering them more extended researches on the blood of the Invertebrata, and its comparison with that of the higher animals. The chief purpose of the author in the present paper, is to show the analogy which exists between the different corpuscles in the Ann. & Mag. N. Hist, Vol. xv. 282 ~ Royal Society. blood of insects and of the Vertebrata, to trace the changes which the former undergo as compared with those of the latter, and to show that in development and function they are analogous to secre- ting cells. In pursuance of this object, he premises a brief notice of what little was already known respecting the eorpuscle in the Articulata, and of the different descriptions given of it by Carus, Spence, Wag- ner, Bowerbank, Edwards, Baly and some later observers, all of whom have described it differently, one only, Mr. Bowerbank, ha- ving correctly indicated its form. He then proceeds to state, that while engaged on other observa- tions in June last, he found that the oat-shaped corpuscles which are so abundant in the caterpillar state of the insect, almost entirely dis- appear before the insect has arrived at the perfect, or butterfly state, in which, a few days after the insect is fully developed, scarcely a single oat-shaped corpuscle is to be found; but that in the place of these, there are numerous very minute rounded bodies, spherules, and also many flattened, obtusely oval or barrel-shaped, double con- cave discs. Both these forms of corpuscle have molecular move- ments, which are most energetic in the spherules. He next makes some general observations on the composition of the blood of the Invertebrata, and questions the accuracy of Profes- sor Wagner’s view in regarding the blood of these animals as analo- gous only to the chyle of the Vertebrata, at the same time stating his belief that it is not only analogous to true blood, but that it un- dergoes a continued succession of changes through the agency of the corpuscles. These minute bodies first derive nourishment, and the means of growth and increase from the fluid portion of the blood, and afterwards, when they have become fully developed, undergo dissolution, and help to supply the waste of the fluid that has been expended on the nourishment of the different structures, leaving other little bodies, which also undergo development, to assist in the further elaboration of this fluid. He states also, that the develop- ment of these latter bodies appears to have a certain relation to the type of each particular class of animals; and remarks that in the Vertebrata the size of the corpuscle is perhaps in a ratio inverse to that of the activity and extent of the function of respiration. The author states that he has been led to these views, which ap- pear to him to apply to animals generally, by an examination of the corpuscles, and by watching the changes which take place in the blood in lepidopterous insects, and he points out their accordance with those of Wagner, Henle, and Wharton Jones, with regard to the function of the corpuscles; but proposes to give the details on which his own view respecting the size of the corpuscle is founded on a future occasion. He then enters more particularly on the consideration of the forms of corpuscle in the blood in the Articulata, which he marks as four ; although, he observes, these are in reality only so many stages of development of one ultimate structure. These forms are,—/irst, the molecules, which he regards as comparable to the molecules observed Royal Society. 283 in the chyle of Vertebrata by Mr. Gulliver; secondly, the nucleated or oat-shaped corpuscle, which he believes with Wagner are analo- gous to the white or chyle corpuscles of Vertebrata; thirdly, the spherules, or minute rounded bodies developed from the oat-skaped corpuscle, and which he believes are analogous to the free nucleoli of Valentin, and probably to the very minute white, opake granules constantly observed in the blood of Vertebrata; and lastly, the dises, which are further developments of the spherules, and analogous to the true red blood-dises of the higher animals, and which, as he states in a subsequent part of his paper, in his examination of the blood of the human fcetus, he believes that he has also traced from the white, opake granules or spherules. The author then proceeds to describe these forms of the corpuscle in insects more minutely, and enters into considerable detail with reference to the oat-shaped corpuscle, tracing it from its earliest distinct form, before any nucleus is perceptible in it; and shows that the nucleoli which constitute this body are gradually increased in number, until the corpuscle has attained its full size, when it first changes its form and becomes shorter, then rounded, and afterwards entirely breaks up and liberates the nucleoli that have been deve- loped within it. This change of form he shows always takes place very rapidly in all the oat-shaped corpuscles, large and small, when out of the body, and to this circumstance he attributes the diversity in the descriptions that have been given by various observers of the form of the corpuscle. He shows also, that, with reference to the function of this body, the corpuscles are usually found in greatest number during the act of breaking up, immediately before the larva is preparing to change its skin, at which time the blood is extremely coagulable ; and that there are fewest corpuscles, or that there is the greatest number of small corpuscles of this kind, soon after the cater- pillar has again begun to feed. When the insect has assumed the pupa state, nearly the whole of these corpuscles are broken up. The greatest abundance of them are found in the act of changing on the third or fourth day of the pupa, after which the number of these corpuscles is gradually lessened, until, when the insect has entered the perfect state, very few remain. When the change to the perfect insect occurs, there is another opportunity of watching the function of this corpuscle. When the wings are being expanded and still soft, a few oat-shaped corpuscles circulate through them; but as the wings become consolidated, these corpuscles appear to be arrested, and break down in the circulatory passages, supplying directly the material for the consolidation of these structures, as appears to be shown in the entire arrest of circulation in these parts, and by the granular remains of the corpuscles which may be seen by transmitted light in a wing completely denuded of its scales on the upper and under surfaces. The spherules and discs of the perfect lepidop- terous insect are then noticed, and some peculiar clavate or fiddle- shaped bodies, which appear to be the transition forms between spherules and discs, are pointed out as occurring in the blood of one of the night moths, Xylophasia polyodon, and also in the butterfly X 2 284 Linnean Society. soon after it has left the pupa state. These facts are regarded as proofs, by direct observation, of the function of the corpuscle, and of its analogy, both in function and development, to the secreting cells of glands. In the second division of his paper, the author draws some com- parisons between the blood-corpuscles of insects and the Vertebrata, and gives the details of a series of observations on the blood of a human foetus that was born alive at the end of the sixth month. The blood of the parent, and of the placenta, was examined, and also of different parts of the body of the foetus a few hours after death. The general results observed were, that the blood of the parent contained a very large quantity of white chyle corpuscles, and was extremely coagulable: the blood of the placenta contained, beside an abundance of chyle corpuscles, red blood-discs of ex- tremely variable sizes, the largest being one-third or one-fourth larger than those of the mother, and the smallest scarcely more than one-fourth as large as the largest. There were also an immense abundance of molecules and nucleoli, from which latter the red blood- discs appeared to be developed. ‘The blood of the vein and lungs presented a similar irregular condition as to size of the corpuscles, while that of the left auricle of the heart, aorta and arteries of the cord was more uniform in its character. From these observations the author concludes, that the blood of the Vertebrata is analogous in its mode of development to that of the insects and other Inverte- brata, and that the red blood-discs are the ultimate developments of the opake white granules or nucleoli of the blood. LINNZZAN SOCIETY. December 17, 1844.—R. Brown, Esq., V.P., in the Chair. Dr. Lankester, F.L.S., exhibited a specimen of an Agaric in which gills were developed on a portion of the surface of the pileus, directly over the stipes, resulting apparently from an extension of the growth of the stipes, and a rupture of the external membrane of the pileus, throwing up the internal or gill-producing membrane. Read, ‘‘ Additional Remarks on the Spongilla fluviatilis.” By John Hogg, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. &e. In this paper Mr. Hogg commences by claiming a priority to M. Laurent in the discovery of the locomotive germ-like bodies of Spon- gilla, and in comparing them with the spontaneously moving spo- rules of Ectosperma clavata of Unger. In proof of this priority he refers to his memoir, published in 1840, in the eighteenth volume of the Society’s Transactions, in the first part of which, read before the Society on the 18th of December 1838, those bodies are described as having been observed by him in August 1838, and are compared with the locomotive sporules of the Ectosperma. An abstract of this part of Mr. Hogg’s memoir appeared in the ‘ Proceedings’ of the So- ciety at the beginning of 1839, and was reprinted in the number of the ‘ Annals of Natural History’ for March 1839. Of these several publications Mr. Hogg states that no notice is taken by M. Laurent Linnean Society. 285 in his recent work entitled ‘Recherches sur l’Hydre et l’Eponge d’Eau douce,’ Paris 1844, in which the discovery of the locomotive germs of the freshwater sponge is apparently claimed by the author as his own. Mr. Hogg then proceeds to remark on the discrepancies of authors with regard to the existence of cilia on these bodies, and on the spores of the Ectosperma. He accounts for his having overlooked them in the Spongilla, on the supposition that the germs which he observed under a very high power of the compound microscope had reached the period when, as M. Laurent states, “‘ils perdent leurs cils pour toujours,” and notices that it appears, from M. Thuret’s recent observations, that the same circumstance occurs in the spores of the Ectosperma. ‘This resorption or disappearance of the cilia after a certain period will readily account for the denial of their ex- istence by practised microscopical observers. The existence of cilia subservient to locomotion is far from deter- mining, in Mr. Hogg’s opinion, the question of the animal nature of the bodies to which they belong, although the zoocarpic theory, which he regards as most improbable, appears to be still gaining ground. He believes the motive power of the cilia of the sporules of Spongilla and the Alga, as also of the Sea-Sponges, to be depen- dent on some peculiar organization not connected (as in the loco- motive gemmules of a zoophyte) with any muscular apparatus; un-' less indeed, as he has before suggested, mere endosmosis and exos- mosis should be found sufficient to produce it. For these and other reasons which are detailed in his paper, Mr. Hogg still believes both the River and Sea-Sponges to be vegetable productions, and thinks that “until they shall be discovered to pos- sess a stomach or a gastric sac, no zoologist can possibly consider them to belong to the Animal Kingdom.” January 21, 1845.—R. Brown, Esq., V.P., in the Chair. A Note was read, addressed to the Secretary, by John Curtis, Esq., F.L.S. &c., containing the description of a cocoon of the Emperor Moth (Saturnia Pavonia-minor), which on being longitudinally divided was found to have internally, in place of the chrysalis, a series of cells so analogous to those represented by Mr. Curtis in the nine- teenth volume of the Society’s ‘Transactions,’ plate xxxi. fig. 5, as to leave no doubt on his mind that the woolly masses there exhibited are the cocoons of some large South American Bombyx, and that the substance of the caterpillar has been converted into cells by the larva of the Tenthredinidous insect. But although the theory of the nest there figured having been constructed by an insect of that family is thus set aside as erroneous, it is only to make evident a still greater anomaly in its economy, viz. that its larve are parasitic. In the present instance Mr. Curtis was unable, after the most rigid scrutiny, to find any vestige of a perfect insect. A dried and broken maggot was all that could be perceived, and its fragments on being put to- gether bore more resemblance to the larvee of the [chneumonide than to those of the Tenthredinide. 286 Zoological Society. Mr. Curtis states that the cells most analogous to these are those formed by the Microgaster alvearia, which are as regular as those of a honey-comb, and adds that it appears from a notice in the ‘ Trans- actions of the Entomological Society,’ vol. iii. p. 35, that the pup of the Eggar-moths are also infested by parasitic Ichneumonide. A sketch of the cocoon of the Emperor Moth and of the cells formed by its parasitic inhabitants accompanied the note. Read also, ‘‘Some Notes on the Natural History of Norfolk Island,” extracted from the papers of Capt. Alexander Maconochie, R.N., late Lieutenant-Governor of the island. ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY. August 13, 1844.—Professor Owen, V.P., in the Chair. The following notes from Sir Robert Heron, on the Jerboas in his collection, were read :— “June 14th, 1844.—The Jerboas were received into this mena- gerie in June 1843. They are in a box full of cotton: the box is in a room five and a half feet by four and a half, floored with wood, and warmed by a flue which has always been heated at night; the room opens into a pen secured with wire, nine and a half feet by eight and ahalf. They have been offered many kinds of food, but eat only wheat and lettuce ; they have never been seen to drink, but from the water diminishing and their parting with a considerable quantity of urine, we have no doubt of the fact. On the 14th of May last they produced two young ones; on the 12th inst. these young ones are still blind and unable to walk, also nearly naked, but they are grown and appear to be healthy : it is intended to make a pit in their abode about two feet square, filled with earth, where they may burrow. “« June 29.—It was not till their fifth week that the young Jer- boas appeared to have the use either of their eyes or limbs; they had still little fur, but were a good deal grown. Now, being forty-six days old, they are about three-quarters grown, are well-clothed and active; they have been seen to eat corn, and are apparently quite established. A second box has been put into their chamber, and last night all four had removed into it. They have never been seen to drink, but it is thought they do so, as the water is sometimes di- minished. « July 20.—The young Jerboas are now exactly like the old ones.” ‘Description of the Felis Melanura,” by R. Ball, Esq., Secretary to the Royal Zoological Society of Ireland. “ Felis melanura, n. s. ?—Size larger than the Margay, but propor- tionately slighter ; on the fore-toes are longitudinal black stripes, on the hind-toes spots. Three irregular narrow stripes of white on the sides, connected by anastomosing branches, divide the coloured part into island-like irregular spaces, which are black on the edges, shading into fulvous in the centre ; these island-like spaces are spotted with black. The tail nearly touches the ground, is pointed and black, save at the under part near the anus, where it is marked with Zoological Society. 287 a little white, and shows as it were an imperfect attempt at annula- tion. The back is black, with a bright fulvous fleur-de-lis sort of marking on the neck; a narrow band of fulvous crosses below the scapule, from which run at right angles down the back to the rump two indistinct stripes of the same colour, about half an inch apart ; _ the inside of the ears is fulvous, the outside black, with a white spot on each; the belly white, beautifully but irregularly spotted with black ; a very distinct black band crosses the chest ; a white spot on the lower eyelid and another longer on the upper; the cheeks are ful- vous, striped with black; the forehead is fulvous, ornamented with black, two stripes of which run up the forehead from the eyes, parallel to each other; they are connected together above : immediately over the eyes are four longitudinal spots ; above these may be traced three more irregular, and over these three, two, the three sets of spots being as it were ranged in ranks. The fulvous colour is chiefly con- fined to the fore-part of the animal. It was presented to the Royal Zoological Society of Ireland in the beginning of 1843 by Paymaster J. M‘Creagh, of the 32nd Regiment. The foregoing description was taken in January 1844, and the animal was presented to the London Zoological Society in May 1844: when first obtained its colouring was very indistinct and confused; since the description was written some trifling change has taken place, particularly in the extension of the white on the tail, which makes the name not quite so applicable as it was.’ Mr. Prichard read his paper ‘‘ On the Crania of the Laplanders and Finlanders, with observations on the differences they presented from other European races.” *« Little has hitherto been done to elucidate the physical characters of the Ugrian or Ugorian races, under which term late writers have comprised the Finns and Lappes, the Magyars or Hungarians, and several nations of Siberia*. « This is owing to the fact that but few specimens of the skulls of these nations exist in any of the collections in Europe, and few and by no means perfect descriptions of them have been published, Blumenbach has given in his ‘ Decades Craniorum’ a representation of the skull of a Lappe, and he describes it as approaching altogether to the Mongolian variety. Dr. Hueck gives an account of the ap- pearance and general physical characters of the Esthonian Finns, and sums up his observations by pointing out some very considerable differences which he finds between them and the Mongolian form ; in fact he says that he can discover nothing common to the Mongo- lian and Esthonian skulls, except a certain squareness of figure, which is not constant. *« From these statements we should be led to suppose that there is a great difference between the skulls of the Finns and Lappes, and we should be inclined to adopt the opinion maintained by Lehrberg, that they are two separate and distinct races, his argument being * Der Ugrische Volkstamm von F. H. Miiller. 288 Zoological Society. founded upon the moral as well as the physical diversities between them*. | : “‘ On the other hand, the history of the people, and especially the great similarity of their languages, go far to prove a near relationship between the Finnish and Lappish nations; nor is a greater or less degree of civilization to be looked upon as a proof of diversity of origin, although it may be the cause of all the moral, and possibly of the physical differences also, which exist between the Finns and Lappes. ‘From this uncertainty it becomes much more important to ascer- tain, by the examination of their skulls, what the physical character- istics of each nation are, and whether they exhibit any points of resemblance which may confirm the supposition that there is affinity between them, or whether, on the contrary, a sufficient degree of dissimilarity can be made out, from an accurate examination, to en- title us to set them down as separate races, and to class them with different grand divisions of the human species; whether, in short, these differences, if any such are found, are more than can be ac- counted for by the diversity of climate and modes of life which are well known long to have existed between them. “The examination of these skulls for the purpose of furnishing an accurate description of their appearance is interesting in another point of view. In Scandinavia and in Denmark there are numerous tumuli which contain osteological remains of former inhabitants, and it is a disputed point. whether they are the remains of a Finnish ab- original stock or of Cimbrian or some unknown race, since they differ from the old German remains. Now if we could establish a correct notion of the Finnish description of skull, we should have no diffi- culty in deciding whether the remains before mentioned belonged to this stock. ‘* Having four specimens of these skulls, two of Finns and two of Laplanders, which my father has received through the kindness of Dr. Ilmoni and Mr. Daniel Wheeler, of Bristol, I have an opportunity of examining their peculiarities and of comparing them with each other and with the skulls of other Europeans, Chinese, American Indian, and the Esquimaux, the latter of which is a most remarkable specimen of the pyramidal and broad-faced skull. “Upon taking a general view of these skulls, there are no remark- able features which strike us so forcibly as those which we see in the conformation of the Esquimaux. In fact, the only point worthy of notice here, before we commence the particular description, is a de- gree of general breadth in the face superior to that which is seen in the European generally, which gives to the whole an appearance of squareness when the lower jaw is attached, and causes the actual shortness of the face, which is remarkable in these skulls, to become still more apparent. The general resemblance between the Finnish * Lehrberg, iiber die Wohnsitte der Jemen, ein Beitrag zur Geschichte Neu-Finnlands, in Untersuchungen zur Erlatiterung der alten Geschichte Russlands, Zoological Society. 289 skulls and those of the Lappes is as strong as between four average European crania, even belonging to the same nation, and altogether their contour decidedly approaches what Blumenbach calls the Mon- golian form of skull, the head appearing, as it has been noticed by an ocular observer, ‘ of the shape of a pent-house.’ «It will be found, however, that it is more especially in a close and minute examination that differences are seen to exist between the Lappes and Finns, on the one hand, and the European skulls on the other. “« Viewed from above and behind, there is a slight difference obser- vable between the Finn and the Lappe : the posterior part of the Lappe is larger than the anterior, while the form of the Finn is more regu- lar and rounded ; that is, the line between the parietal protuberances exceeds the transverse diameter of the forehead more in the Lappe than in the Finn. I find, however, that there is equal difference in this respect between two European skulls even of the same nation. Again, from the same point of view the skulls of the Lappes present a central eminence or ridge, upon looking at the outline of the fore- head (being the line of junction of the two halves of the frontal bone), which is much less marked, in fact scarcely discernible in the Finn, and altogether absent in the European, being on the contrary very strikingly prominent in the Esquimaux. Examined anteriorly, how- ever, a general view of these skulls gives us exactly opposite results ; for the sagittal suture, which is now the median line, and the con- tinuation backwards of the frontal suture of early life, upon looking at the outline or horizon of the skull, is seen to project decidedly more in the Finn than in the Lappe; in both more than in other Europeans. Hence we may fairly lay down, that the skulls of the Finns and Lappes have (as far only as the vault of the cranium, ex- clusive of any effect produced by the width of the face, allows us to conclude, ) more tendency to the pyramidal form than the European, but less than the Esquimaux. « Examining these skulls anteriorly, taking into consideration the face, the triangular form is very evident, partly in consequence of the fact above mentioned respecting the vault of the cranium, and partly in consequence of the great width between the external sur- faces of the malar bones, which in actual measurement in the two Lappes and the two Finns exceeds the length of the same diameter in other Europeans by at least half an inch, and in one case by nearly an inch, being equal to the same diameter in the Esquimaux ; in the latter, however, which exhibits the pyramidal shape in a remarkable degree, the form is owing as much to the shape of the forehead as to the lateral projection of the anterior roots of the zygomatic pro- cesses. This width across the face is, as has been correctly observed by Dr. Hueck, not owing to the increased breadth or altered shape in the malar bone, so much as to the altered width and direction of the malar process of the superior maxillary bone. “The outline of the external surface of this bone, viewed from a point exactly in front of the skull; that is to say, the line which runs from the furthest molar tooth that is visible from this point to 290. Zoological Society. the suture connecting the malar and superior maxillary bones, is, in: the generality of European crania, either vertical, or sometimes even inclined inwards and upwards in the first part of its course, after- wards turning outwards to form the commencement of the zygoma. In the Esquimaux this line runs obliquely upwards and outwards, at an angle of 45° from its commencement; and in the skulls of the Finns and Lappes it is intermediate to the two directions, being however still inclined outwards. This obliquity is also decidedly more marked in the Finns than in the Lappes. “Upon this the anterior view, more of the lateral aspect of the lower jaw is seen than is ordinarily observed, in consequence partly . of the greater distance between the condyles, which will be again noticed in the examination of the base of the skull, and partly from the fact that the angles project more in a lateral direction, the entire bone being apparently more developed than in other Europeans. ** With respect to some more minute points regarding these skulls, the superciliary ridges are well-marked, the ossa nasi, and the ascend- ing processes of the superior maxillary bones present a flatter and broader anterior surface than the European, and the cavities and fora- mina are well-marked. ([In all these four skulls the supraorbital opening for the frontal nerve and artery is a complete foramen upon the left side, and merely a notch upon the right. ] ‘*In consequence of the greater width of the superior maxillary bone, the shape of the circumference of the orbit is not so round as in the generality of European skulls, where the external inferior angle is the lowest, but it is square, with the angles rounded; and for the same reason the space for the antrum is increased, while the depth of the infraorbital or canine fossa is very materially decreased : in one of the Finnish skulls this surface, from the inferior edge of the orbit to the alveolar processes, is almost plane. There is nothing remarkable in the nasal aperture. The shape of the orbit differs materially from that of the Esquimaux, where it is almost round, and from that in the skull of an Indian of the Sioux tribe, where it: much resembles the European. “The distance from the inferior edge of the nasal aperture, that is, from the anterior nasal spine to the margin of the alveolar process, is in every specimen of these skulls of the Finns and Lappes decidedly less than in any other European with which I have compared them. The teeth are much ground. ‘«‘ A lateral view of these crania shows that the forehead is some- what more receding than in the generality of Europeans, although the difference is not great, probably not more than is frequently seen be- tween two specimens of the same. tribe. «The general shape of the head resembles that of the European anteriorly, but the posterior part does not project so much. There is a marked difference between the posterior projection of the Finns and Lappes and that of the Esquimaux, the latter being much more prominent. ‘‘ The line which represents the outline of the ossa nasi, &c., 7. e. the profile of the face of the skull, presents much less marked irregulari- Zoological Society. | 291 ties than the European in general. ‘Thus although, as I have before observed, the superciliary ridges are well-marked, the frontal bone does not overhang the ossa nasi, as in the latter, where a decided angle is formed. In the Esquimaux the line from the forehead to the nose is nearly straight, and in the skulls of an Indian of the Sioux tribe and a Chitamache Indian the curve is very regular and open. The junction of the nose and forehead in the Lappes and Finns is therefore more angular than either of the three last-mentioned crania, but much less so than the European. “‘ Upon this the side view another remarkable fact is observed. The occipital bone being not so much developed downwards as in other Europeans (we observed just now that it had less posterior projection also), and the posterior edge of the lower jaw, from the condyle to the angle, being longer than in the latter, upon placing the skull upon a table or any plane horizontal surface, the inferior maxilla merely touches it by its angle, not resting upon the base of the jaw, as we observe in the English, Irish, ancient Irish (cast), Sioux, Italian and Mulatto skulls. The only ones which have this character in common with the Lappes and Finns are the Negro and the skull of a Hindu. «The angle of the lower jaw is certainly more obtuse, seen upon comparing skulls in which the molar teeth remain perfect. In the form and direction of the coronoid process there seems to be no great difference. ‘