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THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY,

INCLUDING
ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, ann GEOLOGY.

(BEING A CONTINUATION OF THE ‘ANNALS’ COMBINED WITH LOUDON AND
CHARLESWORTH’S ‘MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY. )

CONDUCTED BY

P. J. SELBY, Esq., F.L.S., GEORGE JOHNSTON, M.D.,
CHARLES C. BABINGTON, Ese., M.A., F.RB.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
J. H. BALFOUR, M.D., Prof. Bot. Edinburgh,

AND

VOL. XIV.—SECOND SERIES.

—ew

LONDON:
PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS.

SOLD BY LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS, S. HIGHLEY; SIMPKIN,
MARSHALL, AND CO.; PIPER AND CO.; W. WOOD, TAVISTOCK STREET ;
BAILLIERE, REGENT STREET, AND PARIS: LIZARS, AND
MACLACHLAN AND STEWART, EDINBURGH : CURRY,

DUBLIN: AND ASHER, BERLIN.

1854.

‘*Omnes res create sunt divine sapientie et potentie testes, divitie felicitatis
humane :—ex harum usu bonitas Creatoris; ex pulchritudine sapientia Domini;
ex ceconomia in conservatione, proportione, renovatione, potentia majestatis elucet.
Earum itaque indagatio ab hominibus sibi relictis semper estimata; a veré eruditis
et sapientibus semper exculta; malé doctis et barbaris semper inimica fuit.”—
LINNZUS.

‘* Quelque soit le principe de la vie animale, il ne faut qu’ouvrir les yeux pour voir
qu'elle est le chef-d’ceuvre de la Toute-puissance, et le but auquel se rapportent
toutes ses opérations.”—BRUCKNER, Théorie du Systeme Animal, Leyden, 1767.

oot eo ee be we « he SYlVan powers
Obey our summons ; from their deepest dells
The Dryads come, and throw their garlands wild
And odorous branches at our feet ; the Nymphs
That press with nimble step the mountain thyme
And purple heath-flower come not empty-handed,
But scatter round ten thousand forms minute
Of velvet moss or lichen, torn from rock
Or rifted oak or cavern deep: the Naiads too
Quit their loved native stream, from whose smooth face
They crop the lily, and each sedge and rush \
That drinks the rippling tide: the frozen poles,
Where peril waits the bold adventurer’s tread,
The burning sands of Borneo and Cayenne,
All, all to us unlock their secret stores
And pay their cheerful tribute.
J. Taytor, Norwich, 1818.

CONTENTS OF VOL. XIV.

[SECOND SERIES.]

-

NUMBER LXXIX.

Page

I. On the Genus Lycium. By Joun Miers, Esq., F.R.S., F.L.S.
WORE ca scvppayte Dubbs enesbs tse hhinagedssdsns shnenebduauness simnts haeas seas tees 1

II. Additions and Corrections to the Arrangement of the Families
of Bivalve Shells. By J. E. Gray, Ph.D., F.R.S., V.P.Z.S. &e. 21

III. Supplement to a Catalogue of British Spiders, including re-

marks on their Structure, Functions, iconomy and Systematic Ar-
rangement. By JoHn BLackwaLt, F.L.S....... Cnegaees bash etinGecseen 20

IV. On the Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration and on the Struc-

ture of the Organs of Breathing in Invertebrate Animals. By THomas
WiuuiaMms, M.D. Lond.:.»:( With two Plates.) 2... lec cceee des 34

V. Notes on the Ornithology of Ceylon, collected during an eight

years’ residence in the Island. By EpGar Leorpoip Layarp, F.Z.S.,
C. MEER, BEG ics tiie alias aspire tacbsavauvusts cpatesceiuas cancer iiveveees 57

VI. On Manufactured Sea Water for the Aquarium. By P. H.
Gowen ALi Gy: iccpprtenscesah 00550 suas BHe iE atmo ble ces veehside was G5

Proceedings of the Royal Society ; Zoological Society ; Royal Insti-
eR a ee ld cua dew cc aps 67—74

On the Formation of the Stomata in the Epidermis of the Leaves of

the Spiderwort (Tradescantia virginica), and on the Evolution of

the Cells in their neighbourhood, by Dr. Garreau ; Description

of anew Genus of Bivalve Mollusea, by H. and A. Adams; On

the Dimorphism of the Uredinee, by M.Tulasne; Meteorolo-
gical Observations and Table ....Mgi5 Ui... ccccevcsceccscerscecees 75—80

NUMBER LXXX.

VII. Researches on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. By

WALDO: Fo BROS, MD. Boston ecciccisicicsccessvcocoecsscoerysssdesi 81

VIII. On the true position of the Canaliferous Structure in the

iV CONTENTS,

*

Page
Shell of Fossil Alveolina (D’Orbigny). By H. J. Carrsr, Esq.,
Assistant Surgeon, Bombay Establishment. (With a Plate.) ......... 99
IX. Notice of some new species of British Nudibranchiata. By —
JOSHUA ALDER and ALBANY HANCOCK (s........cccccsscscecesccacseeere 102

X. Notes on the Ornithology of Ceylon, collected during an eight
years’ residence in the Island. By EpGar Lreopo.tp Layarp, F.Z.S.,
CO SE ithe CUB. Sic econeccsaccghiuhes euachaeat aa mneebiy Waate cl bedskee sda vevedasss 105

XI. On some new Cretaceous Crustacea. By Frepericx M‘Coy,
F.G.S., Hon. F.C.P.S., Professor of Natural Science in the University
of Melbourne, late Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the Queen’s
University of Ireland., (With a Plate.) | .ssccsesecsesssencenseqenesecnny ose 116

XII. On the Aclis unica, Auct. By WiLuIAM CLARK, Esq. ...... 122
XIII. On some Arctic species of Calanide. By Joun Lussock,

Kaq., F.Z.S. "CWT @ PIabe.) : cessshiicctoaesahistestisisssnseceececnetbecsese 125
XIV. Description of a new Genus and Species of British Curcu-
lionide. By T. VERNON WOLLASTON, M.A., FLAS. ....c0csecseseneee 129
XV. On the Genus Lycium. By Joun Mizrs, Esq.,.F-R.S.,
FLAS. Ge. cseeseceeensessseeeeeseneneceeeeaseersanaracatteateeespeneneeseentees 131
XVI. Note on the supposed Antheridia of Rhamnus. By J. 'S.
BurDON SanpERSON, M.D. (With a Plate.) ......ccee icc ce eee es 141

Proceedings of the Zoological Society; Botanical Society of Edin-
burgh seeetes PO See Se Sere eseneeFEHESERseeag PORES e Teo aes eeesereseesaes ese 145—155

On the Embryogeny and Propagation of Intestinal Worms, by
MM. Ercolani and Vella; On two new species of South American
Birds, by Philip Lutley Sclater; Description of a new species of
Hyraxv from Fernando Po, by Louis Fraser, H.M. Consul at
Whidah; Meteorological Observations and Table. ......... 156—160

NUMBER LXXXI.

XVII. On the Occurrence of ‘‘ Cinchonaceous Glands” in Galiacee,
and on the Relations of that Order to Cinchonacee. By GrorGE
Lawson, F.R.P.S., F.B.S.E., Demonstrator of Botany and Vegetable
Histology to the University of Edinburgh. (With a Plate.) ......... 161

XVIII. Miscellaneous Notes on the Fauna of Dacca, including
Remarks made on the line of march from Barrackpore to that Station.
By Capt. Ropert C. TyT.er, of the 38th Regiment Bengal Native
Light Infantry..........-.ssseeees ebarakaneens Mia gegnalesaaacgeeteosasececes ss 168

XIX. A Reply to some Statements of Dr. Williams on the contro-
versy respecting the Branchial Currents in the Lamellibranchiata. By
JOSHUA ALDER, Esq. oo. ssveecrslesss has we heed sear ben tedte oag hipens 177

CONTENTS. Vv
Page

XX. On the Genus Lycium. By Joun Miers, Esq., F.R.S.,
Bs.) Beech <<ds seadcensscnesnnetes oni Fhe a dra ah aint <b xh < LGMEDULEN slew ep ce they’ Ate

XXI, Rejoinder to Professor Milne-Edwards and Mr. Bowerbank.
By Professor SEDGWICK ...... Hi lids ened tiaegupep ey sr feb tha tenia aaah Sager 195

XXII. Notice of a new species of Caulerpa, By R. K, GREVILLE,
LL.D. &e. (With a Plate.) eeeeeeeeeaee eeteeeeeeee POSH eS eeeEH eee EEe eele geeves 197

New Books :—Geodephaga Britannica, by J. F. Dawson.—The Medals
of Creation, &c., by (the late) G. A. Mantell, F.R.S,—Genera
Plantarum Flore Germanic iconibus et descriptionibus illus-
trata, Auctore R. Caspary.—The Microscope and its application
to Clinical Medicine, by Lionel Beale, M.B.—The Microscope ;
its History, Construction, and Applications, by Jabez Hogg,
M.RsO.S..teceese Udy ag bios soulitasadcy ap imdb ney wadans aabpanch sdaceAenes 198—205

Proceedings of the Royal Society; Zoological Society ; Botanical
Society of Edinburgh; Linnean Society ..... Sebv'coapyeb oboe 205—234

On the Development of Cenurus cerebralis, by Prof. Van Beneden ;
On the Capture of Thecacera pennigera, by William Thompson ;
Note on Athyrium rheticum, by 8S. O.. Gray ; On the. occurrence
of Larve of Sarcophaga in the Human Eye and Nose, by Dr. E,
Grube; Meteorological Observations and Table ............ 234—240

NUMBER LXXXII.

XXIII. On the Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration and on the
Structure of the Organs of Breathing in Invertebrate Animals. By
Tuomas WixuiaMs, M.D. Lond. (With three Plates.) '

XXIV. On the Remains of a gigantic Bird (Lithornis Emuinus)
from the London Clay of Sheppey. By J.S. BowerBank; F.R.S. &e. 263
XXV. Notes on the Ornithology of Ceylon, collected during an
eight years’ residence in the Island. By EpGar Leopoip Layarp,
F.Z.S., C.M.E.S. &C..+-sceeereceseeaee sexghos he lid a Nick las TN SST piace. 264
XXVI. On the-Fertilization of Ferns. By W. HormaisTer ...... 272
XXVII. Upon a new species of “ Alpheus” discovered upon, the
coast of “ Herm” (Channel Islands). By W. V. Guisn, Esq.,,F.G.S.. 275

XXVIII. Descriptions of three new species of British Actinie, By
PILE, He Gosse,.A bea: com capantic ctancocesbaseneibh sen vidiveidbasna<ashons 280

New Books :—The Ferns of Great Britain. Illustrated by John, E.
Sowerby. The Descriptions, Synonyms, &c. by C. Johnson ... 284

Proceedings of the Royal Society ; Zoological Society ; Linnwan
Society ; Botanical Society of Edinburgh ........ tA HRA 285—315

vi CONTENTS.
; = *Page
On the Cenurus cerebralis of the Sheep, by Dr. Kiichenmeister; On
the Oceurrence of Zinc in the Vegetable Organism, by A. Braun ;
Notes on the Bovine Animals of the Malay Peninsula, by George
Windsor Earl ; Meteorological Observations and Table ... 315—320

NUMBER. LXXXIII.
XXIX. Contributions to the Natural History of the Infusoria. By

A. SCHNEIDER. (With a Plate.) ......... v ompgans iia sehen conirbatady diet); .\ B21
XXX. Zoosperms in pponala: By H. J. Carrer, Esq. (With

B RiMhG sy eis Wal isives vee Nae tnees avuinaan eeeaceneh weneasss PIECE Gh ook 334
XXXI. On the Genus Lycium. By JouHn Miurs, Esq., F.R.S.,

FILLS. SC. ... ces oeseseecsonsinue dhéuaskiauis saibelcanelageth uaabes Cuaesonsexteae 336

XXXII. On the Occurrence of the Bottle-headed Whale, Hy-
peroodon bidens, Flem., and remarks thereon. By WuiLLiam

Tompson, Esq. ......++- penn cGashavicks Aa OA GAG WEA P. Ma2t3t 347
XXXIIT. On the Primitive Diversity and Number of Animals ee
. Geological Times,.. By, .L. AGASSIZ seeeeessseedeceessees 08 Peat i. S850"

XXXIV. Memoranda of Observations made in small Aquaria, in
which the Balance between the Animal and Vegetable Organisms was
permanently maintained. By Ropert WARINGTON, Esq. ............ 366

XXXV. On a Mode of giving permanent Flexibility to brittle spe-
cimens in Botany and Zoology. By Prof. J. W. Baruey, US. ...... 373

New Books :—A Manual of Natural History for the use of Travellers,
by Arthur Adams, W. B. Baikie, and Charles Barron ............ 375

Proceedings of the Zoological Society :—Mr. T. Huxley on the Ana-
tomy and Development of Echinococcus veterinorum. (With a
PlALE.) .-svveessssspscanedncacubaadhuabs ste tbeuee ver bdatsbenviedt berks trievenase 379

On the natural and artificial Fecundation of Aigilops by Triticum, by
M. Godron; The Ounces, by Dr. J. E. Gray ; The African Seal,
Heliophoca atlantica, by Dr. J. E. Gray; Notes on the Develop-
' ment of the Actinie, by M. Haime; Rare Irish Mollusca, by
Samuel Wright; Typical Collections of Mollusca in the British
Museum ; On a new species of Suthora from China, by G. R. Gray,
F.L.S., F.Z.S. &c. ; On some Fishes allied to Gymnotus, by Alfred
R. Wallace ; Meteorological Observations and Table ...... 394—400

NUMBER LXXXIV.

XXXVI. Remarks on Associations of Colour and the Relations of
Colour and Form in Plants. By G. Dickx1nx, M.D., Professor of Na-
tural History, Queen’s College, Belfast ........cececsscscecsscscecesecceses 40]

CONTENTS. Vil
Page
XXXVII. On Linaria sepium of Allman. . By C.-C. BaBineron,
M.A., F.R.S. &e. ...... Waaelaind itaian sreveee ssph AAI ie sanaueiente eoredesil 408
XXXVIII. Characters of four Indian species of Cyclophorus, Mont-
fort, followed by Notes on the Geographical Distribution of the genera
of the Cyclostomacea in Hindostan. By W. H. Benson, Esq. ...... 411
XXXIX. Description of a new genus of Bivalve Mollusca. By
H. and A. ADAMS 4....++009s weer pabF- basstdhe dilate dado SsvedsieesTI ed oe w. 418

XL. On Artificial Sea Water. By Roperr Warineron, Esq.... 419
XLI. On the Genus Mermis. By Dr.G. Metssner. Analysis by

DCA. Di Beemer ran ereata rhs itst eee rte 2ee see enc oesiicasgscaseccusce teases 421
XLII. On the Fecundation of the Conifere. By Dr. W. Hor-
MBISTER. .......0+00000 eee sugenaves Seathsbecbbaseadichacedsredevetes A ale aia 2 429

Proceedings of the Royal Society; Zoological Society ; Botanical
Society of Edinburgh; Linnzan Society ......eeeeeesesseeees 441—465

Alpheus affinis; On a new species of Rock Kangaroo, by Dr. J. E.
Gray ; Meteorological Observations and Table ......6:.00+0+. 465—467

PLATES IN. VOL. XIV.

Say akc } Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration in Invertebrate Animals.

ITI. Structure of the supposed Antheridia of Rhamnus.—Canaliferous
Structure in the Shell of Alveolina.
TV. New fossil Crustacea.
V. New species of Calanide.

ans
VII. Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration in Invertebrate Animals.

VIII.
IX. Cinchonaceous Glands of the Galiacez.
X. Caulerpa superba.

XI. Zoosperms in Spongilla.—Development of Infusoria.—Develop-
ment of Echinococcus veterinorum.

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[SECOND SERIES. ]

#6 escesscccesocces per litora spargite muscum,
Naiades, et circ'm vitreos considite fontes:
Pollice virgineo teneros hic carpite flores :
Floribus et pictum, dive, replete canistrum.
At vos, o Nymphz Craterides, ite sub undas ;
Ite, recurvato variata corallia trunco
Vellite muscosis e rupibus, et mihi conchas
Ferte, Dez pelagi, et pingui conchylia succo.”

N. Parthenii Giannettasié Ecl. 1.

No. 79. JULY 1854.

<i

I.—On the Genus Lycium. By Joun Mizrs, Esq.,
F.R.S., F.L.S. &e.

THIS genus is truly cosmopolitan, bemg found abundantly in
Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, in the former more rarely in
regard to the number of species, in the latter most abundantly.
The species are mostly low straggling shrubs, or bushes of
crooked and stunted growth, generally with thorny branches,
often barren and knotty, the younger branches bearing usually
fasciculated leaves: these branchlets commonly dwindle into
short acute spines, which are both leafy and floriferous. They
grow ordinarily in maritime situations, or in inland sandy deserts,
where the soil is more or less impregnated with saline matter.
“Contrary to general rule, the leaves and the habit of the plants
afford uncertain specific characters; for the leaves are often so
polymorphous, that specimens of the same plant are sometimes
mistaken for different species, and on the other hand, many
species so closely resemble each other, in habit and form of their
leaves, that they are frequently confounded together*. For

* This was long ago (1813) shown by Poiret, who says, Dict. Méthod.
Suppl. iii. 427 :—* La plupart des espéces qui composent les Lycium sont

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xiv.

2 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

these reasons | have been led to search for more certain specific
characters in the structure of the flowers, which appear to afford
constant features that may be relied upon, and this has induced
me to remodel the genus, and revise all the species within my
reach. As Lycium has recently been so fully elaborated by M.
Dunal, and the numerous species described by him have been
accompanied with such copious and minute details, this may ap-
pear to be quite unnecessary; but my inquiries have convinced me,
that for the purposes of specific distinction, little value is to be
placed upon many of these ample definitions, and that it is_re-
quisite to examine the same materials again with more caution.
M. Dunal enumerates only three South American species ; I have
here described thirty : during my travels thirty years ago, I met,
on the confines of the Andes, with many plants hitherto un-
noticed ; and I find in Sir W. Hooker’s rich herbarium, other
new species, besides several from the. northern portion of that
hemisphere, as well as many of Asiatic and African origin, which
I now propose to describe.

Of the 70 species I have enumerated (besides those that are
dubious), 33 belong to the old, and 37 to the new world. Of
these, 3 are found in Europe, 2 in Madeira and Barbary, 3 in
Tartary, 6 in Arabia, Persia, Guzzerat and Scinde, and 19 in
South Africa; and in the other. hemisphere, 1 in the United
States, 6 in California and Mexico, 1 in the West Indies, 2 in
Peru, 6 in Chile, 3 in Southern Patagonia, 13 in the extensive
shingle plains that skirt the eastern flanks of the Cordillera, or
that penetrate its gorges, 3 in the vast mud deposit that forms
the Pampas, and 2 im tropical Brazil. From this distribution
it will be seen, that nearly one-fourth of the known species are
found in South Africa, and another fourth on the two sides of

tellement rapprochées, qu’elles sont difficiles 4 bien caractériser, d’autant
plus que la plupart cultivées, varient dans la forme et la grandeur de leur
feuilles, dans le nombre des divisions du calice et de la corolle, d’ow il est
résulté de la confusion dans la synonymie, et beaucoup de doutes pour
quelques espéces, établies par des auteurs modernes.” Indeed the habit of
Lycium is peculiar, where we observe a constant tendency to the abortion
of its branchlets, especially when grown in arid and saline places; we then
commonly find in each axil of the stems, a protuberant knotty excrescence,
sometimes quite bare, which is, in fact, a leaf-bud or gemma, checked in
its earliest development and lignified; generally, a few elementary leaf-
scales succeed in escaping from the gemma, forming a fascicle of starved
leaves, and often the node is at the same time expanded into a longer or
shorter spine, which again bears several similar suppressed nodes. In the
same plant, however, when exposed to circumstances that favour a more
rapid growth, we observe the nodes expanded into regular lengthened
branches and branchlets, with much larger alternate leaves, in each axil.
Hence it is, that the appearance of each species may become, and usually
is so varied, that we are liable to constant error in determining its indivi-
duality from its habit alone, and the form or size of its leaves or spines.

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 3

the Andes within the latitudes of Chile; the latter district, how-
ever, has been very little explored, and there is every reason to
believe it will be found by far the most prolific in number of spe-
cies of any quarter of the globe.

According to M. Dunal’s distribution of the genus, I find it
absolutely impossible to determine the sections to which this
large number of new species should be referred. He divides
Lycium into four sections, Schistocalyx, Eulycium, Amblymeris,
and Lyciobatos: Schistocalyx, distinguished by its calyx cleft to
the base, comprises only two species, which I have shown do not
belong to Lycium* ; Amblymeris, another new section, is pre-

* Huj. op. xi. 97. The first plant (my Salpichroma ciliatum, Tl. So.
Amer. Pl. i. p. 9 and 133; Lycium ciliatum, Schl.) is distinguished by its
alternate pointed leaves, nearly as broad as long, almost cordate at base
upon a short petiole, with ciliated margins, and covered with short jointed
hairs, solitary axillary flowers with the peduncle afterwards reflected, its
calyx split to the base into distinct linear segments covered with glandular
hairs, especially on its margins, its corolla externally pubescent, with a short
tube, and a border of 5 triangular reflected segments, the mouth of the
tube closed by a densely villous ring of hairs around the place of insertion
of the exserted stamens, the berry encircled by the longer enlarged calyx :
such characters are foreign to Lycium, but closely correspond with Salpi- —
chroma, especially with its section Perizoma ; this is strongly indicated by
the triangular segments of the corolla, showing a valvate zstivation, while
those of Lycium are always very rounded, and remarkably imbricated ; this
again is farther confirmed by the total absence of any induvial remains of
the corolla after its fall, which is a constant feature in Lycium. The cha-
racters of this plant appeared to M. Dunal so different from others of that
genus, as to draw from him the expression “an genus diversum?” I think
ope can be little doubt of its being allied to S. rhomboidea (Ill. So. Am.

1. pl. 1).

In regard to the second plant, L. serpyllifolium, Dun., I observe, from M.
Dunal’s description, that its leaves are not fasciculated, its flowers are soli-
tary and furnished beneath the calyx with narrow linear bracts, its calyx is
split to the base into linear segments, its filaments are recurved at the apex,
and its anthers subhemispherical and ciliated, with divaricated lobes; these
are all characters quite foreign to Lyciwm, and more appertaining to Scro-
phulariacee.

Since the above was written, I have seen the original specimen in Dr.
Burchell’s collection, and find my previous inferences fully verified. As the
plant is yet otherwise undescribed, I will here annex its characters: it is
aise to imagine upon what grounds it could have been referred to

ycium. j

Peliostomum serpyllifolium. Lycium serpyllifolium, Dun. in DC. Prodr.
xii. 509 ;—suffruticosum, ramis e basi erectiusculis, subvirgatis, rugosis,
striatis, albescentibus, ramulis brevibus, glabris, apice rigide et obsolete
pubescentibus, foliosis; foliis alternis, viridibus, ovatis obovatisve, sub-
obtusis, in petiolum brevem attenuatis, crassis, enerviis, glaberrimis; pe-
dunculo axillari, brevi, uniflori, bracteolis 2 setiformibus, oppositis, infra
calycem gerente, calycis persistentis sepalis 5 linearibus, rigidé puberulis,
corolla calyce 3-plo longiore, tubo supra basin contracto, demum obconico,
hinc late ampliato, nervis plurimis lineato, rigide glanduloso-pubescente,
limbi laciniis 5, rotundis, reticulato-venosis et maculato-pictis; capsula

1*

-

4 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

ceded by a long string of characters, a mere repetition of the
generic diagnosis, without a single differential feature to discri-
minate it from other sections ; while Hulycium and Lyciobatos are —
simply adopted from Endlicher (the latter being the [sodontia of
Don) ; these last are founded on the inequality or equality of the
teeth of the calyx, and the greater or less inclusion of the sta-
mens; the latter circumstance, of course, depends on the rela-
tive depth of the incisures of the corolla: the former character 1s
so uncertain in its value, that in the same specimen the calyx is
sometimes found regularly 5-toothed, while at other times it
assumes a somewhat bilabiate form, caused during its partial
growth by the splitting of two or three of its teeth: in regard
to the relative depth of the segments of the border of the corolla,
and the consequent amount of inclusion or exclusion of the
stamens, I find the extremes of these opposite features mixed
together in all the different sections, so that notwithstanding it
has been proposed as the rule of distinction, this character has
been wholly disregarded in the distribution of the species, as
will be seen in the sequel. The best proof that can be shown of
the small utility aud value of these characters is evidenced by the
fact, that while other botanists include in the Isodontia of Don
(Lyciobatos, Endl.), Lycitum Afrum, tenue, propinquum, rigidum,
cinereum, horridum and. tetrandrum, and exclude them from Euly-
cium, M. Dunal separates L. Afrum, rigidum, and two others, to
constitute his section Amblymeris, leaving all the other species
above mentioned. in Hulycium; his Lyciobatos being confined to
the old Linnean species L. Europeum and three others, that:
have no relationship with it whatever, the former species being
placed by other botanists in Hulycium. Kunth and Schlech-
tendal, again, station L. Huropeum, barbatum, and Chinense in
Eulycium, and L. Afrum in the section corresponding to Lycio-
batos. This shows‘what different constructions various authors
give to the same characters, and how useless they are for pur-
poses of discrimination..

oblonga acuta calyce paullo longiore.—C. B. 8. ad Buffel-bout, Lat. 30° 20!
legit cl. Burchell.—v. s. in herb. Burchell, no. 1596.—Frutex subpedalis,
radice fusiformi, lignoso, 5-pollicari; folia 3-5 lin. longa, 3-1 lin. lata,
peduneulus | lin. longus, bracteoli $ lin. longi, sepala linearia, acuta, rigida,
erecta, 2 ln. longa; corolla 5 lin. longa, 24 lin. lata, contractione basali
calyce breviori, limbi laciniz subeequales ; stamina didynama, inclusa, fila-
menta membranacea, compressa, e contractione tubi orta, apice spiraliter
voluta, anthere subtriangulares, zequales, pilis longis hispida, loculis con-
fluentibus, rima verticali dehiscentes, marginibus valvarum rigide ciliatis :
-ovarium conico-oblongum, calyce tertio brevius, glabrum ; sty/us usque ad
medium hirsutulus, superne inflexus, subexsertus, stigma minimum, emar-
ginato-bilobum : capsula 2-valvis, 2} lin. longa, lz lin. lata, apice sub-
compressa, acuta, valvis dissepimento parallelis, semibifidis, sepalis per-
sistentibus amplexa.

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 5

In order to prevent a multiplication of these errors, it appears
desirable to abolish these sections altogether, and to distribute
the species of Lycium in three new divisions, founded simply on
the relative depth of the incisures of the corolla ; viz.—1. Brachy-
cope, where the lobes of the border are one-third (or less) of the
entire length of the corolla; 2. Mesocope, where the segments
are yet longer, but do not exceed the length of the tube ; and
3. Macrocope, where the divisions of the corolla exceed in length
that of the tube: in this latter case the stamens are affixed in the
throat of the tube, and are far exserted, when the border becomes
expanded. ,

I have repeatedly endeavoured to show that Lycium should
not be classed among the Solanaceae, because of the very imbri-
cate zstivation of the segments of the corolla. Prof. Schlech-
tendal more than twenty years ago (Linn. vii. 72) clearly indi-
cated his doubts to this efiect. M.Dunal however, in the ‘ Pro-
dromus,’ still follows the example of preceding botanists in ar-
ranging Lycium in that family, and constitutes it the type of one
of his great divisions of the Solaninee (Lycinee), which there
comprises a number of genera that have little relation with it, or
with each other, as I have shown (Aw. op. x1. p. 9). Evidence
had previously been offered by me demonstrating its position in
the family of the Atropacee and in the tribe Atropee, as it pos-
sesses those essential characters by which that tribe is pecu-
liarized (huj. op. 1. 166). Although in its general features it
offers some approach to Atropa, it comes nearest to Mandragora
in its floral structure, but not in its habit, agreeing with it in the
form of its calyx, its tubular corolla with a border of five equal
segments having an imbricated estivation, one being always
exterior ; in its stamens inserted in the tube, the filaments often
very unequal in length, being generally furnished with tufts of
hair a little above the geniculated points of their insertion ; in
the style being declined away from the external lobe of the
border ; in the form of its stigma, its bilocular ovarium with
large fleshy placentz adnate to the dissepiment, in its baccate
fruit supported by its persistent unchanged calyx, and its spiral
terete embryo.

The calyx in Lycium is generally small and cupshaped, with
five erect teeth ; these are mostly equal, but sometimes one, two,
or three of the teeth become imperfectly confluent with the
others, appearing thus irregularly 3-toothed or bilabiate, a
feature originating, as before observed, in the partial ‘splitting of
the teeth, a character that often varies in amount with its age,
and in the same specimen: it is always persistent, and little
changed with the growth of the fruit. The corolla is always
contracted below the point of insertion of the stamens, is cylin-
drical towards the base, the tube being often inflated or more or

6 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

less funnel-shaped above, with a border sometimes narrow, having
five small rounded imbricated lobes, or frequently these divisions
are longer, being often continued through the whole infundibu-
liform portion of the tube to the insertion of the filaments, in
which case they become wholly exserted after the expansion of
the border: these features are.so constant in different individuals
as to afford excellent sectional characters. The corolla, although
very often symmetrical in its form, is not constantly so, for in
many species the tube is more or less inflated upon the side
opposite to that of the more exterior lobe of the border, and
both stamens and style are somewhat declined towards this gib-
bous portion: one, two or three of the stamens are often consi-
derably shorter than the others, which do not exceed the total
length of the corolla; they are sometimes even still shorter, and
wholly included within the tube after the expansion of the
border. ‘The filaments are generally geniculated, or suddenly
bent at the point of their insertion mto the tube of the corolla,
and again curve a little above this poimt into an erect position,
and here they are often furnished with a dense globular tuft of
white hairs, which form a fornix closing the mouth of the con-
tracted portion of the tube around the base of the style; in
several cases the filaments at their base are distinguished by a
flat adnate fleshy process, frmged on its margin, bearing some
analogy to the tooth of the filaments in Cestrum, or the gland-
like scale in Zygophyllacee; they are sometimes altogether
smooth. The ovarium is seated upon a short columnar support,
to which the base of the corolla is persistently adnate: after
impregnation, the corolla breaks away by an irregular circum-
scissile line, leaving a free persistent cup, which encircles the
lower moiety of the ovarium: in the details given of many species
of Lycium by M. Dunal, he describes this as a dentate cupular
proper disk, but that is certainly a mistake ; this circumscission
of the corolla is a constant feature, and may always be relied
upon as a good generic character, but this fact has hitherto
escaped attention. The base of the ovary, enclosed within this
induvial cup, is at the same time marked by a glandular enlarge-
ment of a different colour, which is a true adnate hypogynous
disk, although sometimes this is almost obsolete. The ovarium
is uniformly 2-locular, with numerous ovules in each cell attached
to a thickened placenta adnate to the dissepiment. The berries
supported on the small persistent calyx are scarlet, black, or
blue: they contain several flattened reniform seeds, surrounded
by pulp, and attached to the central placenta : their slender
terete embryo, enclosed in solid albumen, is spirally helical, that
is to say, it consists of more than a single volution, which is not
coiled in a plane, but rises in the middle in a slightly conical
form like the whorl of a snail-shell ; the radicle, equal in length

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 7

and diameter to the cotyledons, points to the basal angle of the
seed at some distance from the lateral hilum, which is situated
in a conspicuous sinus on the ventral margin. The following is
offered as a more exact expression of its generic features than
that given in the ‘ Prodromus’ referred to.

Lycium, Linn.; DC. Prodr. xiii. 508 (char. emend.).—Calyx
tubuloso- campanulatus, 5-dentatus, vel sub-5-fidus, ieaahan

_ seepe irregularibus vel aliquantulum confluentibus, persistens.
Corolla tubulosa vel infundibuliformis, tubo imo constricto
et hinc demum circumscisso, limbo 5- rarius 4-fido, laciniis
rotundatis vel oblongis, obtusis, tubo brevioribus aut lon-
gioribus, reflexis, zstivatione valde imbricatis, lateribus sese
ample tegentibus. Stamina 5, rarius 4, laciniis alterna, seepe
ineequalia, medio vel supra basin tubi inserta, longitudine
corolla aut breviora; filamenta filiformia, glabra, vel supra
insertionem semper geniculatam interdum barbata, szpe lon-
gius hirsuta, aut ad basin glandula lineari antice sita, margine
ciliata donata ; anthere oblong, 2-loculares, loculis adnatis,
zequaliter 2-valvatis, rima longitudinali margine dehiscentibus.
Pollen globosum longitudinaliter 3-sulcatum. Ovarium brevi-
ter stipitatum, oblongum, imo disco carnoso adnato sepissime
fere obsoleto et cupula libera (corollz reliquo) cirecumdatum,
2-loculare, placentis dissepimento coadunatis, multiovulatis.
Stylus simplex, staminibus subzquilongus, apice paullo in-
crassatus. Stigma depresso-capitatum, plus minusve 2-lobum.
Bacca calyce sepe irregulariter fisso suffulta, globosa, aut
ovata, 2-locularis. Semina plurima, compressa, reniformia ;
testa scrobiculata, crustacea ; embryo intra albumen carnosum,
helico-spiralis, teres, radicula angulo basali spectante, hiloque
marginali evitante, cotyledonibus semiteretibus zquilonga.—
Arbuscule vel frutices sepius spinost, presertim in America et
Africa, pauci in Europa australi et Asia crescentes ; folia alterna,
integra, sepissime e gemmis foliaceis axillaribus fasciculata ;
flores pedunculati, solitarti, gemint, vel aggregati, axillares, vel
sepius e gemmulis foliaceis in spinis sistentes, aut rarius ex ax-
illis approximatis pseudo-terminales ; corolle albide, flavescentes,
rose, vel coccinee.

1. Bracuycore. Corolla fere cylindrica, interdum paullo ventri-
cosa, limbi lacinits parvulis, tubt dimidio longitudine, vel adhuc
sepius brevioribus.

A. GERONTOGES.
* Filamenta levia. Sp. 1 ad 8.

1, Lycium sevum (n. sp.) ;—fruticosum, valide spinosum, spinis
patulis, fuscis, nudis, folio brevioribus, aut foliiferis et tunc

8 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

longioribus ; foliis crebre fasciculatis, spathulato-oblongis,
apice rotundatis, a medio in petiolum angustatis, pallidis, cras-
siusculis, eventis, utrinque obsolete puberulis; floribus e fasci-
culis solitariis aut binis, pedunculatis, calyce brevi, tubuloso,
submembranaceo, subzequaliter 5-dentato, dentibus pubescen-
tibus, corolla subcylindrica, tubo superne paullo ampliato,
utringue glaberrimo, limbi lacinus 5, rotundato-ovatis, mar-
gine subciliatis, staminibus 5 inclusis, 2 faucem attingentibus,
reliquis multo brevioribus, filamentis omnino glabris, paullo
infra medium tubi insertis; stylo filiformi, tubo equilongo.—
Arabia.—(v. s. in herb. Hook. “ ad Cisternas Gedde,” Fischer,
no. 98.)

This plant appears to be identical with that described by
M. Dunal in DC. Prodr. xiii. 524. as “ L. Mediterraneum, sectio
longiflorum, an species diversa? var. 8. cinereum,”’ and found in
- the same place by Schimper. Its leaves are 6 to. 9 lines long,
13 or 2, rarely 3 lines broad; the peduncle is 1} line, and. the
calyx barely 1 line long; the tube of the corolla 5 lines in
length, 14 line diameter; segments 14 line long, 1 line broad,
the margins being slightly ciliated, while all the rest of the
corolla is smooth: the stamens are perfectly glabrous, as well
as the tube beneath their insertion, one of the stamens being
only two-thirds the length of the two that reach the mouth of
the tube*.

2. Lycium Europeum, Linn. Syst. i..228; Mant. 97 ; Sibthorp,
Fl. Gree. i. 155. tab. 236. LL. salicifolium, Mill. Dict. no. 3.
tab. 171. fig. 2. L. Mediterraneum (§ breviflorum), Dun. in
DC. Prodr. xiii. 524, cum aliis variis synonymis et citatio-
nibus auctorum ;—ramulis erectis, subteretibus, glabris, vel
albido-pruinosis, spinosis, junioribus angulatis, albescentibus,
et glanduloso-pilosulis, spinis nudis, vel longioribus et gem-
miferis, gemmis seepe tuberculatis; folis fasciculatis, spa-
thulato-oblongis, apice acutis vel obtusiusculis, imo in petio-
lum elongatulum cuneatis, subglabris vel sub lente parce glan-
duloso-pilosis ; floribus e fasciculis solitariis vel binis, pedun-
culo longiusculo, calyce subpoculiformi, membranaceo, pri-
mum equaliter 5-dentato, demum sub-bilabiato, dentibus
obtusiusculis sphacelato-puberulis ; corolla tubuloso-infundi-
buliformi, glabra, tubo intus imfra insertionem staminum
piloso, limbi laciniis 5, rotundis, glabris, tubo 4to brevioribus,
staminibus 5 inclusis, faucem attingentibus, 3 paullulo bre-
vioribus, filamentis medio tubi insertis, et in nervis tot-

* A drawing with analytical details of this species is given in the ‘ [llustr.
South Amer. Plants,’ vol. uu. plate 64 A.

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 9

idem decurrentibus, hine tuboque pilosulis, parte libera om-
nino glabris; stylo capillaceo, vix exserto, cum ovario arti-
culato: bacca pisiformi subglobosa——Per totam Europam
Australem, presertim in Grecia abundat, unde pro sepibus
antiquissime introductum, forsan in Africam Borealem spon-
taneum, Insulasque Madeira et Canarienses.—v. s. in herb.
Hook. (Madeira) Lemann, no. 552 (in sepibus Portis Sancti
abundans) *.

M. Dunal rejects the Linnzan name, merely because the plant
is not common throughout al] Europe; but on the same ground,
the name he has substituted is equally inappropriate, since it is
acknowledged by himself, that although it occurs in Southern
Europe and the Mediterranean Islands, it has originally been
introduced there. If we must reject the Linnean name, for
which I can see no reason, it would be infinitely better to adapt
a synonym nearly as old, in preference to a new and unsuitable
term, in which case Miller’s name, by common rule, would claim
_ precedence over that of M. Dunal. bis

A considerable difference is observable in this and the pre-
ceding plant, both in habit and in the structure of its flowers.
It is a species well known, and frequently found in gardens in
England. The barren spines measure 8 to 5 lines, but the gem-
miferous spines are much longer: the leaves are usually from
9 to 15 lines long, 13 to 3 lines broad, and attenuated into a
slender petiole; the pedicel is 2 lines in length, the calyx is
3 line long; the tube of the corolla is a little curved, 5 lines
long, 13 line diameter in the middle, 23 lines in the mouth, the
rounded glabrous segments being 13 line in diameter. A spe-
cimen in Sir Wm. Hooker’s herbarium from one of the Canary
Islands (Palma, Bourgeau, no. 924), affords a good example of
what has been before said respecting the variation of habit and
difference in the size and shape of the leaves sometimes found in
the same individual. One branchlet bears some short, stout,
bare, axillary spines, little more than 3 lines in length; but
other axils that are without spines, produce a single large fleshy
leaf from 2 to 2} inches long, and $ an inch broad, somewhat
obtuse at the apex, and attenuated into a petiolar base; another
straight branch, 18 inches long, is beset with numerous straight
bare spines, 1 to 1} inch long, accompanied by separate alter-
nate leaves, 3 to 6 lines in length, 1 to 3 lines broad, and with-
out flowers ; a third, and more fragmentary portion, has a single
spine, 25 inches long, bearing three small bare spines, each 3
lines in length, and a single spineless nodose axil, producing five
fasciculated leaves, about an inch long, and 3 lines broad, with

* A drawing with details of this plant is shown (/oc. cit.), plate 64 B.

10 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

four flowers, the peduncles of which are 4 lines in length: in all
of these the corolla had fallen off, leaving the ovary encircled by
its induvial cup and the persistent calyx.

3. Lycium Indicum, R. Wight, Icon. tab. 1403 ;—glaberrimum,
ramis flexuosis, ramulis divaricatis, apice spinescentibus, vel
abbreviatis, spinosis, spinis inferioribus nudis ; foliis e gemmis
fasciculatis, vel alternis, spathulato-oblongis, imo anguste
cuneatis, sessilibus; floribus (in specimine) subsolitariis (in
icon. cit. fasciculatis), calyce pedicello subequilongo, tubuloso,
5-costato, dentibus cum costis continuis, sinubus rotundatis
demum inzqualiter fissis : corolla (sicca) pallide flava, infundi-
buliformi, tubo calyce 4-plo longiore, glabro, limbi lacintis
rotundis, ciliatis, tubo 4to brevioribus: staminibus glabris,
valde inequalibus, paullo supra basin tubi insertis, quorum
2 inclusis, 3 subexsertis ; stylo exserto: bacca globosa, pisi
magnitudine, apiculata, seminibus paucis.—Penins. Indie
Orientalis.—v. s. in herb. Hook. Guzzerat et Scinde (Stocks,
n. 112; Dr. Thomson, n. 57).

In this very distinct species the leaves vary considerably in
form ; Dr. Wight received his specimens from Dr. Stocks, and .
from the notes accompanying it, this distinguished botanist was
led to infer that it might be only a variety of L. Europeum: in
those notes Dr. Stocks talks of its bearded stamens, evidently
confounding his own specimens with another species growing in
Scinde. In Dr. Thomson’s plant the leaves are fasciculated,
obovate-lanceolate, 4.to 6 lines long, 1 to 14 line broad ; the
peduncle is 1 line long; the calyx, 1} line in Jength, is tubular,
with long obtuse teeth ; the corolla is contracted below, its tube
being smooth and 4 lines long, its border having five rounded
ciliated segments 1 line in diameter ; the membranaceous fila-
ments are quite smooth and included, two of them measuring
2 lines, the other three 3 lines; the style is 4 lines in length ;
the ovary, supported by a closely adnate gland, is surrounded at
its base by the induvial cup of the corolla. The specimens from
Guzzerat have leaves 12 lines in length and 4 lines in breadth ;
those from Scinde are obovate or oblong, 8 lines long, 3 to 4
lines broad : the pedicels, one or two in each axil, are 2 lines in
length*.

4, Lycium oxycarpum, Dun. in DC. Prodr. xiii. 518. Lycium
Afrum, Drége.—C. B. S.—v. s. in herb. Hook. (Drége).
The specimen above quoted is certainly distinct from L. Afrum ;
it is entirely smooth, with large knotted glands in the axils, out

* This species with analytical details is seen (loc. cit.), plate 64 C.

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 11

of which the spines grow ; the leaves are 9 to 14 lines long, 2 to
23 limes broad; the pedicels are 5 lines long, the smooth cup-
shaped calyx is 1} line long, the points of the angular teeth being
tomentose ; the corolla is tubular and smooth, the tube being
3 lines long, 14 line diameter, with small round segments $ line
diameter: the stamens are included, the filaments being dilated at
the base, and inserted near the bottom of the tube, and are almost
its length, subequal, slender and smooth : the style is exserted*.

The variety «. grandiflorum of M. Dunal appears to be Lycium
austrinum, nob. ; var. B. parviflorum and y. angustifolium may
probably be small-leaved varieties of L. oxycarpum, but it is im-
possible to judge of this without examination.

5. Lycium intricatum, Boiss. Elench. Pl. Nov. Hisp. 148; Voy.
Bot. Esp. n. 1215 ; Dunal in DC. Prodr. xii. 525.—Hispania
et Africa Boreali.—v. s. in herb. Hook, Oran. Balansa, n. 659.

In this specimen the spines are approximate, thick, horizontally
spreading, 1 to 14 inch long, bearing numerous fascicles of
leaves larger than those described by M. Dunal; they are from
4. to 6 lines long, 1 line broad: the peduncles are 2 lines long ;
the calyx, slightly pubescent, is 1 line ; the tube of the corolla,
quite glabrous, is 6 or 7 lines long; the lobes of the border are
nearly orbicular, smooth, and 1 line long ; the filaments are quite
smooth, and fixed in the middle of the tube; two of the anthers
reach the mouth, one is shorter, and the two others are a little
exserted : the style attains the length of the lower anthert+.

6. Lycium halophyllum, Welw. MSS. n. sp. ;—fruticosum, nune
2-pedale, nunc vix 2-unciale, glaberrimum, ramulis virgatis,
costato-angulatis, inermibus vel spinosis: foliis subfasciculatis,
valde polymorphis, oblongis, utrinque acutiusculis, vel obtusis
et spathulatis, crassissimis, glabris, vix petiolatis; floribus
solitariis, calyce tubulari, 5-dentato, pedicello subzequilongo,
corolle glabre lacinitis rotundatis, tubo infundibuliformi 6to
brevioribus.—Lusitania.—v. s. in herb. Hook. ; ad rupes mari-
timas prope Lagos et Cabo S. Vicente (Welwich. herb. Algarv.
n. 717).

A very distinct species, varying greatly in its height, form,
and aspect, and in the size and shape of its fleshy leaves: those
of the shorter plants are more fleshy and spathulate, 3 or 4 lines
long and 1 line broad ; the larger plants have straight branches,
with spines % to 14 inch long, with leaves 5 or 6 lines in length
and 2 or 8 lines in breadth; the peduncles are 1 line long; the

* For a drawing and detail of this species see (loc. cit.) plate 64 D.
+ A drawing with details of this species is shown (Joc. cit.), plate 64 E.

12 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

calyx, of the same length, is narrow, tubular, with five short equal
ciliate teeth ; the corolla is narrow, slightly funnel-shaped, a little
curved, smooth, 5 lines long, with five nearly orbicular segments,
$ line long, with ciliate margins; the filaments are smooth, in-
serted below the middle of the tube, two of them reaching the
mouth, two somewhat shorter, with the fifth intermediate*.

7. Lycium orientale (n. sp.) ;—ramulis griseis, substriatis, vir-
gatis, spinosis, spinis longis, gemmiferis ; foliis fasciculatis,
aut alternis, lineari-spathulatis, in petiolum gracilem atte-
nuatis, glaberrimis, aut pubescentibus; floribus solitariis, pe-
dicello calyce tubuloso subzequaliter 4—5-dentato ciliato 2plo
longiore ; corolle glabree laciniis brevibus 4—5 oblongis, mar-
gine subciliatis, tubo anguste cylindrico superne paullo latiore
4to brevioribus, staminibus inclusis, 4-5, subzequalibus, fila-
mentis glabris, tubo 4to brevioribus, antheris oblongis, basi
cordatis, apice connectivo excurrente mucronatis, faucem attin-
gentibus ; stylo elongato, capillari, apice incurvo, exserto.—
Asia Minor et Arabia.—v. s. in-herb. Hook. Smyrna. Arabia
Petreea (EL. Botsster). :

This species is probably common throughout the Levant, but
has been confounded with L. Europeum and L. Barbarum, from
both of which it is quite distinct. The two specimens above
cited differ much in appearance, the Smyrna plant having much
larger, linear, subulate, veinless leaves, generally alternate, some-
what thinner in texture and quite smooth: that from Arabia has
shorter, spathulate, crisp, fasciculate, pubescent leaves, and some-
times tetramerous flowers, but in the form of the calyx, the length
of the tube of the corolla, the shape and size of the segments of
its border, the very short similar glabrous stamens, with singu-
larly mucronate anthers, the two specimens quite agree. The
latter plant has quite the habit and appearance of L. Barbarum,
but it differs in the greater length of the tube of the corolla, its
shorter and entirely smooth stamens and mucronate anthers.
The Smyrna specimen greatly resembles L. Huropewm in appear-
ance; its leaves are 12 to 15 lines long, 2 lines broad; the
pedicel is 2 lines long, the calyx 1 line, the tube of the corolla
51 lines, its segments 1j line. In the Arabian plant the leaves
are 3 to 5 lines long, 1 Mine broad, obtuse, shghtly. pubescent ;
the peduncle is 2 lines long, the narrow tubular calyx often
14 line long, the tube of the corolla 44 lines, the segments ] line,
and the filaments are barely a line in “lengtht.

8. Lycium Persicum (n. sp.) ;—glaberrimum, ramulis valde no-

* This species with analytical details is shown (Joc. cit.) plate 64 F.
t A drawing with details of this species is shown (/oc. cit.) in plate 65 A.

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 13

dosis, breviter spinosis ; foliis spathulato-obovatis vel oblongis,
in nodis glomerosis fasciculatis ; floribus solitariis, calyce par-
vulo, tubuloso, subzequaliter 5-dentato, margine ciliato ; corolla
violacea, glabra, longe et anguste tubulosa, superne paullo
ampliata, limbi laciniis 5, ovatis, margine subciliatis, tubo
sexto brevioribus, staminibus 5, medio insertis, glabris, 2 bre-
vissimis, 2 fauce vix exsertis, 1 intermedio incluso ; stylo tenui,
stigmate exserto.—Arabia.—v. s. in herb. Hook. (Aden, in
maritimis, Dr. Hooker) ; (idem, Dr. T. Thomson).

_ Near LZ. orientale, but much more gnarled and, stunted in its
growth ; its corolla more slender, its stamens very unequal in
length, and its anthers not furnished with the same long mucro-
nate point. Its branches are somewhat flexuose, with rather
close internodes, and a spine grows out of each salient node: the
leaves are 3 to 9 lines long, 3 to 2 lines broad; the peduncle is
2 lines, the calyx I line, the tube of the corolla 5 lines, its seg-
ments 3 to 1 line long: the shorter stamens are 1 line, the inter-
mediate 2 lines, the longer ones 2} lines in length: the flowers
are “blue purple*.”

** Filamenta basi hirsuta. Sp. 9 ad 14.

9. Lycium Austrinum (n. sp.) ; (an L. oxycarpum, var. a. grandi-
florum, Dun.in DC. xii. 518 ?)—ramosum, merme, vel rarius
breviter spinosum; ramulis tortuosis, subnitidis, grosse no-
dosis, nodis approximatis, creberrime foliosis ; foliis 5-20 e
‘nodis fasciculatis, glaberrimis, longe lanceolatis, obtusis, vel
acutiusculis, in petiolum tenuem spathulatis ; floribus e fasci-
culis 2-5, pedunculis folio brevioribus, calyceque tubuloso
4—5-dentato 3plo longioribus; corolla majuscula, tubulosa,
subincurva, imo crassa, coarctata, glabra, intus paullo infra
insertionem staminum pubescente, limbi laciniis 5 rotundatis,
nervosis, glabris, tubo 6-8vo brevioribus, staminibus valde
inzequalibus, filamentis e quarta parte tubi orientibus, imo
geniculatis et glabris, mox longiuscule hirsutis, dein glabris,
filiformibus, 2 longioribus longe exsertis, 2 intermediis faucem
attingentibus, 1 multo breviori inserto; stylo filiformi, apice
crassiusculo, incurvo, exserto.—In Africa Australi.—v. s. in

herb. Hook. Gamka River (Burke).

A plant with large conspicuous flowers like those of LZ. Afrum,
but narrower and paler; the leaves are much larger and more
crowded ; it differs moreover, essentially,-in the structure of the
flowers. The leaves are comparatively thin in texture, veinless,
nearly an inch long, including the slender petiole, and 1} to 2

* This species with analytical details is delineated (loc. cit.) in plate 65 B.

14 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

lines broad ; the peduncles are 6 lines long; the tubular calyx
2 lines, the tube of the corolla 8 or 9 lines, the segments are
1 to 13 line long*.

10. Lycium hirsutum, Dun. in DC. Prodr. xiii. 521.—C. B. 8.—
v. s.in herb. Hook. (Drége, 7866 b). Graham’s Town (Ruther-
ford). é i
This is well distinguished by the rather dense pubescence

which clothes the stemlets, the spines and the leaves. In Drége’s

specimen the leaves are elliptic, oblong, acute, attenuated at the
base into a slender petiole of one-third the length of the blade ;
the total length being 9 to 12 lines, and their breadth 3 or 4 lines.

The specimen from Graham’s Town is much more branched, the

branchlets and spines are nearly at right angles and densely

beset with clusters of leaves: here the petiole is nearly obsolete,
the leaves are only 3 or 4 lines long and 14 or 2 lines broad :
the flowers, upon an extremely short peduncle, are nearly sessile :
the tubular and very pubescent calyx is larger than in the other
specimen, its tube being 2 lines, and its nearly equal linear teeth
being widely spread and 1 or 14 line long: the tube of the
corolla is 4 lines long, nearly cylindrical, with a border of five
rounded oblong segments, ciliated on the margins, nearly a line
in length: the stamens are nearly equal in length, inserted con-
siderably below the middle of the tube, hirsute for about one-
fourth their length, and reach the mouth: the flowers in this
specimen are in a bad condition f.

11. Lycium arenicolum (n. sp.) ;—spinosum, glaberrimum, ramis
costato-angulatis, ramulis superioribus elongatis, subvirgatis,
inferioribus in spinis nodosis abbreviatis, nodis osseis, nitidis,
cupulatis, utrinque lateraliter in costis decurrentibus; foliis
creberrime fasciculatis, sessilibus, linearibus, carnosulis, acutis;
floribus 4-meris e fasciculis solitariis, brevissimis, pedunculatis,
calyce inzqualiter 4-dentato, dentibus ciliatis ; corolla parva,
tubulosa, limbi lacinis 4 oblongis, ciliatis, tubo tertio brevi-
oribus ; staminibus inzequalibus, paullo supra basin insertis, 1
parum exserto, 2 faucem attingentibus, quarto breviori incluso,
filamentis basi hirsutulis; ovario induvio corolle circumdato,
et disco carnoso rubro arcte adnato suffulto ; stylo apice in-
crassato exserto.—C. B. 8.—». s. in herb. Hook. ; in arenosis ad
Orange River (Burke).

This plant has greatly the habit and appearance of L. tenue,

* A figure of this species with sectional details is given (Joc. cit.),
plate 65 C.

¢ This species with sectional drawings is represented (Joc. cit.) in
plate 65 D.

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 15

and is remarkable for the cupular nodes that project from the
axils, and that are decurrent on each side with the angles of the
stem : five to ten leaves grow out of each node, and are 5 to 7
lines long, 4 line broad : the peduncle is barely longer than half
a line, the calyx 1 line, the teeth of the corolla 24 lines, the seg-
ments of the border 4 line long*.

12. Lycium oxycladum (n. sp.) ;—ramosissimum, glaberrimum,
ramis patentibus, ramulisque angulatis, Jongiusculis, apice
spinosis, nodis approximatis, osseis, cupulatis ; foliis parvulis,
4—7 hine creberrime fasciculatis, spathulato-linearibus, carno-
sulis; floribus e fasciculis solitariis, breviter pedunculatis,
calyce glabro, poculiformi, subsequaliter 5-dentato, dentibus
acutis subciliatis, corolle tubo infundibuliformi glabro, imo
intra calycem piloso, limbi laciniis ovatis, tubo 4—5to brevi-
oribus, margine haud ciliatis, staminibus non longe a basi in-
sertis, filamentis imo glabriusculis, dein longiuscule hirsu-
tulis, superne glabris, 2 longioribus exsertis, 2 medianis fau-
cem attingentibus, quinto breviori incluso.—C. B. S.—v. s. in
herb. Hook. Uitenhage (Harvey, 81). South Africa (Burke).

A plant with much the habit of L. tetrandrum, but with more
fleshy and broader leaves: the leaves are 3 or 4 lines long, 4 line
broad ; the pedicel is 14 line, the calyx 1 line in length, the tube
of the corolla 3 or 4 lines, the segments of the border roundish
or oval, 3 line longt.

13. Lycium roridum (n. sp.) ;—viscoso-roridum, spinosissimum,
intricato-ramosum, ramis fuscis, glaucis, striatulis, nodosis,
flexuosis, ramulis spinosis ; foliis parvulis, 2-10 creberrime
fasciculatis, spathulato-oblongis, vel ovatis, carnosis, pallide
glaucis, glandulis minutissimis viscosis utrinque punctatis,
pilisque brevissimis sparse scabridis vel interdum glabriusculis ;
floribus in medio fasciculorum solitariis, pedunculatis, calyce
subtubuloso, zqualiter profunde et acute dentato, carnoso,
punctis glandulosis pilisque brevissimis munito, corolle tubo
infundibuliformi glabro, limbi laciniis ovatis, tubo 4to bre-
vioribus ; staminibus infra medium insertis, imo pilis articu-
latis longiusculis dense lanatis, hinc superne glabris, ineequa-
libus, omnibus exsertis, bacca globosa, parva, pallida, mucro-
nulata, calyce cupulato, dentibus recurvis suffulta—In Africa
Australi.—v. s. in herb. Hook. (Burke).

This plant, from its close external resemblance, would readily

7
* A drawing of this species with analytical details is shown (Joe. cit.),
plate 65 E.
+ An outline of this species with floral details is seen (Joc. cit.), plate 65 F.

16 © Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

be confounded with L. oxycladum, but on careful examination
it will be found extremely different. The fleshy leaves are 1 or 2
lines long, } line broad, cuneate below, with numerous yellowish
immersed shining glands on both surfaces; the peduncle is 14
line long ; the tube’ of the calyx is equal in length to the five equal
erect divisions, which are ? line long ; the tube of the corolla is 24
lines; the segments of its border 3 line long ; the berry. is nearly
2 lines in diameter, 2-celled, containing eight glaucous-brown,
oval, compressed, and somewhat cochleate seeds ; ; these are affixed
to the lower portion of the dissepiment, which is membranaceous,
and slit in the middle of the upper portion, as in the Duboisiee*.

14. Lycium acutifolium, E. Meyer; Dunal in DC. Prodr. xiii.
519.—Pro char. floral.. a cl. Dunalio donato, substit.: ca-
lycis dentibus equalibus, brevibus, acutis, ciliatis, corolle
glabree laciniis 5 ovatis, tubo superne valde ampliato, basi an-
gustissimo, 4to brevioribus, glabris, staminibus inequalibus
haud procul basin insertis, imo longiuscule hirsutis, superne
glabris, 2 longe, 2 paullo exsertis, quinto multo breviori in-
cluso ; stylo exserto.—C. B. 8.—+. s. in herb. Hook. tt
sub nomine L. acutifolium b. E. M.)

A very distinct species, remarkable for its thin, membra-
naceous, spathulate, oval, fasciculated leaves, and its very long
peduncle. The leaves are 3 or 4 lines long, 1} to 2 lines broad,
attenuated at base into a slender petiole ; the very smooth pe-
duncle is 6 lines long ; the calyx is 1 line; the tube of the corolla,
contracted below, is in its upper portion subcampanulate, 3 lines
in length ; the segments of the border being 1 line longt.

*k* Filamenta paullo supra basin glabra, mox globula pilorum
donata. Sp. 15 ad 22.

15. Lycium Afrum, Linn.; Dun. in DC. Prodr. xiii. 521, cum
aliis synonymis et citationibus auctorum.—Pro char. flor. cl.
Dunalu substitut. sequent. ;—calyce glabro, seepe margine
flosculoso-puberulo, majusculo, campanulato, zequaliter ac bre-
viter 5-dentato, demum 2-3-fido; corolla conspicua, infundi-
buliformi-campanulata, imo breviter coarctata, glabra, limbi
laciniis 5, subrotundis, tubo 5to brevioribus, reflexis ; stami-
nibus subzequalibus, inclusis, faucem non attingentibus, fila-
mentis imo geniculatis, nudis, mox fasciculo pilorum donatis,
dein superne glaberrimis.—Africa, preesertim in C. B.8.; an
in Africam Borealem, Hispaniam, et Lusitaniam introductum ?

* This species with full details is shown (loc. cit.), plate 66 A.
~ +t A drawing of this species with details is seen (loc. cit.), plate 66 B.

| My. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 17

=v. 8. on plurimis, C. B. 'S.; inter alia, spec. coll. Drege
(sub nomine L. rigidum, b. Thunb.).

This is a well-known species, long cultivated in Europe, con-
spicuous for its large crimson flowers and copious small foliage.
The specimen above quoted from Drége’s collection, and described
by M. Dunal in the ‘ Prodromus,’ p. 523, as L. rigidum, var. an-
gustifolium, Dun., appears to me without doubt a true L. Afrum.
Specimens from different parts of Southern Africa vary in the
length and thickness of their crowded fasciculate leaves, and the
species is easily distinguished from all others by its broad calyx
and large dark-coloured corolla. The species L. propinguum
(DC. Prodr. xiii. 526) was founded by G. Don (Dict. iv. 459)
simply upon Thunberg’s description of L. Afrumin ‘ Linn. Trans.’
ix. 153: here, the words “folia unguicularia” are translated,

leaves’ a nail long,” which M. Dunal has reconstrued into

“‘folia 24 pollicaria :” to me it appears that Thunberg meant to
express the essential feature of unguiculate or spathulate leaves :
under this more probable construction there is absolutely nothing
in Thunberg’s character at variance with what we know of L.

Afrum*.

16. Lyctum carnosum, Poir.; Dunal in DC. Prodr. xiii. 522.—

C. B. 8. ; an L. Afri mera varietas ? . -

Not having met with any specimen of this reputed species, I
cannot form a decided opinion respecting it, but from the pub-
lished descriptions, no very essential difference is appreciable be-
tween this and the preceding species: the principal distinction,
and that derived from cultivated specimens, consists in its some-
what smaller berry being of a deep blue, while the other is of a
blackish red colour, a mere difference of shade. M. Dunal, from
a specimen cultivated at Montpelier, says it is very close to
L. Afrum, differing only in its smaller stems, fewer spines,
thicker, shorter and paler leaves, and in a more greenish hue in
the colour of the corolla: a considerable difference in both these
respects is often witnessed in indigenous specimens of L. Afrum:
it does not therefore appear, that the validity of the species rests
upon very satisfactory grounds; and this is confirmed by the
fact, that among the numerous collections brought from all parts
of the Cape colony during the last few years, no specimen appears
that can be referred to this species.

17. Lycium glaucum (n. sp.) ;—spimosum, glaberrimum, intri-
cato-rainosum, ramulis rugoso-rimosis, vel levigatis, juniori-
bus niveis, spinis seepius brevibus, nudis, ex axillis strumoso-

* An outline of this species with its floral analysis is shown (Joe. eit.),
plate 66C.

Ann. & May. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 2

18 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

nodosis; foliis e nodis 5-10, fasciculatis, angustissime linea-
ribus, carnosulis, glauco-pallidis; floribus in fasciculis soli-
tariis, folio paullo longioribus ; pedunculo calyce tubuloso
glabro membranaceo breviter et ineequaliter 5-dentato demum
fisso subduplo longiore ; corolla glabra, infundibuliformi, pal-
lide flava, imo courctats. limbi laciniis oblongis, obtiisis; reti-
culato-pictis, tubo tertio brevioribus ; staminibus 5, subeequa-
libus, exsertis, filamentis gracilibus, imo breviter pilosis, 2
paullulo longioribus, tubo fasciculis totidem piloruam cum
insertione istorum alternis intus donato; stylo capillari,
apice inflexo, exserto.—In Persia boreali.—v. s. in herb. Hook.
(Aucher Eloy, n. 5035).

This is a plant of very gnarled aspect, with prominent warty
nodes, of a pale glaucous hue, and with pale flowers half the size
of those of L. Afrum. It is very distinct from L. Barbarum, with
which it has probably been confounded. Its leaves are from 5

to 7 lines long, 4 or 4 line broad; the peduncle is 3: lines in »

length ; the narrow tubular calyx is 14 or 2 lines long, 1 line in
diameter ; the tube of the corolla measures 4 lines, and the seg-
ments of its border 13 line, and, excepting the five tufts of hair
placed alternately with the stamens, between their insertion, it is
quite glabrous*.

18. Lycium echinatum, Dun. in DC. Prodr. xm. 513.—Ad char.
cel. Dunalii post descr. calycis, adde ;—corolla mfundibuliformi,
pallida, 4-mera, imo coarctata, limbi laciniis rotundis, margine
ciliatis, tubo 4to brevioribus ; staminibus 4, quorum 2 alter-
natim longioribus, exsertis, alteris faucem attingentibus, fila-
mentis supra coarctationem tubi glabri insertis, hinc nudis et
geniculatis, mox fasciculo pilorum donatis.—C. B. S.—v..s. in

herb. Hook. (Drége, 7870).

The specimen above cited is quite fragmentary, and is remark-
able for the extreme smallness of its fasciculate leaves; the
branchlets appear angular and glaucous, with a few short. spines,
and out of each nodose axil arises a fascicle of small narrow
linear leaves, 1 line, rarely 2: lines long, and 4 line broad : out of
the midst of these’a single flower is seen, the peduncle being 1 line
in length; the calyx with four small equal teeth is 1 line long ;
the tube of the corolla is 2 lines, with four orbicular segments
2 to % line long: the insertion of the stamens is at a point one-
fourth from the bottom of the tube, which is quite glabrous, ex-
cepting a few ciliate hairs on the mar gin of the segments t.

_* This species with analytical details is seen (loc. cit.), plate 66 D.
Tt Are sermons of this plant with its floral analysis is given (Joc. cit.),
plate 66 J

~

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 19

19. Lycium tetrandrum, Thunb. Linn. Trans. ix. 154. tab. 15 ;
Dunal in DC. Prodr. xiii. 516. Lycium horridum, Thunb.
loc. cit. 152. tab. 17 ; Dunal, loc. cit. 516 ;—intricato-ramosis-
simum, spinosum, ramulis patentibus, nodulosis, foliis e nodis
fasciculatis, obovatis, vel elliptico-oblongis, basi in petiolum
brevissimum attenuatis, crassiusculis, glabris ; floribus 4-meris
in fasciculis solitariis, pedunculo brevissimo, calyce poculi- —
formi, glabro, 4:-costato, 4-dentato, dentibus brevibus ciliatis,
corolla glabra, infundibuliformi, limbi laciniis rotundatis, ~
margine ciliatis, tubo 4to brevioribus; staminibus 2 longi-
oribus exsertis, 2 alternis faucem attingentibus, filamentis
longe supra medium insertis, hine geniculatis, nudis, et cum
fasciculis totidem pilorum tubo adnatis alternis, mox globula
pilorum donatis, superne glabris.—C. B.S —v. s. in herb.. Hook.
(Drége, 7872).—Uitenhage (Harvey, no. 865).—Jn herb. meo,

Uitenhage (Harvey, no. 1034, sub nomine Lycium horridum).

Upon the same sheet in Sir Wm. Hooker’s herbarium I find
four specimens of Drége’s collection, all fragments and very bare
of leaves ; two of these agree .with the figure of Thunberg’s
L. tetrandrum, the others, evidently younger branchlets, answer
to his L. horridum ; the structure of the flowers being exactly
alike in both. I cannot perceive, in the copious descriptions of
these two species by M. Dunal above quoted, anything that can
constitute valid differential characters; we may therefore con-
sider them as identical, as Sprengel long ago determined (Syst.
1. 700). The older leaves are fleshy, 3 limes long and } line
broad ; the younger leaves are obovate, 2 lines long: in Dr. Har-
vey’s specimen the leaves are obovate, spathulate, 7 lines long,
23 lines broad; the peduncle is 1} line, the calyx 1 line, the
‘tube of the corolla 3 lines, the segments of its border } or 3 line

long*. : }

20. Lycium tenue, Willd. ; Dunal in DC. Prodr. xiii. 515.—Pro
char, flor. cl. Dunalii substit. ;—pedunculo calyce paullo lon-
giore, calyce glabro, tubuloso, reticulato, subeequaliter 5-den-
tato, dentibus brevibus ciliatis ; corolla tubo infundibuliformi
imo coarctato, calyce 3plo longiore, limbi laciniis 5 erectis,
tubo 3plo brevioribus, levibus, staminibus valde ineequalibus,
infra medium tubi insertis, 2 longioribus multo exsertis, 1 me-
diano faucem attingente, 2 brevioribus inclusis ; filamentis imo
glabris et geniculatis,.mox fasciculo globoso pilorum barbatis,
inde glabris.—C. B. S.—v. s. in herb. Hook. (Drége, sub nomine
L. tenue.)

* An outline of this species and section of its flower is shown (loc. cit.),
plate 66 F.
2%

20 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

This is a mere fragmentary specimen, agreeing sufficiently
with Willdenow’s description, but whether it be identical with
the original, or it be the same as that described by M. Dunal, I
have no means of judging. The foregoing diagnosis is therefore
only founded upon Drége’s plant above mentioned : it consists of
a branchlet 5 inches long, with spinous. axils + inch apart ; the
spines are slender, bare, 8 or 4 lines long, each springing out of
a crowded fascicle of leaves, which are spathulately linear, 3 to 5
lines in length and } line broad; a single flower arises out of
each fascicle, the peduncle being 2 lines long; the smooth calyx
is 12 line long, with five short rather equal teeth; the tube of
the corolla is 3 lines long, and the oblong segments of its border
1 line*.

21. Lycium cinereum, Thunb. Trans. Linn. Soc. ix. 152. tab. 16;
Dunal in DC. Prodr. xii. 516. Lycium apiculatum, Dun. loc. —
cit.517. Acocanthera Lycioides, G. Don. Cestrum Lycioides,
Licht.—C.B. 8. >

With these plants I am wholly unacquainted, but from the
descriptions quoted, no specific difference is perceptible between
them, as was suggested by M. Dunal himself.

22. Lycium pendulinum (n. sp.) ;—ramosum, ramulis gracilibus,
pendulinis, annotinis strumoso-nodosis, subnudis, apice spi-
nosis, junioribus foliosis, foliis e cupula ossea axillari fascicu-
latis, linearibus, acutis, in petiolum tenuem imo angustatis,
eveniis, glaberrimis ; flore e fasciculo solitario, pedunculo gra-
cili, calyce 4plo longiore, calyce tubuloso, breviter ac sube-
qualiter 5-dentato, corolla infundibuliformi, imo intra calycem
coarctata, et extus pilosa, superne glaberrima, limbi laciniis
oblongis, venosis, tubo 4plo longioribus, staminibus ineequa-
libus, uno longiore exserto, 2 faucem attingentibus, 2 brevi-
oribus inclusis: filamentis supra coarctationem tubi insertis,
hine nudis et geniculatis, mox fasciculo globoso pilorum mu-
nitis, superne glabris ; stylo filiformi, exserto.—C. B. S.—~. s.
in herb. Hook. sub nom. L. Afrum var. pendulum, N. ab E.

This plant accords more with L. tenue, Dun., than with L.
tenue, Willd.; its branches are very slender and pendulous: the
leaves are 4or 5 lines long, 3 line broad; the peduncle is 3 lines
long ; the tubular calyx 2 lines, with five short erect teeth ; the
corolla is 3 lines long, and the oval segments of its border 4 to 4
of its lengtht.

* This species with sectional drawings is seen (Joc. cit.), plate 67 A.
+ This plant with floral details is shown (loc. cit.), plate 67 B.

[To be continued. |

“4

' Dr. J. E. Gray on some Families of Bivalve Shells. 21

II.— Additions and Corrections to the Arrangement of the Families
of Bivalve Shells. By J, E. Gray, Ph.D., F.R.S., V.P.Z.S.
- &e.

_ One of the advantages, and not the least, of preparing and pub-
lishing a revision of the state of our knowledge on any special
subject, such as the animals of Bivalve shells, are the additions to
that knowledge which its publication induces. During the time
my former paper was in the press and since its publication, I
have had an opportunity of looking over more than a thousand
‘moiluscous animals, and of examining the animals of more than
fifty species of Bivalves belonging to nearly as many genera,
some of them not before observed, which has rendered it neces-
sary to make several corrections and important additions to my
former communication. | | :

There must be added to the family Veneride the genus Cypri-
cardia of Lamarck and its subdivisions: all these animals have
two short separate siphons and a small pedal opening. I have
examined the animal of Trapezium angulatum.

~ Mittré has described the animal of what he calls Coralliophaga

dactyla, but M. Petit informs us that the shell intended is the Car-
dita Lithophagella of Lamarck found in the Mediterranean, and
not the Cypricardia Coralliophaga of that author, which is only
found in the West Indies. This animal greatly resembles that
-of Trapezium angulatum, and should be the type of a new genus
which may be called Lithophagella. The Cypricardia vellicata
and Coralliophaga oblonga have similar animals, but all these
genera require revision. 7

In the Revision, vol. xiii. p.410, I placed Astartede in the order
Veneracea, because Prof. E. Forbes in the ‘ British Mollusca,’
i. 451, described the animal of the genus as having “ the mantle
freely open with plain margins; slightly united posteriorly at
two points, 8o-as to form two siphonal orifices with simple edges,”
and at pl. M. fig. 5. figures the animal of Astarte sulcata with
two siphonal apertures; at p. 455, he further observes on this
species, “the siphonal openings are quite sessile, and but slightly
separated from each other ;” and at p. 466, he states that the
animal of A. compressa has “ sessile siphonal orifices.”
_ I was aware that Philippi (Wiegmann’s Archiv, 18389, 125,
copied Ann, and Mag, Nat, Hist. vol. iv. p. 297) had described
the animal as like Cardita, with only a single anal opening, but
placed more faith in the latter description. I have however had
an opportunity of examining the animal of Astarte striata from
Greenland, which appears to be the same as the A. compressa of
the ‘ British Mollusca,’ and find the description of Philippi cor-

22 Dr. J. E. Gray on some Families of Bivalve Shells.

rect, and that it has only a single opening like Crassatella and
Cardita. The family must, therefore, be removed to the order
Unionacea, between Carditida and Cr assatellada, differing chiefly
from the latter in the external position of the cartilage.

Most probably, when the animal of Astarte is alive, the hinder
portion of the mantle near the anaJ aperture forms a siphon-like
aperture, as is the case in Crenella and in many of the other
Lucinacea. It has been suggested that perhaps the leaves of the
mantle are united together and form a siphonal aperture when
the animal is alive, but separate when the specimen has been kept
in spirits; however, there is not the slightest appearance of any
such union on the surface of the mantle, and it certainly is not
the case with Crenella, Mytilus, Unio, Anodon, and other animals
which are without a branchial siphon, and which have an imper-
fect siphonal aperture for the entrance of the water to the gills.

Carpitipa. This family may be thus divided —

A. The elongate hinder cardinal tooth in left valve single, trigonal,

upper lamina of it rudimentary or quite wanting. Shell strongly
costate, cordate or ovate.

eal Venericardia. Shell short, cordate, hinder cardinal tooth
triangular. V. australis, V. gar.

2. Cardita. Shell elongate, ovate, hinder facial tooth elon-
gate. C. antiquata.

B. The elongate hinder cardinal tooth in left valve double, both
lamine equally developed, elongate. Shell elongate, oblong.

3. Mytilicardia. Shell oblong, strongly costate ; front hinge-
tooth triangular, diverging; anterior haben none. Jeson,
M. concamerata.

4, Lazaria. Shell oblong, strongly ooatabe front hinge-tooth
compressed, anterior lateral tooth distinct. L. Pectineus, L. ra-
diata, ~
5. Azarella. Shell Liesl compressed, dilated behind,
striated; front hinge-tooth elongate, compressed, similar and
parallel to hinder; lateral teeth non:. A. semiorbiculata, A. gu-
bernaculum. |

In Astartide I inserted “ Cypricardia sp. according to D’Or-
bigny ;” this was a mistake for Cardita sp. M. D’Orbigny both
describes and figures Cardita spurca, t. 82. f. 18, as having two
distinct siphonal apertures. I have not been able to see the
animal of this shell. M. Quoy describes the animal of Veneri-
cardia australis. Deshayes figured the animal of Cardita caly-
culata as having only a single anal siphonal opening, and this
is the case with the animal of the several species of Cardita

Dr. J. E. Gray on some Families of Bivalve Shells. 23

I have examined; but if there is not some mistake in M.
D’Orbigny’s description and figure of Cardita spurca, it must: be
a distinct genus ; however, perhaps he has been misled by the
hinder part of the mantle being expanded behind during life,
so as to represent a second siphon, which is only a false appear-
ance.

Tellinide.—The genera Sanguinolaria and Soletellina, which
have been referred to Solenide; Fragilia and Capsa, arranged with
Veneride, should be referred to this family ; they have, like them,
two elongated separate siphons, with large distinct fan-shaped
retractile muscles, and the gills not produced into the siphons.

Anatinide. —In the May Number of the ‘Annals’ (p. 413),
I referred the genus Mytilimera of Conrad to the family Modio-
larcade with doubt. In an examination which I have been
enabled to make of typical specimens of Mytilimera Nuttall, I
think I have discovered the mark left by the shelly plate over the
large subinternal cartilage; and on comparing it with Anatina
cuneata, I have as little doubt as one can have from the exami-
nation of shells alone (especially in an imperfect condition), that
they belong to the same genus and the family Anatinide. As
Mytilimera was published before the Byssonia of Valenciennes,
it ought to be retained for these shells. They both have the
habit of living imbedded,—Byssonia cuneata in Ascidia, and
Mytilimera in sponges. _

Mutelade.—In Mutela the lips are very large, semioval, at-
tached by the straight side without the free Rann existing in
Unio and Anodon.

Cardiade.—The gills are united together heling the body or
base of the foot.

Solenide. This family may be thus divided :—

A. Cardinal teeth 1-1. Stphons produced, united ; siphonal muscles
moderate ; siphonal inflection deep, truncated.
1. Solen. Shell truncated in front ; umbo anterior; anterior .
adductor muscle elongate, horizontal. S. marginatus.
2. Hypogella. Shell rounded at each end ; umbo subanterior ;
anterior adductor muscle round. H. ambigua, H. vaginata.

B. Cardinal teeth 2°3. Shell rounded at each end.

a. Siphons moderate, separate ; stphonal muscles small ; siphonal
inflection small, truncated.
3. Ensis. Siphons not produced, separate ; umbo anterior ;
anterior adductor muscle elongate, horizontal. EH. Ensis.

>

24 Dr.J. E, Gray on some Families of Bivalve Shells.

4. Pharella. Siphons shortly produced, separate ; umbo sub-
anteriot ; anterior adductor muscle elongate, subtrigonal ; shell
subcylindrical. P. javanica, P. Michaudi, P. acutidens.

5. Pharus. Siphons produced, separate ; shell compressed ;
umbo subcentral ; anterior adductor muscle elongate, horizontal ;
umbonal ribs rudimentary. P. legumen. ;

6. Cultellus. Siphous ? anterior adductor muscle
rounded, hinder triangular; shell compressed; umbo subanterior.
C. lacteus. " |

b. Stphons much produced, large, united, covered with a thick
periostraca ; retractor siphonal muscles small; siphonal in-—
| flection very small. ) ier ‘

7. Cyrtodaria. Anterior adductor muscle elongate ; umbo sub-
posterior. C. glycimeris.

c. Siphons elongate, with large fan-shaped retractor muscles ;
_~ stphonal inflection deep, rounded.

* Siphons very large, united, covered with a hard periostraca.
Shell compressed. Hinge-teeth 3 * 3, compressed.

8. Siliqua.

*k Siphons large, united at the base, covered with a hard perios-
traca. Shell subcylindrical. Hinder teeth conic.

9. Glycimeris. 10. Adacna.
*KK Siphuns very large, united at the base, upper part free, ringed.

11. Macha. Shell obliquely sulcated. MM. strigillatus.
12. Azor. Shell smooth. A. antiquatus. -

seek Siphons elongated, cylindrical.

13. Tagelus. * Umbo submedial; siphonal inflection very
deep, beyond the umbo. Tf. viridieneus. T. Carabeus.

** Novaculina. Umbo subposterior ; siphonal inflection deep,
‘not reaching the umbo. YT. Novaculina, India. T. Dombei,
Peru. 7. fragilis, Burope. T. constrictus, China.

Elizia.— Animal unknown. Shell suborbicular, oblong, equi-
valved, compressed, thin, covered with a hard shining periostraca ;
umbo not prominent, subanterior. Cardinal teeth oblique, in
right valve two, hinder bifid elongate, in left valve three, central
bifid. Pallial impression submarginal. Siphonal inflection deep,
oblong, rather contracted at the outer edge, descending from the
upper part of the hinder margin to the centre of the disk.

Elizia orbiculata= Solen orbiculatus, Gray in Wood Cat. Sup-
plement, t. 1. f. 4.

é

Dr. J. E. Gray on some Families of Bivalve Shells. i)

Lucinide—As our knowledge of the animals of Univalve
shells has ‘increased, we have found that shells which have a
great resemblance to each other are formed by very different
animals, until it has become almost impossible to pronounce
with certainty on the genera of several Gasteropodous Mollusks,
unless we are in possession of the animal and operculum as
well as the shell. The same fact is every day forcing itself on
our notice with respect to the Bivalves. It is nearly impos-
sible to separate the Mutelade from the Uniones, the Modiolarce
from the Modiole, though the animals are very unlike. :

All conchologists considered that the Lucinide were a very »
* natural group, yet we learn that Unguline of Daudin, which are
scarcely to be separated from them, except by their irregular out-
line from living in holes in rocks, have four gills and distinct labial
palpi, while the Lucine have only two gills and no labial palpi.
_ This appeared so improbable when I printed my paper in the

- May Number of the'‘ Annals,’ that I placed a mark of doubt
after the description, but I have since had an opportunity of
verifying the accuracy of the observations. |

One of the most striking instances occurs in the shell referred
to the genus Mysia, or Diplodonta. In the paper above referred
to I described the animal of a Philippine species of this genus,
which has two siphonal apertures and a lanceolate foot, and
referred it to the suborder Veneracea. M. Mittré in ‘Journ. de
Conchyliologie,’ 1850, t. 238, described and figured the animal
of a Brazilian species, which he calls Diplodonta Brasiliensis,
having only a single anal siphonal aperture and a cylindrical
foot like the Unguline ; and which, indeed, appears chiefly to
differ from that genus in the anal aperture being further from
the pedal one, and in the adductor muscle being roundish in-
stead of linear and elongate: the difference in form of this part
probably explains the relative position of these two apertures.

- The examination of the animal of Ungulina, and M. Mittré’s
description and figure, show the necessity of forming for these
genera, as recommended by M. Mittré, a family, which may be
called Ungulinade, characterized by the single anal siphonal aper-
ture, and the presence of two pairs of gills and distinct labial
tentacles, which will contain the genera, 1. Ungulina, Lamk.,
2. Scacchia of Philippi, and 3. a new genus which may be called
Mirrrea, having Diplodonta ‘Brasiliensis for its type. One
of our English shells, Tellina rotundata, Montague, has been
referred to the genus Diplodonta, but I have not been able to ex-
amine its animal, and according to the description of Mr. Clark,
quoted by Messrs. Forbes and Hanley, it differs essentially from
any of the preceding: ‘the mantle plain, somewhat closed pos-
teriorly and anteriorly, but with a large opening for the foot in

26 =©©Dr. J. E. Gray on some Families of Bivalve Shells.

the centre of the: ventral range: no siphonal process is to be
found, not even an orifice, except the pedal one.” —Brit. Moll.
ii, 67. Should any of your readers have a specimen of this ani-
mal, I should be happy to have the opportunity of examining it ;

and also of the animals, of any of our species of Lucine,

I may further remark, that the species of the genus Diplodonta
have been confused with. the Cyrenelle, but the latter may be |
known by a careful examination of the teeth of the hinge, and
the animal differs in having two siphons.

. If M. Mittré’s description of the animal of Venus diaphana, on
which Recluz has formed his genus Felania, is correct, it will also
have to be referred to the Ungulinide.

While on the subject, I may state, that the genus Myllita of
D’Orbigny and Recluz, ‘Journ. de Conch.’ 1850, 88. t. 11.
f, 12-14, is the same as Pythina of Hinds, 1844, Voy. Sulph. 70,
and I believe established on the same species.

Etheriade.—The lips are very large, semioval, and attached by
the straight side without any free point, as in Mutela. Thereisin
fact no distinct muscular foot in the adult specimens. The body
containing the liver projects into the cavity of the mantle, and
has been described by Rang as a foot. The foot may be pre-
sent in the young state before the shell is attached.

Through the kindness of M. D’Orbigny, who has sent me the
original specimen of his genus Acostea, I am enabled to state
that it is identical with the Mulleria of Férussac and Sowerby,
and it appears to be the American form of this family.

Mytilade.—The pedal opening of Crenella i is small, forming
the hinder half or third of the basal margin.

Mauueacea should be iided into three families :-—
1..-Pimnade. Mislead by Rang (Manual Moll. 292), this

family was erroneously referred to Mytilacea. Anterior adductor
muscle well developed. Gills narrow, very much produced behind,
free from each other and the mantle, but fitting against a fold
on its inner surface. Rectum with a long tubular prices at its
base. Vent medial. Pinna.

2. Ptertade. Anterior adductor muscle none. Gills narrow,
much produced behind, free from each other and the mantle, but
fitting against a fold on its inner surface. Rectum simple.
a. Avicula, Meleagris, Malleus, and Perna. 8. Crenatula.

In Avicula the hinder pedal muscle is separate from and in
front of the large adductor muscle, with a separate scar; in Me-
leagrina it is close to and forms part of the large scar. There
are some other small scars, two in front and one behind the cir-

Dr. J. E. Gray on some Families of Bivalve Shells. 27

cular central scar, formed by the ligaments of the muscles which
suspend the mantle and wills.

3. Vulsellide. Anterior adductor muscle none. Gills narrow,
much produced behind, united together and to the inner surface
of the mantle, dividing the mantle-cavity into two parts. Rec-
tum simple. Vudlsella.

In all these families the body forms a single mass, the tube
of the rectum passes over the back of the adductor muscle, the
vent being free and medial.

Osrrerna. Add, vent medial, free ; the body forms a single cen-
tral mass.

Ostreide. Gills united together and to the imner edge of the
mantle. Shell, hinge toothless.

Plicatulide. Gulls free behind and free from the mantle, sus-
pended from the body by a membrane. Shell, hinge with two
diverging cross-grooved cardinal teeth.

The genus Plicatula, which has been hitherto placed. with
Spondylus, should be removed to the tribe Ostreina and formed
- Into a separate family, as the animal has no appearance of any
foot, which is so peculiar in the former genus, The animal is
very like Ostrea, has four equal suspended gills united together,
acute, and produced beyond the lower side of the adductor
muscle. Lips four, rather small, united together above the
rather large mouth. The shell is attached ‘by the outer sur-
face of the left valve, and the hinge is furnished with two diver-
ging teeth, with the cartilages in a triangular pit between their
base.

ANOoMIAINA. Foot are small, truncated at the end ; ovaries
separated from the mass of the body and attached to the inner sur-
face of the right leaf of the mantle. Vent nearer to or attached to
the right leaf of the mantle. Gills united together behind, suspended
by membranes to the inner side of the mantle.

Anomiade. Animal attached, rather distorted; foot on the
right-side of the body, with a very large byssal pore at the base ;
byssus horny or stony, formed of parallel laminz, emitted
through a notch in the right valve of the shell. Pedal muscles
large, leaving two or three large scars on the left valve. The
byssus, or plug, is placed in exactly the same situation in the
animal as the beard or byssus of Mytilus, Pmna, &c., and the
animal is only rather distorted by being more closely attached to
the marine body than in those genera.

It shows that what is called the foot of the Arcs is in fact an
enlargement and production of this byssus-forming organ, while
the real foot is-greatly reduced.

28 Mr.J. Blackwall on the Structure, Functions, Giconomy,

Placentade. Animal free. Foot cylindrical, compressed, me-
dial, without any byssal pore. Vent attached to the right leaf of
the mantle. Pedal muscle small, leaving.a small round scar be-
tween the diverging cardinal plates. -

This family must be removed to the tribe of Anomiaina,
having a distinct foot. The mantle leaves free, margin closely
bearded. Foot when contracted in spirits compressed, elongate,
larger at the end, truncated, and with a deep linear cavity at
the end, apparently produced by the withdrawing of the tip,
probably cylindrical, and much elongated and produced when
alive. Gills suspended, occupying the front and lower edge.
Anus tubular, conical, elongate at the hinder “basal margin, at-
tached to the inner side of the right mantle leaf. Lips elongate,
attached by their hinder edge. Body surrounding the cardinal
ribs and cartilages.

Pectenide.—The foot of Pedum is elongate, cylindrical, clavate,
rather enlarged and rounded at the tip, without any appearance
of a byssal groove.

II1.—Supplement to a Catalogue of British Spiders, including
remarks on their Structure, Functions, Giconomy and Systematic
Arrangement. By Joun Biacxwatt, F.L.S.

[Continued from vol. xi. p. 120.]
_ Tribe OCTONOCULINA.
Family Sauricipa.

Genus Salticus, Latr.

Arrer Salticus notatus in the supplement to the catalogue

(Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist. Second Series, vol. xi. p. 114)

add : |
: - Salticus promptus.

Salticus promptus, Blackw. Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist. Second
Series, vol. xui. p. 173.

In October 1853, an immature female of this species, which
is nearly allied to Salticus frontals and Salticus reticulatus, was
received from the Rev. Hamlet Clark, who took it near North-
ampton in the autumn of the same year. :

After Salticus reticulatus in the supplement to the catalogue
(Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist. Second Series, vol. x1. p. 114)
add : |

and Systematic Arrangement of British Spiders. 29°

Salticus Jenynsii.

Salticus Jenynsii, Blackw. Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist. Second
Series, vol. xiii. p..174. |

This addition to our indigenous Saltict has been made through
the liberality of the Rev. Leonard Jenyns, M.A., F.L.S., from
whom it was received in February 1853, together with numerous
specimens of spiders which had been captured in Cambridgeshire.

Family THomisipa&.

Genus Thomisus, Walck.

After Thomisus cristaius in the catalogue (Annals and Mag. of
Nat. Hist. Second Series, vol. vil. p. 448) add :

Thomisus audaz.

Aysticus audax, Koch, Uebers. des Arachn. Syst. erstes Heft, p. 25 ;
Koch, Die Arachn. B. xii. p. 74. tab. 413. fig. 1005-1008.

Specimens of Thomisus audax, supplied by the Rev. Hamlet
Clark, were met with near Northampton and at Holme Fen,
Huntingdonshire, in the autumn of 1853. They were all females.

M. Walckenaer, regarding the Xysticus (Thomisus) audax of
M. Koch asa mere variety of Thomisus cristatus, has included. it
among the synonyma of that species (Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt.
- t.i.p.521), from which, however, it is undoubtedly distinct.

After Thomisus formosus in the catalogue (Annals and Mag.
of Nat. Hist. Second Series, vol. vil. p. 450) add

‘Thomisus floricolens.

Thomisus floricolens, Walck. Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. t. i. p. 532.

Thomisus dorsatus, Hahn, Die Arachn. B. 1. p. 44. tab. 11. fig. 34;
‘Koch, Uebers. des Arachn. Syst. erstes Heft, p. 24; Koch, Die

% Arachn. B. xii. p. 56. tab. 410. fig. 991, 992; Sund. Vet. Acad.
Handl. 1832, p. 221. :

For this addition to our indigenous spiders I am indebted to
Mr. R. H. Meade, who transmitted to me, in December 1853,
adult males and immature females of Thomisus floricolens which
had been captured by Mr. Francis Walker in that and the pre-
ceding year at Piercefield, near Chepstow, in Monmouthshire.

Family Drassip&.

_ Genus Drassus, Walck.

After Drassus cupreus in the catalogue (Annals and Mag. of
Nat. Hist. Second Series, vol. viii. p. 41) add

30 Mr. J. Blackwall on the Structure, Functions, Economy,

Drassus lapidicolens.

Drassus lapidicola, Koch, Uebers. des Arachn. Syst. erstes Heft, p. 18 ;
Koch, Die Arachn. B. vi. p. 28. tab. 188. (misnumbered.187 in
the text) fig. 450, 451.

Clubiona lapidicolens, Walck. Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. t.i. p. 598;
Walck. Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. t. ii. p. 479.

Clubiona lapidicola, Latr. Gen. Crust. et Insect..tom. i. ; Sund.
Vet. Acad. Hand]. 1831, Be 139; Hahn, Die Dencleni 3. il. 'p..9.
tab. 40. fig. 100. ,

An adult male of this species, oe was first recorded as
British by Dr. Leach (see the Supplement to the 4th, 5th, and
6th editions of the ‘ Encyclopedia Britannica,’ article Annulosa),
has been transmitted to me by the Rev. Hamlet Clark. An
examination of this specithen, which was found near Northampton
in the autumn of 1853, and had recently changed its integument,
has served to convince me that M. Koch has assigned to this
spider its appropriate situation in a systematic arrangement of
the Araneidea by transferring it from the genus Clubiona to that
of Drassus, as by the figure and disposition of its eyes and the
structure of its oral apparatus it evidently appertains to the
' latter genus.

After Drassus nitens in the catalogue (Annals and Mag. of
Nat. Hist. Second Series, vol. viii. p. 42) add

Drassus propinquus.

Drassus propinquus, Blackw. Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist. Second
Series, vol. xiii. p. 175.

Two adult males of Drassus propinquus, whichil is closel¥ allied
to Drassus nitens, were captured in the spring of 1853; one
running on a public road near Llanrwst, and the other 4 ina
window of the sitting-room at Oakland. In the summer of the
same year Mr. R. H. Meade took an adult male of this pene ;
in Norfolk.

Genus Clubiona, Latr.

After Clubiona comta in the catalogue (Annals and Mas of
Nat. Hist. Second Series, vol. viii. p. 44) add

Clubiona pallens.

Clubiona pallens, Koch, Die Arachn. B. vi. p- 19. tab. 185. fig. 443,
444,

Three adult females. and an adult male of Clubiona pallens
were received in October 1853 from the Rev. Hamlet Clark,
who informs me that they were taken at Holme Fen, in Hun-

tingdonshire, about the middle of September in the same year.
I have not included the Clubiona pallens of M. Hahn (Die

s

and Systematic Arrangement of British Spiders. 51

Arachn. B. ii. p. 10. tab. 40. fig. 101) among the synonyma of

the above species, as there appears to be much uncertainty about

its identity. M.Walckenaer has added the Clubiona pallens of
M. Koch to the synonyma of Clubiona amarantha (Hist. Nat. des

Insect. Apt. t. i. p. 478), supposing it to be the latter species in

an immature state, for he remarks that “c’est une jeune que

M. Koch a décrite;” this, however, is a mistake, as it is a-
smaller and perfectly distinct species, and M. Koch’s figure of

the male clearly represents an individual with the palpal organs

fully developed. é

Genus Argyroneta, Latr.

Argyroneta aquatica.

To the remarks on this species given in the catalogue (Annals
and Mag. of Nat. Hist. Second Series, vol. viii. p. 97) the fol-
lowing particulars relative to its ceconomy may be added. In
May the female deposits from 80 to 100 spherical eggs of a
yellow colour, not agglutinated together, in a lenticular cocoon
of white silk of a compact texture measuring ird of an inch in
diameter... |

Family THEerrpiip2.

Genus Theridion, Walck.

After Theridion nervosum in the catalogue (Annals and. Mag.
of Nat. Hist, Second Series, vol. viii. p. 442) add

' * Theridion pictum.

Theridion pictum, Walck. Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. t. ii. p. 304;
Walck. Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. t. iv. p. 489; Hahn, Die
. Arachn. B. i. p. 90. tab. 22. fig. 68.
Steatoda pictum, Koch, Uebers. des Arachn. Syst. erstes Heft, p. 9.
Theridium pictum, Koch, Die Arachn. B. xii. p. 139. tab. 429.
fig. 1062, 1063. |
Two adult females of this handsome Theridion were received
from the Rev. Hamlet Clark im October 1853. Both specimens
were captured at Richmond in the autumn of the same year by
Mr. George Guyon.
Family Linypuiip2.
Genus Linyphia, Latr.

_ After Linyphia gracilis in the catalogue (Annals and Mag. of
Nat. Hist. Second Series, vol. ix. p. 19) add the following species.

Linyphia tenella.

Linyphia tenella, Blackw. Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist. Second
Series, vol. xiii. p. 177.

An adult female of this Linyphia was received from Mr. R.

82 MrJ . Blackwall on the. Structure, Functions, (Economy,

H.,Meadein September, and an, narcotics one a: frm ite oa
Maral folaah in stale: 1853...

“'Linyphia soa Reda ig

Linyphia circumspecta, Blackw,. panel and MAb of. Nat Hist.
Second Series, vol. xiil. P- i a a me ;

In the autumn of 1853, males ot thin. species, peta ‘the
‘palpal organs fully developed, were Hacomared among i
‘growing in woods about Oakland. —

Linyphia flavipes.

Linyphia flavipes,. Blackw. Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist. Second
+...) Series, vol. xiii. p. 178.

Adult males of Linyphia flavipes were fourid among moss im
woods at allend q an the summer of 1853.0.) soa) al
in + fe ta! : inked Y
re Genus Neriéne,. Blackw.t 5. curt. aheatd ot
"After Neriéne sulcata in the catalogue niet and king
Nat. Hist.. Second, Beieee vol. ix. p. 271) ata mk walkA

* Neriénd herbigrada.

Neriéne herbigrada, Blackw.Annals:and Mag. of Nat. Hist, Second

Series, vol. ‘xui. p. 179. bo BGS

Barly i in October 1853 both sexes of ‘Nestine obi gneall, in a
mature state, were detected among coarse: herbage..and moss
growing in woods on the northern slope of Gallty Rhygi; Like
Neriéne sulcata, this species makes a near >p POM AOR: to; the
pPiders,2 of the genus Walckenaéra. 7 WwW

ts ¥)

Neriéne dubia. -

oa. following fact. may. be added to the remarks on riibincs polis
in ‘the catalogue (Annals and Mag..of Nat. Hist., Second, Series,
vol. ix. p. 272). An adult male was taken by Mr. Francis
Walker ‘at Piercefield, in Monmouthshire, in the summer of
1853, and was transmitted to me by Mr. R. H. Meade.

Family Epiéiripz.
3 .» Genus Epéira, Walck.
hier: Ppeeia umbratica in the catalogue (Annals and Mig. of
Nat. Hist. Second Series, vol. x: ps os add:

" Epira agalenas:

Epéira agalena, Walck. Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. t. ii. p. 36.
Epéira Sturmu, Hahn, Die Arachn. B,J. p.ol2. tab. 3.:fig 8.

and Systematic Arrangement of British Spiders. 33

Atea agalena, Koch, Die Arachn. B. xi. p. 137. tab. 391. fig. 936-
938 (the specific name hyalina is incorrectly connected with the
numbers 936, 937 in the plate, but this error is rectified in the
text).

In the month of June this Epéira may be found in a state of
maturity on trees and bushes in the woods about Oakland.

After Epéira ornata in the catalogue (Annals and Mag. of
Nat. Hist. Second Series, vol. x. p. 185) add

: Epéira ceropegia.

Eptira ceropegia, Walck. Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. tvii. p. 51.

Epéira sclopetaria, Hahn, Die Arachn. B. ii. p. 46. tab. 57. fig. 131.

Miranda ceropegia, Koch, Uebers. des Arachn. Syst. erstes Heft,
p- 4; Koch, Die Arachn. B. v. p. 51. tab. 158. fig. 370.

Mr. Francis Walker captured an adult male of this species at
Piercefield in the autumn of 1853, and forwarded it to Mr. R.
H. Meade, from whom I received it in December in the same
year.

After Hpéira inclinata in the catalogue (Annals and Mag. of
Nat. Hist. Second Series, vol. x. p. 187) add

Epéira albimacula.

Zilla albimacula, Koch, Uebers. des Arachn. Syst. erates Heft, p. 5;
Koch, Die Arachn. B. vi. p. 144. tab. 215. fig. 534, 535.

In December 1853 an adult male of this species was received
from Mr. R. H. Meade, which had been taken by Mr. F. Walker
at Piercefield in the summer of the same year. :

M. Walckenaer has placed the Zilla (Epéira) albimacula of
M. Koch among the synonyma of Epéira agalena (Hist. Nat.
des Insect. Apt. t. i. p. 37); but the males of these species
differ in the design formed by the distribution of their colours,
in the armature of their anterior legs, and in the structure of
their palpal organs.

After Epéira tubulosa in the catalogue (Annals and Mag. of
Nat. Hist. Second Series, vol. x. p. 249) add

Epéira calva.
_ Epéira calva, Blackw. Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist. Second Series,
vol. x. p. 99.

An immature female of this interesting Epéira was received in
October 1853 from the Rev. Hamlet Clark, who states that it
was taken in Leicestershire.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 5

34 Dr. T. Wilhianis ‘on the Mechanism of Aquatic

1V.—On the, Mechanism of Aquatic, Respiration. and on. the
Structure of the Organs, of Breathing in Invertebrate Animals.
By Tuomas, Witiiams, M.D. Lond., Licentiate of the Royal
College of Physicians, formerly Demonstrator on Structural
Anatomy at Guy’s Hospital, and now of Swansea.

[With two Plates. ]
{Continued from vol. xiii. p. 312.]

Mollusca.

Tue Annulose and Arthropodal series conduct by a separate
path across that wide space which divides the Echinodermal from
the Vertebrate animal. The Molluscan subkingdom traverses
the same distance by a divergent route which begins at the
Bryozoon and terminates at the Cephalopod. Thesegrand inver-
tebrate chains of beings unite mutually below at the Echinoderm
and Bryozoon, and superiorly at the basilar link of the verte-
brated series. The zootomist, having studied serially the arti-
culate families, is constrained to return to the base of .the inver-
tebrate cone, in order to seize the point of departure of that -
independent road along which the molluscan families attain the
summit. Between these groups there exist few points of inter-
communication. Reciprocal affinities nowhere attract, attention.

The Mollusca constitute a separate study: in varieties of form
they are equalled by no other division of invertebrate animals ;
in number of species they-exceed almost the limit of arithmetic ;
im, diversities of structure they bewilder the anatomist; in
modes of life discordantly diverse, they perplex the student of
their habits, And yet a deeper insight into the, plan of the
molluscan organism enables the earnest thinker to seize the clue
of natural union which obtains between the countless members
of this variegated group.

Provided with a heart to circulate the blood, a distinct aliment-
ary system, a nervous system, and its satellitic organs of sense, .a
muscle-apparatus, viscera of complex organization, and a blood-
fluid fibrinized and. corpusculated, they offer to the physiologist
a problem by no means easy of solution.

Of this composite machinery the respiratory function is the
primary moving power. Without it nothing can go on. It is
momentarily important. What provisions are made to insure
its full and adequate performance? The terrestrial Gasteropods
excluded, all mollusks respire qn the aquatic principle. They are
tenants of the water. The organs of breathing in bulk and com-
plexity of structure far surpass those dedicated to other offices.
The bulk of blood, which at, any. given time is included within

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals, ... - 35

the limits of the branchial organ, is relatively considerable.
Measured by the complex magnitude of the branchiz, the inert
oyster is a physiological paradox. It’ is\hard'thence to believe
that muscularity and respiration are directly proportional. |The
force generated by the ‘act of breathing is'expended in other
directions. Cephalopods and air-breathing Gasteropods apart,
the branchial structures of every known mollusk are abun-
dantly ciliated. In this anatomical particular they contrast
strikingly with those of the Crustacea. Both are breathers of
water. In one only are cilia provided. The question impli-
cating the reason of natural things lies far too deep to be
fathomed by a mechanical explanation. In both the purpose to
be accomplished is the same; in both the means employed are
intimately similar, and yet in one instance vibratile cilia are con-
stituently admitted into the mechanism, in-the other they are
rejected. Biochemistry at a future «ra will elucidate these
mysteries.

The peripheric circulation in the Mollusca is lacunar rather
than capillary. This capital fact was first established by Milne-
Edwards* and Valenciennes +: these authors describe the blood
as effused into the parenchyma of the body. It returns into
the veins without the intervention of capillaries. The details
upon which rest these general postulates will be afterwards
stated. In the anatomical character of the peripheric passages,
in the small proportion of fibrine in the blood, the circulating
pits and the blood of the Mollusca resemble obviously the
chylaqueous fluid and its containing system. |
’* Tn all mollusks, separate, specially constructed organs are con-
secrated to the function of breathing. Even the Brachiopoda
are not exceptional to this rule; they are pallio-branchiate. —
The universal presence of complexly formed and profusely mul-
tiplied respiratory organs attests the extreme value of the office
which they are designed to fulfill. | ,

The ultimate vessels of the branchiz in all mollusks, those of
Brachiopods and Tunicates ¢ excepted, occur in the form of straight

* Obsérv.et Expér. sur la Cireul. chez les Mollusques.—Comptes Rendus,
1845, xx. p. 261. “Yee |

+ Nouv. Obsérv. sur la constit. des appareils de la Cireul. chez les Mol-
lusques.—IJbid. p. 750. See also Ann. des Sc. Nat. 1845, ii. p. 289.

{ I regret that no recent opportunity has occurred to me to test the
‘validity of the anatomical principle expressed in the text. . For the present I
assume that the ultimate blood-channels in the branchiz’ of the Tunieate
mollusks reticulate (Pl. I. fig. 2. & fig. 4); that is, that the blood whieh
moves at one moment. in one direction. courses at. the next.m another at
right, angles with the former, the whole being on the same plane, and the
circumscribed stigmata being water-passages. This assumption conform
with the description of all observers from the time of Savigny. :

3*

36 aie ‘Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

pataitel non-communicating Kibins of regular outlme and uniform
diameter in’ the Laniellibranchiata; of irregular contour and vari-
able diameter in the Cephalophora.’ ‘In all, the ultimate blood-
channel constitutes one, single, independent ‘tube from one end of
its course to the other. . Returning upon itself it does not lose its
individuality: it nowhere inosculates : it reticulates in no single
instance. One foundational law of structure is thus proved to
preside over the disposition of the ultimate elements of the
branchial organs in all the mollusks above the Tunicata. Already
the thoughtful eye descries the bright, continuous thread of

“principle? linking remotely separated and disjointed varieties
into the golden chain of consistent unity. Another generality no
less remarkable remains to be propounded. The branchiz. of a//
~ Tunicate'and-ail Lamellibranchiate, and a considerable majority
of the Gasteropod ‘mollusks are penetrated by the aérating water.
The branchia is a ‘sieve through which the water filters.” ‘This
“‘actof branchial filtration is a fundamental fact in the history’ of
all’ the inferior mollusks. The area which is circumscribed ‘by
the ‘inantle, at least ‘in all Tunicate and Lamellibranchiate mol-
lusks, ‘is divided more or less completely into two distinct com-
partinénts; the oné' pallial and external, the other internal’ and
visceral (PI. PT) ¢.as Thik figs. 9 & 13): ‘The bran-
chiz’ ‘constitute cribiriform plicz developed ‘on thé’ divisional
menibrane (fig. 7, ¢, ¢, e, e) by which these two compartments (ed)
are Separated.

‘These leading propositions outlined in brief, will suffice ‘to
prepare the mind for the right conception of those interesting
details which it is now proposed to consider.

°"The limits of these papers render it impossible to refer in ew-
tenso to those anatomic specialties by which the branchial organs
of every species are more or less differentially characterized.
‘Those ‘only ‘can be selected: for ‘study which inyolve a typical
principle. Rules, not exceptions, it must be the aim of these
Tivestigations to define.

Tunicata.

Tunicate mollusks stand immediately above the Bryozoon.
From the latter they are distinguished in the possession of a
heart. "The movement of the blood is due’ exclusively to the
contractions of this central organ. ‘The heart is systemic and
tubular. In many genera it is valveless, as indicated by alterna-
tions of direction in the blood’s course. No definitely parieted
vessels occur on any segment of the peripheric are of the circu-
latory system. To this rule’ the branchial forms an exception.
The branchial “bars ” are, however, not ordinary vessels. They
are ees formed: They are not analogous to those of the

yd Vo sft no aotedliv | f ‘ele
Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 37

vertebrated animals, They are bounded by skilfully. configurated
cartilages, as will be afterwards explained. . In the Tunicata, as
in other Acephala, the blood leaying the open ends of the arteries
passes into the interstices—lacune—of the parenchyma, of the
body ; thence it is taken up by the open mouths of the venous
radicles. The solids are thus literally soaked in the: fluids. .The
former are everywhere bathed by the latter, | It may be affirmed
in a general sense, that the higher the serial position of the ani-
mal, the smaller the breadth of the ultimate blood-currents, and
conversely. The degree of subdivision which, occurs. in the
blood-streams represents a numeric measure ofthe. nutritive
actions. The area comprehended by the mantle is divisible in
the Tunicata, as in Acephala, into two sub-areas.,, The one is
either bounded, lined, or traversed by the branchiz, and contains
the mouth; the other embraces the viscera and includes the anal
outlet. This fact is absolute., That space into which the mouth
opens is homologous with the pallial extra-branchial or general
cavity of the mantle in the Acephala.. That in which the intes-
tine terminates coincides with the intra-branchial or visceral en-
closure in all bivalves. An exact conception. of these primary
divisions of the body in the inferior mollusk is, really indispen-
sable to the perfect understanding of those. respiratory and _ali-
mentary currents of the water, the direction and relative bearing
of which have perplexed anatomists from the epoch of Cuvier, to
the zra of Messrs. Hancock and Clark.

_,4n.the ceconomy of the Tunicate and Acephalan mollusks this
principle is inviolable—that nothing, neither water nor aliment-
ary particles, is conducted to the mouth, which has passed
through the gills... Water charged with carbonic acid. is. never
swallowed.

The feculent: pellets are never and cannot be mixed with, the
alimentary. The current which conveys fresh water, to the
branchie is convective also of food to the mouth. . The. stream
which carries away the effete product of respiration bears off the
feculent rejectamenta. :

There are then, in truth, but, two chief ceconomie water:move-
ments in these animals—that which, enters the-pallial. or extra-
branchial. space, and that) which, leaves; the visceral,|and intra-
branchial inclosure., This is simple and intelligible. ,..It,resem-
bles. a ray of light shining amidst .a darkness,which for half.a
century has, brooded over.a, vexed and. perplexing, controversy,

It.is impossible to perform: one step in. advance, towards.a-more
satisfactory knowledge of this subject,.unless the meaning of the
“siphons” (Pl. 1. fig..1, a, 2) be first, brought into the light of clear
definition.;, They are) commonly distinguished. into,the branchial
and the anal. The terms in the ordinary signification would indi-

38 De. T. Williamson ihe Mechanisin of Aquatic

cate the first as the orifice of i ingress, and the last as that of egress.
This, however, is not the acceptation in which they are used by
authors of great celebrity. Mr. Rupert Jones* observes: ‘‘ The
position of the animal is such, that of the two orifices the
branchial is always the highest ; the entrance into the branchial
sac being generally placed at ‘or near the superior extremity of
the body, and the cesophageal opening at the base of the branchial
sac having an upward-direction.” —'This is directly opposed to
‘the, definition of M.'G.'P. ‘Deshayest, who says—“ Whether
connected or not, the superior siphon is always characterized as
the anal, the inferior as the branchial siphon.” Of course the
comparative “ superior”? must mean that which is nearest to the
hinge or dorsum; “inferior,” that which is next to the venter, the
antipodal point to the hinge. The branchial siphon of Mr. R.
- Jones is therefore correspondent with the anal of M. Deshayes.
_ The expression of Cuvier—* deux ouvertures , Séparees, Pune
pour la respiration, Pautre pour les exerémens,” &¢. —suggests
the idea that one tube, the branchial, is devoted exclusively to
respiration ; that is, that through the same tube the mspiratory
and expiratory currents concerned in breathing take place.
“Dr. George Johnston observes : “ The water is imbibed through
a branchial siphon. The effete flnid is expelled again through
another or anal siphon f.” The branchial siphon of other authors
is the longest. or superior, and is distinguished as that which
emits the refuse water which has traversed the branchiz. The
branchial siphon im the sense in which it is used by Mr. Garner §
is synonymous with the inhalent tube, and the anal with the ex-
halent. In this acceptation the terms are also used by Forbes
and , Hanley I, , by Alder and Hancock§, and by Mr. Clark
in-his, excellent controversial papers against Mr. Hancock in the
«Annals? Dr. J. HE. Gray attaches to these) words,a similar
*méaning, calling the inhalent ‘the lower” siphon, and the exha-
ent ‘the upper? **,

Phe “branchial”? siphon of the most, esteemed anthors then |
é ae that: tubular extension (Pl. L. fig. 7,.a,,a')..of the, mantle
“by which the surrounding element is admitted into the ‘ bran-

* See article Tunicata.—Cyclop. Anat. Phys.
+ See the article Conchifera.—Cyclop. Anat. Phys.
“+ See his recent excellent work, entitled ‘ Introduction to Conchology,”
p. 275. Van Voorst, 1850.
Poe Transactions of Zoological Society, vol. i. p. 91.
|| British Mollusca, vol. 1.
. §[ See their valuable papers on the Branchial Currents in Pholas and
Mya, Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Oct. and Nov. 1851.
__ ** See his original and imstructive papers in recent Numbers of ‘the
: sperm on “A Revision of the Arrangement of the Families of Bivalve
Shells,”

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 39

chial yault” (Clark), ‘“ branchial chamber” (Hancock), or “ pal-
lial, cavity ” (Forbes and Hanley) (d). It is indifferently de-
scribed as the “ lower,” “ shorter,’’, “ inferior ” or “ ventral.” It
is the further of the two siphons from the hinge. Its office is
“ inspiratory,” “ inhalent,” “branchial” or ‘ prehensile.”

The “anal”. siphon, (fig. 7, 5, 0!) is variously defined as the
“ upper,” “superior,” “dorsal,” “exhalent,” “ excrementitial,”
“expiratory,” “longer,” &c.

That is. called “inhalent,” which the most conscientious and
truth-loving observers declare does not inhale: that the ‘‘ ex-
halent ” to which an emissive office is strenuously denied! There
are but two cavities (fig. 7, c,d) and only two siphons (fig. 6, a,0).
Of the latter one communicates with one cavity, the other with
the other. The boundaries of these cavities severally are con-
spicuously and unequivocally marked. They are as distinctly
defined as the siphons with which they respectively communicate.
But though clearly bounded they are not independent. Fluid
introduced into the one will unquestionably pass into the other*.
Neither the process by which food is brought to the mouth,
nor that.of respiration, could be understood before the fact was
discovered of the permeability of the branchial lamelle, To, Dr.
Sharpey should be ascribed the merit. which belongs to the first
discovery of this pomt+; to Mr. Hancock that of its full and com-

* At a subsequent stage of these inquiries, this general statement will be
supported by abundant evidence.—See Acephala. He

* Dr. Sharpey’s description cannot be misconstrued. “On removing one
of the valves, turning down the cloak, and putting moistened charcoal
powder on the surface of the gills, the finer part of the powder soon dis-
appears, having penetrated through the interstices of the bars or vessels
into the space between the two layers of the gills. On arriving there, a
part is often forced out again from under the border of the unattached
layer at the base of the gill, but most of it is conveyed rapidly backwards
. between the two layers, and is carried out at the excretory orifice with, the
general current ... The coarser particles remain- outside the gill and are
_slowly carried to its edge, following the direction of the bars: they then
advance along the edge of the gill towards the fore part of the animal. It
thus appears that the water first passes in between the lobes of the mantle
tothe external surface of the gills; it is then forced into the space enclosed
between their layers, from whence it is driven out at the excretory orifice,
to which the enclosed spaces of all the gills lead. As this process continues
to go on after the shell.and lobe of one side are removed, it is evident that
the motion of the water must be mainly produced by the cilia of the gills. . . .
By their ageucy the fluid is forced into the space within the gills, and this
operation taking place over the whole extent of the gills, must by its con-
centrated etfect give rise to a powerful issuing stream at the excretory
orifice, of which the entering stream seems to be a necessary result.’’—Art.
Cii1a: Cyclop. Anat, & Phys. In this most able summary, three principles
are lucidly affirmed :—Ist. That the water concerned in breathing perme-
ates the branchial. lamelle, and thus trayerses the partition which divides

-

40 Dr. T, Williams ow the Mechanism of Aquatic

plete demonstration... Mr; Clark*, however, embraces. still the:
doctrine which contends for the non-communieating independ~
ence of the siphons and of the cavities of which they are the ex-
ternal continuations. In this respect, his.conclusions are directly:
opposed to the results of the author’s observations, That the cavi-
ties recently so clearly defined by, Mx. Hancock are. by structure
and office distinct, will be afterwards irrefragably proved... This
division of the pallial enclosure into, two Jeading, sub-areas con-
stitutes a fundamental feature in: the ceconomy.of, the Tunicate
and* Lamellibranchiate mollusks... It suggests.a natural, process
of thought by which the siphonic actions are slsacenh infal-
libly. It will be subsequently proved, that that 'siphon which) is:
aa by Messrs. Alder and Hancock to give ingress to the water,
is really no more branchial than that by which the fluid makes its
egress... Both bear to the branchiz the same anatomical relation.
It were as correct to designate the opercular orifice in the fish as
the “anal,” and the mouth as the “ branchial,” as to apply, such
terms to the siphons of the Tunicata and Acephala. . Such, de-
signations misinform. They express either, what is not.true, or
what is only partially true. The “ branchial”? \siphon.is as much
oral or prehensile as branchial. The ‘“ exhalent”’ as. much, anal
as expiratory. , _ toeiteib ead s98ce

_Tt is quite established that two. distinct. offices, devolve, upott
each siphon. The one is designed to take in water for. the, pur-
pose of breathing, and alimentary particles for/the purposes.of
food; the other emits at once the products of the respiratory
and digestive processes. One name as applied.to.either, will not
express the double function. Let. the name therefore be drawn

the pallial from the anal chamber. 2ndiy. That by this act of sieving the
food, the aliment. is separated from the water:and impelled by ciliary action
towards the free margins of the gills and along the groove formed expressly
for this purpose on this margin, and, finally borne in the direction of.the
mouth. And 3rdly. The distinctness of the inhalent from the exhalent
eurrent’;) while Dr. ‘Sharpey speaks pry upon the point that the ez-
eurrent is set im motion exclusively by the branchial cilia. | It is extraordi-
nary. that, in asserting claims to. originality upon; these very pointsy “in

apers published ten years afterwards, so careful and honest a ‘student; as

fir. Hancock should have permitted this accessible and celebrated article
of Dr. Sharpey to elude his literary search! I rejoice rather than lament
over Mr: Hancock’s ‘‘sin of omission.” Confirmation, enriched by nume-
rous valuable original details, proceeding from so truthful an observer,
must prove of immense service to,the cause of science; but, palmam qui
meruit. ‘To widen the bounds of knowledge jis the highest gratification
which belongs to the true man of science. This is his most valued title of
nobility. Towithhold from the labourer his just reward, is to perpetrate a
eriminal offence against science.

* On the Pholadide.— Ann, and,Mag, Nat, Hist.;Nov, 1850.

o \oRespiration in Piwerlebrute'Ahimals. °° ar

froin stvacture rather thai from office. Ih thes¢'papérs Accordingly
that ‘siphon which’ opens into the ‘pallial or ventral chamber wilt
be° distinguished ‘as the? évtra-branchial siphon ; | that leading
from ‘the “dorsal, visceral or anal cavity, as the intra-branchial
siphon: These distinctives express only the anatomical position
of these tubes relatively to the branchial partition by which they
ave separated.| ‘They involve no hypotheses. They attribute no
function.’ They cannot misguide. 7

°/In the ‘Tunicata’ the? extra-branchial siphon (PI. I. fig. 1, a;
2;@; 3) a) leads into the pharyngeal cavity (4), which is homo-
logous with’ the ventral or pallial chamber of the Acephala. It
is the longer ‘and higher ofthe two. All fluid which reaches the
wiouth (fig.°3,°b), seated at the lower boundary of this cavity,
must’gain the pharyngeal chamber through the extra-branchial
siphon.’ Allahmentary substances ‘rejected by the mouth, that
is; those material particles ‘not swallowed, are sent out again by
a convulsive’ jerk of the’ cavity through the same siphon. It is
essential to distinguish the substances thus refused by the mouth
froni'the’ true exerementitious pellets which are always ejected
by ‘the tatr'a‘branchial siphon, | SOIR Metts any,
‘Phe mode in which the surrounding element enters ba tate
space has distracted controvertists, and divided them in ‘belief.
By Mr, Haticock, representing’ one class of observers, it is main-
tamed that’ thé’inhalent ‘current’ is set in motion exclusively by
the* action ‘of ‘vibratile cilia seated on the linmg membrane of
the’siphon itself? “By Mr. Clark this explanation is denied.
The fornier naturalist rests his theory upon the alleged demon-
stration ‘ofcilia°on the internal surface of the inhalent siphon,
the latter upon observation of the currents. The inquiries
of ,Mr.,.Hancock, were, confined :to the: Lamellibrianchiate! mol-
lusks.;;,But it. may be stated with confidence, that what’is true
of this class will apply to' the case of the Tunicata. ‘The dispute
is ‘really easy of adjustment. The adjustment here, however,
fails in this, sense, that the demonstration. which \is negative is
less, persuasive than that which is positive. To prove'a denial‘is
less: easy than to substantiate an affirmation.’ The microscope
leaves it beyond doubt, that the internal lining membrane of the
extra-branchial siphon of the Tunicate is not provided with a
vibratile epithelium. They sometimes exist on the tentacles at’
the hbase ofthe siphon, but most certainly not on the walls’ of
the latter. "The water which enters this siphon is assuredly
therefore not drawn in by the agency of cilia within the, siphon,
Further observations, are . required: to. determine) the, exact
course of the currents excited by the°cilia distributed’ over’ the
branchial ‘bars.’° It is’ not proved’ "that the water enters the
siphon in virtue of the cilia situated at the latter point. It

¥

°

4:2 Dr. Ty Williamson. the Mechanism of Aquatic

enters at) the moment of the diastole of the pharyngeal chamber,
Such a movement operates suctorially upon the fluid within the
sphere of its influence. _ Having entered the cavity, the water is
whirled ‘in, a, thousand. definite “directions by the branchial cilia.
‘Every particle of material substance,contaimed is rolled into
minute pellets and borne in, the direction, of the mouth, If it
be palatable, it is swallowed ; if, not, itis emitted forcibly again
by the same siphon. The water which falls, under the influence -
of the proper branchial cilia is impelled in, such manner and
direction, and in myriad invisible currents, thatit permeates the
branchial, membrane (fig..1, 6; fig. 2, 6) by means of the meshes
circumscribed. by. the yascular bars. The passage of the water
through these meshes does not occur in direct currents, but in
streams which pass up and down the sides of the meshes several
times before they finally reach the imétra-branchial or visceral
cavity—therefrom to be rejected by the intra-branchial or anal
siphon, so that. the aérating element by this, contrivance is
detained, for some, time in contact with the blood- channel.
The egressing current saturated with carbonic acid escapes from
this, latter, siphon in a continuous stream,—-such a stream as an
uninterruptedly. acting force alone,.could determine. ...The mi-
eroscope was.accordingly applied tothe examination of the lining
of this) siphon, anticipating the immediate detection,of vigorous
ciliary action. ,Ascidians, Cynthians, and Clayellinans, submitted
to careful inspection, disproved. the anticipation, . In none, by
any device, could cilia be demonstrated on the inner wall of this
anal. or intra-branchial siphon. - The current; therefore, which
sescapes at its orifice is not set in motion. by any force within the
limit of the siphon itself, but rather by that which is placed at.a
distance—the, branchial ciliary action, The space, interposed
between the branchial membrane and, the mantle in Tunicates
forms a|part of the imtra-branchial or visceral cavity... Itis filled
with, refuse, water, rendered, poisonous by carbonic acid. . This
effete fluid enacts no further part inthe organism. It is finally
rejected.

In the Tunicata then the two siphons are continuous through
the branchial stigmata, The mass of water which always, more
or less fully distends the body of the animal, observes only one
normal or regular movement, viz. that tending from the extra-
branchial siphon (fig. 1, a) im the direction of the intra-bran-
chial (4). . The irregular and occasional currents are propelled in
the reverse directions. The pharyngeal cavity may muscularly
contract, and now and then emit pure unrespired water, and) un-
used alimentary substances; held by this water in suspension., If
such discretionary power did not exist, the indiscriminating mouth
would swallow every solid substance borne mechanically into the

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 43

_ pharyngeal chamber by the water'drawn in by the extra-branchial

siphon. Nature’s machinery would then, indeed, wear the dis-
graceful impress of faultiness. ze NM 13

Tn the Ascidians the branchize completely line the walls of the
pallial chamber. In figure the chamber varies ; it is oblong in
some species, oval and rectangular in others. The branchial
membrane in Ascidia, Phallusia, &c. forms a plane unfolded sheet,
adapting itself to the cavity of the mantle ; m Cynthia, Boltenia,
&c. it is longitudinally plicated (fig..5) and disposed in deep and
regular folds. The ultimate vessels (d) are arranged rectangu-
larly. The circumscribed ‘ stigmata’ (c) are parallelogrammic in
figure, These perforations lead from the pharyngeal into the
“thoracic” chamber of Milne-Edwards. Why it should be
called ‘ thoracic’ is difficult to understand. As already defined,
it is really the visceral, intra-branchial or cloacal cavity. The bran-
chial vessels in the Ascidians are arranged in two planes (fig. 4).
In Cynthia ampulla the meshes are very irregular and almost
imextricable, some of the minute vessels having apparently’ a
spiral arrangement. In Chelyosoma, Eschricht figures a similar
_ vermicular disposition of the branchial vessels. The branchial
membrane of Cynthia presents large longitudinal vessels. They
are crossed by others of equal size. Large meshes (d) are thus
formed. Smaller vessels (6) lying ona different plane form by
crossing smaller stigmata. In Ascidia and Chelyosoma, the angles
‘of the meshes of the branchial membrane bear papille (c) more or
less prominent. In Cynthia they do not exist. ‘These papillose
processes are hollow recesses. ‘They are by-receptacles for the
nutritive fluid. In size the branchial vessels vary in different
genera. In Cynthia they are large, in Ascidia they are minute,
in Cystingia they are indistinct. The branchial plicee converge at
the mouth whenever they exist. | |

By Carus and Van Beneden a lateral opening in the respi-
ratory cavity has been indicated, by which the water passes di-
rectly from the branchial sac into the cloaca (fig. 1, 0; fig. 3, e).
This aperture corresponds with the open fissure which in many
species of Acephalans exists between the attached border of! the
branchize and the base of the foot. It is a safety-valve,as will
‘be hereafter explained.

In Clavellinide, Botryllide, in the genera Pyrosoma, Pelonaia
and Salpa, such is the structure of the. branchie, that the water
readily traverses the respiratory stigmata, and passes from the
extra-branchial into the intra-branchial chambers.

In ‘all genera’ the branchial membrane ‘is attached by means
of threads and vessels externally to the mantle.

The ‘branchi# in the Clavellinide exist in form ‘of’ a ‘band
stretching across the cavity of the mantle, and dividing the pha-

4A, Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

_ryngeal ‘fromthe ‘cloacal chamber. “In ultimate structure the
branchie of this genus differ from those of the Ascidians: in
place of presenting on each’'side simple striz furnished with
vibratile’cilia, as'in the Salpians, they bear right and left a series
_ Of filiform appendages directed horizontally towards the ventral
side of the respiratory cavity, where they are fixed on each side
of the middle sulcus, and during their passage across are united
together by a number of'other slender vertical filaments. From
this disposition of parts there results a kind of trellis-work,
which fills up all the pharyngeal portion of the branchial cham-
ber, permitting no communication between the latter and the
cloaca’ except through the meshes of its network, which are
bordered all around with vibratile cilia*. 2
The branchial sac of the Botryllide is like that of the Clavel-
linide: it is similarly organized. The branchial spiracles are
variable in number. It is in general only slightly folded. The
respiratory sac in Botryllus lies horizontally, and has only nine
rows of stigmata, grouped into threes by the longitudinal folds.
The angles of the branchial network are marked with papille in
Distoma and Diazona. ae
The branchie in Pyrosoma line the internal tunic of the mantle.
They are orally disposed. They consist of numerous, vessels
or channels anastomosing with each other at, right angles;
“Nothing is more curious,” says Milne-Edwards, . “than, the
respiratory apparatus of these animals, when the vibratile cilia
with which each of the stigmata is furnished are simultaneonsly
effecting their vorticiform movements with rapidity and perfect
harmony ft.” s ,
- In Salpe the gill is constructed of a flattened tube, stretched -
on a vertical plane obliquely across the central or. branchial
cavity of the body. It is composed of a double membrane formed
by a fold of the internal tunic or mantle. It partitions the, bran;
chial chamber into two portions—the pharyngeal and cloacal, \,
The circulatory systems of the Ascidians resemble. that of the
Bryozoa. If the heart were removed, it would be a chylaqueous
system. It is transitional between the Polypes and the Mollusks;
Van Beneden compares the Ascidian to a digestive canal, sus-
pended in the midst of an external envelope surrounded by.a
fluid moving in the open spacious perintestinal space. ..It..is
only in the branchial network and tentacies that it can be said.to
be contained in vessels. .
Mr. Gosse gives an exact description of the living circulation
in Perophora Lasteri (fig.3). Speaking of the blood-globules, ‘he .

* See article TunicatTa.—Cyclop. of Anat. and Phys.
+ Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 2nd ser. tom. xi. p. 375 (1835).

Respiration in Invertebrate Animalsy 45

observes, “ They do, not appear to pass into\a defined..system, of
vessels, ..., but find the way through, the. interstices, of the
various organs in the various cavities of, the body... .... They pro-
ceed by jerks ; some find their way into the space between. the
breathing surfaces, and slip in between the. rows of oral rings
(stigmata), and wind along. down, between the rings in irregular
courses*,” re

In the Ascidiade and Clavellinide the centres of this system
consist of two trunks, a. dorsal and a. ventral, the capillary
system of the branchiz being intermediate... Lister’s famed. ob-
servations on this subject should be consulted}... The descrip-
tive details afterwards to be presented on the subject, of the
respiratory and circulatory systems of the Acephalans, will illus-
trate many points of interest in the structure of the correspond-
ing systems of the Tunicata. The peripheric. channels of the
blood are analogous in the two classes. The ultimate structure,
though not the arrangement of the vessels of the. branchiz. is
also similar, The nutritive fluids, morphotically, distinctive, are
chemically identical in the two classes,

Acephala,

“Tn ‘the Terebratulide there exists no express apparatus for
breathing. ~ With the Craniade they are therefore placed at the
inferior limit of the Lamellibranchiate series. Prof. Owen has
shown that the mantle in the Brachiopods is more vascular than
in°those orders of bivalves in which gills exist. Dr. Carpenter
- has lately shown that the external layer of the mantle in Tere-
bratula and certain other Brachiopoda, sends out. cecal, tubes
through the shell. They are respiratory in office, and the exact
counterpart of those membranous processes which the author of
these’ papers has described in the Echinodermata as. projecting
up above the external surface of the body. The cecal character
of these parts establishes a community of type between the fluid
system of the Brachiopods and the chylaqueous system as de-
fined by the author, The arms are long, richly ciliated tubes.
In these tubes the blood moves in a single channel by flux and
reflux. This incident also in the history of the fluids allies
these inferior mollusks with those animals in which a chylaqueous
system only exists. This latter fluid never undergoes an orbital
movement: it fluctuates to and fro: The ultimate, respects in
which the vessels in the manile of the Brachiopods differ from

* See. his interesting work; ‘A Naturalist’s. Rambles on the Devonshire
Coast,’ p. 245.

+ Phil. Trans. 1834,

t Proceedings of the Royal Society, April 6, 1854.

46 Dr. T., Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

those of the mantle of the mgher Acephala;, and what differen-
tiation of these parts was required to enable an ordinary structure
to discharge a special office, has been shown. by Dr. Carpenter.

The organs of breathing are well developed in all the Lamel-
libranchiate Acephalans., Their vascular, system is elaborately
multiplied. They are capable of containing a considerable amount
of blood. If aquatie were not less intense than atmospheric re-
spiration, the aggregate area of the surface exposed by the gills
of mollusks in general would insure a measure of effect, sufficient
to raise these animals high in the scale of physiological activity,
Surface is not the only factor to be counted in determining the
dynamic value of the respiratory office. The composition of the
blood demands a numeric place in the calculation. If the fluid
occupying the vessels were identical in density with the exterior
element, no interchange of gases could proceed., A difference
in the specific densities of the gases held in solution by. fluids of
identical gravities would constitute a condition in virtue of which
the gases would reciprocally move independently of the fluids,
The less the proportion of fibrine in the blood, other things being
equal, the lower is its absorptive capacity for gases. The blood
of mollusks is less charged with fibrine than that. of the. higher
Articulata. In the former the floating corpuscles are less highly
organized. They are) strikingly less. filled with solid contents.
They are smaller and yet not more numerous. The physical
conditions as regards the fluids then are not-favourable in the
Mollusea to a high rate of respiration. F

Cuvier first defined the bivalve mollusks under the title of
Acephala testacea. By Lamarck they were constituted into. a
separate class under the name of Conchifera. M. de Blainyille
marshalled them under the order Acephalophora lamellibran-
chiata. The anatomical definition of Cuvier presents clearly
the chief points of structure :—“ Leur corps qui renferme le foie
et les viscéres est placé entre les deux lames du manteau; en
avant, toujours entre ces lames, sont les quatre feuillets bran-
chiaux striés reguliérement en travers par les vaisseaux ; la bouche
est A une extremité, l’anus A l’autre, le coeur du cété ‘an dos ; le
pied, lorsqu’il existe; est attaché entre les quatre branchies*. 3

The mantle of the mollusk is a grand feature of the organism.
Its horizontal lobes embrace, its vertical process, on which the
branchie are evolved structurally and functionally, bisects, the
whole body. The mantle at once invests and secretes the shell,
and forms the very basis of the body of the animal. It is com-
posed of muscles, nerves, fibres, and vessels. It is lined inter-
nally in all cases with vibratile epithelium. A. straight line,

* Ragne Animal, vol: sur,les Mollusques, p.. 182.

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 47

carried from the anterior to the posterior extremity of the shell
in any Acephalan, divides the mantle and the body into two very
distinct and dissimilar halves.’ On one side lie the branchiz and
extra-branchial, ventral, or oral chamber (PI. II. fig. 13) ; on the
other are disposed’ the viscera, the intra-branchial or dorsal
cavity; with the latter the exhalent’ or intra-branchial siphon
is necessarily and invariably connected ; in this dorsal compart-
menit, also, the anal orifice terminates. That cavity (b) which
lies ‘on the ventral (the side opposed to the hinge) or right side
of the ‘hypothetical line, whether the ventral borders of the
mantle be open or closed, siphonal or asiphonal, is always and
necessarily filled with pure water. In this chamber the branchie
(PL. I. fig. 7?, a, b) whatever be their number or position, figure
or size, freely float; it is here always that the oral orifice
(fig. 13,'a) opens; it is at once a reservoir of pure water for
breathing and pure material for food. All varieties centre in
the! unity ‘of this idea—all specific aberrations are reducible
to this basilar type. Specific diversities arise more frequently
from variations in the number, size, siphonal or non-siphonal
charactér of the openings communicating with this (oral or
extra-branchial) chamber (PI. I. fig. 6, 4,6; fig. 7, c, d), than
from' ‘those which occur in the siphonal processes of the intra-
branchial or anal cavity (fig. 13, e). Mr. Clark * and Dr. J. Bi.
Gray} ‘are ‘the most recent and distinguished conchologists
who have ‘attempted intelligently to found a classification of
the Conchifera on the basis of the varieties which occur in the
pallial ‘orifices. Dr. Gray groups the whole class under two
primary designations—the Siphonophora and Asiphonophora—
which are again subclassified into orders, genera, and species.
In ‘the Pholadide, Myade, Gastrochenide, and Solenide, the
ventral borders of the mantle are united, and the siphonal tubes
are long'and more or less distinct. The mantle is also closed
in the Corbulide and Anatinide, but the siphons are short. In
the Tellinide the mantle is open, while the tubes are prolonged.
An open mantle coexists with short siphons in Cardiadée, Vene-
ride, Mactride, and Donacide. An open mantle is co-present
with sessile tubes in Cycladide, Kelliade, Lucinide, Cyprinide,
Unionidee, and Arcade. In Mytilide, Ostreade, Pectinide, and
Anomiadie, the whole gape of the mantle is one undistinguished
¢apacious orifice. Guided by the rule that pure water must in
some manner or other, with adequate freedom, be admitted into
the oral or extra-branchial cavity, it is quite obvious that the

* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., June 1851. “On the Classification of the
Marine and Testaceous Mollusca.”
+ Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., May 1854.

48 Dr. T. Wilhams,on.the, Mechanism of Aquatic

larger the ventral. or common opening of. the mantle, the /ess.is
the necessity forthe lower,or extra-branchial siphon. . If, on the
contrary, the leaves of. the, mantle be fused.at,their borders all
round, a well-developed siphon.is absolutely required. This cavity
must have a free, and, ready communication. with’ the, exterior.
If this communication.js not,established in one mode, it must in
another.. Asiphon isa necessary provision, if; the. mantle..be
closed ;.. if open,.it, is.only supplementary... Inthe former. case,
everything fluid and solid which.enters. the, palhal/ cavity must
pass through the extra-brauchial siphon... It can gain the cham=
ber.through no other. source... Inthe latter, the siphon is,only
incidentally and. occasionally used.. The great, bulk, of, water
drawn into the cavity rushes in through the ventral,.and pedal
openings... That. which, alike solid and. fluid,.is,,returned..un-
used from this cavity, is indiscriminately jerked out, by muscular
action through any.of the mantual openings. If,\the pellet of
sand. be,situated near the opening of, the siphon,of ; this cavity,
at/the moment when it,receives the impulse of ejectment; ityescapes
through the: znhalent or.extra-branchial, siphon (Pl. I. fig. 6,5).
If, on the, contrary, it be, placed at the other end. of the chamber,
it;will be driven out either through the ventral or,,pedal, gape.
The. orifice and,,direction in which refused jets of water, take
place from, this cavity are contingent upon. the position which
the rejected. portion. may have previously occupied in, the, cavity.
Upon this important point neither Mr. Clark nor Mr. Hancock
are; Clearly informed., Mr. Clark is correct.in stating that) the
ingress. of the water into the great mantual.or extra-branchial
cavity 1s due, not to the invisible agency of vibratile epithelium
on the lining membrane of the siphon, but to the diastolic, sepa-
ration of the valves. Mr. Hancock is undoubtedly in error in
stating that the water entering this cavity is drawn. in. by, cilia
of the, siphon... The. microscope disproves completely. the asser«:
tion! that: the internal lining membrane of the inhalent or extra~’
branchial siphon is the scene of ciliated epithelium. In ‘no
single instance of the numerous siphonal species examined by
the author, could cilia be discovered in this.situation. — Lf.at
this: place. cilia do not exist, it admits of no dispute, that the
occasional inward-tending current which reaches the cavity
through this siphon cannot be due to the instrumentality of
cilia, at this point at least. Mr. Clark is unquestionably. wrong
in supposing that, because now and then the inhalent or extra-
branchial siphon, and the ventral and pedal openings of the mantle
emit a jet of water and solid pellets, this cavity is therefore inde-
pendent, that the “siphons therefore do not communicate,’ and
that therefore the ingress and egress of the, water designed..for
respiration take place through the same orifices.” Every one of

Respiration in Invertebraté'Animals, “= = 49

these inferences are non-sequiturs. © Mr. Hancock is inaccurate im
affirming that ad/ the water which enters this cavity from with-
out travels ‘exclusively along the inhalent © or extra-branchial
siphon; and never, under’ any ¢irctimstanee, through either thé.
ventral or pedal openings*.°' 4 the water’ which is admitted
into the extra-branchial cavity is not respired; in other language,
does not pass through the branchiz into the dorsal or intra-
branchial chamber (fig. 6)/); nor is ad/ the solid substance, which
it may perchance contain, seized’ by the mouth and swallowed.
The’ act of the passage of the true respiratory water from one
ehamber' ‘into the other is an’ involuntary act. The volume of
the*fluid and the rate of its motion are definite, and proportional
to the organi¢ wants of the animal.’ The movement’ by which
water is' drawn from without into the extra-branchial reservoir is -
voluntary +; and dependent in frequency of recurrence upon the
antity of food which it may bear in ‘suspension, and upon the
egree of its purity. ‘The body of water which ‘at any giver
mioment’ the extra-branchial cavity may contain, is sieved by thé
eilia;’ which -are ‘distributed ‘over the external surfaces’ of the
braneliiee, © These cilia, as will be subsequently explained, ‘raise
abroad*eutrent (see arrows on the branchie ‘in fies.'6, 8, &'9);
very visible to the naked eye, which ‘always and Systematically
sets in the*direction of the free'‘or tnattachéed borders of thé
branchial! lamelle, These currents begin’ at ‘the’ attached °or
proximal edges of all the lamellae. jarogen eid3 10qU
or!'Tliey observe’ the same’ directions on the under as'on’ the
upper! surface ofeach lamella (sce arrows on the branchia in
fig 7). (They*are true food-searching currents: The’ ‘pelléets
formed by their agency, having attained the’ free ‘margin;

*9* In ¢orrecting what earnest and faithful observation and research have
convinced me'to be errors,” I deal in no flattery or hypocritical circtimlo”
cution., ~I, do,not, honour great) men the less because‘a repetition of then? -
procedures has assured.me that. in some special particulars they may, have
approved themselves false, It is because their genius has first. indieated
a mnain highway through a tangled wilderness, that faithful observers
amongst their successors are enabled to mark the poimts whereat the sin
of: minor deviations from the straight course may have been’ committed.’
It .is in this spirit that .I have ventured.to criticise the acute labours of Mr.
Hancock and Mr. Clark. _ It is in this spirit, I trust, that my criticism. will
be reeeived.. The brief limits of these papers, in which results rather than
processes are embodied, preclude all reference to details, dissections, ex-
perinents, observations on the livmg ‘animals, ‘injections, &e.- Once for
all, L affirm, that. no assertion hasbeen: rashly projected in these papers
which has not been conscientiously, submitted to. the test of fact, and
weighed in the balance of practical trial.

~* The influence of the cilia of the branchial lamelle upon this in-
gréssing current ‘has never yet been clearly perceived. Such imfluence is
undoubtedly exerteds) 5) > | ey:

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 4

50 Dr. T. Williams ‘ow the Mechanism of Aquatic

are carried in the direction’ of the mouth and tried and tasted
by the palpi (fig. 6, 7,7). Those which ‘are’ acceptable’ are
swallowed; those which are unpalatable ‘dye carried completely
out of the cavity indifferently by any one of its openings, lest
they should again pass over the’branchise: So incomparably ad-
justed are the cilia which ‘render the gills a wondrous spectacle
of infinitesimal currents, so precise and’ fore-ordained are. the
directions in which they move,’ thatthe ‘act’ which sieves’ the
food from the water drives also that water from the recipient
into the refuse chamber (fig. 6, f; Pl. 1. fig. 12, h), through the
meshes circumscribed by the branchial ‘vessels. This stage of the
respiratory process is strictly involuntary. ‘It is governed by in-
violable organic laws, not volitional caprice. ‘It is’ to the molltsk
what the insensible involuntary physical exos-and éndosmose of
gases in the ultimate air-cells of the lungs are to the mammiah
It differs physically and physiologically from the’ act iv which
water is drawn into the cavity of the mantle, as'strikingly'as ‘the
thoracic movements of respiration in’ Man ‘differ from the ultiz
mate’ process.’ ‘Thus, whatever ‘may be the number; ‘size; Sr
prominence of the openings* of the niantlé; the fuiietions: of the
great ventral chamber remain tnchanged. ‘They are “and nvust
bé in’‘eyery instance, under -all general mutations of character,
those of a reservoir from which food is drawn ‘to the’ mouth and
the aérating element to the branchiz. IR ARTO (TSO

The second great cavity (Pl. I. fig. 6, 3 fig. 7)°e02 PLIL.
fiz. 8, d; fig. 9, e; fig. 10, ¢, ¢; fig. 12,:h); lying to the left,
dorsal, or “the hinge” side of the imaginary \line@fortierly
defined, remains now to be described. It is' limited’ venttradly
by the branchiz, dorsadly by. the hinge, and posteriorly ‘by’ the
ex-current siphon. : IL YieVOULII M09

The anal chamber does not in all genera’ communicate openly
and directly with the interlamellar passages. The’ former really
arises in the latter, when only one of the proximal borders of the
branchial lamellz is attached to the side of the visceral miss }
_ the grooves, running antero-posteriorly and’ parallel with’ the
length of the gill, and situated between its proximal borders and

\

~2*® 'T would beg here to-refer the student to the interesting papers of Mr.
Hancock, im the ‘Annals and Magazine of Natural History.’ during the
years 1852 and 1853, for an account of the collateral openings which in some
genera occur inthe mantle. In Chamostrea albida, in addition to'the nor-
mal siphonal orifices and pedal and ventral gapes, he describes another of
minute size, which is situated under the lower siphon. A similar ‘aperture
existsin other: Lamellibranchiates, .Mr: Hancock has observed it in. Lutraria,
Cochlodesma, Panopeaand Myochama and,Prof. Owen in, Pholadomya. It
is clear from the explanation given in the text, that these secondary aper-
tures are really secondary in meaning. “They do not in the least affect the
physiological character’ of the eavity.?' | |

Respiration in Invertebrate, Animals, ie

the-visceral mass, although,open, form really the.commencement
of the anal chamber. |... : 7
Mytilus and, Pecten exemplify. the, type,of this condition
(Pl. L..fig...7)... The outer plate (c, c'), of each. lamella is free or
unattached at. its, proximal, margin... This latter is, thick and
strong. It is: composed.of the large afferent and.efferent. trunks.
In, Mytilus and Pecten\it.is not.fringed by.a slender membrane
as jin. Cardium) and, Pholas., (fig.,6,.e,,f) and Mya, &c. The
gutter,or channel, (fig. 7, f,f) formed by the attached. or lower
lamella of the superior gill and the free or unattached. or, upper
plate, opens consequently imto the, extra-branchial or pallial
cavity in. a, direct manner... The water flowing along this groove
(fig. .10,..¢) does not. however return into this latter cavity,
except under, extraordinary circumstances, . It is conducted in a
yapid,course; impelled by the branchial cilia, in the direction of
the) cloaca, (fig. 10,.e).. The groove formed at the proximal
margins of the inferior, or as it 1s falsely called, the supplemental
gill, (fig. 7?,¢’), opens in like manner. into the pallial cavity, but
on the,under surface., It receives the expiratory currents of the
lower, gill, and, conveys them in form of a,strong single current
towards the.exhalent siphon. , In Cardium(P1, LL. fig. 9), Pholas
(figs ,7),.Mya,,,Solen, Cochlodesma, and,,.Pholadomya,, the, two
plates, of, each; branchial. lamella on both, sides, are attached, the
upper to the side of the body and. foot, the lower to.the mantle,
{|The groove bounded by the plates of the branchial lamellze is
divided; off, therefore, in these genera by a continuous mem-
brane.(fig..9 f).from. the pallial chamber. Mr. Hancock says,
that, in the. siphonal families. this membrane. forms a,complete
partition between. the pallial and anal cavities, since it extends
continuously from the anterior to the posterior extremity, of the
upper, plate... The author’s observations have convinced him,
that, while in. Cardium, Pholas, Solen, and Mya this membrane
stretches, posteriorly over the cloaca in a hood- or tongue-like
form,, it..leaves, between its edge and the side of. the foot. a
fissural opening through which the two cavities freely communi-
cate. The difference, then, between the siphonal and non-
siphonal families as respects the parts concerned in respiration,
may be defined as consisting in the degree in which the, intra-
branchial grooves are anatomically isolated from the open space
of the pallial cavity.
Such points are non-essential, distinctions: while they denote
the. existence of trifling structural, varieties, they ,mvolve,,no
diversities in the methods of action... Whether partially open or
conipletely closed, the grooves (fig.6,) running horizontally at
the proximal borders of the gills and between their component

plates, convey the exhalent current, received from. the gills in the
4x

52 Dr. T. Williams onthe Mechanism of Aquatic

diréttion of ‘the:cloacas' When) :there: exist»two separate bran-
chial lamelle., on either side, there exist two grooves ; when one,
only one. SISIINU MT ITOS Vilsqo 4 :
sThe: anal'chamber;:then;: should be defined as beginning in
these intra-branchial grooves, ‘but reniotely or| primarily im the
inter-lamellar » water-passages\.of Mr. Haneock: - The mode) in
which this chamber communicates with’ the water-tubes between
they branchial! lamelle-is thus described! by ‘Mr. Hancock:-—-:
“(]. the anal:chamber (in Pholas:crispata) was laid open, and its
ventral wall:was:seen ‘to exhibit: four longitudinal rows of large
orifices’ i» These four rows: of orifices, already well: known. to
anatomists, correspond: to the :attached:margins of the four: gill-
platés, which hang fromthe roof or dorsal) membrane: of the
branchial: chamber; this membrane being the ventral wall of the
anal chamber, the membrane, in fact; which divides the chambers:
These orifices lead into wide tubes, which pass between the two:
lamine formingreach :gill-plate.. These inter-branchial tubes ‘lie
contiguous and parallel to each other, and extend)the full\ width:
of :the gill, ‘being bifid: within its free: margin.) Thus it is
evident: that: the tubes within the gill-plates communicate: freely:
with the: anal: chamber*.” - This: description: is exact,’ but: it)
shouldbe ‘thus qualified: In those: siphonal: families m which: »
the’ gills'are united posteriorly \(this: is the case om! Unio; Ano-\
donta, Mactra, Cardium, Isocardia; Lutraria) and prolonged into:
the»anhalent siphon, the anal chamber “is) considerabby:more:
capacious than in those in which the branchial plates of:opposite:
sides ‘aredistmet and ununited posteriorly (this condition as!
observed:\in ‘Pecten, Avicula, Arca, Pectunculus, and) Pinna); or
in-those im which the siphons are suppressed.’ °In ‘all cases; the:
anal! chamber: commences anteriorly (fig.)10,c) in’ grooves more:
or less extended, formed, as: already defined; between the plates:
of the branchial lamellz and the side of the’visceral mass and foot:
These grooves terminate and pour their contents‘in aveonti=)
nuous stream into the anal chamber—-a' cloacal: cavity common
tothe branchiz:and intestine: oIn all cases then the interlamellar:
water~passages:open throughoutithe waterior half or thirdof the
gillso into ithe) ~water-grooves at their bases, posteriorly directly
into) the icloaca/or analchamber.' This definition, so positive,
precludes all misconception. « It leaves the cavities functionally
distinct in.all genera, though in ‘some structurally continuous. <It’
solves: the problem:of the» Molluscan organism.’: The ingress:and
egress of the! alimentary and’ respiratory elements are so’ ordered,
that the:ceconomy ofthe conchiferous animal; hidden in a coat
of mail, is*rendered unequivocally ‘clear tothe understanding:

* Ann. &>Mag, Nat. Hist., Nov,.1851.

Respiration in Invertebrate: Animals.) 53°

“All the: interlaminar tubes, lately 86 fully deseribed by) Mr.
Hancock, pour a constant: current: into. this: cavity, with which
all the intra-branchial spaces openly communicate. — Into this
chamber, at different ‘points inv different ‘genera, the. intestine
terminates: (Pl. Ili fig.o12;:d). \ It receives the» excrementitior»
procente at once of the testinal and:branchial systems.

This simple detinition was first established mallats details by
the researches of Mr. Hancock.) It is essentially founded upon
the ‘permeability of: the branchial lamin: -first proved by Dr.
Sharpey: » The correctness of this description\is: denied: in» the
most strenuous manner by) Mr. Clark: It) is impossible not
to admire the ardent eloquence, ‘and. sagaciour inventiveness of
argument with which Mr. Clark defends hissown views. » The
duty of ‘the critic; however, is:sacreds: ‘The solemn ‘sentence of
‘error’? must be: pronounced «alike over ae i of his “facts”
amd: not! afew of his: inferences.”

oiMré Clark cissindeed: right’ in ashentiings; that Semana a
momentary im-current occurs: through) the e#-current: ‘siphon,
This aceidéntal:incident»is utterly! umimportant.o°The- normal,
systematic, and: necessary direction .of | thecurrent) inthis: (the
dorsal,’ upper; anal» ex-current, | éx-halent) :or\intra-branchial)
sifshén is centrifugal. «Inc all Acephalans, whether siphonal or
nontsiphonal;:everything that: passes through>this siphonshas'

ani outward) tendency... The centripetal movement. is :irregular
and accidental. +The ‘stream: bears far) more. strikingly ‘a: con-
tinuous: character than that ingressing at: the ventral or extra-
branchial orifices. The uninterruptedness of this current was:
supposed by Mr. Hancock to be due tothe action of cilia lining
theinterior of the siphon. The statement of this distinguished
naturalist. im.this particular is indisputably | erroneous: °° This
siphon, like the in-current,one, 1s not lined with vibratile epithe-
lium; »The stream by which it is traversed is not excited: by ti
foree within: its own limits.

«dn denying the existence of cilia within this siphon, Mr. Olark
is;on the side of truth... But the current emanating from ‘the
excurrent-siphon is continuous in character. \ It always goes on
except when the orifice is closed by voluntary muscular action.

The continuousness of this .ex-current 1s due, not to’ cilia
within the interior of the siphon, but to those at a distance, on
the branchial. bars. Ad/, the cilia distributed over the internal
surfaces of the branchial lamine (those facing ‘the interlaminar
tubes) excite currents, tending im the direction of the! dorsab or
intra-branchial cavity and that of the ex-current siphon: ' The
proofs of this interesting fact will be afterwards givem*.

* See a subsequent paper “On the Minute Structure of the Branchize.”’

54 Dr. T: Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

The character of ‘this exhalent current is not the same in ‘all
genera. In Cardium it is much more regular than in Pholas,
&e. It occurs quite ‘as distinctly in the Asiphonophora as m
the Siphonal classes.’ It is with this current that the rejecta-
menta escape. '

The evidence upon which the doctrine of the independence of
this cavity from’ the ventral is maimtained, will be adduced when
speaking of the minute structure of the branchiz.

If the view supported by Mr. Hancock be true, that the
dorsal or intra-branchial cavity is separated from the ventral or
extra-branchial by a partitional membrane which is permeable
nowhere but at the branchial stigmata, it follows that every-
thing which passes from one chamber into the other, either in'a
progressive or regressive direction, must percolate through these
minute foramina. ‘The author’s dissections, however, render it
probable that a fissural opening (fig. 6, e) at either base of the
foot exists in some of the siphonal genera, if not in others. It is
seated at the base of the branchial lamelle and the junction of
the ‘vertical partition of the mantle with each superior gill, and
opens directly from the intra- into the extra-branchial chambers.
The office of this fissure is that of a safety-valve. rt

When the outlet of the ex-current siphon is closed by sphine-
teric contraction, the imtra-branchial cavity being rapidly more
and more filled in virtue of the continuousness of the branchial
ciliary action, the surplus fiuid escapes through the lateral
fissures back again into the ventral or extra-branchial chamber,
again to pass through the branchial foramina, propelled by cilia.
It is by thus repeatedly filtermg the same water through the
branchie that those bivalves, such as the Mussels, sustain life,
though abstracted for a considerable time from their native
element. The fissure in question is detectable only from the
inside of either chamber, not from the outside view of the whole
mantle, even after the separation of the animal by spirits of
wine from its shell. If the exit of the water from this intra-
branchial enclosure be due to the force exerted by the lamellar
cilia, it follows that. the egressing current’ should be equally as
vigorous ‘and marked in the non-siphonal as in the siphonal
genera. The presence of the ex-current siphon does not affect
the real branchial action of respiration. As a tubular extension
of the cavity, it enables the contents of the latter to be delivered
at ‘a greater distance away from the body. This is its real office.
Thus the sphere in which the animal lives is maintained in
purity. The in-current which occasionally occurs through this
dorsal or intra-branchial siphon should be regarded really as a
momentary accident; as'an irregular reversal of a normal current.
Water thus drawn ‘ito the cavity of the ex-current’ siphon»can

Mec

re |

% 3
Wi

nan

iN ea
nt Qin ion

WwW

} ‘, *
B taal
5 ™“,

4 We cae

a ee

rt ..

a ee ee

Respiration in Invertebrate, Animals. 55

act no part either in the alimentary or respiratory, process.) It
cannot reach the mouth without, permeating, the branchial, fora-
mina. It can do this only by overcoming: the opposing force
exerted by the branchial, cilia. | If, the: water which occasionally
enters at the exhalent siphon were normally designed. for respi-
ration, like that flowing in at, the inhalent. siphon, as supposed
by Mr. Clark, the former,could, not reach, the Fret lamellae
without meeting and mingling with the. counter impure current
driven by cilia, coming from the branchie. The principle is ab-
solute in the mechanism of the respiratory, process in all Tuni-
cate and Lamellibranchiate mollusks, that the aérating element
must pass through the gill. The function of breathing cannot be
accomplished if the water merely passes in a stream whose
direction, is parallel with the planes of the, gill-lamine... The
ultimate and true respiratory currents are those which permeate
the lamine at right angles to their planes... It results of logical
necessity, therefore, that if, the water did not. traverse the bran-
chial partition (Pl. LI. fig. 12, 9) which divides the extra. from
the mtra-brauchial, chambers, ‘the great and imperious function
of .respiration could not be accomplished. . ,

The preceding postulates, supported only by. theoretical rea-
soning, will ona future occasion. be rendered. incontrovertible
by.the demonstrations of minute anatomy.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES I. anp IL.
Puate I,

Fig. \: ‘ Clavellina lepadiformis (after Milne-Edwards): a, mouth and in-
halent funnel; 6, large horizontal blood-channels, running regu-
larly between the vertical ones 3 p, the intervascular stigmata
through which the water passes rom the branchial chamber into
the cloacal cavity (0), whose outlet is at (h) the exhalent or anal
siphon ; /, rectum terminating in the cloaca; n, mantle ; m, test,
the intermediate space being filled with blood.

Fig. 2, Pyrosoma, giganteum (after Milne-Edwards): a, mouth; 6, bran-
chial sae ; ¢, cesophagus ; d, stomach; e, intestine ; f, liver: 39, anus ;
k, ovary; J, ganglion.

Fig. 3. Perophora Listeri: a, branchial siphon; 8, tentacles at its base ;
c, large blood-channels in which the blood- corpuscles are seen ;
d, branchial, e, cloacal chamber; d, exhalent siphon ; e, space,
tunnelled with spacious blood- channels, between the test and
mantle.

Fig. 4. Plan of vessels in the branchial band of Salpa maxima : a, large
vessels constituting a separate layer; 6, smaller; ¢, cecal pro-
cesses from the vessels and filled with blood, and communicating
with their internal channel; d, d, water wahos * fig. 4 a, a sepa-
rate bar, showing cilia, and: bore,

Fig. 5. One of the branchial folds of Cynthia microcosmus: a, c, water
meshes between the blood-channel ; 6, d, the attached borders ;
e, free border ; d, transverse blood-channels.

Fig. 6. Branchial system of Pholas dactylus ; a, imtra-branchial or exhalent

56 On the Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration.

iovisiphoms.by &, extra-branchialoorinhalent siphon; 4,66, pallial or

-ov extra-branehial. cavity ;°¢yexternal or mfertor branchial lamella ; ;

od, internalwor superior lamella:;' e; membrane tying the attached

border of the superior branchiallamella:to the side of the foot and

visceral mass, roofing the intra-branchiakor anal chamber (f); the

- arrows (g) shew the scurrents: descending from the branchiz into

the anal ‘chamber, and/thence:out through the exeurrent siphon,

under the membranous roof ((f ) connecting the branchize: of thie

two sides; h, mouth ;. 4, ¢, palpi. The arrows indicate the direc-
tion of the currents.

Fig. 7. is a transverse ideal section of the preceding Sgere It. exhibits the
relation of the water-currents and) cavities ya; imeurrent siphon,
leading (at a’) into the extra-branchial or pallial chamber d, d ;
6, excurrent siphon leading out of (at 5’) the intra-branchial or
anal chamber c; e, e, e, e, branchial lamellee. _ :

Ae ‘3 One-half of Mytilus (fig. 10) in transverse section, showing the

scx «mode. in\ which, the. branchial. lamella. are attached to the man-

-stle h, h ya, 6, branchial lamelle of one side; c, c’ . free proximal
border of respectively the upper lamella of the internal gill- -plate,
and the lower of the external. The attached lamelle (d, d’) of each
gill-plate are jomed by a membrane at e; g, shows the continuous
membrane which at the proximal borders connects the branchial
bars, so that, at this point no water can permeate the lamella ;.
f, f', denote the spacious grooyes which receive the water from
the iuterlamellar tubes and convey it to the cloaca. . The arrows
mark the direction of the currents.

Puate TT.

Fig. 8. ‘Wettleal view of the common Cockle, showing the relation -of' the
fl ’ branchial system to the siphons and cavities : a, excurrent siphon
ledding out of the anal cavity (a') surrounding the visceral snass (4);
6; incurrent siphon conducting (at. 0’) imto the, extra-branchial
cavity (c); e, arrows marking the excurrent currents coming from
the branchiz ; g, palpi; f, mouth. ©
By, 9, Ideal Kraditerse section of the former figure : a, exourrent: siphon
leading out of the anal cavity (e) ata’; 6, incurrent. ditto openmg
at .b' into the general cavity of the mantle (c, c), at b'; d, dj bran-
_chie; f, the line of the mantle uniting the branchial. lamella
together. The arrows show the order and tendencies of the water-
: “currents.
| big. 10. Vertical view of Mytilus, exhibiting the systems of respiratory and
slogie » jalimentary water-currents: @, mouth ; 7, 7, palps 5 ,,extra-bran-
_, chial, or pallial cavity ;. ¢, two longitudinal halves of the rectum,
terminating in the exeurrent channel in the mantle; e, e & f, sur-
rounded by the grooves (¢) indicated by the arrows which convey
| ithe expiratory water from (the branchiee in the direction of/ the
cloaca 3: d,:d', branchial lamelle ; 7,7, arrows showing the direction
of the currents along the, distal or free border, of the. gills which
conyey food to the mouth;
“Fig. 11. Ideal transverse section of the former —compare with fig. 7”. Pl. I.
It is designed only in outline plan to display the relative anatomy
of the‘extra-branchial (6), the branchiz and-pallial membrane (d),
and the 27 ieee or anal chamber (c); a, openings of the
mantle. (AA)
_, Fig. 12, Oyster: a, goon eines een the palpi ;, 5, anus, emerging out of
; the visceral mass ; ; ¢, upper half of the mantle arching over the

Mr. E. L. Layard on the Ornithology ‘of Ceylon. 57

s.ls9 branchie; d, lower: mantle';e;:e',e", arrows showing currents en-
tering the eavity of the: mantle (Ds the arrow (7) also: marks the
“+ -food-bearing currents tending towards the mouth ;: h, intra-bran-
chial or anal cavity 5:9 1s that portion of the pallial membrane
which’ stretches from the proximal-border. of the upper branchial
lamella tothe, side ofthe visceral mass, thus shutting in com-.
ie \ pletely the intra-branchial cavity ;.y, the excurrent.

Fig. 13. Ideal transverse section of the preceeding figure: a, mouth ; 5, ge-
son) Oo: Sneral cavity of >the mantle; c, openings between the Wadves
(f; f') of the mantle ; g, membrane uniting the branchize with the
mantle;and dividing: ‘the pallial chamber (c) fi from the intra-bran-

‘chad cavity (e)s rd, thevanus,

10 EAP be continued, :.

v Note on the Ornithology of Ceylon, collected ea an
eight years’ residence in the Island. By Enoar Lxoroip
» Dayarp, F.Z.S,,.C.M.E.S. &e.

[Continued from vol. xiii. p. 453. j

908. TRERON BIcINCTA, Jerd. Bata-goya, Cing. Patchy-praa,
.Mal., and Groéne-duyven of. the, Dutch descendants ; lit.
Green Dove.

Very abundant in the south of the island and in the meuntain
gone, where itis. mingled with T. Malabarica yel.T.. Pompadoura,
«Gimel.'Towards the extreme north it is seldom met with, though
‘TD have''killed'a few'specimens in’ the: Patchellepally. In the
“neighbourhood of Pt. Pedro I never saw it, its place being filled
“by the larger 7. chlorigaster, Blyth.

This.Pigeon never. alights on the ground, but, seeks its food,
~which consists of: berries and small fruits, on-the highest trees ;
it ‘always feeds in flocks, and vast numbers are killed in the
southern and western provinces by noticing what trees are in
fruit, and watching at their foot for the birds which, are conti-
nually going and. coming. It however feeds so silently and
moves so seldom, that it requires much ‘skill to detect a single
bird out ofa flock of fifty or sixty, and on the least ‘alarm, which
is, communicated from one to another by a plaintive whistle,
they all dart off the tree as if by magic; frequently, on firing at
‘a’ bird which has exposed itself, I have brought down seven or
“éight others which I could not see.

It. forms a nest in the month of May, of sticks, with a very
slight lining of roots, &c. in the fork of a tree, and deposits two
shining white eggs. Axis.14 lines ; diam. 10 lines,

206. TRERON CHLORIGASTER, Blyth.
Confined to the extreme, north of the island, where it is Very

58 Mr) E: L. Layard ‘on the Ornithology of Ceylon.

abundant, feeding on ‘the fruit of the banian tree. It is migra-
tory, only appearing in the fruit season, and returning again
to the coast of India,

The Tamuls and Cingalese apply the name of “ patchy-praa??
(Green Dove) and “ bata-goya”’ mdiscriminately to all our Tre-
rons. The words prada and goya are synonymous and used for

all pigeons.
207. Treron Maraparica ? Jerdon. a9
Var. Pompadoura, Gmel. (Brown’s Ill. Pl. 19, 20.)

I procured this species in abundance in the mountain zone, at
the top of the Balcaddua Pass, and at Ratnapoora. It feeds on
berries, and flies in large flocks. Our Ceylon race is slightly dif-
ferent from the true 7. Malabarica, and I believe it to be the
origin of Brown’s wretched figures (plates 19 & 20). My
lamented friend Mr. Strickland was satisfied with this view of
the case, and intended offermg some remarks on these plates
and several others which represent Ceylonese birds, but which
have hitherto not been satisfactorily identified. I regret that: I
haye not a copy of the work to refer to, and detail as fully as my
memory serves me, the conclusions to which we came upon most
of them. )

208. Carpornaca pusiLLa, Blyth, J. A. S. xviii. Mahavilla-
goya, Cing. Matabatagoya of the Cingalese to the north of
Kandy. Berg Duyven, Dutch; lit. Hill Dove.

Mr. Blyth separates this species and those from the Nilgiris
from Tickell’s Columba sylvatica, under the name of C. pusilla.
Mr, Strickland was inclined to agree with him, but wished for a
larger series of specimens than those I had by : me for compa-
rison.

Our birds extend northward and southward into the low
country, but their great haunt is certainly the mountain zone,
though, from Dr.. Kelaart’s observations, it does not appear to
have been seen ‘in very high lands,’ and the Mahavillagoya of
Nuwera Elia is another species, C. Torringtonit, Kelaart.

They are very migratory, only appearing with the ripe fruit of
the banian, teak, and other trees, on which they feed : at this
time they congregate in hundreds in places where previously not
a specimen could be procured.

209. Atsocomus puniceus, Tickell. Neeyang cobeya, Cing: ;
lit. Season Pigeon, from its being essentially migratorial.

This bird is but rarely a visitant of our island ; I believe it ap-

Mr. E. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon. b9

pears during the fruiting of the cinnamon trees; the natives all
assure me of this; but there is another bird called Kwrrundoo
cobeya, i. e. Cinnamon Dove, which is confused with it, or else
this has two names. A relative of mine, however, who was formerly
in charge of the Government Cinnamon Department, informs me
that) many years ago, when the south of the island was not so
much cultivated as at present, there used to arrive at the fruiting
season, flocks of a small pigeon which fed on the cinnamon, and
which he could not identify with any I showed him; he called
them Kurrundoo cobeya, and said he had not seen any of late
years. I have sometimes thought this might prove to be Zreron
aromatica, Gmel, cs

210. Carrorpuaca Torrinctonu, Kelaart. Mahavillagoya of
the Ceylonese Mountaineers, apud. Kelaart.

Mr. Blyth is disposed to consider this as only a variety of
C. Elphinstonet, Sykes, of the Nilgiris, but Mr. Strickland at
once pronounced it to be distinct ; if so, Dr. Kelaart’s name will
stand.

Not having seen it alive, I must refer to his ‘ Prodromus Faun
Zeylanice ’ for particulars of its habits ; he says (page 108)—*« It
is an arboreal species seen only in pairs ; flies high and im Jong
sweeps :, their nests are formed on lofty trees.”

211. CotumBa INTERMEDIA, Strickland.

This species is extremely local, being confined to two places,
“ Pigeon Island,” off Trmcomalie, and a rock off the southern
coast near Barberryn, From these it, of course, makes incursions
into the interior, and I have heard of specimens being’ shot at
Vavonia-Vlancolom, on the great central road, about ‘fifty miles
from Trincomalie. |

212. Turrur risorius, Linn. Cally-praa, Mal.; from’ their
frequenting the Euphorbia hedges called ‘‘ Cally ” by the
Malabars, Ringel Duyven of the Dutch descendants.

Extremely abundant m the northern province, and indeed
wherever the country is favourable to the growth of the Huphorbia
antiquorum. It breeds in the spring, fabricating a loose, careless
nest, of small twigs, in the Euphorbia trees, m which it deposits
two oval and shining white eggs. Axis 14 lines; diam. 11 lines.
While residing in the north, or in my jungle trips, I found them
a wholesome and pleasing addition tomy table, frequently kill-
ing from twenty to thirty of them and of 7. Suratensis in two
or three hours.

60 Mri. 8) Li, Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon.

213.| Turtur Surnarensis,Lath.| Mani-prada, Mal.; lit. Bead=)
Dove, from|the, bead-like, apoei on the heck: Cobeya and
Allo» cobeyay Cings: decd i

Equally abundant with the’ preceding’ in the same localities,
but found also'in' the central’ province and wooded portions of”
the southern districts: | Tn its nidification ‘it: is similar, and the’
eggs are only distinguishable by their size, having an axis of
12 lines and a diam. of 9 lines. ©

The flight of both’ these pigeons during the love’ season is
most elegant and graceful ; the male bird will at such times soar
away from the branch on which his “meck-eyed” partner is.
reposing to a considerable altitude, rising almost perpendicularly
and clapping his wings together over his back, then opening”
them and spreading his” tait ‘He sails downwatd® i decreasing’
circles and graceful curves to the object of his affections, who-
greets him with the tenderest and blandest cooings, and While’
he struts and pouts before her caresses his head and wings with,
_herbill. “The fervour of their love being assuaged, away they”
both soar“in ‘the fulness of their joy, to descend again in undu-_
lating curves, crossing and recrossing each other with the most:
easy and ‘graceful flight, to the more sober and matter-of-fact,
work’ of collecting building materials for the nest, -

214. Turtur HoMILis, Temm.

The fertile portion of the Pt. Pedro district 1s separated, from.,
the neighbouring divisions of Malagam, Jaffna, and Chayaga-,.
cherry, by a plain of several miles in breadth, in, the, centre; of
which, during most parts of the year, is an expanse of. shallow.
brackish water ; ; in the hot season this mostly dries up, in.some.
places leaving a rich deposit of native salt (from the sale.of which .
a large portion of the revenues of the northern province is de-
rived) ; in others not so impregnated with the saline particles and
sooner dry, the natives raise crops of paddy and other grain; in
others (reclaimed by embanking) topes of palmirahs have. been
planted. Far away from.other cultivation, and in the centre. of.
the plain between Tunale and Warenny, stands one of thes. topes,
numbering perhaps two dozen palms and margosas ; a few banian
trees, planted doubtless by some vagrant dove, have taken root;
and circled some of them in their deadly embrace; a well. of
brackish water, a ruined temple, and a native hut, complete the:
picture of this “«¢ oasis in the desert.” . Government duty led me,
one morning to this spot soon after. the, waters had subsided):
part of my walk had been over parched mud sparkling with saline
incrustations, which rendered the glare. almost, insupportable:; at
one place the people with me had ;carried me through water/up

Mr. E: L. Layard onthe Ornithology of Ceylon. 6}

to their arm-pits, and: for'the last’ two miles 'l had trudged along
over the remains of paddy-fields; now dry and dusty, under the
burning sun, without a tree ora bush to-shelter me; my dogs
trailed their tails and drooped. their heads, with straining eyes
and outstretched tongues, and. even the ordinarily: garrulous
natives were silent, oppressed. by, the intolerable heat; the
mirage. deluded us with its; pictures of limpid; water and tall
trees, my spirits almost sank, and I thought I never should reach
the trees before usin the distance. How willingly would I, had
I_been_a litigant for. that miserable tope, have. resigned it,
rather than have taken the trouble to walk to it! Suddenly—the
first living thing I had seen for hours—a pigeon, darted past us
in full flight towards the tope; I hardly cared to look at it with
my half-closed aching eyes, but its pink-coloured back and small
size at once roused me—it was something new! O, how eagerly
I watched its flight to that now coveted tope, and. longed to be
there !_ The natives knew of no other species but, the “ Cally and
Mani-praas,”” and stoutly maintained there were none; 1 was
equally positive the bird that flew by was neither of them, and
hurried forward, thirst. and heat were alike forgotten ;. and when
I reached the spot, instead of partaking of the cocoa-nuts which
the head-man’s forethought had. provided there for me, I sprang,
on the low wall and peered eagerly among the trees. Turtur
Suratensis and T. risorius perched about. the branches in abun-
dance, and—could I believe my eyes ?—on a dry leafless “‘ matty”
projecting from a palmirah tree, and supporting the twigs of a
nest, sat a pair of the lovely little 7. Aweilis; there they were,
“billing and cooing,” in sweet but dangerous proximity, for the
sdine shot laid them both dead at my feet, and in another minute
a native ‘lad who had followed me brought down two shining,
smooth, white eggs from their nest. This was not the only pair
in the tope, and I soon procured half a dozen specimens, and
might have’ killed as many more. An old head-man who was with
me, and who had the reputation of being the best sportsman in
my district, assured me he had neither seen nor heard of this
description of pigeon before; and so said all present, some of
them old men who had spent their lives in that neighbourhood.
I had lived more than a year in the district and killed dozens of
doves without finding one, nor did I ever after, though T often shot
along the cultivation, at the edge of the plain, meet with them.
Had they bred there that year only ? where did they come from ?
why did they select’ that lonely tope and keep so closely to it ? I
left the district and never could learn, nor did I ever find any
native who had met with them m other parts of the island.
Dr. Kelaart’ knew nothing of it, and only included it in his list:
on Mr. 'Blyth’s authority, and T furnished the latter with data ;

62 Mr. Ei L, Layard:on the\ Ornithology of Ceylon.

so whether the httle colony raised their young and. departed; or
breed there stall, ‘remains an untold tale.”

215, ‘Turtur ORIENTALIS, Lath

-T shot a young bird of this spéciés froma small ‘flock ‘of
pigeons which flew over’ my’ head as I was’travelling with the
late Dr. Gardner in the saree Corle in the month of Decerti-
ber 1848.

216. CHALCOPHAPS lamtal; Linn: Nillo- or Nil-Cobeya, ces ;
lit. Blue Dove.

The “ Ground Dove” of Britian seems not to extend SHEE
ward further than Kodally Kallu on the eastern, and Putlam on
the western sides; at least I never met with it beyond, and the
Tamuls have no name for it. About Colombo and all through
the wooded southern and central provinces it is abundant. ° Tt is
generally found on the ground, walking hastily about and pick-
ing up seeds ; being’a bold, fearless bird of great power of wing,
it will permit: ‘approach to within a few paces, when, with a spring
into the air, it will dash onwards a few dozen yards, and again
settle; a renewed approach drives it further off a second and a
third ‘time, till driven beyond the range of its food, the lovely
bird will dart back to its old feeding ground with the rapidity
of thought, often brushing the intruder’s person with its ‘wings,
while following the tortuous narrow windings of the’ native
path. It is principally abroad morning and evening, when its
plaintive lowing “coo” may be heard from almost every thicket.
In such situations they breed, laying two oval yellowish drab-
coloured eggs. Axis 12 lines ; diam. 82 lines. ~

217. Pavo cristatus, Linn. Monara,'Cing. Miyil Dati.
Pavaan, Port. Mayal, Dutch. ro

- Abundant in the mimosa jungles of the maritime districts,
but rare in the hills, They feed in flocks during the mornings
and evenings, and roost in trees, on which they may be seen at
daybreak expanding their tails and wings to dry.

218. Gattus Sranueyr, Gray. Kadoo-koly, Mal. Welle-
kukullo, Cing.; lit. Jungle Fowl. Wild-Hoén, Dutch.
Galienha di Matoe, Port.

The Jungle fowl is abundant in all the uncultivated dh ya
of Ceylon, but particularly so in the northern, and north-western
provinces. :

It comes out to feed morning, and; evening, upon, the roads,
cultivated lands, or other open places... The cocks are generally

Mr. E: L: Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon. 63

seen alone, seldom in company with their hens, who, however,
are always in the neighbourhood, and keep. together, even
though their broods may be of very different ages.

The cocks fight most desperately in defence of their seraglios,
the combat, frequently terminating in the;death of one of the
engaged parties. As they not. unfrequently mingle with the
fowls of the lonely villages, they cross with the domestic breed,
being more than a match in courage for the plebeian dunghill
cocks, and armed with tremendous sharp spurs.

Mr; Mitford, of the Ceylon Civil Service, showed me, while
at Ratnapoora, a hybrid hen; her general appearance and call
much resembled that of the wild bird; her eggs also partook of
the spotted character, but Mr. Mitford never succeeded in rearing
any chicks from them, as they were always addled. The bird
was yery tame to those with whom she was acquainted, but fled
precipitately at the approach of strangers.

The hen selects a decaying stump or thick bush for a nesting
place, and lays from six to twelve eggs, of a fine rich cream
colour, finely mottled with reddish brown, specks. Axis] in.
9 lines; diam. 1 in. 4 lines. The young when just hatched
resemble. young chickens, and the old mother leads them. to
Suman eevee trees, and scratches for white, ants, which
ey eagerly devour. They are hatched in June. tA:
»..dn wet weather, Jungle fowl keep, much to thick trees, sitting
disconsolately with drooping head and tails among the branches ;
they also roost, in trees at night, retiring to rest. early.,, It
is.rarely that a bird can be flushed, but when. they do fly, it. is
very;much in the manner of the pheasant; they run with in-
credible swiftness, and trust to their powers in this respect for .
safety. Their cry is a short crow, which resembles the words
“George Joyce,” sharply repeated.

_ It may not be out of place here, while upon; the subject of
Jungle fowl, to mention the varieties of domestic breeds which
are found in the island.

The usual kind is the common fowl, which is considerably less
than the English breed, and lays a much smaller egg; it runs
through al] the same variations of plumage; but there is one
curious variety, which I cannot describe more aptly than by
comparing it to a white fowl drawn down a sooty chimney. On
preparing one of these fowls for the table, at which, by the way,
they excel all others in flavour and tenderness, the skin and peri-
osteum are found nearly black; the roof of the mouth, tongue,
wattles, and legs are also of a deep leaden hue. It is a remark-
able fact, that a male bird of the pure sooty variety is almost as
scarce as a‘ tortoise-+shell tom-cat.

The Cingalese call these fowls “ Calloo-mas-kukulo,” literally

64 . Mr ELL. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon.

black-flesh-fowl. _Kukula means cock (or fowl taken as a whole) ;
kikili, hen ; kukulo, plural, fowls.

The 1 ingenious and learned author of ‘Ornamental and Do-
mestic Poultry*,’ at page 392, second edition, refers to these
fowls as having silky feathers, but with us in Ceylon this is not
the case.

“The Frizztep or Frrestanp Byki of the same author
(p. 894), is also domesticated in Ceylon, but it is rare; the
Cingalese called it Capri-kukulo, and say it was originally im-
ported from Batavia. This accords with Temminck’s statements.

The Rump ess Fowt, or RumxKin (ibid. p. 387), is also plen-
tiful, but only in a, domestic state. ‘Temiminck’s assertion that
it is a wild inhabitant of the island is surely a mistake, and the
Governor (Loten, I presume) who forwarded him the information
must have been deceived by some head-man or other. I am
quite confident the bird does not exist wild in Ceylon ; the very
native name, “ Cochi-kukulo,” Cochin-fowl, implies its foreign
character.

The Cocnin Curna Fown (ibid. p. 289) and Matay Fow.n
(p. 299) are both found in Ceylon; the former is called Maha-
cochi-kukulo, or “ large Cochin Fowl,’ and is common enough.
I have purchased them for 73d. each, while residing at Pt.
Pedro; I mention this as a contrast to the absurd prices given
in England. The Malay fowl is‘ principally found about the
lines of the native regiment of Ceylon Rifles; they belong to the
Malays, and are used in fighting, a sport of which that people,
as well as the Cingalese and Tamuls, are passionately fond. I,
however, never saw the true game cock in Ceylon.

CREEPERS (p. 384) are frequently met with; their curiously
short legs at once distinguish them from the common breed.
One variety has feathered legs, but I never met with true
Bantams.

The Potanp or Poxisn Fow (p. 364) was introduced many
years ago by a relative of my own, the original birds having been
procured from my father.

I am not sufficiently acquainted with all the varieties of
domestic fowis to state if other kinds are found in the island;
probably some which I have called “common fowls” may be
more valuable varieties.

* Published at the office of the ‘ Gardeners’ Chronicle,’ London.

[To be continued. |

On Manufactured Sea-Water for the Aquarium. 65

VI.—On Manufactured Sea-Water for the Aquarium.
By P., H.,Gossz, ALS... ogo
Tux inconvenience, delay and expense attendant upon the pro-
curing of sea-water, from the coast or from the ocean, I had
long ago felt to be a great difficulty in the way of a general
adoption of the Marine Aquarium.’ Even in London it is an
awkward ‘and precarious ‘matter; how much more in inland
towns and country places, where it must always prove not only
a hindrance, but to the many an insuperable objection. |The
thought, had occurred to me, that, as the constituents of sea-
water are. known, it might be practicable to manufacture it ;
since’ all that, seemed necessary was to bring together the salts in
proper, proportion, and add pure water till the solution was of
the, proper (specific gravity. Several scientific friends to whom
I mentioned, my thoughts, expressed their doubts of the possi-
. bility, of the manufacture ; and one or two went) so far as to say
that it had been tried, but that it had been found not to answer;
that though it, looked like sea-water, tasted, smelt, like the right
thing, yet it would not support animal life. Still, I could not
help saying, with the lawyers, “If not, why not?” =...
Experientia docet, J determined to try the matter for myself.
I took Schweitzer’s analysis ; but as I found that there was,
some slight difference between his and Laurent’s, I concluded
that a very minute accuracy was not indispensable. Schweitzer
gives the following analysis of 1000 grains of sea-water taken off;
Brighton :— |

Wate)tyos) ar leciisen: Sat SOGRTA4

Chloride of sodium . . . 27059

~ Chloride of magnesium . . 3°666

Chloride of potassium ... 0°765

Bromide of magnesium . . 0:029

Sulphate of magnesia . . 2°295

Sulphate of lime. . . . 1-407

Carbonate of lime . . . | 0033

999°998

The bromide of magnesium and the carbonate of lime I
thought I might neglect, from the minuteness of their quanti-
ties ; as also because the former was not found at all by M. Lau-
rent in the water of the Mediterranean ; and the latter might: be
found in sufficient abundance in the fragments of shell, coral,
and calcareous alge, thrown in to make the bottom of the aqua-
rium. The sulphate of lime (plaster of Paris) also I ventured to
eliminate, on account of its extreme insolubility, and because

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv.

66 On Manufactured Sea-Water for the Aquarium.

M. Laurent finds it in excessively minute quantity. The com-
ponent salts were then reduced to four, which I used in the fol-
lowing quantities :— :

Common table salt. . . . 82 ounces.
Kpsom, salts. (5:34 :} fests e cimsis ee a

Chloride of magnesium... _, _ 200 grains | m.,
Chloride of potassium...) ey29-40\.. ,, ys

‘To these salts, thrown into a jar, a little less than four quarts of
water (New River) were added, so that the solution was of that
density that a specific gravity bubble 1026 would just sink in it.

~The cost of the substances was—sulph. mag. 1d.; chloride
mag. 3d.; chlor. pot. lid. ; salt, mil ;—total, 54d. per gallon. Of
course if a larger quantity were made the cost of the materials
would be diminished, so that we may set down 5d. per gallon as
the maximum cost of sea-water thus made. The trouble is
nothing, and no professional skill is requisite. |

My manufacture was made on the 2/st of April. The follow-
ing day I poured off about half of the quantity made (filtering
it through a sponge in a: glass funnel) ito a confectioner’s
show-glass... | put in a bottom of small shore-pebbles, well
washed in fresh water, and one or two fragments of stone with
fronds of green sea-weed (Ulva latissima) growing thereon. I
would not at once venture upon the admission of animals, as I
wished the water to be first somewhat impregnated with the
scattered spores of the Ulva; and I thought that if any subtle
elements were thrown off from growing vegetables, the water
should have the advantage of it, before the entrance, of animal
life.” This too is the order of nature; plants first ; then animals.

A coating of the green spores was soon deposited on the sides
of the glass, and bubbles of oxygen were copiously thrown off
"every day under the excitement of the sun’s light. After a week
therefore I ventured to put in animals as follows :—

2 Actinia mesembryanthemum. Coryne ramosa.

7 Serpula triquetra. - . Crisia eburnea.

8 Balanus balanoides. aculeata.

2 Sabella ——? Cellepora pumicosa.

2 Sabellaria (alveolata ?) Cellularia ciliata.

2 Spiro vulgaris. Bowerbankia imbricata.
1 Cynthia (quadrangularis °) Pedicellina Belgica.

Thése’throve and flourished from day to day, manifesting the
highest health and vigour ; the plants (including one or two Red
Weeds that were introduced with the animals) looked well, and
the water continued brilliantly crystalline. Within the succeed-
ing month specimens of Actinia mesembryanthemum, A. angui-

Royal Society. 67

coma and A. clavata, a Trochus umbilicatus, and a Littorina lit-
torea were at different times added.

Six weeks have now elapsed since the introduction of the ani-
mals. I have just carefully searched over the jar, as well as
I could do it without disturbing the contents. I find every
one of the species and specimens mentioned above, all in high
health ; with the exception of some of the Polyzoa, viz. Crisia
aculeata, Cellepora pumicosa, Cellularia ciliata, and Pedicellina
Belgica. These I cannot find, and I therefore conclude that
they have died out; though if I chose to disturb the stones and
weeds, I might possibly detect them. These trifling defalcations
do in no wise interfere with the conclusion, that the experiment
of manufacturing sea-water for the Aquarium has been perfectly

successful.
P. H. Goss.

58 Huntingdon Street, Barnsbury Park,
June 9, 1854.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.
ROYAL SOCIETY.

March 23, 1854.—Colonel Sabine, R.A., Treas. and V.P.,
in the Chair.

_ “ Note on an indication of depth of Primeval Seas, afforded by the
remains of colour in Fossil Testacea.” By Edward Forbes, F.R.S.,
Pres. G.S. &c. .

When engaged in the investigation of the bathymetrical distribu-
tion of existing mollusks, the author found that not only did-the
colour of their shells cease to be strongly marked at considerable
~ depths, but also that well-defined patterns were, with very few and
slight exceptions, presented only by testacea inhabiting the littoral,
circumlittoral and median zones. In the Mediterranean only one in
eighteen of the shells taken from below 100 fathoms exhibited any
markings of colour, and even the few that did so, were questionable
inhabitants of those depths. Between 35 and 55 fathoms, the pro-
portion of marked to plain shells was rather less than one in three,
and between the sea-margin and 2 fathoms the striped or mottled
species exceeded one-half of the total number.

In our own seas the author observes that testacea taken from below
_ 100 fathoms, even when they were individuals of species vividly
striped or banded in shallower zones, are quite white or colourless.
Between 60 and 80 fathoms, striping and banding are rarely
presented by our shells, especially in the northern provinces ;
and from 50 fathoms shallow-wards, colours and patterns are well
marked.

The relation of these arrangements of colour to the degrees of
light penetrating the different zones. of depth, is a subject well worthy
of minute inquiry, and has not yet been investigated by natural phi-
losophers.

5x*

68 7 Royal Society.

_ “The purpose in this brief notice is not, however, to pursue this
kind of research, but to put on record an. application of our know-
ledge of the fact that vivid patterns are not presented by testacea
living below certain depths, to the indication of the depth, within
certain limits, of paleeozoic seas, through an examination of the
traces, of colour afforded by fossil remains of testacea.

Although their original colour is very rarely exhibited by fossil
shells, occasionally we meet with specimens in which, owing proba-
bly to organic differences in the minute structure of the coloured
‘and colourless portions of the shell, the pattern of the original paint-
ing is clearly distinguished from the ground tint. Not-a few exam-
ples are found in Mesozoic as well as in Tertiary strata, but in all
the instances on record, the association of species, mostly closely allied
to existing types, and the habits of the animals of the genera to
which they belong, are such as to prevent.our having much difficulty
about ascertaining the probable bathymetrical zone of the sea in
which they lived. |

But in paleozoic strata the general assemblage of articulate, mol-
luscan and radiate forms is so different from any now existing-with
which we can compare it, and so few species of generic types
still remaining are presented for our guidance, that in many in-
stances we can scarcely venture to infer with safety the original
bathymetrical zone of a deposit from its fossil contents. Con-
sequently any fact that will help us in elucidating this point be-
comes of considerable importance.

Traces of colouring are rarely presented by palzozoic fossils, and

the author knows of few examples in which they have been noticed.
Professor Phillips, in his ‘ Geology of Yorkshire,’ represents the car-
boniferous species, Pleurotomaria flammigera (i. e. carinata) and co-
nica, as marked with colour, and Sowerby has figured such mark-
ings in P. carinata and P. rotundata. In the excellent monograph
of the carboniferous fossils of Belgium, by Professor De Koninck of
Liége, indications of pattern-colouring are faintly shown in the
figures of Solarium pentangulatum, and distinctly in those of Pleu-
rotomaria carinata and Patella solaris.
- In the cabinets of the Geological Survey of Great Britain are
some finely-preserved fossils from the carboniferous limestone of
Parkhill, near Longnor in Derbyshire. Among these are several
that present unmistakeable pattern-markings, evidently derived from
the original colouring. ‘They are—

Pleurotomaria carinata and conica, showing wavy blotches, resem-
bling the colouring of many recent Trochide.

An undescribed Trochus, showing a spiral band of colour.

Metoptoma pileus, and

Patella ? retrorsa, both with radiating stripes, such as are pre-
sented by numerous existing Patellide.

Natica plicistria, with broad mottled bands.

Aviculo-pecten, a large unnamed species, with spotty markings on
the ribs in the manner of many existing Pectines.

Aviculo-pecten sublobatus, Ph.? Beautifully marked with radiating,

-well-defined stripes, varying in each individual, and resembling the

: Zoological Society. 69
‘patterns presented by those recent Avicule that inhabit shallows
and moderate depths.

Aviculo-pecten intercostatus and elongatus also exhibit markings.

Spirifer decorus and Orthis resupinata, show fine radiating white
lines,

Terebratula hadeaté, with radiating stripes.

The analogy of any existing forms that can be compared with
those enumerated, would lead to the conclusion that the markings
in these instances are characteristic of mollusks living in a less
depth of water than 50 fathoms. In the case of the Terebratula,
which belongs to a genus the majority of whose living representa-
tives inhabit deep water, it may be noticed that all the living spe-
cies exhibiting striped shells are exceptions to the rule, and come
from shallow water.

There are many circumstances which warrant us to suspect that
the carboniferous mountain limestone of miost regions was a deposit
in shallow water. The facts now adduced materially parity Sogacn
this inference.

In the British Museum there is a beautifully spotted example of a
Devonian Terebratula, brought by Sir John Richardson from Boreal )
America.

Specimens of the Turbo rupestris; from the Lower Silurian Lime-
stone of the Chair of Kildare near Dublin, exhibit appearances that
seem to indicate spiral bands of colour. -

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
"November 9, 1852.—J. S. Bowerbank, Esq., F.R.S., in the Chair,

DESCRIPTIONS OF A NEW GENUS, AND OF SEVERAL NEW SPECIES,
or MoLuvusca, FROM THE CUMINGIAN COLLECTION.
By Artuur Apams, F.L.S. etc.

Family SoLENELLIDZ.

Animal oblong. Mantle open in the entire length; margin
double, outer edge fimbriated; hind outer edge ending in two-cal-
lous conical processes immediately below the respiratory orifice.
Respiratory orifice continuous with the opening of the mantle, the
margin fringed ; anal siphon simple-edged, tubular, elongate, muscu-
lar, produced beyond the fringed mantle-margin which surrounds its
base. Gill single on each side, attached the whole length. Labial
» palps elongate, fringed at their margins, and surrounded at their base
by a thin dilated membrane. Foot large, compressed, geniculate,
ending anteriorly in a folded ovate disc with crenate margins.

Shell thin, not pearly within. Hinge-margin with comb-like
teeth. Ligament external.

Genus Nrito, A. Adams.

Testa transversa equivalvis, inequilateralis, epidermide fusco
tenui induta, latere postico hians. Dentibus cardinalibus,
nullis, lateribus anticis et posticis plurimis in serie rectiuscula

70 Zoological Society.

dispositis; dentibus parvis acutis ; impressionibus musculari-
bus subdistantibus, impressione pallii sinu magno; ligamento
externo elongato.

This genus differs from Solenella, not only in its Leda-like form,
but in the hinge-margin having as many teeth anteriorly as poste-
riorly. In Solenedla the series of teeth is confined to the fulerum to
which the external ligament is attached ;—in this genus the teeth ex-
tend along the entire hinge-margin.

Nrrto Cuminert, A. Adams. JN. testa transversa, equivalvi,
inequilaterali, epidermide tenui viridi-fusco obtecta, trans-
verse concentrice sulcata; latere antico clauso, rotundato,
postico longiore, subangulato, hiante, margine truncato flexuoso,
superne auriculato.

From the circumstance of the hind margin gaping considerably
and being divided as if for two siphons, the anal and branchial tubes
in this animal are probably distinct and elongated, as in Leda. The
genus Weilo, in fact, will represent Leda, of the family Nuculide, in
a distinct family, Solenellide, characterized by the external ligament
of the hinge. It is from the shores of New Zealand.

CoNCHOLEPAS (CORALLIOBIA) FIMBRIATA, A. Adams. C. testa
ovata alba, longitudinaliter radiatim costata, transverse la-
mellosa, lamellis pulcherrime fimbriatis; spira minuta, an-
Jractu ultimo amplo; apertura ovali, antice attenuata, sub-
canaliculata ; labio excavato incurvato, margine externo dila-
tato et valde reflexco; labro acuto, margine late dilatato et
eleganter fimbriato.

Hab, Cagayan, province of Misamis, island of Mindanao, Philip-

pines. On the coral reefs at low water (H. C.). Mus. Cuming.

Externally this curious shell resembles Concholepas, but the ab-

sence of the two teeth on the fore part of the outer lip prevents it
being strictly referred to that genus. In the character of the inner
lip, and in its place of habitation on coral reefs, it approaches Lepto-
conchus, and perhaps it has affinities also with Pedicularia. I have
thought it best, until the animal is known, to regard it as a sub-
genus of Concholepas, under the name of Coralliobia.

PAxILLus MINOR, A. Adams. FP. testa dextrorsa, ovali, tenui,
epidermide fusca obtecta; anfractibus septem, convexis, longt-
tudinaliter confertim costellatis vel valde striatis ; apertura
suborbiculari, ascendente, antice subproducta ; peristomate
duplici, externo reflexo, dilatato ; labio plica dentiformi valida
instructo.

Hab. f

I believe the little shell described above to be a dextral species of

the genus Pazillus, described by my brother and myself in the
‘Annals’ for January, 1851. We there considered the genus to be-
long possibly to Auriculide; but an examination of this species,
and a better knowledge of the locality where the shells have been
found, lead us to place them amongst the Helicide.

DiepLOMMATINA Benson1, A. Adams. JD. testa minima vix ri-

Zoological Society. 71

mata sinistrorsa, cylindrico-ovata, costellata, costulis distan-
tibus obliquis regularibus; anfractibus. sex, convexis, apice
subobtuso ; apertura rotundata; peristomate duplicato, ex-
terno expanso reflexo, interno recto, margine flexuoso.

Hab. On the banks of a river, Moreton Bay, E. Australia (Mr.
Strange),

This very pretty little shell agrees in all its characters with the
genus Diplommatina of Mr. Benson, after whom I have named it.
There is some difficulty in the location of this genus. Mr. Benson
says distinctly that the eyes are “on the posterior part of the teuta-
cula, at their base,” but he says there is no operculum. Mr. Gray,
on the other hand, has described the operculum. The true position
is probably in Truncatellide. |

CRASSATELLA SPECIOSA, A. Adams. (C. festa transverse ovata,
subequilaterali, pallida, epidermide tenui fusca induta, con-
centrice plicata; plicis confertis regularibus; latere postico
rotundato, antico acuminato subrostrato, angulato, margine
ventrali convexo, antice sinuato.

Hab. Bay of Campeachy. Mus. Cuming. 7

The beaks in this species are acute and close together, and rather

more deeply plicate than the rest of the surface of the valves; there
is an obtuse oblique and angular ridge extending from the umbones
to the ventral margin.

CRASSATELLA Lzvis, A. Adams. C. testa ovato-transversa,
crassa, tumida, subequilaterali, castanea, laevigata, concentrice
striata, natibus subsulcatis ; latere postico rotundato, antico
producto subrostrato, margine oblique truncato, carina obtusa a
natibus ad basin decurrente instructo, posteriori sulcato, mar
gine ventrali convexo antice sinuato.

Hab. La Guayra (M. Le Marie, French Navy). Mus, Cuming.

A large smooth pale chestnut shell beaked anteriorly and with a

‘prominent obtuse keel extending from the beaks to the fore part of
the ventral margin, and a broad shallow groove behind it ; the lunule
is ovate lanceolate, and the beaks are transversely sulcate.

CRASSATELLA opscuRA, A. Adams. C. testa ovato-trigonali,
transversa, subequilaterali, compressa, nigro-fusca, apicibus
transverse corrugata, ad umbonem plicata; latere antico
rotundato, postico subtruncato; margine valvarum intus cre-
nulato. Sere

Hab. China Seas, deep water. Mus. Cuming.

A small brown-black species, with the valves only plicate near the

beaks and their inner margins finely crenulated.

CRASSATELLA BELLULA, A. Adams. OC. testa ovato-trigonali,
subequilaterali, carneo-fulva, immaculata, transverse con-
centrice plicata ; plicis obtusis subconfertis regularibus, antice
undulatis, subevanidis (sub lente rugulosis) ; latere postico
rotundato, antico viw truneato; wmbonibus acutis parvis ap-
proximatis.

Hab. New Zealand (Mr..Hart)., Mus. Cuming.

s

72 7 Royal Institution.

A beautiful pinkish yellow species, without any spots or markings,

with the plicee on the fore part undulated and rugulose under the
lens.

CRASSATELLA TRUNCATA, A. Adams. OC. testa ovata, com-
pressa, carnea, pallidiort ad partem anticam, radiis angustis
inconspicuis ornata, inequilaterali, latere antico breviori et
rotundato, postico dilatato et truncato, linea elevata e umbo-
nibus ad marginem ventralem; transversim valde costata,
costis acutis subimbricatis.

Hab. China Sea, deep water (4. ddams).

This is a small pale pink or flesh-coloured species, strongly rib-
bed, the ribs being sharp, prominent and imbricated; the posterior
side is dilated and truncate, and the surface of the valyes is marked
with faint linear radiating lines.

CRASSATELLA compTa, A. Adams. (C. testa ovato-trigonali,
subequilaterali, apicibus antrorsum curvatis, rufescenti, trans-
verse concentrice plicata ; plicis validis, regularibus, subdi-
stantibus ; latere antico angustiori, postico latiori, rotundato,
interne purpurascente.

Hab. China Sea, deep water (4. ddams).

This is a small red species, with prominent curved beaks, strongly

plicate transversely, and of a purplish pink colour in the interior of
the valves.

Chasaaratia CONCINNA, A. Adams. (C. testa ovato-transversa,
subequilaterahi, epidermide tenui fusca obtecta, utrinque ro-
tundata, concentrice plicata, plicis validis regularibus rufo-
Susco articulatis ; interstitiis creberrime longitudinaliter stria-
tis ; umbonibus acutis confertis.

_fab. China Sea, deep water (4. Addams).

A small fuscous species, of an ovate form, rounded at both ends,

with the transverse plicee strongly produced and prettily articulated
with brownish red.

ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN.

May 12, 1854.—Sir Henry Holland, Bart., M.D., F.R.S., Vice-
President, in the Chair.

On the common Plan of Animal Forms. By Tuomas Hux ey, Esq.,
R.S,

The Lecturer commenced by referring to a short essay by Goethe —
the last which proceeded from his pen—containing a critical account
of a discussion bearing upon the doctrine of the Unity of Organization
of Animals, which had then (1830) just taken place in the French
Academy. Goethe said that, for him, this controversy was of more
importance than the Revolution of July which immediately followed
it—a declaration which might almost be regarded as a prophecy ; for
while the Charte and those who established it have vanished as —
though they had never been, the Doctrine of Unity of Organization

Royal Institution. 73

retains a profound interest and importance for those who study the
science of life. —

It would be the object of the Lecturer to explain, how the con-
troversy in question arose, and to show what ground of truth was
common to the combatants.

The variety of Forms of Animals is best realized, perhaps, by re-
flecting, that there are certainly 200,000 species, and that each
species is, in its zoological dignity, not the equivalent of a family or
a nation of men merely, but of the whole Human Race. It would
be hopeless to attempt to gain a knowledge of these forms, therefore,
if it were not possible to discover points of similarity among large
numbers of them, and to classify them into groups,—one member of
which might be taken to represent the whole. A rough practical
classification, based on obvious resemblances, is as old as language
itself; and the whole purpose of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy
has consisted chiefly in giving greater exactness to the definition and
expression of these intuitive perceptions of resemblance.

The Lecturer proceeded to show how the celebrated Camper illus-
trated these resemblances of the organs of animals, by drawing the
arm of a man, and then by merely altering the proportions of its con-
stituent parts, converting it into a bird’s wing, a horse’s fore-leg,
&c. &e. Organs which can in this way be shown to grade into one
another, are said to be the same organs, or in anatomical phraseology
are Homologous :—and by thus working out the homologies of all
the organs of the Vertebrate class, Geoffroy, Oken, and Owen,—to -
the last of whom we are indebted for by far the most elaborate and
logical development of the doctrine,—have demonstrated the homo-
logy of all the parts of the Vertebrata, or in other words, that there
is a common plan on which all those animals which possess back-
bones are constructed.

Precisely the same result has been arrived at, by the same methods,
in another great division of the Animal Kingdom—the Annulosa.
‘Avs an illustration, the Lecturer showed how the parts of the mouth
of all insects were modifications of the same elements, and briefly
sketched the common plan of the Annulosa, as it may be deduced
from the investigations of Savigny, Audouin, Milne-Edwards, and
Newport.

Leaving out of consideration (for want of time merely) the Ra-
diate animals, and passing to the remaining great division, the
Mollusca, it appears that the same great principle holds good even
for these apparently unsymmetrical and irregular creatures: and the
Lecturer, after referring to the demonstration of the common plan
upon which those Mollusks possessmg heads are constructed,—
which he bad already given in the Philosophical Transactions,
—stated that he was now able to extend that plan to the remaining
orders, and briefly explained in what way the ‘ Archetypal Mollusk’
is modified in the Lamellibranchs, Brachiopoda, Tunicata, and
Polyzoa.

We have, then, acommon plan of the Vertebrata, of the Articulata,
of the Mol/lusea, and of the Radiata,—and to come to the essence of

74 Royal Institution.

the controversy in the Académie des Sciences—are all these com-
mon plans identical, or are they not ?

Now, if we confine ourselves to the sole method which Cuvier
admitted—the method of the insensible gradation of forms—there can
be no doubt that the Vertebrate, Annulose and Molluscan plans are
sharply and distinctly marked off from one another, by very definite
characters ; and the existence of any common plan, of which they are
modifications, is a purely hypothetical assumption, and ‘may or may
not be true. But is there any other method of ascertaining a com-
munity of plan beside the method of Gradation ?

The Lecturer here drew an illustration from Philology—a science
which in determining the affinities of words also employs the me:
thod of gradation. Thus unus, uno, un, one, ein, are said to be
modifications of the same word, because they pass gradually into one
another. So Hemp, Hennep, Hanf, and Cannabis, Canapa, Chanvre,
are respectively modifications of the same word: but. suppose we
wish to make out what, if any, affinity exists between Hemp and
Cannabis, the method of gradation fails us. It is only by all sorts
of arbitrary suppositions that one can be made to pass into the other.

Nevertheless modern Philology demonstrates that. the words are
the same, by a reference to the independently ascertained laws of
change and substitution for the letters of corresponding words, in the
Indo-Germanic tongues: by showing, in fact, that though these
words are not the same, yet, they are modifications by known de-
_ velopmental laws of the same root.

Now Von Bar has shown that the study of development has a pre-
cisely similar bearing upon the question of the unity of organization
of animals. He indicated, in his masterly essays published five-
and-twenty years ago, that though, the common plans of the adult
forms of the great classes are not identical, yet they start in the
course of their development from the same point. And the whole
tendency of modern research is to confirm his conclusion.

If, then, with the advantage of the great lapse of time and pro-
gress of knowledge, we may presume to pronounce judgment where
Cuvier and Geoffroy St. Hilaire were the litigants—it may be said
that Geoffroy’s inspiration was true, but his mode of working it out
false. An insect is not a vertebrate animal, nor are its legs free ribs.
A cuttlefish is not a vertebrate animal doubled up. But there was a
period in the development of each, when insect, cuttlefish, and verte-
brate were undistinguishable and had a Common Plan.

The Lecturer concluded by remarking, that the existence of hotly
controverted questions between men of knowledge, ability, and
especially of honesty. and earnestness of purpose, such as Cuvier and
his rival were, is an opprobium to the science which they profess.
He would feel deeply rewarded if he had produced in the minds of his
hearers. the conviction that these two great men—friends as they
were to one another—need not be set in scientific opposition ; that
they were both true knights doing battle for science; but that as the
old story runs, each came by his own road to a different side of
the shield.

Miscellaneous. 75

_ MISCELLANEOUS.

On the Formation of the Stomata in the Epidermis of the Leaves of
the Spiderwort (Tradescantia virginica), and on the Evolution
of the Cells in their neighbourhood. By Dr. Garreav.

Wuen a fragment, taken from the outer axillary portion of a very
young leaf of the common Spiderwort, is examined by the microscope,
it presents quadrilateral cells, the cavities of which are partially
occupied by a smooth nucleus which has not yet become fila-
mentous. Amongst these cells, at tolerably regular distances, others
are seen possessing the same transverse diameter, but only half the
size in the direction of the axis of the leaf; the proteic matter con-
tained in them is less united, more granular, and of a more amber-
like tint than that of the preceding cells. These new cells give origin
to the two semilunar cells of the stomate, and this metamorphosis
commences by the separation into two little masses of the azotized
matter which they contain. Between these masses the outline of a
double diaphragm is first observed ; this separates the cell into two
chambers, and soon splits and separates to form the stomatic orifice,
a change which takes place concurrently with a partial resorption
exercised by the new cells upon the parent cell.

Before this metamorphosis takes place, the parent cell corresponds
at its two extremities with two cells, of which the nuclei are supported
upon the portion of the cell-wail which touches these extremities.
These nuclei, which are at first simple, soon emit filaments which
run to a certain distance, near the centre of the cell, where they form
a little mass of their constituent matter, a second nucleus. Scarcely
has this change taken place, than the oldest nucleus, which is con-
tiguous to the lateral wall of the parent cell, liquefies the portion of
the wall of the cell which encloses it, and appears as if it would pene-
trate into the parent cell of the stomate, of which it then touches the
wall. This liquefaction soon stops, and the semifluid matter is seen
to surround itself with a pellucid membrane which constitutes the
nascent cell. This cell at this period,-is lodged partially in a notch
of the wall of that from which it has arisen; but in consequence of
the growth of both these cells, this notch becomes effaced, and only
appears like a slight curve. The cell which has lost a portion of its
wall does not appear to be perforated, but it is probable that at the
point where the dissolution was effected, there is nothing but a simple
wall belonging to the new cell.

The two cells situated above and below the stomate are originally
square; they afterwards become elongated, and the nucleus which
oceupies the centre of each of them emits proteic processes, which
run towards the wall of the cell contiguous to the acute extremities of
the stomatic cells, and accumulate their proper substance at this
_ point; this substance soon envelopes itself in a very thin membrane,
so as to constitute a distinct cell, but still contained within the
former, which appears from that time to be divided into two by a
simple septum. This new cell, which at first is much broader than

76 Miscellaneous.

long, soon elongates until it acquires a nearly square form, which it
retains. |

This mode of multiplication appears interesting, as it seems to show
the solvent action exerted by proteic substances upon cellulose mem-
brane and the part which they play in its regeneration, pheenomena
which, as may be seen, are not without analogy with those observable
. during the evolution of spores, pollen, &c. Another fact worthy of
remark is, that in these formations the generation of the cells ex-
tends to all those contiguous to the parent cell of the stomate.—
Comptes Rendus, 17th April, 1854, p. 744.

Description of a new Genus of Bivalve Mollusca.
By H. and A. Apams.

Genus Myrina, H. and A. Adams.

Shell transverse, oblong, subequilateral ; valves closed, covered with
a horny epidermis, pearly within ; beaks subcentral. Hinge eden-
tulous, ligament internal, linear; muscular impressions far apart,
pallial impression simple. Byssiferous. ) )

A single species, for which we propose the name M. Denhami, was
discovered by the Officers of H.M.S. Herald, attached to floating
masses of blubber. ' 1

On the Dimorphism of the Uredinese. By M. Tuxasne.

Since numerous observations have placed it beyond a doubt that
a vast number of Fungi possess reproductive bodies of several kinds,
there is in the history of the Uredinee a fact, which, I think, admits
of a more satisfactory interpretation than it has hitherto received. I
refer to the simultaneous presence or succession in the same sori of
two sorts of fruits (spores), which are attributed to different species.
Some mycologists see in this nothing but a cohabitation, which,
although frequent, is by no means necessary ; others suppose a com-
pulsory relation between the two Uredines,—that of a parasite with -
its host. If the latter opinion prevailed, instead of four or five
Phragmidia and a few Puccinie, which would be parasitic. upon
various Uredines, as is usually believed, we should have, as I have
convinced myself, a multitude of other Puccinie, the Uromyces, the
Pilularia, the Triphragmia, the Coleosporia, the Melampsore, the
Cronartia, and no doubt many other Uredinee which I have not
yet been able to study sufficiently. Thus the Uredinee would not
only live, as is really the case, as parasites upon the vascular plants,
but they would also offer among themselves an example of parasitism
quite unknown in the history of organized bodies, as about a third
of their species would be charged with the nourishment of another
third. This parasitism would also present a very unprecedented cha-
racter, for it would prevail between plants almost identical with each
other, or at all events united by the closest affinities, whilst, even
amongst the simplest beings, there are generally well-characterized
organic differences between the parasite and its host. The parasitic
life attributed to the Phragmidia, the Puccinie, the Cronartia, and
other Uredinee, in relation to the Uredines proper, is therefore a

Miscellaneous. 77

priori extremely improbable. Direct observation does not appear to
me to render it at all more probable, for the productions in question
are often met with quite independently of each other. As to those who
only see in the Uredines and their hosts, associations or cohabitations
comparable to those of the various grasses which compose our mea-
dows, they perhaps will not recognize the importance of the phzeno-
menon in question, and may misunderstand its signification. Against
them they have the often striking resemblance between the Uredo
and the Fungus which is united with it, and especially the constant
order of their respective appearance, the Uredo always preceding its
companion. This resemblance and succession evidently indicate re-
lations between the productions which present them, and as these
relations cannot be those of parasitism, they may be with more pro-
bability regarded as the indications of specific identities, which were
suspected by some old observers, but which have been universally
neglected by the mycologists of the present day. In truth, there is
scarcely room to hope that we shall ever be able to furnish a direct
proof of this identity, or one obtained by sowing, in consequence of
the almost insurmountable difficulties attending the culture of Fungi,
and especially that of the Entophyta ; but even if the supposed proof
were obtained in this manner, it would still be very legitimately open
to criticism from the nature of these difficulties, and moreover its
place may readily be supplied. At least, I think, that the attentive
observation of the successive development of the heterosporous Ure-
dinee gives us sufficient authority for believing that these are not, as
is now generally supposed, Uredines associated in pairs, but Uredines
furnished with a double apparatus of reproduction and capable in
consequence of assuming two different forms.

Amongst these peculiar Uredinee, the Phragmidia and Puccinie
are those which have especially attracted the attention of observers.
Many have thought that the spherical or oval spores which are first
produced in their sori, and which now constitute various species of
Uredinee (Lecythee s. Epitee and Trichobasis sp. recentior), were
only either the true grains of these Phragmidia and Puccinia, or a
still imperfect state of their plurilocular fruit. The former of. these
opinions wrongly supposes that these pretended grains are engendered
in these backward fruits, and the second requires the admission of
a transformation which has not actually been proved; but both
ascribe to one and the same plant the two sorts of reproductive
bodies which succeed each other on the same pulvinulus (Chirode,
Lév.). In a great number of Puccinia, fruits intermediate in form
between the spherical grains or Uredo, and the bilocular fruits or
Puecinia, indicate evidently that these two kinds of reproductive
organs belong to one and the same Fungus. Nevertheless, notwith-
standing the numerous examples of dimorphism presented by the
Phragmidia, Puccinie and Uromyces, these Uredinee do not per-
haps prove our opinion in so satisfactory a manner as the Coleosporia,
Melampsore and Cronartia.

The pulvinuli of the Coleosporia, Lév. (Uredo tremellosa, Str. et
affines) have at first apparently all the same organization; but some
of them soon become converted into spherical and pulverulent fruits

78 Miscellaneous.

or spores, whilst others remain entire and solid, the obovate and seg-
mented cells of which they are composed each emitting three or four
long tubes terminated by large reniform spores. This second mode
of fructification, which has hitherto remained unknown, is sometimes
coexistent with the former in the same sori; it betrays the close
affinity which unites the Coleosporia with the Pucciniea and Phrag-
midia, and completely justifies the interpretation which we propose
‘to give for the reproductive apparatus of all these Entophytal Fungi.

The Melampsore, Cast. (Xylomatum sp. Fr. 8. M. ii. 261, Sele-
rotiorum veterib.) resemble the Coleosporia in their double structure,
but differ from them in many respects. Their Uredo-pulvinuli
(Lecythee and Podosporia, Lév. partim) have also an earlier deve-
lopment than the sori, which do not become pulverulent ; the latter
are formed of simple cells (unilocular) which only produce a single
germ, which is terminal or basilar and usually tetrasporous, like that
of the Puccinie or Podisomata (see my note on the germination of
the Uredinee, ‘Comptes Rendus,’ xxxvi. p. 1093). The dissemina-
tion of the spores or grains of the so-called Uredo takes place in
summer and autumn ; the spores, properly so called, of the solid pulvi-
nuli are only produced, on the contrary, towards the end of the winter
or in the beginning of spring; they are of an orange or yellow colour
in Melampsora betulina, N., M. populina, Fr., M. Tremule, N., and
M. salicina, Fr., and of a cinereous tint in. M. areolata, Fr. The
production of these late spores is a phenomenon hitherto unob-
served, and proves at once that the Melampsore are certainly Fungi,
and Fungi belonging to the group Uredinee ; two facts which have
both been disputed by some mycologists. .

As to the Cronartia, their delicate ligula is neither fistular, as is
generally supposed, nor intended to_carry out the propagative cor-
puscules of the Fungus ; it is solid, and formed of cells which become
seminiferous in the same manner as the chambers of a Puccinia, so
that it must be regarded as the analogue of the ligula or columella of
the Podisomata (see my observations on the Tremellinee in the An-
nales des Sci. Nat. xix. p. 205). The spores with which it is covered
are white and of a globose-ovoid form. Besides this complicated
reproductive apparatus, which has been so misunderstood hitherto,
the Cronartia possess another which makes its appearance earlier.
The ligula in fact is usually surrounded at its base with ovoid or
globular, pedicled cells, which are also evidently organs of repro-
duction, constituting an Uredo (U. Vincetoxici, DeC., U. Peoniarum,
Desm.) in the sense usually attached to this word*. |

Thus the truth of the question before us will be perhaps less on
the side of the philosophers than on that of the cultivators, who
maintain that the b/ack rust of the harvests is the second age of the
orange rust which infests the plants im spring. According to our
views, in fact, the Puccinia graminis, Pers., and the P. coronata,
Cord., which form the greater part of the black rust of the Cereals,
would claim, as belonging to them reciprocally, the Uredo linearis,
Pers. and U. Rubigo-vera, DeC., to which the orange rust of the

* This Uredo would be a Trichobasis with M. Léveillé.

Meteorological Observations. 79

same plants in spring is also principally due. Persoon, Banks,
DeCandolle and other botanists, have more or less partaken of the
popular feeling to which we have just referred, but they have all
explained it in such a manner as to show that the black fruits of the
“graminicolous Puccinie would be orange at the commencement of
their development, and in this condition would have been taken for
Uredines. None of these observers, I believe, have suspected the
existence in this case of the phzenomenon of dimorphism.

Now that the discoveries recently made in the history of the lower
animals have shown what astonishing transformations their specific
identity may undergo, these suppositions will be received, I imagine,
with less prejudice, especially as they are already supported by a
sufficient number of facts to remove a great deal of their apparent
temerity. I have moreover great reason to hope that new observa-
tions will soon confirm them.—Comptes Rendus, 24th April, 1854,
p- 761. —_—_———

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR MAY 1854.

Chiswick.—May 1. Rain. 2. Rain: low white clouds. 3. Cloudy. 4. Very
fine. 5. Foggy: very fine. 6.-Cloudy: uniformly overcast: slight frost at night.
7. Fine: rain. 8. Heavy rain. 9. Showery: thunder, with heavy showers. 10, -
11. Cloudy. 12. Foggy: very fine: boisterous at night. 13. Fine. 14,15. Very
fine. 16. White clouds: partially overcast: very clear: frosty. 17. Uniform
haze : clear, with very dry air: overcast. 18. Uniformly overcast: clear at night :
frosty. 19. Clear and fine. 20. Cloudless: very fine: clear. 21. Cloudy and
fine: rain. 22. Densely clouded: rain. 23, Rain: fine: very clear. 24. Heavy
showers: clear at night: frosty. 25. Fine: showers, partly hail: clear, 26.
Heavy clouds: very fine: heavy rain at night. 27. Heavy rain: hail-storm, with
thunder and lightning quarter to five p.m.: clear at night. 28. Fine: cloudy:
showery: heavy rain. 29. Rain. ~30. Overcast: rain: cloudy. 31. Very fine
throughout.

‘Mean temperature of the month ....... si kadmutcocaetssswes “eeees 50°07
Mean temperature Of May 1853 ....c..sceceeseeeeerecseeererees 51°27
Mean temperature of May for the last twenty-eight years . 53 °85 :
Average amount of rain in May ......secsecsceecseeseeeeceeeeees 1°77 inch.

Boston.—May 1. Cloudy: rain a.m. 2. Cloudy: rain a.m. and p.m. 3, Cloudy: »
rain p.m. 4. Fine. 5. Cloudy: rain p.m. 6. Fine. 7. Cloudy: rain, with
thunder and lightning a.m.andp.m. 8. Cloudy. 9. Cloudy: rain, with thunder
and lightning a.m. and p.m. 10. Cloudy. 11. Cloudy: raina.m. 12. Fine.
13. Cloudy. 14, 15. Fine. 16, Cloudy. 17: Fine. 18. Cloudy: raina.m, 19,
20. Fine. 21. Cloudy. 22. Cloudy: rain a.m. 23. Rain a.m. andp.m. 24.
Cloudy: rain a.m. 25. Fine. 26. Cloudy: rain a.m. 27. Cloudy: rain a.m,
and p.m. 28. Fine. 29. Cloudy: rain a.m. 30. Cloudy: rain a.m. and P.M.
31. Cloudy.

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—May 1. Clear a.m.: drops p.m. 2. Clear, fine A.M. :
clear p.M. 3—5. Clear andfine a.m. and p.m. 6. Clear a.m.: rainp.M. 7, Clear
and fine a.M. and p.m. 8. Clear, fine a.m.: cloudy p.M. 9,10. Bright a.m, :
showers p.M. 11. Bright a.m.: cloudy p.m. 12. Cloudy a.m. and p.m, _ 13.
Bright A.mM.: showers p.m. 14. Cloudy a.m.: drizzle, showers p.m. 15. Clear
A.M. and p.m. 16. Drops a.mM.: damp p.m. 17. Showers a.m. and p.m. 18.
Clear A.M. and p.m. 19. Cloudy a.m. and p.m. 20, 21. Showers a.m.: cloudy
p.M. 22. Cloudy a.m.: drops P.M. 23. Clear A.M. and p.m. 24. Bright a.m. :
clear p.M. 25. Cloudy a.M.: rain p.m. 26—30. Cloudy a.m. and p.m. 31.
Damp A.M. : drizzle P.M.

Mean temperature of May for twenty-seven previous years . 47°98
Mean temperature of this Month — .........seesseseeeeeenseesens 48 °39
Mean temperature Of May 1853 ..........sceesecesseeeseeeeeeese 49 ‘07
Average quantity of rain in May for thirteen previous years. 1°68 inch.

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THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[SECOND SERIES.]

No. 80. AUGUST 1854.

VIil.—Researches on the Development of Viviparous Aphides.
By Waxpo I. Burnerr, M.D., Boston*.

Every naturalist is aware of the remarkable phenomena con-
nected with the viviparous reproduction of Aphides or plant-lice,
for their singularity has led them to be recounted in works other
than those of natural science, and, from the days of the earlier
observers, they have been the theme of a kind of wonder-story
in zoology and physiology.

I need not here go over the historical relations of this subject.
The queer experiments and the amusing writings of the old ento-
mologists are well known. ‘The brief history of the general con-
ditions of the development of these insects is as follows :—In the
early autumn the colonies of plant-lice are composed of both male
and female individuals; these pair, the males then die, and the
females soon begin to deposit their eggs, after which they die also.
Early in the ensuing spring, as soon as the sap begins to flow,
these eggs are hatched, and the young lice immediately begin to
pump up sap from the tender leaves and shoots, increase rapidly
in size, and in a short time come to maturity. In this state it is
found that the whole brood, without a single exception, consists
solely of females, or rather and more properly, of individuals
which are capable of reproducing their kind. This reproduction
takes place by a viviparous generation, there being firmed in the
individuals in question young lice, which, when capable of enter-

‘ing upon individual life, escape from their progenitor and form a
new and greatly increased colony. This second generation pur-
sues the same course as the first, the individuals of which it. is
composed being, like those of the first, sexless, or at least without
any trace of the male sex throughout.+ These same conditions
are then repeated, and so on almost indefinitely, experiments
having shown that this power of reproduction under such circum-

* From Silliman’s American Journal for January 1854.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xiv.

82 =Dr. Burnett on the Develupment of Viviparous Aphides.

stances may be exercised, according to Bonnet *, at least through
nine generations, while Duvaut obtained thus eleven generations
in seven months, his experiments being curtailed at this stage,
not by a failure of the reproductive power, but by the approach
of winter which killed his specimens ; and Kybert even observed
that a colony of Aphis dianthi which had been brought into a
constantly heated room, continued to propagate for four years, in
this manner, without the intervention of males, and even in this
instance it remains to be proved how much longer these phzeno-
mena might have been coutinued.

The singularity of these results led to much incredulity as to
their authenticity, and on this account the experiments were often
and carefully repeated ; and there can now be no doubt that the
virgin Aphis reproduces her kind, a phenomenon which may be
continued almost indefinitely, ending finally in the appearance of
individuals of distinct male and female sex, which lay the founda-
tion of new colonies in the manner just described§.

The question arises, what interpretation is to,be put upon these
almost anomalous phenomena? Many explanations have been
offered by various naturalists and physiologists, but most of them
have been as unsatisfactory as they have been forced, and were
admissible only by the acceptance in physiology of quite new
features.

As the criticism I intend to offer upon some of these opinions
will be better understood after the detail of my own researches,
I will reserve their future notice until the concluding part of this
paper.

My observations were made upon one of the largest species of
Aplus with which I am acquainted, the Aphis Carye of Har-
ris ||. While in Georgia, this last spring, it was my good fortune
that myriads of these destroyers appeared on a hickory which
grew near the house in which [ lived. The number of broods on
this tree did not exceed three, for with the third series their num-
bers were’so great that their source of subsistence failed and they
gradually disappeared from starvation. The individuals of each

* Traité d’Insectologie, ou Observations sur les Pucerons, 1745.

+ Mém. du Mus. d’Hist. Nat. xi. p. 126.

{t Germar’s Magaz. d. Entomol., 1812.

§ For details of experiments by. which Bonnet’s original results were
verified, see Réaumur, Mémoires, iii. Mém. 9 and 11, and vi. Mém. 13.
Also, DeGeer, Mémoires, iii. ch. 2, 3. Curtis, Trans. Tha: Soe. vi.; Philos.
Trans. 1771. Sauvages, Journ. de Physique, i. Dutrochet, Mémoires, ii.
p. 442. Seealso the more modern writers, and especially Kirby and Spence,
Introduction to Entomology, iy. p. 161.

|| A Treatise on some of the Insects of New England which are injurious
to Vegetation, 2nd ed. 1852, p. 208. As Dr. Harris says, it is probably
Lachnus of Illiger (Cinara of Curtis).

Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. 83

brood were, throughout, of the producing kind, no males having
been found upon the closest search; they were all, moreover,
winged; and those few that were seen without these appendages
appear to have lost them by accident. I mention this fact espe-
cially, since it has been supposed by naturalists that the females
were always wingless, and therefore that the winged individuals,
or the males, appeared only in the autumn*.

The first brood, upon their appearance from their winter hiding-
places, were of mature size, and I found in them the developing
germs of the second brood quite far advanced. On this account
it was the embryology of the third series or brood alone that I
was able to trace in these observations.

A few days after the appearance of these insects, the indivi-
duals of second brood (B), still within their parents (A), had
reached two-thirds of their mature size. At this time the arches
of the segments of the embryo had begun to close on the back,
and the various external appendages of the insect to appear pro-
minently ; the alimentary canal had been more or less completely
formed, although distinct abdominal organs of any kind belonging
to the digestive system were not very prominent. At this period,
and while the individuals of generation B are not only in the
abdomen of their parent A, but are also enclosed, each, in its
primitive egg-like capsule,—at this time, I repeat, appear the first
traces of the germs of the third brood (C).

These first traces consist of small egg-like bodies arranged two,
three, or four in a row, and attached in the abdomen at the locality
where the ovaries are situated in the oviparous forms of these ani-
mals,

These egg-like bodies consisted either of single nucleated cells,
of =a)5pth of an inch in diameter, or a small number of such cells
enclosed im a simple sac. These are the germs of the third gene-
ration; they increase with the development of the embryo in which
they have been formed, and this increase of size takes place,
not by a segmentation of the primitive cells, but by the endo-
genous formation of new cells. After this increase has gone on
for a certain time, these egg-like bodies appear like little oval bags
of cells—all these component cells being of the same size and
_ shape, there being no cell which is larger and more prominent
than the rest, and which could be comparable to a germinative
vesicle. While these germs are thus constituted, the formation
of new ones is continually taking place. This occurs by a kind

* See Westwood, An Introduction to the modern Classification of In-
sects, &c. London, 1839, ii. p. 438 ; but especially Owen, Partheno-
genesis, &c., p. 23, note, and p. 59, note, where he says, “ Many of the
virgin viviparous Aphides acquire wings, but never perfect the generative

organs |”
Gx

84 Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides.

of constriction-process of the first germs, one of their ends being
pinched off, as it were, and in this way what was a single sac,
is changed into two which are attached in a moniliform manner.
The new germ thus formed may consist of even a single cell
only, as I have often seen, but it (the germ) soon attains a more
uniform size by the endogenous formation of new cells within
the sac by which it is enclosed. In this way the germs are mul-
tiplied to a considerable number, the nutritive material for their
growth being apparently a fatty liquid with which they are bathed,
contained in the abdomen, and which is thence derived from the
abdomen of the first parent.

When these germs have reached the size of = 5th of an inch in
diameter, there appears on each, near one end, a yellowish vitel-
lus-looking mass or spot, which is composed ‘of large yellowish
cells, which in size and general aspect are different from those
constituting the germ proper. This yellow mass increases part
passu with the germ, and at last lies like a cloud over and con-
cealing one of its poles. 1 would also insist on the point that it
does not extend itself gradually over the whole germ-mass, and
is therefore quite unlike a true germinative vesicle or a prolige-
rous disc. When the egg-like germs have attained the size of
;#oth of an inch, there distinctly appears the sketching or mark.
ing out. of the future animal, This sketching consists at first. of
delicately-marked retreatings of the cells here and there, ; but
which soon become more prominent from furrows, and at,last the
whole form of the embryo stands boldly out. _ As the whole idea
and form. of the insect is thus moulded out of a mass of cells,
it is evident that the separate parts which then appear, such as
the arches of the segments, the extremities and the oval appa-
ratus, consist at first only of rows of simple cells. This point is.
here beautifully prominent, and nowhere have | observed finer
illustrations of the cell-constitution of developmg forms.

The development thus proceeding, each part of the dermo-
skeleton becomes more and more distinct, and the increase of size
of the whole is attained by the constant development of new cells.
During this time, the yellow vitellus-looking mass, situated at one
of the poles of the embryo, has not changed its place; it has in-
creased somewhat in size, but otherwise appears the same. When
the development has proceeded somewhat further, and the embryo.
is pretty well formed, the arches of the segments, which have
hitherto remained gapingly open, appear to close together on the
back, thereby enclosing this vitellus-looking mass within the ab-
dominal cavity.

It is this same vitelloid mass thus enclosed that furnishes the
nutritive material for the development of new germs which would
be those of the fourth brood, or D; this development of germs

Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. 85

here commences with the closing up of the abdominal cavity,
and the same processes which we have just described are again
repeated.

The details of the development subsequent to this point are
like those of the development of ordinary insects or of the Ar-
ticulata in general; and although this ovoid germ has at no time
the structural peculiarities of a true ovum—such as a real vitellus,
a germinative vesicle and germinative dot; yet, if we allow a
little latitude in our comparison, and regard the vitellus-looking
mass as the mucous, and the germ-mass proper as the serous fold
of the germinating tissue, as in true eggs—if, I repeat, we can
admit this comparison of parts, then the analogy of development
between these germs and true eggs of insects may be traced in

‘considerable detail.

This comparison I have been inelined to admit at least in part,

from the striking resemblance of these developmg forms at cer-

tain stages, with the embryological forms of spiders as they have
been figured by Herold* and as I have myself traced them.
-When, in spiders, the serous fold of the germinating tissue has
extended so as to cover two-thirds of the developing form, leaving
the vitelline mass on the dorsal surface near one of the poles,
the whole embryo quite resembles that of a developing Aphis
just before the arches of the segments close up on the back.

With this view of the relative parts of the germ, the following
would be the details of the development of the different systems,
and in the noticing of which f shall follow Kolliker+.

1. The germinating tissue consists of two parts ; a serous and
mucous fold.

2. The abdominal plates arise from the serous fold, sprout out
towards the vitelloid mass, pass over it and unite on the dorsal
surface of the future animal; on the opposite side are formed
plates which do not unite, but are formed into the hind legs.

3. The wings are the lateral limbs.

4, The first traces of the abdominal column appear in the
chain of abdominal muscles situated between the nerves and the
intestinal canal.

5. The nervous system in all its parts arises from the serous
fold, as well also as the organs of sense.

6. The mucous fold, or the vitellus-looking mass, serves no pur-
pose in the formation ‘until the closing in of the visceral plates.

7. Thus enclosed in the abdominal cavity, it is not transformed

* De Generatione Aranearum in ovo. Marbourg, 1824.

+ Observationes de prima Insectorum genesi adjecta Articulatorum evo-
lutionis cum Vertebratorum comparatione. Diss. Inaug. Ser. Alb, Kolliker.
Turm, 1812. A work replete with facts and interesting suggestions.

86 Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides.

directly into the intestinal canal, but simply furnishes the material
from which the component cells of the said canal and its hepatic
diverticula are formed. It also furnishes the material from which
the new germs are formed, as already shown.

8. The heart is formed on the dorsal aspect between the mucous
and serous folds. In this way the details of development closely
correspond with those of the embryology of the other Articulata
which I have studied ; and the subject is all the more interesting,
as the germ-masses, from which such development occurs, in no
way and at no time structurally resemble true eggs.

When the embryo is ready to burst from its developing capsule
and make its escape from the abdomen of its parent, it is about
;,th of an inch m length, or more than eight times the size of
the germ at the time when the first traces of development were
seen. From this it is evident that, even admitting that these
germ-masses are true eggs, the conditions of development are quite
different from those of the truly viviparous animals ; such as for
instance in Musca, Anthomyia, Sarcophaga, Tachina, Dexia, Mil-
togramma, and others among Dipterous insects* ; or im the vivi-
parous reptiles,—for in all these cases of ordinary viviparity, the
ege is simply hatched in the body instead of out of it. The egg,
moreover, is formed exactly in the same way as though it was to
be deposited, and its vitellus contains all the nutritive material
required for the development of the egg until the coming forth
of the new individual. ‘The abdomen of the mother serves only
as a proper nidus or incubatory pouch for its full development.
This is true of all the ovo-viviparous animals whatsoevert.
With the viviparous Aphides, on the contrary, the developing
germ derives its nutritive material from the fatty liquid in which
it is bathed, and which fills the abdomen of the parent. The
conditions of development here therefore are more like those in
Mammalia, and the whole animal may, in one sense, be regarded
as an individualized uterus filled with germs, for the digestive
canal, with its appendages, seems to serve only as a kind of
laboratory for the conversion of the succulent fluids which the
animal extracts from the tree on which it lives, into this fatty

* See Siebold in Froriep’s Neue Notiz. iii. p. 337, and in Wiegmann’s
Arch. 1838, i. p. 197; also his Observat. queed. Entom. &c., p. 18.

+ It is true that in the Scorpionide the eggs are developed in the ovary,
but there is no reason to suppose that the conditions are here different
from those of the viviparous Diptera. In Oribates, also, the eggs are de-
veloped in a kind of uterus situated directly above the ovipositor, but this
appears to be only an incubatory pouch.

t This fatty matter forms beautiful crystals of margarine, and the crystal-
lization may easily be seen to take place. The forms exactly resemble those
given by Robin and Verdeil, Traité de Chim. Anat. et Physiol. pl. 38.
fig. 2h. Paris, 1853,

Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. 87

liquid from which the increase and development of the germs
take place.

When the young animal has reached its full development as
an embryo, it bursts from its encasement and appears to escape
from the abdomen of its parent through a small opening (porus
gemtalis) situated just above the anus. In the species under con-
sideration it generally remains clinging on the back of the parent
until its external parts are dry and it is able to begin life for itself.
Each parent here produces from eight to twelve individuals, and
if this rapid increase is continued undisturbed, through seven to
nine broods, we cannot wonder at the countless numbers which
appear from so few original individuals *.

Such are the details of the embryological development of the
so-called viviparous Aphides, as far as I have enjoyed opportu-
nities for their study. We will now refer for a moment to the
special points which have here been made out. In the first place,
it is evident that the germs which develope these forms are not true
eggs. They have none of the structural characteristics of eggs,
such as a vitellus, a germinative vesicle and dot; on the other
hand, they are, at first, simple collections, in oval masses, of nu-
cleated cells. Then again, they receive no special fecundating
power from the male, as is the necessary preliminary condition of
all true eggs; and, furthermore, the appearance of the new indi-
vidual is not preceded by the phenomena of segmentation, as
also is the case with all true eggs. Therefore their primitive
formation, their development, and the preparatory changes they
undergo for the evolution of the new individual, are all different
from those of real ovat.

Another point is, these viviparous individuals have no proper
ovaries and oviducts. Distinct organs of this kind I have never
been able to make out.. The germs are situated in moniliform
rows, like the successive joints of confervoid plants, and are not
enclosed in a special tube. These rows of germs commence,
each, by a single germ-mass which sprouts from the inner surface
of the animal, and which increases in length and in the number

* Réaumur has shown that in these animals the rate of increase is so
_ great, that in five generations or broods only one Aphis may be the proge-
nitor of five billion nine hundred and four million nme hundred thousand
(5,904,900,000) descendants ; we may well ask, what would be the number
of descendants where the broods were extended to eleven! !—See Kirby
and Spence, Introduction to Entomology, i. p. 175.
+ Milne-Edwards thinks he has found true ova and ovaries in the vivi-
arous forms of these animals. (Quoted by Dr. Carpenter in Brit. and For.
Med. Chir. Rev. 1849, iv. p.443.) I think he must have been deceived,
as I was at first, by the general appearances, which, unless carefully ex-
amined, closely resemble those of true oviparous individuals.

88 Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides.

of its component parts from the successive formation of new
germs by a constriction- process as already mentioned. Moreover,
these rows of germs, which, at one period, closely resemble in
general form the ovaries of some true insects, are not continuous
with any uterine or other female organ, and therefore do not
at all communicate directly with the external world. On the
other hand, they are simpiy attached to the inner surface of the
animal, and their component germs are detached into the abdo-
minal cavity as fast as they are developed, and then escape out-
wards through a porus genitalis, exactly as is the case with
the eggs of fishes*. Here, then, comes the mportant question,
What interpretation shall we put upon these reproductive parts—
these moniliform rows of germs? Ignoring all existing special
theories relating to reproduction, the observing physiologist would
be left no alternative but to regard them as buds, true gemme,
which sprout from the inner surface of the Aphis, exactly like the
buds from the external skin. of a Polypet.

Before proceeding to a discussion of the relations of this im-
portant conclusion to which we have just arrived, it may be well
to refer to the views of others upon the exact signification of
these singular reproductive phenomena. |

Those old ‘entomologists, such as Bonnet, Réaumur, DeGeer,
&e.; who were the:first to: observe, besides verifying beyond all
doubt, these peculiar pheenomena, all believed that each brood
constitutes a separate generation, and that the reproduction takes
place by ‘true ova, as in the common generative act of other
insects.” This wide deviation from the ordinary course of ‘nature,
as’ it seemed to them, they attempted to explain and reconcile by
various theories. Thus Réaumurt affirmed that these viviparous
individuals were androgynous ; and, in later times, Léon Dufour$,
who knew too well the anatomical structures of insects to believe
with Réaumur that they could be hermaphrodites, referred these
pheenomena to spontaneous or equivocal generation.

Morrem ||, who made somewhat extended researches on, the

* These observations of mine on the special anatomy of the reproductive
parts of viviparous Aphides agree with those of Siebold, who studied the
subject with much care several years since. See Froriep’s Neue Not. xi.
p. 308. Siebold, however, regarded them as true ovaries and oviducts, but
without any of the usual appendages which are found in the true vviparous
Aphides.

" I would insist upon this wide and important distinction between buds
and ova. The structure and conditions of all ova are the same, and there
is no passage between them and buds. But this point will be enlarged
upon hereafter.

t Loc. cit. Mémoires.

§ Recherches Anat. et Physiol. sur les Hémiptéres. Paris, 1833.

| Anat. de Aphis persice, in the Ann, d. Se. Nat. v. 1836, p. 90.

Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. 89

anatomy of Aphis persice, and especially of its generative organs,
advanced the novel theory, that these broods were developed in
the body of the virgin parent, by a previously organized. tissue
becoming individualized, and assuming an, independent life, ex-
actly, as he believed, to be. the case with Entozoa. To each and
all of these views, it-scarcely need, be said. that, they would be
wholly inadmissible according to the present established doctrines
of physioiogical science, even had. we no directly controverting
observations. |

But there are other explanations, or views which deserve more
attention. The first of these is that advanced by Kirby and
Spence*.,. According to them, ‘‘ One conjunction of the sexes
suffices for the impregnation of all the females that in a succession
of generations spring from that union.” . In support of the rea-
sonableness of this hypothesis, they quote several instances which
they regard as of analogous character; thus, they say in regard
to the hive-bee, that “a single intercourse with the male fertilizes
all the eggs that are laid for the space of two years,”

In this.connection should be mentioned.the similar hypothesis
advanced for.a like purpose by Jourdan}... According to him:
many Lepidoptera lay fertile eggs when completely isolated from:
the, males: such. are, Huprepsia casta, Episema ceruleocephala,
Gastropacha potatoria, G. quercifolia and G. pint, Sphina ligus-
tri, Smerinthus popult, and Bombyx querci.

But, all these cases have really no strict analogy with that, of
the Aphides. in question ; for there is not, as with these last, a
succession of innately fertile individuals, but only females which
are capable of producing several broods from a single coitus, or:
after having been long removed from the males, which may,even
then be dead}. . Late researches upon the minute anatomy of
the generative organs of insects have furnished results by which
these phenomena, seemingly strange at first, can be explained.
All these insects which are thus capable of laying fecundated eggs

* Tntroduction to Entomology, iv. p. 161. |

+ Manuel de Physiologie, par J. Miiller, Trad. de Allemand, ete. par
A. J. L. Jourdan, Deux, éd, rev. et annot., par E. Littré, ii, p, 599,
note.

t Siebold has made observations upon allied phenomena occurring in the
' Psychidee, which are of no little interest. He has shown that in the genera
Psyche and Fumea, the alleged reproduction, sine Lucina, is unfounded—
these insects having well-formed internal genital organs, and the male being
adapted to impregnate the female while the latter is in her case. But in
the genus Taleporia, Siebold has shown that there is propagation sine con-
cubitu, exactly as occurs with the Aphides. See Ueber die Fortpflanzung
der Psyche: Ein Beitrag zur Naturgeschichte der Schmetterlinge, in Siebold
and Kolliker’s Zeitsch. 1. 1849, p. 93: but, for his last researches on Tale-
poria, see his Bericht tb. d. entomol. Arbeiten d. schles. Gesellsch. im J.
1850; or its English transl. in the Trans. of the Ent. Soc. N.S. i. p. 234.

90 =Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides.

again and again after the first impregnation, have a receptaculum
seminis connecting with the oviduct, in which the semen is
deposited during coition, and where it may be preserved without
losing its vitalizing power for several months*. Thus, by this
provision, the males, having copulated with the females in the
autumn, may immediately die, while these last, hibernating, pro-
duce in the spring fertile ova; and in the instance of the Bombus
americana, such a coition suffices for all the three broods which
are produced the ensuing summer.

Another explanation of these curious phenomena, and which
has attracted some attention, as well from its singularity as from
the eminence of its propounder, is that of Owen, advanced in his
Hunterian Lectures in 1843+.

He affirms that the larval Aphides are productive in virtue of
the successive continuation from brood to brood of a portion of
the primitively fertilized germ, and which material product or
leaven is not exhausted until nine to eleven generations. I will
quote his own language: “ In the Aphides the corresponding vi-
telline cells retam their share of the fecundating principle (which
was diffused through the parent egg by the alternating, fissipa-
rous, liquefactive, and assimilative processes) in so potent a degree,
that a certain growth and nutritive vigour in the insect suffice to
set on foot in the ovarian, nucleated cells, a repetition of the fissi-
parous and assimilative process, by which they transform them-
selves in their turn into productive insects ; and the fecundating
force is not exhausted by such successive subdivision until a 7th,
9th, or 11th generation.” This same doctrine, the successive
inheritance of a portion of the primary germ-mass from brood to
brood, and by means of which the fertile germs are continued,
—this doctrine, I say, is repeated in full in this author’s work on
Parthenogenesis, and I will here quote one sentence, not only in
illustration of this, but to show how different. his own observa-
tions on the development of these animals are from mine, just
described. He says, ‘‘ One sees such portion of the germ-mass

* For many details on this subject of the receptaculum seminis, sce
Siebold, Miiller’s Arch. 1837, p. 392; also nm Wiegmann’s Arch. 1839, i.
p- 107 (Vespa), and in Germar’s Zeitsch. 11. (1840) p. 442 (Culex). See also
Stein, Vergleich. Anat. &c. 1847, p. 96,112. I cannot but believe that the
anomalous reproductive conditions of the Cynipide will, at last, have a solu-
tion equally satisfactory. See Hartig, Germar’s Zeitsch. ii. p. 178, and iv.
p. 395. See also Siebold and Stannius’s Comparative Anatomy, transl. i.
sect. 348, notes 1 & 4.

+ Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Inverte-
brate Animals, &c. London, 1843, p. 233. This explanation is lately in-
sisted upon (strange to relate) in his recent work “ On Parthenogenesis, or
the successive production of procreating individuals from a single ovum.”

London, 1849.

Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. 91

taken into the semitransparent body of the embryo Aphis, like
the remnant of the yolk m the chick. I at first thought it was
about; to be enclosed in the alimentary canal, but it was not so.
As the embryo grows, it assumes the position of the ovarium, and
becomes divided into oval masses and enclosed by the filamentary
extremities of the eight oviducts.- Individual development is
checked and arrested at the apterous larval condition. It is
plain, therefore, that the essential condition of the development
of another embryo in this larva is the retention of part of the
progeny of the primary impregnated germ-cell.” (p. 70.)

This view of Owen, so ingeniously advanced, and which he
has made subservient for the chief support of his new doctrine of
Parthenogenesis, is indeed plausible and seems at first satisfac-
tory; but, as I hope to show, it will not bear analysis.

In the first place, it is evident that Owen does not recognise
any physiological difference between a bud.and an ovum ; this is
clear from what he remarks in the first quotation, but in his work
on, Parthenogenesis he has said so in as many words. “ The
growth by cell-multiplication producing a bud, instead of being
altogether distinet from the growth by cell-multiplication im an
egg, is essentially the same kind of growth or developmental
process.” (p. 45.)

Here is a fundamental error, which, if not removed, will obscure
all,our views of the physiology of reproduction. I have already
insisted upon the necessity of this broad distinction between
these two forms,—a necessity based not only upon, differences
of anatomical constitution, but also upon physiological -signi-
fications, An;Ovum is the exclusive product of an imdividual of
the female sex, and. is always formed in a special organ called the
ovary. It is the particular potential representative of the female,
and has its ulterior development only from its conjunction with
a corresponding element of the opposite or male sex ; and zoology
presents no instance where there is development from eggs, unless
these conditions of the two sexes are fully carried out.

A Bud, on the other hand, is simply an offshoot from the form
on which it rests, a portion of the animal capable of individual
development. It sustains, therefore, no relations to sex, and, in
truth, is widely separated in its ulterior signification from that
cycle of processes conceived in a true oviparous reproduction.

All physiologists who have carefully studied embryological and
developmental processes must feel the correctness and importance
of this distinction, which lies in realities and not in words.

It is true, that a bud and an ovum are composed each of the
same elements,—simple nucleated cells; but m one, these cells
are simply in a mass, while in the other, they have, throughout
the animal kingdom, high or low, a definite and invariable ar-

92 Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides.

rangement. Then again as to the constitution of each and both
being, on the whole, of nucleated cells, it may be said, that it
could hardly be conceived to be otherwise, for nucleated cells are
the elementary components of all functional organized forms ;
and it may be added, moreover, that he knows little of the
highest physiology who has not learned that widely different
teleological significations may be concealed beneath isomorphic
animal forms.

I have thus dwelt rather lengthily upon this point because I
think it is a vital one in our subject, and the possession of clear
ideas thereon will be found singularly conducive to our correct
appreciation of the whole class of anomalous phenomena under
discussion. But we will revert to the subject of Owen’s hypo-
thesis. ;

As to the chief point in this hypothesis, the continuation of
the primary germ-mass as a leaven, from brood to brood, it re-
quires but little thought to perceive that it is physically impossible.
T would first allude to Owen’s statement, quoted above, that a
portion of the germ-mass is taken into the abdomen of the em-
bryo Aphis, and, as he thinks, assumes, without 8 change, the
position of the ovarium. By this he refers, undoubtedly, to the
vitellus-looking mass I have described in my observations, and
according to which, also, it appeared to serve only as the nutritive
material out of which the digestive organs and the germs are
formed. Moreover, I feel quite sure that the germ-cells are new
cells formed in the abdomen, and not those derived from’ the
parent. HOM

But the point I wish to enforce is, that even admitting that
individuals B may contain an actual residue of individuals’A, ‘it
is clearly evident that this succession must stop with ‘brood B;
for these residual germ-cells which compose B in its earliest‘ con-
dition are lost in the developmental processes, and the germs of
individuals C, which are found in B, are each, primarily, nucle-
ated cells formed de novo, as I have observed and above described.
With these observed conditions of development, it is impussible
for the individuals of the successive broods to inherit the original
spermatic force in the continuation of the original cells.

The hypothesis of Owen, therefore, plausible and ingenious as
it may seem, does not appear to me to accord either with observed
facts, or with the soundest physiology of the reproductive pro-
cesses. I may here remark also, that his doctrine of Partheno-
genesis, based as it is upon the conditions of the hypothesis in
question, cannot, as such, be sustained, for the same reasons, and
all its pheenomena would appear to find their solution either in
Steenstrup’s doctrine of “Alternation of Generations,” so-called,
or in the conditions of true gemmiparity,—admitting, provision-

Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. 93

ally, that Steenstrup’s doctrine and gemmiparity include really
different physiological conditions.

But the most important explanation advanced, and the last
which I shall notice, is that offered by Steehstrup* in his doctrine
of the ‘ Alternation of Generations,” and of which it forms a
chief support. .The details of this peculiar doctrine of Steen-
strup [ need not here furnish ; they are well known to all physio-
logical anatomists. Its features, however, may be expressed in a
formula-like manner. Individuals A produce true fecundated
eggs, from which are hatched individuals B, which are unlike
their parents in all zoological respects, but in which are developed
spontaneously and without any reference to sex, germs which ulti-
mately become individuals like A, and so the cycle of development
is completed. These intermediate individuals, B, Steenstrup has
termed nurses (Amnen), and he regards them as distinct animals
subservient for a special end; he therefore considers that B
constitutes a real generation.

Instances of such phenomena are found in the lower orders of

the animal kingdom—Polyps, Acalephs and Worms ; and late re-
search has shown that they are more or less common throughout
the whole of the Invertebrata.
The difference between alternation of generation and metamor-
phosis.is too marked to require illustration ; in the latter there is
the same individual throughout, and the developmental processes,
although. concealed. beneath different exteriors, are regular and
normal; with the former, however, this chain of development is
broken by one form being developed in another, this intermediate
form .serying.as a, stepping-stone for a higher, and ulterior, deve-
lopment. Another important point in this alternate reproduction,
is, that. m each new. change some real progress is made—the
nursing-form being) manifestly inferior to the individual to which
it, gives rise.

Steenstrup regards the Aphides as furnishing the most perfect
examples known of nursing individuals, and, on the whole, as con-
stituting typical illustrations of the doctrine he has advanced t.

But if this doctrine implies conditions other than those which
belong to true gemmiparity, it does not appear to me that it has
any support in the phenomena in question of the Aphides. And
although I am inclined to believe, as I shall soon show, that all
these phenomena, essentially, may be of the same nature, yet there
can be no doubt that the manifestations are here somewhat pecu-

* On the Alternation of Generations, or the Propagation and Deyelop-
ment of Animals through Alternate Generations ; a peculiar form of fostering
the young in the lower classes of Animals. Transl. by the Ray Society.
London, 1845, passim.

t See Steenstrup, doc. cit. p..112.

94 Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides.

liar. With the Aphides there is no real morphological progress
made in each brood, for the viviparous dividuals are, zoologically,
as perfect in every way as those which are oviparous, except in
their want of true sexual generative organs. - I have shown that,
in the one species here described, they had well-developed wings
like the true sexual individuals. Moreover, each brood, from the
first to the last inclusive, is merely a repetition of the same.
But these conditions are external and ceconomical, and, instead of
offering these prominent examples as evidence against the validity
of Steenstrup’s doctrine, I would rather present them as broadly
indicating that, after all, this doctrine in question involves no
conditions excepting those belonging to a modified form of gem-
miparity. All the instances of Polyps, Acalephs, Worms, Inseéts,
&e., would then be classed in the same category, and the va-
riations in manifestation would belong rather to the e@eono-
mical relations of the animal, than to any intrinsic differenceé of
physiological process. Thus the Distoma-nurses, instead of bene
developed to a condition resembling at all their parent, remain
persistent on a low form, and not only is their whole zoologi¢al
character undeveloped, but they also experience morphologieal
changes from the developmental process which immediately go'6n
within them. All this is in perfect keeping with their economy
as animals, for the low order of their conditions of ‘life does’ not
necessitate a higher and more truly zoological form of these nurses
from which are to be developed the true animals; were it other-
wise, I cannot but’ believe that both the nurses and’ the grand-
nurse of Distoma would quite resemble the ‘original animals.
In the case of the Aphides, the ceconomical’ conditions ‘are ‘dif-
ferent, and finely illustrate this point. D118 BWR

The Aphis-nurse, in virtue of its very typical structure as an
insect, must live under higher conditions, and'so its development,
zoologically, proceeds to a corresponding point; this’ point’ is
where it, as an insect and as an Aphis, can furnish the nutritive
material for the development of its endogenous germs:

Herein, then, would appear to consist the prominent morpho-
logical differences observed in this category of phenomena, and
I need not labour further to show that they are irrelevant of the
primary essential conditions of these curious processes.

Such appears to me to be the highest, beth physiological and
zoological, iterpretation that can be advanced for these pheeno- |
mena which Steenstrup has so ingeniously collected and collated ;
and to advance the view that these intermediate individuals or
nurses are not intrinsically and zoologically the same as their
parents, but furnish examples of how dissimilar animals may arise
from a common stock—to put forth this view, I say, is to advo-
cate a doctrine in physiology as mischievous as it is deeply

Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. 95

erroneous. I think, therefore, that the doctrine of Steenstrup
may prove to be unfounded as far as it would involve, intrinsically,
new phzenomena in the processes of reproduction ; and, as I have
said on a preceding page, all its conditions may find their illus-
tration and solution m the various phases of gemmiparity*.

If in this discussion of some of the highest relations of physio-
logy, we have not wandered too far from our subject proper which
we have thereby sought to illustrate indirectly, we will revert to
the thread of its discourse for a few concluding remarks.

The final question now is, what. is the legitimate imterpretation
to be put upon the reproductive phenomena of the Aphides we
have described? My answer to this has been anticipated in the
foregoing remarks. I regard the whole as constituting only a
rather, anomalous form of gemmiparity. As already shown, the
viviparous Aphides are sexless; they are not females, for they
have no proper female organs, no ovaries and oviducts... These
viviparous individuals therefore are simply gemmiparous, and
the budding is here internal instead of external as in the Polyps
and Acalephs;, it moreover takes on some of. the morphological
peculiarities of oviparity; but all these dissimilar conditions are
ceconomical, and extrinsic, and do not touch the intrinsic nature
of the processes concerned therein.

Viewed in this way, the different broods of Aphides cannot be
said, to,constitute as many true generations, any more than the
different .branches of -a tree can be said to constitute as, many
trees; on; the other hand, the whole suite from the first to the
last constitute but a single true generation. I would insist upou
this point as illustrative of the distinction to be drawn between
sexual and gemmiparous reproduction. Morphologically, they
have, it is true, many points of close resemblance; but therejis a
grand physiological difference, the true perception of which is
deeply connected with our highest appreciation of individual ani-
mal lifey... A true generation must be regarded as resulting only
from the conjugation of two opposite sexes—from a sexual pro-

* This statement is made perhaps more strongly and exclusively than the
present state of our knowledge would warrant, but I throw it out much in
a suggestive way. There is no subject in physiology more interesting and
» comprehensive than that of Gemmation; the important question now is,—
does it, as an individual process, embrace all the categories of pheenomena
treated by Lovén, Steenstrup, &c., these phenomena varying extrinsically,
according to ceconomical conditions, or do they (the phznomena) ‘ae
something beyond and dissimilar from gemmation ?

t In this view, as well as in several others herein discussed, I am pleased
to say that I have the support of so learned a physiologist as Dr. Carpenter.
See his Review “On the Development and Metamorphoses of Zoophytes,”
in the Brit. and Foreign Med. Chir. Rey. 1848, i. p. 183; and “ On Repro-
duction and Repair,” in thid, 1849, 1. p. 419.

96 Dr. Burnett.on the Development of Viviparous Aphides.

cess in which the potential representations of two individuals are
united for the elimination of one germ. | This germ-power may
be extended by gemmation or by fission, but it can be formed
only by the act of generation, and.its play of extension and pro-
longation by budding, or by division, must always be within a
certain cycle, and this cycle is. recommenced by the new act of
the conjugation again of the sexes.

In this way, the dignity of the ovum as the primordium of all
true individuality is maintained ; and the axiom of Harvey, omne
vivum ex ovo, stands as golden in physiology. The buds may
put on the dress and the forms of the ovum, but these resem-
blances are extrinsic, and in fact only an inheritance from their
great predecessor. |

These phenomena, thus interpreted, furnish an excellent key”
to many others which have long been regarded as anomalous, in
the history of development. . d-mrmeg. od

I refer here to the so-called hibernating eggs (Wintereier) which:
are found in many Invertebrates. These I have not seen, but
they have been carefully described by several very trustworthy’
observers. These so-called eggs consist of oval masses or-cells:
invested with a capsule, but in which no germinative vesicle and’
dot have ever been seen. Structurally, therefore, they do not
resemble eggs, and it is from their form and ulterior development
only that they have received this name. Moreover, they sustain
none of the usual relations of eggs to the sexual organs, ‘andy as
far as I am aware, no one has witnessed their development inthe
ovaries. These bodies have been observed in Hydatina* and
Notommatat among the Infusoria; in Lacinulartiat among the
Rotatoria; and in Daphnia§ among the Crustacea. In all these
instances they batch without the aid of the male, the existence of
which ‘sex was once doubted from its unfrequent appearance.

- Now I regard these hibernating eggs as merely egg-like buds
exactly corresponding to the germs of the viviparous Aphides.
In other words, there are in the animals I have just mentioned,
certain individuals which reproduce by buds which are developed —
under rather anomalous conditions ; and I will add in conclusion,

* Ehrenberg, Die Infusionsthierchen, p. 413.

+ Dalrymple, Philos. Trans. 1849, p. 340.

{ Huxley, Quarterly Journ. Mier. Se. 1852, 1. p. 13.

§ Miiller, Entomostraca, p. 84. tab. 11. fig. 9-11, tab. 12. fig. 5. Also,
Ramdohr, Beitrage zur Naturgesch. einiger deutschen Monokulus-Arten,
1805, p. 28; Strauss, Mém. sur les Daphnia, in the Mém. du Mus. d’Hist.
Nat. v. p. 413. pl. 29; Jurime, Histoire des Monocles, 1820, p. 120. pl. 11.
fig. 1-4. Jurine calls these aggregated eggs “ La maladie de la selle.”’
There is, moreover, reason to believe that these anomalous reproductive
conditions occur in nearly all the Entomostraca : see Siebold and Stannius’s
Comparative Anat., my transl, vol. i.,; my note under sect. 292, note 4.

Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. 97

that I suspect that this gemmiparous mode of reproduction will
be found to be far from uncommon among most of the Inverte-
brata, when our researches into the history of their development
shall have been more widely extended*.

P.S.—I regret that I should not have seen until now, when
this paper is concluded, the important writings of Leydig on the
subject under discussion. In his article “ Kimige Bemerkungen
iiber die Entwickelung der Blattlause,” in Siebold and K6lliker’s
Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. 1850, ii. p. 62, he speaks of his former
observations in the Isis, 1848, mi. p. 184. .These I have not seen,
neither-also a work to which he refers, of J. Victor Carus
(Zu naheren Kenntniss des Generationswechsels, Leipzig, 1849).
Leydig, in his criticism of Carus’s views, expresses the opinion
that the development of the viviparous Aphides i is, histologically,
like that: of the Articulata in general. According to him, also,
the germ-bodies undergo processes corresponding to those of
impregnated eggs. These statements of Leydig, who is an ex-
cellent observer, have induced me recently to repeat my observa-
tions; but this afforded the same results as before, viz. that the
germ-bodies out of which are developed the viviparous Aphides
have no true histological identity: with eggs.

2. Sit! ‘Since the publication of this paper, I have enjoyed the
opportunity of making this series of investigations more complete,
by: an- examination of ‘the terminal or last brood which appears
at the end of autumn.

This terminal brood has hitherto been eonididennd, as far as 1
am aware, to be composed exclusively of males and females, or,
im. other words, of perfect sects of both sexes. I was surprised,
therefore, on examining the internal organs of the non-winged
individuals, to find that many of these last were not females

* Notice may here be given of some curious observations, which Eiieni
(Ann. Nat. Hist. ix. June 1852, p. 461) has furnished on the development of
the Pteromalide. A~Pteromalus lives in the ova of Rhynchites betuleti ;
in each of these ova there is seen, soon after its deposit, a mimute infusdrial
animal, with a tail by which it moves briskly about among the vitelline
cells. It soon ceases to move, however, and in its interior appears a vesicle
which increases and changes into a larva which is that of Pteromalus ; this
Jarva becomes a pupa, and, after eight or ten days, changes to the perfect
insect which escapes from the ovum. If these observations are verified, we
have here a case exactly like that of the Aphides, excepting that, like the
Distoma, the intermediate budding form is very low, and takes on none of
the zoological peculiarities of the parent. But these statements need
corroboration, for they do not agree with the history of other species of
Pteromalus whose development is well known. See also the wonderful
gemmiparous phenomena related by Siebold of Gyrodactylus ; Siebold
and Kolliker’s Zeitsehr. f. wiss. Zool. i. 1849, p. 347.

+ Silliman’s Journal for March.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 7

*

98 Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides.

proper, but simply the ordinary gemmiparous form already de-
scribed. Moreoyer, so great was the similarity of appearance
between these two forms—true females and gemmiparous indivi-
duals—that they could be distinguished only by an examimation
of their internal genitalia. Among the proper females there were,
‘besides those which were filled with eggs or had already depo-
sited them, other individuals in which the ovaries were but feebly
developed, or at least, in which no mature eggs had been formed.
An opportunity was thereby afforded me to examine the’ struc-
tural differences between the true ovaries and their quasi repre-
sentatives—the bud-like processes. The true ovaries had their
usual, well-known structure—multilocular tubes containing nu-
cleated cells which are probably the undeveloped germs ; the
bud.-like processes, on the other hand, consisted of a row of cell-
masses, oval and connected by a kind of peduncle, as described
in detail in the preceding paper. These wide differences have,
more than ever, persuaded me of the morphological dissimilarity
of these two kinds of reproducing parts in this animal. It seems
to me then that the real intrinsic difference between an ovum
and a bud lies as deep as the conditions of sex itself, notwith-
standing the latter often has, as in the present case, for instance,
some of the morphological characteristics of the former.

The appearance of sexless, gemmiparous individuals in the
terminal brood would seem to indicate, moreover, that the con-
ditions which determine the appearance of individuals usually
exclusively male and female, are not, perhaps, referable to’ the
fact of this being the last brood, but rather to relations of warmth

and nutrition. This view is rendered more probable by the fact
of the variation in the number of broods between the first and
last, observed in the same species in different years—ranging
between seven, nine, eleven or more. Moreover, Kyber, as quoted
already in the preceding paper, by nursing continually in a warm
room a collection of Aphis dianthi, keeping about them a sum-
mer temperature, succeeded in continuing uninterruptedly the
series of sexless or gemmiparous individuals for four years. There
are many other facts in insect life that indicate in like manner
some direct relation between temperature and nutriment, and
definite sexual development. The subject is as important as it
is interesting in physiology, and these very animals will, perhaps,
subserve the successful studyof the primary morphological con-
ditions of sex.

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Structure of the Shell of Alveolina. . 99

VIII.—On the. true position of the Canaliferous Structure in the
Shell of Fossil Alveolina (D’ Orbigny). By H. J. Carrer, Esq.,
Assistant Surgeon, Bombay Establishment.

[With a Plate. ]

In the description of Alveolina melo, given at p. 170. vol. xi. of
this Journal, I have stated, that the “ transverse parallel ridges ”
seen on the outside of the fossil correspond to the “ divisions,”
or rather partitions, in the interior of the chambers. D’Orbigny
also has stated, that the chambers in Alveolina are “ divided
into a great number of capillary cavities by partitions longitudinal
. to the enroulement”’ (Foss. Foram. du Bassin Tert. de Vienne,
p- 143); and so most people would think, judging from the ex-
ternal appearance of the shell; but when the interior is examined
by a section made through the longitudinal axis (PI. ITI. B. fig. 3),
then these divisions and. this canaliferous or capillary structure
are seen to be confined to the external walls of the chambers, and
' to be completely excluded from their interior. -

The oversight has arisen from the last whorls of the shell
being in such close approximation with each other, that there
seems in most instances to be no space for the chambers left be-
tween, them, and hence the appearance of the openings of the
capillary canals aloug the free border of the last-formed segment
could hardly be inferred to lead to anything but the chambers
themselves; while the intervals between the transverse ridges,
too, would also lead to the inference that the latter were so
many partitions dividing the chambers into as many cavities
arranged longitudinally with respect to the direction or enroule-
ment of the shell (figs. 3, 4).

Tt. was only a few weeks since, however (although I had fre-
quently seen and even sketched it), that I recognized the true
position of this canaliferous structure, when cursorily examining
some specimens of Alveolina which had been presented to the
Asiatic Society of Bombay by Dr. Leith, and I was instantly
struck with its analogy in position and nature to the reticular
_ canaliferous structure im the spicular or marginal cord of Oper-
culina Arabica (Pl, LV. vol. x.).

The canals are about 1—-400th of an inch square, and the
partitions which separate ‘them about a third of this breadth
(fig. 3 b), sometimes much thinner. They appear to open by a
single row of apertures in the free edge of the last-formed seg-
ment of the shell, and from thence to be continued into the very
centre, following the spire and being confined to the walls of the
shell the whole way. On their course they dip inwards as they

7%

100 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Structure of the Shell of Alveolina.

cross the grooves, which, like those on the surface of a melon,

divide the segments and. offering a triangular space are filled up
by corresponding portions of the shell in the form of ribs (fig. 1 a).

Through each rib also there is a triangular canal (fig.4b0 & 5a),
which extends to either extremity of “the fossil, where again it
may have comniunicated with the exterior by a foramen or um-
bilical hole apparently in the latter (fig. 2a). Behind and also
internal to the triangular canal there appears to have been
another longitudinal channel of communication, formed by a
deficiency in the partitions of the canals at this part (fig. 4c &
5 6). Although the partitions generally appear to have been
continuous under the ribs, yet in many instances they seem to
alternate, or nearly so, with the interspaces or canals in the ad-
joining segments. Whether there was any communication be-
tween the canals and the chambers (fig. 3 6) future investigation
must determine ; at present there appears to be. no other outiet
for them ; and if this be the case with Alveolina, it may also be
the case in many other forms of Foraminifera. Of what use
then can the chambers be ? | |

Although T have mentioned holes, channels, canals, and cavi-
ties in this fossil, yet in.reality there is no such thing; but from
their having been filled with transparent calc-spar they are
easily recognized, in contradistinction to the white amorphous
carbonate of lime which has replaced the shell itself.

The specimens of Alveolina in which I first noticed the ‘posi-
tion of this canaliferous structure were, as before stated, pre-
sented to the Asiatic Society by Dr. Leith, who broke off the
portions of limestone containing them from rocks in the Bolan
Pass, between the towns of Dadur and Quetta. ~

They are associated, as in Scinde and Arabia, with papyra-
ceous Orbitolites (Cyclolina, D’Orbig.), and. the white compact
limestone containing them is that which in this part of the world
is generally called ‘nummulitic ;” but m only one or two in-
stances have I seen Alveolina mixed with Nummulites, and then
‘only very sparsely scattered throughout the mass, though it is
quite possible that the opposite may be the case, for they must
be close together. -The easiness, however, of mistaking Ordi-
tolites for Nummulites, in the rock, and the occurrence of Cyclo-
lina and Alveolina together in great abundance in the white com-
pact, limestone of the south-east. coast of Arabia (which I take to
be the same. as that of Scinde and the Bolan Pass) far below the
position of the Nummulites, together with the existence of these
two fossils in ‘the Chalk of Europe (D’Orbigny), induces me to
think, that much of the white limestone in the East is called
“ nummulitic,” which will hereafter be found to be an equivalent

of the Chalk.

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Structure of the Shell of Alveolina. 101

T have also lately been so fortunate.as to obtain a view of the

cells in the centre of.one of these papyraceous Orbitolites (Cyclo-
lina, D’Orbig.)—the doubly concave species—and I find that
they are arranged in concentric circles there, though apparently
not more than one deep. The greatest care therefore is neces~
sary in exposing them, for a rub too much or too little may
either destroy them altogether or entirely fail to bring them
into view. I mention this, because I had inferred, from the sub-
spiral arrangement of the cells in Orbitoides Prattii and Orbito-
lites Malabarica (Plates VII. & XVI. vol. xi.), that this might be
the case throughout D’Orbigny’s order Cyelostégues ; but on
actual examination and subsequent reflection, I find that such
cannot be the case in Cyclolina ; at the same time, the arrange-
“ment of the cells being just like that of the diyisions on an
engine-turned watch-case, to which Dr, Carpenter has so aptly
likened them in Orbitolites complanata, Lam. (Quart. Journ, Geol.
Soc. vol. vi. pt. 1. p. 24), I think this way of describing them
much more intelligible than by the use of the term ‘ concentric.’
. The circles on the incrusted. surface of Cyclolina are. evidently
concentric ; they are in continuous lines ; but the arrangement of
the cells beneath the crust, though still seen to be concentric
under a high microscopic power, fails at first to strike the eye as
such from the greater prominence of the semi-gyrating lines,
which, flying off from the centre, most faithfully represent the
appearance mentioned.

I have measured the cells in the specimen in which I observed
this arrangement most satisfactorily, and find that those of the
centre are much smaller than those of the circumference ; the.
former are 1-380th of an inch, and the latter 1-6338rd of an
inch in diameter. |

&

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IIT. B.

Fig. 1. Melonites spheroidea (Lam.), magnified four diameters: a, ribs.;.
b, segments.

Fig. 2. Extremity of the same, magnified four diameters: @, central fora-~
men or umbilical hole.

Fig. 3. Longitudinal section of the same through the centre, greatly but
proportionally magnified: @, a, chambers; 6, canals and parti-
tions in the wall of the shell.

. Fig. 4. Transverse section of the same through the centre, equally mag-
nified, &c.: a, spiral wall of the shell; 6, triangular canal of
the rib; c, free space or channel behind anit internal to the rib ;
d, d,d, chambers ; e, e, septa.

Fig, 5. Magnified view of a portion of the wall of the shell, to show—a, tri-
angular canal of rib ; 2, free space or channel behind and anterne
to it; ¢, ¢, partitions of canaliferous structure.

Bombay, I4th April, 1854.

102 Messrs. Alder’ and Hancock on some new species

IX.—Notice of some new species of British Nudibranchiata.
By Josuua Auper and Anspany Hancock.

SEVERAL new species of Nudibranchiate Mollusca have occurred
to us during the last two or three years, descriptions of which
we had hoped before this to have published elsewhere. Unavoid-
able circumstances have delayed the publication ; and as some of
the species are the discoveries of friends, who have kindly placed
them in our hands for description, we consider it due to them as
well as to ourselves not to delay any longer the announcement
of these acquisitions to the British Heath, some of which are of
considerable intérest.

Doris ZETLANDICA.

White - cloak with large, soft, conical, pomted, unequal tuber-
cles: dorsal tentacles linear : oral tentacles tubercular : branchial
plumes 6, bipinnate, retractile within a cavity. Length 7 ths
of an inch.

A single specimen of this new Doris was found in Shetland by
My. Barlee in 1849. It differs from all the other British species
with retractile tentacles in the form of the tubercles; but the
most remarkable difference is in the character of the tongue,
which is covered with long, linear, subclavate spines, denticu-
lated on the imner icici

DoRIS MILLEGRANA.

Yellow or orange ?: cloak covered with minute granular tuber-
cles : oral tentacles linear: branchial plumes 6, bipinnate, retrac-
tile within a cavity. Length 14 inch.

Two specimens of this Doris, which we do not find before de-
scribed, are preserved in Dr. Leach’s collection in the British
Museum. They were sent from Torbay by Mrs. Griffiths. The
species comes nearest to D. Johnstoni in the character of the
- tubercles, but differs from it in having only six plumes, which
do not form a distinet cup. The tongue resembles a good deal
that of D. tuberculata, having stout, smooth spines ; but in this
species five or six of the extreme lateral spines are minutely pec-
tinated, which is not the case in D. tuberculata, nor in D. John-
stoni, though in the latter the spines are also of two kinds. We
have been aware of the existence of these specimens in the Bri-
tish Museum for several years, but hoped before this to have
inet with the species in a living state. Having failed m doing
so, Dr. Gray has liberally allowed us to examine and describe it
from the spirit specimens. There can be no doubt of its distinct-

~

of British Nudibranchiata, 103

ness from D. tuberculata, with which it had been confounded by
Dr. Leach.

- Doris PROXIMA.

Orange-yellow : cloak with stout elliptical tubercles: dorsal
tentacles subclavate: head furnished with a broad veil: no oral
tentacles: branchial, plumes 11, simply pinnate, non-retractile.
Length 3 an inch, 7

This species has been sent us by Mr. Price of Birkenhead,
where it occurs not unfrequently within tide-marks, in the spring.
It bears great resemblance to Doris aspera, of which we at first
thought it might be a variety. A careful inspection, however,
shows some points of difference ; more especially in the shape of
the tubercles, which are elliptical and obtusely pointed in this
species, while in D. aspera they are rounded and flattish. An
examination of the tongue has set the matter at rest, as it is
decidedly different from that of D. aspera.

‘THECACERA CAPITATA. -

White, freckled with greenish brown: tentacles retractile
within cavities : veil with two to four orange tubercles om each
side, and a row of orange tubercles between the tentacles: bran-
chial plumes 7, pinnate, tipped with orange : a stout. branchial
lobeon each: side also tipped. with orange. Length } inch.

Dredged at St. Ives, Cornwall, by Mr. Barlee, to whom, we
are indebted for specimens in spirits.

IpALIA ELEGANS, Leuckart.

Rose-coloured, freckled ; the processes orange-yellow : anterior
filaments 2 (one near the base of each tentacle): lateral filaments
numerous, irregular, the posterior ones obtuse, lobular : dorsal
filaments 5, three on the median line and two sublateral : bran-
chial plumes 18 (the anterior and posterior ones bifid) : foot mar-
gined with yellow. Length 1} inch:

We obtained specimens of this beautiful Jdalia by dredging off
Guernsey last summer. A species described in the Catalogue of
the Mollusca of Northumberland and Durham, which we referred
with doubt to JF, elegans, we now propose to call I. Leachii.. A
' specimen of the latter is preserved in Dr. Leach’s collection in
the British Museum.

IDALIA PULCHELLA.
Body freckled with; pale lilac; tentacles subclavate : anterior

filaments 4, set on an expanded pallial ridge: lateral filaments 5
or 6 on each side, the last large and bifid: branchial plumes 11

104: On\ some\ new species of British Nudibranchiata.

(the anterior one bifid), rather ‘small, diminishing posteriorly.
Length zoths of an inch,

# This pretty species was dredged by, Mr. Barlee at St. Ives in
ie summer of 1853.

TRITONTA ALBA.

ifraneparent white, with opake- white transverse markings ;
rather depressed, smooth or. very, faintly tuberculated : branchize
imperfectly bipinnate, .4.or,5,.0n each |side, with intermediate
smaller ones, set on an.expanded,and waved pallial margin ; veil
bilobed, with irregular digitations... Length 3 inch.

The character of the tongue has again come to our aid in di-
stinguishing this, species from the young of T. Hombergii, to
which it bears great resemblance. In this species the lingual
spines have slerder lateral denticles, while those of 7. Hombergii
are quite smooth. It occurs oecasionally along with 7. plebeia,
on masses of Alcyonium digitatum brought in on 1 the aie lines,
at Cullercoats, Northumberland.

-

H »
Eotis CARNEAL

Flesh-coloured, slender: branchiz linear-conical, rose-coloured,
set in seven clusters: tentacles rather long, of equal length, the
dorsal pair dark olive-brown, paler above: oral pair whitish:
anterior angles of the foot much produced. Length 2 an inch.

A single specimen was dredged by Mrs. Wyatt. of Torquay in
Salcombe Bay some years ago. We have not met with it in a
living state. The dentition of the tongue, as well as the cha-
racter and ‘arrangement of the branchial papille, show a relation-
ship. between this species and LE. alba.

FoLis GLAUCOIDES. ’

White, depressed: head «small: tentacles ‘small, smooth :
branchi«e linear, white, with yellowish tips, and a narrow, pale
fulvous..central| gland, set in. 11 pedunculated clusters: foot
broad, with. the, anterior angles acute, short. . Length 3.an inch.

Under, stones near low-water mark on the Isle of Herm near
Guernsey.,..This very curious Holis shows, inmost of its. cha-
racters, an approach to the genus Gilaucus. One specimen only -
was found.

f Eouis PUSTULATA.

White; pellucida :» branchiz long, linear, obtuse, yellowish
orange; granulated with white; set m9 or 10 rows: tentacles
shortish: anterior angles of the foot rounded. Length + inch.

We obtained ‘two examples of this new'species from the fishing
boats ‘at’ Cullercoats: ‘The: granular character of) the: papillee
distinguishes it from every other British species.

‘

Mr. E. L. Layard\on:the Ornithology of Ceylon. 105

EMBLETONIA-PALLIDA.

Yellowish white, with a few black spots on the back ; ten-
tacles shortish, approximating: oral lobes indistinct, united into a
semicircular veil : branchize nearly linear, very pale orange, set in
4 or 5 rows on each side, two papille in each row. Length ;1,th
Of St HEN, OF 19 es STIAWw-SalBqu: AIIW SILW To
~ A specimen of this minute speciés, discovered by Mr. Price on
the shore at Birkenhead, was kindly sent us by that gentleman
in the spring of this year. It differs from the other British spe-
cies in having a double series of papillie at’ the sides.

ANTIOPA HYALINA.

Pellucid, yellowish, with brown markings down the middle of
the back: branchie. elliptical, tuberculated, hyaline, with the
central vessel fulvous: dorsal tentacles obtuse, obscurely lami-
nated, united by a crest: oral tentacles united by a narrow veil.
Length ,3ths of an inch. :

We are indebted for our knowledge of this species to Mr. Byer-
ley of Upton, Birkenhead, who dredged it near Hilbro Island at
the mouth of the Dee in 1851. In many of its characters it
comes yery near to Proctonotus mucroniferus, but the laminated
crest, shows it to belong to the genus Antiopa. |

X:—Notes on the Ornithology of Ceylon, collected during ori
eight. years’ residence in the Island. By Encaar Lropoxp
Layarp, F.Z.S.,C.M.E.S. &c.

{Continued from p. 64. ]

219. GALLOPERDIX BICALCARATUS. <Aban-cuccula, Cing.

This species, known to Europeans under’ the. various denomi-
nations of “Spur Fowl,” “ Double-spurred: Partridge,” ‘and
“ Kandy Partridge,” is an inhabitant of the central, southern,
and south-western provinces. ' It’ delights’ in deep-tangled
brakes, and thick masses of canes ‘on the sides of gentle deéclivi-
ties ; these it finds abundantly in the localities above cited,
while in the northern and eastern provinces the sandy soil and
open jungles offer no congenial home to a bird of its shy and
retirmg habits... Even in localities. where it. does, occur, it is
more often heard than seen ; for so extreme is its wariness, that
it rarely falls. before the gun even! of the native hunter, who
creeps about unclad, and noiselessly as the denizens of the forest.
It:is trapped by means of nooses. and other snares placed. in its
path, for its flesh is; highly ‘valued, by the, natives... I, think it

°

106; Mr. BE. L.\Layard:on the Ornithology. of Ceylon:

decidedly superior im flavour to: any other game which I tasted
in Ceylon ; it ate and looked much lke grouse.

It is most active during mornmg and eyening, roaming in
small parties amid the open, glades, or bare towering trunks of
the ‘“ Mookalane,” but on the least alarm seeking safety in the
most impenetrable underwood ; after remaining some time con-
cealed, if nothing occurs to excite their fears, a cock-bird,
bolder than the rest, will utter a few low notes, not unlike the
plaintive ery of a turkey poult; if this is answered from a di-
stance, or the birds are reassured by the total silence, the call is
changed toa loud piping whistle, of which the following stave
gives the nearest representation I can devise :— 3

’ gve e . e ee oe a be g $ . be be e
pee gs as 2 2 2 ;

te feee £At Been Fis
p-3 beter CF

Za { Fe* L Q
64 =

4 i)
a ere: * - 4 - cen b “A S Nae,

and the birds once more sally out from their concealment.’ ' I

- am convinced that, like the Virginian quail, these birds possess
the power of ventriloquism in a great degree. ‘I have’ often’
listened to those in my aviary, and could have declared that the
calls proceeded from every part of the garden save that im which
the performers were located. They do not thrive well in confine-
ment, but exhibit the same wild and suspicious. demeanour,
always hiding behind their feeding-troughs, or herding in corners.
If any object approaches too closely and alarms them, they ‘rise
suddenly from the ground with a violent spring, and unless the
roof is placed at a considerable altitude, dash their heads against
it and fall lifeless to the ground.

They fly with great rapidity, but prefer to take refuge in con-
céalment rather than maintain a lengthened flight. One which
escaped from a basket in my house flew up to the roof and
through the ventilating holes, but instead of continuing on the
wing at the elevation it had attained, it dropped instantly into a
small copse, out of which it was hunted with much difficulty,
when it darted through an open door into my kitchen and con-
cealed itself behind a box.

The males are very pugilistic, and in their manner of fighting
reminded me of the game cock, depressing and elevating the
head, imitating each other’s actions, &c. &c.

Of its nidification nothing is known. ,

The wretched figure of a “ Rail,” in ‘ Brown’s Illustrations,’ is,
I am certain, meant fora female of this species ; Mr. Strickland
agreed with me in thus thinking.

Mr. E. 1. Layard’ on the Ornithdlogy df Ceylon.|/ 107

220. FRANCOLINUS PonTICERIANUS, Gmel. | Cowdari, Mal.
Oussa-watua, Cing.

Not uncommon on sandy soils dotted with jungle, such as ex-
tends from Chilaw northward round to Tangalle ; in the interior
and about Colombo it is not found. In the northern province
it is very abundant, and flourishes well on the islands in the
Jaffna estuary, on which I have frequently had excellent sport.
They frequent the branches of thick trees or bushes, and perch
very readily. They breed twice a year, in August and December
(at least I have taken fresh eggs in both these months), laying
from eight to sixteen eggs. Axis 15 lines, diam. 12 lines. In
shape like those of the European bird, but more yellow in
colour, in-a hollow in the bottom of a bush or tuft of grass,
making little or no nest.

221. Perpicuta arcoonpan, Sykes.

T have only seen one pair of these elegant little partridges ;
they were caught alive at Cotta, near Colombo. I have an egg
which can only belong to this bird, also found in the same loca-
lity... Axis. 12 lines, diam. 9 lines. It. precisely resembles a
diminutive partridge egg.

229, CotuRNIx CHINENSIS, Linn. Wenella-watua, Cing,

This small and elegantly coloured Quail is rather common in.
the grass and paddy fields in the neighbourhood of Galle and
Matura; elsewhere I have not met with it, save once in, the
Pasdoom corle. It flies together in coveys of ten or fourteen;
and from: its diminutive size and rapid motion.is hard, to
shoot; when once shot at, it is very difficult to flush. again,
skulking among the tufts of grass, and suffering-itself to be
caught by the hand... I tried to keep them in confinement, but
they appear of untameable nature, and on the least. alarm
spring upwards with such force as to dash their heads in pieces
against the roof of their cage.

223. Turnix oceLuatus, Scop., var. Tarcoor, Sykes. Watua,
Cing. Cddey, Mal.

Common in the south; the variety which Mr. Blyth desig-
~ nates as 7. Bengalensis is abundant in the north, to the exclusion
of the other. There does not appear to be any difference in the
eggs, which are oblong-ovate, of a yellowish green colour, closely
mottled with blackish spots, which grow larger towards the ob-
tuse end, in some instances running into each other. Axis 1]
lines, diam. 8 lines. The nest, if nest it can be called, is com-
posed of a few bents of grass dropped into a depression in the

108 Meo RL. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon:

ground, often only the’ footprimt of a bullock. I have found
the eggs from February to August, and equally fresh.

Dr. Kelaart. includes Coturniz Coromandelica, Gmel., in his
list, sed non vidi. aes

224. Esacus RECURVIROSTRIS, Cuv. Mosul-Krandi and Mosul-
Kanati, Mal.; lit. Hare-eyed.

A rarish and wary bird, frequenting the open muddy plains of
Mantotte on the western coast, occasionally found about Pt.
Pedro, and I saw a specimen or two at Fiennanicain: I think
_ it is migratory, appearing in December. I have seen. them

coming from the seaward in that month. Its eggs, two in num-
ber, are deposited on the bare ground in a small hollow ; they
are of a pale nankeen colour, thickly covered with burnt-umber-
coloured blotches, largest and closest at the obtuse end. Axis
2 inches ; diam. 1 in. 4 lines. :

225. CGipICNEMUS CREPITANS, Temm.

Much more frequent and generally distributed than the pre-
ceding species. It is found also in flocks of fifteen or twenty,
whereas the former is a solitary bird, at most only found in
pairs. ! a
226. Cursorius CoroMANDELICUs, Gmel.

Found occasionally on the Wally plains during the month of
April. Dr. Kelaart includes Glareola orientalis, Leach, sed non
vidi.

227. SARCIOPHORUS BILOBUS, Gmel. Kirella, Cing. » Aleaty;
Mal: Verklikker, Dutch. Teteue, Port.

This and the succeeding species are abundant all over the
island in the neighbourhood of water, and with their loud un-
tiring cries, which have been likened to the words, “‘ Did he do
it?” and “It’s a pity to doit,” are the plagues of the sportsman. |

The tank-shooter in particular, while stealmg along in the
silence of the night to some secluded pool, where he knows he
shall probably find an elk or a bear, is startled by the shrill ery
of this ever-vigilant bird, as it springs from almost under his feet
and makes the night air ring again, while far and near the cry is
re-echoed, till every wild animal within hearing is on the alert,
roused by its well-known warning voice. ~ :

The nest is merely a hollow stamped in the earth by the old
birds, and the eggs, from three to five in number, weigh 3iliss.
Axis 1 in. 6 lines; diam. 1] in. 3 lines. ‘Their colour is a rich
nankeen, plentifully spotted with rather large blotches, some of
which are dark brown, others gray, of a deeper or paler shade ;

Mr. E. L: Layard. on the Ornithology of Ceylon... 109

these markings are thickest, at, the obtuse end. The shape is
similar to those of the lapwing. ,

228. Losivanetitus Gornsis, Gmel. Kibulla, Cing. Alcaty,
Mal.

In habits this species.so nearly resembles the last, that nothing
more need be said upon it. Its eggs are rather larger, having
an axis of 1 inch 9 lines, and a diam. of 14 lines ; the markings
are similar in colour, but smaller and. more thickly and generally
spread. Hos”

229. Oates Vindtiees Bech. Rana-watua,Cing. Cotan,
Mal. Sneppy, Port. Chnipe, Dutch. The Dutch and
‘Portuguese names are applied indiscriminately to all the
lesser waders. Golden Plover of Kuropean sportsmen.

‘A bird of passage, appearing in September with the rains; it
frequents ploughed lands in search of worms and grubs of all
kinds, and is not at all rare, particularly in the northern province.

230. Hraticuta LescHenavutttt, Less.
Syn. Charadrius rufinellus, Blyth, Ann, & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1833.

231. Hiaticuta Cantiana, Lath,
~ and

232. Hiaricuna Parirerina, Scop. Ola-watua, Cing. This
name is common to most of the waders.

The mud plains of Mantotte and Bangalle on the western coast,
the\shores and inlets of the Jaffna estuary, extending as far as
Mulletivoe on the eastern coast, and the salt pans of Hamban-
totte on the south of the island, afford vast feeding-places for
myriads of the lesser waders, who fly about in flocks of tens, or
tens of hundreds, over the creeks of brackish water which
meander through the naked and inhospitable wastes. Nor must
the numerous marshy mangrove-covered islands, formed. by the
silt which accumulates at the mouths of the rivers, be forgotten,
nor the reedy margins of the tanks and lakes be overlooked,
while enumerating the resorts of the Charadrina, Totanine, and
Tringine. Their piping cries mingle equally with the roar of the
‘surf as it thunders over the coral-reef or sandy beach, with the
moaning of the wind among the trees which surround the lonely
jungle tank, and with the voice of the husbandman as he urges his
toil-worn buffaloes through the teeming mud of his paddy-field,
To the true lover of nature I know no sounds more pleasing than
the wild cries of the sea birds which blend harmoniously with
the rougher voices of her elements; to myself they impart feel-

110 = Mr E) L. Layard onthe Ornithology of Ceylon.

ings of the most intense pleasure, feelings of exultation, which
make me long to raise-my voice and shout in concert with those
of the busy multitudes,

The commonest of the three species above enumerated is per-
haps H. Philippina; they are all birds of passage, frequenting
different parts of the island at different seasons, but I never
heard of any of them breeding with us. °

233. SrrepsiLas INTERPRES, L.

Rare. I procured three specimens at Pt. Pedro in January on
the coral-reef, and Mr. Brodie forwarded me one from Putlam
which he shot on the Calpentyn lake ; I also saw one on the rocks
in Colombo harbour in March. -

234. Hamaropus ostRALEGUS, Linn.

Very rare; only one or two specimens seen in the Jaffna
estuary in the month of January.

235. ARDEA cINEREA, Linn, Kallapua-Karawal-koka and. In-
dooroo-koka, Cing.

Rare: I only procured one specimen, which I killed ‘one
morning before daylight while crossing Wally plain. | Mr. Gis-
borne’s collector procured one in the island of Valenny near
Jaffna,

236. “ArnpEa puRPUREA, Linn. Carawal-koka, Cing.

The “ Blue Heron” of European sportsmen is not uncommon.
I have shot it at Matura and at Pt. Pedro, and saw it on most
of the tanks in the central road. It is rarely seen. walking in
the flooded fields like the White Herons, but keeps to beds of

reeds along the margins of rivers and tanks.

237. ARDEA Asuna, Sykes. .

I procured several specimens of this bird from Valenny, one
of the islands of the Jaffna estuary, and from a lake near Chilaw,
where they bred m company with others of the same genus. I
also shot a young bird pure white, except some dusky gray upon
the winglet and coverts of the primaries, and at the base of some
of the dorsal feathers.. Of this bird Mr. Blyth writes— This
is an exceedingly interesting specimen, and goes far to prove by
analogy the identity of the white Herodias Greyt with H. gu-
laris.” I shot this specimen on Colombo lake. The eggs of this
species are of a pale blue colour, in shape a rounded oval. Axis
lin. 10 lines, diam. 1 mm. 5 lines, The nest is a huge structure

| Mr Ev L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon. 1]1

of sticks placed in trees by the water’s side. . Incubation goes on
in May and June in Chilaw lake;,.eggs said to be from four to .
six in number. :

238. Arpra aLBA, Linn. Baddadel koka, Cing. Vella-koku,
Mal. ; lit. White Heron;, Koku, is the Malabar name for all
the Heron family. .Gans, Dutch... Garses, Port.

239. ArnpEA INtTERMEDIA, Wagler. Hotta-kallu-koka, Cing.;
lit. Black-billed Heron. ;

240. Arpra GarzeTTa, Linn. Swdu-koka, Cing.; lit. White
Heron.

241. ArpEA BuBULCUS, Savig. Gehri-koka, Cing. ; lit. Cattle-
keeper Heron.

These Egrets are common in nearly all parts of the island,
except in the hills; at Nuwera Elia Dr. Kelaart, has not met
with any; further down I saw them sparingly, but the low
country is their stronghold. 4. bubulcus is sure to be found in
attendance on grazing cattle, ridding them of their flies, ticks,
&c.,,and the animals seem well to know their benefactors, and
stand quietly, while the birds jump up and. peck their tormenters
from their flanks and belly. All the species frequent open fields.
Half-way between Tangalle and Matura is a large lake, which
an official attendance on the Supreme Court of Judicature for-
tunately enabled. me to visit. While the court officers. halted
for the heat of the day, I set off on horseback ‘from the rest-
house and galloped to the village, having sent forward my
“fidus Achates,” Muttu, over-night, with orders to prepare me ©
a boat. This was in waiting when I arrived ; a canoe so narrow
that I could not sit in it, or rather on it with my knees together.
To remedy this defect, Muttu had fastened a bottomless chair
over it! and had woven some coir rope across the chasm. The
canoe, the only one to be had, was about 12 feet long, worm-
eaten throughout, and one end gone entirely, its place being
supplied with a piece of fresh turf, to keep out the water! !
Into this | and Muttu and a steersman got, the villagers pushed
us off, and when fairly afloat I found the top of the gunwale
about three inches from the water, and that my frail. vessel
leaked in fifty places. From my elevated position I counted one,
two, three, a dozen alligators,-and I anxiously mquired of my
black, and all but nade crew, if they were of-the harmless kind.
A shake of the head and the word “ Alliekimboola” by no means
reassured me; it meant they were all man-eaters!, 1 looked at
my boat, then at the loathsome reptiles floating around me, then

, ify \
112 Mr. E. L. Layard on, the Ornithology of Ceylon.

at my boat again; it would not do—I must give it up—the risk
was too great ; the least sudden, thoughtless move might overset
us. I tried the outrigger with my foot, that was firm; the
nigger knew his safety lay there; ‘ crack”? went the collecting
gun close to my ear, and down came a specimen of Nycticorax
griseus, a bird until then new to me; this turned the scale, and
I ordered the boat forward ; thousands of water-birds rose at the
report, and soon the guns were busily employed... It was full
breeding season. Herons, spoonbills, ibises, pelicans, &c., &e.,
swarmed in the air and on the trees, while their nests were so
crowded as to touch each other. I could only get a few of those
nearest the lake; up to them the men climbed from the,boat,
not daring to venture into the water, which was alive with alliga-
tors, watching for the young birds which fell fromthe nests;
several times they snapped up the birds which I shot before I
could get them, though they only fell fifteen or twenty. yards
away ; the branches of the trees were white with droppings, and
the water below thick and putrid; the stench was. intolerable. —
It was with difficulty I could distinguish one nest from another,
so as to be certain of the parentage of the eggs; but by remain-
ing quiet, I marked a bird to its nest, and then rowed up’to it,
robbed it, and then lay-to again... The nest seemed to be used
year after year, if one may judge from the masses of sticks of
different ages’ of which they were composed; my guide also
confirmed this idea, and said the birds were not particular as to
the nest, one species occupying it one year, another the next
erhaps. : :

The following are the dimensions of the eggs I obtained,

taken at random from what appeared the most usual form of
each species, though much difference exists in this :—

Ardea alba.—Axis 2 inches 3 lines, diam. 1 inch 8 lines.

A. intermedia.—Axis 1 inch 9 lines, diam. 1 inch 4 lines.

A. garzetta.—Axis 1 inch 10} lines, diam. 1 inch 5 lines.

A. bubulcus.—Axis 1 inch 10 lines, diam. 1 inch 4 lines.

Unfortunately most of my eggs were hard-set. 1 was there
at the beginning of May*. In shape they are equal at both
ends, and very' rounded ; they are also all of the same pure pal
blue colour. |

242..ARDEOLA LeucopreRA, Bodd. Kanna koka, Cing.

Very abundant in all marshy ground. It stands motionless
on the low embankments of the paddy-fields, and watches. fur
small fish, crabs, &.. When one comes within range, it darts

* T see by an old note, that I found A. intermedia breeding in. a marsh
at Pt. Pedro at the end of July; eggs being then fresh.

Mr. E. L.. Layard’on the Ornithology of Ceylon. 113

‘out its neck and seizes it with its bill; while thus engaged,
‘their dark-coloured plumes so entirely cover the white ones, that
the bird is almost invisible; on taking to flight, however, these
become apparent. In allusion to this, the Tamuls have a pro-
verb that, like this Koku, the deceitful man only occasionally
shows himself in his true colours.

’ It breeds in trees in company with other herons ; its eggs are
the same in colour, but rounder in shape; axis 1 inch 5 lines,
diam. 1 inch 2 lines.

243. ARDETTA CINNAMOMEA, Ginel. Nati Korawaka, Cing.

Common about the south of the island; I have not met with
it northward. It frequents beds of rushes, and lights readily on
trees. “Muttu brought in a white egg, which he stated he
thought belonged to the species ; he told me he saw a hen bird
risé from some sedges, and on going to the place he found a
rough nest of reeds and flags raised above the water, in which
was the egg. Its axis is ] inch 3 lines, and diam. 13 lines... In
shiape'it resembles a Heron’s egg.

* 2440 Anpertra rravicoriis, Lath. Carawal-koka, Cing. ~

"Not. uncommon in the marshes about.Matura; I also shot
three specimens on Colombo lake in March... It frequents reeds,
and perches readily. It is a fearless bird, permits a near’ap-
proach and remains motionless, trusting to its sombre colour to
escape detection.

ea 245. ARDETTA SINENSIS, Gmel.

This is the smallest of our species, and is: abundant’ onthe
banks-of. all the southern rivers; it becomes rare towards the
north, where itis replaced by

246. Buroripes Javantca, Horsf.,

which is very abundant. I have seen from ten to twenty. spe-
cimens in the Fort-ditch at Jaffna, in one day. This species, by
the way, frequents salt water more than any other, though 4, leu-
coptera may often be seen fishing on the mud-banks left by the
retreating tide near shore.

Dr. Kelaart includes A. thalassina, Swains., in his list, on the
authority of some one who forwarded him a specimen many years
ago from the Colombo Medical: Museum,, he being then in En-
gland. I am sure he is mistaken in either the identification or
locality, the latter most probably, since no dependence can be
placed on a museum whose labels have been shifted so often, and
on which so little care has been bestowed.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xiv. 8

14 = Mr. EL. Layard on. the. Ornithology \of Ceylon:

247. PLATALEA LEUCORODIA, Linn. | Chapy-chundan, Males
Spoon-mouth,, )Lapellaar; Dutch, | ).)

‘The Spoonbill is common, enough in certain Sacsttticas | Mulle-
tivoe,| Hambantotte, Tangalle; and. Chilaw: being the principal.
It, begins to/breed in, March in the north, and.im the south eggs
are hard set in May ; some young birds were,also about. Its.eggs
are—axis 2 in. 6 lines, diam. 1 in. 9 lines, rather oval, chalky-

white, with irregular hlatohes of the colour of dried blood’ about
everywhere,

_, 248. Nycrrconax. GRISEUS, Linn. rete dakes ing,
» (Common on, the Tangalle lake, and such localities.

1249, ‘Boeutbonts MELANOLOPHA, Rafiles.

I was fortunate enough to procure two or three specimens of
this curious bird about Colombo in the month of November 1852.
The natives were quite ignorant of it, and while I had one alive
in my house came in great numbers to see it. . It certainly was
a queer-looking creature ; its eyes were oblong, pupil surrounded
by a light yellow iris darkening into a greenish yellow on the
outside, The cere of the'bill’ greenish, legs and bill dark' green,
claws yellow. On being approached it threw itself back on its
tarsi, at first uttermg a loud hiss which deepened into a, harsh
cracking bark ;° the whole body, head, thighs, wings and. neck
were inflated with wind and swelled toa great size; its crest was
erected and its ruff expanded; in this attitude jit waited, till the
object of its, dislike drew near enough to be struck with its sharp
pesnee bill,; which, inflicted a severe punctures,

250. ink Ausrrauis; Lath. Peria‘koku; Mal. ie. tinge
Heron. Alkoka, Cing. ; 3 lit. Man-Heron, from its size.

~L have ony seen .a few of \these, huge, waders m.,the Jaffna
estuary at, Elephant Pass; they were always.in, pairs, wading
about in the shallow water, but always far out of gun-shot.

251. Lepropritus Javanica, Lath.

/The:pouchless Adjutant is occasionally found on the tanks in
the: Wanny,and about the marshes ‘near Tangalle. I believe it

is migratory, as are most of our larger Storks, appearing with
the rains.

252. Ciconia LeucocerHALA, Gmel. Padre-koku, Cing.; lit.
Parson Bird, from its white throat and black plumage ap-

Mri 8. L.Layard ‘onthe Ornithology of Ceylon. 1 15

' pearing ata distance like'a' clergyman in his black garments
and white neckcloth.' >? Madina-kokw) Mal:

‘Common throughout the island 'on‘all the swampy lands. — It
breeds in) trees, incompanies, laying ‘several. pure white chalky
eggs, the surface of whichis curiously granulated. Axis 2 inches
9 lines, diam, 1 inch 10: lines:

258. ANastoms osciraNns, Bodd/> Gombellu-koka, Cing.; lit
Snail-eater and Snail- koka ; ;— Bellu, Gombellu and Godabellu
being the Cingalese for snails of all kinds.

Common on all marshes. At Matura I saw them in flocks of
several hundreds ;:they were ‘breeding m lofty trees; but I could
not obtain their eggs, though I offered a reward for them; the
natives said they, defended their nests withrsuch pertinacity that
they feared to mount to them. :

254. TANTALUS LEUCOCEPHALUS, Gmel: Datudua, Cing. ; lit.
“* Sickle-bill, Changa vella nary, Mal. (Nary is the Zoneral
Tamul name for all storks.) Brand-gaus, Dutch ; lit. Brand
or Fire Goose, from the red feather, in the tail.

Bound j in company with’ the three prededing nisi ibis not
uncommon.

255. ‘Te ORSRTORNES MELANOCEPHALA, Lath. Tatta-koku, Cing.;

“Tit, Bald-head, Koku.

Common ‘in the northern and north-western provinces ; feed-
ing‘ and ‘breeding together in flocks ; they lay four’ or six eggs.in
a large nest of sticks) The’ eggs are chalky-white, ‘sparingly
blotched here and there with dry blood-coloured marks, thickest
atthe obtuse end. . Axis.2 in. 7 lines, diam. 1 ims 9:lines.

256. Ipis FALCINELLUS, Linn. Raétu-datudua, Cing. ; lit. Black
Sickle-bill: Karapu cotan, Mal. ; lit. Black Snipe. Swartz-
whelp, Dutch; lit. Black Curlew. Prater whelp, Port.
“Black Curlew ” of English shooters. |

Not uncommon about Tangalle Lake and at Pt. Pedro. It
was often brought into the bazaar at the latter place for sale,
andi found it delicious eating.» They feed’ just lke curlews,
inserting their bills into: the mud:and water in search of worms.

[To be continued. |

8*

116 Prof. F. M‘Coy on some new Cretaceous Crustacea.

XI.— On some new. Cretaceous, Crustacea. By FrepErick
M‘Coy, F.G.S., Hon. F.C.P.S., Professor of Natural Science
in the University of Melbourne, late Professor of Geology and
Mineralogy in the Queen’s University of Ireland.

[With a Plate. }

Tue line, to the importance of which I first drew attention in a
former paper in the ‘ Annals,’ on Crustacea, and to which I there
applied the distinctive name of “nuchal furrow,” has been also
recognized more recently by Professor Milne-Edwards, in his late
memoir in the ‘ Annales des Sciences’ on the nomenclature of
the hard parts of Crustacea, in which memoir he applies to it
the name. “ cervical furrow,” and suggests that it indicates two
rings in the carapace of most Decapods, instead of only one, as
heretofore supposed. As the nomenclature of Professor Milne-
Edwards is much more elaborate than that of his predecessors,
I adopt it here, in the description of the Brachyura in this paper :
the alterations in my former descriptions, necessary to bring
them in accordance with the present ones, can be easily made
by any interested person studying the French paper referred to.

Hoploparia Saxby (M‘Coy). Pl. IV. fig. 1.

Desc. Carapace nearly cylindrical, averaging fromthe edge of
orbit to posterior side margin 2 inches 4 lines, width about
1 inch 8 lines ; nuchal furrow very strong, 1 inch 3 lines from
edge of orbit, and therefore nearer to it than to.the posterior
end of carapace; entire surface of carapace closely covered
with rough, irregularly unequal, pointed granules (averaging
five or six in two lines), rather finer on the posterior. half ; ros-
trum broad, depressed in the middle, with a slight. elevated
mesial line, scarcely reaching the nuchal furrow; rising on
the sides into two prominent, longitudinal, coarsely: tubercu-
lated ridges, from each, of which a row of tubercles extends
within half an inch of the nuchal furrow ; on the outer side of
each of these rostral ridges, and distant about half the width
of the rostrum, is a similar row of five or six tubercles from
the edge of the orbit; cheek-ridges very large, prominent,
armed. with large projecting compressed spines. Abdominal
segments covered with a granulation rather finer and more
uniform than that of the carapace, but the last segment and
middle tail-flap with a much coarser, flattened or squamous
tuberculation ; transverse suture of outer tail-flap strongly
marked, from the great thickness of the basal portion; ante-
rior articular portion of each segment moderately convex,

y.fL lV

a.nat. svze.
4 . nat. size.

.

Fist.S. 2. Vol.
2

Ann. b- Mag. Nat.

= —=—

nal. size.

Z
2

3

Prof. F. M‘Coy on some new. Cretaceous Crustacea. 117

suture dividing it from the posterior portion strong. Chele
very large, extending beyond the rostrum as far as from thence
to end of tail-fins, depressed, obtusely carinated at the outer
and inner edges, moderately convex in the middle ; right hand
much narrower than the left, semielliptical, its greatest width
(at base of moveable finger) 1 inch, equaling the length of
the carpus, or two-thirds the length from the base of moveable
finger to the carpal joint ; the external margin of the penulti-
mate finger gently arched, nearly smooth, flattened above and
below ; internal margin of hand and moveable finger straighter
than the external one, the former nearly smooth, the latter lobed
by five or six very large flattened tubercles ; cutting edges of
both fingers straight, set with very numerous, small, close, ob-
tuse tubercles; length of the last finger about 2 inches 4 lines ;
length of penultimate jomt or hand, from carapace to tip of
penultimate finger, about 4 inches 4 lines: left hand subtri-
gonal, length of carpus to tip of fingers 1 inch 1 line, width
at base of penultimate finger 1 inch 3 lines, but the margins,
which are nearly straight from the carpus, continue to diverge
at about the middle of the fingers, and are thence strongly
arched inwards towards each other ; length of moveable finger
1 inch 9 lines, cutting edge of both fingers much arched, the
points being incurved, each set with one very large bluntly
conical tooth at about one-third its length from the apex, and
two large rounded teeth at about one-third the length from
the base; the inner margin of the hand is lobed by five or

‘six large compressed tubercles, both hands covered with a
coarse granulation (averaging three granules in 2 lines), with
eight or ten scattered tubercles nearly a line in diameter ; car-
pus on each side trigonal, about 1 inch 3 lines long, having a
granulation like that of the hands, and six or eight irregularly
scattered tubercles on the upper surface, a little more or less
than’a line in diameter. Length of tail-flaps 11 lines, entire
length of abdomen 3} inches.

This species is easily distinguished from the only other creta-
ceous species (H. longimana, Sow. sp.) by the much superior size,
and by the great width and flatness of the chele. The beautifully
perfect specimen which I figure of this species, was collected by
S. M. Saxby, Esq. of Caius College, Cambridge, whose extensive
collection of Isle of Wight fossils is so well known through the
labours of Dr. Fitton and others. I have great pleasure in de-
dicating it to him.

Very rare in the upper White rag beds of the Upper green-
sand of Bonchurch, Isle of Wight.

Coll. Mr. Saxby.

118 Prof. Fy M ‘Coy son some new Cretaceous Crustacea.

iGlyphea eretacea( M‘Coy).o Pl. TV ofig. 2.

Desc. ‘Carapace narrow ; ; cephalic portion long; from nuchal fur-
row to anterior end of inner tuberculated cephalic ridge ex-
eceding the greatest depth of the carapace, and exceeding the
length’ of ‘the triangle! enclosed between the nuchal furrow
| aiid the postétior ‘converging extremities of ‘the oblique bran-
*chial ridges ; space below the. outer cephalic ridge on each
“side and the branchial’ regions ‘covered with a rather coarse,
“equal granulation: (avera aging ‘eight to nine granules in 2
~ lines). Length from anterior end of ‘inner cephalic ridges to
“posterior eid’ of carapace on dorsal’ mid-line, slightly more
than 10 lines ; ‘from middle of nuchal furrow to same point
slightly more than 9 lines ; greatest depth at middle of cara-
pace 4 lines.

ry

I do, not know anny, posable modification of Milne-Edwards’s
nomenclature; of the parts of Crustacea, which, would, enable, us
to, describe the.ridges and, sulci of the, branchial, region of a Gly-
phea, in, terms. indicating, any homology with, ¢orr ‘esponding parts
in. other, Decapodas,, This, is of little importance, however, 1 in, the
description ‘of the, species, as) the, ridges ,are similar.in all. the
examples,.of., the, genus. ,, L.am,.not aware, of any other, true
Glyphea,in.the, cretaceous.rocks., ; This, very rare, species.is, ex-
tremely, like,the, Glyphea rostrata,(Phill. sp.)..of,the,coral rag jon
a, small, scale, but,is.easily distinguished, besides, its: smaller. size,
by, the much, greater proportional length of the cephalic part, of
the. carapace, or that,in front of the; nuchal furrow, when com-
pared with the, portion, behind it.

_o Very, rave in, the Upper. greensand of. Cambridge,

shor Diners of Cambridge.) |

Nortopocorystes, (M‘Coy).

‘athe, jadicious, researches of Mr. Carter..of ;|Cambridge have
enabled. him..to, add, to. the, characters.I originally, published. of
this genus m,the ‘Annals,’, that there is..a,notch also. in the
lower edge of, the, orbit.

+ Lthaye, detected a, specimen. in) his collection. of the common
N. Mantels (M‘Coy) with a,pea-like swelling on..one,,of \the
branchial ,regions jon. the, back,,of the carapace, indicating no
doubt, the -existence during the..cretaceous period of a, repre-
sentative.of, the internal, parasitic genus Bophyrus, which attaches
itself to the internal gills of many/Crustacea.at, the present day,
, rasoHeating its,presence by,/the like,external symptom.

Notepocor. ystes Carteri (M‘Coy).. Pl. TY. fig. 3.
Dese..‘Carapace elongate; trapezoidal ; greatest width: (a little

Prof. F. M‘Coy. om some new Cretaceous Crustacea. 119

behind the mesial! futrow) at thé posterior ofthe-three large
antero-lateral, tubercles of the margin; gently convex, de-
pressed. Nuchal furrow obscured. by the map-like marking
on the anterior part of the carapace, but it. is moderately deep
_ and extends from between the two. posterior marginal tuber-
cles, with an irregular curye backwards, rounding at a mode-
rate angle under, the posterior. gastric lobes. Gastric region
very large; meso-gastric Jobe forming, a very narrow linear
ridge, nearly from the nuchal furrow quite to the extremity
of the rostrum, completely dividing the great proto-gastric
lobes; it is destitute of the large tubercles,on this part of the
other species, the granulation being almost invisible to the
_naked eye, except along its edges; its, posterior end. is ¢con-
‘fluent with the two transversely rounded, subtrigonal, small
posterior gastric lobes, which also form nearly smooth ele-
vations immediately in front of the nuchal furrow ;' the an-
' terior gastric lobes (coinciding with the origin of’ the anterior
gastri¢e muscles) form narrow obliquely elongated elevations,
“running ‘along the front margin, from the inner notch ‘of the

orbit ‘to the rostrum, along which them anterior ends abruptly

‘turn, ‘rendering ‘it’ trifid) including’ the point . of ‘the ‘meso.
“gastric lobe, which they resemble in being nearly smooth ‘and
“being edged with'a line of slightly larger granules under the
“lens ; proto-gastric lobes very large, ornamented on each’ side
witha trident-shaped group of three elongate ‘elevated lobes;
© nearly equidistant in front, and converging towards the small
posterior gastric lobes behind, the outer ‘lobe of the three
usually disconnected at the base from the conjoined mnet
two; it has also a'small round elevation immediately anterior
and external to its anterior end ; no distinct’ orbital regions,
but the outer angle of the very large orbits forms the anterior
of the three lateral tubercles ; the very small triangular hepatic
regions; ‘coinciding ‘with the middle lateral tubercle, have’ also
a’ small ‘elevated: subtrigonal ‘lobe ‘close to the margin }° ante-
‘rior branchial region (o¥ space’ between the mesial and” meéso-
branchial sulci) forming a broad oblique ‘band on ‘éach ‘side,
extending from ‘each side of' the posterior lateral tubercle to
the uro-gastri¢ region ; it has one small smoothed elevation at
the lateral tubercle, mmediately within and in front of which
is a very elongate pear-shaped one, having’ one side comeident
with the nuchal furrow, and a long transverse elongated ele-
vation, extending’ behind the 'tapermg inner ‘end’ of the last,
angulated in the middle beyond the termination of ‘that lobe;
and thence bent abruptly backwards and inwards behind the
posterior gastric lobes to the wro-gastrie lobe, which cannot
be distitictly separated. fromthe ‘cardiac lobe, but is flanked

120° = Prof Fx M‘Coyoomsome new Cretaceous Crustacea. |

on each side by the deep lunate hollows, or little fossze pro-
duced by the attachment of the posterior gastric muscles ;
posterior cardiac or..intestinal region not distinctly defined
from the branchial regions, which latter have a small curved
elevated elongation, bordering the inner ‘anterior angle. All
these contorted lobe-like elevations on the anterior half of the
carapace are very minutely granular, edged by a single row of
slightly larger granules, and separated by broad, deep, smooth,
concave furrows; the posterior half of the carapace is uni-
formly minutely granular. Average length L imch 2 lines,
proportional greatest width 47%, (often larger).

This very beautiful and distinct species is larger and flatter
than the others of the genus, and destitute of the tubercles with
which their carapace is marked, by which character, as well as,
the very curious, slightly elevated, map-like, contorted, lobular
markings of the anterior half of the carapace, it is easily distin-..
guished from itsicongeners. It is comparatively rare, scarcely, a)
dozen specimens having .been, found, while nearly a hundred
have been found of the V. Mantelli (M‘Coy).

Upper greensand of Cambridge.

(Coll. Mr. Carter, Cambridge.)

Revussta (Moy), n..g.

Gen. Char. Small: carapace moderately tumid; transversely
elliptical, front very strongly rounded; anterior lateral mar-
gins obtuse ; orbits of moderate size, broad, oval, approximate :
most of the regions of the carapace sharply defined by narrow
sulci; meso-gastric lobe triangular behind, abruptly narrowed
to a linear tongue-shaped extension in front, reaching to the
point of the obtusely angular rostrum, where its apex is

flanked by two small oval swellings, indicating: the anterior
gastric lobes; proto-gastric lobes large, slightly defined on
their outer margin; posterior gastric lobes united into one
transversely oblong space, slightly wider than the base of the
meso-gastric lobe, flanked at its posterior corners by the two
lunate fosse of the posterior gastric muscles ; wro-gastric and
cardiac regions undefined, tumid ; posterior branchial regions
much depressed ; anterior branchial or eptbranchial lobe or
region triangular, tumid, corresponding with the lateral angle,
and greatest width of the carapace, and defined between the
narrow sharply-marked linear nuchal furrow, and an oblique
meso-branchial sulcus, extending from about its middle to a
little below the lateral angle of the carapace ; meso-branchial
regions narrow, strongly depressed in their posterior half ; he-
patic regions very large, evenly tumid ; pierygostomian regions

Prof..F. M‘Coy.on: some new Oretaccous Crustaceas| 121)

very tumid ; orbital regions undefined, two notches in the upper
edge of each. imsdaoy on nennioss

This genus belongs clearly to the true Brachyura which are so
rare in the fossil state, but is distinct from every living or fossil
generic type with which I am acquainted. The types of the
genus are the following species, and. the Podophthalmus Buchii
of i peit? (Versteimerungen der Bohmischen Kreideformation,
p- 15). ; :

The reference to the genus Podophthalmus (Desmarest) by
Reuss rested upon very slight foundation, as is shown by his
remark, that the rare specimen of this little crab which he found
““stets mit ihrer Bauchfliche fest ins Gestein eingewachsen,
so dass sich nur der Riickenschild sehen liess. Auch die Augen
konnten nicht untersucht werden. Desshalb ziehe ich sie auch
nur mit Zweifel zu der obengenannten Gattung, mit der sie sonst
ganz gut tibereinstimmt.” I have now observed the orbits, and
find they completely negative the reference of the: fossils: to
Podophthalmus, for instead of forming extremely long narrow
channels, extending to the lateral angle, or widest pomts, of the
carapace, they are small, broad, oval; and the long diameter about
double the short one; the forms of the various: regions on the
carapace are also quite different, as well as the general outline,
from the great curvature of the front in the fossil, and conse-
quent shortness and outward slope of the posterior lateral
margin.

Reussia granosa (M‘Coy). Pl. IV. fig. 4.

Desc.,.The general form of the carapace as in the generic cha-
racter ; front and anterior lateral margins very strongly curved,
so that the lateral angles are on a line with the gastric fosse,
the tumid,. very slightly angulated edge bearing five or six
irregularly placed, small, distinct tubercles between the orbit
and lateral angle ; hepatic region much larger than the proto-
gastric lobes; meso-gastric lobe very sharply defined, by deep
narrow impressed outlines ; line between the proto-gastric and
hepatic lobes very faint; nuchal furrow asa sharp, distinctly
impressed narrow line, extending from the base of the meso-

gastric lobe to immediately in front of the second tubercle
from the lateral angle, having a slight backward curve ; epr-
branchial lobe pyriform, tumid, defined by the meso-branchial
sulcus, which extends from the inner third of each side of the
nuchal furrow to, as far below the cardinal angle on the outer
margin as the nuchal furrow is above it ; meta-branchial sulcus
on each side forming, a.sharply impressed line like the others ;
all. the dorsal. surface tumid, except the posterior half of the

122 Mr. W.Clarkon the Aclis. unica:

--ameso-branchial:lobes,; and ‘the posterior branchial lobes, which
are, strongly depressed; surface strongly and closely granu-

(lated irregularly; the granules: being of three or four:different
sizes ; a few small tubercles\ like: those onthe anterior margin
also occur, one, being! conspicuous on each side, slightly below
the, middle ofthe furrow:which:separates the proto-gastric
from the hepatic. lobes,! ‘and: two: om-each..side’ on the meso-
branchial region a little within the middle. Width of cara-
pace 10 lines, length 53 limes, transverse length of one orbit
15 line, depth of middle. of hepatic region 3 lines.

The coarsely granular surface easily distmguishes. this ‘species
from the smooth and glossy B. Buchit, Reuss sp. \The anterior
lateral margins are also strongly curved. There is:a third spe-
cies in the University collection at Cambridge, ‘distinguished
from) the other, two by.a very fine. uniform, granulation \of\ the
surface, but\it is not sufficently, perfect for description; it might
be.called.,.R., granulosa. 7 : ent

.» Rare,in, the; Upper igreensand_ of Cambridge.
(Coll. Mr. Carter, Cambridge.)

iit

XI.—On the Aclis unica, duct. By Wiit1am Cuark, Esq.
To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History:

GENTLEMEN; | | Exmouth, 29th June 1854.

I'proPoss, with your permission, to give an account of a very
raré mollusk which T discovered this day, and which has hitherto
éevaded,'in a living state, all our researches ; I have sought it for
thirty years, and may therefore sing “To Pieans ” with the illus-
trious author of the * Amorum,’ as at last,as with him—

oof Decidit in, casses \preeda, petita meéos.”’

Let this imstarice of unexpected ‘success impress on us the value
of the nil desperandum,”” The discovery of this creature has
_ long been a desideratum, as it’ will solve several malacological
questions’: ‘it’ has from “Montagu’s' time run the gauntlet’ of
nearly all the genera, agreeably to the conchological surmises of
naturalists, of whom scarcely two are in accord, and all in error ;
as ny notes require me to place it ina position it has never yet
occupied, and which T believe will prove to be its true malacolo-
gical status.’ ‘Our ignorance of every circumstance attendant on
this’ ‘almost microscopic being ‘has invested it with a strange
diversity of position aid ‘consequent structure, but the light of

Mr. W. Clarke onthe Aclis, wnical 123

discovery that: now dawns ‘onus will dissipate; asit‘does invevery
ease, misapprehensions, andtell us\that the» Fates’ have: decreed,
weall have been at’ fault: about» a very ‘simple creature, which
though not absolutely avtypical Rissoay is is al but’ one, as the
shell only wants the callus onthe outer lip’; but we have many
admitted ‘Rissoe' without that! appendage ; indeed, if we were to
look for strict typical ‘specialties im either the hard or soft parts
of any mollusk, every: species: must rear a genus.

‘Risso Unica, nobis.

Aclis unica, Brit. Moll. vol. iii. p. 222. pl. 90. £4, 5.
Chemnitzia unica, Alder et nobis.

Turritella unica, Fleming.

Turbo. unicus, Mont, et auct.

(Shell. —Of eight yellowish-white, roundéd; finely reticulated
volutions with oblique well-marked sutural lines! "The apex is
obtuse and not reflexed, as stated by me in‘another place? T'was
deceived by imperfect specimens, which led ‘me into the error of
supposing that it would prove a Chemnitzia.

This is one of the slenderest British shells, having oly an
axial-admeasurement- of -;/;, and-a-diameter-of 1, uncie-;-the
outer lip is thin, and the aperture is oblong-oval and almost
entire. _

Animal. ag 4 general colour is hyaline-white, shot through-
out all its organs with a mixture of very minute ‘close-set points,
short lines or blotches, of flaky and frosted snow colour. Mantle
even with the shell; except that at the apertural upper angle it
emits the filament I have so often mentioned as being. present
in all, the Rissoe, and whose particular function is doubtful.
The muzzle is slender and rather long, having the first half from.
the neck, on its upper part, clothed with a. yery close tunic, or
tight overlay ; ; the disk is smooth, compressed, bevelled. to a fine
edge, and almost circular, with a median vertical fissure on the
under surface, in which I have often seen the delicate white cor-
neous plates, jaws, and. lingual, riband: but great powers.and
much. time are required to seize. a favourable opportunity, of vision
in.so minute and restless a being. . The. tentacula are very like
those of Rissoa striata, moderately long, flat, rounded or obtuse
at. the tips, quite smooth even under high..powers, divergent,
with large black eyes, not, on pedicles. or prominences,. but. fixed
onthe centre of their bases with very little external inclination,
and widely apart,; there is no. connecting tentacular, veil, nor, the
least triangularity, foldings, or the, presence. of, apical inflations,
as. in the Chemnitzie ; on the march the eyes are, usually, carried
within the margin of the. shell... The, foot, is slender, greatly. hol-
lowed out in front and deeply labiated, with distinet, long,

124 oe Mr. Wy Clark on the Aclis unica.

arcuated linear auricles which play on the march, or, as M. Lovén
would term it, “ dete vibrantes,” beneath which it is slightly con-
stricted, and a little beyond the middle, posteally, is fixed on a
simple lobe without lateral expansions or terminal cirrhal fila-
ment; the light yellow suboval operculum with distinct grossly
spiral turns, exactly asin the paucispiral Littorinide ; below the
operculum the foot is visibly contracted.on each side, and. ter-
minates in a rounded rather broad point; no median line is
apparent in any part of the sole.

This creature is not at all shy ; it remained lively for thirty-six
hours, and gave every facility for good examination ;. it readily
creeps up the deepest glasses, and however often brushed down,
starts again with unabated vigour. The specimen described. was
detected in Littleham Cove, between Exmouth and Budleigh
Salterton, in the littoral level, in a debris of minute decayed
shells mixed with sand and mud that has an offensive odour, the
mass being deposited on the margins of deep quiet pools afford-
ing nutriment to certain long narrow grassy sea-weeds, I have
been thus particular to obviate difficulty to future naturalists,
and I wish them success in obtaining a live specimen with less
trouble than [ haye had.

The habitat of this species is, I believe, strictly littoral ; its
associates are the Rissoa parva, R. striata, R. planorbis, nobis
re planorbis, auct.), as these are found in the same mass of
spoil. i :
That this is a Littorinidan and almost a strict Rissoidean
animal, allowing a trifling margin for specialty-variations, ad-
mits of no doubt. It has no malacological community with Tur:
ritella, Aclis, or Chemnitzia ; but as the muzzle is carried in ‘nearly
a Similar position as in the latter genus, the young malacologist
must take care in so small an object not to be misled by this
circumstance, or by the centrality of the eyes at the base of the
tentacula: but the veteran observer with delicate and apt mani+
pulation, patience, and good glasses, will easily detect the verti-
cally cloven disk and corneous jaws, which, with the rissoid
simple tentacula, will demonstrate that this animal is merely an
elongated Rissoa; and in our volume of malacological observa-
tions now in the press, we shall deposit it in the section of the
elongated species of that genus.

I am, Gentlemen, ©
Your most obedient servant,
WriiraM Crark.

P.S.—The remarks of Dr, T. Williams on my branchial theory,
when. finished, will be duly acknowledged either in the ‘ Annals,’
- or in the appendix tomy ‘ Malacological Observations” now in
the press.

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Mr. Lubbock on some \Aretic species of Calanide. 125

XITI.—On some Arolic Species of Calanide.
By Joun Luszock, Esq,, F.Z.8.

[With a Plate, ]

Amonce the Crustacea collected by Dr. Sutherland in the Arctic
Ocean, during the late cruise of ‘the Jsabel; commanded by
Captain Inglefield, are the following species of Entomostraca :—
Arpacticus uniremis, Gaimard ? ;» Anomalocera Patersonii, Tem-
pleton ; Calanus arcticus, Baird; C. magnus, n. s.; C. borealis, n.s.;
C. plumosus, n. s.; C. elegans, n. s.; C. longus, n. s.

Gaimard has figured, but not yet described, the above-men-
tioned Arpacticus, so I do not feel quite sure about the species.

Unluckily I have not been able to find the eyes in any of these
species of Calanus, for the spirits of wine seem to have removed
all traces of them. Considering that C. arcticus was the only
one as yet described from that part of the world, the large pro-
portion of new species is not surprising.

Calanus magnus, n. s. Frons rotundatus. Cephalothorax mag-

~ nus, 6-articulatus, postice rotundatus, in medio acutus. An-
tenne antice corpore paulo longiores, setis longis. Abdomen
A-articulatum, stylis brevibus. Pedes biremes primi, ramis
3-articulatis ; quinti ramis 2-articulatis. :

Long. 2 unc.

Hab. Mare Arct. N. Lat. 76° 10'-77°, W. Long. 60° 6'-71° 37".

This. species may at once be distinguished from all Dana’s
species, both of Calanus and Rhincalanus, by having 6 cephalotho-
racic and 4 abdominal segments, long antennary. sete, and the
4. posterior cephalothoracic segments of unequal size. _. The spe-
cies figured by Gaimard in his ‘ Voyage en Scandinavie’ all have
the cephalothorax rounded behind, and in Cetochilus. septentrio-
nalis the head forms a distinct segment. The general shape of
the cephalothorax seen from the side is a long ellipse, the second
segment being the broadest part. The anterior segment is. much
the largest, then the second, and after that the others gradually
decrease in length as well as in breadth. The posterior is
rounded and obtusely pointed.in the centre. It is. the largest
species of Calanus that I know.

The anterior antenne are a little longer than the body, and
about 24-joimted. The fourth segment, counting from the apex,
has a-small hair on each side at the apex. The third has two
small ones on the anterior, one of which as usual is lanceolate,
and one long one on the posterior side at the apex. The second
has a long one on each side, that at the posterior being however
the largest. The apical segment bears several rather long hairs.

126 = MreJ.diubboek-on some Arctic species of Calanide.

The® second: pair of antenne consists as °usual of ‘a “basal part
and two rami, which arenearly of) equal size..The largest is’
2-jointed. ‘The basal ‘segment ‘bears two long hairs on ‘one ‘side
and a little tuft of shorter ones on the other») ‘This little ‘tuft is’
present also incall: the Calani:I have ‘been able to’ examine, in
Diaptomus Castor, and ma South American Diaptomus not‘as yet
described. The apical segment bears about 12 long hairs)»The
second branch consists of about 7 segments, only partially di-
vided from one another, of which the first and the last are the
largest... There are 3 long hairs atthe apex and about 9*along
the margin. |

The second pair of maxille are-a somewhat ‘triangular plate,
which ‘shows traces of being’divided: into 3 segments, ‘and’ bears
about 20:setose hairs. . onoL

The third pair of mazille, or first pair of feet according to
Dana, are cylindrical, and consist of 7 segments gradually dé-
creasing IM Size. 3. | : ay

All these organs are attached to.the first,cephalothoracic,seg-
ment, the other 5.each bear a pair of natatory legs. 00). sai45)

The natatory legs consist each of a 2-jointed basal: part,,and
2rami. In this species the rami of the first pair each have
3 joints, and the outer one is rather longer than the inner
(Pl. V. fig, 6). + eutelu

The rami.of the fifth pair are reduced to.2 segments, and the
basal part is armed on its inner margin with a row. of. short stout
teeth (fig. 1), : ee

The abdomen has 4 segments, of which the anterior is, the
largest, and the second next. The lamelle are not much longer
than the last segment.

* Colour ?

C..plumosus,n.s« Frons rotundatus...:Cephalothorax magnus;
6-articulatus, postice rotundatus, in medio acutus.°2 Antenne
anticee corpore paulo longiores, setis longis. Abdomen4«arti-
culatum, stylis brevibus. Pedes biremes primi, ramis 4-,
(quiuti‘ramis 3-articulatis. .

Long. 45" une.

Hab; Mare Arct. N. Lat.77°, W. Long. 71° 37'.

This species much resembles the preceding. The second
maxillz, mandibles, and maxillipeds are similar. The second pair
of antenne differ in having another.small, segment. at the apex
of the larger ramus. The hair at the apex of the penultimate
segment is ‘about the same size as the rest, while im C. magnus it
is much ‘longer than the corresponding hair’ of the preceding
segments.

The first; “pai of :natatory legs (figs 4) have 4 segments to

Mr. Lubbock.on some Arctic species of Calanide. 127)

each, ramus, and the secondary setz are larger than m the other
species. The inner side of) the large:ramus also in all the legs
has on the second segment a row sea ‘short Ihaar’s nldombting the
setee on the longer ones.

The. fifth pair (fig. 5) have: tHie% rami Bébitited They have
emell, spines. on the’ base: wea the eres pair of ‘legs in
C..magnus, g

(Colour?

C. borealis... Frons rotundatus. » Cephalothorax magnus, 6-arti-
culatus, postice rotundatus, in medio acutus. » Antenne
-anticee |, corpore + paulo, longiores,setis longis. \ Pedes) \bi-
-remes, antici, .ramis »2-articulatis.;; postici. unum » tantum-
modo segmentum habent. Abdomen 3-articulatum, stylis
brevihus:

Long. } ¢, une.

Hab. Mare Arct. N. Lat. 76°-78° 40!, W. Rati, 70° ‘

“The apical ‘hairs of the anterior antenne are short. The pos-
terior antenne resemble those of C. magnus (PI. V. Be 2, 3).
“Colour | ?

C.'élegans. “Frons rotundatus. Cephalothorax angustus, 6-arti-
culatus, postice rotundatus. Antenne, antic corpore paulo
‘“Jongiores, setis longis. Pedes biremes primi ramis 2-articulatis,
CaMtiT? tats aiuind tantummodo segmentum habent ; feeminse
pedes postici parvissimi, Abdomen 2- articulatum.

Long. Pune.

Hab. Mai Arct. N. Lat. 62° 11', W. Long. 52°.

This species appears only to have occurred in one place, where
it was abundant. The individuals are all about the same size,
and: I:do not) think it can ‘be the aici of any other ‘species
(Pli Va figs. 7;,'8)9).

Colour ?

C. longus. Frons rotundatus. Cephalothorax.5- articulatus, pos-
tice obtusus sed non rotundatus. Antenne antice corpore-bret
viores, setis brevibus, apicalibus tamen. longis. . Pedes. biremes
antici ramis 3-articulatis. . Pedes postici minimi. Abdomen
longum, angustum, 3-articulatum.

Long. % une.

Hab. Mare’ Avet Neat. 76°-76° 30!.

Of this species there are only three specimens, but itis very
distinct from any of the others; the length of the abdomen being
its most striking characteristic.

The anterior antenne are about as long as the: cephalothorax,

128 Mr. Lubbock on some Arctic species of Calanide.

and slender ; all the hairs are short except two, one on each side
of the apical segment.

The second antenne have the 6-jointed ramus rather longer
than the other.

The third pair of mazillipeds are rather small, and consist of
6 segments, of which the basal has 10 setose hairs arranged by
pairs.

The natatory legs crease in size from the first, which are
only =, inch in length, to the fourth, which are = th. The rami
are 3-jointed. :

The fifth pair (fig. 10) are small, 4, mech in length. They
consist of a basal segment, then a swollen part, which appears to
represent the second basal segment ; then a narrower part, pro-
bably homologous with the larger or outer ramus. It has a con-
striction in the middle, and bears three hairs at the apex, and a
short one externally at the middle.

The abdomen. 3-jointed, long, without the lamelle 4, of an
inch in length ; the lamelle themselves are 35, 7. e. as long as the
‘preceding abdominal segment, and each bears 5 plumose setz,
4 at the end and 1 on the external side.

In the basal segment of the abdomen isan oblong vesicle ; it
is present in all the species, but is very conspicuous in this one.
I neither know its structure nor its use, but from its position, I
imagine it is connected with generation.

In passing I may remark, that Dr. Sutherland collected C.
arcticus from N. Lat. 59° to 78° 30’, and from W. Long. 29° 30!
to 71° 37'. In several cases Dr. Sutherland remarks, that when
none were caught at the surface, after sinking the dredge two or
three fathoms, ‘‘ hundreds were obtained in a few minutes.”” The
colour is red.

These species are on-an average + of an inch in length, which
is much larger than the average of the whole genus. The Arctic
seas therefore seem very favourable to the development of the
genus Calanus. The colour had in every specimen completely
‘disappeared. ;

Note.—There is some confusion about the name Calanus.
The genus was founded by Leach, with the type C. Finmarchicus,
on erroneous characters. Dr. Baird, however, finding, that though
Leach’s reasons were ill-founded, others made it necessary to
erect it into a new genus, dropped Leach’s name Calanus and
adopted a new one, Temora, for the same species. Dana in his
work on Crustacea uses the name Calanus, as I have done in this
paper. It is however doubtful whether the species which he and
I have referred to Calanus, really belong to the same genus as
C.. Finmarchicus; there are no specimens of it im the British

Mr. T..V. Wollaston ona new genusof British Cureulionide. 129

Museum, but Dr. Baird thinks that the rostrum is not fureate
like that of Cetochilus. Prof. Dana has no:doubt: that they ‘are
similar in this respect, but. separates them because the eyes are
in Calanus close together, in Cetochilus at opposite sides of ‘the
head. If Dr. Baird is right, then the above-described species
will be Cetochil; or if they differ as to the ‘eyes; will form a new
genus. ‘Till these points are decided, it will be convenient to
consider them to be Calani..- Dr. Baird referred C. arcticus to
Cetochilus on account of its forked: rostrum,

EXPLANATION OF PLATE V.

Fig. 1. Fifth pair of natatory legs of Calanus magnus.
—-,, 2. First... itto C. borealis.
— 3. Fifth ditto C. borealis.
— 4, First ditto C. plumosus.
—''5. Fifth ‘ditto C. plumosus.
— 6. First ditto C. magnus.
—- 7. Fifth’... ditto of the male of _C. elegans.
— ,8. Fourth ditto of the female of C. elegans.
— _9. Third pair of maxillipeds of C. elegans.
— 10. Posterior legs of C. longus.
— 11. Abdomen and posterior part of the cephalothorax of

eo vC, magnus.

XIV.—Description of a new Genus and Species of British Cur-
», enlionide. By T, Vernon Wortaston, M.A., F.1.S.

Genus Pentarturum, Woll.

Corpus angusto-cylindricum, sculpturatum, Cosson. formam
simulans, sed ab illo certe distinctum : capite subporrecto ; rostro
prothorace parum breviore, parallelo, tereti, sat gracili, subrecto ;
scrobe parum profunda, decurva, usque ad oculorum marginem
inferiorem retrorsum ducta; oculis parvis, rotundatis, lateralibus,
leyiter prominulis: prothorace elongato, subconico, mox pone,
apicem subito transversim constricto, necnon ad basin ipsam.
marginato: scutello minuto, subrotundato: e/ytris parallelis, ad
apicem ipsum leviter acuminatis et singulatim subrotundatis.
Antenne breves, robuste, versus medium rostri (in utroque sexu;
_ hisi fallor) insertee ; scapo subrecto (vix incurvo), leviter clavato ;
funiculo.5-articulato, articulis latitudine vix crescentibus, 1™° et
24° sub-obconicis, 3°, 4° et 5% paulo brevioribus, transyerso-
obconicis; capitulo rotundato-ovato, solidissimo (articulis egre
observandis), piloso, necnon ad apicem spongioso. Pedes bre-
viusculi, robusti, ad basin valde (preesertim posteriores) distantes :
femoribus. clavatis, muticis ; “bis rectis, ad apicem externum in
uncum, magnum robustum acutum inflexum. productis: farsis

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser, 2. Vol. xiv.

130 Mr. T. V. Wollaston on a new genus of British Curculionidee.

pseudotetrameris, articulo antepenultimo reliquis paulo latiore ;
ultimo flexuoso, clavato, unguiculis sat magnis simplicibus
munito. |

A wéyte, quinque, et dpOpor, artus.

The very interesting little insect from which the above struc-
tural diagnosis has been drawn out, although an undoubted
member of the Cossonides of Schonherr, is so singularly formed
as regards its five-jointed funiculus, that it may perhaps be looked
upon as connective between that subfamily and the Rhyncopho-
rides,—in which a like number of articulations (though six is
the normal quantity) occasionally obtains. It. is, I believe, the
only representative of the Cossonides hitherto described in which
less than seven joints to the funiculus has been noticed; and it
cannot but be received therefore as a very important addition,
not only to our native fauna, but to science at large,—as intro-
ducing a totally new modification into that immediate depart-
ment of the Curculionide. In its general contour and habit it is
more suggestive of a minute Cossonus than of anything else, its
- glabrous deeply-sculptured surface and slender subcylindrical
body, in conjunction with its medially-inserted antennz and its
basally-distant anterior legs, bespeaking a close relation with
that group: nevertheless (in addition to the-peculiarity of its
funiculus, in which it recedes from it in toto) its rostrum is of
perfectly equal breadth throughout (not being dilated at its ter-
mination), and the apex of its elytra is somewhat acuminated and
rather curiously developed,—each of them having a tendency to -
be separately rounded off, and subrecurved, at its extreme mar-
gin (in a precisely similar manner to what we observe in many
of the Apions). Its discovery is due to my nephew, H. W. Hut-
ton, Esq., of Spridlington near Lincoln, who captured four spe-
cimens in the vicinity of Exeter during November of 1853. It
may be characterized, specifically, as follows :—

Pentarthrum Hutton, Woll.

P. angusto-subcylindricum ferrugineo-piceum subnitidum gla-
brum, rostro ad basin profundius sed apicem versus leviter
punctato, prothorace elongato valde profunde punctato, mox
ante basin latiore, elytris rugulosis punctato-striatis, inter-
stitiis minutissime seriatim punctulatis, antennis pedibusque
paulo pallidioribus et rufescentioribus.

Long. corp. lin. 14.

P. narrow and subcylindrical, pale rufo- (or ferrugineo-)
piceous (the prothorax however being, apparently, rather darker
than the elytra and the apical portion of the rostrum), slightly
shining and glabrous. Rostrum of equal breadth throughout ;
somewhat coarsely punctured at its base, but lightly so towards

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 131

its apex. Prothorax elongated and subconical,—being attenuated
anteriorly, and widest just in front of its base, where it is about
as broad as (or, if anything, a little broader than) the elytra;
very deeply and regularly punctured all over; somewhat convex
and even, and with scarcely any indications of a dorsal line.
Elytra parallel and rugulose, deeply punctate-striated, and with
a row of very minutely impressed points down each of their in-
terstices. Antenne (especially their scape and club), and the
legs, of a paler and clearer colour than_the rest of the surface,—
being somewhat rufo-ferruginous (or very pale rufo-piceous) :
the tibie (particularly the inner edge of the anterior pair, which
are strongly setose) and ¢arst of the former, and the club of the
latter, very pubescent. Body beneath uniformly and deeply
punctured all over,—with the anal region minutely fulvo-
pubescent.

Respecting its claims to admission into the British fauna
there cannot be the slightest question,—the village of Alphing-
ton, in which it was detected, affording no local reasons what-
soever for suspecting that it could have been accidentally intro-
duced. On the contrary, indeed, I am informed by Mr. Hutton
(to whom I have dedicated the species) that he has made the
most careful inquiries, and that no foreign timber (or material)
of any kind, so far as he was able to ascertain, had entered the
place. The specimens were found amongst logs of wood, recently
cut up for burning; and Mr. Hutton states that it was from out

of a hard and undecayed portion of a cherry-tree (in which their
winding burrows were very apparent) that he succeeded in extract-
ing them. I should add, that I forwarded an example a few
months ago, for comparison, to Berlin, where it was totally un-
known ; and I have no hesitation, therefore, im regarding it as
altogether new to the Curculionide of Europe.

XV.—On the Genus Lycium. By Joun Miers, Esq.,
F.R.S., F.L.S. &e.

[Continued from p. 20.]

B. NEocex.

* Filamenta levia. Sp. 28.

23. Lycium pallidum (n. sp.) ;—ramosum, ramulis tortuosis, sub-
nitidis, fusco-rufescentibus, grosse nodosis, breviter spinosis,
creberrime foliosis, foliis e nodis fasciculatis, glaberrimis, spa-
thulato-oblongis, obtusis, imo in petiolum tenuem angustatis,

utrinque alutaceo-glaucis, carnosulis, eveniis; floribus majus-
a Ox

132 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

culis, m fasciculis binis, folio zquilongis, calyce pedicello
paullo breviori, poculiformi, carnosulo, glabro, lacinulis 5
lineari-acutis, tubo squilongis, patentibus; corolla pallide
ochroleuca, tubo cylindrico, supra medium infundibuliformi,
limbi. laciniis 5, rhomboideo-ovatis, tubo 4to brevioribus :
staminibus 5, subsequilongis, longe exsertis, filamentis glaber-
rimis, medio tubi insertis, hine geniculatis, et in nervis tot-
idem pilosis ad imum decurrentibus, antheris ovatis, profunde
cordatis, connectivo apice in mucrone excurrentibus : stylo
filiformi, longe exserto, stigmate clavato, sub-2-labiato.—In
Nova Mexico.—v. s. in herb. Hook. (i endler, n. 670).

This species bears greatly the habit of L. Austrinum, but has
a far more pallid aspect: the spines are barely more than 2 inches
long ; the nodes are large and prominent, and from each of them
arises a fascicle of three to ten leaves, 14 inch long, $ inch broad :
the pedicels are 3 lines long; the calyx 24 lines, fleshy, some-
what bell-shaped, and divided half-way into five equal, pointed
divisions, which are considerably spreading: the tube of the
corolla is 8 lines long, is contracted to a diameter of } a line in its
lower moiety, while the upper half expands gradually to a dia-
meter of 3 lines in the mouth: the segments of the border are
short, broad, obtuse, somewhat rhomboidal, 2 lines long and
22 lines broad, and as well as the tube are marked with branching
nervures ; it is quite glabrous, except in the prominent ribs that
extend from the base to the point of insertion of the glabrous
filaments in its middle: the stamens reach nearly to the extremity
of the segments, one however is a little shorter than the others ;
the anthers, of a deep red colour, are cordate at the base, attached
along their upper moiety to an intervening connective, which is
excurrently and curvedly mucronate at the apex, as in L. orien-
tale; the style is filiform, of a reddish colour, curved above, and
extends j inch beyond the stamens; the stigma is deeply 2-lobed*.

** Hilamenta pilosa, Sp. 24 ad 35.

24. Lycium fragosum (n. sp.) ;—fruticosum, ramosum, ramulis
cortice fusco rimoso, axillis grosse nodosis, nodis breviter spi-
nosis, foliis e nodis fasciculatis, anguste linearibus, margine

_ revoluto subtus quasi 3-costatis, utrinque glanduloso-rugosis ;
floribus e fasciculis solitariis, pedunculo capillari folio equi-
longo, calyce scabrido, urceolato, ad medium lacinulis 4 acutis
erectis partito, corolla elabra, anguste cylindrica, superne paul-
lulo infundibuliformi, calyce 6plo longiori, limbi lacinis 4,
brevibus, rotundatis, margine ciliatis, tubo 7mo brevioribus,

* An outline of this plant with floral analysis is given in the ‘Illustr. South
Amer. Plants’, vol. ii. plate 67 C.

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 133

staminibus 4 inclusis, 1 paullo longiori, filamentis infra medium
tubi insertis, hinc longiuscule pilosis, superne glabris, tenui-
bus ; stylo longitudine staminum, stigmate clavato, 2-lobo.—
Peru.—v. s. in herb. Hook. (Cuming, 948).

This forms a very distinct species, with rugous knotty branches
and naked spines, 2 lines in length, springing out of the nodes:
there are five to ten leaves in each fascicle, 4 or 5 lines long, and
1 line broad: the slender peduncle measures 4 lines ; the some-
what tubular calyx is 13 line long, half cleft into four narrow,
acute, equal segments, each separated by a rounded sinus; the
tube of the corolla is 5 lines long, 1} line in diameter at its
broadest part, the lobes of the border being only 3 line; the
filaments are inserted into the tube at a distance of a quarter of
its length from the bottom, and are pilose at base for one-fourth
of their length*. 7 |

25. Lycium implexum (n. sp.) ;—fruticosum, intricato-ramosum,
ramis ramulisque rimoso-rugosis, ochraceis, glabris, ramulis
nodosis, apice spinescentibus, spinisque axillaribus brevibus
aciculatis armatis; foliis e nodis fasciculatis, minimis, cuneato- _
oblongis, carnosis, utrinque aspero-pilosis, floribus e fasciculis
approximatis, solitariis, pendulis, pedunculo folio calyceque
eequante; calyce parvo, pubescente, equaliter 4-dentato, co-
rolla pallida, elongata, anguste cylindrica, superne infundibu-
liformi, extus glabra, intus ad medium pubescente, limbi
laciniis 4, brevibus, rotundis, levibus, tubo 5to brevioribus,
staminibus 4 capillaribus, subzequalibus, longe exsertis, infra
medium tubi insertis, pro dimidio inferiori molliter pubescen-
tibus, superne levibus, pro tertia parte exsertis, stylo longitu-
dine staminum.—Chile, ad Coquimbo.—». s. in herb. Hook.
et Lindley (Bridges, n. 1384).

This very distinct plant bears greatly the aspect of several
species of the genus Alona, and of Phrodus, which I have before
described (huj. op. iv. 33), all collected in the same neighbour-
hood, and at the same time, by Mr“Bridges, as their respective
numbers will show. The branches and branchlets are very knotty
and iutricately crossed; the prominent, nodose axils, scarcely
3-lines apart, have a fascicle of four to eight leaves springing
from them, and many are furnished with a short needle-formed
spine. The leaves are spathulately oblong, obtuse, fleshy, glau-
cously pubescent on both sides, with short, rigid, erect hairs ;
they are 1 or 1} line long, and scarcely more than { line broad :
the peduncle, often deflexed, is 1 line long, and about the same
length as the pubescent calyx, which is divided half-way into

* This species with sectional details is represented (/oc. cit.) plate 67 D,

134 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

four linear, obtuse, erect teeth: the corolla is 5 or 6 lines long,
1 line broad towards the base, but swelling to 3 line in diameter
at its mouth, the four smooth, almost orbicular lobes of the
border being about 3 line diameter; the capillary filaments are
inserted into the tube at a distance of one-third of its length from
the base; they are 4 lines long, and are pubescent for two-thirds
of their length, the inner surrounding portion of the tube being
also pubescent for about the same distance. This species, although
with acicular spines, will be seen to be extremely different from
L. rachidocladum, described by M. Dunal from the same locality*.

26. Lycium minutifolium, Remy in Gay Hist. Chile, v. 93;
Walp. Ann. iii. 173 ;—ramosissimum, ramulis spinescentibus ;
foliis fasciculatis, minutissimis, ovatis, obtusis, hirsutis, pedun-
culis axillaribus, solitarius, calyce 4-dentato, vix puberulo,
corolla anguste tubulosa, longiuscula, apice vix dilatata, limbo
4.-fido, staminibus vix exsertis.—Chile. :

From the above description we may infer that this plant bears
much analogy with the preceding, apparently differing in its
ovate leaves and scarcely exserted stamens.

27. Lycium stenophyllum, Remy, loc. cit. p. 94 ;—spinescens,
ramosum ; foliis fasciculatis, mzequalibus, linearibus, crassius-
culis, obtusis, pubescentibus, 3 lin. longis; floribus solitariis,
axillaribus, calyce 4-fido, pubescente, segmentis oblongis, ob-
tusis; corolla tubulosa.—UChile.

From the above description it is not clear to which section
this species belongs; but from its 4-merous flowers and its habit,
it is probably nearly allied to the two preceding species.

28. Lycium cestroides, Schl. Linn. vii..70. Acnistus cestroides,
nob. Ill. So. Am. Pl. i. 23; Dun. in Prodr. DC. xiii. 500;
—breviter spinosum, ramis subflexuosis, albescentibus, juniori-
bus pubescentibus, ramulis brevibus, floriferis, apice spinosis ;
foluis alternis, ellipticis, oblongis, apice acuminatis, imo cunea-
tis, margine subreflexo obsolete crenulato puberulo, nervosis,
utringue subglabris et minutissime rugulosis, sub lente
glanduloso-scabridis, subtus pallidis, petiolo tenui, longiusculo,
canaliculato, puberulo: floribus pedunculatis, calyce tubuloso
pallide membranaceo, lineis 5 viridibus late costatis signato,
pubescente, 5-dentato, dentibus acutis, erectis, tus margine-
que albido-lanatis; corolla longe tubulosa, imo angustiore,
calyce 5plo longiore, glabra, limbi laciniis 5, rotundis, mar-
gine densissime albo-fimbriatis, erectis, valde imbricatis ; sta-

* A representation of this plant with details is given (Joc. cit.) plate 67 E.

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 135

minibus 5, inzequalibus, inclusis, medio tubi insertis, 2 lon-
gioribus faucem vix attingentibus, imo pubescentibus, ovario
oblongo, corolle circumscisse reliquo induto, stylo incluso,
apice incrassato.—Banda Oriental et Tucuman.—». s. in herb.
Hook, Santiago del Estero (Tweedie) *.

This species was formerly referred by me to Acnistus (loc. cit.)
on account of its shrubby habit, large leaves, and crowded fasci-
culate or umbellate flowers, the lobes of the corolla having
woolly margins ; but my knowledge of it was then only derived
from Schlechtendal’s description. Since that time I have seen
a specimen of a plant, evidently referrible to the same species,
which at a first glance bears more the aspect of an Acnistus or a
Cestrum, than a Lycium: on closer inspection, it will be found
that the flowers are only crowded, by the close approximation of
the axils. The lobes of the border are not tomentose, as in
Cestrum or Acnistus, but densely ciliated, and have a very de-
cided imbricated estivation ; these circumstances, together with
the structure of the stamens, and the cupular induvium of the
corolla that surrounds the ovarium, mark unquestionably the
genus to which it really belongs. Tweedie’s plant, although
from a somewhat distant locality, is evidently the same species
as Sellow’s; both may be said to grow within the same region.
It appears to be a very frondose shrub, with large leaves, and
generally unarmed; but sometimes it bears short spines in some
of its upper floriferous axils. The leaves are alternate; and
their axils produce in the following year short branchlets, with
_ very approximate leaflets, which assume somewhat the appear-
ance of fasciculated clusters. The younger leaves are pubescent,
upon long slender petioles; but as they grow older, they become
glabrous, except at the base and on the petiole, where by a lens
the remaining pubescence is always distinguishable. The larger
leaves measure 3} inches in length, including the petiole of
5 lines, upon which the narrowing base of the blade is somewhat
decurrent ; they are 10 lines broad: other leaves vary from 13
to 23 inches in length, and 7 to 9 lines in breadth. Schlechten-
dal describes the leaves as having short petioles; but the differ-
ence is probably accidental, depending on the comparative breadth
_ of the decurrent portion of the blade on the petiole. The flori-
ferous branchlets, often terminating in a spine, are 3 to ] inch
long, and bear many small crowded leaves, and very numerous
flowers in almost aggregated clusters. The peduncles are slender,
somewhat thicker above, and 4 lines long: the calyx is tubular,
1} line long, with 5 acute, short, erect teeth, from which as many

* A figure of this species with analytical details is shown (loc. cit.)
plate 67 F.

136 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

costate nervures descend to the base ; the teeth, more especially,
are covered with whitish pubescence. The corolla is cylindrical,
slightly swollen below the mouth; the tube is 6 lines long, i
line diameter in the broader part, and quite smooth ; the lobes of
the border are erect, orbicular, very small, 4th the length of the
tube, and are fimbriated on the margin with numerous ciliated
white hairs: the stamens are enclosed ; two of them nearly reach
the mouth of the tube, the other three being little more than
half their length ; all are pilose for a short portion of their length,
above the point of their insertion in the middle of the tube: the
style is slender below, much thickened above the middle, slightly
curved, and the length of the longer stamens: the stigma is
clavate and sub-bilobed: the ovary is narrow, oblong, smooth,
somewhat shorter than the calyx, and is invested at its base by
the very short induvial cup of the corolla: Schlechtendal states
that the berries are globose, red, and 3 lines in diameter,

29. Lycium elongatum (un. sp.) ;—glaberrimum, ramosum, ramu-
lis elongatis, spinescentibus, nodoso-flexuosis, glauco-griseis ;
foliis 4—8, fasciculatis, lineari-subulatis, obtusiusculis, imo im
petiolum gracilem longe attenuatis, carnosulis; floribus in
fasciculis solitariis, pedunculo folio dimidio breviori, calyce
brevi, tubuloso, 5-costato, acutissime 5-partito, corolla longe
et anguste tubulosa, glabra, sicca rubescente, imo coarctata,
superne vix infundibuliformi, limbi laciniis 5 breviter ovatis,
staminibus brevissimis, inclusis, ultra medium insertis, glabris,
in nervis totidem hirsutulis tubi decurrentibus, 3 longioribus
faucem vix attingentibus, 2 alteris istis dimidio brevioribus ;
stylo corolle tubo zquilongo.—Prov. Argentinas.—v. s. in
herb. Hook.; in desertis salsuginosis intra Cordovam et Santiago
de Tucuman (Tweedie, n. 1212).

This plant, although very different in its growth, has its flowers
very similar to those of the preceding species. Tweedie remarks
that this and similar species, all low-growing shrubs, abound here
and in Patagonia in endless varieties; (by Patagonia he means
the southern portion of the province of Buenos Ayres.) The
leaves, including the petiole of one-half their length, are 4 to 6
lines long and } line broad: the slender peduncle is 1} line long :
the narrow, glabrous, tubular calyx, marked with deep red lines,
is 14 line long, and is half cleft into five acute linear teeth, having
pubescent margins: the tube of the corolla is 4 lines long, its
ovate lobes are barely 2 line long, the three longer stamens are
1 line, the two-shorter ones 3 line in length*.

* This species is delineated (Joc. cit.) plate 68 A.

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 137

30. Lycium fuscum (n. sp.) ;—intricato-ramosum, spinosum,
foliis glaberrimis, fasciculatis, late ovatis, in petiolum brevius-
culum attenuatis, eveniis, crassiusculis, glauco-viridibus, fuscis,
utrinque glanduloso-rugosis, vel elevato-punctatis ; floribus e
fasciculis solitariis, breviter pedunculatis, calyce brevi, cupuli-
formi, breviter 4-dentato, corolla fusco-purpurea, longe tubu-
losa, subincurva, imo angustiore et sulcata, superne paullo
ampliore, limbi laciniis 4, brevissimis, suborbiculatis, margine
dense albo-fimbriatis, staminibus 4 ineequaliter exsertis, fila-
mentis in coarctationem tubi insertis, hinc geniculatis et hir-
sutis, inferne in nervis totidem prominulis glabris deliquescen-
tibus, superne levibus, stylo staminibus multo longiore ; bacca
cerulescente, ovali, breviter apiculata, calyce suffultaa—In An-
dibus Provinciz Mendoze.—v. v, ad San Pedro de Uspallata.

I found this plant growing abundantly in the above-named
portion of the- Cordillera; unfortunately the only specimen
gathered during my last rapid journey over the Andes was lost,
but some of the leaves and flowers were preserved with the
berries, collected at the same time. The leaves are somewhat
fleshy, roundly oval, 3 lines long and 2 or 3 lines broad, sud-
denly narrowed into a short petiole 2 lines in length: the
peduncle is 2 lines long; the cup-shaped calyx is 1} line long,
with four short equal teeth; the tube of the corolla is 53 lines
long, the lobes of the border } line in diameter, and are remark-
able for their- fimbriated margins, as in L. cestroides*..

31. Lycium confertum (n. sp.) ;—intricato-ramosum, ramulis
nodoso-flexuosis, spinosis, rarius inermibus, cortice cano, ri-
moso, spinis brevibus in axillis approximatis: foliis 6-10,
valde fasciculatis, angustissime linearibus, in petiolum spathu-
latis, glaberrimis ; floribus in fasciculis solitariis, breviter pe-

- dunculatis, calyce cylindrico, pilosulo, laciniis 5 subulatis,
tubo equilongis; corolla anguste tubulosa, vix infundibuli-
formi, imo coarctata, extus pubescente, imo in contractionem
tubi annulo dense barbato cincta, limbi laciniis ovatis, glabris,
tubo 7mo brevioribus, staminibus inzqualibus, inclusis, fila-
mentis in medio tubi insertis, longiuscule hirsutis, superne
levibus, 2 longioribus faucem attingentibus, 2 vix equilongis,
1 dimidio fere breviori, stylo exserto, bacca ovata, parvula,
coccinea, calyce suffulta.—In desertis salsuginosis Prov. Men-
doze et Sancti Ludoevici.—v. v. et spec. lexi; abundat in Tra-
vesiam a Mendoza usque ad Coral de Desaguadero e¢ ad Alto del
Yeso, Proy. 8. Luiz.

This species I found abundantly along the Desert track all the
* This plant with floral details is shown (Joc. cit.) plate 68 B.

138 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

way from Mendoza to San Luiz. It varies in having the leaves
more or less crowded, more or less attenuated ; they are from 3
- to 6 lines long, 4 line broad; the peduncle is 1} or 2 lines long ;
the calycine tube is cylindrical, $ line long, with narrow, linear,
acute segments 1} line long: the tube of the corolla is 4 or 5
lines long, the segments of its border are % line long, the larger
stamens are 2 lines in length: the oval berry is 3 lines long*.

32. Lycium Berlandiert, Dun. in DC, Prodr. xii. 520.— Mexico,
prope Laredo (Berlandier).

33. Lycium senticosum (n. sp.) ;—intricato-ramosum, ramis tor-
tuosis, angulatis, griseo-helvolis, fere aphyllis, ramulis patenti-
bus, apice spinosis, foliis e nodis cottoneis prominentibus
paucis (2-3) fasciculatis, parvulis, lineari-spathulatis, obtusis,
glabris ; floribus solitariis, folio duplo longioribus, peduncu-
latis, glabris ; calyce parvo, poculiformi, inequaliter 4-dentato,
dentibus acutis, tubo duplo brevioribus ; corollze pallide flavee
tubo imo coarctato, infra e medium repente ac late campanu-
lato, limbi laciniis 4, curtissimis, tubo 4to brevioribus, rotun-
dato-deltoideis, reflexis; staminibus 4 exsertis, 2 paullo lon-
gioribus, filamentis in coarctationem tubi insertis, hine geni-
culatis et longiuscule hirsutis, superne capillaribus et glabris,
stylo staminibus longiore.—Mexico, ad Monterey.—v. s. in
herb. Hook. (Berlandier, Jan. 1828).

This is evidently very near L. Berlandieri, and may possibly
be only a tetramerous variety of it. It appears to be more barren
of leaves, which are smaller and fewer in each fascicle: the leaves.
are 23-3 lines long, 4 line broad; the pedicels are 2-2} lines
long, the calyx is nearly a line long, the tube of the corolla
2 lines, the segment of the border 13 line in length; the con-
tracted portion of the tube is narrow, and a little longer than
the calyx, when it is suddenly enlarged into a bell-shaped form ;
the style is the length of the longer stamens, and the lower part
of the. ovarium is encircled by the cupular remains of the corolla,
which here breaks away by a circumscissile line: this same pro-
cess is described as existing in L. Berlandieri; but it partakes in
no degree of the nature of a disk, as stated by M. Dunalt.

34. Lycium barbinodum (un. sp.);—intricato-ramosum, subinerme,
valde foliosum, ramis angulatis summe nodosis, cortice fusco,
nodis majusculis, prominentibus, subglobosis, albido-cottoneis;
foliis plurimis (6-8) fasciculatis, internodiis duplo longioribus,

* This species with sectional details is represented (loc. vit.) plate 68 C.
t A drawing of this plant with floral analysis is shown (loc. cit.) plate
68 D.

4

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 139

lineari-spathulatis, obtusis, imo in petiolum brevem deliques-
centibus, glaberrimis, carnosulis ; floribus parvulis in fascicu-
lis solitariis, cum pedicello brevi ‘folio dimidio curtioribus, ca-
lyce brevi, poculiformi, reticulato, fusco, brevissime 5-dentato,
demum inzequaliter 2-3-fisso, dentibus sphacelato-pubescenti-
bus; corolle tubo imo coarctato, hince repente campanulato,
glabro, limbi laciniis 5, orbicularibus, margine subciliatis, tubo
4to brevioribus ; staminibus 5, vix zqualibus, subexsertis,
filamentis imo geniculatis in coarctationem tubi insertis, lon-
giuscule hirsutis, superne glabris; stylo imo articulato, sta-
minibus paullo longiore; ovario corollz reliquo cupuliformi
imo circumdato.—Mexico Septentrionali.—v. s. in herb. Hook.
(Sierra Madre) Seemann, no. 2090.

A very leafy species, remarkable for its conspicuous, cottony,
knotty axils, which are from } to 3 inch apart: the leaves, four
to six in each fascicle, are 8 to 10 lines long, 14 to 2 lines broad :
the flowers are about the size and shape of those of the preceding’

species; the peduncle, equal in length to the calyx, is 1 line

long; the corolla is 3 lines long; the segments of the border
are $ line long and broad*.

35. Lycium glomeratum, Sendtn. in Flor, Bras. fase. 6. p. 154;
Dunal in DC. Prodr. xin. 512.

This very distinct species, fully described by Dr. Sendtner
and M. Dunal, is remarkable for its approximated Jarge leaves
and copious fascicles of flowers. It is a small tree, growing
commonly along the banks of the river San Francisco, about
eighty miles from its mouth, where it is called Espinha, though
it is generally unarmed. Its branches are much used by the
natives for making fences. A variety, which may be called
obovatum, on account of its more ovate and obtuse leaves, exists
in Sir William Hooker’s herbarium, collected by Mr. Gardner on
the Ilha de San Pedro, an island near the mouth of the river
San Franciscot.

— ee Hilamenta paullo supra basin geniculatum globula pilorum .
donata. Sp. 36 ad 38.

36. Lycium nodosum (un. sp.) ;—glaberrimum, inerme, ramis
flexuosis, cortice rimoso, albescente, ramulis virgatis, axillis
approximatis, nodosis, cottoneis ; foliis (2-5) fasciculatis, rarius
solitariis et alternis, ovato- vel oblongo-spathulatis, apice rotun-

* A representation of this species with explanatory sections is given
(loc. cit.) 68 E.
+ This species is shown (loc. cit.) plate 68 F.

140 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

datis, imo in petiolum brevissimum attenuatis, eveniis ; flori-
bus in axillis solitariis, calyce cupuliformi, brevissimo, crassi-
usculo, zequaliter et acute 4-dentato; corolle glabrz tubo in-
fundibuliformi, limbi laciniis brevibus, latis, reflexis ; stamini-
bus 4, subzequalibus, longissime exsertis, filamentis in coarc-
tationem tubi insertis, hine geniculatis et barbatis, uno paullo
breviori; stylo stammibus zquilongo; ovario disco carnoso
adnato, et coroll reliquo cupuliformi imo cireumdato.—Pro-
vincia Tucuman Argentinorum.—. s. in herb. Hook. (Tweedie).

The leaves are 5 to 7 lines long, 14 to 21 lines broad; the
peduncle is 2 lmes long; the calyx is 3 line long; the length of
the tube of the corolla is 24 lines, of the segments of its border
3 line: the stamens are 13 line longer than the tube, and are
inserted one-third of the distance from the base*.

37. Lycium vimineum (n. sp.) ;—imerme, ramulis virgatis, recti-
usculis ; foliis 2-3nisve (interdum 5nis) fasciculatis, linearibus,
imo in petiolum brevem attenuatis, eveniis; floribus e fasci-
culis 2-8nisve parvulis, calyce 4-dentato pedunculo vix bre-
viori, dentibus zequalibus acutis margine ciliatis tubo levi, po-
culiformi paullo brevioribus ; corolle glabra carnosule breviter
et late cylindricz tubo paullo supra basin breviter coarctato,
hine subcampanulato, limbi laciniis 4, late subdeltoideis, reti-
culato-venosis, tubo tertio brevioribus, reflexis: staminibus 4,
eequalibus, exsertis, filamentis paullo supra basin insertis, hinc
glabris et geniculatis, mox fasciculatim barbatis, maculis tot-
idem pilosis intra tubum alternatim interjectis, stylo staminibus
equilongo.—Prov. Santa Fé Argentinorum.—». s. in herb.
Hook. (Tweedie).

This is said by Tweedie to be a shrub 12 to 20 feet high,
evidently with long, slender, pendent branchlets, growing very
plentifully near the town of Santa Fé, on the river Parana: the
branchlets are slender, of a light brown colour, smooth and
striated. Two, three, or more leaves grow in a fascicle out of
each cup-shaped axillary node; they are 10 to 16 lines long,
1 or 2 lines broad; two or three flowers spring out of each
fascicle of leaves, one after another, at distant periods; the
peduncle is 1} or 1 line long; the smooth cup-shaped calyx is
of the same length, and is crowned by four equal triangular
teeth with ciliated margins: the corolla is contracted near the
base, is broadly campanular above, with four short and broad
reflected segments, the length of the tube being 24 lines, and of
the segments 3 line: the stamens, inserted a little above the

* A drawing of this plant with sectional details is given (loc. cit.) plate
69 A

On the supposed Antheridia of Rhamnus. 141

base of the tube, are 3 lines long; the style is 3} lines in length ;
the lower moiety of the ovary is enclosed in the etree: ger in-
duvial base of the corolla*.

88. Lycium brevipes, Benth. Voy. Sulphur, 40; DC. Prodr. xiii. ;
—spinosum, glaberrimum, ramulis striatulis, subflexuosis,
nitidis, stramineis, apice spinosis; foliis solitariis, 2-3nisve,
cuneato-oblongis subovatisve, obtusis; floribus parvis, bre-
vissime pedunculatis, solitariis; calyce brevi, poculiformi,
5-dentato ; corollze tubulosz tubo calyce 5plo longiori, limbi
laciniis 5, brevibus, rotundatis, reflexis ; staminibus insertis.
—California.—+. s. in herb. Hook.—Magdalena Bay (Barclay),
specim. flore manco.

A spiny shrub with a barren aspect, apparently with few ob-
ovate leaves, which are 4 to 9 lines long, narrowed at the base
into a slender petiole, and 2 to 3 lines broad. The specimen
above referred to has only a single imperfect flower, with a pe-
duncle } line long; the calyx measures 1 line, the corolla 3 lines,
including the segments of its border 4 line in length; more
perfect flowers, according to Mr. Bentham, are 5 lines longt.

[To be continued. |

XVI.—Note on the supposed Antheridia of Rhamnus.
By J. S. Burpon Sanperson, M.D.t

[With a Plate. |

In Mohl and Schlechtendal’s ‘ Bot. Zeitung’ for 1844, certain
peculiar organs are described by Dr. Grisebach as occurring on
the stipules of the rudimentary leaves forming the centre of the
leaf-bud of several species of Rhamnus and other plants belong-
ing to different orders. In these organs, to which he applies the
term corynidia, Dr. Grisebach ‘finds @ structure which he sup-
poses to resemble that of the antheridia of the higher Crypto-
gamia. Any evidence to prove the occurrence of antheridia
among the Phanerogamia must, if confirmed, necessarily alter
_ the views which we are now entitled to entertain of the general
signification of the organs in question : it appeared therefore de-
sirable to repeat the observations above alluded to. With this
object I procured, through the kindness of Prof. Balfour, a suffi-

cient number of the buds of msi Sin species of Rhamnus, viz.

* ‘Ikis species with sectional details is represented (/oc. cit.) plate 69 B.
t This species with floral sections is r a prernte (loc. cit.) in plate 69 C,
t Read before the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, May 9, 1854.

142 Dr. J. 8. B. Sanderson on the supposed

R. Alaternus, latifolia, cathartica, &c. The last-mentioned was
selected for examination as most suitable.
1. Arrangement and development of parts forming the leaf-bud.
—The leaf-buds were examimed at two periods,—first, in the
middle of last January, and afterwards early in April, when
nearly ready to open. The internal parts are protected by a
resistent tegument, composed of scales of a brown colour and
horny consistence. Each of these scales presents a modified
form, not of the leaf, as is most commonly the case, but of the
stipule ; or rather, to speak more accurately, each scale .corre-
sponds to.a combination of the two stipules which belong to one
leaf. The arrangement of the scales is imbricated, each scale
covering all its successors by both its margins. The rudimentary
leaves are arranged in pairs, which alternate with each other ;
the two leaves forming each pair being opposite and of nearly
equal size. The four stipules of the last pair of leaves (viz. the
pair most distant from the axis) are enclosed in the first pair of
tegumentary scales, while they, on the other hand, enclose the
four stipules of the penultimate pair of leaves, and so on to the
_centre of the leaf-bud ; an arrangement that illustrates in a beau-
tiful manner the correspondence between the scales and the
stipules. Frequently the scales of the first pair are bifid, thus
manifesting a tendency to division into two symmetrical organs.
The vernation of the rudimentary leaves is convolute ; the sti-
pules occupying the space intervening between the convexities
of their rounded folds. LG

Structure and development of the rudimentary leaves and sti-
pules.—In its earliest condition the leaf is nothing more than
a lateral budding out of the axis, which soon becomes compressed
from behind forwards *. In a stage slightly more advanced, it is
an awl-shaped organ, the lateral margins of which are curved in-
wards and forwards ; it is inserted into the axis by an expanded
base. In this condition the stipules are seen as two flattened
projections, one on each side (Pl. III. A. fig.l@). Still later, as in
fig. 1 b, the involution of the margin of the leaf is more com-
plete, and the stipules have lost their rounded form, having be-
come somewhat spatula-shaped organs,—-much broader, however,
below than above. In this state both leaf and stipule consist
entirely of cylindrical cells, the greatest diameter of which is
about 0009 millim. The breadth of the leaf now diminishes
considerably in proportion to its length, a result which is pro-
duced by the continued involution of its margins. The con-

* The terms anterior and posterior, right and left, internal and external,
&c., are usual in relation to the leaf, taken by itself; its future upper surface
being considered as anterior, as it is by it that it looks towards the axis.

Antheridia of Rhamnus. | 143

vexities of the rounded folds are seen on its anterior aspect to
form two undulating ridges, one on each side of a median fur-
row. In the mean time the stipule, originally a mere lateral
projection from the base of the leaf, has increased in relative
size, and now equals or exceeds the leaf itself. A difference of
size is also observed between the two stipules belonging to the
same leaf, the right one from the first somewhat exceeding its
fellow. After they have arrived at about one-eighth of their
ultimate length, both are furnished with a linear median thick-
ening, which extends from the base to the apex. The space
intervening between this thickening and the margin is greater
on the side next the leaf than on the opposite, as a result of
which, the margin itself is convex on the one side, while on
the other it is nearly rectilinear. Those of the outer stipules of
the leaf-bud, which have assumed the character of protective
scales, are brown and horny at their upper part, and much
broader in proportion to their length than the rest (fig. 1 f).

Origin and development of the so-called Corynidia.—The cory-
nidia are found only in stipules which have arrived at about. one-
eighth of the length of the whole bud, those of smaller size pre-
senting no trace of their existence. They originate from the
median thickening of the stipule, as nipple-shaped buddings-out
of the anterior surface (fig. 2 a). Soon they assume a clavate
form and overhang the inner margin of the stipule, appearing in
the interval between this organ and the leaf (fig. 2 4). Each
consists of a central column of cellular tissue surrounded by a
simple layer of others, which do not differ in any respect from
those which=surround them, and form the superficial layer of
the stipule. On the more external stipules of the leaf-bud, the
corynidia-are found to have altered their form, havmg become
flask-shaped (fig. 2 6). It is difficult to determine whether the
enlarged extremity is occupied by a cavity containing a trans-
parent fluid, or simply by a lax cellular tissue. It is, however,
certain, that if such a cavity exists, it is not limited in any
distinct manner.

At this point the development of the corynidia ceases, and
they soon become marcescent ; the upper part of the corynidium ~
shrinking into a mass of irregular form and dark brown colour,
which, after remaining for a time attached to the stipule by a
slender pedicle, eventually separates. In examining the leaf-bud,
there are always to be found a number of such masses floating
free in the water used for dissection. On pressing them between
two glasses, they are found to be solid, resistent bodies. When
sufficient force is used to disintegrate them, they are resolved
into a number of grains of irregular form, which for the most
part correspond in size to the cells of which the corynidia were

144 On the supposed Antheridia of Rhamnus.

originally composed. This granular matter, there can be little
doubt, is to be considered as a resin, with the characters of which,
both physical and chemical, its characters correspond.

Conclusions.—The_corynidia. of Grisebach differ from true
antheridia in the following particulars :—

1. They are not developed from a single, special mother-cell,
differing in form and contents from those surrounding it, as in
the case of the true antheridia ; but are merely buddings-out of
the tissue of the stipule, and consist even in their earliest condi-
tion of several cells.

2. They possess at no period of their growth a central cavity
lined. by a membrane.

3. They do not discharge their contents, when eg by
dehiscence, but simply shrink up and wither.

4. The most careful observation fails to detect any structures
which resemble, in the slightest degree, the antherozoids of the
higher Cryptogamia, or which correspond to the “long-tailed
globules enclosed in minute spherical cells ” described by Grise-
bach.

There seems to be no reason to suppose that the corynidia are
at all connected with reproduction ; the function which may be
assigned to them with the greatest appearance of. probability
is that of the secretion of the resinous material, whichois so im-
portant an auxiliary in the protection of the rudimentary organs
of the leaf-bud from external influences. |

EXPLANATION OF PLATE III. A.

Fig. 1. (All the objects are represented of the same relative size, as mag-
nified about twelve times.) a, a rudimentary leaf with its stipules.
The median depression which intervenes between its folded mar-
gins may be already distinguished. 5, the same in a more ad-
vanced condition, viewed from the right side. There is as yet no
indication of corynidia. c, here the two corynidia are seen in the
space between the leaf and stipule, and projecting over the inner
margin of the latter. d, more advanced condition, in which the
leaf has arrived at the greatest length to which it attains while
enclosed in the bud, but the stipules are considerably shorter.
Numerous bunches of corynidia are observed occupying various
positions on the median thickenings of the stipules. e, later stage,
in which the stipules which now equal or exceed the leaf in length,
have lost their corynidis and have become peo and horny at
their upper part.

Fig. 2. (Magnified about ninety times.) a, part of the mner margin and
anterior surface of a stipule ths of a millim., in length. At the
upper part is seen a corynidium in its earliest condition, viz. as a
nipple-shaped budding-out of the middle layer of cells. Below
are seen two other corynidia more advanced. 6, a mature cory-
nidium. c, a marcescent corynidium.

Zoological Society. 145

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.
ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
May 25, 1852.—J. Gould, Esq., F.R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.

DesCRIPTIONS OF A FEW NEW RECENT SPECIES OF BRACHIO-
popa. By Tu. Davipson, F.G.S., MEMBER OF THE GEOL,
Soc. or FRANCE, ETC.

In the valuable collection of recent Brachiopoda assembled by Mr.
Cuming, some species seem new, and undescribed in Mr. Sowerby’s
Monograph ; and it is at that gentleman’s request that I have pre-
pared the following descriptions, which will complete, with one ex-
ception, the Ter. septigera of Lovén (still unfigured), all the new
recent forms which have hitherto come under my observation.

In a paper published in the ‘ Annals and Magazine of Nat. Hist.’
for May 1852, I endeavoured to class all the recent species according
to their internal organization, into four families and thirteen genera,
or sections, as it is evident that these, as well as the fossil forms, must
be comprised in.the proposed subdivisions introduced within the last
few years with more or less success into the nomenclature; and sin-
gular enough, notwithstanding the greater facilities of examining both
the internal arrangements as well as the animal in recent forms, these
important characters have not yet been made use of by malacologists,
who still place nearly all these Terebratuliform shells in one genus,
Terebratula; while paleontologists, working under much greater
difficulties, have by dint of perseverance and trouble discovered the
organization of a multitude of extinct forms, filled by the hardest
matrix: and I have no doubt but that before very many years the
internal details of all the fossil species will be as well known as if they
were in the recent state.

Much, however, remains to be done before the proposed classifi-
cations can be decidedly and definitely adopted, and many modifica-
tions will be considered requisite, as it is evident, from our present
knowledge, that some genera or sections are more or less closely re-
lated, and that certain species possess characters common to more
than one genus, but these examples are few and exceptional in com-
parison to those presenting a similar organization: thus all forms
with a free, simply attached loop, as in Ter. Australis, Ter. Califor-
niana, &c., must be placed in the same section; all those with the
loop affixed to the hinge plate and to a central more or less elevated

septum, such as Ter. dorsata, Ter. rubicunda, &c., into another group;
_ those also in which the calcareous appendages consist of only two cen-
tral diverging lamelle, such as Ter. rubra, Ter. pisum, and others,
must necessarily be placed close to each other, &c. The arrange-
ment of the species is, therefore, not a matter of indifference, but
ought to partake of those rules, followed for the other classes of Mol-
lusca, wherein genera are often admitted on far less important differ-
ences.

A complete monograph of the recent species thus framed, with

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 10

146 Zoological Society.

figures, synonyms, dates, &c., is still a desideratum, and I hope ere
long that the science of Conchology will be enriched by such a valu-
able and necessary contribution.

The only object of this short paper is to describe some unfigured
forms, to which I have added some remarks on a few species not
hitherto completely understood.

1. TeREBRATULA Gray, Day. 1852.

Diagnosis.—Shell irregularly pentagonal, rather broader than long;
valves unequally convex (the perforated being gibbous and the smaller
valve rather flattened) ; beak not much produced, truncated by a very
large emarginate foramen—the deltidial plates are disunited, a small
portion of the aperture being completed by the umbo; hinge-line
straight; beak-ridges sharply defined, leaving between them and the
hinge-margin a wide, almost flat area; surface ornamented by a great
number of irregular and unequal radiating costee, augmenting rapidly
from numerous bifurcations and intercalations of smaller plaits be-
tween the larger costze ; colour partly yellow and red, this last be-
coming more vivid as it approaches the concentric lines of growth ;
structure punctate ; internal appendages consisting of a simply
attached loop, the riband-shaped lamella extending to about. fowr-
fifths of the length of the shell before bending back on itself. Di-
mensions variable: length 14, width 15, depth 9 lines.

Hab. Coast of Korea. Coll. Cuming. 7

Obs.—This fine species has been known to me for several years, but’
unobserved by other collectors, who erroneously supposed. it to be
the Ter. rubra of Pallas, to which it bears some external resemblance,
but is essentially different in its internal arrangements; the loop’ of
our new form being similar to that of Te. Australis or Ter. lenticu-
laris, &c., while the appendages of Ter. rubra, which is the type of
my lately proposed genus Kraussia, consist only of two central diver-
ging branches, somewhat spread out at their extremities. Ter. Grayii
is also distinct from Terebratella Zelandica, the loop of this last beg
doubly attached, as in all the species of that section.

- 2. TeREBRATELLA Boucnarpil, Day. 1852.

Diagnosis.—Shell of a suborbicular or trapezoidal form, longer
than wide, or broader than long; perforated valve most convex, late-
rally compressed and keeled, the imperforated valve presenting a lon-
gitudinal depression extending from about the middle of the valve to
the front; beak produced, recurved and truncated by a large circular
and entire foramen ; deltidium in two pieces, meeting at the umbo;
beak-ridges defined, leaving hetween them and the hinge-margin a
slight concave false area; surface smooth, interrupted only by a few
concentric lmes of growth; colour light yellow; internal calcareous
lamellze fixed first to the crural base, and again to the longitudinal
mesial septum, before attaining their greatest length and bending back
on themselves to form the loop; structure punctate. Length 14,
width 13, depth 8 lines.

Hab. Unknown. Coll. of Mr. Cuming.

Obs.—This species seems to differ from T'erebratella Coreanica of

Zoological Society. 147

Adams and Reeve principally in:the form of its beak and in its
coloration ; the Corean form is beautifully strigated with vivid red,
while Ter. Bouchardit is of a uniform light yellow colour ; the details
of the loop seem likewise to differ a little.

3. TEREBRATELLA Evansu, Dav. 1852.

Diagnosis.—Shell subovate, longer than wide; perforated valve
most convex, smaller one rather compressed ; beak tapering, not much
recurved, and obliquely truncated by an emarginate foramen; del-
tidia small; beak-ridges well defined, leaving between them and the
hinge-margin a false area; surface ornamented by a few unequal bi-
furcated and intercalated coste ; colour pale red; structure punc-
tate; apophysary system composed of a central longitudinal sep-
tum, not exceeding half the length of the valve, arising rapidly in the
form of a narrow elevated plate, almost reaching the centre of the
perforated valve, to the middle of which, and to the crural base, are
doubly attached the calcareous riband-shaped lamelle forming the
loop. Length 4, width 34, depth 14 lines.

Hab: New Zealand. Coll. Cuming.

Ob6s.—On first inspection, I thought this shell, of which Mr.Cuming
has two examples, might be the young of Terebratella Zelandica; but
on éxamining the caleareous appendages, I found great dissimilarity in
their respective details. In Ter. Zelandica the loop is first fixed. to the
hinge-plate, and again, by a transverse shelly horizontal process, to
the extremity of a slightly elevated mesial septum; the lamella pro-
ceeding again before bending back, as in all 7'erebratelle: but in the
interesting little form under notice the mesial septum forms a narrow
elevated plate, extending as far and further than the greatest length
of the lamellze, which last are fixed to the middle portion of the sep-
tum. _ The remarkable deviation from the general details of the
arrangements in this 7’erebratella has prompted me to examine with
care a multitude of specimens of different species belonging to the
genus, and I was not a little surprised to find that some few other
forms presented a similar arrangement, such as Ter. crenulata,
Ter. Cumingii, &c., thus forming a passage into Magas, which last,
although generically distinct, can no longer constitute a separate

*

family from the Terebratulide.

4, TEREBRATELLA? Cumineu, Day. 1852.

Diagnosis.—Shell very thick, ovato-oblong ; larger valve most con-
vex, slightly keeled ; imperforated one rather depressed; beak pro-
duced, tapering, not much recurved, and truncated by a small oval
foramen, beginning at the summit of the beak, and directing itself on
the opposite side to the area; no visible deltidium ; a concave trian-
gular area; surface smooth, strongly marked by concentric lines of
growth ; colour white, or slightly tinged with red; shell articulating
by means of two strong teeth in the larger and corresponding
sockets in the smaller valve; apophysary system very complicated,
composed of a mesial longitudinal elevated triangular septum extend-
ing to about two-thirds of the length of the smaller valve, and which

10*

148 Zoological Society.

arising from under the cardial process and crural base, by a gentle
curve reaches and touches the larger valve near to its anterior portion,
from whence it descends by an almost perpendicular line to the bottom
of the valve ; the calcareous riband-shaped lamellee first proceed from
the socket walls, directing themselves by a gentle curve to the ante-
rior portion of the septum, to which they become attached before
bending on themselves to form a loop; the arms are of a brilliant
red colour. Length 5, width 4, depth 2} lines.

Hab. New Zealand. Coll. Cuming.

Obs.—Two specimens of this remarkable shell have bei obtained
by Mr. Cuming, and it is one of the most interesting among the re-
cent forms, presenting great difficulties from an assemblage of cha-
racters peculiar to more than one of the proposed sections. In out-
ward shape, character of its foramen, and interior of perforated valve,
it much resembles Bouchardia rosea; its foramen is likewise very
similar in position to that presented by several species of Trigonose-
mus; the shape and position of its central elevated septum, which
touches a portion of the centre of the larger valve, relates it to Magas,
and the disposition of the lamellee to Terebratella. I therefore do
not feel certain in what genus this curious shell should be placed: it
is not a true Terebratella, but there I have placed it for the present,
on account of the form of the loop.

5. TEREBRATELLA SPITZBERGENSIS, Dav. 1852.

Diagnosis.—Shell ovate, slightly pentagonal, longer than ‘wide;
valves almost equally convex ; beak produced, recurved, and truncated
by a middle-sized foramen ; deltidium in two pieces, partly surround-
ing the aperture; beak-ridges not very sharply defined ; smaller valve ’
slightly depressed near the front ; surface smooth, strongly punctate,
and marked by a few concentric lines of growth; colour light yellow ;
apophysary system composed of a central longitudinal septum, ex-
tending to a little beyond half the length of the shell, in the form of
a narrow plate somewhat elevated at its extremity, to which and to
the hinge-plate are attached the calcified riband-shaped lamellee form-
ing the loop. Length 4, width 3, depth 2 lines.

Hab. Spitzbergen.

Obs.—This small Terebratella seems distinguishable from all the
other recent forms of the genus, by its dimensions, regular ovate
shape, thinness of shell, and comparatively short, doubly-attached
loop, which does not exceed half the length of the valves I have
hitherto been able to examine but one specimen, from the collection

of Robert M‘Andrew, Esq., and Mr. Cuming.

6. TEREBRATULINA CuminGul, Dav. 1852.

Diagnosis.—Shell ovate, somewhat pentagonal, nearly as wide as
long; valves almost equally convex; beak small, obliquely truncated
by a circular emarginate foramen ; deltidial plates disunited, a small
portion of the aperture being completed by the umbo ; auricular ex-
pansions on either side of the umbo very small ; surface ornamented
by a great. number of minute radiating elevated strize, augmenting

Zoological Society. 149

rapidly by the intercalation of smaller costa at variable distances be-
tween the larger ones; the front margin of the larger valve imdents
the smaller one; colour white, tinged with yellow; structure punc-
tate; internal apophysary supports short aud annelliform. Length
33, width 3, depth 2 lines. :

Hab. Chinese Seas. Coll. Cuming.

Obs.—This little Terebratulina may be easily distinguished from
all the other recent species of the genus by its size and relative width
and length, being much more convex and globular.

7. MorRIsia ANOMIOIDES, Scacchi, sp. 1843.

Orthis anomioides, Scacchi in Phil. Moll. Sicil. ii.

. Terebratula appressa, Forbes, Report on the Mollusea and Radiata
of the Aigean Sea, 1843.

Diagnosis.—Shell. minute, circular, depressed ; foramen. large,
round,..encroaching equally on both valves; larger valve with a
straight, hinge-area ; deltidial plates minute, widely separated;
smaller valve deeply notched at the umbo; apophysary system con-
sisting of two branches originating at the base of the dental sockets,
and united to a small elevated process arising from the centre of the
valye,

Animal furnished with two subspiral or sigmoid arms fringed with
comparatively large cilia; the shell is of a green colour, with bright
orange ovaries contrasting with the brilliant white of the ciliated arms ;
structure punctate. Length 1, width 14, depth + line.

Hab. Mediterranean ; depth 95 fathoms (Forbes).

,06s.—Some of Philippi’s figures of Ter. seminulum are so, lke
» specimens of 7’. appressa (Forbes), that I at first imagined they
might belong to the same type; and in my paper published in the
‘Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ for May 1852, I placed Ter. appressa
of Forbes as a synonym of Philippi’s species : but since that period
I have had reasons to believe this to be an error, and that in reality
the Italian author’s type does not belong to the same species nor even
genus, but would be a synonym of Argiope (Ter.) Neapolitana of
Seacchi. I have also ascertained that the shell and animal of this
species are figured by Philippi, in the seeond volume of his ‘ Sicilian
Mollusca.’

8. Krauss1aA LAMARCKIANA, Day. 1852.

'

Diagnosis.—Shell of a somewhat tetragonal form, flattish, with a
moderately deep longitudinal depression in the smaller valve and a
_ corresponding keel in the larger one ; hinge-line nearly straight ; beak
truncated by a large emarginate foramen, completed by two small
deltidial plates, and by a portion of the umbo of the smaller valve ;
hinge-area flat, well defined; surface ornamented by a number of
small coste, augmenting here and there by bifurcation and intercala-
tion at various intervals ; apophysary system consisting of two short,
central, diverging branches, bifurcated at their extremities ; structure
punctate ; colour light yellow. Length 3, width 3, depth 1} lines.

Hab. Sydney and New Zealand.

150 Zoological Society.

Obs.—This species is found near Sydney, living in company with
Ter. Australis, as may be seen by the specimen in the British Mu-
seum; it is distinguished from K. pisum and K. Deshayesii, by its
somewhat tetragonal shape, stronger and fewer coste, as well as by
the details of its loop, relating it more than any of the other species of
Kraussia to the section Megerlia ; its colour is likewise of a uniform
yellowish tint, while the above-mentioned species are differently
tinged with red.

9. KravusstA Desnayestii, Day. 1852.

Terebratula Capensis, Adams and Reeve, Voyage of the Samarang,
p- 70. pl. 21. f. 4, 1850 (non 7. Capensis, Gmel.).

Diagnosis.—Shell subovate, generally rather longer than wide ;
valves nearly equally convex, a deep longitudinal depression extending
from near the umbo to the front in the smaller valve, with a corre-
sponding keel im the perforated one; beak produced, and truncated
by a large emarginate foramen; deltidia small, nearly triangular, a
portion of the circumference being completed by the umbo ; surface
ornameuted by a great number of small raised costee, augmenting
rapidly by bifurcation and intercalation of smaller plaits at variable
distances from the beak and umbo ; structure punctate ; colour light
yellow, with stripes of red; apophysary system consisting of two
short, central, diverging lamelle expanded at their extremities.
Length 6, width 4, depth 2 lines.

Hab. Korea. Coll. Cuming.

10. ArGiope NEAPOLITANA, Scacchi, sp.

Terebratula Neapolitana, Scacchi, Oss. Zool. ii. p. 18.

Terebratula seminulum, Philippi, En. Moll. Siciliz, 1836; Sow.
Th. Conch. pl. 71. f. 85, 88.

Argiope Forbesii, Day. Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist. May 1852.

Diagnosis.—Shell small, suborbicular, nearly as long as wide, com-
pressed, emarginated in front ; valves unequal, slightly convex, almost
smooth or ornamented by a few rounded and nearly obsolete radiating
costee ; a longitudinal depression extending along the centre of the
smaller valve; beak produced; foramen large, with a small, lateral,
deltidial plate, and an area on either side; hinge-line straight ;
apophysary system consisting of a small longitudinal mesial septum,
with a complete two-lobed loop; colour light yellow; structure
largely punctate. Length 13, width 14, depth 3 line.

Hab. Naples, and different parts of the Mediterranean, in from
60 to 105 fathoms (Forbes).

Obs.—Since the publication of my paper in the ‘ Annals,’ May
1852, I have, through the kindness of Mr. Haaley, been enabled to
examine two specimens, said to be the types of Scacchi’s Ter. Nea-
politana, and, according to Kister, the Ter. seminulum of Philippi
would be a synonym; although the last-named author’s species,
from his illustration presenting a deep notch in the umbo (a character
never seen in any Argiope), had led me erroneously to believe 7’. se-
minulum the same as Prof. Forbes’s 7. appressa. ‘The figures of

Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 151

Ter, Neapolitana given both by Scacchi, Philippi, and Kiister, do
not represent the characters of the species under notice,—so much
so that I believed it new, and gave to it the name of Argiope Forbesii,
which must now be considered only a synonym: and Sowerby’s
figure correctly illustrates the species.

11. RayNCHONELLA NiGRICANS, Sow. sp. 1846.

Diagnosis.—Shell inequivalve, irregularly tetrahedral, wider than
long; beak acute, and slightly recurved ; foramen not entirely sur-
rounded by the deltidial plates, a portion being completed by the
umbo; beak-ridges well defined, leaving between them aud the hinge-
line a false area, not indenting much the smaller valve ; surface orna-
mented by a variable number of sharp plaits, about twenty-five on
each valve, a few of which are due to intercalation ; mesial fold not
prominent, but defined, with a corresponding shallow sinus in the
larger valve; apophysary system consisting of two short curved
lamellze ; colour bluish black; structure impunctate. Length 8,
‘width 9, depth 4 lines,

fab. Five miles east of Ruapuke Island, New Zealand; dredged:
by Mr. Evans, R.N., in 19 fathoms off coral and rock. Coll. Cuming.

Obs.—When Sowerby described this interesting shell, only one
small young specimen, without locality, was known; since then Mr.
Evans has dredged several, some of which exceeded the dimensions
above given. I therefore thought it advisable to redescribe the spe-
cies, more especially as it is scarcely distinguishable from half-
grown specimens of &. concinna, Sow.

12. Orsicuta Evansu, Dav. 1852.

Diagnosis.—Shell irregularly circular, nearly as wide as long, very
thick ; both valves almost equally orbicular or suborbicular; apex
subcentral ; the unattached valve is ornamented by numerous strong,
radiating, elevated strie, which augment rapidly by the mtercalation
of numerous smaller costee at variable distances from the apex ; these
are intersected by numerous concentric lamine of growth; attached.
valve very deep; disk of adhesion small, almost central; fissure mi-
nute, elongated ; surface covered by concentric raised laminee, with
longitudinal strize all round and near the edge ; colour yellow ; texture
horny. Length 53, width 6, depth 4 lines.

Hab. Bodegas. Coll. Cuming.

Obs.—Mr. Cuming has three specimens of this Ordicula, all similar
in appearance, and distinguishable from O. Cumingii and O. strigata
by the great convexity of the attached valve, which is flat in the two
above-mentioned species; the disk of adhesion is likewise much
smaller in O. Evansii, and the striation stronger.

BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

May 11, 1854.—Professor Balfour, President, in the Chair.

Dr. Greville mentioned that he had been in correspondence with
Mr. Wilson upon the subject of the North Uist Moss, which had
been referred by that gentleman to Leucodon Lagurus, while he him-

on

152 Botanical Society of Edinburgh.
self had been. disposed to consider it\a. variety of Hypnum cirrhosum.
Mr. Wilson had, however, satisfied him that it could scarcely be so
considered. In the absence of fruetification, Mr. Wilson preferred
to regard it as a variety of Leucodon Lagurus (although there were-
certainly some differences of character) rather than unnecessarily to
multiply species... Dr. Greville.was still disposed, on the strength of
the great difference in habit, to doubt of its claim to the place assigned
to it, and thought it probable that the fructification, when discovered,
would remove it altogether from, Lewcodon..

The following papers were read :—

1. “On the Structure of Diatomacee,”’ by E. W. Dallas, F.R.S.E.

The author directed attention to the list of species which follows,
and which, although imperfect, exhibits great. variety in the forms,

showing the Medway to be very fertile in these organisms.

Epithemia Musculus.
Campylodiscus cribrosus..
Surirella striatula.
linearis.
Tryblionella marginata.
—— Scutellum.

—— punctata.

gracilis.
acuminata..
Cymatopleura elliptica..
Triceratium Favus.
striolatum.
undulatum.
Cyclotella Kitzingiana..
operculata.

And three species undetermined.

Actinocyclus undulatus.
senarius.
septenarius.
octonarius.
nonarius.
Kupodiscus Argus, 2 vars.
radiatus.

maculatus.
Coscinodiscus radiatus.
minor.

-—— eccentricus.
Thwaitesii.

And an undetermined species.
Cocconeis Pediculus.
Scutellum.

‘Nitzschia sigmoidea.

dubia.

reversa.

And an undetermined species.
Navicula elliptica..

convexa.

—— Westii (?).

~—— didyma.

—— pusilla.

punctulata.

— palpebralis.
Pinnularia divergens.
Stauroneis pulchella.
Cocconema parvum.
Pleurosigma balticum.
Hippocampus.
angulatum.
acuminatum.
distortum.

Doryphora Amphiceros, vars.
Boeckii.

Achnanthes brevipes.
Grammatophora marina (?).
Biddulphia aurita.
Zygoceros rhombus.
Dentricella sp.

Orthoseira sp.

Dictyocha.

Bacteriastrum furcatum (7).
curvatum (?).

Some of the species in the foregoing list have been described as
new to Britain, by Mr. Roper in a paper recently published in the
‘Microscopical Journal.’ The Coscinodiscus, not named, seems from
the description to be the same with that found at the mouth of the
Thames, and is an exceedingly beautiful disc. The four species of

Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 153

Actinocyclus are those deseribed by Ehrenberg, and are new British
species. They exhibit the strong siliceous cellular tissue underneath
the moniliform structure of the surface. The examples of Triceratium
striolatum, and also Zygoceros rhombus differed somewhat from the
figures and descriptions given of them, being provided with two spines
placed close to the projecting terminations or angles of the valve, and
which were always present in the examples that had come under ob-
servation. ‘The surfaces of the valves were also seen to be dotted
over with small projecting nodules which gave them a very remark-
able appearance. These appearances may perhaps be attributable to
a more matured development of the siliceous structure.

Among the remarkable forms found, although not considered to
belong to the Diatomacee, are the two varieties of Bacteriastrum, the
discs of which were three or four times the diameter of those described
by Mr. Shadbolt, from Port Natal, and the radiations more numerous.

Mr. Dallas directed attention to the structure of the Diatomaceze
as affording some of the most beautiful examples of geometric ar-
rangement of cells with which we are acquainted. There are only
three of the regular polygons which can be employed alone to fill up
the space about a point in a plane surface, namely the equilateral
triangle, the square, and the hexagon ; these forms and their angles —
are accordingly found to prevail in the structure of the tissues. By
constructing the polygons it was shown that they arrange themselves
in straight lines, determined by the shorter axis of the figures, the
quadrilaterals having two directions in which the lines run, and the
hexagons three.

2. “On the various sections of Coal, considered in their relation
to the Block, and the relative views of Histologists thereon,’’ by
Mr. Neil Stewart.

The author stated :—* Since last July, I have frequently been
employed in making drawings of sections of coal as seen under the
microscope by transmitted light. In the prosecution of this work, I
have felt great difficulty in bringing to my aid the willing zeal so
necessary to spirited delineation, and which can only be commanded
in proportion to the knowledge which the artist has of his subject.
This I can only account for by stating, that a suspicion passed upon
my mind from the beginning, that something was wrong with regard
to sections ; and this suspicion, which I frequently mentioned. to: gen-
tlemen engaged i in the investigation of this subject, increased with
my knowledge, until on reading Mr. Quekett’s paper in the ‘ Micro-
scopical Journal’ for January last, I found that he there expresses a
notion similar to mine, but immediately contradicts it by again return-
ing to the usually received opinion. With a view, therefore, to
satisfy my own doubts, and if possible to make a contribution to sci-
entific truth, I have examined cubical blocks of various coals by direct
light, and with my own hands have made sections from all the sides
of these, and again examined them by transmitted light. I have also
made drawings of such sections.

« Professor Bennett expresses it as his opinion—and I believe he
holds it in common with others—that the red-coloured strize seen in
the longitudinal section of household coal are tubes or ducts—that

154. Botanical Society of Edinburyh.

the yellow rings seen in the transverse section are,the ends of those
tubes—and that the red colour of the tubes, like blood seen in the
veins of the Frog’s foot, is an aggregation of the yellow bodies
strewed over the section like blood-cells in single file.

** For a moment let us reflect upon the appearance presented by a
cell or tube, as seen on the field of the microscope. In order that
either of these bodies may be seen by transmitted light, a certain
amount of transparency is necessary ; the slightest curvature or undu-
lation on the surface causes the light thrown from the reflector to be
diverted from the eye of the observer, and the part so curved appears
dark ; this is invariably the case at the margins: the outlines of such
bodies are distinctly defined and black, whatever may be their colour
or form, and this blackness is diffused inwards according to their
rotundity,

** How is it, then, that histologists have in this case departed from
an invariable optical law, and have described appearances void of out-
line as cells and tubes? But even admitting them to be so, I would
then ask, why have these not been carbonized like the adjacent struc-
tures which form the black-mass? Wanting these two characteristics,
no one need hesitate to say that they are neither cells nor tubes.

‘With regard to the red colour being an aggregation of the yel-
low, it is enough simply to state that that is impossible, from two
facts—the section is reduced to an equal thickness, and the yellow
bodies occur within the red spaces, their definition being then as
complete as wheu imbedded in their usual black matrix.

**T have said that Mr. Quekett expresses a notion similar to mine,
but again returns to the usually received opinion ; here are his
words :—‘ If a small cubical block of any kind of coal be examined
under a power of fifty diameters, four of its six sides will exhibit more
or less of a fibrous structure, precisely like that of wood.’

** Now, if a block of wood and a block of coal be examined together,
with the longitudinal striee of each laid in the horizontal direction,
they will present very different appearances. In the case of the wood
it will be seen that only two of its sides, which I shall call the back
and front, present the striated appearance ; in the other two the ends
are distinctly transverse sections, and show the ends of organisms.
But this is not the case with a block of coal, which may be likened
to a pack of cards, the four sides in question having a similar appear-
ance, and, so far as structure is concerned, having each an equal title
to be called a longitudinal section. Where, then, is the transverse
section of coal, and where are the yellow rings ?

*‘ Hitherto our attention has been directed to the sides of the block,
let us now examine the top and bottom, or horizontal surfaces: there
the rings are found, and being there, cannot be the ends of the sup-
posed tubes, nor have any relation to them, seeing that their longi-
tudinal direction is that of the surface now under examination. __

“The grinding and polishing process is very instructive. On the
sides of the blocks many series of rings may be ground off without
much alteration in the appearance of the striae, while in reducing the
horizontal surface the transparent parts are constantly changing their
form. The first evidence of transparency which presents itself is a

Botanical Society of Edinburgh. a

deep blood-red spot, beautifully soft at the edges; grind a little
farther, and it assumes. the appearance recognized as the resinoid
cell ; a little more grinding, and the spore-case makes its appearance ;
still grind on, the process will be found to be as fertile of form as the
frost is on.the window-pane, or the burning embers of the fire to a
musing fancy ; and when the section is reduced to the last degree of
thinness, the shallowest of all peep through. These are the yellow
rings, with their dark centres, on which I shall venture a few obser-
vations suggestive of their origin.

‘A painting of a transverse section, executed by Dr. Adams of
Glasgow, and shown by Professor Bennett to the Royal Society, re-
presents the rings as if they were all in the level, and of a uniform
colour. This has no doubt been in some measure the cause of their
having been mistaken for the ends of tubes. Nature shows them dif-
ferent. Some are distinct and bright yellow, while thin as the sec-
tion is when they come into view ; others are still obscured by a layer
of dark matter, and have a bistre-brown colour. Mr. Quekett admits
this to be the case ; it is therefore a matter of astonishment that,
with such a high and well-earned reputation for acute observation,
he, at the same time, describes them as transverse sections of thick-
walled cells or woody fibre.

‘In the longitudinal section these bodies present their edges, are
seen strewed all over the sections, and sometimes assume the appear-
ance of an interrupted yellow line, and individuals now show their
dark centres flattened.

“The dark bodies in the centres of the ring seem to me to be car-
bonized spores. They have the characteristic outline of a cell, are
some of them still quite spherical, and in Professor Balfour’s speci-
men of Wigan Cannel Coal, where the edge of the section is reduced
to a rag, some of them are partially divested of the encircling yellow,
when the spore is seen to project into the empty field. The remains
of some are also seen as black circular lines, sticking in the varnish
with which the specimen had been fixed to the glass.

“The transparent yellow I suppose to have been pressed out in
the process of carbonization, or perhaps gathered round them as a
pool of water encircles a stone on the sea-beach long after the retiring
tide has left all else dry.

‘In short, living vegetable matter may with tolerable accuracy be
considered as a semi-opake substance. The process of carbonization
by which it is-changed into coal, seems to separate the structural
from the non-structural, the opake from the transparent, and as the
former is compressed and blackened, the latter is insinuated be-
tween the layers, and into every minute fissure and crevice left vacant
around the more resistent particles of the carbonaceous mass; while
decomposed portions are being constantly carried to the surface of
the earth, by capillary attraction, there to be thrown off into the
atmosphere or taken up by the minute spongioles and rootlets of the
existing vegetation.”

3. “On the effects of the recent frosts on vegetation, in different
parts of the country,’ by Mr. M‘Nab.

156 Miscellaneous.

MISCELLANEOUS.

On the Embryogeny and Propagation of Intestinal Worms. By
MM. Ercouani and Vetta. Abstract by Prince CHARLES
BONAPARTE.

THE recent investigations of German naturalists on ‘the propaga-
tion and metamorphoses of the Cestoid worms have already engaged
the attention of the Academy, but our authors have occupied them-.
selves with the same pheenomena in the Nematoid worms, of which
we know scarcely anything.

After combating the most specious arguments that have been
advanced in favour of the doctrine of heterogeny, they endeavour to
show by simple and clearly stated facts, that, in spite of the general
opinion, the Hnxtozoa enjoy a marvellous tenacity of life. To such
an extent does this go, in fact, that their embryos have lived six
days immersed in alcohol, and been revived after thirty days of com-
plete dryness.

The embryogeny of the Ascaris megalocephala of the horse, hitherto
scarcely known, appears to be almost completely elaborated. The
artificial development of this worm was effected by Dr. Ercolani in
the lung of a dog. The description of these experiments 1s followed
by some new observations in comparative embryogeny relating to the
Graafian vesicle, the formation of the chorion and of the vitelline
membrane, and especially to the successive development of the organic
constituents of the worms.

Lastly, he shows how the ova of the Nematoids, after passing into
the bodies of animals with their food, insinuate themselves into the
walls of the intestine, so that their presence completely escapes de-
tection. In this position these ova undergo a sort of incubation, and
the embryo becomes sufficiently developed to return into the intestinal
cavity, where it is afterwards to pass its life.

In concluding their memoir the authors give the following résumé
of their facts :—

1. ** The progressive metamorphoses of the EHntozoa, hitherto
studied by Van Beneden, Kiichenmeister and Siebold, although re-
vealing to us new and astonishing facts, are not applicable to the
entire solution of the questions connected with the genesis of all
Entozoa.

2. “ Although the retrogressive metamorphosis of the ova of Tenie
into Cysticerct and Coenuri have not succeeded with the authors as
with some other observers, they have nevertheless led them to re-
cognize a lower phase in the development of the Cysticercus cuniculi,
a phase which approaches this worm to the lowest and most simple
worms : although they present an invaginated head, they are destitute
of the small openings, the hooks, and “the caudal vesicle, so that the
opinion entertained by some that the Cysticerci are degenerated
er is not well founded.

3..*‘The Nematoid worms do not undergo anything like a pro-
gressive metamorphosis ; the changes observable in the embryo are

Miscellaneous. 157

only phases of development ; thus the generative organs are always
the last formed, and are not perfectly presented until the complete
development of the animal.

4, **The horny appendages and hooks, which are wanting in the
Cysticercus cuniculi in the first stages of its development, are also
wanting round the mouth of the Strongylus armatus until after com-
plete development, and are then formed but cant

5. “The eggs of the Ascaris megalocephala of the horse may be
artificially developed in the pulmonary tissues of the dog.

6. “The cessation of movement and the fluidity of the body
in the Nematoids are not sufficient signs of the death of these ani-
mals, as they recover from this state as soon as they are placed in
warm water ; even in the state of embryos, although completely dried
up, they return to life very quickly by this means. The Nematoid
worms consequently die with great difficulty ; the ova and embryos
are endowed with a marvellous tenacity of life; they even exhibit
signs of life after immersion for six days in alcohol of 30 degrees.

7. “ This tenacity of life, jomed with the power of development of
the ovum when placed in circumstances different from those in which
it lives naturally, besides giving evidence of new and important facts,
destroys the strongest arguments employed by many naturalists in
favour of heterogeny.

8. ‘The ova of the Nematoid worms require a considerable time
for their development after being introduced with the food into the
bodies of animals; they adhere at first around the villosities of the
mucous membrane of the intestine, whence they afterwards penetrate
to the peritoneum, there to complete their development free from all
danger of being eliminated, returning afterwards into the cavity of
the intestine.

9. “ This simple mechanism, ‘in harmony with the laws which
govern the introduction of foreign bodies into the organism, may be
readily observed by examining the yellowish spots which occur in the
intestines of the rabbit, or in the ceecum of the horse, which are
nothing but the ova of the Oxyuris of the rabbit or of the Strongylus
of the horse ; amongst these ova we often meet with the microscopic
embryos of these Nematoids.

10. “In the adult females of the Ascaris megalocephala and lum-
bricoides it may readily be shown that the ova are not formed in the
last portion of the oviduct, but in the superior, slender portion which
represents a true ovary.

11. ‘* From the inner surface of the ovaries of the Ascarides just
mentioned, an immense quantity of elongated, pyriform bodies are
suspended ; these represent the Graafian vesicles of the superior
animals.

12. “ The Graafian vesicle, as in the higher animals, is not torn to
permit the passage of the ovum, but detaches itself completely from
the stroma, and loses its pyriform shape to become round, whilst the
membrane of the vesicle becomes the chorion of the egg.

12. “The vitelline membrane is formed after the detachment of
the ovum.”—Comptes Rendus, 24th April 1854, p. 779.

158 Miscellaneous.

On two new species of South American Birds.
By Puaiuie Lutiey Scuater.

1. Cunictvora BoLtviANa, Sclater. C. supra plumbea; infra
alba plumbeo paululum tincta; ventre niveo; fronte regione
oculari et genis nigris; alis nigricantibus, tectricibus et se-
cundariis late, primariis strictissime albo limbatis ; caudd nigra
lateralibus rectricibus albo terminatis 4; extimis feré omnind
albis—rostro et pedibus nigris.

Long. tota 42; alee 21; caudee 24.

Hab. Bolivia (Bridges), D’Orbigny.

The present bird is the fifth of this interesting genus, of which
the best known are the C. cerulea (Linn.) of the United States, and
the C. dumicola (Vieill.) of Brazil and Paraguay. The Prince of
Canino notices two other previously unrecognized species in his ‘ Con-
spectus Avium,’ p. 316. These I have never seen; but his fifth
species, the C. budytoides, De la Fresnaye, of which I have examined
the type, belongs, I believe, more properly to another genus. There
are specimens of the present species in the British and Paris Mu-
seums, and in the fine collection of the Baron de la Fresnaye at La
Fresnaye near Falaise. '

2. Prpra riavo-tincTA, Sclater. P. alba, flavo pallide tincta ;
pileo alis eauddque cum dorso inferiore nigris ; uropygio cum
ventre viridescente-cinereis ; rostro nigro ; pedibus flavis.

Long. tota 3}; ale 12; caude 1.

Hab. S* Fe de Bogota.

This species is very like the common Pipra manacus, but is smaller,
and has the white parts of its plumage tinged with yellow and much
less black on the back. There are examples in the Museum of the
Jardin des Plantes at Paris and of the Baron de la Fresnaye.—Proc.
Zool. Soc. Feb. 24, 1852.

Description of a new species of Hyrax from Fernando Po.
By Lovis Fraser, H.M. Consul at Whidah.

Hyrax pDorsA.is, Fraser.

Adult male. General colour grizzled brown, becoming darker
towards the back, where the hairs are annulated with black ; a line
of yellowish white, about four inches long, commencing over the
short ribs and running hindways; muzzle naked and of a brown
colour ; eyes light hazel.

Length of head 44 in.; neck and body about 18 in.; hind feet,
from heel to toe, 3 in.

Hab. Island of Fernando Po.

Its native name is ’Naybar ; it is nocturnal in its habits, and is no
doubt common, as its loud ery of ccurr-ccurr-ccurr may be heard
every evening after dark, during the commencement of the rains.

The Boobies say, it sleeps in the trees all day, and feeds upon
leaves at night, but is very difficult to find.

Meteorological Observations. 159

Mr. Waterhouse, in a letter to Mr. Cuming, writes as follows re-
specting this Hyrax :—

«The Hyraz is certainly distinct from the two species which I am
acquainted with, viz. H. Capensis and H. Syriacus, and upon com-
paring the skin with the description of H. arboreus, the only other
described species, I find several discrepancies which lead me to believe
it will prove distinct. I allude more especially to the texture of the
fur. In Mr. Fraser’s Fernando Po animal the fur is coarse, whilst
in H. arboreus it is said to be soft. This latter animal moreover
has a transverse black stripe about the middle of the lower jaw which
does not exist in Mr. Fraser’s species.’’—Proc. Zool. Soc. Nov. 23,
1852.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR JUNE 1854.

Chiswick.—June 1. Fine: cloudy. 2. Rain. 3. Cloudy: clear. 4. Cloudy :
clear and cold at night. 5. Uniformly overcast: fine. 6. Cloudy and cold.
7,8. Cloudy. 9. Overcast. 10. Fine. 11. Fine: overcast. 12. Densely clouded :
slight shower: very clear at night. 13. Rain: clear. 14. Cloudy: very fine.
15. Hazy and drizzly. 16. Hazy: rain. 17. Uniformly overcast: very fine:
clear. 18. Clear andvery fine. 19. Very fine: cold at night. 20. Slight haze:
cloudy: fine: clear. 21. Fine: cloudy: rain. 22. Very fine. 23. Uniformly
overcast ;: very fine: clear. 24, 25. Cloudy and fine. 26. Fine. 27. Fine: -rain
at night. 28. Showery: very clear. 29. Cloudy:clear. 30. Very fine: rain at

night.
Mean temperature of the month ............+5 ehejovscneae eevee 06°93
Mean temperature of June 1853. .............scececeesceveeres «ee 59°16
Mean temperature of June for the last twenty-eight years . 60 °51
Average amount of rain in JUNE .........seecccceeceseeeaees esse 1°90 inch.

Boston.—June 1. Cloudy. 2. Rain a.m. 3—11. Cloudy. 12. Cloudy: rain
AM. 13—15. Cloudy. 16. Cloudy: rain p.m. 17,18. Cloudy. 19—22. Fine.
23. Fine: thermometer 83° half-past 2 p.m. 24. Fine: thermometer 80° half-
past 2 p.m. 25. Fine: thermometer 87°: rain p.m. 26. Cloudy: rain a.m.
27. Cloudy. 28. Cloudy: rain a.m. and p.m. 29, Cloudy. 30. Cloudy: rain p.m.

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—June 1. Drizzle a.m. and p.m. 2. Cloudy a.m.
and p.m. 3. Bright a.m.: cloudy p.m. 4. Cloudy a.m.and p.m. 5. Damp a.m.
and p.m. 6. Cloudy a.m.andp.m. 7. Cloudy a.m.: drizzle p.m. 8. Damp a.m.:
cloudy, fine p.m. 9. Drops a.m.: small rain p.m. 10. Cloudy a.m.: drops p.m.
11. Clear a.m.: rain p.m. 12. Clear a.m.: clear, fine p.m. 13. Clear a.m.:
drops p.m. 14. Cloudy a.m. : showers, cloudy p.m. 15. Cloudy a.m. : clear p.m.
lo. Bright a.m.: cloudy p.m. 17. Clear a.M.: cloudy p.m. 18. Damp a.m.:
cloudy p.m. 19. Rain a.m.: fog p.m. 20. Clear a.m. and p.m. 21. Clear, fine
A.M. and p.M. 22. Bright a.m,: cloudy p.m. 23. Drizzle a.m.: cloudy, fine
p.M. 24. Rain a.m.: clear, fine pM. 25. Clear, fine a.m.: cloudy, fine p.m.
26. Showers A.M.: damp p.m. 27. Showers a.m.: cloudy p.m. 28. Clear, fine
A.M.: cloudy p.M. 29. Clear, fine a.m.: drizzle p.m. 30. Drizzle a.m.: drizzle,
showers P.M.

Mean temperature of June for twenty-seven previous years . 52°81
Meaa temperature of June 1853 ..........sceseeeesceveeeesees oe 00°21
Mean temperature of this month — .........eeesseseeceeeeneees »» 52 86
Average quantity of rain in June for thirteen previous years. 2-24 inches,

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THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[SECOND SERIES.]

No. 81. SEPTEMBER 1854.

XVII.—Onthe Occurrence of “Cinchonaceous Glands’’ in Galiacee,
and on the Relations of that Order to Cinchonacee. By
Grorce Lawson, F.R.P.S., F.B.S.E., Demonstrator of
Botany and Vegetable Histology to the University of Edin-
burgh*.

[With a Plate.]

A Few years ago, Dr. Weddell of Paris, in his magnificent mono-
graph of the Cinchonast, drew attention to a singular feature
in these plants, viz. the constant presence of peculiar glands on
their interpetiolar stipules ; and the attention of this Society was
called by Professor Balfour to Dr. Weddell’s observations.

The inner faces of the stipules are mm many cases firmly glued
to the terminal bud, which they embrace, by a gummy or gum-
resinous matter exuded by the small sessile glands to which
reference has been made, This secretion is stated by Dr. Wed-
dell to be fluid and transparent in Cinchonas and Cascarillas,
but solid and opake in several other genera, remarkably so in
Pimentelia glomerata. In the genus Rondeletia it is soft like
wax, and of a beautiful green colour. The inhabitants of Peru,
who give it the name of Acezte-Maria (oil of Mary), carefully
collect it, and employ it as an external application in various
maladies. It is well known to horticulturists that Cinchonaceous
plants under cultivation are very lable to the attacks of Acaride
and other parasites ; and Mr. M‘Nab has drawn my attention to
the fact, that it is invariably in the neighbourhood of the stipules
on the young shoots that these pests are most abundant, viz. at
the points of the plant where the secretion is most copiously
given off.

* Read to the Botanical Society of Edmburgh, July 13, 1854.

+ Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas, ou Monographie du genre Cinchona,
suivie d’une Description du genre Cascarilla et de quelques autres plantes
de la méme tribu, par M. H.-A. Weddell, M.D. Paris, 1849.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xiv. 1]

162 Mr. G. Lawson on Cinchonaceous Glands in Galiaceze.

The glands occur at the extreme base of the stipule on its
inner or upper surface, and are. most plentiful in the immediate
vicinage of the nervures of the stipule, where spiral vessels are
abundant ; but these-do not enter the tissue of the gland. In
those plants whose stipules early become reflexed (Rogera for
example) the glands are conspicuously exposed to view; but in
those whose stipules remain closely glued to the stem, it requires
careful dissection to show them. It is in the young state of the
stipule, when it envelopes the terminal bud, that the glands are
im best condition for examination ; they get quite dried up before
the stipule decays.

These stipular glands appear to be of universal occurrence
throughout the whole order Cinchenaceea, but as this has not
been ascertained from actual observation of all the species, it
seems desirable here to record the names of those in which they
have been particularly noticed, in order that botanists who have
the opportunity may, from time to time, extend the list of ob-
servations. These glands have been examined in the following
species, v1z.—

Cinchona Calisaya, Wedd. Rondeletia odorata, Jacq.
- Condaminea, Humb. et Bonpi. Burchellia capensis, Brown.
lancifolia, Mutis. Cephaélis Ipecacuanha, A. Rich.
ee amygdalifolia, Wedd. Coffea arabica, Linn.

#

scrobiculata, Humb. et Bonpl. Ixora javanica, DC.
—— australis, Wedd. eoccinea, Linn.

boliviana, Wedd. Musseenda frondosa, Linn.
ovata, Ruiz et Pav. Pavetta indica, Linn.

—— rufinervis, Wedd. Luculia gratissima, Sweet.

-—— Chomeliana, Wedd. Pineiana, Hook.

— micrantha, Ruiz et Pav. Pentas carnea, Benth.

—— pubescens, Vahl. ~ Gardenia Stanleyana, Hook.
cordifolia, Mutis. ‘Pimentelia glomerata, Wedd.
purpurascens, Wedd. Exostemma longifiorum, R. & S.

— carabayensis, Wedd. Rogera Reegelia.
asperifolia, Wedd. versicolor.

Cascarilla Carua, Wedd. —- elegans.

Ladenbergia dichotoma, Kitsch.
In all 35 species.

The Cinchonaceous glands are, in general, minute, more or
less conical bodies, rising from the surface of the stipule, and
are mostly colourless, but in some instances highly coloured, and
are then conspicuous objects.

Their plan of structure is perhaps more distinctly seen in
Cinchona Calisaya than in any other species, and is well illus-
trated in Dr. Weddell’s book. In that plant the gland is sessile,
of an oval or lanceolate form, and somewhat pointed at the apex.
It consists of a mass of dense tissue of somewhat elongated cells,
forming a central nucleus of a conical shape. This axial nucleus

Mr. G. Lawson on Cinchonaceous Glands in Galiaceer. 163

is surrounded by a layer of much more elongated obconical,
somewhat prismatic cells, which are closely set around the nu-
cleus in a radiant manner, lying upon it like achenes upon a
conical receptacle.

These elongated cells are described by Weddell as having, in
the centre of the outer extremity or apex of each, a minute canal
or perforation in the cell-wall, communicating with the interior
of the cell, and serving to discharge the secreted fluid. This he
says is particularly evident in Cinchona Calisaya; and the Com-
mission appointed by the Academy of Sciences to report upon
Dr. Weddell’s investigations (MM. Richard, Gaudichaud and
Jussieu) specially drew attention to the circumstance, as of rare
occurrence in vegetable glands.

I have not been able as yet to demonstrate the canal satisfac-
torily, although the glands of Cinchona Calisaya, and of other
species, have been carefully examined with this view. But, by
this expression of my own failure to see what no doubt requires
a combination of favourable circumstances, supplemented by
patient examination, I do not mean to impute error of obser-
vation to so excellent an observer as Dr. Weddell ; and refrain, in
the meantime, from entering upon a discussion of the point, as
it has specially occupied the attention of my friend Dr. John
Kirk, whose researches I trust will ere Jong be laid before the
Botanical Society. It may here, however, be remarked, that the
secretion is certainly discharged from the apex of the elongated
cells forming the outer layer of the gland, and under certain cir-
cumstances appears in the form of minute globules on their sur-
face. It is not likely that such globules were taken by Dr. Wed-
dell for canals, but they have sufficiently that appearance to be
mistaken by an inexperienced observer.

In size and form the glands vary considerably in different
species. In Cinchona Calisaya they are of an ovato-lanceolate
form, and measure ;1,th of an inch in length by ,4,th in breadth ;
while in Jxvora coccinea they are very much attenuated, of a linear
lanceolate form, and measure ;'5th of an inch in length by only
zepth in breadth.

In occasional cases, though rarely, two glands are found in
adhesion.

These stipular glands have been hitherto regarded as quite
peculiar to the Natural Order Cinchonacee, and have been em-
ployed as a character whereby to distinguish that order from
Galiacee, in which their presence has not hitherto been suspected,
or has rather by implication been denied.

I have recently ascertained, however, that the so-called Cin-
chonaceous glands are by no means limited to Cinchonacee.

They likewise occur in the Galiacea, and I believe that the
11*

164 Mr. G, Lawson on Cinehonaceous Glands in Galinoany:

strong odour (in some agreeable, in others fetid) which many of
these plants give off may be found to proceed from the secretions
of ther glands. It is not in isolated cases merely that I have
been able to trace the presence of glands in Galiacee. In every
plant of the order of which I have been able to obtain fresh ex-
amples for examination, I have found them to occur ; and being
quite unable to find a single instance of a Galiaceous plant in
which they are absent, I think I am, in the meantime, fairly en-
titled to presume their general occurrence throughout the order.
The plants examined (and found to exhibit these glands) were
the following, viz.—

Rubia peregrina, Linz. Galium Mollugo, Linn.

tinctorum, Linn. Chersonense, Rem. et Schult.
Asperula taurina, Linn. glabrum, Thunb.

odorata, Linn. cruciatum, With.

valantioides. —— saxatile, Linn.
Crucianella suaveolens. —— rostratum.

molluginoides, Bied. —— ureeolatum.

stylosa, DC. ——— purpureum, Linn.

aspera, Bieb. lucidum, All.
Galium Aparine, Linn. verum, Linn.
rubioides, Linn. —— pusillum, Linn.
tomentosum, Thunb. boreale, Linn.
tauricum, Rem. et Schult. Sherardia arvensis, Linn.
saccharatum, Al.

In all 27 species.

In Galiacee the glands occur apparently in the axils, but in
reality on the inner or upper surface of the bases, of the leaves.
In structure they bear a considerable resemblance to the stipular
glands of many Cinehonacee, with this difference, however, that
they are generally either distinctly stipitate or club-shaped,
whereas those of Cinchonacee are usually thickest at the base,
and taper (more or less gradually im different species) towards
the apex. When stipitate, the stalk (of the Galiaceous gland) is
composed of two or three (sometimes more) series of cells, those
running up the centre sometimes contaming green chlorophyll
granules ; none of these, however, being usually exhibited in the
body of the gland. In Rubia tinctorum each cell of the gland
contains a large green central nuclear body. In form the glands
of Galacee present even greater variety (in different species)
than those of Cinchonacee.

Another feature in which the glands of Galiacee differ from
those of Cinchonacee is their small size, which is especially ob-
servable in some of the dwarf, small-leaved species of Galium, as
in Galium saxatile, for instance, whose glands are not more than
zioth of an inch im length by 535th in breadth, whereas I have
stated those of Cinchona Caltsaya (which are not unusually large

Mr. G. Lawson on Cinchonaceous Glands in Galiacere. 165

for that genus) to average jth of an inch in length by 5th m
breadth.

The Cinchonacee and Galiacee form two well-marked groups
of plants, abundantly distinct from each other in habit and in
geographical distribution ; the one consisting of trees, shrubs,
and herbs, almost exclusively inhabiting the hotter parts of the
world, most of them eminently conspicuous for their ceconomical
products and the beauty of their broad foliage and flowers,
although some of their number are mean weeds ; the other com-
posed entirely of straggling herbaceous plants, with weak angular
stems and narrow verticillate leaves, mhabiting northern coun-
tries, and (if we except the Madder) alike inconspicuous for use
and ornament. Unfortunately, however, fructification does not
supply any character whereby those two ideally distinct groups of
plants can be clearly separated from each other ; and in the limi-
tation of natural orders, something more than a difference of
habit is considered desirable by all, and by many absolutely re-
quisite. Therefore, although the Cinchonacee and Galacee are
kept separate by several of our best systematic writers, there is
still a considerable difference of opinion as to the propriety of so
doing, notwithstanding the detailed discussion of the subject at
different times by some of the most distinguished botanists of
Europe.

The principal character whereby these two orders are sepa-
rated, depends upon the leaves of Cinchonacee being opposite
(sometimes verticillate), and furnished with interpetiolar stipules ;
while Galiacee have normally verticillate leaves without stipules.

DeCandolle, Bentham, and others, who regard Cinchonacee and
Galiacee as forming only one natural order, Rubiacee, reduce
the distinguishing character above indicated in the following
manner. They regard the Galiacee as opposite-leaved plants,
their foliaceuus organs being in part true leaves, and in part leaf-
like stipules, for the following reasons :—

1. That the foliaceous organs in Galiacee, if viewed as con-
sisting entirely of leaves, do not bear that relation to the angles
of the stem which is usual im Dicotyledons ; but that the relation
becomes apparent if only two of them are taken as leaves and
the rest as stipules. Only two of the apparent leaves have buds
in their axils.

2. That in a number of cases, especially in Asperula, two op-
posite leaves are much larger than the others.

3. That in Spermacocee and other tribes of Cinchonacee, the
stipules are connected with the petiole of the leaf into a sheath,
and that this sheath exists in Galiacee.

4, That the number of parts in each whorl is not necessarily
some power of 3, as argued by Dr. Lindley (each leaf having two
stipules), but that taking two of the parts for leaves, it is imma-

166 Mr. G. Lawson on Cinchonaceous Glands in Galiacee.

terial by what number of similar parts those two are separated,
because the intermediate processes are analogous to the sete of
Spermacocee, the number of which is variable*.

Dr. Lindley objects to this line of argument, (1.) that in La-
biate and similar orders the apparent leaves are never opposite
the angles of the stem, but are always placed between them, and
that the number of angles in the stem of verticillate plants does
not necessarily correspond with the number of their leaves,
Dysophylla for example (a Lamiaceous genus) having whorls of
ten parts, while the stem has but four angles; that the non-pro-
duction of buds in their axils is no proof of bodies not being true
leaves, all foliaceous organs, and especially stipules, having that
power or not according to circumstances. (2.) That the greater
length of two opposite leaves occasionally observed in Asperula
is to be aseribed to their greater development consequent upon
their higher functions. (3.) That the argument derived from
the occasional connection of the leaves by a membrane loses
weight, when it is remembered that in such cases the interme-
diate leaves are less like stipules than in those cases where no
membrane exists. (4.) That the comparison of the supposed
stipules of Galiacee and the sete of Spermacocee is inadmissible,
because the former are at all events single simple organs,’ be
they what they may, while the seta of Spermacocee are the result
of the splitting of two parallel-veined stipules, and therefore will
necessarily be uncertain in number.

Dr. Lindley likewise draws attention to the fact, that in Ga-
liacee the supposed stipules are always what first disappear in
the process of reduction in the number of foliaceous appendages ;
but that im Cinchonacee it is im many cases the leaves which are
first lost when such a reduction takes place, which is illustrated
by the capitate Spermacoces, where the bracts are evidently sti-
pules, and especially by S. calyptera, in which the leaves are gra-
dually merged in the large membranous cup that subtends the
flower, while the stipules suffer no diminution.

From these arguments it will be seen that the principal
distinction between the orders Cinchonacee and Galacee de-.
pends entirely upon the theoretical notion we adopt of their
foliaceous organs, and that from whatever point of view they be
regarded, the two orders are structurally closely related to each
other.

The observation of the glands now described, in the Galiacea,
establishes another point of relationship between the orders, the
presence of stipular glands in the Cinchonacee, and especially
in the arborescent species, having been hitherto looked upon as
a singular feature of their structure, serving to remove them from

* Vegetable Kingdom, 3rd edit. p. 769.

Mr. G. Lawson on Cinchonaceous Glands in Galiaceze. 167

the herbaceous Rubiacee of cold countries. It appears to me
‘ that these glands may likewise be instrumental in throwing
light on the nature of the foliaceous organs of Galiacee, as well
as on the morphology of those of Cinchonacee.

In Cinchonacee the glands are invariably confined to the
stipule; and, on observing their occurrence in Galiacea, it at
once occurred to me that if a portion of the foliaceous organs of
Galacee were in. reality leaves and the others stipules, then we
had here a key whereby to determine what were leaves and what
stipules. With the view of doing so, I have carefully examined the.
position of the glands of all the Gahacee within my reach ; and,
although I came to the subject with a prepossession in favour of
the view of DeCandolle, I have been quite unable to find any
indication, by the arrangement of the glands, of two kinds of
foliaceous organs in these plants. In Galiacee the stipules
occur at the base of the foliaceous organs ; they are not limited
to a certain number in each whorl, but occur in all, being equally
present in those opposite “‘ leaves” which bear branches in their
axils, as in those so-called “ stipules” that are barren, although
more abundant in the latter.

In the Cinchonacee I have said that the glands constantly
occupy. the base of the stipule, and are in no case found on a
leaf.or petiole. Here then the presence of these glands is a cer-
tain indication of the stipulary nature of the organ on which
they occur, no dubiety whatever having hitherto been expressed
respecting the nature of the usual foliaceous organs of Cincho-
nacee. 1 am not sure in how far we are warranted in applying
this fact to the case of Galiacee ; but where all other characters
have failed, it is not to be entirely overlooked. If then we fol-
low the rule which obtains in Cinchonacee, that stipules are
bodies furnished with glands at their base, we shall come to a
conclusion differing essentially from all those that have hitherto
been brought forward, viz. that Galacee are leafless plants with
whorls of stipules.

It is worth while to keep in view that this idea, although at
first sight sufficiently paradoxical to caution us against its too
hasty adoption, is perhaps in reality less liable to objection than
either the views of Lindley or of DeCandolle and Bentham. At
the same time, even if it were proved to be correct, I do not pre-
cisely see in what manner it could help us out of the difficulty.

In organography, as well as in regard to the disposition of
these two natural orders, the subject is one of considerable in-
terest in a theoretical point of view.

In viewing the whole question, it appears to me, even admit-
ting (with Lindley) the foliaceous organs of Galiacee to be true
leaves, that the character thus established between the two

168 Capt. R. C. Tytler on the Fauna of Dacca.

orders is not of that. great importance with which it seems to be
generally regarded. . The leaves are truly verticillate in a certain »
portion of the Cinchonacee, and, without any violence to truth,
they may be regarded as verticillate in the whole of these plants,
in this way. All botanists will. admit that stipules are merely
reduced or rudimentary, partially-developed leaves. In Galiacee
we have plants with leaves.in whorls, all equally developed, but
in many cases with an undoubted tendency to reduction i part
of the whorl. In Cinchonacee a certain number of the leaves of
the whorl are invariably much more fully developed than the
others, which assume the character of stipules, but do not ap-
pear in the form of ordinary stipules, as appendages to other
leaves, but occupy independent positions around the stem like
true leaves,. If the argument had proceeded in this direction,
we should probably have had less discussion upon a point which
still remains to be satisfactorily cleared up*. :

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IX.

Fig. 1. Stipular gland ef Cinchona Calisaya. 70 diameters.

Fig. 2. Stipular gland of Izora coccinea. 70 diameters.

Fig. 3, Vertical section of gland of Cinchona Calisaya (after Weddell),
showing (a) central nucleus of compact tissue, and (4) outer layer
of elongated cells.

Fig. 4. Diagramatic view of two of the cells of the outer layer of the gland
(C. Calisaya), exhibiting the canals (c, c) at their apex, as shown
by Weddell.

Fig. 5. Stipular gland of Ezostemma longiflora. 70 diameters.

Fig. 6. Twin gland from stipule of Luculia Pinceana, formed by the adhe-
sion of two glands throughout the greater part of their length.
This is only of occasional (accidental) occurrence, the usual form
of the gland being not unlike that of Exostemma longiflora, but
of greater size. 70 diameters.

Fig. 7. Glands of Galium saxatile. 70 diameters.

Fig. 8. Gland of Crucianella stylosa. 70 diameters.

Fig. 9. Glands of Galiwm cruciatum. 70 diameters.

Fig. 10. Gland of Galium urceolatum. 70 diameters.

Fig. 11. Gland of Asperula odorata. 70 diameters.

XVIII.—Miscellaneous Notes on the Fauna of Dacca, including
remarks made on the line of march from Barrackpore to that
Station, By Capt. Roperr C. Tyrier, of the 38th Regiment
Bengal Native Light Infantry.

I HAVE already, in page 365, Ser. 2. vol. xui. of this work, given
my observations on the fauna of Barrackpore ; I shall now add

* To Professor Balfour, Mr. M‘Nab, and Mr. Evans, my best thanks are
due, for the unlimited use of plants from the Royal Botanic and Experi-
mental Gardens, for examination.

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Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist.S. 2.Vol.14PL.1X.

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Capt. R. C. Tytler on the Fauna of Dacca. 169

some further remarks, confining myself solely to the few notes
made during a most tedious march of twenty days from Barrack-
- pore to Dacca, in company with my regiment. The entire di-
stance between the two stations is about 180 miles, through a
country intersected by numerous streams and rivers ; these we
had to cross almost daily, besides encountering various other
difficulties ; I had therefore to work under every kind of disad-
vantage, and was perfectly unable to make any minute observa-
tions on the journey ;' however, as opportunities offered, I lost
no time in making the following notes, which although brief
and scanty, may not altogether prove uninteresting.

The road from Barrackpore to Dacea is seldom employed for
troops, for it frequently occurs that portions of the country be-
come entirely inundated for months together, consequently quite
impassable to land carriage; Europeans are therefore not very
familiar with this part of Bengal, notwithstanding its proximity
to the capital of India.

To as far as the civil station of Jessore, or even as far as Fur- |
reedpore, there is no very remarkable difference in the country,
although the aspect decidedly gradually assumes a change ; but
after crossing the magnificent broad river Puddur, the difference
is most observable : jungles become more wide and dense, and
the whole country bears a different feature, which: continues to
the city of Dacca; this latter is both a civil and military station.
European travellers now feel for the first time since leaving Cal-
cutta, that they are fairly in the wilds of Hindostan, surrounded
by swamps and. unhealthy jungles, infested by tigers and nume-
rous other ferocious as well as venomous animals. The un-
healthiness of this portion of Bengal is proverbial, owing to the
numerous swamps, the quantity of rank vegetation, coupled with
the natural damp and heat that prevail during several months
of the year. ‘ See Dacca and die” is not an uncommon native
saying. The reader may now imagine the style of country in
which the few following notes were made during a stay of about
five months, when sickness made a change of climate absolutely
necessary.

To as far as Jessore the fauna is similar to that already men-
tioned of Barrackpore, with very slight exceptions; the larger spe-
cies of Raptores observed at the last station become more com-
mon, and frequently very abundant, and after leaving Jessore I
obtained two specimens of Pomatorhinus leucogaster, Timalia
pileata and Aquila nevia. 1 was astonished at getting specimens
of Pomatorhinus leucogaster, their known habitats being Deyrad-
hoon, Nepaul, Assam, and Tenasserim. |The Cuculus striatus has
become a most common species ; their note is heard constantly
during the day, and not unfrequently at mght ; the Cuculus varius

170 Capt. R. C. Dytler on the Fauna of Dacca.

pair during April, for 1 had several opportunities of witnessing
it; they are! also,exceedingly ¢ommon. :

When at Gunagutty enormous flights of the Faleinellus igneus |
flew over our camp; they are excellent eating and much sought
after both by European and native’ sportsmen, and known to the
former as the small Black Curlew... Owing, to. the numerous
swamps the number) of aquatic birds. is. surprising, and. the
country is perfectly dotted by the Anastomus oscitans and Ciconia
leucocephala.. I was fortunate in obtaining two eggs of this latter
species; one of which is now in the museum of the Honourable
East India Company, and the other in:my own collection ; they
are larger than a hen’s egg, and of a pure white colour. |The
Plotus melanogaster and: Graculus pygmeus are, plentiful ; the
former is the well-known Snake-bird of India; both these spe-
cies are peculiar in their habits, and. may be: seen \constantly
seated for hours, apparently motionless, on trees or stakes in or
near water, watching their prey ; they are also in constant,attend-
ancé on the nets of fishermen, perching themselves familiarly, on
the! nets ; here they:sit in solitary silence, occasionally. spreading
out their wings to dry.in the burning sun, placing themselves
while so. doing: in most eccentric attitudes. I had) a splendid
speeimen of Anas pecilorhyncha shot.and sent to me by a brother
officer, who. mentioned seeing numbers in the same, jheel, where
he killed this:-bird.: »I,also obtained a very curious Tringa, of
what species I am iat present uncertain ; it may prove to,be only
an,albinoid variety of 7. minuta. The Lanius superciliosus (Ind.
var.) 1s quite disappearing, and the Lanius nigriceps'is very:com-
mon.) The Megalaima asiatica and Sciurus palmarum- become
searce, nor did I see one of either after crossing the river Pud-
dur; so scarce seems the common Palm Squirrel of: India, that
the natives of Dacca are almost ignorant of its existence.

Lobserved large flocks of the Larus brunnicephalus fly down the
stream,of:the river Puddur, as:also.a flock of that elegant duck,
Anas caryophyllacea: the Acridotheres ginginianus and Sphenura
striata.are not uncommon on the banks: of the same river; the
latter confining themselves to the grass and bush jungle im the
neighbourhood. I. had several. opportunities of observing \the
actions of Glareola orientalis; they are not) uncommon; about
dusk numbers are seen actively engaged, like swallows, in search
of imsects, which they take on the wing, to which latter birds
their movements bear a great similarity.

Amongst the Raptores the Halaétus macei are very common ;
they are not choice in their selection of food, for I have seen
them eating carrion in company with vultures: and other carrion
birds. Whilst on the subject of Raptores, I shall relate a curious
circumstance connected with the habits of Mileus ater and Ha-

Capt. R. C. Tytler on the Fauna of Dacca. 171

liastur indus, which | observed whilst sitting out in a field with
several others after sunset :—A solitary white ant or termite was
observed to fly out of a small hole near us, and went almost per-
pendicularly ito the air; another and another followed in quick
succession, till at length myriads formed a stream of living insects.
Notwithstanding the lateness of the evening, several crows (Corvus
splendens) observed the insects, and commenced cawing and flying
about, but were too timid to approach, owing to our proximity ;
suddenly not less than fifty common kites (Milvus ater) made
their appearance, and in less than a few seconds afterwards at
least two hundred of these birds congregated together and at-
tacked the termites ; the birds flew within 20 feet over our
heads, and notwithstanding the number collected, so graceful
and exquisite were their movements, that no confusion, striking
of wings, or jostling of each other could be observed, the birds
passing and clearing ‘themselves with the greatest. nicety: the
insects were invariably seized with their claws and instantly de-
voured.: During’ this' singular spectacle a Brahminee Kite (Ha-
liasturindus) joined the party ; the motions and actions of this
bird, though equally graceful, were considerably more rapid than
the other kites which showed no symptoms of timidity, but con-
tmued'their feast till almost every imsect disappeared. The birds
now separated and flew off im various directions, so that m a few
minutes’ scarcely one was to be seen. Where they came from and
how they congregated so rapidly appeared quite a mystery.

ol obtained) a \perfectly-formed egg from a female Hudynamis
orientalis shot near Jessore in April, at which station five young
Viverra zibetha were brought to me durmg the same month, as
the young of Canis aureus. They had been dug out of a hole in
the side of a bank, and appear not uncommon in this neigh-
bourhood) or at» Dacea, where several adult specimens were
brought) to me,as well as of a Paradoxurus, which I have
every reason to believe is P. musanga, although the ascribed ha-
bitat:of this latter species is the Indian Archipelago. Specimens
of ‘Herpestes griseus are occasionally obtained, but by no méans
common; the Pteropus edwardsiit, Megaderma lyra, Nycticejus
castaneus, Cynopterus marginatus, and Taphozous longimanus
are very plentiful; the Kzrivoula pictus, of which I obtained
and: saw but) two specimens, is excessively rare at Dacca. This
elegant: Bat is found in thick jungle, and is only observed when
disturbed, by suddenly flying out of its retreat and taking almost
immediate shelter like a moth among the bushes; the pre-
vailmg colour of this species is a bright orange, marked with
black: on: the wings; this orange colour fades after the death of
the animal into a dirty yellowish tint.

I have already mentioned that the Sciwrus palmarum 1s. un-

172 Capt R.C. Tytler on the Fauna of Dacea.

known at Dacca, but it is replaced by a fine species found in the
jungles and by no means uncommon. The European residents as
well as the natives, appeared not to know of the existence of this
animal, and were astonished at my bringing home several speci-
mens ; they were also found in mango topes and small orchards.
This Squirrel is decidedly not S. lokriah of Hodgs., and appears
to differ from S. lokroides of Hodgs., to which however it bears
a strong resemblance and is closely allied. I would therefore, if
the species is ‘new, and I have’ every reason to ‘believe it
is, suggest for it the name of S. blythit, after my esteemed friend
E. Blyth, Esq. The colour of this Squirrel is of a peculiar’ yel-
low-gray above ; the whole of the under surface, as well as the
inner side of the legs, are of a light gray ; on the back the yel-
lowish hue is most .perceptible, sprinkled over with abundance
of minute black marks; the whiskers are black ;. eyes full, bril-
liant and dark ; the tail bushy and carried over the back ;° the
inner part of the thighs is brownish ; ‘the entire length of the
animal is 15 inches, of which the tail measures alone 7}: - They
are by no means timid, but after being once disturbed’ and
alarmed, run and hide among the branches and are most difficult
to obtain. Bere ere
~ One of the most common species of Mammalia, and. which
cannot fail to attract the notice of the most unobservant, are the
common tame Otters of the fishermen in this neighbourhood
(Lutra chinensis) ; several are kept by each family for the express
purpose of catching fish, and the nicety with which they train and
educate these Otters is extraordinary. I have invariably found
them fishing in small streams, branches of rivers, or swamps’; the
method adopted is as follows :—a boat is usually fastened to a
stake a few yards from the bank, the sides of the boat seldom
exceeding a few inches in height from the surface of the water ;
the Otters, usually two or three, jump overboard and swim about
the neighbourhood of the boat, diving and catching fish ; these
they carry to the side of the boat. and drop in; the sport con-
tinues for several hours, the fishermen in the meantime remaining
on shore otherwise engaged. Another mode adopted for fishing
with Otters is to train these animals to drive fish into nets placed
for that purpose. silt
The large Bengal Tiger (Felis tagris) and the common Leopard
(Felis leopardus) ave by no means uncommon, both species fre-
quently visiting the neighbourhood of cantonments sufficiently
near to render their presence anything but agreeable to the
inhabitants. Leopards have been shot within the boundaries of
cantonments. I had a magnificent specimen of Felis viverrinus
sent to me. This species appears very rare, few of the older
yesidents bemg aware of its occurrence at Dacca; the party who

Capt. R, C, Tytler on the Hauna of Dacca. 173

brought it in persisted in believing it to be a variety of the
common leopard, so Jarge. was this ‘magnificent specimen in its
dimensions.

-Amongst the small Mammalia, the common House Rat requires
further comparison ; it is, decidedly closely allied to Mus indicus,
but of a considerably darker colour. This dark colour has also
been remarked in specimens of Mus indicus received from south-
ern India; but as the species found at Dacca seems to differ
from both, to which, however, it is closely allied, I would suggest
for it, the name of Mus daccaensis, provided it is, as I have
eyery reason to. believe it to be, an undescribed species, ‘The
Sorex murimus, or common Musk, Rat of Europeans, is very
abundant, frequenting houses and other suitable localities.

When I arrived at Dacca, the number of Megalaima lineata
about cantonments surprised me not a little; the, call of this
bird, which is a very, abundant species, might be expressed thus :
kootuy’r kootur’r kootur’r, heard incessantly at intervals during
the day. The Megalaima asiatica is not to be found, at least
during the months I remained at Dacca. Several young of the
former: s species were brought to me alive in the month of June;
they live ‘and’ thrive’ well’ in confinement, feeding freely on
fruit, milk and bread, &c.; however, they are disagreeable
pets, from ‘the incessant noise they make. The Centropus
lathami is also a common bird, found in bush jungle; the calls
of this species vary, and are curious; one resembling the bark
of the Bengal Fox (Vulpes bengalensis), whilst the other might
be imitated thus: clack, clack, clack, clack, clack, gouk, gouk,
gouk, gouk, kurr, kurr, hurr, kur, kurr, clack, clack, &c. .1 was
fortunate in obtaining the nest and egg of this bird during the
month of June; the eggs are pure white, and very round in
formation. The nest, which was composed of straw and grass,
resembled a large ball supported on sticks, with a hole in, the
side for the bird to enter; the nest was nell concealed, and with
great difficulty discovered,

The Leptoptilos argala and L. javanica occasionally visit this
neighbourhood. _I was much interested in seeing in the pos-
esssion of Major Graham, the executive officer, a specimen of a
living Leptoptilos,—I should say javanica, but the bird was so
young that I felt rather uncertain as to the exact species ;
from the scaly nature of the back feathers, it much resembled the
latter species, 1 am aware that the young of Leptopiilos argala
vary much in colour, judging from the young birds which visit
Bengal ; it is this, therefore, which causes me to hesitate about
the young specimen alluded to. Major Graham found two
young in the same nest, and not very far from Dacca; the nest
was on a high tree.

174. Capt. R..C. Tytler ‘on the Fauna of Dacea.

There is a species of the genus Caprimulgus (C. albonotatus)
common in cantonments; they fly about dusk, frequently
sitting on the tops of houses, where they remain for hours
callmg in a most disagreeable manner; their note resembles
gouch, gouch, gouch, varied occasionally by a hoarse sound resem-
bling bur’ r’rrr gurrrrr, &e. The Corvus culminatus is
equally plentiful with the Corvus splendens.’ 1 may -here men-
tion that the Jora typhia, which is also-common, assumes a
much blacker appearance than those obtained:at Barrackpore.
The Sphenura striata, Arundinax olivaceus, and Malacocercus
earlei are by no means uncommon ; the latter are very. plentiful,
and found chiefly in bush and prass jungle. I also received
good specimens of the following, comparatively speaking, com-
mon birds: Halcyon gurial, H. syrnensis, Spizaétus linnaétus,
Pontoaétus ichthyaétus, Bubo nnbratusy and Ketupa ceylonensis; the
last two are fine large species, the first being easily recognized from
the latter by its feathered feet, whereas the Ketupa ceylonensis has
a naked yellow tarsus. The Cuculus tenwirostris, Malacocercus
bengalensis, Anthus richardi, Copsychus saularis, Tepleodoryis ..
pondicerianus, as well as Trichastoma abbotti, are by no: means.
uncommon ; the latter species I had no conception was found im ~
this part of Bengal, specimens having been received’only from —
Arracan: that they breed’ at’ Dacca is beyond a doubt,’ for I
obtained just-fledged young following the parent birds.” .The
Laniwus nigriceps is a very plentiful species, and ‘the only exe
amples I have seen at Dacca of this genus. 7

Several fine specimens of the Hematornis cheela, and one of |
Aquila nevia, have been brought to me; the former ‘are eons
stantly found near swampy ground, where specimens of \thé
Limosa egocephala, Charadrius virginicus, and Casarca rutila (the
Chuckwa-chuckwee of the natives, and the Brahminee Duck of
Europeans) are found. In the dense thick jungle, numbers of
the Zanclostomus tristis, Chrysomma sinense, Francolinus vulgaris,
and a local variety? of Turnia ocellatus are found); oceasionally
a few Oriolus indicus, Tantalus leucocephali, and Plotus melano-
gaster visit the station. The BrachypternuS aurantius 1 have not
seen, but find it plentifully replaced*by the Micropternus phaio-
ceps, which is very abundant. The specimens of the Zephro-
dornis pondicerianus are whiter over the eye than the specimens
I have received from elsewhere ; this seems to be merely a local
peculiarity. Numbers of Acridotheres griseus build-in the old
temples and houses about the sepoys’ huts ; this is rather curious,
for at Mussoorie, in the Himalayas, they invariably select. large
trees for their nests. It is not unusual, durmg the hours of
parade or drill im the morning, to see numbers of these birds
feeding fearlessly near the soldiers. This reminds me of what I

Capt. R. C. Tytler on the Fauna of Dacea. 175

have frequently seen in the Acridotheres tristis and Sturnopastor
contra, that they become so accustomed, from living in the neigh-
bourhood of regimental target butts, as to allow the balls to pass
over them whilst they have fearlessly fed between the targets
and the soldiers practising... Before the commencement of the
rainy season, a pair of Nettapus coromandelianus built their nest
amongst the branches of a large Peepul tree (Micus religiosus)
in the very centre of cantonments; and, what was most extra-
ordinary, the treé was situated at a great distance from water.
The birds ogeasionally brought for sale to the markets of the
city are very interesting: the Palgornis schisticeps, at all times
a rare bird in the markets of Bengal, are to be had; the Galli-
crea cristatus and Porzana akool may also be purchased ;—the
natives keep them in.cages as pets. Captain Middleton sent me
a cage full of Nectarinia goalpariensis, which had been caught in
the neighbourhood ;these exquisite little creatures I kept for a
very long while, féeding them on water and sugar, bread and
milk, oecasionally varying their diet with honey ; the males sing

we inp captivity, and soon become familiar and confiding in their
Bee dispositions. Few Nectarinia zeylonica are found, but the Nee-
-.. tarinia asiatica are common; the latter breed amongst. the

- bushes; two or three nests were brought to me. |
* In the long grass jungle for several days 1 observed a smal
bird, excessively wild in its habit and apparently strong on the
wing, and very difficult to approach, flying about, a specimen of
» which I eventually obtained, and subsequently several others, a

- couple of which I sent to Edward Blyth, Esq., in Calcutta, and
which I took the liberty of calling after myself, namely Cisticola
tytleri. In Appendix 6. of his preface to the Catalogue of the
Birdsin the Museum of the Asiatic Society, Calcutta, page xxvii,
in No. 1935, Cisticola erythrocephala, Mr. Blyth makes the fol-
lowing remark :——“ Albinoid, young ? from the vicinity of Dacea,
presented by Captain Tytler, 388th B.N.I. (Qu. n.s. C. tytleri,
nobis.)”” I allude to this simply because I obtained several spe-
cimens, and feel fe satistied that it is distinct from Cisti-
cola erythrocephala (Jerdon, Blyth) from 8. India; they were
observed to be building prior to my leavmg Dacca.

In the neighbourhood of cantonments several specimens of
that curious animal, Caprolagus hispidus, were shot and sent to
me; the formation of this species resembles more the appearance
of a tail-less rat than a rabbit or hare. Many doubts arise in
the opinion of sportsmen as to its bemg good for food; but of
this fact there is not’ the slightest doubt, for its flesh is equal
to that of any hare. The ears are particularly short, and the
hair coarse and stiff. The other hares found at the station are
Lepus ruficaudatus, which are common, and another hare closely

176 Capt. R. C. Tytler on the Fauna of Dacca.

allied to Lepus nigricollis, but distinctly different, a specimen of
which I have already forwarded to E. Blyth, Esq., under the name
of Lepus tytleri, as I have every reason to believe it is a new
species ; they are not uncommon at Dacca. The circumstance
of my having been so unsettled since leaving Dacca has for the
present prevented my giving a minute description of this animal,
several specimens of which are in my collection, but I shall en-
deavour to do so as soon as possible.

Among other novelties obtained by me at this station I have
to enumerate two decidedly new species of birds. The first
is of the genus Megalurus?, for which I suggest the name of
Megalurus? verreauxii, after the Messrs. Verreaux of Paris, a
drawing of which I will endeavour to leave in the Museum of
the India House prior to my departure for India, as well as of
the other new birds described.

The next new species is of the genus Sturnopastor, closely
allied to Sturnopastor contra, but apparently different, being in
size slightly larger, and the black more spread over the entire
plumage, giving the bird a darker appearance than the other.
species. At first I was induced to treat this bird as a mere cage —
variety ; but after seeing three specimens, and each agreeing in
every respect with the others, I cannot help supposing and
believing it to be a new species; if so, I suggest for it the name
of Sturnopastor moorei, after F. Moore, Esq., Assistant, Museum,
East India House. The birds I saw came, from the jungles
about Midnapoore and elsewhere of Lower Bengal. The natives
are not altogether unfamiliar with this bird: that it is not a
mere local variety is proved from the size being larger, and the
specimens coming from different localities.

Amongst the cage birds seen in the market, I remarked a
curious specimen of the genus Carpodacus, evidently a mere cage
variety of C. erythrinus, or the common Tootie of all India: the
colour of this bird showed symptoms of being a partially albi-
noid variety. I will however, if necessary, on a future occasion
remark more fully on this bird after making minute comparisons,
for the owner asserted that it was a distinet bird from the Tootie,
and a species well known about the foot of the Cherrapoonjie
range of mountains.

Before proceeding further, I will give an account of a remark-
able circumstance, and which appears difficult to account for :—
A sepoy of my regiment keeps several large scorpions ; these
animals he has always been in the habit of collecting ; whatever
his secret is, I know not, but it is interesting, for he allows the
scorpions to crawl over his hands, breast, and in fact all over
him; they never attempt to sting; besides which he puts them
on other people. I examined the stings minutely; the tip of

On the Branchial Currents in the Lamellibranchiata. 177

each was perfect, and in no way rubbed or injured; the scor-
pions appeared healthy, and carried their tails in the usual
position. The sepoy asserted that he possessed the juice of a
bulbous root, which, when applied to a fresh-caught scorpion,
prevents it for the future from stinging; he also mentioned that
several of his family possess the same secret, but from the man-
ner in which he evaded my questions respecting the bulbous
root, I am inclined to doubt that portion of his assertion.

The domestic animals of Dacca are precisely similar to those
found at Barrackpore, with the exception of one solitary animal
worthy of attention, and which is called the Dacca Cow; they
are highly prized by natives, and the breed is not known to
many. All that I can gather respecting the history of this
domesticated animal is, that it is a breed introduced years ago;
but when, and from what locality, no one knows. The colour
is invariably of a pure white, the tail long and bushy at the end ;
the animal is of a small size; eyes large, full and dark; skin
round the eyes of a pinkish hue, the same colour prevails on the
muzzle; they do not give any large quantity of milk, but are
prized highly as a breed, by the natives of the higher class. The
males are similar to the cow in appearance, both possessing little
or no symptoms of a hump. It is very rarely that these cattle
are permitted to leave the houses in which they are kept, nor
are they ever seen grazing in the fields; that they are totally
different from the cattle of the country is beyond a doubt, and I
regret that I could gain no satisfactory information about them.

The jungles of Dacca abound with insects, nor have I seen a
finer field for the naturalist than this part of Bengal presents ;
the unhealthiness of the place, however, precludes all pleasure
from visiting it as a matter of choice. With these few brief
observations I now conclude my observations on the fauna of
Dacca, simply mentioning that on my return to Calcutta by
water, vid the Soonderbunds, I saw great numbers of Blagrus
leucogaster and Halcyon amauropterus; both species were ex-
tremely abundant.

XIX.—<A Reply to some Statements of Dr. Williams on the con-
troversy respecting the Branchial Currents in. the Lamelli-
branchiata. By Josuvua Axper, Esq.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,

I Have read with much interest the series of papers “On the
Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration in Invertebrate Animals,”
Ann, & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 12

178 Mr. J. Alder on. the-Branchial Currents

by Dr. Williams, which have appeared from time to time im your
Journal. That on the Mollusca, however, published last month,

contains some. statements, which, as they are not founded on
fact, and are likely to be injurious to the scientific reputation of
a brother naturalist, I take the liberty of endeavourmg to. cor-
rect. T allude to the remarks on Mr. Hancock. | Dr. Williams
gives that gentleman due credit for most of his imvestigations
into the mechanism of respiration in the Bivalves, but against
that praise he sets off certain errors which he alleges Mr. Han-
cock has committed, as follows :—“ By Mr. Hancock, represent-
ing one class of observers, it is, maintained that the inhalent
current is set in motion, exclusively by the action of yibratile
Gilia seated on the lining membrane of the siphon itself. By
Mr. Clark’ this explanation is denied. The former naturalist
rests his theory upon the alleged demonstration of cilia on the
internal surface of the inhalent siphon, the latter upon. obser-
vation of the currents.” “Mr. Hancock is undoubtedly in error
in stating that the water entering this cavity is drawn im by cilia
of the siphon. The microscope disproves completely the assertion
that the internal lining membrane of the inhalent or extra-
branchial siphon is the scene of ciliated epithelium.” And con-
cerning the exhalent current it is stated, ‘ The uninterruptedness
of this current was supposed by Mr. Hancock to be due to the
action of cilia liming the interior of the siphon. The statement
of this distinguished naturalist in this particular is indisputably
erroneous. ‘This siphon, like the in-current one, is not lined with
vibratile epithelium.” Again, we find it stated that ‘ Mr. Han-
cock is inaccurate in affirming that a// the water which enters
this cavity travels exclusively along the inhalent or extr a-branchial
siphon, and never, under “any circumstance, through either the
ventral or pedal openings.’

"Mr. Hancock has made none of the statements here imputed
to°him. ~The only place where any of his opinions concerning
these points are expressed is in a jomt paper with myself, “On
the Branchial Currents in Pholas and Mya,” read at the British
Association Meeting in 1851, and afterwards published in your
Journal*. Certainly no such statements are there made : indeed
the subject’ of cilia lining the siphons is not at all alluded to.

Dr. Williams, however, speaks of Mr, Hancock’s controversy
with Mr. Clark, from which, and his not mentioning.my name
in Cohtnexion with it, I am led to infer that he attributes to
Mr. Hancock a series of letters that I wrote in your Journal on
the subject. These letters bear my signature, and for anything
therein contained, I alone am | responsible. Presuming that

* 2nd Ser. vol, vii. p. 370.

in the Lamellibranchiata. “179

Dr. Williams has made this mistake, I may be permitted to say
that he has: not correctly stated the opinions there advocated.
The letters arose from the denial by Mr, Clark of the correctness
of a statement I made in a notice of Kellia rubra, that the ante-
rior tubular fold in that species performed the office of an ingress
siphon, ‘The controversy arising out of it led to the expression
of our different views on the theory of .branchial and siphonal
currents. I contended for the reception and discharge of these
currents by separate apertures (or in. separate portions of the
cloak where two apertures do not exist), and that by the action
of cilia; but not by the cilia lining the siphons a/one, as will be
eyident from the following extracts. In the first letter my views
‘are thus ‘stated:—“The inhalent is always. kept distinet from
‘the exhalent current, and admitted, by a, separate aperture from
that by which the latter is expelled., This seems to be neces-
sary, as the currents, being caused by. the motion of the branchial
‘eilia, and not by the expansion and contraction of the walls of a
‘cavity, are continuous in one direction*.” In my second letter I
‘add a note to this effect :—“ The internal surface of these siphons
is usually (perhaps always) covered with vibratile cilia, more
minute than those of the branchie, but acting in conjunction with
them im producing the currents. Mr. Cocks informs me that he
can see the cilia in the anterior tube of Kellia suborbicularis, with.
‘a lens of } inch focust.” These statements surely cannot be
‘taken to imply that the currents are produced by the cilia lining
‘the’ tubes alone ; and where does Dr. Williams find Mr. Hancock’s
“alleged demonstration of cilia” on these organs ?. ‘The exist-
ence of cilia lining the internal walls of the siphons, had. been
‘previously noticed by Mr. Garner{ and other authors; and not-
withstanding the decided opinion now given by Dr, Wiliams
against. this view, I still believe that it is correct ; but however
this may be, the well-earned scientific reputation of Mr. Hancock
eannot be brought in question by the result.

:

With respect to the apertures by which the water is admitted,
T have stated, from the evidence of repeated observations (and. in
this: Mr. Hancock’s observations agree with my own), that the
regular current for the supply of the branchiee passes in; by the
branchial siphon, when it exists, and instances are adduced
where, when a strong current was passing in by that siphon,, no
motion of the water was perceptible opposite the pedal opening.
We have nowhere asserted, however, as stated by Dr. Williams,
“that all the water travels exclusively along the inhalent siphon,

* Ann. Nat. Hist. 2nd Ser. vol. iii. p. 384.

+ 2nd Ser. vok.,iv.. p. 51.

{ Charlesworth’s Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. iii. p. 298.
12%

180 Mr. J. Alder.on the, Branchial Currents

and. never, under any circumstance, through the ventral or pedal
opening.” ,On the contrary, L.admit the, flowing. in of water
through all the, apertures (not, voluntarily closed), as a natural
consequence of the opening of the valyes*, which. action the ani-
mal has of course frequent occasion to perform... 1 have stated,
too, in recording my, observations on Turtonia minuta, that “at
first the water was,obseryed to pass into the widely-open.mantle
of this: little‘mollusk at; al/ parts of the base of the. shell +37? and
that; ‘in, Mentacuta bidentata the prineipal ingress current is
decidedly, antérior,| though; the, water is, admitted’ occasionally
through: the whole length of the open manilet.’’... The occasional
expulsion through; all the, orifices. is.treated as an) acknowledged
fact. throughout ; the \only/reservation 1 make is, that.it must;be
eonsidered, an (océasional, action, uneonnected with the regular
branchial. currents., \\Mr,, Hancock has. also’ distinetly stated; in
his .paper on. Chamostrea,that, when the valves, are suddenly
closed and the siphons withdrawn, the contained water. wall
escape by the pedal opening and the minute fourth opening;
which is found in this and some other bivalves. with. closed
mantles §.;.In our joint paper ‘ On the Branchial Currents in
Pholas and. Mya,” a description is given of the action of the
currents, observed m an individual of Mya arenaria,. im. situ,
This instance is adduced in illustration of the general law of the
distinct and simultaneous action of separate currents through
the, siphons. - The question of occasional action under different
circumstances: or in other families.is not gone into, so. that.no
such extreme opinion on this matter as Dr. Williams attributes
to Mr. Hancock, ean, by any fair construction of words,.be de-
duced from it.. Indeed the holding of such opinions, we-both
distinctly deny. Concerning this joint paper I take, the; oppor-
tunity of stating that, Mr. Clark having brought, forward, the
non-connexion, of the branchial and anal chambers in» Pholas,as
a proof.that the currents could not pass.in.at,one'siphon,and. out
at. the other, 1 felt myself unable, from the want. of sufficient
skill.in delicate anatomical imvestigations, to give a correct, solu-
tion of the difficulty, though aware of the fact of communication
from repeated! observation of the currents. I thereforeshad xre-
course to. the assistance of my friend Mr. Hancoek.” The result
was, the discovery of the communication existing through the
minute network of the gills, which Dr. Williams sightly. attri
butes, to Mr. Hancock. . He considers. it very extraordinary,
however, that Mr. Hancock.should, not have been) aware, of the
discovery of the same fact, by Dr. Sharpey, published. ten. years

* Ann. Nat. Hist. 2nd Ser. vol. iv. p. 49. Tt Vol. iv. p. 243.
+ Vol. v. p. 211. § Vol. xi. p. 106.

“im the Lamellibranchiata. 181

before. The pointed manner in which this is put may suggest
to some persons a doubt on'the subject.» But why should Dr.
Williams express-so much ‘surprise m this instance, when he
must know that Dr. Sharpey’s discovery has been overlooked by
every subsequent writer on the ceconomy of the Lamellibranchiata
up to the present time?) Nay, ‘there appears some reason
to believe that Dr. Williams himself may have been amongst the
number, for at the same Meeting of the British Association at
which our paper, now acknowledged to contain ‘the true theory
of branchial action, was read, a paperby’ Dr) Williams on the
same subject was also read, in whieh it is stated asthe result of his
researches, “That the branchial siphow actsin drawing a water
into the chamber of the mantle ‘by the dilating of the valves of
the shell ;”’ and‘ That a part of the water which is thus drawn
into the branchial chamber és swallowed, and eventually rejected by
the fecal orifice, and that the rest is expelled by the orifice in the
mantle, and in part by the branchial orifice*”” Had Dr. Williams
been then aware of Dr. Sharpey’s discovery of the passage of the
water through the gills, he could scarcely have had reeourse to
the extraordinary idea that the water found its way into the
anal chamber through the intestine. Curiously enough, it is
announced in the same paper as another of the conclusions come
to, “That in Pholas the siphons are richly lined with vibratile
cilia, as well as the branchial plates.” |

There can be no doubt, now that the passage is pomted out,
that Dr. Sharpey had got hold of the true explanation ‘of ‘the
_ branchial currents, in examining the common Massel; ‘and that
the right’ of priority must be assigned to him: »-That his dis-
covery ‘has remained so long unnoticed probably arises; partly
from! its’ being mtroduced under the head of ‘ Cilia” where we
should’ not expect to find new views on the structure and: ceco-
nomy of the bivalve mollusks, and partly from the modest man-
ner ‘in which the facts are stated, without attention being drawn
tothe ‘points where they differ from the accounts of other. ob-
servers.’ For ourselves it may be necessary to say, that we had
not seen the article by Dr. Sharpey, as in the library we consult
for books’ not in our own, that of the Literary and Philosophical
Society of Newcastle, the volume of the ‘ Cyclopedia of Ana
tomy,’ containing the article ‘Cilia,’ was lost in 1848 (before we
turned our attention to the subject) and has never been replaced.
Had we known that it contained any original matter on the aeo-
nomy of the Bivalves, we should certainly have made a point of
procuring a ‘sight of it, as we have done since the appearance of
Dr. Williams’s remarks.

* Report Brit. Assoc. for 1851, p. 82.

182 Mr. J. Miers.on the genus Lycium,

My. sole object, in, the; present,communication being to vindi-
cate, Mr. Hancock, from: the, charges of, error brought, against.
him, which I trust. 1. have, now,,done. satisfactorily, I shall:leave
the, NCH EHION of onparorantedl points to some. future epponsaatys

eda eae ata - Lana, Gentlemen, . e

Barak dared Phenied { -- ooo Your obedient servant, |

JosHUA ALDER. 9):
marae tbo ne (jngast 1854.

oXX, oe Oe the Genus ata By Joun Mrurs, Esq.,
disks Hom R.S.) F.L.S. &e.

t eaiinned) from p. 141.]

2. Mesocore. , Corolla infundibuliformis, limbi laciniis dimidium
tubt superantibus, sed. ejus longitudinem non excedentibus.

A. GERONTOGES.

* Stamina levia. Sp. 39 ad 41.

39. Lycium Barbarum, Linn. ex parte, non aliorum; Dunal in
“DC. Prodr. xiii. 511; cum synonymiis variis 1bi relatig. “In
Persia ‘Australi, Seinde et Afghanistan.—v. s. in herb. Hook.

Abouschir (Aucher Eloy, n. 5037). —Dalechi, distr. Abouschir-
* (Kotschy, n. 166).—Afghanistan (Griffiths, n. 670 et nai
+Scinde, Kurdigass (Dr. Stocks, n. 995). .

“This species was well distinguished by Linneus, though cartel
founded by other botanists and horticulturalists with L. vulgare.
and: Li. Europewm, from which it is marked by very peculiar’
characters.’ It is very spinose, with flexuose, knotty, crooked
branches, its splitting bark being cf a glaucous ‘whitish or brown-
ish hue; the nodes are large and very prominent, often woolly :
the:leaves, three to five in each axillary fascicle, are linear, obtuse,
spathulate.at base, diminishing into a short slender petiole; they
are 5/to'\lO‘lines long and 1 to 14 line broad; three’ to’ five
flowers spring out of each fascicle; the peduncle is very slender,
5 lines long; the campanular and somewhat scarious_calyx;is
very thin in texture, of a pale glaucous hue, is 14 line broad and
long, at, first with five short minute teeth, but they become irre-
gularly, cleft. mto one, two, or three longer fissures: the, corolla:
is thin in texture, funnel-shaped, the. tube, contracted a, little
above the base, being 3 lines long, and the five equal, smooth,
oblong segments of its border -being 2 lines in length : the sta-
mens inserted below the middle of the tube are’ quite smooth,
one being shorter, reaching the mouth, while the other four are

Mri J. Miers‘on the gems’ Lycium: 183°

a little longer and somewhat exeerted ;\ the immature berries are
slightly obovate, apiculated at the suminit; ‘and barely 2 lines in”
diameter. - No. 670, from Afghanistan, has ‘a titich paler and’
smoother bark | The specimen’ from Kurdigass appears to have
grown luxuriantly in a moist’ situation, for the leaves are much
larger, and. frequently ‘solitary in each axil, being 14 inch long,
and 3'to 5 lines broad*.

40. Lycium Turcomanicum, Turczan. MSS. sp. adhue indescripta ;
—rainis virgatis, ramulis apice in spinis abeuntibus, axillis
sepe, nodosis et ramulis spinescentibus:aphyllis) foliis ‘soli-
tariis 2—3nisve, oblongis vel lanceolatotoblongis, glaberrimis,
eveniis, imo cuneatis: floribus parvis, solitariis, interdum binis
ternisve, brevissime pedunculatis, ealyce late cupuliforme in-
zequaliter 5-dentato, dentibus acutis, sparse ciliatis, corolla

‘tubo striato imo valde contracto, superne late infundibuliformi,
glabro, limbi laciniis 5, ovatis, tubo tertio brevioribus, margine
subciliatis, staminibus 5, ineequalibus, exsertis, filamentis om-
nino glabris, medio tubi insertis, 3 paullo longioribus, laciniis
limbi equantibus. —Turcomania.—v. s. in herb. Hook. (Ture-
zaninow).

A plant bearmg greatly the aspect of the specimens of L. Bar-
darum, from Scinde and Afghanistan ; differing in)its;more.an-
gular branches, the shorter peduncles of its flowers, | and. the
proportions of its floral parts, The. larger leaves, measure\]4
inch in length, 5 lines in breadth ;. the peduncle, is,14.]ine,long,
the calyx 1 “fine long and broad, the tube of the corolla 24 lines
yin ct and the segments of its border ¥ line in lengthf. ~

4], Lycium Edgeworth, Dun. in DC. Prodr. xiii,.525: <ththie
.catissimo-ramosum, spinosum, cortice eretaceo rimoso:> ceet:
_mt injchar. citat. except. in sequentibus ; corolla extus glabra;
sed intus circa insertionem staminum szepe pilosiuscula,filas
mentis .omnino glabris, circa medium tubi insertis, 2-minori¢
bus faucem attingentibus, 3 longioribus, exsertis.—Beloos:
‘chistan,—v. s. in, herb, Hook. (in montibus, sursum) Kelaty,
versus Johan.) Dr. Stocks, n. 1117.

“This species is probably widely distributed through Said,
Cabul, and Upper India: the habit of Dr. Stocks’ plant is dif-
ferent from the specimen from the Punjaub, collected by, Mr.
Edgeworth, according to the description above quoted of M. Du-
nal: the former is very thorny, of bare and stunted growth, with

¥ Sectional details of thisispécies are shown in the ‘ [llustr. South Amer.
Plants,’ vol..ii. plate 69D,

t This. plant. with an analysis of its, flower,is. represented (loc. cit.)
plate 69 FE.

184. Mr. J. Mieis on the genus Lycium.

‘twisted and imterlaced branches atid’ small leaves, and has’evi-
dently grown in an exposed and ‘atid situation ; while the latter
has long, slender, virgate branches, and abundant foliage’of much
dJarger leaves, and was apparently produced in a damp and sheltered
places, favourable to its more luxuriant growth. Dr. Stocks’
“speeimens present more, the aspect of L..Barbarum, but. are
) distinguished\ by\,their much shorter peduncles. more fleshy
\pleaves, ,and;,agenerally,more tartareous appearance; the very
flexuose \divaricating ,branches, are covered with a splitting bark
of a eretaceous,-hue,,with, fascicles of few leaves (three to six)
proceeding out. ofthe knotty.base of the axillary spines: the
» heaves are linear,. obtuse,.at, the summit, tapering below into a
» short, petiole; they.are cemarkably thick and fleshy, of a pale
vi glaucous hue, 4:to,9, lines, long and 3 line broad: one to five
«flowers grow out ofeach. fascicle ;the peduncle is 2 lines long ;
‘9 the pale glaucous, tubular calyx, often unequally cleft, is 1} line
ivlong::; the tube!of, thecorolla, greatly contracted in its. lower
ormoiety,.and funnel-shaped above, is 3 lines long, the oblong
segments of its border, being 2 lines in length ; it is quite smooth,
excepting a little appearance of pubescence about the insertion of
‘the; stamens, which, are unequal in length, the filaments being
quite smooth, one not extending beyond the mouth of the tube,
twovof;the length of the segments, and the other intermediate ;
the)style.as the length of the longer stamens. It will be seen
~how: little this structure differs from L. Barbarum, and it might
»ebealmost,.considered_ asa mere variety of that species, from
which it is. easily distinguishable by the characters above enu-
merated*.

*K Staminibus imo hirsutis.

90'42.idaycium Ruthenicum, Murray, Comm. Gott. 1779, p. 2.
a itabs 2; Willd. Sp.i. 1058; Dunal in DC, Prodr.. xin, 514,
cecum als synon, (excl. L. Tataricum),—In: Siberia et.Russia
sysAustrah.~-v. $. in herb. Hook. (Mare Caspico), ex herb. Acad.
o Petropol.——-(Iberia orientali) W. Busen.;—et in herb. Lindley,
Hort. Chisw.eult. sub nom. L. carnosum.

A. plant completely with the habit of L. Barbarum, but dif-
fermg in the structure of its flowers. The stems’ are smooth,
very pale, flexuose, with spinose spreading branchlets; the’ axils
are nodose; the leaves, two to four in each axillary fascicle; 8 to
15 lines long and 1 to 23 lines ‘broad; are quite smooth and
fleshy : several flowers spring out of each fascicle ; the peduncles
are 2-23 lines long, the calyx 1 line, the tube of the’ corolla
3 lines, the segments of the border 2'lines ;’ the filaments are

* This plant with its floral analysis is drawn (oc. cit.) in plate 69 F.

~Mr.J, Miers on the genus Lycium. 185

inserted about the middle of the tube; and are hirsute, towards
the base, smooth above, reaching the extremities of the border-
segments*, by Ba Stabs

ek. Staminibus.imo fascicula pilorum barbatis, Sp. 43 ad 47.

43. Lyctumvulgare, Dunal in DC. Prodr:xii.509, cum omn.synon.
ibi citat. Liycium Chinense, Miller, Dunal in DC. ibidem, 510,
cum suis respectivis synon. Lycium meégistocarpum,* Dunal,
ibid. cum synon. Lycium subglobosim, Dual, ibid. Lycium
Cochinchinense, Low*.; Dunal ut sipra’ citat ;~fruticosum,
erectum, glabrum, inerme, vel sepe sparse spinosum, ramulis

~angulatis, virgatis, arcuato-nutantibus ;.‘foliis ‘subalternis,
rarius fasciculatis, ovatis, vel ellipti¢isy apice’ subacutis, -vel
obtusis, imo cuneatis, vel in petiolum’tenuem spathulatis,

- junioribus lanceolatis: floribus ex axillis solitariis, aut 2 ad
6, pedicello filiformi, flore longiori, calyce ‘tubulari,’ breviter
5-dentato, seepe in laciniis 2-3 rupto, glabro, textura: tenul,
dentibus margine subciliatis, corolle tubo imo coarctato;'mox
infundibuliformi, limbi laciniis oblongis, striato-reticulatis,
violaceis, expansis, tubo fere zquilongis ; staminibus 5, fere
zequalibus, exsertis, filamentis in tubi constrictionem insertis,
hine geniculatis et glabris, mox fascicula densa’ pilorum jbar-
batis, superne glabris et filiformibus, apice laciniarum attin-
gentibus: bacca rubro-aurantiaca, ovata, vel conico-oblonga,

_ sepe incurva, calyce fisso suffulta.—Ubique in Europa australi,
Africa et Asia, presertim in China.—v. s. in herb: variis, spe-
cim. plurimis ex Europa. In herb. Hook., China (Fortune, 48
et 57). Loo-choo (Beechey).

On comparing original specimens from China with those of
European growth and those of Western Asia, I cannot. detect
‘the smallest essential difference between them ; and on examining
carefully all the details registered concerning the various'species
above comprehended in this one, I cannot discover any:character
that can possibly separate them, except such small variations in
the shape of the leaves as we frequently meet with inthe same
specimen; in the length and number of the peduncles, the form
of the. calyx, the structure of the corolla, and especially of the
stamens, and.in the size, shape, and colour of, the, fruit, they
+ closely resemble one another; under such circumstances it ap-
pears to me desirable.to unite them all under one common spe-
cific character... The, observation of M. Dunal almost confirms
this, for he states that,this species has in all likelihood been in-
troduced into Europe fromthe East, which is rendered more

* This species.is shown (/oc..cit,) plate 70 A.

186: Mri dy Mierscon the genus Tycium.

probable ‘fromthe record of its\ bemgused from ‘the ‘earliest -
‘periods bythe? Persians}* Greeks, ‘and! Romans: for ornamental’
hedgings. In favourable positions the leaves often attain a size
of Qi mches it length} including the ‘petiole; and 1? inch in
breadth’ the peduncles are 4 to 6 lines long, thécalyx 2 limes,
the} tube of the; corolla.3, lines, (the segments of the border 24
lines, and the stamens extending beyond the mouth of the tube
24 lines; the berry is from 5 to 8 lines long and 4 lines broad.
Intermesate with; the globular fascicles upon the stamens, an
equal number of tufts of hair are seen on the tube of the
corolla, upon the,central nervure that runs from the apex of each
segment.to the base : alk excellent analysis of the flower is given
in Nees’ Flor. Germ. _ Several varieties, cultivated by gardeners
under the names of L. ovatum, Trewianum, carnosum, b MAE
&c., may be referred here*,

4A. Lyctum Kraussit, Dun. in DC. Prodr. xiii. 517.—C.B.$

Of. this species I am, unable to form. an opinion, not ae
met with any specimen that corresponds with the description
given, as.above cited: M. Dunal appears to doubt its being a

valid. species, and asks whether it may be only a variety.of L.
cinereum, Thunb.

45. Lycwum rigidum, Thunb. Prodr. 37; Linn. Trans. ix. ay
tab. 14; Dunal in DC. Prodr. xiii. 522.—C.B.S. |

I have not met with any specimen that corresponds with this,
plant of Thunberg, although M. Dunal describes a specimen from.
the collection of M. Drege: [ infer from that description that it

must belong to this section. It. is evident however that many,
ape plants that haye been referred to this species do not belong...
to it: for instance, the variety y. angustifolium of M. Dunal (loc.
cit..p.523); from Drége’s collection, sub nom. L. rigidum, and
which I find also under this name in Sir. W. Hooker’s herbarium,
is manifestly a specimen of L. Afrum: so also from the same
collection a ‘plant distributed under the name of L. campanula-
tum, Bi. Mey., and referred by M. Dunal to L. rigidum, var.
B. latifolium-grandflorum, from the specimen in Sir W. Hooker’s
herbarium, is also L. Afrum: it is not unfair to conclude that
the other variety, a. latifolium-parviflorum, belongs to some other
species.

46. Lycium Requieni, Dunal in DC.. Prodr. xii. 520.—Patria
ignota,
This plant, cultivated in the Botanic Garden of Mant pelier

* This species with sectional details is given (Joe. cit.) in plate 70. B:

Mr..J.,Miers.on the genus Lyciun. 187

under, the name. of) .L..carnosums) isi probably of African origins
Foom M. Dunal’s ee I have iplapede itn! this section.

47. “Eycium onkang spinosi, Diisah, in: De. Prods. xiii, 615: ie
C.B.S. (Drége, n..7871)..) > ) 1
T have not seen a specimen of this wpbites s bt fox M. Dunal’s :

account of it 1 have stationed it here. !

*KEK Mlamenta basi glandula Hneiois fini ate Bee B
Sp. 48 ad 49. | :

48. Lycium Tataricum, Pallas, Flor? Russ. i. 78. tab. 49. LL,
Ruthenicum, Dunal (non Murr.) in “pybdy DC, xiii,,514 5-—
fruticosum, glaberrimum, intricato-spimosum, ramulis pallidis,
flexuosis, nodis spinescentibus, approximatis ; foliis plurimis
(6-8) fascicalatis, linearibus, spathulatis, obtusis, carnosulis ;
floribus e fasciculis solitariis, rarius. geminis, calyce pedunculo
breviori, poculiformi, subscarioso, inzequaliter 3-4-fisso, laci-
niis rotundatis, corolla imo coarctata, superne infundibuliforne,
limbi laciniis oblongis, tubo 2-3tio brevioribus, staminibus"
exsertis, filamentis imo in glandulam linearem margine ciliata ~

expansis.—Rossica australis.—v. s. in herb. Hook. ea herb. |
Pallas. )

This is certainly very distinct in the structure of its, flowers: ..
from L. Ruthenicum: the nodes are about 4 inch apart, the spines
of the same length, the leaves 3 to 5 lines long, and barely a line
broad : the pedicels are 3 lines, the calyx 13 line, the tube of the _
corolla 3 lines, the segments of the border 2 lines long; the sta- —
mens, inserted in the lower portion of the tube, have a long basal ~
expansion which is ciliated on the margin; the stamens are -
equal, and nearly attain the length of the segments*.

49. .Lycium ferocissimum (nu. sp.) ;—fruticosum, pathol BalihuM:Sc
glaberrimum, ramis griseo-pruinosis, ramulis horizontaliter
divaricatis, validis, apice spinosis, spinis giganteisefformane «©:
tibus, axillis\ globoso-nodosis; foliis e nodis fasciculatis, sob4.
ovato- vel oblongo-spathulatis, obtusis, carnosulis ; floribus. ew:
fasciculis solitariis vel binis, longe pedunculatis,;:calyce tubu- .’
loso, majusculo, carnoso, breviter 5-dentato, dentibus margme:
ciliatis, imo longiusculo, corolle tubo imfundibuliformi, imo:
angustato, calyce vix longiori, limbi laciniis 5, oblongis, retv
culato-venosis, tubo fere equalibus; staminibus in constric-
tionem tubi insertis, filamentis imo geniculatis et in glandulam
linearem margine densissime tomentosam expansis, superne

* A representation of this plant with floral sections is shown (/oc. cit.)
in plate 70.C.

188 Mr.J. Miers:on the:genus Lycium.

~<glabris, ineequalibus, 2 versus apicem, 3 ad» medium limbi
_attingentibus ;>stylo»staminibus majoribus zquante: bacca
‘pisimagnitudine, calyce fisso suffulta—C.B.S.—v: s. im herb.
Hook. Vitenhag (Harvey, nv105).
This, is.a.species-evidently allied to L. rigidum, Thunb., dif-
fering’ in.its -thick..gigantic.spines,.its broader.leaves, its much
bigger calyx and; larger flowers. . The. spines are from,2.to.24
inches. long; the, leaves are 6-10 lines long, 24-4 lines. broad ;
the ‘pedunele. 4.Jines,long;, the calyx 3 lines long. and 22 lines.i in
diameter’; the tube of the corolla is a trifle longer than the calyx;
and the seginents of the, border about the same length; the sie
1S. Blebuler,: 3. lines in diameter*.

_ B, Neoces.
* Stamina levia.

50. Lycium capillare (a. sp.) ;—fruticulosum, inerme, ramulis
virgatis, valde’ gracilibus, horizontaliter divaricatis, albo-pu-
bescentibus, lineis helvolis e nodis utrinque decurrentibus

“angulato-striatis : foliis fasciculatis (5-8), e nodis cupularibus

~-capillari-lmearibus, minutissime pubescentibus, carnosulis ;
floribus solitariis, parvulis, pedunculo gracili, calyceque parvo,
poculiformi, 5-striato, 5-dentato, subpubescente, dentibus
glabris, acutis : corolla tubulosa, glabra, tubo profunde 5-sul-

~“eato, limbi laciniis 5 oblongis, margine ciliolatis tubo paullo
brevioribus: staminibus zqualibus, exsertis, filamentis medio
~-tubi insertis, glabris, ad medium limbi attingentibus : bacca

_pisi minoris magnitudine, rubra, calyce fisso suffulta—In
fot we Mendoze Argentinorum, in desertis salitrosis.—v. v.

“1 found this plant in the Travesia of Mendoza, a desert plain
near the. foot of the Andes, and at La Dormida, in. the same
province. It is a very distinct species, not only on account of
its extremely capillary leaves, but of its perfectly glabrous, sta-
mens..; The leaves are about 4 lines long and 3th of a.line broad ;
the. capillary, peduncle is 2 lines long, the “calyx. & 5 line, with
teeth. one-third of its whole length; the tube. of the corolla, is
rather. broad,.is deeply sulcated opposite the stamens, and_is:
3 lines long, the lobes of the border being 2 lines in length;
the thick, fleshy, smooth filaments are 2} lines long; the berry
is:somewhat ovate and apiculate, 2 lines long:

** Stamina imo Jursuta. Sp. 50 ad 54.
5h, Lycium floribundum, Dun. in DC. Prodr. xii. 513.—In

* This species with analytical details is given (Joc. cit.) in plate 70 D.
+ This species with sectional, details.is drawn (doc.-cit.) in plate 70 E.

Mr. J... Miers.on' the genus Lycium. 189

prov. Mendozze (ad Jarillal.circa: Mendozam) et in prov. Sanctz

- Ludovice Argentinorum (ad Alto del. Yeso) -(mihi lectum) ;
circa. Mendozam. (Bacle' in ‘herb. Moricand) ; Chile, in herb.
Lindley ; ad Coquimbo (MaeRae) vr) 260

The name of floribundum is ill applied°to this very distimet
species, for it is generally very sparse of flowers, although Bacle’s
specimen, like that collected by me at the Alto del Yeso, may
have presented more flowers than usual. It is of very straggling
growth, the tortuous branches spreading out'at right angles :
the ‘spies are ‘generally 3 inch long, and°slightly bent ‘and
recurved; they are all covered with ‘a ‘whitish ‘pubescent’ bark,
marked by reddish longitudinal lines; deeurrent' from the angles
of each cup-shaped node: the spines have many gemmiferous
axils; the leaves are fasciculate in each closely approximate node,
are spathulately ovate, fleshy; covered*with short, simple, and
glandular hairs, mixed together, and proseeshie out of as many
whitish rugous spots; they are 2-24 lines long, $-1 line broad ;
the flowers are solitary in each fascicle, } line long; the calyx is
pubescent, tubular, 2 lines long, half-cleft into five rather equal,
anceolate acute teeth, which are somewhat recurved at their
apex: the tube of the corolla is cylindrical, and slightly funnel-
shaped above, but constricted a little above the base, is 24 to 3
lines Jong, and is covered with short glandular hairs; the seg-
ments of the border are oblong, and 1} line long: the stamens
are inserted about the middle of the tube; the filaments. are
hirsute at base, smooth above; the two. shortest. reach the
middle, the three longer attain the extremity of the segments :
the style is even longer: the corolla, as in other species of this
genus, breaks off by a circumscissile line above its base, leaving
thé ovary half surrounded by a cup-shaped process. In the spe-
cimen from El Alto del Yeso, the spines are fertile’ to ‘the
extremity, the leafy fascicles being only 1 line apart: the berry
is’ globular, apiculated, 14 line diameter. The specimen from
Coquimbo agrees in all respects with the others, except that the
rathifications are more intricately branched and spinose ; the bark
is darker, more striated and pubescent, and the leaves are smaller ;
the axillary nodes, however, are equally approximate, and the
flowers are exactly similar in size and structure*. |

52. Lycium rachidocladum, Dun. in DC. Prodr. xin. 519 ;-an-
tricato-ramosum, spinosum, ramulis rufescente-roridis, glan-
dulis glutinoso-resinosis et pilis articulatis vestitis, spinis

{junioribus acutis,, gemmiferis, adultioribus tortuoso-ramifor-
mibus: foliis parvis, oboyatis, carnosis, apice rotundis, imo in

* A drawing of this plant with floral sections is given (loc: cit.) im plate
70 F

190 iMr. J. Miers*on the-yenus Lycium.

. petiolum tenuem spathulatis, utrinque viscoso-puberulis, pilis
crebris, brevissimis, erassiusculis, g¢landuliformibus ; floribus
»subsolitariis, breviter’ pedunculatis,¢ calyce ineequaliter 4- rarius
5-fido;: segmentis -acutis, ‘subreflexis, utrinque glanduloso-
pubescentibus ; corolle tubo extus glandulis brevibus farinoso-

) puberulis;:calyce’ 2plo longiore, infundibuliforme, limbi laci-
nis; 5, dblongis,:‘margine: ciliatis, tubo brevioribus': stami-

« nibus.5 intequalibus; 3 longioribus laciniis equilongis exsertis,
filamentis tenuibus; medio tubi imsertis, imo geniculatis ‘et
longe hirsutis, superne glabris : stylo exserto, cum ovario arti-
culato; ovario, corolle reliquo semi- vestito,—Chile. —v. S$, mn

herb. Lindley (Coquimbo) MacRae.

This species differs, little from L. floribundum; Dans, but its
branches are. more, aintricately spreading and. spinose, the: bark
is darker and..more)farimose, the leaves are, smaller and: more -
oblong ;, on, the, other-hand, their axillary nodes are, equally ap-
‘proximated, and there, is,no difference in the size or'structure of
the flower,, The leaves are 13 to 2 lines long, $ line broad; the
barren spines are 2 to 3 lines, the pemantisercn 4.to 6.linés or
longer ;.the peduncle # line; the calyx 13 line long, cleft nearly
halfway into five very acute ‘teeth ; the tube.of the. cdrolla»is 2
lines, and its segments 1} line long; it is glabrous, except near
the pomt.of insertion of the stamens: the filaments are pilose
at, their base for a quarter of their length, three of them -reach' the
extremity of the segments, two are shorter; the slender style is
the. length of the longer stamens, and is ‘ar ticulated with »the
ovarium™*.

srrree
Muah

53. Lyciuin tenvispinosum (n. sp.) ;— fruticosum, intricato- ranio-
/ sum, tamulis’ helvolis, viscoso-puberulis, valde divaritatis,
; eacsilaiton et erebre spinosissimis : foliis minutis, fascibuldt?
_ anguste linearibus, viscoso-puberulis ; floribus e fasticulis soli:
|, tariis, ealyen tubuloso, pilis articulatis crebre pubescente, ultra
ojmedium 5-fido, segmentis lanceolatis, subreflexis, pedunculo
‘gracih sequilongo ; corolla tubulosa, tubo calyce eequanite, parte
infimo, eylmdrico, attenuato, pilosulo, superior inflato, glabro,
limb Jacimis tubo brdvidribus, oblongis, staminibus CRS:
filamentis supra medium insertis, hine penidilatia et hirsutis,
2 ultra faucem prolatis, 3 fere ad apicem laciniarumextensis.
—Cirea Mendozam in aridis petrosis.—v. v.

This species, which I found near Mendoza, in the desert,tract
ealled Lia Travesia, in many points resembles L. floribundum and
rachidocladum, but is widely distinct. It is remarkable for its
almost denuded, slender, spreading branchlets, armed with short,
closely-set, neeedle-like spines; they are generally 2 or 3 lines

* This species with analytical details is shown (Joc. cit.) m plate 71 A.

Mr, J. Miers.on theegenis Lycium. 191

-long.and-] or 2-lines apart; furnished | at; thei base with a fas-
cicle. of four to; six minute linear subulate leaves, barely } line
long ; a few of the fascicles bear a single flower, the peduncle of
which is. 14 line long ; the calyx:is 24 lines long; the tube! of the
‘corolla measures 24 lines, and the segments of the border 1} line
in, length ;. the stamens are inserted above the» nniddle of) the
tube, where it, is’ pubescent, they ares considerably hirsute at
their lower. part, and smooth above; the: hairs) that clothe the
pedicel and calyx are dense and articulated; the style exceeds
the length of the stamens*. 9 smToqna2isie'

54. Lycium stolidum (n. sp.) ;—fraticosum, glaberrimum, ramis
flexuosis, ramulis intricato-divaricatis, spinescentibus, cortice
rimoso; striato, griseo, nodis approximatis, spinis brevibus imo

foliosis.; foliis (2-5) fasciculatis, spathulato-linearibus, obtusis,
‘oearnosulis, pallidis ; floribus e fascicuhs binis, parvulis, pedun-
(seule tenui,; calyce parvo equaliter ac breviter 4-dentato, corolla
levi; pallida, textura tenui, tubo imo coarctato, superne ‘sub-
‘/campanulato, limbi laciniis 4, tubo vix dimidio longitudine,
oblongis, acutiusculis, reflexis ; staminibus 4, zequalibus, longe
‘sexsertis, filamentis in contractionem basalem insertis, hine
: geniculatis et hirsutis, superne glabris, apice limbi attingen-
stibus; stylo equilongis, tubo circa insertionem filamentorum
»opiloso; baeea globosa, piso minori, apiculata, calyce suffulta.—
» Texasi—v. s. in herb. Hook. Paso del Norte (Wright, no. 540,
( B42). | |

A plant not unlike Z. Barbarum in habit. Owing to.the close
approximation of the nodes, which are only } inch apart, the
leayes are,somewhat crowded; they are 5 to 7 lines long;-1 line
broad; the slender peduncle measures 23 lines, and the narrow
calyx .1line; the tube of the corolla is 2} lines long, ‘and the
reflexed, broad segments of the border are | line in:length3"it is
thin, in.texture and pale when dried ; the filaments:are inserted
above, the basal.contraction of the tube, are hirsute below, slender
and smooth above, and attain the length of the segmentsof the
border.: the berries, are small, apparently red, 2 lines in diameter,
and contain eight seeds, which are flattened; these have‘a heli-
cally spiral embryof. |

***” Hilamenta paullo supra basin fasciculo pilorum donata.
Sp. 55 ad 58.

55. Lycitum spinulosum (n.. sp.) ;—yirgato-ramosum, ramulis hel-
volis, striatis, pilosis, patentibus, tenuiter spinosis, inferioribus
* A representation of this: plant, with analysis of its flowers, is given

(loc. cit.).in plate 71, B,
Tt This species with floral sections is drawn (loc. cit.) in plate 71 C.

192 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

subnudis, superioribus foliiferis, axillis nodosis approximatis,
spinis acicularibus, gemmiferis ; foliis fasciculatis (2-5) ob-
longis, apice acutis, basi in petiolum brevissimum cuneatis,
valde crassis, utrinque pilosis, pilis brevibus articulatis, non-
nullis apice glandulosis ; floribus solitariis, pedunculo brevi,
ealyce majusculo, glanduloso-piloso, pedunculo 3plo longiore,
tubuloso, ultra medium 5-fido, segmeutis rigidis, lanceolatis,
acutissimis ; corolla glabra, tubo infundibuliformi calyce eequi-
longo, limbi laciniis fere dimidio brevioribus, oblongis; sta-
minibus 5, longe exsertis, filamentis medio tubi insertis, hinc
geniculatis et glabris, mox infra faucem fasciculo pilorum bar-
batis, et ore claudentibus, 2 longioribus apice limbi attingen-
tibus, 3 paullulo brevioribus.—Circa Mendozam.—. v.*

This plant, gathered by me in the Travesia of Mendoza, in the
year 1826, is certainly a distinct species: it bears greatly the
habit of L. tenuispinosum, but its branches are straighter, the
spines stronger, the leaves larger, the calyx of much greater size
and more rigid in its texture, and the stamens are of different
structure. It is at once distinguished by its peculiar calyx. The
spines measure 2 lines, the leaves, including the petioles, are 3
limes long and 1 line broad; the peduncle is 1 line; the calyx
3 lines in length, the tubular portion being only ? line ; the tube
of the corolla measures 3 lines, the segments of the border
2 lines.

Var. B. parvifolium, Gill. MSS., is a more intricately nodose
plarit, becoming with age more glabrous; the leaves are more
linear, smaller, 24 to 3 lines long, } line broad: the flowers do
not differ from the former in size or structure; it was found by
Dr. Gillies in the Travesia, and is preserved in Sir Wm. Hooker’s
herbarium.

56. Lycium infaustum (n. sp.) ;-—intricato-ramosum, spinosum,
glaberrimum, ramulis pallidis, angulato-costatis ; foliis paucis,
minutis, alternis vel fasciculatis, obovatis, vel spathulato-
oblongis, carnosulis, pallidis ; floribus solitariis, glabris, longe
et gracile pedunculatis, calyce parvulo, urceolato, crasso, bre-
viter 5-dentato, dentibus triangularibus, acutis ; corolla infun-
dibuliformi, limbi laciniis ovatis, tubo brevioribus, staminibus
5 equalibus, longe exsertis, filamentis medio tubi insertis,
imo glabris et geniculatis, mox fasciculo pilorum barbatis et
faucem claudentibus, superne filiformibus, glabris, apice limbi
paullo excedentibus, tubo globulis 5 pilorum inter fasciculos
staminum alternantibus ; bacca globosa, coccinea, piso minori.

* A representation of this plant with analysis is given (Joe. cit.) in
plate 71 D.

Mr. J, Miers.on the genus Lycium. 193

_—4In Proy. Aeeenattiin siccnr-atechenggani sin herb.-Hook.
( Tweedie.) ilk ox) |

This plant was found by Tweedie in the” southern portion of
the province of Buenos Ayres, always called ‘by him Pa atagonia.
It is remarkable for its small ericoid léaves, which are 14 to 24
lines long and 1 to 2 lines broad: the’ edunele measures 2 lities,
the calyx I line, the tube of the asbrts 3 lines, the segments of
its border 2 lines, all being quite smooth except the five barbate
tufts that alternate with the hairy pellets of the stamens*.

57. Lyctium Marti, Sendtn. Flom Bras. fase.'6) Sol! 154; Dunal
“in DC. Prodr. xii. 512.—Brasilia (in Prov. Bahia) ad fluv.
S. Francisco prope Joazeiro.

58, Lycium Carolinianum, Mich.-F). Bor. Amersi. 95; Walt. Fl.
»/ Carol, 84; Pursh, Fl. Amer, Sept. i,.97; Dunal in DC. Prodr.
xm. 5138. L. salsum, Bartr. Trav. 59. nee R.& P.. L-qua-
drifidum, Mog. et Sesse, Ic. Mex. Coll. Cand. t.914. . Panzera
Caroliniana, Gmel, Syst. i. 247 ;—fruticosum, inerme,. glaber-
rimum, ramulis rectis, striatis, rarius spinosis ; foliis alternis,
-rarius fasciculatis, spathulato-lanceolatis vel linearibus, 'acutis
» aut. obtusiusculis, crassis, eveniis ; floribus solitariis, folio bre-
» wioribus, tetrameris, pedunculo elongato, calyce campanulato,
grosse 4. dentato, corolla cerulescente, tubo infundibuliformi,
mmo crassiore, supra basin constricto, ‘Tinks laciniis tubo’ bre-
»™ioribus, staminibus 4: subeequalibus, exsertis, filamentis longe
.) subtus' medium. tubi insertis, imo geniculatis et, fascicula.ob-
longa pilorum dense barbatis : bacca cerasi parvi-magnitudine,
“-rubra.—America. Septentrionali.—v.. s. in herb...Hook. (Gal-
veston Bay, Tenessee) Drummond. (Rio Brazos, Texas) Drum:
mond. (New Orleans) Drummond, n. 234. (Circa Laredo)
'Berlandier (n. 1502 et 242). In herb. Lindley (Texas) Drum-

This well-known species, long since established upon. very. di-
stint characters, appears to differ in no essential respect from
the plant described by Mogino and Sessé, and which may safely
be considered as identical with it, especially as I find the deserip-
tion..of its fruit corresponds withthe specimen above noticed
from New Orleans. .The leaves are generally single and. alter-
nate, from 7 to 18 lines long and.14 to 24 lines .broad, narrow-
ing at the base imto.a short channelled petiole: the peduncle is
slender below, thicker at. its apex,.and is from 5 to 8 lines long ;
the cup-shaped calyx is nearly 2 lines in length, with four short

* This plant with floral details is shown (Joc. cit.) in plate 71 E.
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 13

194 Mar. J. Miers.on the genus Liycinm.

triangular teeth, ciliated at their points, but it is afterwards split
irregularly into larger segments': the tube of the corolla is 3 limes
long, the oblong segments’ of its border 24 lines ; the filaments
arise in the mouth of the basal constriction of the tube, and pre-—
sent a dense oblong ‘brush of ‘hairs at their geniculated origin,
their summits attaining the length of the middle of the segments,
two of them being a trifle shorter ; the style far exceeds the length
of the stamens; the crimson globular or oval berry is somewhat
apiculated,: and'5;lines an diameter*. i

_ #6 Filamenta imo, glandula lineari carnosa margine ciliata. .
5 ,donata... Sp. unica, - .

59. Lycium ignarum (ni 'sp.) ;~—fruticosum, ramulis longe vir-
gatis, dependentibus, angulato-striatis, pallidis, rarissime sp?-
nescentibus, nodis axillaribus cupulatis ; foliis alternis ternisve,
elliptico-oblongis, utrinque subattenuatis, subpallidis, textura
tenuibus, nervosis, utrinque sub lente albo-punctulatis, mar-
gine obsolete ciliatis, breviter petiolatis; floribus solitariis,
longe et gracilente pedunculatis, calyce urceolato, ‘striato,
membranaceo, pubescente, eequaliter 5-dentato, dentibus lan-
ceolatis, acutis, tubo dimidio brevioribus ; corolla extus pubes-
cente, imo densiter tomentosa, sicco pallida, tubo infundibu-
liformi, calyce duplo longiore, limbi laciniis 5, reticulato-ner-
vosis, staminibus 5 zequalibus, exsertis, filamentis circa basin
tubi insertis, hine geniculatis et glandula adnata oblonga lati-
uscula margine ciliata donatis, superne membranaceis, gra-
datim..angustioribus, vix apicem laciniarum attingentibus ;
stylo staminibus xquilongo; stigmate sub-2-labiato.—Patria
ignota: an America meridionali?—. s. in herb. Lindley in hort.
Soe. Hortic. cult. sub nomine L. Sinense. : :

This plant has much of the habit of L. erosum, and from many
peculiar poimts of analogy, I have little doubt is of South Ame-
rican origin.» The leaves are 19 lines long and 7 lines broad,
the peduncle of the flower 443 lines, the calyx 2 lines, the teeth
being equal in length to the tube, the corolla 6 lines, the tube
being 3 lines long, and the segments of the border the same
lengtht.

* A representation of this species with structural details is given (oc. cit,)
in plate 71 F.

tT This plant with analytical sections of the flower is shown (Joc. cit.) in
plate 72 A.

(To be continued. |

Prof. Sedgwick’s Reply to Prof. Milne-Edwards. 195

XXI.- -Rejoinder to Professor Milne-Edwards. and Mr. Bower-
bank. By Professor Srpe@wickx.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,

On my return to the University, after an absence of almost
three months, I found that Professor Milne-Edwards and Mr.
Bowerbank had replied to my comment on “ two statements
published by the Palzeontographical Society in their volume for
1852*.” I now request you to publish my final, and short, re-
jomder, both to Professor Milne-Edwards.and.to my. friend
Mr, Bowerbank. |
I have the honour. to be,
Gentlemen,
Your faithful Servant,

A. Sepewicxk.
Cambridge, August 21, 1854.

Rejoinder, &c.

So far as regards Professor Milne-Edwards, I have only to
request any Member of the Palzontographical Society carefully
to read over Professor M‘Coy’s letter to myself, and then to put
it side by side with Professor Milne-Edwards’s reply. That reply
does not so much as touch the facts and statements of Professor
M‘Coy’s clenching letter. The reader must, therefore, conclude,
that Professor Edwards can neither prove, nor make probable,
the charges he has insinuated against Professor M‘Coy, and con-
sequently that the imsinuations recoil upon their author. Under
this entire conviction, I venture to call upon the Council of the
Paleontographical Society, as a matter of common literary justice,
to disclaim the charges insinuated against Professor M‘Coy in
the 151st page of their volume for 1852.

My rejoinder to my friend Mr. Bowerbank need not be very
long. On one point (and one point only) he has the advantage
over me. He alludes to a “short” conversation he held with
me, during a public meeting at Ipswich (in 1850), when he made
a request for a loan of certain Cambridge corals. Of that
request I have no remembrance ; and, considering the occasion

* My comment (containing a letter from Prof. M‘Coy) was published
in the ‘ Annals’ for April 1854. The Replies of Professor Edwards and
Mr. Bowerbank were published in the ‘ Annals’ for May and June 1854.

13*

196 —_— Prof. Sedgwick’s Reply to Prof. Milne-Edwards.

when it was made, I may surely be excused for a little lack of
memory.

All the statements of my former communication (of April
last) stand good and are unshaken. MM. Edwards and Haime
visited Cambridge (about the end of the year 1849) and made
arrangements with Professor M‘Coy for procuring figures of cer-
tain Oolitic corals, with a view to their publication m the essay
on “ British Oolitie Corals,” which appeared in 1851. These
arrangements were given up, without any further communi-
cation from them on the subject, either to Professor M‘Coy or
myself. Some time afterwards (early in 1850) an application was
made by Mr. Bowerbank (in behalf of the -Paleontographical.
Society) for a loan of certain Oolitic corals in the Cambridge
Museum, in order that they might be figured at Paris. This
request could not be complied with, for reasons given in my
“ Reply,”? &c., which was published in the ‘ Annals’ of April
last. I can state most positively that Mr. Bowerbank’s appli-
cation (made by letter) did not include so much as one Paleozoic
species : but along with it was a formal list (at this moment pre-
served among the papers of the Woodwardian Museum) of the
specimens wanted—all of which were Oolitic.

When, therefore, my friend Mr. Bowerbank laughs at my lack
of memory while I was in the pains of a parturient speech ; I can,
with like good humour, retort upon him with interest, and con-
vict him also of an occasional fit of obliviousness. For in a letter
I have before me, he asserts that, on behalf of the Paleeonto-
graphical Society, “he never wrote to me but once, and that
once was regarding the Palzeozoic fossils.” Now, if he ever wrote
about the Palzeozoic fossils he must (at the least) have written
twice ; for he once assuredly wrote, very specifically and formally,
about the Oolitic fossils and about them only.

In his Reply he gives a list of those to whom he did write on
the subject of Palzeozoic fossils, to be published by the Palzon-
tographical Society in 1852. And he appears to have no doubt
that he also wrote to me on the same subject. I affirm, on the
contrary, that I never received from him any letter on this sub-
ject. And (if I mistake not), I can, out of his own letters, give
him a convincing reason why he did not write to me. For he
tells me (in a letter I have before me), that my verbal reply at
Ipswich (in 1850) was considered by him “as equivalent to a
refusal ;” and that the subject could not be introduced to me
afterwards “ without the appearance of importunity.” Having
im 1850 been refused the loan of the Oolitic corals, he quite
naturally abstained, on the year following, from making any ap-
plication to me for the Cambridge Paleozoic corals.

I should be indeed foolish were I to boast of a memory which

Dr. R. K. Greville on a new species of Caulerpa. 197

has often failed me, or done me but a slippery service. But in
what I have stated above, I do not lean upon my memory. On
the contrary, I rest only upon documents which admit of no
contradiction.

Not to dwell any longer upon blunders and slips of memory,
_ T again affirm, as I did in my communication of April last, that
had MM. Edwards and Haime, in their great essay on British
Oolitic Corals (published in 1851), charged the University of
Cambridge with unwonted illiberality, because the Oolitic corals
of our Museum had not been sent to Paris, their charge would,
in letter, have been true ; although (after what took place during
their visit to Cambridge) it would, I think, a spzrit have been
both uncourteous and unjust. But they let that occasion slip ;
and when their charge at length appeared (in 1852), in their
essay on the British Paleozoic Corals, it came im such a form
as not merely to be wanting in courtesy, but to be incompatible
with common historical truth : for, most assuredly, no application
had been made to Cambridge for a loan of a single Paleozoic
coral. .

XXIT.—WNotice of a new species of Caulerpa.
By R. K. Grevitiz, LL.D. &c.*

[With a Plate.]

me

Tue Alga which forms the subject of the present notice was
communicated to me for determination along with several others,
by my: friend Professor Balfour ; and was collected in Bass’s
Straits, Australia, by Mr. James E. Cox.

Singularly variable in external conformation as are the species
of this fine and most natural genus, presenting no fewer than
six or seven well-defined groups, it will be at once perceived that
the present one differs entirely from them all. In general habit
it stands alone; and upon a closer view may be said to unite
those which possess a dendroid character with others which have
a more simple, plane, and pinnate or pinnatifid frond.

The prostrate stem is robust, branched, 12 imches or more,
probably, in length, rough with linear simple or forked pro-
cesses (abortive ramuli), and altogether strongly resembling the
creeping stem of a Lycopodium. The fronds are erect, arising
singly, or often two together, 4 to 7 inches high, of an ovate-
oblong outline, and bushy like some species of Bryopsis. The
numerous ramuli are given off on all sides, an inch or more

* Read before the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, July 13, 1854.

198 Bibliographical Notices.

long, spreading, pectinato-pinnate, compressed ; the pinne very
narrow, linear and acute. When magnified, the apices of the
pinnee are found to be frequently minutely forked in a divaricate
manner, like some Cladonie. The lower part of the stalk of each
frond is naked for about half an inch, and covered with linear
scales or processes, like those of the creeping stem.

I propose the following name and character for this very
beautiful Alga : —

Caulerpa superba, frondibus ovato-oblongis, ramulis numerosis
~ pectinato-pinnatis undique obsitis.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE X.

Fig. 1. A frond of Caulerpa superba, natural size.
Fig. 2. A portion of a pinna.
Fig. 3. Apices of ditto, magnified.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

Geodephaga Britannica. By J. F. Dawson.
London: J. Van Voorst, 1854. _

To investigate a new country, and to draw conclusions from facts
and objects, concerning the novelty of which (as contrasted with what
we ordinarily experience) there can be no question, however interest-
ing and important may be the results arrived at, is a comparatively
easy undertaking; but, to search for information along the beaten
highways of science, to aspire to advance knowledge in paths which
~ have been explored by others, and to gain additional points of light
by destroying the error which has been permitted gradually to aceu-
mulate, is a laborious task which no one can accept without becoming
apublic benefactor in his particular line. And hence it is that we
hail'the appearance, more especially, of those works the professed
aim of which is to simplify rather than to discover,—believing that
the: greatest boon which can be conferred upon any given subject is
to separate the true from the false, and so to pave the way for the
advance of the former, and, as a necessary consequence, the annihi-
lation of the latter. Such has been the primary object of the author
of the publication now before us ; and therefore, whatever may be its
intrinsic merits, we must plead guilty to a certain @ priori prejudice
in its’ favour.

But, if we turn to the pages of this Monograph, and compare the
results arrived at with those of the standard works which have gone
before it, we shall perceive that it has not been taken in hand wan-
tonly ; but that it is the fruit of much close observation and practical
research, and that it may in fact be looked upon as the most suc-
cessful attempt which has been hitherto made to clear up the diffi-
culties of nomenclature, and the confusion which has arisen as regards
the species themselves, in so large a section of the British Coleoptera.

LE. Greville. det?

Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist..8. 2. VoLIAPLX.

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Bibliographical Notices. 199

Having applied himself for many years past, almost exclusively, to
the study of our native Geodephaga, it is not surprising that Mr.
Dawson should have found himself compelled, not only to, create
many changes in the general classification (so as to embody, as far as
seemed desirable, the more recent views of the continental entomo-
logists), but also to sweep away a vast number of “species”? (so
called) which had been proposed at a time when differences were less
philosophically inquired into than now, and when almost every mo-
dification which savoured in any degree of permanency was at once
considered as specific.

Regarding the arrangement put forth, it ppnsats to be that which
is now universally acknowledged throughout Europe, and which was
first adopted in this country by Mr. Westwood;—from whose inva-
luable ‘ Introduction to the Modern Classification of Insects’ the
characters have been mainly borrowed. ‘Mr. Dawson has however
transposed the third and fourth subfamilies of Mr. Westwood (in

accordance with the system at present received), by which means the

Trechi (of the Harpalides) are brought into direct contact with the
Bembidiades,—a step which is certainly desirable, on account of the
gradual manner in which these groups merge imto each other both in
structure and habits.

‘The genera also have been treated according to the law which the
implicit followers of Erichson invariably endorse ; by which means a
large array of names which. have been long familiar to the ears of
British naturalists have been entirely cancelled. Thus, for instance,
the Anchomeni are made to embrace Platynus, Anchomenus proper
and Agonum; Pterostichus includes Pacilus, Abax, Pterostichus
proper, Platysma, Adelosia, Steropus, Omaseus, Argutor and Platy-
‘-derus; and the Bembidia are composed out of Cillenum, Tachys,
Ocys, Philocthus, Peryphus, Notaphus, Leja, Lopha, Bembidium
/proper and 7'achypus,—as formerly understvod.
coin There can be no doubt whatever that the major part of» these

amalgamations have become, in the advanced state of the | science,
absolutely necessary,——the numerous species which have been brought
to light since the days of Bonelli, Megerle, Ziegler, and Leach having
so far supplied connecting links between groups once apparently
isolated, as to render it impossible that the latter should be any
longer upheld. Yet we may question whether Mr. Dawson has not
earried this principle somewhat too far ; and, whilst endeavouring to
simplify, whether he has not rejected more than (especially im @ local
fauna) is altogether desirable. In the details of their oral organs the
whole of the Carabide display so great a similarity inter se,.or rather
shade-off into each other by such imperceptible gradations between
their extremes, that the tendency which various clusters of them pos-
sess to assume modifications.of form which attain their maximum
only in successive centres of radiation, must oftentimes be regarded
as generic, if we would not lose sight altogether of the natural col-
lective masses into which the numerous species (however gradually)
do unquestionably distribute themselves... It is possible indeed that,
as our knowledge advances and, new discoveries take place, we shall

200: Bibliographical Notices:

so far unite many of the consecutive nuclei which are xow considered
well defined, that we shall be driven at last either to accept the Lin-
neean genera only, or else the whole host of subsidiary ones (albeit
perhaps in a secondary. sense) which are, one by one, being expunged.
And, since under, the former contingency the determination of spe-
cies would become. practically well nigh impossible, it is far from
unlikely that we shall, eventually hail the latter as after all (at any
rate to a certain, extent) the. more convenient of the two. The natu-
ralist who. looks upon, harsh. lines of demarcation as alone generic
would perhaps be doomed.to disappomtment, were he able to glance
into the future some, hundred years hence and survey the innumerable
lmks (unthought of now).which ‘science will in all probability have
then revealed... Every, year indeed is proving more and more that in
nature such do not in ‘reality exist ; and if this should be the case, it
is clear that our definition of genera must, sooner or later, be alto-.
gether remodelled ; and that, (if they are to be accepted at all;—and
it is difficult to conceive, under our present system of nomenclature,
how we are to do without them) we shall have to content ourselves
eventually in regarding them as the emanations (within given areas)
from centres of radiation, rather than as uniform and isolated types.

In his elimination of “species,” Mr. Dawson has certainly done a
public service ; for it has long been evident to the working coleopte-
rists of this country, that a very extensive weeding was indispensable
before even an approximate idea of our Geodephagous fauna could
be arrived at. As a proof of the wholesale destruction which he has
committed, it will be enough to mention that, whilst in Mr. Ste-—
phens’s list the section which he has monographed numbered. 449
species (supposed to be truly indigenous), he has catalogued but 290!
And yet, in spite of this extraordinary falling-off, many bond fide
novelties are introduced with which Mr. Stephens was not ac-
quainted,—and which are, in fact, for the first time recorded as Bri-
tish. Such, for instance, are Harpalus sulphuripes, Germ. (diseo-
vered by. Mr. Jacques near Bristol); H. melancholicus, De}. (eap-
tured by Mr. Wollaston on the sandy coasts of Swansea and Tenby,
in South Wales) ; Stenolophus elegans, De}. (detected by the Rev.
Hamlet Clark in the Isle of Sheppey) ; Bembidium fluviatile, De}.
(taken by Mr. Hadfield on the banks of the Trent, near Newark) ;
B. Stomoides,, Dej. (found by Mr. Bold along the margins ofa
stream, between Lanercost Abbey and Naworth Castle, in Cumber-
land) ; and_B. callosum, Kust. (discovered by Mr. Steuart on Woking
Common).

In addition to these well-known European insects (which he is the
first to admit. into our fauna), Mr. Dawson has described five as alto-
gether new to science: namely, Dyschirius impunctipennis (a large
and distinct species discovered. by himself on the Smallmouth sands,
near Weymouth) ; D. jejunus (due to the researches of Mr. Bold of
Newcastle, who detected it on the banks of the river Irthing in Cum-
berland) ; Harpalus Wollastoni (found.by Mr. Wollaston at Slapton
Ley,,in Devonshire,—but which appears to, be very nearly akin to, if
not actually identical with, the H. litigzosus, Dej.).; and Stenolophus

Bibliographical Notices. 201

derelictus (allied to the S. brunnipes of Sturm, and captured by Mr.
F. Smith in the vicinity of London).

Perhaps the main-defect in Mr. Dawson’s volume may be said to
be the paucity of the habitats which he records,—a circumstance the
more to be regretted from the facility with which an extensive series
of localities might have been made known ; whilst it is a universally
admitted fact, that nothing tends so much to increase the general in-
terest in a subject like that which he has so skilfully handled, as a
copious and well-selected list of the various districts in which the
several insects have been ascertained to occur. It is by this means
indeed alone that we can obtain a correct estimate of their topogra-
phical distribution, and so be enabled to compare the productiveness
of distant portions of the British Isles; whilst the pleasure which it
naturally affords to labourers in the same field, to see the fruit of
their investigations brought together for the general good, would
amply repay the small additional trouble which such an arrange-
ment would ‘have involved.

These however, desirable though they may be, are subsidiary
points. The general accuracy of Mr. Dawson’s monograph, and the
amount of judgment which he has shown in grasping his specific dif-
ferences, will sufficiently attest its merit ; and we can only add that,
if his example should induce others to clear up the intricacies of
equally difficult departments with as much success, our coleopterous
fauna will not be long in assuming a more definite shape than it has
hitherto done.

The Medals of Creation, §e. By (the late) G. A. Manrext, F.R.S,
2 vols. small Svo. Second Edition. London: Bohn.

It is with somewhat melancholy pleasure that we notice these
volumes, as they remind us of one, now passed away, who both by
his writings and lectures certainly assisted in rendering the science of
geology popular among the many, and whose poetic temperament
enlivened the society of private friendship. Previous to the appear-
ance of this work, Parkinson’s ‘ Introduction to the Study of Organic
Remains’ was, we believe, the only one especially devoted to the
subject; and that simply professed to give a mere outline of the
principal generic forms, then known, which were found in a fossil
state. With the advanced state of science a more compendious work
was required —avoiding at the same time mere technicalities and dry
details, and yet giving the facts connected with a general view of
fossil botany and zoology in such clear and readable manner, as to
render the work a popular introduction to the study of paleeontology.
To a'considerable extent, this attempt has been successful; and we
should feel the more grateful for the suecess, when it is considered
that the work was the production of leisure hours extracted amidst
the onerous duties of a laborious profession.

Regardless of the censure too frequently attached to the medical
man who studies Nature, although best qualified to interrogate her, Dr.
Mantell fearlessly followed the pursuit, and not only derived thence a

202 Bibliographical..Notices.

‘Solace, but enlarged,our knowledge, of the evidence of Creative. power
and design in, the. ancient. physical, revolutions of our globe, the
history. of which is fraught, with.so much interest and. replete with so
-much. instruction... Tenjyears, have elapsed. since the publication of
the first jedition.of the, « Medals,” which, it. is not too much to say,
materially assisted the mquirer and student ; and many a person who
enjoyed the living. representative, little thought until reading. this
work that; there, was,.a,lesson to be learnt from the worn cockle and
oyster shell or broken, lobster’s, claw.

So great has been, the,.adyance, and so numerous the cultivators of
paleontological science.of late.years, that a new edition was requisite
for, the student, ;,the .present,one has been entirely rewritten and. ar-
ranged, and the. first. volume) was nearly printed at.the period of the
late author’s decease,;-Fortunately for the public, and certainly for the
publisher, the second volume has been issued from under the, mantle
of the. able Secretary; of the,Geological Society, Mr. 'T. Rupert Jones,
and which, containing,as it.does the higher branches of the animal
kingdom, required much care.in the collating and correcting... More-
over, we, are glad. to. find, that the editor has avoided the insertion
of passages that, might be attributed either to egotism or envy in
the.late author; for it is lamentable that the jostlings of scientific
men, when sometimes engaged upon the same bone, should. be con-
tinued in perpetual raspings.

The volumes contain more than 900 pages and are profusely illus-
trated; and the subjects are arranged in consecutive order. The work
is divided into four parts: the first part contains the nature and. ar-
rangement of the British strata, with remarks on the contained fos-
/sils and their, mode of occurrence as regards petrifaction, silicification,
&c.,. with hints for collecting and preserving different fossils,,more
especially the vertebrate forms. The secoad part is devoted to, fossil
botany, and. is considerably enlarged and improved, giving a. general
history of the.structure and affinities of the mineralized, remains,of
the vegetable kingdom, as well as interesting deductions respeeting
the successive floras. The third part comprises fossil zoology, and
occupies, thirteen chapters, treating successively of the, Zoophytes,
Echinodermata, Foraminifera, Testacea, Cephalopoda, Articulata,
Fishes, Reptiles, Birds, and Mammalia. The geological distribution
ofeach group is given, as well as the principal British localities ‘from
whénce their:remains have been obtained.

-Atp« 217,0f the first volume we find the Birgahon arranged under
the. Zoophytes, contrary to the present received opinion that they
ought-to be classed near the Mollusca, although it is fairly stated at
p» 265. that they are of a much higher order of organization than the
‘Anthozoa.. By some inadvertence at p. 430 the genus Spherulites
is arranged with the univalve Mollusca, instead of among the Bivalves
and near the Chamidee, to which the recent researches of Mr. Wood-
ward: have: proved) its affinity, ‘Inthe’ second: volume: (from the
Cephalopoda. to. Mammalia) tlie. editor, has; used.every endeavour to
render this; portion as complete as possible) by citing the latest: infor-
mation, and has also freely imserted many usefull and good: references

Bibliographical Notices. 203

to the different sections treated of, especially among the reptiles and
mammals. The subject of foot-prints is copiously treated, and with
regard to the controversy respecting the origin of the so-called Orni-
thoidichnites, the editor has judiciously avoided referring them posi-
tively to birds. In'the section treating of the Batrachia is the follow-
ing interesting paragraph (p.748) respecting the geological distribution
of certain genera allied to the Perennibranchiata :—** The Labyrin-
thodont reptiles have been regarded as characteristic of the Permian
and Triassic epochs, their remains being tound in Germany and En-
gland in rocks of that age. The commencement’ of the existence of
this family of sauroid-batrachians, however, is of great antiquity, since
their relics also occur in the formations of tle Carboniferous epoch.
The Archegosaurus, a batrachian but slightly removed from the true
Labyrinthodont type, has left its well-characterized remains in the
coal of Germany ; the Parabatrachus, in that ‘of Scotland ; and the
allied Dendrerpeton, in the Nova Scotian coal-field. ' This last-men-
tioned great carboniferous formation has, ‘however, afforded’ fossil
evidence of the existence of the true Labyrinthodonts in the coal-
period ; for some cranial bones, imbedded in a mass of Pictou coal,
lately sent to England by Mr. J. W. Dawson, and the subject ofa
paper by Prof. Owen, read before the Geological Society, were de-
monstrated by that distinguished paleontologist to have close affinity
with the corresponding parts of the skull of the Triassic genera Capr-
tosaurus and Metopias.”

The fourth part contains general instructions for the collection’ of
rocks and fossils, and notes of excursions, in illustration of the mode
of investigating geological phzenomena.

‘In recommending these volumes to the general reader, we feel
assured that the editor has efficiently laboured in rendering his por-
‘tion of the Work as complete a compendium as possible of the paleon-
‘tologieal history of the organic beings of which it ‘treats, ‘and’
adapting it to the requirements of the geological student of the pre-

*

‘sent time.

“Genera Plantarum Flore Germanice iconibus et descriptionibus.
. illustrata. Fasc. 27. Auctore R. CAspary. :

10 We are glad to announce the receipt of this part ofthe valuable
series of plates commenced many years since by the lamented T. F.
‘L. Nees:von Esenbeck, and continued by several eminent. botanists.
So long an interval had elapsed since the publication’ of Fase.°25,
which ‘contains the illustrations of twenty genera of Dipsaceze, Stel-
late, Gentianaceee, &c., edited by Dr. Schnizlein; and Fasc. 26; con-
sisting of twenty genera of Umbelliferee published by Prof. Bischoff,
that we had begun to fear that there would be no continuation of the
work. Qur gratification: is therefore the greater to find that it:is
really to be continued. The recently published part is from the pen
and pencil: of our correspondent Dr. Robert Caspary, of whose quali-
fications for such an undertaking we had the opportunity of forming
an opinion during» his»residence in: England: We are glad to add,

204. Bibliographical Notices.

that this Fasciculus well deserves to form a portion of the valuable
work with which it is connected. It contains plates and descriptions
of fourteen genera of Cruciferse, two of Papaveraceee and the genus
Caltha. These are illustrated in a rather more complete manner
than was adopted in the earlier parts of the work.

Concerning the other two fasciculi mentioned above, it is hardly
necessary to say that they are creditable to the eminent men whose
names are associated with them.

We cannot conclude without specially directing the attention of our
botanical readers to this work, as having the unusual properties of
cheapness combined with excellence. It is quite essential to every
student of European plants, and by far the greater number of the
genera illustrated in it are natives of Britain.

The Microscope and its Application to Clinical Medicine. By
| Lionet Braye, M.B. 8vo. pp. 282.

The Microscope ; its History, Construction, and Applications. By
JaBez Hoce, M.R.C.S. 8vo. pp. 434.

The former of these works, as is implied in its title, scarcely comes
within our range of subjects. Inasmuch, however, as it treats of the
method of using the microscope, the means of examining and pre-
serving objects, &c., we can recommend it as containing a tolerably
satisfactory account of the present state of knowledge upon these
subjects. It contains upwards of 200 woodcuts, and will form a
useful handbook to those members of the medical profession who
have not sufficient time to procure the information from the original
sources ; for it contains nothing new. We must observe, that in
regard to the history, &c. of one or two points, it is in error.

Mr. Hoge’s book is of a different kind. It is intended for a
popular work, and forms one of the series of the “ Illustrated London
Library.”

It may be said to consist of two parts: a series of quotations, in
brackets, from various authors, in regard to microscopy and natural
history, and a number of annotations, with poetical abstracts by the:
author, and is illustrated with numerous woodcuts. The quotations
embody a considerable amount of information upon natural history
and microscopy, for there is about as much of one as of the other ;
whilst the remarks of the author exhibit complete ignorance of both
these subjects, as well as a total deficiency of classical lore. Moreover,
the whole is written in a remarkably loose and clumsy style, well
calculated to disgust an educated mind with the use of the microscope
and microscopic observers.

Thus, we are told, that “the Hunotia is of the Navicula species.”
That ‘the scientific name by which the yeast-plant is known. is
Fermentum cervisie, or Torula cervisie.’ That “the leathery
boletus is merely an enormous aggregation of the vegetable mould-
plant or mucor.” That “the disease known as ring-worm, in-
‘festing the heads of children, is one out of forty-eight different

Royal Society. 205

species of this fungi.’ One figure shows “the zones of annual
growth, termed the medullary rays.” Again, we have an account
of the “ Bryozoa Bowerbankia ;”’ with abstracts from Quekett’s His-
torical Catalogue. Also a host of misspelt words ; and these not
occurring accidentally, but frequently repeated : thus, Astatia, Pluro-
sigma, Volvox globata, Saccina ventriculi, &c. The author has
also an insuperable difficulty in the distinction of the singular from
the plural. Thus, we have “ Torule diabetica;” “the Entozoa
folliculorum is,’ &c.; ‘ Vibrio spirilla or trembling animalcule
appear,” &c. The words animaleule and spicule are constantly
used. The author’s knowledge of chemistry is also extremely small,
for we are told that the “invaluable agent, Formic acid or Chloro-
form, was first discovered in, and produced from, the Formic ant ;”
and that the ‘‘ contents of the cells of the yeast-plant resemble fat or
oil, a protenic substance.”

In short, the work is evidently written by one who has amused
himself with the examination of mounted, microscopic objects, but
who can lay no claims to the character of a man of science, and who
is very ill-calculated to write a popular work. The book is just that
which we should have expected from one of those uneducated men,
highly useful in their way, who obtain their livelihood by preparing and
mounting microscopic objects ; but it is a discreditable production
from the pen of a member of the learned profession to which the
author belongs. The part of the publishers has been well Wo are
and many of the woodcuts are very beautifully executed.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.
ROYAL SOCIETY.
April 6, 1854.—Thomas Graham, Esq., V.P., in the Chair.

‘(On a peculiar Arrangement of the Sanguiferous System in
Terebratula and certain other Brachiopoda.” By W. B. Carpenter,
M:D., F.R.S.

In'a: memoir ‘‘ On the Minute Structure of Shell,” read before the
Royal Society January 17, 1843, (and subsequently embodied in a
‘Report’ on the same subject, prepared at the request of the
British Association for the Advancement of Science, and published
in its Transactions for 1844,) I first announced the fact, that the

“punctations’ which had been previously noticed on the exterior
of many Brachiopodous shells, both recent and fossil, are really the
orifices of tubular perforations, which pass directly through each
valve, from one of its surfaces to the other (fig. 1).

Having subsequently obtained specimens of Terebratule in which
the soft parts of the animals had been preserved, in connection with
their shells, I ascertained that these passages are occupied in the
living state by membranous cxca, closed externally, but opening on
the internal surface of the shell, and filled with minute cells of a

206 Royal. Society.<.

brownish hue. Recollecting that Professor Owen, in his account of
dissections of. some. species..of Terebratula and. Orbicula. (‘Transac-
tions of the Zoological Society, vol. i.), had spoken of an unusual
adhesion of the mantic to the shell in these Bivalves, it occurred to
me that this adhesion might be due to a continuity between the
mantle and these cecal tubuli; and I carefully sought for evidence
of such a structure. In this, however; I was, entirely unsuccess--
ful; for the mantle, when Stripped from the shell, presented no ap-
pearance whatever. of: having transmitted any such prolongations
into its substance§ .on the contrary, it was evidently continued over
the mouths ofthe ceca with which it was in apposition; and I fre-
quently found its external surface (that in contact with the shell)
covered in patches with cells éxactly resembling in size and aspect,
those contained within the ceca. I was equally unsuccessful in the
attempt to trace any other connection between these czeca and the
soft parts of the animal; so that, although their importance in: its
ceconomy scarcely admitted of doubt, the nature of their function re-
' mained entirely unknown. The idea that they had any connection
with the formation of the shell itself, seemed to be completely nega-
tived by the fact, that in a large proportion of the group of Bracuto-
pop, no such perforations exist; notwithstanding that their shells,
in every other feature of minute structure, are exactly accordant
with that of Terebratula.—The foregoing results were communicated
to the British Scientific Association in 1847, and were embodied in
the Second Part of my “ Report’ published in its Transactions for
that year.

The physiological | importance of the characters of ‘ perforation ’
or ‘non-perforation’ has become continually more obvious, as the
principles on which the subdivision of the group of Brachiopoda
should be founded, have been gradually settled by those who have
concerned themselves with its systematic arrangement; and in par-
ticular, the universal presence of the perforations in the shells of the —
family Terebratulide, contrasted with their equally universal absence
in those of the family Rhynchonellide, unequivocally marked its rela-
tion to the general conformation of the animals of these subdivisions...

Having been requested by Mr. Davidson to undertake a more de-
tailed investigation than I had yet made, into the minute structure
of the shells of Brachiopoda, for the sake of throwing still further
light upon the classification of the group, I applied myself afresh
to the solution of the problem, and believing that I have succeeded
in ascertaining the import of this curious feature in the organization
of Terebratula and its allies, I beg to offer an account of wy, Fe
sults to the Royal Society.

The membrane which is commonly spoken of as ‘ the mantle,’ and
which may be stripped from the shell by the use of sufficient force
to overcome its adhesions, must, I maintain, be considered as really
its inner layer only; for I find that an outer layer exists, so intimately
incorporated with the shell as not to be separable from it without the
removal of its calcareous component by maceration in dilute acid.
When thus detached, this outer layer is found to be continuous with

Royal Society.’ 207
the membrane lining the perforations i in the shell (fig. 1 bY: so that
their tubular ceca are, in fact, prolongations of the real external.
surface of the mantle. The adhesion of the inner to the outer

Fig, 1.

HEHE Tere j
ET

Digean of the intra-palleal sinus-system of Terebratula, with its cecal prolonga-
tions into the shell ;—A, B, section of valve; a, inner layer of mantle, 5, outer
* Jayer in contact with the shell, and giving off ceca; ¢, continuity of the two
at margin of valve.

layer (which Professor Owen, not being aware of the existence of an
outer layer, interpreted as an adhesion of the mantle to the shell)
does not extend to the whole of the contiguous surfaces, but.is.
limited to certain bands or spots,—the two layers of membrane, in
the intervals between these, being separated by a set of irregular
spaces, freely communicating with one another, and with the cavities
of the ceca, so as to form a rude network. ‘This arrangement is
peculiarly well marked in Terebratula caput-serpentis, as shown in the
figure(fig..2); and to those who are familiar with the condition of the
circulating apparatus in the inferior Mollusca, it is scarcely possible
not to recognize in it a ‘ simus-system,’ corresponding to that which
is formed in the Tunicata by the partial adhesion of the second and
third tunics to each other.

Considered under this point of view, the cecal structure (as was
first suggested to me by my friend Mr. T. H. H uxley ) bears a close
resemblance to the vascular prolongations, which, in many Asci-
dians, pass from the sinus-system into the substance of the ‘test.;’
the chief difference lying in this,—that whilst each of the vascular
prolongations into the ‘ test.’ of the Ascidians contains both an affe-
rent and an efferent canal,—no such distinction ordinarily manifests
itself in these prolongations of the intra-palleal sinus-system of Tere-
bratula, although I have met with indications of it in Crania. Their
cecal character, however, is by no means opposed to. the views I
am now giving of their physivlogical nature ; for it has been shown
by M. de Quatrefages, that the prolongations of the ‘ general cavity
of the body,’ which pass into the branchiz and other appendages of
Annelida, transmitting to them, its nutritive fluid for a€ration, are

208 | heey Boeidly.
‘always ceecal,° notwithstanding” Shit he peer Hew HiehCs! ci =i
as ey as me Sih gh 89883 Sd} Yo asitionsst

eS
ee ; anotieateiow isomo sesdt dorniw sonsic
"ss eS wt nh FF Jae

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feet *% eo ep <4 7 . Pe J . a
¥ mo “ 73 Toes " a ee. gee eel
ee | Lbess SELY Sid } soc Dix Sein Fig? 2 at : S132. oo teer myatsye
— = 2 ae J Aa ad . > 2 -

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“Sinus: system of Terebratula aaypid wonbintts (as shown “te the sialeand iciehene
othe’shell, without detaching the mantle), being a: network of canals.formed*by
~vtheradhesion of the two layers of rhe mantle at certain spots, leaving are
g around them, _
°'On'this ‘interpretation, the cells which are found within the: "cat,
and in the spaces between the contiguous surfaces of the two layers
of the mantle, are to be regarded as blood-corpuseles, and they cor-
‘respond in size and appearance (so far as can be determined. by spe-
cimens preserved in spirits) with the blood tsorpuscies of Mastin
“and ‘Lamellibranchiate Mollusks.
°2°7The sinus-system. from which this collection: of. ceca. sacha:
“appears 'to be altogether distinct from the vascular apparatus. of the
(socalled) ‘mantle,’ (that is; according to my interpretation, .of the
“inter Tayjer’ of the mantle)-which has been described .by- Professor
“OWen ; but it probably communicates with the ‘common.sinus.”at
“the back part of the visceral chamber, which ‘is stated»by Professor _
‘Owen to receive the blood, not only from the palleal sinuses. of, the
dorsal and ventral valves, but also from ‘other sinuses that there
“fill, line;and séem to form; the visceral or peritoneal. cavity-}.”
Iteannot be deemed improbable, then, that the apparatus.in ques-
tion is branchial in its nature ; and that it is designed to provide for
‘certain tribes a more special means of aérating the:blood, »than..is
“afforded by that distribution of blood to the general surface .of,.the
“mantle; which is common to the entire group. ‘This view: of its, re-
spiratory office is confirmed by an observation communicated.to.me
*by Professor Quekett ; viz: that»the:discoidal opercula-which.cover
the external orifices of the cxeca, and which, though adherent to. the
“periostracum, are not structurally continuous with it, present .ap-
pearances in ss: Move which seem indieative of the existence ,of
* Ann. des Sci: Nat., 3° sér,, Zool.,. tom. XViii. p. 307." a

“Ft See Mr. Davidson’s “Monograph on the’ “*“British” Fossil! Braciopode,”
pastecaaets by the Paleontographical Society; vol. pds. 7%

a fringe of cilia round each, designed to produce currents of water
over the extremities of the ceca.

The resemblance which these cecal prolongations of the sinus-
system into the shell of the Terebratula bear to the vascular pro-
longations of the sinus-system into the test of certain Ascidians, is
not without its parallel in another group, which (as pointed out by
Mr. Hancock, Ann. of Nat. Hist. vol. v. p. 198) is intimately re-
lated to that of Brachiopoda,—namely, the Bryozoa. The stony
walls of the ‘cells’ which invest the soft bodies of many species of
Eschara, Lepralia, &c., are marked, like the shells of Terebratule,
with punctations, which are really the orifices of short passages ex-
tending into them from their internal cavity, as sections of these
structures demonstrate. These passages I have found to be occupied
by prolongations of the visceral sac, which is the only representative
of a circulating system among these animals; and they thus convey
the nutrient fluid which this contains, into the substance of the
framework formed by the calcified tunics of these animals.

_ I need not here enlarge upon the additional value which these
structural and physiological considerations afford, to the character of
‘‘ perforation ” or ‘‘ non-perforation’’ in the shells of Brachiopoda.
The importance of this character in systematic arrangement_will
plainly appear, I think, from the details which I have published in |
the Introduction to Mr. Davidson’s Monograph already referred to.

March 30, 1854.—Thomas Bell, Esq., V.P., in the Chair.

‘On the Structure and Affinities of Trigonocarpon (a fossil fruit
of the Coal-measures).” By Joseph D. Hooker, M.D., F.R.S,

Having been for some time engaged in examining the structure
and affinities of some fossil fruits of the coal formation, included
under the name Trigonocarpon, and the progress which I am enabled
to make being extremely slow (owing to the difficulty of procuring
good specimens), I am induced to lay before the Royal Society such
results as I have arrived at, for publication in their Proceedings. (if
thought worthy of that honour). The details and illustrations of
the subject will, when complete, be offered to the Geological Society
of London.

My attention has for many years been directed to the genus Tri-
gonocarpon ; as, from the period of my earliest acquaintance with
the flora cf the carboniferous epoch, I have felt assured, that bota-
nically, this was the most interesting and important. fossil which .it
contained in any great abundance, and that until the affinities of this
were determined, the real nature of the flora in question could never
be regarded as even approximately ascertained.

In the first place, Trigonocarpon is so abundant throughout the
coal-measures, that in certain localities some species may be pro-
cured by the bushel ; nor is there any part of the formation in which
they do not occur, except the underclays and limestone. The sand-
stone, ironstones, shales, and coal itself, all contain them.

Secondly. The symmetry in form and size which many of them

Ann, & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 14

210. Royal Society.

display,.the regularity of the sculpturing. on, their surfaces, and
various other points, suggested their belonging to a class of highly
organized vegetables, i aad :
_ Thirdly. The fact of our. being wholly unacquainted with the
organs of fructification belonging to the exogenous vegetation, which
also abounds in the coal formation, coupled with the assumed. highly
organized nature of. Trigonocarpon, favoured. the, assumption, that
these might, throw light upon one another, and seemed to afford, a
legitimate basis upon which to proceed, should I ever procure: speci-
mens of Trigonocarpon displaying structure, which I had long hoped
to. do. ad eS Sy : u
"It is, however, only since my return from India that I have been,so
fortunate as to obtain good specimens, and for these I am indebted.
to my friend. Mr. Binney of Manchester, who has himself thrown
much light upon the yegetation, of the coal epoch, and »whose, exer:
tions indeed have,alone, enabled me to prosecute the subject; since
he has not only placed his whole collection of Trigonocarpons atmy,
disposal, but has shared with me. the trouble.and expense, of. their,
preparation for study, . All the. specimens were found, imbedded.in,
a very tough and hard black-band or clay ironstone, full of frag-.
ments of vegetable matter, and which appears originally. to, have.
been a fine tenacious clay. is
The individual Trigonocarpons are exposed by breaking this rocky
and are invariably so intimately adherent to the matrix as to; be,
fractured with it. A great many of these lumps of ironstone, cons)
taining partially exposed Trigonocarpons, have been sliced by.aJapi-,
dary in the usual manner, and excessively thin sections taken..on.
slips of glass... The sections were made necessarily, very much. at;
random, but as nearly as possible parallel, or at right angles tothe,
long diameter of the fruit. Five of the specimens. thus. operated,
upon have proved instructive, presenting the same appearances, and,
all being intelligible, and referable to one highly developed. type. of
plants. As, however, the term ‘highly developed’ may appear ambi,
guous, especially with reference to a higher or lower degree.in the)
scale of vegetable life, I may mention that by this term .I.mean,to;
imply, that there are in the fruit of Trigonocarpon extensive modifix
cations of elementary organs, for the purpose of their adaptation; to.
special functions, and that these modifications are as)great, and,the
adaptation as special, as any to be found amongst analogous, fruits
in the existing vegetable world. eid
“Thus, I find that the integuments of the fruit of Trigonocarpom,are,
each of them a special highly organized structure ;. they are-modifica-
tions of the several coats of one ovule, and indeed of the. same mum-
ber of integuments as now prevail in the ovules of living plants.
_The number, structure and superposition of these, are. strongly,
indicative of the Trigonocarpons. having belonged.to that large/sec-
tion of existing coniferous plants, which, bear fleshy, solitary fruits,
and not cones ; and they so strongly resemble the various parts of the
fruit of the Chinese genus Salisburia, that, inthe present state of our
knowledge, it appears legitimate, to, assume; their. relationship. to .it.

Royal Society. 211

In'all the five specimens alluded to, there are more or less perfect evi-
dences of four distinct integuments, and of a large cavity, which is
in all filled with carbonate of lime and magnesia ; these minerals, I
presume, having replaced the albumen and embryo of the seed.

‘The general form of the perfect fruitis an Ban Fill a ovoid (rather
larger than a hazel nut), of which the broader or lower end presents
the. point of attachment, while the upper oF smaller end is produced
into a straight, ‘conical, truncated rostrum or beak, which is per-
forated by a straight longitudinal canal. | "The exterior integument
is*very thick and cellular, and was no doubt one fleshy; it alone is
produced beyond the seed and forms the beak; its apex I assume to
have been that of the primine of the ovule, and: its cavity the exo-
stome. The second coat appears to have been, much thinner, but
hard ‘and woody or bony; it is impervious at thie’ apex; is also ovoid,
and’ ‘sessile’ by its broad base within the outer integument, with
which it is perhaps adherent everywhere éxcept at the apex. ‘This
is‘marked by three angles or ridges, and being that alone which
(owing to its hard nature) commonly remains in the fossil state, has
suggested ‘the name of Trigonocarpon. Within this are thé ‘third
and fourth coats, both of which are very delicate membranes ; one
appears to have been in close apposition with the inner wall of the
second integument, and the other to have surrounded the albumen.’
These are now separated both from one another, and from the inher
wall of the cavity, by the shrinking of the contents of the latter, and.
the subsequent infiltration of water charged with mineral matter. “I”
may remark, however, that these two membranes may be due to the
séparation of one into two plates, in which case the original one was
formed of several layers of cells. Hitherto I have not been able to
trace‘any crganized structure within the cavity of the fruit, and its:
real Tiature therefore remains doubtful. It is only from the ‘strong’
resémblatice, in structure, appearance and at anieta which these

Git

1a0H89 si at thick; fleshy, and SaHGtate at its apex by a daa
dina canal (the exostome of the ovule); within this is a perfectly
similar, woody, two- or three-angled, impervious integument, form-
ing the nut. This again is lined with one very delicate membrane,
and contains a mass of albumen covered with a second similar mem-
brane. A marked analogy is presented to the European botanist by”
the’ fruit of the Yew, which has the same integuments though some-
what modified; the outer, fleshy coat in the Yew is however a cup-.
shaped receptacle, and not drawn up over the nut so as to leave
only a small canal at the top, as in Salisburia and Trigonocarpon.
The ‘nut algo does not adhere’ to the fleshy cup except below its
middlés The internal structuré is the same in all three.

“Such are the main facts’ which Ihave been able satisfactorily to
establish.’ There ‘are ‘many others yet tobe worked out, especially
those connected with the individual tissues of which those bodies are .
composed } and if is partictilafly to’ be ‘borne in mind that the disco-

14*

212 Royal Society:

very of some’ stricture indicative’ of albumen’ or embryo, is abso”
mdsaicbeitiahe 2 to the SP: Setabhsiaurat of the affinity Ihave
reested "

It must not be pieetnnked, that the iinralctars whisagh whieh I rai
attempted to establish an affinity between Trigonocarpon and Coniferz
are équally Commdn’ to the fruits’of Cycadee ; and in’ connexion with
this subject TI ‘may remark, ‘that M. Brongniart* ‘has’ referred the
genus’ Noggerathia, which is also found in the’ ccoal-meastres, to
that natural order, together’ ‘with some associated organs which are
probably Trigonocarpons ‘in“a mutilated state. ‘The leaves of Nog-
gerathia are, however, alone known, and Dr. Lindley, when figuring
those, of one species’ “(Lindley and Hutton, Fossil Flora, 28, 29),
pointed” out their great ‘resemblance to those of Salisburia, thus’
affording ‘collateral evidence of the view I have: been led ‘to begs
fot an examination of the fruit alone. : “

soMay. Lbp1854. ~The Earl of Rosse, President, in. the Chair. «

"On the’ relation’ of ‘the Angular Aperture of the Object-Glasses’
of Compound Microscopes to their penetrating power and to one
hight.” By J. W. Griffith, M.D., F.L.S.

‘The explanation given by Dr. Goring and others of the advantages
of inereased angular aperture in microscopic objective-glasses.“ap~
pears to the author to be correct, as applied to the case of opake ob-
jeets, and accordingly his remarks in the present communication»
have reference to transparent objects only. :

“It is known that delicate markings on a transparent object, stch’
as the valve of a Gyrosigma, may be rendered more distinctly visible:
by using an object-glass of large aperture, by bringing’the mirror to?
one side, and: by placing a central stop in the bi alse or the con:

ral ais being due to the iumination of the object: by oblique light
Experiment also shows that the degree of obliquity of the light re=
_ @iiisite® varies with the delicacy or fineness of the markings, being’
greater as these are more delicate; so that the finest markings re
quire the most oblique light which can possibly be obtained’to ‘ren-
der them evident, and the angular aperture of the object-glass must»
necessarily be proportionately large, otherwise none of these ep a
rays could enter it.
If the parts of an object which refract the light: are large ‘in 'pro-:
portion to’ the power of the object-glass and of irregular form, they:
will réfract a certain number of rays, so that these cannot’ enter the
object-glass; hence certain parts will become dark, and will mapout, as)
it were, in the image formed of the object, the structural peculiarities
of the same. But if the parts are minute, of a curved form and ap-
proximatively symmetrical, they will act upon the light: transmitted
through them in the manner of lenses," and their luminous or dark
appearance will vary according to the relation of the foci of these:to:
that of the object-glass..’ Thus the’ parts of an object may appéar

* Annales des Sciences Natirelles, 2nd Series, -vol.v. p. 52.

Royal Society, 213.

dark and defined, from, the, refraction, of the light, out, of the field of
the microscope ; also, ;from: the .concentration on dispersion. of por-
tions of the light by these parts, all the rays being admitted. by. the
ahject giaee, or entering the field.) ...,

Another condition affecting. distinctness, consists, in obs relation
whieh the luminousness or darkness of an object bears to that of the
field or-back ground-upon..which it is apparently situated, |

The refraction, of, the light out of the field of the. microscope. or
beyond the angle of .aperture.of. theodject-glass.is the ordinary
cause of the outlines of objects becoming visible ;, and in these cases,
an increase of the angular aperture of; the. oebject-glass will impair
their distinctness, because it will allow; of the admission of those
rays which’ would otherwise have been, refracted, from the field, and
the ‘margins will. become more. luminous and, less. contrasted with
the luminous field,

‘The cause of the distinctness of an object by refraction when
all or nearly all the rays enter the field Of the’ ‘microscope, may
be investigated in a drop of oil immersed :in. water,.or.in a drop
of milk; as illuminated by light. reflected: from, an. ordinary mirror.
The refractive power of the globules is so great and their form
such, that each acts as a minute spherical lens; and the parts
within the margin will appear light or dark according to the.relation
of the focus of the little lens to that of the object-glass. Under an
abject-glass of small aperture and moderate power the outline will
appear black, because the marginal rays do not enter the object-glass.
If the object-glass be of sufficient aperture to admit these marginal
rays; the black margin will disappear, and the little lens wiil.only be
distinguishable by the above: focal. relation. Its appearance,under
oblique light (thrown from all sides, as when the condenser and..a,
central stop are used) will vary; but taking the case of ,extreme,
obliquity of the rays, the lens will only be visible by a luminous. mar-
gin from refléxion, giving it a very beautiful .annular., appearances
Hence it is mere distinct by direct, or slightly oblique, iam by,very
oblique: light. :

But.in'certain objects, the irregularities of structure are ah ‘suah,
extreme minuteness, or the difference of the refractive power-of the
various portions vf the structure is so slight, that the course.of-the
rays is but little altered by refraction on passing through. them,,and,,
under, ordinary illumination, all the rays will enter the object-glass ;
neither-are the rays accumulated into little cones or parcels, of suffi-
cient:intensity to map out the little light or dark spots. in, the.field.
of the.microscope; according to the relation of their. foci.with;that
of: the-object-glass. |

-cLet-us take the instance of an..object with minute depressions on,
the'surface, as the valve of a Gyrosigma. These are so minute, that,
when the light:refiected from-the. ordinary mirror is used, the rays
passing through the depressed and the undepressed portions, are not
sufficiently refracted: to’ cause either set to be excluded. from the
object-glass, consequently both sets will enter it. ‘The slightly
oblique .and converging’ rays .passing’ through .a -portion of the ~

QA RoyabSociety.

walve) become) separated into itwo,sets; one, passing through, the
thinner depressed portions; the other.through the.thicker and unde-
‘pressed portions: still-both sets enter the object-glass.. But on trans-
mitting oblique light through: the object, one set of the rays, will be
refractediso\ds not: to,enter the object-glass, whilst the other set will
gain admission ; ‘thus the two-parts, which have differently refracted
the rays, will become distinct) lf the markings were more delicate,
or if the:difference between ‘the refractive power of the two portions
of the valve wéreless, bothsets would enter.the object-glass. ..But
on rendering»the dightstilk more, oblique, one set; would, be again
excluded by beiugerefractéd) out, of the field... Hence it is,evident
twhy»the. angularoapertures of the object-glass. must. be larger. as
the »markings: are/fiter»vor- the; difference between) the refractive
power of the two portions:of tissue is less; because, the obliquity
‘of othe light! requisite awilly be: very great to cause the exclusion
of,one, set) of |the rays;aindsthe other set will. be too. oblique»to”
-enter the object-glass«unless it be of correspondingly large aperture.
This is the explanation. of :the advantage of oblique. light... .lt.has
ono peculiar power .ofsrendering objects distinct, as, has sometimes
been believed; and the following experiment, supposed to show such
peculiar power, is, really to, be explained on different.grounds. A
piece of net, or some similar texture, is placed behind a hole made.in
a windew-shutter, and when thus viewed, the fibres are not, well
»seen; but. when the texture is moved on one side, they become very
-distinetly visible, and this: has been erroneously attributed to the
-illumination by oblique light; whereas the increased, distinctness. in
the»lateral, position is owing principally. to the circumstance-that
the object is then viewed on a dark instead of a white ground asin
the first instance, although it. is;also true that in this position the
eoblique rays, being. reflected in.large numbers from the fibres into
» the eye; contribute to the, distinct vision of the object. when viewed
agit then: is upon a dark ground. s5uD
ow The.»most, difficult point. has been to explain, how. an-object-
eglass,of darge angular aperture will render markings, evident,
«which:were not,visible under an object-glass of smaller aperture. be-
scause-it would naturally be imagined that the larger aperture would
adniit: both sets-of rays, one of which was excluded by, the; ob-
yject-glass.of smaller aperture, The difficulty vanishes when. it is re-
collected:that the additional rays admitted by the object-glassiof larger
aperture ‘are:more, oblique; hence one set of these rays will, be.re-
»fracted from| the field of the microscope, whilst the other, set, will
enter;the object-glass and will illuminate the more highly. refractive
»parts-of the object ; thus the two kinds of differently refractive struc-
ture. become distinctly separated, one appearing dark, the other lumi-
nous; in fact, by means of the additional rays admitted by the larger
aperture we illuminate more highly one part of the object whilst the
illumination of the other)is-not increased., In short, the object. is
illuminated, first, by» rays corresponding) to: those admitted by. an
object-glass of small aperture; and; secondly, by the additional rays
,admitted. by the object-glass of larger aperture, The first set, not

Royal: Society. 215

being sufficiently oblique; no» part/of them) is refracted beyond the
angular aperture of the object-glass; the second, being more oblique,
are refracted out of the field by certain parts of the object and not
by others, and thus contribute to render ‘its’ different) parts: distin-
guishable by contrast of darkness and illumination.: The first set:of
rays, by illuminating all parts of ithe object, tend to diminish’ this
contrast, and consequently do not add to but impair the discrimina-
tive power of the object-glass’ for the fine markings: of | transparent
objects, and accordingly these are rendered more: distinctly visible
by intercepting the less oblique rays' by means‘ of a-central stop.

It has been here assumed that the oblique!dight requisite for ‘the
‘display of the markings upon objects is* separated into two sets of
rays by refraction ; but the author observes that it: might be ques-
‘tioned whether they are not separated by reflexiony’ ‘here can‘ be
no*doubt that the latter is not generally the case; perhaps the most
important reason which may be assigned for this is, the considerable
comparative breadth of the luminous ‘portions: of the valve of’ the
“Gyrosigma for instance. On transmitting unilateral light obliquely
‘through the valve of an Jsthmia, in which the depressions) are>so
large, in such manner that part of it is reflected by portions of them,
it is easily seen how small the amount of reflected light is; and this
because the surface of the depressions is curved, and thus the °por-
tions inclined at the requisite angle for reflexion are also very'small.
‘As the amount of light reflected is so small in this case, it would
‘be inappreciable in that of the Gyrosigma, in which the depressions
“are so exceedingly minute. In fact, attention to this point’ affords
‘a ready means of distinguishing whether an object is illuminated by
‘reflexion or refraction.
>) The author next considers the relation of the penetrating power of
‘an object-glass to its defining power. Penetrating power depends
upon’ angular aperture, and consequently on oblique lighti: The
question whether there be any essential difference between pene-
trating and defining power is best answered by experiment.°: If we
‘take a fragment of the valve of an Jsthmia and examine itunderja
high power of small aperture, all the parts are very distinctly seen
oby the ordinary light of the mirror; and the various depths of shadow
of the different parts of the depressions and the undepressed por-
tions render these also clearly distinguishable; and when-an object-
glass of very large aperture is used, the distinctness is rather | im-
paired than improved. But if we examine a fragmentiof-the walve
of a Gyrosigma, and this requires an object-glass of large aperture
*to render the markings visible, no distinction of the various ‘partsof
the depressions and the undepressed portions is visible; all we sees,
that the depressions as a whole are dark and the undepressed por-
tions are luminous. Hence the /sthmia requires defining power,
whilst the Gyrosigma requires penetrating power or large angle of
aperture to exhibit the markings; yet the structures differ: only in
size. And therecan be no doubt that if we could examine the valve
‘of the Gyrosigma under ‘a power as high relatively to the sizeof the
depressions,;as that’ under which we can examine the Jsthmia; the

216 Zoological Society.

sanie ‘relations: being preserved between the angle of-aperture’ of the
object-glass cand the angular inchuatiom of the, refracted’ rays; the
various parts of the depressed: and ; undsipreaséd LT egos would be
equally recognizable i in both:cases.

This is also true of fine lines scratched or etehud on aid for
although the coarser linesapon glass micrometers are well seen with
an object-glass of small aperture with good defining power and
direct light, yet the finest lines © upon Nobert’s test-slide require
penetrating power inthe object-glass, and oblique light. Large an-
gular aperture oripenetrating power is but a very imperfect substitute
for defining poweran important point which the author believes has
not hitherto been noticed, and to which he would invite the earnest
attention of object:glass) makers,

» The cauthor concliides by observing that his eetaibiibk have Been
principally confined to .one> class: of objects requiring: penetrating
power, viz. the valves) of the Diatomacew. This has been done ‘ad-
visedly, because the-scales.of insects, which may be regarded as form-
ing thes type! of the other class, involve considerations of amixed
kind, which would»have tended to confuse the subject. © The longi-
tudinalsridges upon the scales of insects, in their relation “to pene-
tration; may be wiewed as representing the undepressed portions ‘of
the ‘valves of the Diatomacee ; and the same explanation will apply
to) the; visibility of both under various conditions. The transverse
lines seen) upon the scales are not indications of true structure; but
theirorigin,asialso that°of the lines seen upon the valves of ‘the
Diatomacee,’ from circular or:angular depressions, does not ‘come
within the conditions involved in the principle which it has been the
object here to elucidate. It will suffice to say that the true struc-
tures\:producing the :appearance of transverse markings upon | the
scales of insects are best resolved by small angular aperture and good
definition.

»> Itshas ‘been assumed “also, that the markings upon the valves of
the Diatomacee arise from depressions. ‘This can be’ proved to be
thes casein the ‘larger’ ones (Isthmia, &c.); and’ there. is sufficient
evidence to render it at least highly probable in ‘the remaitider.. But
this<is ‘am unessential point as regards the principle, and therefore it
prac uot! Seige a upon,

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY, .

ay oD9 if

ash ‘ebruary 10, 1852.—W. Yarrell, Esq.,. in. the Chair,

oa Be aa ih OF THE FAmMILy, BRANCHIPODIDS, A FAMILY
: Or CRUSTACEANS BELONGING TO THE Dtyis1on EnTomos-
““TRACA, WITH A DESCRIPTION OF A.NEW GENUS AND SPECIES
‘OF THE FAMILY, AND. TWO_NEW SPECIES BELONGING TO THE
“FAMILY, LiMNADIADS. By W, Barro, M.D.; F.LS. &,

Next tothe Apudide; the: largest: species of Entomostraca belong
to the family Branchipodida. This family contains perhaps the most

Zoological Societi. 217

beautiful animals of the: division; :eléegant in formand: graceful: in
movement. 'The species: are, geographically; widely extended, but
those as yet described-are few in number:> + >'

Pins: el may be thus characterized.

Order Pirilir aida rif

’ Family BRancuiPorb2.

st

aPodeat bradehialess paribus undecimad aonemdecim: Antenne dis-
similes, paribus duobus; par inferioninmare prehensilis.. Oculi
duo, pedunculati... Corpus x epereian rei bit clypeo nullo
obtectum.

“The feet are all branchial, being fotaieds ehfiteby for breathing
with, and consist of 11 pairs, each pair gradually, enlarging in size as
they: descend... They are in constant: motion, and, when so; presenta
very beautiful wavy appearance. Like the idpodide the animals of
this family swim upon their backs. The body consists of a considerable
number of segments, and is quite naked, having’ neither ‘a. shield-
shaped. carapace like the Apodide, nor a bivalve-shell-shaped cara-
pace like the other families of the Order Phyllopoda. -'The:anterine
are dissimilar in appearance in the male and female..| The superior
pair in both sexes are slender and filiform, but the inferior pair are
much, larger in the male than in the female, and serve the purpose
of prehensile organs. The eyes are two in number, compound, oval-
shaped, and-are placed upon considerable-sized peduneles. » Like the
Apodide, the young Branchipodide have only one eye; which: dis-
appears inthe process of moulting, but leaves a mark hebited sition
remains visible in the adult.

The species included in this family are eebesablé to five. generas:

Genus BRANCHIPUS, Schaeffer.

Corpus molle, cylindricum, segmentum. caudale pinnis- Headed ci ct-
liatis instructum. Pedes undecim. «Antenne inferiores Marts
magne, bi-articulate, cornibus similes, appendicibus» abies
| filiformibus, antenniformibus, armate.

“The body is soft, cylindrical in shape, and is composed of tweuk{e
two segments. The head consists of two and. the -thorax.of: eleven,
each of which gives attachment to a pair of branchial feet. The ab-
domen consists of nine, the caudal segment dividing into two broad
flat appendages of some length, and plumose on their edges. The
inferior antennee, or “ cephalic horns,” in the male are large, organs ;
they are composed of two articulations, which being eyline rical and
curved at the apex give an appearance of a pair of horns, and,they
have springing from near their base a filiform appendage closely re-
sembling in appearance the superior antennee. The structure of these
inferior antennee, or cephalic horns as they are generally termed, and
the filiform appendage at their base, which are frequently deseribed
as an additional pair of antennee, sufficiently distinguish the genus.

Only two species ‘of Br anehipus haveeas yet: been deseribed 2

218 Zoological Society.

ds Brancnipus \piscirrorMis, . Scheeffer: \« datennis inferioribus
maris magnis,. compressis, apice bifurcatis;-appendicibus anten-
Nok di toon filiformibus prelongis; fronte prolongato, paealco.

"ioe + poll.

Syn. Apus pisciformis, Scheeffer, Der Fisch-form. Wiefeitass; ete.
t. 5. K-HT (1752).! |

\' Cancer stagnalis, idtinieins, Syst. Nat. edit. 10.634 (1758) ; Faun.
as. ed. 2. 497. No. 2043 (1761); Fabricius, Ent. Systvai. 518.
Noi ddes: Mantisseebic335e°Noo110; Miller, Zool. Dan. Prodrom.
QSo2 5 O. Fabricius, Faun) Groenland: 247. No.224.

> Branchipis anaes ry een Element. Entomol. t. 29::f. 6; 7

1766).

3: Gammarus ec baliay deh riciale Syst. Entom. 419, No. Be a

+ Cancer (Gammarellus) stagnalis, Herbst, Krabben und: Krebse,
ited 21.0 Now 66, ts 35:9f.08510 (1796).

‘Branchiopoda stagnalis; Lamarck, Syst. An. s. Vert. 161; Latreille,
Hist, Nats Crust. v3 b9.'t. 36,37; Gen. Crust. 1.22); Bose, 45
d’Hist. Nat. Crust. ii. 234.

Branchipus stagnalis; Latreille, Enc. Méth. t. 336. f. 14- 16;
Régne Anim, iv..174 ; Leach, Dict. Se, Nat. xiv. 542 ; Edin. Encye.
vii. 384 ; Desmarest, Cons. gen. Crust. 389 ; Lamarck, Hist. An. s.
Vert. v. 133; M. Edwards, Hist. Nat. Crust. iii, 367; Régn. An.
ed. Crochart, t. 74. f. 2.

Branchipus Schefferi, Fischer de Waldheim, Bull. Soc. Imp.
nee vil. (1834) ; Thompson, Zool. Research. fase. y. t. 3. f, hist

1834 “i
S gpl aes melanurus? Koch, Deutsch. Crust. H. 35. t. 2,

“Ino stagnalis ? Oken, Lehrb. der Naturg. i. 399.

“Larva aquatica, Linn, Faun. Suec. ed. 1. 358. No. 1357.

“Hab. In vicinitate urbis Ratisbonee ; Scheffer. In yicinitate ded
Pans ; M. Edwards. ,

“This ‘species according to Scheeffer’s description is half an. inch
long, about the thickness of a straw, and semipellucid. The male is
generally of a:pale red or flesh colour, though sometimes varying be-
tween :vermilion and orange. The female is of a dull green, with the
ovaries generally of a bright blue. The inferior antennze of the male
are:large organs, somewhat flattened in shape, broad at the base,
toothed at about two-thirds of their length on the external edge, and
becoming narrower near the extremity, which presents an appearance
as if somewhat bifurcated. Those of the female are much. shorter,
cylindrical, and pointed at the extremity. The two antenniform
appendages arising from near the base of these organs in the» male
are of considerable length, longer than the antennee themselves, and
filiform.::« The front of the head is prolonged into a prominence
which is cleft down the centre and forked. «The feet are long, com-
posed’ of three joints, all of which are nearly of equal size, and have
their-edges ‘beset with numerous short. hairs or: setee, which when
magnified «re finely plumose: | The caudal fins are of considerable
size, flat and plumose. The male:organs are slender and rather Heng.

Zooloyical Society. 219

a < Brancurpus spinosus, M.. Edwards) +: dAntennis) inferioribus

o\smaris magnis, cylindricis, apice acuminatis ;appendicibus an-
» tenniformibus curtis, crassis 3. abdominis: sepgmeredt infra ia
Seris.

Long. 1: poll. 2 link

Branchipus spinosus, M. ixaria Hist. Nat. Crast, ii. 367. ©

Hab. In lacu salino ‘ Hadjibé,”’ sin, mxisinitate, urbis, Odesse 5 \M.
Nordmann.

This: species, which was discovered dy: Piofesser Nordmann ina
salt lake near Odessa, is upwards of am:inclyin length, : »The) inferior
antennee of the male are large, cylindrical, the terminal articulation
being sharp at the point. They possess no tooth or process, and the
antenniform appendages are very short: compared with those of the
preceding species, and of a considerable: de¢gree of thickness. The
front of the head has no prolongation.) ‘The feet‘are short: “The seg-
ments of the abdomen are armed. underneath» with sharp spines, and
the caudal fins are short and plumose: . The ‘male are are on
and obtuse.

Genus STREPTOCEPHALUS. , DICKS Xs

ST

structum ; antes si aig antenne ae MUres inarting.
late, salite tortuose, ad apicem in ramos graciles divise, ap-
pendicibus antenniformibus armate.

“Tn the structure of the body, abdomen, and feet, this genus re-
sembles entirely the preceding. ‘The inferior antenne, or cephalic
horns, in the male, however, are very different in structure ; they
are longer in proportion than the corresponding organs in the Bran-
chipus, consist of three articulations, and are singularly twisted, and
bent as it were into elbows. ‘The terminal joint divides at. the apex
into two branches. They are inhabitants of fresh water. . Only two
species have as yet been described, and I now add a third to. the :
number.

‘ly STREPTOCEPHALUS TORVICORNIS, Waga. » Antennis ‘iifesori:
bus maris validis, ramis terminalibus elongatis, serratis, interno
longiore, processu triangulari brevi armato, appendicibusan-
tenniformibus elongatis filrformibus ; fronte pnewepetae acumt-
nato ; ovario externo conico.

Long. maris 1 poll., foeminee circa 14 lin.

Branchipus torvicornis, Waga, Ann. Soc. Ent. Se Franee, xi . 26)

to blaf. 1-4.
Hab. In vicinitate urbis ‘* Warsaw ;”’ Krynicki.
» This: species, which was discovered by M. Krynicki inva dandy
stagnant piece of water near the town of Warsaw, is upwards:of an
inch in length, the female being longer than the male. 'The inferior
antennee or cephalic horns of the male are very large, when extended
equalling in length the whole: body. The basal jomt is strong; and
broad at its junction with the head ; the second is short, and thethird
is divided:at the apex into two branches, which are long, slender and
serrated on their inner edges, the internal one being the longer, bent

220 Zoolugical, Society.

into.the form of,ashook,:and having on-its external-edge asprocess of
a triangular. form and acuminatediat the: point. Therfirst and second:
joints -are-armed: with several:minute teeth; andthe antenniform ap-
pendages are straight, slender, but somewhat stouter tham the supe~
rior antennee. >The’ frout ofthe head is prolonged )into-a-prominence:
which. is poiuted.... The inferior antenne: inthe female are flat, and.
obtusely rounded ‘at the’ extremity; The ovarian bag is conical in
shape and. of a:blue-colour.; The caudal fins are:-of considerable size:

: anh plumose on their edges.

a SrREPTOCEPHALUS - CAFE Lovén, | Antennis inferioribus.
. maris. longis, articulo basalt “ intus appendice lacinulata brevi.
~~ predito, ramo terminals interno longo, flexuoso, inermi ; fronte.
“prolongato, in rostrum lunatum producto ; ovario externa, calt-.
NF a Se .
“Long. 15 millim. u
pipe tee cafer, Lovén; Rial Wet. Akad. Handl.. Mi. 433. F
t. 5. f. 1-20 Lica
Hab. Tn paludibus terree Cafrorum Natalensium ; W ahlberg..
“This species was discovered by M. Wahlberg in some pools of.
fresh water in Port Natal, and is about 15 millimetres in length. The
inferior antenne or cephalic horns in the male are long stout organs.
and flexuose in shape. The basal joint is rather short, rounded, and_
is furnished at its base on the internal edge with a short appendage
of a lanceolate form and toothed on its edge externally. The third.
joint divides at the apex into two branches, the internal one being.

ong, slender and flexuose, the external being club-shaped and fork i
at the extremity, dividing into two other slender branches of unequal
length.- The antenniform appendages are filiform and flexuose. The
front of the head is prolonged into a narrow deflected beak, which. is
forked at its extremity. The male organs are long and slender ; they
are composed of four articulations, the last of which is much the
longest, is curved, and armed on each side with a numerous row of
teeth and spines.

“Tn the female the cephalic horns are broad, thick, and furnished .
with a Sharp hooked point at the extremities. The caudal fins are
of considerable size and finely plumose. The oviferous sac is long
and narrow, and resembles very much in shape a long stocking or
boot. ‘The ova are of a rosy colour. |

3. STREPTOCEPHALUS simILis, Baird. Antennis. inferioribus

op maris, longis, eylindricis, appendice lunulata destitutis, ramis
co terminalibus precedenti similibus, appendicibus antenniformibus

oi filiformibus elongatis ; fronte prolongato, in rostrum bilobatum

producto ; ovario externo conico. )

Lots: maris 8 lin., foem..6 lin.

Hab. In insula «St. Domingo,” in: India Occidentali:.. Collegit
M..Sallé.... Mus. Brit. :

This species,which,was.found, by M. Sallé in the visland of St.
Domingo in, the .West. Indies, |,is:, ofa slenderand ‘cylindrical form.
The male is about 2ths of.an inch in length,,and the-female half an

Ziological Society. 227

inch:> »’The inferior antenne or ‘cephalic horns inthe male are large
and tortuous:; they are composed of three: joints ; the first’ or
basal joint is the largesty 1 is ¢ylindrical, and extends for some: distance
straight forwards ;' the second; smaller. than the basal, is also eylin-
drical; curves slightly at first, then bends suddenly backwards upon
itself ;) the third:or terminal joint bends as suddenly forwards and’
terminates in «a club-shaped extremity, ‘which ‘divides ‘into® two
branches,’ one longer than the other, terminating in‘ along filiform:
process ; the other flatter, shorter, and dividing into’ two:shorter fili~
form processes of unequal length. The antenniform appendage. is
long and cylindrical, rather stout, and springs ‘from ‘close to the éx-
tremity of basal joint. The basal joint is destitute of the lanceolate,
toothed appendage on internal edge, which we see in the preceding
species. The superior antennee are long and slender, and consist.
of two joints, the basal one much shorter than the. second: “The
male organs are rather long, cylindrical, and, of a horny texture.
The front of the head is prolonged into a beak, which is flat, rather
broad and slightly lobed at the extremity. Feet. short. Abdomen
slender. Caudal appendages of moderate length, and beset on each
side with numerous short and plumose setze. :
The cephalic horns in the female are short, thick, and terminate in
a short spine at the extremity. The ovarian bag is conical, acute,
and the ova are of an ochreous colour. '
The chief differences between this species and S. cafer consist, in
the male, in the shape of the front of the head, the organs of gene-
ration, and in the inferior antennee having no lamina with teeth on
the basal joint ; in the female, in the shape of the external ovary.

Genus CHIROCEPHALUS, Prevost.

“Corpus molle, cylindricum ; segmentum caudale_pinnis duabus

_ ciliatis instructum ; pedes undecim; antenne inferiores maris..
valide, biarticulate, appendicibus digitiformibus flabelliformi-..
busque armate. ai
This genus closely resembles the two preceding in the shape and
form of.the body, having the same number of articulations, possess.
ing the same number of feet, and having similar caudal fins, It. is
in the structure of the inferior antennee or cephalic horns in the
male; that the important difference between the two genera, exists. .
These antenne are very large, and are composed of two jomts. At
the base of the first joint a complicated apparatus arises; which when
unfolded presents avery curious appearance. This consists of # long,
flat; curved, very flexible body, somewhat tapering and toothed on
itsvedges, and composed: of numerous short articulations, which the
animal can fold up upon itself like a ribbon. Springing from its ex-
ternal edge near the base are four rather long and flexible appendages
strongly toothed on their: internal edge, somewhat resembling long
fingers, and in addition to these a large membranous triangular-"
shaped body, toothed on-its edges all round; which when ‘extended —
nearly covers the finger-like bodies, and can be folded ‘and unfolded -
like a fan.’ “When the animals at rest these organs are folded’ wp

2226 —C Zoological Society.

underneath: the head in-the same manter ‘as-# butterfly folds its pro-
boscis, but when in pursuit of the female they become extended at
full length and present a very beautiful appearance. —

rive spectts of this genus’ nave’ now been ‘described,

ene niomepeebniaws DIAPHANUS, Prevost. <hitonclets aipersoWius
maris validis, cylindricis, apice acuminatis, processu dentato
ad basin articuli secundi armatis ; fronte rotundato.
hong maris'14 ditzpfoeemine 1 “poll.

Pro Synonymis vide « Baird's Nat. Hist. of the British Entomos-
traca, Ray Society; 1850." |

Hab. In Anghay Gallia,-prope Genevam, &c. &e.

This species, which occurs in many places in England, ‘as well ve inl
France, Switzerland; &c:, isivery elegant in form, and (the male more |
especially) very beautifulin colour. It is upwards ofan inch im length,”
slender, of a°cylindrical ‘form, and nearly transparent. In the ‘male *
the inferior antennee:or cephalic horns are of a beautiful translucent'”
bluish green colour; tipped at»the extremity with a fine red “hie!
The caudal fins areof a bright'red. The female has a strip of blue’
along the whole length of the back, and the ovarian bag when full”
ofsova is conical in shape and of a reddish brown. The inferior an~
tennee of the male are very strong organs, divided into two joints}
the basal joint is thick and fleshy, and the terminal joint is cylindri-
cal’‘and curved in the form of a horn, having at the base where it
joins the first joint a flat plate attached to it, beset with several stout’
teeth. “The apparatus which we find at the base of the first joint,
consisting of the long, flat, somewhat tapering body with its digiti-
form and fan-shaped appendages, is of a very delicate transparent
bluish green colour. _The antennze of the female are short, be
painted at the extremity, flexible, and slightly curved downwards.;-;

a. “CHIROCEPHALUS LAcUN&, Guérin.. Antennis Bae ph r
~maris validis, valde arcuatis, articulo basalt magno, FRE Bose
“terminali cylindrico, ad apicem sinuato.
Tale maris et foeminze 12-15 millim.
“Branchipus lacune, Guérin, Iconog. Régn. Anim. Crustacés, 39."
t. 33. f. 4, 4a.

Hab. In stagnis. prope “ Fontainebleau ; ”*) M.:Guérin.
This.species, which is briefly deseribed by M. Guérinin the ‘ Icono-
graphie du.Régne Animal,’ is found in little pools.of water:nearFon- .
tainebleau. It is.transparent, but is smaller than the:preeeding:spe-
cies, and is distinguished from it by the shape of the inferior-antennse
or cephalic horns in the male. These organs are of. two joints ; the
basal one large, and armed on its internal: edge with several’ stout:
teethror lobes; the second much:smaller, cylindrical, bent suddenly
back upon the first, and sinuated, or.as.it were slightly toothed at
the apex... Thedtong ribbon-like appendage which springs from the
base of the. first. joint-appears to have only two very short processes
attached. to: it, instead..of-the, four long. finger-like bodies, and the
fan-shaped. body, is: not represented at-all ; but this-part of the head

Zoological Society> 298:

is not sufficiently described by M. Guérin to: enable me*to ro gyre sa
torily ascertain its exact: structure: 3 io Jem m1

3 CuIROCEPHALUS. CLAVIGER, ‘Fischer... me inferioribus
maris validis, articulo basali magno,. terminali parvo, ad basin
dentato, ad apicem clavato ; antennis coe agente quadri-arti-

», culatis ; fronte rotundato, espero

Long. 8-10 lin.

Branchipus claviger, Seb. Fischer, Middendort? 8 Bibériache Reise,
ii. Wirbellose, 149. t. 7. f. 1-11. (1851), 9b

Hab. In fluvio Taimyr, in Siberia ; Middendorfs»

This species, which is about 8 or 10 lines dong,) was discovered by
M,, Middendorff in.a pool of water. by the river ‘Laimyr-im Siberia.
The,inferior antennee of the male are strong organs ;« the basal -jomt
being stout and fleshy and the terminal harrow,’ ‘provided with about
a dozen small teeth at its base, and ending:in ‘a. club-shaped extre-
mity.,.\/Ehe digitiform appendages are! more numerous apparently:
than,in' C, diaphanus.. They. arise from the extremity of the long:
riband-like appendage, instead of from its base, and each of them!
has-several teeth on the sides and apex, In the female these an-»
tennze. are small, narrow and sharp-pointed. The superior antennze:
are. divided into four articulations.

4. CurrocepHALus BiRosTRATUS, Fischer. Antennis: inferio-_

- i ribus-maris validis, articulo basali magno, terminali mediocr,..
“prope basin processu elongato armato, ad apicem uncinato.

Long. 10-12 lin. ne
Branchipus birostratus, Seb. Fischer, Middendorff’s Sibirische.,
Reise, ii. t. 7. f. 12-16 (1851).

Hab. Prope urbem “ Charkow”’ in Russia; Fischer. -. -

This ‘species is about 10 or 12 lines long, and was found by
Fischer in.the neighbourhood of the town of Charkow, in Russia.
Thé inferior antennz of the male are strong organs, the basal joint
stout’ and fleshy, the terminal of moderate size, having, springing
from near its base, a somewhat elongated process armed with sharp
teeth at. its extremity, and ending in a sort of hooked point. ~The
riband-like process appears similar to that of C. diaphanus. 6

5. Currocepnatus MippenporrrFianus, Fischer: Antennis
=.“ dhoaganege maris validis, articulo basali magno, longissimo,
comumerose dentato, terminali cylindrico, acuto ; antennis —s

<wtortbus quadri-articulatis ; fronte quadrangular.

Long.:7=% lin.

Branchipus Middendorffianus, Seb. Fischer, Middendorfts- Sibi"

rische’Reisey Wt. 153. t.-7. f..17-23 (1851).

Hab: In floviis “ Taimyr et Boganida”’ in Siberia; prope *Tri-
Ostrowa’>in Lapponia ; \Middendorf’.

This-species, which is only from 7 'to 9 lines in length, was found
byeMiddendorff in pools on the banks of the rivers Taimyr and Bo-
ganida in Siberia, :and‘in Lapland’ near Tri-Ostrowa. The inferior
antennze-in' the male-are stout organs, the basal joint being very long’

and fleshy and. armed along, the inner edge.with along row. of many
teeth, the. terminal being cylindrical.in,shape and, pointed at the: ex-

_ tremity,,. ‘The superior. antennee. are, four-jointed,, and. the. front -of

the head i is of a quadrangular shape. | The ovarian ,sac in the fe-
male jis long, fad, rather slender, and.appears to. be notched at -
base. h

7 * Genus "ARTEMIA, Leach.

Corpus by Ta oe segmentum caudale pinnis nullis instruc-
tum ; pedes undecim; antenna inferiores maris magne, biarticu-
latee, compresste, appendicibus nullis armate.

Syn. Cancer, Linneeus.—Gammarus, Fabricius.—Eulimene, La-
treille ‘et’ auctortini.— Artemia, Leach et auctoram. — Branchipis,
Latreille, Fischer,’ &e. — Artemisus, Lamarck.— Artemis, Thompson.

The body in this genus’ consists of the same number of ségménts
as in the three preceding,’ is soft and without covermg, but is more
slender in shape, and has’ the caudal segment simply bilobed at i
extremity, instead of being armed with two large plumose ‘fins. The
‘inferior antennse inthe ‘male are large,’ flat-shaped, broad, ‘and ‘di-
vided into two articulations. The basal joint has neither the ‘atiteniii-
form appendage of Branchipus and Streptocephalus, nor the comy ihi-
cated digitiform and fan-shaped apparatus of Chirocephalus. ley
‘inhabit salt water, frequently even in water which is very highly
charged with salt. They swim upon their backs.

The ‘genus Eulimene was founded by Latreille in 18%7, in Cuv.
Régn. ‘An. Ist edit. iti. 68; that of: Artemia by Leach in’1819, “in
the Dict..Se. Nat. xiv. The term Eulimene, however, had ‘been pre-
viously used by Peron for a genus of Acalepha, and though the name
Artemia is liable to objections from its construction (Artemia for
Artemis), [ prefer adopting it to burdening the Hiotirencl stare with
another ‘synonym. vet

Five species have been described. Jeags havent w ball

l. Anreia SALINA, Leach. Antennis inferioribus n maris, 5 nalidi,

dentato ; otis & caudali setigero ;, ovario quadrilateral. ;

Long. 6 lin. 7

Pro Synonymis vide ‘‘ Baird’s British Entomostraca,’’ et adde : So

Eulimene albida, Latreille, Nouv. Dict. d’ Hist. Nat. x. 535; ‘Ouy.
Regn. An. 2nd edit. iv. 178; Desmarest, Cons.. gen. Crust. 394;
Risso, Hist. Nat. Eur. Mérid. v. 165; Lamarck, Hist. Nat. An. s.
Vert., 2nd edit. v. 199 (note); M. Edwards, Hist.. Nat» rust, iii.
371; White, Catalogue of Cenataces, Brit. Mus.

idins Eulimene, Leach, Dict. Se. Nat..xiv. 543.

Hab. In salinis ad “‘ Lymington,” in Anglia; prope Montpellier,”
in Gallia; in Mediterraneo, prope.‘ Nice,’’.&e.

This species, which seems to have been first observed by M.
Schlosser, in the salt-pans) at; Lymington, .is.nearly white, slender,
and about half an inch,in, length... The,abdemen.is. long, fully as
long as the. body, andthe.caudal segment is simply divided ito two
small lobes, which give origin to. several.short sete... The inferior

Gooloyieut Society. PRE.

fitenie Mm the male’ate*dividel into two! articulations; the basal’ ‘one
-*of-which has‘ on its intiei edge At “about? halfof its length, a short,
‘ostout, conical tooth. \ The ‘ternal joint ‘is’ broad,’ bends nearly at a
“right angle about'the middle of its length, and’ terinitiates itt’ sharp
"point.°-In ‘the female these! 6rgaris resemble’ Closely those ‘of the“pre-
ceding genus. The ovarian bag is large, of a quadrilateral shape,
somewhat pointed at the ‘two ‘sides; and’ opéiis at both sides to allow
the, ova, to escape. Woot 2a
«oo The*genus Eulimene was.founded ‘by Latreille, to: receive a small
crustacean which, was, found, by.\Ms, Cuvier, amongst, some, marine
animals, which. he hads received. from Nice,,.'Lhe chief, character by
Which, he; distinguished the; genus was. the extreme, shortness.6f the
Abdomen; which.he considered terminated almost, immediately, after
last) pair of feetin. a, swollen, .semiglobular lobe filled.with a
-kish, matter, and haying springing:from.it a leng.thread-like body,
a. dark colour. also,,and-which he. conjectured, might, be an oviduet.
4 the. British, Museum.,are many., specimens jof this little animal,
“received, by, Dr.,.Leach from..M: Cuvier, and, labelled . by, Dr, Leach
imself,, “ 4rtemia Lulimene, from, Nice, given/by M, Cuvier” ) From
‘a.careful examination of this species, I consider it specifically identical
with the Cancer salinus of Linnzeus,. the Artemia salina, of, Leach.
~The. specimens in the Museum are all. females, and upon,compating
them with specimens. of Artemia salina from Lymington, no.differ-
ence.is perceptible, except that the specimens, from Nice,are rather
Whiter in, colour and have the ovarian bag and abdomen of'a darker
WC rs» It: is undoubtedly ..this dark-coloured ovarian bag that .was
Sasi by, Latreille for the termination, of the body, and the slong
i nt.like an oviduct’ which. springs.from. it,, is,in, reality,-the
omen, /.,'The.difference in colour, evidently depends upou,the food
of the animal, the alimentary canal of the specimens from,Nice| being
filled with a dark-coloured matter, thus, giving the abdomen blackish
hue, while those from Lymington have the canal filled with matter
“ofa browiiish tint: In the second edition of the “Régne’ Animal,’
“in*his notice of the Artemia salina, Latreille says, it isa species, “ sur
lequel ious ‘n’avons éricore que des renseignements tres imparfaits.””
From this it would appear that he had never seen that speciés,-and
as Inost probably the specimens he had received ftom Cuvier were
alittle injuted from having been preserved in spirits, ‘it is ‘jot at all
bi ge that he did not observe the identity of the EWOr og

«
oe
oral

' 2ecArrem1a MILHAUSENH, Fischer. Antennis infOAoP Bes maris
gracilibus, articulo secundo angusto ; segmentis duobus cepha-
licis longis, segmento caudali bilobato, non setigero. pert

“Long:5 lin.

Branchipus Milhausenii; Fischer, Bull. de la Soc: Imp. Nat: Mos-

cou, wii. 1834,

» Artemia Mulhausenii, MEdwards, Uist. Nat. Crust. iii: 379."

"Artemia salina, Rathke; Faun. dé Krym. 395. t. 6. f. 14-27;

Hab. Tn lacu saline “Loak in Crimea’; Mo Milhausen, °° °°

“This species} whieh * was°foind by!'M. °Milhatsen in’ the “salt-

Amat Mas, N. Hist, Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 15

226 Zoological Society.

water lake of Loak in the Crimea, is about 5 lines in length and. of a
brown colour. The inferior antennze of the male are much more
slender than in the preceding species... The basal jomt has no tooth
and the terminal joint is cylindrical and pointed..The superior an-
tennee, according to Fischer, have the first jomt very short and of an
obconical form, and. the two cephalic segments are considerably elon-
gated. The abdomen is slender, shorter than the body, and is termi-
nated by a simple bilobed process not furnished with setee. The feet
are rather long, and the terminal joint is armed with long filaments.

In the month of July these animals abound in great numbers ;
they fill the lake and give the water a brick-red colour.

3. Artemia GuitpiInei1, Thompson. Species hec, reperta in

India Occidentali, delineata est a Domino Thompson in ‘ Zoo-

logical Researches,’ sed non descripta, necnon satis accurate
delineata est. - A ail

_ Artemis Guildingi, Thompson, Zool. Research. Fase. v. t. 1. f. 1)..

Hab. In insula “St. Vincent’s,”’ in India Occidentali; Rev. L..
Guilding.

This species is figured by Mr. Thompson, but not sufficiently de-
scribed to enable me to give a good diagnosis of it. It was found at:
St. Vincent’s in the West Indies by the Rev. Lansdowne Guilding,
by whom its natural history was intended to have been more fully
detailed. The body seems to be thick and the abdomen shorter than
the body and stout. The caudal segment does not appear to be
lobed nor setigerous. The cephalic segment is conical in shape, and.
the superior antennee, according to Mr. Thompson’s figure, consist,
each of four joints. The ovarian sac consists, according to the same,
authority, of two articulations.

4, ARTEMIA ARIETINA, Fischer. Antennis inferioribus maris)
validis, articulo secundo latissimo, basali unidentato ; antennis:
superioribus apice furcatis, setigeris ; segmento caudali) bilo=
bato, lobis setigeris. : ily
Long. 4—6 lin,
Artemia arietina, Fischer, Middendorff’s Sibirische Reise, ti. 156:
t. 7. f. 31-35 (1851).

Hab. In vicinitate urbis Odessee ; Middendorff.

This species, which was found by Middendorff in the néeighbour-
hood of the town of Odessa, is about from 4 to 6 lines in length. It
approaches very near to the Artemia salina. The inferior antennze
in the male have the second joint very broad and: flat. and »sharp-
pointed. The superior antennee are forked at the extremity, the
forks unequal, each having two terminal setze. The eye is very large
and the caudal segment is bilobed,. each lobe terminating in three
pretty long setze.

5. Artemia KoppentAna, Fischer. Antennis duabus ut in pre-
cedente ; segmento caudali non lobato nec setigero.
Long. 23-3 lin. ;
Artemia Koppeniana, Fischer, Middendorff’s Sibirische Reise, ii.
157. t. 7. f. 36-37 (1851).
Hab. In Russia Australi; Koppen.

Zoological Society. 227
_ This ‘species was found in Southern Russia by M. Koppen, and is
only from 24 to 3 lines in length. Its principal difference consists

in the form of the caudal segment, which is) not lobed at the ex-
tremity, but is simply squared off and has no setee springing from it.

Genus Potyartenmta, Fischer.

Corpus molle, gracile; segmentum caudale pinnis nullis instructum ;
pedes branchiales, paribus novemdecim. .. Antenne wferiores
maris bi-articulate, articuli terminales tn ramos duos divisi et
dentibus numerosis instructi; articuli basales appendicibus
tenuibus armati.

Polyartemia, Fischer, Middendorff’s Sibirische Reise, ii. 154

1851).
This genus was founded by Sebastian Fischer to receive a species of
the family Branchipodide, which differs in some respects from any
of the genera of the family. It is furnished with appendages to the
male inferior antenne, which are two-jointed, approaching in this
respect to the genus Chirocephalus—and it is destitute of caudal fins,
resembling in this structure the genus drtemia—but the number of
feet is nineteen pairs, and the male inferior antennz have each of the
terminal joints divided into two broad, flat branches, the one over-
lying the other like the branches of a pair of scissors. These branches
aré furnished on their edges with three or four rows of sharp teeth.
The basal joint has a rounded process at about half its length armed
with short setee. The appendages attached to these organs are coni-
cal in form, thin, and apparently not provided with digitiform or fla-
belliform appendages. The abdominal portion of the body is shorter
in proportion than in any of the other genera, and the ovarian sac of
the female is moderately large and lies close upon the abdomen,
seeming when viewed from above to be amalgamated with it. The -
male organ is cylindrical, four-jointed, and is contained in a sheath
which is serrated on one side.
Polyartemia forcipata, Fischer, Middendorff’s Sibirische Reise,
1)154. to 7. f. 24-28.

As this is the only species yet known, the generic characters given
above will suffice.

‘Hab. Tn fluviis “Trundra, Taimyr et Boganida’’ in Siberia; et
prope “ Tri-Ostrowa” in Lapponia; Middendorff.

Species hujus familie, incerte sedis aut que dubia sunt —~
Genus Brancuipus ?

1. Branehipus feroxr, M. Edwards, Hist. Nat. Crust. iii. 369.
This species, according to M. Milne-Edwards, has neither the ari-
tenniform appendage attached to the inferior antennee of the male
of Branchipus, nor the complicated apparatus of Chirocephalus.
They are pointed at the extremity, and thus differ also from these
organs in Streptocephalus. .'The description given of this species by
M. Edwards is so short, that it is difficult to say to what genus it
15*

228 yun Soalogicad Sodietys sie

may belong. His description is as follows :—‘ Cornes céphaliqués
sans appendice prés du cdté interne de leur base, pointues au bout et
sans dent sur le bord externe.. Abdomen) lisse, nageoires caudales
longues et étroites. Longueur environ 15 lignes. Habite les eaux
douces aux environs d’Odessa.”

25° Cancer ‘paludosus, Miller; Zool. Dan. ii/0102 te 48.08. eS ;
Herbst; ‘Krabben, iiv 118,162.85) 4003-5, ;

~ Most authors have°assumed ‘this species’ tobe the same ‘as elie:
Chirocephalus'diaphanus. ‘| As M. Milne-Edwards very: properly
observes, ‘however, the ‘figure’ of this species given by Muller shows)
no ‘appearance: of “the! complicated ‘apparatus belonging to the:male
antennie of Chirocephalus. ‘There does not appear either: to be any:
aiitenniform appendage belonging to them, as in the genus Branchi+
pus, and the structure ‘of the antenne themselves ‘removes it also
front the genus Streptocephalus. 32

3. Some fragments'of a species of Branchipode were re belbueh by)
Si John ‘Richardson ‘from Cape Krusenstern in N. America, ‘col-
lected there) by Mr. J. Rae in August 1849, along with the dpus
glacialis. They consist of portions of two males and two females:
The male antenne are two-jointed ; the basal jomt is thick, and has
at‘ its lower part near its junction with the second a row of small
teeth ; the second joint is cylindrical and pointed. The female horns
or antennee are flat apparently, and have a short hooked spine atthe
extremity. The caudal fins are rather long and fringed with long
cilia. In some respects this species resembles the figure of the Cancer
paludosus of Miiller, but the fragments are too much decayed in the
spirits to enable me further to describe it.. It does not appear to
have either antenniform appenteny or any apparatus *iniapiearel to re
antennee of the male.

‘Should these three species prove to be distinct; they:may: vai
another genus of this family, characterized by the want. of these:ap-

pendages and the toothed or serrated basal joint of the male sopioning
nee

Lie St

Genus STREPTOCEPHALUS ! seen

t

road di figure of a species of Br anchipode was nbilbadl at a sae
of the: Zoological Society by Dr. Nicholson in February. 1851 .»:The
figure was hot sufficiently accurately made to enable the species, or
genus:to be made out. In all probability, however, it may prove,to
be a species of Streptocephalus. It is a native of India and inhabits
freshwater ponds.

Genus ARTEMTIA ?

M. Audouin, in the Ann. de la Soc: Ent. de la France, v. Bull.
61, 1836, mentions a species of 4rtemiaclosely allied to..Art. salina,
as. inhabiting. the salt lakes..of Egypt... Inthe, Ann. des Se. Nat.
2nd ser. vi. 230, he again mentions the. fact, that numbers of Artemia
have been found, in the,“‘lacs \de natron,”?,in Egypt;, but no further
deseription. has ever been, given/of them,

eccslecumaaae of Edinburgh. 229.

; .
wi 61

"Family: Lisinavidba.” 5 ob rr

_ Genus Liwxapiay biod

“Sp. finnaprs ANTILLARUM, nov. sp. rs . Bi

Carapace valves of a rounded: oval: ahapey ead ofcs a transparent
whitish colour; prominent on dorsal margin | where,the, muscular
attachment of the body takes place, sloping from thence’ rather sud-
denly towards anterior extremity where it forms.a somewhat. blunt
point, and more gradually to posterior extremity, which, as well as
ventral margin, is rounded. . Antennules; bluntly jserrated, or crenu-
lated oi their upper edge, rather shorter than the-peduncles of large
antennes; which are stout and not half the length of the body. They,
consist of mine articulations, each having ‘one,or) two long plumose
setze springing from the under edge, andione,short.stout spine.at each
joint.on the upper edge. . Caudal lamellee of considerable length, and
beset on: upper | edge with long plumose sete to- within a short di-
stance -of the» tip, which is somewhat curved, sharp-pointed and
align serrated on. upper edge. Feet 18. pairs,
-The:.strueture of the carapace is the same as in Limnadia Her-
manni, the surface being covered with minute dots or puncturations.

«This species differs from the two others in the shape of the cara-
pace and in having the setee of antennze and tail plumose.

» Hab, St. Domingo, West Indies; M. Sal/é. Mus. Brit.

Genus EsTHERIA.

ee Esruerta Dauuast, nov. sp.

Carapace valves shortly obovate and flat, upper margin rss the
beaks ‘to:two-thirds of its length almost straight ; anterior extremity
rather-broader than posterior. Beaks prominent and situated. near/an-
teriorjextremity. The shell is of a light horny colour and verythin and
translucent. Ribs elevated, smooth and numerous, about 20 in num
ber. The intermediate spaces are concave and are covered all over with
rough-looking spots of an irregular size and appearance, approaching
somewhat im structure to that of brasiliensis. It differs from that
ppenee however in size and in being of a more rounded oval shape. '«

» Hab: Brazil? 1 am indebted for this species to Mr. Dallas, wha
found it ina collection of insects chiefly from Brazil. Mus. Brit:

BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.
oJune 8, 1854.—Professor Balfour, President, in the Chair.

a following papers were read :—
pop Seip: the Plants of the Coal Epoch, and on the general Strue-
Bi of Coal,” by Professor Balfour.

After alluding 'to the importaiice of studyimg carefully the Fossil
Flora, Dr. Balfour proceeded'to make remarks ‘on the structure of
the plants connected with the Coal epoch. He particularly noticed

230 Botanical Society of Edinburgh.

the occurrence of scalariform, pitted, and punctated vessels. He
was disposed to think that porous vessels had been in some instances
mistaken for true punctated woody tissue, which is characterized by |
the presence of a circle and a dot in the centre. The presence of
Sigillarie and Stigmarie.in coal, and the conversion of their outer
portion into carbonaceous matter, clearly showed that these plants
were concerned in the formation of this material: He did not agree
with those who supposed that coniferous wood alone formed coal, nor
with those who thought that certain rings which appeared on sections
of coal parallel to the plane. of stratification were the ends of woody
tubes.. Various plants appear to have joined to form coal, which
may account for the differences in the appearance of different parts
of the same bed.|, Specimens were shown of Parrot coal enclosing
numerous thin seams of Cherry coal. The extensive fern vegetation
of the carboniferous epoch was probably connected with a paucity of
other species, and seems. to indicate a uniformity of temperature
throughout a large area... Many plants, however, which are consi-
dered. as Ferns, or allied to Ferns, may prove to be Gymnosperms.

True punctated coniferous structure may be seen occasionally in
coal,- but it must be borne in mind that this tissue occurs in other
plants, such as Winteracee, and that tissue very much resembling it,
and apt to be confounded with it, has also been detected in many other
orders. Much is still wanting to enable a fossil botanist to speak
decidedly in regard to the true nature of many of the coal plants.
In many coals evident sporangia have been detectedin large quantities.
These resemble the spore-cases of Lycopods. In Fordel coal
these sporangia are in vast abundance, and they are associated with
Middletonite.

The varieties of coal are very numerous. There is a gradual pass-
age from Anthracite to Household and Parrot Coal; and the limit
between coal and what is called bituminous shale is by no means de-
finite... Judging by chemical products, as well as by microscopical
and other characters, there seems no reason for separating Boghead
» or Torbane, Capeldrae, Methil, and other brown Parrot coals from
the category of true coals. Dr. Fyfe has instituted careful analyses,
by which he showed that Boghead Gas Coal and Boghead Household
Coal yield the usual coal. products, viz, ammoniacal liquor, .tar,
naphtha, benzole, naphthaline, grease oil, pitch oil, paraftine. and
pitch. As :to bitumen, a matter soluble in naphtha, this exists. in
very small quantity in coals, and is less abundant in Torbane coal
than in English caking coal. Dr. Fyfe states that in—

Per cent.
Capeldrae coal there is of matter soluble in naphtha, 0-0
TSPAGe DIME WOE eye ok ce Che kee Pe
Torhane white (0 sie eh ee eae Was 1°4
Tiesmnhagow asd 2th 158 os ck Pos OPO F* HO pide 2IB3

While in English caking coal it is 4°2,.5:8, and even 8 per cent.
According to Dr. Fyfe, the following are some of the results as
regards volatile matter and coke :—

Linnean Society. 231

Volatile matter
per cent. Coke.
Lancashire coal. i... 60.54 2.0% wn botns 26°6 73°4
Bogheadl coab iii). adi wisi. tals &. bie. .» 69:0 31:0
Wemyss, Capeldrae, Methil ........ 33°41
Methil, upper part of seam 9. .......70°5
Methil, lower part of seam | ...... wt o BAT

While in Bughead coal the quantity of carbon is small, the quantity
of hydrogen is large, and hence there is a ‘small proportion only of
fixed carbon left. There is a difference in the quantity of coke ac-
cording as the coal is heated slowly or rapidly ; when the heating is
rapid the quantity of coke is smaller. ‘The quantity of white ash left
by many coals is very large. This is particularly the case in Loch-
gelly, Capeldrae, Wemyss, and Torbatie coals.
“On reviewing all that had been recently donein the examination of
coal, Dr. Balfour is disposed to think that there is still a great want
of information on the subject, and he particularly alluded to the fact
that no chemist had given an analysis of the reddish-brown or yellow
matter which is met with in coal, more particularly in Boghead gas
coal, and that until this was done it was impossible to decide as to its
bituminoid or resinous nature.
Professor Fleming entered at length upon the subject of the for-
mation of coal, and alluded particularly to the differences often ob-
-servable in strata of the same bed, which he thought indicated a dif-
ference either in the materials of which they had been formed, or in
the manner in which the deposit had taken place. He heartily con-
curred in Professor Balfour’s views. |
Professor Edward Forbes stated that although he had not hitherto
“taken part in the investigation that had recently oecupied so much
attention in Edinburgh, he felt that it was one of great importance.
He thought a mistake had occurred in regarding coal as a mineral
rather than as a rock, and showed that we ought not to confine our
ideas of coal to the deposits of the carboniferous system.» He parti-
cularly alluded to the cretaceous and to other beds of coal found in
various parts of the world. He thought Dr. Fleming’s views to be
nearer the truth than any that had as yet come under his notice. We
are very much in the dark as to the real character of many of the
fossil plants, and more so in regard to those which have: been con-
verted into coal, even if it were necessary to assume that that material
was entirely of vegetable origin.
2. “ Notice of new localities for rare Plants in the neighbourhood
of Edinburgh,”’ by Professor Balfour.

LINNAAN SOCIETY.

December 20, 1853.—Thomas Bell, Esq., President, in the Chair,

Read, a ‘* Notice regarding a Weevil of the Vine and its Parasite.”
By John Curtis, Esq., F.LS. &c.

Numerous insects have long. since been noticed as injurious to
vines in the South of Europe, and their history and ceconomy have

232° Linnean Sovietys\

been ably ‘discussed by Baton Walckenaerand'M. Audouins> Among:

the Beetles is'a weevil, nanied ‘by Fabricius Attelabus Betuleti (Rhyns0
chites of Schinhetr aud other authors), which occasionally: produces -

very extensive mischief t6'the ‘vines ‘of Burgundy, while im England

ifs attacks ‘are Jimitéd' to''the bitchi*°During ‘a residenceiat! Genoa

in Juné last; Mr: Curtis was obligingly taken to the Botanic Garden:

by M?\‘Mussino ‘to! Sée “alive! the Chrysomela Americana; L., swhich |

inhabits a species ‘of lavender, ‘and’ his attention was called: to, thes
vines against the walls) whith were’attacked’ by the mildew, so widely»

spread during the ‘past sitmmér through’ Médoc andthe wine-growing |

districts of France’ anid Italy’ ‘and expeciallyi in ‘Tuscany and Piedmont.»

While ‘exammimg” this’ wnildew, ‘he perceived many of the leaves! of
the’ vinie rolled-up like cigars }but the elaborate memoir of Mu Debey»
on Altelabus Betulés Li, 'yenders ‘itunnecessary to° enter! intordetaily

‘of the Wwoilderful mode in’ Which* these little animals generally: éut

and roll the leavés' with’ mathematical precision, | It is nécessary;:

however, to state that the female weevil cuts the:leaf through across)

the diatieter, without dividing’ the ‘midrib, then deposits’ an! egg or

two ‘upon’ the ‘upper ‘surface, and subsequently rolls up the lower

portion, leaving the upper part untouched, so that it remains green,

and ‘the leaf does not fall off for a considerable period, often probably:

until the tree sheds its leaves.. In her mode of manipulation; how: :
ever; the Attelabus Betulett seems to differ from the A. Betule and

most other weevils, inasmuch as the author observed, on: cutting»

transversely, that the entire leaf appeared to be rolled ate from the:

base to the tip.

‘MylCurtis’s ° principal’ object, “however, in bringing the: sddb-
ject “before''the Society, ‘was to'-call) attention to a memoir by-
Prof. Filippi of Turin, published in the’ Nuovi Annali delle Scienze:
Naturali di Bologna’ for January and February 1852, entitled “Storia
Geéiretica’ di wn'Tnsetto Parasito delle’ Uova del Rhynchites | Betuleti;”:
a notice of which is given “in the * Annals of Natural net sor
June of the same. year... ;

Read also “‘ Remarks on’ the so-called Eye-spot of the Thfestril
anid Mickostopie 47gei” ‘By ‘Arthur Henfrey, Esq., F/R.Si;FiL.S! &c.
“Mr! Henfrey' states, that in the tourse of ‘an’ extensive! series of
observations! on ‘the microscopic Alge, especially ‘in investigations°of
thid effect Of reagents upon the tissues and contents of the cells, he
Has ‘frequently been completely baftied by the uncertainty which:
presénited itself "as ‘to the real existence of -colours® exhibitedoby
objects. The? decémposition of light taking place’ in these ‘minute
bodies’ under ‘high magnifying. powers is’ such)’ that» even with
“lenses most carefully corrected’ and fully ‘sufficient for all general
purposes of investigation, we are left altogether in doubt as to
whether or not the phenomena of colour arise from refraction.
He uses, Jenses made, by, Ross about eight years since, a quarter
and.,an, eighth; of .an.inch,, the, latter.,of excellent defining. power,
and is convinced that these) are! not,,Inferior,to any glasses.in use on
the*continent./2>But .with them, particularly,the latter, delicate
membratiés “seer edgeways exhibit a blue ‘tint; whder' certain’ cir-

Linneaw Society... 233.

cumstances, often giving rise to.a-difficulty,in arriving ata decided
opinion ) in quéstions, connected, with | cellulose,..when, using ; the
sulphuric acid and iodine test. -Many, phenomena, might be cited in.
reference to this subject, but the main point to, which.he wishes, to
direct attention/is,the doubt) existing inj;his tind, as to.the nature
of:the red: spot described, by. Ehrenberg as,an ‘eye in) the Infusoria,
He has. observed: this object, chiefly; in, the. unicellular Alge and
zoospores, and was first led to suspect thatthe red colour depended
on! unequal refraction, in' the cells.of Chlamydomonas Pulvisculus...In
these ‘he has frequently found. several red, spots,.on, one individual
cell, which however could not. all, be, brought,into,, focus at once, and,
he has decidedly observed, that, when these spots ;were, brought, into,
cleai(and’ well-defined; focus, they ,,appeared, as; (bright), solow/esa
granules: Frequently no. red.spot at-all couldyjbe, found...
ifPhe ideassuggested by this,,.was.further confirmed, by otiene
the: «similar -variations. of colour according, jto, form.in,.a granule
(aucheokis ?); in a half-decomposed, colourless, diseased. cell. .....,.
‘Finally, he had recently found that, he could, bring out the. crimson,
colour most beautifully, in the central spot,or,‘ hilum’, of., starch,
granules.: “When the lens is,a_ little too, faraway fromthe object,.
the hilum appears like a minute black spot; then, carrying the lens a,
little nearer, it comes out as a beautiful crimson spot exactly like an
‘eye-spot’\in every respect. Adjusting the focus exactly, by bringing
down the lens a little more, the hilum is seen as a well-defined spot
of a’ brighter character than the rest of the starch-grain, but altogether,
devoid of any prismatic colour.
_dAlthough' dwelling but briefly on this question, here, Mr,,Henfrey
states that he has had it under, consideration for some time, ,and he
thinks:it desirable to make known his, supposition now,,.in order that:
other “microscopists working with different lenses .may, direct. their’
attention to: the point, and furnish;the results, obtamed with,them,)
since almost! all:high objectives differ slightly in.their correction,

Read further, ‘‘ Notes on the Natural Order ‘Creéscentiacee.’” be
Berthold Seemann, Esq., Ph.D., F.L.S. &c.

» The author cites first the opinions in relation, to. the proper ‘posi.
tion of, the genus, Crescentia and its allies in. the. natural system
successively. entertained .by De Jussieu, Endlicher and DeCandolle,
the latter of whom associated them with. Bignoniacee.....Gardner. first
pointed out their claims to be regarded as. a distinct natural order;
allied-to the family last named, and Prof. Lindley adopted this view
and first gave a diagnosis of the. order, taken however,only froma
single species, (Crescentia Cujete, L., for which reason Dr, Seemann
proposes like following amended character.

CRESCENTIACES.

-Frutices vel arbores, glabree v. glabrate ; caule ramisque plis minusve
angulatis.. /olia alterna, fasciculata, v, opposita, petiolata v. subsessilia,
nune ‘simplicia, ceepissimé integefrinia, nune ‘composita, 3-foliolata, ¥
pari~ 'v. impari-pinnata! Stéipal@ walle, vi interdum & gemme axillaris
foliis primariis spuria.s ‘/lores hermaphroditi, subregulares, va irregu-
lares,: terminales vi axillaves, y. seepissimé-ex, trunco aut. basiramulorum

234: Miscellaneous.

orti. Caly«x liber, gamophyllus, persistens, 5-merus, v. varius, deciduus,
spathaceus, v. bipartitus.. Corolla hypogyna, gamopetala, subcam-
panulata, infundibuliformis, vy. hypocraterimorpha ; limbo 5-lobo, sub-
zequali y. subbilabiato; Jobis per zestiyationem duplicato-plicatis y. sub-
plicato-imbricatis. Stamina 4, cum rudimento quinti, corollze tubo
inserta, ejusdem laciniis alterna, exserta v. inclusa. Filamenta sim-
plicia. Anthere biloculares. Discus hypogynus glandulosus, ovarii
basin cingéns, spe obsoletus. Ovarium hberum, 1-, 2-, -v. rarits
4- \v. pluriloculare.: -Ovula indefinita. ‘Stylus terminalis, simplex.
Stigma bilobum, v. bilamellatum. /ructus baceatus 1-,2-, v. raritis
4- v. plurilocularis. _Semina plurima, aptera. Albumen nullum.
Embryo rectus, v.,.subcuryatus.

Crescentiacee thus defined inhabit chiefly the tropical and subtro.

pical regions of America and Africa: they are not found in Europe
»or Australia, and: only one: species is met with in “Asia. Several
species are cultivated, and have become naturalized in different
parts of the Old World ; none possess any poisonous qualities. As
far as at present known, the Order is composed of about thirty
species, distributed under nine genera.

Dr. Seemann next adverts to the genus Oxycladus, deserihed by
Mr. Miers in the twenty-first volume of the Society’s ‘Transactions’
‘and referred by that gentleman to Bignoniacee, of which he regards
Crescentiacee as one division, while he forms another division of the
genus Ozycladus. Dr. Seemann, however, states his opinion: that
Oxycladus has nothing to do with Bignoniacee, even in the widest
sense, but belongs to Myoporacee, being allied to Stenochilus, R: Br.,

and Bontia; L.

In conclusion, the author states that he distributes the true Ores.
centiacee into two sectional subdivisions, as follows :—

1. Tanacizz. Calyce persistente, regulari, 5-fido—Colea,-Peri-

blema, Phyllarthron, Tanecium, Tripinnaria, Sotor (?).

2. Crescentiem, Calyce deciduo, irregulari, spathaceo v. bipar-

- tito—Parmentiera, Crescentia, Kigelia.

‘/Headds that all the plants belonging to the Order have a tendency
‘to form winged petioli; and thinks it not improbable that the simple-
‘heaved species may hereafter be looked upon as plants with abortive
leaflets and highly-developed phyllodia. The ovary too, he remarks,
in all Crescentiacee, is unilocular, with a truly parietal placentation;
and it is only when the placentz meet, as they generally do when
the fruit approaches maturity, that the placentation appeurs to be
axile, ‘and the fruit two- or more celled.

MISCELLANEOUS,

On the Development of Ceenurus cerebralis. By Prof. Van BenrevEN.
Extracts from letters to M. pe QuaTREFAGES.

Tue following is the result of the experiments on Cenurus. You
know that M. Kuchenmeister had a dog which had been fed with
Ceenuri at the beginning of March in the present. year, and which
had been passing proglottides. This dog was killed on. the 24th

Miscellaneous. 235

May, and M. Kiichenmeister forwarded some of the Tzenias of the
Coenurus to Louvain, Copenhagen, and Giessen. They arrived at
Louvain alive on the'27th May. They were ‘immersed in the white
of anege. I kept them alive for eight days, by renewing the white
of egg every day.

On the day of their arrival, at nine o’clock in the morning, half a
proglottis was given to each of two young sheep, about two months
old, and in the afternoon each of them took an entire proglottis. On
the 3rd June, one of them, marked No. 1, «swallowed another
proglottis.

The first symptoms of vertigo made their ‘appearance on the 13th
June; on the morning of the 15th, I was told that the one marked
No. 2 was dying. Its head was burning hot, its eyes red, its legs
bent under its body ; it beat with its head against the railings, and
turned it constantly in one direction: It:was then killed.

The upper and lower surfaces of the two hemispheres of the brain
presented very irregular grooves, which might be taken’ for the
deserted tubes of certain Annelida; these have been already men-
tioned by M. Kiichenmeister. There were about a dozen of them.
At the end of these tubes there were the same number of Ocnwu/i,
almost all lodged in the cortical substance of the brain.» Some of
them were removed with the membranes of the brain. They were
nearly of the same size, about three or four millimetres in diameter.
These Ceenuri as yet only consisted of a simple milk-white vesicle
filled with fluid. The heads (scolew) were not yet to be seen, It is
the hevacanthous embryo (proscolex) a little more developed than
at its exit from the egg.

These observations agree exactly with those, of M.«,Kiichen-
meister,

In the muscles, and especially in the diaphragm, I. afterwards
found some yellowish-white bodies, which may easily be distin-
guished by the naked eye amongst the red muscular fibres: These,
as M. Kiichenmeister has stated, are only strayed individuals, which
are never further developed.

The second sheep (No. |) was killed on the 29th June. | It pre-
sented nearly the same symptoms as the former. For the last:few
days of its existence, the right fore-leg was always bent, and in 'walk-
ing it could not support itself upon its hoofs.

In removing the brain from the cranium, a Ocenurus of the: size of
a small nut fell upon the dissecting-table. Two other Ceenuri,-of the
same size, were found in the right hemisphere, one above, the other
behind; and in separating the hemispheres of the cerebellum, I
found two others touching the quadrigeminal tubercles. The left
lobe of the cerebellum also contained one. Light were found in all.
These Ceenuri were nearly all of the same size, except two or three
which were scarcely larger than a cherry-stone.

Through the walls of the larger ones, the naked eye could distin-
guish some little whitish flakes,—the indications of so many heads
(seoler). The smaller ones had no appearance of heads, nor of the
place from which they were to rise.

The Canuri were enclosed in a membrane of recent formation,

936 Messoltehonut.

produced by: the inflammation of the neighbouring surfaces. ° This:
membrane is’ formed of ‘fibroplastic tissue, or of embryonal’ cellular”
tissue, covered with a multitude of elementary granulations. ses

«At this period of their development; these wornis ‘aré'very curious. ’
The scoleced hwete beginning 'to be formed; ‘but, as I expected, they
had as yet neither hooks nor suckers. The head, with its suckers
and hooks, would onlyshawe: begun: to. show itself in eight days
afterwards. SDE :

In drawing one of these worms from its cavity and bringing it
immediately upon’ thevobject-slide of the microscope, one is asto-
nished. atthe great, contractility, of its walls. . Its surface becomes
wrinkled, its edges! fringed,;-and ‘the worm. performs tolerably-ex-:
tended motions, which .explam its action upon the. cerebral’ mass; )
the substance of the,brain,in.fact: yields to the pressure of the para-

site... Cells are distinctly, seen’ in the walls of the vesicle, and: it is to:
their, contraction that.its movements are due.

Beneath. the walls. of; the ‘vesicular. worm, vessels are to be seen»
very, distinetly, which anastomose like a capillary network; they
correspond. with the iharsoiene secretory apparatus of the Cestoid’ and:
Trematode. worms.

When a scolex.is about to be formed in’ the parent. vesicle, the
surface. of |the vesicle becomes wrinkled. in a certain spot; these»
wrinkles become circular; the centre is then depressed, an eminence»
appears,in the. centre of the depression, and the future scolex as:
seen... Round the cireular wrinkles, moreover, calcareous corpuscles
may, already. be seen, similar to those which mcrust the body of the:
scolex, but which.do. not exist on the hexacanthous embryo or
proscolex.

M. Eschricht writes to me as follows from Copenhagen, under
date the 20th June :— ;

~The Cenurus-Tenia taken from the dog on the 24th May. at,
Bautzen, arrived at Copenhagen on the forenoon of the 26th, so that.
they could be swallowed by three sheep, within forty-eight hours of
their removal from the intestines of the dog. One of the sheep has
not been affected by them, but the other two were taken ill on the

fifteenth and. sixteenth days. They kept their heads turned to the

right, and one could not rest except on the left side, without being
seized with violent spasms. The inflammation of the brain was very

distinct;;the'eyes very red. They both died on the fourth day, ‘and

[founda large'quantity of small vesicles (2 or 3 mill. in diameter)

in'the pia mater and in the cortical substance.’ In the muscles in

general, and in the walls of the heart, as well as beneath the skin,
there: were -also vesicles full of a yellowish matter, which are pro-

bably, »as supposed by MM. Kiichenmeister and Harchner, aborted
individuals.”’

I have also received: intelligence from Giessen: M. Leuckart has
observed the symptoms to rise in the same period, and has found the
Ceenuri in the same state of development.

To. those» who can “believe ‘that ‘the’ preceding ‘results are mere
coincidences, I may observe, thatthe Cenurus ‘is so far’from’ being
common here, that I waited three years before I was able to obtain

Miscellaneous,’ 237

one for my collection; aud that,as;I can, say, beforehand I shall
find, Cenuri. of such a size and of such.a degree, of development, the
question of coincidence is set at, rest, It, might as|well/be said, that
the plants.we gather do not. arise from) the seeds which haye been
put into the earth. ex Compt sascnabsanh J alge 35 1354, oes 46.

-°) THECACERA PENNIGERA.

To the Lditors of the Annals.of Natural History.

Weyniouth) ‘August 13,1854,
-GentLemen,—I have the pleasure of anniouncitig’ the capture by
myself of two specimens of what I consider, without’ the’ slightest
doubt, to be:Theeacera pennigera of Montagu: ‘see Brit. Moll. iii.
p-575.° The only difference I can at presentidetect i is in the number
of appendages’ surrounding the ‘vent. ‘' Montagw makes them five in
number, whilst I make them three. I ‘feel -bonsiderable doubt in
anyway questioning the accuracy of such“an extraordinarily accurate
observer as” Montagu. I have placed the specimens in’ far more’
able: hands than mine for description. ~ The’ first specimen: lived ‘in
my dredging vessel, in a bottle of salt water, for six weeks. Tt is a
very lively animal, ‘and fond of swimming foot upwards’ on the top
of the water. This was obtained on the 31st July last.’ The second:
specimen I caught yesterday, whilst fishing in ten fathoms water,
gravelly bottom, in company with Mr. H. Adams and two: other
friends ; this was dispatched by post. I yesterday obtamed, for the’
fest time this season, Antiopa cristata ; they were, however, ‘small.
Tam, Gentlemen, yours truly,
WiLi1aM THOMPSON.

“P'S. Since writing the above, I have received a communication
from Mr. Albany Hancock, to ‘whom I had sent the specimen
obtained on the 31st July, and who fully concurs with me as_ to its
being the true Thecacera pennigera.

ATHYRIUM RH&TICUM. ae
- To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.’

British Museum, 28th, August 1854,

GrentLEMEN;—The year before last I gathered at .Eridge, near
Tunbridge Wells, on a bit of, ground from which »trees:! hadbeen
recently removed, some plants of Athyrium Filix-foeemina with: the
erect. habit, curled pinnules, and..apparently linear frond, whichoare
given by Mr. Moore, in. the 2nd edition of his ‘ Handbook of British
Ferns,’ as. the characteristics of 4. rheticum ; I have since noticed
in Scotland that plants of this species, growing on walls where they
are exposed to the sun, frequently assume a similar habit ; and on
recently visiting apart of Tilgate Forest, where I had, two years sinee,
gathered abundance of the normal state of 4. Filiv-foemina, together
with most luxuriant, specimens of Polypodium Phegopteris, 1 found
(the trees having been cleared away in the mean time) only the rhee-

288 Miscellaneous.

ticum form of Athyrium, and some much-dwarfed P. Phegopteris :
the Athyrium had all the characters of 4. rheticum most thoroughly
developed, and yet I cannot but think that the same plants were the
normal state of 4. Filixfeemina two years back ; the pinnules of
P. Phegopteris, even, had.a strong inclination to curl. These obser-
vations induce me to believe that 4. rheticum and A. Filix-feemina
are identical, the differences between them depending only on the
external conditions under which the plants grow,—the influence of
the sun inducing the erect rigid habit in the fronds and pinne, and
the curling in the pinnules of 4. rheticum; and shade and moisture
causing the lax, drooping, dilate frond and flat pinnules observable
in A. Filix-femina.

I trouble you. with these remarks in the hope that, should you
insert them in the ‘ Annals,’ some of your readers may be able to
confirm my observations.

I am, Sir, yours very obediently,
. S. O. Gray.

On the oceurrence of Larve of Sarcophaga in the Human Eye and
Nose. By Dr. E. Gruss.

Several cases of the occurrence of the larvee of insects in the
human eye have been noticed, but the species or even the genus to
which they belonged has never yet been ascertained. Thus a com-
munication of Cabrira’s, in Von Siebold’s Report upon the progress of
Helminthology in 1848, mentions that a man who had slept in the
open air was attacked by pain in the left eye on the following day.
A small red spot was observed on the sclerotic coat, and on rubbing
with the upper eyelid, small white worms appeared upon the cornea
and the rest of the eyeball; about forty of them were removed. The
were of the thickness of a hair, half a line long, and had a small black
head. Ormond also observed two cases of inflammation of the eye
in which several small larvee of Dipterous insects made their ap-
pearance.

I have to communicate an analogous circumstance observed by
Dr. Schnee of Gorigoutzk, in which the specific determination of the
insect was possible. Two boys, one four, the other twelve years old,
who had slept in the open field during some hot weather, felt, on
awaking, a smarting pain in the inner angle of the eye, which gradu-
ally increased with violent inflammation, until at last the affected eye
lost all power of sight. On examination, Dr. Schnee found in the
angle of the eye a mass of maggots, which had destroyed the con-
junctiva and the cellular tissue, and penetrated so deeply into the
orbit that the hinder end was completely imbedded between the orbit
and the eye-ball, although the length of the body is stated at. 9 lines.
After all the larvee had been removed (there were about twelve or
fifteen of them), the internal muscles of the eye were seen as com-
pletely freed of cellular tissue as if they had been prepared.

In drawing the larvee out with forceps, most of them were so in-
jured that they did not assume the pupa state ; some acquired this

Meteorological Observations. 289°

form, and of these I have the flies before me. They belong to the
oe Sarcophaga, and are either the 8. ruralis or S. latifrons,
len *.

Dr. Schnee adds, that he has met with similar but smaller larvee in
the nose of a Jewess, who experienced indescribable pain in that
part ; he was unable, however, to extract them uninjured, so that
they did not attain the pupa state.

ecording to Ruthet, the larva of Sarcophaga latifrons has
repeatedly been extracted from ulcers of the ear.— Archiv fiir Natur-
geschichte, xix. p. 282.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR JULY 1854.

Chiswick.—July 1. Heavy rain: overcast. 2. Very fine: slight rain. 3. Slight
rain: fine. 4. Densely clouded. 5. Showery. 6. Very fine: heavy showers.
7. Overcast: heavy showers. 8. Rain: very fine: clear. 9. Very fine: cloudy.
10. Showery: heavy rain at night. 11. Cloudy. 12. Drizzly: densely overcast.
13. Very fine. 14. Overcast: clear. 15. Densely clouded: very fine. 16. Very
fine. 17. Rain: very fine. 18—21. Very fine: air very dry. 22. Quite cloud-
less. 23. Clear andcalm. 24. Sultry: lightning at night. 25. Very hot: light-
ning at night. 26. Slight haze: cloudy: rain. 27. Easterly haze: rain. 28.
Clear and fine. 29. Slight fog: cloudy. 30. Very fine : thunder-storm 2 to 5 p.m.
31. Uniformly overcast : heavy thunder clouds.

Mean temperature of the month ....... sb cees Bose WLsbend “00s9) 61°59
Mean temperature of July 1853 ....c..ccececccwescecsescescesees 61 +94
Mean temperature of July for the last twenty-eight years... 63 +17
Average amount of rain in July. .....scccsesscceessaseeenees sess» 2°42 inches.

Boston.—July 1. Cloudy: rain a.m. 2. Cloudy. 3. Cloudy: rainp.m. 4,
Fine: rainp.M. 5. Fine. 6,7. Cloudy. 8. Cloudy: rain a.m. 9, Cloudy.
10. Cloudy: rain a.m. andp.m. 11. Cloudy. 12. Rain a.m.andp.m. 13.
Cloudy. 14, 15. Cloudy: rain a.m.andp.m. 16. Fine. 17. Cloudy: rain a.m.
and v.M. 18. Cloudy: rain a.m. 19,20. Cloudy. 21. Fine: thermometer 84°
5 p.m. 22-24. Fine. 25—29. Cloudy. 30. Fine. 31. Cloudy: rain a.m
and P.M,

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—July 1. Cloudy a.m. and p.m. 2. Cloudy a.m.:
showers p.m. 3. Cloudy a.M.:rainp.m. 4. Rain a.m.: fog p.m. 5. Cloudy a.m. :
hazy pM. 6. Bright a.M.: rain p.m. 7. Clear a.m.: clear, finer.m. 8. Bright,
fine A.m.: cloudy p.m. 9. Drizzle a.m.: cloudyp.m. 10. Bright a.m.: cloudy
pM. 11. Cloudy a.m. and p.m. 12. Drizzle a.m. and p.m. 13. Rain A.m.:
damp p.m. 14. Damp a.m. and p.m. 15. Rain a.m.: clear, fine pm. 16. Cloudy
A.M, : cloudy, fine p.m. 17. Damp A..: clear, fine p.m. 18. Clear, fine a.m, :
fine, fog p.m. 19. Hazy a.m.: cloudy p.m. 20, 21. Clear, fine a.m. and p.m,
22. Showers A.M.: clear p.m. 23,24. Cloudy a.m. and p.m. 25. Drizzle a.m. :
cloudy p.m. 26. Showers a.m.: clear, fine p.m. 27. Clear a.m.: cloudy, fine p.m.
28; Clear, fine a.m. and p.m. 29. Clear, fine A.M. : cloudy, fine p.m. 30. Cloudy
A.M.: fog p.M. 31. Fog A.M. and P.M.

Mean temperature of July for twenty-seven previous years . 55°08
Mean temperature of this month ............seseseceseereeeeeeees 55°25
Mean temperature of July 1853 .........csceeecaerereeseeeeeees 58 *15
Average quantity of rain in July for fourteen previous years. 2°40 inches,

* Dr. Grube states that he is unable to determine to which of these spe-
cies his specimens belong, but gives a detailed description of them, with
some critical remarks on the descriptions of other authors.

+ Trosehel and Ruthe, ‘Handb. der Zoologie.’

78.2 .I A 2 " 9 3 - : 12g. gv. :

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THE. ANNALS.

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.
[SECOND SERIES. ] |
No. 82, OCTOBER 1854.

<>

XXIIIT.—On the Mechanism of Aquatte Respiration and on the
Structure of the Organs of Breathing.in Invertebrate Animals.
By Tuomas Witiiams, M.D. Lond., Licentiate of the Royal
College of Physicians, formerly Demonstrator on Structural
Anatomy at Guy’s Hospital, and now of Swansea.

[ With three Plates. ]
[Continued from p. 57. |

Structure of the Branchie in the Lamellibranchiate Mollusks.

Tue mist upon this branch of natural history which has survived

- ee

the brightening science of a bright century may indeed refuse

to be dissipated even by the achromatic microscope—the potent

_.. wand of the modern observer. That which the calm eye dis-
= & Gems ‘with clearness, and the understanding interprets with

confidence, though amplified many hundred diameters, is as
likely to be an immutable objective truth as any “instance ”
within. the .sphere. of the unassisted vision. . Faith in_ the

‘ ~ verity. of -microscopic facts is a fundamental article im. the

scientific creed of every living philosopher. The sphere of the
naked vision is exhausted: another is opened by the micro-

© *scope.. Minute descriptions of subtle and complex structures,
-- rendered possible only through its instrumentality, will prove of

as great service in the hands of the future lawgivers of science,
as the grosser narratives of the fathers of anatomy have already

\ proved in the founding of the temple in which the high priests

of natural theology now chant her service.

The branchial structures of the Mollusca have never yet been
unravelled, The problem, though not impracticable, still awaits
solution. The system of the gillsis a conspicuous element in
the mollusean organism. In apparent size they are considerable.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 16

24:2 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

If function were expressed in numeric amount by the dimensions
of the organs, the physiologist would assign to this class of ani-
mals a high degree of respiration. Minute structure is a factor
in the estimate. The gills of the Lamellibranchiate mollusk are
singularly and peculiarly formed: they admit of comparison
in structural characters with no other organ found amongst
Invertebrate animals. The meaning of a part is an inference of
the intellect. When exact, it is founded upon a correct appre-
ciation of structure. A ‘law’ is upraised upon the basis of par-
ticulars. Let the following difficult inquiry be conducted in rigid
compliance with this regulus philosophandi. Though abundant,
the elder literature upon this subject has bequeathed little that
is accurate and true. Baer* alludes in a special manner to the
pectinated character of the branchie in the Lamellibranchiata ;
he illustrates his description by the gills of Mytilus. Meckel +
depicts and describes in general terms a comb-like structure in
the gills of Spondylus, Pecten, and Arca. Cuvier’s figures and
descriptions { delineate the same formation. In his valuable
notes, Siebold § describes the branchiz in Pectunculus, Mytilus,
Arca, Pecten, Avicula, and Lithodomus as consisting of a system -
of parallel vessels. In the text of his work, however, Siebold,
like Mr. Hancock, speaks of the trellis-like network of the
branchial structures. Among the older authors by whom allu-
sion is made to the pectinated arrangement of the branchial
vessels, the names of Bojanus, Treviranus, and Poli may be enu-
merated. :

The contributions of Mr. Hancock upon this subject are the
most recent, special, and distinguished ||. By this observer three
types of structure are recognized. They are thus defined in his
own language :—“ There appear to be three distinct modifications
of gill-structure im the Lamellibranchiata. In the first the
lamin forming the gill-plate are composed of filaments either
free or only slightly united at distant intervals, as m Anomia
and Mytilus; in the second they \are formed by a simple vascular
network, as 1m Mya, Pholas, &c.; and in the third the lamin of
the gill-plate are complicated ‘by the addition of transverse plice
composed of minute reticulations of vessels, as in Chamostrea,
Myochama, Cochlodesma, &c. Other modifications may exist,

* Meckel, Arch. 1830, p. 340. .

+ Syst. der Vergleich. Anat. vi. p. 60. :

{. Régne Animal, nouvelle edit., Mollusques, pl. 74. fig. 2a.

§ Anatomy of the Invertebrata, translated by Burnett, p. 211.

||. The excellent papers of Messrs. Alder and Hancock, to which repeated
reference is made in the text, will be found ‘in various Numbers of the

‘Annals and Magazine of Natural. History’ for the years 1852 and 1853.

To the attentive perusal of these“valuable essays the student of the subject
is earnestly advised.

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 243

but these are all that have come under my observation *.” In.
each of these “ modifications” one common character is said to
prevail—the vessels re¢iculate—in the first only “ slightly,” in
the others more “minutely.” Such is the structural law of the
branchie of the Lamellibranchiates as expounded by Mr. Han-
cock, It is at direct variance with the prevalent and accepted
definition. Dr. Sharpey says—“ Each gill (of Mytilus) or leaf
consists of two layers, which are made up of vessels set very close
to one another like the teeth of a comb or like parallel bars,
&e.+” “These bars are connected laterally with the adjacent
ones of the same layer at short intervals by round projections on
their sides,” &e.t

Here this accurate observer conspicuously indicates the differ-
ence between the solid projections interposed between the vas-
cular bands, tying them together into a horizontal lamina, and
the “transverse plice” of Mr. Hancock, which transform a
matchless system of parallel bars into one of minute reticula-
tion” (Hancock), which neither the eye nor the understanding can
unravel. M. Deshayes§ stands in this anomalous position :—
he has figured accurately what he has interpreted wrongly. Albeit
to this author merit is due. He has pointed out clearly by the
pencil—what really exists in nature; what he himself misunder-
stood ; what neither Dr. Sharpey nor Mr. Hancock seem at any
time to have recognized—a structure without which the gill of
the Lamellibranch could not architecturally be what it is; a mar-
vellously woven fabric, refined in the utmost degree in its me-
chanism, adapted with incomparable skill to the purpose in view
—a structure which no observer either anterior or posterior to
the time of M. Deshayes has even suspected to exist—that ap-
paratus of transverse scaffolding (Pl. VI. fig. 1 ¢, ¢, d) situated -
between the lamelle of the gill, crossing at right angles the axes
of the interlamellar water-tubes, 7,7 (of the existence of which
M. Deshayes had not the slightest knowledge), and doubtfully
described by him as the true blood-channels of the branchiz !
M. Deshayes mistook the lamine formed by the real branchial
vessels for “ membranous layers or lamine, within the substance
of which the branchial vessels are arranged with great regularity.”
His eye caught with correctness nearly all the parts of this
exquisite apparatus; his reasoning then enveloped them in

* Annals and Magazine of Natural History for April 1853.

+ Art. “ Cilia,’’ Cyclop. of Anat. and Phys. ah

t This concise description is rendered still clearer by the original figures
which accompany the famed article of Dr. Sharpey, to which I have ad-
verted in the text.

§ See art. “ Conchifera,” Cyclop. of Anat. and Phys. p
; *K

244. Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

confusion*. Nothing less than a rediscovery of these skeletal
parts, by which the branchial vessels are maintained in situ and
the whole tubular system preserved in shape, could suffice to
render complete and consistent the demonstration of the anatomy
of the Lamellibranchiate gills.

With the eye stedfastly fixed on these parts, it is surprising
that M. Deshayes could see in them no meaning, could read in
them no purpose. In defining the outline and office of the inter-
lamellar water-tubes, it is matter of wonder that Mr. Hancock
did not suspect the mechanical necessity for a supporting appa-
ratus such as this, without which the water-tubes could not sus-
tain their patency or their form. Such is the history of progress
in all the manifold paths of scientific observation. Discovery
must literally be prefigured in the intellect of the thinking ob-
server. In the absence of the foreshadowing conception, wondrous
things in nature rendered manifest by accident are vacantly
gazed at, left unfathomed, and then forgotten, or mentioned
only as incidents or episodes in the drama. The merit which
belongs to rediscovery is too often withheld from its author. It
is morally, in equity, not less worthy of honour than the first
discovery.

The law was formerly stated that the blood-channels in the
gills of the Lamellibranchiate mollusks occur always in every
species in form of straight, parallel, independent, non-commu-
nicating tubes, supported on the two opposite sides by hyaline
cartilages, generally membraniform and semicylindrically curved
(Pl. VI. figs. 6 & 6?; and Pl. VII. fig. 15). These blood-
channels never reticulate. At the free border of the gill the
afferent channel returns into the efferent in a looping manner
(Pl. VI. fig. 1 e, f). The efferent like the afferent channel
preserves its individuality from one border of the lamella to the
other (m, e). The blood-current, therefore, preserves unmixedly
its singularity and independence from the beginning to the end
of its branchial orbit (Pl. VIL. figs. 23 & 24). This is a striking
and remarkable characteristic. It is a molluscan peculiarity.
Its prevalence in this class is universal. It stands m contrast
with the crustacean. The network plan is here the type. In
some species of Annelids the branchial vessels observe a straight,
parallel, looping mode of division. In the Annelid the blood
is coloured and non-corpuscular. In the mollusk it is replete
with globules. The blood-globules travel through the branchial
‘bars’ in a single series, or two abreast. In the crustacean
the blood-channels are imparietal sinuses. In the mollusk each

* The reader is requested to refer to fig. 352, article “ Conchifera,”’ in the
first volume of the ‘ Cyclopedia of Anatomy and Physiology.’

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 245

vessel is elaborately carved and wonderfully protected (Pl. VI.
figs. 6 & 67). The difference is as essential in kind as it is con-
spicuous : it may serve hereafter to establish the true direction of
equivocal affinities. Subtle analogies, like deeply hidden differ-
ences concealed amid the profoundest recesses of the organism,
are often more conclusive in disputative questions of specific
and generic relationships, than diversities or resemblances graven
prominently in the manner of the outward form.

In now entering upon the narrative of the minute structure of
the gills in the conchiferous mollusks, it must be premised that
illustrative types only can be comprehended in the story. Spe-
cific varieties and modifications must be left to the specific in-
quiries of individual observers. There prevails, however, such a
remarkable uniformity in the architectural principle on which
the breathing organs in all LamelJibranchiate mollusks are con-
structed, that departures from the central plan never involve a
change of type. Such variations are apparent, not radical.
Though a concise description, aided by illustrations, may enable
the author to convey a readily intelligible statement of these
parts, the reader must not infer that his task has been easy or
his labour light. He has traversed dark and tangled contro-
versies. For long he could pilot his course by the magnetism
of no clearly-defined principle. Evidence conflicted, assertions
bewildered ; the subject was intricate, the clue of principle was
wanting. He would fain trust that the history which he is
about to write will transform a pre-existing chaos into the
cultivated scene of exact demonstration. :

_. The minute structure of the gills in the Conchifera may be
conveniently described under the heads severally of the consti-
tuent parts of which they are formed.

1. The parallel bars or vessels forming the lamelle.

2. The borders of the lamellz, (a) attached, (d) free.

3. The transverse connective parts—intervascular, or inter-
vectal. :

4, The interlamellar water-tubes and the intra-tubular frame-
work of support.

5. The ciliary system of the gills.

1. In the Acephalous mollusk the branchial vessel is sculp-
tured upon one essential plan. All deviations from this plan are
inessential varieties. So singularly do these blood-canals differ
from ordimary blood-vessels, that they will be henceforth de-
scribed under the name of “ branchial bars.” The word ‘bar’
implies, first, straightness, and secondly, rigidity, two properties
which belong to the branchial bars. The word ‘bar’ involves .
the idea of separateness, individuality and independence—cha-
racters which apply to the branchial bars. Rigid bars arranged

246 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

in parallel directions on the same horizontal plane would form a
stratum of bars—such is the branchial lamella. Disposed on
two coincident planes, one above the other, two parallel lamellze
would result. Between parallelly-arranged rigid bars the znéer-
spaces would be parallel and equal—such are the intervectal *
water-passages of the branchie. If traversed by cross threads
at frequent intervals, a long fissure would assume the form of
oblong foramina (Pl. VI. fig. 1 g, fig. 2 e). Such sometimes
are the varieties which occur in the intervectal passages. If the
parallel lamelle be tied together at regular points by bands
running with the bars, the space between the lamelle would be
divided into tubes. Thus are formed the interlamellar water-
tubes (figs. 7,9). The picture is faithful to nature. It mirrors
the reality of a complex apparatus. It represents in simple
outline the machinery of the branchize in the bivalve mollusk.

The details are now neither intricate nor unintelligible, be-
cause the constructive idea is clear to the intellect. In all mves-
tigations a tangibly-grasped mental picture must forerun the
clear perception of the outward reality.

A branchial bar is a tube whose sides are comparatively rigid,
and whose diameter is uniform (Pl. VI. fig. 6a,a). It is clothed
externally by a membrane, the coutinuation of the ‘mantle, of
which the epithelium is evolved at certain regular lines into
cilia-bearing scales (4). The opposed sides of each bar are
formed of, and supported by, cartilages (a, a). If these two
cartilages were far removed apart, the blood-channel would be
broad and flat (Pl. VII. fig. 15 5, b, 6). These cartilages are
slender in the extreme in texture; they are membraniform and
exquisitely hyaline ; curved at the edges, they assume the figure
of a hollow semicylinder; they possess just enough rigidity to
preserve the straightness of the bar; they are continuous through-
out the whole length of the bar (Pl. VIII. fig. 17)> Being
placed on the opposed horizontal sides of the bars (not on
the upper and under aspects), they must necessarily circumscribe
a tubular channel of unbroken continuity. The sides are not
perforated by openings of any description. If the transverse
structures (Pl. VIII. fig. 22 a), afterwards to be described, be
vessels or blood-channels, as conceived by Mr. Hancock and
some of the elder anatomists, the bore of such channels cannot
communicate with that of the parallel bars. The transverse
parts must therefore, if they be blood-channels at all, constitute
an independent system. But they are not so. They are con-

* From the Latin vectis, a bar. Since it is proposed to distinguish the
branchial blood-channels under the name of bars, it is only consistent to
mark the spaces between them as intervectal, rather than as intervascular.

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 247

nective fibrous structures (Pl. VIII. fig. 19). In almost all
species of bivalve mollusks, the branchial bars more or less
closely approach the cylindrical in figure. To this rule of
structure those of the common Mussel form a remarkable excep-
tion: they are here blade-shaped (figs. 17 & 20). The section
of the bar is frequently oval. In the genera Cardium, Unio,
Ostrea, &c. this form is exemplified. The subcylindrical canal,
circumscribed by the hyaline cartilages just deseribed, is the true
blood-channel*., All naturalists have conjectured this fact ; the
existence is now only for the first time proved. The cartilages
bounding these channels are now first announced. They do not
enclose the whole circumference of the vessel: they form a
third of the opposite halves (Pl. VI. fig. 67), The rows of cilia
correspond with their edges: the intervals between these edges
are membranous. The real osmotic movement of the gases con-
cerned in respiration is limited to these intervals. Along these
intervals, extending with beautiful regularity from one end of
the bar to the other, there travels a cilia-driven current. In
Mytilus the bars appear to swell (PI. VIII. fig. 17 0, 0, 0) at the
points at which they are joined together by the transverse
structures. The real blood-channel does not bulge. | The car-
tilages of the bars at the base of the lamella are lost in and
identified with that embracing the trunk common to the whole
series (c, c). Traced carefully to the proximal border, they will
be observed to have this disposition: the cartilages of conti-
guous sides of adjoining bars form one piece, being so bent as to
become continuous at the proximal border of the lamella. The
bars are thus held firmly in situ and in relative connexion.

At this point it becomes extremely interesting to inquire,
whether the /amella is composed of a single series (Pl. VI.
fig. 4), laid side by side, of parallel bars, or of a double series
arranged in two separate planes? (fig. 5). The answer to this
question will implicate an important point of function, It is
difficult to convey clearly the idea of a double series of bars
constituting a single lamella. This undoubtedly is the disposi-

* A very recent study of the minute structure of the gills in the Tunicates
and Ascidians has enabled me to resolve completely the homology of the
branchial bars in the bivalve mollusks, to explain demonstratively why it
is that in the gills of some Acephalans the blood-conduits are placed like
membranous channels between alternate bars (as is shown in Pl. VII.
fig. 15, b, b, b), and that in others the blood-canal (as in Pl. VIII. fig. 22)
occupies the axis of each bar. Though there exist in the gills of the
Tunicata a system of large transverse trunks, with which the parallel
ultimate blood-channels (the homologues of the “ bars” in the Acephala)
openly communicate, in a supplementary note on this subject im the next
pee it will be shown that the ultimate elements of the branchie in

unicata and Acephala are really arranged on the same type.

248 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

tion of the branchial bars in some species of Acephala. Ifa“ bar”
be bent once upon itself (fig. 3), and if then one limb only be
rested upon a flat surface, the other limb will be on the same
vertical plane, but on a different horizontal plane. If a second,
then a third bar, and so on, be placed in coincident directions,
the limbs will form two horizontal series or laminz, between
which a free undivided horizontal space will exist (e, f); but there
will also exist vertical spaces between each two adjoining bars
having the same vertical planes. In words this arrangement
is complex, in illustration simple. Now it may at first be sup-.
posed that of mechanical necessity this must be the order m
which the bars are arranged in-all the examples of double gills*
(Pl. VI. figs. 1 & 7), as it is really that in which the afferent and
efferent limbs of the same looped bar are disposed in all instances,
without exception, of single (Pl. VI. fig. 2) gills. But it is truly
the case only in a very few genera. It is so in the Mytilide
(Pl. VIII. fig. 24). It follows that under the latter circumstances
the interlamellar water-tubes must be bounded by two concentri¢
walls (Pl. VI. fig. 5), each wall being composed of a single hori-
zontal series of bars. Of this disposition another apparent
example is afforded in the Ostreade; if the disposition of the
loops at the free margin only be considered. In nearly a// other
genera, known to the author, the limbs of the same looped bar
are placed on the same horizontal plane (Pl. VI. fig. 7 f). The
plane of the loop notwithstanding at the distal border of the
lamella is not horizontal,-but vertical. It results that each
lamella is composed of a single series of bars, though the con-
tiguous limbs alternate in function, one conveying a centripetal,
the other a centrifugal current (Pl. VII. figs. 9 & 11). But it
must. be remembered that a single lamella (a or J, Pl. VII:
fig. 11) of a double gill is not the exact equivalent of an entire
single gill (fig. 14). In a// single gills the limbs of the same
bar rest on vertical planes ; those of a single lamella of a double
gill are placed on the same horizontal plane (fig. 12). In the
single gill the physical conditions are more favourable to the
complete aération of the blood. The water-currents are dif.
ferent, not the same. It will greatly facilitate the comprehension
of the preceding history if now the minute anatomy of the free or
distal borders of the branchial lamella be carefully and accurately
studied.

The structure of the extreme free edge of the lamella furnishes
a ready key which unlocks at once the whole mystery of the
branchial apparatus; and yet this wondrous part of the organ

* The meaning attached in these papers to the double as opposed to the
single gill is afterwards explained.

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 249

has never arrested the curiosity of the anatomist. In Mytilus
and in Mytilus only, Dr. Sharpey figures correctly the manner
in which, at the distal margin of the lamella, the bars of the
upper become continuous with those of the lower lamella. In
Mytilus the structure of the gill is almost unique (Pl. VIII.
fig. 17). The order which obtains in nearly all other genera
could not be deduced from the anatomy of the Mytilidan gill.
It is a singular exception. It is the rare exception only that
Dr. Sharpey has pictured. The rule. of, structure remained
really to be discovered. If the blunt and acute edges of the
penknife-shaped branchial bar (fig. 20) carry each a blood-
channel, then each gall in Mytilus will be a double gill, for the
upper and lower are identically formed. If, on the contrary,
the blood-channel exists only at the blunt edge (a) of the blade,
the current travelling peripherally along the bars of the upper
lamella (A, fig. 17) must turn round (as shown in fig. 24 d, d)
at the free margin through the loop and move centrally along
the bars of the lower lamella (B, fig. 17). In. the latter case
the gill would be single, in the former double. The bars»of
the upper lamella when the gill is single carry currents moving
in the same direction (Pl. VI. fig. 2; Pl. VII. fig. 14) from one
border of the gill-plate to the other ; those of the luwer, oppositely
tending currents (PI. VIII. fig. 23 e, f). This point is the
wonder-striking feature of the branchial enginery. No writer —
has ever given to it a single thought. It deserves to be further
elucidated. In Pholas (Pl. VI. figs. 1 & 2), Gastrochena, Mya,
Tellina, Mactra, Cyprea, Cardium (Pl. VII. figs. 138 & 14),
Ostrea (Pl. VIII. fig. 21), and probably in many other genera,
the inner gill is double and the outer is single. The Pandoridz
and Lucinidz are families in which the outer gill is altogether
suppressed, In Solen, Pecten, Unio, Venus, Kellia, Arca, &e.;
the two gills on both sides are equal im size and double in
structure.

Every gill-plate, whether single or double, is composed ef two
lamelle, between which the excurrent water-tubes (see large
arrows in Pl. VII. fig. 13, Pl. VI. fig. 1, and figs. 7 & 8) are
situated. In the example of the double gill each lamella is the
scene of a double system of opposed currents of blood, since
the two limbs of the same looped bar lie on the same horizontal
plane in the same lamella (PI. VII. fig. 9 ¢). The adjoming
limbs are thus alternately afferent and efferent, or venous and
arterial. Hach lamella then of every double gill is a complete
and independent gill. Its system of circulation is distinct, and
totally unconnected with that of the other lamella. Neverthe-
less, a single lamella of a double gill is not identical in ana-
tomical characters, or structurally, or perhaps officially, equi-

250 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

valent to an entire single gill. As formerly intimated im the
example of a single gill, the limbs of the same looped bar,
respectively venous and arterial, are placed on different hori-
zontal planes (Pl. VII. fig. 14), the planes of the loops (a) at
the free margin being vertical, and not horizontal as they are in
general in the double gill (Pl. VI. fig. 1; Pl. VII. figs. 9 & 11).
The single gill, like the double, is composed of two lamellar
planes (fig. 14 b, ¢) bounding intermediate water-tubes. But
in the single gill each lamella is single in function, since it
consists of the afferent or efferent limbs separately and exclu-
sively of the looped bars. In either lamella therefore the
adjacent bars belong to separate and independent loops. The
component bars of the lamelle in all single gills are separated
from one another by intervectal water-fissures (Pl. VII. fig. 15
c,c,c). In the double gills in which the two limbs of the same
loop lie adjoined on the same horizontal plane, such limbs are
united together by a continuous membrane (Pl. VI. fig. 5). In
such case the intervectal water-fissures exist only between the
limbs of different contiguous loops, not between those of the
same looped bar. By this arrangement the volume of water
which traverses the gill at any given time is reduced by exactly
one-half, The functional value of the organ therefore sinks
in the same degree. A double gill (PI. VII. figs. 18, 9 & 11;
Pl. VI. fig. 1) in structure is not necessarily twofold in physio-
logical import. In official activity it exceeds little the single gill.
In the latter the blood is more intimately brought into contact
with the respiratory medium, and this medium is more readily
and rapidly renewed. To the single gill (Pl. VI. fig.2; Pl. VIL.
fig. 14) conchologists have applied the term supplementary. It
is difficult to understand in what sense this term should be re-
ceived. In structure the single gill is not supplementary. It is a
perfect and complete organ. No constituent element is deficient
or suppressed. In function it is complete. It is not a super-
numerary organ. Both these designations are significant of
what is untrue. It is as much an integer of the organism as the
upper or inner gill. A Jaw hitherto undiscovered does, however,
affect the presence and dimensions of the outer or single gill
which does not influence the inner or double gill. If, as in the
Pandoride, Lucinide, and some other families, there exist only
one gill, it is invariably the single or out-gill that is wanting.
The principle of suppression or non-development affects exclu-
sively the latter. When only one gill exists, that is, one on
either side of the foot and body, it is always double in structure.
It contains the same number of bars and loops as any other
double gill. It is quite erroneous to conceive. that in such a
ease the absent or suppressed gill has been fused into and iden-

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 251

tified with the present solitary gill. The latter is the same in
essential structure as if the single gill were present.

In Pholadomya and Anatina, Professor Owen describes the two
branchial lamelle of either side as having been united to form
a single gill*. Valenciennes states that the solitary gill of the
family Lucinide resembles that of Anodonta; it is larger, and
formed of thicker and more prominent pectinations. Lucina Ja-
maicensis, L. tigrina, L. columbella, and L. lactea, are examples in
which only a single branchial organ exists on either side. The
solitary gill differs from the ordinary double gill only in apparent
characters. The free border is composed only of two rows of
loops ; but these loops are soldered together by an obvious longi-
tudinal band or cord, running in shape of a deep water-groove
from one end to the other of the free margin (Pl. VI. fig. 3 3).
It is this character which occasions the appearance of doubleness
and fusion. In the solitary gill of the Pandoridz and Lucinide,
the pectinations+ of the lamellz are coarse and large to the naked
eye. This circumstance is due to the greater size in these cases of
the interlamellar water-tubes. It is repeated, that the vascular
elements, in the solitary gills, are the same in number and disposi-
tion with those of any other double gill. -If, in the example of the
solitary gill, the outer single gill were really organically united
to the inner double gill, an organ should result consisting at the
free border of three rows of vascular loops, two distinct systems
of parallel interlamellar water-tubes, four separate lamellee, three
layers of afferent and ¢hree of efferent bars! Such, of mechanical
necessity, should be the anatomical characters of a gill which
owed its formation to the union of one already double to another
struck on the single plan. Such a monstrosity is not illustrated
in nature. It is a fabulous branchia, born of hypothesis. But
it may appear quite reasonable to explain the anomaly of a solitary
gill, on the supposition that it is the natural and necessary pro-
duct of the fusion of two single gills. A glance at the illustra-
tions depictive of the type of the latter, will at once convince the
mechanician that two single gills could not in any manner be
fused in order to make a double gill,—such a double gill, that
is, duplex in mechanism, twofold in function, as actually exists
in the real animal. Let two single gills be brought together
(Pl. VI. figs. 7 & 8),—the water-movement and the ciliary action
would cease at once on the two adjoined, apposed faces. Thus
the power of each would be reduced by one-half. Two singles
united make a single! Such is the clumsiness of human handi-

* Forbes and Hanley, British Mollusca, vol. ii. p. 42.
+ It should be distinctly understood, that the word ‘ pectinations’ is not

synonymous with an ultimate branchial bar, but with that set of bars which
form an interlamellar water-tube.

252 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

craft: attempting to mimic nature, it is lost in caricature.
Nature does not reach her ends by the “fusion” of organs,
An existing organ is modified to fulfil a collateral purpose. A
solitary gill has its own peculiar characters. The component
vessels remaining unchanged in number and arrangement, a
solitary organ is rendered equivalent to a double one, by aug-
menting the dimensions of the passages and tubes in such a
manner, that the aérating element brought into relation with
the blood can be increased alniost to any amount. Function is
thus intensified, while structure remains analtered.

The loops of the vascular bars, as they project at the free
margm of the lamell, are differently joined and variously
figured and sculptured in different genera, and frequently in
different species of the same genus. In Pholas (Pl. VI. figs. 1
& 4), the free border of the double or inner gill presents two
rows of loops (e, f). The plane on which the loops of the upper
lamella rest is horizontal, comciding with the length, as opposed
to the breadth, of the gill. Those belonging to the lower lamella
of the same gill, form a row on a plane an eighth of an inch below
the former. Between these two projecting scalloped edges, a
groove (fig. 3 5) runs from one end of the gill to the other. The
cilia which fringe this groove (PI. VIII. fig. 24.4; Pl. VIL. fig. 10,
a,b) are very much larger in all species than those which are
distributed over the bars at the plane faces of the gills. They
excite a vigorous current, bearing towards the mouth. Those
of the flat surface (Pl. VIII. fig. 20; Pl. VI. fig. 6 0, b) raise
streams, tending towards the free border of the gill. Both are
subservient to alimentation and respiration. In Pholas, then, the
double gill (Pl. VI. fig. 1) is composed only of two lamella, like
the single gill (Pl. VI. fig. 2); but in the former, each lamella
is composed of two orders of bars, in the latter of one order only.
The two limbs (fig. 4 5, b, ec, c) of each looped bar in the former
are placed on the same side of the intermediate water-tube: the
afferent and efferent limbs of the same bars (fig. 2h, f), in the
instance of the single gill, are so opened or separated at the free
margin as to form respectively the opposite walls of the included
water-tube. The vascular loops at the margin of the double gill
in nearly all genera are disposed flatwise (Pl. VI. fig. 1 e, /;
Pl. VIII, fig. 21 ¢,b; Pl. VII. fig. 9 a, b, fig. 11 a, 6), so that all
the loops of the same lamella form one horizontal plane. Those
of the single gill (Pl. VII. fig. 14a; Pl. VI. fig. 2) are placed
vertically, so that the plane of each loop is separated from,
though parallel with, that of the adjoining loops. In the double
gills of the Cardiadz an exception occurs, and probably in other
families. The loops at the distal margin-are disposed here on
vertical planes (Pl. VII. fig. l4a); but though standing verti-

\

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 253

cally, they do not enclose two systems of interlamellar water-
tubes, but only one. The mechanical problem presented by the
gills of Cardium proved extremely difficult of solution. When
understood, it challenged any living mechanism for beauty and
perfection. In Mytilus the loops of the two lamelle are soldered
into union at the free borders: they stand vertically (Pl. VIII.
figs. 17 & 24): they circumscribe a deep intermediate gutter. In
Solen (Pl. VIII. fig. 23) the loops expand. In Venus they also
somewhat exceed in diameter that of the bars, of which they are
the bend. In Mytilus, the inner and outer gills exhibit the same
formation. In the Ostreadee (PI. VIII. fig. 21), the loops at the
margins of the gills are so closely packed together horizontally,
as to appear like a continuous membrane bounding an angular
groove. Numerous other varieties in the mere shape and size of
the loops occur in different families of Bivalves—the type of
structure never changes. . |

The proximal or attached border (P1. VI. figs. 1 & 2 a, b) of the
gills occurs under many varieties of anatomical plan. Pholas
exemplifies one type. The two lamelle* are attached to the pallial
tunic. All the vascular bars ‘terminate in a common trunk
(Pl. VI. fig. 2a, 5) which runs at right angles to their axes, and
paraliel with the length of the entire gill. There are two of
these trunks, one afferent, the other efferent. They occupy re-
spectively the proximal margins (Pl. VI. fig. 1 a, 6) of the two
lamellee of which each gill is composed. In Pholas these trunks
are supported by the framework of solid structure (c ¢ and dd
which occupies the interlamellar spaces. In So/en (PI. VIII.
fig. 23 a) and Mytilus (fig. 17 A) another plan of formation is
observed. Here the proximal border of the superior lamella of the
upper gill, and inferior lamella of the under gill, are unattached,
floating in the mantual cavity. In such instances the inter-
lamellar framework is wanting. The vascular bars at this border,
for some distance up the breadth of the gill, are tied together
by means of a continuous membrane (e, e). Here the interlamellar
scaffolding, and the water-tubes which the former assist to form,
exist only where the two lamellze are adherent ; viz. over the two-
thirds of the breadth of the gill nearest the free border.

* It should be clearly explained that the word lamella, as applied to
the gill of the Acephalan Mollusk, should signify, one of the two plates of
which the gill, whether double or single, is composed. The gill is the whole
organ. In those instances in which (as shown in fig. 5, Pl. VI.) the bars
stand vertically on the same lamella, then of course each lamella would
be composed of two plates, or finer lamellae. Iam not quite certain that
such an arrangement exists in nature. In several gehera—in Cardium espe-
cially—when care is taken to avoid pressure upon the margin, such is
the true position of the loops, if not of the bars proceeding backwards
from them.

254 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

Intervectal and Interlamellar Framework of Connective
Structures.

These structures constitute the true skeleton by which is
sustained the vascular fabric of the gill. Of the latter, they
determine the shape and the form. They preserve the blood-
carrying bars in position. They hold apart the component
lamellee of the gills. They thus form the interlamellar tubes, since
without these structures the lamellz would fall together into
contact and obliterate the tubes. Messrs. Alder and Hancock
recognized the tubes, but overlooked the framework system by
which they were constructed *. M. Deshayes has figured this
framework (Pl. VI. fig. 1 ¢, c,¢ & d, fig. 22, and fig. 8 d, d) ap-
paratus in a conchiferous (Pecten or Arca?) mollusk. Not a
sentence is written descriptive of its characters, or interpretative
of its meaning. Attention was drawn to it by no allusion
whatever, direct or incidental. Philippit has this observation
with respect to the branchize of Solenomya, which probably
refers to the interlamellar structures in question :—“ Branchize
duo non quatuor, non lamelliformes, sed pectinate vel potius
pennam exacte referentes, lamellis transversis perpendicularibus,
carina media corpori per totam longitudinem adnatz, versus
apicem ope ligamenti.” Ill-defined reference to the same parts
is made by Carus, Blainville, Garner, and others. To be
known descriptively, and comprehended physiologically, they re-
mained really to be rediscovered,—to be read by a new eye, from

* It is very probable, from the following passage, that Messrs. Alder
and Hancock have mistaken the thick solid cords which at short intervals
cross the tubes, for real blood-channels: “The laminz forming the walls
of these tubes were now examined through the microscope, when the whole
was observed to present a regularly reticulated structure composed of
blood-vessels ; those passing transversely being the stronger and more pro-
minent.”—Annals and Magazine of Natural History, paper on Currents
in Pholas and Mya,” 1852.

+ The followmg is the only passage which occurs in the excellent
article (Conchifera, Cyclop. Anat. Phys.) of M. Deshayes having reference
to the structure of the gills:— In the greater number of genera, the
branchie are formed of two membranous layers or lamine (a, 0, fig. 352),
within the substance of which the branchial vessels descend with great
regularity. In several genera, as the Archide and Pecten, the branchial
vessels, instead of being connected parallel to one another within the
thickness of a common membrane, continue unconnected their entire length,
and they are thus formed of a great number of extremely delicate filaments,
attached by the base withm the membranous pedicle on which the bran-
chial veins pursue their way towards the auricle.” Nothing is said of the
distinct and independent structures which separate the lami. The con-
dition, namely the separation of the lamine—upon which depends the
existence of the interlamellar water-tubes—is here accidentally stated ; but
neither the existence nor the meaning of such parts seem in the slightest
degree to have been imagined by M. Deshayes..

+ Moll. Sicil. i. p. 16.

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 255

a new point of view. The author believes that the following is
the first systematic exposition on record of the anatomy and signi-
ficance of the non-vascular elements of the lamellibranchiate gill.

They are classifiable under two heads. Those parts which
are placed between (PI. VI. fig. 1 g, fig. 2e, fig. 8d; Pl. VIII.
fig. 19 ¢, c, c) the parallel bars (the intervectal), uniting them into
the form of a leaf, constitute a separate order. Those, secondly,
stronger, coarser, in some genera very conspicuous, in others
very concealed, which separate the lamellz, forming and bound-
ing the excurrent interlamellar water-tubes, to which in many
species the ova adhere, the basis of the whole gill, the wonder
of the whole enginery, the last of the branchial constituents to
be described and understood, are really a distinct and unknown
class of structures.

The first class vary the apparent anatomy of the gill more
than the second. They cut the fissural spaces (Pl. VI. fig. 7 d)
between the individual bars, or individual loops, into oval stig-
mata (fig. 5 d), elliptical perforations, or lengthened parallelo-
grams (Pl. VII. fig. 12d). In the absence of them, as in
Thracia (Pl. VII. fig. 15), the intervectal water-fissures are
continuous from the free margin of the gill to the proximal. In
Mytilus (Pl. VIII. fig. 17 0, 0, 0) they appear under the charac-
ter of fleshy nodules; in Cardium (Pl. VII. fig. 12 «¢, ¢, ¢)
they are almost invisible; in the Veneride they consist of a
flattened bundle of slender threads, running from bar to bar at
equal intervals; in Pholas they assume almost a membranous
form (PI. VI. fig. 4c), perforated at regular distances by oval holes;
they exist only between alternate loops. Ina physiological sense,
the highest value attaches to these mtervectal parts. They de-
termine the dimensions of the water-stigmata. If they are
sthall, the water of respiration is very much subdivided ; if large,
the lamella is readily traversed by the aérating element. In
calculating the quantum of respiration in the Conchifera, two
factors demand to be estimated: first, the amount of blood
entering the breathing organ; secondly, the volume of water
by which, in a given time, it is capable of being traversed. The
latter will depend upon the dimensions of the water-passages.

The intervectal connective structures have been mistaken for
half a century by the best observers for vessels, blood-canals
crossing the bars,—deceiving the observers into the idea that
each lamella in the lamellibranchiate gill is really composed of
a network of blood-vessels. This idea as regards the Acephala in-
volves a fundamental error ; it envelopes everything in unresolv-
able confusion. The orbit of the branchial circulation cannot be
explained. It contradicts the anatomical arrangement conspicuous
in other parts. A consistent sentiment cannot be shaped of this

256 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

most perfect mechanism. They are not blood-channels. They are
elastic, fibrous structures, enacting a purely ligamentous part.
They derive their supply of blood from that of the branchial
bars. Their office is mechanical, not chemical.

The intra-tubular structures (Pl. VI. fig. 1 k, k, k, fig. 8 d, d;
Pl. VIII. fig. 21 f, &c.) are neither less remarkable nor less im-
portant. Upon this interlamellar framework depend the whole
chaiacters of the gill. They hold the lamella apart at definite
distances. They unite closely together the loops of these lamellee
_ at the free margin (PI. VI. fig. 7 a, 6); thus they close up cecally

_ the tubes at this border of the gill *. This single point of structure
is the pivot whereon turns the action of the gill. If the tubes
at this extremity were open (as suppositionally at Pl. VII.
figs. 9 & 11), it 1s hydraulically certain that the water would
take this course to pass from the extra- to the intra-branchial
cavity ; none would pass between the bars which contain the
blood ; the function of respiration could not proceed ; and this
calamity, further, would ensue—no food could be carried to the
mouth. Men do not value health until it is lost! Spectators
see not, feel not, the perfection, the unimprovableness of organic
mechanism until an element is ideally removed—until some devi-
ation from nature’s method of working is supposed! ‘The argu-
mentum ad absurdum startles by the bungle and foolery which it
is sure to introduce; then philosophers realize the inimitableness
of her certainty and refinement.

As the proximal borders of the lamelle (Pl. VI. fig. 1 a, 6) are
separated by the whole diameter of the water-tubes, and as the
distal margins are fused together, it follows that these tubes, like
rivers, are small and shallow at their commencement, deep and
broad at their termination. This arrangement favours their
suctorial action. The water, as first explamed by Mr. Hancock,
is undoubtedly drawn into (properly pushed into) these tubes
through the lamellar stigmata (Pi. VIII. fig. 17 f, f, f) from the
_ pallial cavity. The water is discharged from the tubes by ciliary
agency, which is constant (arrows in Pl. VII. figs. 9, 11,13 &
14). They are thus constantly being emptied. If they were not
refilled from without, they would become vacuous. During the
action of the gill, there is momentarily generated a tendency to
a vacuum. The pressure that is_on the tubular side of the

* In the accompanying illustrations, in several instances (Pl. VII. fig. 9
& 11, Pl. VIII. fig. 21), these tubes are represented as if they were open at
» this margin of the gill. This method of Ulustration was adopted only for
the sake of clearness, and in order that the disposition of the loops and
bars of each lamella may be readily understood. In all cases, without a
single exception, the tubes are closed at this border of the gill by the appo-
sition of the loops of ‘the two constituent lamelle.

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 257

lamella is diminished; on the other it remains the same as
long as the animal continues in the water. It is hydraulicall
inevitable, even without the assisting agency of cilia, that the
water must transude the lamella by way of its intervectal fissures
and perforations. This mechanism could neither be conceived
nor explained before the nature and office of the interlamellar
framework were brought under clear demonstration. It is im-
portant to understand, that that surface of the lamelle which
faces the intermediate tubes, namely the internal walls (Pl. VI.
fig. 8 e) of the water-tubes themselves, is far less richly ciliated
than the external surface. The excurrent movement of the respira-
tory water is much aided by the action of the connective structures
of the bars and tubes. The intervectal pieces—those which pass
crosswise from bar to bar by approximating the latter—are
capable of stopping up the intervectal stigmata,—of suspending,
therefore, the act of respiration. Thus is prevented the passage
of irritating substances through the branchial lamella. The
alternate movements of the shutting and opening of the bars is
as important to the sieving operation of the gill, its prehensile
function, as the cilia themselves. The transverse intervectal
pieces (Pl. VII. fig. 12 ¢, ¢,¢; Pl. VIII. fig. 19 ¢, c, c) consist of
irritable and contractile tissue. They are capable, in part, of
voluntary contraction. Thus, although the chemical act of
breathing is in itself uncontrollable, it may be interrupted by
the exercise of those connected parts which are subject to the
will. : .

The skeleton of solid pieces (Pl. VI. fig. 8 d, d, fig. lve, d,
fig. 2 2,7, &e.) by which the tubes and the lamelle are supported
and held apart, exists probably in the branchie of every lamelli-
branchiate mollusk. It constitutes a framework system, though
anatomically distinct from, having a mechanical action concurrent
with, the intervectal. At the free border this interlamellar sub-
stance is thin, slender, and difficultly detected by the eye, admit-
ting of the falling together of the lamellz and of the closing of
the tubes. At the opposite attached border, the interlamellar
substance is much thicker, coarser, and more conspicuous
(Pl. VI. fig. 1 k,k, k) ; the parts being quite apparent through
the lamelle. Here, therefore, the lamelle are further separated,
and the tubes of the greatest diameter. This framework consists
of two distinct pieces,—those, first, which run parallel with the
vascular bars (Pl. VI. fig. 1c, fig. 27) ; and, secondly, those
which transversely connect these longitudinal pieces (fig. 1 d,
fig. 27,7). The former limit the breadth of the imterlamellar
water-tubes. The tubes are capacious when the lamelle
are far apart, small when they are near each other. As the
exterior appearance of “pectmations” in the gill is due to

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 17

258 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

the presence of these tubes, the pectinations are obvious, as m
Cardium, Solen, Pecten, Thracia, &c., when the tubes are large,
invisible to the naked eye when they are small. The cross
pieces tie together the longitudinal at regular intervals. The
latter run with the tubes, and divide them from one another, the
former cross them. If the transverse pieces were so thick and
_ large as to fill up the tube, and interrupt its continuity, the ex-
currents of water of course would be arrested, and the function of
the gill would be suspended. It is far otherwise. They traverse
the tubes in form of cords. Their extremities are attached to the
opposed points on the horizontal sides,—to those very lines
along the sides of the tubes at which the chemical act of breath-
ing is passive. From this arrangement there flows this most
beautiful result: the water, having permeated the lamella and
gained the interior of the tubes, im its course towards the ex-
current siphon, 7s made to keep continually in contact with the
branchial bars. By this simple arrangement, the two sides, in
fact the four sides, of each individual blood-carrying bar are
persistently embraced by a moving current of the respiratory
element! If the cross cords did not exist, every drop of water
which entered the tube would collect at the most depending side,
and flow out as a useless and unused stream. In the ceconomics
of nature, the subtlest ceconomist may well marvel at her care !
_ The long pieces of this interlamellar framework are capable
of shortening the length of the water-tubes, the cross pieces of
diminishing their diameters. These actions impel, interrupt,
facilitate, &c. the breath-giving currents. While they com-
plicate the branchial machinery, they double the certainty of the
process; they provide against accidents; they preserve in the
required position the slender, tender, beautiful parts of which
the apparatus is composed.

_ Endless diversities occur, in different species and genera, in
the size, the figure, the visibleness, &c. of this interlamellar
framework. In no single instance is there observable the
slightest departure in principle of structure, in intention, in
purpose, from the typal plan unfolded in the preceding de-
scription.

The ctha-bearing epithelium (Pl. VI. fig. 6 6) of the branchial
lamellz in the conchiferous bivalves is well known. It has been
well described by trustworthy observers, from Leeuwenhoek to
Quekett. The cilia in all cases are distributed in rows on the
bars (Pl. VII. fig. 15; Pl. VIII. figs. 20 & 22). There are two
rows on each external hemi-cylinder of each bar. On the external
aspect of each bar, therefore, there are,four lines of cilia (Pl. VII.
fig. 10 b, a). They drive two currents m intersecting directions.
On the interna aspect of each bar, that namely which faces the

Ann ..& Mag. Nat.Hist. S.2.Vol.14. PLVII.

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Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 259

interlamellar water-tubes, these rows of cilia are single on the
opposite sides. The excurrent streams are consequently driven by
a power which is one-half in amount of that by which the water
is propelled through the lamelle into the tubes. No cilia are
detectable on the supporting framework between the lamelle. The
current raised by the cilia which are distributed on the external
surface of the lamelle tends in the direction of the free border ;
that excited by the internally-placed cilia bears towards the
proximal border, coinciding with the outlet of the interlamellar
tubes. Itis a true ciliary current; but it is reinforced, quick-
ened from time to time, iy the contractile, voluntary action of
the musculo-fibrous parts which constitute the intervectal and
interlamellar framework. The cilia which fringe the free border
of the gill propel the water in the direction of the mouth, at
right angles, consequently, with that raised by those covering
the flat surfaces of the gill. It is an alimentary, not a respira-
tory current. It is powerful enough to bear on its waves pellets
of food for the mouth. The true aérating currents travel along
the naked lines between the rows of cilia. These are the
ultimate scene of the respiratory process.

Thus ends an imperfect sketch. It is but a rude. outline of
a beautiful picture. Much is left to the industry of observers
coming after the author. Magnetic thoughts, indicating the
pole of truth, have been but hastily projected. May they
stimulate others to a truth-admiring repetition of his labours !

EXPLANATION OF PLATES VI. VII. anp VIII.

Puiate VI.

Fig. 1. Complete view of the double gill of Pholas candida. The attached
border is held upwards as it were. a, 0, are the large afferent
and efferent trunks (of which there is a set in the border of each
lamella) communicating with the parallel vessels, as shown at (7)
and (h); ¢, c, ec, mark the longitudinal pieces of the intra-tubular
framework of solid structures; k, k, k, show the mode in which
these longitudinal pieces form and bound the interlamellar water-
tubes (j,7, 7); d, d, d, ave the transverse pieces of the framework
on which the lamellz (m, ¢) of parallel vessels rest, and by which
the latter are held apart, and which cross at right angles the axes
of the interlamellar water-tubes; e, f, denote the two series of
loops of which the free border of this double gill is composed ;
they lie on two distinct planes one above the other; they are
shown as if they were few in number and far between; they exist
in nature in innumerable multitudes and packed with dense close-
ness. m, n, represent the course of the bars in the upper lamella ;
e, i, that of the lower. The arrows at the base of the gill emerge
out of the interlamellar water-passages. g, mtervascular fibrous
connecting pieces.

Fig. 2. Is aview of asmall portion of the entire single or supplementary (sic)
gill in Pholas candida, a, b, afferent and efferent trunks giving and

17*

260

Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

receiving the blood of two separate lamelle, not that of the same
lamella as in the case of the double gill; h, h, bars of the upper
lamella; f, those of the lower; e, connecting fibrous threads
tying together the bars; d, the bars of the lower lamella, ¢, 7;
c, c, the interlamellar framework as explained in the double gill.
g & f, show the single row of loops of which the free margin of
this single gill is composed: but here the plane of each loop is
placed vertically, not horizontally as in the double gill.

Fig. 3. A diagram representing the arrangement of the loops, a, a, c, d, at

the free margin of the gill in some species; 4, is the water-chan-
nel conveying a current towards the mouth. The loops are placed
on vertical planes. Each lamella in this case is composed of
afferent or efferent vessels exclusively.

Fig. 4. Two loops from the free margin of the double gill of Pholas, show-

ing the mode in which the continuous membrane, a, a, which in
some bivalves, if not in Pholas, really forms the blood-channel.
In such eases the bars, b, b, c, c, would be solid. The water-
stigmata (intervectal orifices), d, are in such instances present only
between alternate pairs of bars.

Fig. 5. Plan representing the manner in which the bars, a & 6, of two se-

pai lamelle placed on the same vertical planes, but different
orizontal planes, are tied together by vertical partitional perfo-
rated membranes (e); d, shows the water-orifices in that con-
necting structure (¢) which unites the bars of the same lamella
horizontally.

Fig. 6—6*. Minute anatomy of the branchial bars in those cases in which

the hyaline cartilages, a, a, are so closely approached as to form
the boundary of the channel (c); 4, 6, pieces of the cilia-bearing
epithelium stripped off.

Fig. 7. View of a piece of the entire gill of Thracia conveca. The free,

distal margin is turned upwards. a, b, the double rows of verti-
cally disposed loops of which this margin is made up; g, the con-
traction which occurs between the interlamellar water-tubes (e) ;
Jf, one of the transverse pieces of the interlamellar framework
in view, crossing the water-tube, indicated by the arrow.

Fig. 8. The same cut horizontally along the length of the bars. The free

edge (6, c) of the upper lamella is left. . d, d, show the mode in
which the transverse pieces of the imtra-tubular framework lie
between the lamelle, a, 6, which constitute the walls of those
tubes; e, e, arrows denoting the direction of the water-currents
in the tubes.

PuaTteE VII.

Fig. 9. A small piece of the free edge of the double gill of Venus striatula.

Fig.

Fig.

a, b, loops of the bars of the two component lamellz lying hori-
zontally ; the loops lobed (fig. 10) as they are in Mytilus. c, the
afferent and efferent bars of a single loop. The arrow descends
from the interlamellar water-tubes.

10. One of the loops from fig. 9, enlarged, representing the lines and

disposition of the vibratile cilia, a, 6: c, is a fleshy nodule tying
the loop to its neighbour.

11. The free margin of the gill of a minute freshwater bivalve. It is

produced with a view to illustrate the continuous membrane which _
im some cases ties the branchial bars together at the free border of

the gill. a, b, the loops of the two lamelle are shown as if they
were separated by the intervening tube (c), but in nature the

Fig. 12.

Fig. 13.

Fig. 14.

Fig. 15.

Fig. 16.

Fig. 17.

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 261

lamelle are fused together at the free border, and the intermediate

tubes are czcal.

A few looped bars from the preceding, magnified, showing the de-
licate transverse threads, c, c, c, which cross the branchial bars at
distant intervals. They lie on the inside or tubular aspect of the
lamelle, and sometimes supersede the intra-tubular framework.
The open spaces (d) between these cross threads are the “ inter-
vectal ”’ water-orifices. a, 5, are either vascular bars, or two rigid
sides bounding an intermediate membranous channel, which then
is the blood-channel. ;

A small portion from the distal edge of the double or upper gill
of Cardium. a,b, the upper and lower loops of which this border
is composed. The planes of the loops have a vertical position in
relation, that is, to the plane of the whole gill. c, the fleshy
or membranous structure which unites the loops. It belongs
probably to the intra-tubular apparatus, d, d. Although in this
double gill, as in al/ double acephalan gills, the free edge 1s double,
the interlamellar water-tubes f, and arrows g, are single. The
double row of loops runs into one at a little distance from the
margin, in order to form one system of tubes. This union of the
bars is shown at? and e. h, indicates the fleshy structures,—a part
of the intra-tubular cross bars by which the Jodes or “ pectina-
tions ” of the gill are held together.

A portion of the free margin of the inferior or single gill of Car-
dium. This figure exhibits perfectly the manner in which the
limbs ()—(which, arranged in a linear series, form the upper wall
of the tube (d), or the upper lamella of the gill)—of the same
system of loops pass, by looping vertically, as shown at a, into
those of the lower wall of the tubes, or, which is the same thing,
into the lower lamella of the gill.

Shows the alternate mode by which the membranous blood-
channels (0, b, 6) are formed by the solid bars (a, a, a, a) of con-
tiguous, but distinct loops. In such a case, which is the normal
type.in the branchiz of all Tunicata, the cilia are disposed ‘in
Imes only on that side of each bar which is nearest to the water-
fissures (c). These fissures, in such examples, are not crossed by
transverse connecting threads.

Represents one of the lobes, or tubular pectinations, from the
single gill of Cardium, cut longitudinally, illustrating the mode
in which the water-tubes are formed.

Puate VIII.

The “bars” from the gill of Mytilus, followed throughout the
whole of their minute anatomy. a, 0, are the afferent and efferent
blood-trunks, running along the attached margin of the upper
lamella A. This border of the gill in Mytzlus is represented as
including two trunks, on the theory, as yet not quite proved,
that the two edges, c and c, would then be the begmning of the
blood-channel along the blunt edge, and a, a, a, would mark the
termination of that, travelling along the acute margin of the same
penknife-shaped process. j, 7, are the corresponding trunks at
the proximal] border of the inferior lamella; e, e, mark the con-
tinuous membrane by which, in this gill, the bars are tied together
at the proximal border, so that no water can pass between the bars ;
SF, f,f, are open orifices between the fleshy nodules, 9, 0, 0, 0,
by which the aérating water enters from without into the inter-

262

Fig. 18.

Fig. 19.

Fig. 20,

Fig. 21.

Fig. 22.

Fig. 23.

Fig. 24.

On the Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration.

lamellar water-tubes ; g, g, g; are the superior lobes of the single
loop, of which the free margin of the gill in Mytilus is composed ;
p is the lower lobe. The deep groove between these lobes is
the great alimentary water-channel, bearing a current moving in
the direction of the mouth. /, is a fleshy nodule, by which the
loops are united into a series; k, k, k, are horizontal water-
passages ; m, m, fleshy nodules, which connect the contiguous
bars. The system of arrows, g, g, g, indicate the direction of the
great respiratory current, along the upper surface of the lamella ;
1, i, i, the lower: both having the same direction—towards the
free margin of the gill.

Is a transverse section of one tube from the gill of Mytilus,
exhibiting the mode in which the lamine separate, in order to
form a tube (a, b).

Four bars from the same gill, illustrating further the vertical
parallel planes on which the penknife-shaped bars are placed, and
the mode more exactly in which they are tied together.

A magnified view of a minute portion of a single blade-like bar
from the gill of Mytilus. It illustrates the distribution of the
cilia; and the water-currents, denoted by the arrows, set in
motion by them. a, b, are intended to show the position of the
blood-channels in the axes of the thickened lines of either edge
of the blade. If the upper lamella in the exceptional gills of
Mytilus should be hereafter proved to carry only a single system
(afferent or efferent) of blood-currents, the channel carrying such
a single current must prove to be a flat passage, whose transverse
section would extend from a to b; e, e, & c, fleshy nodules.
Two longitudinal lobes, or pectinations, from the gill of the
common Oyster. a, c, the double loops of which the free margin
is composed. They are drawn as if separated from each other,
in'a tubular form; but, naturally, the two planes of loops lie in
close apposition. At this border in Ostrea, the branchial bars are
soldered together by a continuous membrane over the interval
included in the dotted lines g. f, are the transverse pieces of the
intra-tubular framework. By these transverse pieces, the lamelle
forming the water-tubes are sometimes drawn into quadrilateral
figures, d, e.

A few of the “bars” from the same gill, showing that each bar is
an independent vessel. The component hyaline cartilages, d, c,
are brought close together, so as to form a cylindrical channel, e.
a, b, exhibit the transverse structures, as running along one (the
internal) of the tubes. This arrangement proves that the latter
cannot be transverse vessels.

A portion of the single gill of Venus, drawn as an outline plan.
e, d, f, mark the course of the blood, and the character of the
blood-channel, from the attached margin (a) of the superior
lamella, to the end of its course at the proximal border (0) of the
inferior lamella.

A second plan of the gill of Mytilus, constructed on the supposi-
tion that each lamella carries only a single blood-current, of
which the beginning is shown at d, margin a, and the end at d,
margin 6. The border, 4, depicts the order of the vibratile cilia.

[To be continued.| |

Mr. J. S. Bowerbank on the Remains of a gigantic Bird. 263

XXIV.—On the Remains of a gigantic Bird (Lithornis Emuinus)
from the London Clay of Sheppey. By J. 8, Bowrersanx,
F.R.S. &e.

Tue first indication of the former existence of new and often
very large animals is frequently afforded by small and compa-
ratively insignificant fragments, and such is the case in the pre-
sent instance.

Professor Owen has described, in his ‘ Fossil Mammals and
Birds,’ the remains of more than one spe-
cies of the latter from the London clay,
which specimens.are in the collection of the
College of Surgeons, and in those of Mr.
Wetherell and myself; and since that period
I have acquired another specimen, which ap-
pears also to be the remains of Lithornis vul-
turinus ; but none of these birds could have
exceeded in size one of the smaller species of
the Gull tribe. The unassuming specimen
that I now introduce to my readers as a
portion of one of the long bones of a bird,
surpasses in size a full-grown Albatross, a
bird having an expanse of wing of about 12
or 13 feet.

I procured. this fragment at Sheppey some
years since, and had really forgotten it until
it was brought to my recollection in conse-
quence of the late Dr. Mantell having obliged
me with the examination of some similar
but somewhat smaller portions of bone of
a Pterodactylus from the Wealden formation
of the Isle of Wight, when the idea arose in
my mind of the possibility of its turning
out to be the remains of a Tertiary Ptero-
dactyl of like dimensions to some of the
larger chalk species ; but on submitting a
fragment of it to microscopical examination,
I at once saw that there was not a trace of
reptilian character in its structure, but that,
on the contrary, the bone-cells and Haversian
canals presented all the well-known pecu-
liarities of form and arrangement that cha-
racterize the Bird tribe.

' The length of the specimen is 4 inches,
and the greatest diameter of the larger end
is exactly 1 inch. At this part the section of the bone is trian-

264: Mr. E. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon.

gular, with the angles rounded off, and having two sides some-
what larger than the third one; the angularity decreases pro-
gressively to the other end of the specimen, and at that portion
but faint traces of it are observable ; at this end of the bone the
greatest diameter rather exceeds 10 lines. The thickest portion
of the walls of the bone, which is at the curves supplying the
place of the angles at the larger end, is 14 line, while the
thinnest portion in the same plane is about the middle of the
shortest side of the triangular section, and does not exceed $ of
a line.

These structural proportions, in combination with the micro-
scopical characters and the great density of the walls of the bone,
leave no doubt of the character of the animal to which this spe-
cimen has formerly belonged ; and from the marks of muscular
attachment, the form and other peculiarities, my friend Professor
Quekett, who has examined the bone, is of opinion that it has
formed part of the proximal end of a tibia belonging to a bird
little if at all inferior in size to an Emu. On comparing the
fossil with the tibia of an adult Emu, the skeleton of which was
about 6 feet high, I found that the latter was 16 inches in length ;
and on measuring the diameter of the parts of the recent bone
corresponding with those of the fossil one, they appeared to be
as nearly as possible identical ; and the remains of the impression
of the muscular attachment, and of the orifice for the admission
of the blood-vessel into the shaft of the bone, which are situated
in the recent one within the first 6 inches of its length from the
proximal end, are in precisely the same relative position in both
specimens.

There is every appearance therefore, as far as the mutilated
condition of the fossil will allow us to judge, that it has formed
part of an ancient Struthious bird as large as, and probably
closely allied to, the Emu. The section of the bone represented
in the woodcut is taken at the transverse fracture, about one-
third of the length of the specimen from the larger end.

XXV.—WNotes on the Ornithology of Ceylon, collected during an
eight years’ residence in the Island. By Epcar Leroroxip
Layarp, F.Z.8., C.M.E.S. &c.

[Concluded from p- 115.]

257. Numenivus arquata, Linn. Coudrey-malley-cotan, Mal.
Whelp, Dutch.

Common along all the flat sea borders in company with

Mr. E. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon. 265

258. Numentus Pu #orvs, Linn.
Neither of these species seem ever to be found in the interior.

259. Toranus ruscus, Linn.

260. Toranus ocuropus, Linn.
261. Toranus catipris, Linn.
262. Toranus HyPoLEucos, Linn.
263. Toranvs eLorris, Linn.

264. ToTanus sTaGNATILIs, Bechst.
265. ActTiTIs GLAREOLA, Gmel.
266. Trinca MINUTA, Leis.

267. TRINGA SUBARQUATA, Gmel.

268. TRINGA PLATYRHYNCHA, Gould, B. E. pl. 331. Ola-watua,
Cing. Cotan, Tam. ;

These birds are generally distributed in all parts of the island
where mud and water combine to offer them congenial homes.
Totanus hypoleucos is found high up in the hilly country, fre-
quenting the streams, walking upon the boulders which appear
above the foaming torrents, in search of flies, or running on the
sand in the shallow pools to feed upon the minute crustaceans
which abound in such localities.

Tringa platyrhyncha is the rarest of the whole; one or two
specimens were procured at Pt. Pedro, where also I procured a
single pair of

269. Limosa ZGOCEPHALA, Linn,

These I killed in the month of April in fine plumage.

270. Himantopus canpipus, Bonn. Poullow-kall, Mal. ; lit.
* Long-legs.”

Abundant in small flocks about the jungle tanks. They are
by no means shy, but will suffer a near approach, and often
alight on the same spot, though shot at several times ; in flying
they carry theix long legs stretched out behind them, ‘and utter

a shrill ery of “ wheet, wheet,” which, when many join in chorus,
is not an unmusical sound.

271. Recurvirostris avocerta, Linn.

A pair of these birds were shot by my esteemed friend
D. Quinton, Esq., at Chundicolom near Jaffna, on the estuary,

266 Mr. E. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon.

272. Ruyncnza Bencaxensts, Gmel. Rajah- -ieheeiakie Cing. ;
lit. King Snipe.

Not uncommon in all marshes ; it is a bird of passage, arriving
in October. Some few breed with us, the season of incubation
being from May to July. The nest is a simple depression in the
soil, and the eggs, four in number, are dark nankeen-yellow,
profusely blotched with very large dark dry blood-coloured

markings. Axis 1 inch 4 lines, diam. 1 inch.

273. ScoLoPpax RUSTICOLA, Linn,

The Woodcock has been shot several times at Nuwera Elia,
but has never fallen under the notice of either Dr. Kelaart or
myself in its feathers. Dr. Kelaart says that he saw “a couple
of birds called ‘ woodcocks’ at a dinner table, which tasted un-
commonly like the birds of that name.” I heard that a speci-
men was preserved in the Military Medical Museum in Colombo
in Dr. Kinnis’ time, but, like many other specimens there, has
been abstracted or suffered to fall into decay.

274. GALLINAGO sTENURA. Kas-Matua, Cing.

The common Indian Snipe is very abundant in all parts of
Ceylon. They arrive in Jaffna about September.

275. GALLINAGO SCOLOPACINUS, Bon.

Not having met with this Snipe, | am obliged to quote
Dr. Kelaart for its identity ; he says, it “is found only in some
of the highland districts. We have seen a few at Nuwera Elia*.”
I shot many snipes at Gillymalle which proved to be the pre-
ceding species, but I see no reason why the bird should not exist
in the island, particularly as it is found in Caleutta: why, how-
ever, in this case should it be confined to the hills ?

276. GALLINAGO GALLINULA, Linn.

In this instance I think the “ sportsman’s authority” may be
trusted, as there is but little fear of the “Jack” being con-
“founded with any of the Indian Snipes.

The late Mr. V. Burleigh of Jaffna, an ardent sportsman and
beautiful bird-stuffer, told me that he used frequently to meet with
them about Wally some years ago, but that of late he had not
seen any. My own testimony only reaches to a bird I saw on
table, luckily with both bill and legs perfect, and this I feel con-
vinced in my own mind was a Jack Snipe.

* And yet he says at page 135 that he has only “ sporismen’s authority ”
for this species. There are very few sportsmen that I ever found sufficiently
discriminating to trust.

Mr. E. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon. 267

277. HypRopHASIANUS CHIRURGUS, Scop. Ballal-saaru, Cing. ;
lit. Cat Teal (also Juana, Cing.), from their mewing cry.

Exceedingly abundant on all tanks, and not uncommon even
on Colombo fale, frequenting the Lotus beds, walking on the
broad leaves ; they fly with great strength and facility, mounting
to a considerable altitude.

278. Porzana Fusca, Linn.
Syn. Gallinula rubiginosa, Temm.

Korawaka, Cing. The family name of all the tribe.

Rare: I have only seen three specimens, all found at Cotta
near Colombo.

279. Porzana Crytonica, Gmel. Nordewind, Dutch.

These birds arrive in the south of Ceylon in great numbers in
the month of October and November, coming in with the first
northerly wind which blows (whence the Dutch name). They
drop exhausted, as if from a long flight, in the streets and houses,
and conceal themselves till recovered from their fatigues. I
found one in the well of my carriage, another in the folds of the
gig apron, and a third in a shoe under my bed! The irides are
a lovely yellow and carmine blended, the yellow forming a circle
nearest the pupil. Some eggs were given me by a native as the
eggs of this bird, which were precisely similar in all respects,
save that of size, to those of the Gallinula phenicura. Axis
13 lines, diam. 10 lines.

280. Porzana pyem@ma, Nan.

Very rare: a single specimen was brought to me alive from |
Cotta.

281. Raxuius striatus, Linn,

I received one specimen of this bird from Batticaloa, and
another was brought alive to me while at Pt. Pedro. I placed it
im my aviary, and it lived well on small sea-fish, soaked grain,
&c.; it was unfortunately destroyed, along with many other
favourites, by rats.

282. Rauuus Inpicus, Blyth, J. A. 8. xvin.

Three or four of these Rails were shot in the Jayelle paddy
fields near Colombo, by Lieut. Long of H.M. Ceylon Rifle Regi-
ment, to whom I am indebted for these and several other inter-
esting specimens.

268 Mr. E. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon.

283. GALLINULA PH@NICURA, Pennant. Korawaka, Cing., from
its ery, which this word precisely resembles.

Abundant throughout Ceylon in all marshy places, tanks,
rivers, and even ditches. It constructs a nest similar in shape
and position to that of our English Water-hen, and deposits from
six to fourteen eggs of a pale fawn colour, thickly mottled with
dark pinkish brown and bluish markings. Axis 1 in. 7 lines,
diam. 1 in. 2 lines.

284. GALLINULA CHLOROPUS, Linn.

Very rare: I only procured one specimen, that I shot in a
marsh near Pt. Pedro.

285. GALLINULA cRisTaTA, Lath. Willi-kukula, Cing.; lit.
Marsh Fowl.

Common in the south about Matura, frequenting the sedges,
and feeding mornings and evenings on the inundated grassy
lands or paddy fields. It is very rare northward, only one spe-
cimen falling under my notice : I shot it in the same locality as
the preceding.

286. PoRPHYRIO POLIOCEPHALUS, Lath. Kittala, Cing.

Abundant in secluded marshes. It is a shy wary bird, diffi-
cult to flush (unless the shooter comes suddenly upon it), pre-
ferring to skulk amongst the reeds, over and between which it
runs with great facility and swiftness. Its nest is constructed
like that of Gal. phenicura; the eggs a yellowish buff colour,
sparingly marked with smallish purple, faint blue, and olive-green
spots.

287. PHG@NICOPTERUS ROSEUS, Pallas. Inglis Koku, Tam.; lit.
English Heron ; the birds when standing in lines, feeding,
resembling with their red wings and white bodies an English
regiment in full parade dress. Krop-gans, Dutch.

Migratory, appearing in the north in November; they are so
plentiful on the salt-lakes and estuaries of the northern and east-
ern provinces that I have seen the shores for miles white with
them, and when the assembled multitudes rose on the wing, it was
with a noise that drowned the roar of the surf which thundered
on the beach close by. They are said to breed near Hambantotte.

288. SARKIDIORNIS MELANONOTUS, Pennant.

Not uncommon on the larger tanks ih the Wanny; it keeps
together in flocks, and I fancy breeds with us.

Mr. E. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon. 269

289. Nerrapus CoROMANDELIANUS, Gmel. Mal-saaru, Cing. :
lit. Flower Teal, from its beauty. Rajah-tara, Mal.; lit.
King Duck.

Common on many of the tanks in the Wanny, particularly
in the neighbourhood of Anarajahpoora, where also

290. ANAS P@CILORHYNCHA, Pennant,
is frequently met with, though it is one of our rarest ducks.

291. Denprocyena arcuata, Cuvier. Chemba-tara, Mal. ; lit.
Red Teal ; and Tatta-saaru, Cing. Tree Duck and Whistling
Teal of European sportsmen.

Common on all fresh water throughout Ceylon, but never
found on the sea. They breed with us in the month of June.

292. Darita acuta, Linn.

The “ Pin-tail” is occasionally shot on the Jaffna estuary by
the native duck-shooters and brought into the bazaar for sale,
fetching about 3d. each.

293. QUERQUEDULA cREcCcA, Linn,
. and
294. QuERQUEDULA crRcrA, Linn.

During the months of November, December, and January,
the head of the Jaffna estuary, and all the low grounds just within
the sea-bank (which is usually broken through at this season),
are covered with vast flocks of these birds, which are killed so
plentifully by the natives with their miserable guns and worse
powder, that they are sold in the bazaars as low as one halfpenny
each. The method adopted by the native hunter is to train one
of the plough buffaloes for the sport ; it is guided by means of a
couple of ropes attached to its horns, a slight pull at which turns
the animal right or left, thus enabling the shooter to keep on the
off-side till within shot, when he rests his rusty musket on the
brute’s shoulder and fires. A punt and gun on these waters
would do wonders, and I conceive amply repay an ardent sports-
man the trouble and expense of reaching the spot.

295. FunicuLta RUFINA? Pallas?

I introduce this species with a mark of doubt, because I only
know them through my telescope. I saw two or three pairs for
several weeks on a piece of brackish water between Jaffna and
Chavagacherry ; they would not allow me to get within 250 or
300 yards of them, and I therefore never managed to shoot one.

270 Mr. E. L, Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon.

A head of F. rufina, however, which I received from Calcutta was
identified by a native as of a bird he knew and had killed on that
very piece of water, though he had not seen them elsewhere.

296. SpaTuLa CLYPEATA, Linn.

Passing over the bridge crossing an arm of the above-named
lake, I surprised a female of this bird with her brood of twelve
young ones, most of which I captured ; the mother, though shot
at before I knew of the little ones, kept flying round me and
often dropping into the water and feigning lameness, to draw me
away from her offspring: this occurred in the early part of
March. I have bought old birds from the shooters in November.

297. Popicers Puitippensis, Gmel. Mukelepan, Tam.; lit.
Diver.

Common on large tanks and even in Colombo lake.

298. LARUS BRUNNICEPHALUS, Jerd. Pullu, Tam. ; lit. Wormer.
Family name for Gulls and Terns.

Common all round the coast and on the lakes and estuaries ;
it swims well and catches small fish.

299. Larus icHtTHYAETUS, Pallas.

I saw two specimens of this fine and unmistakeable Gull on
the 11th of November 1851, at Pt. Pedro, after a severe storm ;
they were leisurely wending their way along the edge of the coral
reefs northward, and I watched them with the glass for five
minutes or more.

300. Dromas ARDEOLA, Payk.

I place this bird here among the Terns, as I cannot help agree-
ing with Mr. Blyth in his remarks upon its affinities and posi-
tion. I have obtained several specimens, all at sea, with one
exception, which was on Calpentyn lake or estuary. A descrip-
tion of the egg which I formerly sent to Mr. Blyth, and his ob-
servation on the species, will be found in ‘Contributions to

Ornithology,’ published by Sir William Jardine.
301. SyLocHELIDON Casprivs, Lath.
302. GrLocHELIDON ANeLIcus, Mont.
303. Hyprocuexipon [npicvus, Stephens.
304. THALASSEUS cRISTATUS, Stephens.

305. THaxasseus BEnGALENSIS, Lesson. -

Mr. E. L. Layard on the Ornithology of Ceylon. 271

306. Senna auRANTIA, Gray.

307. Sterna Javanica, Horsf.

308. SrerNuLA minvuTA, Linn.

309. ONYCHOPRION ANASTHZTUS, Scop.

The nine species here enumerated are found pretty generally
along our sea-border and on the lakes, estuaries, and salt lee-
ways. I could on any evening shoot six or eight specimens of
Sy. Caspius, either off Wally or Puthencally Bridges, as they flew
outwards to sea, and the same in the morning as they returned
inland. G. Anglicus and H. Indica are common all round the
island. Of Th. cristatus I obtained one specimen at Pt. Pedro.
Th. Bengalensis and S. aurantia pass in vast flights westward
along the coral-reefs on the north of Ceylon during the months
of May and June. St. Javanica is common even on the lakes at
Anarajahpoora, where also St. minuta is often seen, though the
latter is most common on tanks and still waters near the sea-
shore ; these two species hunt much over dry paddy fields,
picking up insects of all kinds, small crabs, &c. Ony. anasthetus
is very rare; I obtained three specimens about ten miles out at
sea, off Pt. Pedro, when on a dredging excursion.

310. ATAGEN ARIEL.

Mr. Brodie of the Ceylon Civil Service first shot this species
on Calpentyn lake, and I subsequently saw two, which were
killed from the Light-house in Colombo in February 18538 ; one
passed into my possession, the other into the Museum of the
Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. I frequently saw
them during the month flying at immense altitudes over the
coast.

311. PLorus metanoGasTER, Gmel. Beli Kawa, Cing.

Common on all good-sized tanks: breeds at the Tangalle lake.

312. Petecanus Puriiiprensis, Gmel. Koolookedai, Mal.

Not unfrequently met with in small flocks on the sea-coast
upon estuaries and still water. I am told they breed near Mul-
letivoe, which is a splendid locality for all these tribes.

313. GracuLus SrnEnsts, Shaw.

I have seen a few of these birds on the fishing kraals in the
Jaffna estuary, in company with the much commoner

272 M.W. Hofmeister on the Fertilization of Ferns.

314. GracuLus PYGMAUS, Pallas. Cadel cagam, Mal.; lit. Sea
Crow. Dia Kawa, Cing.; lit. Water Kawa. See Kraz,
Dutch. Graya de Mare, Port.

—which is also found abundantly on all the imland lakes and
rivers of any magnitude.

315. THALASSIDROMA PELAGICA, Briss.

The Stormy Petrel is occasionally seen flitting about Colombo
roadstead and Galle harbour, particularly after rough weather.
It was the last bird that I saw when I quitted the shores of the
island, and the last of my “ Notes on the Ornithology of Ceylon.”

XXVI.— On the Fertilization of Ferns. By W. Hormetster *.

[Tux author having kindly sent me a copy of the following note,
I place it before the readers of the ‘ Annals’ as an important
supplement to the notices I have published on the subject in
this Journal + and elsewhere. It may be remarked that these
statements, recording direct observation of the passage of the
spermatozoids down the archegonium, take away the necessity of
attributing a conducting power to the mucilaginous contents of
the canal of the archegonium, which I speculatively suggested,
never having been able to find a spermatozeid in contact with
the germinal vesicle.—A. H.]

Numerous examinations of the prothallia of various Ferns in
which the embryo was in course of development—examinations
made for the purpose of ascertaining the order of formation of
the cells of the vegetative organs—have led to my discovery of
certain circumstances, hitherto unknown, affording more direct
conclusions regarding the process of reproduction in the higher
Cryptogamia.

The germinal vesicle originates in the central cell of the arche-
gonium, around a nucleus which appears in the vaulted apex of
that cell, without the primitive central nucleus undergoing any
essential change. I have already observed and described this
phenomenon in the Equisetaceze (Abhandl. der kon. Sachs. Ge-
sellsch. der Wiss. 11. 172); it holds good of all the vascular
Cryptogamia. Before fertilization the germinal vesicle fills
scarcely one-third of the central cell. The primary nucleus of

* From the Reports of the Royal Society of Sciences of Saxony, April 22,
1854. Communicated by Arthur Henfrey, F.R.S. &c.

+ Ann. Nat. Hist. 2nd Ser. vol. ix. p. 444. Linnean Transactions,
vol. xxi. p. 117.

M. W. Hofmeister on the Fertilization of Ferns. 273

the latter has vanished by the time when the archegonium is
ready for impregnation. In the Ferns, as in the Equisetacee,
I never found more than one germinal vesicle in each arche-
gonium. In Salvinia, on the contrary, there are often two
present. ©

During the formation of the canal traversing the neck of the
archegonium, the membrane at the apex of the central cell
becomes softened. The spermatozoids which enter this canal
make their way through the mucilage filling it, as far as the in-
terior of the central cell, where they move actively round about
the germinal vesicle, which is closely adherent to the vaulted
apex of the central cell near the internal end of the canal, with
its hemispherical free end hanging down in the cavity. In one
case, when these spermatozoids had arrived at the central cell
of an archegonium of Aspidium Filix-mas, the movements lasted
for seven minutes from the commencement of the observation.
The cessation was accompanied (and probably caused) by the
coagulation of the albuminous substance of the fluid contents of
the central cell *,

When spermatozoids occurred in the cavity of the central cell,

~ * This is the place to mention the mode in which I proceeded in my
investigations. en Fern spores are thickly sown, a number of the ger-
minating prothallia soon advance far beyond the rest. At the time when
the advanced ones have long ceased to produce antheridia, and bear
abundance of archegonia (which in closely-tufted erect prothallia are pro-
duced on both surfaces, and most abundantly on those having most roots),
those which have remained behind in their growth are beginning to be
covered with antheridia. If the crop is now kept with little moisture for
several weeks and then suddenly abundantly watered, a large number of
antheridia and archegonia simultaneously burst. Then, in a few hours
- afterwards, the surface of the larger prothallia will be found almost covered
with moving spermatozoids. I now take such prothallia as exhibit freshly
opened archegonia, holding them by one wing between the finger and
thumb of the left hand, so that the upper face of the prothallium les upon
the thumb, and with a thin, narrow knife make delicate longitudinal sec-
tions perpendicular to the surface of the parenchymatous part of the pro-
thallium. When the cushion-like thickening of the tissue is only {th of
a line thick, after some practice it is not difficult to cut sections not more
than ;th of a line broad. If such sections are quickly examined under a
power of 200 or 300 diameters, spermatozoids may sometimes be found in
the interior of the archegonia which are exposed in their whole length. I
once saw two, one close behind the other, in the canal of the archegonium
of Pieris aquilina, when their movements ceased durmg the observation ;
‘ in the same Fern I saw one in motion in the central cell, at.the side of the
germinal vesicle. In Asp. Filix-mas I have seen a spermatozoid moving
in the central cell, once more besides the case mentioned in the text; and
in this, as well as in Asplenium septentrionale and Filia-foemina, I have seen
motionless spermatozoids lying beside the partially-developed germinal
vesicle. Thus the unequivocal observations of moving spermatozoids in the
central cell amount only to three ; but these were so clear and distinct as
to exclude all possibility of deception. ;
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 18

274 M. W. Hofmeister on the Fertilization of Ferns.

the entrance of this appeared almost closed by the expansion of
the neighbouring cells. This growing up of the internal mouth
of the canal evidently followed immediately the entrance of the
spermatozoid into the central cell. This is the first phenomenon
which gives evidence of the completion of the fertilization,
and not, as I formerly assumed (Vergleich. Unters. p. 82),
the division of some of the cells immediately surrounding the
central cell. The number of these is very variable in unfertilized
archegonia of the above-mentioned species. The impregnated
germinal vesicle enlarges until it fills the central cell, and then
commences its series of divisions (segmentation) which lay the
foundation of the various organs of the embryo.

In the Mosses also, the central cell of the archegonium be-
haves as an embryo-sac. There again the germinal vesicle is
found around a nucleus appearing free near (under) the primary
nucleus; shortly before the formation of the canal leading
through the neck of the archegonium, formed by the dissolution
of the axile row of cells of the latter. The new canal lies in the
lower convexity of the central cell,—its position, and that of the
young germinal vesicle, are therefore opposite to those of the
same organs in the vascular Cryptogamia. The primary nucleus
soon disappears, the germinal vesicle grows considerably, and in
the mature archegonium more than half fills the central cell.
In the Mosses it mostly floats free in the centre ; more rarely it
adheres to the side or the upper part of the wall, which, in the
archegonium ready for impregnation, softens into a jelly, but
does not completely dissolve. In Hepatice with very large
cavity of the archegonium, such as Riccia, Riella and Fossom-
broma, the germinal vesicle often rests against some point of the
upper convexity, projecting freely into the cavity. I have no
doubt that spermatozoids of the Mosses pass the cord of mucus
(strongly refracting light) which occupies the axis of the canal
of the archegonium and projects a short distance into its ex-
panded portion, that they enter into the latter and come in con-
tact with the outer surface of the germinal vesicle. I am the
more confident from having found moving spermatozoids, in
Funaria hygrometrica, which had penetrated down one-third of
the length of the neck of the archegonium. The tenuity of the
spermatozoids and the want of transparency in the walls of the
archegonium, will be a sufficient apology for the further fate of
the spermatozoids not having yet been observed here.

Mr. W. V. Guise on a new species of Alpheus. 275

XXVIT.— Upon a new species of “ Alpheus” discovered upon the
coast of “ Herm” (Channel Islands). By W.V. Guisz, Esq.,
F.G.S.*

In the course of an excursion to the Channel Islands, under-
taken last summer with a view to natural-history pursuits, I
spent three days in the little islet of Herm, which, though a
mere rock, scarcely three miles in circumference, is equalled by
few spots of similar extent within the area of the British seas, in
respect of the rich field it offers for the researches of the marine
naturalist.

The Channel Islands, though an appanage of the crown of
Great Britain, are, geographically speaking, rather a part of
France than of England ; and this situation, in a sort of debate-
able ground, may perhaps in some degree account for the fact
of their natural history having been to a certain extent over-
looked by the naturalists of both countries ; though few districts
can be expected to yield a richer harvest to the scientific inves-
tigator, constituting as they do the northern limit to many
Mediterranean forms, which, here found flourishing in full
vigour, and showing no signs of decrepitude, dwarfishness or
decay, suddenly disappear, and find no footing upon our side of
the Channel. This is well known to be the case amongst the
testaceous Mollusca; and there is little reason to doubt, that
researches prosecuted amongst the other kingdoms of nature
- would be rewarded by the discovery of many novel and import-
ant facts. : :

Amongst the Crustacea, to which I propose especially to direct
your attention, it is only necessary to refer to the discovery of
the singular and beautiful “ Phyllosoma sarniense,” figured and
described by Mr. C. F. Lukis in the 8th volume of ‘ Loudon’s
Magazine of Natural History, which example, still I believe
unique, has its only analogues in one Mediterranean species, and
in a few others confined to tropical areas.

I propose now to lay before you another Crustacean, which it
has been my good fortune to obtain in a tide-pool at low water
on the islet of Herm, and which, from its immediate recognition
as the “red shrimp” by the fisherman who accompanied me, I
have reason to believe is not of unfrequent occurrence. My first
- idea was, that I had obtained “ Alpheus ruber,” itself a great
prize, being a Mediterranean species of the greatest rarity in our
seas; but upon comparing it carefully with the descriptions of
Milne-Edwards in his ‘ Histoire Naturelle des Crustacés,’ I be-

* Read at a Meeting of the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Club, on Tuesday
9th May 1854.
18*

276 Mr. W. V. Guise on a new species of Alpheus.

came convinced that I had had the good fortune to obtain an
entirely new species of Alpheus ; and further investigations have
only tended to confirm me in that opinion.
The genus “ Alpheus” is thus characterized by Milne-
Edwards :—

Carapace prolonged in form of a hood or vault over the eyes.
Rostrum small, and sometimes wanting.

Superior antenne small ; first articulation short, and armed with-
out with a plate, generally spiniform ; two following joints cy-
lindrical, having two terminal threads, of which the superior
is thicker and shorter than the inferior, and presenting traces
of a division into two filaments towards the end.

Inferior antenne inserted without and below the preceding.
Lamellar palp of moderate size, sometimes small and pointed.
Mandibles provided with a short, broad, palpiform appendage.

External pedipalps more or less slender and elongated, termina-
tion broad and somewhat foliaceous.

Two first pairs of legs didactyle, the first pair strong; the one
much larger and more robust than the other.

Second pair weak and filiform, having the wrist multi-articulate.
Three last pairs of legs monodactyle and of moderate length.

This genus, says M. Edwards, appears to belong properly to
the seas of warm climates. Some species are found in the ©
Mediterranean ; but the greater part come from the seas of the
Antilles or from the Indian Ocean.

The genus is divided into those which have, and those which
have not, a spiniform rostrum. It is further subdivided into those
having a spine attached externally to the basal joint of the
external antenne, and those not so furnished.

The example now before us will be found to belong to the
second subdivision of the first division, 7. e. to those provided
with a pointed beak, and not having an external spine at the
base of the external antenne.

Under this head three species are described by M. Edwards as

inhabiting the European seas, viz.—

Alpheus ruber, Alpheus Edwardsii, and Alpheus dentipes, which
are characterized as follows :—

Alpheus ruber. “ Body very slender ; larger hand provided with
four longitudinal carinz, two on the upper edge, two on the
external face ; lower margin obtuse; moveable finger much
shorter than the immoveable one. A spine upon the upper

Mr. W. V. Guise on a new species of Alpheus. 277

margin of both arms at some distance from the termina-
tion.”

It will be remarked that nothing is here said concerning the
character of the anterior portion of the carapace; but as this
species is said to be “ trés voisine de la précédente ” (“ Alpheus
brevirostris,’ a new Holland species), which is characterized as
having the border of the supra-orbital hood rounded and without
spines, it is to be inferred that the like character also applies to
A. ruber.

Alpheus Edwardsii. “ Very closely allied to the preceding. Ante-
rior borders of supra-orbital vaults armed with a spine, so that
the front presents three nearly equal teeth. The second joint
of the superior antennz about half as long again as the first.
Lamellar appendage of the external antennz dilated a little
within towards the end, and not passing the footstalk of the
superior antennz. Pedipalps very narrow towards the end,
and extending beyond the footstalk of the superior antenne.
Anterior legs nearly of the same form as in the preceding
species, but more enlarged, and having the pincers more
irregular ; those on one side slender and lengthened.”

Alpheus dentipes. ‘ Closely allied to the preceding : having like-
wise the supra-orbital vaults prolonged into points, but
having the two anterior legs nearly of the same size; the
pincers of the smaller large at the base, but becoming ex-
tremely narrow towards the end; having the third articu-
lation of the second, third and fourth pairs of legs armed
with a pointed tooth externally, at one-third the length of

~ each.”

Upon comparison of my Channel Island individual with the
three species described above, I find the following points of
agreement and difference between them.

It assimilates with A. ruber in having the larger hand fur-
nished with longitudinal carine on the upper and the outer
surface ;

Differs, in not having the moveable finger longer than the
immoveable one ; and essentially in the spinous armature to the
supra-orbital hoods.

It assimilates with A. Edwards m having the anterior edge
of the supra-orbital hoods armed with short spines; and in
having the second joint of the superior antennz half as long
again as the first ;

Differs, inasmuch as the lamellar appendage is not dilated
towards the end ; in the longitudinal carinz upon the upper and

278 Mr. W. V. Guise on a new species of Alpheus.

outer surface of the larger pincers; in the proportions and
form of the anterior feet, and in other minor particulard®
Assimilates with A. dentipes, as with Edwardsit, in the spimous
terminations to the supra-orbital hoods ;
Differs, with respect to the comparative proportion between
the two anterior pairs of legs ; and inasmuch as the three hinder
pairs of legs are not armed externally with a pointed tooth.

Having thus shown in what respects the Alpheus from Herm
assimilates with, and differs from, the three species above re-
ferred to, it remains to describe its own particular character-
istics, which are as follows :—

The medial line of the carapace prolonged anteriorly into a
short beak: supra-orbital vaults, each furnished at the extremity
with a minute spine: “anterior legs unequal; the larger hand
having upon the upper edge two carine, one behind the other,
each terminating anteriorly in a small tooth projecting forwards ;
two carinz upon the outer surface of the claw, the lower one
having a short tooth: the moveable finger not shorter than the
immoveable one, flattened laterally, and broad at the point : the
immoveable finger triangular, strong, and forming a kind of
socket into which the opposing finger fits by a tubercle at its
extremity: lesser pincer having a toothed keel upon its upper
edge, equal in length to the others, but thinner, narrower, and
much less robust: second pair of legs didactyle, slender, and
having the wrist many-jointed.

Length 15 lines.

Colour deep scarlet, ni | the chele, which are mottled with
yellow.

From the want of other works of reference, besides those of
M. Edwards and of Professor Bell, I have it not in my power to
ascertain whether the species now under notice has been distin-
guished by later carcinologists ; but I have endeavoured, I think
satisfactorily, to show that it cannot be identified with either of
the European species of Alpheus described by the former distin-
guished naturalist. As regards both the figure and description
of Alpheus ruber in Bell’s ‘ British Crustacea,’ they having been
confessedly taken from an imperfect individual, found in the
stomach of a Cod-fish, have so little in common with my Channel
Island example, that, if identical with it, it must be presumed
that all the more marked points of agreement between them had
been digested away in the interior of the fish.

In the 8th volume of ‘ Loudon’s Magazine of Natural History,’
page 272, is however a notice of a Crustacean by the late Mr.
Hailstone, which certainly agrees far more nearly with my ex-
ample than do either of those to which I have already referred ;

Mr. W. V. Guise on a new species of Alpheus. 279

so nearly indeed, that but little doubt remains upon my mind of
its being identically the same. This species, which Mr. Hail-
stone calls “‘ Hippolyte rubra,” and of which a figure is annexed,
is thus described :—

“Superior antenne with two sete, the upper ones fringed
with hair and excavated below. Inferior antenne nearly the
length of the body. Pedipalps with three exserted joints, the
last bluntly pointed, and twice the length of the preceding one,
with two rows of fasciculi of hairs. First pair of legs didactyle,
very large, with the hands much compressed, unequal, the right:
being the larger, bristly ; the thigh excavated beneath, and its
inner margin spinulose; second pair didactyle, very long,
slender ; wrists many-jointed ; other legs terminated by a single
claw and spinulose within; the last pair the most slender.
Thorax with three short spines anteriorly. Tail with five plates,
the middle one blunt at its apex, with four spines arranged in
two lines. Colour deep scarlet, except above the eyes, which are
concealed under the shell, and above them it is transparent and
colourless. The tail is fringed with white hairs, and the legs are
mottled with yellow.”

Upon this, at page 274 (same volume), is a note by Mr. West-
wood, in which, with much skill and critical acumen, he traces
Mr. Hailstone’s individual to the group of Alpheade, and refers
it to Cryptophthalmus ruber of Rafinesque, which M. Edwards
identifies with his “ Alpheus ruber.” Mr. Westwood afterwards,
at page 552, proposed to elevate it into the type of a new genus
by the name of ‘ Dienecia,’

Mr. Hailstone’s description, as quoted above, might almost
stand word for word as applicable to my example, with which it
seems to tally in all important particulars, excepting as regards
size, which, in the case of Mr. Hailstone’s Crustacean, is barely
two-thirds that of mine. The figures too attached to Mr. Hail-
stone’s notice would serve equally well to illustrate mine, with
the exception of the hairy fringe attached to the setaceous extre-
mities of the superior antenne.

If Iam right in my supposition of the identity of my Channel
Island Crustacean with the three imdividuals described by Mr.
Hailstone as brought up by the trawl-net off Hastings in 1835,
it is evident that the half-digested relics procured by Mr. Cocks
at Falmouth are not the first examples of an Alpheus having
been recorded as an inhabitant of the British seas. Indeed it is
impossible to read Mr. Hailstone’s careful and minute description
without feeling convinced that a true Alphean was before him
when he made his drawing and description ; and I may be par-
doned for expressing my surprise, which I do with great defer-
ence to the high attamments of Professor Bell, that that distin-

280 Mr. P. H. Gosse on new species of British Actinie.

guished naturalist, im adopting the “ Crangon bispinosus”’ and
“ trispinosus” of Mr. Hailstone, should have omitted all reference
to a form so very remarkable and so carefully detailed as Mr.
Hailstone’s “ Hippolyte rubra.”

In the belief that my Channel Island Crustacean is a new and
undescribed species, I propose to bestow upon it the name of
Alpheus affinis ; thereby indicating the close relationship which
it bears to the three other European species already referred to.

5 4 3

. Alpheus affinis, natural size. !

. Enlarged view of front of carapace, showing supra-orbital vaults, mser-
tion of antenne, &c. ;

. Front of carapace still further enlarged, showing beaked rostrum and
spinous armature of supra-orbital vaults.

. Enlarged view of larger pincer.

. Enlarged view of lesser pincer.

. Tail.

an © bi —

XX VIIT.— Descriptions of three new species of British Actinie.
By Purr H. Gosss, A.L.S,

Actinia aurora. The Orange-tentacled Anemone.

Body in contraction a hemispherical button 3 inch in diameter,
of an umber-brown hue, occasionally varying to olive, marked
with narrow longitudinal pale bands, which become wider and
more conspicuous towards the base, and obsolescent at the discal
margin, where the brown hue is deepest. The pale bands are
separated by about four times their own width, but have at the
base several short and vanishing pale lines between them.

The exterior of the body is studded with numerous pale oblong
sucking-glands, not prominent, to which grains of sand, frag-
ments of shell, &c. adhere strongly.

Mr. P. H. Gosse on new species of British Actinie. 281

Tentacles about eighty in number, set in four rows, of which
the inner row contains about six a little more prominent than
the rest, and often either perpendicular or bent over the disk ;
the others are set so irregularly, that though there is an approxi-
mation to a serial arrangement, they can scarcely be distributed
into rows, except arbitrarily. The external ones are the smallest.
They.are moderately thick at the base, tapered to a blunt point,
and the longest about equal in length to the diameter of the
disk. They are pellucid at the basal moiety, and nearly colour-
less ; thence they are tinged with orange or red-lead, faintly at
first, but becoming very brilliant at the tips. Under a lens this
colour appears to be superficial, and to be composed of minute
dust-like powdery specks; but on submitting the tentacles to
pressure under a power of 220 diameters, I find that the red
pigment is deposited on the mterior surface, from which it
escapes by the rupture of the walls. The latter are somewhat
thin, yellowish, clear, and full of minute thread-cells of the usual
form, and about ;;/5th of an inch in length.

Disk variegated with dark brown, grayish drab and white ;
the former two colours arranged irregularly in a minute pattern,
the latter forming a circle of opake white spots surrounding the
mouth. The angles of the mouth are indicated by a pale band,
which passes from each across the disk, in which are conspicuous
the ovarian orifices. | )

The pattern of the disk is often the same as that of troglodytes,
but is never so distinct: in some specimens only the ring of
white spots can be seen on a blackish-olive ground ; in others
nearly the whole disk is yellowish-white. One specimen (which
I take to be a variety of this species) has all the tentacles pure
opake white, without any trace of orange, and the disk also
white, marked dimly with gray.

I find it in one of the caverns of St. Catherine’s Island, Tenby,
where it is common, in company with A. troglodytes, and with
the same habits.

One specimen in my possession produced young freely, ejecting
them from the oral aperture four or five at once. They varied .
in size, from that of a mustard-seed downwards; were very
prettily marked, with radiating white bands on a yellowish
ground when contracted ; and displayed, when expanded, from
twelve to eighteen orange tentacles.

Actinia venusta. The Orange-disked Anemone.

Button about 4 imch in diameter, and the same in height.
Flower-like expanse | inch wide.
The button varies from deep buff to rich brown-orange, studded

282 Mr. P. H. Gosse on new species of British Actiniz.

with minute pale sucking-glands, and marked around the base
with short and vanishing longitudinal pale lines.

Tentacles about 200 or more, not in distinct rows, the inner
ones about as long as the diameter of the disk, the outermost
small and close-set; slender, acute, somewhat flaccid; pure
white, becoming pellucid at the base, and sometimes at the tip.

Disk commonly ovate, wholly of a brilliant orange or red-lead
colour, with no markings except the indications of internal struc-
ture, which are dimly visible through the integument. Its sur-
face is plane ; the mouth a simple orifice, without distinct lips or
cone.

This most elegant species I have met with only in the neigh-
bourhood of Tenby, where it is so abundant as to be quite cha-
racteristic. It occurs all along the south coast of Pembrokeshire,
at least from Monkstone Point to St. Gowan’s Head, but is more
than usually numerous in the fine perforated caverns of St. Cathe-
rine’s Island, that form such an attraction to Tenby visitors. It
is a troglodyte species, almost invariably choosing for its resi-
dence some crevice or cranny, or one of those little cavities made
by boring mollusks, with which the limestone here is so gene-
rally honeycombed. Though we often see it in shallow pools
with a bottom of mud, we invariably find on examination that
it is attached to a hole in the rock beneath, protruding its body
through the deposit by elongation, and expanding its beautiful
disk on the surface. From this habit it is difficult to procure,
nothwithstanding its abundance, as it must be chiselled out,—an
operation, which, from the great hardness of the limestone, i is
both tedious and precarious.

Hundreds may be seen in the largest of the caverns alluded
to, hanging down from the walls during the recess of the tide ;
the button elongated to an inch or more. They expand very
readily in captivity, displaying the brilliant disk in full, fringed
with its elegant border of white tentacles; yet not unseldom do
we see the margin puckered into frilled folds, in the manner of
A. bellis and dianthus, though to a less extent.

This species has close relations with A. nivea and A. rosea,
especially with the former. Its colouring, however, seems con-
stant, without any tendency to albinism ; and its habit of throw-
ing the margin into puckers, and its tendency to an ovate out-
line, also distinguish it, though less satisfactorily. From rosea
it is better distinguished by its superior size, and by the greater
comparative thickness of its inner tentacles, which also are more
discal, whereas in rosea they are all marginal. All the three
species throw out white filiferous filaments in great profusion
when annoyed.

In venusta these are densely crowded with capsules 715th of

Mr. P. H. Gosse on new species of British Actinie. 283

an inch long, which protrude a thread about three times their
own length. This is slender, but occasionally I have detected
a waved outline which indicates a bearded appendage.

Actinia thallia. The Glaucous Warty Anemone.

Button 14 inch in diameter, usually 1 inch in height, but
capable of elongation to double this altitude. Expanded flower
2 inches.

Button pale bluish-green, studded with prominent warts of a
darker hue, set in 25 to 30 longitudinal rows, about 25 in each
row ; the topmost or marginal wart becoming an elongated pale
tubercle or rudimentary tentacle,

Tentacles about 48 in number, in two rows, equal in size;
thick, obtuse, scarcely more than half as long as the diameter of
the disk, even when extended :—pellucid grayish-brown, with a
longitudinal, undefined, dark brown streak along the facial side
of each, on which are placed irregularly several specks and
splashes of opake white, varying in number, shape, size and
position.

Disk a many-rayed star of yellow rays on a blackish ground :
thus produced :—the inner circle of tentacles have their discal
ribs blackish, with a spindle-shaped spot of yellow near the
mouth. ‘Those of the outer row are similarly marked, but the
yellow spot is-drawn out to a long line, dividing the primary
tentacle-ribs from each other: these lines make the rays of the
“facial star.

This is a very well-marked and constant species; out of a
dozen specimens that I procured, no two differed in any appre-
ciable degree, except in size. It approaches close to A. gemmacea,
from which however it is easily distinguished by colour, and by
its superior dimensions,

I found it in only one locality ; in the dark angles and pools
of a little insular rock, exposed at spring tide, that lies just off
the Cove called the Droch, near Lidstep in Pembrokeshire, on
the east side. It is not troglodyte in habit, but adheres to the
open rock, and is therefore easily detached. It is very social: I
almost invariably found four or five clustered together in a lump,
each pressing upon the sides of the others.

In captivity it is shy of expanding : it is also reluctant to ad-
here, and very readily detaches its base, either wholly or in part,
when it will frequently remain for days without again affixing
itself. Ifthe water become stale, it manifests its impatience in
this way, and dies sooner than most species. Like gemmacea, it
throws off successive rmgs of mucus from its body, which accu-
mulate around its base if not removed.

284: Bibliographical Notices.

The resemblance of this species to A. gemmacea is heightened
by the habit of elongating itself in the form of a column, when
closed.

It does not throw out filiferous filaments when irritated, but
the convoluted bands are protruded from wounds in the base.
Examining a small portion of one of these, I found two sorts of
capsules; one of a lengthened oval form, 535th of an inch in
length, from which a thread apparently simple, 7,th of an inch
long, is evolved; the other and more numerous, excessively
linear, 735th in length. Iam not sure, however, whether these
latter be capsules, as I did not see one discharge.

In the skin surrounding the margin the capsules are linear-
oblong and very minute, ;74;5th in length. Those in the walls
of the tentacles are similar in form and size.

The name is from OadXia, an olive shoot, in allusion to its
elongated form and glaucous colour.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

The Ferns of Great Britain. Illustrated by Joun E. Sowrrsy.
The Descriptions, Synonyms, Sc. by C. Jounson. London:
J. E. Sowerby, 3 Mead Place, Lambeth.

We have received the first two Numbers of this new work upon the
British Ferns, and have much pleasure in being able to recommend
it to botanists and fern growers. Mr. Johnson has succeeded in
making his part of the book readable, without omitting the requisite
technical descriptions of the plants. We think that he has acted wisely
in retaining the names that are now most in use, for those are also
we believe the more correct ones, in nearly if not quite all cases.
Much as we are indebted to Mr. Newman for our present knowledge
of British Ferns, and greatly as his earlier writings tended to the
adoption of a correct nomenclature, we cannot allow the present
opportunity to pass without expressing sorrow that he should have
made such extensive and, as we think, uncalled-for changes in the
names in the lately-issued new edition of his ‘History of British
Ferns.’ It is right however to add, that we have only seen his
abridged account of them, published in connection with the ‘ Phyto-
logist,’ as we have not yet had an opportunity of examining his
larger work with the requisite care. Having paid no slight attention
to the nomenclature of Ferns, we do not expect that our views will be
much changed by its perusal.

But to return to the work before us. It may be considered as a
proof of how little objection we make to the describer’s part of it,
when we mention a subject of such slight consequence as the names
of the localities. It is nevertheless rather singular that all the Welsh
names are spelled wrong ; one of them indeed we have not identified,
it is Moel Sichog ; a name that does not occur in Mr. Moore’s very

Royal Society. 285

complete list of the localities of our ferns. The latter author has
made very similar blunders in printing the singular names of these
places, and those who are not intimately acquainted with the Snow-
donian mountains may well be excused for transcribing them incor-
rectly.

No notice is taken of Polypodium alpestre and its ally or variety
P. flexile, in the place which it might have been expected to occupy ;
but probably Mr. Johnson intends to adopt Mr. Newman’s genus
Pseudathyrium. Neither do we find any remark upon the Lastrea
uliginosa of Newman, which, if not a variety of L. cristata, as some
suppose, should find a place between that plant and L. spinulosa.

The plates bear out the remark in the Prospectus, that ‘the figures
will be all accurately drawn and engraved from the respective plants, _
and thus many errors in identity and general detail, which had un-
avoidably occurred in ‘ English Botany,’ will be rectified.” Still, there
are manifest traces of the ‘Eng. Bot.’ plates being before the artist
when preparing those now issued.

We look forward with much interest to the publication of the suc-
cessive parts, and shall probably again notice the work when it is
further advanced.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.
ROYAL SOCIETY.

June 15, 1854.—The Earl of Rosse, President, in the Chair.

«Contributions to the Anatomy of the Brachiopoda.”’ By Thomas
H. Huxley, F.R.S.

In the course of the dissection of certain Brachiopoda with which
I have recently been engaged, I have met with so many peculiarities
which are unnoticed in the extant and received accounts of their
anatomy, that although the pressure of other duties prevents me from
attempting to work out the subject with any degree of completeness
for the present, I yet gladly avail myself of the opportunity of com-
municating a few of the more important results at which I have
arrived, in the hope that they may find a place in the Proceedings of
the Royal Society.

My investigations were principally made upon Rhynchonella psit-
tacea, for specimens of which I am indebted to Prof. Edward Forbes,
while Dr. Gray obligingly enabled me to compare them with Wadld-
heimia flavescens and with Lingula. :

1. The Alimentary Canal of Terebratulide.—Professor Owen, in both
his earlier and his later memoirs on the anatomy of the Terebratulide,
describes at length the manner in which the intestine, as he states,
terminates on the right side between the lobes of the mantle.

On the other hand, Mr. Hancock has declared himself unable to
observe at this point any such anal aperture, and concludes from his
own observations that the latter is situated on the ventral surface of
the animal in the middle line, just behind the insertion of the great

286 Royal Society.

adductor muscle. M. Gratiolet, in a late communication to the
Académie des Sciences, takes the same view. To get rid of the ob-
vious difficulty, that this spot is covered by the shell, and therefore
that if the anus existed here, there would be no road of escape for
the feces, Mr. Hancock and Mr. Woodward appear to be inclined
to suppose that some cloacal aperture must exist in the neighbour-
hood of the pedicle.

The existence of any such aperture, however, has recently been
denied with great justice by Professor Owen.

The result of my own repeated examinations of Rhynchonella psit-
tacea and of Waldheimia flavescens is—_1. that the intestine does not

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Rhynchonella psittacea, viewed in profile; the lobes of the mantle and
the pedicle being omitted.

Fig. 2. The same viewed from behind, the pedicle having been cut away. The
left half of the body and the liver are omitted. _

a. mouth; J. cesophagus; c. stomach and liver; d. intestine; e. imperforate
rectum ; f. mesentery ; g. gastro-parietal bands; A. ilio-parietal bands ; 7. superior
‘heart’; %. inferior ‘heart’; /. genital bands; m. openings of pallial sinuses ;
n. pyriform vesicle; 0. sac at the base of the arm; p. ganglion; g. adductors.

Royal Society. 287

terminate on the right side of the mantle as Professor Owen describes
it, but in the middle line, as Mr. Hancock describes it in Waldheimia,
while in Rhynchonella it inclines, after curving upwards, to the left
side; and 2. that there is no anus at all, the intestine terminating
in a rounded cecal extremity, which is straight and conical in Wald-
heimia, curved to the left side and enlarged in Rhynchonella.

I confess that this result, so exceptional in its character, caused
me no small surprise, and I have taken very great pains to satisfy
myself of the accuracy of my conclusion; but notwithstanding the
strong prejudice to the contrary, to which the known relations of the
anal aperture in Lingula gave rise, repeated observation has inva-
riably confirmed it. :

Professor Owen’s statement is, that in Rhynchonella (Terebratula)
psittacea ‘‘ the intestine inclines to the right side and makes a slight
bend forwards before perforating the circumscribing membrane in
order to terminate between the mantle lobes on that side.” —On the
Anatomy of the Brachiopoda, p. 152.

I find, on the contrary (figs. 1 and 2), that the intestine passes

i
iy

at first straight downwards in the middle line, as in Waldheimia, but
instead of terminating in a rounded tapering extremity as in that
genus, it bends upwards and then curves round to the /eft side,

288 Royal Society.

forming a sort of free czecum in the visceral cavity. . My reasons for
believing that it is a free ceecum are these :—in the first place, no
anal aperture can be detected in the mantle cavity, either on the
right or left sides, although the small size of the animal allows of
its being readily examined uninjured, with considerable magnifying
powers.

Secondly. If the shell be removed without injuring the. animal
and the visceral cavity be opened from behind by cutting through its
walls close to the bulb of the pedicle, it is easy not only to see that
the disposition of the extremity of the intestine is such as I have de-
scribed it to be, but by gentle manipulation with a needle to convince
oneself that it is perfectly unattached. And in connexion with this
evidence I may remark, that the tissues of the Brachiopods in general
are anything but delicate; it would be quite impossible for instance
to break away the end of the intestine of Lingula from its attach-
ments without considerable violence.

Thirdly. If the extremity of the intestine, either in Rhynchonella
or in Waldheimia, be cut off and transferred to a glass plate, it may
readily be examined microscopically with high powers, and it is then
easily observable that its fibrous investment is a completely shut
sac. In Rhynchonella the enlarged cecum is often full of diatoma-
ceous shells, but it is impossible to force them out at its end, while
if any aperture existed they would of course be readily so extruded.

However anomalous, physiologically, then, this czecal termination
of the intestine in a molluscous genus may be, I see no way of
escaping from the conclusion that in the Terebratulide (at any rate
in these two species) it really obtains. There are other peculiarities
about the arrangement of the alimentary canal, however, of which [
can find either no account at all or a very imperfect notice.

The intestinal canal (figs. 1 and 2 0, d, e) has an inner, epithelial,
and an outer fibrous coat; the latter expands in the middle line into
a sort of mesentery, which extends from the anterior face of the
intestine between the adductors, to the anterior wall of the visceral
chamber, and from the upper face of the intestine to the roof of the
visceral chamber ; while posteriorly it extends beyond the intestine as
a more or less extensive free edge. 1 will call this the mesentery (/).

From each side of the intestinal canal, again, the fibrous coat gives
off two ‘bands,’ an upper (g), which stretches from the parietes of the
stomach to the upper part of the walls of the visceral chamber,
forming a sort of little sheath for the base of the posterior division
of the adductor muscle, which I will call the gastro-parietal band ;
and a lower, which passes from the middle of the intestine to the
- parietes, supporting the so-called ‘ auricle.’ I will call this the ilio-

parietal band (fh).

The ilio-parietal and gastro-parietal bands are united by certain
other ridges upon the fibrous coat of the intestine, from whose point
of union in the middle line of the stomach posteriorly, a pyriform
vesicle (n) depends.

The mesentery divides the liver into two lateral lobes, while the
gastro-parietal bands give rise to the appearance that these are again

Royal Society. 289
divided into two lobules, one above the other. I am inclined to think
that these bands are what have been described as ‘ hepatic arteries,’
at least there is nothing else that could possibly be confounded with
an arterial ramification upon the liver.

This description applies more especially to Rhynchonella and
Waldheimia, but the arrangement in Lingula is not essentially dif-
ferent.

2. The Circulatory System of Terebratulide.—Considerable differ-
ences of cpinion have prevailed among comparative anatomists as to
the nature and arrangement of the vascular system in the Brachio-
poda. A pair of organs, one on each side of the body, have been re-
cognized as Hearts since the time of Cuvier, who declared these
hearts in Lingula to be aortic, receiving the blood from the mantle
and pouring it into the body, the principal arterial trunks being dis-
tributed into that glandular mass which Cuvier called ovary, but
which is now known to be the genital gland of either sex.

Professor Owen in his first memoir follows Cuvier’s interpretation,
stating that in Orbicula the pallial veins terminate in the hearts,
from which arterial branches proceed to the liver and ovary. Pro-
fessor Owen further adds for the Brachiopoda in general,—

“* Hach heart, for example, in the Brachiopoda is as simple as in
Ascidia, consisting of a single elongated cavity, and not composed of
a distinct auricle and ventricle as in the ordinary Bivalves,” and he
compares the hearts of Brachiopoda to the auricles of Arca, &c.
(Trans. Zoological Society, vol. i. p. 159.)

In 1843, however, M. Vogt’s elaborate memoir on Lingula ap-
peared, in which the true complex structure of the ‘ heart’ in this
genus was first explained and the plaited ‘auricle’ discriminated
from the ‘ ventricle’; and in 1845, Professor Owen, having apparently
been thus led to re-examine the circulatory organs of Brachiopoda,
published his ‘ Lettre sur l’appareil de la Circulation chez les Mol-
lusques de la Classe des Brachiopodes,’ in which he felicitates
M. Milne-Edwards on the important confirmation of the views which
the latter entertains with respect to the lacunar nature of the circu-
lation in the Mollusca, afforded by the Brachiopoda, and describes
each heart of the Terebratulide as consisting of a ventricle and a
plaited auricle, the pallial veins not terminating in the latter, but in
the general visceral.cavity. As the Professor does not recall the view
which he had already taken of the circulation in Orbicula, I presume
that he considers two opposite types of the circulatory organs to ob-
tain in the Brachiopoda, the direction of the current being from the
mantle through the heart towards the body in Orbicula, and from
the mantle through the body towards the heart in Terebratula.

The possibilities of nature are so various that I would not venture,
without having carefully dissected Orbicula,—no opportunity of doing
which has yet presented itself,—to call this view in question, but I
think it seems somewhat improbable. Indeed the structural rela-
tions which I have observed, and which are described below, do not
appear to me to square with any of the received doctrines of Bra-

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 19

290 Royal Society.

chiopod circulation, but I offer them simply as facts, not being
prepared at present to present any safe theory. on the subject.

In Waldheimia flavescens there are. two. ‘hearts,’ situated as Pro-
fessor Owen describes them, but so far as I have been able to ob-
serve, the ventricle cannot be described as an ‘oval’ cavity, inas-
much as it is an elongated cavity bent sharply upon itself. Hastily
examined of course this may appear oval. I have been similarly
unable to discover ‘ the delicate membrane of the venous sinuses,’
which is said by Professor Owen to ‘‘communicate with and close
the basal apertures of the auricles,” or to perceive that the auricular
cavity can be ‘‘ correctly described as a closed one, consisting at the
half next the ventricle, of a beautifully plicated muscular coat in
addition to the membranous one, but at the other half next the
venous sinus of venous membrane only; the latter might be termed
the auricular sinus, the former the auricle proper.” ,

I presume that.‘ this delicate membrane of the venous sinuses’
is what I have called the ilio-parietal band, in which the base of the
auricle is as it were set, like a landing-net in its hoop, but this
does not close the base of the auricle, the latter opening widely into
the visceral chamber.

I have equally failed in detecting any arteries continued from the
apices of the ventricles; and I have the less hesitation in supposing
I have not overlooked them, as Mr. Albany Hancock, whose works
are sufficient evidence of the value of his testimony, permits me
to say that he long since arrived at the conclusion that no such arte-
ries exist.

What has given rise to the notion of the existence of these arteries
appears to me to be this. A narrow band resembling these I have
already described, is attached in Waldheimia along the base of the
‘ventricle’ and the contiguous outer parietes of the auricle: inferiorly
it passes outwards to the sinuses, and running along their inner
wall, forms a sort of ridge or axis* from which the genitalia, whether
ovaria or testes, are developed, stretching through their whole length
and following the ramifications of the sinuses. It is the base of these
ridges seen through the walls of the sinuses, where. they extend
beyond the genitalia, which have been described as arteries,

The upper end of the band passes into the sinuses of the upper lobe
of the mantle, and comes into the same relation with the genitalia
which they enclose.

The walls of the auricle in Waldheimia are curiously plaited, but
I have been unable, in either auricle or ventricle, to detect any such
arrangement of muscular fibres as that which has been described.
The epithelial investment of thé auricle, on the other hand, is. well
developed, and in the ventricle the corresponding inner coat is raised
up into rounded villous eminences.

The ventricle lies in the thickness of the parietes, while the auricle
floats in the visceral cavity, supported only by the ilio-parietal band.
The former is at first directed downwards, but then bends sharply

* This arrangement is, I find, particularly described by M. Gratiolet.

Royal Society. 291
round and passes upwards to terminate by a truncated extremity
close to the subcesophageal ganglion and bases of the arms.

Mr. Hancock informs me, that in his dissections he repeatedly
found an aperture by which the apex of the ‘ ventricle’ communi-
cated with the pallial cavity ; and that, taking this fact in combina-
tion with the absence of any arteries leading from this part, he had

_been tempted to doubt the cardiac nature of these organs altogether,
and to regard them rather as connected with the efferent genital
system, had not the difficulty of determining whether these aper-
tures were artificial or natural prevented his coming to any definite
conclusion at all.

Before becoming acquainted with Mr. Hancock’s investigations, I
had repeatedly observed these apertures in Rhynchonella, but preoc-
cupied with the received views on the subject, I at once interpreted
them as artificial. A knowledge of Mr. Hancock’s views, however,
led me to reconsider the question, and I have now so repeatedly
observed these apertures both in Waldheimia and in Rhynchonella,
that I am strongly inclined to think they may after all be natural.

If these organs be hearts, in fact, Rhynchonella is the most remark-
able of living Mollusks, for it possesses four of them. ‘Two of these
occupy the same position as in Waldheimia, close to the origins of the
calcareous crus (k), while the other two are placed above these, and
above the mouth, one on each side of the liver (7). It is these latter
which Professor Owen describes, while he has apparently overlooked
the other two ; at least he says (speaking as I presume of Rhyncho-
nella) (1. c. p. 148) that the venous sinuses ‘‘ enter the two hearts
or dilated sinuses which are situated exterior to the liver, and in
T. Chilensis and T. Sowerbii just within the origins of the internal
calcareous loop.”

The fact is, that while the ilio-parietal bands support two ‘ hearts’
as usual, the gastro-parietal bands are in relation with two others.
The base of the ‘auricle’ of the latter opens into the re-entering
angle formed by the gastro-parietal band with the parietes, while
its apex is directed backwards to join the ventricle, which passes
downwards and backwards along the posterior edge of the posterior
division of the adductor muscle.

The auricles in Rhynchonella are far smaller, both actually and
proportionally, than in Waldheimia. ‘They exhibit only a few longi-
tudinal folds, and not only present the same deficiency of muscular
fibres as those of Waldheimia, but are so tied by the bands which
support them that it is difficult to conceive how muscular fibres, even
if they existed, could act. The ‘ventricles’ in like manner lie ob-
liquely in the parietes of the body, and simply present villous emi-
nences on their inner surface, which has a yellowish colour.

All these ‘ hearts’ exhibit the same curious relation with the geni-
talia in Rhynchonella as in Waldheimia; that is to say, a ‘ genital
band’ (/) proceeds from the base of the ‘ ventricle’ and becomes the
axis of the curiously reticulated genital organ. But in Rhynchonella
the genital bands of the upper genitalia come from their own
‘ hearts.’

19*

292 Royal Society.

The arrangement of the genitalia in Rhynchonella is very remark-
able. The sinuses have the same arrangement in each lobe of the
mantle. The single trunk formed by the union of the principal
branches in each lobe opens into the inner and anterior angle of a
large semilunar sinus which surrounds the bases of the adductors,
and opens into the visceral cavity. The floor of this great sinus is
marked out into meshes by the reticulated genital band, and from
the centre of each mesh a flat partition passes, uniting the two walls
of the sinus, and breaking it up into irregular partial channels.

There are the same anastomosing bands uniting the gastro-pa-
rietal and ilio-parietal bands on the stomach in Rhynchonella as in
Waldheimia, and a pyriform vesicle of the same nature, but I did not
observe in Rhynchonella those accessory vesicles upon the origins of
genital bands, which I observed once or twice in Waldheimia.

I could find no trace of arteries terminating the elongated, ovoid
and nearly straight ‘ ventricles’ of Rhynchonella; their ends appeared
truncated, and as I have already said, repeatedly presented a distinct
external aperture.

Such appear to me to be the facts respecting the structure of the
so-called hearts in the Terebratulide ; what I believe to be an import-
ant part of their peripheral circulatory system, has not hitherto, so
far as I am aware, received any notice.

In Waldheimia the membranous walls of the body, the parieto-in-
testinal bands and the mantle, present a very peculiar structure ;
they consist of an outer and an inner epithelial layer, of two corre-
sponding fibrous layers, and between them of a reticulated tissue,
which makes up the principal thickness of the layer, and in which
the nerves and great sinuses are imbedded.

The trabeculz of this reticulated tissue contain granules and cell-
like bodies, and I imagined them at first to represent a fibro-cellular
network, the interspaces of which I conceived were very probably
sinuses. Sheaths of this tissue were particularly conspicuous along
the nerves. On examining the arms, however, I found that the oblique
markings, which have given rise to the supposition that they are
surrounded by muscular bands, proceeded from trabecule of a simi-
lar structure, which took a curved course from a canal which lies at
the base of the cirri (not the great canal of the arms, of course)
round the outer convexity of the arm, and terminated by breaking
up into a network. These trabeculz, however, were not solid, but
hollow, and. the interspaces between them were solid. The network
into which they broke up was formed by distinct canals, and then,
after uniting with two or three straight narrow canals which ran
along the outer convexity of the arm close to its junction with the
interbrachial. fold, appeared to become connected with a similar
system of reticulated canals which occupied the thickness of that
fold.

It was the examination of the interbrachial fold, in fact, which
first convinced me that these reticulated trabeculee were canals; for
it is perfectly clear that vessels or channels of some kind must sup-
ply the proportionally enormous mass of the united arms with their

Royal Society. 293

nutritive material, and it is so easy to make thin sections of this part,
that I can say quite definitely that no other system of canals than
these exists in this locality.

The facts, then, with regard to the real or supposed circulatory
organs of the Terebratulide, are simply these :—

1. There are two or four organs (hearts), composed each of a free
funnel-shaped portion with plaited walls, opening widely into the
visceral cavity at one end, and at the other connected by a constricted
neck, with narrower, oval or bent, flattened cavities, engaged in the
substance of the parietes. The existence of muscular fibres in either
of these is very doubtful. It is certain that no arteries are derived
from the apex of the so-called ventricle, but whether this naturally
opens externally or not is a point yet to be decided,

2. There is a system of ramified peripheral vessels.

3. Ihere are one or more pyriform vesicles.

4. There are the large ‘sinuses’ of the mantle, and the ‘ visceral
cavity’ into which they open.

To determine in what way these parts are connected and what
functions should be ascribed to each, it appears to me that much
further research is required.

Nervous System of Terebratulide.—Professor Owen describes and
figures the central part of this system as a ring surrounding the oral
aperture, its inferior portion being constituted by a mere commis-
sural band.

M. Gratiolet, however, states with justice that the inferior side of
this collar is the thicker, and I find both in Rhynchonella and in
Waldheimia that it constitutes, in fact, a distinct oblong ganglion,
of a brownish colour by reflected light. From its extremities com-
missural branches pass round the mouth, while other cords are
distributed to the arms, to the superior and inferior pallial lobes,
and to the so-called hearts. The nerves are marked by fine and
distinct longitudinal striations, and can be traced to the margins of
the pallial lobes, where they become lost among the muscular fibres
of the free edges of the mantle.

Structure of the Arms.—I have not been able to convince myself
of the existence of that spiral arrangement of the muscular fibres of
the arms which has been described in Rhynchonella and Waldheimia.
I have found the wall of the hollow cylinder of the arm to be con-
stituted (1) externally by an epithelium, within which lie (2) the
reticulated canals, which have been already described; (3) by a de-
licate layer of longitudinal or more oblique and transverse fibres,
which are probably muscular, and (4) internally by a granular
epithelial layer.

In Rhynchonella the bases of the arms are terminated by two con-
siderable sacs, which project upwards into the visceral cavity. Have
these the function of distending and so straightening the spirally
coiled, very flexible arms of this species?

Affinities of the Brachiopoda.—All that I have seen of the struc-
ture of these animals leads me to appreciate more and more highly
the value of Mr. Hancock’s suggestion, that the affinities of the

294 Zoological Society.

Brachiopoda are with the Polyzoa.. Asin the Polyzoa, the flexure of
the intestine is neural, and they take a very natural position among
the neural mollusks between the Polyzoa on the one hand, and the
Lamellibranchs and Pteropoda on the other.

The arms of the Brachiopoda may be compared with those of the
Lophophore Polyzoa, and if it turns out that the so-called hearts
are not such organs, one difference will be removed.

In conclusion, I may repeat what I have elsewhere adverted to,
that though the difference between the cell of a Polyzoon and the
shell of a Terebratula appears wide enough, yet the resemblance be-
tween the latter with its muscles and the Avicularium of a Polyzoon,
is exceedingly close and striking.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

November 25, 1851.—W. J. Broderip, Esq., F.R.S., Vice-President,
in the Chair.

' ON A SPECIES OF AUSQUOREA INHABITING THE BRITISH SEAS.
By Pror. Epwarp Forses, F.R.S.

In the first volume of the ‘ Wernerian Memoirs’ a “‘ Medusa equo-
rea’’ is mentioned by Prof. Jameson as an inhabitant of the seas of the
north of Scotland, and in the ‘ History of British Animals’ by Dr.
Fleming, the name ‘‘ Geryonia equorea’’ is used to designate it. As no
description or figure was ever published of this creature, and as the
diagnosis of the ‘‘Medusa’’ to which Linneeus applied the name of
‘** equorea’’ was too brief for identification, it is possible that some
one out of several Acalephze inhabiting our seas might have been in-
tended.

It is also possible, however, that a true Aquorea had been seen,
for there is a most beautiful species of this genus an inhabitant of the
Scottish seas. I met with it for the first time in August 1850, when
exploring the Minch (the channel between the outer Hebrides and
Skye) in company with Mr. MacAndrew and Prof. Goodsir, with the
advantages of the appliances for natural-history research with which
‘Mr. MacAndrew has furnished his yacht, the Naiad. As there ‘is
neither figure nor description of any British A/quorea to be found,
and as considerable obscurity hangs’ around the Atlantic species of
the genus, I have drawn up the following notice.

A number of individuals were observed: they were swimming near
the surface of the sea on a very calm and hot day: they varied in
size, from three inches in diameter to as much as half a foot or more:
they resembled broad shield-shaped dises of glass, slightly prominent
above, incurved at their sides and concave beneath: through the
dises were seen shining the pendent brown-tinged stomach, and around
it, like so many equal stripes or rays proceeding to the margin, the
linear violet genital glands: acon the margin depended highly-con-
tractile violet tentacles.

The umbrella is broad, shitlow: oni dise-shaped, its outline de-

Zoological Society. 295

scribing a gentle curve. It is hyaline, not. very thick, and quite
smooth. The central portion of its interior, occupying about one-
fourth of its diameter; has dependent from it the membranous yeil-
like walls of the stomach ;_ these hang not quite so low as on a line with
the margins of the umbrella. The stomach, although equal in width
throughout, may be divided into two regions, an upper and a lower.
The latter has a furbelowed and somewhat scalloped, but not cirrated
margin, and may be regarded as the mouth, _ The former is marked
internally by eight bands of transverse fibres, separated by as many
longitudina ones; these appear to be muscular. The whole of the
membrane of the stomach and lips is; tinged with pale foxy brown,
partly disposed in streaks. Around the upper and inner margin of
the cavity are the orifices of the gastro-vascular canals; these run,
without dividing or anastomosing, to the circular marginal canal of
the umbrella. In a specimen five inches across, they were 136 in
number. From the lower side of each canal depend two narrow,
ratuer wavy membranes of a violet colour, causing the ray-like streaks
that shine so conspicuously through the disc; each of these arises
gradually near the superior extremity of a gastro-vascular canal, and
ceases abruptiy at about one-eighth of the entire length of the canal
from the margin: they are the genital glands. At the junction of
each alternate gastro-vascular canal with the circular marginal one is
the bulb-like base of a marginal tentacle: these tentacles arise from
ovate bulbs and gradually taper toa fine point. The bulbs are pale,
but the tentacle is tinged with violet. Opposite the intermediate
canal there is a smaller bulb with a tentacle, hollow and containing
corpuscles in its centre, and on each side, between it and the neigh-
bouring tentacle, is a still smaller lobe-like body. Along the upper
margin of the circular canal are very minute pedunculated organs
that move to and fro. On the bulb at the base of the tentacula is a
minute tongue-shaped process at the base of a depression ; at its own
base the ocellus or rudimentary eye is lodged. When seen laterally,
the peculiar tissue of the base of the tentacles is observed. to: be set
obliquely. Within the umbrella, from a line just opposite the ten-
tacular circle, a short but rather broad veil with a simple edge is seen
to depend; this veil is tinged with pale brown. A band of motor
tissue, forming a sphincter to the umbrella, accompanies the circular
vessel. :

According to the size of the example, the number of genital glands
and of tentacula varied: they increase with age. The smallest num-
ber. of tentacula seen was sixteen, and there is reason to believe that
they are never fewer.

To ascertain whether this beautiful animal be the Medusa equo-
- rea of Linnzeus and the naturalists who wrote during his time, it is
necessary to inquire into the history of that species. The name just
mentioned occurs first in the ‘Iter Hispanicum’ of Peter Loefling,
published in 1758. In his journal of observations on the 18th of
April, at Cumana, he notices, along with Medusa (i. e. Aurelia)
aurita, Medusa pelagica (Pelagia cyanella’), and Velella, another
Medusa, which he styles Aquorea, and describes as “ orbicularis,

296 Zoological Society.

planiuscula, tentaculis plurimis ex margine inflexo, branchiis nullis.”
This notice, which occurs at page 105 of the Swedish edition of his
‘ Travels,’.is the entire original foundation for numerous references in
after-authors. Linneeus, in the first instance, adopted Loefling’s name
and brief record, which, when read with our present knowledge of
Acalephe, barely indicates the genus to which the animal observed
probably belonged. In 1775, the descriptions and figures of animals
observed during his journey to the East by the lamented Forskal were
published under. the superimtendence of Carsten Niebuhr. Among
them. was a representation-and description of a Medusa, referred to
the equorea of Linneeus, both excellent, as indeed may be said of all
that Forskal did. . In: 1776 a Medusa equorea was noticed, scarcely
more than. by name, inthe * Zoologize Danicee Prodromus’ of Otho
Frederic Miiller.....n.1780,:Otho Fabricius, in his excellent ‘ Fauna
Groenlandica,’ gives.a shorter account than usual with him of a Me-
dusa, which he refers to the equorea of Linneus. He speaks of it
as a very simple animal, smaller and softer than Medusa aurita; con-
vex above, concave beneath, with very much inflected margins’ and
white marginal cilia.. .The two last-mentioned characters are opposed
to the notion of Medusa equorea, as represented and described. by
Forskal, and the first of them to the slight idea of its shape that we
gather from Loeflig. In. 1791! Adolph Modeer commenced. the work
of hair-splitting by separating the animal of Forskil, under the name
of Medusa patina, from that of Loefling, for which he reserved the
name Medusa equorea. In 1809 Peron and Lesueur published in the
‘Annales du Muséum d@’ Histoire Naturelle,’ vol. xiv., their important
classification and synopsis of all known Medusze. In that paper, ex-
cellent though it be, they increase the confusion, by giving the name
of Aiquorea, atlantica to Loefling’s animal, Aq. danica to Miller's,
Aig. granlandica to that of Fabricius, 4q. Forskalea to that of For-
skal, and Aq. stauroglypha to a new species of their own, probably
identical with all the others.. In 1829 Eschscholtz, in his ‘System
der Acalephen,’ attempted. to rectify this confusion, by rejecting: all
these names excepting Aq. Forskalina, that alone having been suffi-
ciently described. In 1843 Lesson published his History of Acale-
phee in the ‘Nouvelles Suites 4 Buffon,’ and, to make confusion worse
confounded, rejected all rectifications and restored all. the names and
imperfectly noticed individuals to full specific rank.

After attentively considering the notices more or less perfect, that
the. various older observers have given, of what they call Medusa
equored, 1am led to the belief that in most instances one species,
not several, was met with, and that the creature which I now de-
scribe as British is identical with the Medusa equorea of Loefling,
Forskal.and Miller.. Simce Forskal alone described and figured it in
a comprehensible manner, the name 4/quorea Forskalea, proposed by
Peron, is peculiarly appropriate, the more so ‘since that. of Medusa
patina of Modeer was proposed under a mistake. | Forskél expressly
states that his species is common to the North Atlantic and the Medi-
terranean, and that it inhabits the Danish seas; where it is called
“‘ Vandmand,”’ that is, Waterman.

Zoological Society. 297

It remains to be seen whether our species is related to the Aquo-
rea violacea of Milne-Edwards, well described and beautifully figured
in the 16th volume of the 2nd series of the “Annales des Sciences
Naturelles,’ and observed by that eminent naturalist in the Mediter-
ranean. From an examination of its anatomy he. first showed the
serious error committed by Eschscholtz in considering the Aquoride
as cryptocarpous. I am inclined to agree with Milne-Edwards in
considering his species distinct from that of Forskal. The genital
glands are not prolonged nearly so close to the margin; the lips of
the stomach are not furbelowed; the bases of the tentacles are not
bulbous, and originate regularly between the gastro-vascular canals.

There were no eyes observed by the distinguished zoologist just
quoted in the species he examined: \ In ours the eyes are ‘evident,
and a determination of their position and appearance is of ‘conse-
quence, since they confirm the affinity of Aquorea with the Naked-
eyed Medusze, whilst at the same time, in the little appendage or
rudimentary lid projecting above them, they indicate an approach to
the Steganophthalmatous type, such as is consistent with the general
high organization and aspect of the Aquorea when compared with
other Gymnophthalmatous forms.

It is interesting to remark that the Aquorea ciliata of Eschscholtz
is a North Pacific species, beautifully representing, yet quite distinct
from, Afquorea Forskalea.

December 9, 1851.—W. Yarrell, Esq., in the Chair.

On some Bones or Dipus. By A. D. Bartruerrt.

The history of the Dodo having been recently the subject of so
much inquiry, and the exertions made by Mr. Strickland, Dr. Mel-
ville and others, having succeeded in bringing together so many
important facts, it might appear that there was little more to ‘be said
upon. the subject; this, however, I believe is far from being the case.
A few facts established upon a subject which was before obscured in
doubt and error will, I trust, always act asa charm, and induce us at
every opportunity to investigate that subject still further, in the hope
of learning the truth. On the present occasion I am desirous of call-
ing attention to a few bones upon the table. In so doing I beg to
say, that in the year 1830 a collection of bones arrived m Paris, which
attracted the attention of the scientific world. These bones came
from the island of Rodriguez, but on account of their being merusted
with stalagmite, little has been done with them ; they were, however, —
the cause of search being made for more in the same locality, and two

collections were made in the year 1831 by the late Mr. Telfair. One
' of these collections was forwarded to the Andersonian Museum in
Glasgow, the other to the collection of this Society, and at the even-
ing meeting, March 12, 1833, the bones sent by Mr. Telfair were
laid upon the table.

I will here read an extract from the Society’s Proceedings :—* Dr.
Grant pointed out that they were the bones of the hinder extremity
of a large bird, and the head of a humerus. With reference to the

298 Zoological Society.

metatarsal bone, which was long and strong, Dr. Grant pointed out
that it possessed the articulating surfaces for four toes, three directed
forwards and one backwards, as in the foot of the Dodo preserved in
the British Museum, to which it was also proportioned in magnitude
and ferm.”’

I beg now to read a paragraph from Mr. Strickland’s book. At
page 52 we find: ‘‘The bones sent) by Mr. Telfair in 1833 to the
Zoological Society have met with some unfortunate fate. Three or
four years ago, Mr. Fraser, the late Curator of that Society, made, at
my request, a diligent search for these specimens, but all his endea-
vours to find them were fruitless: he found the identical box sent
by Mr. Telfair, but, alas!) the bones of the Solitaire, apterous as it
was, had flown away, and the only bones that remained belonged. to
tortoises.” .

In the month of July last an opportunity was afforded me by the
Secretary of renewing this search, and I had the good fortune to
find what I believe to be: all the specimens sent to the Society by
Mr. Telfair.

Upon my informing Mr. Mitchell of my success, that gentleman,
knowing the trouble and interest I had taken to recover them,
granted me permission to examine, compare, and describe them, and
to bring the subject before the Society.

In the first place, we are led to believe (and I think without the
slightest doubt) that these bones came originally from the island of
Rodriguez... There cannot be any doubt, also, that Rodriguez and
the neighbouring islands were at one period inhabited by several spe-
cies of large birds. Whether any of the same species of these birds
inhabited different islands, or whether each island was inhabited b
distinct species, is a question to which I beg most particularly to call
your attention: the most recent publication by Mr. Strickland and
Dr. Melville would lead us to believe that the true Dodo (Didus in-
eptus) was solely confined to the island of Mauritius, and another
species, known as the Solitaire, was said to be its representative on the
island of Rodriguez. If this be true, I should have the pleasure of
introducing to your notice the bones of at least two new species of
birds from that island: I do not however myself feel justified in so
doing, but believe some of the bones sent here by Mr. Telfair belong
to.the true Dodo (Didus ineptus). There are also in the collection
(I think without doubt) bones of two other species, one of these
of much, larger size than the Dodo, the other considerably smaller,
The bones,in question having all the usual and well-known charac-
teristics of those of adult birds, we cannot therefore suppose the dif-
ferences which they present to be such as might arise from age; and
on the other hand, you will perceive that the proportions are too dis-
similar to allow of our regarding them as having belonged to different
sexes of the same species. There often exists great difference of size
in the bones of the opposite sex, but I have never noticed any very
evident difference of proportion. These are to me satisfactory reasons
for considering them specifically distinct. But to return to the ques-
tion, Was the Dodo found on the island of Rodriguez? Sir Thomas

Zoological Society. 299

Herbert says i¢ was; and his evidence appears’ to’ me of much im-
portance, considermg the number of years he spent travelling about,
visiting these islands, and collecting rare and curious things; having
also repeatedly described the Dodo, and very probably brought one
to England. Iam therefore inclined to regard the assertions made
by Sir Thomas Herbert with more respect’ than they have elsewhere
received. It may appear at first sight impossible that the same spe-
cies of birds which were destitute of the power of swimming or flying
could inhabit islands so far from each nb sie but, were these islands
always in the state in which we find them? may they not at some
distant period have been united and formed part of the same land ?
In endeavouring in this manner to account for the existence of the
Dodo upon the island of Rodriguez as well as at’ Mauritius, it has
been remarked that this argument would not hold good, as the islands
im question were of volcanic origin: if this’ be the case, to account for
its existence at either place appears to me‘ equally difficult. I am
fully aware it has been the practice of late to consider the animals
obtained from localities remote from each other specifically distinct ;
they may be so; but unless we have some certain means of distin-
guishing them, I do not think we ought to regard them as such.

I now venture to introduce to your notice what I believe to be the
tibia of the Dodo (Didus ineptus): its agreement with the foot in
the British Museum struck me as being exceedingly remarkable and
conclusive : its size and proportions, as compared with the metatarsal
in question, are exactly what I should have expected upon the sup-
position of their belonging to the same species: they fit each other
so perfectly, that one might think they belonged to the same indi-
vidual. With this evidence before me, I cannot for one moment
hesitate in considering the Dodo of the Mauritius to be identical with
the Dodo of Rodriguez. There are also in this collection two other
bonés, which, from their size and form, I believe to belong to this
species: the most remarkable is the head of the humerus, which would
indicate by its magnitude and broad attachments that it belonged to
a bird of large bulk, while the sudden reduction in the size of its shaft
clearly indicates a bird with small wings. The great thickness and
consequent weight is sufficient to cause us to suppose that this bird
had not the power of flight.

The next bone to which I will call your attention is a right meta-
tarsal, which appears to me to have belonged to a bird known to
Leguat as the Solitaire, and described by him during his residence
on the island of Rodriguez. I beg to read Leguat’s description, in
order to point out to you its near agreement in point of size and form
with the Turkey, with which bird Leguat compared the bird he called
the Solitaire :—

“Of all the birds in the island, the most remarkable is that which
goes by the name of the Solitary, because it is very seldom seen in
company, though there are abundance of them. The feathers of the
male are of a brown-grey colour: the feet and beak are like a Tur-
key’s, but a little more crooked. They have scarce any tail, but
their hind part covered with feathers is roundish, like the crupper of

300 Zoological Society.

a Horse; they are taller than Turkeys. Their neck is straight, and
a little longer in proportion than a Turkey’s when it lifts up its head.
Its eye is black and lively, and its head without comb or cop. They
never fly, their wigs are too little to support the weight of their
bodies ; they serve only to beat themselves, and flutter when they
call one another. They will whirl about for twenty or thirty times
together on the same side, during the space of four or five minutes.
The motion of their wings makes then a noise very like that of a
rattle, and one may hear it two hundred paces off. The bone of
their wing grows greater towards the extremity, and forms a little
round mass under the feathers, as big as a musket-ball. That and
its beak are the chief defence of this bird. ’Tis very hard to catch
it in the woods, but easie in-open places, because we run faster than
they, and sometimes we approach them without much trouble. From
March to September they are extremely fat, and taste admirably well,
especially while they are young ; some of the males weigh forty-five
ounds.

. “<The females are wonderfully beautiful, some fair, some brown ; I
call them fair, because they are of the colour of fair hair. They have
a sort of peak, like a widow’s, upon their breasts (ege beaks), which
is of a dun colour. No one feather is straggling from the other all
over their bodies, they being very careful to adjust themselves, and
make them all even with their beaks. The feathers on their thighs
are round like shells at the end, and being there very thick have an
agreeable effect. They have two risings on their craws, and the
feathers are whiter there than the rest, which livelily represents the
fine neck of a beautiful woman. They walk with so much stateli-
ness and good grace, that one cannot help admiring and loving them ;
_ by which means their fine mien often saves their lives.’”’—Leguaf’s
Voyage to the East Indies, 1708, p. 71.

You will perceive this bird was said to be larger and taller than a
Turkey. A comparison of this metatarsal bone with the metatarsal
bone of the Turkey I think will satisfactorily show the accuracy of
Leguat’s description, and at the same time justify our conclusion
that this metatarsal bone belonged to the Solitaire of Rodriguez, 'to
which the name of Didus solitarius has been applied. I trust I shall
be pardoned for avoiding the use of the new generic term adopted by
the authors of ‘The Dodo and its kindred,’ for in a group so little
known, and at present so limited in species, it seems to me so much
to increase the trouble and difficulty of those who endeavour to study
such subjects, that I cannot help expressing my belief that many of
the new names so often introduced serve only to impede and embarrass
us, and I therefore regard them as much worse than useless.

I haye now remaining the bone of a bird which when alive was
much larger, heavier, and more powerful than the Dodo. For further
examples of this bird’s bones, I must refer to the plates in the work
before alluded to, by Mr. Strickland and Dr. Melville : plate xv. fig. 2,
the metatarsal bone of the large species in the Andersonian Museum,
Glasgow ; fig. 3, a metatarsal bone in the Parisian collection. A glance
at these. specimens will, I imagine, convince any one that this bird

Zoological Society. 301

was of gigantic size, and probably double the weight of the Dodo, 1
am sure it cannot be supposed (after what has been said) that Leguat
was describing this great bird when he wrote his beautiful description
of the Solitaire. Another important fact will, I think, set this question
at rest. Leguat states, that some of the males of the Solitaire weigh
Sorty-five pounds, Now we know the weight of the largest Turkeys
to be considerably less, rarely reaching thirty pounds, while the weight
of the Dodo is stated to have been at least fifty pounds. It cannot,
therefore, be supposed, had Leguat seen birds nearly double the size
of the Dodo, he could have made the statements or comparison he
has made between the Solitaire and Turkey. ,

I have before expressed my great dislike to an unnecessary increase
of names: I feel, however, the necessity, of finding an appropriate
name for this large bird, and therefore propose one somewhat familiar
to all who have paid any attention to the subject, and apply the name
of Didus Nazarenus to this the largest species of the genus... In doin
this, I may remark that Mr. Strickland, in his work before alluded
to, has considered the Didus Nazarenus to be.a phantom species,
which he says has haunted our systems of ornithology from the days
of Gmelin downwards.

The conclusions which I have arrived at from the examination of
the bones to which I have just called your attention are these :—That
there existed formerly three distinct species of Apterous birds in the
island of Rodriguez; namely, one which is apparently identical with
the Dodo (Didus ineptus) of the Mauritius; a second, which was

_well described under the name of Solitaire ;. and a third, which was
much larger than either of the above.

12 College Street, Camden Town. ‘

DESCRIPTION OF TWO NEW SPECIES OF MAMMALIA OF THE
GENUS ANTECHINUS. By JoHN GouLD, F.R.S. Etc.

One,of these species is remarkable for being spotted on the under
instead. of on the upper surface, and the other for its very diminutive
size; both rank among the smallest members of the genus... For the
former I propose the specific appellation of maculatus; it may be
thus described :-—

ANTECHINUS MACULATUS.

Fur short, dense, and closely applied to the skin ; general tint of
the upper surface dark blackish brown, minutely grizzled with yellow-
ish brown ; lower part of the flanks and under surface of the bod
dark brownish slate-grey, ornamented with oblong spots of avis
white arranged in irregular rows in the direction of the body ; down

‘the centre of the throat a streak of white.
inches.
Length from the tip of the nose to the base of the tail 3}
Orne Nec eee sri fore wo Qo e Been” eM
from the tip of the nose to the base of the ear 4
a
4

COE a at Oe ee AR ROS gee
of the tarsi and toes)... i
Hab. Brushes of the river Clarence, on the east coast of Australia.

302 Zoological Society.

The other species I propose to name

ANTECHINUS MINUTISSIMUS.

Fur short, dense, and closely applied to the skin; upper surface and
flanks brown, slightly grizzled with black ; under surface pale buff,
approaching to white,on the throat ; tail brown above, lighter be-
neath ; feet buffy brown, toes covered with hairs of a somewhat lighter

hue. inches.
Length from the tip of the nose to the base of the tail 23
of thie tail sacio- savin. to eslawant ads ‘5b eb 24
from the tip.of the nose to the base of the ear 7%
of thejenty o1adi isd} subuienl ws Gait 38 MN +
of the |tarsi.and toes .... ae

Hab. Brushes of the east coasts of Australia.

DeESCRIPTIONS OF A NEW SPECIES OF PTILOTIS AND A NEW
SPECIES OF E0psALTRIA. By Joun Gou tp, F.R.S.

Mr. Gould also exhibited two new species of birds of the gener’
Ptilotis and Evdpsaltria, which he characterized as follows :— |

PTILOTIS FASCIOGULARIS.

All the upper surface, wings and tail olive-brown, the feathers of
the head and back with darker centres, and the primaries and tail-
feathers narrowly margined externally with greenish wax-yellow ;
lores and a streak down the side of the head from the posterior
angle of the eye blackish brown; ear-coverts pale yellow; on each
side of the neck a patch of yellowish white; feathers of the throat
brownish black, each bordered with pale yellow, presenting a fasciated
appearance; breast blackish brown; under surface striated with brown
and buffy, becoming paler towards the vent ; irides lead-colour ; bill
and feet black.

Total length, 74 inches ; bill, {; wing, 32; tail, 33; tarsi, 12.

Hab. Mangrove Island, Moreton Bay. it

Female.—Similar in colour, but of smaller size.

EépsauTria Cariro. ,

Upper surface olive-green, inclining to brown on the head); wings
and tail slaty brown, faintly margined with olive-green; ear-coverts
grey ; lores and a line descending in front of the eye and, the throat
greyish white; under surface yellow; irides hazel; bill black; feet
brownish flesh-colour.

Total length, 5 inches; bill, 3; wing, 34; tail, 24; tarsi, 2.

Hab. Brushes of the River Brisbane, New South Wales.

Remarks.—Shorter and less elegantly formed than #. Australis,
with a stout broad bill and a proportionately large and heavy head.

Feb. 24, 1852.—W. J. Broderip, Esq., F.R.S., V.P., in the Chair,

On tHE Hapits or STRIGOPS HABROPTILUS OR» -KAKAPO:
By Davip Lyauu, M.D., R.N., Lare Surcron to H.M.S.
ACHERON.

Although the Kakapo is said to be still found occasionally on some
parts of the high mountains in the interior of the North Island of

Zoological Society. 303

New Zealand, the only place where we met with it, during our cir-
cumnavigation and exploration of the coasts of the islands in H.M.S.
Acheron, was at the S.W. end of the Middle Island. There, in
the deep sounds which’ intersect that part of the island, it is still
found in considerable numbers, inhabiting the dry spurs of hills or
flats near the banks of rivers, where the trees are high, and the
forest comparatively free from fern or underwood.

The first place where it was obtained was on a hill nearly 4000
feet above the level of the sea. It was also found living in commu-
nities on flats near the mouths of rivers close to the sea. In these
places its tracks were to be seen resembling footpaths made by man,
and leading us at first to imagine that there must’ be natives in the
neighbourhood. The tracks are about a foot wide, regularly pressed
down to the edges, which are two or three inches deep amongst the
moss, and cross each other usually at right angles.

The Kakapo lives in holes under the roots of trees, and is also oc-
casionally found under shelving rocks. The roots of many New
Zealand trees growing partly above ground, holes are common under
them; but where the Kakapo is found many of the holes appeared
to have been enlarged, although no earth was ever found. thrown out
near them. There were frequently two openings to these holes, and
occasionally, though rarely, the trees over them were hollow for some
distance up.

The only occasion on which the Kakapo was seen to fly was when
it got up one of these hollow trees and was driven to an exit higher
up. The flight was very short, the wings being scareely moved ; and
the bird alighted on a tree at a lower level than the place from whence
it had come, but soon got higher up by climbing, using its tail to
assist it.

Except when driven from its holes, the Kakapo is neyer seen du-
ring the day, and it was only by the assistance of dogs that we were
enabled to find it.

Before dogs became common, and when the bird was plentiful in
inhabited parts of the islands, the natives were in the habit of catch-
ing it at night, using torches to confuse it. It offers a formidable
resistance to a dog, and sometimes inflicts severe wounds with its
powerful claws and beak. At a very recent period it was common
all over the west coast of the Middle Island, but there is now a race
of wild dogs said to have overrun all the northern part of this shore,
and to have almost extirpated the Kakapos wherever they have
reached. Their range is said to be at present confined by a river or
some such physical obstruction, and it is to be feared that if they
once succeed in gaining the stronghold of the Kakapo (the 8.W. end
. of the island) the bird may soon become extinct.

During the latter half of February and the first half of March,
whilst we were ainongst the haunts of these birds, we found young
ones in many of the holes, frequently only one, never more than two,
in the same hole. . In one case where there were two young ones I
found also an addled egg. There was usually, but not always, an old
bird in the same hole with the young ones.

304 Zoological Society.

They build no nest, but simply scrape a slight hollow amongst
the dry dust formed of decayed wood. The young were of dif-
ferent ages, some being nearly fully fledged, and others covered only
with down. The egg is white and about the size of a pigeon’s.

The cry of the Kakapo is a hoarse croak, varied occasionally by a
discordant shriek when irritated or hungry. The Maories say that
during winter they assemble together in large numbers in caves, and
at the times of meeting, and, again before dispersing to their summer
haunts, that the noise they make is perfectly deafening.

A good many young ones were brought on board the ship alive.
Most of them died a few days afterwards, probably from want of
sufficient care; some died after being kept a month or two, and the
legs of others became deformed after they had been a few weeks in
captivity. The cause of the deformity was supposed to be the want
of proper food, and too close confinement. They were fed chiefly on
soaked bread, oatmeal and water, and boiled potatoes. When let
-loose in a garden they would eat lettuces, cabbages and grass, and
would taste almost every green leaf that they came across. One,
which I brought within six hundred miles of England (when it was
accidentally killed), whilst at Sydney, ate eagerly of the leaves of a
Banksia and several species of Eucalyptus, as well as grass, appearing
to prefer them all to its usual diet of bread and water. It was also
very fond of nuts and almonds, and during the latter part of the
homeward voyage lived almost entirely on Brazilian ground-nuts.

On several occasions the bird took sullen fits, during which it
would eat nothing for two or three days at a time, screaming and
defending itself with its beak when any one attempted to touch it.
It was at all times of an uncertain temper, sometimes biting severely
when such a thing was least expected. It appeared to be always in
the best humour when first taken out of its box in the morning,
hooking on eagerly with its upper mandible to the finger held down
to lift it out. As soon as it was placed on the deck it would attack
the first object which attracted its attention—sometimes the leg of
my trowsers, sometimes a slipper or a boot. Of the latter it was
particularly fond: it would nestle down upon it, flapping its wings
and showing every symptom of pleasure. It would then get up, rub
against it with its sides, and roll upon it on its back, striking out
with its feet whilst in this position.

One of these birds, sent on shore by Capt. Stokes to the care of
Major Murray of the 65th Regiment at Wellington, was allowed to
run about his garden, where it was fond of the society of the chil-
dren, following them like a dog wherever they went.

Nearly all the adult Kakapos which I skinned were exceedingly
fat, having a thick layer of oily fat or blubber on the breast which it
was very difficult to separate from the skin. Their stomachs con-
tained a pale green, sometimes almost white, homogeneous mass,
without any trace of fibre in it.

There can be little doubt but that their food consists partly of
roots (their beaks are usually more or less covered with indurated
mud), and partly of the leaves and tender shoots of various plants.

Zoological Society. 305

At one place where the birds were numerous we observed that the
young shoots of a leguminous shrub growing by the banks of a river
were all nipped off, and this was said by our pilot, who had fre-
quented these places for many years in a whaling vessel, to be the
work of the Kakapo.

Their flesh is white, and is generally esteemed good eating.

March 23, 1852.—Professor Owen, F.R.S., Vice-President,
in the Chair.

On THE Species or THE GENUS SERICINUS.
By G. R. Gray, F.L.S., F.Z.S. etc.

In the Transactions of the Entomological Society of London for
1851 (p. 173), Mr. Westwood established a Lepidopterous genus
under the name of Sericinus, which he founded on bad specimens of
an insect sent from Shanghai by Mr. R. Fortune, and then supposed
to comprise “both sexes”’ of the insect figured by Donovan in his
‘Insects of China,’ pl. 27. f. 1, under the appellation of Papilio
Telamon, no specimen of which, as, Mr. Westwood justly observed,
was then known to exist ‘‘in any continental or British collections.”

Lately Mr. Fortune has returned to this country, bringing with
him many specimens of the same insect in a more perfect state, which
enables me to take up the genus and endeavour to define the species
and give characters for each. I should state, however, that I think
I shall be able to point out that these ‘“‘two sexes” are, in fact,
distinct species of the genus.

I think it best, first, to give a description of the species figured by
Donovan under the name of Papilio Telamon, but which will now
stand under that of

Srericinus TeLamon, Westw.

The fore wings yellowish white, with the anterior and most of the
exterior margins rather broadly edged with black; an abbreviated
line in the middle, another at the anterior part of the costal area,
and then a curved line of irregular spots, which ends towards the
posterior angle, and with two small spots at the anterior angle near
the outer margin, also one spot on the inner margin, black. The
hind wings yellowish white, with the anal angle black, which appa-
rently extends towards the anterior margin by two oblong spots of
the same colour; the anal angle is ornamented by a crimson line
that reaches to the third nervure from the inner margin; there are
also three pale blue lunes. The under surface of the fore wings is
‘very similar to the upper side, except that the black which surrounds
the anterior and part of the exterior margins is not apparent. The
under surface of the hind wings is also similar to the upper side,
except that the spot of the anterior margin is ornamented by a crim-
son centre.

Donovan informs us that the only specimen brought to Europe
was taken near Pekin, by a gentleman in the suite of Earl Macart-

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 20

306 Zoological. Society.

ney, and.was at that time;;whem Donovan figured it, in the possession
of Mr. Francillon.

Having thus recorded the peculiarities of the species which must
be considered the type of this genus, I shall now point out how one
series of specimens brought by Mr. Fortune differ from it, though
in general they are very similar to the one just described. Yet the
uniformity of all the specimens of the series, which comes nearest to
Donovan’s figure, induces me, provisionally at least, to form it. into
a separate species, under the name of

Sericrinus Monrexa*. (Cat, of Lepid. B.. M. i. 78. i ‘13.

; fg, 1, 2.)

Like the preceding ; but the fore wings have a large subtrisagular
black spot very near the base, which is divided. into, three spots by
the nervures. The anterior margin is slightly edged, ,and, the, ex-
terior margin is, for most part, broadly margined, with black,.., The
hind wings have a broad band obliquely across the) costal area,.and
the crimson band at the anal angle appears broader in, this )species..

The species is always, as Mr. Fortune has tg informed sme,
found in the valleys among the hills. iooqa eid’)

Sericinus.Fortunert. (Cat. ie B. M. i. pl. 13, oh ‘Bt

The fore wings are yellowish white, with many irregular black
spots which vary in size, some of them so placed that they apparently
form five bands across the wing; the external margin is also black.
The hind wings also yellowish white, with a basal band and three
irregular curved bands of black spots ; the second band from the base
is broadest at the anterior angle, and marked witha small crimson
spot; while that portion towards the anal angle is margined exteriorly
by an irregular crimson band, which extends from the angle to the
fifth nervure ; the third or marginal band is ornamented on the deep
black below the crimson by a series of pale blue lunes. ‘The under
surfaces of all the wings are less prominently marked, otherwise they
are similar to the upper side, except'that on the fore wings therevare
two crimson spots, one on the band near the costal area and the other
on the posterior margin.

This species is found, according to Mr. Fortune, on the sides of
the hills.

Mr. Wilson Saunders has obliged me by the loan ofa specimen
for examination, which presents several differences from those pre-
viously noticed. It is rather smaller and the caudal appendages are
shorter than in the other three species ; the latter being only about
half an inch in length. These with other characters induce me to
form it into a species under the name of

* Sericinus Telamon, Westw. & Hewits. Gen. Diurnal Lep. p. 530 suppl. pl. 1.
fig. 1.

+ Sericinus fasciatus, Brem. & Grey, Beitr. Schm. des Nord. China, p.5. Since
this paper was read, Mr. Fortune has sent a series of specimens which show that
this is the female of the preceding.

Zoological Society. 307

*Srricinus TeLMona* /'° (Cat. Lep."B? M. i: pl. 13. fig. 3.)

‘The fore wings ochraceous, with the base black, and the other
black markings placed as in 8. Montela, though not quite so
prominent, but the short band which crosses the wing just beyond
the costal area and the spot on the posterior margin are both orna-

. mented with a small crimson spot. The hind wings have the inner
margin black, and are without the basal spot in the costal area; the
crimson band at the anal angle extends, as in S. Fortunei, to the
fifth nervure, and like it also the spot on the anterior margin is orna-
mented by a crimson mark, which is more equally placed with the
commencement of the crimson band that advances to the anal angle,
than in the other species; the black space at the anal angle is less
‘in size; but is furnished with blue lunes. ‘The under surface of the

(fore ‘wings is marked like the upper side. That of the hind wings is
also''similar to the upper side, but the black spots on the anterior

°margin are both ornamented with crimson ; the lengthened crimson
~band°is marked between the second and third nervures from the anal
angle with ‘a white lune, and there is also a less quantity of black at

“the anal angle.»

This species (male) was also brought to this country with the others
by Mr. Fortune, through whose exertions we are thus enabled to de-
scribe three additional species of a division whieh had been hitherto
only known by, the one figured by Donovan.

Norrs oN THE Dissection or A species oF Gauaco. By
W. H. Frower, Curaror to tHe Mippirsex Hosprrar
Musrum. .

Having: recently had an opportunity of examining the body) of a
'Galago which died. in the Society’s Gardens, and which I believe to
be an-undescribed species, I proceed, at the request of the Secretary,
to lay before the Society some notes on its anatomy made during the
dissection. uld 3
-o, The-animal was.a male. When I received it the skin was removed,
and its dimensions were as follows :—
: in. lin.
Length of the head and body .............. }
OR the tae) AF coy ict eb ans adil oh a 134
GE URE MONE oie Gerke. bb nse ey Sia pag Roe
Breadth of the head.(at the widest part, viz. the

I SRAE DONGAE oh. If anccrap' saheamertiy-ila riders. ac l
Length of the humerus. ...,))...,.....4. oe OO 2
of the; fore aM poor <eore} sadic Abt se 2
OF ihe Hang 0 dss geod TT: <ddorrel oat 1

3
3
3

Oe Tae TORQUE Sa Se et Riad cas
of the tibia Beh ceeds ace
ofthe footie acd. st

“3 : 1—1 5—5
Dentition:—ine. +; can. —; mol. 2=°=34.
6 l+1 b—

cocoon weo NO ©

* The female of this species is described as Sericinus Greyi, Brem. & Grey,
Beitr. Schm. des Nord. China, p. 6.
20%

308 Loological Society.

‘The upper incisors: very small, placed vertically, a considerable space
existing between the two middle ones... The lower incisors long, very
narrow, projecting horizontally, and closely approximated.

The stomach’ was:simple, almost globular.in form; the cesophagus
snthned far to the right, the: cardiac: orifice very nearly approaching
the pyloric, so that while the greater curvature measured 65 inches,
the lesser was but 3 of an inch. ‘The small intestines were wide,
‘46 inches in length. The ceecum was nearly 5 inches long; wider
near its commencement than any part of the intestine, and slightly
sacculated, but taperig and becoming smooth towards the extremity.
The ileum entered thecolon at avery obtuseangle, audthere wasscarcely
any difference in the calibre of these two parts of the intestine. The
colon was without sacculations and peculiar in form, being widest at
the upper end, then gradually contracting till it became, narrower
than any part of the intestine, and dilating again into: the rectum;
and this appeared not to be the result of muscular contraction; as: it
retained this form after macerating in water several days and: then
inflating. The length of this part of the intestine, from the ileo-ceecal
valve to the anus, was 18 inches.

The liver presented three very distinct lobes: the left one was en-
tire ; the middle cleft into three by two fissures on its under surface,
in one of which (that most to the right) the gall-bladder was placed ;
the right lobe was entire, but on its under surface was placed. the
lobulus Spigelii.

The gall-bladder was pyriform ; the duct, 3 lines in length, join-

ing the hepatic duct, Potined the common gall-duct, which was half
an inch long and entered the duodenum one inch from the pylorus.

The spleen was long, narrow and flattened, half an inch wide at the
broadest part, and 24 inches in length.

The kidneys, simple, large and oval, were 1 inch long and '8 lines
broad; the right one situated nearly the whole length of the kidney
higher than the left.

The penis was 3 inches in length, containing a bone 11 lines long.
The skin of the glans covered with minute spines or tubercles, which,
when examined microscopically, were found to be tooth-like bodies,
most having two points, some one, others three or more, all directed
backwards.

The testes were oval, 8 lines long, 5 broad.

The vesiculze garaindles consisted of two large simple culs-de-sac,
7 lines in length.

On opening the thorax the left lung was found to have two lobes,
the right four.

The heart presented nothing unusual. From the arch of the aorta
two large vessels arose, the first giving rise to the innominate and left
carotid ; the second being the left subclavian.

On examining the brachial and femoral arteries, no division into
smaller trunks, forming a rete mirabile, as is observed in several
animals belonging to this family, was discovered. The brachial artery
perforated the humerus near its lower extremity.

The tongue was long and narrow, 24 inches long from the root of

Linnean Society. 309

the epiglottis tothe tip, and 5 lines broad.’ Its:dorsal surface was
covered with small papillee, and at the posterior part were three large
or circumvallated papillee, arranged as the points of the letter V. On
the under surface is a curious body, 7 lines long and 3 wide, the tip
of which is free, flat and pectinated; the rest free at the sides and at-
tached in the middle. From the form, position and size of this singular
organ, one cannot help conjecturing that the pectinated end may act
as a brush to free the inferior incisor teeth from adherent particles of
the insect food on which the animal subsists.

The submaxillary and parotid glands were very large, particularly
the former. — .

The masseter and temporal muscles were largely developed, and
the whole muscles of the upper extremity very powerful.

The cerebral hemispheres were large, and extending some way
‘back over the cerebellum, but their surface was remarkably smoc th
‘and almost free: from convolutions, resembling in this respect the
‘brain of Cheiroptera, to which order the Lemurs present several
points of affinity.

LINN AN SOCIETY.
| January 17th,.1854.—Robert Brown, Esq., V.P., in the Chair.

Read a letter from David Moore, Esq., A.L.S., of the Botanic
Garden, Glasnevin, near Dublin, addressed to James Yates, Esq.,
F.L.S,, &c. ‘On the introduction of Anacharis Alsinastrum, Bab.
into alana .

‘It. is rather remarkable,’”? Mr. Moore observes, ‘“‘ that it should
have been noticed in England and in Ireland about the same time, . I
am-not perfectly certain now, but I think it was in the early part of
1842 I first saw the plant growing in a small pond in the garden of
Isaac M. D’Olier, Esq., of Booterstown, near Dublin. That gentle-
man has, been long known for his zeal in horticultural pursuits, as
well as for his fine collection of exotic plants, which he has been in
the habit of getting from various parts of England, as well as from
the continent, along with some of which he considers the Azacharis
was introduced to his collection, though he has no knewledge of its
being so. At the time stated, Mr. D’Olier acted as Chairman of the
Committee of Botany for the Royal Dublin Society, which caused
me to have frequent official intercourse with him, and for which
purpose I occasionally went to Booterstown. In the centre of his
garden, where a number of gold and silver fish were kept in a small
pond, we first noticed the Anacharis. I cid not then know, the
plant, further than that it was not a British species, and brought
some of it to cultivate in the Botanic Garden, where it was placed
in an earthenware crock and put in the pond. Little more was
thought about it, until the late Mr. Macauley brought it from the
pond in Mr. D’Olier’s garden to the College garden, about the time
inquiry was awakened respecting it in England. My foreman then
told me there was plenty of it growing in our pond, which I had not

310 Linnean Society.

before noticed; but I had»no doubt, on inquiry, of this being the
increase of the few plants I first brought from Booterstown. In the
way then I have stated, the Anacharis made its appearance in: this
neighbourhood, where I believe itis still confined : 1 have not seen
or heard of its being elsewhere in Ireland, though it increases’.
equally fast here as it does in England. There are now some —
millions of plants in our pond, and as many more destroyed since it

was first introduced.”

Read also, some observations ‘‘ On the correctness of the ut
assigned to Oxycladus in the Family of Bignoniacee.” By John
Miers, Esq., F.R.S., F.L.S. &c.

Mr. Miers states, that after a careful consideration of the argu-
ments advanced at the last Meeting by Dr. Seemann, he sees no
reason to alter his conviction as to the proper position of the genus
in question. Dr. Seemann contends that Orycladus is too anomalous
in form to be admitted among Bignoniacee on account of its fruit,
which is a hard monospermous nut, with the seed suspended from
near the summit of the cell, and of its embryo, which has large
fleshy cotyledons, while there are no wings developed on the testa ; ;
and maintains that on these grounds it rather belongs to Myoporacee,
with which family it agrees better in habit, having broom-like branches
terminating in a spine, and especially with the genus Bontia, with
which it agrees in its hard nut, and which it approaches in the
country of ‘its origin. Mr. Miers on the other hand believes that it
is easy to oppose to these arguments a number of facts, showing
that Oxycladus presents far greater discrepancies in relation to the
Myoporacee than to the Bignoniacee. In Myoporacee, in nearly
all cases, the leaves are alternate; the flowers have always didyna-
mous stamens, without any rudiment of a fifth; the ovarium is only
bilocular in two instances, which he has elsewhere shown (Ann. Nat.
Hist. 2nd Ser. xi. 439) are doubtful, or at least abnormal genera
of the order; in nine other genera the ovarium is ain cey four-
celled, with a single ovule suspended from the apex of each cell, and
this ripens into a four-celled ligneous indehiscent nut, with a seed
in each cell. The only remaining case is Bontia, which differs
from all others of this family in having originally a bilocular. ova-
rium, but. where by the subsequent growth and inflexion of the
placentz, eight pseudo-cells are produced, each with a single sus-
pended ovule. ‘This ripens into a hard indehiscent eight-celled nut,
each cell producing a single seed, with a thick osseous testa, which
is often confluent with the sides of the cell. Mr. Miers’s knowledge
of this genus is derived wholly from the descriptions of authors, and
he finds no observations of a more recent date than those of Gaertner
and Jacquin; our evidence of its real structure is therefore imperfect,
but enough is recorded to show that it is a very anomalous form, if
it really belong to the Myoporacee. It is a large tree, 30 feet
high, has a. trunk 2 feet in diameter, with a large head of thick
foliage; its leaves are always alternate, somewhat serrated, marked
with transparent dots, and have an acrimonious taste. Bontia occurs

Linnean Seeiety. 311

in the West Indies, while all other species of) Myoporacea, are
found in Australia, in Asia; or in the islands of the Pacific bordering),
on that continent.» ~.

The author next proceeded to indicate those points of structure in
Oxycladus which establish the relative value of its affinity to the
Myoporacee, or the Bignoniacee. In this genus, both the branches
and rudimentary leaves are distinctly opposite, as in Bignoniacee, in
which family we find two other genera, where the branches terminate
in spines, viz. Catophractes and Rhigozum: the flowers are bluish,
a colour not met with in Myoporacee; they present a sterile fifth
stamen, a circumstance almost constant in Bignoniacee, and never
seen in Myoporacee; the anther-cells are distinct, and widely divari-
cated upon a large fleshy connective, as in Bignoniacee, not oscil-
latory, lunulate, and opening by a hippocrepiform fissure, and there-
fore almost one-celled, as in Myoporacee; the ovarium is seated upon
a five-lobed fleshy disk, which never occurs in the latter family, though
constant in Bignontacee ; it is completely bilocular, with about six
ovules in each cell, suspended and attached by a ventral thread to a
distinct flat dissepiment, and arranged in three superimposed pairs
upon its opposite faces, in two lines parallel with the axis, a structure
which offers a marked character in the Bignoniacee, and unknown
in the Myoporacee ; of these twelve ovules, all become abortive
with the exception of one; the fruit is therefore 1-locular and mo-
nospermous, presenting an osseous nut, with four deep furrows in
the apex, and divisible to the base along these strice into four valves,
two of these sutures being more easily separable, and always corre-
sponding with the margin of the persistent dissepiment, which is
pressed against one side, and which distinctly exhibits on both faces
its several abortive ovules, the ripened seed filling the whole capacity
of the nut. In Myoporacee, whether the nut be 4-celled, or by abor-
tion 2-locular, the intervening space is always solid, and perfectly
indehiscent, leaving small circular cells, surrounded by thick
ligneous walls, without showing any marks of division ; there is no
analogy whatever between this structure and that of Orycladus.
The absence of the alary expansion of the testa, so common in
Bignoniacee, is urged as a reason for excluding this genus from that
family, but the argument is not valid, where as in Oxycladus only
one of the ovules becomes impregnated, and where it is thus left at
full liberty to acquire the size and shape of the whole space of the
cell, The want of wings in the seeds occurs however in other
Bignoniaceous plants; for instance in Spathodea of Palisot de
Beauvois, from which all the species from the New World referred
‘to. that. genus have been rightly separated by Chamisso under the
name of Dolichandra. Mr. Miers has also found in Brazil another
Bignoniaceous genus, Adenocalymna, the carpological characters of
which are yet undescribed, which has a cylindrical, capsular, 2-celled
fruit, containing several large, thick, angular seeds, attached by a
large hilum to the broad dissepiment, and without wings. In
Argylia the seeds are likewise apterous. ‘The last consideration as
regards Oxycladus is not the least important ; its seeds are exalbu-

312° Botanical Society of Edinburgh.

minous,. as in Bignoniacee, whereas in those: ofthe Myoporacee oat
embryo.is always contained within albumen. »

After the comparison of these several circumstances, the author is
unable to perceive the existence of »any marked affinity between
Ozycladus and any genus of the Myoporacee, and therefore sees no
reason to alter the conclusion at which he formerly arrived, that this
genus, although deviating from the usual form of its fruit and seed,
bears, in every essential respect all the characteristic features of a
member of the family of the Bignoniacee. It is not however in the
singularity of the large fleshy cotyledons, or the wingless. state of
the seed, that Ovycladus is remarkable, for Mr. Miers has shown
that these occur in other genera of the Bignoniacee; its peculiarity
consists in the development of only one of its many ovules, and in
the shape of its cotyledons, which in most other instances: are
deeply cordate, or almost bipartite at each extremity, with the
radicle placed between the lobes: in this genus, however, they are
entire, oval, and plano-convex; in Rhigezum they are likewise
fleshy, orbicular, and-entire.

The limits of many genera of Bignoniacee appear, Mr. Miers
adds, ill-defined, and the characters derivable from the seeds) much
neglected. Fenzl and DeCandolle have done much in extending
our knowledge of the family, but the subject still requires farther
investigation, for he has observed many. singular deviations ‘from
recorded structure that have not yet been noticed... Should it be
found desirable -to class Rhigozum with Oxyecladus, the character
suggested for this tribe in. his former paper would require modifica-
tion. | In that of the Crescentiee, this name ought to be suppressed,
and that of Taneciee substituted, with the same character there
indicated; all the genera of this section of DeCandolle’s Prodromus
strictly coincide with the Bignoniacee in their completely 2-locular
ovarium, and in the development of their ovules on the surface of
the dissepiment, and they agree also with the genus Bignonta in the
form of their embryo: Crescentia and Kigelia, however, present
characters wholly at variance with the Order, because of: their
parictal placentation. He is not, however, persuaded of the pro-
priety of establishing a separate order for these two genera,’ which
has been done upon high authority, when they might so well forma
good tribe of the Cyrtandracee. Crescentia, with its large ainygdaloid
embryo, does not differ more widely from the Cyrtandracee, than
Adénocalymna does from Bignonia: in habit and in: floral structure
the two last-mentioned genera are scarcely distinguishable.

\

BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.
July 13, 1854.—Professor Balfour, President, in the Chair.

The following papers were read :—

1. “Notice of a new species of Caulerpa,’”’ by R. K. Greville,
LL.D. &e. This paper will be found in the ‘ Annals’ for September,
and in the Society’s Transactions.

Professor Edward) Forbes remarked, that the plant) resembled

Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 3138

the marine Caulerpites more than any other deseribed by Brongniart.
The genus was interesting, as embracing the Prasium of Aristotle,
which, until recently translated either a Leek or an Onion, was now
known to be Caulerpa prolifera, a Mediterranean species.

2. “On the Analogy between the Processes of Reproduction in the
Plant and in the Hydroid Zoophyte,” by Professor Wyville Thom-
son. Dr. Thomson stated that the term ‘“ Zoophyte”’ had been ori-
ginally applied to indicate an intermediate position which these beings
were supposed to hold between the animal and vegetable kingdoms ;
that subsequently their animal nature had been completely made
out; and that the old term Zoophyte had then only been retained as
an innocent. remnant of the superstition of those dark ages; that
latterly, however, some strange analogies had been made out between
the mode of growth of Zoophytes and of the higher tribes of plants,
which seemed to indicate that they had some right to their old desig-
nation ; that when there was a strong tendency, asin Zoophytes and
im Plants, to the indefinite multiplication of similar parts, there was
a tendency likewise to the development of these parts according to
the same laws. He alluded to the union.in these indefinitely repeated
parts of the functions of respiration and assimilation in both tribes;
to'the tendency to spiral arrangement of parts of the polypidom ; and
to the formation of corpuscles bearing ova, and which are due to the
modification or compression of ordinary branches with their buds.
Dr. Thomson said that he had had opportunities of observing the
process of reproduction in several species of the gents Campanularia ;
he deseribed the peculiar reproductive process in this family, which
hasbeen called an “alternation of generations,” and alluded to the
discovery by Schultze of male individuals of the various species form-
ing capsules containing spermatozoids. He believed that he had
been able to make out distinctly three varieties in the development of
the medusvids in three species of Campanularia (gelatinosa, gené-
culata, and volubilis). In the first, the capsule of the female indi-
vidual first appears with a free hollow rod in the centre, like the free
central placenta in the Primulaceea. This rod is covered by a par-
tially developed membrane. After a time, a round mass pullulates
from’ this rod beneath this membrane. A communication at first
exists between ‘the canal in the centre of the rod, and this globe;
this communication is at length closed up, and the projection assumes
the form of a true ovarian ovum with a distinct germinal vesicle.
The germinal vesiele then disappears, and is gradually replaced by
a mass of embryo cells. This mass shows very well the usual process
of merismatie division. It afterwards becomes developed into a free
ciliated embryo, which fixes closely to.a solid body and is quickly
' developed into a polyp. The contents of the male capsules are
formed almost in a like manner, only the original spherical bodies
become filled with a substance resembling fovilla, which escapes into
the water, without any secondary embryonic formation. In the
second species, the embryo is not developed in the capsule, but a
mass which Dr. Thomson regarded as homologous with the ‘* ovum?’
in the former species, is extended from the mouth of the capsule, in

314: Botanical Society of Edinburgh.

the form of a -half-developed medusoid, never ‘becoming detached,
but forming the embryo in that position. \ In'the third species, the
medusoid was completely developed, and escaped freely’ into the
water. Certaiv points of resemblance; and their single mode of
origin, left no doubt in his mind that the medusoids in the case of
C. volubilis were only a more highly developed form of the “ ova’
observed in C. gelatinosa, the extreme forms connected by the unde-
veloped medusoids of C. geniculata. It is possible that these three
forms of reproduction may not be characteristic of the three species,
but may be common to them all under certain modifying’ cireum-
stances. Dr. Thomson then mentioned the distinction ‘so broadly
drawn between the “ovum,” the product of the true generative
process, and the gemma or bud. He suggested that the ovum might
be perhaps considered more properly a gemma separated from the
parent, and capable of attaiing a greater or less development, and
that the definition now generally applied to the ovum oe, nec
attached to the embryo in its early stages.

The conelusions to which the author seemed inclined to arrive,
were,—1. That the medusoids were, in their least developed form,
closely allied to the ovarian ovam in the higher animals.

2. That these medusoids, thus resembling the ovarian ovum, inight
be considered as being produced by a process of gemmation fromthe
parent, and that as free gemmee they had the power of eoeniga a
considerable degree of development in some species.

3. That these medusoids closely resembled the ovules in plants ‘in
their structure and in their mode of development, and that, like ovules,
they were sometimes entirely absorbed by the growmg embryo while
within their capsule, and were sometimes extruded from the capsule
when the embryo was extremely small (or even before impregnation’).
This property they of course possess in common with the ovarian
ovum in higher tribes.

Dr. G. Johnston of Berwick stated, that he, differed from Dr.
Thomson in regarding the development and reproduction of Zoophytes
as indicating an analogy with these processes in plants. |

Professor Edward Forbes said, that Dr. Thomson’s paper referred
to some of the most debateable points in zoology, and that this was
not the place to discuss them. He thought that Dr. Thomson had
not kept in view the difference between “analogy and homology, in
rag a comparison between the zoophyte and the plant.

3. ‘ Notes of a Tour in Switzerland,” by John Sibbald, Esq.

4. “Notice of the Discovery of Hierochloé borealis, near Thurso,”
by Robert Dick, Esq. Mr. Dick stated, that at “about ten minutes’
walk from the town of Thurso, there is, by the river-side, a farm-
house known by the name of the Bleachfield, opposite to which, on
the eastern bank of the river, there is a precipitous section of Boulder
clay ; opposite to the clay cliff, and fringing the edge of the stream,
any botanist can, in the last week of the month of May, or in the
first and second weeks of June, gather 50 or 100 specimens of Hiero-
chloé borealis. Passing upwards along the river bank, and at no
great distance, there is another clay cliff, where a few hundreds ‘of

Miscellaneous. 315

Hierochloé may likewise be got. It also fringes the edge of the
river. But the plant must be looked for at the time indicated ; for
_ by the third week of June, the beauty of Hierochloé has passed away,
and by the first week of July the herbage has become so rank, that
the Holy Grass, now ripe, and turned of a silky brown, is completely
hidden from view... Farther up, between Geize and a section of
boulder clay a little below Todholes, the plant may likewise be picked
in hundreds... Hierochloé has never failed to appear in these localities
for, twenty years.” i

5. “On the occurrence of ‘Cinchonaceous Glands’ in Galiacee, and
on | the relations of that Order to Cinchonacee,’’ by Mr. G. Lawson.
This paper will be found in the ‘ Annals’ for September, and in the
Society’s Transactions.

6. ‘* Notes of.a Trip to Inchkeith and Inchcolm,”’ by Professor
Balfour... The Professor found upon Inchkeith 132 flowering plants
and 6) ferns; on Inchcolm he saw 160 of the former class of plants
and 4 of the latter.

The. following were the principal plants found on Inchkeith :—
Sinapis nigra, Cochlearia danica, Geranium pratense, Conium macu-
latum, Haloscias scotieum, Sambucus (nigra var.) laciniata, Silybum
marianum, Carduus acanthoides, Senecio viscosus, Hyoscyamus niger,
Linaria Cymbalaria, Marrubium vulgare, Habenaria viridis, Carex
distans and vulpina, and Sclerochloa maritima.

On Incheolm :—Cochlearia danica, Papaver somniferum, Cheiran-
thus Cheiri, Dipsacus sylvestris, Haloscias scoticum, Hyoscyamus
niger, and Parictaria erecta.

7...‘ Observations on, the Morphology of Pines,” by Professor
M‘Cosh.

MISCELLANEOUS.
On the Coenurus cerebralis of the Sheep. By Dr. KicHENMEISTER*.

On the 6th January 1854, at 8 o'clock in the evening, and on the
7th January, at 11 o'clock in the forenoon, I gave some mature pro-
glottides of the Tenia ceenurus of the dog to six lambs of from six
to nine months old, taken. from three different flocks, which were not
subject to vertigo. On the 20th January, the animals exhibited the
first symptoms of vertigo. They were then successively killed, and
presented the following phenomena on examination. -

On the seventeenth day after introduction, from twenty to thirty
vesicles (Caenurz) inhabited the surface of the brain ; the substance
of the vrain was hollowed into galleries, as though a Sarcoptes had
' been, forming its passage; the vesicles were still free and without
envelopes, and of the size of a grain of millet. .

* The experments here detailed were made previously to those of
Prof. Van Beneden, of which we gave a notice in our last Number. The
proglottides employed by the learned Professor of Louvain, were derived
from Teenias produced from the Cenuri obtained in these experiments of
Dr. Kiichenmeister.

316 Miscellaneous.

On the twenty-fifth day the vesicles were larger. On the twenty-
sixth day they were of the size of a lentil; the envelope began to be
formed and the first traces of heads appeared.

On the thirtieth day, the heads, under the form of tubercles, were
visible to the naked eye. On the thirty-eighth day the eminences
appeared more distinctly on the surface, and the heads exhibited signs
of their suckers and hooks. ‘Towards the forty-fifth day the Coenurt
were of the size of a bean, and the cavities in which the heads are
lodged were formed.

Besides the brain, the heart, the cesophagus, and the diaphragm
of some of the lambs also contained encysted vesicles; but these are
not the Cysticercus tenuicollis, as 1 was at first inclined to think with
M. Leuckart,—they are strayed and aborted worms.

The following is the result to which my researches have led The
adult Canuri live and become developed in the intestine of the dog,
forming the Tenia ccenurus, which has hitherto been y-seuiiguan
with the Tenia serrata.

The malady known as the turn-sick, staggers or vertigo is propa-
gated in the following manner :—The shepherds cut: off the heads
of the sheep affected with this disease and throw them'to the dogs,
which swallow the Cenuri along with the brain, and) these Caenuri
give rise to Tzenias in their intestines. As the Ccenwri sometimes bear
as many as 300 heads, and each head (scolex) ean produce a Tenia,
it will be easily imagined that these worms must multiply with great
rapidity.

The dogs following the sheep in the meadows, pass the proglottides
filled with eggs along with their excrements ; and these eggs are thus
scattered over the herbage upon which the sheep feed.

Moist meadows are most favourable to the development of the
malady, as the proglottides and eggs dry there more slowly.— Bull.
del Acad. Royale de Belgique, 1854, p. 306. °—

On the Occurrence of Zine in the Vegetable Organism.
By A. Braun.

It is well known that the calamine hills of Rhenish Prussia and
the neighbouring parts of Belgium possess a peculiar flora; visitors
to these regions are particularly surprised by a species of violet
allied to Viola tricolor, which unfolds its beautiful yellow flowers in
uninterrupted profusion from spring until the end of autumn, and is
known in the neighbourhood of Aix as the Calamine violet, or in
the dialect of the district ‘‘ Kelmesveilchen.” This plant has: been
described by Lejeune in his ‘‘ Revue de la Flore de Spaa” as a
distinct species under the name of Viola calaminaria, but he has
since characterized it (Comp. Flore Belgice) as Viola lutea; Smith.
Koch and other authors have also rightly considered it as a variety
of V. lutea, Smith (grandiflora, Huds.), a species principally distin-
guished from V. tricolor by its filiform subterraneous runners, by ~
means of which it survives the winter. In its habits it is remarkably
distinct from the ordinary Viola lutea of the Alps, as well as from

Miscellaneous. 317

the form of this plant occurring on the, higher Vosges.on granitic
and syenitic soils (described by Spach. as Viola elegans); its stem
being more procumbent.and, repeatedly, branched at, the base, and
the flowers being generally smaller. .1) will not, however, express
any further opinion) as to whether this) violet may or may not be a
distinct species, for the violets of the same group as V, tricolor pre-
sent. so many difficulties to systematic botanists in consequence of
their extraordinary variability, that it is difficult to find the middle
course between the union of them all under one name, and. the
establishment, of a multitude of species. Many other plants grow
_ dn, company with the Viola calaminaria, which, aithough in this
district peculiar to the calamine hills, nevertheless grow in other
localities in soil free from calamine.

The colour, of the flowers of the Viola lutea of the Alps and
Vosges varies from the darkest violet to the purest yellow, whilst
the flowers of V. calaminaria, at least in the neighbourhood of Aix,
are almost always yellow. On the borders of the calamine district
specimens are met with here and there with pale violet, or bluish, or
anixéd»blue and yellow flowers, which have been regarded by Kalten-
bach as hybrids. between this plant and the V. tricolor, which cer-
tainly)occur on cultivated land in the neighbourhood... But. I have
also-seen a specimen of the true V. calaminaria from the calamine
region of Westphalia which is of a dark violet colour. _The plant
when cultivated in gardens is said to change and become like the
common V. tricolor.

The connexion, hetween the occurrence of the V. calaminaria and
the presence of calamine in the soil, which is so constant that even
mining experiments have been undertaken with good results from
the indications furnished by this plant, induced me, when in Aix, to
urge .M. Victor, Monheim of that place, to examine the plant
especially with reference to its containing zinc.. He afterwards
sent me the following account of a chemical investigation of the
plant, performed in. his laboratory and under his eye, by M. F. Bel-
lingrodt, which I give-in the latter gentleman’s own words :—

‘*The plants, some of which were still in flower, were collected
in’ the month of October on the Altenberg and in the immediate
neighbourhood ‘of its large zinc works. ‘lo get rid of adhering
earth completely; the fresh, uncut herbage with the roots was
washed with water, until, when macerated for sixteen or eighteen
hours with water containing muriatic acid, it gave no inorganic
“matter to the dilute acid. The whole was then finely chopped and
digested on the vapour-bath for twelve hours with water and mu-
riatic acid; the vegetable matter was separated from the extract,
and this treated with chlorate of potash. ‘The addition of an excess
of ammonia to the decolorized extract, now produced a precipitation
of alumina, organic substances, and partially of the iron.

“The precipitate produced in the filtrate by sulphuret of ammo-
nium was dissolved in muriatic acid, oxidized by nitric acid, and
the iron then completely separated by ammonia. A portion of the

318 Miscellaneous.

filtered fluid was boiled with solution of potash, when traces of man-
ganese were precipitated. Solution of sulphuretted hydrogen then
rendered the presence of zine in the filtrate quite evident.

«Another portion of ‘the fluid filtered from the iron precipitate
was precipitated at once by sulphuret of ammonium, the dried pre-
cipitate calcined in a platinum erucible, moistened with nitric acid,
again calcined, and then treated with dilute acetic acid; the zinc
was precipitated from the solution in acetic acid by solution of
sulphuretted hydrogen.

“From another portion of the herb, freed from external impurities,
the juice was expressed, and the presenee of zinc in this. was also
distinctly proved by the above process.”

This metal must therefore be added to the eighteen elements
hitherto known to occur in the vegetable organism.:-—Poggendorff’s
Annalen, vol. xcii. p. 175.

Notes on the Bovine Animals of the Malay Peninsula.
By Grorce Winpsor EARL.

1. The Sapi, or Wild Ox of the Malay Peninsula, was scarcely
known to exist until 1850, when Dr. Oxley, and a hunting-party
from Singapore, killed a young cow on the banks of the Muah River.
He described it as 6 feet 2 inches high at the shoulder, from hoof
to dorsal vertebree; back curved, highest about the centre. Horns
small, curved ards white, tipped with black. Forehead flat, with
tuft of long hair, large in the bulls. Hair smooth and silky.» Colour
brown, with white about the feet. Mane 2 inches long, running along
the entire back. No dewlap. The bulls are from 7 to 7} feet high.
The flesh is described as delicious. Calves could be obtained. with.a
little trouble, but I suspect it would be difficult to get a full-grown
animal; but he would be worth something if caught.

2. The Saladang, another species of wild cattle, is even less known
than the Sapi, as no specimen has yet been shot by Europeans. It
seems to me to be a sort of Bison, or Bos Gaurus. The males are
10 feet high at the shoulder, and they are altogether fiercer and
more formidable than the Sapi, but not so graceful. In my opinion
it would be worth while for the Zoological Society to send.a man, out
expressly for the purpose of bringing home specimens of these two
beasts. The Muah River, where both varieties abound, would be the
best spot to seek them; and Inchi Basow, a Malay chief who takes
great delight in hunting, would soon procure live specimens. of each:
at a small expense.

3. The Water Buffalo does not seem to be known in England,
although it is common all over the Archipelago. The larger speci-
mens stand 7 feet at the shoulder, sometimes more. Barrel very
large. Legs short and strong. Skin black and wrinkled, and almost
hairless, like that of the Elephant. It is amphibious, and has been
known to swim across straits as wide as the Channel at Dover; in
fact, the way the head is set on the body, with the nose up, and the

Meteorological Observations. 319

horns lying along the back, shows that itis, more adapted for the
water than the land, although it is an excellent draught animal, and
at Singapore supplies the place of the Elephant.

4. The Domestic Ox. of Bali and, Lombok, a large, sleek, thin-
skinned. species, as graceful, as the Antelope. This would be very
much admired in the Gardens. Specimens can be obtained at Sin-
gapore, but it would be better to get them from Lombok, whence
ships now come direct to England with cargoes of rice. Mr. Lange
of Bali Badong (merchant) would, I have no doubt, forward, speci-
mens at a triflig cost.—Proc. Zool. Soc. Feb. 8, 1853.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR AUG. 1854.

Chiswick.—August 1. Cloudy: clear. 2. Clear: very fine: heavy rain at night.
3. Overcast: rain. 4. Overcast: heavy rain. 5. Rain: overcast. 6, 7. Overcast:
clear. 8. Very fine. 9. Fine: overcast; very clear at night. 10,11. Very fine.
12. Densely clouded : very clear at night. 13. Very fine. 14. Cloudy: very fine:
clear. 15. Very clear: cloudy: clear. 16. Fine: overcast. 17. Fine: rain: very
clear. 18. Fine: cloudy. 19. Very clear. 20. Cloudy and fine. 21. Overcast.
22. Cloudy and fine: clear. 23. Overcast : rather boisterous, with rain. 24. Fine:
cloudy..and boisterous: fine. 25. Fine. 26. Exceedingly fine. 27. Very fine :

overcast... 28. Very fine. 29. Very hot. 30. Cloudless and very hot, with dry
air, 31. Very fine.

Mean temperature of the month ............. Sib ¥ sausage Sei as 60°-70
Mean temperature of Aug. 1853 .........scecsseoescscscecesecees 59 *69
Mean temperature of Aug. for the last twenty-eight years... 62 °03
Average amount of rain in Aug. ‘.......ccceesceeee ence aC. 2°47 inches.

Boston.—Aug. 1, 2. Cloudy: rain a.m. and p.m. 3, Cloudy. 4. Cloudy:
rain a.M. and p.m.’ 5—9. Cloudy. 10,11. Fine. 12,13. Cloudy. 14. Cloudy:
rain P.M. 15. Fine: rain p.m. 16. Fine. 17. Cloudy: rain p.m. 18. Cloudy.
19, Fine. ©20. Fine: rain. 21. Cloudy: rain a.m. 22. Fine: rain; with
thunder and lightning p.m. 23, Cloudy. 24. Fine: rain p.m. 25. Fine. 26,
27. Cloudy. 28—30. Fine. 31. Cloudy.

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—Aug. 1. Fog a.m.: drizzle p.m. 2. Bright a.m. :
clear p.m. 3,4. Cloudy a.m. and)p.m. 5. Damp a.m.: drizzle p.m. 6. Cloudy
A.M.: drizzle P.M... 7./Cloudy a.m.: damp p.m. 8, 9. Cloudy a.m.: drops P.M.
10. Cloudy a.m. : clear, fine p.m. 11. Bright a.m.: bright, fine p.m. 12. Cloudy
A.M.: Showers P.M. 13. Showers A.M.: clear, fine p.m. 14. Cloudy a.m. : rain,
thunder pm. 15. Bright a.m.: cloudy p.m. 16. Bright a.m.: clear p.m. 17.
Bright, fine a.m. : clear, fine p.m. 18. Clear, fine a.m.: cloudy p.m. 19. Cloudy
A.M..: showers, aurora P.M. 20. Bright a.m.: cloudy, fine p.m. 21. Drops a.m. :
showers P.M. 22. Showers a.M.: cloudy p.m. 23. Rain, cloudy a.m.; showers
p.M. 24. Showers A.M.and p.m. 25. Cloudy A.M. and p.m. 26. Drizzle a.m.:
cloudy p.m. 27. Damp a.m.: cloudy p.m. 28. Cloudy A.M. andp.m. 29. Cloudy
A.M.: rain p.M. 30. Showers A.M. and p.m. 31. Showers a.m. : cloudy p.m.

Mean temperature of Aug. for twenty-seven previous years . 54°-99
Mean temperature of this Month ....0.... cece essa tee e ee eeeees 55°06
Mean temperature of Aug. 1853. ......0.s.ccceeccecereseneecevens 55 -98
Average quantity of rain in Aug. for fourteen previous years. 2:99 inches,

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THE.ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY..
[SECOND SERIES.]

No. 83. NOVEMBER 1854.

XXIX.—Contributions to the Natural History of the Infusoria.
ett MUSED... By A. Scunerper*.

a) +, > A %\ *
¥ Z e AEDS “Js [ With a Plate. |

a

) sremse <
ura wee” I. On Polytoma Uvella.

‘

Polytoma Uvella is given by Ehrenbergy as the only species of
the genus Polytoma, and characterized in the following words :—
“ Animal e familia Monadinorum, ocello destitutum, ore termi-
nali truncato, ciliis aut proboscide subtili flagelliforme duplici
instructo natantibus solitariis antico, divisione spontanea decus-
sata et imperfecta, multipartitum in Mori formam enascens, dein
partitum et altera vice solitarium.” In a subsequent passage he
adds—* With regard to its organization the polygastric ali-
mentary organs appeared distinctly. Besides these I perceived a
larger contractile vesicle, which did not belong to the nutritive
apparatus, and which appeared to be connected with the male
sexual organs. Lastly, a large, free, white spot in the anterior
part of the body, the outline of which could not be made out
distinctly, but which pressed the stomachal sacs towards the
hinder extremity, led to the supposition that a seminal gland
existed in that place.”’? After repeated failures he succeeded,
but only by employing a magnifying power of 6-800 diameters,
in seeing the little sacs of the posterior portion filled with indigo.
Dujardin, apparently, has never examimed Polytoma himself, as
he could not repeat Ehrenberg’s observations upon its mode of
division{, and I am unacquainted with any subsequent obser-
vations upon this creature.

* Translated from Miiller’s Archiv, 1854, p. 191.
+ Die Infusorien als volkommene Organismen, &c., p. 24.
~ Dujardin, Hist. Nat. Infusoires, p. 276.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xiv. 21

‘
<
\

322 M.A. Schneider’s Contributions to the

As it appeared desirable that we should be better acquainted
with the mode of division of Polytoma, I have made a series of
observations upon this elegant creature, the results of which will
be found in the following pages. The material for the investi-
gation is easily obtained. Polytoma Uvella is to be met with in
every puddle, in rain-water tanks, &c., and its rapid increase
may readily be effected, by the putrefaction of animal or vege-
table matters.

Polytoma Uveila is of an oval form; it is from 335 to 7, of
an inch long, and about half that width. At one end, which,
with Ehrenberg, we will call the anterior extremity, it bears two
filaments as long or longer than the body. When the living
animal is examined under a magnifying power of 300 diameters,
the body appears to be bounded by a simple outline. But in
many instances, and especially when a large specimen can be
found at rest, it may be seen that the internal substance of the
body is surrounded by a thin and perfectly clear membrane,
from which it is separated by a distinct space. When the in-
vesting membrane is more closely attached, its existence may
always be demonstrated by the employment of reagents to pro-
duce the contraction of the substance of the body : chromic acid
and solution of iodine in chloride of zine are the best substances
toemploy, the latter especially, as it at the same time communicates
a brown colour to the internal sac (Pl. XI. fig. 2). Under cer-

tain circumstances, the investing membrane divides into minute
granules, assuming when viewed from the side a regular neck-
lace-like appearance (fig. 8). A reproduction of the membrane
then takes place. The substance of the body is perfectly clear,
with the same refractive properties as that of dmeba. About
the middle lies a clear, globular nucleus, surrounded by a nar-
row, reddish halo. Dilute acids render this more distinct. At
the anterior extremity, close to the margin, there are two reddish.
vesicles, the contractions of which may easily be recognised in
individuals in a state of repose. The hinder extremity always
contains a mass of granules, with dark outlines, which are not
altered by acetic acid. A weak solution of iodine in iodide of
potassium gives them a deep blue colour, generally verging upon
black, as it is difficult to hit the right quantity of the reagent to
be added. The fine blue colour is better attained by the addi-
tion of diluted solution of iodine in chloride of zinc, as with this
the granules become slightly liquefied, and when left standing
for some time even form a blue paste. Muriatic and sulphuric
acids also dissolve them, so that the subsequent addition of
iodine gives the whole body a blue colour. When the putrefac-
tion of the infusion is going on very rapidly, the granules fill the
entire body. They are not arranged in balls like the nutritive

Natural History of the Infusoria. 323

matter in the bodies of other Infusoria, and it is by no means
probable that they are taken in from the exterior. Besides the
two contractile vesicles, single, non-contractile, reddish vacuoles
are seen scattered through the substance of the body.

The starch-like granules are often converted into an indigo-
blue pigment, which is then partially dissolved, and colours the
whole parenchyma. Such specimens as these still retain the
power of division, so that there can be no doubt as to their iden-
tity with Polytoma Uvella. Individuals were also frequently met
with of which the substance of the body was of a uniform
green colour, but which in other respects agreed exactly with
Polytoma.

Deviations from this normal form never occur singly in
the same vessel, but always make their appearance simulta-
neously in a great number of individuals. Certain peculiarities
of their abode appear therefore to have an influence upon the form.
Very compressed forms are rare. However, it not unfrequently
happens that whilst the investing membrane retains its normal
form, the substance of the body is not equally distributed in its
interior. Sometimes it lies to one side, so as to fill only half
the interior of the sac; sometimes it is entirely collected in the
anterior, and sometimes in the posterior extremity ; in the latter
case it is connected with the anterior extremity by a slender fila-
ment (figs. 13 & 14). In infusions m which fermentation has
long ceased, and which contain a large quantity of brown
humus-like matter, but very small portions of nitrogenous sub-
stances in solution, the two last modifications of the parenchyma
are most frequently met with. At the same time the starch-like
granules disappear, the substance of the body acquires a darker,
fatty outline, and finally disappears, with formation of the well-
known large vacuoles. nee

The movements of Polytoma are the same as those usually
ascribed to organisms furnished with two filaments. Whilst in
motion the filaments are always in front, the animal rotates upon
its axis, and this again describes circular vibrations upon a cen-
tral point. Ifa movement in the opposite direction is taking
place, the animal is endeavouring to turn the anterior extremity,
and until this is effected, it swims backwards, When a drop of
the infusion has been left for a few minutes upon a glass plate
covered over with a piece of thin glass, a considerable number of
the animals will be found attached to both glasses by their ante-
rior extremity ; the filaments are free, and it is probably by their
vibration that the hinder extremity is made to oscillate in the
direction of the plane of the two filaments. They collect in the
same manner in crowds upon aquatic plants, as well as upon the
sides of the vessel containing them. Their mode of attachment

21%

324 M. A. Schneider’s Contributions to the —

is still unintelligible to me. In any case some contrivance for
this purpose, however simple, must exist either between the two
filaments, or at the side of their points of issue from the mem-
brane.

Reproduction.

During the swarming state a division of the substance of the
body goes on uninterruptedly, at all hours of the day. The dif-
ferent stages of this process follow one another with greater or
less rapidity in proportion as the conditions of nutrition are more
or less favourable. Soon after the commencement of fermenta-
tion in an infusion, the rate of increase attains its maximum ; it
then diminishes as the fermentation ceases, the offspring at the
same time undergoing a diminution of size.

The commencement of the process of division is indicated by
the uniform distribution of the granular substance. A constric-
tion of the substance then takes place, usually commencing on
one side ; by this the body is divided into two parts, which are
still enclosed in the uninjured investing membrane. Simulta-
neously with, or perhaps before the completion of this bisection,
the nucleus-also divides (fig. 3). Although no constriction of
the nucleus was ever noticed, nothing certainly was observed to —
contradict the supposition, that the second nucleus was produced
in this mamner. The two halves then become constricted from
their surfaces of contact, in such a manner that the constriction
of one half crosses that of the other at right angles (fig. 4). To
every depression thus produced on the one side there is a corre-
sponding elevation of the other. The quadrisection (figs. 4 & 5)
then takes place suddenly as if by cutting, and without any ap-
pearance of a circular constriction, each portion containing its
proper nucleus. The divisions now acquire an oval form, and
arrange themselves'in such a manner that the ends of the pos-
terior pair, which are turned towards the middle, alternate with
those of the anterior pair in the same place (fig. 6). In very
favourable cireumstances (as for instance, at the commencement
of fermentation), a third division into eight parts takes place,
each division being still furnished with a nucleus. As a general
rule, however, the young individuals acquire filaments soon after
the quadrisection, and move about in various directions within
the investing membrane, until this bursts, and the young, which
are exactly like the mother except in their smaller size, are set
free. In favourable circumstances the empty membrane remains
with the two filaments. After the division of the substance into
four or eight parts, the investing membrane is always visible
without the employment of any reagents. This has not escaped
Ehrenberg (loc. cit. and tab. 1. xxxii.); he explains the appear-

Natural History of the Infusoria. 325

ance as a consequence of a superficial constriction. The fila-
ments of the parent always appear to be connected only with one
of the young individuals, although this is less distinguishable in
the present mode of division than in that about to be described.

In this the quadrisection takes place in another manner.
After bisection, the two portions shift their position in such a
manner, that the surfaces of contact form a distinct angle with
their original position. If this change of position be but trifling,
the quadrisection goes forward nearly in the manner just de-
scribed, and the arrangement of the developed young only differs
as far as is rendered necessary by this change of position (figs. 11
& 12). Butif it be more considerable, the new surfaces of divi-
sion run parallel to each other and nearly perpendicular to the
surfaces of contact of the two halves. The position of the young
individuals is then completely different from that seen in the pre-
ceding case ; all four lie parallel to each other, with their longitu-
dinal axis oblique as regards the axis of the whole (figs. 9 & 10).

This difference may perhaps be explained as follows :—each
portion has a tendency to acquire an oval form, so that soon
after the bisection the anterior portion extends itself posteriorly,
and the posterior towards the front. When sufficient time has
not elapsed for the one dimension to predominate over the other,
the quadrisection takes place as in the former case; but when,
on the other hand, one dimension has become predominant, the
division into four takes place in accordance with the same law as
the original division into two.

The method of division first described is always met with in
the early periods of an infusion, which are most favourable to the
development of the creatures. Towards the end the latter mode
alone occurs. This phenomenon was so remarkable, that on
the first occasion of my examining an infusion towards the close
of its action, I imagined that I had at first misunderstood the
mode of division.

Under certain circumstances the individuals pass to a state
of rest. They are then completely filled with the starch-like gra-
nules, so that the nucleus only appears as a reddish spot. The
substance of the body becomes spherical, and invests itself with a
membrane which is frequently of considerable thickness (fig. 7).
In this state I have never observed them to undergo ani divi-
sion or any other change, and when dried the cysts still retain
their contents. When clear water is poured over them they do
not return to life, but would probably do so in a fermenting
infusion,

The mode in which the swarming individuals arrive at this
state of repose appears to be as follows. The filaments are gra-
dually shortened, their substance collecting at the free extremity

326 M. A. Schneider’s Contributions to the

in the form of a small knob, until at last the filiform portion en-
tirely disappears, and in place of the filaments, two vesicles are
seen at the anterior extremity of the investing membrane (fig. 15).
I have observed a similar contractibility of the substance of the
filaments in a Bodo which is most nearly allied to Bodo grandis,
EKhrbg. As this possesses not three filaments only, as seen by
Focke (Ehrbg. p. 34), but often as many as five, the vesicles pro-
duced in this manner cannot easily be overlooked. I cannot
however state with certainty, whether all the individuals which
undergo this change invest themselves with cysts. When in-
fusions containing Polytoma are dried slowly, individuals with
the vesicles just described are found in the deposit, but no cysts,
and it is not impossible that such mdividuals may assist in the
continuation of the species in some other way.

Nearly allied to Polytoma is the Chlorogonium euchlorum of
Ehrenberg *, which consists of a firm, transparent, fusiform in-
vesting membrane, with which I was not able to obtain any re-
action for cellulose. Its interior is filled with a homogeneous
green mass, which is generally somewhat rounded behind ; the
green colour disappears in front, where the mass is distinctly
connected with the filaments inserted in the apex. In the middle
there is a transparent, round nucleus, the reddish halo ‘sur-
rounding which is extended in a spindle shape towards the two
extremities. The surface of the green mass is completely covered
with reddish spots (as many as twelve), but none of these are of
such a fine red colour as the eye-spot of Huglena.

Khrenberg describes Chlorogonium as ‘possessing an eye; he
says,—“ The eye of Chlorogonium is very distinctly marked, but
very minute, so that it may easily be overlooked.” Unfortu-
nately during my observations upon this creature I had not
Ehrenberg’s work at hand; I cannot however call to mind that
one of the reddish spots was unusually distinct. I could not
discover a contractile space; but if this were no larger than in
Polytoma, it would require uncommon acuteness of vision to
distinguish it from the non-contractile reddish spots. Divi-
sion takes place in the interior of the investing membrane, in
exactly the same manner as in Polytoma. ‘The number of indi-
viduals produced is never less than four, but often as many as
thirty-two—in the latter case they are very small, but always
resemble the parent in other respects. A spherical state of rest
also occurs. It appears that when the requisite conditions are
present, the young proceeding from the division of the parent
pass into this state immediately after they are set free; their
soft investing membrane probably rendering them fitter for this

* P. 114. tab. vit. fig. xvii.

Natural History of the Infusoria. 827

purpose. The contractions which then take place are probably
the same that were observed by Ehrenberg. In other respects I
have found the form quite unchangeable, and Chlorogonium must
consequently be separated from the Astasiea, amongst which it
has hitherto been arranged. On the addition of iodine only a
few blue granules are to be seen in the fusiform individuals ;
the green spheres, on the contrary, which are completely filled
with green granules, acquire a deep blue colour with this reagent :
if the colouring matter be destroyed by means of concentrated
sulphuric acid, the granules are dissolved, and on the addition
of iodine a beautiful blue colour is produced. By long keeping
the green of the cysts passes to red. The cysts are not to be
roused from their torpid state by the production of fermentation.
I have, however, observed their revivification under other circum-
stances, but my materials are insufficient to enable me to describe
the mode of reproduction of the investing membrane and
filaments, which would certainly be interesting. The conditions
required for the existence of Chlorogonium are apparently quite
different from those. of Polytoma; the former did not multiply
abundantly in infusions until the latter had passed to the state
of repose.

To show how very different is the mode of division in other
Monadina, in which the investing membrane is deficient, we
may refer to Chilomonas paramecium, Ehrbg. (p.30. tab. 11. fig. vi.).
The form of this animal is subject to considerable variation. It
usually presents a longish oval, broader at one end than at the
other. At the broader end, a little to one side of the apex,
there is a small indentation, in which the two filaments are
placed. The interior is principally filled with round granules
(as represented by Ehrenberg), which distinctly exhibit the re-
actions of starch. In the hinder portion a clear nucleus with a
reddish halo may be observed. The oval is but rarely perfect ;
it is generally flattened on two sides, and the surfaces thus pro-
duced are even somewhat impressed in a longitudinal direction.
It is to this impression, I think, that the reddish colour which
makes its appearance when the animal is examined lying flat
before the observer, is to be ascribed. I could discover no con-
tractile space, although a reddish vesicle certainly does always
exist in the anterior extremity ; I must, however, leave its con-
_ tractibility an undecided point. Ehrenberg mentions expressly,
that Chilomonas paramecium never could be made to take in
coloured nourishment, nor have I been able to observe this any
more than with Polytoma.

Whatever number of these animals may be observed, no trace
of division will ever be remarked in them. Very rarely we may
see two individuals adhering by their middle, evidently produced
by a longitudinal division. We shall endeavour to explain this.

328 M. A. Schneider’s Contributions to the

On close examination, one or two reddish lines may be seen run-
ning backwards from the bottom of the indentation (fig. 25),
which might readily be taken for organs lying in the interior of
the body. I have convinced myself, however, especially by the
comparison of the process of division in a species of Bodo, that
these lines indicate furrows, which gradually divide the whole by
cutting deeper and deeper on each side. As during this process
the animal undergoes no change of form, except in becoming a
little broader, and the division takes place along its whole
length, the process must readily escape observation. The ante-
rior end is always a little thicker; the furrows consequently are.
deeper and more distinctly recognizable in that part. With a
suitable arrangement of the microscope, it is evident that, the
two furrows being looked at simultaneously, two reddish lines
are seen. It is only in rare cases, when the division has ‘taken
place more slowly in some particular spot, that the two spe-
cimens must endeavour to tear themselves free, and thus, by
twisting in contrary directions, draw our attention to them. ‘That
the process of division is effected in a similar manner in other
Monadina, appears from an observation of Ehrenberg’s upon
Cryptomonas cylindrica (p. 42) :—“ I saw no instance of constric-
tion or fissation, but two individuals were swimming whilst ad-
hering together, which might lead one to suppose that'a longi-
tudinal division from behind forwards had taken place.” And
it is not improbable that the specimen represented by him on
tab. 11. fig. xix. 2, with two seminal glands (nuclei?) and two
longitudinal lines, was in the act of division. :

The occurrence of an encysted or quiescent state in Polytoma
cannot be considered remarkable, smce Stein has made known
the encystation of Vorticella microstoma*, and Cohn that of Tra-
chelius Ovum, Trachelocerca Olor, Holophrya Ovum, Prorodon
teres and Chilodon uncinatust. To this list I can add some others
from my own observations. Stylonychia pustulata, Ehrbg., gra-
dually acquires a spherical form, still retaining its cilia ; the cilia
then quickly fall off, continual little contractions take place, and
a clear mucus is secreted by the whole surface, which gradually
hardens into a strong, solid membrane. When a spherical spe-
cimen is obtained, the casting off of the cilia and the secretion of
the membrane may easily be followed under the microscope.
The exclusion of the animal completely furnished with cilia may
often be observed, merely by re-establishing fermentation in the
fluid. The animals which are somewhat elongated previously
twist round spirally with great rapidity within the cyst.
After exclusion, they present a remarkable resemblance to

* Wiegmann’s Archiv, 1848.
+ Siebold und Kolliker’s Zeitschrift, iv.

Natural History of the Infusoria. 329

Oxytricha caudata, Ehrbg. (tab. xu. fig. xi.), although I will not
say that they are perfectly identical; the posterior extremity in
particular is always bent round in the manner represented by
Ehrenberg at No. 3 of the figure just cited.

Euplotes Charon, Ehrbg., contracts itself within its shield-
shaped carapace into a ball, which then invests itself with a new
membrane. As long as the carapace, which is distinguished by
its strize, is still retained, there can be no doubt as to the animal
enclosed in the cyst. The cysts of both these Infusoria are, as
might be expected, very common in infusions, and are probably
often confounded with the cysts of Vorticella. :

Pontotrichum lagenella forms a cyst like that of Trachelius
described by Cohn (op. cit. supra, p. 267), which completely re-
tains the flask-like form of the body. Within this the animal
contracts itself into a ball and invests itself with a new mem-
brane. Ameba also actually has a state of rest. I observed it
become round on one side, on which a firm membrane was then
formed, whilst the other portion continued its peculiar move-
ments. By degrees the membrane extends itself over the whole
body, the moveable portion constantly becoming smaller, until
at last a completely closed cyst is produced, in the clear interior
of which a round nucleus with a reddish halo, exactly like that
of Polytoma and other Monadina, may be distinctly observed*.

During our investigation of Polytoma, we have always tacitly
regarded it as of animal nature. But if we consider how very
difficult it is, in the present state of our knowledge, to draw the
boundary-line between the animal and vegetable kingdoms, it
becomes necessary to inquire with what right we have done so.
If the cycle of development of Polytoma be completed by the
forms now known, it 1s clear, in the first place, that Polytoma
behaves very like a simple cell. A structureless membrane in-
vests a soft, membraneless substance, which is continued exter-
nally in the form of a pair of filaments. The nucleus behaves
like a cell-nucleus. It is true that if it be necessary that the
nucleus of an animal cell should be a vesicle, the nucleus of
Polytoma does not fulfil this condition. But is the proper mem-
brane a necessary element of the animal cell-nucleus? Is it
not possible that this may be formed only under certain cireum-
stances? In the nucleus of Amewba, I have often observed, on
the outer surface of the reddish halo, granulations which united
to form a closed membrane; whilst at other times the nucleus
exactly resembled that of Polytoma.

* I take this opportunity of calling attention to this nucleus, which,
as far as I am aware, has not yet been noticed. By the comparison of
numerous specimens, its constant ot ra will distinguish it fromenclosed
particles of food. It occurs in A. diffluens and radiosa.

330 M. As Sebuieiderta, Gontrébutions.t¢. the

So that if it be considered possible that contractile spaces may
occur in a primordial vesicle without the necessity for a peculiar
apparatus of contractile fibres, Polytoma fulfils all the requisite
conditions of a cell.

That Polytoma is an animal may be maintained upon two
grounds.

l. The constitution of the investing membrane.— As soon as the
starch-like granules have been destroyed by the long action of
concentrated sulphuric acid, no part of the creature is. coloured
blue by iodme. Now we have no more reason for believing that
the vegetable cell-membrane must necessarily consist of cellulose,
than that the animal cell-membrane should not consist of that
substance, so that we are still compelled to seek for other cha-
racters for their distinction. These would be—

2. The contractile spaces.—A statement of Cohn’s* has cer-
tainly rendered it doubtful, whether the occurrence of these is
henceforward to be regarded as an essential indication of an. ani-
mal nature. He says, “On the other hand, certain genera of
Algze exhibit a stage of development, in which, in external form,
in the absence of a cellulose membrane, in the distinct: existence
of ciliary organs of motion, red eye-like spots, vacuoles, and,
according to a very recent discovery, of internal pulsating
spaces, they undoubtedly appear very similar to the Asto-
matous Infusoria.” If these pulsating spaces occur only
in unicellular Alge provided with cilia, these perhaps should
properly be restored to their place amongst animals, notwith-
standing the subsequent appearance of cellulose-membrane upon
them. But if they occur in the swarm-cells of the Conferve,
they certainly cease to be a characteristic of animal nature.
Thus, if we are not yet in a position to refer Polytoma with per-
fect certainty to its proper place, there is decidedly no reason for
excluding it from the animal kingdom. We will not, however,
venture to consider the Infusoria furnished with a mouth (Sto-
matoda, Von Siebold), as formed, like Polytoma, upon the type of
a simple cell ; for, high as we may rate the advantage accruing to
science from the comparison of the Protozoa with simple cells,
difficulties stand in the way of its complete application in the
case of animals of ‘such complicated structure as the Vorticelle
for example ; and these cannot be considered as entirely done away
with, until the history of their development has furnished proof
that at no period does a fusion of several cells take place.

In conclusion we bring together the results of the imvestiga-
tion as shortly as possible.

* Zwanzigster Jahresbericht der schlesischen Gesellschaft fiir vater-
landische Cultur, 1852, p. 46.

Natural History of the Infusoria. 331

1. Polytoma is an animal.

2. It is characterized by a clear investing membrane, which
does not consist of cellulose ; two contractile spaces in the sub-
stance of the body; a nucleus with a nucleolus ; two filaments ;
and by the deposition of layers of starch-like granules.

3. The starch-granules may become converted into a blue or
green colourmg matter.

4. Polytoma divides within the investing membrane into two,
four, or eight parts, and propagates itself in this manner.

5. It passes into a state of repose.

Il. Difflugia Enchelys, Ehrenberg.

A Rhizopod occurred in company with Polytoma in all infusions,
the description of which will show, how very readily it might be
supposed to be produced by a metamorphosis of the latter ani-
mal. Unfortunately I cannot confirm this supposition, and
must confine myself to recording the fact. From its extraor-
dinary transparency the examination of this creature was not
without interest. ;

The Rhizopod in question has a transparent, membranous
case, of an oval form, somewhat spherical on one side. The
substance of the body is either attached uniformly to the interior
of this case, or lies detached from it in various forms (figs. 16, 17,
18, 19). The substance of the body projects from the narrower
end of the case, forming that moveable portion, which may be
shortly characterized as the foot. In the hinder end there is a
round, reddish nucleus, with a white nucleolus, which is only
distinguished from that of Polytoma by the greater breadth of
the reddish halo.| The foot can exhibit the most various forms.
In its simplest state it is nothing but a transparent globule, which
afterwards divides into two or more smaller ones. From these
smaller processes are given off, and sometimes an indefinite num-
ber of tentacles with acute or rounded extremities is formed.
These tentacles are frequently drawn out to such an extent as
only to present the appearance of thin rays, Sometimes also the
foot is branched, and then usually encloses granules of foreign
matter in its ramifications. The reception of nourishment is
probably effected by means of the foot, m exactly the same man-
ner asin Ameba. The granules of food occur at first only in
the anterior portion of the substance of the body, which then
usually has a folded appearance, while the hinder portion re-
mains full and round. By degrees the whole body becomes
filled, and the nucleus almost concealed. Vacuoles are.seen in
all parts. The contractile spaces are probably only concealed
from sight, but I was unable to discover them.

~

332 M. A. Schneider’s Contributions to the

The Rhizopod just described is probably identical with Ehren-
berg’s Diffiugia Enchelys.. This is characterized as follows :-—
«PD. minima, lorica ovata, dorso rotundato, glabra, pellucida,
hyalina, 46 tam lines partem longa, processibus hyalinis, tenui-
bus, parvis, apertura laterali.” This description, as well as the
figure (tab. 1x. fig. iv.), agrees very well with our animal, except
the “lateral opening.” The form or position of the foot may,
however, cause the opening to appear as lying more towards one
side.

True double animals of our D. Enchelys are frequently met
with,—two bodies with membranous cases and nuclei bemg
attached to a common foot (fig. 20). The foot very often con-
sists only of a thin thread, but in other cases it exhibits all the
forms which have been described as belonging to the foot of the
simple animal. Both bodies are well filled with food. » Three,
four or five bodies are frequently seen hanging together m. the
same manner; these however are by no means in the same
plane, but stand out from the foot in various directions. If
these animals are obtained in considerable numbers, the forma-
tion of these colonies by gemmation may easily be: observed.
The foot is seen gradually to increase in size and acquire an oval
form. A new investing membrane and nucleus are then formed,
The offset is always equal to the parent animal in size. ‘Like the
foot of a single animal, the common foot of two or more is, as
might be supposed, still in a condition to form offsets.

A similar adhesion of Rhizopoda has already been frequently
observed. Cohn, in his ‘ Beitrage zur Entwickelungsgeschichte
der Infusorien *,’ has brought together the instances of this in
a note, and conjectures that this adhesion is preparatory to a
copulation; but may we not rather suppose that a gemmation
like that of D. Enchelys also takes place in other Rhizopoda ?
With Perty and Cohn I have also seen a pair of Arcella vulgaris
attached to one ‘another by their openings, of which one, exactly
as was observed by those naturalists, was provided with a white,
the other with a yellow shell. The white shell is probably newly
formed, and therefore indicates the young specimen produced
by gemmation from its companion.

I have observed another mode of propagation in our Difflugia,
and although my observations have certainly not been frequent,
they have been sufficiently satisfactory. After I had kept a
great number of these creatures for some weeks in a clayey
sediment, the substance of the body, in all the individuals, con-
tracted into a ball. All foreign substances had previously dis-
appeared. The ball, which had a fatty outline, then divided into

* Siebold und Kolliker’s Zeitschrift, iv. p. 261.

Natural History of the Infusoria. 333

two and four parts, but the nucleus could not be traced during
this process. The investing membrane fell to pieces, and the
little spheres, which may perhaps be regarded as four quiescent
spores, were no more to be seen (PI. XI. figs. 22, 23).

Whether another circumstance observed by me has any con-
nexion with the reproduction of Difflugia, must be ascertained
hereafter. In all the individuals of Diflugia contained in one
vessel, the substance of the body became converted into granules
closely packed together (fig. 24), the form and the investing
membrane being retained. I often saw these granules in quick
molecular movement in the interior of a sac, which appeared to
be formed from the outermost layer of the body, but I watched
in vain for any issue to this ; after moving for about half an hour,
the granules always became quiescent again.

If we bring together the results of this investigation, it ap-
pears that—

1. Difflugia Enchelys has a nucleus.

2. As other Rhizopoda, Ameba for example, also possess one,
a nucleus probably occurs in all Rhizopoda.

3. Difflugia Enchelys propagates by gemmation.

4; It is probable that other Rhizopoda also propagate by
gemmation.

5. Difflugia Enchelys forms four quiescent spores.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XI.

Fig. 1. Polytoma Uvella, magnified 300 times :—a, the starch-like gra-
nules; 6, the nucleus with its nucleolus; ec, the contractile
vesicles.

Fig. 2. The same after long action of chromic acid.

Fig. 3. The same bisected.

Fig. 4. The commencement of the constriction for quadrisection. The
direction of the constriction of the other half lies in the plane of
the paper.

5, The quadrisection completed.
6. The divisions have acquired the oval form.

Fig. 7. Quiescent state :—4, nucleus.

8. The investing membrane divided into granules.

Fig. 9. Another mode of quadrisection. The portions have nearly acquired
the oval form before quadrisection.

Fig. 10. Position of the fully-developed young in this mode of division.

Fig. 11. The two halves have slightly changed their position before qua-
drisection.

Fig. 12. Position of the young in this mode of division. The two lower
ones lie across the upper, and appear through them.

Fig. 13. The body occupying only one side of the investing membrane.
Fig. 14. The body is contracted into the hinder portion of the membrane,
and only connected with the filaments by a thin thread.

Fig. 15. The filaments contracted into two little knobs.

Figs. 16,17, 18, 19. Different forms of Difflugia Enchelys.

Fig. 20. Adherent specimens of Difflugia.

334 Mr. H: J. Carter on Zoosperms in Spongilla.

Fig. 21. Commencement of gemmation.

Figs. 22, 23.. The body of Diflugia divided into four spores.

Fig. 24. The body divided into granules. eye nie t596

Fig. 25. Chilomonas paramecium :—a, reddish vesicle; 6, lmes indicating
the furrows of bisection; c, nucleus. The dark granules are

starch.

XXX.—Zoosperms in Spongilla. By H. J. Carrur, Esq.
[With a Plate. |

Havine resolved to watch for the antheridia and their spiral
filaments, as they became developed this monsoon m the mosses
and smaller cryptogamic plants of the island of Bombay, the
thought struck me that 1 might include Spongilla, which also
grows rapidly a few weeks after the commencement of the rains.
I therefore, about the Ist of July, threw several handfuls of
Spongilla, previously broken up for the purpose, on the surface of
the water of a tank which had been dry for some weeks before
the monsoon began, and which was now filled.

On the 20th July I visited the tank, and found these portions
of Spongilla in many places attached to the under sides of dead
leaves, and matting up bits of straw and other floating substances
under a superficial layer of green, slimy conferva.. Some of the
portions were an inch long in their new, projecting, mammiform

arts.
J On examining the structure of the latter internally, I found
the old deciduous capsules at the base, but could discover no
new ones sufficiently developed to be recognized.

A mammiform projection was then selected, which from its
light colour appeared to possess no foreign material, and from
this a small piece was cut out, which, having been washed to
clear it still further from all impurities, was torn to pieces as
much as possible in water, and the whole placed under ‘a mag-
nifying power of 500 diameters.

Here the trembling motion of the fragments of Spongilla,
always present under such circumstances, was immediately per-
ceived, and on searching more narrowly for the cause of this, it
was seen to be owing to minute hair-like filaments in rapid
motion, which projected outwards from the sides of the principal
masses, very much like cilia. On endeavouring however to find
out if these filaments were attached to any definite forms, and
selecting for this purpose the smallest and most isolated frag-
ments which presented the tremulous motion, I saw that they
consisted in each instance of a spherical cell, to which was
attached the hair-like appendage mentioned (Pl. XI*. fig. 1).

Mr. H. J. Carter. on Zoosperms in Spongilla. 335

* On further examination, the cell appeared to be formed exactly
like the sponge-cell itself, but proportionally minute in every
respect—that is, that granular matter, mterspersed with a few
granules of much larger size, is spread over more or less of the
internal surface of the cell, giving it the appearance at one time
of being entirely granular and at another of being only partially
so, according as the granular matter is wholly or partially upper-
most (figs. 1, 2). Moreover, the cell frequently changes its
shape, which shows that, like the sponge-cell, it is also meta-
morphic (figs. 3, 4, 5). One hair-like appendage only projects
from its surface, which, in length, is about three times the dia-
meter of the cell, and occasionally appears to widen at the base,
as if it/were a prolongation of the cell-wall itself; its motions
might be likened to those of a rope, so shaken at one end that
the undulations extend throughout, and therefore when used in
progression this filament gives to the cell a “ serpentine creep-
ing ’? course.

| At first the polymorphism of the cell and movements of the
tail are so rapid, that literally, neither “ head nor tail” can be
made out of the little mass. Presently, however, its power of
progression and motion begins to fail, and if separated from
other fragments it soon becomes stationary, and after a little
polymorphism assumes its natural, passive form, which is that
ofa spherical cell (fig. 1). Durimg this time the motions of
the. tail become more and more languid and at length cease
altogether.

If, on the other hand, there be very large fragments in the
immediate neighbourhood, or an active sponge-cell under poly-
morphism sweeps over the field, it may attach itself to one or
the other of these, when its cell becomes undistinguishable from
the common, mass, and the tail, floating and undulating out-
wards, is all: that remains visible. Hence many of the larger
fragments present more or less of these filaments on their cir-
cumference (fig. 6). :

To see if any existed on the investing membrane of the sur-
face, or.on the lining membrane of the canals of Spongilla, a
slice including portions of both was placed under the micro-
scopic power mentioned, but none presented themselves, neither
was there any motion in the surrounding particles indicative of
the presence of cilia.

This cell, which is by far the most active in its movements of
any part of Spongilla, makes the whole of the fragments tremble,
when a portion of the latter is first torn to pieces, after the man-
ner of the swarming, vibrating movements observed in the sperm-
cells of mosses, when the fully-developed mass just quits the
antheridium. They are about the 1-4300th part of an inch in

336 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

diameter, and the tail about three times this diameter in
length.

Dujardin saw and has figured these cells and their filaments
en masse, and observed polymorphism in the former, from which
he compared them to a Volvox, and inferred that the use of the
filaments was “ pour déterminer a la surface le déplacement de
Peau et par suite les courans dans les oscules ” (Ann des Sc. Nat.
2nd ser. t. x. pp. 9,10). But he did not see these filaments on
the surface of Spongilla, nor on the linmg membrane of its
canals, neither have | been able to detect them in either of these
situations. Huxley has also described and figured similar bodies —
in a species of “ Tethya” (Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist. vol. vu.
p- 373, 1851), which he considers “ spermatozoa ;” and I know
not what else to consider those above described, if they are not
the spermatozoa or zoosperms of Spongilla.

The portions of Spongilla which were thrown into the tank I
had had by mefor sevenor eight years, and the period during which
the ova while in their capsules will retain their vitality, if not
some parts of the dried skeleton also, seems almost indefinite.

Bombay, 28th July 1854.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XI*.

Fig. 1. Zoosperm of Spongilla about 1—4300th inch in diameter, magnified ;
passive condition.

Fig. 2. Ditto ditto active ; stationary or progressive.

Figs. 3, 4. Ditto ditto polymorphic.

Fig. 5. Ditto ditto ditto, showing the insertion of the tail drawn forwards
by the polymorphism of the cell.

Fig. 6. Portion of Spongilla, magnified, presenting tails of zoosperms in
active motion. Natural size about 1000th of an inch in diameter,

XXXI.—On the Genus Lycium. By Joun ARP Re Esq.,
F.RS., F.L.S. &e.

[Concluded from p. 194.]

3. Macrocore. Corolle tubus lacinis limbi brevior : stamina longe
exserta. Species omnes Neogee.

* Filamenta imo glandula lineart carnosa margine ciliata donata.

60. Lycium filifolium, Gill.;—inerme, glaberrimum, ramosis-
simum, ramulis virgatis, cinereis, striatis, nodis cupulatis ;
foliis alternis, vel subfasciculatis, longe et anguste linearibus,
utrinque acutis, crassiusculis ; floribus solitariis, gracile pe-
dunculatis, calyce poculiformi, subpubescente, membranaceo,
5-6-costato, 5—6-dentato, dentibus obtusiusculis, ciliatis ;

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 337

coroll tubo ealyce 3-plo longiore, infra medium coarctato,
cylindrico, imo incrassato annulo barbato cincto, fauce am-
pliato, limbi laciniis 5-6, oblongis, tubo sub-brevioribus, mar-
gine ciliatis, staminibus 5-6, in coarctationem insertis, fila-
mentis imo geniculatis, glandula elongata margine dense bar-
bata donatis, superne levibus, subzequalibus, exsertis ; stylo
staminibus excedente.—Prov. “ Buenos Ayres” Argentinorum.
—v. s. in Herb. Hooker. (Bahia Blanca) Darwin, no. 509.
(Pampas, ad Monte de Loro) Gilles.

This is evidently a shrub with long slender branches, much
resembling L. vimineum in habit, but distinguished by a different
floral structure : the leaves are 4 to 9 lines long; in Dr. Gillies’
specimen they are not more than } line broad, in Mr. Darwin’s
they are } to ? line broad: the very slender pedicels are 1} line
long ;; the’ calyx 1s narrow, somewhat pubescent, and 1 line in
length; the tube of the corolla is 11 line, the border 1 line
long ; the stamens reach the length of the segments of the
border *. :

Var. B. minutifolium ;—ramulis multo gracilioribus, folius bre-
vioribus, fasciculatis aut alternis, glaberrimis ; calycis dentibus
ciliatis ; corolla pentamera ; bacca parvula, globosa, coccinea,
calyce' immutato suffulta.—Patagonia (Tweedie).

The branchlets here are almost filiform, the leaves 2 to 23 lines
long, ¢ line broad, the peduncle is 1} line, the calyx of similar
length, the corolla 3 lines long, and the berry 2 lines in
diameter.

61. Lycium salsum, R. & P. Fl. Per. i. 46. tab. 183 a; Dunal in
DC. Prodr. xii. 519. LL. gracile, Meyen? Nov. Act. Ac. Ces.
Leop. xix. Sup. i. 889 ;—biorgyale, subscandens, omnino gla-
berrimum, ramulis gracillime virgatis, angulato-costatis, spinis
acicularibus sepe munitis: foliis subfasciculatis, spathulato-
lmearibus, glaberrimis: floribus solitariis pendulis, pedunculo
capillari folio longiore, calyce parvo, poculiformi, 5-costato,
inequaliter 5-dentato, dentibus apice ciliatis ; corolle albo-
purpuree tubo brevi calyce. longiore, extus glabro, infra me-
dium coarctato, fauce ainpliato, limbi lacus tubo sublongio-
ribus, oblongis, margine ciliatis ; staminibus 5 zqualibus, longe
exsertis, filamentis in coarctationem tubi sistentibus, circa
basin geniculatam fascicula densa oblonga pilorum donatis,
istis cum fasciculis totidem tubo adnatis alternantibus.—In
Peruviz litoribus.—v. s. in herb. Hook. Lurin et Pachacamac
(Mathews, no. 450).

* This species with floral analysis is shown in the ‘ Illustr. South Amer.

Plants,’ vol. ii. plate 72 B.
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 22

338 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

This is a trailing shrub with long slender pendulous branches,
growing in saline places near the sea, and having much the habit
of L. pendulinum. The leaves have a saline taste, whence its
specific name; they are about 4 lines long, 1 line broad, and
veinless ; the peduncle is slender, filiform, 23 to 3 lines long ;
the tubular calyx is 1 line long, smooth, with five unequal, short,
pubescent teeth ; the tube of the corolla is 14 line in length, the
segments of the border are somewhat longer, narrow, oblong
and subciliated on the margins: the filaments are inserted at a
quarter the length of the tube from the bottom, and a little
above their smooth geniculated base are furnished with a dense
oblong brush of hairs ; they reach the extremity of the segments
of the border, and are therefore much exserted when the flower
is expanded *.

62. Lycium Chilense, Miers, Trav. 1. 531; Bertero, Mem. Tur.
xxxill. 133. tab. 44; Dunal in DC. Prodr. xii. 514. LL. nu-
tans, Pép. lL. canum, Gill. MSS. Walp. Rep. ii. 112 ;—
subinerme, rarissime spinescens, ramulis inermibus pubescen-
tibus, angulato-costatis, lineis helvolis e nodis cupularibus —
utrinque decurrentibus, foliis alternis, raro subfasciculatis,
ovatis vel oblongis, sepe angustis, subacutis, aut imterdum
obtusiusculis, imo in petiolum brevissimum attenuatis, integris,
utrinque breviter pubescentibus, pilis brachiato-articulatis ;
floribus solitariis, pedunculo piloso, calyce ad medium equa-
liter 5-fido, utrinque glauco-piloso, dentibus acutis, ciliatis ;
corolla extus valde griseo-pubescente, tubo subinfundibuli-
formi, 5-sulcato, flavido, paullo supra basin constricto, annu-
loque dense barbato cincto, limbi laciniis 5, oblongis, paten-
tibus, tubo flavido parum longioribus, intus glabris, versus
marginem pallescentibus, centro lilacinis, lineis purpureis
notatis ; staminibus 5 e medio tubi ortis, subzequalibus, fila-
mentis supra geniculum basalem levem glandula lineari glabre
margine densiter villosa donatis, et cum fasciculis totidem
tubo adnatis alternantibus hinc faucem claudentibus, supernc
glaberrimis, attenuatis et longe exsertis, ovario tubi circum-
scissi reliquo semi-involuto, stylo staminibus paullo longiore,
stigmate sub-2-lobo ; bacca ovali, coccinea, apiculata, calyce
suffulta.—Chile, preesertim in litoribus.—». v.+

This may be considered as the type of the many South
American species, which form a well-marked group, distin-
guished principally by their peculiar brachiate pubescence, the

* A drawing of this plant with analytical details is given (loc. cil.) in
plate 72 C. ,
+ This plant with sectional details is shown (loc, cit.) in plate 72 D.

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 339

hairs being always articulated, often short, and sometimes only
visible under the lens: they are also remarkable for the peculiar
glandular long adnate scale with fimbriated or barbated margins
attached to the lower portion of the stamens, and which by the
geniculation of the filaments at their origin, compose a fornix
that closes the tube of the corolla: they might almost form a
distinct section or subgenus (Celidophora). ‘The angles of the
branchlets generally exhibit raised reddish-coloured ribs which
spring from each side of the bony cupular or bracket-shaped
node seen at the origin of each branch or leaf. In this species
the leaves are often small, in some cases almost linear, in others
ovate, varying from 4 to 8 lines in length, and 1 to 3 lines in
breadth: the petiole is almost obsolete : the peduncle is 3 lines,
the calyx 2 lines long, which offers the peculiarity of being
thickly pubescent within as well as outside; the pointed reflected
teeth are a line in length: the tube of the corolla is 2 lines
long, the segments of the border 3 lines; the stamens are 22
lines in length: the scarlet berry is nearly 33 lines long and
24 lines broad, and contains numerous small flattened reniform
seeds, in which the slender terete embryo makes a gyration and a
half, in a spiral form ; the radicle, nearly equal in length to the
cotyledons, points to the basal angle of the seed, avoiding the
lateral hilum. This shrub is very common along the coast of
Chile, where it is called Pigquillin: it is no. 367 of Cuming’s col-
lection. I have not seen L. gracile of Meyen from the neigh-
bourhood of Coquimbo, referred to this species by M. Dunal,
which from the description appears to me to accord better with
L. salsum, BR. & P.

63. Lycium -pubescens (n. sp.) ;—ramosissimum, omnino pubes-
cens, ramulis approximatis, horizontaliter divergentibus, spi-
nosis, valde foliosis ; foliis minimis, fasciculatis, anguste line-
aribus, imo spathulatis, utrinque pubescentibus, pilis mol-
libus articulatis glutinosis fere tomentosis ; floribus paucis e
fasciculis solitariis, brevissime pedunculatis ; calyce urceolato,
5-fido, dentibus linearibus, acutis, corolle tubo glabro, calyce
2-plo longiore, intus paullo sub faucem fasciculis 5 pilorum
staminibus alternantibus donato, lmbi laciniis 5, oblongis,
margine vix ciliatis, tubo longioribus, staminibus 5, ineequa-
libus, exsertis, filamentis sub medium tubi insertis, hinc
glabris et geniculatis, mox usque ad medium glandula lineari
margine hirsuta donatis, superne glabris, 2 longioribus apicem
laciniarum attingentibus ; bacca parva, coccinea, calyce (laci-
niis summo conniventibus) cincta.—In Bonaria australi.—». s.
in herb. Hook. Tweedie (Patagonia).

This plant was collected by Tweedie in the southern portion
22*

840 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

of the province of Buenos Ayres, towards the Rio Colorado and
Bahia Blanca—a country always denominated by him “ Pata-
gonia.” It is wholly covered with a dense yellowish pubescence ;
the leaves are about 14 line long, } line broad, the peduncle
1 line long, the calyx 1 line, the tube of the corolla 13 line, the
segments of the border a trifle longer; the berry is 14 line in
diameter, enclosed by the embracing lobes of the calyx*.

64. Lycium Patagonicum (n. sp.);—subinerme, subglabrum, ra-
mosum, ramulis glabris, angulato-costatis, costis helvolis e
cupula conspicua axillari utrinque decurrentibus; folis al-
ternis, rarius fasciculatis, parvis et ovatis, aut longiusculis, et
spathulato-linearibus, carnosulis, margine incrassatis, inter-
dum glabriusculis et glanduloso-punctulatis, vel sparse pubes-
centibus, pilis brevissimis rigidis articulatis aut. brachiatis,
brevissime petiolatis ; floribus solitariis, calyce 5-dentato, pe-
dunculoque pubescente ; corolle tubo infundibuliformi, calyce
fere duplo longiore, inferne e medio cylindrico, et hinc annulo
carnoso crebre piloso extus donato, limbi laciniis 5, oblongis,
margine ciliatis, tubo sublongioribus ; staminibus in contrac-
tionem tubi insertis, filamentis imo geniculatis, et hine glan-
dula lineari plana glabra margine fimbriata signatis, subeequa-
libus, exsertis ; bacca ovata, coccinea, calyce suffulta.—Pata-
gonia.—v. s. i herb. Hook, (St. Elena) Capt. King.

A plant much resembling in appearance L. infaustum, but de-
cidedly different in its floral structure. The leaves are from 2 to
5 lines long, 1 line broad ; the pedicel is 23 lines, the calyx 2
lines, and the corolla 33 lines in length ; the tube of the latter
has five small tufts of hair alternating with the ciliated glands of
the filaments ; the berry is 23 lines long and 2 lines broadt.

65. Lycitum scoparium (n. sp.) ;—inerme, divaricato- et virgato-
ramosum, pilis brevissimis rigidis articulatis et brachiatis ubi-
que hirtulum ; ramulis angulato-costatis, glauco-roridis, axillis
approximatis, cupulari-nodosis ; foliis fasciculatis, anguste vel
latiore linearibus, utrinque pubescentibus, in petiolum brevis-
simum attenuatis; floribus solitariis, breviter pedunculatis,
calyce hirsuto, dentibus 5, lineari-acutis, tubo duplo longi-
oribus, sinubus rotundatis, corolle extus pubescentis laciniis 5,
oblongis, patentibus, tubo infundibuliformi paullo longioribus,
staminibus exsertis corolle equilongis, stylo istis longiore,
bacca globosa, coccinea.—In Provinciis Mendoze et 8. Ludo-
vice Argentinorum.—2. v.

* A representation of this plant with analysis of its flower is shown
(loc. cit.) mm plate 72 E.
+ This species with floral section is given (Joc. cit.) in plate 72 F.

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 341

This is an extremely polymorphous species, under which I
have united many forms which I formerly considered as distinct
species, but as there is little apparent difference in their floral
structure they must be regarded as mere varieties. They are all
widely spread over the extensive desert plains that skirt the
eastern side of the Andes ; many even reach the Atlantic: they
vary greatly in the shape and size of the leaves even in the same
plant, in their more glabrous or pubescent habit, or in a greater
abundance or paucity of leaves and flowers. This species is
closely assimilated to Z. salswm and L. Chilense, but still more
approaching L. Grevilleanum. In that variety which I have
taken as the type of the species, the whole plant is more pubes-
cent, the leaves linear, somewhat acute, 2 to 5 lines long, } to %
_ line broad, tapering into a short slender petiole: the peduncle is
5 line long; the tube of the pubescent calyx is } line long, its
pointed linear teeth 1 line in length; the tube of the corolla is
pubescent externally, 13 line long, the lobes of the border 24
lines long and 1} line broad; the nearly equal stamens, 3 lines
in length, attain the ends of the segments: the ovary and style
are 41 lines long. I found this plant on the Alto del Yeso, a-
low mountain range in the province of San Luiz, bordering on
that of Mendoza. In this, as in all the other varieties, the sta-
mens exhibit the same peculiar linear gland with fimbriated
margins which I have described in the foregoimg species, and
similar tufts of hair upon the inner face of the tube, alternating
with the staminal glands*.

Var. 8. lineare: the leaves are here more copious, not so pubes-
cent, 6 to 12 lines long, } to 1 line broad, but in the same
‘specimen often not more than 3 lines in length: this I col-
lected also on the Alto del Yeso as well as the Coral de Desa-
guadero in the same, provincet.

Var. y. confertifolium: here the leaves are broader, oblong, and
more glandularly pubescent, 4 to 6 lines long, 1 line broad ;
the axils are closely approximated at the extremities of the
branchlets, so that the fascicles of leaves appear crowded : the
branchlets issue from the branches at right angles, or some-
times curving downwards ; the cup-shaped nodes are unusually
prominent. I found this variety in the province of Mendoza :
it is the same as a specimen in Sir Wm. Hooker’s herbarium

collected by Dr. Gillies (LZ. Hookerianum, Gill. MSS.t).
Var. 5. divaricatum: a variety greatly resembling the last in its
* This plant with floral analysis is shown (/oc. cit.) m plate 73 A.

+ A figure of this variety with details is given (Joc. cit.) in plate 73 B.
t A representation of this plant with details is given (oc. cit.), plate 73 C.

342. Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

spreading branches and pale stem, with raised costate lines
decurrent from each margin of the cupular nodes; the leaves
are similar in form, less dense, quite glabrous, with the excep-
tion of the younger leaves, which are slightly pubescent ; they
are 4:to 7 lines long, 1 to 2 lines broad ; the berry is globular,
of a crimson colour, and supported by the cup-shaped toothed
calyx. J found this growing abundantly in the Travesia or
desert tract of Mendoza*.

Var. ¢. affine: ramulis subvirgatis, strictis, pallide pubescen-
tibus, nodis axillaribus valde prominentibus; foliis fascicu-
latis, oblongis, utrinque acutis, rigidis, pallide flavescentibus,
pilis brevibus brachiatis fere stellatis pubescentibus ; floribus
solitariis aut geminis, longiusculis, pedunculatis, calyce obco-
nico, acute 5-dentato, pubescente, corolla pilosa.—v. s. in herb.
Hook. (Mendoza) Gillies sub nomine L. affine MSS.

The leaves have a yellowish hue-when dried ; they are from 5
to 7 lines long, 13 to 14 line broad, the petiole being almost
obsolete : the peduncle is erect, 2 lines long, the very pubescent
calyx 13 line long; the tube of the corolla is 13 line long, thick,
and contracted at base, where it is surrounded by a densely
tomentose ring; the segments of the border are 2 lines long,
oblong, and extremely pubescent}.

66. Lycium Grevilleanum, Gill. MSS. (n. sp.);—inerme, ramis
griseis, ramulis pallidis, striatis, pubescentibus; foliis e nodis
cupulatis fasciculatis, vel solitariis, spathulato-lanceolatis, vel
linearibus, apice calloso submucronatis, margine cartilagineo,
carnosis, utrinque ramulisque pilis brevissimis rigidiusculis
brachiatis pubescentibus ; floribus e fasciculis solitariis, pubes-

- centibus, pedunculo tenui, calyce poculiformi, 5-dentato, den-
tibus acutis, corolle tubo imo coarctato annulo barbato cincto,
infundibuliformi, limbi laciniis ovato-oblongis, staminibus in-
clusis, ineequalibus, filamentis in coarctationem tubi insertis,
hinc glandula lineari levi margine dense fimbriata donatis,
imo geniculatis, inde glabris, 2 faucem attingentibus, 3 paullo
longioribus ; stylo subexserto; bacca ovata, sicco fusco-brun-
nea, calyce suffulta—In Provinciis Mendoze et ‘Tucuman
Argentinorum.—+». s, in herb. Hook. (El Tortoral. L. Grevil-
leanum, Gill. MSS.)

This plant is of straggling bushy habit, and grows abundantly
in the moist pasturages to the southward of Mendoza. It much

* This is shown with floral analysis (Joc. cit.), plate 73 D.
+ A figure of this variety with sectional details is given (Joc. cit.),
plate 73 E,

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 343

resembles LZ. scoparium, and might almost be considered as a
variety of that species, which is equally abundant in drier places ;
it differs however in having the stamens and style much shorter.
The leaves are 5 lines to 1 inch long, 1 to 13 line broad: the pe-
duncle measures 3 lines ; the calyx, 24 lines long, is divided nearly
half-way into five narrow acute erect teeth; the corolla much
resembles that of Z. Chilense in form, size, and colour, and is
equally pubescent externally, the tube being 1} line, and the seg-
ments of the border 2 lines in length; the tube a little above its
base is much constricted, fleshy, and clothed by a densely barbate
ring: the stamens are inserted a little above the constricted
portion of the tube, where they are geniculated and glabrous ;
above this they are each furnished with* an adnate fimbriated
linear gland, forming together a fornix, that closes the mouth of
the corolla over the ovary; the berry is nearly 4 lines long and
3 lines broad*.

67. Lycitum erosum (n. sp.) ;—inerme, ramosum, ramulis graci-
libus, virgatis, pallidis, striatis, nodis cupuliformibus ; foliis
alternis, lanceolato-ellipticis, acutiusculis, versus basin atte-
nuatis, vel interdum rotundatis, breviter petiolatis, margine
erosis, pilisque glandulosis ciliatis, vetustioribus utrinque
glabris et punctis minutissimis elevatis albidis rugosis, junio-
ribus pubescentibus ; floribus solitariis pedunculatis, calycis
laciniis 5 acutissimis subulato-linearibus tubo brevi costato
duplo longioribus, margine ciliatis, sinubus rotundatis, mem-
branaceis, corolla cerulea, lineis violaceis venosis, tubo brevi
imo coarctato et annulo dense barbato extus cincto, limbi laci-
nus 5 oblongis tubo 3-plo longioribus, staminibus 5 longe
exsertis, filamentis e coarctatione basali orta, hine infra glan-
dulam dilatatam crassam margine dense barbatam geniculatis,
3 limbo zquilongis, 2 paullo brevioribus ; bacca oblonga, calyce
suffulta.—Frayle Muerto, Prov. Buenos Ayres.—v. v.

Specimens of this very distinct species exist also in Sir Wm.
Hooker’s herbarium, collected by Tweedie in Buenos Ayres,
Uruguay, Entre Rios, Banda Oriental, and the banks of the river
Parana. It is readily distinguished by its rather large alternate
leaves covered with minute white spots, with its margins always
unevenly jagged ; they are from 4 lines to 1 inch long, inclu-
ding .the short petiole, and from 3 to 6 lines broad; they are
sometimes small and more ovate; the older leaves are glabrous,
those in the younger axils are large and generally alternate: the
peduncle is 23 or 3 lines long ; the calyx including its segments

_ * This plant, with analytical structure of the flower, is shown (/oc. cit.)
in plate 73 F.

344 Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium.

is 2 lines long ; the tube of the corolla is 2 lines, the lobes of its
border 3 lines long ; the tube is encircled in its constricted part
by a narrow densely pilose ring, and is bearded internally be-
tween the insertion of the stamens; the filaments are thick,
fleshy, and geniculated at their origin below the fleshy glands,
which form a fornix closing the mouth of the corolla: the berry
is crimson, oval, supported by the cup-shaped calyx with its teeth
reflexed ; it is 3 lines long and 2 lines broad*.

Species incerte sectionis.

68. Lycium Gilliesianum (n. sp.). L. rigidum, Gill. MSS. non
Thunb. ;—imbricato-ramosum, spinosum, ramulis valde flexu-
osis, griseo-glaucis, spinis validis, longiusculis, divaricatis,
approximatis, foliferis ; folus fasciculatis, glaberrimis, car-
nosis, spathulato-oblongis, obtusis, in petiolum brevissimum
attenuatis ; floribus solitariis aut geminis, pedunculo glabro,
folio tertio vel dimidio breviori ; bacca ovali, calyce 5-dentato
suffulta.— Prov. Mendozz.—v. s. in herb. Hook. Copuncoa

. (Gilles MSS.).

This is a very distinct species, much resembling L. fuscum, and
in all probability is referable to the same section : the branchlets
are very flexuose and thick ; the strong axillary spines, which are
about 3 an inch apart, and 1 or 13 inch long, bear fascicles of
leaves at intervals of every 2 or 3 lines; the leaves are 4 to 7
lines long and 1 line broad; the peduncle is 2 lines long, the
calyx about 13 line in length; the dark-coloured berry 3 lines
long and 2 lines in diameter: flowers are wanting in the only
specimen I have seent. :

69. Lycium Americanum, Jacq. Stirp. Amer. 50 ;—frutex orgy-
alis, elegans, diffusus, ramis teretibus, tenuibus, longissimis,
leucopheis, spinis axillaribus, validis et foliiferis; foliis in
axillis fasciculatis (8-7), cuneato-oblongis, sessilibus, crassi-
usculis ; floribus solitariis, rarius binis, pedunculatis ; calyce

_ campanulato, zqualiter 5-dentato, corolla pollicari, purpureo-
albida, tubo infundibuliformi calyce duplo longiore, limbi laci-
nis 5, rotundato-ovatis, patentissimis, tubo duplo brevioribus,
staminibus imfra faucem insertis, paullo. exsertis, filamentis
imo hirsutis, stylo longitudine staminum ; bacea pisello minore,
obcordato-turbinata, nigra, nitidissima, calyce dimidio bre-
viore suffulta.—San Domingo, in arenosis maritimis.

* A drawing of this species with sectional details is given (loc. cit.) in
plate 74 A.
f A figure of this plant is given (Joc. cit.), plate 74 B.

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lycium. 345

. This. species seems to have escaped the notice of botanists,
although published ninety years ago, as I do not find it included
in the lists of any of the earlier authors, nor in Steudel, Walpers,
or yet more modern arrangements. ‘The characters given by
Jacquin appear to conform with those of Lyciwm: the only
genus with which it is likely to be confounded is Dunalia. It is
described as a handsome shrub with crowded leaves, and its
flowers must be the largest in the genus. From 5 to 7 leaves
are fasciculated in each axil; they are sessile, tapering from the
summit to the base, quite smooth, fleshy, nearly an inch long ;
the calyx is 3 lines long, the corolla is slender and an inch in
length.

Lycia exclusa.

ageregatum, R. & P. = Acnistus aggregatus, Miers.

. angustifolium, Mzll, = Lycium tenue, Weild.

. apiculatum, Dun. = Lycium cinereum, Thunb.

. arborescens, Hook, = Acnistus aggregatus, Miers.
Barbarum, Lour. = Lycium vulgare, Dun.
barbatum, Thunb. = Plectronia ventosa, L.

. Boerhaavifolium, L. = Grabowskya Boerhaavifolia.
campanulatum, E. Mey. = Lycium Afrum, LD.
canum, Gill. = Lycium Chilense, Miers.
Capense, Mill. = Lycium tetrandrum, Thunb.

. eapsulare, DL. == a genere et ab ordine certe ex-

pellendum.

Chinense, L. = Lycium vulgare, Dun.
ciliatum, Schl. = Salpichroma ciliatum, Miers.

. Cochinchinense = Lycium vulgare, Dun.

. cordatum, Mill. = certe non Lycium ob foliis oppo-

sitis cordatisque.

cornifolium, H. B. K. = Chenesthes cornifolia, Miers.

. distichum, Mey. = e genere et forsan ab ordine re-

pellendum *.
. foetidum, L. = Lerissa foetida.

. floribundum, H. B. K. (non Dun.) = Acnistus floribundus, G. Don.
. fuchsioides, H. B. K.
. fuchsioides, hort.

Sal sod sad <a a) a col sp! <a) at <a) a) od al) al al ol =!

= Chenesthes fuchsioides, Miers.

* This plant, found by Meyen in the Cordillera of Southern Peru, has
been referred to Lyctum and Grabowskya, but it appears to me that it
cannot belong to either : its long simple distichous patent branches, termi-
nating in a spine, indicate an opposition, not an alternation of its axils and
leaves; its leaves are deseribed as minute, but not as being clustered or
fascicled; the corolla of its solitary flowers is czruleous, with ‘a large
funnel-shaped limb and small erect segments, together with included sta-
mens. There is little here conforming to Lycium or Grabowskya. In its
peculiar habit, its minute leaves, its calyx, the colour and shape of its
flowers, it approaches more closely to the curious Bignoniaceous plant
which I found in the Cordillera of Mendoza, and which I described under
the name of Oxycladus aphyllus, a supposition rendered still more pro-
hable from the analogous locality of its origin.

346

Sl ol a) a) 3] 3) a) 3) si 1 al 9) 91 a) 3) 9) a) 3) 3) 9) 9) 91 91 9 9) al 9) a) al a) al sl 3] 3 9) a) 9) a) a) a a) al a) al a)

. gesnerioides, H, B. K.

gracile, Meyen
grandiflorum, Willd.
Guayaquilense, H. B. K.
halimifolium, Mill.

. heterophyllum, Murr.

horridum, Thunb.
horridum, H. B. K.
Indicum, Retz. (non R. Wight)
inerme, L. f.
Japonicum, Thunb.
lanceolatum, Poir.
Loxense, H. B. K.
macranthum, Buching.
macrophyllum, Benth.
Mediterraneum, Dun.
megistocarpum, Dun.
Meyenianum, N. ab E.
microphyllum, H. B. K.
microphyllum, Duh.
nutans, Pop.

obovatum, Buching.
obovatum, R. & P.
obtusum, Willd.

. ovale, Willd.

ovatum, Willd.
ovatum, Duh.

. parvifolium, R. & Sch.

propinquum, G. Don
pulchellum, Mart. & Gall.
Quitense, Hook.

quadrifidum, Mogino et Sessé
Ruthenicum, Dun. (non Murr.)
scabrum, N. ab E.

salicifolium, Mill.

salsum, Bartr. (non R. § e.
serpyllifolium, Dun.

Shawii, R. & Sch.
Sinense, hort.
spathulatum, R. & P.
spathulatum, Math.
subglobosum, Dun.

. Thunbergu, G. Don
. Trewianum, Duh.
. turbinatum, Duh.
. umbellatum, R. & P.
. umbrosum, H. B. K,

Mr. J. Miers on the genus Lyciumn.

= Cheenesthes gesnerioides, Miers.
= Lycium salsum, R. & P

= Acnistus grandiflorus, Miers.

= Acnistus Guayaquilensis, G. Don.
= Lycium barbarum, L.

= Grabowskya Boerhaavifolia, W.-

Arn.

= Lycium tetrandrum, Thunb.

= Lycioplesium horridum, Miers.
= Lerissa foetida, Comm.

= Plectronia ventosa, L.

= Lerissa foetida, Comm.

= Lycium vulgare, Dun.

= Cheenesthes Loxensis, Miers.
= Rhizogum trichotomum, Burch.
= Acnistus Benthami, Miers.

= Lycium Europeum, L.

= Lycium vulgare, Dun.

= Lycioplesium Meyenianum, Miers.
= Lycioplesium horridum, Miers.
= Lycium ecarnosum, L.

= Lycium Chilense, Miers.

= Ehretia Capensis, Meisn.

= Lycioplesium obovatum, Miers.
= Chenesthes umbrosa, Miers.

= Cheenesthes cornifolia, Miers.

= Lycium vulgare, Dun.

= Lycioplesium pulichellum, Miers.
= Lycium Afrum, L.

= Lycioplesium pulchellum, Miers.
= Peecilochroma Quitense, Miers.
= Lycium Carolianum, Mich.

= Lycium Tataricum, Pall.

= Lycium scoparium? Miers.

= Lycium Europeum, L.

= Lycium Carolianum, Mich.

= Peliostomum serpyllifolium,

Miers.

= Lycium barbarum ? L.

= Lycium ignarum, Miers.

= Acnistus spathulatus, G. Don.
= Dunalia acnistoides, Miers.

= Lycium vulgare, Dun.

= Lycium oxycarpum? Dun.

= Lycium vulgare, Dun.

= Lycium vulgare, Dun.

= Acnistus umbellatus, Miers.
= Cheenesthes umbrosa, Miers.

On the Occurrence of Hyperoodon bidens. 347

XXXII.—On the Occurrence of the Bottle-headed Whale, Hy-
peroodon bidens, Flem., and Remarks thereon. By Witu1am
Tuomeson, Esq.

I wave lately had an opportunity of carefully examining two
specimens of the Bottle-headed Whale, an old female and a young
female, and now forward you a copy of my notes made on the
spot. The only work on the British Cetacea to which I have
access is that by Professor Bell on the British Mammalia, which
includes the Cetacea. In that work I find that the occurrence
of the Bottle-head on the English coast is very rare, and Bri-
tish naturalists are enjoined to be very careful in examining any
specimens they may have the good fortune to meet with. The
pleasant task has fallen to my lot, and I trust the trouble I have
taken and the accuracy of my measurements will leave nothing
to be wished for on this point. I first carefully measured the
larger of the two, and the following results I confidently offer
to the notice of naturalists. The whole of the measurements
were taken with a tape, and also a two-fvot rule. In all cases,
unless otherwise particularly mentioned, the measurements were
taken from point to point; for instance, in computing the
distance from the snout to the blowhole, the tape was drawn
from one point to the other, and was not laid along the facial
angle. With these remarks I lay before you the measurements.

ft. in.

Extreme length from the end of the snout to the fork of the

catidal TK. oud deus dodecidecessarspeuetooses cduuebe pis oddbveabe 24 0
Length of the tips of the caudal beyond the fork ............. 0 8
5 (Thus making the length 24 ft. 8 inches.)
Length from the end of the snout to the eye .......6...eeeeee «- 3.10
Length from the end of the snout to the pectoral ............0+ 6 2
Length from the end of the snout to the dorsal ...............005 14 6
Length from the end of the snout and following the line of the

belly 80 the-VURVe Ns A aie eee dial e aaa didedde, dais see 16 4
Length from caudal to the back edge of the dorsal ............ 7 5
Length from caudal to the vulva ..........++ dovacesbicvenesSecbue ss 6
Length of upper mandible from the tip of the snout to the

SNPS OF LRG WOMEN OUST i sas. se se kuecccscseecsscebemovse densi 2 4
Length of under mandible from the tip of the snout to the

angle Of the Mouth !{icie.cicnce sd cectsodeseesvesed deosestbesee 2 6
Length of blowhole from tip to tip ....s.scsecsesscceesescessssecees 0 6
Distance of blowhole from the tip of the snout «......se..sceeees 4 10
Extent of cairdal from tipd tO. tips .......y..cccccccocsdscheesisaciguede 6 0
Length of dorsal at its base .5..4.......seseceseseveses baspee tps sekoes 1 11
Height of dorsal along its front edge .......eseseeeeseeeececeeeee 1 11
Height of dorsal at its back edge .......cc..scccscsssveesccpeesesoeee 1.2
Length of pectoral, including the portion that is not free ...... 2 10
Breadth of pectoral in its widest part ......cccecseseseceeeeseeeeees 0 10

(The widest part is 1 ft. 4 in. from the tip of the fin.)
Length of vulva ....... Gir WePithgs tbaa task ba sdoossvasserevineineteses oe FBO

348 Mr. W. Thompson on the Occurrence

ft. m
Length of eee Fi. oes. inecds eBid ede cpantacepeessbans bs 0 2
A on oye aa! NN ROBEY Cy eee Sar ie era aay Seer ae 0 02
Distance Detin. YO PNCAE. 264.551 655 5. Wei cesdivonatiadsOedsau. ede 0 7%
Depth of the mandibles at the base ............ccscsscssesceeecneres 0 9
PROVEN OU SMPOMEMEK coco vgesctccncans oncosuncopanedobsscue lenesenanheaeoh> ae
Fhowwht of Bead yilipvedsuey dns. ogcenceddperidesiadancit. sete 2 8
WY ACID: TIRE 5 256s ss baisteerstins Gigs Gh aadanea tones baeedds ep deb Danntie 0 5
WAG CE TOWED. MANGIDIC i snieesne- gee csssnaVannqeusaceed Habauh vedeepens 0 5
Circumference of upper mandible — ........sesecessscsesesacscoeeees rs
Circumference of lower mandible ............scssseecsssscecscceesees 1
Circumference of body at the pectoral .........scssecsesceeesecesees 11 10
Circumference in front of the dorsal — ........secessseeeeseceeeceees ll 4
Circumference behind the dorsal ............ceeseesssssssscecscesecs 9 10
Circumference at base of the caudal .........esescsceseseereneeees 3 2
The greatest circumference, which was exactly 9 ft. 3 in. from
the. tiprel Thenmodts (22 0c001. Gis shit. eal Ae, a 13 8

The measurements are very numerous, but I was most anxious
to leave nothing undone or in doubt.

In the specimen I am now describing, which is the larger of
the two, the forehead is very high and more perpendicular
than in Mr. Bell’s figure in the ‘ British Mammalia,’ but
which otherwise gives a very good idea of the animal; it re-
minded me of that part in a King Charles’s spaniel. The snout
was 14: inches in length, rounded at the end ; the sides of it were
appressed. ‘The palate, as well as the surface of the lower jaw,
were crowded with small tubercles, which, as well as the whole
of that portion, were extremely hard to the touch; but as the
animals were caught the day previous to that on which I ex-
amined them, the hardness might have partly arisen from their
having become dry: I could not detect anything that would in-
duce me to suppose them to be rudimentary vestiges of whale-
bone. I sought carefully for teeth, but could find none whatever,
neither could I feel any in the gums ; they were in fact wanting,
Under the lower jaw, the position of the inferior maxille is
marked by a suture running their whole length and united
together at the chin. The tongue was very large, short, and
rounded, and reaches to within 13 inches from the tip of the
snout ; it appears to be a bag of skin, containing blubber and not
flesh, and was of a purplish colour. The blowhole is in the shape
of a crescent with the horns turned forwards, and not backwards
as stated in Bell and Jenyns; the orifice is covered with a skin
valve. ‘The dorsal, which is very small for the size of the ani-
mal, and which can be of but little if any use, is placed consi-
derably nearer the tail than the head; it inclines backwards at
an acute angle, and. has its posterior edge (which is on a line
with the centre of the vulva) much hollowed out. The body for
the distance of about 4 feet from the base of the caudal is com-
pressed at the sides, and runs off to a keel on both back and

of Hyperoodon bidens. 349

belly. The caudal, which as in all whales is placed horizontally,
is not hollowed out to any great extent: by means of a line
stretched from tip to tip, I found that in the middle it was
hollowed out to the depth of 8 inches. The pectorals are also
very small and terminate in an acute angle ; they are placed on
a line with the under side of the mandibles, and are 3 feet apart ;
the length of the free portion is about 18 mches. The vulva
and the anus are externally apparently in one, but in the calf
they are quite distinct. The mamme were small, and measured
longitudinally 3 inches ; in the middle of each was a hole in which
you could insert a finger ; they were very short, not half an mch
in length, and appeared composed of wrinkled skin ; they were
placed one on each side of, and in immediate proximity to, the
anus. That portion of the vulva which was exposed to view
measured 2 feet in length, and was composed of soft wrinkled
skin, very baggy and of a deep lead-colour. Milk was oozing
from the teats, from which we may infer that the calf was not
completely weaned ; the milk was creamy and yellowish, appa-
rently very rich. The belly was blackish-gray, deepening to
half-way up each side ; the remainder of the body was of a dark
brown, nearly black ; the head and snout are of a much lighter
brown than the rest of the body, and have a yellowish tinge. The
eye, which is small in comparison with the size of the animal, is
of the same size as in the young one. At the base of the snout
and of the forehead I noticed some extraordinary markings. The
marks consisted of several circles about half an inch in diameter ;
on the outside these circles were placed most irregularly, some
being an inch apart, and others being clustered together and
overlying each other. Each circle was composed of eight or ten
small circles about the size of a pin’s head: the regularity dis-
played in each circle was such, that at the first glance it appeared
as if they had all been made by one and the same stamp; on
consideration it struck me that the marks might have been
caused by the whale louse, one of which I found on the younger
whale.

The whale calf measured 16 ft. 8 in. in length; from tip of
snout to eye 2 ft. 6 in.; snout to blowhole 2 ft. 10 im. ; snout
to blowhole, measured along the curve of the forehead, 2ft.114 in.;
blowhole to dorsal 7 ft. 8 in. ; the attached end of the pectorals
are 1 ft. 7 in. apart ; length of vulva 8 in.; distance from vulva
to anus 83 in. No appearance of mamme. The eye is the same
size as in the old whale. The snout is shorter in proportion, and
the body darker. The whales had unfortunately been kept too
long before they were cut up; one in fact burst, from the quan-
tity of gas that. had accumulated, and this was rendered worse
im consequence of its not having been bled. The flesh was of

350 M. Li. Agassiz on the Primitive Diversity and

a deep red, nearly black, but as it had not been bled, this might
have made some difference. The intestines I did not see, but
was informed they were not of very great bulk and scarcely
filled a wheelbarrow. The blubber laid the thickest at the
middle of the body, where it was 3 inches in depth. The fore-
head under the layer of blubber consisted of a fatty substance
very rich in oil; from it ran a large quantity of pure and limpid
oil. A quantity of oil ran from the mouth, and falling on the
ground coagulated, and had the appearance of salad oil in a
frozen state.

They were both caught on the 2nd of October, having run
ashore within a few hundred yards of each other in Portland
Roads ; the calf was first secured.

Weymouth, Oct. 13, 1854.

XXXIII.— On the Primitive Diversity and Number of Animals in
Geological Times. By L. Acassiz*.

THERE is a view generally entertained by naturalists and geolo-
gists, that genera and species of animals and plants are far more
numerous in the present age of the world than at any previous
geological period. This seems to me an entire misconception
of the character and diversity of the fossils which have been dis-
covered in the different geological formations, and to rest upon
estimates which are not made within the same limits and with
the same standard. Whenever a comparison of the diversity and
number of fossils of any geological period has been made with
those of the living animals and plants belonging to the same
classes and families, it has been done under the tacit assumption,
which seems to me entirely unjustifiable, that the fossils formerly
inhabiting our globe are known to the same extent as the animals
which live at present upon its surface; while it should be well
understood, that however accurate our knowledge of fossils may
be, it has been restricted, for each geological formation, to a few
circumscribed areas. Comparisons of fossil with living animals
ought, therefore, to be limited to geographical districts corre-
sponding in extent to those in which the fossils occur; or, more
properly, a fossil fauna with all its local peculiarities ought to
be compared with a corresponding fauna of the present period,
and not with all the animals of the same class living at present
upon the whole surface of the globe. And when this is done with
sufficient care, and proper allowance is made for the limited time
during which investigations of fossils have been carried on com-

* From Silliman’s American Journal of Science and Arts for May 1854.

Number of Animals in Geological Times. 351

pared with that which has been almost everywhere devoted to
the careful study of living animals, it will be seen that the num-
ber and diversity of species peculiar to each special fossil fauna
is, in most instances, equal to those found to characterize zoological
provinces of similar boundaries at the present day. And this
may be said of the fossil faunze of all ages. In many instances
the result is even quite the reverse of what is generally supposed
to be the fact, for there are distinct fossil faunz which have
yielded much larger numbers of species, presenting a greater
variety of types than any corresponding fauna in the present age.
Some examples will justify this perhaps unexpected statement.

The number of species of shells which are found living along
the shores of Europe does not exceed 600. About 600 species,
again, is the number assigned to the whole basin of the Mediter-
ranean, including both the European and African coasts. Now
the most superficial comparison between them and the fossil
species which occur in the lower tertiary beds in the vicinity of
Paris, shows the latter to exceed twice that number; in fact,
1200 species of fossil shells are now known from the eocene
beds in the immediate vicinity of Paris, affording at once a very
striking evidence of the existence of a greater diversity and
greater number of species at that geological period, even when
compared with those of a wider geographical area, than at the
present day.

If it be objected that the variety of forms which occur in tro-
pical faune is greater than that which we observe on the shores
of our temperate regions, and that the temperature of the tertiary
period having been warmer we may expect a larger number of
fossil species from those deposits, I would only refer to local
enumerations of marine shells from several tropical regions to |
sustain my assertion, that the number of fossil shells from the
eocene beds of the immediate vicinity of Paris, is much greater
than that of any local fauna of the present period, even within
the tropics. A catalogue of not quite 300 species of shells given
by Dufo as occurring around the Seychelles Islands, the extent
of which may fairly be compared with that of the lower tertiary —
beds around Paris, will suffice to show, that, in a tropical local
fauna, the number of species known to exist in the present day
is far inferior to the number of species known to have existed
during the deposition of the lower tertiary beds in the vicinity
of Paris. Another catalogue by Sganzin, of the shells found
about Mauritius, Bourbon and Madagascar, gives also less than
300 species for the extensive range of seas surrounding those
islands. Let us further compare the results of the investigations
of the shells of the Red Sea by Hemprich, Ehrenberg and Riip-

pell, and there again we find a smaller number, and a more limited

352 MvLi Agassiz on the Primitive Diversity and

variety of types, than are found in the tertiary of Paris; for the
whole basin of the Red Sea has hitherto yielded only 400 species
of shells. Let us finally take the most accurate survey of this
kind that we have of any shore, that of Panama by Prof. Adams,
extending over 50° of latitude, 28° N. of the equator and 22°S,
of it, including the most favourable localities for the growth of
shells in the Pacifie under the tropics, and yet we shall find his
list exceeding but little the number of 500 species. In this
instance, again, we find that the advantage in number and variety
is in favour of the tertiary period, and not of the present age.
If a different result has been obtained by the estimates made
before this, it 1s owing to the circumstance that the fossils known
from a few localities within narrow geographical limits were com-
pared with the living species known to occur upon the whole sur-
face of the globe. But let us trace these comparisons through
other geological periods, with reference to other classes also, and
we shall find in every instance similar results. The tertiary fos-
sils of Bordeaux, though less numerous in species than those of
the eocene in the vicinity of Paris, will compare with any local
fauna of the present period as favourably for variety and number
of species as those of the lower tertiaries. This may be said ‘with
the same certainty of the tertiary shells of the Subapennine hills,
or of those of the English Crag, of which we now possess a very
complete list.

If from the tertiary periods we pass down to the cretaceous,
do we not find in the deposits of Maestricht, or in those of the
age of the white chalk, a number and variety of shells as great
as that which may be found on any shore or in any circumscribed
marine basin of an extent at all comparable with that of the cre-
taceous beds within similar hmits? Do we not find in the lower
cretaceous strata, such as the greensand or the Neocomian, other
assemblages of the remains of mollusks, which in number and
variety are not inferior to those of the white chalk? The oolitic
series, again, will stand a similar comparison quite as well. We
need not even take the whole group of those. deposits, but con-
sider each subdivision of the jurassic period by itself, and still
we find in every one, local faunze of mollusks, assuming, of
course, a different character from those of the cretaceous or
tertiary, but nevertheless sufficiently diversified to admit of an
estimate, as advantageous, with respect to the points under con-
sideration, and to the local faune of the present day, as the
cretaceous assemblages of fossils, or those of the tertiary period.
Of course, in accordance with the peculiar character of the age,
different families prevail in these different periods; the Cepha-
lopoda are extremely numerous, and surprisingly diversified
during the cretaceous and oolitic periods; while they dwindle

Number of Animals in Geological Times. 353

down to a few representatives in the tertiaries, and so with other
families. The shells found in the deposits of the new red sand-
stone period, of the coal period, and of the still earlier ages, are
perhaps less numerous on the whole, though they can hardly be
said to be less diversified; for the extinct forms which occur
among them are quite an equivalent to the variety of families
which have lived during more recent periods; and the daily
increase of the species found in the different paleeozoic deposits
shows that, even in point of numbers, those ancient faunz may,
even in the present state of our knowledge, be compared with
local faunze of similar extent at the present day.

Desirous of making the most accurate comparison possible
between the subdivisions of the paleeozoic formations of the State
of New York with local faune of similar extent in the present
seas, I have requested Professor J. Hall to furnish me with sum-
mary indications respecting the results of his extensive investi-
gations in this field, and I have obtained from him the following
statement :—

“T regard the Potsdam and Calciferous sandstone as discon-

nected with the groups above, forming of themselves with their
fauna (not yet well known in this country) a distinct geological
period. The entire number of species thus far known in these
rocks, admitting all of Owen’s species, is, however, only twenty-
Six. .
“The Chazy limestone has 45 species restricted to itself, and
one other species which is also known in the Black River lime-
stone. The Birdseye limestone has 19 species restricted to itself,
and two others which pass upwards. The Black River lime-
stone has 13 species restricted to itself, and one common to it
and the Chazy limestone, one common to it and Birdseye, and
one common to it and the Trenton; and one other, which is
common to the beds below and above, extending into the Hud-
son River group,” making together 81 species for these three
sets of beds.

“The Trenton limestone has 188 species restricted to itself,
and 30 species passing upwards into the Hudson River group.
The entire number of species known as occurring in the Trenton
limestone, including those which occur in rocks above and below,
is about 230. This statement includes some species discovered
since the publication of the first volume of the ‘ Paleontology
of New York,’ and which would make the restricted species
about 200.

“The Hudson River group, including Utica slate, has about
60 restricted species, besides those which are common to it and
the rocks below, making altogether about 100 species.

“ You will observe that the development of life at the Trenton
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 23

354 M. L. Agassiz on the Primitive Diversity and

period has been far the most marked, though it is true that this
formation is much thicker than either of the preceding lime-
stones, the Chazy being the thickest, and the Black River the
thinnest of the three below the Trenton.

“Tn that portion of the upper Silurian period included in the
second volume of the ‘ Paleontology of New York,’ the fossils of
the Medina sandstone, Clinton group, Niagara and Onondaga
salt groups, amount to 341. Medina and Clinton groups, 123
species. Niagara and Onondaga salt group, 218 species.

“The Medina sandstone and arenaceous beds of the Clinton
group contain 50 species, leaving for the calcareous beds of the
Clinton group 73 species, which, added to the 218 species of the
Niagara and Onondaga salt groups, give 291 species as the total
number of species of the calcareous beds of these groups. The
Niagara is here the more important period, and though not
thicker than either of the others, contains about 200 species
restricted to itself. Of the Niagara group 67 species are Corals
and Bryozoa. Of the 73 species from the calcareous beds of the
Clinton group, 19 are Corals and Bryozoa.

“In the lower Helderberg group, including the Water lime,
Pentamerus limestone, Delthyris shaly limestone, and uppér
Pentamerus limestone, I expect to describe about 200 species,
exclusive of Corals and Bryozoa, of which I know already about
50 species.

“The Oriskany sandstone may contain about 60 species of
fossils altogether, perhaps less.

“In the upper Helderberg group, which is the next great
calcareous formation, I anticipate a less number of species except
Corals and Bryozoa, of which there are more than 100 species
im New York and the western localities. Of all that is yet known
im these limestones besides Corals and Bryozoa, it would be un-
safe for me to estimate more than 100 species.

“From the Hamilton, Portage, and Chemung groups I anti-
cipate at least 300 species within New York, and I shall not be
surprised if more complete investigations produce double that
number in New York and the West.

“The number of species given here I regard as only approxi-
mative. I hope this general statement may meet your present
requirements, but I regret that I cannot now give you more
definite information, particularly regarding the upper Helderberg.
I give you from this and the higher groups an estimate based on
the species known to me at the present time, but my final inves-
tigations always reveal a greater number than [ anticipate.”

These statements of Professor Hall place already each of the
principal groups of rocks of the State of New York in the cate-
gory of distinct independent successive faunz, each equivalent

Number of Animals in Geological Times. 355

to as many local faune of the present period ; for we may repeat,
that the fauna of the Seychelles contains only 258 species, and
that of Mauritius, Bourbon and Madagascar, 275. Nay, upon
3000 miles of coast along the western shores of the American
continent within the tropics, only twice the number of living
species have been obtained as occur respectively in each succes-
sive greater subdivision of the paleozoic system within the nar-
row limits of the State of New York only. (See above the results
of Professor Adams’s investigations upon the coast of Panama.)

It is a most unexpected and very significant coincidence, that
the late admirable investigations of Ele de Beaumont upon the
mountain systems have led him to the recognition of nearly ten —
times as many periods of great disturbance in the physical con-
stitution of the earth’s surface as he himself knew twenty-five
years ago, each attended by the upheaval of as many mountain
chains, differing in their main direction. The investigations of
paleontologists having an entirely different character, and founded
upon facts which until recently have apparently had only a re-
mote connexion with the other series of phenomena, have never-
theless brought them at about the same time to like conclusions
respecting animal life, showing that the periods of disappearance
and renovation of organized beings upon the earth have been
much more frequent than could be supposed even ten years ago,
each set having probably been characteristic of one of those long
periods of comparative rest intervening between two great suc-
cessive geological cataclysms.

What is true of Mollusca may be said of all other classes.
Among Radiata, are not the coral reefs of the paleozoic ages as
rich in species as any coral reef of the Pacific? Let us even
compare the most extensive lists of corals yet given as belonging
to any circumscribed locality,—those of the Red Sea as described
by Ehrenberg, those of the Feejee Islands as described by Prof.
J. D. Dana,—and let us mquire whether the paleeozoic rocks of
the State of New York do not show as great a variety and as
large a number of species in their successive reefs. Again, have
not the coral reefs of the oolitic period in Normandy, or in the
Jura of Switzerland, and the Alp of Wurtemberg, increased our
lists of fossils as largely, and introduced into our zoological works
as various forms as are known from any of the most diversified
coral regions in the world at the present day ?

Passing from the corals to the Echinoderms, the question may
be reversed, and it may be fairly asked, whether there is any sea-
shore extending over ten and tens of degrees of longitude and
latitude, even under the tropics, which has yielded as large a
number of those Radiata, as occur in almost any of the geolo-
gical formations? The number of Crinoids found in the single

: 23%

356 M. L. Agassiz.on the Primitive Diversity and

set of beds known under the name of Niagara limestone, equals
the whole number. of Echinoderms found around all the coast. of
the United States.. The Crinoids, Echini, and Star-fishes of the
oolitic period, or any of the subdivisions of that formation, sur-
pass the number of species of that class which may be gathered
around the coast of entire continents in the present day... The
diversity of forms of these animals, comparing them with those —
of the cretaceous periods, is equally great, though, the Crinoids
begin to diminish in number. But the variety of Spatangoids
and Clypeastroids which come into play compensate. largely for
the diminution of the family of Crinoids.

The type of Articulata may seem, in the present condition of
our knowledge, to form an unanswerable objection to the broad
statement I have made above, for the hundred thousands, of
insects which are known in the present creation will hardly, allow
a comparison with the fossils. But let.us. examine, upon,the
principles by which we have been guided in, the) preceding, com-
putations, what is the true state of things respecting, the,occur-
rence of Articulata in former geological periods.,.; We,can,, of
course, hardly expect to find worms well preserved jin geological
formations, on account of the softness of their body, which, will
scarcely allow of preservation to a greater degree than .Meduse.
But a few instances in which impressions of these animals,have
been found justifies the assertion that. they existed .as,well in
former periods as now. The impressions of .Medusee found in
the lithographic limestone of Solenhofen, which are preserved in
the museum of Carlsruhe, not only carry back. the. existence. of
this class to the Jurassic period, but justify the question whether
a large number of the fossil Polypi from. older periods, which
have been described as belonging to that class, are not, in. reality
nurses of Medusz similar to the Campanularie and Sertularie of
the present day, which are now known to be no Polyps, but, one
of the alternate generations of Medusz.., .And as for the worms,
we find in each geological formation, from the oldest to.the most
recent, fossil Serpule, or similar solid cases of worms in as large
numbers as we find these animals anywhere at the present day.
And where the existence of Serpule is established by such un-
questionable evidence as that of their caleareous cases, are we not
justified in the inference that those entirely naked worms which
are found everywhere existing with Serpule, had also their cor-
responding representatives during former geological periods ?

With the class of Crustacea the difficulty im the comparison is
already less; for in the tertiary beds of Sheppey there have been
found a variety of lobsters, shrimps and crabs, which would
favourably compare with the crab fauna of any limited shore in
the present day; and I doubt very much whether sucha variety

Number of Animals in Geological Times. 357

of Crustacea could be collected anywhere’ on a shore of equal
extent to that of the white chalk of Sussex, as Dr. Mantell has
uncovered in’ the vicinity of Lewes. For a comparison of the
Crustacea of the oolitic period, 1 would only refer the sceptic to
the monograph of the Crustacea of Solenhofen by Count Miinster,
who has figured from that single locality more species than are
known in the whole basin of the Mediterranean, excluding the
minute species which have not yet been sought for among the
fossils.

In earlier geological ages, during the deposition of the coal
and other palzeozoic rocks, the class of Crustacea presents a very
different character. The gigantic Entomostraca and the extinct
family of Trilobites take the place of the lobsters and crabs of
later periods. But paleontological works illustrating the fossils
of Sweden, Russia, Bohemia, England and France, have made
us’ ‘acquainted with as great a variety of species of those families
as ‘are: found’ of the later representatives of the class im more
modern deposits. So that among Articulata, the class of Crus-
tacea’ may be said to have been at’ all periods as largely repre-
sented, and to have shown as great a variety of forms, as occur
anywhere within similar limits in the present time.

“The ‘carcinological fauna of the whole Indian Ocean slat
exceeds in variety or number of species that of Bohemia alone,
as it is now known by the admirable investigations of M. Barrande.

From their minuteness and general structure, insects might
be excepted in'such a comparison without affording a sufficient
argument against the view I have taken of the subject, even if
insects had nowhere been found in large numbers in a fossil state ;
for' it must be plain that their preservation requires more favour-
able circumstances than the preservation of other animals more
largely provided with solid parts. But though the fossil insects
have not been sufficiently investigated in all geological forma-
tions, have we not several examples which show that in some
geological periods, at least, they were as numerous as in the
present day? ‘The beautiful monograph of Behrens, of the in-
sects which occur in ‘atiber, shows how varied these animals
were during the period of the formation of that gum; and the
unparalleled investigations of Professor Oswald Heer upon the
insects of @iningen and Radoboj have furnished us with means
of comparisons which show that, during the deposition of the
Molasse of Switzerland, the insects were''as Natnerous and as
diversified there as they are anywhere in our day within similar
boundaries. And the fragmentary information which we already
possess upon the insects of Aix in Provence, and those of Ginin-
gen, will justify the expectation that insects will finally be found
very numerous in all the geological periods from that of the

358 M. L. Agassiz on the Primitive Diversity and

carboniferous deposit to the present day; that is to say, ever
since terrestrial vegetation has had an extensive development.
The discoveries by Hugh Miller of true trees in the old red
sandstone will justify the prophecy that insects will be found,
some day or other, even among paleozoic rocks older than the
coal period.

But what of the Vertebrata? Is there not evidence that, at
the present day, they are more diversified and more numerous ?
Here, again, I answer decidedly, No; granting only that there
are periods during which the higher classes of these types did
not exist, and that therefore, as a type, the Vertebrata of the
present day are more diversified; but the mdividual classes,
from the time of their appearance, have been as numerous and
even as various in each former period as they are at present.

Let us apply to these the same measure which we have applied
to the Radiata, Mollusca and Articulata, to justify this assertion,
which seems so completely at variance with our knowledge of
fossil Vertebrata. Fishes occur, as is well known, in all geolo-
gical formations. But should we compare the fossil fishes of
each geological period, as they are known from a few localities,
with the whole number of fishes which exist all over the world
in our day? It would be as unphilosophical as it would be in-
consistent with our knowledge of the geographical distribution
of animals. Like all other living beings, fishes are located
within definite boundaries, and it will be but fair to compare
the fossil species of a given locality with the special ichthyolo-
gical faune which occur in different oceans, or in different fresh-
water basins. Now with this rule we may institute a comparison
of the fossil fishes with the living ones, with reference to their
number as well as to their variety.

The number of species of fossil fishes known at present from
the tertiary deposits, in a single spot, upon the Island of Sheppey,
is greater than the number of fishes which have been collected
around the coast of any of the islands of the Pacific Ocean, as
far as we know the local ichthyological faunze of those regions ;
it is as great nearly as the whole number of fishes known from
the shores of Great Britam. The same may be said of the fishes
of Monte Bolca, or of Mount Lebanon, or of those of the white
chalk of England, or of those of Solenhofen, or of those of the
lias of Lyme Regis; and if we pass to older deposits, to the old
red sandstone even,—thanks to Mr. Miller, and to the investiga-
tions of other British and Russian geologists,—do we not know
from that old formation as many fishes as from any of the more
recent ones, or from any circumscribed marie basin? and is not
the variety which occurs among them at each period as great,
though of a different character in each, as the variety which

Number of Animals in Geological Times. 359

occurs at the present day? So that it can be fairly said, that at
all periods fishes have presented as great a variety of forms, and
as numerous species, as under corresponding circumstances. at
the present day.

The class of Reptiles will allow similar conclusions ; for though
the giants of the class have chiefly been studied, do they not in-
-dicate-an abundance, and a variety of these animals during the
upper secondary formations as great as in any tropical region?
and have we not sufficient indications among the tertiaries to be
justified in expecting that they also will turn out to be more
numerous than they are now known to be?

The class of Birds seems to form an exception in this view.
But there seems to be particular reason why the bones of birds
should be more liable to destruction and decomposition than
those of other Vertebrata. And whoever has traced the discoveries
made recently among the fossils of this class, will certainly not
insist upon a supposed scarcity of birds in former periods, but
rather be inclined to admit that the limited number now known
is to, be ascribed to the deficiency of our knowledge rather than
to a want of these animals in earlier formations, indications of
their presence having been ascertained for several tertiary forma-
tions, for cretaceous deposits, and even for deposits belonging
to periods older than the chalk.

Fossil Mammalia are comparatively too well known to call for
many remarks after what has been said above. Let us only
remember that the number of fossil species found in Brazil alone
equals the whole number of Mammalia known to live at present
in that country; that the fossil Mammalia of New Holland com-
pare already favourably with the living species of that continent ;
and that the locality of Montmartre alone has yielded as many
large Mammalia as occur all over Europe, and the Mauvaises
Terres in Nebraska as many as may be found in North America
now. So that, if we grant simply that among Vertebrata the
diversity has been increasing with the successive introduction of
their different classes, the number and diversity of these differ-
ent classes at each period have been as great as they are at
present.

These facts are of the utmost importance with reference to the
great question of the order of succession and gradation of animals
in the different geological periods. They cut away for ever one
of the arguments upon which the assertors of the development
theory have insisted most emphatically. Before it could be
granted that the great variety of types which occur at any later
period has arisen from a successive differentiation of a few still
earlier types, it should be shown that in reality in former periods
the types are fewer and less diversified; and we have now shown

360 M. Le Agassiz.on the Primitive Diversity. and

that this is so far from being the case, that’ in) many instances
the reverse is really true. I have already attempted elsewhere
to show in outlines what 1s the real order of succession of the
great types of the animal kingdom ; I need not therefore repeat
here what may be gathered from the diagram at the head of the
Zoological Text Book I have. published. jointly with Dr. Gould.
I shall limit myself to a few more general remarks upon the
special difficulties involved in a more thorough investigation of
the subject.

The study of the order of succession and gradation of the
organized beings which have inhabited our globe at different
periods, presents indeed difficulties of more than one kind. Un-
happily, these difficulties have seldom been all considered in their
_natural connexion by those who have ventured to consider the
subject in its whole extent; thus presenting certain results )as
general which would require various qualifications to be~true.
In comparing fossils of one and the same, or of different -geolo-
gical formations, it is in reality not enough to ascertain their true
geological horizon, which we may call the chronological element
of the inquiry; it is equally important that the differences: or
resemblances arising from the geographical distribution over the
wide expanse of the whole surface of the globe, which we may
call the copographiec element of the question, should he also\con-
sidered, for it is already known that, within certain limits; the
same differences and resemblances which are observed at present
between the animals inhabiting different parts of the globe existed
already in former geological periods. We must therefore become
acquainted with the general biological character of the epoch as
well as with the local faune of each period. The tertiary faune
of New Holland and the Brazils, for instance, resemble more
closely the living faunz of those parts of the world than they
resemble one another. Our lists of fossils teem: with chronolo-
gical errors of the worst kind, arising partly from false identifi-
cations of strata, which in reality belong to different. periods,
but the fossils of which are thus represented as having inhabited
our globe sinfvitancously, when in reality they may have been
separated by Jong: periods of time, and existed upon the earth
under very different physical conditions,’ This chronological
confusion is further increased by the too extensive limits fre-
quently assigned by geologists to the successive groups of rocks
forming the crust of our globe. For instance, when the creta-
ceous or the oolitic-formations are considered respectively as in-
divisible natural groups, and. the fossils of all their subdivisions
are enumerated in one single list as the inhabitants of a long
period, an infinitude of anachronisms are presented to the mind,
which no special mention of localities can rectify ; and until the

Number of Animals in Geological: Times. + 361

fossils of each ‘of the natural ‘subdivisions of these formations
shall have been ‘grouped together and compared carefully, as‘ I
have attempted to do ‘in ‘my*Monographs’ of ‘the 'Trigonie‘ and
of the Mye of Switzerland: and the adjoming countries, or as
Al. @Orbigny has done,’ upon’ a much ‘larger’ scale,’ in “his
‘ Paléontologie Frangaise,’’ no correct ideas can be formed ‘re+
specting the succession of ‘animals’ and plants characteristic of
these long successive periods: I do not believe there is a single
paleeontologist, whose opinion is worth having, who can suppose
at this day that any of the animals, the remains of which are
buried in the lias; lived simultaneously with those of the inferior
oolite, or these with those of the Oxford clay, or these with those
of the upper division of the so-called oolitic formation. The
same’ may be ‘said of the different natural subdivisions of the
cretaceous formation, and of the subdivisions introduced of late
among: the paleozoic rocks, by Sir Roderick Murchison and Pro-
fessor: Sedgwick, and in America by Professor J. Hall.

»Butieven after this separation of the fossils, the synchronism
of'which may be fully established, our task is only fairly begun,
for then must begin the zoological identification of all the species,
which must’ be correct’ in every respect before general’ ‘conclu-
sions can ‘be drawn from it. | 10.

In the first place, the specific identity of organic remains is not:
so easily ascertained as many geologists would seem to suppose,
if we may judge from their statements; but unless the validity
ofa species is sanctioned by a practised zoologist, it cannot’ be
taken as a’ basis’ for’ sound. generalizations in reference to qués-
tions of a purely zoological character. The number of false
identifications which have been accumulated in geological works
is truly frightful... It: would, however, be very unjust to accuse’
geologists in) general of inaccuracy on’ this account, the fault
is- mostly to be traced to other parties from whom the names
were obtained. | It should only be understood, that the materials:
thus accumulated are no longer fit to be used for the discussion
of the questions which have been raised with the modern pro+
gress of geology, and that a thorough revision of all the identi-
fications made’m former years is imperatively demanded by the
modern progress of paleontology. It would, however, be some-
times amusing, were it not actually distressing, to see the manner
in which some geologists deal with fossils, considering them
simply as the characteristics of certain rocks, and hardly’ yet
dreaming that there may be such a thing as a special zoology of
the different geological periods, and that during each, local faunze
may have existed with peculiar animals, &c. The ideas about
characteristic fossils are still very crude, and nothing is more
absurd than the complaints about unnecessary multiplication of

362 M. L, Agassiz on the Primitive Diversity and

genera and species; as if both genera and species had not a
natural existence, independent of the estimates of naturalists.
It would be just as reasonable for astronomers to complain of
the great number of stars, as for geologists to object to the in-
vestigations of zoologists, on the ground that they lead to the
“making” of “ too many species.”

The difficulty with reference to the identification of species is
threefold: 1. different species may be considered as identical ;
2. specimens of the same species in different states of preservation,
or of different age, or sex, &c., may be considered as distinct spe-
cies ; or 3. the same species may have been described by different
authors under different names, and their identity afterwards over-
looked by later writers. Who does not see what amount of error
may accrue from the indiscriminate use of materials which are
not first submitted to a very critical revision in these different
respects, not to speak of the general difficulty of agreemg upon
the limits of specific differences? With regard to this last point,
however, I would say, that any one who in discussing. general
questions would only use materials revised candidly with the
same principles, could not fail to obtain at least uniform results.
And when the results of investigations made upon materials cor-
rected in different ways by different authors are compared with
one another, if these differences are kept in view, the disagree-
ment in the results would not be found so great as it might other-
wise seem. ‘The astronomers and physicists have long learned
to correct their observations before using them, and to take into
consideration what they call the personal equation of different
observers ;—are we never to learn from them a lesson in the esti-
mation of our respective investigations, and shall our facts for
ever be used without being first corrected for all the possible
causes of error and disagreement? As long as there are differ-
ences of opinion respecting the natural limits of genera and spe-
cies, is it not absolutely necessary to reduce or expand the scale
applied to the investigations of different authors, when using
them for the same purposes, exactly in the same manner as ther-
mometric observations made with the scales of Reaumur or Cel-
sius or Fahrenheit are reduced to the same standard, before
being compared.

In the second place, species must be referred to genera circum-
scribed within the same limits, before they can fairly be compared,
or at least lead to trustworthy general results. As long as cer-
tain bivalve shells of the carboniferous and -oolitic series were
referred to the genus Unio, it could appear that the family of
Naiades began its existence at a very early period ; but since the
oolitic species of this kind have been ascertained to differ essen-
tially from our freshwater shells, and to constitute by themselves

Number of Animals in Geological Times. 363

a natural genus more closely allied to Crassatella than to Unio,
nobody thinks any longer of looking for Unios in marine deposits.
As long as certain fossil fishes of the Zechsteim and Lias were
referred to the genera Hsow and Cyprinus, the families of which
these genera are the types could be supposed to have extended
their range far beyond the tertiary formations, before which how-
ever no one of their representatives is to be found. Before the
Spatangoids were divided into natural genera, the genus Spa-
_tangus was mentioned among the fossils of the oolitic as well as
the cretaceous and tertiary formations ; now it is restricted to the
last among the fossils and found also among the living. I do
not believe that a single genuine species of Gorgonia is found
among the fossil Polypi, and yet that genus appears in the lists
of fossils from the palzozoic period to the present time.

Since it is not my intention to enter here upon a special eri-
ticism of the innumerable errors of this kind still to be found
even in modern lists of fossils, I shall not multiply my examples.
These may be sufficient to show how important a correct generic
identification of the fossils may be, in the estimation of the order
of succession of organized beings; and I cannot but lament the
utter want of consideration evinced even by many distinguished
paleontologists in this respect, who seem to think that the know-
ledge of species is sufficient in itself to a proper appreciation of
the order of creation, and that genera are arbitrary divisions
established by naturalists merely for the sake of facilitating the
study of species, as if the more general relations of living beings
to one another were not as definitely regulated in all their
degrees by the same thinking mind, as the ultimate relations of
individuals to one another.

In the third place, the natural affinities of genera should be ascer-
tained. Unless the genera are referred to the families to which
they truly belong, unless the rank of these families in their
respective classes is positively determined, unless the peculiarities
of structure which characterize them are taken as the foundation
of such an arrangement, and further corroborated by the mode
of development of their respective types, it would be a hopeless
task to attempt to determine the order of succession of the fossils
in different geological formations. Before the Crinoids which
Lamarck placed among the Polyps had been referred to the class
of Echinoderms, nobody could have understood the beautiful gra-
dation so fully ascertained now, which may be traced through all
geological formations among these animals. Before it was ascer-
tained that the little animal described by Thompson as a living
Crinoid, under the name of Pentacrinus europeus, for which
De Blainville established the genus Phytocrinus, is in reality the
young of a Comatula, nobody could have suspected the wonder-

364 M.L. Agassiz dn the Primitive Diversity and

ful relations which exist between the changes animals now living
undergo during their growth, and the order of succession of en-
tire classes of animals during successive geological ages. As
long as the natural, position of Trilobites remained doubtful in
the animal kingdom, the characters of the prototypes of the class
of Crustacea could not be appreciated. Who does not see how
impossible it was for those who classified the Trilobites with the
Chitons to arrive at any sound results respecting the gradation
and order of succession of these animals? whilst now they are
beautifully linked to the Macrura of the Trias, by the gigantic
Entomostraca of the Devonian and Carboniferous periods. Again,
the knowledge of the embryology of Crustacea gives us a key to
a correct appreciation of the early appearance of the Macrura and ~
the late introduction of the Brachyura. The removal of ‘the
Bryozoa from among Polypi to the class of mollusks, will entirely
change the aspect and relations of the faune of. the paleozoic
rocks. How different, again, would the order of succession of
mollusks appear, were we to adhere to Cuvier’s view of sepa-
rating the Brachiopods, as a class, from the other Acephala, to
which they are now more correctly referred. The vexed question
of the period of appearance of Dicotyledonous plants in the geo-
logical series, would have been settled long ago, had it been
placed-upon its real foundation. It is not in reality to be argued
upon paleontological evidence chiefly, for it resolves itself in the
main into a botanical question, and the definite answer must de-
pend upon the position finally assigned by botanists to the fami-
hes of Coniferee and Cycadex. If these natural orders of plants
are really allied to the Dicotyledonez, then this type begins with
the palzeozoic rocks in the Devonian system, and there is no gra-
dation in the order of succession of plants during geological
times. But if the view of Brongniart is more correct, if the
Coniferee and. Cycadez have to be separated from the Dicotyle-
doneze as Gymnosperme, and if moreover these latter should
prove, as I believe they are, inferior even to the Monocotyle-
donez, then we may at once recognize in the vegetable kingdom
a similar gradation of types as among animals. These examples
may suffice to show what is required for a proper investigation
of the order of succession of organized beings in the course of
time, and how little confidence the investigations in this field
deserve, which have not been made with due reference to all the
points mentioned above. It is indeed only in the classes, the
structure and embryology of which are equally well understood,
that we are able to discover the laws regulating the succession of
animals and plants in geological formations, and our knowledge
is still too imperfect to carry the investigation into all families
of the animal kingdom. Yet enough is known to leave no

Number of Animals in Geological Times. 365

doubt as to the final result; we may confidently await the time
when the glory of the, wonderful oes of creation shall be fully
revealed to, us, and. this may stimulate us to renewed efforts,
since success depends entirely upon our own exertions,

The geographical distribution of animals only began to be
studied long after systematic zoology had made considerable pro-
gress, but even to this day the limits of the faune are nowhere
circumscribed with any kind of precision, the principles upon
which they might be determined are in many respects question-
able, and a large number of animals are daily described without
any reference to their natural distribution upon the earth ; though
much has already been done since Buffon to place this branch of
our knowledge upon a better foundation, and especially to ascer-
tain the laws regulating the geographical distribution of certain
classes and families considered isolatedly. The point which now
requires particular attention, is the combination of these differ-
ent types within definite regions, and their common circumscrip-
tion within natural zoological provinces. This study would be
particularly important with reference to the comparison of the
local faunze of former geological periods with those of the pre-
sent creation; but since the latter even are comparatively little
known, we must be satisfied to wait for the time when thorough
comparisons shall be possible between the local faunz of each
and all geological periods znter se, and with those of other
periods,

In closing this digression, I may sum up my criticism upon
paleontological investigations by saying, that any generalization
respecting the succession of organized beings which is not based
upon materials in which the synchronism and succession of spe-
eies and their geographical distribution are not duly considered,
and in which the identification of species is not made with refer-
ence to sound zoological principles, with due regard to the equal
limitation of genera, and also with reference to our improved
classifications in zoology, is not fit to be trusted. All species
‘taken into consideration should undergo a revision with reference
to their chronology, their topography, and their zoology ; and in
the last point of view, the range and natural limitation as well as
identity of the species, their generic affinities and their zoological
classification, should be equally tested.

Returning now to the main subject of this paper, I have
further to say, that the very fact that certain stratified rocks,
even among the oldest formations, are almost entirely made up
of fragments of organized beings, should long ago have satisfied
the most sceptical that both animal and vegetable life was as
active and profusely scattered upon the whole globe, at all times and
during all geological periods, as it is now. No coral reef in the
Pacific contains a larger amount of organic debris than some of

366 Mr. R. Warington’s Notes on Aninals in small Aquaria.

the limestone deposits of the tertiary, of the cretaceous, or of the
oolitic, nay, even of the palzozoic periods ; and the whole vege-
table carpet covering the present surface of the globe, even if we
were to consider only the most luxurious vegetation of the tro-
pics, and leave entirely out of consideration the whole expanse
of the ocean, as well as those tracts of land where under less
favourable circumstances the growth of plants is more reduced,
would not form one single seam of workable coal to be compared
to the many thick beds contained in the rocks of the carbo-
niferous period alone.

XXXIV.—Memoranda of Observations made in small Aquaria, in
which the Balance between the Animal and Vegetable Organisms
was permanently maintained. By Rosert Wartneton, Esq.

Fresh Water.

Memorandum 1.

In my communication, dated September 1852*, I gave a
detailed account of my observations on the thread or web
which some species of the freshwater snail form to effect or
facilitate their passage from one spot or object to another, and
thus either ascending or descending by its means; and the
instances noticed up to that period had reference only to the
varieties of the Limnee. In continuation of my observations
on the same subject, I have now to state that the varieties of
Planorbis, as also Neritina fluviatilis and Physa fontinalis, have,
since that date, been noticed to possess the same power ; and in
the case of the latter, Physa fontinalis, the thread or web was so
tough and strong, that on one occasion I was able, by means of
a small rod introduced between the creature and its point of
attachment, to move it out of its straight course a considerable
distance, and by then slowly drawing the rod upwards, I suc-
ceeded in raising the snail completely out of the water a space
of about 7 inches, suspended by its thread, so that, under these
circumstances, the thread itself became distinctly visible.

From the observations which I have been enabled to make, I
consider that I am justified in stating that all the freshwater
snails are possessed of this power.

Memorandum 2.

As an evidence of the permanency of the balance capable
of being established between the animal and vegetable organ-

* Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Oct. 1852.

Mr. R. Warington’s Notes on Animals in small Aquaria. 867

isms by the introduction of the water-snail or other phyto-
phagous mollusk, as I have elsewhere described*, I may state
that the same water in which my original experiments were made
im March 1849 has been in continual use up to the present time,
several fish living constantly in it, without disturbance, and that
it is now as bright and in as healthy a state as at the first period
of its being employed.

Again, in a small jar of about one pint capacity, having a
single plant of Vallisneria spiralis growing healthily in it, and
with a few small water-snails as scavengers, I succeeded during
the spring of 1853 in hatching and rearing a young trout.
The egg was obtained from Mr. S. Gurney, jun., and had been
removed from his preserves in the river Wandle; the shell
ruptured the day after my receiving it, and it was maintained
in a perfectly healthy state during the whole of the period
required for the development of the respiratory organs, and
the complete though gradual absorption of the ovum. This
development was perfected in fifteen days from the bursting of
the shell, till the period that the fish could sustain itself con-
tinuously in the water and was able to swim strongly. Having
arrived at this stage of maturity, the vessel became far too small
for the free use of its active powers of locomotion, and it was
therefore transferred to a small tank containing several minnows,
when to my great annoyance it was immediately seized and de-
voured.

As another instance of the voracity of the finny tribe and
their destruction of each other, I may mention here that I
had on a previous occasion placed several small trout fry over-
night in an aquarium containing some gold-fish, but they must
have been rapidly preyed upon, as no trace could be seen of them
the following morning. These facts will demonstrate clearly the
havoc which must take place in the rivers and streams among
the young fry of various fish under ordinary circumstances, when
they are proved to be devoured with such extraordinary rapidity
even by such species as the gold-fish or carp tribe and the
minnow.

Memorandum 8.

Care should be taken in the aquarium for fresh water to ex-
clude the ordinary Polype or Hydra fusca, particularly where
certain species of fish are to be preserved, as with the minnow
(Leuciscus Phoxinus), for these creatures, insignificant as they
may appear, after a short time cause their death, and that under
most extraordinary circumstances, as the following observations

* Quarterly Journal of the Chem. Soe. for April 1850, vol. iii. p. 52.

9868 <M Ri. Warington’s. Votes on Animals in small’ Aquaria.

will tend: to show :—-Ina small aquarium that. had had gold-fish
‘kept in it for a length of time; but which had. been removed into
one of larger dimensions and more fully exposed.to the ight, an
enormous number. of. the Hydra fusca were observed to have
made their appearance very soon after this removal. . Wishing
therefore to ascertain if the appearance and rapid increase: of
these polypes had been: prevented by the gold-fish, the following
experiments were made :—Fifteen individuals of the Hydra fusca
were placed. in the aquarium containing the gold-fish, but they
very soon disappeared, having I presume been devoured ‘by the
fish ;.a ‘second fifteen were then introduced, but with the same
result.. At the same time as this experiment was:made, fifteen
hydras were placed in’a tank containing four minnows-(Leuciscus
Phowinus)-and.a pair of small eels, but as the minnows did-not
appear to touch them, the same number. of. polypes: being
counted. over several times during a period of three-weeks,-they
were soon forgotten altogether. . After a space of ‘about: seven
mouths had. elapsed from this time, the minnows! were,observed
to:assume a most extraordinary aspect, the head appeared: very
much swollen, and the eyes of all of them looked ‘as)though
starting out of their heads, being forced upwards and’ in, an, out-
ward direction and much enlarged ; by degrees the gills: of some
of them became streaked with bloody markings, and.‘this gra-
dually extended to the base of the pectoral fins... The whole-ap-
pearance was most distressing to contemplate, particularly.as:it
was impossible, from ignorance of the cause, to adopt any reme~
dial measures. Judging from their appearance my,impression
was that. they had been poisoned, and. assuming that it must
have arisen from something putrescent which,they might have
raked out of the materials at the bottom.of the aquarium, the
whole of the water was drawn off clear by a siphon, the gravel
and.sand thoroughly washed, and everything replaced. in the. tank
with the fish ; no improvement however appeared. to follow, the
fish got worse and ultimately died...: This, was: im June 1853.
Before this extraordinary change came.on, the fish had been eb+
served to cluster together in one particular’ secluded spot, and
rarely came out as they had. been accustomed to do, and when
they did venture forth they rubbed or jerked themselves,with much
force against the grayel.and. rock-work, as though something was
irritating the skin ; nothing however was visible. I had had these
fish for about eighteen.months.in the same aquarium... As the
water was perfectly bright and clear, and free from all odour or
unpleasant taste, 1 procured six fresh minnows and placed them
in the tank; for about.ten.days they appeared to be pretty
healthy-; they. did.not. however swim about freely, but herded
together in one corner of the aquarium, and then the same-ex-

Mr. R. Warington’s Notes on Animals in small Aquaria. 369

traordinary change gradually came on which had been observed
m the others, and after lingering for seventeen days they all
died. On carefully scrutinizing the different parts of the tank
with a magnifying-glass, my attention was at once arrested by
ebserving the enormous numbers of the Hydra fusca which were
present, particularly on the parts of the aquarium where the fish
had been accustomed to feed; that is, along the water-line
towards the light, at the base of the plants of Vallisneria spiralis,
about half an inch above the gravel, and on the whole of the
rock-work around the space where the minnows delighted to
hide ; here they might have been seen stretching out from the
sides, hanging down from the top, in fact in every possible
direction—here then was a solution of all the evil. It now be-
came a question how these pests were to be eradicated, and after
canvassing in my mind a variety of suggestions, I determined to
endeavour to remove them individually, and by this means they
were speedily got rid of; from fifty to a hundred being taken
out daily. The method by which this operation was effected was
as follows :—A long glass capillary tube open at both ends was
introduced into the water, having the finger kept tightly over the
upper orifice, while, with the edge of the lower opening, the
polype was detached from its hold ; the moment this was effected
and the hydra began slowly to fall through the water, the finger
was removed, and the water with the polype was thus rapidly
driven into the tube by the pressure of the external column of
water ; on replacing the finger the contained water and polype
were removed. By persevering in this course they were caught
with the greatest rapidity and dropped into another vessel before
they had time to attach themselves to the interior of the tube,
faling through the water like a miniature parachute. When
situated in places where this mode of capture could not be em-
ployed, as on the leaves of the Vallisneria, or on the under sides
of the rock-work, they were pulled off with a jerk by means of a
small pair of. forceps. In this manner between four and five
hundred polypes were removed from a small aquarium holding
about six gallons of water. Since this some small carp and also
minnows have been placed in the same water, and have continued
now for upwards of sixteen months in perfect health.

It is a curious problem as to the manner in which this de-
struction of life was brought about ; my own impression is that
the hydras seized on the minnows whenever their extended ten-
tacula were touched by the swimming fish,—stinging them, and
causing a great degree of irritation ; and that the polypes were
torn from their position by the greater strength of the fish and
earried to their places of retreat, where, by consequence, the
mischief was continually accumulating. A similar removal from

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 24.

370 Mr.R: Warington’s, Notes on Animals.in small) Aquaria.

one place to! another ofan; analogous creature, the young. of
the Actinia, takes place in sea water, from,their attaching them-
selves by their tentacula to some.moying denizen, the hold being
released very soon, after they. are, forced from) their original
attachment, |

Sea We afb

Memorandum 1.

In my previous experiments: in) this: branch of the: subject,
commenced in January 1852%, and of which some results were
communicated to the British Association at’ their meeting last
year at Hull +, 1 stated that the result of my experiments to
ascertain the kind of sea-weed best fitted for, mamtaiming the
balance with the animal: life was,’ under / ordinary: cireum-
stances, in favour of the Chlorosperms, and: that» the Rhodo-
sperms submitted to the like conditions did. notsanswer the
purpose desired and at the same time retain their colour: and
beauty, inasmuch ‘as they very soon became coated with a growth
of short green and brown Conferve (Conferva tortuosa?);\ which
entirely mantled ‘the whole surface of the fronds and:destroyed
their characteristic appearance. During: these «investigations,
however, it occurred to me that it might: be possible: tooobviate
this drawback, and I have, I believe, succeeded; after:a series of
experiments, im overcoming this inconvenience,’and can: aiow
retain them in all their natural loveliness and ‘render: them quite
efficient for all the purposes required, that is, as'consumers ait
carbonic acid and generators of oxygen.

The ground on which I have reasoned: asa hbisid for shiele
experiments has been the consideration, that nearly the whole of
these red or pink-coloured sea-weeds ‘are found) either: in ‘deep
water or under the shade of other Alge,' and. from the: fact:that
they were also often known to occur im)shallow rock=pools ;:it was

‘hence fair to assume that the pressure of the columin:of water
could ‘not be an important element) in the production of) these
coloured growths, and therefore that\it must:depend: upon a
modification of the light. Hence my idea was thatthe effects
of the depth of the water might be capable of being: imitated
by tintmg the light through ‘the interposition: of coloured
media, and thus all the results-observed in the vegetation, and
much even of the healthy animal life of deep sea water could be,
under this arrangement, assimilated ; and this, I am happy to
“state, has proved experimentally to be the case, so that, by very

* Garden Companion, January 1852; and Annals and: Mag. Nat; Hist.
for October 1852.
+ Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist. November, 1853,

Mr. R. Warington’s Notes on Animals in-small Aquaria. 371

simple means and with very little trouble, we shall be enabled
to grow and. preserve these elegant and beautiful plants in all
their varied hues, as well as many of the wondrous forms of ani-
mal life usually found ‘associated with them, for any length of
time ; and thus a much enlarged field for observation will be
brought within the limits of our aquarium.

In order to obtain this desideratum, a medium having a blue
or green tint has been had recourse to, and of such a nature as
merely to colour, soften or diffuse the light, without materially
diminishing its quantity. This was at first accomplished by the
employment of a thin film of paint of the desired shade, of a
thin ‘silk gauze of a blue colour, by layers of tissue paper tinged
blue: ‘and: green, sometimes oiled to render them more trans-
parent, at others the sheets of paper being superposed until the
desired effect: was produced, or by coloured varnishes, blue, and
blue:and yellow, and mixed to the tint required. These mate-
rials: should be applied to the surface of the glass, or interposed
between the’source of light and the water, in such a way, that
the whole: of: the light which directly illuminates the. aquarium
maybe tinted of the proper colour. In proportion to the quan-
tity of light: at command and the varying aspect to the sun’s
rays, so must the transparency of the colouring medium be ad-
justed.» In:my own case I have been obliged partially to employ
oloured glass, as the other methods were found to impede. too
much of the direct light; but it must be borne in mind that this
is in\the midst of a crowded city, in a smoky atmosphere, and
surrounded by tall houses. To such an extent has. this. plan
sueceeded, that: several small attached pieces of delicate red sea-
weed which I had received in October 1852, and had become
thickly mantled) with the brown and green confervoid growth
already alluded to, and which had. not exhibited the least signs
of vitality,on being placed in a small glass jar arranged with
tinted and:oiled tissue paper, soon lost the whole of this, parasitic
growth; from its gradually decaymg and being then consumed
bythe mollusks, the fronds assuming their deep crimson hue,
becoming perfectly clear, and even after so long a period throw-
ing out numerous young shoots or leaflets; and on one of these
pieces several beautiful: specimens) of the Coryne sessilis made
their appearance, together with groups of Lepralia and corallines.

Memorandum. 2.

Another very interesting experiment that I have had \pro-
gressing very successfully for some time past, is the preserving '
sea water im a perfectly transparent: and healthy state. without
the use of vegetation of any kind, or, in some cases, even ofa
scavengering mollusk. The adoption of these experiments was

24

372 Mr, R. Warington’s: Notes.on-Animals in small Aquaria.

in a great degree forced upon me front circumstances which have
been already published. In the paper read before the Meeting
of the British Association at Hull, I stated that m consequence of
the ravenous. propensities of the crabs and the varieties. of rock:
fish, I had been obliged to scotinn sears small imit: rd rock-
ls, s0,.as to rate these various depredators from e¢

Sets colon none of thoes le lowes ai see
common. periwinkle and other mollusks which were employ ab

a

scavengers, the plant or vegetation consequently became o
use, and was therefore omitted altogether from the arran¢ ement.
It may be asked then, how can the sea water under su

stances be possibly kept in a healthy state? Why, thus a 1
th ig “a

posing a very extended surface of it to the action of t
at the same time limiting its depth. The eeu)

-

been adopting for upwards of twelve months consist in
poe 2 of shallow circular stone-ware pans of about aig
inches. internal diameter by five inches deep ; agit illed for
about two inches with water, the bottom is supplied witl a and —
shingle, and numerous fragments of rock-work are ar ranged a
the sides, some close below the surface of the wate others
rising in gentle slopes above, and others again groupe
cavities of retreat, so.as to accord with the habits of

blennies, &c, placed in them. The whole is covered wi

of common window glass, raised about one-fourth of an Le :

of the water thus effected is ‘a very delicate-equilibrium, and. the
maintenance of a healthy aération is liable to be; disturbed by
very slight interfering causes ;nor:do Iconceive that'this: method
would be applicable except to ‘such marine denizens. as are{either
of such low organization as to require but little,aération/ of ,the
water, or to such: as ‘the crab tribe; the blennies,cotties,, gobies,
and those creatures which delight in very shallow ,,water,,jor
which have the power: of climbing out? of, their liquid, element.
The varieties I have myself: kept:in perfect health for;the. period
mentioned, are crabs, blennies, gobies, cotties, and. varieties, of
Actinia. Cancer Menas has under these ciréumstances. cast, its
skin three times during the present year, having:increased.imits
dimensions most’ extraordinarily each.time..;) © =

On Preserving brittle specimens in Botany:and Zoology! 378

isseniou Memorandum 8. | i
_. The form of aquarium which, after upwards of ‘five years” ex-
perience and observation on the natural habits of the various
animated tenants, I have now adopted, consists in a four-sided
vessel having the back gradually sloping upwards from the bot-
tom at an angle of 45 to 50 degrees, and the consequently ext
tended top sloping slightly downwards and resting on the upper
part of the back, The bottom, therefore, becomes necessarily
narrow. The front for the purposes of observation, and the top
for the admission of light, are to be of glass ; the back; ends,
and bottom being constructed of slate; the whole’ fixed inh a
stout framework. 7 |
__ The advantages of this arrangement are :— “4

vi :

of First. ‘That it allows of a most extended view of the whol
Interior of the aquarium. 7

_. secondly. That it enables the occupants to resort to water of
101 Doli gin 9290)

jany depth they may desire, or even to ascend the sloping back
,and emerge from the water.

_,. Lhirdly. It admits of a much larger’ surface ‘of’ Water being
exposed to the action of the light ; and : |
per Fourthly. The sloping top allows the water which’ condensés
‘onthe glass, from the effect of radiation, to trickle off and return
_to the aquarium without first resting on the zinc or iron frame-
i: Antennae wag: * yg . ieee be
.. L need hardly mention that the sloping back is to’ be covered
with light rock-work extending to a short distance above the
Water line, | wl 5

XXXVi—On.a..Mode of -giving permanent Flexibility to britile
seo spectmens,in Botany and Zoology, By Prof. J.W.Batey, U.S,*
“Tur excessive: fragility, methe dry state, of many: plants, and
‘particularly of those «which secrete carbonate: of ‘lime, is: well
“known .to’ botanists» «cThere:is mo: herbarium. im existence?! in
which ‘the specimens of Amphiroa; Jania, Corallina, Halimeda,
Liagora, Chara, &e. are not in:a more-or-less mutilated condition,
which becomes: worse ‘every ‘time ‘the;plants are examined..In
studying a large collection of the stony Algee I was led to remark
their perfect flexibility while moist;:which «passed to great) brit-
tleriess "when ‘dry,vand it occurred tome «thataf:they could: be
kept permanently moist:they: would remain permanently flexible.
I'then remembered that: General:Totten, of the U.S. Engineers,
had mentioned to me, some ‘years ago, his success:in preventing
the ‘cracking and peeling-off of the epidermis of: various ‘shells,
by impregnating them ‘with chloride of calcium, . I also remem-
* From Silliman’s Journal for July’ 1854,

374 On Preserving brittle specimens.in Botany and Zoology.

bered Boucherie’s experiments with the-same substance in giving
flexibility to wood. . The principle that a substance which is
flexible when moist, will remain permanently moist, and. therefore
permanently fleaible, when impregnated with a deliquescent salt,
is so obviously true, that it needed no experiments to convince me
of its applicability to the fragile plants above mentioned, and to
many other specimens in natural history; but as practical diffi-
culties often occur in the application of correct principles, I have
tested the process by numerous experiments in which chloride
of calcium was employed to give flexibility to various vegetable
and animal products, and the results have fully equalled my ex-
pectations. My specimens of Amphiroa, Jania, Corallina, &c.,
after being impregnated with this salt, and then exposed for
months to the air, can be handled as freely as if just taken from
the water, and they permanently retain nearly the utmost’ degree.
of pliability they are capable of receiving. Sule of dry, crisp
and brittle Lichens when treated in the same way became soft,
elastic and flexible, so as to bear very rough handling with per-
‘fect impunity. Many of the common Algz which shrink much
in drying, and therefore assume a very unnatural appearance, and
besides are apt either to become cracked or torn, or to wrinkle
up the paper to which they adhere, retain after immersion in this
salt nearly their normal degree of distension, and preserve a
much more natural appearance than when dried in the usual way.
Many dried specimens of plants, whose leaves, flowers or fruit
dropped off almost at a touch from specimens in my herbarium,
became permanently pliable when immersed for a short time in
a solution of chloride of calcium, and could then at any time be
handled freely, while their appearance was in no degree injured.

In the animal kingdom, the results obtained in restoring per-
manent flexibility to dry and brittle specimens of Crustaceans,
Insects, Gorgonias, Sponges, &c. were equally satisfactory, and
have convinced me that almost every naturalist will, in his own
department, find many useful applications for this process.

The mode of application which I have employed is to’ immerse
the dry specimen for some time in a neutral saturated solution
of chloride of calcium (which any one can make for himself by
saturating hydrochloric acid with marble), and then after the spe-
cimen has: become sufficiently softened to bend easily, remove it
and let it drain in the open air. In some cases where the speci-
mens do not imbibe the salt: readily, it is well to soften them in
warm water before immersion in the salt... A speedy impregna-
tion will then take place, after which the specimens, if plants,
may be subjected to moderate pressure in the usual way, and
restored to the herbarium; while other specimens may be kept
on shelves, or in any way usually employed for similar objects,

Bibliographical Notices. 375.

and all will for any length of time retain sufficient moisture to
prevent brittleness. The salt being neutral, no fear need be
apprehended of its‘injuring colour or texture, while its antiseptic
properties will aid in the preservation of matters liable to decay.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES,

A Manual of Natural History for the use of Travellers, By
Artuur Apams, W. B. Barxisz, and CuHArves Barron. Lon-
don, 1854. Van Voorst. 12mo.

“Tue design of the following pages,”’ say the authors in their pre-
face, ‘is to endeavour to supply what seems to be a blank in the
scientific literature of this country, for, although numerous treatises
exist upon every branch, yet no work has hitherto appeared, com-
prising either succinctly or in detail, a comprehensive outline of
natural history. It may appear presumptuous,” they add, ‘on the
part of the authors to attempt to grapple with such an extensive
range of subjects”—and we regret to say that a careful examination of
the book only shows us how well founded was this fear. There can
be no ‘doubt, in fact, that the authors have entirely miscalculated
their ‘strength, or they never would have attempted so arduous an
undertaking. This is the more to be regretted, as we fear that a
work, with, the above attractive title, brought out under the auspices
of a publisher so well known for the first-rate character of his publi-
cations, will inevitably to a great extent preoccupy a place in our
scientific literature which might be much more creditably filled.

The authors have fallen into an error in their very first step,—
the general design and scope of the work. Let us first see what are
the objects of travelling, or indeed of any, naturalists, and the condi-
tions to be fulfilled by a * Manual’ intended for their use, and we
may afterwards consider how far their wants are supplied in the work
before us. | The study of Natural History may safely be divided into
two branches—the collection and arrangement of species, and the
study of the structure, habits, and general classification of the nume-
rous creatures inhabiting our planet, .The same person may un-
doubtedly combine the study of both branches, but they may never-
theless. be regarded to a great extent as distinct, and capable of
being carried on independently of each other ; accordingly we find
that works on natural history are generally directed exclusively to
one or other of them. Now the collector of species, whether for sale,
or for his own personal gratification, desires, if possible, to ascertain
the actual specific names of the objects which come in his way, their
comparative rarity and so forth, so that nothing short of a “ Species,”’
or at all events a “Genera,” with copious information as to the geo-
graphical distribution of the species, can serve his purpose. The
reader need but reflect on the voluminous works devoted to deserip-
tion of portions only of the organic kingdoms of nature, to be ‘con-
vinced that an attempt to bring together all the species, or even

376 Bibliographical Notices.

genera of animals and plants within the eompass.of anything short of
a.small library, must. prove:an entire failure., The observer of struc-
ture and habit, onthe other hand, requires, a-guide-book through the
intricacies of his. .subject, a,compendious account of the actual state
of science,.a, something to tell .him.what to observe, and to prevent
his falling into the. errors to which isolated’ observers are so liable, but
which. the light accumulated, by the labours of his. predecessors may
to a great extent enable him to avoid. |, Such a work ‘as this is) still
a desideratum in. English. scientific literature; for the labours: of ‘the
present authors have been directed to quite another result... They
have in fact fulfilled neither of the conditions which we have already
seen to be necessary in a‘ Manual of Natural, History,’—their work
is a bare sketch of a classification carried as far as the natural fami-
lies, dealing no further with the structure of animals and plants than
as. it furnis he characters for the foundation of groups); it may inofact
be defined as an engine for naming natural objects, which. darries the
student just. half way, and then leaves him to find the tomeinat of
the road by. himself,

This objection would have applied with less force, had. the ipsa
at the commencement of each of the, larger divisions (of the:antmal
kingdom atleast), now devoted, to, a series, of desultory generalities,
not always perfectly, correct, been made use of to furnish:the reader
with some general views of the natural history of the creatures under
consideration ; but.as it is, the observer who may witness any isolated
fact. in the history of an ‘animal, even should he be able to ascertain
the family to.which it belongs from. this book, can never hope to find
in it any, clue.to the series of pheenomena with. which: the fact
observed may stand in connection.

Before proceeding to examine the details, of the book; we have to
protest against a piece of pedantry which, pervades the whole, and for
which the authors appear to consider themselves. deserving of great
credit,—we allude to the practice of giving, what are.called English
names to the different groups. If indeed/good.genuine English’ names
could be invented. for every group and. species, of animals and ‘plants,
we should have. nothing more to,say. upon the subject, but we enter-
tain the very strongest “objection to the absurdities generally palmed
off upon us under this title, and inthis respect the present. work is
not one whit superior to its predecessors. , We meet with the same
attempts at. Anglicizing by simply altering the terminatioi of words
from a or @ into ans; whilst, the necessity for manufacturmg names
for so many minor. groups,,has. produced an infinity of multi-verbal
combinations, which we. should think would tend rather to repel than
to attract a. beginner... | We cannot, imagine a mind so. constituted as
to find such names.as ‘ Long-legged herbivorous Beetles,”’ or ‘‘ Hard;
skinned serricorn Beetles,’’. more expressive and easy of recollection
than the corresponding scientific terms ‘“ Zupoda ”? and.“ Sternoxi ;’
and in some cases the English names are positive misnomers, as for
example the term ‘‘ Gill-lunged, Batrachians,”’ applied to | those sin-
gular members of the class, Batrachia in which, gills and lungs: are
coexistent in the mature state.

Bibliographical Notices. 377

We have devoted’'so much’ space’ to ‘the ‘consideration’ of the
general characteristics of this work, that we have’ but little cae
for particular instances’ of the ‘authors’ ‘sins.’ We must howevét
select a’ few, if only to ‘show how’ little’ dependence can be placéd
upon their jadgment, even in making use of the materials which lay
ready to their: hands.’ Thus ‘we find amongst the Annulosa, a‘tlass
of Epizoa, or Fish-parasites, including Crustacean families, Lerneide,
Caligide and their allies; ‘and a miscellaneous assemblage of Helmin-
thoid forms: Amongst the latter are included the Linguatulide ! The
entire group of’ Radiate’animals also is a most extraordinary junible,
We find the Rotifera placed in this division, between the’ Acalephze
andthe Polyzoa!; these are followed by the Coclelmintha, ‘these by
the true Polypes, after which we come to the Sterelimintha, or Cestode
and 'Trematode worms. That such an arrangement as this should
have occurred to any one engaged upon a Manual of Natural History,
will,-we'should think, excite'a little surprise in the reader’s mind. ~
0 Amongst: the Sterelmintha we find an’ order of Cystic worms,
without a single hint of the extraordinary discoveries of Van Beneden,
Vogt, Siebold and others, which have now proved the cystic worms
to:be merely phases in the development of the Tape-worms. In like
matner)the wonderful mode of ‘reproduction prevailing amongst the
Medusee, which ‘has given ‘tise to Steenstrup’s theory of the ‘* Alter-
nation of generations,’’\is passed over without a word of notice; but as
if toomake up’ for the absence of information for which ‘the reader
might»reasonably look, we are favoured with some statements
concerning ‘the Acalephze, which certainly have the merit of novelty.
to:recommend’them: ‘Thus we learn for the first time, and we must
confess not without surprise, that Cydippe is “often seen . . . making its
way slowly by the regular contraction and expansion of its umbrella-
like body.” “In Beroé we are told, “‘ the organs of progression are in
the form of long filaments, which enable their possessors to roll alon
through the water ina’very rapid manner ;”” and Mr, Huxley will be
astonished ‘to learn, 'that “those curious double gelatinous animals,
the Salpe;’: are placed® ‘in the’ Diphydous order.” ‘These state-
ments all oceur within the compass of’ a single page (page 336)! We
do not pretend ‘to say that'this ‘is an average sample of the work, but
there are certainly few pages of the Zoological portion in which some
errors are not 'to be met with.

Of the Botanical portion we need say but little, the authors them-
selves admitting that they have employed “‘a slight modification of
the scheme’ offered by: the learned ‘author of the * Vegetable King-
dom.’ The only modification that we can perceive is, that they have
reversed the learned Doctor’s arrangement, and raised his ‘Alliances ”
tothe rank of ‘*Orders.”’ The characters of the families (Orders,
Lindl.) appear to be copied almost verbatim, except the omission here
and there of characters which we must confess seem not unfrequently
to be of some importance. |

It is not so easy to ascertain the souree from which the system of
Mineralogy is derived, but as it is undoubtedly the most ‘useless part
of the book, it is just possible that it may be the most original. “We

378 Bibliographical. Notices.

would ask any mineralogist how he would like to have no better
guide in the determination of a mineral than such a character as the
following :— sp

IV. ORDER Mo.uispexipeEs. |

Minerals containing metals of the lead series, in various states of combi-
nation ; solid.

1. Famity.—Molibdides.—Minerals containing lead, either native or in
combination.— Occurs 1, native, monometric, H. 1°5, sp. gr. 11°381; very
rarely ; 2, as Sulphuret or “‘ Galena,’ monometric, H. 2°5, sp. gr.7°5, colour
and streak lead-gray, easily fused, frangible in. beds and veins in crystalline
and uncrystalline rocks; 3, as Oxide or “ Minium,” pulverulent, in minute
rhombic prisms ; sp. gr. 4°6, in veins of galena and calamine; 4, as Car-
bonate or “‘ Cerusite,”’ in right rhombic eth H, 3-3°5, sp. gr. 6°4, lustre
adamantine, colour white or gray, very brittle, in many lead mines; 5, as
Phosphate or “ Pyromorphite,’” in hexagonal prisms, H. 3°5-4, sp. gr. 7 ;
colour green, yellow, or brown; lustre resinous, brittle, in veins with other
lead ores; 6, also less frequently combined with selenium, tellurium, anti-
mony, arsenic, vanadic, chromic, molybdic, and tungstic acids:—Metallic
lead fuses at 612° F., its soluble salts give a black precipitate with hydro-
sulphuric acid.—Symb. Pb. [- fj

This is followed by 2. Famity.—Baryides!, but we need go no
further. et dok ecco

In conclusion, there is one point to which we must advert, although
in so doing we shall perhaps be running some risk of placing ourselves
in the same category with the famous Shandean critic, who carried
his rule and compasses in his pocket, and determined the merits of a
book by the squareness of its corners,—we allude to its méchanical
execution. We have always entertained an opinion that ’the great
object of a “ Manual” should be to furnish its readers with the
greatest possible amount of information in the smallest’ possible
amount of space, but the present work appears to have been got'tp
on a directly opposite principle,—it is prmted ‘in a positively large
type, with spaces between the lines, and the characters of the families
are considerably indented, so that in most cases at least'a tenth’ part
of the page is actually lost. Had a type of moderate size been em-
ployed and the present absurd arrangement of the pages avoided;
there is no doubt that at least half as much more information might
have been got into the same space.

Wehave completed a most thankless task, for few things can be more
distasteful to us than to speak unfavourably of the efforts of others,
especially when, as in the present case, they appear to have devoted
considerable labour to a mistaken attempt to aid in the diffusion ‘of
knowledge. But this book unfortunately by no means satisfies the ex-
pectations called up by its title, and there can be no doubt that, as far
as it is concerned, the author of the next ‘ Manual of Natural History’
may justly echo the authors’ own lamentation, that “no work has
yet appeared, comprising either succinctly or in detail, a compre-
hensive outline of natural history.”

Zoological Society. 379

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.
- ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

On THE ANATOMY AND DEVELOPMENT OF EcHINOCOCCUS
VETERINORUM. By Tuomas Hux .ey, F.R.S.

[With a Plate.]

On the 25th of November, 1852, a fine female Zebra, whilst at play
within its paddock, accidentally broke its neck. The animal had
always appeared to be quite healthy, and it was in perfectly good
condition—but, upon examination, its liyer was found to be one mass
of cysts, varying in size from a child’s head downwards. The liver
was taken out of the body on the day succeeding the animal’s death*
—and.on the 27th I proceeded to examine the contents of one of the

largest cysts (with a portion of its wall) and one of the smaller cysts.
_ » It was at once obvious that the cysts contained the Hehinococcus
veterinorum ; and I may here mention that the Echinococci were in
full life, and remained so for three days, until, in fact, the fluid in
which they. were contained had become slightly offensive.

It will conduce to clearness perhaps, if I state in successive order
I.. What I saw. myself. II. The theory of the formation of the
Echinococcus-cysts, and of their relation to other forms of Entozoa,
which I have to offer. ILI. What has been done hitherto.

I..The cysts are nearly spherical vesicles having a very elastic
proper wall ; so elastic, in fact, as to exercise a continual tension
upon the contained fluid, which, if the cyst be pierced, spurts out in
a jet, for some time.

The outermost layer of the cyst is an adventitious membrane,
formed by the infested animal around the Hchinococcus-cyst, as it
would be developed round anyother foreign body ; with this I have
nothing to do... Within this, and in nowise adherent to it, follows
the proper wall of the Hchinococcus-cyst, which must; be carefully
distinguished into two portions. The outer is thick, yellowish and
constituted, by a great number of delicate, structureless laminze com-
posed of a substance closely resembling chitine. It is to this laminated
membrane that the elasticity of the cysts is due—and it must be
regarded as precisely analogous to those structureless cysts which
surround the pupa forms of Distomata imbedded in the body of
snails, or to those similarly structureless cysts which enclose the
encysted Tetrarhynchi, and which Van Beneden saw in course of
formation by a process of exudation, around the Scolex form of those
worms.. The innermost layer of this, which, for distinction’s sake, I
will call the Hctocyst, is whiter and softer than the others, and appears
to be in course of formation.

The inner portion of the wall of the Echinococeus-cyst is closely

* I beg here to express my obligations to the Secretary of the Zoological
Society, without whose kind recollection of a wish to examine fresh Entozoa,
which I had expressed, I should not have had the opportunity of making the ob-
servations contained in the present paper.

380 Zoological Society.

adherent to the last-described layer of the ectocyst, but may, with
great care, be separated from it, when it is at once evident that
there is no organic connexion between the two; this layer may be
very conveniently termed the. endocyst—it is the only active living
part of the whole wall of the cyst, and represents the proper body-
wall of the animal, It is very pale and delicate, and not more than
soooth of an inch thick. Itis composed of very delicate cells =,

$death of an inch in diameter, without obvious nuclei, but often con-
taining clear, strongly refracting corpuscles, generally a single, one
only, inacell, These corpuscles appear to be solid, but, by the action
of dilute acetic acid, the interior generally clears up very rapidly, and
a hollow vesicle is left of the same size as the original corpuscle. No
gas is developed during this process, and sometimes the corpuscles
are not acted. upon at all by the acid, appearing then to be of a fatty
nature. A strong solution of caustic ammonia produces a concet-
trically laminated or fissured appearance in them. Under. pressure,
and with commencing putrefaction, a number of them sometimes flow
together into an irregular or rounded mass. : ae

The inner surface of the endocyst is sometimes irregularly papil-
lated like a glandular epithelium in consequence of the’ prominence
of separate cells, or its surface presents an. even contour, fromthe
presence of a structureless membrane, which varies in thickness, and
seems to represent the imner portion of the blastema, elsewhere
slightly granular, in which the cells are imbedded. i;

Solitary hooks are scattered over the inner surface of the‘endocyst.
I thought at first that they had fallen from, the Echinococei ; but it
is with some difficulty that, even by the aid of pressure, the hooks
can be so detached from them; and furthermore the hooks in question
had generally the appearance of those forms found.in the younger Lehi-
nococci, from which there is. still greater difficulty in detaching them.
I conclude then that these hooks are developed where they are found,
and that they represent a sort of attempt to develope an Echinococcus

»which has gone no further.. Within the substance of the endocyst
one may see here and there traces of clear delicate vessels, such as
those which will be described in the secondary cysts ; but, probably
in consequence of the granular nature of the membrane, they are
rarely visible, | ) %

_In describing the development of the Hehinococcz, it will be neces-
sary to return to this endocyst—at present I pass to the contents of
the cyst. This is a clear, colourless, serous liquid, in which two
kinds of bodies are found floating, a,. Hchinococcr, and 6.. secondary
cysts.

‘ a. Echinococci.. To avoid circumlocution, I restrict this térm in
the present. place to what are commonly called the Echinococcus-

heads.

The Eehinococci are minute, oval bodies, varying, according to the
state of contraction in which they are found, from 21,—,4,th ofan
inch in their long diameter.

When fully extended, the £chinococci are divided by a constriction
into two portions ; an anterior somewhat conical part, and a posterior

Zoological Society. 381

oval portion, notched. at the extremity; attached to the posterior sec-
tion, and, as it were, sunk in the notch, there is a small appendage

of variable form, which usually appears to be clear and somewhat oval,
or pyriform, with an irregular ragged extremity. hes
~The body of the Echinococcus consists of a very clear transparent
substance, slightly granular or dotted internally, and limited. exter-
nally bya well-marked structureless layer. Forming a circle round
the ‘conical anterior extremity there are from twenty to thirty strong
hooks, which sometimes appeared to be in a single, sometimes in a
double row.. In the latter case the hooks of the upper row alternated
with those of the lower. A delicate longitudinal striation, as if pro-
duced by muscular fibres, extends from the circlet of hooks through
the anterior portion, becoming spread out and lost in the posterior.
_,, The.hooks were about ,1,th of an inch in diameter. eir outer
half was formed by a strong, curved, conical claw, the inner half
yy a Somewhat crooked. process with a blunt end. From the posterior
‘Surface of the junction of these two portions a strong rounded spur
passed backwards and gave the hook additional firmness in its place.
The hook contained a cavity, a process of which passed into each of
its portions.” Altogether it was not unlike the thickened liber-cell of
‘a, plant,, | |
be "Behind the circlet of hooks, the shape of a transverse section of the
body is. quadrilateral, and at each of the four corners a large rounded
‘dise with a more or less flat surface is to be seen,—the sucker. In
structure, when unaltered, the suckers appear to be homogeneous,
with granules and two or three of the peculiar corpuscles to be de-
scribed immediately, imbedded in their substance. Under the action
of acetic -acid, however, a radiated fibrillation frequently became
visible. : rs | de
Scattered through the substance of the Echinococcus, and giving
it a very peculiar dotted appearance under a low power, a number of
oval, strongly refracting corpuscles may be observed. They are very
uniform in size, and have a long diameter of about ;4 th of an
inch. They are what have been called the calcareous corpuscles of
‘the Echinococcus ;—inasmuch as in the Cysticerci and other cystic
worms they have been observed to be converted into carbonate of
lime; but I believe that this is entirely a result of that peculiar de-
generation to which the cystic Entozoa are.so liable, and that, in the
young and normal ‘adult state, these peeuliar corpuscles (which are
found in all the Cestoidea and Cystica) are never calcareous, but are
composed of an albuminous substance. ,
The mistake has arisen, I think, from two ‘causes. In the first
place, because in old cystic worms these corpuscles are frequently ¢on-
verted into a calcareous substance, although they retain their transpa-
rency and strongly refracting powers; and secondly, because when acid.
is added to a number of Echinococci, gas is very commonly developed
from calcareous substances contained either in them or in the fluid in
which they swim ; at the same time the action of the acid rapidly
causes the corpuscles to become clear vesicles, so that nothing seems
more natural than to connect the one circumstance with the other.

382 Zoological Society.

Having paid great attention to the process, however, I can
decidedly affirm—

1. That acetic acid dissolves out ‘the contents of the corpuscles in
young and fresh Hchinococci, without the least evolution of gas from
them ; and that the same assertion holds good of the corresponding
corpuscles contained in the spirit specimens of Tenia and Bothrio-
cephalus which I have examined.

2. That caustic ammonia’ produces little cavities and sometimes a
concentric lamination in these bodies.

And, 3rdly, that in a spirit specimen of an Zchinococcus from the
Panther (which Dr. Hyde Salter kindly lent me), the corpuscles ap-
peared vesicular without the action of any reagent.

It may be said then, that the peculiar strongly refracting cor-
puscles of the cestoid and cystic Entozoa usually contain an‘ albumi-
nous substance, and sometimes a fatty matter, but that this is! very
liable to become replaced by a calcareous substance.

Homologically, I think they are identical with the slosblinny elon
gated, strongly refracting, solid bodies, contained in theskin’ of both
the Dendrocele and Rhabdocele Turbellaria, which in some! marime
Planaria-larvee, according to Prof. Johannes Miiller, are developed
into true thread cells, similar to those of the hydroid’Polypes:: The
thread cell of the latter is equally developed as‘a ‘secondary deposit
within a vesicle (nucleus?) contained in the cells of the body ; the
only difference would be, that whereas in the Polype the succeeding
internal deposit takes place in the form of ‘a spiral thread, in the
cestoid or cystic Entozoon it takes place as a succession of simple
layers, until the vesicle is full.

Aware of the discoveries that have been lately made’ by Siebold,
Van Beneden and Guido Wagner, as to the extent to which the water
vascular system is developed in the Cestoid Entozoa; ‘and unac-
quainted with what had been observed by Dr. Lebert* (vide infra),
I particularly endeavoured to detect, in the quite fresh Hehinocoeci,
some evidence of its existence, and I was'so far successful, that: I
could very readily observe in several specimens (examined on the
first day) a number of the peculiar flickering cilia so characteristic of
this system of vessels wherever it exists. In spite of all: my endea-
vours, however, I could trace nothing of the vessels themselves, in
which, by analogy, one has every reason to believe the cilia are con-
tained}. In one Echinococcus I observed six of these long flicker-
ing cilia ; they were so distinct as to be perfectly measurable,
their length being about =.,th of an inch. They were ‘excessively
delicate, but broader at the fixed than at the free end, and they com-
pletely resembled the corresponding organs in the ‘Rotiferat,
Naiade, &e.

* Prof. Virchow, and the colleagues before whom he laid his observations upon
the occurrence of cilia in the pedicle of Echinococcus (vide infra), appear equally
to have overlooked Dr. Lebert’s excellent paper, although it is contained in Miil-
ler’s Archiv for 1843.

+ In the Planaria torva lI have similarly observed the cilia but not the vessels.

t See the essay by the author on “ Lacinularia socialis, &c. &c.”’ in the Quarterly
Journal of Microscopical Science, No. 1, 1852.

Zoological Society. 388

Professor Owen has stated (article Hntozoa, Todd’s Cyclopedia,
1839) that the Echinococcit (from the Pig) which he examined,
moved ‘freely by:means of superficial vibratile cilia,” p. 118. There
were certainly no such cilia upon the Lchinococet of the Zebra,

The movements of the Lchinococet, so far as I witnessed them,
were confined to slow, undulatory, peristaltic contractions. I found
numbers in every stage of contraction, but I could not observe any
actually performing the process. The head with the hooks is drawn
in first, as one meets with many forms in which the suckers onl
protrude at the extremity, like four knobs. The suckers then follow
and-are turned completely in, so that their proper outer surfaces look
towards one another, the coronet of hooks lying beneath them. | In
this state; which has been so often described, the animal has not
more! than half its previous length, and takes on a great variety of
forms, oval, rounded, heart-shaped, &c.

b. The secondary cysts.—When the fluid contained within one of

_ the large Hehinococcus-cysts is emptied into a glass vessel, it is at first
turbid with minute white bodies, but these rapidly subside and form a
sediment,at the bottom of the vessel. These white bodies vary
in size from },th of an inch in diameter downwards to =1,th. They
are the secondary cysts.
‘is Under.the microscope these bodies are seen to be delicate sphe-
roidal sacs, containing Lchinococci. The largest examined had at least
thirty of these in its interior. It consisted of a very transparent
structureless membrane, apparently lined by a delicate granular film,
which was most distinct near the pedicles of the contained Hchinocoect.
These Echinococci in fact were not free like those contained in the pri-
mary cyst, which I have previously described, but each was attached
by a delicate cord, more or less resembling the “‘appendage’’ of the free
Echinococcus, to the inner wall of the secondary cyst, and radiated
thence inwards. These H'chinococct resembled in all respects those pre-
viously described, except that could observe no ciliary motion inthem*;
they were in all conditions. of protraction or retraction, and exhibited
tle ordinary movements... None were ever found free in a secondary
cyst; and the members.of each cyst, as well as those in different cysts,
were,as nearly as may be of the same: size and degree of perfection.

The space left -between them in the interior of the secondary cysts
was sometimes filled with a clear fluid, and at others more or less
obscured by granules. . In none of those observed by me was there
any trace of the peculiar mode of development of the contained Hehi-
nococet from the granular contents of the secondary cysts described
by Von Siebold (vide infra).

The membrane of these cysts was traversed by a meshwork of fine

clear delicate vessels, with distinct walls and about =+.th to ico

of an inch in diameter. These were not folds, as their lumen could be

* This may well arise from my not having examined them till the 28th.
Lebert appears to have found the observation of the cilia to be favoured by the
interposed membrane of the secondary cyst (vide infra).

‘elearly: seensat othe: edge! -of; avcyste'oTheys terminated in a»some-
what-wide space at: the-base of the:pedicle of each contained: Echino-
coccus, and in oné: imstanceristraced ai vessel for:some distance into
this pedicle. ‘There wereno cilianor granules contained in these ves-
sels, but) they :precisely: resemble! those:canals of which) traces’ were
seen in:the: Endocyst, and, theie renee will, I think; show that
they, are identical with: them. |

I may anticipate so far as to. say that I believe that thes vessels
eapresent the. water vascular system of the parent-cyst. «° » zf

When sucha sac as this -is: burst the Hcehinococci become qvérted
andthe secondary cyst turns itself inside out, so that the: Kehinocoeci
appear to be seated like Polypes upon a central stems: This curious
peculiarity has'led to: much: misconception as to the: mode: of their
attachment within the cyst. Von Siebold, however, pointed put the
true nature of this process as far back as:1837*: (side infra). ° oat

The smallest free secondary cysts varied im size, ‘as\ b have oan
downto ;-4,;th of an inch, when they contained only: four Hehinoeweci.
These, however, were quite as large as those im the demanet -seliondeeey

sts. aL MIWUTE TU9t

‘The structure of the-middle-sized oul suiail nonales was jin most
respects the same.as that of the large ones, but there was’ this:differ-
ence, that! they possessed; attached to their outer suiface, by'pedicles,
a-variable number of oval bodies of the: same average’ size°as’ the
Echinococci or ‘less, but presenting a yellow) wrinkled: appearance,
containing very few corpuscles, often none, and ¢ither: exhibiting no
trace of the:cirelet of hooks, or offering only a few; dark irregular
and »withered-looking ones. It: was: impossible: to oconfound: these
external bodies with accidentally everted internal heals the ory tet-
ance of :the:two being’ markedly different. sow 4

I cannot help thinking that these withered: Relikcaeceokae that,
as.will be seen presently, is what: they really are+-are what: Mr: Bras.
mus Wilson has figured:as developing forms (oe: ¢it))2 90) to Jaan

Development.—We have found free Hchinococci:and free: oandary
a contained in the fluid of the primary cyst ‘how-do they:come
there? To answer this question we must'return to the endoeyst.’ >I
found:-adherent to, ‘and aba pen ss as a biehindbocoly and
‘be fixed:secondary cysts. |

a. Fized Echinocoeci Theses ‘in: various) tegen pb: development,
aré scattered all over the: inner) ‘surface of the eases as ‘in ‘the
diagrams. Evand>F. PlatesXI. 0

‘Elongated elevations:of ‘the avhineet are! fitet seen: within thea
the circlet of hooks and then the corpuscles make their appearance’:
the elevation becomes a.papilla,yand the papilla, gradually constricting
itself at’ the base; becomes "the oval: Echinococcus, attached bya
narrow pedicle. . Iw this state’ the: slightest touch ‘is ‘sufficient ‘to
separate the pedicle from the endocyst; and then the Lehinococeus is

* The Echinococci_are figured. in this everted state by Chemnitz (quoted by
Siebold, art. Parasiten , Wagner” cS Fay Cees edia, &c.), by Erasmus Wilson (Medico-
Chir. Transactions, 1845), and by Busk (Microscopical igri ee 1846).

Zoologicak Soviet. 1385

set free. » The’ pedicle contracts ‘upon itself:so as'to havea rounded
form, but it very often betrays its previous adherence by the ragged
fragments of the endocyst, which it carries with it. ,

»» Whether this is properly a normal process'in the Echinococcus it
is difficult to:say, but as Dr. Guido Wagner and Van Beneden have
shown, it occurs normally in the Tetrarhynchida, and it exactly re-
sembles that detachment of the “tail”? from’ the Cercaria, which
takes place in the Distomata.

As little is it- known whether the Hehinococet undergo any further

development: The suggestion first made by Delle Chiaje, that they
may dilate into cysts and develope young Echinococci within them-
selves; appears ‘to’me highly improbable; and it is an hypothesis
which issnot:needed to account for the secondary cysts.
ofitbin Fixed Secondary Cysts:—The development: of these indeed
takes place in» such’a manner as to preserve the homological rela-
tions of the Hehinococci to the exterior of the parent. ‘The secondary
_ €ystsin\ fact, are thus formed : Hehinococci are developed. not only
fromthe inner surface of the endocyst, but from: its outer surface.
Their growth is probably accompanied by that of the endocyst itself,
which thus becomes raised up from the ectocyst and projects into the
-generali cavity. »:Of course any internal Hehinococci which happen to
be attached, to'this part of the endocyst are raised up with it: they
miay-be:fewer or more according to cireumstances. ‘The neck of attach-
mentof the secondary cysts gradually narrows, andat last the secondary
eyst;: whose» size depends entirely upon the number of Hehinococci
developed:under;the:endocyst at one spot, is detached and falls into
the! cavity: So long as the secondary cyst remains attached, its
external chinococei have the normal clear appearance, and are in
full health ; but when once it is separated, they appear rapidly to
wither away,and: become yellow, losing their hooks and their cor-
-pusélesj and: eventually disappearing. The original point of attach-
ment of the saci\remains asan obtuse cicatrix.
Von Siebold, who has beautifully described the development of the
secondary cysts; has; -I think (vide infra), mistaken the one mode of
development of the Hchinococci outside the endocyst for the only
mode... He appears to-have seen the endocyst, when he describes
the “delicate membrane in which the young Echinococcus-heads are
enclosed;”?-and to-asswme merely; that this membrane bursts and sets
the Echinococeus free upon the mner surface of the parent cyst. Un-
derstanding the mode of development to be-as stated above, it is easy
to, comprehend: how it is, that the: Mehinocoeci are so nearly at the
same stage of development in all the secondary cysts; and that this
stage has no relation, to'the size of the cysts.. The existence of the
external, Zchinococct, upon the secondary vesicles in ‘this way also,
becomes’ not only intelligible, but almost necessary.

II.,.The theory which I: have;to \offer of the nature of the Bchino-
coccus, is based upon three facts which are now well established.

Ist. That young Cestoid Worms, which, from some cause or other,
have passed into any other part of the organism of the animal upon
which they are parasitic, than the intestine, become abnormally

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiy. 25

386 Zoological: Society.

dilated, at their posterior extremity,;.and, the anterior end may be
retracted into the sac. thus formed, which then invests it like a double
serous sac—a structureless) investment) may be excreted round this
encysted worm or it: may not. Such an altered Cestoid: Worm as this
is called a Cysticercus.

2ndly. A dilated Cestoid worm, such as has been just described,
may develope new “ heads’’ with suckers and hooks all over its outer
surface, never developing any upon its inner surface. .SuchaCestoid —
worm is the Cenurus cerebralis.

3rdly. The Cestoid worms all possess the power of gemmation. (or
it may be called fission) in their unaltered state : and. Bendz. (Isis,
1844) has distinctly shown that the vesicular extremity of the Cysti-
cercus gemmates. Processes are formed and thrown off, and, these
develope appropriate heads and hooks, becoming complete. Cysticerct.

Bearing these facts in mind, it is I think very easy to, account,for
the Lchinococeus-vesicles. The surfaces which. produce the Hehino-
cocci must be both external; the Eehinococcus-eyst, therefore does
not answer to the simple cyst.of the Canurus, orof) the protruded
Cysticercus ; but to the double cyst of the retracted Cysticercus, the
upper half of whose proper outer surface forms the inner wall of the
cyst in the retracted state (see Diag. D..Pl. XL.)s.\)>

Suppose the cyst, thus formed, to dilate and.to lonclne a: wha
tude of heads, upon this upper half of the outer surface;.after| the
analogy of Ceenurus; then the two walls being pressed. together into
one, it bey appear like a simple cyst covered with heads, intemally
(Diag.

If, proline’ at the same time, in. complete enpienpordeuas with
Cenurus, heads have been developed over the whole outer -surface,
we haye the primary Echinococcus endocyst (Diag. ¥.),

Now the cyst may grow out at a. particular, point, and so forma
bud, which is cast off externally. This. takes place) in the Hehino-
coccus of Oxen.. But if it have surrounded. itself witha dense, cyst,
analogous to that of the encysted Jetrarhynchide, ‘such, external
budding cannot take place ; and.if the local. growth takes place at all, it
will produce a projection internally, and the internal fixed secondary
cysts will be produced. These, narrowing at the neck and detaching
themselves, become the free secondary cysts, as was shown above.

The Echinococcus then is, a) species of Tenia which, has become
dilated and encysted ; which has subsequently, produced heads all
over its external surface, and. finally, budding, casts off its vesicular
processes internally, because it has no exit for them externally,

Echinococcus is thus the most;complex form of that, change which
young Cestoid Worms. are liable. to, undergo, if they, wander. from
their proper nidus ; the combination of hooks with suckers refers it
to the genus Tenia, to which Caenurus and Cysticercus may by similar
reasoning be shown to belong; and, therefore, like these two. latter
genera, it must, asa genus, be, abolished. It.is probable however
that Cysticercus, Ceenurus and Echinoeoceus ate modifications. of
distinet species, or groups of species, of the genus Tenia ; and are
not mere. varieties, of one species produced by difference of locality.
They are all three found in the brain, for instance.

Zoological Soviety. 887

As to the genus Acephalocystis, there is good reason for believing,
that all genuine specimens of it are Hehinococeus-cysts which have
either not developed heads; or in which they have been overlooked.

The converse of the anatomical evidence as to the identity of
Echinococcus with a modified Tenia, has just. been supplied by some
very beautiful researches of Von Siebold’s, published in the Annales
des Sciences for 1852 (or Annals of Natural History, December 1852).
Von Siebold gave to young puppies spoonfuls of Lehinococcus-cysts
in milk. Upon opening them after a short time, he found innume-
rableTanie attached all over the surface of the intestine. The eysts
had been digested, but the living Echinococci had resisted the action
of the stomach, and, freed from their imprisonment, had begun to
develope joints. Growth had not gone on sufficiently to enable the
learned Professor of Breslau to determine the species. He promises,
however, a continuation of his researches ; and it is to be hoped that
we may soon have a complete clearing up of the difficulties with which
_ ‘helminthologists have so long been puzzled, from his able pen*.

oo TIT. The: literature of Echinocoecus exhibits a singular instance
of the manner in which naturalists delay their own progress, by not
attending ’to what has been done by their predecessors. Goeze wrote
in 1782, and effectually demonstrated the cestoid relations of the Hehi-
nocoeet, as may be seen by the following extracts from his beautiful
work (Versuch einer Naturgeschichte der Eimgeweidewiirmer) ; nay,
before his: time, Pallas had on very good grounds conjectured the
same thing, and yet’ half a century afterwards we find this all for-
gotten, and speculation rife as to the nature of the Echinocoect.

‘Goeze thus describes the Hehinococcus-vesicles (op. cit. p. 258
et seéq.):—

ed @ The small social granular Bladder tape-worm (Blasen-band-
wurm) : Tenia visceralis socialis granulosa.

“This is as it were an intermediate form between the great globular
Bladder tape-worm (Cysticereus), and the many-headed worm found
in the brain of staggering Sheep. 208

J had already read what Pallas supposes on this subject in the
* Neue Nordische Beytrage,’ i. :p. 85, when, bya lucky discovery, I
made'the whole matter out. ©

Upon the lst-of Nov 1781; I met with an excessively distorted
Sheep’s liver, which was'so beset) and penetrated by large and small
watery ‘vesicles,—the former as large as hens’-eggs, the latter as
hazel-nuts,—that, externally, one could: discern hardly anything of
the substance of the liver.

‘©The animal itself was almost perfectly healthy. In its total size,
this monstrous’ liver was ‘about equal in breadth to the two hands ;
and its*length was about half)an ell: the weight however was four
pounds. Iwas obliged to divide it into two’portions in order to be
able to get it into a large jar (3 inches, glass) with spirit. When I
pricked one of the vesicles with a needle, the water spirted out, as out
of a fountain, I observed, however, that the distended vesicles con-

* A full account of Siebold’s investigations has, in fact, appeared in Siebold
and Kdlliker’s ‘ Zeitschrift’ for 1853, under the title, ‘‘ Ueber die Verwandlung
der Echinococcas-brut in Tenien.”—T, H., April 1854.

25*

388 Zoological. Society.

tained nothing beyond a.mere lymph and possessed no special internal
vesicle. .. In separating the one portion of the liver I could not ayoid
damaging some of the.yesicles contained in,its interior, Out.of these
tolerably, hard, leathery external vesicles, fell bluish, callous (kallose),
internal, vesicles, which were, still closed. _ In, their. substance indeed
they. were. somewhat; softer than the outer,vesicle); but still far,;more
cartilaginous than the vesicles of the globular, many-headed. bladder-
worms.. On. opening, these there, was. found internally, indifferent
places. a greyish granular matter like the smallest fish roe, which was
‘mnited to a very delicate mucous membrane, [which] in water, however
‘immediately disappeared, so that the granules swam. about. by them-
selves... In.a;vesicle as large as.a dove’s egg there were thousands,
So.small that they could hardly be distinguished; by the naked eye.
Under No..4.. Tub. A of my microscope I;could already perceive the.
organization of these corpuscles. Their form varied, greatly,;. seme-
times heart-shaped with an indent above and a dark line; sometimes
pitcher-shaped, with two.round knobs aboye,, at. each side,one ;.some-
times like a horse-shoe with a,short dark middle line ; sometimes like
a rounded handle, with an indent above and with two:knobs laterally,
and. anteriorly rounded off with; a dark cirelet. »,When I used, No. 1.
Tub, A, I saw clearly that they were true tape-worms.. The body. flat
with dark dots; anteriorly four suckers, and. on the obtusely rounds
proboscis, the double cirelet of excessively small hooks ;. beh ind, how-
ever, in each there was a.small excavated indentation like.an anus... The
others, were. contracted in quite peculiar forms, and the dark median
streak was the hook circlet.. Under the compressor, the four suckers,
the circlet..of hooks and. the-points become much, clearer... In,these
worms.I have obseryed a circumstance which I have‘ perceived in no
other, kind of bladder-worm ; namely that on pressure the delicate
‘hooks are detached and float about freely... ; p> oe Sosy
* This kind of bladder-worm is distinguished then from that, inhabit-
ing the_brain of staggering sheep by the following circumstances ;—
spo Le That.the vesicles with the granular matter or with many thou-
sand infinitely small worms, are.covered by,a strong leathery external
_yesicle in which they lie free. § Lea's
«2. That their roe-like material. swims about.in the inner vesiele
in a clear lymph, and the single worms are’ only, united together by
a. delicate, mucous membrane, but, are not ;as,;in’ those, essentially
adherent to the bladder, and not: even to,their [own] membrane. .
“3. That each of these granules or worms is several hundred,times
smaller, than one of the white. corpuscles or worms,in the central
bladder of the staggering sheep. | Pas ,
This is then the same, but now explained pheenomenon, which the
acute Pallas has already, observed ;. but has left. without elucidation.
‘In the ‘Stralsund Magazine,’ 1. St. p. 81, he has already directed
the attention of observers to these points : |
** « Whoso will consider the above description of. the true bladder-
worm, will not perhaps with M. de Haen deny, to worms all partici-
pation in the origin of watery tumours and of Hydatids, at least it
seems to me very probable that the unattached (unangewachsene)
watery bladders seen by many observers in the human body—most

‘Zoological Soviety. 889

frequently ‘in abnormal ‘cavities 'in’ the liver—are ‘caused’ by’ a worm
‘similar to, if not identical with,’ our bladder: worm, T say froma worm
probably resembling our bladder-worm ;’ for we find in thé liver and
‘lungs of Oxen and Sheep another wonderful kind of watery’ bladder,
‘which seems to arise from nothing but’ some kind of animal germ’;
‘but, however is widely different from ‘our bladder-worm, and cannot
have arisen from it.’ ” are cette |
Pallas, ‘after describing ‘some ‘of the Hydatids, goes’oi to say :
~The water-bladder’ itself consists of a ‘white, hardish,’ quite ‘ho-
‘mogeneous membrane, which becomes ‘thinner towards ‘the cadal
extremity ; wherever it is lacerated it folds back, and may’ be best
‘compared with a section (as thin as pee) of a boiled cartilage of a
: young animal. \ Within, this external strong membrane is lined’ bya
“delicate strueture or membrane, which is very easily separated from it,
‘and is‘ beset with a great number of small, white, commonly round; ‘or

PA

“oval, yer eta The corpuscles consist, as the microscope shows, of

: Apheichs lobules united together, whose substance appears tobe dotted.”
err ubs quently (p. 261) Goeze quotes from the ‘Nordische Beytrige,’
“1. St. /p. 83, thus: |

ri a A diet that the unattached hydatids which are at times
‘6bserved i the human body (are), either of the same kind as the proper
‘bladder-tape worm, or are the same as those singular watery bladders,
‘which T have observed and described in the liver and lungs of diseased
Calves and’ Sheep, and which are most ¢ertainly also to be ascribed
‘to a living creature, and are not indistinctly organized (at léast if we
‘consider the inner membrane strewed over with granular globules),
“Qn reading through Leake’s treatise upon the * Staggers in the
“Sheep,” p. 85, it Seems very probable to me that the bladders in ‘the
“brain are more similar to those which I have described in the Tung
and liver in Sheep and Calves, than to the bladder-worm which Ty-
son and Hartman have described before me (our globular one); nay
perhaps, that they even constitute one genus with the former. The
“small worm provided with a circlet of hooks and four suckers, in these
vesicles, might be a‘development of the globules observed by me. °
_.**T have at present no opportunity of examining these vesicles’ in
‘the fresh state. “Perhaps on applying ‘a stronger magnifying power
the granules might exhibit more organization.

“Consequently, Pallas did not at that time know what to make out
of the granules' of these vesicles.’ ’ The peculiar organization ‘of these
he did ‘not himself see, as I have now discovered, described and
fignred it. To whom then belongs the first and true discovery of
the nature of the granules in the internal membranes of the ‘singular
Hydatids of the livers and lungs’ of Calves and Sheep ?

“But I wish that T could throw more light upon and explait the
mode of origin of these vesicles, and upon the ceconomy of the many
thousand single worms socially united in a single bladder. “Do they
grow! do they disperse themselves ? does each build its own dwell-
ing? or where do they remain? shall our successors learn nothing
on these matters?”

Goeze’s figures are very good.

390 Zoological Society.

The commonly received view of the relation between the cysts and
their Lchinococci appears to have been first advanced by Delle Chiaje
in his Elmintografia Umana, p. 30*..
The said worms, oval; narrowed at the two extremities and en-
larged in the middle, are scattered irregularly over the interior of the
vesicle. The extremity of the head is garnished with a crown of hooks
deprived of suckers. _ In proportion as they enlarge, these little micro-
scopical bodies take on, little by little, a spherical form, the. hooks
become detached, and new Echinococci. are produced im such little
bodies, which have transformed themselves into Hydatids. The new
worms are the children (figliuolini) of the primitive Hydatid, which
was a similar microscopic body. They have a proper vitality, different
from that of the vesicle which contains them.”

. Miller, ‘Jahresbericht,’ 1836, describes the 2chinococcus-cysts
and their contents found in the urine of a young man labouring under
renal disease.

The cysts had a laminated outer coat ; some contained Lchinococei
and some none, but in other respects they were completely alike. The
Echinocoeci exactly resembled the ordinary ‘figures. .

_ Tn a few of the free ones, a trace of a membranous cord; ‘lookin
as if it had been torn off, appeared at the posterior end of the body ;
as if the worms had at an earlier period been fixed.’ |

Miller could not make out. whether the Lchinococci were fixed to
the interior of the secondary vesicle or not.

Tschudi, ‘ Die Blasenwiirmer, 1837,’ observed the retrograding
yellow Echinococei, which he assumes to be returning tothe vesicular
form. He considers that the “ corpuscles” are ova; and that by their
development in the interior of one of these retrograded Echinococet,
the secondary cysts are formed. |

Gluge, ‘Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 1837,’ describes the
corpuscles of the Hchinococci very carefully and minutely: He was
the first to notice the peculiar structure of the endocyst.' He says,
**T have constantly seen in it a kind of arborization very similar to the
formation in fibrinous exudations during the first stage of inflamma-
tion. We see these transparent bodies with slightly irregular contours
resembling empty blood-vessels and ramifying like them. I do not
know whether these are true vessels, I merely draw’ attention to
the fact.”

In the same year (1837) the second edition of Burdach’s ‘Physio-
logie’ appeared. It contains an admirable chapter by Von Siebold,
upon the development of the Entozoa. » Burdach’s work is so little
known, and so inaccessible in this country, that I think it worth while
to subjoin the whole of what Von Siebold says upon this subject :—

** In the development of the Lchinococci also, much has remained
obscure. We must in them always distinguish two things; the pa-
rent vesicle, and the proper Lehinococci enclosed within this. The
maternal vesicle is covered internally by an excessively delicate epi-
thelium, in which are contamed corpuscles similar, though here

* Compendio di Elmintografia Umana. Napoli 1825. Compilato da Stephano
Delle Chiaje.

Zoological Society. 891

generally elongated, to those which we have found in the neck of
Ceenurus. In the fiuid which the maternal vesicle encloses, we meet
with a few Echinococci, which when they have everted their coronet
of hooks and their suckers, allow nothing to be perceived in their in-
terior but.a few scattered glassy corpuscles. These Hehinococei evi-
dently arise from the inner surface of the parent vesicle. My own
observations hereupon have been made upon L. hominis, L. veteri-
norum, anda new species which, since the number of its suckers
varies very much, I will call Z. variabilis.. On examining the inner
surface of the parent vesicle we see little vesicles attached here and
there, which contain a finely granular substance; out of this mass
the Hehinococci proceed (hervorkeimen), sometimes only one, some-~
times two, six, seven or more. A portion of the granular mass be-
comes, in» fact, sharply marked off, forms a small roundish body,
which, however, by one of its ends, still clearly passes into the rest
of the substance ; the rounded body gradually takes on a pea shape,
_ the.-constricted: portion elongates, and the body, which has now
assumed a, more oval form, is connected only by a delicate viscid
thread with the mass from which it sprang; we soon now observe in
the interior of the body the circlet of hooks and the glassy corpuscles.
The. Echinococeus-head thus far developed. now begins to move—
everting and retracting its suckers and hooks; the whole body being
at the same time sometimes elongated, sometimes contracted. The
development of the Echinococci having proceeded. to this stage, the
delicate: membrane in which they are enclosed bursts. The young
Lchinococei:do not immediately fall out, for they are all connected
to. the inner surface of the membrane, which until now has enclosed
them, by. means of a delicate cord or process of the latter, which
penetrates at the posterior extremity of the Echinococcus, through a
pit, into the interior of the body of the Echinococcus. The pit looks
almost like a sphincter, holding just that cord of the membrane ;
only. after an interval do the cords and the bodies of the Echinococei
become separated: . The mode of connection of. these cords with the
bodies. of the Hehinococei, and their separation from them, reminds
one completely of the relation which the bodies and tails of the Cer-
carte have to one another. The membranous covering of the youn
Echinococet. wrinkles up immediately when it is torn. The Echino-
cocet become everted, and so form a rounded heap, in the middle of
which the collapsed investment lies hidden, the Lchinococci being
attached to it like the polypes upon a polypidom.

“Such masses of Hehinococci either remain for a long time hang-
ing to, the, inner surface of the) parent vesicle, or they become de-
tached from it before the single Echinococci have separated from the
wrinkled, membrane... ‘The granular\mass contained in the vesicles is
probably comparable with nothing else than with a yelk mass, which
supplies the heads with the substance necessary for their develop-
ment through those fine cords. For the rest, I will not undertake
to decide whether all those larger and smaller vesicles, which con-
tain Echinococcus-heads and float about free among fully-developed
Echinococcus-heads in the cavity of the parent vesicle, are de-

392.

ed Suctetys

tached, from; the.wall of the.latter,or,whether,some few.of them
do not arise..from. the free Lichinacoccus-heads, themselves, which.
have developed Echinococeus-germs i in their interior, -and. afterwards
become. distended. :into . vesicles, .by;,them I, was;often surprised, in
fact, to find upon tree vesicles containing Lehinocoecus-heads, hooks
attached, perhaps, remnants. ofthe destroyed;cirelet.of hooks. «In!
such yesicles,of.£. wariabilis, in, fact,, L,-believe.1.could, trace) re-
mains, of, the; suckers. ,, With) greater, difficulty, can. we. understand
the mode of origin, and, propagation..of the maternal, vesicle of, the
Echinocoect.... Since in. Hchinococcus hominis. we. often. find smaller
hydatids enclosed within larger, ones,.we must believe that. the \ex-
ternal asa: is, the parent. in. which, the others. have. been) sub-.
sequent produced.;, In what manner, however, this: enclosure.has
taken. place,. I .must.leaye.as much, unsolved. as the origin of. ibe
parent, vesicle itself.”’ ,

The. next step was made.by, Dr. Lebert,, in. his pxeellent, paper:
(unfortunately without figures), “‘ Einige Bemerkungen, tiber, Blasen>
wirmer, ia Miiller’s Archiv for, 1843..,..From this,I,.make the. ten
lowing. extracts. :— i

“In the most, even freshly examined, hydatids, the artista Noy -
longer.move. ..Yet not, unfrequently,, if, many vesicles be examined, ,
living groups may, be met with,,... The movement of the animal, while,
still in. the maternal vesicle, consists partly in turning upon, its,axis,,
partly in.a, wavy contraction, comparable. toa. peristaltic, movement,
In, the interior, .of these yet. livmg and moving animals I have per-
ceived ciliary :notion. very clearly... It appeared in the; whole interior
of the animal, and I could observe it for hours\together.,; At; first, I
could with; difficulty distinguish the-single vibrating cilia ;,; yet,/ partly
after partial,evaporation of the fluid in which the animals; were cone)
tained, partly by modifying the ‘light with a very. fine perpendicular
diaphragm, .I could suceeed in seeing the, cilia.themselyes; which.are
slightly ;curved.. and. somewhat, \hook-like, and. hardly more than
gigmm. im breadth... L./have.seen the. single.cilia.with especial
distinctness towards the margin of the animal; commonly, however,
they are indistinct, on’ account of the’ contemporaneous ‘vibration of
aveertain number of cilia, which ‘resemble’ ‘in: their’ motion a field of
corn agitated by the wind.» The observation of this ciliary’ motion
was perhaps rendered 'moré’easy by the circumstance; that’ I ‘observed
the ‘animals still adherent’ to’ the finely ‘granular membrane’ which
forms the parent vesicle, ‘and which, ‘in “all pects favourably
modified the light.”

«As to what concerns the development of the vesicles themselves,
it seems to go on in the following mauner :—upon the inner wall of
a cyst.which contains. Hehinococcus-cysts, secondary cysts are formed,
whieh; after they have ‘attained'a certain grade of development, be-
cote detached from the inner wall of the larger cyst, and fall freely

into their cavities, but still show the remains of their attachment in
a slightly pomted place:, onthe inner surface of, these secondary
vesicles tertiary ones are now formed in the same manner, and so on.
The hydatid sacs then arise by a kind of endogenous formation simi-

Zoological Society® 393°
lar to that’which Prof)’ Miillethas’alteady 86 beautifully describell

in the development of a peculiar*kind of hydatid tumours,“ 90" 0”
In his Article “°Parasiten”’ (Wagner's Handworterbueh d/’Phy-
siologie, bd: 2,'1844); Von Siebold, ‘after’ 'récapitulating ‘his’ view of
the development ‘of the Hehinocoect contained in Burdach’s’ Physio-'
logie, makes the following highly suggestive remarks ;— 9)
*€ Clearly as'we can’ trace the development of the young’ of the’
Hehinococeus, we understand very little of the mode in which ‘the’
pill-box (eingeschiichtelt) aggregations are produced. The miultipli-”
cation of the vesicles certainly does not take place by division, nor by’
the formation of buds upon the outer’ surface of the parent cyst; as”
some have supposed. The hypothesis’ remains, that the’ young Echi-
noeocct cast off their circlet of hooks, become distended; lose’ their~
suckers, ‘and so change into little’ Hchinococcus-vesicles, in which
a new brood then becomes developed. I must indeed confess that I
have* not ‘directly ‘observed’ this process. In any case, the young
_ Hehinovoceus must’ be ina fit state to wander; and if it’ should’ be’
made out that new Echinococcus-vesicles ‘proceed from them in the’
interior of the parent vesicles, we might also justly assume that the’
young Pehinoecoeci, wandering into other organs, or even into other
persons; may thus lay the foundation’ for ‘new’ colonies. -° Whether,
again, there exists a special cestoid worm provided with sexual organs,
with which the Lehinococcus-vesicles ‘stand? in ‘the’ same relation as
the Cercaria-sacs do with certain Trematoda, time will show. If ‘it
bée'so, the young Hehinococci must change, having become separated
fron their pedicle, not into Hehinocoecus-vesicles; but by the élonga-’
tion of the body into Tenie.” eR Oro
Finally, (in ‘the *Verhandlungen der’ Physikalisch-Medicinischen’
Gesellschaft ‘zu’ Wirzburg’ for 1850, (to which my attention was
drawn by my friend Mr. Busk,)' I ‘find the followmg notice +
“Herr Virchow described the ciliary movement which he had observed’
inthe stem by which’ ‘the? young Hehinocoect hominis of Man’ are
attached to the maternal vesicle,—a new observation for this genus.”

I have here, endeavoured.to notice all, those Memoirs which, at the
time of their publication, made a definite addition to what was already:.
known, upon the jstructure,.of Lehinococcus.,...The literature .of the,
subject, is) somewhat. volummous, and. hence the, necessity of this,
limitation, and the consequent absence of any. account of the valuable;
memoirs of Goodsir, Curling, Busk, and, Erasmus Wilson, all. of whom
had been anticipated by the continental observers. |

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XI.

Diagrams :—Hypothetical representations of—A.a young Tenia; B. a ‘Cenuris ;
GC. a Cysticercus; D. the same, encysted; Esa Cysticercus, encysted,
enlarged, and developing many) heads, (like Cenurus) from the, upper
portion of its outer (now inner) surface; F. a similar form, which de-
velopes heads from the lower portion of its outer (now wholly outer)
stirface, and so becomes an Echinococcus-cyst.

394. Miscellaneous.

MISCELLANEOUS.

On the natural and artificial Fecundation of Mgitops by Triticum.
: By M. Gopron.

Tue author referred to the researches of M. Fabre upon Aigilops
triticoides, from which it appears that this grass is produced from
seeds of Agilops ovata, and that by cultivation it gradually approaches
cultivated wheat. He does not, however, by any means admit the
conclusion deduced from this fact by M. Duval, namely that. wheat
has originated from the 4. ovata, and is nothing but a metamor-
phosis of the latter plant.

M. Godron, by examining the circumstances under which the 4.
triticoides is met with, has arrived at the conclusion that this plant
is only an accidental product ; it is never seen except on the edges
of wheat-fields or in their neighbourhood ; its habit resembles. that
of the varieties of wheat near which it has grown ; it possesses, beards
when growing in the neighbourhood of bearded wheat, but these are
rudimentary in places where beardless wheat is cultivated, and it is
less fertile than legitimate species. He considers that 4. triticoides
exhibits all the characters of a hybrid plant, and that it is the product
of the fecundation of 4. ovata by cultivated wheat.

He has, moreover, confirmed this view by direct experiment ; the
artificial fecundation of 4. ovata by Triticum vulgare has given him
the two varieties of 4. triticoides which are met with in the South
of France. He has also obtained two new hybrid plants,—one by
the fecundation of 2. ovata by Triticum spelta, the other by the
action of the pollen of Triticum durum upon Atgilops triaristata.—
Comptes Rendus, July 17, 1854, p. 145.

THE OUNCES.

The Ounces, or Tortoise-shell Tigers as they have been, called,
should form a particular group of Cats, to which the name’ of Unera
may be attached. They are easily characterized by the great: length
and thickness of their cylindrical or.rather, clavate tail,,.and/ the
marbling of the colours on the fur... They are confined to’ Asia.

1. Uncia Irbis. Felis Uncia, Schreber; F.,Pardus; Pallas... Tibet.

2. Uncia macroscelis, Horsf... Sumatra.

3. Uncia macrosceloides, Hodgson. . India.

4. Uncia marmoratus. Felis marmorata, Martin; F.,Diardii, Jar-
dine. Penang.

5. Uncia Charlioni. F, Charltoni, Gray ; F. Duvaucellii, Hodg-
son MSS. fide Dr. Cantor... India; Himalaya.—J. E..Gray.

THE AFRICAN SEAL, HELIOPHOCA ATLANTICA.

L have just received a ‘well-preserved skin and the skeleton of this
Seal from Algeria, under the name of Phoca leporina. It certainly
cannot be the Phoca leporina of Lepechin, in Act. Acad. Petrop.
1777; 264. t. 8, 9 = the Phoca Lepechinit, Lesson, from the White
Sea’ and the rivers flowing into it, which M. Nilsson considers to. be

Miscellaneous. 395

the same as P. barbata; but I think this is doubtful, as Lepechin
described. the fur as dirty-white, sometimes with a_ yellow, tinge
without any spots, and the hair as.erect, with abundance of under
wool. The African Seal has very short, broad, closely adpressed
hair, while Lepechin expressly states that the hair of P. /eporina is not
appressed, but erect, and is at once known from Phoca barbata b
the large size of the grinders, which are very close together, and the
last one very peculiarly placed across the line of the other teeth.—
J.E. Gray.

Notes on the Development of the Actiniee. By M. Haine.

I have verified the separation of the sexes in the Actinie. Each
capsule of the ovary contains only a single ovule, but each testicle
contains several hundred thousand spermatozoa. In the species
examined by me (A. equina, L., effeta, L., sulcata, Penn., peduncu-
lata, Penn., and coriacea, Cuy.), these always had a bilobed head
and a very long filament. )

Actinia pedunculata usually has the sexes completely separated
as in the other species, but, in some cases, a few spermatic capsules
occur in the midst of an ovigerous gland and vice versd.

The ovules are sometimes uniform in size, sometimes of. different
sizes, which appears to indicate that several successive layings must
take place, and in fact it is not uncommon to find young animals
i furnished with twenty-four or even forty-eight tentacles in the
visceral cavities of females containing at the same time ovules of very
small size (4. equina and pedunculata). The only difference, except
sizé, between the smaller and larger ovules consists in the smaller
proportionate size of the Purkinjian vesicle in the latter. Two or
three germinal spots are often to be seen. I have observed no ova in
process of segmentation. ;
~The ciliated larva is at first spherical, and no depression or projec-
tion is to’ be observed on its surface; it soon elongates a little and
presents a Conical extremity. The other extremity becomes hollowed
in the centre, forming the rudiment of the mouth. The cavity
formed'at this pomt enlarges by degrees by the removal of the internal
substance; and the visceral chamber is rapidly formed. The integu-
ments already form a distinct layer at the surface of the body, which
contains thread-capsules, globules and vibratile cells almost exactly
similar to those which occur in the adult. In the general cavity of
some species (4. pedunculata for stance) there are also some. large
coloured globules, which vibrate and gyrate.

Before any tentacular mammille make their appearance, narrow
bundles of muscular fibres are formed in the direction of the length of
the body. ‘These are the rudiments. of the muscular system, and
correspond. with the vertical plates which are to divide the visceral
cavity. Their initial number is normally six in 4. equina, and: pro-
bably also in all the species of the group; but I found it impossible
to ascertain whether itis the same in A. pedunculata, or whether it is
only four; it is certain, however, that it soon rises to eight im this
polype, and that it afterwards becomes a multiple of six.

396 Maps

~~ After the formation of these first inuscular cords, the form’ of’ the
young larvee, which was. hitherto oval, becomes slightly modified ;
the body becomes more contractile, and soon elongates and shortens
itself to a great extent by expanding or contracting in the middle.
From the flattened buccal extremity, and on points corresponding
with the spaces between the ‘first’ muscular bands, rounded tubercles,
representing the first tentacles, are soon seen to spring.

- The initial number of the tentacles is of course in relation with
that of the first vertical muscular ‘bands, or:rather of the mesenteroid

NSPip9d4a iBoiayy to

In proportion. as the tentacles increase im, size, and; number; trans-
verse muscular fibres begin to surround the body,andthese rings, which
at first are very distant, become more and more numerous, especially
towards the extremity.opposite to the mouth. ;This;extremity soon
flattens and acquires.an, adhesive ‘faculty..... The -young; polype then
presents the most essential characters of its.parent,;...Hitherto it has
been swimming freely in. the water, turning ;pretty. quickly, upon: its
axis, and having its pedal extremity in front... It .preservyes,the cilia
with which the surface of} its body,.is covered, even, after/it.is able to
attach, itself; and when it: possesses, three; circles;of tentacles;, At, this
period the young of |.4,..equina »present,.no,, trace of, the. marginal
vesicles which are to correspond with, these. three circles, on; the,cir-
cumference of the disc of the adult animal. 5 Rr :

I have. stated that the initial number of tentacles in Actinia is six,
like that of the first longitudinal muscular bands. “It°*may* happen,
in consequence of accidental‘abortions, that this number is only five,
or perhaps four, or the fortuitous inequality of the-first tentacles may
deceive the observer, as to the number of elements in this first circle ;
but. the type is normally, hexameral.; The exception which .I have
noticed ind. peduneulata; apparently only affects the second circle.
L haye, in fact, remarked that momentary checks in, the development
of the different parts of the second circle were not rare, especially in
A. equina, but it is generally, completed, as well as the third, in con-
formity with the laws established by M. Hollard. . The . fourth
circle, on.the.contrary, almost always exhibits with much distinctness
the. mode.of. evolution ascertamed by M,,Milne-Edwards and myself
for the partitions of Corals ; that is to say,.the twenty-four elements
of which it is to be composed, do not make their appearance all

Miscellaneous. 397

together, but. the twelye which originate, between. the, tentacles
of the first and third rows.are all deyeloped before those which are
to.come between those of the second and third circles.—Comptes
Rendus, Aug, 28, 1854, p. 437. 5 | cia

RARE, IRISH, MOLLUSCA. |
PSO EOE ay a, Cork, 9th Mo. 22nd, 1854)°
biorsiaseeTo the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

{ ne P a

““ G@uNTLEMEN,—T have the pleasure of informing you ‘that ‘a few
weeks since I found at Ballycotton, in the east of this county, alive
and in good condition, and. imbedded in turf, which reached to low-
water ‘mark, Pholas crispata, dactylus and candida (the last very
abundantly), and to my great pleasure, several specimens of P. papy-
raced, now for the first time obtained in this county, and except one
specimen. found near Dungarvan by Dr. Farren, new to Ireland.
TaPoIDKSq08 13 8 1 Youts truly:

vilsstoa saviog
SURO RY at Lt Samuet Wricnr. '’-
giinidaroo talidw .29

gant .srart of TYPICAL COLLECTIONS. OF MOLLUSCA,

Phe British’ Museum has lately received the following collections
of typical specimens :— )

“Sy The Latid’ Shells of Jamaica, described by “the® late’ Professor
iis and the Hon. Edward Chitty. Presented by the Hon: Edward
- Whe Shells and Mollusca described, figured, or mentioned by the
lite M.‘Souleyet’in his account’ of the * Voyage of the Bonite,’ and
in the Monograph of Pteropods, by MM. Rang and Souleyet.! 2014
~* 3.’ The Shells described ‘and: mostly figured’ in M: d’Orbigny’s
“Voyage to South America.’ ‘ ; ? |

”’ 4. The Mollusca’ described and figured ‘by’ M. ‘d’Orbigny “in M.
Ramon de Sagra’s “Natural History of Cuba and the West: Indies.’
"5. "The terrestrial ‘and ‘marine Shells described by M. d’Orbigny
in’ Webb and Berthelot’s* Natural History of the Canaries?’

On: a,new.species of Suthora,from China... By G, R. Gray,
‘pee , z oc ty Bala Say FZ So5 OC» x
SurHora WEBBIANA: 2 OMLUIIO)

“Crown of the head and back’ of the neck, sandy red, passing into
the olive tint of the back and upper surface generally ; ‘tail of the
same colour, but of a shade darker than the back ; primaries strongly
edged with bright rufous ; throat/and breast light buff washed ‘with
a rosy tint; abdomen inclined to olive; ‘bill light brown, washed
with rosy pink; legs either ‘yellow or fleshy white.

Hab. China (Shang Hai).

A single specimen, collected by Mr. Webb, was presented by that
gentleman to the British Museum. It is much larger than 8. nipa-
lensis and fulvifrons.—Zool. Proc. March 9, 1852. |

398 Miscellaneous.

On some Fishes allied to Gymnotus. By Atrrep R. WALLACE.

My object is to call the attention of the Society to some curious
fishes allied to the Electrical Eel, which are abundant in the fresh
waters of South America. They present many modifications of form,
and will probably constitute a distinct family or subfamily. They
may be characterized as fishes of an elongate form, very slender
posteriorly, without dorsal or ventral fins, but with a very long anal
fin. The intestines are situated immediately behind the head, and
occupy a very small portion of the entire length of the fish. The
teeth are very small, or altogether wanting. The air-bladder is in
some species very long, in others almost obsolete; and the scales are
very minute, ovate, concentrically striate, and often so imbedded in
mucus as to be invisible till scraped off. The gill-opening is, gene-
rally very small, and the eyes and nostrils minute, )

There seems to be sufficient variety of form and structure to, justify
the establishment of five genera.

1. The true Gymnotus (of which the Gymnotuselectricus appears
to be the only well-known species), characterized by the anal fin
reaching the extremity of the tail, which is flattened; by the air-
bladder extending almost the entire length, in a cavity beneath the
vertebree ; and by having a single row of short acute teeth in each jaw.

2. The genus Carapus, to which five of my species belong. ese
have the tail cylindrical and pointed, extending beyond. the.anal fin ;
a band of minute teeth in each jaw; and a double air-bladder; -gene-
rally of very small size. One of my species appears to be’ identical
with Carapus brachyurus of Bloch. : ,

3..A form, of which I have but. one representative, which has a
deep body, a rather large mouth, but no teeth, anda, small -round
single air-bladder.

4, Two long-jawed species, which have a very small mouth, xo
teeth, and no air-bladder. The larger of these.is probably the Gym-
notus rostratus. of Schneider. |

5. The genus Apteronotus, which differs. from all. the preceding
in having a small, but perfectly-formed and rayed: caudal fin, a.rather
large mouth, with the lower jaw shuttimg within the upper, and the
teeth rather acute and. prominent ina row on the sides of ‘the jaws
only. My representative of this genus appears to be quite distinct
from Apteronotus albifrons of Lacépéde. |

These fishes were all found near the sources. of the Rio Negro and
Orinoco, one of the most central positions in South America... They
are most abundant in the smaller‘streams, and feed on minute aqua-
tic insects. None of them, except the common Gymnotus, have
any electrical properties, They are all eaten, though, owing to the
number of forked: or branched bones in every part,of their bodies,
they are not much esteemed.

The situation of the'vent in’ these fishes is very peculiar, the in-
testine passing forwards from the stomach, instead of backwards, as is
usually the case, so that they have the anus situated under the throat;
in one of the long-snouted species it is actually considerably in front
of the eyes, a peculiarity which I believe does not oceur in any other
vertebrated animal. ,

Meteorological Observations. 399

This fish, too, is remarkable for the very singular manner in which
it is said to feed. It is asserted that it lives principally on ants and
white ants, which it obtains by laying its tail out upon land. The
ants, attracted by its mucous covering, crawl thickly upon it, when
the fish dives down and leaves the ants struggling upon the sur-
face of the water, where it is enabled to eat them at its leisure. The
Eadinga assert that, when fishing at night, they often see this take
place.

To give some idea of the distribution of fishes in the rivers of
South America, I may mention, that of 205 species which I found in
the Rio Negro,—

43 were spinous-finned fishes, principally Percide and Labride ;

54 were Siluride ;

80 were Salmonide ;

24 were other soft-finned fishes, of the families Lsocide, Anguillide
and Cyprinide ; and

4 were Ray fish (cartilaginous fishes).—Zool. Proc. July 12, 1853.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR SEPT. 1854),

Chiswick.—September 1. Very fine. 2. Slight fog: very fine. 3. Foggy: very
fine. 4. Foggy: slight haze: excessively dry air: 5. Very fine: hazy: fine.
6—-10. Very fine. 11. Dense fog: clear: quite cloudless: very fine. 12. Dense
fog’: very fines 13. Cloudy: rain. 14. Cloudy: slight rain : overcast. 15. Very
fine: 16, Overcast... 17. Very fine. 18. Fine: cloudy: rain. . 19. Overcast and
windy : slight rain. 20. Cloudy: rain. 21. Clear: quite cloudless: fine: light-
ning in the eyening.. 22. Very clear: fine. 23. Densely overcast. 24,25. Very
fine. 26—29. Foggy, with very heavy dews in the mornings: very fine throughout
the days : clear and cold.at nights. 30. Dense fog throughout.

Mean temperature of the month ............. eb eatchaicaegilt obsew 56°93
‘Mean temperature of Sept. 1853. .........s.cseeeercsneees Sik Spend 55°45
Mean temperature of Sept. for the last twenty-eight years... 56 -98
Average amount of rain in Sept. .......ccsecsssseeeee sossessenses 2°O7 inches.

_ Baston.—Sept. 1—4. Fine. 5, Cloudy. 6. Fine. 7—9. Cloudy. 10—12.
Fine. 13. Cloudy. 14, Rain a.m. 15—17. Cloudy. 18. Fine. 19. Cloudy :
rain A.M) .20. Rain Aim: | 21, 22. Fine. 23. Cloudy: rain a.m. 24, Cloudy:
stormy A.M. and p.m, 25—29, Fine. 30. Foggy.

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—Sept..1. Cloudy a.m. : clear p.m. 2, Clear A.m.:
cloudy p.m, 3. Clear; fine a.m.: clear.p.m. | 4. Rain a.M.; clear, fine p.m. 5.
Cloudy, fine a.M.: cloudy p.m. 6. Drizzle a.M.: rain P.M. _ 7. Drizzle a.m.:
cloudy p.m. 8. Cloudy, a.m. : clear, fine, aurora p.m. 9. Clear, fine a.m. and p.m.
10. Bright, fine A.m. : clear, fine P.M. 11. Rain A.m. and p.m. 12. Clear, fine a.m. :
cloudy p.m.’ 13. Clear 'aA.m.: rain p.m.) 14. Clear a.m.: showers p.m. 15.
Showers A.M. and p.m. 16, Showers a.M.: cloudy p.m. 17. Bright a.m, :
showers P.M. 18. Showers a.m. and p.m. 19. Bright a.M.: clear p.m. 20.
Showers a.M.: cloudy p.m. 21. Bright a.M.:.clear p.m. 22. Bright a.m.:
cloudy p.M. 23,24. Rain a.m.: clear p.m. .25. Showers a.m.: cloudy p.m. 26. .
Showers a.M.: clear p.m. 27. Clear A.m.: cloudy p.m. | 28. Clear, fine a.m. :
clear p.M. 29. Cloudy a.m. and p.m. 30. Hazy a.m.:\clear em,

Mean temperature of Sept. for twenty-seven, previous years . 52°32
Mean, temperature of this month .,........cecermeesmareereeecress 55 -07
Mean temperature of Sept. 1853. ...........sseeseeseaceseeeeceees 53 *28
Average quantity of rain in Sept. for fourteen previous years 2°81] inches.

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THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.
(SECOND SERIES.]

No. 84. DECEMBER 1854.

>

XXX VI.—Remarks on Associations of Colour and the Relations of
Colour and Form in Plants. By G. Dickirm, M.D., Professor
of Natural History, Queen’s College, Belfast *.

RELAtIONS-in- the form, structure, number and position of
organs: are: familar to every botanist. 4 priort it might have
been inferred that order prevails in the distribution of colours ;
that there is ‘no mere fortuitous relation, but that-all must be
subject. to law... This is not only the fact, but there are, besides,
obvious indications, of a relation between the colour and form, of
organs.

In April and May 1853, the facts to be here recorded were
first observed. and demonstrated to scientific friends in Belfast.
Professor M‘Cosh, in alecture before the Natural History Society
in May 1858, intimated that he had for some time entertained a
belief in the existence of complementary colours in the vegetable
kingdom. - The~results of my own observations were embodied
in a paper read atthe October Meeting of the sume Society in
that year. It would seem, however , that certain associations of
colour Have been long known to artists who have cultivated the
special department of flower-painting. Any relation, however,
between forni and colour appears to have escaped notice, and
even erroneous ideas have been: promulgated respecting this
point. Thus Ruskin, in his ‘ Lamps of Architecture,’ states that
“the natural colour of objects never follows form, but is arranged
on a different system ;” and again, “ colour is simplified where
form is rich, and vice versd.” “In nature,” he further says,
“the boundaries of forms are elegant and precise; those of
colours, though subject to symmetry of rude kind, are yet irre-

* Read to the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, Nov. 9, 1854,
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xiv. 26

402 Dr. Dickie on Associations of Colour and Relations

gular—in blotches.” All these statements are far from repre-
senting the truth. |

Without alluding to differences of opinion which have been
recently published regarding the law of harmonious colours, it
may be sufficient to allude briefly to the views usually enter-
tained by physicists and most generally adopted. White or
compound light consists of three simple colours called primaries,
viz. yellow, red, and blue; combinations of these yield secon-
daries ;—yellow and red give orange, yellow and blue give green,
red and blue give purple. Combinations of secondaries yield ter-
tiary colours,—green and orange give citrine, purple and green
give olive, orange and purple yield russet.

A primary and secondary, together containing all the prima-
ries, are complements to each other; for example, yellow and
purple ; red and green ; blue and orange. The presence of all
the colours either separate or combined (which form white. or
compound light) is a physical want of the organ of vision. _

The artist recognizes a melody of colours, that is, gradations
of hues and shades, and speaks of harmony when complementary
colours are present. A white line (or black) between two colours
not complementary subdues discord. There is a correspondence
between the depth of auy hue and that of its complement; for
example, red-purple and yellow-green are associated. Livery
association of colour in the organic world may be regarded as
an actual embodiment of results, which cannot be otherwise than
in strict harmony with those great principles which have guided
the plans of the Great Author of nature.

It is worthy of notice, that colour is the foundation of one of
the more recent classifications of Algz, that of Professor Harvey.
They are divided by him into red, green, and olive ; among the
red series are comprehended many which present various tints,
of purple for example, and in the olive series not a few are
yellow-green. All this is in strict accordance with the views just
adverted to.

' Among the family of the Mosses the red or red-purple teeth
of the peristome are associated with the green or yellow-green
capsule ; the same is trué of the different parts of their stems
and leaves.

In flowering plants the cases are so numerous, that only one
example or two need be recorded.
Primula vulgaris.

_ J stalk, red-purple.

Young leaves ee yellow-green.
Caladium pictume

Leaf fear h red or red-purple.

border, green or yellow-green.

of Colour and Form in Plants. 403

Coleus Blumei.
Leaf J centres. red or red-purple.
border, green or yellow-green,

Victoria Regia.
Leaf lower surface, red-purple.
upper surface, yellow-green,

Taxodium sempervirens.
Young shoots, yellow-green.
A year old, red-purple.
Older still, citrine.

In this last instance, as well as in many others, advanced
growth seems to be accompanied with greater composition of
colour. In the curious pitcher-like organs of Sarracenia, Ne-
penthes and Dischidia, we find that red-purple and yellow-green
are associated.

In the flower, similar associations are the rule.

Ranunculus repens.
Corolla, yellow,
Calyx, purple spots,

The same may be observed in many other species of the same
genus.

Hieracium pilosella.
Flower, yellow.
Those of the circumference variegated with purple.

Anthyllis vulneraria.
» Corolla, yellow.
Tip of calyx, purple.

Sazifraga ligulata.
Corolla, white with purple spots.
Anthers, yellow.
Kalmia (species).
Ten spots of purple on the corolla at points in contact with the
yellow anthers.

Juncus compressus.
Anthers and pollen, yellow.
Ovary and stigma, purple.

‘ edge, russet.
Peeianths aes dark green.

Strelitzia Regine.
—- juncea, &e.
Sepals, orange.
Petals, blue.

26%

4.04 Dr. Dickie on Associations of Colour and Relations

Im most Orchidew we find constant associations of pena and
purple.

We need not expect to find in a corolla or any other organ
pure red and pure yellow, or blue and oni in contact with each
other.

Of the primaries, blue is the least common, and in fact; gene-
rally speaking, may be called very rare; many so- called blues
being blue-purples: transmitted light shows this. Pure blue
being so uncommon in any organism, Professor M‘Cosh sug-
gested to me that this is compensated for in the atmosphere, and
I may, add, in the ocean too. Yellow is probably the most
general of the primaries, in the flower at least ; the most com-
mon association is therefore yellow and purple. We can now,
understand why yellow is the usual colour of the pollen, and
some exceptional cases seem to confirm this ; in the Turn-cap
Lily for instance, the decidedly red pollen is associated with the
green filaments of the anthers.

The statistics of colour in different natural orders have not been
fully examined ; it may be remarked, however, that: purple and:
citrine prevail in the flowers of the Grasses, and russet and: dark
green in the Junci. In the Fir-tribe and its allies, secondaries
and tertiaries are common, such as the purple and citrine scales
of young and old cones, the russet and dark green in the stems
and leaves respectively ; at the same time the copious yellow
pollen must not be lost sight of.

In examining this subject, we must keep in view that the
colour of the flower may have its complement in that of other
organs, as stem, leaf, &c. It sometimes happens that one of the
associated colours is not visible to the eye at all times. The
inside of a nearly ripe fig is red-purple, the outside yellow-green ;
the same is true of the pericarp im some species of Peony. | In
~ some Cactacee the yellow corolla is succeeded by a purple fruit.

The newly ripened cone of the Pinus Pinaster is citrine ; when
the scales open, the complementary purple is revealed at the base
of each, In the fruit, fixed relations of colour are probably too
familiar to require illustration. In certain varieties of the Apple,
red and red-purple, green and yellow-green of various hues and
shades are associated. In some varieties of Pear, eae pscridia
red-purple and citrine occur together.

Direct exposure to light, although usually, and in general
correctly admitted to have a direct relation to intensity of colour
in organisms, appears not to be necessary in every instance ; the
plant, however, must receive the light at some part or other in
order to produce that depth of colour observed in the coats of
seeds, the interior of fruits, and in the tissues of subterranean
organs.

of Colour and Form in Plants. % 405

In conclusion— —

1. The primaries, red, yellow, and blue, are generally present in
some part or other of the plant.

2. When a primary occurs in any part of a plant, its comple-
ment will usually be found in some other part (or at some period or
other of the development of the plant, as was suggested to me by
Professor M‘Cosh).

Observations on the same subject in the animal kingdom have
occupied my attention durmg the past twelve months ; Birds,
Mollusca, and Radiata present associations of colour not less
remarkable than those here recorded.

The relation between colour and form may now be examined,
and: the remarks, for the present, have reference to the parts of
the flower.

When the calyx and corolla are equal in size and similar in
form, the flower is regular ; differences in size and form are found
in irregular flowers. For example, the Violet has an irregular
flowér} that of the Wallflower is regular ; a Primrose has a regular
flower, a Snapdragon presents an example of irregularity. Such
expressions are equally applicable to monocotyledonous and to
dicotyledonous plants, to polypetalous and gamopetalous coroll.

Law 1. In regular polypetalous and gamopetalous corolle the
colour is uniformly distributed, whatever be the number
of colours present.

That is to say, the pieces of the corolla behig all alike in size
and form, have each an equal proportion of colour. The com-
mon! Primrose is::an example where one colour only is present.
In the Chinese Primrose the same holds where two colours (one
the complement of the other) are present ; the eye or centre is
yellow, the margin purple. These two colours in this regular
flower are uniformly diffused, that is, each piece has an equal
proportion of yellow and of purple respectively. In Myosotis,
Anagallis, Erica, Pyrola, Gentiana, &c., we have instances. All
corollifloral Exogens with regular flowers are examples ; the same
is true of certain Thalamiflore, as Papaveraces, Cruciferz, &c.
In Jberis coccinea, belonging to Cruciferee, we find unequal size
of petals, but equal distribution of colour, because regularity of
flower is-the law in that family.

Calycifloral Exogens with regular flowers are also examples,
as Rosacez, Cactacex, &c.

Law 2. Irregularity of corolla is associated with irregular distri-
bution of colour, whether one or more colours are present.

The odd lobe of the corolla is most varied in form, size, and
in colour.

406. Dr. Dickie on Associations.of Colour and Relations

When only one colour is present, it is usually more intense
in the odd lobe.

When there are two colours, one of them is very generally
confined to the odd lobe. Sometimes when only one colour is
present and of uniform intensity in all the pieces, the odd, lobe
has spots or streaks of white. This piece of the corolla therefore
in irregular flowers is distinguished from the others not merely
by size, form and position, but also by its colour.

Papilionaceze present examples of this law; a few instances
may suffice,

Cytisus Laburnum.
4 petals yellow. :
5th yellow with purple veins.

Lathyrus pratensis.
Much the same as Laburnum.

Trifolium pratense.
Odd lobe distinguished from the others by its darker purple

veins.

Kennedia monophylla.
4 petals purple,
5th yellow eye and purple margin.

Swainsonia purpurea.
4 petals purple. »
5th white eye on purple ground.

Even when the odd lobe of a papilionaceous plant is smallest,
—not a common case,—it may be distinguished by its colour ;
for instance, in Brachysema acuminatum the odd. lobe is compa-
ratively small, but has yellow eye and purple margin.

; Irregular gamopetalous corolle also present examples of this
aw.

Ajuga reptans.
Corolla J 4 divisioris purple.
5th has yellow spot on inner surface.

Thymus Serpyllum.
Corolla, generally red-purple.
Two pale spots on odd lobe.

Galeopsis Tetrahit.
dd lobe has generally two colours, yellow and purple.

Numerous other examples from Labiate might be quoted.
Among Scrophulariaceze we may instance the following :—

of Colour and Form in Planis, 407

Kuphrasia officinalis. |
Corolla purple, generally.
Odd lobe has yellow spot.

Digitalis purpurea. |
Has white on odd lobe.

In some species of Schizanthus and Collinsia we find purple
re prevailing colour; the primary, yellow, appears in the odd
obe.

In some genera with irregularity of flower often less marked
than in the examples alluded to, it is worthy of notice that the
two divisions on each side of the odd lobe frequently partake of
its characters as regards colour, half of each resembling the odd
piece; Viola, Gloxinia, Achimenes, Rhododendron, &c. are ex-
amples. In some Thalamiflorous Exogens with irregular flower,
as Pelargonium and Tropeolum, we find that the two upper pieces
are usually largest, and present also the greatest variety in depth
of colour. In the Horse-chestnut there is a very decided relation
between. the. size of the petals and the intensity of the colour.
On each petal there is usually a crimson spot at the junction of
the limb and claw; the size of this spot and its intensity are in
direct relation to the size of each petal; the two upper being
largest, the two lateral smaller, and the odd piece least of all.

It may therefore be stated, that an some Thalamiflorous Exogens
with irregular corolla, owing chiefly to difference in size of the
petals, the largest are most highly coloured.

Law 8. Different forms of corolla in the same inflorescence often
present differences of colour, but all of the same form
agree also in colour.

‘The Composite are illustrations of this: when there are two
colours, the flowers of the centre have generally one colour of
uniform intensity; those of the circumference agree together
also. 7

The common Daisy has all the tubular flowers of the centre
yellow, and all the ligulate flowers of the ray are white, varie-
gated with purple. A yellow centre with purple ray is a com-
nron association in compound flowers, for mstance, in species of
Aster, Rudbeckia, &c.

The same general laws prevail in Monocotyledons as in Dico-
tyledons. In the former the calyx and corolla generally resemble
each other in structure and shape, and in colour also; hence an

dea entertained by some that the perianth is single, relative

osition having been overlooked. In Dicotyledons we generally
find a greater contrast between calyx and corolla as regards
colour.

408 Mr. C. Cy Babington ‘on: Linaria sepium.

The law of the contrasts is therefore simpler in Monocotyledons
than in Dicotyledons.

The former may be symbolized by the triangle, 3 and 6 being
the typical numbers in the flower; the latter by the square or
pentagon, 4 and 8, 5 and 10 bemg the prevalent numbers.

The simplicity of figure corresponds with simpler contrast of
colour in the one, while greater complexity of colour and of strue-
ture are in direct relation in the other.

In families of Monocotyledons having regular flowers there’ is
regular distribution of the colours, for instance, in Amarylli-
dace, Liliaceze, &c.

Orchidacer are notable examples of the other law, that-irre-
gularity of form and of colour are associated. In a large pro-
portion of this family the colours are yellow or yellow-green, and
purple or red-purple ; the latter being confined to the part. of
the coro!la usually called Zip.

Proceeding on the principle, that since plants of all epochs: of
the earth’s history were constructed on the same general plan,
so the same associatioris of colour, and of colour and form, must
have prevailed also, we shall glance finally at a few conclusions
which may be derived from this source. :

During the earlier periods when Acrogenous Cryptogamia were
abundant, the secondary and tertiary colours, as russet, purple,
citrine, green, must have prevailed.

During the reign of Gymnosperms, when Cycadex and Co-
niferee were numerous, the secondary and tertiary colours must
still have given a sombre aspect to the vegetable world.

From the commencement of the Chalk formation there appears
to have been a very marked and progressive increase of Angio-
spermous Dicotyledons, which form at least three-fourths of
existing vegetation. Among them we find the floral organs with
gveater prominence in size, form and colour; and such prominence
of the “nuptial dress” of the plant, to use the quaint expression
of Linneeus, is peculiarly a feature of species belonging to natural
families which have attamed their maximum in man’s epoch, and
are characteristic of it.

XXXVIT.— On Linaria sepium of Allman.
By Cuar.zs C. Basrneton, M.A., F.R.S., &e.*

Ar a meeting of the Royal Irish Academy, held June 6th,
184.3, the occurrences at which are reported in the ‘ Proceedings’
of that body, Dr. G. J. Allman described what he supposed to

* Read before the Edinburgh Botanical Society, Nov. 9th, 1854.

Mr. C..C, Babington om Lenaria sepium. 409

be a new. species of Linaria, and upon which he conferred the
name of L, sepium.

In the second. edition of my ‘Manual of British Botany’
(p. 282), the opinion was stated that the plant is “scarcely more
than a variety of L. ttalica,” and in the third edition of the same
book I ventured to consider it and the L, italica of the Manual
as hybrids between L. vulgaris and L. repens.

In consequence probably of the latter remark, I was favoured
by Dr. Allman, in June 1852, with a large packet of living
specumens and roots of the disputed plant. A careful examina-
tion of these, and a comparison of them with living specimens
of .L. repens, led me greatly to doubt the correctness of the
supposition that it was a variety of L. repens; and Dr. Allman
justly. states in a letter to me that the ‘total absence of
“L. vulgaris from the neighbourhood where the plant in question
abounds must render hybridization impossible.” In another
letter he,remarks, “I only know of one spot in the neighbour-
hood of. Bandon where L. vulgaris grows apparently wild, and
there very ‘sparingly. It may possibly have escaped from a
neighbouring garden. ‘This spot is more than a mile in a direct
line from the nearest patch with which I am acquainted of L.
septum, and three or four miles from other localities where the
ZL. sepium. is abundant.” | Also, “in the same hedge with the
apparently wild plants of L. vulgaris just mentioned, and removed
perhaps from these about 100 yards, grows L. repens, and yet
_ not.a trace of L. sepium have I found to grow within a mile of
them.” These remarks show the great improbability, if indeed
I might not say impossibility, of the L. seprwm bemg a hybrid.
Two. of the roots received from Ireland have grown. well and
flowered profusely in the Cambridge Botanical Garden, and have
thus afforded an excellent opportunity for studying the plant.

As I now believe the plant to be a distinct species, I have
drawn up the following character and description of it, and in
doing so have followed the type of the descriptions of the allied
species to be found m the valuable ‘Monographie des Antir-
rhinées’ of Chavannes.

Tinaria sepium (Allm.) ; radice repente, caulibus erectis glabris, foliis
lineari-lanceolatis acutis sparsis, floribus racemosis, sepalis ovatis
acutis glabris calcare brevioribus, seminibus tuberculato-scabris
trialatis.

L. sepium, Allman in Proceed. R. Irish Acad. (1843) p. 404.

Caules e rhizomate repente incrassato seepeque tuberculis instructo
prodentes, plurimi, simplices vel ramulosi, leeves, basi lignescentes
(eortice fuscescente), bipedales ; ramuli alternes, erectiusculi. Folia
pollicaria vel sesquipollicaria, lineari-lanceolata, utrinque attenuata,

410 Mr. ©. C. Babington.on Linaria sepium.

acuta, subtrineryia (nervis lateralibus tenuibus), erectiuscula, glauces-
centes, inferiora,.seepe subterna ceteraque sparsa. , Bracteee lineari-
lanceolate, acutissimee, erecta, inferiorespedicello longiores, supe-
riores pedicello. breviores... Racemus. strictus, laxiusculus. _ Calyx
parvus ; segmentis e basi lato attenuatis, acutissimis, glaberrimis,
trinerviis, post anthesin apice paululum reflexis, Corolla minor quam
in L. vulgari; calear conicum, paululum incurvum, corollam sequans ;
tubus, calcar et labium superius grisei striis pallide purpureis signati ;
labium inferius dilute luteum striis pallide purpureis et parum
distinctis notatum ; palatum villis luteis vestitum, villis pallide pur-
pureis quemque marginem investientibus, valde prominens, bilobum,
lobis aurantiacis ; lobis labii superioris ellipticis, dorso invicem ap-
plicatis sed apicibus incurvis; lobis labi inferioris lateralibus reflexis
conniventibus, oblique rotundatis intermedio patenti latioribus et
paululum longioribus. Stigma capitatum. Capsula subovata, de-
hiscens superne sex valvulis lanceolatis, calycem subeequans,. Semina
subtrialata ; testa nigra, muricata.

‘Found plentifully near the river at Bandon, in the, county of
Cork, flowering from June to September.

L. sepium forms dense masses of strong stems, and presents
a very different appearance from L. repens or L. vulgaris., Its
flowers and seeds are unlike those of either of them; and.in
size the flowers are almost exactly intermediate between, those
of its allies. The same part. of the rhizome does.not, appear.to
flower a second time, but numerous stems spring: up at)a short
distance from it, which flower in the succeeding year.

In L. vulgaris the middle lobe of the lower lip of the corolla
is relatively much smaller and is strongly reflexed, whilst the
lateral lobes are patent-deflexed.

In L. repens the lobes of the upper lip of the corolla are erect
with incurved points, and all those of the lower lip patent.

It will be seen above that in L. sepium the lobes of the upper
lip are pressed. closely back to back; and that the lateral ones
of the lower lip are reflexed, but the intermediate one is patent.
The colours also are different.

After a careful examination of all the descriptions of Linarie
with which I am acquainted, I have not, found any, recorded |
species to which this plant can be referred. I am therefore
reluctantly compelled to, consider it as a new species. It agrees
in. many respects with L. linifolia (Chav.), differing chiefly in
the presence of a few three-leaved whorls towards the base of the
stem, the shorter upper bracts, the striped flowers, and the
three-winged seeds.

The seeds of L. sepium are different from those of any species
that I have examined. . They are discoidal, and surrounded. by
a wing; but have in addition another wing on one of the sides _
which is variable in its size and direction, being sometimes nearly

Mr. W.H. Benson on some species'‘of Cyclophorus. 411

at right: angles with the disk, and at others laid so closely upon
it as to be with difficulty detected. Rarely the additional wing
is reduced toa reduplication of the wing of the disk through
more or less a distance. The disk is covered on each of its sides
with elevated ridges radiating more or less regularly from the
centre. The whole seed is black.

XXXVIII.—Characters of four Indian species of Cyclophorus,
Montfort, followed by Notes on the Geographical Distribution
of the Genera of the Cyclostomacea in Hindostan. By W.H.
| Benson, Esq.

1. Cyclophorus altivagus, nobis.

Testa angustissime umbilicata, fere perforata, globoso-conica, solida,
striata, superne rufa, castaneo picta, subtus versus periomphalum
albida; spira elevata, turbinata, acutiuscula; anfractibus 5} con-
vexis, superne costis spiralibus sex munitis, ultimo rotundato, ad
peripheriam vix carinato, basi leevigata, umbilico pervio; aper-
tura vix obliqua, subovali-circulari, superne angulata, intus lutes-
cente ; peristomate duplici, imterno continuo, valde porrecto,
acuto, externo expansiusculo, costam fingente, superne anguste
angulatim adscendente, ad anfractum penultimum late emarginato,
margine columellari minime sinuato, supra umbilicum angustum
dilatato-reflexo. Operc.?

Diam. major 31, minor 26, alt. 24} mill. Apert. intus 17 mill. longa,
15 lata.

Hab. in summis montibus Mahabuleshwar Indiz Meridionalis: De-
texit A. E. Benson.

A single decorticate specimen was found by my son, Lieut.
Arthur E. Benson, Tenth Royal Hussars, after the close of the
rains of 1853, on the summit of the range of Ghauts overlooking
the low tract in which Cyclophorus Indicus occurs. It differs
from this species in its more elevated form, indistinct keel, rounded
last whorl, more elongate aperture, porrect inner lip, the absence
of any sinuosity in the plane of the aperture on the columellar
lip, less expanded outer peristome, and by the greater expansion
of the external columellar lip over the umbilicus, which is also
much narrower; and permits no view of the internal whorls.
The outer lip, at its junction with the last whorl, rises more
suddenly to a point than in C. Indicus. It is probable that
when in good condition the internal border of the aperture is of
an orange colour. In the specimen before me I ean find no
trace of the close-set raised lines between the lirze which are
present in all my specimens of C. Indicus from Elephanta and
the Concan, however weathered. In one antiquated specimen
of the latter, with a porrect superstructed inner peristome, this

412 Mr. Wi TD. Bensoii oi some species of Cyclophorus.

part still preserves the expanded edge, so different from the sharp
lip present in the mountain species. es

2. Cyclophorus pyrotrema, nobis.

Testa umbilicata, turbinato-conica, solida, superne costis spiralibus,
obtusiusculis, confertis, striisque obliquis confertissimis sculpta,
castaneo albidoque fulguratim strigata et marmorata; spira conica,

“elevatiuscula, apice acuto. Anfractibus 5 convexis, ultimo fascia
albida mediana, infra peripheriam obsolete angulatam fascia lata,
subtus nonnullis aliis castaneis ornata; basi valde convexa circa
umbilicum submediocrem peryium albida ; apertura vix, obliqna,
irregulariter subcirculari, superne angulata, intus lactea vel czeru-,
lescente ; peristomate duplici, breviter ad anfractum penultimam,
adnato, cA continuo, expansiuseulo 1 1gneo, externo reflexiusculo
albido, margine columellari sensim arcuato, fere verticali, subrevo- :
luto, subsinuato. Operculo normali, tenui, pallide fusco, margine
anfractuum elevatiusculo, scabro. : a

Diam. major 36, minor 30, alt. 26 mill.
—_ 34, 28, — 24 mill. 6
26, Al, fe Wie ee

Haéd. ad Sikrigali et Patharghata, Bahar, et ad Rajmahal Bengalize i
In rupibus umbrosis et sub arboribus, inter folia gnrte,, annis
1831 et 1835, ipse detexi.

A yariety occurs in which the shell is of a pale buff colour ,
darker towards the apex, the bands and markings being obsolete,
and the colour of the peristome being equally vivid with that of
the typical shells, Another thinner variety occurs, in which the;
interior coloured lip is not present.

Sowerby, in 1834, marked this species, as C. Involvulus ;, howe,
ever, the typical form of that species proves to be more depressed,
the umbilicus more open, the aperture more rounded, with an
orange interior, while in this Jada it is ceerulean white or
milky.

A description of the animal din be Poitier eat ee nau vol. of
the ‘ Zoological Journal’ under the name of C. Involvulus,

With a general resemblance in form to C. Indicus, Desh., it
will be at once distinguished by the absence of a keel or acute
spiral ribs, by the wider umbilicus, less developed peristome, and
more elevated form. The very gradual arcuation of the colu-
mellar lip is also an essential character, detracting from: the
uniformity of the circular aperture. The sinus observable at
this part, impingmg on the plane of me aperture, is also con-
spicuous in C. Indicus.

3. Cyclophorus Exul, nobis.

Testa angustissime umbilicata, fere perforata, globoso-turbinata, tenui,
undique lineis spiralibus vix elevatis, superne 8-9 valde obtusis,

Mr. W. H, Benson on some. species, of Cyclophorus: 413.

_, Striisque obliquis teneribus deeussata;. sub epidermide fusea, tenui,
albida; superne castaneo flexuoso-strigata, fascia. nulla mediana
cincta; spira turbinata, apice obtusulo, rufescente, suturis di-

_ stinctis, Anfractibus 5,conyexis, ultimo rotundato. Apertura vix
obliqua, subcirculari, superne angulata ; peristomate simplici, tenui,

~ expanso, reflexiusculo, vix continuo, margine columellari umbilicum

“non pervium subtegente.

Diam. major 253, min, 20, alt. 17 mill. Apert. intus 13 mill. longa.

Hab. ad Bhamoury, ad pedem montium Rohillano-Himalayanorum,

» Detexit W..J. M. Boys. ; :

This is the most northerly Cyclophorus known. It was dis-
covered by the late Captain W. J. M. Boys, an indefatigable
collector in several branches of zoology, and the discoverer of
the genus Boysia, Pfr., by whose recent decease, as well as by that
of Dr. J. F. Bacon, another Indian collector of great experience,
science has sustained a severe loss.

This shell differs from the pale-lipped C. pyrotrema, in which
the aperture is not fully developed, by its more globose form,
ventricose last whorl, small impervious umbilieus, more regular
sculpture above, stronger sculpture below, thinness, pale colour,
and the absence of any medial fascia. From the pale-lipped
variety of C. Stenomphalum with undeveloped peristome, it differs
by the greater breadth of the aperture in proportion to its length,
its non-pervious umbilicus, the absence of any carina at the
periphery, the more closely suleate and regular sculpture above,
the extension of the sculpture on the under side into the umbi-
licus, its pale snite of colours, and by the absence of any colour-
ing below the periphery. From C. Indicus it may be known by
the absence of keel, suite of colours, sculpture, and aperture.

4. Cyclophorus Tryblium, nobis.

Testa subaperte umbilicata, depresso-turbinata, solida, superne costis
7-8 planulatis munita, albida, castaneo marmorata, subtus leevigata,
versus periomphalum albida, fascia nigricante ad peripheriam
ornata; spira turbinata, superne rubella, apice acutiuscula, An-
fractibus 5 convexis, ultimo subdepresso, obsolete angulato, subtus
valde convexo; umbilico profundo, infundibuliformi. Apertura
vix obliqua, subcirculari, intus lutescente; peristomate subsimplice,
continuo, breviter adnato, pallide aurantio, subincrassato, superne
angulatim adscendente, margine dextro subrevoluto, columellari
subexpanso, planato. Operc.?

Diam. major 47, minor 38, alt. 29 mill. Apert. intus 20 mill. longa.
Hab. ad Darjiling. Detexit H. Chapman.

I find a single specimen, not in fine condition, among shells
kindly collected at my request by Dr. Chapman, to whom I was
also indebted for the first known specimen of Meg. funiculatum,

414 Mr. W. Hs Benson on the Geographical Distribution

It does not’ appear ‘to’ have been detected by any subsequent
collector m the environs of Darjiling. “Nearly equal) in’size'to
C. Himalayanus, Pfr., from the same locality, it is distinguished
from it by its form, depressed last whorl, wide umbilicus, sculp-
ture, vertieality of the angle at the upper part of the mediocre
aperture, and by the colour of the peristome. There are indi
cations of a broad light chestnut zone below the dark. band ‘at
the periphery. The compressed character of the last whorl
presents a strong contrast to the subglobose form of C. Himas
layanus in that part.

Geographical Distribution of the Genera of the Cyelostomacen, :
in Hindostan.

In the 8th vol. of the New Series of the ‘Annals,’ I attempted
a view of the geographical distribution of the Indian species-of
Cyclostoma as then known to me. I am now able: to! add: some
species to the list, and it will prove mteresting: to’ exhibit the
manner in whieh the different genera, as recognized’ by riot
are distributed, from the Himalaya to Cape genom Les

Cyclophorus, Montf.

Beginning with the largest and most extensively spread form,
Cyclophorus, we find it at Darjiling in the Sikkim ‘territory,
occurring at an elevation of 7000 feet, under the gigantic types
C. Himalayanus, Pfr., C. Tryblium, nobis, C. Stenomphalus, Pfri;
the variety which I designated as C. Aurora, and the small
widely umbilicated C. Phenotopicus, nobis. “This region carries
a subtropical vegetation to a great elevation. At some hundred!
miles to the west and north, at the foot of the Rohilkhund
Himalaya, where a similar vegetation begins to give way to more
European types, we find the outpost of the genus, inthis direc-
tion, in C. Haxul, nobis; and, as might be expected, the shell is
dwarfed in size, light in structure, and’ modestly coloured.:> It
may be remarked, in illustration, that C. turgidus, Pfr., 1s
found near the Chinese coast, as high as Loochoo, in a parallel,
however, less northerly than Bhamoury. ‘The influence of a
marine climate tells on that species in its superior solidity and
colouring.

Crossing, to the eastward, the valley of Assam, and arriving
at the group of mountains south and ‘east of the Berhampooter
river, we meet some fine forms in C. eximius, Mouss., Pearsoni,
and ‘Zebrtrius, nobis, Stenomphalus, and Bensoni*, Pfeiffer; C.

* The habitat of this shell was unknown to Pfeiffer. I have the ordinary
variety from the northern base of the Khasya hills, near Gowahatty, in
the Assam valley. The specimens were kindly sent to me by Captain

of the, Cyclostomacea in Hindostan. )) .)/ 415

milium, nobis, a dwarf. species fromthe warm, southern valleys,
perhaps belongs -to.this type. .Again traversing. westerly the
Gangetic plain of Bengal, C. pyrotrema, nobis, appears, among
the first rocks met with in the outlying portions of the Rajmahal
range, where the stream of the Ganges makes a bend to the
south ;.and the genus proceeds along the ranges, with a southerly
tendency, towards the western side of the peninsula, skirting
the ‘north bank of the Nerbudda, and isa represented by a fine
new species, C. Pirrieanus, Pfr., in the Khoondah hills; by C.
stenomphalum at Chyabasa in Singhboom ; and at Mandoo, west
of Indore, by a species not well ascertained, but which has been
attributed, erroneously, to C. Volvulus, Mill., although widely
differing from the Pulo Condore form. Traversing the river-
valleys of the Nerbudda and Tapty, we find C. Indicus, Desh.,
inhabiting the warm region of the Concan (enclosed between
the*sea*and the high Western Ghauts) and the adjacent islets.
»cAv smallo species, from the description evidently new, and
probably attributable to this type, was found near the ridge of
these: hills by Lieut: A. E. Benson, at the Caves of Karli, but
unfortunately: was broken and the fragments thrown away.
This hint may assist in securing its detection when a concho-
logist may have an opportunity of visiting the spot. Still
farther south, on the summits of the range at Mahabuleshwar,
C. altivagus, nobis, adds another form to the genus; and at
the expanded southern termination of the ridge, the Nilgherries
present a rich series in C. Nilagiricus, Jerdont, ceeloconus, cuspi-
datus*, and | ravidus, nobis, and Stenostoma, Sow.; the two. last
belonging, equally with the Darjuimg C. Phenotopicus, to the
planorbular type. Itis to be remarked that Cyclophorus, after
obliquely crossing Central India, is confined to the high ridge
on the western, side of the peninsula, and that no species has
yet been discovered. on the eastern coast, nor in the intermediate
hills and, plains, its. place being partially supplied by other
genera of the Cyclostomacea.

_ Alycaus, Gray.

This is the most northerly and westerly genus of the Cyclo-
stomacea in Hindostan. Its head-quarters appear to be in the
Sikkim Himalaya, where A/. constrictus and Al. Urnula, nobis,
inhabit Darjling. To the north-west the genus is represented
by Al. strangulatus, Hutton, in the sub-Himalayan ridges of

Rowlatt.. An elegant variety has been sent from Chittagaon, in the north-
east angle of the Bay of Bengal, in which the peristome is of a beautiful
translucent yellowish-orange colour.

* A specimen of C. euspidatus with the operculum shows that it belongs
to Cyclophorus. Pfeiffer had placed it among the species incerte sedis.

416 Mr. W. H. Benson‘on the.Geographical Distribution

Kemaon, Sirmore, and as far as the banks of the Sutlej. The
only other species known occurs in Cochin-China,

Megalomastoma, Guilding.

This form is confined to the Eastern Himalaya, and presents
only two species, M!. funiculatum, nobis, from Darjiling, and M.
pauperculum, Sow., brought by Griffith from Bootan, to the
north of the Assam valley. The nearest known point at which
it again appears is Tavoy, where M. sectilabre, Gould, is met
with. In Ceylon it is represented by ee: different species of
the allied form, Cataulus.

Pterocyclos, Benson.

Appears in the south-east angle of the Berhampooter river in
Pt. hispidus and parvus, Pearson; again, across the plain of
Bengal, in the Rajmahal range, we ‘find the typieal species, Pf,
rupestris, nobis. Near the eastern coast of the peninsula, in
the Northern Circars, the same species is repeated; and near
Salem, and at the eastern foot of the Nilgherries, Pt. bilabiatus,
Sowerby, and xanus, nobis, form a link with the Cingalese
representatives of the genus.

Cyclotus, Guilding.

Ocecupies a subcentral zone. It was detected at Neemuch,
to the north of the Nerbudda, in Southern Rajpootana, by
Captain Hutton, in C, semistriatus, Sow., and the Dekkan habitat
of the species cited by Sowerby has been lately verified by my
son, who has taken it at Kirkee, a few miles from Poonah. A
second species, C. semidiscoideus, Sow., (aratus, nobis), occurs
in the Northern Circars, near the east coast of the peninsula*.
It may be observed that. the Cochin-Chinese species rage
and figured by Souleyet, in the ‘ Voyage of the Bonite,’
Cyclostoma Tourannense, and placed by Pteiffer im the list of
species only known to him by figures, is clearly to be referred
to Cyclotus from the description of the opereulum; although
that aceessory piece has apparently been exchanged, by the
engraver of the plate, with the operculum of the Penang Lepto-
poma (Cyclostoma) Garreli, Soul.

Leptopoma, Pfeiffer.

I have no certain information of the occurrence of this genus
in the tract under consideration. I have described two species

* The discovery of an operenlum in a specimen of Cyclostoma filocinctum,
nobis, from the Nilgherries, enables me to range it as a third species of
Cyclotus, belonging to the same division as C. substriatus, Sow. The
characters of the shell confirm the propriety of this location.

Sd
of the Cyclostoniacea in \Hintlostan!! (417

from Ceylon, and it probably extends to the peninsula. Cyclo-
stoma spurcum, Grateloup, alleged to have been found near
Bombay, is referred by Pfeiffer, with a mark of doubt, to Lepto-
poma*; and the same author, on the authority of Mr. Cuming’s
eollection, assigns a small variety of the widely-spread L. vitreum,
Sow., to the Nilgherries; but the name of the finder is not
recorded, and it has not’ been met with by Dr. Jerdon. Dr.
Cantor took it onan islet near Penang; its occurrence on the
mainland lying west of the Bay of Bengal requires confirmation.

Cyclostomus, Montf.

Dr. Pfeiffer assigns my species C. terswm, from the Khasya
hills..south-east of the Berhampooter, and my Nilgherry C. filo-
cinctumt and Trochlea (the two first with marks of doubt), to
this division. In the absence of opercula it is difficult to decide;
buat IL am inclined to dissent from his judgment in regard to
the. two latter....It seems to me probable that C. filocinctum
must, eventually. be referred to Cyclophorus; and C. Trochlea
does not well-agree with the species with which it has been
associated. May it not be an Omphalotropis?

Another stray species from the southern base of the Khasya
hills remains, viz. Cyclostoma sarritum, nobis, which, in the
absence of the operculum, cannot well be determined; it is
placed, by Pfeiffer among the species incerte sedis. Its form is
suggestive of Cyclostomus. .

It will be seen, from the above enumeration, how rich in
Cyclostomacea the tract under consideration is already proved
to be... Thirty-six well-ascertained species inhabit it, and three
others»are mdicated. . When the valleys of Nipal (from the
Ghagra to Sikkim), Bootan, the extensive jungle tract of Central
India, and. the extreme southern point of the peninsula, shall
have been properly explored, we may expect interesting additions
to the family. Most of the species enumerated have been made
known only very recently, and every year adds several species to
the catalogue.

Diplommatina, Bens.

If this genus should, on further examination (not of cabinet
specimens, but of the animal in the’shell), be proved, contrary
to the experience of those who have observed the species in their
native hills, to belong to the Cyelostomacea, three more species

* ] find, on reference to the Monograph, that Pfeiffer includes it under
Opotoma. A cousideration of the characters leads me to the conclusion
that its place will be found eventually in Cyclotus.

+ Vide note on this species under the heading “ Cyclotus.”

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xiv 27

418 Messrs Hy andA. Adams on the genus Tyleria.

will require to be added to the list... All,these,inhabit the north-
western portion of the Himalaya.,, ‘Two of them may be found
in company with Alyceus strangulatus, wherever that little shell
occurs. D. Huttoni,.Pfr., is, the most, local, having only been
taken at Simla, and at Jerripani below Mussoorie. JD. folliculus,
Pfr., and costulata, Hutt., are abundant in the whole. region.

In conclusion, I must again advert. to the total absence of the.
Cyclostomacea in the vast plains which extend from the, mouth
of the Indus round by the north of Delhi, and along the river
system of the Ganges, to the head of the Bay of Bengal, cutting
off from the Himalaya the central and southern mountain groups
of the Indian peninsula; a deficiency attributable, in all proba-
bility, to the want of rocky shelter, inasmuch as every variety of
aspect, from the most arid desert to a moist soil supporting the
richest. tropical vegetation, is present in the circuit. It must
however be remarked, that in the sandstone tract, extending from.
the west of the Sone river to Delhi, which is generally of an arid’
character, and even where primary and igneous rocks are up-
heaved beneath them, as in Bundelkhund, ‘no Cyclostomatous
shell has rewarded the researches of myself and others. °° ©

Spa, Belgium, 13th November, 1854. bi Bian

XXXIX.—Description of a new genus of Bivalve Mollusca. .
aa By H. and A. Apams. : ara

Tyteria, H. and A. Adams:

SHELL oblong, equivalve; valves thin, nearly membranaceous,
covered with a thin epidermis, rounded anteriorly, gaping and
slightly produced posteriorly. Hinge composed ,of a, carti-
lage-pit in each valve, cartilage internal, ligament partly ex-
ternal; a calcareous lamina extending from the ‘cartilage-pit
anteriorly, as far as the front muscular scar, supported in its
length by calcareous septa and free anteriorly; pallial im-
pression with slight posterior sinus. 3

The curious little shell on which this genus is founded, and
which we have named Tyleria fragilis, was discovered, buried in
sand, in the interior of other shells from Mazatlan, by R. W.
Tyler, Esq., to whom we have dedicated the genus,—a gentleman
well known as an enthusiastic conchologist and an indefatigable
collector. The calcareous lamella is connected with the interior
of the valves (for it is present in both) by means of vertical
plates, which, being produced on each. side, cause. the lamella to
assume a dentate appearance.

Royal Naval Hospital, Haslar,

Mr. R. Warington on Artificial Sea Water. 419

“XT On ‘Artificial Sea. Water.
By Rosrrt WArineron, Esq.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

_ GENTLEMEN, ©

Iw the ‘Annals and Magazine of Natural History’ for July last,
you published a short communication from Mr. Gosse, on the
artificial formation of sea water, and having lately had my atten-
tion especially directed to this paper by a friend who wished to
put the formula given into practice, I was surprised at the dif-
ference in the proportions of the ingredients as compared with
what 1 had myself employed in the course of 1853, more par-
ticularly. from the circumstance, that when Mr. Gosse called
upon mein January last, and consulted me on the feasibility of
the plan, I told him that there could be no difficulty in the
matter, as | had made and had then in use several. small quan-
tities artificially produced, and that all that was required was
that a good analysis should be taken as the basis for deducing
the proportions, and at the same time referred him to the source
from which I myself had worked, namely Dr. E. Schweitzer’s
analysis of the water of the English Channel taken off Brighton.

Now, as numerous parties have been inquiring respecting this
subject, and the erroneous formula has been copied into other
journals, it may prevent much annoyance as well as disappoint-
ment if this matter.is set right. .The error appears to be two-
fold, the one arising from miscalculation, the other from assu-
ming that the sulphate of magnesia as given in the analysis,
represented the ordinary crystallized salt, and not the anhydrous
sulphate, which is always the case in giving analytical results,
and which is, indeed, so specified by Dr. Schweitzer in his paper,
when he states that the dry residue obtained by the evaporation
of 1000 grains of water amounts to 35°25628 ers., consisting of
the following ingredients :—

Chloride of sodium. ...... ,, 27:05948 grains,
) jy. Of magnesium 4 .....;,°3°66658 __,,

is of potassium... .,. 0°76552___,,
Bromide of magnesium .., ... ,0°02929__,,
Sulphate of magnesia, ..... 2°29578 __,,

Carbonate,of lime. ....., _.9°03301 _ ,,
Sulphate of lime,.., , ......, 1:40662._,,

Now, as these results all stand im the same denomination, grains,
it is competent for us to treat them as pounds, ounces, or any
other weight that may best suit our purpose, and as the decimal

27%

420 Mr. R: Warington on’ Artificial Sea Water.

notation is 80 readily capable of facilitating these deductions,
there is no difficulty m at once arriving at the'correct relations.
Thus, the gallon of water being equal to 10 pounds, if we wish
to estimate the proportions of materials for that quantity, or for
100 pounds, 10 gallons, it only requires ‘that the decimal point
should be removed, in the first case, two figures, or, in the latter,
one figure to the left, and we have the whole operation ‘com-
pleted and the result exhibited in decimal fractions of the pound ;

thus for 100 Ibs. or 10 gallons :-—

Chloride of sodium . 2°706

» of magnesium 0-367

» Of potassium . 0:076
Bromide of magnesium 0-003 f anhydrous=0°472
Sulphate of magnesia. . 0°230 |. crystals.

3. of lime. . 0140 f anhydrous=0°178
Carbonate of lime 0:003 \_ crystallized sulphate.

It will be observed, that in order to simplify the notation I
have decreased the extended places of decimals and employed
the nearest amount to such fraction, by this means throwing off
three places of figures. Then by reducing these decimal frac-
tions to the nearest value in terms of avoirdupoise pounds and
ounces, the proportions will stand thus for the 100 pounds of
water produced —

Gosse.
Chloride of sodium . 431 ounces. © 35 ounces.
oy OL Madgneinadl Ss Ho Sas BG ‘i dey shy
99. OF potasstund 24 SAB, S2SNE 49, 3 OPsu %
Bromide of magnesium . .. 21° grains:
Sulphate of magnesia anhydrous
33 By: nab y 75 ounces, oe 4»

Sulphate of lime anhydrous 2f 24 On.
= crystallized . i “3
Carbonate of lime © .

33
21 grains.

In order to exhibit the extent of the error I have alluded to,
I have placed in the adjoming column, the proportions deduced
by Mr. Gosse from the same. analysis and for the same quantity
of water, one of the ingredients, having been omitted, besides the
two that exist in so smallja quantity. Now, as Dr. Schweitzer’s
analysis is on a given, weight of which the saline ingredients
constitute a part, it becomes necessary to deduct their weight
from the 10 gallons of water employed; this, it will be seen,
amounts to 60%, ounces, or in round numbers to 60 ounces,
which is equal ‘to three imperial pints, so that 9 gallons and
5 pints will be the true proportion of water to be used.

The next point that presents itself is as to the best mode of

Dr, G.,Meissner.on the Genus Mermis. 421

obtaining, these, saline ingredients: for the, manufacture of the
artificial sea water, as many. of. them, not being usually kept for
sale, would have to be made for.the purpose. There cannot bea
uestion that, by far the simplest plan would consist in the eva-
Airativn of the sea water itself.in large quantities at the source,
preserving the resulting salt in closely stopped vessels to prevent
the absorption, of moisture, and vending it in this form to the
consumer; the proportion, of this dry saline matter being
563 oz. to the 10 gallons of water, less the 3 pints... This plan
was suggested by Dr. E. Schweitzer himself for the extempora-
neous formation of sea water for medicinal baths, and, on in-
quiry since writing the above, I find that such a preparation is
manufactured by Messrs. Brew and Schweitzer of No. 71 East
Street, Brighton, under the title of “ Marme Salts for the instan-
taneous production. of sea water.” Mr. H. Schweitzer writes me,
that he has for many years. made this compound in accordance
with his cousin’s analysis. The proportion ordered to be used
‘i8'6 02. to the gallon of water and stirred well until dissolved.

¢ “Apothecaries’ Hall, Noy. 1, 1854.

XLI.—On the Genus Mermis*. By Dr, G. Mutssnzr.
Analysis by Dr. W. I. Burnerry.

AomEmotrR of great value has recently appeared upon these sin-
gular parasites, which has the double importance of quite clear-
ing up the history of these animals in all their stages, and of
furnishing a contribution to the histology of the lower animals
of a most valuable character.. This memoir has been prepared
by G. Meissner of Munich, under the directions of Siebold, who
furnished him with specimens and other opportunities for its
successful prosecution. Seldom have we met with a paper of
more careful and extended detail, and which leaves so little be-
hind for investigators in the same direction. Added to this
textual detail, every anatomical point is illustrated by admirably
executed figures. | With our limited space we can at best notice
only a few of the more prominent points of this paper.

In the first place it should be remarked that the natural
history of the Gordiacei was for a long time quite obscure ‘and
little understood, and many detached observations not of a
parallel character did not improve the subject. To the sagacity

* Beitrage zur Anatomie und Physiologie von Mermis albicans. Von
Dr. Georg Meissner. In Siebold und Kolliker’s Zeitschrift fiir wissen-

_schaftliche Zoologie, v. 1853, p. 207+285.
+ From Silliman’s American Journal of Science and Arts for July 1854.

429 De G. Méissner onthe Genus! Mernis.

of Siebold we ‘are indebted ‘for the ‘successful ‘solution of the
whole enigma, and the ‘results he has ‘obtained’ ‘are as singular
‘as new*. Tt) appears ‘that these ‘animals ‘live’ part’ of their
‘life as regular entozoons, and the rest ‘as independent’ beings.
“And what is most remarkable; ‘they enter the animals in which
they are for a time parasites, not im the form of eggs, as do
other Helminths, but ‘as more or less developed ‘forms.’ ‘The
animals in which they live as parasites are almost exclusively
Insects of different orders, m both the larva and! imago states.
In the ‘abdominal cavity of the larva’ of Yponomeuta’ albicans,
Siebold found numerous undeveloped forms of Mermis albicans.
Watching these he found that after further growth, they per-
forated the skin of these larve and made then escape: These
freshly-escaped individuals were all sexless, but'each contained
a considerable corpus adiposum, at the expense’ of ‘which “their
sexual parts were subsequently developed. These “animals
crawled about, and soon entered some damp earth, where'they
remained several months, during which time they were further
developed, changed their skin, “eopulated and laid their eges.
The embryos hatched from these eggs had the filamentoid form
of the adults, and as Siebold conjectured that they mtended'to
come to the surface for the sake of entermg in their turn’ young
insects, he procured quite young larve of this same insect’ and
put them in a glass vesael together with the young Mermithes.
In a few hours they had entered the body of these larvee, ‘two or
three in each. Siebold took the precaution to make this point
certain by carefully examining the larve’ previously and deter-
mining that their bodies were free of these parasites.’ After
this, the same round of life is again passed. It would appear,
then; that these animals pass their earlier (but ‘not’ their
embryonic) conditions of life, daring which’ they attain their
development—in fact a proper larval state—in the’ bodies of
insects, and that their life as distmet “sexual individuals is free
and non-parasitic. Siebold found this species in very many
genera of Lepidoptera, also’ im» different species of Orthoptera,
Coleoptera, and Diptera: We may mention that the common
Cricket, as also some other Orthoptera, are frequent recipients of
Mermis, and we have seen many'specimens of this kind. Until
Siebold’s recent contributions we had supposed, in common with
other naturalists, that these Helminths merely hibernated in
these insects, but this is now quite improbable.

So much for a brief reference to the mode of life of these

* Siebold. See the Entomol. Zeitung zu Stettin, 1848, p. 292, 1850,
p. 329; also Beitrige zur Naturgeschichte der Mermithen, in Siebold und
Killiker’s Zeitsch: fir wissensch. Zool. v. 1853, p. 211.

Dr..Gi/Meissner ‘on. the.Genus Mermis. 423

animals; we will now.turn and glance at: some of the important
histological points, as wrought out by Meissner,

Cutaneous, System.— Omitting the very full. details.given of
the structure of theskin in. these animals, its composition of three
distinct: layers, &e.j we will allude only to the fact that chitine
enters into, its formation. . This fact is.important. as corrobora-
tive of. other observations.) -Chitine was formerly supposed, to
elong-exclusively to. the teguments of the Arthropoda, being
particularly prominent in the skin of insects; but recent chemi-
cal.analyses.of the: teguments of lower animals show that. it
occurs in nearly every class of the Invertebrata*. It can there-
fore no longer be regarded. as having diagnostic characteristics
for' ¢ertain-classes, but sustains relations to the external dermic

‘skeleton, of, the, Invertebrata generally, analogous to those. of
bone in: the four. classes of Vertebrata.
o\e)dMusculan\ System.—This was found quite developed, and it is
a singular faet that.all,the muscles have a longitudinal direction.
‘Transverse, muscles do not exist... But Meissner .has indicated a
histological feature of the muscular tissue in these animals, which
deserves notice. . [tis well. known that striated muscular fibre is
svather, limited mits distribution among the Invertebrata, . We
‘have not observed it. below the Articulata, and have regarded it
vas. actually, absent! in the remaining classes—the Cephalopoda,
Cephalophora,,Acephala, Annelides, Turbellaria, Helminthes,
Kechinodermata, Acalephe, and Polypi... Now, we have hitherto
supposed from observations that the fibre being the true embryo-
logical element of, muscle, a further division into fibrille oecurred
only in the higher form of this fibre, the so-called striated muscle ;
in, other words; that.a-fibrillated structure of muscular fibre was
found,only,in the;-striated form. But Meissner desembes the
fibre of Mermis as readily capable of being split up into longi-
tudinal fibrille of the most regular and delicate character, and
yet. neither these fibres nor fibrille are properly transversely
striated... He remarks however, that an appearance like stria-
tion, 1s, sometimes, observed during a wave-like contraction of
the fibre}. Results: of this character which the more careful
research of the present day is developing, in the study of the
lower animals especially, fullyindicate that the subject of muscular
tissue is ‘not. well understood as to its manifold variations of

* Besides the present case we would refer to the following: Grube,
Miiller’s Arch. 1848, p. 461, and Wiegmann’s Arch, 1850, p. 253; Schultze,
Beitr. zur Naturgesch. d. Turbellarien, p. 33; and Leuckart in Siebold
und Kolliker’s Zeitsch. 1851, p. 192, and Wiegmann’s Arch, 1852, p. 22.

+ We suspect it is this same wave-like aspect that has been often mistaken
for striation in the muscles of some of the lowest animals, thereby leading
to no little discrepancy among observers in their statements.

424 Dr.,G. (Meissner on the Genus Mermis.

form; at least, after\we have left the typical forms of the higher
animals. Thus, I may mention that Leydig* found the muscles
of the alimentary canal. of Artemia among the Crustacea, com-
posed of spindle-shaped instead of disk-like elements, so arranged,
with the points and bases alternating, as to form a symmetrical,
fibrilla. In, conclusion, we may remark upon this system, that
Meissner found no sarcolemma, and no perimysium. of the
muscular layer.

Nervous System.—The researches of Dr. Meissner: in; this
direction have particular interest, because, the existence. of),this
system in the Gordiace: has been generally denied, and, if seen
by previous observers, their statements were most unsatisfactory f.
But the histology of this system is quite as interesting. »

Meissner found it so developed that he divides it into three
portions: a central, a peripheric, and a splanchnic portion.

The central portion is divided imto two parts, one at the.ce-
phalic, the other .at the caudal extremity of) the body. In:the
first are two anterior and two posterior cephalic ganglia, and an
cesophageal ring composed of a superior and an inferior! ganglion
united by lateral commissures, In’ the second part, situated an
the tail, there are three fusiform ganglia of like Abarackar} but
smaller than, those of the head.

The peripheric portion consists of six filaments given off, from
the upper part.of the anterior cephalic ganglia, which go to:as
many papille on the head, which are probably organs of sense,
—of two lateral. cords arising from the superior cesophageal
ganglion, which traverse the sides of the body, giving off filaments
to the muscles, the. skin, &c., and of some smaller twigs from
the cephalic centres for the muscles.of that regions rcs»

The splanchnic portion consists of. two, lateral trunks arising
from the oesophageal, ganglion, which soon.-meet and. unite:on
the median line of the body, forming one cord which extends to
the tail. . From, this cord are giyen off filaments, to the organs
of vegetative and reproductive life..

The three cords thus formed,, having: traversed the body,-end
each in. one of.the three ‘ganglia aboye deseribed... We can here
allude to only one more point, in, the, disposition of the nervous
system; this is the final, termination of the nerve-filament in
muscle... According. to, our author, a twig, enters the muscular
fibre at right angles, to, the course of the latter; and upon its
entrance divides into two twiglets, one of which runs with the

* Ueber Artemia. salina und Branchipus stagnalis, in Siebold und
Kolliker’s Zeitsch. i. p. 280,,Taf. 8. fig. 6. ,

+ Berthold and Blanchard both supposed they saw cords which might
be nerves, but their observations were wholly unsatisfactory ;—for references
see Siebold and Stannius’ Comp. Anat., Amer. ed., vol. 1. § 104. note 5.

Dr. G. Meissner on the Genus Mermis. 425

fibre one way and the other the opposite, becoming lost in the
muscular tissue*, _

‘The histology of this system in animals so minute as these,
worked out by an observer so expert and faithful as Meissner,
presents many note-worthy points.

The ganglia in question are composed exclusively of ganglion-
cells or globules which appear to be the infundibuliform expan-
sions of as many nerve-fibres that compose the nervous cord con-
necting these ganglia with the general system. There are none
of the so-called nerve-cells usually found in nervous centres—in
fact these central masses rather resemble true ganglionic forma-
tions, excepting that they are terminal instead of on the course
of a nervous cord. | Meissner’s description and figures, especially
the’ latter, aré so good, as to leave no doubt that there is
here a‘direct' continuity of the nerve-fibre with the ganglionic
vesiclei ia 91e) shaq ows
(Ina former notice we alluded to some discrepancy on this
point; and as'this:continuity had been observed by some, and yet
not seen: by others who had searched carefully for it, we suggested
that this direct connection, when present, might be an exceptional
condition’ But numerous researches since published, and espe-
cially the very complete memoir of Axmannf, represent this as a
very common disposition of the elements of nervous centres in
Man and>the Mammalia. The subject is indeed somewhat
obscure ma fanctional point of view, for what is the mterpreta-
tion of this’ direct continuity of the vesicular with the tubular
portion of this system ? Certainly it is not the essential condition
of function between the two, or all nerve-fibres would terminate
in this manner,’and there would’ be no ganglionic vesicles but
those: having this connection. “But this, as is well known, is far
from being ‘the case... We leave the subject until another time.
As to the structure of the peripheric nerves, our author describes
them'as having at first a distinct fibrillated structure as usual, but
that this gradually disappears and the nerve appears as a
homogeneous cord. But from our own investigations upon the
terminal nerves of some insects, we suspect that this disappear-
ance of the true fibrille may have been apparent and not real ;
for we have, in the eases referred to, thought that such was the
case, but by using higher powers with some reagents, the fibril
were seen. We think therefore that whatever may be the mode

* As Meissner observes, a similar disposition is mentioned by Doyére
(Ann. d. Sei. Nat. 1840, xiv. p. 346) in the muscles of the Tardigrada, and
by Quatrefages (ibid. 1843, xix. p. 300) in the Eolidina, some Annelides
and Rotatoria.

+ Beitr. z. mikroskop. Anat. u. Phys. d. Ganglien-Nerven-systems des
Menschen u. d. Wirbelthiere. Berlin, 1853.

~426 Dr. .Gay Meissner:on. the. Genus Mermis.

of termination.of the nerve-fibre, the fibrillar structure is never
lost.

Digestive. Apparatus, — This. structure, according to, Meissner,
presents so many peculiarities and.is.so. widely different from any-
thing observed im other animals, that.we almost relinquish any
attempt to give even a brief description. of it; without the aid, of
figures. In the first place, the alimentary canal, has no:anal or
excretory passages, and therefore the food) and assimilation must
be.such as to leave little or no so-called feecal matter.

From the circular buccal orifice a semi-canal proceeds a short
distance, when it passes into another structure... This semi-canal
is the cesophagus... The structure into which it, passes isa, tube
quite small at first, but which soon expands ; it is,filled.with;a
finely granular sponge-like substance, and is alternately dilated
on each, side into sacs... Through this laterally varicosetube
the semi-canal of an cesophagus extends to. its very end,,,/,Sup-
pose then a tube. with alternate lateral dilatations, filled with,.a
spongy substance, and through which runs.a semi-canal, or; half-
tube like an cesophageal groove. ach of these. dilatations, hasan
inversion—a folding in of .its internal. membrane, producing an
infundibuliform body in. the dilatation itself. . This body.opens
through a prolongation of the external membrane of .the.dilata-
tion, which is continuous into a tube connecting with some adipose
receptacles. |

The food. passes along the semi-canal or groove, 1s. gradually
absorbed. by the spongy substance filling the dilatation, thence
passes into the invested body by endosmotic absorption, ,and.is
then. conveyed as assimilated. material into, the, fat-receptacles
which lie in the cavity of the body. .. These receptacles. are store-
houses of nutriment and are particularly enlarged. and developed
during the larval condition,—their. contents being used, for..the
formation of the. sexual parts. afterwards... Now.as there is no
vascular system in these animals, the dispersion of the nutrient
material for the growth and substance of, the various tissues must
take place by permeation and endosmosis from. the fat-bodies
which extend over and between.all the organs... This assimilation
without any particular, excretion is a,remarkable. fact; but it
appears more conceivable when, we bear in. mind the ceconomy
of the animal... Its larval.or, parasitic state is like that of imsects
——merely preparatory for the.ulterior changes of its full develop-
ment. During this time its food is probably mostly pure fat,
which has only to be taken up.and stowed away as material for
the development of the reproductive organs. This last ensues
during a quiescent state, and after the full discharge of the
sexual functions, the animal probably dies.

Genitalia.— Males.—The disparity in numbers of males and

DG: Meissner on the’ Genus Mermis. ‘427

females was remarkably wide—our author having found’ only
three males among several hundred specimens examined. “He
divides the internal organs into testis, vas deferens, vesicula semi-
nalis, and ‘ductus ejaculatorius; but these are’ all continuous,
formmeg’ a cecal tube stretching from the anterior portion of the
body to the caudal extremity. The testis consists of the infun-
dibuliform cecal extremity of this tube and is lined with nucle-
ated, epithelial (?) cells.

The external organs consist of two penises situated one on
“each ‘side of ‘the ductus ejaculatorius ina sheath. They are
-eomposed of two somewhat curved half-canals disconnected when
unprotruded with the internal organs ; but when protracted, they
‘form’a more or less closed tube projecting beyond the external
‘orifice of the duct.

"Females. —Meissner divides the internal female organs, which
are double, ‘into five portions: ovary, vitellus-organ, albumen-
‘sac, ‘tuba, and wterus.. Their names indicate their respective
feiictions, and we can here enter into no description of their
intimate structure.

"© By connection with this should be noticed one point not a little
véinarkable, that is,’a kind of hermaphroditism occurring in
these atiimals.

“OMeissner found individuals which had perfectly well-formed
internal female genital organs, but whose caudal extremity was
wholly male. Thus, there were the penises, with their protractor
and retractor*muscles, their sheaths—in fact, all the external or-
gans of the male, yet in these individuals no trace of internal -
male or of external female organs could be found. Moreover
these organs present precisely the same characteristics as though
in proper males and females, and had also a functional activity, —
eges' being’ found im’ the ovaries, &c. But this anomaly was
never found in the inverse sense, that is, female external and male
internal organs. Here then is presented the striking peculiarity
of an animal having double systematically-developed internal
organs of one sex, and at the same time perfectly-formed external
organs of the other sex.’ This hermaphroditism, it will be seen,
is like that of other animals only in name; for m these last the
double sex.is at the expense of the symmetry, one side being
female and the other male, or it is due to modifications of analo-
gous facts by different grades of development, thereby destroying
generally the functional perfection and completeness of each or
one of the forms of the sexual organs. But here we have a per-
fectly symmetrical female internally, with an equally symmetrical
male externally, with no fusion of parts.

In regard to the development of the spermatic particles, our
author’s researches have been minute and quite complete. His

428 Dr. G) Meissnér on the Genus’ Mermis:

results confirm|the doctrines of Kolliker, Wagner, and ourselves ;
that is, there are parent sperm-cells in which.are formed daughter-
cells ; in each of these last there is formed a spermatic particle.
But Meissner is undecided whether this formation occurs through
a metamorphosis of the nucleus of the daughter-cell. Our own
observations have led us fully to think that this nucleus is thus
metamorphosed.

The development of the egg is very remarkable, as it shows,
what we have never clearly understood before, viz. how botryoidal
ovular masses are formed, and moreover carries out the beautiful
analogy existing. even to minute details, between the functions of
the parent sperm-cell and the ovular cell. An ovular or egg-cell
from the ovary is seen; it increases in size and its nucleus seg+
mentates, several nuclei bemg formed. These nuclei approach
the surface of what we will now call the parent egg-cell ; ‘diver-
ticula are given off from the cell-wall by protrusions containmg
each a nucleus. These protrusions become constricted! and at
last appear as little daughter-cells, on the surface of the parent-
cell. They now increase at the expense of this last, become
pedunculated, and finally appear as larger pedunculated cells
attached around a common, insignificant centre.’ Thesearé’ the
ova, and form groups of variable number— Meissner having ob-
served as many as twenty, though there are generally less. °° Thus
formed, their peduncles break off, and they pass from the eiaty
proper into the other sections of the genital tube.

There is one other point taken up in connection with this sislijeet
by Meissner, to which we shall briefly allude.’ We refer to the
wonderful micropyle of Keber, by which it is alleged. that the
spermatic particles penetrate the interior of the egg and impreg-
nate it. Meissner has seen nothing to justify the view that such
a structure exists in the eggs of Mermis excepting the remains of
the peduncle above mentioned, and he is not stire of' this being
hollow. Moreover even if it were hollow, it appears to us wholly
different from the special structure insisted upon by Keber.

As to the embryonic development of Mermis, our author found
nothing essentially different from what had been described by
previous observers upon this order (Grube, Leidy, &c.). No
proper metamorphosis appears to occur, and therefore the newly-
hatched embryos more or less closely resemble in form, &c., the
adults.

In conclusion, we repeat what we said in the beginning, that
this memoir is one of the most excellent of its kind we have ever
seen, and the care, patience and fidelity displayed therein. will
ensure attention towards its author as one from whom much may
be expected.

Dr. W. Hofmeister.on the Fecundation of the Conifer. 429

XIAI.—On the' Fecundation of the Conifere.
By Dr. W. Hormetster*.

- Rozsert Brown’s prophecy, that the Coniferee would furnish
the fittest material for the detection of the act of reproduction
in Phanerogamic plants, on account of the length of time occu-
pied in the development of their seeds, has not been fulfilled.
-’ Long.as the. period is. in the Conifere, especially in the Firs,
between flowering and maturity, the development does not pro-
gress gradually, but.in imtermittent leaps; in the most decisive
epochs. it advances with great rapidity, and no external sign is
given. of this... Difficulties are placed in the way of observation,
over and.aboye those depending upon the structural conditions,
which, explain sufficiently not only the differences of opinion of
the many. investigators who have busied themselves with this
question, but also the fact that a by no means inessential feature
of the. process of development has hitherto eseaped observation.
;>Schacht, has lately published some remarks upon this sub-
ject}. The conclusions he draws from his latest observations,
which deviate from the account given by me three years ago, are
essentially as follows :—
|. ‘Active filaments (spermatozoids) are not formed at any time

injthe pollen-tube of the Conifers I have examined. The act
of impregnation, in the Coniferze is in no way comparable with
the formation of the germ of the higher Cryptogamia in the in-
terior of the‘germ-organ’ [ Keim-organ ; this is the name applied
by Schacht to the archegonium].

“No free cells originate in the corpuscula of the Coniferee.
What. Hofmeister regarded as cells, are globular spaces filled
with clear fluid, bounded by a denser substance containing fiue
granules; they are what are called pseudo-cells (vacuoles) not
uncommonly occurring elsewhere, and making their appearance
m.the same way even in the pollen-tube of the Conifere them-
selves * * *, . From this it is clear that Hofmeister’s view, that
a cell existing in the corpusculum is impregnated by the pollen-
tube, rests upon a misconception, since no free cell exists im the
corpusculum before the entrance of the pollen-tube (p. 288).

“‘ When-the pollen-tube has penetrated into the corpusculum
im the Scotch Fir (Pinus sylvestris), it soon swells up slightly ; it
displays itself as a small vesicle in the apex of the corpusculum.
By the formation of a horizontal septum a cell originates in this
vesicle; this cell divides cross-ways into four daughter-cells. To

Ri? eed the ‘ Flora,’ Sept. 14th, 1854. Translated by Arthur Henfrey,
F.R.S. &e.

+ Beitrage zur Anatomie und Physiologie der Gewichse, Berlin, 1854,
pp. 287 and 324.

430. Dr,.W. Hofmeister on theKecundation-of the Conifere.

the short sac-like part.of the) pollen-tube hangs, at this, time,
in the summit of the corpusculum, the body composed of four
cells, which is soon afterwards to be found at the,bottom of, the
corpusculum, that.is to say, at, the part opposite to the point
where the pollen-tube entered. . This, cellular, body, out of which:
are formed not only. the so-called ‘lower. rosette,’ but the:sus-:
peusors and the first cell of the embryo, makes.its way very gra-
dually to the bottom of the corpuseulum, detachingitself from
the sac-like portion of the pollen-tube... For the contents of,the
corpusculum become very, gradually more limpid from above:
downwards; the lower, denser portion, still filled. with vacuoles}:
consequently supports the cellular body, till at length it reaches |
its. goal and then undergoes further development.,, Not-anfre2
quently, however, a division of the four cells_in»a-horizontal»
direction takes place earlier, on which account the cellular; body
situated at the base of the corpusculwm ordinarily. consists) no!)
longer of four simple cells arranged side-by side in a rosette; but),
of four double cells... I traced this cellular body both ‘in its for-
mation from the end of the penetrating pollen-tube;.andoalso/ino
its course downwards, so that I have seen. it perfectly. developeds::
composed. of four cells, still connected with the sac-lke>portion
of the pollen-tube, in the apex of the corpusculum, then’ in:the
middle of the latter, and finally in the place of, its: destination;
the base of the corpusculum (p. 326). |
“In the Yew (Taxus baccata) it is well known that the aa
tube applies itself as a large vesicle over, the summit) ofthe
embryo-sac ; it descends into the excavations, under which,the:
corpuscula lie, and forms even there, before it-has broken through
the softened. wall of a corpusculum, in its interior (and apparently
by division, not by. free cell-formation) a body composed:of four
cells arranged like a rosette, which probably. originates; like the
body composed of four similar cells on, the pollen-tubeof Pinus,
by. the division of one mother-cell (whether by a single,or two
successive divisions is a question)... 1, was fortunate enough
several times to detach. uninjured the pollen-tube overlying) a
corpusculum, so that I was enabled to examine the cellular body
lying in a pouch-like protrusion of the pollen-tube, most closely,
several times and. on all sides, The apex, or rather the pouch of
the vesicularly expanded’ pollen-tube, in which the said cellular
body lies, in the next place sinks into the corpuseulum, and gra-
dually fills it up by expanding \until its size corresponds to the
cavity of the corpusculum. The cellular body situated in the
pouch of the pollen-tube, now inside the corpusculum, enlarges
meanwhile by repeated, but not always perfectly regular cell-
division * * *, I succeeded in dissecting out the portion of the
pollen-tube which had penetrated into the corpusculum, perfect,

Dr. W. Hofmeister on the’ Fecundation of the Conifers. 431

in various states of development. Ordinarily however the pollen-
tube is torn off at the point where it fits the opening of the
corpusculum.”

It will be perceived that Schacht’s present description removes
two of the most important points of difference existing between
himand me. .The untenable assertion, that in the Abietinese
the'pollen-tube gradually fills up the corpusculum, and then pro-
duces the first cell of the embryo in its interior, is wholly re-
tracted.’ The young pro-embryo of Taxus is represented, in ae-
cordance with nature, as composed of parallel longitudinal rows
of cells, not drawn as formerly*, as a longish-ovate mass of
twelve-sided cells. The microscopical figures, the interpretation
of* which is now in question, do not differ importantly from
what: Ihave seen. |

(In: recent years, my researches have been almost exclusively
directed to the fecundation of the Conifers, in those few weeks
during which the most decisive stages of development are passed
through. “I have especially endeavoured to make out the course
ofidevelopment of those free cells which make their appearance
in the expanding pollen-tube, to which I directed attention on a
former oceasiont. ‘I have not yet arrived at a decision on this
point: but ‘on the other hand, I have complete observations
which make me regard the new views of Schacht as unfounded.
I publish the existing results of my later researches, in the hope
of ‘stimulating some other observers to form an opmion on this
subject from their: own observations, in the course of the next
few years.” First’ of all, however, I will call attention to the two
facts, sufficiently established before, which stand in direct oppo-
sition to Schacht’s present account, viz. the presence of nume-
rous free cells in the corpusculum before the arrival of the pollen-
tube, and the circumstance that the first cell of the pro-embryo
maybe observed; in all the three great divisions of the Conifere,
as a simple cell (not originally asa rosette of cells) pressed into
the lower coneavity of the corpusculumt.

It is quite imexplicable how Schacht can question the first of
these conditions. © The majority of observers, Mirbel and Spach,
Gottsche and: Pineau, mention these cells; Pineau has figured
them in Pinus sylvestris. The vacuoles, which appear earlier than
in the fluid contents of the corpuscula,and which Schacht describes
quite correctly, have nothing im common with these cells.

In the Abietinez, as in the Cupressinex, each corpusculum

* Schacht, Entw. des Pflanzen-Embryon, t. 9. figs. 11, 13.

+ Vergleichende Untersuchungen, &c., p. 132 (1851).

f Wid pp. 133, 136, 137. This stage of development, and still more
the preceding, of which I shall speak subsequently, are passed through so
rapidly, that then being overlooked is readily excusable.

432 Dr. W. Hofmeister on the Fecundation of the Coniferee.

originally contains only one very large ceutral vacuole ; the pro-
toplasm of the contents of the corpusculum forms a layer over
the wall, on which the primary nucleus of the cell is imbedded *.
This condition is at an end early in the Abietinez, in Pinus
sylvestris at the beginning of June. The watery fluid which filled
the vacuoles becomes distributed into the continually multiplying
smaller globular cavities of the protoplasm, the dunendon: of
which become progressively smaller in proportion to the total
internal eavity of the still constantly enlarging corpusculum. The
free globular cells now make their appearance outside these
vacuoles, which from this time disappear one after another. This
condition is particularly evident in Pinus canadensis, where one
or two of these vacuoles still exist shortly before the impregna-
tion, among the collection of floating cells which fill up the whole
corpusculum. ‘That the said structures are cells is proved, not
only by their aspect and the presence of a nucleus, but more
particularly by their often-observed multiplication +. “it

In the Cupressinez the one central vacuole, and also the pri-
mary nucleus of each corpusculum, are retained until a short time
before the impregnation. A few days only (the space of time
cannot be stated accurately on account of the seeds of the
Cupressinexw not being developed simultaneously ; I have every
reason to believe it is at most forty-eight hours) before, the
pollen-tubes reach the upper ends of the corpuscula, by push-
ing aside the rosettes of cells covering them, the single vacuole
becomes broken up into several, between and especially above
which the formation of free spherical cells takes place. Mean-
while the primary nucleus of the corpusculum slowly disappears ;
its nucleoli remain visible longer than its membrane. ie

In general, among the numerous daughter-cells of the corpus-
cula, those situated in the upper end, next the micropyle, are
farther developed than the rest. While the latter appear desti-
tute of a membrane, as ‘primordial cells’ (naked primordial
utricles), the former are usually enclosed in a demonstrable cel-
lulose coat ; in the Firs (Pinus sylvestris, austriaca, maritima) often
appressed against the wall of the corpusculum or impressed into its
upper convexity, like the germinal vesicles of the Monocotyledons
and Dicotyledons ; in the Pines (Pinus Picea, L., and canadensis)
mostly swimming free, not globular however here, but ovate.
In Taxus, where the number of comparatively large cells appear-
ing free in the corpusculum is but small; a single one ordinarily
swims free in the centre of the corpusculum, while the remainder
adhere to various points on the wall. Here, there is not the

* Ibid. t. 28. figs. 4, 5.

+ Vide Pineau, Ann. des Sc. Nat. 3 sér. xi. pl. 6; and my Vergleich.
Untersuch. pl. 29. figs. 1, 3-5.

Dr. W. Hofmeister on the Fecundation of the Conifere. 433

least difficulty in observing these cells; in. the Abietinez and
the Cupressinez, on the contrary, their outlines are often diffi-
cult to detect, on account of the fluid contents of the corpusculum
and its daughter-cells refracting light in exactly the same de-
gree. But by keeping the preparation for a-longer time in
water, still better by treating it with a very dilute acid, all the

conditions come out clearly even in these.

The internal walls of the upper part of the corpuscula of the
Cupressinez become thickened, often very strongly, in the man-
ner of scalariform vessels. In Biotia orientalis, in particular,
these walls when viewed in face present a very elegant appear-
ance, through the transverse streaking, depending on the small
breadth and close apposition of the slit-like thinner parts of the
membrane.

The formation of the free cells in the interior of the pollen-
tube does not commence until its arrival at the albumen-mass,
in the Cupressinexe (Juniperus communis, Sabina and. virginiana ;
Biotia orientalis), after the rupture and passage through the mem-
brane of the embryo-sac (dissolved at the point of contact) andafter
the hollow above the apex of the corpusculum has been filled up.
The earliest conditions (recognized as early by the. corpuscula,
with untouched rosette lids, still contaming a. large: central
vacuole, the formation of free cells in their interior not having
yet taken place) display, swimming in the centre of the expanded
portion of the pollen-tube, one large, free, globular cell with a
very soft membrane, through the fluid contents of which, ren-
dered opake by numerous granules, a central globular nucleus
shines as a lighter space. Preparations in which the pollen-
tube had commenced the displacement of the rosette of cells
covering the corpuscula, frequently exhibited two. such cells, or
the cell had a longish ellipsoidal form and contained two nuclei,
one in each focus. In a few cases I saw three, in two cases
four such globular cells in the end of the pollen-tube. When
there are more than one, they are always smaller than a solitary
one. Other pollen-tubes, taken from ovules where the corpus-
cula were filled with daughter-cells, contained in place of one or
more of these large cells, one or two groups of four to eight
smaller cells, with similar contents to the larger, adherent to the
wall. Sometimes a number of such smaller cells occur with one
large one in the same pollen-tube. In many cases the smaller
separate from one another when the preparation is pulled about
in extracting the pollen-tube. When these smaller cells are
burst by pressure, three things may be distinguished in the con-
tents: very small granules, globular or angular, in which the
three dimensions are about equal; longish corpuscles, spindle-
shaped or stick-shaped, coloured brown by iodine, like the

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 28

434 Dr. W. Hofmeister on the Fecundation of the Conifere.

smaller granules; lastly, minute vesicles with very finely gra-
nular, almost transparent contents, of diameter about equalling
the length of the spindle-shaped bodies.

It appears indispensable to the accomplishment of the impreg-
nation, that the pollen-tube should, im the Cupressinez also,
completely displace or push aside the covering rosette of the
corpusculam, so as to come into direct contact with the upper
convexity of the corpusculum. My former statement*, contrary
to this, seems to depend upon an erroneous interpretation of an
observation: either the large cells, apparently situated im the
lower concavity of two corpuscula, observed then (only in one
case) with a perfect preservation of the rosette of cells closing
up the corpuscula, may have been abnormally enlarged ‘sister-
cells of these corpuscula, beside, not in the corpuscula ;—or, the
pollen-tube may have reached the impregnated corpusculum late-
rally, by a protruded process removed in making the section.
In an uncommonly large number of examinations, I have
never met with anything similar in Juniperus. Cases correspond-
ing to the first hypothesis, I have observed repeatedly, as before ‘+,
in Cupressus, in which the development of pollen-tubes and of
embryos was wholly arrested every year, while the albumen and
the corpuscula attained to their full size—as ordinarily happens in
our climate, probably resulting from the low temperature at the
period of the discharge of the pollen. Phznomena analogous to
the second conjecture occur in the Abietinez, where it happens at
times, in the most varied species, that the pollen-tube makes its
way to the corpusculum by penetrating laterally through the
tissue of the albumen, and not by the appointed way, through
the covering-cells of the corpuscula. In Biotia orientalis also I
have observed a pollen-tube penetrate into the endosperm far to
one side of the group of corpuscula; it contained one'of the
often-mentioned large cells.

Ordinarily the pollen-tube sends out'a short process into the
corpuscula to be impregnated, pushing inwards the softened,
apparently thicker membrane of their upper convexity. | At the
same time it pushes the remains of the compressed covering-
cells before it, and penetrates into the interior of the corpus-
culum, through that gelatinous layer, if this has not been, as
often happens, already dissolved and destroyed: More rarely
the pollen-tube merely rests upon the summit of the corpus-
culum; it is equally rare for it to’ penetrate into it more than
about ;4,th of its length. Once I found it (in Juniperus com-
munis) advanced as far as 4th of the longest diameter of a cor-

* Vergleich. Unters. p. 131. pl. 33. fig. 12.
+ Ibid. pl. 33. fig. 26.

Dr. W. Hofmeister on the Fecundation of the Conifere. 435

pusculum, It had only.just touched the corpuscu/um immediately
adjoining this one, but impregnation had taken place in both.
The rarest cases are those in which the pollen-tube sends out a
slender, very short pouch between the covering-cells of the cor-
pusculum, these at the same time retaining pretty much their
original position and form.

1 always found the projecting pouches of the pollen-tubes
closed, even in the cases where it was evident. umpregnation, had
but just taken place: when the first cell of the pro-embryo, free
and.of spherical shape, had not yet descended to the bottom of
the corpusculum, In Biotia orientalis it is not difficult to pre-
pare the pollen-tube free from the albumen, and to extract its

rfectly closed projection out of the impregnated corpusculum.
Tn the Junipers this manipulation is rendered difficult, by the
rapid.expansion of the contents of the corpuscula both in pure
water, and in solutions of salts or sugar. But the phenomena
saue'bs occurring here in the expansion and final bursting of the

are,so much the more convincing ; the pouch of the
aon we which had penetrated into the corpusculum is turned
inside out, anda rapid whirling current, is set up into it.
| Finally, the vesicular expansion bursts, and the contents of the
_ corpusculum make their way into the interior of the pollen-tube.
After the arrival of the pollen-tube at the corpusculum, one of
the cells which had been produced in its interior increases in
circumference and in its finely-granular contents. In none of
the, Cupressinee did I see this cell in contact with the pouch of
the pollen-tube.which had penetrated the corpusculum. On the
contrary, in many.cases the position of its unaltered sister-cells
rendered .such.a process in a high degree improbable, inasmuch
as. these. so filled up the.space between that cell and the end of
the pollen-tube, that the enlarged cell could not have made its
way through them. In the earliest conditions of which I could
get.a view, the, enlarged, impregnated cell was in the upper
third of the conpusculum; in other cases in its centre or lower
end, where. it is at. first only loosely imbedded. In many in-
stances a globular nucleus without nucleoli may be detected in
its. centre, in other cases this cannot be made yisible. The
region of the corpusculum below the descendmg impregnated
germinal vesicle, is remarkably poor in cells.

After the impregnated germinal yesicle has become firmly

_ adherent to the lower end of the corpusculum, it divides, in all
cases, by, a horizontal septum. Then first, often only in the
lower cell of the two, occurs the formation of longitudinal septa,
converting the pro-embryo into a body composed of parallel
longitudinal rows of cells.

During this process, those small cells with opake contents
28%

436 Dr. W>. Hofmeister onthe Feeundation of the Conifers.

adherent to the wall, are ordimarily tobe: found:in the interior
of the pollen-tube, but» now separate from one’ another. Some
have burst ; the solid bodies contained within them are diffused
im the cavity of the pollen-tube.’ Manyoof the still intact cells
are ‘also frequently shrivelled: up. « Sometimes the» pollen-tube
contains ‘no cellular structures of any kind durmg the impreg-
nation ; but I never missed then the spindle-shaped: and: stick-
shaped bodies which were especially accumulated in. the pouches
which penetrated into the corpuscula, being often joinedin num-
bers into bundles.» Pollen-tubes of this character could: be more
readily dissected out free than those of the first-kind, both an
Biotia and in Juniperus. Lastly, it: happens: that those large
cells are preserved, mostly the majority, im the :pollen-tube,
during and after the impregnation ; but -very much changed;
flattened mto'a lenticular or meniscus form, firmly: appressed to
the wallvof the pollen-tube, sometimes at the side, sometimes ‘at
the bottom. The central nucleus has now vanished 5: mats ‘place
are perceived in the cloudy) (by transmitted light; yellowish)
contents of the cell; a definite number (8-16) of) sharply cir-
cumscribed, circular, bright places (nuclei), between which’ run
delicate reticulated lines (the faces of ‘contact of: daughter-cells)
only to be detected’with the best defining magnifiers. 0 This'is the
appearance in face; in profile it is perceived that itis a simple
layer of ‘prismatic cellules, into which the: large ‘cell as’ been
divided. In a single instance a fresh, freely swimming, globular,
large cell with ‘a central nucleus was observed) m the pollen-tube
of an ovule of Biotia orientalis, in two of the corpusculaof which
the ‘pro-embryos had already made ‘their appearance,\In all
these cases those stick-shaped: bodies were to’ be found, ‘even
though sparingly, in the pollen-tubes; outside the large cells.
‘In pollen-tubes in’ this condition (which ‘effect impregnation as
freely as the others) I never met with the protruded pouches
sent into the corpuscula. There'is*not the) slightest: difficulty
here in separating the pollen-tube, uninjured, from the albumen
and the fertilized corpuscula. | )

The appearance of free globular cells in the widely expanded
end of the pollen-tube of Taxus baccata, formerly described and
figured by me*, is also in this plant followed by alterations of
these cells similar to those occurring in the Cupressinee. ‘In
farther developed ovules, such cells appear firmly applied against
the wall of the pollen-tube, much flattened’ down, and divided
by walls standing crosswise and perpendicular to the mem-
brane of the pollen-tube. This condition of the said cells,,the
size of which mostly exceeds that of the young pro-embryo,

* Vergleichende Unters. p. 132, t. 31. fig. 18.

Dr. W. Hofmeister on the Kecundation of the Conifers. 487

strikingly resembles in the profile view young conditions of the
pro-embryos, of the Abietinee more particularly, in a lesser degree
those of Taxus itself. |
‘I found the behaviour of the pollen-tubes to the impreg-
nated corpusculum twofold; in Taxus as in Juniperus: either the
pollen-tube sends a short process into the narrow mouth of the
corpusculum, or it applies itself: broadly over the summit of the
corpusculum, with a shallow convexity of its membrane projecting
alittle way into it.. In both cases the five or six cells of the
covering-rosette’ of the corpusculum were mostly only pushed
asunder and. squeezed flat, not completely absorbed. The pollen-
tube was very firmly adherent to them. As they are very inti-
mately-connected with their neighbouring cells, the pollen-tube
is usually torn:at this place in the attempt to dissect 1t out from
the impregnated corpusculum. In rare cases the adhering cover-
cells:of' the corpusculum are separated from their connection and
lifted ap with the pollen-tube. Then even the outline of the
pouch of the: pollen-tube is frequently rendered indistinct by
adherent and contained granular mucilage, so that it is not often
to: be» clearly made out whether this pouch is closed or has a
minute opening, But so much the more certainly can we be
convineed of the closure of the flat protusions of the pollen-tube
squeezed in’ between the cells of the covering-rosette; the form
inowhich, as.it appears to me, the impregnation most frequently
takes places: 2

According: to: Schacht’s idea, one of these cell-rosettes, similar

to young pro-embryos, must be formed in the pollen-tube, over
each corpusculum to be impregnated, into which, then, after the
destruction of the cover of the corpusculum, the large portion of
the pollen-tube lying above it has to bulge out and insert itself,
carrying the four--ormany-celled pro-embryo to the bottom of
the icorpusculum. Against this view speak not only the above-
stated, but: the following reasons :—

1. In all cases, I find the cell-rosette, which makes its appear-
ance in the pollen-tube, somewhat larger, than the earliest rudi-
ment of the pro-enrbryo, and much too large to pass through the
ordinarily narrow, mouth of the corpusculum. In particular, the
part of the pollen-tube which is torn off in the attempt to extract
it, from) the just-impregnated, corpusculum, 1s very small, quite
out of proportion to the size of the cell-rosettes in the pollen-
tube and of the young pro-embryo.

I give a few of the measurements :—

a. Transverse diameter of the young, four-celled pro-embryo,
0°753' millim.

488 Dr. W. Hofmeister on the Fecundation of the Conifers.

Transverse diameter of the mouth of the corpusculum into
which a short protrusion of the pollen-tube hadpenetrated,
0°111 millim.

b. Smallest diameter of a cell-rosette ddbvesent to the stares

wall of the pollen-tube, 0°500 millim.

Greatest diameter of the same, 1°225 millim.

Transverse diameter of the mouth of a corpusculum impreg-
nated by the same pollen-tube, 0°124 millim.

Transverse diameter of the unicellular rudiment of a pro-
embryo situated at the bottom of the same corpusculum,
0°832 muillim.

c. Transverse diameter of the orifice of a pollen-tube torn off
at the point of entrance into the corpusculum, 0:013
millim.

Upper end of the eight-celled pro-embryo situated at’ the
bottom of this corpusculum, 0°861 millim.

2. In a pollen-tube dissected free from an impregnated cor-
pusculum, I detected the shrivelled remains of the cell-rosette
contained in it, situated above the point where the latter had
been torn off.

3. The upper part of the corpusculum, not. filled up by the
pro-embryo, contained free cells exactly similar to those existing
there before impregnation.

4. There is no reason to doubt that the simple cells, fre-
quently observed, filling up the lower concavity of the corpus-
cula of Taxus baccata and canadensis, are the primary cells of
the pro-embryos. But, in that case, they could not derive their
origin from ni cell-rosettes contained in the pollen-tube.

I owe to the kindness of my friend Schacht, a sight of his
preparations of Taxus baccata. They have not been sufficient
to convince me of the correctness of his interpretation. Schacht
has several times observed that in Taxus also (as frequently
happens in Juniperus and the Abietinee) the pollen-tube’ pene-
trates pretty deeply into the corpusculum and there expands to
a certain extent ;—perhaps an individual peculiarity of the spe-
cimens which furnished Schacht with the- materials for his
investigations ; throughout very numerous examinations I have
never met with anything of the kind. These vesicularly-ex-
panded pouches of the pollen-tube, separated from the corpuscles,
were of very various magnitudes. I estimated the diameter of
one at O°l millim.; of another at 0-4 millim. The largest
would therefore have about half filled a corpusculum ; ‘a condition
which is sometimes at least approximatively attained even in the
gigantic corpuscula of the <Abietinee. The but indistinctly
perceptible cellular structures existing in these protruded sacs

Dr, W. Hofmeister.on the Fecundation of the Conifere. 489

of the pollen-tubes bore no resemblance whatever either to
young pro-embryos of ,.Tavus, or the cell-rosettes originating
together with them in the pollen-tubes, of which latter Schacht
possessed. very, elegant preparations,

There cannot be the slightest doubt that the pro-embryo of
the Abietinee may be observed as. a simple cell impressed into
the lower concavity of the corpusculum; the first division of this
cell taking place, as in Juniperus, by a transverse wall. Very
often, the crosswise arranged longitudinal walls, which lay the
foundation of the construction of the pro-embryo out. of four
longitudinal rows of cells, make their appearance only in the
lower, of, the two cells; or the upper and larger of the two is
divided only once by a longitudinal wall. These cases, frequent —
in Pinus Strobus and canadensis, contradict Schacht’s view most
decidedly. Among the preparations: which Schacht was good
enough to show me, I found one which exhibited a free cell-
rosette of four tough-walled cells in the upper concavity of a
corpusculum which had been halved by the section. In another
corpusculum of the same albumen, opened by the same cut, it
could be made out that the pro-embryo which had originated there
had already sent out embryonal tubes + of a line long.

Whoever has made investigations on the fertilization of the
Abietineze, knows how surprisingly simultaneous, in all ovules of
the same species, is the passage through the exceedingly rapid
course of the first stages of development of the pro-embryo. I
may mention by way of example, that at Leipsic, in the present
year (1854), not a pollen-tube had penetrated to a corpusculum
on the 22nd of June, while only three days later, on the 25th of
June, among several hundreds of impregnated corpuscula that
were examined, not one could be found which did not contain
at, least, one. 4-celled pro-embryo. I regard it as quite impossible
that, one corpusculum.can outstrip its neighbour by some twelve
days, in one and. the same albumen, in the development of the
embryo. I look upon that preparation of Schacht’s as an arti-
ficial product ; I, believe that cell-rosette -- perhaps the end-cells
of the embryonal tubes of the neighbouring corpusculum—must
have been carried, in slicing, into the impregnated corpusculum.
Such occurrences readily happen. in. making sections of objects
held between the thumb and finger... I possess a preparation of
Pinus canadensis, in, the. opened, apparently otherwise undis-
turbed.corpusculwm of which, lies an epithelial cell from the skin
of the finger-tip. | Other preparations of Schacht’s exhibited,
beside the introduced end of the pollen-tube, two cells, flattened
by mutual pressure, appressed against the upper concayity of the
corpusculum—germinal vesicles, such as I have already figured
in. a similar condition in Pinus austriaca. Schacht has no ob-

440... Dr. W. Hofmeister on the ecundation of the Conifers.

servations to speak directly in favour of his assertion that the
said cell-rosétte'is formed fromthe pollen-tube by “tying-off ”
(abschniirung).

My later researches, made’ principally upon Pinus canadensis,
have led me; to the conclusion, that thejappearance of: the: first
cell of the pro-embryo in the bottom ofthe corpusculum,is a
secondary condition, Many times, in corpuscula; into or, upon
which pollen-tubes had penetrated, I detected in thesmiddle of:
the corpusculum free, ovate cells, distinguished above theirineigh-
bours—unimpregnated germinal . vesicles~by: size; and above:
all by the extremely abundant granular mucilage they contained, °
in ‘the same way as is the case in. ‘the impregnated ‘germinal
vesicles of Biotia and Juniperus. ‘That these cells gradually
~ make their way to the bottom of the corpuscula is rendered still”
more probable, since the undoubtedly unicellular forms of, the.
pro-embryo of Pinus canadensis are made to draw, back far away,
from the lower concavity of the corpusculum, by. the application),
of reagents contracting the primordial utricle; a, certain. proof,
that they at first lie loose here... Hitherto I have not,observed,
these cells—in my opinion the impregnated, germinal vesicles
in immediate contact .with;the pollen-tube., In thecases where’
they were nearest to sit, they were always at adistance ‘atleast
equalling the longitudinal diameter of the cell. But'it is never-
theless -probable, that there is always direct contact in the im-
pregnation. This would explain the coincident observations of
Scheljesnow * and Cienkowski+, according to which, in Lariz_
europea (which I have not yet examined), a large cell hangs for
a long time to the pollen-tube which has penetrated the corpus-..
culum. The fecundation seems to be effected more slowly, here.
than in the other Abietinee. a6 2 srubod of]

I have little to add to my, former statements regarding the
cell-formation in the interior of the pollen-tube:of the A bietinex:.
During the impregnation -I saw.in its'interior, with free ‘starch,
spherical..cells with granular: mucilaginous contents, sometimes
combined in groups, and:then eight in number. ° Not the least’
sign can be observed ofan‘ opening of the pollen-tube. ‘The
two modifications: of its’ mode of penetration already mentioned
as occurring in the Cupressinex and Taxinez, are met with also
in the Abietineze. While it frequently advances, only as far as
the upper concavity of the corpusculum, it. still more frequently
projects a hemispherical end_a,little way.in, and sometimes. pene-
trates tolerably deeply... L possess a.. preparation..of Pinus :cana=
densis in which it fills wp,a full third of the corpusculum.

* Bulletin de Moscou, 1849, p. 466.
t Ibid. 1853, p. 337. t. 7. fig. 13.

\ Royal Society. HY 4A1
riiiveeen ein to “OVS? 2b yitooWw
PROCEEDINGS, OF LEARNED, SOCIETIES.
. ROYAL SOCIETY. |

iio 15,1854 “The Earl of ‘Rosse,’ President, in the Chair.

“On the Structure of certain Microscopic Test-objects, and their _
Action on the Transmitted Rays of Light.” By Charles Brooke,
M.A), FLRiS. |

Im order: to ‘arrive ‘at any satisfactory conclusions regarding the
action of any transparent medium on light, it is necessary to form
some, definite conceptions regarding the external form and. in-
ternal structure of the medium. ‘This observation appears to apply
in full force to microscopic test-objects ; and for the purposes of the
present inquiry. it will suffice to limit our observations to the struc-
ture. of two well-known test-objects, the scales.of Podwra plumbea,
and the siliceous lorice. or valves of the genus Pleurosigma, freed
from ‘organic matter: the former of these is commonly adopted as
thé test ‘of the defining power of an achromatic object-glass, and the
several species of the latter as the tests of the penetrating or sepa-
rating powers it" has been termed. ‘The defining power depends
only-om the due’ correction of chromatic and spherical aberrations, so
that the image»of any point of an object formed on the retina may
not overlap,and confuse the images of adjacent points ; this correc-
tion.is, never theoretically perfect, since there will always be residual
terms in the general expression for the aberration, whatever prac-
ticable number of surfaces we may introduce as arbitrary constants ;
but it.is practically perfect, when the residual error is a quantity
less.than that which the eye can appreciate. The separation of the
markings of the Pleurosigmata and other analogous objects, is found
to ‘depend on good defining power associated with large angle of
aperture,

The Podura scale appears to be a compound structure, consisting
ofa very delicate transparent lamina or membrane, covered with an
imbricated arrangement of epithelial plates, the length of which is
sixjor eight times their breadth, somewhat resembling the tiles on a
roof, or the, long .pile-of some kinds: of plush. This structure may
be readily, shown by, putting, a live Podura into a small test-tube,
and, inverting it ona glass slide; the insect should then be allowed
for some time to leap and run about in| the confined space. By this
means the scales will be freely deposited on the glass, and being
subsequently trodden on by the insect, severalywill be found, from
which the epithelial plates have been partially rubbed off, and at the
margin of the undisturbed portion, the form and position of the
plates’ may be readily recognized. This structure appears to be ren-
dered most evident by mounting the scales thus obtained in Canada
balsam, and illuminating them by means of Wenham’s parabolic re-
flector. ‘The structure may also be very clearly pecpgnized when
the scale is seen as an opake object under a Ross’s ;4,th (specially
adjusted for uncovered objects), illuminated by a combination of the

442 Royal Society.

parabola and a flat Lieberkuhn, as the writer has elsewhere de-

scribed*. The underside of the scale thus appears as a smooth

glistening surface with very slight markings, corresponding probably

to the points of insertion of the plates on the contrary side. The

minuteness and close proximity of the epithelial plates will readily.
account for their being a good test of definition, while their promi-

nence renders them independent of the separating power due to large

angle of aperture.

The structure of the second class of test-objects above mentioned
differs entirely from that above described ; it will suffice for the pre-
sent purpose to notice the valves of three species only of the genus
Pleurosigma, which, as arranged in the order of easy visibility, are,
P. formosum, P. hippocampus, P. angulatum.

These appear to consist of a lamina of homogeneous transparent.
silex, studded with rounded knobs or protuberances, which, in.
P. formosum and P. angulatum, are arranged like a tier of round, shot. .
in a triangular pile, and in hippocampus, like a similar tier in a qua-
drangular pile, as has frequently been described ; and the visibility, of
these projections is probably proportional to their convexity. The
‘dots’? have by some been supposed to be depressions; this how-
ever is clearly not the case, as fracture is invariably observed to take
place between the rows of dots, and not through them, as would na-
turally occur if the dots were depressions, and consequently the sub-
stance thinner-there than elsewhere. |

This in fact is always observed to take place in the siliceous loricz
of some of the border tribes that occupy a sort of neutral, and not
yet undisputed, ground between the confines of the animal and vege-
table kingdoms; as for example the [sthmia, which possesses a reti-
culated structure, with depressions between the meshes, somewhat
analogous to that which would result from pasting together bobbin-
net and tissue paper.

The valves of P. angulatum and other similar objects have been
by some writerst supposed to be made up of two substances pos-
sessing different degrees of refractive power; but this hypothesis is
purely gratuitous, since the observed phenomena will naturally re-
sult from a series of rounded or lenticular protuberances of one
homogeneous substance. Moreover, if the centres of the markings
were centres of greatest density, if in fact the structure were at all
analogous to that of the crystalline lens, it is difficult to conceive
why the oblique rays only should be visibly affected. When P. hip-
pocampus or P. formosum is illuminated by a Gillett’s condenser, with
a central stop placed under the lenses, and viewed by a quarter-inch
object-glass of 70° aperture, both being accurately adjusted, we may
observe in succession, as the object-glass approaches the object, first
a series of well-defined bright dots; secondly, a series of dark dots
replacing these; and thirdly, the latter are again replaced by bright
dots, not however as well defined as the first series. A similar suc-

* See British Association Reports for 1850.
+ Vide Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, No. V. pp. 9, 10.

Royal Society. 443

cession of bright, dark, and bright points may be observed in the
centre of the markings of some species of Coscinodiscus from Ber-
muda.

These appearances would result if a thin plate of glass were studded
with minute, equal and equidistant plano-convex lenses, the foci of
which would necessarily lie in the same plane. If the focal surface
or plane of vision of the object-glass be made to coincide with this
plane, a series of bright points would result from the accumulation
of the light falling on each lens. If the plane of vision be next made
to coincide with the surfaces of the lenses, these points would ap-
pear dark, in consequence of the rays being refracted towards points
now out of focus. Lastly, if the plane of vision be made to coincide
with the plane beneath the lenses that contains their several foci, so
that each lens may be, as it were, combined with the object-glass,
then a second series of bright points will result from the accumula-
tion of the rays transmitted at those points. Moreover, as all rays
capable of entering the object-glass are concerned in the formation
- of the second series of bright focal points, whereas the first series
are formed by the rays of a conical shell of light only, it is evident
that the circle of least confusion must be much less, and therefore
the bright points better defined, in the first than in the last series.

If the supposed lenses were of small convexity, it is evident that
the course of the more oblique rays only would be sensibly in-
fluenced ; hence probably the structure of P. angulatum is recognized
only by object-glasses of large angular apertures, which are capable
of admitting very oblique rays.

The writer has recently, in an address to the members of the
Royal Institution, proposed to explain the extreme darkness of the
dots, under certain conditions of focus and illumination, by the hy-
pothesis that some of the oblique rays are thrown out of the field by
internal reflexion, being incident at the upper surface at an angle
too large for emergence; but this does not appear to invalidate the
present hypothesis respecting the course of the transmitted rays.

It does not appear to be desirable that objects should be illumi-
nated by an entire, or, as it may be termed, a solid cone of light of
much larger angle than that of Hk object-glass. The extinction of an
object by excess of i!lumination may be well illustrated by viewing
with a one-inch object-glass the Jsthmia illuminated by Gillett’s
condenser. When this is in focus, and its full aperture open, the
markings above described are wholly invisible ; but as the aperture
is successively diminished by the revolving diaphragm, the object be-
comes more and more distinct, and is perfectly defined when the
aperture of the illuminating pencil is reduced to about 20°, The
same point may be attained, although with much sacrifice of defini-
tion, by gradually depressing the condenser, so that the rays may
diverge before they reach the object ; and it may be remarked gene-
rally that the definition of objects is always most perfect, when an
illuminating pencil of suitable form is accurately adjusted to focus,
that is, so that the source of light and the plane of vision may be
conjugate foci of the illuminator. If an object-glass of 120° aper-

444, Zoological Society.

ture or upwards be ‘used as ‘an illuminator, the markings ‘of Diato-
macez will be scarcely distinguishable, with any’ object-glass.;\ ‘the
glare of the central-rays’ overpowering the eieets of etruetanent on
those that are more oblique.

‘f On the Structure,.and Functions.of the Rostellum, in Listera
ovata.” | By J. D. Hooker, M.D,, FR, Ss.

The author first. gives an, account of the form. and structure. of, the
rostellum of Listera ovata, and its relation and position to the anther
and stigma.. He finds that the rostellum, is, divided, by parallel,septa
(at. right angles to the plane of that organ), into a/series, of longitu-
dinally elongated loculi, which gradually taper, from .the base. up:
wards, and terminate at two opake cellular spots,-one.on each, side
of the apex of the rostellum, towards which latter; the loculi,also
converge. When the flower is fully expanded, these, loculi are) dis-
tended with a viscid grumous fluid, full..of chlorophyll.granules:
Their external walls, and the septa dividing. them, are formed,of a
delicate, transparent tissue, which is cellular. at the base, and. apex. of
the rostellum only. RW. 900g

Their.grumous contents, when examined at the eartiest period, of
development, present, the appearance of opake club-shaped,.com-
pressed bodies; with areolated, surfaces ; a, form and, appearance|that
may be.restored) at a later period by coagulating with alcohol, «ip.

At, the period, of impregnation the slightest, irritation of ‘the,ros,
tellum causes the sudden and forcible discharge of; the, contents. of
these loculi (through the rupture of the, cellular, tissue at,the apex
of the rostellum) and its protrusion in the form of two, viscid glands,
which. coalesce into one, after which the rostellum mpidly collapses
and, contracts.

The pollen-masses, when freed from the anther-case, fall naturally
upon the rostellum; they are retained there by their,viscid gland-like
contents, and; breaking up, the pollen-grains..become | (by the; con-
traction of the rostellum) applied to the subjacent, stigmatic, surface.
.. The author. adds remarks. on the structure of, the,,rostellum. in
allied genera of Orchidez, and indicates some of, the more|important
morphological changes to. which that organ.is subjected, in connec-
tion with the development of,various appendages to. the column,and
pollen in the same natural family.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

November 23, 1852.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair:

1. Note on THE Gouwa (Bos FRONTALIS) OF WESTERN INp1A,
CALLED “THE BISON”? BY ENGLISH RESIDENTS.
By Capt. J. Wyc.iirre THOMPSON.

Eliot Vale, Blackheath, Kent,
20th Noy. 1852,

Tux size of the beast I cannot state with any exactness, having had
no means of judging beyond forming an estimate by the eye of the

Zoological, Society. 4b

carcase as. it lay on, the: ground before .me.,..The common.report
amongst. Indian. sportsmen is,’ that the old, bull stands 19 hands
(6, feet 4 inches) at the shoulder.. , Upon what. grounds this estimate
rests I cannot say, but it is in. some degree confirmed, by.my own
impression, that an old bull was pretty nearly equal in height and
bulk to one of the very largest of the London dray-horses. The
colour is chocolate-brown, deepening in shade on the belly ; the
lower’ part of ‘the leg is of a dirty yellow-brownish white from the
foot upwards to a little above the knee in the fore and the hock in
the hind leg, the line of demarcation between the white and the
chocolate being abrupt, as in a ‘ white-stockimged ’ horse. The pro-
file of the face is decidedly curved, the part of the forehead between
the-horns is excessively raised in a kind of ridge, of which traces are
to be seen im the skulls, though in these it is much less) strongly
marked than’ iv the live animal. The shoulder is raised, not in a
hump ‘like that of the Brahminee bull or common Indian ox, but in
a kind of ridge, giving the idea that the spine, beginning at the
shoulder; had’ been unnaturally raised, and carried at that elevation
some way to the rear, and then allowed suddenly to drop imto the
ordinary level of the back. ' The forehead, including the high ridge
between the horns, inclines to ash-colour ; the tail is small and short.
‘s'The ‘only ‘part’ of the country in which I have’ met with these
animals ‘is ‘on’ the ** Suhyadri”’ mountains or‘ Western Ghauts,’’ a
narrow belt ‘of wild, broken, and thickly-wooded country dividing the
high ‘lands’ of the Deccan or Maratha country from the low land of
the Concan or country bordering the margin of the sea. This Ghaut
country is’ of most peculiar appearance: anything that can be called
a plain does not exist init ; it is a succession of the most rugged
hills and of the most wild, deep ravines ; the whole, with the excep-
tion' of here and there a ‘bare ridge of hill, covered with a dense mass
of bushes, brushwood, tall ferns and flowering plants, so thick that
it is’ frequently ‘necessary to clear a road with bill-hooks ; imbedded
in this ‘mass of vegetation lie broken crags of brown rock ; above all
this'rise’ clumps of forest trees, and above these again rises some
rugged hill-side crowned by a bare perpendicular scarp of black rock.
This hne of country, which in every part that I have visited forms
a‘line Of demarcation between the Concan and the Deccan, and con-
sequently stretches in point of length over a wide extent, is in pomt
of breadth inconsiderable, occupying no larger space than must ne-
cessarily be covered by a;mountain range, with broken and irregular
spurs. As you will perceive from my description, it is a country
which one would'searcely think adapted to huge cattle like the Bison,
but they do inhabit it, and hold to it most rigorously, as I never saw
or heard of one either in the Concan or the Deccan. Occasionally they
make their appearance on the borders..of this country, and do great
damage to the small fields of corn which the natives cultivate on the
very verge of the forest; choosing, as I gather from the natives, the
night. for their operations ; but their usual abode is in the depths
of the Ghaut-country, as not only are they invariably, when sought
for by sportsmen, found in the -yery depth of. the thick forest, but

446 Zoological Society.

constant traces of them may there be met with; as for instance,
crossing a little open glade in the forest, covered, as is sometimes the
case, with nothing but a long thin dry grass, it is not unusual to see
half a dozen patches where the squashed and flattened grass shows
where the Bison has been sleeping ; and the natives frequently point
out a bed of a greener and more delicate kind of grass, and show
where it has been cropped by the grazing Bison.

The usual method of hunting these beasts is to take up a post
commanding some narrow pass, and throwing from. fifty toa hundred
beaters into the forest, to form them into a cordon, which. driving
the Bison before it, contracts as it approaches ane ass and. forces
them through it under the fire of the hunters. e Bison, when
stirred but not as yet much alarmed by the ieee line of beaters,
are usually seen plodding along with a slow heavy gait, and, with
their heads carried low. When under these circumstances. I haye
been able to obtain a clear view of them, they have struck me by a
resemblance in general figure to the North American Bison, of which
I have seen specimens in England: they have a heavy, compact,
short-necked, thick-headed look, which distinguishes . them. most
strongly from the long-faced dolorous-visaged tame buffalo;of India.
When disturbed by the closer approach of the beaters, they, break
into a heavy lumbering trot, which under circumstances. of. yiolent
alarm, they exchange for a furious rush, in which they go. straight
through the jungle as a horse might burst through: standing corn,
making the forest ring again with the sound of crashing boughs ;
and, as they cleave their way through the dense masses, of bush,
making their progress visible by a long track of waving branches
tossing above them, like the wake of a ship. at. sea. ; I have been
posted on the ridge of a hill so far away from the Bison) that they
looked, when I caught occasional glimpses of them, no bigger /than
terrier dogs, and yet have heard the incessant, crashing of the jungle
quite loud as the game moved to and. fro,

They have a great reputation for ferocity amongst both the English
sportsmen and the native hunters; and this reputation is in some
degree borne out by the fact, that within no very great, number. of
years, and within a limited extent of country, two English officers
have been killed by them. Nevertheless, although I do not at all
doubt that they can be on occasion savage and dangerous, I can say
from experience that their ferocity is much exaggerated, .I have
seen a good many Bison, but never yet saw one that did not. showra
strong desire to avoid me if it possibly could. That when wounded
or finding their line of retreat blocked up, they will charge, there is no
kind of doubt ; but excepting these extreme. cases, they will usually,
on catching sight of a man, give a start with a little back-jump, much
as an antelope does when catching sight of, a startling object, and
then plunging into the thickest forest, hold their course in the. direc-
tion which will carry them the farthest and soonest out of the neigh-
bourhood. of human beings.

They usually go in small herds of four or five, though I have I
think seen as many as seven or eight together. Though, from its

Zoological Society. 447

great size, the Bison is not a difficult animal to hit, it is by no means
an easy animal to bring down. One shot, accurately placed behind
the shoulder, will bring him down never to rise again ; but you might
‘as well fire into a hay-stack as hit him anywhere else. And even
_ when brought down and brought to the last gasp by a well-directed
‘shot, the tenacity with which he holds on to the small remains of
life is wonderful. I have fired at a fallen Bison with the muzzle of
the gun within a foot of his head, and yet he kicked, and before
dying rolled himself quite over; I remember once putting my gun
so close to the back of the head, just behind the horns, that the hair
smoked from the flash of the powder, and still the animal breathed
for some time.
~The natives, though they hold the ferocity of the Bison in con-
‘sideralbe respect, yet do not seem to consider him an animal of very
“acute perception. I remember a “shikarry”’ or native huntsman
‘pointing out to me a patch of long thin grass lying close by the side
of a small path across a hill top, and affording nothing that I should
have considered very good concealment, and telling me that I might
‘Safely on emergency lie down in it and let the Bison pass along the
path. I forget whether it was at this very spot, or at one precisely
€ it, that one of my beaters put this stratagem into practice and
‘allowed the animal to pass close beside him. ;
The flesh is I think the finest beef I ever tasted. The natives of
“ Caste,” holding the Bison in reverence as a species of Cow, refuse
to eat him, and even in some cases refuse to show him to the hunter,
though their reluctance to this last may generally be overcome b
money. The out-caste tribes, those whom people in England call
‘**Pariahs,” have no such scruples, and the instant that a Bison is
killed light a fire by the carcase and sit down and gorge themselves,
When I was in India I tried to get one or more Bison Calves for
the Zoological Society, and offered the natives what to them were
large sums of money if they would bring me one. They never suc-
ceeded ; partly from the real difficulty of the undertaking, still more
I fancy from the unwillingness of the Hindoo to do anything unusual
‘or contrary to “ custom ;”’ they reflected, I do not doubt, that their
fathers had never been requested to catch a Bison calf, and could not
comprehend why ¢iey should. I myself twice surrounded a calf with
a circle of beaters, but in both instances it broke the line and escaped.
Calves sometimes fall into the hands of the natives by accident, and
I have seen a young one so caught, which unfortunately died in the
possession of an English officer, who had bought it from its captors.
All the natives with whom I have spoken on the subject are firmly
persuaded that there are two distinct species of Bison. To these two
species they give the name of “‘ Gouwa”’ in common, but distinguish
them ‘as the “ Myse Gouwa” and the ‘‘Gaee Gouwa.” ‘“* Myse”
signifies the common domestic buffalo; “‘Gaee”’ the domestic cow.
‘Tnever succeeded in getting any man to give me a clear explanation
of what he imagined to be the difference, but I have found the belief
so universally spread amongst those natives who have the best oppor-
a ft of knowing, that I do not think it altogether to be dis-
credited.

448 Zoological Society.
December 14, 1852,—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.

Nores oN THE ANATOMY OF THE TREE-KANGAROO
(DENDROLAGUS INUSTUS, GOULD).
By Prorressor Owen, F-R.S.; V.P.Z.8., ere.

The specimen of the above rare species, the first that had been
exhibited alive in Europe, was a full-grown and somewhat aged
female, having lived in the Society’s Menagerie since the 8th of Oc-
tober, 1848. It had suffered from a disease in the tail, for which
more than half of that organ had been amputated, and the stump
was well-healed. I am not aware what symptoms preceded. the ani-
mal’s death, which took place on the 13th of October, 1852; the
dissection did not bring to light any well-marked morbid appear-
ances. :

The external characters of the animal have been so well described
and illustrated by the learned Dutch naturalists, MM. Muller and
Schlegel, that further remarks on them may be here dispensed with :
the chief modifications of the Kangaroo-form which adapt the herbi-
vorous marsupials of the present subgenus to their singular sphere of
existence, are a reduction of the length of the hind-limbs toa more
near equality with the fore-limbs, which are proportionally longer
and stronger than in the land Kangaroos: the claws of the principal
toes in both limbs are longer, stronger, and more curved than in
other Macropodide ; they are, in fact, the chief instruments enabling
the Tree-Kangaroos to maintain a firm hold on the branches of the
trees in which they habitually reside. : sip rr nga jfile

As the bones of the animal dissected are still in maceration, any
remarks that the osteology of the Dendrolagus may require, will be.
communicated at a future meeting. . ipiigga Sank Th Al coy

Before commencing the dissection the weight of the animal was
taken, which was 16 Ibs. avoirdupois, 7 Ta)

The length of the animal, from the‘muzzle to the end of the tail,
was 2 feet 1 inch; the length of the head was 4 inches 9 lines; the
length of the fore-limb, from the head of the humerus, was 12 inches ;
that of the hind-limb, from the head of the femur, I foot 6 inches. |

The dental formula was :—2 = c —, p wo m — 30.,,. The
canines, confined as above indicated, to the wpper jaw, were much)
smaller than in the. Potoroos, indicative of a closer affinity to the
Kangaroo family, which affinity was further manifested by the form
and structure of the stomach, The premolars presented. the great
antero-posterior extent characteristic of the subgenus, Dendrolagus:
they are trenchant, with many minute vertical grooves; they play.
upon each other like the blades of scissors, and must perform an im-
portant part in cutting off the leaves or fruit, or dividing after they
are detached, the natural objects of food of the Tree- Kangaroos: the
true molars are double-ridged transversely, as in the Macropodide
generally.

The tongue is long, narrow, depressed, with a smooth and.even
dorsum, showing three fossulate papillee at its base, arranged in a
triangle with the base turned forwards ; the Macropus major has a

Zoological. Society. 449

single fossulate papilla near the hase of the tongue, The epiglottis
is broad and large, slightly emarginate at its middle part. :
The cesophagus issuspended, to the bodies of the dorsal vertebree
by a broad fold. of, the pleural membranes: it is continued into the
abdomen for about\3 inches before terminating in the stomach. The
diameter of the tube in a state of contraction is only 3 lines, until
‘within an inch of its termination, when it begins gradually to expand.
“A series of well-marked fasciculi of muscular fibres come off from
an oblique tract of the external surface of the termination of the cso-
phagus and diverge in oblique curves which partly surround that

middle of the sacculated part is 11 inches. The sacculi are formed

ct eal ii

of which is diversified by patches of follicular apertures along the
upper curvature, of the stomach, which patches increase in breadth
as they approach the trne digestive portion. At the cardiac orifice
two parallel longitudinal ridges extend along the lesser curvature to
the pyloric end of the stomach, 24 lines in breadth and 7 lines apart,
forming a channel of that width leading from the cardiac towards the
pyloric orifice y*both:the muscular and the mucous coats of the sto-
mach increase in thickness towards the pylorus, which is defended by
an oblique ridge.

In the great Kangaroo the cardiac end of the sacculated stomach is
bifid, and the epithelium lines one of the culs-de-sac : in the rock Kan-
garoo (Macr. penicillatus) the cardiac end terminates, as in the Tree-
Kangaroo, in a single cul-de-sac. In the Hypsiprymni the whole of
the saeculated structure of the stomach is on the left side of the ter-
mination of the cesophagus, whereas in the Dendrolagus, as in the
true Kangaroos, the major part of that structure is to the right of
the cardiac orifice.

The intestines were 9 feet in length, the small intestines being
6 feet, the large 3 feet.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 29

450 ; Zoological Society.

The circumference of the czecum is 5 inches, the length the same.
It is simple, and terminates obtusely without diminishing in diameter.
The ileo-ceecal aperture is in the form of a narrow transverse slit,
4 lines in extent, with a tumid margin opening upon a fold, which
partially denotes the boundary between the caecum and colon. 'There
is a patch of agminated glands at the beginning of the colon, and
smaller patches in other parts of that intestine. |

The parotid gland is of large size, and extends far down upon ‘the
neck.

The liver is relatively small, and was situated in the right: hypo-
chondrium : it consists of a right and left lobe, the former subdivided
and the latter giving off the Spigelian lobe. The large gall-bladder
was loosely suspended in a deep cleft of the right lobe. The coats
of the ductus choledochus are thickened before the termination of the
duct, in common with that of the pancreas, in the duodenum. | The
spleen, as in the Great Kangaroo, is T-shaped.

The heart showed the usual marsupial strueture in the presence of
the two distinct superior venee cavee, and the absence of the ‘ fossa’
and ‘annulus ovalis.’. Both right and left lungs were cleft at their
anterior margin, and a large azygos lobe was developed from the
former, and occupied the part of the posterior mediastinum between
the pericardium and diaphragm. Seeley

The larynx agreed in structure with that of the Great Kangaroo:
the glottis being widely open, and the chorde vocales very short and
rudimentary at the fore part of the ‘ rima.’

The kidneys presented the usual simple conglobate structure. The
ureters passing through the vaginal loops terminate close together
14 lines from the communication of the urethra, or neck of the blad-
der, with the uro-genital canal.

The ovaria, about 8 lines by 4 lines in size, presented,a| wrinkled
cerebriform surface. A cyst of near an inch in diameter .was deve-
loped from the left ovary. The oviducts, about 14 inch in, length,
terminate each in a subcompressed elongated uterus, 1. inch -by
3 lines. Each uterus opens by a distinct os tincee into the fundus
of a vagina, with a median cul-de-sac, extending 1 inch 3 lines be-
yond the commencement of the lateral bent vaginal canals.,, These
canals are about 3 inches in length: they presented a finely longitu-
dinally plicated inner surface, with a semilunar valvular fold, 5, lines
before their termination in the uro-genital canal: the length of this -
canal is 2 inches: it then opens, with the rectum, into a, short and
wide common cloacal vestibule, closed by a strong sphincter. muscle.
The lateral bent vaginal canals are shorter in proportion than in the
Macropus major: but the median vaginal cul-de-sac was closed, as
in that species.

In a specimen of the Macropus Bennettu which I dissected in 1845,
I detected a natural aperture of communication between the median
cul-de-sac and the urogenital canal. I had the pleasure of showing the
specimen to Dr. Poelman, during a recent visit of that eminent Com-
parative Anatomist to the Hunterian Museum, and of thus confirming
the observation which he had, independently, made of a similar mo-

Zoological Society. 451

dification of the female generative organs in a specimen of the Ma-
cropus Bennettii dissected by him at the University of Gand *.

The brain of the Dendrolagus inustus weighed 6 drachms.

The cerebral lobes were smooth, and showed only a short linear
indentation above the anterior part of each. There was no trace of
supra-ventricular commissure (corpus callosum), and in all particu-
lars save the more simple external surface the structure of the brain
corresponded with that of the Great Kangaroo as described in the
‘Philosophical Transactions’ for 1837. The proportion of the
weight of the brain to that of the body is as 1 to 230; in the Ma-
cropus major it is as 1 to 800, the comparison being made on the
body of a large old male. The difference between the large and
small species of Kangaroo depends on the brain not increasing in
proportion to the increase in the bulk of the entire animal. The
smaller: species in any natural family of Mammalia, resemble the
foetus of the larger species in the greater proportional size of both
the brain and the eyes.

On tHE MONKEYS OF THE AMAZON.
By Autrrep R, WALLACE.

~The great valley of the Amazon is rich in species of Monkeys, and
during my residence there I had many opportunities of becoming
acquainted with their habits and distribution. The few obseryations
I have to make will apply principally to the latter particular. I have
myself seen twenty-one species; seven with prehensile and fourteen
with non-prehensile tails, as shown in the following list :—

3 Howlers, viz._Mycetes ursinus, M. caraya? and M. Beelzebub ;

1 Spider Monkey,—-Aéeles paniscus ; ;

1 Big-bellied Monkey (Barrigudo of the Brazilians), —Lagothrix Hum-
boldtit ;

2 Sapajou,—Cebus gracilis (Spix) and C. apella? ;

4 Short-tailed Monkeys,—Brachyurus couxiu, B. ouakari (Spix),
B. rubieundus (? Calvous, B. M.), and a new species ;

2 Sloth Monkeys,—Pithecia irrorata and an undescribed species;

3 Squirrel Monkeys,—Callithri« sciureus, C. personatus and C. tor-
quatus ;

2 Nocturnal Monkeys,—-Nyctipithecus trivirgatus and N. felinus ;
and

3 Marmoset Monkeys,—Jacchus bicolor, J. tamarin and a new spe-
cies.

The Howling Monkeys are generally abundant; the different spe-
cies, however, are found in separate localities; Mycetes Beelzebub
being apparently confined to the Lower Amazon, in the vicinity of
Para; a black species, M. caraya?, to the Upper Amazon; anda red
species, M. ursinus, to the Rio Negro and Upper Amazon. Much
confusion seems to exist with regard to the species of Howlers, owing
_ to the difference of colour in the sexes of some species. ‘The red and

* Bulletin de ’ Académie Royale de Belgique, tom. ar p. 599.
O*

452 Zoological Society.

the black species’ of the Amazon, -however;-are of the same colour in
both sexes. The species of this genus, are seminocturnal in their
habits, uttering their cries: late in thesevening and before sunrise, and
also on the approach:of rain. || Humboldt observes, that the tremen-
dous noise they make can only be accounted for by the great num-
bers of individuals that unite in its production. My own observa-
tions, and the unanimous testimony of the Indians, prove this not to
be the case... One individual only makesthe howling, which is cer-
tainly of a remarkable depth and volume and curiously modulated ;
but on. closely remarking the suddenness with which it’ ceases’ and
again commences, it is evident that it is produced: by one animal,
which is generally a full-grown male. On dissecting the throat, much
of our wonder at the noise ceases ; for besides the bony vessel formed
by the expanded “os hyoides,’’ there is ‘a strong muscular apparatus
which seems to act as a bellows in Ronily a — of air ar parse ra
reverberating bony cavity.

Of the genus Aéeles, the four-fingered Spider ai éukives one dfeoibs
is found only in the Guiana district, north “of the Amazon’ and’ Rio
Negro. Another, probably Ateles ater, inhabits the: West: ‘Brazil
district on the river Purus. These monkeys are slow inytheir mo-
tions, but make great use of their prehensile: tail,» by which) they
swing themselves from bough to bough; and’ I have been informed
that two have been seen to join together by their: hands)and«prelen-
sile tails, to form a bridge for their young ones to pass over. ‘The
Indians also say, that this animal generally moves yer gems beneath
the boughs, not walking on them.

The next genus, Lagothriz, is a very interesting one, boing quite
unknown in Guiana and Eastern Brazil. The species ILamacquainted
with (LZ. Humboldtiz) is found in the district south-west of ithe Rio
Negro, towards the Andes, which I call. the: Keuador: distrietoof the
Amazon. They are remarkable for their thick woolly grey fur, their
long prehensile tails, and very mild disposition. !>Iuethe «upper Ama-
zon they are the species most frequently seen tame, and vare great
favourites, from their graye countenances, more resembling the human
face than those of.any other Monkeys, their quiet: manners; ‘and ‘the
great affection and docility they exhibits| I had! three’ of/them for
several months before: leaving Brazil, and: they: were ‘on “board swith
me at the time.the ship was burnt, when, with their si mori —
all perished.

The Sapajou Monkeys, ‘forming: the genus Cebus, appear to) ‘be
more generally ‘distributed, and) the: species havea ‘wider range.
They are, also: frequently domesticated, but ‘offer a remarkable’ con-
trast to the species of the last genus, in their constant activity and
restlessness, and. they have: the: character of bemg the most’ mis-
chievous monkeys in the country.

Each species of the genus| Brachyurus appears to: be confined: to a
particular district. The B. couciw is a native of Guiana, and does
not pass the Rio Negro on the west, or the:Amazon on the south.
The B. ouakari.is found on the Upper Rio Negro; the B. rubi-
eundus.on: the, Upper Amazon, called the: Solimoes;) and another

Zoological Soviety. 458

species, apparently: undescribed, is event onthe lower part*of the
same rivers) 900)

The Sloth Moniliaye, 7 1h res eemmis Pishevil, have an. exten-
sive range as regards: the genus, but the separate: species seem each
confined in a limited space. »».Of the two. species imhabiting the
Amazon district, one, the P. zrrorata, is found on the south bank of
the Upper Amazon; and another, apparently undescribed and: ren-
dered remarkable by a bright red beard round the face and under
aay: chin; occurs only to the south-west: of the Rio Negro.

OF the little Squirrel Monkeys, one, the Callithriz sciureus, a spe-
cimen: of which is now in the Society’s Gardens, has an extensive
range, ‘being found on both banks of the Amazon and Rio Negro.
The... -torquatus, a white-collared species, is found only’ on “the
Appen Rio Negro, and the C. personatus on the Upper Amazon.

(Of:the eurious Nocturnal Monkeys forming the genus Nyctipithe-
cus there are two species in this district; one; which appears to be
the, trivirgatus of Humboldt, is found in the district of Ecuador,
westof the:Upper Rio Negro; the other, closely allied; probably the
WW... felinus//on the Upper Amazon. Their large eyes, cat-like faces,
soft woolly hai and nocturnal habits render them a very teresting
group: >iDhey' are: called: ‘devil: monkeys”) by the Indians, and are
said: to:sleep: during’ the day and to roam about only at night. I
havehad« specimens. of them alive, but they are very delicate and
soon die.

Of-the Marmozet Monkeys there are three species, though none
of them have the characteristic tufts of hair on the head. » Each
species:seems to be confined to a very limited tract of country. The
Jacchus tamarin is found only in the district of Para, where it is
abundant. |The J. bicolor, a pretty grey and white species, I have
only!seen on the Guiana side of the Rio Negro near the city of Barra.
Another) species entirely black, with the face of bare white skin,
inhabits, the» district.of the; Upper Rio Negro. It appears to ‘be
quite new.

The last thiiel genéra appear to be to a great extent inbectivorenss
and |T;am:inchned»topthink they also devour small birds and mam-
malia»:\ ‘At least!'those I have had alive would attempt to pull into
their \cagés ‘any of my small birds which: passed near. The little
black» Jacehus last) mentioned! was particularly savage. He once
seized a large parrot by the neck, pulled him into his cage, and bit
outca large piece from: his: bill, and would probably have destroyed
it; had «I not opportunely come ‘to the rescue... ‘Two other small
birds which: approached ‘too near his cage he seized and completely
devoured.

I will now'make a few remarks on the geographical distribution of
these animals.

In the: various works on natural history and in our museums, we
have generally but the vaguest statements of locality. S. America,
Brazil, Guiana, Peru, are among the most common; and if we have
«River. Amazon’”’) or“ Quito’’ attached toa specimen, we ma
_ think ourselves fortunate: to' get anything so definite: though both

454 Zoological Society.

are on the boundary. of two. distinct, zoological districts, and we have
nothing to tell us whether the one came from the north or south of
the Amazon, or the other from the east or the west of the Andes.
Owing to this uncertainty of locality, and the additional confusion
created by mistaking allied species from distant countries, there is
scarcely an animal whose exact geographical limits we can mark out
on the map. 2 |

On this accurate determination of an animal’s range many interest- -
ing questions depend. Are very closely allied species ever separated
by a wide interval of country? What physical features determine
the boundaries of species and of genera? Do the isothermal lines
ever accurately bound the range of species, or are they altogether
independent of them? What are the circumstances which render
certain rivers and certain mountain ranges the limits of numerous
species, while others are not? None of these questions can be satis-
factorily answered till we have the range of numerous species accu-
rately determined.

During my residence in the Amazon district I took every oppor-
tunity of determining the limits of species, and I soon found that
the Amazon, the Rio Negro and the Madeira formed the limits be-
yond which certain species never passed. The native hunters are.
perfectly acquainted with this fact, and always cross over the river
when they want to procure particular animals, which are found even
on the river’s bank on one side, but never by any chance on the
other. On approaching the sources of the rivers they cease to be a
boundary, and most of the species are found on both sides of them.
Thus several Guiana species come up to the Rio Negro and Amazon.
but do not pass them ; Brazilian species on the contrary reach but
do not pass the Amazon to the north. Several Ecuador species
from the east of the Andes reach down into the tongue of land be-
tween the Rio Negro and Upper Amazon, but pass neither of those
rivers, and others from Peru are bounded on the north by the Upper
Amazon, and on the east by the Madeira. Thus there are four
districts, the Guiana, the Ecuador, the Peru and the Brazil districts,
whose boundaries on one side are determined by the rivers I have
mentioned.

In going up the Rio Negro the difference in the two sides of the
river is very remarkable. |

In the lower part of the river you will find on the north the Jac-
chus bicolor and the Brachyurus Couwiu, and on the south the red-
whiskered Pithecia. Higher up you will find on the north the
Ateles paniscus, and on the south the new black Jacchus and the
Lagothrix Humboldti.

Spix, in his work on the monkeys of Brazil, requently gives,
“banks of the river Amazon”’ as a locality, not being aware appa-
rently that the species found on one side very often do not occur on
the other, though the fact is generally known to the natives. In
these observations I have only referred to the monkeys, but the same
phenomena occur both with birds and insects, as [ have observed
in many instances.

Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 455

BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. _
November 9th, 1854.—Professor Balfour, President, in the Chair.

The following papers were read, viz. :—

1. “On the Associations of Colour, and Relations of Colour and
Form in Plants,’ by G. Dickie, M.D., Professor of Natural History,
Queen’s College, Belfast.

This paper will be found in the present Number of the Annals and
in the Society’s Transactions.

2. “Record of New Localities for Plants,” by Dr. Balfour.

Stnapis nigra. Dysart, Mr. Clay.

Cuscuta Trifolii. Gleghorny, North Berwick, Dr. Balfour.

Anagallis arvensis. Near Luighi House, North Berwick, Miss
J. Arnot. _

Atriplex laciniata. Near Drem, Mr. D. P. Maclagan.

Orchis pyramidalis. Leven Sands, Mr. G. 8S. Lawson.

Eriophorum latifolium. Crichton Bog, near Edinburgh, Mr. D.
P, Maclagan.

Carex incurva. Near Longniddry, Mr. Clay.

Brachypodium pinnatum. Pathhead, near Edinburgh, Mr. D. P.
Maclagan.

Elymus arenarius. Leven and Largo Links, Mr. G. 8. Lawson.

Triticum lavum. North Berwick, Dr. Balfour.

Chordaria divaricata. On Zostera marina in Belfast Lough, Dr.
Dickie.

Woodsia ilvensis. Near Windermere, Westmoreland, Dr. Clowes.

Polystichum Lonchitis. Helvellyn, Dr. Clowes.

Asplenium germanicum. Near Windermere, Mr. Hawker.

Lycopodium annotinum. Near Windermere, Dr. Clowes.

Specimens of many of the above were exhibited.

3. *f Remarks on the Formation of Ascidia,” by Dr. Balfour. The
author stated that he was induced to make some remarks on the
formation of ascidia by seeing lately a statement to the effect that
all pitchers were formed by a hollowing-out process. He was disposed
to think that true ascidia, such as those of Nepenthes, Sarracenia,
Cephalotus, and Heliamphora, were formed by folded leaves in the
same way as carpels are supposed to be produced. The anomalous
ascidiform production in the leaves of cabbage, lettuce, &c. might be
traced to a similar process, and in some instances the pitcher-like
body appeared to be a second leaf folded in an opposite manner from
that from which it sprung. Occasionally two or more leaves combined
to form ascidia. What has been called the ‘‘ hollowing-out process”
is applicable to such cases as Hschscholtzia, Myrtle, Rose, Hovenia,
&c. This process causes a development of the circumference of the
receptacle, peduncle, or other part, while the central portion is un-
developed, and thus there arises.a cup-like body with a hollow centre.
In such instances there seemed to be a union in the early state of the
circumferential cellular papillee, arising from the peduncle or receptacle
or other part; these became elongated so as to form a gamophyllous

456 Botanical Society sof Edinburgh.

rim of greater: or less: depth;: énclosing: a hollow:space in which cer-
tain organs are developed: The pitcher-like peduncle or. receptacle
was often intimately connected with thes calyx, and, was lined, by
cellular matter in the! form ofa: disk.o9 ho ; :

4.4 On Linaria sepium of Allman,” by ‘C, C. Babmgton, M.A.—
See p. 408. ew-Had gaitsed: bas tao ! 7

5. ‘© On Diseases in. Plants caused: by: Mites,’ by. Mr. Hardy, of
Penmanshiel. » A specimen of Broom injured by: insects, gathered im
the West of Scotland, having been submitted.to: Mr. Hardy, he’ sent
the following remarks upon it :—‘‘I ascribe the disease in Broom to
colonies of young mites inhabiting the interior of the. buds) I ob-
served them very distinctly with a triple lens,: but the: mites being
dead, I have not succeeded in detaching one to place under the’ mi-
eroscope, but with fresh specimens I have no doubt you would detect
them. They are of a pink colour, or paler tinted... In the Berwick-
shire Club’s Proceedings, vol. iii. No. 3. p. 111, [have recorded all
the observations I have made on this subject; ..I have met with
three galls. on the Broom, caused by the larvee, of Cecidomyte; but
not, as yet, this mite production.. The rent inthe bark: of the branch
appears to be owing to a caterpillar which I, often observed im:the
shoots ; a part of its web remains under one of the buds.”’),On other
plants injured by mites Mr. Hardy remarked—* I send you specimens
of Helianthemum vulgare, altered in a singular manner by the: larve
of mites, and precisely similar to the buds of wild thyme and those
of broom sent by you lately, except that the stem takes part in the
alteration, owing perhaps to some of the. mites harbouring in, the
axils. It is from a dry steep bank at Monyunnt, among the Lammer-
muirs. ‘The young mites have the same appearance as those observed
in broom, and will probably reach you alive. The buds are‘ often
occupied by a gall-fly larva, and the effects are’ not unlike, but not
to this degree. I also send dwarf plants of -Lpilobium palustre,
which have the leaves twisted and: sometimes rendered involute' by
larvee of mites. The buds of Lotus corniculatus; and sometimes' the
leaves, have purple spots occupied by mite larvee;, I> can trace no
difference in any of them. Specimens are likewise sent of Geranium
molle from a barren ‘pasture in the Lammermuirs 3 it is completely
occupied by mites.”

6. ‘* Botanical Notes,” by Dr.:J. D. Hooker,in'a letter'to Dr.
Balfour... Dr. Hooker remarks (1.) that the natural: order Balano-
phoracee@ is traly Dicotyledonous, and far removed from Raffesiacee,
the latter being (as Brown pointed out) closely allied to Aristolochia.
The Balanophoracee are far more perfect in their ovules, and have
albuminous seeds, with a Dicotyledonous embryo They are closely
allied to Gunnera.—(2.) He finds the germination of Nympheacee
to be genuinely Dicotyledonous. | It»is only the adventitious roots
which are sheathed, as is thesease with many other exogens. «The
rhizome-of the Order is a very reduced’ form of the/exogenous, but
not at all constructed on the endogenous’ type: The species of
Nympheacee must apparently be reduced ‘to avery few, for in India
half-a-dozen, varieties im colour, number of petals; stamens and ‘stig-

\ yunnhDiitindan Society)». 457

matic rays, are found:incone tank, and no ‘two tanks have exactly the
same forms. (3) Dr. Hooker’ considers that» Brown’s theory of
carpellary ‘suturak placentation is the correct one, and that axile and
free placentation may be reduced toit.') Dr. Hooker mentions'a case
of Stachys with*a'four-lobed, one-celled ovary formed by two carpels
placed back and front, and bearing half-way up a pair of parietal
sutural: ovules ;;also* a: Primrose: with’ parietal: ovules. ‘The Yew
which?Schleiden-describes ‘as having an’ ovule terminating the axis,
has’ been shown to have often two:ovules, and when one, it is always
oblique and lateral. |

«J. “Qn Stellari« umbrosa, Opitz,” by Mr. G. Lawson. Stellaria
umbrosa, hitherto only known’as'a Sussex plant, had been observed
by’ Mr. Lawson°on'the ‘shore near Rossyth Castle, in Fifeshire. He
had*not, ‘however,’ much’ faith im its claims to specific distinction,
and regarded it in the light of a book species, made out of forms of
S° media; the: Scotch S..umbrosa appeared to form even a greater
departure from the typical S: media than the Sussex one. No plant
appearedto be more* capable of adapting itself to all conditions of
soily:climate, and situation, than Stel/aria media, and to this circum-
stance was due the numerous forms of the plant. known to botanists ;
the extremes of these forms were remarkably distinct from each other ;
but:when studied in detail, all were found to be intimately linked
together. »
: | LINNZAN SOCIETY.

“January 7th, 1854.—Robert Brown, Esq., V.P., in the Chair.

Read Extracts froma Letter, addressed by Dr. Edward Vogel to
Berthold Seemann, Esq., Ph.D., F.L.S.

Dr. Vogel, as is well known, is attached to the expedition dis-
patched by. Her Majesty's government for the exploration of Central
Africa... He quitted: London.on the 19th of February 18538, reached
Tripoli, in the beginning of March; and after a stay of several
months, caused partly, by: the delays of his travelling companion, the
brother, of the Sheikh of Bornou, and partly by his own preparations,
he started southwards towards the end of June, and after passing
Benoulid and Soknu, reached Mourzouk on the 5th of August. On
the 15th-of,October he»was to leave'that place for Lake ‘I’sad ; but
previously, he addressed, along with -his: official dispatches, various
letters to his friends im» Europe; treating of different branches of
science;;.and among these one to Dr..\Seemann, dated ‘““Mourzouk, —
October. 8th, 1853,” giving some account of the botanical features
of the region between Tripoli: and Mourzouk, from which the fol-
lowing extracts are taken :-—

‘“There will shortly arrive) at the: Foreign Office in London
a box containing amongst other things a collection of dried plants
addressed,.to: Mr.; Robert) Brown.: ‘The following will serve as
a commentary on» that» collection ;, and you will greatly oblige
me by communicating: it) to that savant, and) making known those
parts which you consider fit for publication. ‘The plants were

458 Linnean Society.

chiefly collected in Fezzan, except a few on the coast of North
Africa; for I did not, like to fill. the paper Iam able to carry with
well-known things ; and, moreover, the numerous preparations for
my journey left but little time for botanical pursuits during. my stay
at Tripoli. I was in hopes of making a rich harvest in the great
valleys through which my route lay, about the 30th degree of north
latitude; but, contrary to expectation, all vegetation was dried up.
with the exception of a Ruta, which was to be met with in situations
less exposed to the scorching rays of the African sun; still, high
bunches of withered Grasses, and fields covered with Artemisias and
Thymus, gave evidence of what I might have collected if I had come
three months earlier. The more I advanced towards the south, the
more naked became the country, until at last, about Fezzan, nearly
every vestige of wild plants had disappeared, save a shrubby Tamariz. .
and a spinose Papilionacea, called Agil by the Arabs, and used as

fodder for the camels; and the eye perceived, for days in succession,

nothing but date palms, under which the drifting sand of the desert,

the bane of vegetation, had accumulated to a considerable height, as \
if attempting to bury even these trees under its deadly mantle... In

the gardens of the neighbourhood of Mourzouk the inhabitants cul-
tivate with great care several kinds of grain and culinary vegetables.
The seeds are sown in decomposed manure, with which the hard

salty soil has previously been covered about 2 inches high. , To irri-

gate a garden of about 100 square yards, one man has to work twelve

hours, a labour for which he gets a fourth of the produce of the

piece of ground he attends. During winter, barley and wheat are

grown; during the summer, Gosub and Garfuli; of the latter two I

have transmitted specimens, because they furnish the chief portion,
of the food of the inhabitants of the Sahara, and because there are

so many contradictory statements regarding their botanical: name;

indeed to such a degree do the accounts of travellers vary, that one

calls them beans, another rice, while again a third party pronounces

them to be millet. The ‘‘ Garfuli mosri,’’ so often mentioned, by

African travellers, is the Indian corn (Zea Mays), the spikes of which

are gathered before they are quite ripe; and in that state they are

toasted and eaten.

«To convey a notion of the poor return agriculture yields in-this
part of the world, I will state that the inhabitants surround, each
spike of the Gosub and Garfuli abiad with a neatly-made. basket, in
order to prevent the wild pigeons from picking the seeds.

‘« Among the few trees growing here, the finest is a Cornus, called
Kurno by the Arabs; it attains a height of 80 feet, and a diameter
of about 3 feet; the country about Sudan and Bornu is, I am in-
formed, its true native land, and the 26th degree of north latitude
appears to be its most northern range. A description, and additional
information concerning this tree, will be found with the flowering
specimens in my herbarium. The Gum Acacia will also be found in
my collection; it enlivens and adorns the most stony sides of the
valleys of the Wadi Scherzi and Cherbi. The specimen of the gum
is very small; but there was some difficulty in procuring more, as

Linnean Society. 459

all the trees growing near the road are generally well searched by
the Arabs, who collect the gum as an article of food for themselves.
I could never find the eating of gum-arabic much to my taste. Most
of this article is brought by the Tuariks, and seems to grow be-
tween Dgerma and Ghat. |

“ According to Sir W. Hooker, in the Admiralty ‘ Manual of Scien-
tific Inquiry’ of 1851, the plant producing the senna of commerce is
still unknown botanically. I collected it in Wadi Cherbi, near
Dgerma, west of Mourzouk, where it grew wild under date palms;
it is found in enormous masses in Ahir, to the south of this place ;
but it is now-a-days gathered in very small quantities, as senna-
leaves, on account of their trifling value (half-a-crown the cwt.),
are not sufficiently remunerative to bear the cost of the transport,
and the 24 per cent. transit duty levied upon them here. I have
also sent seeds of the Sudan cotton-plant, in case I should not go
far enough west to collect them in their native country. In the
matétia medica of the Arabs, Peganum Harmala, vernacularly termed
Harmel, occupies a prominent place. It is celebrated as a preventa-
tive against ophthalmia. For that purpose the immature seed-vessels
are recommended ; every Arab swallows in the spring of the year
about a dozen of them, fancying that in doing so he will be exempt
from‘all diseases of the eyes. I have not been able to ascertain
whether the seed-vessels purify the blood or act as a purgative.
Peganum Harmala ranges from the north coast of this continent to
Fezzan, and is very common; as is also the Cucurbitacea, known by
the naine of Colocynth, the fruits of which are eaten by the ostriches.
This Cucurbitacea covers the valleys of the Black Mountains ; in the
Wadi Cherbi and Wadi Scherzi, the most fertile districts of Fezzan,
it is a most troublesome weed. ‘The Tibus are very fond of the
seeds; they roast them in the manner the Germans occasionally do
those of the pumpkin, after they have previously been soaked twelve
hours in water to deprive them of their bitter taste. The fruit itself
is used against urinary complaints and diseases of the sexual organs,
which ‘are very comiion in these parts; it is placed in a basin of
milk, and after remaining in it about twelve hours, the fluid is drank.
Ricinus communis is common in the neighbourhood of Tripoli, and
the oil of it might become an article of export, if they would only
take the trouble of gathering the seeds. I met here, in Fezzan, an
old acquaintance, in the shape of the sunflower (Helianthus annuus),
which, growing to the height of about 9 feet, is the only ornament
of the small cottage gardens ; its seeds are eaten. I was also very
glad to find Tulipa sylvestris, a great ornament of the Targona moun-
tains. [ have been unable to collect more than a single specimen ;
for although the ;!ant occurs in the locality mentioned in enormous
quantities, I arrived too early (end of March) to see it in flower. In
my collection there are specimens of a plant resembling in foliage
the thorn, and I have mentioned on the slip of paper accompanying
it, that the bark of its root is used by the Arabs for tanning leather
and dyeing red. (A small parcel of this drug is for Sir W. Hooker.)
I have omitted to add,. that the charcoal of this shrub is used in

manufacturing gunpowder ; -forthere are, it must be known, a great
many secret powder-mills, especially in’ Benoulid; which manufac-
ture an inferior sort:of powder, sold for about two shillings the
ound. rc |

” After this digression I return:'to the theme I had in view in com-
mencing this letter,~-to give an account of the useful and cultivated
plants of Fezzan. I will begin with the date-palm. All Fezzan and
half of Tripolitania live upon it. «Here every door; every post. is
made of date-palm wood; the ceilings of the rooms are*of the stems
of that tree, between which are laid the leaves of the’ palm,’ instead
of the cane used by us. The poorer classes live in huts entirely
made of date-palm leaves. Date-palms furnish the most’ common
fuel (the poor people bringing a bundle of it on their backs to this
place from a distance of from six to eight miles, for which they get
one piastre, i.e. 2d.). Dates are the food of both man and°beast}
camels, horses, dogs, all eat dates. Even the kernels “of ‘this fruit
are soaked in water, and after having become soft, are given 'to the
cattle*. . HOM -I9I8W

‘On the sheet enclosed I have given figures and: deseriptions°of
thirty-eight varieties of the date-palm, from which it will bé’seen that
this tree varies quite as much as our cherries and plums in thetree
itself, independent of the fruit; I have never been able to find a dif-
ference. Of the enormous numbers in which this palm occurs you
can hardly forma conception. When Abdel Gelil besieged Soknu
(1829), he felled all the date-palms he could, to compel the town to
surrender, and his people cut down, during seven days, 43,000
trees; and yet there are still 70,000 to be found. Their produce is
comparatively small ;—100 full-grown trees yield about 40°cwts.of
' dates, worth at this place 30 shillings. In Tripoli the same -quan-
tity would fetch about four times that sum. The dates; after having
been gathered, are dried in the sun, and when quite hard, buried’in
the sand. ‘They may thus be preserved about:two' years; but after
the first eighteen months they are attacked by-the worms, and “in
the beginning of the third year nothing is left of them but’the ker-
nels. As an every-day food dates are considered very heating; and
this is the reason why they are not much used’on a journey, travellers
being obliged to drink too often. They are most wholesome, and
taste best, when made into dough with barley.’ When the heart of
the leaves has been cut out, a sweet thickish fluid collects'in that

* There is no grass, nor any other herbage,-exceptia little Sassfahy (Me-
lilotus), cultivated with almost as. much care as the corn, and- fetching on
that account a good price ; a bundle, about. as much as.oae is able to hold
in both hands, is sold for 2 piastres (4 pence). .1 was obliged to. send my
camels about 100 miles to the north, the nearest place where there is suffi-
cient pasture for them, . Here; about Mourzouk, there is nothing but sand
and salt; the ninety gardens, outside of the town, cover together about a
quarter of an English square mile. In the whole town of Mourzouk there
are only two cows, one of which belongs to the pasha;- there are no goats ;
sheep are brought from Wadi Scherzi, fifty miles distant.: When we happen
to have milk for our tea or coffee; we consider it a feast.

Linnean Society. 461

cavity, called Lagbi, whichis very refreshing and slightly purgative.
A few hours afterwards the: fluid: begins to ferment, becomes: acid
and very intoxicating. (The sap is: not tapped; as Dr. Gumbrecht
has stated in Wappau’s ‘ Handbuch der Geographie und Statistik,’
Band ii. p. 57, 7th edition.) From the ripe fruit a syrup is prepared,
used especially for making leather-pipes oil-tight, and also for distil-
ling a brandy called arogi.”’

/ After»giving many other details concerning the date-palm, Dr.
Vogel proceeds thus :—‘‘ I have taken great care to note down the
southern limits of the fruit-trees; and I will give you the result
of-my observations.. In Tripoli there are oranges, lemons, pista-
chios;, pomegranates, figs, St. John’s bread, mulberries, peaches,
apricots, almonds, olives, opuntias, and grapes in great abundance.
Apples‘and, pears are rather plentiful, but of poor flavour. The best
varieties of pears degenerate in a very few years. Cherry-trees there
are; three }.one of them stood in the garden in which my people
were located,,and I gathered from it six cherries. Melons and
water-melons arrive at great perfection, and the latter I have seen
weighing.as much.as 150 lbs. They are sown on the hard hills of
the; desert,| and the young plants are protected from the sun by
boughs); they require no artificial irrigation, the heavy dew being
sufficient: for their growth. Potatoes also succeed in ‘Tripoli; the
tubers are very large, and have-a fine flavour. Chestnuts there are
none Of-the above-mentioned fruits the following go as far south
as Mourzouk (lat. 25° 55’), viz. pomegranates, figs, peaches, almonds
and grapes.The, vine succeeds extremely well on the shores of the
natron lakes of Fezzan; the branches of this plant have very small
leaves, and climb ‘over pomegranates and fig-trees; the most com-
mon grapes are the black varieties; the white are scarce. A few
apple-trees, are: found in Wadi Schati (about 26° 30' N.L.), but
their, fruit (is. unfit, for-use. Oranges, lemons, pistachios, and St.
John’s, bread do, not go further than the Targona Mountains ; they
are ‘confined to a district-of about: fifty miles from the coast. The
olive-tree is not found, beyond Benoulid, on the southern slope of
the. Targona: Mountains -(31°.44'.N.L.), and at the same place is
found, the last, Opuntia, vulgaris. ‘The mulberry-tree goes as far
south, as, Soknu (29°. 4'), the apricot'as far as Sebha (27° 3').. A
group.of about fifty olive-trees is found, it is true, near the village
of Abiad,; in Wadi Cherbi, (27° N-L.), but they bear no fruit. Cotton
is seen here and there in gardens, commencing at Bondjem, (both
Gossypium arboreum and herbaceum,) but the state of the soil does not
admit of its being extensively cultivated.. The vine is said to grow
wild in Tripolitania, but that ‘statement must be incorrect ; I have
never seen it except cultivated.”

‘February 7.—Thomas* Bell, Esq., President, in the Chair.

Read a ‘‘ Note on the Elaters.of Trichia.”’. By Arthur Henfrey,
Esq.,. F.RS., F.L.S. &e.

After referring to observations by Hedwig, Kaulfuss and Corda,
asserting the existence ‘of spiral fibres in the filamentous elaters

4,62 Linnean Society.

mixed with the spores of Trichia, and to those of M. Schleiden and
of M. Schacht, by whom these spiral fibres are.called in question,
Mr, Henfrey states, that having examined the .elaters of a species
of Trichia (Tr. serotina, Schrad.?), in,some specimens sent, to the
Society from New Zealand by Mr. Ralph, he is prepared to assert
positively the existence in them of spiral fibres exactly analogous, to
those in Marchantia polymorpha. .'The number. of fibres in.an elater
of this species of Trichia is three; in some species, Corda describes
a much greater number, but this Mr. Henfrey regards as, open, to
doubt. The fibres thin off towards the very gradually attenuated
ends of the tubular elaters, and apparently become: confluent there,
in the same manner as he has himself described in those of Mar-
chantia polymorpha (Linn. Trans. yol. xxi. p. 107); but theiends are
so fine, that even with a power of 1000 diameters and a good Jight,
he could not clearly define the terminations of, the fibres., ‘The
tubular character of the elaters was proved by_a transverse section
of certain curved filaments, which gave a circular form;.and,the
spiral structure was clearly distinguishable with a power of,.250
diameters ; but in order to count the fibres, it wasnecessary to take
out a few of the elaters, and to mount them in the thinnest possible
film of liquid under very thin glass, and apply a magnifying power
of 1000, when the individual fibres could be made out with quite
sufficient clearness to allow of their being drawn. with the camera
lucida. ‘These elaters, Mr. Henfrey observes, maybe. regarded
as very good test-objects for the defining power of. the higher
object-glasses ; or, perhaps—considering the confusing effect, of the
crossing nerves of the number of parallel spiral. fibres—as test-
objects, by which to measure the value of observations on the more
difficult tissues. Viewed in this light, he regards the conclusions
on this subject drawn by M. Schleiden and by M. Schacht,as indi-
cating an inferiority in the microscopes used by those observers,

Read also, ‘‘ Notes on the habits of Meduse and of small Fishes,’’
By Charles W. Peach, Esq. Communicated by Dr. Francis, F.L.S.

Mr. Peach’s observations were made at Peterhead, N.B., in the
beginning of August last, at which time Cyuneaauriia and, Cyanea
capillata (or C. inscripta of Peron?) were so abundant in the harbour
and bay as occasionally very much to inconvenience the fishermen,
and render it difficult to lift the oars, especially of small boats, from
amongst them. Round these Meduse very small fishes were ob-
served playing, sometimes sporting round C. aurita, and quitting it
on a sudden for C. inscripta when an enemy came near. Occasion-
ally two or three might be seen attending one of the Cyanee; and
when attacked or alarmed, rushing under its umbrella and among
the tentacula, so as to shelter themselves in the large folds con-
nected with the ova, where they remained until the danger had
passed, and then emerged again to sport and play around their shel-
tering friend. When under the umbrella seeking shelter, they lay
so close as to allow themselves to be taken into.a bucket with the
Medusa, from beneath which after a short time they would come out

Linnean Society. 463

and gambol as while in the sea. In this way Mr. Peach captured
many young whitings, measuring from less than an inch to 2} inches
in length. It was evident that they resorted to the Meduse for pro-
tection, and not, as sometimes stated, that they are preyed upon by
these glass-like creatures ; and it is probably with a view to greater
security that they prefer the stinging species, with its eight bunches
of long tentacula and large fringed ovaries, to Cyanea aurita, with
its single, and frequently short row of delicate appendages. What,
then, Mr. Peach asks, becomes of the paralysing influence of the
tentacles of this Medusa on fishes? This, he thinks, opens a new
field for observation. He believes, too, that the facts which he has
observed, if not conclusive against, at least throw considerable doubt
on the fish-eating propensities ascribed to the Meduse; for he is
convinced that in these instances the fishes resorted to the Meduse
as to protectors, and not enemies. In no instance did he observe a
fish in the stomach of the Meduse, but all were free to depart when
they pleased. ‘The Cyanea aurita, he adds, is called at Peterhead
**Loch Lobberton” and ‘‘ Loch Robertson,” and the other species
“the Doctor.” In an instance subsequently recorded in his journal,
Mr. Peach states that a small whiting, which was gliding round a
small; weak Cyanea aurita, was attacked by a young pollack, or
‘‘ baddock,”’ whose movements it easily evaded by dodging round the
Medusa. A second baddock, however, soon joined in the pursuit ;
but both were for some time baffled, until an unlucky move drove the
whiting from its poor shelter, and then a severe chase took place. The
pursuers were joined by others, who followed like a pack of hounds,
until the whiting became exhausted, and was left by its enemies,
who were unable to swallow it, to all appearance dead. In this
state the tide gently drifted it along with the Cyanea, until after a
time it recovered, swam slowly to its protector, and took refuge as
before. The pack soon observed it, drove it again into open water,
and this time succeeded in really killing it. During their attack
upon it, Mr. Peach repeatedly threw stones among them to induce
them to desist; but so intent were they on the pursuit, that they
dashed on unheedingly, although at any other time the smallest
stone would have alarmed and driven them aside.

April 18.—William Yarrell, Esq., Vice-President, in the Chair.

Read a letter from Robert Wakefield, Esq., F.L.S., to John
Curtis, Esq., F.L.S., ‘On some of the Habits of Ants.”

In this letter Mr. Wakefield relates some observations, made by
himself many years ago, with reference to that curious insect called
by Horace ‘‘ magni Formica laboris.””. Most modern writers, he ob-
serves, including Huber, have relinquished the old idea that Ants
amass grain for their winter store; but he states that he has seen
the black species (Formica nigra, L.?) for days and nights together
industriously occupied in dragging to its cells the seeds of the com-
mon violet (Viola odorata, L.). He first noticed this fact on the

464. Linnean Society.

3rd of July 1832; and he regards it asa subject of curious inquiry
for what purpose, if not for their own future provision, they could
accumulate these stores? Could they be intended as food for the
Aphides during winter? That they work all night has long been
known; Pliny says only during the full moon, but Mr. Wakefield
observed them at work at midnight on two successive nights, the
6th and 7th of June, in rainy weather and without any reference to
the full moon. The late Mr. Joshua Milne, F.L.S., was summoned
by a neighbour one morning in February to see a colony of red
ants, which he had turned up while digging in his garden; and
mixed with the ants Mr. Milne saw many living Aphides, and also
some vegetable substance on which they had probably subsisted
during the winter. Many observers have noticed ants caressing
Aphides during the summer; but Mr. Wakefield had never before
met with any one who had seen them together during their winter
retreat.

In confirmation of the storing up of food for winter provision by
some species of Ant, Mr. Adam White, F.L.S., referred to Colonel
Sykes’s Observations on the Storing Ant of Poonah, the Atta pro-
videns, described and figured in the ‘ Transactions of the Entomo-
logical Society ;? and to a Monograph of the East Indian Ants by
Mr. Jerdon, published first in the ‘ Asiatic Journal,’ and subse-
quently in the,‘ Annals of Natural History.’

Mr. Adam White, F.L.S8., also exhibited the type-specimen of a
fine Prionidous Beetle (Baladeva Walkeri), described by Mr. Water-
house, from the collection of the late Sir Patrick Walker, and closely
related to Dorysthenes rostratus, Vig., the type-specimen of which,
described by’ Fabricius under the name of Cyrtognathus rostratus,
from the cabinet of Sir Joseph Banks, forms part of the collection
presented to the Linnean Society by that distinguished patron of
science. Mr. White regretted that he had been unable to attend
the last meeting of the Society, at which Mr. Curtis’s paper on
Hypocephalus was read. He thought, however, that Mr. Curtis
laid too great stress on the tarsal system, which Mr. W. S. Macleay.
had shown to be very weak when used alone as a leading character,
a fact of which Latreille himself was well aware. He stated that
having for years studied Longicorn Beetles, he could not fail to be
struck, the first time he saw the specimen of Hypocephalus, with the
correctness of Dr. Burmeister’s determination, and with Mr. West-
wood’s observations on its Longicorn character. To Mr. Curtis’s -
observation that it was pentamerous, he replied that the Parandride
are all so, and yet are essentially Longicorn in type ; that Tricteno-
toma of Mr. G. R. Gray, of which four species are now recorded, is
heteromerous, and is even sublamellicorn in its antenne; that in-
sects, and indeed animals generally, which are fossorial or internal
feeders, or aquatic, are often in external characters wonderfully
similar to genera in totally different groups, and have (what are
often deemed) essential characters of the group so adapted and
changed as to be quite altered in external appearance. Of these

Miscellaneous. 465

modifications he gave several instances both in vertebrated and arti-
culated animals; and in particular directed attention to such Longi-
corn Coleoptera as Erichsonia, Thaumasus (regarded by Olivier as a
species of Ips), Torneutes, Cantharocnemis, Sipylus, and Anoploderma
of Guérin, and a pentamerous Australian genus (Dore pentamera),
known to him only by Mr. Newman’s description.

» Mr. White next proceeded to exhibit a small but valuable collec-
tion of Thibetan Coleopterous Insects, made by Dr. T. Thomson,
F.L.S., which he proposes hereafter to make the subject of a paper.
He remarked on the Mediterranean character of these denizens of
an Alpine plateau, such as exists at Iskardo, where they were col-
lected ; and in reference to the destruction of species, drew attention
to the remarkable genus Deucalion, a Longicorn insect discovered
on barren rocks near Madeira by Mr. Wollaston, F.L.S., which will
shortly be published in Mr. Wollaston’s work on the Coleoptera of
Madeira.

fihes

ywioladl a) Yo 2o01t> MISCELLANEOUS.
Bee hoot Ge ALPHEUS AFFINIS.
To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History:

min W xl; Elmore Court, Nov, 10, 1854.

| GenTLEMEN,—On reading over my paper upon the new Alpheus
in the October Number of the ‘Annals and Magazine of Natural
History,’ I find that I have by some strange inadvertence overlooked
an incorrectness, which has the effect of exactly neutralizing a point
upon which I especially desire to insist.

At page 277, commencing at the ninth line from the bottom, are
these words—* Differs in not having the moveable finger longer than
the immoveable one,’ which is exactly the reverse of the fact; it
should have run thus‘ Differs in not having the moveable finger
SHORTER than the immoveable one.’’—which constitutes one of the
main points of difference between my “A. afinis’’ and the “4. ruber”?
of Milne-Edwards.

In the deseription of “‘ Alpheus afinis’’ in the following page
(278) the characteristics are correctly given.

Begging you kindly to give insertion to this communication in your
next Number,

I remain, Gentlemen, yours sincerely obliged,

W. V. Guise.

On a new species of Rock Kangaroo, By, Dr. J. E. Gray.
Yellow-legged Rock Kangaroo, Petrogale xanthopus.

Pale brown, minutely grisled ; chin and beneath white; streak on
side from the back of shoulder, and along the side of the face under
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xiv. 30

f

466 Meteorological Observations.

the eye whitish ; dorsal streak narrow, brown; legs, feet and_ tail
bright yellow ; end of tail more bushy and brown, vatied ; ears red.

Australia ; Richmond River ?

This species has all the markings like Petrogale lateralis, but
differs in being of amuch paler and yellower colour, and in the bright
yellow colour of the legs and basal part of the tail.

It is about the same size as P. penicillatus, or rather between it
and P. lateralis.

There are two specimens of this species (male and female) in the
collection of the British Museum, procured from Mr. Strange, but
unfortunately not accompanied by their precise habitat, and sent with
specimens from South Australia and Richmond River,

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR oct. 1854.

Chiswick.—October 1. Foggy: drizzly: overcast and-fine: foggy. 2. Dense
fog: very fine. 3,4. Very fine. 5. Fine, but windy. 6. Rain. 7. Overcast.

8. Cloudy and fine.. 9. Fine: overcast. 10. Foggy: exceedingly.fine: rain at |

night. 11. Fine throughout. 12. Clear. 13. Foggy: very fine. 14. Foggy :

hazy: slight drizzle. 15. Foggy and drizzly: cloudy: rain. 16. Very fine. =

17.. Foggy: rain. .18. Rain: overcast. and windy. . 19,.Fine: rain at, night.

20: Showery. ~21. Cloudy. 22. Densely clouded: fine. 23. Fine: clear. 24. E

Very fine : heavy rain. 25. Constant rain. 26. Clear and very fine. 27. Frosty
and foggy: very fine. 28,29. Very fine. 30. Foggy: very fine: cloudless. 3I-
Exceedingly fine.

Mean temperature of the Month ..........c0.seseeeeeens Re le 48°:20
Mean temperature of Oct. 1853 .........sececerssesvccesenscese 49 -99
Mean temperature of Oct. for the last twenty-eight years ... 50 *06
Average-amount of rain in Oct. ...... 0s cee dees eee eee tees 22°68 inches.

Boston.—Oct. ¥, 2. Foggy. 3. Cloudy. 4, Fine. “5. Fine: rain p.m, 6. Cloudy.

7,8. Fine. 9. Cloudy: rain a.m. 10. Fine. 11. Cloudy: rain a.m. 12, 13.
Fine. 14. Cloudy. 15. Cloudy: rain p.m. 16. Fine. 17. Cloudy: rain-p.m.
18. Rain a.m.and p.m. 19. Cloudy. 20. Cloudy: rain a.m.and p.m. 21. Fine.
22. Cloudy: rain a.M. 23, 24. Fine. 25. Cloudy: rain A.M. and p.m. 26, 27.
Fine... 28. Cloudy. 29. Fine. -30. Cloudy. -31. Cloudy: rain p.m.

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—Oct. 1. Cloudy a.m.: clear p.m. 2. Rain a.m. and
p.m. 3. Showers a.M.:clear p.m. 4.-Cloudy a.m. and p.m. 5. Showers a.M.:
clear p.mM.- 6. Hail-showers a.m.: clear p.m. 7. Showers A.M.: clear p.m. 8,
Clear, fine A.m,: fog p.m. 9. Rain a.me: cloudy:p.m. 10. Clear, fine .a.m..:
showers p.m. ~ 11. Showers—a.M-: sleet, showers. P.M, ~ 12..Clear, fine .a.M::
Clear p.m. 13. Drizzle a.m.: clear p.m. 14. Clear, fine a.m.: cloudy p.m. 15—
17. Showers a.m. and p.m. 18. Hail-showers a.m.: cloudy p.m. 19—22. Showers
A.M.and p.M. 23. Bright a.M.: showers P.M. 24, Clear, frost a.m. : clear, frost,
aurora p.m, 25. Cloudy, frost. A.m.: sleet-showers, aurora P.M. 26, Sleet-showers
A.M. and P.M, 27. Bright a.M,: cloudy P.M. 28, Rain a.m. : cloudy P.M, 29,
Cloudy a.m.: clear p.m. 30, 31. Clear a.m. and p.m.

Mean temperature of Oct. for twenty-seven previous years... 47°°68
Mean temperature of this month _.......++. SrtA sbrnapeee> eae bAte 46 °39
Mean temperature of Oct. 1853 ....eeicreeceecsetseee ceeehe pa ee 48 -66
Average quantity of rain-in Oct, for fourteen previous years . 5°07 inches.

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468 ~

INDEX to VOL. XIV.

Acuis UNICA, Observations on,
122.

Actinize, new species of British, 280 ;
on the development of the, 395.
Adams, A., on a new genus and se-
veral new species of Mollusca, 69 ;
. Manual of Natural History for the

use of travellers, reviewed, 375.

Adams, H. and A., on two new genera
of bivalve Mollusca, 76, 418.

ZEgilops, on the natural and artificial
ecundation of, by Triticum, 394,

AEquorea, new species of, 294.

Agassiz, L., on the primitive diversity
and number of animals in geolo-
gical times, 350.

Alder, J., on some new species of
British Nudibranchiata,102 ; on the
branchial currents in the Lamelli-
branchiata, 177.

Algze, on the so-called eye-spot in
microscopic, 232.

Alpheus, new species of, 275, 465.

Alveolina, on the true position of the
canaliferous structure in the shell
of, 99.

Alyceeus, on the geographical. distri-
bution of, 415.

Anacharis Alsinastrum, on the intro-
duction of, 309.

Animals, on. the primitive diversity
and number of, in geological times,
350.

Antechinus, new species of, 301.

Antiopa, new species of, 105.

Ants, on the habits of, 463.

Aphides, on the development of yivi-
parous, 81.

Aquaria, memoranda of observations
made in small, 366; on manufac-
tured sea-water for, 65, 419.

Ascidia, remarks onthe formation. of,

Athyrium rheticum, note.on, 237...)

Babington, C. C.,,on; Linaria sepium
of Allman, 408, tibinas cilaai

Bailey, Prof. J...W.,..on a, mode..of
giving permanent. flexibility, to
brittle specimens . in, botany and»
zoology, 3/3... aie ily

Baird, Dr. W., on the Branchipodide,
with deseriptions..of a; new,genus °
and species of the family, and two”
new species of Limnadiadz, 216,

Balfour, Prof.,. on. the. plants of the
coal epoch, and, onthe general
structure of coal, 229; on the
formation of ascidia, 455. ;

Bartlett, A. D., on some. bones of
Didus, 297.

Beale’s, L., Mieroseope and:its Ap-
plication to Clinical Medicine, re-
viewed, 204.

Beneden, Prof. van, on the develop-
ment of Coenurus cerebralis, 234.
Benson, W. H.,. on some Indian

species of Cyclophorus, 411.

Blackwall, J., notes: on.the British
spiders, 28.

Books, new :—Dawson’s Geodephaga
Britannica, 198; Mantell’s .Medals
of Creation, 201; Caspary’s Ge-
nera Plantarum Florz Germanicze,
203; Beale’s Microscope and its
Application. to. Clinical. Medicine,
204 ; Hogg’s Microscope, its. His-
tory, Construction, and Applica-
tions, 2b.; Sowerby’s Ferns. of Great
Britain, 284; A Manual of Na-
tural History for the use of Tra-
vellers, 375.

Bos frontalis, observations on, 444.

' IND.
Botanical Society of were pro- -
2

ceedings of the, 151, 229, 312, 455.

Botanical specimens, on a means of
preserving brittle, 373.

Bovine animals of the Malay Penin-
sula, notes on the, 318.

Bowerbank, J. S., on the remains of
a gigantic bird, 263. >

Brachiopoda, new species of,145; on
the anatomy of the, 285.

Branchipodide, monograph of the
family, 216.

Braun, A., on the occurrence of zinc
in the vegetable organism, 316.

Brooke, C., on the structure of cer-
tain microscopic test-objects, 441.

Burnett, Dr. W. I., on the develop-
ment of viviparous Aphides, 81.

Calanide, new arctic species of, 125.

Carpenter, Dr. W. B., on a peculiar
arrangement of the sanguiferous
system! in Terebratula and certain
other Brachiopoda, 205.

Carter, H:'J., on the true position of
the canaliferous structure in the
shell of fossil Alveolina, 99; on
zoosperms in Spongilla, 334.

Caspary’s,, R., Genera Plantarum
Flore Germanic, reviewed, 203.

Caulerpa, new species of, 197.

Clark, W., on’ the Aclis unica,
FQ. 10. LNs,

Clubiona, notes on some species of, 30.

Coal, on the various sections of, con-
sidered in their relation to the
block, 153°; on the ‘general struc-
ture of,'229° °°”

Ccenurus cerebralis, on the develop-
ment of, 234, 315.

Concholepas, new species of, 70.
Confervee, on the cultivation of ma-
rine, in aquaria, 370. rie
Coniferee, on the fecundation’ of the,

429.

Crassatella, new species of, 71.

Crescentiaceze, on the natural order,
233. ;

Crustacea, on some new cretaceous,
116.

Culicivora, new species of, 158.

Curculionide, new genus of, 129.

Curtis, J.; on a weevil of the vine
and its parasite, 231.

Cyclophorus, new species of, 411.

Cyclostomaceze, on the geographical
distribution of the, m Hindostan,
414.

46 9

Cyclostomus, on the hical
Viistribution of, 417. sh 3

Cyclotus, note on the genus, 416.

Dallas, E. W., on the structure of
Diatomacez, 152.

Davidson, T., on a few new recent
species of Brachiopoda, 145.

Dawson’s; J; F., Geodephaga Britan-
nica, reviewed, 198.

Dendrolagus inustus, on the anatomy
of, 448.

Diatomaceze, on the structure of, 152.

Dick, R., on a new habitat for Hie-
rochloé borealis, 314.

Dickie, Dr. G., on associations of
colour and relations of colour and
form in plants, 401.

Didus, on some bones of, 297.

Difflugia Enchelys, on the develop-
ment of, 331.

Diplommatina, new species of, 70;
note on the genus, 417.

Doris, new species of, 102.

Drassus, notes on some species of, 30.

Earl, G. W., on the bovine aninials of
the Malay Peninsula, 318,

Echinococcus veterinorum, on the
anatomy and development of, 379.

Embletonia, new species of, 105.

Eolis, new species of, 104.

Kopsaltria, new species of, 302.

Epéira, notes on some species of, 33. ;

Ercolani, M., on the embryogeny and
Piemer ign of intestinal worms,

Estheria, new species of, 229.
Fauna of Dacca, notes on the, 168.
Ferns, on the fertilization of, 272.
Fishes allied to Gymnotus, on some,
398. ,

Flower, W. H., on the dissection of a
species of Galago, 307.

Forbes, Prof. E., on ‘an indication of
depth of primeeyal seas, afforded by
the remains of colour. in fossil
Testacea, 67; on a _ species of
Ai quorea inhabiting the British seas,

Fraser, L., on anew species of Hyrax,
158.

Galago, on the anatomy of a. species
of, 307.

Galiaceze, on the occurrence of “ Cin-
chonaceous glands ”’ in, 161.

Garreau, Dr., on the formation of the
stomata, in the epidermis of the
leaves of the Spiderwort, and on the

470

evolution of the cells in their neigh-
bourhood, 75. .

Glyphea, new species of, 118,

Godron, M., on the natural and
artificial fecundation of Aigilops by
Triticum, 394.

Gosse, P. H., on manufactured sea-
water for the aquarium, 65; on
three new species of British Actinize,
280.

Gould, J., on two new species of
Antechinus, 301 ; on a new species
of Ptilotis and a new species of
Eopsaltria, 302.

Gray, G. R., on the species of the
genus Stich’ 305; on a new
species of Suthora, 397.

Gray, Dr. J. E., on the arrangement
of the families of bivalve shells, 21 ;
on the Ounces, 394 ; on the African
seal, Heliophoca Atlantica, 394;
ona new species of rock kangaroo,
465.

Gray, 8. O., note on Athyrium rhe-
ticum, 237.

Greville, R. K., on a new species of
Caulerpa, 197.

Griffith, Dr. J. W., on the relation of
the ‘angular aperture of object-

_gilasses to their penetrating power
and to oblique light, 212.

Grube, Dr. E., on the occurrence of
larvee of Sarcophaga in the human
eye and nose, 238.

Guise, W. V., on a new species of
Alpheus, 275, 465.

Yai on some fishes allied to,
398.

Haime, M., on the development of
the Actiniz, 395. ;
Hancock, A., on some new species of

British Nudibranchiata, 102.

Hardy, Mr., on diseases in plants
caused by mites, 456.

Heliophoca atlantica, note on the, 394.

Henfrey, A., on the so-called eye-spot
of the Infusoria and inicroscopic
Algee, 332; on the elaters” of
Trichia, 461.

Hierochloé borealis, new habitat for,
314.

Hofmeister, Dr. W., on the fertiliza-
tion of Ferns, 272; on the fecunda-
tion of the Conifers, 429. :

Hoge’s, J:, Microscope, its History,
Construction and Applications, re-
viewed, 204.

INDEX,

Hooker, Dr. J. D., on the structure
aad affinities of Trigonocarpon, 209;
on the structure and functions of
the rostellum in Listera ovata, 444;
on the affinities of the Balanopho-
raceze and Nympheacez, 456,

Hoploparia, new species.of, 116.

Huxley, T. H., on the common plan
of ‘animal forsas, 7 72,3; on, the.ana-
tomy of the Brachiopoda, 285 ;, on
the anatomy and development of
Echinococcus vetérinorum, 379,

Hydra fusca, on the habits of, 367..

Hypocephalus, on the position fe in
the system, 464.

Hyperoodon bidens, on the occurrence
of, 347. ; ere hh

Hyrax, new. species. of, 108...

Idalia, new species of, 103.

Infusoria,- on the wrested: ‘eyeospot
of the, 232; ‘contributions. to, the
natural history of the, 321..

Intestinal worms, on the. embryogeny
and propagation, of, 156,

Kakapo, on the habits of ‘the,, 302,

Kangaroo, on a new species of, “4b.

Kraussia, new species of, 149...)

Kiichenmeister, Dr., on the Ceenurus
cerebralis of the ‘Sheep, B15, +N

Lamellibranchiata, on the binned
currents in the, 177,.....,

Lawson, G., on the occurrence or
*Cinchonaceous glands” in. Ga-
liaceze, and on the ‘relations of that
order.to Cinchonacee, 1615 ),.on
Stellaria umbrosa, 457.

Layard, E. L., on. the ornithology of
Ceylon, yi 105, 204,

Leptopoma, on the geographical, dis-
tribution of, 416.

Limnadia, new species of, 229...

Linaria, on anew British speciesof, 408,

Linnean Society, proceedings of the,
231, 309, 457.

Linyphia, notes on some species of, 31,
Listera ovata, on the structure. and
functions of the rostellum in, 444,
Lithornis Emuinus, on some remains

of, 263,
Lubbock; J., on some Arctic species
of Walenidee, 125.

Lyall, Dr. D., on the habits of Str-
gops habroptilus, 302.

Lycium, remarks on the genus, 1; new
species of, 7, 131, 187,336,

M‘Coy,, Prof. F., on some new. creta+
ceous Crintanaa: 116.

Re
oe
eat

INDEX.

Mantell’s, the late G. A., Medals of
Creation, reviewed, 201.

Medusz, on the habits of, 462.

Megalostoma, note on the genus, 416.

Meissner, Dr. G., on the genus Mer-
mis, 421.

Mermis, on the genus, 421. _ )

Meteorological observations, 79, 159,

239, 319, 399, 466.

Microscopic test-objects, on the struc-
ture of certain, 441.

Miers, J., on the genus Lycium, 1,
131, 182, 336; on the correctness
of the position assigned to Oxycla-
ous in the. family of Bignoniacez,

Minnows, voracity of, 367.
Mites, on diseases in plants caused
hy, Abg-) oe Sabods et
Mollusca, ‘on ‘the structure of. the
*“ organs, of breathing in the, 34 ; new
__ genera of, 69, 76, 418; on the oc-
‘“eutrence of rare Trish, 397 ; typical
collections of, 397.0"
Monkeys of the Amazon, on the, 451,
Moore; D., ‘on the introduction of
Anacharis Alsinastrum, 309.
Morrisia, new species of, 149.
pain, characters of the new genus,

Neilo, characters of the new genus, 69;
’ new species of, 70.

Neriéne, notes on some species of, 32.

Notopocorystes, new species of, 118.

Nudibranchiata, new species of British,

, 102. eT es me Geri

Object-glasses, on the relation of the
angular aperture of, to their pene-
abe power and to oblique light,

Orbicula, new species of, 151.

Ornithology of Ceylon, notes on the,
57, 105; 264.

Ounces, note on the, 394.

Owen, Prof., on the anatomy of the
tree kangaroo, 448,

Oxycladus, on the position. of, in the
‘system, 310.

Paxillus, new species of, 70.

Peach; C. W., on the ‘habits of
Medusz and some’ small fishes,
462.

Peliostomum, new species of, 3.

Pentarthrum, characters of the new
genus, 129.

Petrogale, new species of, 465.

Physa fontinalis, on the habits of, 366.

471

Pipra, new species of, 158,

Plants, on the structure of the coal
epoch of, 229. on associations of
colour and relations of colour and
form in, 401 ; new localities for rare
British, 315, 455 ; on) diseases in,
caused by mites, 456.

Pleurosigma, on the structure of the
valves of some species of, 441.

Polytoma Uyella, on the reproduction
of, 321.

Pterocyclos, on the geographical dis-
tribution of, 416.

Ptilotis, new species of, 302.

Reproduction, analogy between the
processes of, in the plant and in the
hydroid zoophyte, 313.

Respiration, on the mechanism. of
aquatic, in invertebrate animals, 34,
241.

Reussia, characters of the new genus,
120.

Rhamnus, on the supposed antheridia
of, 141.

Rissoa, new. species of, 123;

Royal Institution of Great. Britain,
proceedings of the, 72.

Royal Society, proceedings of the, 67,
205, 285, 441.

Salticus, notes on some species of, 28.

Sanderson, Dr. J. S. B., on the. sup=
posed antheridia of Rhamnus, 141.

Sarcophaga, on the occurrence. of
larve of, in the human eye. and
nose, 238.

Schneider, A., on the natural history
of the Infusoria, 321.

Sclater, P. L., on two new species of
South American birds, 158.

Seal, note on the African, 394.

Sea-water for the aquarium, method
of manufacturing, 65, 419.

Sedgwick, Prof., rejomder to Prof.
Milne-Edwards, and Mr. Bower-
bank, 195.

Seeman, B., on the natural. order
Crescentiacex, 233.

Sericinus, on the species of the genus,
305.

Shells, on the arrangement of the
families of bivalve, 21.

Sowerby’s, J. E., Ferns of Great
Britain, reviewed, 284.

Spiders, notes on British, 28.

Spiderwort, on the formation of the
stomata in the epidermis of the
leaves of the, 75.

472 :

Spongilla, on zoosperms in, 334.

Stellaria umbrosa, note on, 457.

Stewart, N., on the various sections
of coal, considered in their relation
to the block, 153.

sr ag acer new species of,
220.

Strigops habroptilus, on the habits of, :
302.

Suthora, new species of, 397.
Terebratella, new species of, 146.
Terebratula, new species of, 146; on
a peculiar arrangement of the san-
guiferous system in, 205.
Terebratulina, new species of, 148.
Thecacera, new species of, 103.
Thecacera pennigera, on the capture
of, 237.
Theridion, notes on some species of,

Thomisus, notes on some species of,
29.

Thompson, Capt. J. W., on the Gouwa
of Western India, 444.

Thompson, W., on the capture of
Thecacera pennigera, 237 ; on the
occurrence of the bottle-headed
whale, 347.

Thomson, Prof. W., on the analogy —

between the processes of reproduc-
tion in the plant and in the hydroid
zoophyte, 313.

Trichia, on the elaters of, 461.

Trigonocarpon, on the structure and
affinities of, 209.

Tritonia, new species of, 104.

Tulasne, M., on the dimorphism of
the Uredinez, 76.

Tyleria, on the new genus, 418.

Tytler, Capt. R. C., on the fauna of
Dacea, 168.

INDEX.

ore on the dimorphism of the,

Vella, M, on the embryogeny and
propegssion of intestinal worms,
-. 156.

Vine, notice of a weevil infesting the,

Lae “calaminaria, observations on,

Vogel, Dr. E., on the botanical
features of the region between Tri-
poli and Mourzouk, 457.

Wakefield, R., on some of the habits
of ants, 463.

Wallace, A. R., on some fishes allied
to Gymnotus, 398; on the monkeys
of the Amazon, 451.

Warington, R., on observations made
in small aquaria, in which the ba-
lance between the animal and vege-
table organisms was permanently
maintained, 366; on artificial sea-
water, 419.

White, A., on the position of Hypo-
cephalus in the system, 464.

Williams, Dr. T., on the mechanism
of aquatic respiration, and on the

structure of the organs of breathing
in invertebrate animals, 34, 241.

Wollaston, T. V., on a new genus and
ee of British Curculionide,
129. |

Wright, E., on the occurrence of rare
Irish mollusea, 397.

Zine, on the oceurrence of, in the ve-
getable organism, 316.

Zoological Society, proceedings of the,
69, 145, 216, 294, 379, 444.

Zoophytes, on the development and
reproduction of, 313.

Zoosperms of Spongilla, on the, 334.

END OF THE FOURTEENTH VOLUME.

PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS.
RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.

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