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THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY,

INCLUDING
ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, ann GEOLOGY.

(BEING A CONTINUATION OF THR ‘ANNALS’ COMBINED WITH LOUDON AND
CHARLESWORTH ’S ‘MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY. )

CONDUCTED BY

CHARLES C. BABINGTON, Esa., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
JOHN EDWARD GRAY, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., V.P.Z.S. &c.,
WILLIAM S. DALLAS, F.L.S.,

AND

WILLIAM FRANCIS, Ph.D., F.L.S.

~_—seea

if

VOL. I.—FOURTH SERIBS& conian ing ooN

( a e5\ 05 \\

Jf

ational Museu™ . Af
——

LONDON:

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS.

SOLD BY LONGMANS, GREEN, READER, AND DYER, SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND CO.;
KENT AND CO.; BAILLIERE, REGENT STREET, AND PARIS:
MACLACHLAN AND STEWART, EDINBURGH :

HODGES AND SMITH, DUBLIN: AND ASHER, BERLIN.

1868.

“‘Omnes res create sunt divine sapientiz et potentize testes, divitiz felicitatis
humane :—ex harum usu donitas Creatoris; ex pulchritudine sapientia Domini ;
eX economia in conseryatione, proportione, renovatione, potentia rmajestatis
elucet. Earum itaque indagatio ab hominibus sibi relictis semper zstimata ;
a yeré eruditis et sapientibus semper exculta; malé doctis et barbaris semper
‘inimica fuit.”—Linnavs. ,

“Quel que soit le principe de la vie animale, il ne faut quouvrir les yeux pour
voir qu’elle est le chef-d’ceuvre de la Toute-puissance, et le but auquel se rappor-
tent toutes ses opérations.”—Bruckner, Théorie du Systéme Animal, Leyden,
1767.

Sites sepaitts VOR stem en coe The sylvan powers
Obey our summons; from their deepest dells
The Dryads come, and throw their garlands wild
And odorous branches at our feet; the Nymphs
That press with nimble step the mountain-thyme
And purple heath-flower come not empty-handed,
But scatter round ten thousand forms minute
Of velvet moss or lichen, torn from rock
Or rifted oak or cayern deep: the Naiads too
Quit their loved native stream, from whose smooth face
They crop the lily, and each sedge and rush
That drinks the rippling tide: the frozen poles,
Where peril waits the bold adyenturer’s tread,
The burning sands of Borneo and Cayenne,
All, all to us unlock their secret stores
And pay their cheerful tribute.

J. Taytor, Norwich, 1818.

QD
ob
5

CONTENTS OF VOL. I.

[FOURTH SERIES. ]

NUMBER I.

I. On the Structure of the Mouth in Sucking Crustacea. By Prof.
J.C. Scur6ptr. (Plate I.)

II. Notule Lichenologice. No. XIX. By the Rev. W. A.
LEIGHTON, B.A., F.L.S. —Dr. Th. M. Fries on new Species of Lichens

Ce

III. Note on the Phascolomys setosus (Gray) and P. nee (Gould).
By Prof. M‘Coy

IV. Note on the Existence of Gigantic Sea-Anemones in the
China Sea, containing within them quasi-parasitic Fish. By Dr. C.
Coxtinewoon, F.L.S. ......

V. On the Lritability of Plants. By C. BLonpEAavu

ee

Cn ee

ec ee

VI. Revision of the Species of Hyrax, founded on the Serer
in the British Museum. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., V.P:Z.8.

VIL. On Globiocephalus Grayi, noy. spec. By Dr. HERMANN
Bummer (ere wh, fess: 2 ded), jis fon vs mctea yaa manele nis oe

VIII. On anew Volute. By Prof. M‘Coy. (Plate II. fig. 1.) .

IX. On the Nature and Zoological Position of the Graptolhtide.
By Henry ALLEYNE NicHoLson, D.Sc., M.B., F.G.S. (Plate IIT.)

X. On the Miocene Flora of the Polar Regions. By Professor O.
ETHER s Std cah ohd tort a aeeMn cocci Sata eNe tat dem Ka diaiivatarond shelter siamese
XI. Remarks upon the Papilio Cocytus of Fabricius, and its dis-
tinctness from the Adolias Cocytus of Authors. By A. G. Bes)
-F.ZS8.

Cc

New Book :—Figures of Characteristic British Fossils, with Descrip-
tive Remarks, by William Hellier Baily, F.L.S., F.G.S., &.
Part I., pages i-xxiv & 1-30, Plates IX.

Ce CET CC ee Oe Cat ee eet Ak ICY

On the Structure of the Eye in the Gasteropoda, and on the Develop-
ment of the Eyes in the Animal Series, by V. Hensen ; Adan-
son’s Black Crocodile, by Dr. J. E. Gray; Rare British Sharks ;
The Australian Representative of Cynthia cardi, by Prof, M‘Coy

Page

70

(a

73—76

iv CONTENTS.

NUMBER II.

XII. Notes on various Species of Ctenodus obtained from the
Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. By Tuomas ATTHEY

XIII. On the presence of two Glandular Sacs in the Cephalothorax
of the Phalangude. By Dr: A. KROEN 000. b Ai eee ce as ce eeae

XIV. Observations on the Distribution of some Species of Nudi-

ane Mollusca in the China Sea. By Dr. C. CoLtinewoop,
LS. :

SPs eee eye pee 6 mm a, 8 ele) Sees 6, 6 = Wwe (690 80 8 s\,0% 8 60 \eele «6 6 hee savers

XV. Remarks on the Names applied to the British Hemiptera
Heteroptera. By Francis P. Pasco, F.LS. &e. .......0 2c eee

XVI. Notes on the Sexes of the Cocytus Group of the Genus
midokgs.” by ANG. Burisn, PAs. Solita cs saw oes Cole cite tie aiese

XVII. Observations on Sea-Bears (Otariade), and especially on
the Fur-Seals and Hair-Seals of the Falkland Islands and Southern
America. By Dr. J.B. Gray, F.R.S., V.P.Z8., F.LS., &e.,., 02.

XVUI. On the Occurrence of Diplommatina Huttoni and Ennea
bicolor in the West Indies. By Wii11am T. Buanrorp, F.G.S.,
MOTE eal ala alee « dare GaN G Ue ee: sate Siku lora hn eisle te itary eiage ate

XIX. On the Discovery of a new and Gigantic Fossil Species of
Echidna in Australia. By Grrarp Krerrt, Curator and Secretary
of thé Austrahan Museum, Sydney... 0. Dene css ees eas

XX. On the “ Vitreous” Sponges. By Prof. WyviLLE THomson,
BED ERO, EeGrea, Motels OCP iate EVGy etter Se ce clones

XXI. Notule Lichenologice. No. XX. By the Rev. W. A.
| PEPER OS GB AUe Nee ah De AER NEE adie 0) 5.8 Seah eer g Pe NT

XXII. On the Spongie ciliate as Infusoria flagellata; or Observa-
tions on the Structure, Animality, and Relationship of Lewcosolenia
botryoides, Bowerbank. By H. James-Cuark, A.B., B.S., Professor
of Natural History in the Agricultural College of Pennsylvania.
PEatee Meow ea VAlbs) tas waters ales wi aipielo yee GMS Lienath ae es tlehees Seer

New Books :—The Natural History of the Tineina, by H.T. Stainton.
Vol. X.—The Tineina of Syria and Asia Minor, by H. T. Stain-
ton, F.L.S.—The Fishes of Zanzibar. ACANTHOPTERYGII, by
Lieut.-Colonel R. Lambert Playfair, Her Majesty’s Political
Agent and Consul at Zanzibar. PHaryNGoGNATHI &c., by

Page

Tt

87

94

99

110

118

114

133

Albert C. L. G. Gunther, M.A:, Ph.D., M-D.*.......62. 142—144

Procecdinog of the Royal Society. «4.4! ug as cars Lae Salah vane ve pe

Errata in Localities of Indian and Burmese Squirrels—Necessity of
defining more exactly what is understood by India, by William
T. Blanford; Preservation of Objectsof Natural History, by Wil-
mot H. T. Power, Assistant-Surgeon, 13th Light Infantry ; On
Leskia mirabilis, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.; Macacus lasvotus,
a new Ape from China, by Dr. J. E. Gray; Additions to the

CONTENTS. Vv

Page
Zoological Collection in the British Museum; On Pteronura
Sanbachii, an Otter from Surinam, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S, &e. ;
Artificial Hybridization in the Genus Gossypium, by J. E. Bal-

SENN ors onsale et Gia 6 esetaiel tant share 1S pia. ie Pare ATR Bia 151—155
NUMBER III.
XXIII. On the new Bat (Amblyotus atratus) discovered by Prof.
Molenage) By 1. El SWI T ERR stead costs oie ee cad ges 157

XXIV. Observations on Sponges and on their Arrangement and
Nomenclature. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., V.P.Z.S., F.L.S., &e... 161

XXV. On Autolytus prolifer. By Dr. R. Grurrr. (Plate VIIL) 173

XXVI. Notule Lichenologice. No. XXI. By the Rev. W. A.
Leienton, B.A., F.L.S.—Rev. E. Williams’s List of Shropshire
MGM ape sracare a cet 6 he Waren is sia #2 Gi ars a 06,0 elk Soop aunt barela a, 5 nieve lane ere oe 185

XXVII. On the Spongie ciliate as Infusoria flagellata; or Obser-
' vations on the Structure, Animality, and Relationship of Leucosolenia
botryoides, Bowerbank. By H. JameEs-Cuiark, A.B., B.S., Professor
of Natural History in the Agricultural College of Pennsylvania.... 188

XXVIII. Observations on the Fur-Seals of the Antarctic Seas
and the Cape of Good Hope, with the Description of a new Species.
ERG UIT Pa GREAT EUs Ws adi Sei Ge vistas 8's OCA oe ten ep ole es 215

Proceodines of the Royal Societys. oo. 0. a esc ce eee eee’ 220

Size of Foetus of the Pilot Dolphin, by Dr. J. E. Gray; Notice of a
remarkable new Genus of Corals, probably typical of a new
Family, by F. B. Meek; Note on the Polymorphism of the
Anthozoa and the Structure of the Tubipore, by A. Kolliker ;
On the Saliva and Salivary Organs of Dolium galea and other
Mollusca, by MM. 8. de Luca and P. Panceri; On an Herma-
phrodite Nemertian (Borlasia hermaphroditica) from St. Malo,
by W. Keferstein; Anatomical Investigation of some Blind
Colen tera, by M. C. Lespés; Action of the Induction-current
upon Plants, by C. Blondeau; On the first Formation of the

body in the Vertebrata, by Prof. His.................. 224—231
NUMBER IV.
XXIX. On Lithodomous Annelids. By HE. Ray LanxkestER,
Junior Student of Christ Church, Oxford. (Plate XL) .......... 235

XXX. On the Occurrence of the Genus Ptilograpsus in Britain ;
with Notes on the Ludlow Graptolites. By HENRY ALLEYNE
Sicwersni, Dice, MB EGS de saa's oi vos oilbeeh Oe pada saends 238

XXXI. On the Geographical Distribution of the Balenide or
Right Whales. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., V.P.Z.8., F.LS., &... 242

XXXII. On a Variety of Spongilla Meyent from the River Exe,
Devonshire | By EJ, CARTIER, FERS. Galea lees isso Hele oth in be 247

vi CONTENTS.

Page
XXXIII. On the Spongie ciliate as “i Meee Jlagellata ; or Obser-
vations on the Structure, Animality, and Relationship of Leucosolenia
botryoides, Bowerbank, By H. Jamus-Cxarx, A.B., B.S., Professor
of Natural History in the Agricultural College of Pennsylvania .... 250

XXXIV: Description of two new Gobioid Fishes from Sarawak.
By Dr. A. Ginruen, F.B8., 7.2.8. (Plate X11)... 0.002 iae ees 264

XXXYV. Notes on the Remains of some Reptiles and Fishes from
the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. By Atpany Han-
Cock, 2:5, and DPHOMAS ATTHEY. «o.05 cap cc ee eee eet 266

XXXVI. Remarks on the Names age to the British Hemiptera
Heteroptera. By J. W. Dovauas and JOHN SCOTT..........0.05 278

XXXVII. On the Muscular Anatomy of the Alligator. By the
Rev. SamurLt Haveuton, M.D., F.R.S., Fellow of Trinity College,
Walaa IP IRGS RS oes visa wh a's © stets o'e cient © Bere oo asalnase ine ern abn tee 282

XXXVIIL. On the peculiar Structure and Function of the Spicules
of Hyalonema. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., V.P.Z.8., F.LS.,&c... 292 .

New Books :—Coleoptera Hesperidum, being an Enumeration of the
Coleopterous Insects of the Cape Verde Archipelago, by T.
Vernon Wollaston, M.A., PLS. — Naturhistorisk Tidsskrift

Journal of Natural History), edited by Prof. J. C. Schiddte, at

openhagen; third series, vols. iii. & iv. (1865-1867).—The
Record of Zoological Literature, 1866. Volume III. Edited by
Albert C. L. G. Giinther, MA., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S. &¢... 295—305

Proceedings of the Dublin Natural-History Society

On the Gingee Squirrel of Sonnerat, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e. ;
On the Mode in which certain Rotatoria introduce food into
their Mouths, gee Claparéde ; On the Habits of Volutes, by
Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.; On Loxosoma Kefersteinii, a soft
Bryozoan of the Bay of Naples, by E. Claparéde ; On new British
Fishes, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.; Cetacean Animals in
Museums; The late Professor Van der Hoeven ........ 309—312

NUMBER V.

XXXIX. Contributions toward the formation of a correct System
of -Muscular Homologies. By ALEXANDER Maca.istER, M.D.,
L.R.C.S., L.K.Q.C.P., Demonstrator of Anatomy, Royal College of
Surgeons, Ireland, one of the Honorary Secretaries of the Royal
faeoloprcal Society of Ieplsnd se. . 3.0% lsctce eclnin atest w Alot Sune Checks 3138

XL. Descriptions of two new Species of Humming-birds. By
GERNOT IB ss Te Lays ate foes einen a alten sia cimes CS 322

XLI. List of Coleoptera received from Old Calabar, on the West
Coast of Africa. By ANDREW Murray, F.L.S. (Plate IX.) .... 328

XLII. On Ellipsordina, a new Genus of Foraminifera. By Gru-
SEPPE SEGUENZA, Professor of Natural History in the Royal Lyceum,

CONTENTS. Vil

- Page
Messina. With further Notes on its Structure and Affinities, by
ene Br Any, 01S., F.G.S, | (Plate XI). <.,. aes das va ws 333
XLII. Description of a rare Indian Clausilia. By SyLvanus
ATLA ong! 2 Os a era IE RAS PES rea 343

XLIV. Remarks on some Species of Oliva recently described by
Mr. Frederick P. Marrat. By T. Granam Ponron, F.Z.S. ...... 344

XLV. Notes on the Remains of some Reptiles and Fishes from the
Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. By ArBany Hancock,
F.LS., and Tomas Atruny, (Plates XIV., XV., XVL)........ 346

XLVI. On the Development of the Position of the Eyes in Pleu-
ronectide. By Prof. J. C. Scuioprr. Communicated by C. A.
By RNAP arattent ss audit cua eteietef eg i abe oy. th ng Cahn geek Ue eat 378

New Book :—The Birds of South Africa. A descriptive Catalogue of
all the known Species occurring south of the 28th Parallel of
South Latitude, by Edgar Leopold Layard, F.Z.S. &......... 383

Natica catenata (Philippi), by T. Graham Ponton ; Balatro calvus, a
new Genus and Species of Rotatoria entirely destitute of Vibra-
tile Cilia, by E. Claparéde ; Occurrence of Terebratula ( Wald-
heimia) pseudo-jurensis ou in England, by J. F. Walker,
B.A., F.G.S. &e.; Fossil Ivory ; On the Union of the Tympanic
Bone with the Lower Jaw occurring in the Marsupials during
Development, as a fresh proof of the agreement of this bone
with the Os quadratum of the other classes of Vertebrata, by
Prof. W. Peters; On the Tympanic Bone and Ossicles of the
Ear in the Monotremata, in connexion with the question of the
interpretation of the Quadrate Bone in Birds, by Prof.W.Peters; >
_Leucodore calcarea, by E. Ray Lankester ; On the Growth of the
Stem of Fontinalis antipyretica, by Prof. H. Leitgeb...... 385—392

NUMBER VI.

XLVI. On Balanus armatus, and a Hybrid between this Species
and Balanus improvisus, var. assimilis, Darw. By Dr. Fritz MULurr.
(ERR Me Nea iota ei a al ak Cratnr er soe persreeatareie wees aah ebtuiad was ea eae tea 393

XLVIII. Sixth Account of new Species of Snakes in the Collec-
tion of the British Museum. By ALBERT GUNTHER, M.A., M.D.,
PD At. CE lated WME KVL Ug EM), oi aie vie aca cue ga 415

XLIX. On the Terrestrial Mollusca of Dominica and Grenada;
with an Account of some new Species from Trinidad. By R. J.

Lucha Guepy Wie: .GES., 80.05. ne as we cs a nee ces 429
L. Carcinological Gleanings. No. III. By C. Spence Bate,
Bisel Meeaberommen (io tert ee Da oat) crala ss aca) 9 ielcheuens nies ni gan aide, conse Ss 442

LI. On Eugereon Boeckingi and the Genealogy of the Arthropoda.
Sig Dr: AN New ERIE rays gcse iain it 6° « Sig hese a celia BE i 4 lave 448

Vill CONTENTS.

-__ Page
LIT. On some additional Species of the Genus Eutoxeres. By J.
ED, BRIS BEC lees nsal ae 5 erie Flo MEE SP ais yk eles a eo 455
LIII. Additions to the Ichthyological Fauna of Zanzibar. By Dr.
/JoU Engen: ig OM oo) s Se ek aA ey eS ee Shae ies ache Locke an 457
LIV. On the Species of Helicide found in Japan. By ARTHUR
A@ARIS od LS! M555. sau Poe eda Rela eae oh se haere mia eee acs 459
LV. Observations on some proposed new Species of Oliva. By
A, MEA MMEE ATE | ALANA NAL et ssta price e atatdala ora, ola tie chs ee eae aa 472

LVI. Diagnoses of some new Freshwater Fishes from Surinam
and Brazil, in the Collection of the British Museum. By Dr.
AR BUR PCCRUN TEED 5 (faiz dlahase fa 38 Sa dese acc ats'e leh cay tab ale 475

LVII. Notule Lichenologice. No. XXII. By the Rev. W. A.
Lrr1cuTon, B,A., F.L.S.—Dr. Wm. Nylander on new British Lichens 482

Note on Hyalonema boreale, Lovén, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.8., &e.;
Note on the Shell-structure of certain Naiades, by C. A. White,
M.D.; Smelts breeding in an Aquarium; On the Formation of
Coral Reefs, by Carl Semper... oi <a. 0% «ore i mains and ane 484—486

PLATES IN VOL. I.

PuaTe I, Structure of the Mouth in Sucking Crustacea.
Ul. Voluta Thatcheri—Globiocephalus Grayi.
Il. Structure of the Graptolitide.
IV. Species of Habrodictyon.
Vv

Vr bison flagellata.
VII.

VIII. Autolytus prolifer.
IX. Species of Lycus.
X. Anatomy of the Alligator.
XI. Lithodomous Annelids. /
XII. New Gobioid Fishes.
XIII. Ellipsoidina ellipsoides.

pee Remains of Reptiles and Fishes from the Shales of the
XV. ON re a
XVI. orthumberland Coal-field.

XVII. Simotes amabilis.—Hydrops callostictus.—Callophis japonicus.
—Elaps Batesii.
XVIII. Mimophis madagascariensis.
XIX. New Reptiles.
XX. Hybrid Balanus.
XXI. New Crustacea.

THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[FOURTH SERIES.]

Me eiecassutccines per litora spargite muscum,
Naiades, et circttm vitreos considite fontes:
Pollice virgineo teneros hic carpite flores:
Floribus et pictum, dive, replete canistrum.
At vos, o Nymphe Craterides, ite sub undas;
Ite, recurvato variata corallia trunco
Vellite muscosis e rupibus, et mihi conchas
Ferte, Dex pelagi, et pingui conchylio succo.”

NV. Parthenii Gianettasii Ecl. 1.

No.1. JANUARY 1868.

I.—On the Structure of the Mouth in Sucking Crustacea.
By Prof. J. C. ScH16pTE*.

[Plate I.]
Part I. CymMorHo.

1. The peculiar arrangement of the mouth in sucking Con-
dylopoda being the result of a more or less complete fusion
and metamorphosis of the organs that compose the mouth
in those which bite their food, we may regard the interpre-
tation of the elements of the sucking-apparatus as affording
the severest test of our knowledge of the principles which
govern the structure of the mouth in Articulata generally.
The demands which this difficult task makes upon our know-
ledge are so great that, in undertaking it, one cannot be long
before discovering how little is gained in physiology, mor-
phology, or natural systematic arrangement by even a very
accurate knowledge of the structure of the various organs of
the mouth in masticating Condylopoda alone. An analysis of
these organs, which aims at nothing more than such a know-
ledge, may supply material for artificial classification ; but a
truly scientific solution of the problem before us requires more,
viz., on the one hand, a true estimate of the mode of coopera-

* Translated from ‘ Naturhistorisk Tidsskrift,’ series 3. vol. iv. Copen-
hagen, 1866, with two plates, from which the outlines on Pl. I. are copied.

Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser.4. Voli. 1

2 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Structure of

tion of the organs of the mouth in masticating Condylopoda,
founded on careful consideration of their anatomic connexion
with one another, and, on the other hand, a definition of the
morphological equivalents of all the different parts which
shall prove its own correctness by its self-consistency. With
less preparation than this it would be useless to attempt an
interpretation of the structure of the mouth in sucking Condy-
lopoda.

It is one of the imperishable merits of Savigny that he has
solved this problem in all essential points with regard to
Insects ; but with regard to Crustacea almost everything still
remains to be done. In this class the investigation becomes
complicated by the circumstance that the body is more or less
united with the head, so that a varying number of its foremost
pairs of limbs may be assimilated to the organs of the
mouth in point of form and use. It will therefore be advan-
tageous to begin our investigation with the order of Isopoda.
On the one hand, this order occupies one of the highest steps
to which the class of Crustacea upon the whole attains in the
scale of development of the articulate type, whereby the com-
parison with the mouth of insects is much facilitated ; whilst,
on the other hand, it descends so low as to contain numerous
parasitic species, and, therefore, is more likely than any other
order to supply the key for the interpretation of the mouth in
sucking Copepoda. How far this latter expectation will prove
true cannot be shown more explicitly in this first paper;
but the initiated will no doubt at once discern the application
of the present analysis to lower forms.

2. Although it is sufficiently well known that at least some
Cymothoe live upon liquid food, and although Rondelet, more
than three centuries ago, has said, concerning one of these para-
sites, that it sucks like a leech*, the question of the structure of
their sucking-apparatus is nevertheless, in a scientific point of
view, entirely virgin soil. It is true that Bosc believed that
he observed in a Cymothoa a retractile sucker with a pair of
small palpit; but Latreille declares that he could not find any
such organ, and that he should consider it an anomaly in that

* “Piscibus ita heeret, ut eripi non possit, sugit ut hirudo, nec prius
abscedit, quam tabidum et exsuccum piscem reddiderit, reperitur cervici
mugilum, luporum, et saxatilium piscium affixus.” (Libr. de Pisc. mar.
Lugd. 1554, p. 576, “De Pediculo marino.”) The woodcut at the head
of Rondelet’s article on Pediculus marimus represents an <Anilocra, and
approaches nearest to A. mediterranea, Leach.

3 Hist. Nat. des Crust. in Déterville’s small edition of Buffon, ii.
p: 208. The figure shows that the species on which Bosc has founded his
description of the genus was a Cymothoa sens. strict.; Briinnich’s “‘ Fiske-
bjorn” (Entom. fig. 5), which he quotes, was more probably an Anziloera.

the Mouth in Sucking Crustacea. 3

class of animals if it existed, and he suggests that perhaps the
jaws protrude during the suction in such a manner that they
may have been taken for a sucker*. Milne-Edwards has not
entered on the question, but merely given some figures of the
different parts of the mouth separately in Afga, and a more
comprehensive series of illustrations of the mouth of Cymothoaf,
some of which represent the parts in their natural connexion;
all these figures are useful and good as far as they go, but
they do not go far enough. We might expect to find more
detailed information in Heinrich Rathke’s anatomical essay on
Aiga bicarinata; but he says that the organs of the mouth are
adapted for gnawing, and upon the whole constructed as in
Idothea. He adds, however, that the terminal part of the
mandibles is very hard, almost cuneiform, and strongly bent
downwards, and, further, that the orifice of the mouth is
remarkably small in proportion to the size of the animal.
These two last statements, which are quite correct in them-
selves, do not seem easily reconcilable with the first, viz. that
the mouth is adapted for gnawing, particularly as Rathke just
before says that the mandibles adhere to the head to such an
extent that their downward bent extremity cannot be capable
of much movement{. We shall nevertheless see, by-and-by,
that each of the authors named, Bosc, Latreille, and Rathke,
may be said to be right, to a certain extent.

With regard to the structure of the mouth in masticating
Isopoda, we possess more ample information ; and the descrip-
tions and illustrations hitherto published, more especially
those contained in Milne-Edwards’s excellent works, suffice to
give a tolerably complete idea of it. If, however, this infor-
mation is to serve us as a safe guide to the interpretation of the
sucking-apparatus of Cymothoa and its related genera, it will
nevertheless be expedient to reconsider the subject once more,
and to place before ourselves a succinct analysis of the principal
types which may be observed in the structure of the mouth in
masticating Isopoda. We shall preface this analysis with a
few observations of a more general bearing.

3. The limbs of Articulata are, in their origin, mere hollow
cylindrical prolongations of the skin, which are converted into
levers by the deposition of as many and as extensive layers of
chitine as the muscles of the animal require for their support,
and divided into as many separate pieces as the mode of loco-
motion requires joints.

* Hist. Nat. des Crust. et des Ins. vii. p. 22.
+ Le Régne Animal (éd. accomp. de pls.), pl. 65-67.
{ Nov. Act. Acad. Cas. Leop.-Carol. Natur. Curiosor. t. xx. pt. 1, 1848,
pp. 26 & 27. z
1?

4 Prof. J.C. Schiddte on the Structure of

These prolongations take rise from the sides only of the
rings of the body—that is, from the pleure or lateral folds be-
tween the dorsal and ventral plates; and in that case the
pleurze may be covered to a greater or less extent by a de-
posit of chitine forming a lateral plate, called the epimeron
which affords support for the muscles which move the basal
joint of the limb, the hip or coxa.

It is also from the pleure alone that the peculiar prolonga-
tions arise which are in the service of respiration, either out-
side the body as gills or branchie, or inside as trachee.
From the dorsal and ventral arches of the rings, on the con-
trary, no limbs ever take rise, although they often carry other
more superficial formations (which may also be subservient to
locomotion) for the purpose of supporting or fixing the body,
such as groups of sharp granules, indentations, spines, retrac-
tile warts, often with hooks disposed in circles, &c. To this last
class belong the so-called ventral or false feet of many larve.
The cerci of Insects with perfect metamorphosis (both of imagos
and of larve) are merely transformed dorsal spines.

The head consists, as all the other rings of the body, of a
dorsal arch, a ventral arch, and two side pieces. In this case,
too, it is merely from the side pieces that the limbs take rise,
namely the appendages of the mouth, and, besides, the eyes and
antenne. But as the head, besides one or two pairs of an-
tenne, possesses three pairs of limbs (appendages of the
mouth), whilst none of the other rings have more than one
pair, the lateral pieces or pleuree of the head (cheeks and
temples) preponderate so greatly over the dorsal and ventral
pieces, that they occupy the greater part of the skull, particu-
larly behind and above, where so much space is required for
the accommodation of the muscular and nervous systems;
whilst the dorsal and ventral pieces lose so much the more in
extent as they are here relieved from the office they perform in
all the other rings (saving the last of all), viz. to afford sur-
face of insertion for the muscles which move the next fol-
lowing ring. The dorsal piece is therefore reduced to a plate
above the mouth (the epistoma), from which separate pieces,
viz. clypeus, labrum, labellum, are evolved in proportion as the
mouth requires covering from above. ‘The ventral piece, on
the contrary (hypostoma, or the sphenoid plate, as it may be
called from its analogy to the os sphenoideum of vertebrata),
enters into closer relations with the appendages of the mouth, as
will be shown more in detail by-and-by ; from this, too, sepa-
rate pieces are evolved in front, namely mentum and fulcrum
Jabii, in proportion as the maxille and lingua with their muscles
require support and cover from beneath.

the Mouth in Sucking Crustacea. 5)

_ The appendages of the mouth are consequently prolonga-
tions of the pleure of the head. In many Crustacta more or
less marked pleural folds may be observed, one fold for each ap-
pendage, indicating that the head is composed of as many rings
as it possesses appendages of the mouth.

The appendages of the mouth (oral limbs) consist typically
of the following parts :—

(1) An articular fold near the base, the hinge (cardo). The
corresponding articular fold at the base of the legs (or the
limbs organized for locomotion) has been called “ trochantin.”’
In those insects where the coxe at their base are surrounded
by sockets, the trochantins form the condyles of the coxe, being,
as well as the latter, free of the epimeron.

(2) A stem (stipes), corresponding to the coxe of the locomo-
tive limbs, which is developed in proportion to the require-
ments of the lobes, its destination being to carry the latter and
to accommodate the muscles by which they are moved.

(3) Three free lobes, at the end of the stem, of which the
two innermost (malz) serve for subdividing and handling the
food and are therefore modified in accordance with the na-
ture of the food. The third and outer lobe is the continuation
of the limb as such, and corresponds to those divisions of the
locomotive limbs which follow the coxa. When it is elongated
and jointed, or shaped as a leg, it is denominated palpus ; and
its destination is then either to carry organs of sense, to pro-
duce currents in the water about the mouth, to cleanse the
organs of the mouth, to serve as instrument of prehension, or
some other such function.

4, A fundamental difference between Insects and Crustacea
is now to be observed, in the relations of the first pair of oral
appendages to the side pieces of the skull.

In Crustacea the mandibles do not exceed that point of de-
velopment which is attained by the other appendages of the
mouth, and consist like these of hinge, stem, and lobes.
Their flexors are also, as far as the head is not united with
the body, attached to the hypostoma, and their movement is
an oscillation, which has for its axis the whole exterior margin
of the stem, and which sometimes is regulated by an imper-
fect articulation at the exterior and posterior corner of the
stem.

In Insects, on the contrary, both hinge and stem coalesce
with the pleure of the head, and their proper muscles are not
at all developed. The middle lobe alone remains, and articu-
lates with the side pieces of the skull by an upper and a lower
condyle, whilst its muscles fill a great portion of the side
piece. The inner lobe is only very rarely developed, and is

6 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Structure of

then always fixed to the middle lobe. As there is no stem,
there cannot be any mandibular palpus.

The development of the articulate archetype from the crus-
tacean stage to the insect stage is here the same as that of
the vertebrate archetype from fish to mammalia; and this
analogy may also be traced in several other respects. In both
these series of animals the cephalization is furthered by this,
that the principal organ for the handling of the food gradually
loses its form of limb by the coalescence of its basal divisions
with the side pieces of the skull; in this way these latter gain
additional space for accommodating the nervous system, whilst
the movement of the jaws at the same time increases in power,
because the muscles of the basal divisions of the limb disap-
pear, and all the space on the increased side pieces of the skull
is available for the muscles moving the remaining terminal
paris of the jaws. The cephalization of the oral limbs of

ertebrata (the lower jaw) may be observed in different stages
in reptiles and birds; the same is the case with the mandi-
bles of Articulata. One of the intermediate stages, found in
the lower Insects, with imperfect or no metamorphosis, and in
sucking Insects, has recently been pointed out by Dr. Meinert
in his paper on Campodee *.

5. In the hedriophthalmous or fourteen-footed Crustacea
the first ring of the trunk T is connected with the skull, and as
it ceases to be moveable its dorsal part (pronotum in Insects)
disappears, whilst the ventral and lateral parts (prosternum and
epimera prothoracica) still remain as separate pieces between
the head and the second ring, because they carry a pair of
limbs, the fore legs, which enter into the service of the mouth,
and therefore assume the shape of maxille. These mouth-
feet or maxillipeds have their coxe in proximity to each other
in the middle, and correspond thus far to the labrum of Insects,
that they afford a cover for the mouth from beneath, and assume
a similar foliaceous and laciniated shape. Fabricius and his
school therefore called them labium, as their morphologic inter-
pretations were based only on the shape and use of the parts.

Next to the coalescence of the stems of the mandibles of
Insects with the side pieces of the skull, there is no more im-
portant point of difference between the structure of the mouth
in Insects and in hedriophthalmous Crustacea than precisely
this conformation of the maxillipeds simulating a labium.
Covering as it does the mouth from beneath, the existence of this
false labium renders unnecessary any other cover ; consequently

* Translated in Ann, & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vol. xx. p. 361.
+ In this paper the expressions “ trunk” and “ tail” stand for “ thorax”
and “abdomen” in the terminology of Milne-Edwards and others.

the Mouth in Sucking Crustacea. e

no mentum is evolved from the sphenoid plate, and the tongue,
rising from the bottom of the cavity of the mouth, appears im-
mediately over the edge of the sphenoid plate; nor do the ordi-
nary oral appendages of the third pair (second pair of maxille)
enter into any combination with the tongue as they do in Insects,
but remain separate, each on its own side of the sphenoid plate.
The consequence is that the tongue occupies a far more advanced
place among the organs of the mouth than in Insects. Whilst
thus the first great peculiarity of the head in hedriophthalmous
Crustacea (its being finished off underneath by labium-like
maxillipeds) exercises a very marked influence on the struc-
ture of the mouth, causing, so to say, a pressure from beneath,
the second great feature distinguishing their head from that of
Insects, viz. the free position of the mandibles with regard to
the skull, produces a similar pressure from above, and both
together result in imparting to the intervening organs of the
mouth (the two pairs of maxille and the tongue) their cha-
racteristic flattened and foliaceous appearance, and in placing
the tongue in a very peculiar position to the mandibular lobes,
determining its form once for all. The complete severance of
the Insect head from the body, which entails its being finished
off from beneath by the combination of the third pair of oral
appendages, the mentum and the tongue, into a labium, finally
its considerably increased thickness, which is caused by the
coalescence of the stems of the mandibles with the side pieces
of the head—all these circumstances cause the maxille and the
tongue to be placed on a so much lower level than the mandi-
bles (supposing these to lie horizontally), that the tongue re-
tains free space to develope itself in accordance with manifold
and various secondary considerations. But in the head of Crus-
tacea the first pair of oral limbs, being entirely separate from
and outside the side pieces of the head, are depressed into a
lower level than that of the sphenoid plate, which lies very high;
and consequently the tongue is placed above the mandibular
lobes, and cannot possibly have any other than a deeply bifid
shape, as it would otherwise close the aperture of the mouth.

6. The mouth of biting Isopoda presents three principal
types, which agree in this, that the oral limbs are placed in a
row slanting outwards and forwards on either side of the
sphenoid plate, each independent of its neighbours.

The first type comprises Onisci, Aselli, Idothez, and Sphe-
romata. It is essentially the same as the one we meet with
in the majority of Amphipoda, that is, upon the whole in those
Edriophthalmia which live near the shore or on the bottom of
the sea, and feed upon carrion or vegetable food, gnaw wood,
attack fishing-nets, &e.

8 - Prof. J.C. Schiddte on the Structure of

The mandibles have two lobes. The outer lobe is continued
into a slender prehensile part, which is split into two or more
branches ; and these latter are again divided into digitiform
teeth ; at the base it possesses a large grinding-tooth of vary-
ing shape and armature. The inner lobe is very short, more or
less subdivided into smaller lobes and fringed, generally mem-
branaceous, sometimes partially or wholly chitinized in one
mandible and membranaceous in the other. The stem is more
or less developed according to whether it has to carry a palpus
or not. The first pair of maxille have two slender lobes, both
moveable, particularly the inner one; this latter carries on its
apex a number (generally four) of cylindrical, pointed, soft,
hairy appendages, whilst the apex of the outer lobe is armed
with a number of sometimes exceedingly sharply pointed,
sometimes perfectly blunt, sometimes spinulous thorns. The
second pair of maxillz have from one to three lobes, of which
at least the two outer ones are moveable, the outermost being
sometimes palpiform.

As an example of this type, which, moreover, is the best
known of the three, we may take a little Spheroma which is
very common along the coast of Denmark, but does not seem
to have been sufficiently well described as yet ; perhaps it is
identical with Oniscus globator, Pallas (Spic. Zool. fase. ix.
p- 70, pl. 4. fig. 18). The prehensile part of the mandible is
split into two branches, each with three to four digitiform
teeth, which fit in between those of the mandible on the oppo-
site side (Pl. I. fig. 1,m). The grinding-tooth is grooved and
surrounded by a fence of spines. The inner lobe is small,
soft, with pointed digitiform lobes, and articulates with the
underside of the outer lobe in a depression between the pre-
hensile part and the grinder. The stem of the mandible is
short ; its outer part contains the muscles of the palpus, whilst
its own flexors are inserted in its inner section. ‘The palpus
is rather short and thick, but free. The stem of the first pair
of maxille is divided longitudinally by a groove into two sec-
tions containing the muscles of the two lobes; the inner lobe
(fig. 1, x) has four cylindrical, pointed, soft, hairy, membrana-
ceous smaller lobes, whilst the terminal spines of the outer
maxillary lobe are broadly truncate, some of the inner spines
bearing spinule on their inner side. The second pair of
maxille (fig. 1,2*) possess three short lobes, of which the
outer one forms a foliaceous biarticulate palpus.

7. The second type is characteristic of Cirolane; and as
illustrative examples we may take Cirolana borealis, Lilljeb.,
from the North Sea and the Kattegat, and a pretty little
active species ornamented with stars of black pigment, which

the Mouth in Sucking Crustacea. 9

occurs not unfrequently in the Sound and along the north
coast of Zealand. It was already known to Slabber, and was
described some years ago by Van Beneden (‘ Rech. sur les
Crustacés de Belgique,” Mém. d. Acad. Belge, xxxii. p. 88,
t. 15) as Slabberina agata, but is doubtless the same species
that Leach described as Eurydice pulchra. Van Beneden re-
fers it to Idotheze.

The mandibles are destitute of grinders; but their prehen-
sile part is, on the contrary, extraordinarily large, shaped like a
flat cup, the outline being almost quadrangular, the outer
corner pointed, the whole inner edge finely sharpened, hard as
glass, undulato-dentate, the inner corner drawn out into a
long dagger-like peg. ‘The inner lobe is fixed closely under
the outer lobe, large, membranaceous, divided into two lobules,
of which the foremost is entire and covered with sete in Ciro-
lana, but digitilobate in Hurydice ; whilst the posterior lobule
in both genera is cultelliform, with a close row of pointed thorns
along the inner margin, which gives to the lobule the appearance
of a tenon-saw. ‘The stem of the mandible is long, the palpus
slender, and, when not used, placed in a groove round the large
labrum and the small clypeus, with the last joint slung round
the root of the posterior antenna. The first pair of maxille
possess two lobes coalescing with the stem; the inner lobe is
much abbreviated and has three cylindrical slender append-
ages, which in Cirolana are verticillato-spinulous towards the
apex, and furnished with a hard thorn-shaped terminal joint,
but which in Eurydice are soft, pointed, and hairy; the outer
lobe is also rather short, particularly in Cirolana, somewhat
arched inwards (fig.3,), powerful, the apex armed with a
bundle of long, exceedingly hard, and pointed thorns, groups
of similar thorns occurring all along the inner margin, which,
in Hurydice, are much elongated and in part spinulous on the
inner side. The second pair of maxille (fig. 3, 2*) are small,
their inner lobe very short, with feather-like sete and hairy
membranaceous digitiform appendages; the middle lobe and
palpus are represented by a pair of uniform pointed leaflets.
The maxillipeds (fig. 8, px) have oval hinges, small stem,
rudimentary lobes, and fully developed, slender, flat palpus.
The forehead and clypeus are, in Cirolana, trapezoid, flat, in
Eurydice vaulted, the frontal cone protruding between the first
pair of antenne (fig. 3.a,f).

Cirolane represent, no doubt, the highest development of
the Crustacean type amongst Isopoda. The outer lobes of
their mandibles are built exactly on the same plan as the car-
nassial teeth of mammalia. They are furnished with pegs to
be driven into the body. of the victim, one from either side,

10 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Structure of

and to distend gradually the piece which lies between them,
until it is cut through by the cutting edges which glide clipping

ast each other. In harmony with this structure of the mouth
is the slender form of the body, the thin antenne, and the well-
developed swimming-feet ; and it cannot be doubted, therefore,
that Cirolane are purely carnivorous. The testimony of dif-
ferent authors goes in the same direction. Thus we find in
Strém’s physical and topographical description of the district
of Séndmér, in Norway, a description of a “ Fish-Bear,” which
must be a Crrolana (C. borealis in all probability), and which,
he says, ‘‘ creeps into the fishes through the anus and eats the
flesh of the fish from the inside, so that, if it only has time,
it may eat the whole of the fish.” The author of this paper
asked Professor Kroyer, the celebrated and experienced con-
noisseur of Crustacea and Fishes, whether he remembered any
fact confirming the conclusions as to the mode of living of Ciro-
lanze which are suggested by the structure of their mouth; and
Professor Kroyer then related that once, near the shores of Nor-
way, not far from Throndhjem, he caught a large codfish which
teemed with Ctrolana borealis. 'The latter had eaten out such
large cavities in the flesh that there was little left of the fish
except skin and bones. In the hurry to secure this rich harvest
Professor Kréyer tried to help himself by keeping some of the
parasites in his closed hand, but they bit him so ferociously
that he was obliged to let them go at once.

8. The third type is that of Serolides, of which Serol’s Orbig-
nyana, M.-E., may serve as an example. The stem of the
mandibles (fig.2,m) forms a very large, flat, oblique, quadrangle
placed in a slanting position, and is evidently almost exclu-
sively destined to give room for the insertion of the flexors, as
the palpus rises from the exterior and posterior corners. The
outer lobe has a similar shape, but is somewhat pinched off from
the stem in the place where the large labrum begins to cover
it in front; there is no grinder, and the prehensile part is thick
and slightly spoon-shaped, the apex broadly truncate, with
thick rounded edge ; the inner margins of the mandibular lobes
on the right and left sides meet each other accurately, but do
not cross so as to cover each other. The inner lobe is small,
divided into two lobules, which are attached to the outer lobe
close under its prehensile part. On the right mandible both
lobules are very small, soft, bipartite ; but on the left mandible
the foremost lobule is much increased in size, thickly chitinized,
and resembles the prehensile part of the outer lobe by its clumsy,
rounded transverse edge. The mandibular palpus is long,
slender, the two first jomts fittmg into a shallow groove run-
ning along the outer margin of the stem and continued between

the Mouth in Sucking Crustacea. 11

the clypeus and the base of the posterior antennzy, so that the
small terminal joint projects between the antenne. Both pairs
of maxillz are small, completely covered by the large and flat
maxillipeds. The first pair of maxille exhibit only one
narrow lobe (the middle lobe), which is armed at its apex with
a few fine spines. The second pair of maxille have three
small, narrow, and inarticulate lobules, of which the middle one
and the external one or palpus are moveable. The cardo of
the maxillipeds (fig. 2, pw) is very large, transversely placed,
and divided by membranaceous seams into several plates; the
stem is small and short, but has a large foliaceous prolongation
on the outer side, whereby the base of the stem becomes as
broad as the anterior margin of the cardo, so as to produce the
impression that the cardo here lies behind the stem, whereas
it really lies, as usual, obliquely outside it; the short adnate
lobes form in connexion with the stem a thick crest on the
upperside, which is made to fit alongside a ridge, which on
either side marks the outline of the broad sphenoid plate.
This latter is at the base carinate and at the apex deeply bifid.
The palpus is short, thick, biarticulate.

If, now, the clippimg and tearing mouth and active appear-
ance of Cirolanee forcibly suggests the idea of a small shark, it
is difficult to contemplate the Serolides without thinking of a
little ray or skate. ‘That they live near the bottom is suffi-
ciently evident from their broad, short, slightly vaulted general
form, the crested and carinated dark-coloured back, the smooth
white under surtace, the sickle-shaped imbricate epimera, the flat
broad head which is closely titted into the first segment of the
body, the salient eyes placed on the upper surface of the head,
the position of the mouth on the under surface, and the limi-
ted capability of swimming. Besides, their mandibles, though
powerful, are not arranged either for clipping, grinding, or mas-
ticating, but only for pinching or squeezing and biting through
a hard surface; the maxilhpeds cover up the other, very
small, appendages of the mouth; and after them follow two
pairs of prehensile limbs of the same kind as those of Mantis,
Nepa, and Squilla. It cannot, therefore, be doubted that Sero-
lides live upon prey, and that this consists of small rather slow
animals living near the bottom, probably mostly such as have
firm integuments. The hypothesis suggested by Milne-Edwards
(Hist. Nat. des Crustacés, 111. 231), that they attach themselves
to fishes, is contradicted by the very feature of their structure
to which he refers in support of it. Their flat mouth would
be powerless against the skin of a fish, even if the cup-like
shape of the anterior parts of the body did not prevent the
mouth from reaching the skin. Furthermore, the first pair of

12 Prof. J. C. Schiédte on the Structure of

body-limbs are not hooked, but long prehensile organs, arti-
culating with the body in such a manner that they can reach far
forward in order to catch objects, and then, folded together,
keep that which has been caught closely under the mandibles ;
the second pair of legs, which have the same shape but in a
smaller size, are to be considered merely auxiliary organs.

9. These three types may consequently be surveyed accord-
ing to the subjoined scheme :—

Instrumenta cibaria mordentia, libera, serie obliqua utrinque
disposita. Hypostoma breve. Orificium oris amplum.
Mandibule malis binis instructe, exteriore fixa.

A. Mala exterior mandibularum mola instructa striata,
mucronulata spinosave.

a. Os manducatorium.
Mala exterior mandibularum ramosa, digitate spi-
nosa, prensoria.
Maxille priores malis binis, exteriore subrecta,
apice spinulosa.
Onisci, Aselli, Idothece, Spheromata.

B. Mandibule mola carentes.

b. Os sectorium.
Mala exterior mandibularum depressa, quadrata,
margine interiore acutissimo, valide dentato.
Maxille priores malis binis, exteriore incurva,
multispinosa.
Cirolane.

c. Os morsorium.
Mala exterior mandibularum crassa, fornicata ;
_margine crasso, obtuso, edentulo.
Maxille priores mala unica, apice spinulosa.

Serolides.

10. Thus prepared, we may with greater confidence enter
upon an examination of the structure of the oral sucking-ap-
paratus in Cymothoe. As examples we may take two often-
described species, Aga psora, L., and Cymothoa estrum, auct.,
which represent the two types round which all the other Cy-
mothoe gather themselves with regard to the construction of
their sucking-apparatus. For the sake of comparison [ also
take into account the Anilocra Leachii, Kréyer, a new spe-
cies from the West Indies, which approaches very near to A.
laticauda, M.-E. (Hist. Nat. des Crust. i. 259. 6), besides a
small species nearly related to Cymothoa sens. str., which was
collected by Professor Kréyer, in Feb. 1840, on a fish caught

the Mouth in Sucking Crustacea. 13

in the Plata River, but of which the specific name was not
determined. As this Isopod is apparently undescribed, and
rather remarkable, I here insert its chief characteristics.

I propose to call this species Artystone trysibia. It re-
minds one somewhat both of Urozeuctes and of Olencira, but
is easily distinguished from the other genera of the family by
the striking contrast between the first six pairs of legs, which
are short and hooked, and the seventh pair, which reach to
the extremity of the tail and are slender, compressed, crawl-
ing legs with small, almost rudimentary, straight claw. The
trunk is slightly vaulted, broadly elliptic, the fore part some-
what twisted to the left, the hind part twisted still more to
the right. The head is small, resembling that of Cymothoa
estrum in all essential points; and the same holds good with
regard to the antenne and the organs of the mouth. The an-
terior corners of the first ring scarcely reach the eyes; the
greatest breadth of the animal is between the fourth and the
fifth ring, where it is about half the greatest length. All the
rings of the trunk have a couple of small, triangular, irregular,
lateral folds over the epimera, which latter are luniform,
rounded before and behind, extending on the first four rings
as far as about one-half of the lateral margin of the dorsal
plate, on the fifth reaching almost the whole length of the
margin, and on the sixth and seventh somewhat beyond the
dorsal shield. The cox are even, without protuberance, the
hooked legs small, almost of equal length, their claws very
fine. The first five rings of the tail are very short, of uni-
form length, somewhat increasing in breadth behind, the first
three covered by the seventh ring of the trunk; the last caudal
ring is gradually narrowed from the base, obliquely triangular,
of about equal length and breadth, rather high-arched, with
rounded apex; the last pair of caudal legs reach not quite to
the apex of the ring; the branches are of equal size, elongated
elliptic, soft, naked. The total length is 13 millims. The
colour is white; on the trunk very minute points of black
pigment are observable on the side folds of the dorsal shields,
on the last three pairs of epimera, and across the dorsal shields
along their posterior margin; vestiges of similar points are
seen in a streak along the tail and on the base of the last joint.
The only specimen found is a female with ripe eggs; the
opercula are as in Cymothoa estrum.

This parasite seems to indicate even a more direct transition
to the Bopyri than the twisted Livonece.

11. In Cymothoe the organs of the mouth are adapted for
sucking in the following manner. The labrum is elongated,
transversely curved so as to form a semicylindrical duct, which

14 Prof. J.C. Schiodte on the Structure of

is turned perpendicularly downwards and on the sides joins the
maxillary lobes of the second pair, which also are converted
into a semicylindrical duct, and of which the ends are expanded
into a sort of lip; the palpi of the maxillipeds sometimes
also enter into the combination. Thus a short soft tube is
produced, which, by means of fringes, warts, and small hooks
round the aperture, is specially adapted for closing tightly
against a surface. Inside this tube we find foremost a pair of
instruments designed for stinging, clipping, cutting, gnawing,
or scratching, and which are the transformed mandibles; and
behind them, again, a pair of fine saws or rasps are seen, by
means of which the wound made by the mandibles may be
further extended, lacerated, or deepened; this second set of
instruments is formed by the first pair of maxille.

As regards the mandibles, the conversion is effected in the
following way :—the stem is elongated, its sliding articulation
at the base disappears, and it becomes almost immoveable ; the
inner lobe disappears entirely ; the outer lobe is twisted abruptly
downwards and forwards, separating itself from the stem by a
short neck, in which there is an imperfect membranaceous arti-
culation, and penetrates at once, just at the bend, into the inte-
rior of the sucking-tube, slipping in from the side between the
labrum and the expanded ends of the second pair of maxille; the
lower part of this lobe, which consequently is inside the suck-
ing-tube, assumes the shape either of a triangular, pointed, at
the apex sharp and hooked scratching-instrument (4Zga), or of
a thin, triangular, pointed knife-blade (Cymothoa). Although
the stem of the mandible, on account of its limited mobility,
only requires small space for its own muscles, it never-
theless retains a considerable size, as it must accommodate not
only the muscles of the palpus, but also those of the moveable
lobe, of which, however, the muscles also combine with those
belonging to the second pair of maxille. Upon the whole, it
may be observed that the masticating muscles of Crustacea
are, as 1s also the case in fishes, combined and coalescent with
each other to that degree that it becomes difficult to distin-
guish between their different portions, and all the organs of
the mouth are really moved collectively to a certain extent.
The maxille of the first pair are reduced to slender stiff
stylets, surrounded and hidden by those of the second pair,
of which the lobes in front meet in the middle; the stylet is
formed by the stem and the moveable middle lobe, which on
the apex carries a number of pointed hooked thorns.

A more detailed description of the mouth m Aga and Cy-
mothoa will serve to place this account in a clearer light.

12. When the mouth of d4fga is examined from beneath,

the Mouth in Sucking Crustacea. 15

the maxillipeds at once arrest the attention. The cardo
(Pl. I. fig. 46, c) is expanded outwards and forwards into a
large triangular plate, which covers the root of the second pair
of maxillz. ‘The stem is very large, elongated, quadrangular
(fig. 4 6, s), its underside slightly vaulted; but the lateral
or outer portion is boldly arched upwards, so as to embrace
the maxille of the second pair; and the upper surface of the
stem has near the inner margin a thick longitudinal crest
fitting so accurately into a depression on the corresponding
side of the middle ridge of the sphenoid plate between this
ridge and the maxillz of the second pair, that the stem by
these means is kept quite firmly in its position. On account
of this crest, the stem appears rather thick when detached and
viewed from the side of the inner margin, which latter is quite
straight and even, so as to fit in exactly with the correspond-
ing margin of the maxilliped on the opposite side, to which it
hes close through the whole of its length.

The five-jointed palpus of the macillipeds (p, fig. 4 6) is
of about the same length as the stem. The first joint is very
short, and is placed transversely in front of the fore end of the
stem, whilst the four following joints form a bluntly pointed,
inwardly curved, cup-shaped leaf, which rests on one edge, so
that it inclines a little inwards. The upper (and outer) even
edge of the leaf fits first into a narrow groove on the inner
edge of the stem of the mandible, and then passes round the
mandible and lays itself into the bend between the mandibular
stem and lobe, whilst the front edge is curved inwards and
embraces the corresponding side of the labrum. On the in-
ferior margin of the palpus, near the end of the second joint, a
couple of small soft hooks are implanted ; and a greater number
of such are distributed along the margin and along the outer
side of the following joints. They do not, however, appear as
hooks, except when viewed from the side, and particularly
when the palpus is pressed flat ; but from beneath or from the
side, when the palpus is in its natural shape, they are seen
fore-shortened, and then appear as a row of short thorns along
the margin of the third joint, and as a lump of warts on each
side of the labrum.

In this manner the two leaves formed by the palpi, placed
on edge and bending towards each other, embracing some
other parts of the mouth, constitute the sides of the sucking-
tube. Nevertheless a slit remains between them; but this 1s
filled up at the bottom by the two very short, conic, com-
pressed, brevisetose lobes of the maxillipeds, and, further, in
front by the inner lobes of the second pair of maxille, which
will afterwards be described.

16 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Structure of

In front the oral tube is closed by the labrum, which hangs
perpendicularly from the clypeus; this latter is itself in a
perpendicular position, elongated and arched in front. The
labrum is of semicircular outline, and edged by a thick, soft,
membranaceous fringe, which is dotted over with small pointed
warts,

When the maxillipeds are removed, we observe the short ~
prosternum, and in front of it the sphenoid plate, on which
an elevated ridge is conspicuous along its middle line, which
becomes gradually thinner towards the apex, besides the sockets
of the cardo and stem of the maxillipeds, and, finally, the
second pair of maxille. As we have stated already, a depres-
sion is observed on either side between the latter and the
middle ridge of the sphenoid plate, which is filled up by the
longitudinal crest on the upper surface of the stems of the
maxillipeds. The consequence is that the stems of the second
pair of maxille are entirely covered in from beneath by the
stems and the base of the palpi of the maxillipeds. The
stems of the second pair of maxille present the shape of elon-
gated, inverted-pyritorm, thin and uneven saucers, somewhat
narrowedand flattened towards theirfore ends, which meet across
the middle ridge of the sphenoid plate, just inside and above
the second joint of the palpi of the maxillipeds. Their con-
cavity is, of course, turned upwards towards the under surface
of the skull; and in the space thus enclosed the maxille of the
first pair are lodged, with sufficient spare room to insure their
free movement. The maxillary lobes of the second pair are
small, thin, of rounded outline, at the apex and along the
inner margin armed with some small, rather soft, hooked
spines. The rounded outline of the lobes, however, only ap-
pears when they are unfolded; for in their natural position
their appearance is very different. The inner lobe is then
observed (x*, fig. 46) in the slit between the palpi of the
maxillipeds, at the inner posterior corner of the second joint ;
but it is twisted round, so that it is seen foreshortened, and
the hooks above mentioned seem in consequence to form al-
together but one thick thorn. The whole anterior margin of
the outer lobe, on the contrary, is turned back like a collar over
the anterior margin of the second joint of the maxillipeds.
The part played by the second pair of maxille in the con-
struction of the sucking-apparatus is consequently this, that
their stems are excavated into sheaths for the styliform first
pair of maxille, and their lobes fill up the remaining gaps
in the sucking-tube, of which the opening becomes a closed
circle formed by different elements which can slide over each
other and are armed with small hooks.

the Mouth in Sucking Crustacea. 17

It remains to examine the structure of the bottom of the
sucking-tube—that is, the region about the real mouth of the
animal. We then find that the sphenoid plate reaches as far
forward as the apex of the second joint of the palpi of the
maxillipeds; here the ridge, already mentioned as running
along the middle of the plate in question, bifurcates into two
soft branches, lying close together, which coalesce with the
lobes of the tongue, forming their thick inner margins, and
presenting, with the open slit between them, the exact figure
of a buttonhole. The two round, naked, soft, and slightly
folded lobes of the tongue, which resemble flat cushions, fill
entirely the small space between the sphenoid plate behind, the
palpi of the maxillipeds on the sides, and the labrum in front,
whilst their abruptly attenuated, short and conic ends are turned
downwards and slung round the fore parts of the mandibles.
The sucking-tube would thus be completely closed at the
bottom, if the just-mentioned buttonhole-like slit between the
lobes of the tongue did not remain; and this slit must there-
fore be considered the real sucking-orifice.

We have thus traced the ways in which all the necessary
conditions for the hooking on and loosening, the contraction and
extension, abbreviation and prolongation of the mouth-tube are
supplied and combined into one collective whole, and we can
now pretty well understand how this animal is enabled to suck.
The mouth-tube itself is so constructed that it may serve as a
sucking-cup; further in we meet the tongue with its button-
hole and nothing more, therefore, is required than swallow-
movements of sufficient strength to cause a liquid to ascend
into the cesophagus. It is indeed most probable that the an-
terior, pear-shaped part of the intestine, concerning which
Rathke (/.c. p. 80-31, t. 11. figs. 16 & 17 a) expresses himself
with some uncertainty, is of great importance in the act of
sucking. It still remains to consider a little more closely the
instruments by means of which the source of liquid is made to
flow. .

The stem of the mandibles (s, fig. 4c) forms a very large,
flat cone, with somewhat sinuated outline, slanting forwards
and inwards, bearing the palpus near its posterior and exterior
corner, and lying uncovered between the maxilliped and the
labrum, as far as the place where it penetrates into the mouth-
tube from the side. At this point it is immoveably adnate,
and affords thus a firm lateral support for the mouth-tube ;
but immediately inside it is abruptly contracted and twisted
half round with a downward bend; and here the membrana-
ceous articulation.of the stem with the mandibular lobe is

Ann. & Mag. N. Mist. Ser. 4. Vol. 1. 2

18 Prof. J.C. Schiddte on the Structure of

situated; this latter consequently projects downwards inside
the mouth-tube, just behind the labrum, and beneath the
corresponding lobe of the tongue, which forms the bottom of
the mouth-tube. The lobe of the mandible (m, fig. 4c) is
elongated triangular, gradually acuminated, with convex back
and concave front, the sharp lateral edges meeting at the
sharp-pointed hooked apex. The muscles of the lobe fill the
greater part of the stem in front of the insertion of the palpus.
This arrangement, in connexion with the corresponding great
length of the stem, indicates great power and perseverance of
movement, and explains how these lobes, in spite of their
inconsiderable size, may be used with great effect. Their
shape and position enables the animal to sink them into its
victim, one from either side, in slanting converging directions,
and then, by drawing them back simultaneously with sufficient
strength, to tear out the piece which lies between them. That
they are destined to work against each other and to be drawn
back together is plain from the circumstance that their points
are not quite uniform, the left hook being somewhat more bent
than the right one, and at the same time a little twisted to the
side, so that it can take hold round the other.

The sawing-styles, or maxille of the first pair, consist each of
a shorter stem and a longer lobe, which joins the former evenly
allround. They are hard, smooth, slightly flattened, and bent
inwards, so that their ends project downwards in the mouth-
tube, behind the mandibular lobes, under the tongue, and on
either side of the buttonhole-shaped sucking-slit. The seven
hooked spines at their apex are so placed as to form a curved
group; and it is therefore difficult to make out their form and
number except when the lobe is pressed. These sawing-styles
are evidently intended to act as auxiliary instruments, for
deepening, increasing, and lacerating the wounds made by the
mandibular lobes.

The long and slender mandibular palpi (fig. 4a) are, when
at rest, placed firmly against the head in a groove on the
underside of the skull, which runs at a little distance from the
stem forwards between the forehead and the posterior antenne,
round the basal joint of which their pointed and sickle-shaped
terminal joint coils itself. The palpi, being inserted so far be-
hind and to the side that they have considerable room for play,
are probably destined for cleaning the mouth-tube with the
brush at their apex, and to comb away the fishy slime from
the marginal hooks by means of the fine comb of spines im-
planted in the outer margin of the terminal joint.

The structure of the mouth. in Aga may therefore be de-
scribed in the following terms :—

the Mouth in Sucking Crustacea. 19
Aga.

Os haustellatum.

Haustellum adversum clypeo labroque, aversum malis poste-
rioribus palpisque pedum maxillarium confectum, malas
mandibulares maxillaresque priores rasorias involvens.

Clypeus fornicatus:pendulus.

Labrum semicirculatum, pendulum, fornicatum, margine
membranaceo, fimbriate verruculoso.

Mandibule stipite amplo, falcato, basi palpigero, mala inte-
riore nulla. Mala exterior sub labrum oblique inflexa,
mobilis, in orificium haustelli deorsum eminens, triquetra,
acuminata, intra concaviuscula, apice extremo hamato,
acuto. Palpus gracilis, triarticulatus, articulo intermedio
producto, terminali brevi, falcato, barbato, pectinato,
basin antenne secunde amplectente.

Maxille priores stiliformes, mala interiore et palpo nullis.
Mala exterior stipiti contigua, in orificium haustelli deor-
sum eminens, fasciculo armata terminali hamorum raso-
riorum.

Maxille posteriores apice contigue, maxillas priores obvol-
ventes, stipite lato, fornicato, palpo nullo. Male dis-
crete, breves, rotundate, margine minute hamulate, ori-
fictum haustelli post claudentes, supra marginem inte-
riorem palporum pedum maxillarium reflexe.

Pedes maxillares maxillas includentes, cardine maximo, obli-
quo, laminato, triangulo, mala minutissima, conica. St-
pites contigui, recti, subquadrati, fornicati, supra carinati,
hypostoma valde elongatum medio carinatum utrinque
explentes. Palpi quinquearticulati, latissimi, foliace1,
fornicati, infra minute hamulati, labia lateralia haustelli
formantes.

Lingua rotundata, mollis, pulvinata, nuda, fissa lobis apice
lingulatis, introrsum arcte contiguis, crasse marginatis,
rimam suctoriam includentibus.

13. Having now described the structure of the mouth in
4figa as minutely as seemed necessary in order to explain its
composition and mode of action, we may, in respect of Cymo-
thoa (fig. 6), content ourselves with a comparison between the
two, pointing out and interpreting the differences.

The oral tube is built up of the same elements; but they
enter into its composition in different proportions ; and an im-
portant difference in this respect is to be noticed between the
two sexes.

In the male the cardo of the maxillipeds is a large, trans-

versely oval but very irregular plate. The stem is flat, ob-
Qe

20 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Structure of

long, narrower in the fore part, with a small protuberance on
the outer margin, which touches the stem of the mandibles,
and is somewhat vaulted, but does not by any means cover in
the stems of the second pair of maxilla so completely as is the
case in Afga. The stems of the two maxillipeds meet, as
in 4vga, with their even inner margins, and likewise fit in
between the middle ridge of the sphenoid plate and the second
pair of maxille, by means of a crest on their upper surface ;
but this is considerably narrower than in 4ga. The palpus
is small, pointed, biarticulate, slightly curved inwards, with a
row of small hooked spines on the inner or lower edge of the
terminal joint. The upper or outer margin of the palpus is
also in Cymothoa arranged to fit into a groove in the stem of
the mandible, and forms the side margins of the mouth-tube.

In the female, on the contrary, the maxillipeds are con-
verted into a pair of thin lamelle, which are almost entirely
covered from beneath by the first pair of plates of the egg-bag,
and which do not reach so far that the palpi can form part of
the mouth-tube; the cardo, besides, has a foliaceous inward-
turned prolongation ; and, as the inner margins of the stems,
moreover, are not quite rectilinear, the stems do not meet ac-
curately along the middle line of the skull, and it is only on
a short piece that they fit in above between the ridge of the
sphenoid plate and the second pair of maxille. Hach of the
stems, besides, expands on the outer side into a large, thin,
rounded leaf, which reaches forward a considerable distance
beyond the small palpus, of which only the last joint has a
few thorns at the apex.

In both sexes the maxillipeds are without lobes: the inner
corner of the stems certainly presents a little eminence, which
is particularly easily observed in the male; but it lacks sete,
and can consequently hardly be looked upon as a lobe.

Of course this great sexual difference in the structure of the
mouth entails a corresponding difference in the part taken by
the maxille of the second pair in the composition of the mouth-
tube.

The peculiarity of the second pair of maxille in Cymothoa
consists in this, that the lobes are neither separate lobules as
in 4fga, nor turned back in the shape of collars, but they
coalesce with one another, are soft, swelling, and by slight
longitudinal grooves divided into small oval cushions (three
on each maxilla), which together form the posterior part of the
orifice of the mouth-tube. The outermost cushion has on the
outside and at the apex a scattered number of small pointed
warts; the intermediate and innermost cushions have no
warts except on the margins, but have besides in their fore

the Mouth in Sucking Crustacea. 21

part some few hooks—the middle one three, the innermost
only one.

In the male Cymothoa the sides of the mouth-tube are, as
we have stated, supplied by the maxilliped-palps, which
reach as far as the labrum; and the maxillary lobes of the
second pair have therefore here, as in Aga, no other duty
than to fill up the slit between the maxilliped-palps, though
certainly this opening is proportionally larger in Cymothoa,
the palpi in question being smaller and the lobes of the maxil-
lipeds wanting. But in the female Cymothoa, where the
maxillipeds do not enter into the construction of the mouth-
tube, this devolves entirely on the second pair of maxille
(x*, fig.6 a; the maxillipeds are removed). ‘These are there-
fore much broader than in the male; their stems meet in much
greater extent, namely with the whole of their front halves,
and the lobes form together a large curved lip, which, on the
sides, joins the labrum.

Although this conversion of the maxillary lobes of the
second pair into a kind of lip in all essential points makes up
for the non-participation of the maxillipeds in the construc-
tion of the mouth-tube in the female, and their limited parti-
cipation in the male, this expedient would, nevertheless, not
be sufficient if the labrum in Cymothoa were not larger than
in Aga. But whilst in this latter genus the labrum occupies
only one-third of the circumference of the mouth-tube, it sup-
plies in Cymothoa quite one-half. It is consequently much
broader, much more considerably arched from the top down-
wards, so that it becomes like an inverted cup when the mouth-
tube is contracted; a small undulation is then also observed
in the middle of the margin, which latter is furnished with
numerous minute warts. But when the mouth-tube is dis-
tended and examined from beneath, the margin appears undu-
lated or crenate.

From all this it appears that the mouth-tube is, upon the
whole, softer and less powerfully armed in Cymothoa than in
Afga: instead of the almost fringe-like covering of warts on
the labrum, the considerable bundle of hooked spines on the
palpi of the maxillipeds, and the row of spines on the turned-
over margin of the maxillary lobe of the second pair in Aga,
we find in Cymothoa merely the very minute warts on the very
edge of the labrum and on the cushion-like lobes of the second
pair of maxille, and the very short row of hooked spines on the
two innermost cushions of these lobes and on the margin of
the terminal joint of the maxilliped-palpi in the male. But
this weaker armature of the mouth in Cymothoa of course cor-

22 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Structure of

responds with the far greater development of the hooked limbs

in that genus, to which we shall allude further on.

The mandibular palpi (m, fig. 6a), on the contrary, enter
into far closer connexion with the mouth-tube in Cymothoa
than in Aga. Instead of being slender and furnished with a
brush of bristles and a comb of spines as in Aga, they are
short, thick, and conic, and they are inserted on the stem in
such a manner that they become directed straight forward.
They are accordingly applied to a different purpose, namely
to the support of the mouth-tube, round which they le closely,
meeting in front of it and embracing it between them. In
Anilocra (fig. 5) this destination of the mandibular palpi is
still more apparent in their form, the joints of the palpi being
so accurately fitted to the space between the antenne and
the labrum that they surround the mouth-tube as a kind of
padding.

Excepting that the sawing-styles formed by the first pair of
maxille (fig. 6 6) are less powerfully armed than in Aiga, the
difference in the inner machinery is confined to the structure
of the mandibular lobes (m, fig. 6 6), which are thin, triangular,
pointed lobules, with a sharp inner edge, and are doubtless used
not merely for stinging, but also for the purpose of clipping,
as they are capable of being crossed like the blades of a pair of
Scissors.

The formula for Cymothoa will consequently be the follow-
ing :—

Cymothoa.

Os haustellatum.

Haustellum adversum clypeo labroque, aversum in foemina
malis posterioribus, in mare malis posterioribus palpisque
pedum maxillarium confectum, malas mandibulares punc-
torias maxillaresque priores rasorias involvens.

Clypeus fornicatus, pendulus.

Labrum amplum, semicirculatum, pendulum, fornicatum, mar-
gine minute verruculoso.

Mandibule stipite quadrato, fixo, apice palpigero, mala inte-
riore nulla. Mala exterior sub labrum oblique inflexa,
mobilis, in orificium haustelli deorsum eminens, triangula,
compressa, acuminata, cultriformis. Palpus labrum utrin-
que amplectens, triarticulatus, conicus, nudus; articulis
sensim decrescentibus.

Maxille priores stiliformes, mala interiore et palpo nullis.
Mala exterior stipiti contigua, in orificium haustelli deor-
sum eminens, fasciculo armata terminali hamorum raso-
riorum.

the Mouth in Sucking Crustacea. 23

Maaille posteriores fere tote contigue, maxillas priores ob-
volventes, stipite lato fornicato, in foemina latissimo, palpo
nullo. Male concrete, membranacee, pulvinate, minute
hamulatz, fornicate, in mare marginem interiorem palpo-
rum pedum maxillarium fulcientes, in foemina orificium
haustelli post claudentes.

Pedes maxillares maxillas tegentes, laminati, cardine maximo
iregulari, mala nulla. Séepdtes planiusculi, in foemina ex-
trorsum dilatate foliacei, in mare contigwi, hypostoma
breviusculum, medio carinatum utrinque explentes. Palpi
biarticulati, brevissimi, conici, depressi, apice minute ha-
mulati, in mare labia lateralia haustelli formantes.

Lingua rotundata, mollis, pulvinata, nuda, fissa, lobis intror-
sum arcte contiguis, crasse marginatis, rimam suctoriam
includentibus.

14. The fulness of the vegetative life in fishes expresses
itself through the rich variety and size of their external para-
sites in comparison with the higher vertebrates. Amongst these
parasites the Cymothoe occupy a prominent place. Their
stomach (Rathke, /.c. tab. vi. figs. 16 & 175) is so large that
when distended it almost fills the five last segments of the
trunk (corresponding to the abdomen in Insects). Its contents
are by the action of spirit of wine converted into a tough mass,
which may be cut with a knife, and under the microscope
shows a plentiful admixture of epithelial cells, in ga some-
times also of blood-corpuscles. This lump when dried is easily
taken out whole, particularly in ga, and presents then a per-
fect cast of the interior of the stomach, in the shape of an oval
bean, with ashining smooth surface; along the under surface a
groove is observed, indicating the place where the stomach has
pressed against the ventral cord of the nervous system ; the
colour is a light or dark amber, in 4ga often dark brownish
red. ‘These animals have of course been well known to the
cod-fishing inhabitants of the north from time immemorial ;
and the singular fact just alluded to has given rise to curious
superstitions amongst the people, and not less curious mistakes
on the part of the naturalists of former days. Whilst the
fishermen regarded this “stone” as a powerful talisman, se-
curing to its possessor, when rightly used, the fulfilment of his
wishes, the medical men recommended it as an infallible
remedy against sea-sickness amongst other things ; and whilst
some naturalists thought that it took the place of the internal
organs altogether, others thought it to be the ovary, and O.
Fabricius (Fauna Greenl. p. 250, Oniscus psora) thought that
it surrounded the intestine.

24 Prof. J.C. Schiédte on the Mouth of Sucking Crustacea.

15. When leaving the pouch the young of Cymothoa wstrum
have a sharp-edged forehead, well developed, oval, prominent
black eyes, slender, setiform antenne, the posterior pair so long
that they reach as far as the middle of the tail, and slender
limbs with long claws, which are hooked only at the point, and
which, on those three pairs of legs which are directed forwards,
assume the form of saws, owing to a row of powerful teeth on
the underside. ‘The tail is entirely free, not much shorter than
the trunk, conical, its rmgs being very freely moveable. Its
limbs possess long downy swimming-bristles ; the last pair are
almost as long as the first five rings of the tail, and point
straight backwards, their branches being elongated, narrow,
with long downy swimming-hairs at the end. The seventh
ie of limbs are wanting as in other newborn young of

ae

ecording to the classification hitherto current, these young
Crustacea would rather be allied to Cirolana than to Cymothoa ;
but the facts demonstrated in the foregoing investigation needed
scarcely this addition in order to prove that here, too, in our
attempts at system we go astray in darkness when we neglect
the light afforded by the structure of the mouth. Ifthe young
of Cymothoa, in the form of body, antenne, and legs, more
reminds one of Cirolana than of the adult Cymothoa, and if
an Aiga has less external similarity to Cymothoa than to Ciro-
lana, then all these similarities belong entirely to the class of
biological modifications, and are without any typical character
at all. Itis by marks of distinction of the same kind that
Bopyri have been separated from the other Isopoda; but as their
mouth is of the same construction as in Cymothoa, only far more
reduced, they ought to be united with Cymothoa, Adiga, and
their related genera into one natural family—Cymothoe. Not
even in the characters of distinction now in use are transitions
wanting; for there exist twisted species (not yet described)
of the family of Cymothozx, according to the definition of
the family hitherto accepted, but which lack the last pair
of caudal limbs. Upon the whole we may observe a striking
parallelism between this present series of parasites on the one
side and Siphonostomata on the other side, although it is not
so extensive nor descends so low as the latter, at least accord-
ing to our present knowledge. -d4ga corresponds to Caligus,
Cymothoa to Lernanthropus, Bopyrus to Chondracanthus. It
is the greater or smaller degree of locomotion which decides
the shape of the frontal margin. In those parasites which are
continually fixed it is blunted; in those which move about it is
sharpened by the addition of the basal joint of the first pair of
antenne. In Aga these antenne are still tolerably free, but

Dr. Th. M. Fries on new Species of Lichens. 25

joined by a notch and ledge to the second pair of antenne, and,
together with the latter, jomed to the eye-margins, whereby a
kind of imperfect sucking-cup is formed. In Caligini, on the
other hand, the basal joint of the first pair of antenne coalesces
with the sucking-cup, now developing a pair of independent
small suckers (Caligus), and now forming the so-called lamina
frontalis. A vestige of the true front plate is, however, some-
times to be observed, namely the scar indicating the place of
insertion of the detached organ of fixation.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.

Fig. 1. Head of Spheroma balticum, n., from beneath.

Fg. 2a. Head of Serolis Orbignyana, M.-E., from beneath : 0, sockets of
first pair of legs.

Fig. 2b, Prosternum and sphenoid plate of the same, from beneath, with
the lingua and the maxillee of the first and second pairs on the
right side: 0, sockets of maxillipeds.

Fig. 38. Head of Cirolana borealis, Lilljeb., from beneath.

Fig. 4a, Head of Aga psora, L., from beneath.

Fig. 46. The maxillipeds of the same in their connexion with other
parts: c, cardo of maxillipeds; s, stem of ditto; p, palpus of
ditto.

Fig.4c, Right mandible of the same, seen from the inner side: s, the
stem; m, the lobe; p, the palp.

Fig. 5. Head of Anilocra Leachii, Ky., from beneath.

Fig. 6a. Head of Cymothoa estrum, E., 2, from beneath. The maxilli-

eds are removed and the sucking-orifice distended : 0, sockets
of the maxillipeds.

Fig. 66. Right mandible of the same, from the inner side: s, stem;
m, lobe; p, palpus.

In all the figures, where no other interpretation is given, the following
is the signification of the letters :—/f, forehead; a, antennz of the first
pair; a*, antennze of the second pair; c, clypeus; /, labrum; /*, lingua ;
m, mandibles; x, first pair of maxille; 2x*, second pair of maxille;
px, maxillipeds; A, sphenoid plate; s, prosternum; s*, mesosternum,

IL.—WNotule Lichenologice. No. XIX.
By the Rev. W. A. Lercuron, B.A., F.L.S.

As Dr. Tu. M. Fries’s ‘ Lichenes Spitzbergenses’ will in all
probability be in the hands of few persons in this country,
and as there is a possibility that some of his new species may -
occur in the northernmost portions of Great Britain, we here
extract his descriptions of them.

1. Lecanora coriacea, Th. M. Fr.

Crusta crassa, contigua, torulosa |. verrucosa, luteo-albida (1.
in roseum vergente), subnitida. IK imbuta primum fulves-
cente, dein sanguinea; apotheciis non visis.

26 Dr. Th. M. Fries on new Species of Lichens.

Supra muscos et terram nudam.

Spermogonia numerosa, quorum ostiola nigricantia habitum
Pertusarie cujusdam huic tribuunt. Spermatia acicularia,
recta, sterigmatibus simplicibus adfixa.

2. Gyrophora discolor, Th. M. Fr.

Thallo crasso, rigido, usque ad 2-3 unc. diam. lato, superne
costis rugisque elevatis valde ineequali scrobiculatoque, toto
areolato-rimuloso 1. verruculoso, cinereo, subtus aterrimo,
fuligineo-pulverulento (rarius centro |]. margine pallidiore) ;
apotheciis elevatis, simplicibus, margine cinctis.
Affinitatem cum G. anthracina ostendit, precipue cum B,

tessellata. CaCl nunc distinctius, nunc obsoletius stratum
gonidiale (vel hujus partes sparsas) rubrefacit, qui color mox
disparet. Partes apothecii interne congenerum similes ; spore
oblongee. Jodo dilute cerulescit, dein sordide decoloratur.

3. Lecidea conjungens, Th. M. Fr.

Thallo bullato-verrucoso, sordide cinereo; apotheciis adnatis,
majusculis (magnit. L. vesicularis), planis, constanter te-
nuiter marginatis, demum varie flexuosis auriculatisque,
nigris, nudis; hypothecio fusco-nigro; paraphysibus fili-
formibus, laxe cohzerentibus, apice fuligineo-capitatis ; sporis
in ascis clavatis, 8S, utrinque obtusis, preterea valde va-
riantibus, nunc oblongis |. ellipsoideis, diblastis, nunc elon-
gatis 1. subcylindricis, tetrablastis.

Ad rupes calcareas.

A L, vesiculari sporis, paraphysibus &c. differt ; a L. fusz-
spora, Hepp., thallo, apothecio, paraphysibus &c. Gelatina
hymenea precedente cerulescentia levi vinose rubet.

4, Lecidea collodea, Th. M. Fr.

Crusta tenui, subgelatinosa, cinerascente; apotheciis adnatis,
cartilagineis, convexis, dein subglobosis |. varie tuberculatis,
siccis nigricantibus, humidis obscure cinnamomeis, quasi
pellucidis, nitidulis; hypothecio incolorato ; paraphysibus
concretis, subhyalinis, apice fuscis 1. fuscidulis; sporis in
ascis anguste clavatis 8S, oblongis, simplicibus.

Ad saxa. ’
Apotheciorum insigni habitu facile distincta species. Iodo
circa ascos dilute cerulescit, preeterea sordide lutescit.

5. Lecidea pullulans, Th. M. Fr.

Crusta tenui, rimosa, cinerascente; apotheciis minutissimis,
numerosis, primo urceolatis, dein planis leviterque convexis,

Dr. Th. M. Fries on new Species of Lichens. 27

margine tenui demum evanescente, nigris; hypothecio in-
colorato ; paraphysibus apicem versus cerulescente-smarag-
dulis, filamenta in gelatina copiosa referentibus; sporis in
ascis clavatis 8™s, oblongis.

Ad rupes micaceas.

Habitus characteresque cogunt hanc pro distincta habere
specie; inter species antea descriptas nullam mvenimus, ad
quam. referri possit. Stratum medullare iodo non vel passim
dilutissime violascit, hymenium vero ceruleo tingitur colore.

6. Lecidea scrobiculata, Th. M. Fr.

Crusta crassa (usque ad 5 millim.) varie rimosa, verrucis
vulgo tenuiter rimulosis, sordide argillacea ; apotheciis varie
flexuosis tuberculatisque primo planiusculis et marginatis,
dein subglobosis immarginatisque; sporis globosis 1. glo-
boso-ellipsoideis.

Supra rupes.

Habitu a L. elata, Scheer. adeo recedit, ut primo obtutu pro
distincta specie haberes ; accuratius examinate nexum per-
spicere tamen crediderimus eum L. elata, ad quam sese habet,
ut L. (Sporostatia) tenuirimata (quacum mixta occurrit) ad Ee
(Sp.) Mori tonem. 'Thalli verrucis elevatis interdum adnascuntur
apothecia, ut quasi pedicellata appareant. Partes apothecii
interne cum L. elate congruunt, preterquam quod spore
vulgo sunt globose. Spermatia "acicularia recta 1. leviter
curvata.

7. Lecidea impavida, Th. M. Fr.

Thallo minute verrucoso, nigricante vel obscure badio, sub-
nitido; hypothallo nigro; apotheciis minutis persistenter
subplanis et margine elevato cinctis, nigris, nudis ; hypo-
thecio obscure fusco; paraphysibus omnino concer ets, indis-
tinctis, apice fuscis; ascis inflato-clavatis; sporis 8",
ellipsoideis 1. globoso-ellipsoideis. Gelatina hymenea pree-
cedente cerulescentia levi (circa ascos intensiore) fulves-
cente.

Ad rupes.

Tam externis quam internis notis facillime distincta species.
Apud nos hactenus falso omnino pro L. Mosigit habita est.
dea thallus non tingitur, preterquam quod membrane goni-
diorum plus minus distincte violascunt.

8. Lecidea associata, Th. M. Fr.

Parasitica, thallo proprio nullo; apotheciis minutis, primo in-
natis prorumpentibusque, concavis, dein adpressis, planis,

28 Dr. Th. M. Fries on new Species of Lichens. ;

margine obsoleto 1. pertenui, disco ruguloso, atro, nudo ;
hypothecio incolorato; paraphysibus validiusculis, articu-
latis, gelatina copiosa ‘imbutis, apice fuscescentibus ; sporis
in ascis clavato-cylindricis, 8", una serie dispositis, breviter
ellipsoideis 1. subglobosis. Gelatina hymenea iodo vix
mutata.

Supra thallum Lecanore tartaree.
Statione, apotheciis, ascis sporisque ab omnibus facillime
dignota. Ad fungos facillime rejicienda.

9. Lecidea (Sporostatia) tenuirimata, Th. M. Fr.

Thallo pallidiore (quam L. Morto), ferrugineo- |. flavo-cinereo,
protothallo nigro inter areolas distincto ; areolis tenuissime
rimulosis.

Ad rupes.

sapien diversissimum atque valde insignem pre se fert,
neque dubitaremus pro distincta specie eam enuntiare, nisi in
ambitu radiante passim adessent areole levigate. Nordens-
kjold legit specimen has formas aperte jungens. Partes interne
non discrepant.

10. Lecidea (Buellia) vilis, Th. M. Fr.

Crusta tenuissima, cinerascente, 1, nulla; apotheciis tenuibus,
mediocribus, persistenter planis et margine tenui cinctis, ni-
gris,nudis; hypothecio incolorato; varaphysibus capillaribus,
conglutinatis, fuligineo-capitatis ; sporis in ascis clavatis,
nis, diblastis, plus minus late ellipsoideis, utrinque ob-
tusis, fusco-nigricantibus.

Ad saxa.

Habitu ignobilis, facile pretervisa. Apotheciis planis,
sporis majoribus, hypothecio incolorato a L. punctata Fk. var.
stigmatea diversa; a L. leptocline, cui maxime affinis, omni-
busque aliis Buelliis nobis cognitis hypothecio diversa. Apo-
thecia nunc sparsa, nunc conferta mutuaque pressione vario
modo angulosa. Jodo hymenio addito, primum cerulescit,
dein sordide decoloratur, ascis rubentibus; pars eorum supe-
rior tamen haud raro cxruleum servat colorem.

11. Arthonia (Coniangium) excentrica, 'Th. M. Fr.

Thallo crasso, e verrucis contexto verruculosis |. farinaceo-
dehiscentibus, albo ; apotheciis minutis, adnatis, primo orbi-
cularibus leviterque convexis, dein nonnihil angulosis et
planiusculis, scabriusculis, nigricantibus; hypothecio rufi-
dulo-fusco; ascis pyriformibus ; paraphysibus gelatinoso-
confluxis, sordide fuscidulis, apice fuligineis; sporis 8's,

Dr. Th. M. Fries on new Species of Lichens. 29

cuneato-oblongis, utrinque obtusis, diblastis, hyalinis. Ge-
latina hymenea iodo intense rubente.

Supra muscos.

Crusta crassa, que re vera non aliena videtur, facile dis-
tincta species ; apotheciorum interna structura excepto para-
physium colore, cum A, circinata Th. Fr. satis congruit.

12. Verrucaria extrema, Th. M. Fr.

Crusta crassa, inequali, rimoso-areolata, areolis e granulis
minutis congestis contextis, fuliginea |. obscure fusca 1.
nigricante . apotheciis semi- |, subliberis, majoribus interdum
leviter papillatis 1. umbilicatis ; perithecio nigro; sporis in
ascis subcylindrico-clavatis, Suis, oblongis I. fusiformibus.

In saxis graniticis.

Optime distincta species, thallum si respicis, Buelliam conio-
pem sat referens; obiter inspecta Stauwrothelen Clopimam in
memoriam quoque revocat. Gonidia parva. In perithecio
sub microscopio vulgo observatur magna guttarum oleosarum
copia. Jodo gelatina hymenea dilute rubet, spore fulvescunt.

13. Verrucaria rejecta, Th. M. Fr.

Crusta tenui, effusa, 1, maculas minutas formante, mequali, e
verrucis minutissimis contexta, sordide nigricante 1, cinereo-
fusca; hypothallo sordide cinereo- nigricante ; apotheciis
minutis, globosis, semiliberis 1. adnatis; perithecio nigro ;

sporis in ascis inflato-clavatis, 8", ellipsoideis.

In rupibus calcareis.

Tnviti, sane hance novam speciem, habitu ignobilem, propo-
nimus ; frustra autem cum aliqua hactenus nobis cognita con-
jungere conati sumus. Crusta vulgo formatur ex hypothallo
ambitu nonnihil radiante et granulis minutis dispersis, ob-
scurius coloratis; ubi paulo crassior, insuper tenuiter rimosa
conspicitur. Gelatina hymenea iodo vinose rubet.

14. Verrucaria (Arthopyrenia) conspurcans, Th. M. Fr.

Parasitica, thallo proprio nullo; apotheciis minutis, puncti-

formibus, adnatis, conico- elobosis, atris ; ascis ventricosis,

paraphysibus _gelatinoso-diffluxis ; sporis 8", cuneatis,

utrinque obtusis, diblastis, incoloratis.

Supra squamas L. (Psore) rubiformis.
Todo ascorum contentus fulvescit, ceterum non mutatur.

30 Prof. F. M‘Coy on Phascolomys setosus and P. niger.

ITI.—Note on the Phascolomys setosus (Gray) and P. niger
(Gould). By Prof. M‘Coy.

THE interesting paper on the species of Phascolomys by Dr. Murie
in the ‘ Zoological Proceedings’ for December 1865 leaves the
Phascolomys setosus (Gray) i doubt as a probable variety of the
common brown P. platyrhinus. Ihave lately obtained a good
skin, from South Australia, agreeing with the original external
characters of Dr. Gray’s P. setosus, and I am glad to find that an
examination of the skull shows it to be awell-marked and distinct
species. I subjoin an ac-

curate outline (natural

size) of the nasal bones,

which may be compared

with the figures of the

three other species in Dr.

Murie’s paper. It will be

seen that, in the great

width and flatness of the

posterior margin of the

nasals, the P. setosus ap-

proaches the P. latifrons,

being intermediate be-

tween it and the common

P. platyrhinus, but differ-

ing from both in the broad

double curve of each side

forming a salient angle a

little in front of the mid- Outline (nat. size) of the nasal bones
dle of each side. of P. setosus (Gray).

I also procured lately an adult male and female and young
of the P. niger of Gould from Yea, in this colony. The female
and young were quite black; and the skulls of each of them
showed a small semicircular lobe projecting outwards from
about the anterior third of each outer margin of the nasal
bones (not to be confounded with the more posterior wide an-
gulation produced by the double concave curvature of the outer
margins of P. setosus); so that, taken with the difference of ©
colour, I at first thought it possible the species might be really
distinct from the P. platyrhinus. But on carefully comparing
all the bones of the skeleton, I could find no other difference ;
and on getting the skeleton of the male specimen prepared, I
found that its skull agreed with the ordinary type of the P.
platyrhinus in its nasal bones, although the individual was the
mate of the female referred to. ‘The colour was not so perfect
a black as in the female and young, but had a brownish tinge ;

Dr. C. Collingwood on Gigantic Sea-Anemones. 31

so that the skull, skeleton, and external characters of the fur
showed P. niger to be only a variety of P. platyrhinus, as
Dr. Murie has already correctly surmised would be found to
be the case. I finally have just had a typical brown ordinary
P. platyrhinus prepared for the Melbourne Museum, and have
found in it the small lateral lobes on the outer margin of the
anterior third of the nasals, which I first noticed in the so-
called P. niger, and of which there was no trace in five skulls
previously prepared ; so that there can no longer be the least
doubt of the black and brown individuals being only varieties
of one species. With the P. setosus, we have thus four well-
marked living wombats, and at least two fossil extinct ones.
While referring to Dr. Murie’s paper above quoted, I may
take the opportunity to remark, in reply to his observation
that, in my description of P. latifrons published by Mr. Gould,
I did not lay sufficient stress on the peculiarity of the softness
of the fur, that I have there contrasted it with the coarse hair
of the common wombat in the strongest manner, by comparing
it to the fur of the English wild rabbit in this respect.
Melbourne, Oct. 26, 1867.

IV.—WNote on the Existence of Gigantic Sea-Anemones in the
China Sea, containing within them quasi-parasitic Fish.
By Dr. C. CoLLincwoop.

THE most remarkable circumstance which I met with when
wading upon a submerged reef in the China Sea was the dis-
covery of some Actiniz of enormous size, and of habits no less
novel than striking. I observed in a shallow spot a beautiful
large convoluted mass, of a deep blue colour, which, situated
as 1t was in the midst of magnificent corals of every colour of
the rainbow, I supposed also to be a coral; but its singular
aspect induced me to feel it, when the peculiar tenacious touch
of a sea-anemone made me rapidly withdraw my hand, to
which adhered some shreds of its blue tentacles. I then per-
ceived that it was an immense Actinia, which when expanded
measured fully 2 feet in diameter. The tentacles were small,
simple, and very numerous, of a deep blue colour; and the
margin of the tentacular ridge was broad and rounded, and
folded in thick convolutions concealing the entrance to the
digestive cavity.

While I was standing breast-high in the water, admiring
this splendid specimen, I noticed a very beautiful little fish,
which hovered in the water close by, and nearly over, the
Anemone. The little fish was 6 inches long, the head bright

oe Dr. C. Collingwood on Gigantic Sea-Anemones.

orange, and the body vertically banded with broad rings of
opaque white and orange alternately, three bands of each. As
the fish remained stationary, and did not appear to be alarmed
at my movements, I made ineffectual attempts to catch him;
he always eluded my efforts, not darting away, however, as
I expected he would, but always returning to the same spot.
Wandering about in search of shells and animals, I returned
from time to time to the great Anemone, and each time
I found the fish there, in spite of all my disturbance of it.
This singular persistence of the fish in keeping to the same
spot, and to the close vicinity of the great Anemone, aroused
in me strong suspicions of the existence of some connexion
between them.

These suspicions were subsequently verified; for on the
reefs of Pulo Pappan, near the island of Labuan, I met with
more than one specimen of this gigantic Actinia, and the fish,
so unmistakeable in its appearance when once seen, again in
its neighbourhood. Raking about with a stick in the body of
the Anemone, I by degrees dislodged six fishes of the same
species, and of various sizes, from the cavity of the zoophyte ;
and this time, being provided with a hand net, I had no diffi-
culty in capturing them all. Thus the connexion existing
between the fish and the Anemone was demonstrated, though
what is the nature and object of that connexion remains to be
proved.

There are at least two species of these Anemone-inhabiting
fish ; and a second species of the same genus differs from that
just described in having black and cream-coloured vertical
bands, instead of orange and white. Such a fish I have seen,
evidently closely related to the first described, in the pos-
session of Mr. Hugh Low, of Labuan, who in times past had
made many excursions to the reefs, and had become acquainted
with this fact. My. Low had it then living in a tub which
did duty as an aquarium, having obtained it some months
before from the body of what was probably a second species of
fish-sheltering Anemone. The fish was remarkably lively
and knowing, and lived in good health in the tub for several
months—a proof that the connexion between these animals,
whatever its nature, is not absolutely essential, for the fish at
least.

It has long been known that there is a Holothuria (H. ana-
nas) which harbours a parasitic fish. The Holothuria and its
fish are figured in the ‘ Voyage of the Astrolabe ;’ and such a
Holothuria inhabits the reefs about Labuan ; but its fish bears
no resemblance to those I have described, not indeed belong-
ing to the same piscine family.

M. C. Blondeau on the Irritability of Plants. 33

But the saddest part remains to be told. The six fishes
having been secured as above, I made no drawing or descrip-
tion of them, but placed them in spirits and transmitted them
home with other specimens. From some fault probably in the
spirits, these fishes were totally destroyed before arriving in
England, although, with the exception of some other fishes,
the rest of the specimens were in tolerable order. I trust,
however, that, as I know precisely where they are to be found,
I shall be able to procure new specimens from the same spot.

V.—On the Irritability of Plants. By C. BLonpEAu*.

WE have undertaken, in the course of the present year, a great
number of experiments upon the iritability of plants; and
these have shown us that the faculty possessed by certain
plants, especially the Sensitive Plant, of executing apparently
voluntary movements, may be suspended by various agents,
such as ether, chloroform, carbonic oxide, protoxide of nitro-
gen, and essence of turpentine, all of which, as is well known,
act upon the nervous system of animals.

Amongst these experiments there is one which seems to us
to possess sufficient interest to induce us to submit it to the
judgment of the Academy of Sciences. This consists in sub-
mitting the Sensitive Plant (Jfimosa pudica) tothe action of
the galvanic current.

In performing our experiments we selected four fully deve-
loped Sensitive Plants, the sensibility of which was so great
that the least contact, such as the friction of a fly’s wing, was
sufficient to cause their leaflets to close, and even to depress
the petiole of the leaf along the stem. After placing the pots
in which these plants had been grown upon an insulating sup-
port formed by a plate of glass, we attached to the two extre-
mities of the stem in each of them a small copper wire for the
purpose of passing the current generated by a single Bunsen’s
couple. Atter waiting for a few moments, the plant reopened
its leaflets, and the petiole was raised; the current was then
passed, care being taken to avoid any movement which could
agitate the plant. Under these conditions we observed no
effect, the leaflets did not fold up, the petioles did not lower
themselves, and the plant seemed to be insensible to the action
of electricity.

We then varied the experiment: instead of employing
the direct current of the pile, we made use of the induction-

* Translated from the ‘Comptes Rendus,’ August 12, 1867, pp. 304-306.
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol.i. 3

34 M.C. Blondeau on the Irritability of Plants.

current produced by means of a very small Ruhmkorff’s coil.
The results were then quite different. Scarcely had the cur-
rent begun to pass, when the leaflets were seen to apply them-
selves to one another, then the petioles were depressed along
the stem, and the movement was rapidly propagated from one
end of the plant to the other. According to this result, the
plant is sensitive to electrical disturbances, and behaves in
this respect exactly like animals.

We wished to ascertain whether the subjection of the plant
to electricity for a longer or shorter time would produce in it
phenomena worthy of notice; and with this view we caused
the induction-current to act upon three of our Sensitive Plants
during different periods of time. The first plant submitted to
experiment received for five minutes the disturbances produced
by the Ruhmkorff’s coil, and at the end of this time it was left
to itself. For more than a quarter of an hour the plant re-
mained in the state of prostration to which it had been reduced
by the electrical action; but by degrees the leaflets opened,
and the stalks raised themselves again, and in about an hour
the plant had regained its original position, and did not appear
to have suffered in the least by the shocks to which it had been
subjected.

A second Sensitive Plant was subjected to the same treat-
ment, but continued for ten minutes. At the end of this time
the induction-current which traversed the stem was suspended
and the plant left to itself. The Sensitive Plant remained in
the state of prostration to which it had been brought by the
action of the current for more than an hour, and it was only
after this lapse of time that the leaflets began to open and the
petioles to elevate themselves. his movement moreover took

lace more slowly and laboriously than in the preceding case.

vidently the plant had been fatigued ; for it did not return to
its original position until two hours and a half after the current
had ceased to traverse it.

Our third Sensitive Plant was subjected to the action of the
induced current for five-and-twenty minutes, and then the
plant was left to itself. In this case we waited in vain for it
to resume its original position: the prolonged electrical action
had been sufficient to destroy all irritability, and even to cause
the plant to perish; for on the following day we found our
Sensitive Plant withered, and even blackened as if it had been
struck by lightning.

Our fourth Sensitive Plant was reserved for an experiment
which has proved to us that electrical disturbance acts upon
plants in the same way as upon animals.

We know that man, as well as the other animals, when sub-

Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax. BS

jected to the anesthetic action of ether, becomes insensible to
the disturbances produced by induction-currents, even when
these are very powerful. We wished to see whether this
would be the case with the Sensitive Plant.

For this purpose we placed our plant under a bell-glass
with two tubulatures, through which penetrated the copper
wires serving to pass the induction current through the plant.
A few drops of ether were poured into the interior of the bell-
glass, and in a short time the plant had undergone the anes-
thetic effects of the liquid; for, when shaken, it no longer
closed its leaflets or manifested any sensibility. In this state
we subjected it to the action of the mduction-current ; and then
it gave no sign of sensibility: the petioles remained straight
and the leaflets continued open.

These fresh experiments harmonize with all those which have
been made upon this subject, and furnish an argument in favour
of the opinion of those who think that the movements observed
in these plants are effected by the intermediation of organs
analogous to those possessed by animals.

VI.—Revision of the Species of Hyrax, founded on the Speci-
mens in the British Museum. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S.,
VAS.

THE species of the Hyraces are well marked both externally and
anatomically ; but there is great confusion as to the names
that have been given to them in the systematic catalogues.

Prosper Alpinus, in his list of animals of Egypt and Arabia,
indicated a species of Hyrax under the name of Agnus filiorwm
Israél, which Shaw regarded as a large Jerboa; but Bruce
corrected this error in his account of the Ashkoko.

Pallas described and figured the Cape species under the
name of Cavia capensis, and Buffon as the Marmotte du Cap.
It is well known to naturalists as Hyrax capensis.

Bruce notices a Hyrax under the name of Ashkoko, which
he described as coloured like a wild rabbit, with scattered
black bristles and white beneath. This well agrees with a
Hyrax, now found in Abyssinia, Dongola, and Upper Egypt,
which is in the British Museum. Bruce states that the
animal is also found in Mount Lebanon and Arabia Petrea.

Schreber, who only knew the animal from Bruce’s figure
and description, applied to it the scientific name of Hyrax
syriacus. The Asiatic species is very like the African ; but
I believe it is distinct ; and in that case Schreber’s name is

Q%

36 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax.

not applicable to the African animal to which Bruce gave the
name of Ashkoko (‘coloured like a wild rabbit, and white
beneath’’), and which has a yellow dorsal streak. Capt.
Harris, who collected animals in Abyssinia, sent home several
specimens of a large blackish Hyrax having a large black
dorsal spot and grey beneath, which he says is called Ashkoko
by the natives; but it can scarcely be the Ashkoko of Bruce,
as it does not agree with either his description or figure:
perhaps this name is generic. Hyrazx is also called Geke in
Abyssinia, according to Salt.

Mr. Tristram informs us that the Hyrax in Palestine and
Sinai is called Weber, and Thofun in Southern Arabia. Bruce
evidently confounds these Hyraces together as one species.

Several zoologists have doubted whether the Ashkoko of
Bruce was distinct from Hyrax capensis: no one can doubt the
fact who compares the two. But the large blackish animal
which is also found in Abyssinia, and called by the same
name as Bruce applies to his species, is so like the H. capensis
that it would be doubtful if it is a distinct species, if there
were not such a difference in the skull. Hemprich and Ehren-
berg regard it as distinct, and call it H. habessinicus.

Hemprich and Ehrenberg, in the ‘Symbole Physice,’ de-
scribed and characterized by their colours and osteological
characters four species of Hyrax, viz.:—1. H. capensis, 2. H.
syriacus vel sinaiticus, 3. H. habessinicus, 4. H. ruficeps vel
dongolicus. 'They figure three; for the dark animal figured
with H. syriacus represents a young Hyrax habessinicus.

There is no specimen in the British Museum that has a red
head, although Prof. Ehrenberg called one of his species H.
ruficeps; but I think that probably he gave that name to the
species which we received from Dr. Riippell as H. abyssinicus,
and which I believe to be the Ashkoko of Bruce.

There are specimens of four distinct species in the British
Museum that have a more or less distinct yellow dorsal streak ;
and there is another, discovered by Dr.Welwitsch. Four came
from Africa, and one from Arabia in Asia. They differ from
each other in the texture and the general colour of the fur and
of the hairs of which it is composed. Most probably two of
these are the species with yellow dorsal spots, characterized by
Hemprich and Ehrenberg, viz. Hyrax syriacus or stnaiticus of
Asia, and H. ruficeps vel dongolicus of Africa.

Two of these species have rather harsh rigid hairs.

Three specimens of the first were sent from Upper Egypt
by Mr. James Burton. They are larger in size and much
paler in colour than the other species of the group, and
very slightly punctulated with black. They have the dorsal

Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax. 37

streak comparatively slightly marked and of a pale colour, and
the fur is short and close. There is a single young specimen,
received from a French collector as from Senegal, very like
those from Egypt, showing that this species has a very wide
distribution in Africa.

The second, of an iron-grey colour, was brought from
Angola by Dr. Welwitsch. Dr. Peters names it H. arboreus ;
but it is quite distinct from that species. I have called it H.
Welwitschit.

The other three species have very soft close fur; and they
differ from one another in the colour of the fur and of the se-
parate hairs. The first, which I believe is the Ashkoko of
Bruce, is very like a wild rabbit in general colour, and is white
below; the hairs have a black subterminal band and a yellow
tip, which gives the fur a minutely and closely punctulated
appearance. The second is somewhat like the former, and
also said to come from Abyssinia; but the fur is pale yellow
grey, minutely and slightly varied with black hairs, but not
punctulated, and the hairs have no subterminal band; and the
underside is yellowish. The third, which is the species found
in Palestine and Arabia, is of a nearly uniform reddish-yellow
colour, and has longer and softer hairs of a nearly uniform
colour.

Sir Andrew Smith, in the Trans. Linn. Soc., described
a South African species under the name of H. arboreus; and
Mr. Fraser described a West African species under that of
H. dorsalis. Both these species are distinguished by having
a white dorsal spot. The type specimen described by Mr.
Fraser, and a young specimen received from Sir Andrew Smith
of his H. arboreus, are in the British Museum.

M. Blainville and other French zoologists have confounded
the H. dorsalis of West Africa with the H. arboreus of the
Cape, which are most distinct species, as proved by the types
in the British Museum. Dr. Peters described the H. arboreus
as found on the coast of Mozambique and also in the interior
iy Pete.

The animals with the white dorsal spot have a very different
skull and teeth from the other species which have a black or
yellow dorsal spot. Sir A. Smith observed the peculiarity of
the teeth when he described H. arboreus.

The colour-spots on the back consist of the hair that covers
the situation of a dorsal gland on the vertebral line, about
halfway between the shoulders and the pelvis.

In the species which have the hair yellow or white the
streak is generally narrow and linear; in the species in which
the spot is black, it is generally broad and diffused. In some

38 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax.

specimens of H. stinaiticus the yellow streak is deeper and
brighter-coloured than in others. It appears more marked in
the younger and smaller specimens in the British Museum
than in the larger and older ones; and it is rather indistinct in
the two skins which I believe may be H. ruficeps from Abys-
sinia.

Professors Hemprich and Ehrenberg proposed to use the
form of the interparietal bone as a distinctive character for the
species: thus they described it as large and trigonal in H.
capensis, small and pentagonal in H. syréacus, large and nearly
tetragonal in H. ruficeps, and large and semiorbicular in H.
habessinicus.

M. de Blainville, in the ‘ Ostéographie,’ ‘“ Onguligrades,”’
figures the hinder part of the skull of three species to show the
interparietal bone ; he figures it as elongate and subtriangular
in #7. syriacus, large, broad, and roundish four-sided in H.
capensis, and very broad in HH. ruficeps. The part figured as
the interparietal in the last species is the broad upper edge of
the occipital bone.

Dr. G. v. Jaeger, who has several skulls from the Cape,
collected by Dr. Ludwig, and from North Africa by Dr.
Heuglin, has written an essay to show that the interparietal
bone of the same species varies much in form and size; he
figures ten varieties of it in H. capensis and three in H. habes-
sinicus. He seems to have confounded two species under the
latter name, for fig. 14 is evidently a Dendrohyrax, Dr. Jaeger
having mistaken the broad upper edge of the occipital bone
for an interparietal : he also figures the interparietal of a spe-
cies sent from West Africa by Mr. Dieterle, which he names
H, sylvestris, which is also a Dendrohyrax; but the inter-

arletal is of a very different shape from those of the two
skulls of the West African D. dorsalis in the British Museum.

Dr. Jaeger shows that the interparietal is variable in shape
in Cavia agutt (Wiirzb, naturw. Jahresb. 1860, xvi. p. 158,
ty BN

There is considerable difference in the form of the blade-
bone in the genera Hyrax and Dendrohyrax, In Hyraz:
(Nos, 7246, 7249, & 7244) it is elongate, half as long again
as broad, with a short, broad process at the lower side of the
condyle. In Dendrohyrax (No. 1142 6) the bladebone is broad,
irregular, four-fifths as broad as long, with an elongate com-
pressed process on the lower side of the condyle; the lower
edge of the bone in Hyrax is sloping for half its length, and
then nearly straight ; in Dendrohyrax this edge is arched from
the condyle to the end, the broadest part being near the middle
of the lower edge (see Cuvier, Oss. Foss. t. 3. f.1; Blainville,

Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax. 39

Ostéog. t.3). The following are the measurements, in inches
and lines :—
Hyrax,724b. Dendrohyrax, 1142 b.

Length of upper edge .......... 2 2 19
2 loweredee.: jai). ss.» ds 3 re |
Width at widest part .......... Dla Les

Skulls with the teeth in change show the milk- and perma-
nent cutting-teeth at the same time, thus having four upper
cutting-teeth. A skull with teeth in this state is figured by
Cuvier (Oss. Foss. ii. p. 135, t. 2. f. 5).

In most skulls there is a small hole on each side near the
back edge of the cutting-teeth, which Cuvier calls the trous
incisifs (t. 2. f. 2 n); see also Jaeger, Wiirzb. naturw. Jahresb.
1860, xvi. t. 2. f. 202, who regards it as the remainder of a
deciduous second cutting-tooth. This pit is less distinct and
nearer the base of the cutting-teeth in the skull of Dendro-
hyrax.

Professors Hemprich and Ehrenberg propose as a specific
character the length of the feet compared with the tibia; but
this is difficult to observe in dried specimens or in set-up
skeletons, as the length of the feet must depend greatly on
how the specimens are mounted.

It is the fashion with certain naturalists (as M. Claparéde, for
example) to find fault with zoologists for describing specimens
in museums; but, as far as mammalia are concerned, it is
much more difficult to describe them from living specimens ;
for then one cannot observe their teeth and bones, or compare
many specimens with one another, and can rarely have the op-
portunity of comparing several species at the same time,—all
much greater evils than not being able to tell the sex &c. of
the specimens contained in museums. I must say that I think
the accusation that ‘‘ museums are a great incubus to science ”’
must have arisen from the naturalist making it taking a very
limited view of the subject. Museums may cause some evil
(what does not ?); but the advantages of a large collection far
exceed any evil I have ever experienced or can ever conceive
to arise from them.

Fam. Hyracide.

Nose blunt, without horns. Body covered with hair, with
scattered longer bristles; toes rather elongate, blunt, with flat

claws. ‘Tail short or none produced. Teeth 34: incisors os
ines **°, premolars ++, molars =
canines ~, premolars >, rs 55.

Hyrax, Hermann Lipura, Iliger ; Hyracide, Schinz, Syst. Mamm, 338,

40 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax.

The species may be thus arranged :—

1. Hyrax.
a. Dorsal spot black. 1. Hyrax capensis. South Africa.
6. Dorsal spot yellow.

* Pur harsh |; «5.5 2. H. Burtonii. North and West Africa.
3. H. Welwitsch. Angola.
ae Fur sol 32s 4, H. Brucet. Abyssinia.

5. H. Alpini. Abyssinia?

6. HZ. sinatticus. Sinai.

. £. abyssinicus. Abyssinia.

1. D. dorsalis. West Africa.

2. D. arboreus. South Africa, Tete.
3. D. Blamvillii. (Skull only.)

_

D) SOIR AK Mie et Fie
3. DENDROHYRAX .

These animals form themselves into three very natural
groups or genera, according to their skulls and teeth.

L. Hypax,

Skull with a distinct narrow sagittal crest on hinder part of
crown when adult; nose short. Diastema short, not equal
in length to the outer sides of the first three premolars ;
grinders in an arched line; molars large, broad, square, much
larger and broader than the compressed premolars, the first
one very compressed. Orbit incomplete behind. Lower jaw
very broad behind. Bladebone elongate trigonal.

Skull—nose short; forehead flat or rather convex below
the orbit; orbit incomplete behind; the lower jaw much
dilated behind. The diastema between the canines and the
first premolar short, not so long as the outer edges of the first
three premolars. Lower cutting-teeth elongate, narrow at the
base, broader above, with three lobes; but the lobes are soon
worn away, only leaving indistinct grooves on the surface of
the teeth. The lobes of the lower cutting-teeth are distinct
in the very young animals which have not yet cut their pre-
molars and last grinder. The upper cutting-teeth of the milk
series are rounded in front, broad and spathulate at the end ;
those of the adult series are trigonal, with a strong central
keel in front. The grinders form an arched series; the true
grinders large, much larger than the rather compressed pre-
molars; the first (permanent) premolar (that is, the second in
the series) small, compressed ; the first premolar in the upper
jaw of the milk series is triangular, with three roots, the two
hinder ones being close together.

De Blainville, in the ‘ Ostéographie,’ figures the skeleton and
the skull of a species of this genus under the name of Hyrax
syriacus; but 1 am not able to determine to which of the
four species of this genus it belongs. H. syriacus has almost
a generic signification.

Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax. 41

The skull in the British Museum (725 c) that agrees with
De Blainville’s figure of the interparietal bone of H. syriacus
is rather larger and has the front upper premolar rather larger
than the skulls of H. capensis according with the same dis-
tinctive mark, viz. 724 6, 724c, and 724 d, which were all
received from the Zoological Society without skins; and the
hinder openings to the nostrils are more contracted in those
named H. capensis than in H. syrtacus.

De Blainville (Ostéograph. t. 2) figures the skull of the
very young Hyrax capensis as having all the four lower cut-
ting-teeth three-lobed. They are so in a young skull so named
in the British Museum; but the lobes are much less distinct
and narrower than in skulls of the half-grown and adult H.
dorsalis in the same collection; and the lobes of H. capensis
evidently wear away much sooner than in the Tree-Hyraces
or Dendrohyrax.

The skulls named Hyrax capensis in the British Museum,
are without skins, and therefore cannot be determined with
certainty; they differ in the width of the forehead at the
hinder edge of the orbits being greater compared with the
length of the skull; they differ considerably in the form of the
flat space on the crown, even the skulls of adult animals.

No. 725c (of Gerrard’s Catalogue). The front of the crown
is triangular, uniting into a very narrow sagittal crest level
with a line over the condyles; the teeth are very large, and the
palate wide.

No. 7246. Rather smaller and wider than 725c, with the
teeth equally large and the palate wide; but the crown is flat,
wider in front, becoming narrower and continued behind, and
forming a smooth space above.

Nos. 724 c and d are smaller than either 725 or 724 6.
The teeth are very large, the nose is narrower and more com-
pressed ; and they differ from both the above in the crown
being wider and forming a broad band to the occipital crest.
In 724d the crown is only slightly broader in front, and more
nearly of the same width throughout its length. In 724 it is
quite as broad behind as in 724 d, but much wider in front.

The interparietal bones of these two skulls are visible ; they
are nearly four-sided, and the width of the crown, similar to,
but not so large as the interparietal bone figured by Blainville
(Ostéograph. t. 2) as that of H. capensis.

There is the skull of a young animal, with the milk cutting-
teeth, developing the second true molar, in the British Museum
(724 g), that has the interparietal similar to those of 724 c and
d, but considerably larger, though the skull is smaller, like the
figure referred to in De Blainville.

42 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax.

The skeleton with a skull (724), in the British Museum,
of a young animal with milk cutting-teeth, has a subtriangular
interparietal, somewhat like that of H. Burtonit.

In the British Museum there is the skull and skeleton of
a very young animal, received from the Zoological Gardens
(No. 724), which is peculiar for having a very broad, half-
oblong interparietal bone occupying the hinder edge of the
crown, with only the narrow upper edge of the occipital bone
behind it. The front edge of the interparietal is regularly
rounded, and the hinder one straight. The orbit is incom-
plete. De Blainville figures a skull of a young specimen
(Ostéog. t. 2) as H. capensis which somewhat resembles this
skull. This skull, in the form of the interparietal, agrees with
the nearly adult skull of Dendrohyrax dorsalis (No. 1142 c) ;
but we have a skull of a very young animal of that genus im
the Museum Collection which has the orbit complete and the
upper part of the occipital bone dilated. This skull is so dis-
tinct from any other in the collection that I propose to designate
it provisionally Hyrax semicircularis.

The interparietal bone being on the edge of the occipital
region of the skull is a character (as well as the incomplete
orbit) that separates the skull of Hyrax and Dendrohyraz,
even in the youngest state.

* Dorsal spot black, well marked. Africa.

1. Hyrax capensis. The Klipdas.

Fur black, minutely punctulated with white, with a black
dorsal streak.

Hyrazx capensis, Schreb. Siugeth. 920, t. 240; Cuvier, Oss. Foss. ii. 127,
141, t. 1, 2,8; Gray, List Mam. Brit. Mus. 187; Gerrard, Cat. Bones
Brit. Mus. 283; Blainville, Ostéograph. t. 2 (teeth & skull); W. Read,
P. Z. 8. 1835, p. 18.

Cavia capensis, Pallas, Misc. 34, 35; Spicil. ii. 22. t. 2.

Marmotte du Cap, Buffon, Suppl. ii. 177, t. 29.

Hab. South Africa, Cape of Good Hope. (Dr. Andrew

Smith.)

Var. Dorsal streak indistinct.
Cape of Good Hope (Dr. Krauss). Skull and skeleton, B.M.

For anatomy, see Pallas, Miscell. /. c.; Owen, P. Z.S. 1832, p. 202; Mar-
tin, P.Z.5. 1835, p. 13; Maurie, P. Z. 8. 1865, p. 329.

But I am by no means sure that several species may not be
confounded under this name; for all the specimens formerly
received at the Zoological Gardens were called /Z. capensis.

Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax. 43

** Dorsal streak yellow, linear.
a. Fur harsh.
2. Hyrax Burtonit.

Fur rather harsh, pale yellow grey, very slightly punctulated
with blackish ; dorsal streak small, yellow; the hairs of the
back rather rigid, black or dark brown nearly the whole length,
with a moderate yellow tip; underside pale yellow; inter-
parietal bone half-ovate, as long as broad.

Hyrax syriacus, Gray, List. Mam. B. M.
HH. abyssinicus, Burton, MS. B. M.; Gerrard, Cat. Bones B. M. 284.

Hab. North Africa, Egypt (James Burton, Esq.): three
specimens and a skull in B.M. Senegal (Parzudaki) : a young
specimen in B.M.

The imperfect skull sent by Mr. James Burton from North
Africa, with the skins, which I have named H. Burtonii
(No. 7256), is not quite adult, as the hinder or third upper
true molar is not quite developed. It is very like No. 724 c in
size, form, and in the form of the crown; but the notch left
by the interparietal (for it is lost with the hinder part of the
skull) shows that that bone was of a half-oval shape, and rather
longer than broad, being rather wider but not near so long
compared with its width as the interparietal figured as that of
H. syriacus by De Blainville (Ostéograph. t. 2). This skull
differs from those numbered 724 ¢ and d in being higher behind
when placed on its upper grinders, and in the forehead being
slightly more convex in the middle below the orbit.

3. Hyrax Welwitschit.

Fur short, rather harsh, iron-grey-grizzled ; hairs of upper
part of the back black, with a large white subapical ring; of
the sides dirty brown, with a white ring; dorsal streak yellow,
moderate.

Hyrax arboreus, Peters, P. Z. 8S. 1865, p. 401 (not A. Smith).

Hab. Rocky places on the shores of the River Maiomba, in
the district of Mossamedes (Welwitsch, /. c.).

The adult skull of H. Welwitschit, lent to me by Dr. Wel-
witsch, differs from all the preceding in being considerably
broader in proportion to its length. ‘The nose is compressed,
the crown is flat to the occipital ridge, wide in front, and gra-
dually narrowing behind. The interparietal bone (which is
partly destroyed by a hole made: to extract the brain) is very
small and nearly triangular ; the teeth are large, and the palate
rather narrow, compared with the other skulls. The diastema

44 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax.

is very short, not exceeding the length of the outer side of the |
first two premolars. The shortness and width of this skull at
once separate it from the skulls of all the species of true Hyrax
that are in the Museum Collection. This species is only known
from a flat skin and a skull collected by Dr. Welwitsch and
named by Dr. Peters as above.

Dr. Peters, in a note to me, observes, “ I probably made
a mistake, and the Hyrax (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1865, p. 401) with
rather harsh and short hair does not belong to H. arboreus,
Smith. It has, if I am not mistaken, much shorter ears
than H. arboreus; and therefore I said the H. arboreus has
much shorter ears than H. capensis, which is not the case.
Dr. Welwitsch’s specimen resembles more the H. habessinicus
of Ehrenberg in this respect, and may prove to be identical
with that species.”

I may add that it differs from H. abyssinicus in the skull,
the short diastema, and the colour and nature of its fur. It is
more allied to H. Burtonii, but differs in the colour of the fur.
It is very difficult to state the size of the ears of the different
species from stuffed or dried skins.

Dr. Welwitsch says, “It always differs by its larger size
from a second species living in the interior of Angola.” I
have not seen any specimens from the latter locality.

b. Fur soft, close.
4. Hyrax Brucet.

Fur soft, close, yellow grey brown, closely and minutely
punctulated with black; underside white; dorsal streak di-
stinct, dark reddish yellow; hairs of the back soft, dark grey
brown, with a narrow subterminal band and a yellow tip.
Skull: iterparietal bone oblong, longer than broad.

Ashkoko, Bruce’s Travels, t.
Daman d Israél, Buffon, Suppl. vi. 276, t. 24 (from Bruce).
Hyrax syriacus, Schreb. Saugeth. iv. t. 240. 13 (from Bruce); Blainville,

Ostéograph. t. 2 (skull and teeth).

Hyrax abyssinicus, Ruppell, MS. B. M.; Gerrard, Cat. Bones B. M. 284;

Burton, MS. B. M.

PHyrax ruficeps vel dongolanus, Ehrenberg, Symbole Phys. t. 2 (not

Blainville).

Hab. Africa, Abyssinia (Dr. Riippell): type in B.M.
? Dongola (Ehrenberg): adult skull in B.M.

The name of H. syriacus cannot be retained for this species,
as it does not come from Syria.

Dr. Peters, in a note which he sent to me respecting Ehren-
berg’s specimen in the Berlin Museum, observes, “ His Hyrax
rujficeps is hardly different from H. syriacus.” By the second

Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax. 45

name which Ehrenberg gives to this species it evidently
came from Dongola in Africa; so it can scarcely be the H.
syrtacus of Ehrenberg from Mount Sinai.

5. Hyrax Alpini.

Fur very soft, rather long, pale yellowish brown, very
slightly washed with blackish ; hairs soft, of uniform length,
blackish brown, with yellow tips, and a few scattered black
hairs: lips, chin, throat, chest, belly, and inner sides of the
limbs pale reddish yellow ; hairs yellow to the base: crown and
cheeks grizzled, with white tips to the hairs ; hairs at the outer
base of the ears yellow white; dorsal spot small, reddish
yellow.

Hab. North Africa, “‘ Abyssinia (Leadbeater).”’

There is only a single specimen of this species in the British
Museum ; it was purchased in 1843, with the skin of a Capra
nubiana, from Mr. Leadbeater, who said they came from Abys-
sinia. The special habitat may be doubtful; but there is no
doubt they were from North Africa, and probably from the
borders of the Nile.

It agrees with the H. Bruced of Abyssinia in the softness of
the fur, but differs from it in its general colour, not being
closely punctulated, and also in the separate hairs not having
any indication of the subterminal black band that produces the
punctulated appearance of the fur of that species; and the
underside of the animal is yellower. It differs also from 1. sinat-
ticus in the general colour being much darker and slightly
washed with black, and in the dark colour of the hairs.

H, Burtonii, which we received from Mr. James Burton,
with specimens of Capra nubiana, is at once known from it
by the rigid harshness of the fur, as well as by the colour of
the hairs.

6. Hyrax sinaiticus.

Fur rather long, soft, pale yellow brown; dorsal streak
bright yellow; head and front slightly punctulated with
whitish ; chin, throat, and underside of the body pale reddish
grey. ‘ Interparietal bone small, pentagonal” (Khr.).

Hyrax syriacus vel sinaiticus, Hemp. & Ehrenb. Symb. Phys. t. 2, lower
front figure (not Schreber).

Coney (H. syriacus), Tristram, Nat. Hist. Bible, p. 75 (not figured).
Uabr, Forsk. Fauna, p. 5.

Hab. Asia, Palestine (Tristram): B.M. Arabia, Mount
Sinai (Ehrenberg).

There is a young specimen in the British Museum, that was

46 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax.

purchased at a sale with Capra nubiana, which appears to be-
long to this species; it has the same long hair and fur, show-
ing no sign of the punctulation characteristic of the African
species with a yellow dorsal spot.

Mr. Tristram gives a good account of the habits and manners
of this animal in his interesting ‘ Natural History of the Bible,’
published by the Christian Knowledge Society.

2. EUHYRAX.

Skull with a distinct narrow sagittal crest the whole length
of the crown when adult; occipital not dilated above ; nose
elongate, produced. Diastema elongate, longer than the length
of the outer sides of the first three premolars; grinders in a
nearly straight series; molars square, larger than the com-
pressed premolars. Orbit incomplete behind.

The skull is very similar to that of Hyrax syriacus?, H.
Brucet, H. Burtonii, and H. capensis in general form; but
the space between the upper cutting-teeth and the first pre-
molar is nearly twice as long as in those species. In the
H, Brucet it is as long as the length of the outer sides of
the first three premolars and the half of the fourth one ; in
H. capensis it is only as long as the outer sides of the first two
premolars and one-third of the third one. The grinders are
large, the first upper one being compressed as in H. capensis ;
but they are all smaller, compared with the size of the skull,
and are placed in a straighter line, than they are in the
other skulls of the species named, and the inner sides of them
are more nearly parallel, so that the palate is scarcely wider
in the middle of the series of grinders than it is at the front
and hinder ends of them. Lower jaw dilated behind. The
bladebone elongate trigonal like that of Hyraz.

I may observe that Mr. Gerrard, in his ‘Catalogue of
Bones of Mammalia in the British Museum,’ has pointed out
that there is a distinction in the skeleton between this species
and H. capensis. He states that the specimen 724 a, in his
Catalogue, ‘has twenty-two pairs of ribs, the first of which
are articulated to the last cervical vertebra, and five sternal
bones,” the H. capensis, 724 6, in the same collection having
only twenty-one pairs of ribs and seven sternal bones. (See
Cat. Bones, p. 283.)

It is well worthy of observation that all these osteological
characters exist in two species scarcely to be distinguished by
their skins. The skull of Huhyrax abyssinicus is interme-
diate between Hyrax and Dendrohyrax, but more allied to
Hyrax. .

Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax. 47

Euhyrax abyssinicus.
Fur blackish, minutely punctulated with white, with a black
dorsal spot.
Hyrax habessynicus, Hemp. & Ehrenb. Sym. Phys. (specific characters).

Hyrax abyssinicus, Gieber, Mam. 213.
HI. syriacus, Hemp. &. Ehrenb. Symb. Phys. t. 2 (hinder figures only).

Hab. Abyssinia, Ankober, Dec. 1847 (male and female)
called “‘ Ashkoko” (Capt. Cornwallis Harris). B.M.

Ehrenberg describes the interparietal of H. capensis as tri-
gonal, and of H. habesstnicus as semiorbicular, and the space
between the canine and grinders of H. habessinicus as being
longer than in /. capensis; he also says that the fur of H.
capensis is sott, and of H. habessinicus more rigid; but I can-
not discover any appreciable difference in this respect between
the Cape and the Abyssinian species.

The skull of the adult Huhyrax abyssinicus, from the Abys-
sinian skin, is larger than that of any species of Hyrax, and
nearly as large as that of Dendrohyrax dorsalis ; it is narrow,
and the smooth space on the crown is linear, of nearly equal
width from a line on a level with the front of the condyles.

The second skull (from the skeleton No. 724 a) which I be-
lieve to belong to this species, has decayed grinders, having
been kept in confinement. It is very like the type specimen,
but it is rather shorter, and the hinder part of the crown or
sagittal crest is narrower. ‘This skull is exceedingly like the
skull figured with its skeleton under the name of Hyrax sy-
riacus by M. de Blaimville (Ostéograph. t. 1 & 2). It differs
from the figure a little in the form of the process of the lower
jaw in front of the condyle; but in this respect it also differs
from the type specimens of Huhyrax abyssinicus. In both
skulls the upper edge of the occipital bone is narrow, as in
Hyracx.

Dr. Peters has, since the above was written, sent me the
following observations on Professor Ehrenberg’s specimen in
the Berlin Museum :—“ 1. habessinicus is a very good species,
and may prove to be the same as the H/. dorsalis. ‘There is a
figure of a younger specimen in his work ‘ Symbole Physic,’
Mammalia, pl. 2. f. 2, together with H. syriacus. As you will
see from the text, the skull is quite different from that of
H. capensis, H. syriacus (ruficeps), and H. arboreus. The
zygomatic arch is lower than on its junction with the zygo-
matic process of the maxillary bones; but the teeth are small,
as in H. arboreus. The hair is harsh, black and grey ; and the
hair of the belly is much shorter, greyish, sometimes yellowish,
without soft fur.”

;

48 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax.

“The skull of my specimen from the coast (regarded as H.
arboreus in the ‘Mammalia of Mossambique’) agrees pretty
well with that of H. habessinicus and with another skull sent
by Heuglin from Abyssinia. I cannot understand how this
species could be confounded with H. capensis.”

I may add that H. abyssinicus cannot be H. dorsalis, as the
former has a black and the latter a white dorsal spot, which is
well marked in both species.

3. DENDROHYRAX.

Skull rather elongate, with a broad flat crown, separating
the entire length of the temporal muscle in the adult animal ;
nose elongate, produced. Diastema elongate, longer than the
length of the outer sides of the first three premolars; grinders
and premolars in a nearly straight line, and nearly of the
same form, the front premolar being only a little smaller.
Orbit complete (or incomplete even in a mature skull).

Nose rather produced ; forehead flat; temporal muscles mo-
derate, separated in the adult skull by a broad flat crown;
the upper edge of the occipital bone thick, broad, forming
part of the crown; lower jaw broad, rounded behind. Lower
cutting-teeth moderately long, rather contracted at the base ;
upper edge dilated and divided into three nearly square, rather
spathulate lobes. The lower cutting-teeth are rather elongated
in the older animal, but never so long and slender at the base
as in the true Hyraces. ‘The upper cutting-teeth of the milk
series are rounded in front, and obliquely truncated, spathulate
at the end. The canine of the adult series is trigonal, with
the keel in the front as in the true Hyraces. The diastema
between the canine and the first premolar, in the adult skull,
is elongate, as long as the outer margin of the three premolars.
The grinders form a very slightly arched series. The true
grinders moderate, not much larger than the broad square pre-
molars. The first permanent premolar nearly as large as the
second one.

The skull of Dendrohyrax dorsalis: may be known from
those of Hyrax and Euhyrax, in the youngest state, by the
large size of the half-oblong interparietal bone, which is nearly
twice as wide as long. In the nearly adult skull it occupies
the whole space of the hinder part of the crown. The skull
of this genus is also peculiar for the upper part of the occipital
bone being produced and expanded, and forming the hinder

art of the crown, the hinder edge of the flattened part being
keeled and sharply produced in the centre.

There is the skull, with only a few teeth, of a very young

Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax. 49

animal in the British Museum (No. 724 f) that agrees with
the skull just described in having the upper part of the occi-
pital bone broad and forming part of the crown, and in having
complete orbits. It also has a very large, broad, transverse
interparietal bone, nearly as wide as the convex crown of the
skull; but this is four-sided, and twice as wide as high, as if
formed of two squares united in the middle; the outer sides of
the bone are rather angular in the middle. I suspect this is
the young animal of D. dorsalis.

a. Orbit complete. Dendrohyrax.

1. Dendrohyrax dorsalis.

Fur rigid, bristly, blackish ; dorsal spot elongate, pure white.
Young—tur soft, silky, reddish brown; back with a broad
dorsal streak.

Hyrax dorsalis, Fraser, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852, p. 99; Verreaux, Cat.
H. abyssinicus, Read, MS. Mus. Zool. Soc.; Gerrard, Cat. Bones B, M. 284

(no. 725 a).

Hyrax arboreus, Blainy. Ostéogr. t. 2, skull and teeth (not A. Smith) ;

Gerrard, Cat. Bones B. M. 284.

Hab. West Africa (Verreaux). Fernando Po (Fraser): B.M.
Ashantee (Read).

There are two adult skulls of this species in the British
Museum—one obtained from Fernando Po, and the other re-
ceived from Mr. James Read, who obtained it from the cap of
an Ashantee negro. In both the forehead is flat, rather con-
cave between the orbits, and the orbits have a complete bony
ring; they both agree exactly with the figure of the skull of
H. arboreus in De Blainville’s ‘ Ostéographie,’ and with the
skull without a lower jaw in the British Museum.

There are the skeleton and skull of a young specimen in the
British Museum, purchased from Mr. Jamrach; and this skull
agrees with the two adult ones in the concavity of the forehead
over the orbits and the complete bony rings to the orbits.

2. Dendrohyrax arboreus. 'The Boomdas.

“Hur reddish fulvous, varied with black; sides reddish
white mixed with black; underside and inner sides of limbs
whitish; with a central white dorsal streak.” (A. Smith.)
Young—fur very soft, long, abundant, dark black grey, varied
with paler grey; lips, chin, throat, underside of body, and
inner sides of limbs white. B.M. Skull ?

Hyrax arboreus, A. Smith, Linn. Trans. xv. p. 468 ; Peters, Mossamb. 182 ?

(not Blainville) ; Kirk, P. Z.S. 1864, p. 656?

Hab. South Africa (A. Smith): a young specimen with

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.4. Vol.i. 4

50 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax.

milk-canines, South Africa, from Sir Andrew Smith: Mos-
sambique, ‘Tete (Peters, Kirk).

There is no adult specimen of this species in the British
Museum; there is a young specimen, with the milk-teeth, re-
ceived from Sir Andrew Smith, the original describer of the
species. It is so different from the young specimen of the
West African species received from M. Verreaux, which agrees
with the adult tropical species described by Mr. Fraser, in the
British Museum Collection, that there can be no doubt that
the South and West African species are distinct, though the
French zoologists and osteologists have confounded them.

The young specimen is at once known from the young of
D. dorsalis by the paler colour of the fur, the want of the dark
dorsal streak, and the whiteness of the under surface.

Dr. Peters, in his ‘Mammalia of Mossambique,’ says that
D. arboreus is the only species of Hyrax he found in Mozam-
bique. It occurs near the capital of Mozambique, on the
coast, and at Tete in the interior, where it is called MWézra.

It would be interesting to know if this is the same as H.
dorsalis, as the latter occurs at Ashantee.

Common on rocky hillsides, living in colonies. Caught by
spring-traps; flesh good to eat (Kirk, P. Z. 8. 1864).

Dr. Peters, in a note to me respecting the Hyraces mentioned
in his ‘Mammalia of Mossambique,’ observes, “ It may be that
there are two species of Hyrax in Mossambique—one on the
coast, and the other in the interior. From the coast I only
got a female specimen: the skull of this species shows small
grinders compared with those of H. syriacus, and seven in
number.” See further observations on this skull under Huhyrax
abyssinicus. ‘* The other specimen from the interior, the Car-
nera Hills near Tete, agrees perfectly with the H. arboreus
from the Cape.” This species is easily to be distinguished
by its soft fur and want of rusty colour; the hairs of the under-
side are white, and brownish grey at the base.

b. Orbit incomplete. Heterohyrax.
3. Dendrohyrax Blainvillit.

An adult skull in the British Museum (No, 724 e), without
its lower jaw, was received from the Zoological Society with-
out any habitat or history attached to it. It has small, more
equal-sized molars and premolars, in a nearly straight line,
and the great length of the diastema which is so characteristic
of this section of the genus. It may be the skull of the D.
arboreus of South Africa. It differs from the skull of D. dor-
salis in being small, in the forehead being convex in the centre
between the orbits, and in the orbits bemg incomplete behind.

Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax. 51
It has the alveoli of the upper cutting-teeth each raised into a
cup round the base of the tooth; but this may be only an
individual peculiarity.

This skull has all the characters of the genus Dendro-
hyrax, except that the orbit is incomplete behind. I think
that it indicates a new group, to which the name Heterohyrax
may be given. The skull is much smaller and the tooth-line
much shorter than in D. dorsalis; and I propose to name it
provisionally Heterohyrax Blainvillii. The skull which M. de
Blainville figures as that of Hyrax rufipes (Ostéograph. t. 2)
exactly represents the hinder part of that in the Museum. It
cannot be the A. ruficeps of Ehrenberg.

Dr. G. v. Jaeger figured, under the name of Hyrax habessi-
nicus (t. 2. f. 14), the upper part of the skull of a Dendrohyrax
obtained from Gondar by Dr. von Heuglin. Dr. Jaeger, by
mistake, figures the upper edge of the occipital for the inter-
parietal. This skull is interesting as showing that the genus
is found in Abyssinia.

Dr. G. v. Jaeger also figures the back of the skull and inter-
parietal bone of a species he calls Zyraz silvestris, collected
in West Africa by the missionary Dieterle. It is probably a
Dendrohyrax. The hinder part of the figure is the upper edge
of the occipital. The interparietal is urn-shaped, broader in
front and contracted behind, very unlike that found in the
skulls of either of the two species in the British Museum, and
especially differing from D. dorsalis of West Africa; so it may
be a new species of the genus, Dendrohyrazx silvestris (Wiirzb.
naturw. Jahresb, xvi. p. 162, t. 2. f. 15).

The Measurements of the Skulls, in inches and lines.

Als -3 _
5 A :3 Bs 8 =
3 3 SS cS =| - na po s
8 18 = | 8 g Ng eC
= .\¢ sla ere witeke aap e
es lesies|es|av| gs [Es| S | s=| ES] Ea lig | ES] Ss
8 /PS/ES|ES|ES| ES |S8) ® | ES [28/83/85 |88/ 88
ise (a eS AY |e fy | RE RS a [A [a | a
Length of skull ...... ZOOS 7 poco) |s.6 |e Salo DE nse 3 2 7z|2 22/40 4/2 1/3 4
9 tooth-line. |16 |1 43/16 {16 |14 |1 2 |...... 1 Wate led | Aare 0) | SA Ue Ol Be col heacono 1 23
Width, at centre of
pene, al fore” 2 23/2 03/2 02/21 119 |1 82/18 |20 |1 7 ]13 /28 ]110]1 23)1 11
or Weert ae
ee ee tage \h6 (1-6 |1-6 [1312.3 ft 2b11.6,|2,.2 |10.119 [a eza Olt 5%
Width of band at
middle of crown »/0 3 |0 2 |0 03/06 |06 |0 7 /0 63/98 | .... [o... O59) TO ive. 0 10
over condyles ...
Width of nose......... 07 |07 |08 |07 |06 /0 53\07 |0 6/0 6 J05 |0 83/0 7/0 5]0 7
» _ at outer edge
of tooth-line, at }}1 3 |12 {14 |12 /11 |1 03/10 |1 03/0 103/09 |1 23/1 0}...... 0 113
~ Ee ad por cetes'
idth of palate at
ts ee: bo 73/0 74I0 8 07/06 /0 7 jostlo6lo 6 |... O St oreo 0 6

52 Dr. H. Burmeister on Globiocephalus Grayi.

VII.— On Globiocephalus Grayi, nov. spec.
By Dr. HERMANN BURMEISTER.

[Plate IT. figs. 2 & 3.]

Two months ago the public museum of Buenos Ayres received
the skull of a large Dolphin of the subgenus G'lobiocephalus,
which seems to belong to an unknown species inhabiting the
southern parts of the Atlantic Ocean, as the skull was found
on the shore of the State of Buenos Ayres. I venture to
describe this new species under the name of my friend Dr. J.
KE. Gray, who has recently contributed so greatly, by his valu-
able investigations, to the increase of our knowledge of the
Cetacea.

Compared with the skull of Globiocephalus svineval s.
melas, as shown in the figures of this species given by Cuvier
(Ossem. Foss. tome i. pl. xxi. fig. 11) and Gray (Catal.
p- 316), this skull is somewhat larger in the anterior part of
the nose, and not so large in the posterior part between the
orbital arch. 'To show this difference, I here give the mea-
surements of the new species corresponding with those of the
European species given by Dr. Gray (J. c.) :-—

in. Jin,
Entire length of the skull ...... 25 O
Length of the nasal part........ 13. 0
Length of the teeth-series ...... 10 0
Length of under jaw .......... aL) 0
Widthvat neteh =... 360. ce ees. 12 0
Widthiiat orbit... See 14 6
Width of intermaxillaries ...... Gi) 6
Width of middle of nose........ 8 6
Height oPoceiput oe. 2: LOL

As the general form of the exterior of the skull is sufficiently
shown by the accompanying figure (Pl. II. fig. 2), I will
describe only the differences of its constituent bones. The
greatest difference is shown in the form of the tip of the nose,
which is much broader and more rounded in Globiocephalus
Grayt than in G. svineval. This difference is combined with
a totally different form of the intermaxillary bones, these being
short, rounded at the anterior extremity, and then nearly
parallel, with the outer margins not diverging posteriorly as
im the European species. In the middle these bones, in my
new species, are narrower and more excavated at the margin ;
and at their hinder parts they are rather more curved. out-
wards, The part of the vomer which is visible between the
intermaxillaries seems to be somewhat broader, and the small
portion of the maxillaries, seen from above at the sides of the

Dr. H. Burmeister on Globiocephalus Grayi. 53

vomer, much shorter. The narrow form of the anterior part
of the intermaxillaries allows us to see a considerable portion
of the maxillaries on all sides of the tip of the nose; these
appear only as a narrow band in the European species. The
form of the maxillaries, at their anterior extremity, is also
different; they are here broader and shortly rounded, and
nearly parallel on the outer margins. The orbital part is not
so broad, and the hinder edge of the orbit not so prominent.
On the other hand, the cerebral region of the skull is broader,
and much more produced behind in my species.

The small surface of the frontal bones seen behind the
maxillaries is comparatively broader, and the elevated margin
of the parietals which separates the upper surface of the skull
from the occipital surface is nearly in a straight line, a little
undulated on each side, but by no means curved forwards as
in the European species. In the latter the exterior margins of
the occipital surface, which are also the hinder margins of the
temporal groove, are inclined backward on both sides ; but they
are perfectly parallel and much more prominent in G. Grayt,
so that the general form of the occipital surface in this species
is rather a plane than a portion of a spherical curve as in the
European species. Hence the occipital condyles are more pro-
minent posteriorly in the former and more retracted in the latter.

Beneath, the general configuration of the skull is nearly the
same in both species; but a very important difference is to be
found in the length of the teeth-series. In the European
species this series occupies only half the length of the margin
of the maxillary, but in the new Argentine species nearly the
whole margin, except only an extent of 2 inches at its hinder
extremity. This difference is very remarkable, and is due to
the greater size of the teeth, especially the anterior ones. The
European species has generally twelve teeth on each side, in
some cases fourteen, or, exceptionally, only eleven. My new
species has only nine teeth on each side in both jaws; and
these are of nearly equal size, except that the first is somewhat
smaller: in the European species, the first five teeth are very
small, increasing somewhat in size posteriorly ; and the seven
following ones also are not equal in size, but gradually in-
creasing. All the teeth in G. Grayi are nearly of the same
form, having a.truncated molar surface and a very short pro-
minent crown; more than two-thirds of each tooth is enclosed
in the alveolus, terminating below in a conical root which is
nearly closed, exhibiting only a very small opening in the
middle (Pl. IL. fig. 3, a tooth, half the natural size).

The lower jaw is rather strong. Each ramus is 21 inches in
length, and 6 inches 4 lines in depth at the well-marked coro-

54 Prof. M‘Coy on a new Volute.

noid process. The symphysis extends 3 inches 6 lines ; and the
teeth-series occupies nearly one-half of the upper margin
from the tip to the coronoid process, measuring 9 inches 4 lines
in length, and the free part of the margin to the extremity of
the coronoid process 10 inches.

I know nothing of the other parts of the skeleton.

On my first voyage across the Atlantic, I saw seven Globio-
cephalt swimming near the vessel, in 10° N. lat., on the 2nd
November, 1850 (see my ‘Reise nach Brasilien,’ Berlin,
1852, p. 43), and observed them for a long time. I suppose
these animals would be of the same species as the one here
described ; and if so, their whole external appearance is iden-
tical with the figure given by Couch (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.
Ist ser. vol. ix. 1842, pl. 6). But as I did not see the under-
side of the swimming animal, I cannot say whether this
species has the white spot which is characteristic of the
European animal.

VITI.— On a new Volute. By Prof. M‘Coy.
[Plate II. fig. 1.]
Voluta Thatchert (M‘Coy). PI. II. fig. 1.

' Slender, elongate fusiform; greatest width (which is near
the middle of the body-whorl) only half the length of the body-
whorl; about ten tubercles on the penultimate whorl, slightly
below the middle; only about seven on the shoulder of the
body-whorl, from their being obsolete near the outer lip. Seven
thick plaits on the columella, the two posterior smaller than
the rest, which are nearly equal. Colour a white ground, with
a row of elongate quadrangular spots on the suture and two
broad spiral bands of hieroglyphic markings on the body-whorl,
one just below the tubercles and the other near the anterior
end; in front of the latter an irregular row of small quadrate
spots ; all the markings pale yellowish brown (“ burnt-sienna”’
colour) ; traces of a yellowish reticulation between the bands.

Length of the last three whorls 2 inches 10 lines, width
1 inch 13 line; length of penultimate and antepenultimate
whorls together 6 lines.

I name this beautiful Volute after Mr. Charles M. Thatcher,
of Melbourne, an enthusiastic and acute conchologist, who
perceived the probable novelty of the species from the most
obvious characters of the slender form and seven plaits to the
pillar—a combination of characters separating it from all others
Iknow. Mr. Thatcher has added the specimen to the National-
Museum Collection at Melbourne. The spire is broken.

Habitat unknown.

Dr. H. A. Nicholson on the Graptolitide. dd

IX.—On the Nature and Zoological Position of the Graptoli-
tide. By Henry ALLEYNE NicHoxson, D.Sc.,M.B.,F.G.S.
[Plate HI. ]
THE Graptolitide constitute a group of extinct organisms
which may be considered characteristically Silurian, though
one genus (Dictyonema) passes up as high as the Middle Old
Red in America. Their zoological position has always been
a matter of doubt; and they have been referred by different
paleontologists to the Cephalopoda, the Hydrozoa, the Actino-
zoa, the Polyzoa, and recently to the Foraminifera. The first
and last of these views require no further notice; but the re-
maining three are still maintained by different competent autho-
rities, and the question must be looked upon as still undecided.
In the following brief description of the morphology, develop-
ment, and reproduction of the Graptolitide I purpose to draw
attention to the facts which appear to favour the view, origi-
nally put forth by Prof. M‘Coy, that the group should be re-
ferred to the Hydrozoa.

Morphology.—As to the morphology of the Graptolitide,
the simplest form of Graptolite is composed of three factors,
structurally and developmentally distinct, but united into a
single linear stipe. These three elements (Pl. III. fig. 2)
are known as the “solid axis,” the “‘ common canal,” and the
“ cellules;’’ and when combined together the solid axis is
found as a cylindrical filament, or laminar plate, having on
one side of it the common canal, from which, as a common con-
necting substance, arise the denticulated cellules. In this wa
are formed those simple forms of Graptolites (Pl. ILI. fig. 1)
to which alone the genus G'raptolites or Graptolithus ought to
be restricted; and by the combination of such in various dif-
ferent modes are formed all the remaining generic types of the
Graptolitide. The simple uniserrate Graptolites thus com-
posed, such as G. Sedqwickii, G. sagittarius, &c., have cer-
tainly no direct representatives amongst either the Hydrozoa
or the Polyzoa; but the corneous nature of the entire polypary
and the presence of a “common canal” would seem to refer
them to the former, since the latter have, as a rule, a more or
less caleareous test, and the individuals forming the compound
organism are not united by any organized connecting substance.
There is, besides, an obvious resemblance between the mono-
prionidian stipes and the separate branchlets of some of the
Plumulariz, such as Plumularia pennatula and P. cristata ;
whilst the diprionidian forms constituting the genus Di-
plograpsus have an equally obvious analogy to the ramuscles
of some of the Sertularians, such as Sertularia abietina and

S. filicula.

56 Dr. H. A. Nicholson on the Nature and

The “solid axis” is one of the primitive elements in the
formation of every Graptolite. In the simple monoprionidian
species it seems to be a solid cylindrical rod (PI. III. fig. 2);
but in the biserrate forms it is certainly a corneous plate, di-
viding the frond into two vertical compartments (PI. III. fig. 3),
apparently composed of two lamine, with a median cylindrical
rod and perhaps including a central canal. The axis may be
prolonged beyond one or both extremities of the celluliferous
stipe; and for convenience I shall term these respectively the
basal or “ proximal” and the terminal or “ distal’ extensions

“of the axis. These prolongations (Pl. III. fig. 4) are little
understood; but they require especial attention, as throwing
great light upon the true nature of the Graptolitide. The proxi-
mal extension of the axis is present in probably all the true
Graptolites, and constitutes the “ radicle”’ or ‘“ initial point”
of Hall. The radicle varies greatly in length, and it may
consist of the solid axis alone, as in Diplograpsus teretiusculus
&ce.; or it may be bordered by the common canal prolonged
upwards into the first cellule or cellules, as in G. sagittarvus,
Linn., Diplograpsus cometa, Gein., and D. acuminatus, Nich.
gain, in most of the branching and complex Graptolites
the solid axes of the various simple stipes composing the frond,
together probably with the common canal, are prolonged proxi-
mally and are united into a connecting process, which is always
destitute of cellules and is termed the “funicle” by Hall, as is
seen in the genera Dichograpsus and Tetragrapsus (P\. III.
figs. 5, 6, 15, 16, and 20).

Lastly, the subdivisions of the funicle may be embraced by
a central corneous disk or cup, which is apparently composed
of two lamine, and probably enclosed a central cavity. This
corneous cup (fig. 6) is best seen in several species of Dicho-
grapsus and Tetragrapsus ; but it also exists in some specimens
of Diplograpsus bicornis, Hall (figs. 8, 9,10), and in a new
species of Diplograpsus from the Upper Llandeilo rocks of
Dumfriesshire, which I have named D. physophora (fig. 7).
The distal extension of the solid axis is only seen in the D7-
plograpsi, and possibly in Retiograpsus, Hall, and Retiolites,
Barr., seeming to be merely accidental when seen in the adult
monoprionidian forms, as it rarely is, This distal extension
of the axis usually consists of the solid axis alone, as in all
the common Diplograpsi; but it may consist of a bladder-like
body, more or less elliptical in form, with a distinct filiform
margin and of uncertain function. This vesicular dilatation
seems always to be a direct expansion of the axis, which would
thus appear to be tubular. It is seen to a very moderate ex-
tent in some specimens of D. pristis, His., and D. palmeus,

Zoological Position of the Graptolitide. oT

Barr., but it is very largely developed in a new species of D-
plograpsus from the Dumfriesshire Shales, which I have named
D. vesiculosus (Pl. III. fig. 11).

The homologies of the solid axis, with its extensions and ap-
pendages, are by nomeansclear. ‘There is no known structure,
either amongst the Hydrozoa or Polyzoa, which could be looked
upon as its exact equivalent; and it is probably related (but by
analogy only) with the horny or calcareous “ sclerobasis ” of the
Gorgonide and Pennatulide amongst the Actinozoa. Its chief
function certainly seems to have been to give due support to
the ccenosarc, and to prevent injurious flexion of the pliable
polypary ; but it probably subserved other purposes of even
greater importance. No close parallel can be drawn between
the “radicle” of the Graptolitide and the foot-stalk of the
Sertularidee, since the former structure beyond doubt did not
serve as an organ of attachment. The central disk or cup of
some Dichograpsi, Tetragrapsi, and Diplograpst was compared
by Prof. Huxley with the basal plate of Defrancia, a Bryo-
zoon; but I think a more probable homologue is to be found in
the “float,” or ‘“pneumatocyst,” of the Physophoride, an
order of the oceanic Hydrozoa. The distal extension of the axis
is entirely without a parallel ; and when dilated, as in Diplo-
grapsus vesiculosus, Nich., it is difficult to conceive of any
function which it can have subserved. It cannot be of the
nature of a float, since it occupies the distal and not the proxi-
mal extremity of the organism; and the most probable view
would perhaps be to consider it in some way connected with
the reproductive process. The second element, namely the
“common canal,” is structurally a tube extending along more
or less of the axis, and giving origin to the cellules. Ordi-
narily it appears as a flattened space between the cellules and
the solid axis (Pl. III. fig. 2); and it seems certainly to be a
distinct structure even in those forms in which the cell-parti-
tions are attached to the axis. As to the intimate nature of
the common canal, there seems to be no doubt that it conveyed
a soft connecting substance uniting the various polypites into
an organic whole; and it is therefore homologous with the
“coenosarc”’ of the Hydrozoa. Its existence consequently
forms one of the strongest grounds for eliminating the Grap-
tolitidee from the Polyzoa, since no analogous structure is known
to occur in any of the latter.

Of the cellules there is little to be said. They vary much
in shape; but they usually constitute more or less cylindrical
or quadrangular tubes, the bases of which are attached to the
common canal, whilst the opposite extremities terminate in
open mouths—the “ cell-apertures.” They thus come to re-

58 Dr. H. A. Nicholson on the Nature and

semble somewhat the “ hydrothece”’ of the Sertularide; but
they are invariably in contact for a greater or less portion of
their length, and they do not seem ever to be cut off from the
common canal by any partition or diaphragm.

Development.—The ordinary germs or embryonic forms
of Graptolites (Pl. III. figs. 12, 13), in the youngest condition
in which they are preserved to us, are minute corneous bodies,
consisting of a small radicle or mucro, which is in fact the
commencement of the solid axis. This, the primitive structure
of the embryo, is widened out distally by the presence of the
common canal on one or both sides, according as the germ
belongs to a mono- or to a diprionidian species ; and finally
one or two primordial cellules are superadded. Even at this
stage the solid axis projects beyond the primitive cellules as a
naked rod ; and its growth was probably carried on to a certain
extent independently of the rest of the organism. ‘These germs
are various In size, and differ in minor details ; but they all pos-
sessed a corneous envelope, and they cannot safely be compared
to any of the embryonic forms of the existing Hydrozoa
or Bryozoa. It must, in fact, be considered very probable
that these germs, as we see them, are considerably advanced in
growth, and that the earliest form of the embryo was devoid of
any corneous test.

As to the further development of the stipe, it must suffice to
state that in the simpler genera the secondary cellules appear
to be intercalated between the initial point or radicle and the
primordial cellule or cellules, so that the youngest cellules are
proximal, the oldest distal in position. his mode of develop-
ment corresponds with that observed in the Calycophoride and
Physophoridz amongst the Hydrozoa.

Reproduction.—Until quite of late years, the reproductive
process in the Graptolitidee was quite unknown ; and even now
our knowledge is partial and to a great extent inferential. In
1858 Prof. Hall gave a description of some specimens of D7-
plograpsus Whitfieldit bearing bodies which he regarded as
ovarian vesicles. According to Hall, these appear as small
ovate buds attached to the stipe on both sides, enlarging to
form elongated sacs, and finally dehiscing. These sacs are
limited along their margins by a filiform border like the solid
axis of a Graptolite ; and it appears inconceivable that their
function can have been other than reproductive.

At the meeting of the British Association in 1866, I
drew attention to the occurrence in the Graptolitic rocks of
Dumfriesshire of bodies essentially similar to those described
by Hall; and I have since described them more fully and
have adduced instances in which they are seen attached to

Zoological Position of the Graptolitidee. 59

the stipe of Graptolites Sedgwickit. These bodies differ from
those noticed by Hall in being free in the later stages of their
growth, instead of remaining permanently attached. ‘They
are oval or bell-shaped, provided with a mucro or spine at one
extremity, and surrounded by a strong filiform border, which
ultimately ruptures. In many instances these bodies may be
seen, when small, to be attached to the cellules of Graptolites
Sedgwickii; and they appear sometimes to spring from the
common canal, though this is rare and is perhaps accidental.

That these bodies are connected in some way with repro-
duction appears to me to be beyond doubt. They resemble
the “‘ gonophores”’ of the recent Hydrozoa in being external
processes, In some cases permanently attached, in others ulti-
mately detached; the likeness in form is also striking. They
differ, however, in possessing a corneous envelope, so that,
when detached, they were either simple free-floating organisms,
or, if they possessed any independent locomotive power of
their own, this must have been obtained by means of cilia or
by some soft apparatus which would leave no traces of its
existence. It 1s probable that the capsules did not contain
the germs of Graptolites as we now find them in a fossil con-
dition, as thought by Hall, but that their contents were the
ova in their earliest stages. The ova would probably be libe-
rated, on the dehiscence of the capsule, as minute ciliated free-
swimming organisms, which subsequently and as a later de-
velopment acquired a corneous envelope. With regard to other
species of Graptolites, it may be looked upon as probable that
the gonophores, if corneous, were attached to the sides of the
polypites or to ‘ gonoblastidia,” whilst in other species,
again, the gonophores were probably without any corneous
test; so that the great majority of species will perhaps never
be found in conjunction with ovarian capsules, either free or
in connexion with the parent stipe. Judging, however, from
analogy, there seem to be good grounds for the belief that the
reproductive process in all the Graptolitidee was in all essential
points identical with that of the Hydrozoa.

Mode of Evxistence.—As to the mode of existence of
the Graptolitide, there can be no question that by far the
greater number were free-floating or free-swimming organisms.
In some species of Dichograpsus, Tetragrapsus, and Diplo-
grapsus, there are the remains of a body (the “ disk”’) which,
as | have aleady said, probably acted as a float, and finds its
best homologue in the ‘‘ pneumatocyst” of the Physophoride.
Other genera, as Graptolites, Phyllograpsus, Pleurograpsus,
Retiolites, &c., were very possibly provided with “ necto-
calyces” or “swimming-bells;”’ but these, of course, could

60 Dr. H. A. Nicholson on the Graptolitide.

never be preserved in a fossil condition. With regard to
Dendrograpsus (Pl. III. figs. 16,17) and Callograpsus (two
genera which more closely resemble the Sertularidg than any
other), the probabilities are, perhaps, in favour of their having
been fixed, though there is no decided evidence in support of
this view ; and the same may be said of Dictyonema.

Allied forms.—The affinities of Grraptolites as regards other
extinct organisms are few and uncertain. There exists, how-
ever, one allied form (PI. III. fig. 19), which I described last
year from the Dumfriesshire Shales under the name of Cory-
novdes calicularis. In this the polypidom is in the form of a
simple elongated tube, without any central axis, furnished at
the base with two spines, and expanding distally into a toothed
cup or “hydrotheca.” In general form Corynoides closely
resembles some of the Corynidz or Tubularide ; but the ‘ hy-
drosoma has certainly been free, and was never fixed by a
hydrorhiza.” Whether Corynotdes should be included amongst
the Graptolitide, or should be regarded as the type of a new
order, is doubtful; but it is certainly allied to the Graptolites,
and greatly strengthens the belief that the latter belong to the
Hydrozoa.

Conclusion.—I have now endeavoured to show that the
position of the Graptolitide amongst the Hydrozoa is sup-
ported by the phenomena observed in their morphology, deve-
lopment, and reproduction, in their mode of existence, and by
the determination of allied forms. As to their exact place, it
is certain that they cannot be referred to any existing order
or even subclass of the Hydrozoa, and it is probable that they
stand in the same relation to the recent Hydrozoa that the
Trilobites do to the Crustacea. In the arrangement of their
parts and in their mode of growth, as well as in the nature of
their structural elements, they more or less resemble the
Hydroid polypes; but they are widely separated by their free
hydrosoma. On the other hand, they approximate to the
oceanic Hydrozoa in the fact that they were free-floating
organisms, and in the possession, by some forms, of an organ
resembling a “float.” In the present state of our knowledge
it seems, therefore, most advisable that the Graptolitide should
be held to constitute a new subclass, which will hold an inter-
mediate position between the fixed and oceanic Hydrozoa, and
which might possibly, on the derivative theory of develop-
ment, be considered the primitive stock from which the
above existing sections of our living Hydrozoa have originally
diverged.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE III.

Fig. 1. Graptolites sagittarius, Linn., nat. size: showing the radicle (a).

Prof. O. Heer on the Miocene Flora of the Polar Regions. 61

Fig. 2, Portion of the same, enlarged: showing the solid axis, the com-
mon canal, and the cellules.

Fig. 3. Transverse section of Diplograpsus teretiusculus, His. : showing
the axis as a transverse plate or partition.

Fig. 4. Diplograpsus teretiusculus, His., nat. size: showing the proximal
extension of the axis, or radicle (a), and the distal extension (6).

Fig. 5, Central portion of Dichograpsus Logani, Hall, sp., from a speci-
men collected by the author from the Skiddaw Slates: show-
ing the branched funicle and the celluliferous stipes.

Fig. 6. Central disk and funicle of Dichograpsus octobrachiatus, Hall,
sp. One of the divisions of the funicle (a) is shown prolonged
into a celluliferous style (0).

Fig. 7. Diplograpsus, n.sp.: showing a disk at the proximal extremity.
Collected by the author at Garple Linn, near Moffat.

Figs. 8, 9,10. Varieties of Diplograpsus bicornis, Hall. Fig. 8. Normal
form. Fig. 9. Variety with a rudimentary disk or cup; col-
lected by Prof. Harkness at GlenkiIn Burn, Dumfriesshire.
Fig. 10. Variety with a fully developed disk, after Hall.

Fg. 11. Diplograpsus vesiculosus, n. sp.: showing the distal extremity of
the axis expanded into a pointed vesicle. Collected by the
author at Dobb’s Linn, near Moffat.

Fvg. 12. Germ of a monoprionidian Graptolite, enlarged.

Fig. 13. Germ of a diprionidian Graptolite, enlarged.

Fg. 14. Didymograpsus flaccidus, Hall, nat. size (recently described by
Mr. W. Carruthers under the name of D. elegans). This form
could obviously never have been attached, but must have been
free.

Fig. 15, Helicograpsus (Graptolithus) gracilis, Hall, sp., nat. size: a,
funicle: 6, b, celluliferous stipes. From a specimen collected
by the author at Glenkiln Burn, Dumfriesshire.

Fig. 16, Non-~celluliferous stem, or funicle, of Dendrograpsus Hallianus,
Prout, after Hall. This species may perhaps have been
attached.

Fig. 17. Portion of the celluliferous branches of the same.

Fig. 18. Diplograpsus resembling D. teretiusculus, His., but furnished
with two lateral spines in addition to the central radicle.

Fig. 19. Corynoides calicularis, Nich., enlarged. This form is allied to
the Graptolites, but probably represents a different order.

Fig. 20. Tetragrapsus quadribrachiatus, Hail, sp.: showing the funicle,
radicle, and celluliferous stipes.

X.—On the Miocene Flora of the Polar Regions.
By Professor O. HEER *,

THE numerous expeditions sent some years ago into the
arctic regions have been, in every respect, productive in a
scientific point of view. The bold navigators who explored
the polar regions, surmounting the greatest difficulties, used
every effort to bring back whatever they supposed might pos-
sess interest. Geology has had its share in the results of
these researches. A considerable number of fossil plants

* Translated by W. 8. Dallas, F.L.S., from the ‘ Bibliothéque Univer-
selle,’ Archives des Sciences, Nov. 25, 1867, pp. 218-251.

6 3 Prof. O. Heer on the Miocene Flora

derived from these explorations have been deposited in various
museums, amongst others in those of Dublin, London, Copen-
hagen, and Stockholm. These precious materials have been
placed at my disposal; and thus I have been enabled to ex-
amine a great quantity of fossil plants found im the north of
Canada, near the Mackenzie River, on Banks Land, in North
Greenland, in Iceland, and Spitzbergen. The study of these
has led me to some important results with regard to the dis-
tribution of plants during the epochs preceding that in which
we live. I have also been able to draw from them some in-
teresting conclusions as to the climate which was then enjoyed
by the countries situated around the North Pole.

The Arctic fossil Flora, in the present state of our know-
ledge, consists of 162 species. The Cryptogamia include 18
species, 9 of which are fine Ferns of large size, which pro-
bably covered the soil of the forests. Among the others we
must note some little Fungi, which then formed spots and
small points upon the leaves of trees, as the analogous species
do at the present day. Among the Phanerogamia we find 31
species of Coniferee, 14 species of Monocotyledons, and 99
species of Dicotyledons. Judging of these from the allied
species in existing nature, 78 of them were trees, and 50 shrubs.
Thus, therefore, 128 species of ligneous plants were then dif-
fused over the polar regions. Among the Conifere we
remark Hpicee, Junipers, and Pines, most of which resemble
American species. One of the most remarkable species is the
Pinus MacClurit, very nearly related to Pinus alba of Canada.
Of this, MacClure and his companions brought back cones ob-
tained from Banks Land; and they observed the trunk in
the remarkable mountains of fossil wood discovered in that
country. The Miocene beds of Iceland have furnished seven
species belonging to Pines or Junipers. The Sequoie (Wel-
lingtonias) are still more abundant than the pines; this genus
played a very important part in the Miocene period, and is
found fossil in Europe, Asia, and America. At the present
day it includes only two species (Sequoia sempervirens and S.
gigantea), confined exclusively to California. ‘These are the
last representatives of this remarkable genus, to which belong
the largest trees in the world. We find four species of it in
the Miocene beds of the polar regions, three of which also
occur at the same level in Central Europe. At this period
Sequoia Langsdorfii was the most abundant tree in the
north of Greenland; and we are acquainted not only with its
branches and their leaves, but also with its flowers, cones, and
seeds. It occurs also in the north of Canada, in Vancouver’s
Island, Germany, Switzerland, and Italy, and is very nearly al-

of the Polar Regions. 63

lied to S. sempervirens, from which it is distinguished only by
the size of its cones, which are larger and composed of more
scales. Sequoia Sternbergii, which was abundant in Iceland,
is very nearly related to S. gigantea; whilst S. Couttsia,
which is found in Greenland, at Disco and Ataneverdlak, is
intermediate between S. Langsdorffii and S. Sternbergit. The
family of the Cypresses is richly represented by three genera—
Taxodium, Thujopsis, and Glyptostrobus. The latter two are
still in existence in Japan; the Taxodia occur in North
America. Glyptostrobus europeus usually accompanies the
Sequoia Langsdorffit, as also does Taxodium dubium, of which
the branches, leaves, and cones were discovered at Atane-
verdlak, and which has also been found ou Spitzbergen, at
about 78° N. latitude. Thujopsis ewropea is much rarer; its
elegant branches have been found in North Greenland, and
they are identical with those obtained from amber and at
Armillan (near Narbonne).

Among the Taxinee we remark a Salisburta from Green-
land; this genus now occurs in the wild state only in Japan.

The number of leafy trees is so considerable that we can
only indicate a few species. Several of them resemble trees
of our countries; such are the Beeches and Chestnuts, which
are still found in North Greenland at 70° N. latitude. A
species of Beech (Fagus Deucalionis) is extremely near our
common Beech (Hagus sylvatica) ; the leaves are of the same
form and dimensions, and have the same nervures, but they
are denticulated only at the extremity. This tree was, ap-
parently, diffused through all the northern regions, since we
meet with it in Greenland, Iceland, and Spitzbergen. The
Oaks are still more varied; we count eight species in Green-
land, most of them having large, elegantly denticulated leaves ;
they have some relation to American species. One of them
(Quercus Olafsoni), which may be traced from the north of
Canada to Greenland and Spitzbergen, is the analogue of
Quercus prinus of the United States. A Platanus (P. ace-
roides) was also spread over all these countries; it is even
met with in the Hisfjord in Spitzbergen. The Poplars fur-
nish a still greater number of individuals than the genera just
cited. ‘T'wo species (Populus Richardsoni and P. arctica), with
Sequoia Langsdorffii, were the commonest trees of the polar
zone. We can trace them from the Mackenzie to Spitzbergen.
The Willows are very rare, which may well surprise us when
we consider that they now form one-fourth of the woody plants
of the arctic zone. The Birches were abundant in Iceland,
where we also remark a fine species of Tulip-tree and a Maple
(Acer otopteryx). In Greenland we find a Walnut, a Mag-

64 Prof. O. Heer on the Miocene Flora

nolia with coriaceous leaves (MM. Inglefieldi), and a Plum (Pru-
nus Scotti?) ; and in Spitzbergen a large-leaved Lime-tree (Tila
Malmgrent). Side by side with these trees, which are analo-
gous to those of the present epoch, we observe several excep-
tional forms, from the presence of which it is difficult to draw
any conclusions. One of these species, which possesses large
coriaceous leaves (Daphnogene Kanii), probably belongs to
the family Laurinez ; four others (Macclintockia and Hahea)
are probably Proteacez. It is difficult to judge what would have
been the habit of these plants. With regard to others, however,
analogy indicates that, in all probability,they were shrubs. Thus
we find a Nut-tree (Corylus MacQuarrit) which was diffused
through all the polar regions, and occurred in Spitzbergen at
78° N. latitude, as also a species of Alder (Alnus Kefersteinit).
From Greenland we have species of Rhamnus, Paliurus, Cor-
nus, Ilex, Crategus, Andromeda, and Myrica, which ascend to
70° N. latitude. Sarmentose plants were not wanting ; a species
of Ivy (Hedera MacClurii) has been found on the shores of the
Mackenzie, and of Vines two species in Greenland, and one in
Iceland: these species approach certain American Vines. It
is not difficult to form an idea of the vegetation of the polar
regions, at the Miocene epoch, from the indications which we
have just given. It consisted of forests of very various leaty
and resinous trees, many of which had large leaves of very
diverse forms; vines and ivy entwined these with their
branches; and beneath their shade grew numerous shrubs and
elegant ferns.

What a contrast between this picture and that presented to us
by these countries in their present state! Now-a-days Green-
land is nothing but an immense glacier, which covers the whole
country and sends even into southern latitudes mountains of
ice which cool the climate; we can scarcely say that a narrow
belt along the shores is freed in summer and enabled to cover
itself with a little vegetation. In the Miocene period the limit
of Limes, Taxodia, and Platani was at 79° N. latitude; that
of the Pines and Poplars, if we may judge from what we see
in the present day, must have attained the pole, or at least the
lands nearest to it; for they advance at present 15° further to
the north than the Planes. It is a natural conclusion from
this, that the extreme limit of trees then followed a lme very
different from that which we can trace at the present day: it
now follows the isothermal line which gives a mean of 10° C.
(= 50° F.) in July—that is to say, about 67° N. latitude; so
that it scarcely passes the polar circle, whilst then it reached
the pole itself.

This fact alone indicates that the climate was very different.

of the Polar Regions. 65

We may add other proofs to confirm our assertion. From the
character of the flora of Spitzbergen at the Miocene period
we may conclude that under 79° N. latitude the mean tempe-
rature of the year was 5° C. (= 41° F.); at the same epoch
that of Switzerland was 21° C. (= 69°°8 F.), judging from
the analogy of floras. ‘There is consequently a difference of
16° C. (= 28°°8 F.) ; and for each degree of latitude the mean
temperature has fallen 0°5 C. (= 0°9 F.) From this it fol-
lows that at Spitzbergen, at 78° N. latitude, the mean was
5°°5 C. (= 41°9 F.), im Greenland, at 70°, it was 9°°5 ©, (=
49°1 F’.), and in Iceland and on the Mackenzie, in latitude 65°,
it was 11°55 C. (=52°7 F.) These data suffice to explain the
character of the flora of this period *,

The difference of temperature between Switzerland, in N.
lat. 47° (brought by calculation to that of the sea-level), and
Spitzbergen, in N. lat. 78°, is at present 20°-6 C. (=37°-08 F.),
which gives a diminution of 0°66 C. (=1°2 F.) for each
degree of latitude. It is therefore evident that at the Miocene
epoch the temperature was much more uniform, and that the
mean heat diminished much more gradually in proportion as
the pole was approached, so that then the isothermal line of
0° (=32° F.) fell upon the pole, whilst now it is situated
under 58° N.

It has been asserted that at the Miocene epoch currents
might transport wood and vegetable remains to great distances,
as is the case now, and that it is very possible that the plants
which we find in the fossil state in the deposits of the polar
regions may have been carried there in an analogous manner,
and may not have lived on the soil where we find their
remains. This notion cannot be admitted, as will be easily
seen if we consider :—1, the perfect preservation of the
leaves; 2, the enormous accumulation of fossil plants in the
beds of siderolitic iron-ore in Greenland, associated with great
deposits of lignites; 8, the fact that insects are found with
the plants; and, 4, the presence of beech-leaves just issued
from the bud and still folded, as well as that of flowers, seeds,
and fruits associated with the leaves, Certain seeds are found
arranged in the same manner as in the berry which protected
them ; this evidently indicates that the berry itself was buried
in the mud. Now it is clear that a berry could not be carried
by the waves to great distances.

Whoever will examine, without preconceived ideas, the

* For further details upon this subject consult the ‘ Flore fossile des
Régions polaires,’ by Prof. O. Heer (Zurich, 1867), in which all the
plants of the Miocene epoch discovered in these countries are described
and figured.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol.i. 5

66 Prof. O. Heer on the Miocene Flora

beautiful and varied fossil plants which fill the rocks of Atane-
verdlak in Greenland, will be convinced that these plants can-
not have come from a great distance. As to the fossil plants
of Spitzbergen, it is very evident that they were not brought
by marine currents, as we find them in freshwater deposits.

It appears certain, therefore, that at the Miocene epoch the
temperature of the polar regions was much higher than in
our day; and we are naturally led to inquire what are the
causes which may have brought about such a change. We
cannot admit the supposition of a displacement of the poles,
even regarding it in the same way as Mr. Evans, who has re-
cently maintained this theory. Indeed it is a certain fact that
we remark the same phenomena all round the terrestrial globe,
not only in the polar zone, but also under southern latitudes.
No direct observation seems to us to confirm this hypothesis.
We regard as much more important the theory according to
which climatic modifications would coincide with modifica-
tions in the distribution of the seas and continents upon the
surface of the globe. At present the extent of the seas is
twice and a half that of the solid earth, and the continents are
arranged in much more considerable masses in the northern
hemisphere, and especially beyond the tropic. This condition
is not normal. If, instead of so unequal a distribution, the
lands and seas were equally distributed in all the zones, the
temperate and glacial zones would enjoy a climate warmer
than at present. Nevertheless, even supposing the most
favourable distribution, we should not succeed in producing,
between 70° and 79° N. latitude, a temperature sufficient for
the development of a flora like that of which the existence
in these regions during the Miocene period has just been in-
dicated, Suppose all the continents united im the neighbour-
hood of the equator, and only a few islands left in the northern
regions,—these would enjoy the highest mean temperature to
which they could attain, their winters would be compara-
tively very mild, and yet the heat of the sun could not be suf-
ficient between 70° and 80° N. lat. to allow of the development
of a vegetation so rich as that of which we find the traces.
Now it is certain that in the Miocene period there was a great
extent of solid land in the temperate zone, and even in the
polar regions, as is proved to us by the extension of several
species of the Miocene flora, which we can follow from the
Mackenzie to Spitzbergen.

The explanation of the climatic changes which the study of
fossils reveals to us, has been sought in the fact that the
eradual cooling of the mass of the globe must necessarily pro-
duce a gradual diminution of temperature. This cause may
certainly have acted in the most ancient periods; but the Mio-

of the Polar Regions. 67

cene epoch is too nearly approximate to our own to allow of
our attributing to it, with any probability, the difference of
temperature now indicated.

It seems to us to follow, from the preceding considerations,
that it is from the study of phenomena of another kind that
we must obtain the solution of the problem that we seek. Let us
first examine, in the series of cosmical phenomena, the question
of the changes which may have taken place in the position of the
earth relatively tothe sun. From the point of view which now.
engages our attention, a great importance has been quite re-
cently attached to the periodical modifications of the eccen-
tricity of the ellipse which is annually traversed by the earth.
The form of this ellipse is modified within certain limits in
the course of ages. At present it approaches a circle ; in 23,900
years its eccentricity will have attained its minimum; then
the orbit will again tend to acquire a more elongated form.
The mean distance from the earth to the sun is 91,400,000
miles ; when the eccentricity of the ellipse is at its maximum
it has +4 of this length, when it is at its minimum 54;; in
the former case the earth departs from the sun 14,500,000
miles more than in the second case. At present the linear
value of the eccentricity is three millions of miles. It must
also be observed that, at present, the earth is nearest to the
sun (at the perihelion) during the winter of the northern
hemisphere, whilst in the summer it is furthest from it (at the
aphelion). Now the relative position of the line of apsides
and of that of the solstices is likewise subjected to a movement
of revolution which is accomplished in 21,000 years. In
about 10,000 years the summer of the northern hemisphere
will fall at the period when the earth is nearest to the sun,
and its winter at that when it is most distant. Of course the
contrary will take place in the southern hemisphere.

It is assumed that during the periods when the eccentricity
of the orbit of the earth approaches its maximum, when the
perihelion coincides with the winter solstice, the northern
hemisphere must enjoy a shorter and warmer winter, whilst
the summer is longer and cooler. During this time the oppo-
site is the case in the southern hemisphere. Its winter is
longer and colder, its summer hotter and shorter, because the
winter of this hemisphere corresponds with the greatest dis-
tance from the sun. Mr. Croll supposes that during this long
and cold winter so great a quantity of ice must have been
accumulated, that the summer following it (which, although
hot, was short) had not the power to melt it entirely, and that
it is at this epoch that we must place the glacial period. In
the northern hemisphere, on the contrary, there would have

68 Prof. O. Heer on thé Miocene Flora

been a continual spring, the summer being long and cool, and
the winter short and warm. Mr. Stones has calculated that
we must go back 850,000 years to reach the epoch at which
the eccentricity of the orbit of the earth attained its maximum
value, at the same time that the aphelion coincided exactly
with the winter solstice in the northern hemisphere. The
winter would then have lasted thirty-six days longer; and as
it is at this period that the greatest quantity of ice and snow
would have been formed, Lyell is inclined to place in it the
glacial epoch. But 900,000 years ago, on the other hand,
the orbit ofthe earth would have most nearly approached the
circular form, and from this would have resulted a complete
change of climatic conditions.

All these speculative theories are certainly ingenious, but it
must be remarked that they have not a solid basis; in fact we
still only very imperfectly know what is the extent of the action
which might be exerted upon the power of the rays of the
sun by the distance which they traversed to arrive at the
éarth. lLiyell has pointed out, with reason, that according to
Dove’s calculation the earth is hotter in July (that is to say, at
the moment when it is most distant from the sun) than in
December (when it most nearly approaches it). The cause of
this is the unequal distribution of sea and land in the two
hemispheres, from which it results that the northern hemi-
spliere has a hotter summer, even when the earth is nearest to
the sun during the summer of the southern hemisphere. From
this fact we may conclude that the mode of distribution of the
sea and land on the surface of the globe exerts a greater in-
fluence upon the climate of each hemisphere than that which can
result from the greater or less eccentricity combined with the
position of the line of the apsides. On the other hand, however,
as Lyell has admirably denionstrated, these two causes, by the
combination of their effects, may have had an extremely im-
portant influence upon the changes of climate which the
observed facts enable us to demonstrate.

It is also possible that the action of the sun has not always
been the same; for, by the observation of its spots, we know
that great modifications take place upon its surface, whence
the possibility of a change in the intensity of the solar rays.

To all these considerations this one may be added :—The
sun is not alone in the vault of heaven; millions of celestial
bodies likewise shine there and diffuse their light and heat
into space. Why, then, may we not suppose that the different
regions of space have not all the same temperature? The
mathematician Poisson put forward this idea, by calling atten-
tion to the fact that the number of stars is so great that they
form, as it were, a continuous vault. We also know that the

of the Polar Regions. 69

sun with its planets does not always occupy the same position
in space ; it probably moves round a fixed star situated at an
infinitely great distance. Starting from these data, and sup-
posing that the temperature of the different regions of space
is not the same throughout, we should find a very simple
explanation of the climatic phenomena which have been men-
tioned. Thus, if at the Miocene epoch the sun and its
planetary system were in a region of space hotter than that in
which they now move, this heat must have exerted an influ-
ence upon all parts of the terrestrial globe, but the effect must
have been most marked in the glacial and temperate zones.
If during this immense revolution, or solar year, hot periods
succeed to colder ones, or vice vers@, we may by analogy as-
similate the Miocene period to its summer, the glacial period
to its winter, and the present period to its spring. It is evi-
dent that we must accept the idea of a course of prodigious
length, the extent of which our minds cannot yet conceive. A
time will no doubt come when we shall succeed in calculating
it; and just as we now know the orbit of the earth, future
generations may perhaps arrive at a sufficiently accurate know-
ledge of the orbit of the sun.

Our minds are confused, it is true, in presence of these spaces
and periods which to us appear infinite; but this arises from
the smallness of the scale according to which we measure space
and time, as may be shown by a simple comparison. Suppose
the duration of the life of man to be a single day; those born
in winter could only know by tradition that there was formerly
a time when it was hotter, and that this time would return
after a long series of generations. ‘The opposite would be the
case with those born in summer. ‘To these men of a day, a
year would be a period of excessive length, since it would in-
clude 365 generations. Now the actual duration of human
life corresponds not to a day, but perhaps scarcely to a minute
of this great solar year; what inhabitant of the earth can ever
know its phases? If he cannot conceive them with his
bodily eye, he may do so at least with the assistance of his
thought, with the aid of his intellect, which enables him to
penetrate the obscurity of the past, and to coordinate the phe-
nomena which have been accomplished in the course of suc-
cessive periods. ‘The eye of his mind penetrates into the most
distant times, as into the remotest spaces of the celestial vault.
If the body of man is small in contrast to the immensity of
nature, if his life is short in presence of the infinite duration
of time, what is not the grandeur and power of his mind,
which carries him beyond the course of ages and gives him to
understand that in his perishable envelope is deposited the germ
of immortality !

70 Mr. A. G. Butler on Papilio Cocytus.

XI—Remarks upon the Papilio Cocytus of Fabricius and its
distinctness from the Adohias Cocytus of Authors. By A. G.
But er, F.Z.8.

In the fifth volume of the ‘ Zoological Journal,’ pp. 67, 68
(1835), Dr. Horsfield has noticed the distinctness of the Co-
cyta ot Fabricius’s ‘Entomologia Systematica’ from the Co-
cytus of his ‘ Mantissa;’ he moreover figures a species, appa-
rently identical with the former, under the more distinctive
name of Cocytina*. It is unfortunate that he should not have
figured an East-Indian example, as the Sumatran form now
proves to be a distinct species.

I find, by referrmg to the ‘Genera of Diurnal Lepidoptera,’
p- 291. no. 9 (1850), that Adolias Cocytus is stated to be in
the collection of the British Museum from North Indiat,—a
species which in some points agrees with the typical descrip-
tion beg mistaken for that insect. Mr. Moore, in his mono-
graph of Adolias (Trans. Ent. Soc. vol. v. p. 76. n. 28: 1859),
evidently intends the same species, which he quotes as from
North and South India.

On referring to the type of P. Cocytus in the Banksian col-
lection, I find that it is totally distinct from the above-men-
tioned species. It is a good deal faded; but the pale band of
the hind wings still shows a bluish tinge towards the apex, and
in the right-hand wing, which lies behind the fore wing, and has
consequently had more protection, there is a distinct flush of
bluish violet, indicating that the original colour of the band
was blue, and not ash-coloured as stated by Fabricius. The
underside of the wings is entirely ochreous, with a submarginal
lunulate interrupted band, very indistinct in the hind wings
(“ striga postica fusca,” Fabr.), the apex of the fore wings also
being tipped with dark fuscous; the fore-wing cell has the usual
liture ; but in the hind wings they are scarcely indicated.
Fabricius describes the underside of the wings as ‘ omnes
cinerascentes ;’’ but there is now no indication of such colora-
tion in the type; and I think, considering the careless manner
in which many of the Fabrician descriptions were put together,
that it is exceedingly likely that this is an error.

We have a specimen of a species from Assam, and a second
without a locality, which only differ from the type in having
the apex of the fore wing slightly less falcate, the blue mar-
ginal band rather narrower, and the underside of the fore wing
with a violet nebulous streak along its outer margin: there

* Vollenhoven has figured a species near Cocytina from Java (Tijd-
schrift voor Entomologie, vol. y. pl. 12. figs. 8,4) under the name of
Blume.

+ The original locality (Siam) is also quoted.

Bibliographical Notice. 71

can, therefore, be little doubt that the true description of
Cocytus will be as follows :—

Adolias Cocytus, Fabricius.

3. Alis integerrimis falcatis, supra nigro-fuscis, lineolis discoideis
nigris, margine externo viridi-cweruleo extus violascente, posti-
cis lato: subtus omnibus ochreis ; anticis lineolis quinque discoi-
deis, striga sexlunulata submarginali, nebula marginali vio-
lacea; posticis lineolis basalibus vix distinguendis, striga sub-
marginali lunulata fusca.

Exp. alar. unc. 2;5-2,9..

The Indian species will of course have to be described ; and
I therefore propose for it the name of A. lepidea.

Adolias lepidea, sp. nov.

Adolias Cocyta, E. Doubleday, List Lep. Brit. Mus. i. p. 104 (1844), but
not of Fabricius.

Adolias Cocytus, Westwood in Gen. Diurn. Lepid. p. 291. no. 9 (1850) ; F.
Moore, Monog. Adol., Trans. Ent. Soc. v. p. 76. no. 28 (1859).

Alz supra maris nigro-fusce, feminze fuscee; disco medio paulum
pallidiore ; margine externo pallido cinereo-fusco, margine ex-
terno femine fuscescente, lituris discoideis nigris.

Alz subtus multo pallidiores, maris castaneo-fusce, feminse ochraceze
disco medio ochreo: posticee extus albicantes; striga maculari
submarginali, altera postmedia angulari lunulata, posticis ochra-
ceis ; lituris discoideis nigris: antic margine externo violas-
cente.

Exp. alar. une. 213-33.

3 3, North India. ¢ var., South India. B.M.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE.

Figures of Characteristic British Fossils ; with Descriptive Remarks.
By Wit1am Herirer Batty, F.L.S., F.G.8., &e. Part I., pages
i-xxiv & 1-30; Plates IX. 8vo. London: Van Voorst, 1867.

Ts first instalment of a work of good promise, well planned and
well begun, is very acceptable to geologists, both amateur and pro-
fessional. The heavy task that lies before the geological inquirer
who wishes to set eyes on any large group of fossils peculiar to a
system of strata often checks his progress, and is always a trouble.
He may have recourse to Bronn’s comprehensive ‘ Lethzea geognos-
tica,’ but it is eumbrous, expensive, and German; nor does it place
before him the fossils of the several ‘‘ formations ”’ of each geological
“system,” as is proposed to be done in the work before us. The
still more voluminous ‘ Paléontologie francaise’ is further beyond
his requirements, being arranged to give every known species in de-

72 Bibliographical Notice.

tail. Geinitz, Quenstedt, and others have given geologists general
works on fossils; but they fail to be of use to the English geo-
logist, for several reasons. Prof. Owen’s ‘ Paleontology’ is of too
special a character. To help those, then, who wish to be acquainted
with British Fossils and their chief peculiarities in character and
distribution, Mr. Baily comes forward with a clear and useful guide,
supplied with the latest information.

For educational purposes this book is well adapted, being an aid
both to teacher and student; and for the practical geologist it is
a desirable vade mecum, reminding him of the typical fossils of every
stage of strata, whether they are characteristic by peculiarity or by
relative abundance.

The work will consist mainly of lithographic plates, accompanied
by “ explanations” and “descriptive remarks.” In each part, pub-
lished at short intervals, there will be ten plates of figures; and by
means of these ‘it is intended to present to the eye faithful copies
of the usual and most important fossils found in or characterizing
the various stratigraphical divisions into which fossiliferous rocks
are arranged by the geologist, with a view to relieve the mind from
the necessity of studying the whole series of extinct forms of organic
life, now known as fossils, and so that the general aspect of each
particular group may be seen at a glance, conveying, it is presumed,
with the explanatory remarks, sufficient information for all ordinary
purposes, and supplying an essential aid in the identification of
strata.”

We really believe that these plates will contain exact representa-
tions of both the most remarkable and the most common of fossils
(many from original specimens), knowing that the author has had a
long experience as naturalist, draughtsman, and paleontologist ; and
indeed this first set of the plates, with their explanations, fully illus-
trate his talent and conscientious care. We must remark, however,
that some of the plates are “ woolly” in appearance, and that the
printer’s work might be better; nevertheless there are but very few
real errata.

The “descriptive remarks” in this first Part comprise:—1l. A
succinct note on Paleontological Geology. 2. A table of the Inver-
tebrate portion of the animal kingdom,—imperfect, however, and
very loosely put together. 3. A “ table of the Fossiliferous or Strati-
fied Rocks in the order of their superposition ” (mainly after that in
the Geological Survey Museum Catalogue), which is adapted for Eng-
land and Wales only, except that the “Cambrian” of Ireland is
inserted—that of Scotland and the Laurentian strata of Scotland
and the Lewis being omitted. 4. Notes on the assemblage of Fossils
of the Cambrian rocks, giving scant credit to the crustacean Paleo- ~
pyge, though in Plate 2 its head is figured as well as its tail. The
Oldhamiz, however, are here well illustrated, some of their living
- analogues being neatly engraved on wood; and others might have
been added, if the author had thought enough of filamentous Sea-
weeds and of the Calciferous Alge or ‘Corallines” (a name he
misapplies to the Hydrozoa throughout); nor does he seem to have

Miscellaneous. 73

studied Unger’s memoir treating of the subject. 5. The Silurian
assemblage of Fossils, elucidated with the description of a Trilobite ;
and then follow (6) notes on the Fossils of the Lower Silurian rocks,
(7) those of the Lingula-beds ; (8) of the Tremadoc Slate; and (9)
of the Llandeilo Flags; and here we have the modern Ceelenterate
analogues of the Graptolite well shown in woodcuts; but some
would like to have their Polyzoan allies shown also. But these are
vexed questions; and altogether, among the fossils of doubtful
alliances Mr. Baily walks delicately; nevertheless he might have
been bolder in referring more of the so-called Annelids and Fucoids
to crustacean galleries and tracks (as our correspondent Mr. Albany
Hancock indicated long ago); and Rebeiria (not Ribierta) might also
have gone over to the Crustaceans, as Mr. Salter has suggested. So
much for a weak point or two ;.but we must add that, as this excellent
work is intended for amateurs and students, as well as for experts,
it would have been advantageous to them if the author had given
the meanings of the names of the genera and species. This would
be generally of real use in indicating the characters, conditions, or
history of the things named; and it would almost always serve in
some way, by association of ideas, to enable the reader and thinker
to remember both names and things.

A systematic statement as to the relative abundance or peculiar
occurrence of the several fossils figured would also greatly enhance
the value of this work.

With Plate 10 we enter upon the fossils of the Bala-Caradoc
formation ; and we look forward with pleasure to the illustration of
the other principal groups of organic remains in this convenient
shape, which is uniform with Professor Morris’s well-known ‘ Cata-
logue of British Fossils.’

MISCELLANEOUS.

On the Structure of the Eye in the Gasteropoda, and on the Develop-
ment of the Eyes in the Animal series. By V. Henszn.

Various authors have recently paid attention to the structure of the
eye in the Gasteropoda, and more especially to that of the retina ;
among them are MM. Leydig, Keferstein, Krohn, Hensen, and
Babouchine. The investigations of these naturalists have clearly
shown that the retina of the Mollusca is divided into an outer and
an inner layer, separated by a thin stratum of pigment. But all
these authors do not agree as to the parts of this retina which are
directly impressed by the luminous waves. Some, particularly M.
Hensen, regard the inner layer as sensible to light; others, on the
contrary, consider it to be insensible, and that the luminous rays
must pass through interstices of the pigment in order to irritate the
outer layer of the retina.

M. Hensen indicates that, in certain theories of vision proposed
by the most recent authors, the pigment plays an inadmissible part.
Thus, for example, the heat reflected by the pigment has been ad-

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.4. Vol.i. 6

74 Miscellaneous.

duced to explain the phenomenon of vision. As the author points
out, the case of albinos shows that luminous perceptions do not
cease when the pigment is absent; and we do not know any case in
which the pigment is absolutely necessary for the perception of light.
The pigment really fulfils two functions. In the first place it
absorbs the superfluous light and prevents it from being reflected
upon other parts of the retina; and it arrests all the luminous rays
which may penetrate into the eye by any other road but the pupil,
whether through the cornea or the sclerotic. This second function
is of particularly great importance in the Mollusca. In many of
these (for example, in the Heteropoda) the parts surrounding the
eye are perfectly transparent; and even in the snails the ommato-
phore is sufficiently transparent to allow us sometimes to see the
outer layer of the retina without any difficulty. The luminous rays
may, therefore, strike this outer layer of the retina in all directions ;
and from this M. Hensen justly concludes that it cannot be sensitive
to light. Sensibility to luminous rays consequently appears to be
peculiar to the inner layer, accessible only to the rays which
have passed through the erystalline. This layer alone is com-
parable to the stratum of bacilli in the Vertebrata.

In comparing the eyes of the Mollusca with those of other
animals, M. Hensen directs attention to the difficulty resulting from
the variable meanings of terms. The words eye, retina, iris have
acquired a perfectly definite physiological sense; but this is not the
case with the words sclerotic, cornea, and choroid, because they are
used to designate organs with various and still ill-defined functions.
Thus, for example, the sclerotic serves at once as the protective en-
velope of the eye, as the support of the cornea, and'as the basis for
the attachment of muscles, without its being possible to say that
any one of these functions is more essential than the rest. In the
Vertebrata the sclerotic and the neurilemma of the optic nerve are
justly regarded as prolongations of the dura mater. This morpho-
logical character ought, apparently, to be the best guide in the in-
vestigation of the homologies of the sclerotic; but when we come
to animals in which the eyes are not formed as if by a budding of
the brain, and in which we can find no dura mater, it becomes very
difficult any longer to speak of a sclerotic.

With regard to the structure of the retina there is, between the
Vertebrata and the Invertebrata, a chasm which seems to defy all
homologies. Thus in the former the bacilli form the outer layer
of the retina; in the latter they form its inner layer. And yet it
is remarkable that, notwithstanding this fundamental difference in
the typical organization of the essential part of the organ of sight,
the uniformity of organization persists in the accessory organs.
Thus, as M. Hensen remarks, in the Cephalopoda, the crystalline
continues to be an epithelial production, resulting from an invagi-
nation of the skin, as in the Vertebrata. In these higher Mollusca
there also exist an iris, a cornea, and eyelids—organs which, it is
true, disappear one after the other in this class of animals. The
sclerotic appears as if divided into fragments. One portion forms the

Miscellaneous. tea

outer capsule of the eye, and bears the cornea: another more closely
envelopes the retina; it is cartilaginous, serves for the attachment of
the muscles of the eye, and reminds us of the sclerotic ring of birds
and reptiles. Even in the Nautili, however, there no longer remain
any of these homologous parts of the sclerotic. In the other Mol-
lusca it would be very difficult to say what we are to regard as the
sclerotic. It is equally impossible to distinguish a cornea in them.
We cannot say, indeed, that the essential character of the cornea is
its being the first refractive medium in the eye. The serpents teach
us the opposite of this, since in them the first refractive medium is
formed by the eyelids. Moreover, in a great number of Mollusca,
the region which is usually designated by the name of the cornea
does not present any greater transparency than the rest of the en-
velopes of the eye.

In the Vertebrata, on the contrary, the cornea has a very definite
meaning, especially as, from the observations of M. Hensen, it pre-
sents a development swi generis. In the embryo, immediately after
the invagination of the crystalline, this anatomist has seen the
cornea appear as a very delicate basilar membrane of the epithelium.
As long as the crystalline still contains a cavity there exists between
it and the cornea, in front of the pupillar membrane, a sort of gela-
tinous tissue, exactly similar to that of the vitreous body at the
same embryonic period. Neither the sclerotic nor the choroid has
any connexion with a similar tissue.

It is equally difficult to determine the homologue of the choroid
in the Mollusca. In the Vertebrata this membrane is at once vas-
cular and pigmentary. The concordant investigations of MM. Kol-
liker, Hensen, Schultze, and Steinlin show clearly that the black
epithelium of the choroid is in reality a dependency of the retina ;
it is formed, in fact, by the outer lamella of the primitive ophthalmic
vesicle. M. Hensen asserts that he has ascertained that the cones
and bacilli are produced by this epithelium and not by the rest of
the retina. Hence the principal character of the choroid is vas-
cularity, and the name of vasculosa has frequently been given to it
in human anatomy. From this point of view it would be impossible
to find the least trace of a choroid in the Invertebrata. The intra-
retinic pigment layer of the Mollusca in particular by no means
merits the name of choroid.

It is generally supposed that the ophthalmic vesicle which sub-
sequently forms the retina is nothing but an extravagination of
the central nervous system. The embryological researches of M.
Hensen tend not only to confirm this view, but also to establish a
complete parallel between the different layers of the retina and those
which primitively form the central nervous tube.—Archw fur
mikr, Anat. Bd. ii. 1866, p. 8399; Abstract by E. Claparéde in Bz6l.
Univ. November 25, 1867, Bull. Sci. pp. 268-271.

Adanson’s Black Crocodile. By Dr. J. KE. Gray.

Dr. Alexander Strauch asserts that Adanson’s “Crocodile noire”
is not Crocodilus frontatus, but C. cataphractus. Adanson mentions

76 Miscellaneous.

three crocodilians occurring in Senegal—an olive and a black crocodile,
and a false gavial. There are constantly received from the Gambia
and various parts of the west coast of Africa only three species of
crocodilians, viz.:—1. Crocodilus vulgaris, which is olive ; 2. C. fron-
tatus, which is black, and is known, on the coast, by the name of the
Black Crocodile, or Black Alligator; and 3. a gavial- like crocodile
(C. cataphractus, Cuvier).

If the “ Crocodile noire” is not C. frontatus, then Adanson, one of
the most intellectual and advanced naturalists of the last century,
must have entirely overlooked the latter, and have given the name
of the black crocodile and the false gavial to C. cataphractus, which
is more like a gavial than a crocodile.

Dr. Strauch’s Essay is a very elaborate and careful compilation,
stating many things as positive which he could not have verified by
the examination of specimens; for, unfortunately, the collection
under his care is very small, and consists chiefly of very young spe-
cimens, and he does not appear to have visited other European or
American collections: in fact the materials are not sufficient to be
the basis of a monograph of crocodilians of any authority or origi-
nality.

Rare British Sharks.

The British Museum has lately received from Mr. William Laughrin,
of Polperro, a specimen of the spinous shark (Echinorhinus spinosus),
7 feet long, and of the six-gilled shark (Hexanchus griseus), 6 feet
long. These fish have each been recorded only once before as having
occurred on the British coast.—J. E. Gray.

The Australian Representative of Cynthia cardui.
To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,—In most works referring to the distribution of the
English Cynthia cardui, or Painted-Lady Butterfly, it is said to be
common in Australia. There is in abundance, about Melbourne and
in many other parts of Australia, a Cynthia with the general ap-
pearance and habit of the C. cardui so closely represented that every
entomologist I know refers it to that species. The Australian spe-
cies differs from the European one constantly, however, in having
the centres of the three lower round spots on the posterior wings
bright blue, and having two other blue spots on the posterior angles
of the same wings, the corresponding parts of the European form
being black.

As the collector I employ for the museum here, Mr. W. Kershaw,
mentioned this to me six or seven years ago, and I have found the
character constant in all the specimens I have examined since, I
should wish to draw attention to the fact by naming the Australian
insect Cynthia Kershaw.

I have, &c.,
FREDERICK ‘MGor.

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[FOURTH SERIES. ]

No. 2. FEBRUARY 1868.

XII.—Notes on various Species of Ctenodus obtained from
the Shales of the Northumberland: Coal-field. By THOMAS
ATTHEY.

THE curious genus Ctenodus was founded by Agassiz on a
single specimen of a palatal tooth procured from the compact
coal of Tong, and preserved in the Leeds Museum. It was
named C. cristatus, and was described in his ‘ Recherches sur
les Poissons Fossiles,’ where it is tolerably well figured. He
mentions two other species, under the respective names of C.
alatus and C. Robertsoni—the former from Ardwick, the latter
from Burdie House; but I can find no specific description of
either*, though there is an account and figure of the micro-
scopic structure of C. Robertson’; but these do not assist us at
all in determining its specific identity. So far as I am able
to ascertain, C. cristatus is, then, the only described species of
this genus belonging to the Carboniferous system ; I am there-
fore gratified to find myself in a position to add several new
species of Ctenodus to the fauna of our Coal-measures.
During my long-continued examination of the shales in the
neighbourhood of Newcastle I have not only found divers spe-
cimens of Agassiz’s species, but have also obtained five or six
others, all of which are distinguished by well-marked charac-
ters. It is my intention to give in this communication short
descriptions of the whole of them, reserving for some future
occasion more lengthened details of their characteristic features.
In the first place, however, a few remarks may be made re-
specting the fishes to which this beautiful armature belonged.
Agassiz thought they were Placoids; and so they were
deemed to be for several years, until Hugh Miller ¢ obtained

* From a remark in Agassiz’s ‘ Monogr. des Poiss. Foss. du Vieux Grés-
rouge,’ it appears that both species are inedited.
+ See ‘Footprints of the Creator,’ p. 62.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. i. 7

78 Mr. T. Atthey on various Species of Ctenodus

and described similar palatal plates attached to the roof of the
mouth of a small fish belonging to the Old Red Sandstone,
which had previously been described under the generic appel-
lation of Dipterus by Sedgwick and Murchison*, thus at once
removing Ctenodus from among the Sharks and Rays, and
placing it in the order Ganoidei. Since that time Ctenodus
and Dipterus have been considered synonymous, and have
recently been transferred to a distinct family named Ctenodo-
dipterini— Ceratodus and Tristichopterus being provisionally
associated with them f.

There is nevertheless some doubt as to the propriety of
merging the genus Ctenodus in that of Dipterus. In the early
part of this year (1867) I was fortunate enough to meet with
a small fish in the shale at Newsham, which, though in a very
imperfect condition, exhibits some features that perhaps should
make us pause before we lay aside altogether the generic
appellation Ctenodus.

The specimen alluded to is proved to belong to this genus
by the presence of four dental plates (two palatal, two mandi-
bular), three of which are distinctly displayed in the crushed
head, and the fourth is inferentially recognizable. Now the
scales of our specimen, which are in a disturbed state, seem to
differ considerably from those of Dipterus, in which they are
described to be perfectly cycloidal—that is, that they are cir-
cular and imbricated{. In the Newsham species, which is
named in the sequel C. elegans, though they must be con-
sidered also of the cycloidal type; yet they are not truly so,
notwithstanding that they are imbricated. When detached,
they are seen to be parallelogrammatic in form, with the pos-
terior or exposed end well rounded, the anterior only slightly
arched; the sides are nearly parallel, being a little inclined
inwards or hollowed; in length they are nearly twice their
breadth. Some few, however, differ very much from the above
description, being shaped like a battledore. These have the
posterior half greatly enlarged and rounded, the anterior por-
tion being much narrowed and truncated. They are all thin
and delicate, but large for the size of the fish, and are minutely
grooved or plaited from end to end, the ridges being very finely
denticulated and curved towards the centre of the rounded ex-
tremity, where they become confused and irregularly nodose.
Thus in the centre of the exposed portion there is a sort of
rosette which is defined posteriorly by incomplete concentric
wrinkles ; a few similar wrinkles or marks of growth extend

* Trans. Geol. Soc. ser. 2. vol. iii. (1835).
+ Huxley, ‘Memoirs of the Geological Survey,’ decade 10, p. 24.
t Fred. M‘Coy, ‘Synopsis of British Palzeozoic Fossils,’ p. 591.

from the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. 79

to the anterior extremity. The whole surface is covered with
a coating of enamel, which considerably obscures the mark-
ings. On the exposed extremity the enamel is thickened and
is very finely granulated, but here it is never perfect, the
greater portion of the ornamentation being always exposed ; or,
at least, it is so in my specimen. The under surface of the
scale is also grooved lengthwise, but with great inequality,
and the grooves are so strongly and irregularly pitted that the
ridges which bound them are distinct only at the margins.

On the whole, then, it is evident that the scales of our fish
differ considerably from those of Dipterus, in which they are
described as nearly circular when detached; the sculpture or
ornamentation of the surface also seems to vary. There is
likewise another and perhaps more important difference found
in the dental plates. In Ctenodus these plates are what the
name implies—solid expansions of dense matter apparently
composed of dentine and bone; and the ridges are equally
solid outgrowths of the surface of the plates, bearing tubercles
or denticles ; or, in other words, the plates are covered with
denticulated ridges. In Dépterus, on the contrary, the dental
organs are uniformly spoken of by Hugh Miller as “ patches
of palatal teeth”’*; and Agassiz describes the ridges or “ ca-
rine” of specimens obtained in the Old Red Sandstone of
Russia as “ composed of series of imbricated and articulated
teeth” T; and the figures representing them entirely confirm
the description. In the Ctenodi this arrangement cannot be
said to exist, though there ‘are in a few of the species slight
traces of something of the kind, particularly in C. elegans.

It may, however, be doubted how far such characters should
be considered of generic importance. They point out, never-
theless, the propriety of retaining for the present, at least,
until more is known respecting them, the generic appellation
of Ctenodus for our coal-measure Ctenododipterini.

The body of the Newsham specimen is not well defined ;
but as far as the general characters can be determined, they
agree with those of Dipterus. The head is apparently round
and short, being about one-fourth the length of the entire fish,
which is 3 inches long; and it exhibits in a distinct manner
the underside of the basisphenoid and the preesphenoid bones
united together. They assume the form of a rhomboidal plate,
with a flattened process extending from the anterior and pos-
terior angles; the bones bearing the dental plates have been
displaced. The two opercula, which are each formed of a

* Op. cit.

+ Monographie des Poissons Fossiles du Vieux Grés-rouge, troisiéme
livraison, p. 123, tab. 33. ‘e

a

80 Mr. T. Atthey on various Species of Ctenodus

single piece, are equally distinct; they are thick and. well-
rounded, being only slightly elongated transversely, and have
the upper or hinge-margin flattened, the surface irregularly
granulated, punctured, and enamelled. The tail is in a con-
fused state ; but there can be little doubt that it is heterocercal,
of the rhomboidal type. And there are traces of an anal and
a ventral fin immediately before the caudal; but it is impos-
sible to say whether or not they are lobed. ‘There are a few
slender, curved bones scattered about behind the head, which
have the appearance of ribs; these and the bones of the head
alone have been ossified ; the vertebra have all disappeared.

Such is the deseription of C. elegans, so far as it can be
determined by the imperfect remains of the specimen in my
nee That it is specifically distinct from the Old-Red-

andstone species is evident enough; and it seems quite
probable that it even differs from them generically. It is
much smaller than most of the Dipteri—though it is apparently
not full-grown, as the teeth are considerably smaller than the
largest specimens of them belonging to this species in my
possession; and, on account of its minuteness when com-
pared with the largest species of Ctenodus from the coal-
measures, there is some doubt whether it may not be generi-
cally different also from them. It is not more than three
inches long, as has been already stated, while three at least of
the larger species cannot be less than four or five feet from
head to tail. The sphenoid bones previously mentioned of
C. elegans are together about half an inch long; the same
bones of the large species alluded to must have been at least
eleven inches in length.

From the fragments of a large sphenoid and palatal bones
in my possession, it is possible to restore this portion of a
skull that probably belonged to C. cristatus, which is not the
largest species; and we are thus enabled to form an approxi-
mate estimate of the size of the head, which must have been
upwards of twelve inches long and nine broad. Therefore,
assuming the proportions to be similar to those of C. elegans,
we arrive at the conclusion that these large Ctenodi were not
less than four or five feet in length.

This estimate of the size of these animals receives some
support from the fact that very large opercular plates occur in
the same shales in which the palatal armature is found. I
have in my possession six or seven different kinds of opercula,
all having the essential characters of those found in connexion
with the head of C. elegans ; that is, they agree with them in
the roundness of their form, in being composed of a single
solid piece, and in the surface-granulation and enamel. So

from the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. 81

similar are they, indeed, to those of the small species (C. ele-
gens) that it is impossible to deny the high probability of their
having belonged to species closely allied to it; and at the
same time they are readily divisible into species.

The largest of these plates is five and a half inches in dia-
meter; it is almost orbicular, with the hinge-line flattened,
and with a rounded process projecting a little at each end
limiting its extent: three or four specimens of this large oper-
culum have occurred. The next in size, of which I have two
specimens, is four inches across its longest diameter; it is
considerably elongated in the transverse direction, being pretty
regularly oval; the hinge-line is straight, and strongly defined
by two lateral processes. The third operculum is two and a
half inches in diameter. It has a finely granulated surface,
and the contour is circular and somewhat sinuous; the hinge-
line is well defined by two rather acute processes, and is longer
than usual. Another orbicular species, about the same size,
has the margin less sinuous, and the hinge-line shorter and
not so well marked by lateral processes. Besides the above,
one or two much smaller but rather obscure kinds have oc-
curred, as well as separate plates of C. elegans. And one be-
longing to C. obliquus has been found connected with the
palatal teeth and scales. ‘This and the scales will presently be
described along with the oral armature of that species.

Now, should it be denied that these large opercular plates
belong to the Ctenodi, it may be asked to what other fishes of
the coal-measures can they be assigned? Rhizodus, Rhom-
boptychius, and Megalichthys are the only large species that
occur to which they could, according to our present knowledge,
belong. The other large coal-measure fishes are all Placoids,
and are therefore out of the question. Rhizodus and Rhom-
boptychius are, however, apparently closely allied to Holopty-
chius, in which the operculum is composed of more than one
piece ; and in the former therefore the gill-cover is in all pro-
bability similarly composed; while in Jlegalichthys the cha-
racter of the enamel and form of the operculum sufficiently
prove that the large opercula above alluded to cannot belong
to it.

In the same shales likewise occur strong well-arched ribs,
the largest measuring six or eight inches in length. These
also probably belong to the larger Ctenod?; and this probabi-
lity becomes almost confirmed when we refer to the fact of the
ossification of the ribs in C. elegans, and that the proportion
they bear in this species to the length of the fish is just about
the same that those large ribs bear to the larger Otenodi, which
have been already estimated at four or five feet long. These

82 Mr. T. Atthey on various Species of Ctenodus

ribs cannot have belonged to any of the other large species of
our coal-system, as none of them have, so far as known, ossi-
fied ribs; neither can they be assigned to Campylopleuron, a
new genus recently proposed by Prof. Huxley* for some large
coal-measure fishes found in Ireland, which have not only
ossified ribs, but have also large opercula. These opercula,
however, being “ characterized by a raised longitudinal nb,”
differ from those of Ctenodus, which have no such process or
Crt?’

All the tooth-plates described in the sequel of this commu-
nication have such a general resemblance to each other that
there can be no doubt of the close relationship of the fishes to
which they belong. And, moreover, the bones to which many
of them are found attached closely resemble each other. The
palatal tooth (or that which has been so designated) is seated
on a broadish flattened bone which, with one exception, 1s
never more than twice the length of the tooth, and is usually
considerably shorter; and it is always much expanded at the
posterior extremity. This is probably a maxillary bone; and
che two branches, when united, have much the appearance of
mm upper jaw. The propriety, therefore, of calling these pa-
latal plates or teeth may be questioned. The homologies,
however, of these parts must be left for the present untouchedf.
The mandibular tooth is always much narrower than the pa-
latal, and the branch of the mandibulum on which it is placed
is not so wide as the bone supporting the palatal tooth, neither
is it so much expanded at the posterior end; it is, however,
strong and rather massive.

There are two species that have the surface of the teeth
with smooth ridges, not tuberculated or denticulated as they
are in all the other kinds. These two have consequently
some resemblance to the palatal plates of Ceratodus, apparently
a closely allied form. When further research shall have
thrown more light on these obscure species, it will then be
time enough to consider the desirableness of dividing this appa-
rently natural group into separate genera.

I shall now conclude this brief communication with concise
descriptions of the various dental plates that have come under
my observation, retaining the denomination of palatal plates
or teeth for the upper pair, though the bones to which they
are attached have all the appearance of maxillaries, and so
they will be named in the following descriptions.

* Geol. Mag. vol. iii. p. 166.
+ This matter is undoubtedly discussed in Prof. Pander’s ‘Monograph
on the Ctenododipterini ;’ but I have not seen that important work.

rom the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. 83

1. Ctenodus cristatus, Agassiz,
Poissons Fossiles, vol. iii. p. 137, pl. 19. fig. 16.

Tooth plate-like, rather thin, irregularly elliptical, inclining to
ovate, 24 inches long, 13 inch broad; the upper surface
somewhat hollowed or concave; the inner margin well
arched, the outer much less so; the whole surface is covered
with twelve close-set, transverse ridges, which are studded
from end to end with closely arranged conical tubercles ;
the ridges increase in size as they approach the outer mar-
gin, and, being inclined towards the anterior and posterior
margins, assume a tendency to a radial disposition; the
grooves between the ridges are angulated ; the tubercles are
perfect only at the outer margin, where they are covered
with a coat of brilliant enamel, and here they are seen to
have the outer face flattened, the base of each tubercle or
denticle being subtriangular ; elsewhere they are much worn
and somewhat compressed at the sides in the direction of the
ridges, the whole surface of the tubercles and ridges exhi-
biting a coarse irregular granulation.

The above description is of a palatal tooth which has
the entire right ramus of apparently the maxillary attached.
The tooth itself 1s considerably more than half the length of
the bone, the posterior extremity of which is very wide and
truncate.

Four or five other specimens have occurred; but they are
considerably worn, the tubercles in some instances having
almost disappeared; two are mandibular, two palatal; the
former are very much narrower than the latter.

There can be little doubt that this is Agassiz’s species,
though my specimens are scarcely so broad as that represented
in the ‘ Poissons Fossiles,’ and they have likewise the poste-
rior margin a little more produced. All the specimens are
from the band of dark shale overlying the Low-main coal-
seam at Newsham.

2. Ctenodus tuberculatus, n. sp.

Tooth plate-like, thick, with an irregular ovate outline, 2? inches
long, 1§ inch broad, the narrow end posterior; the inner
margin gibbous or angulated in the centre; the outer mar-
gin a little convex; the surface is slightly convex, and is
furnished with twelve or thirteen deep, sharp, parallel, ap-
proximate ridges, which are strongly tuberculated towards
the outer margin, and divided by narrow, deep, angulated
grooves; they are arched posteriorly and enlarged towards
the exterior border, but do not at all assume a radial ar-

84 Mr. T. Atthey on various Species of Ctenodus

rangement; the anterior ridge, which is wider than the
others, is reflected and prolonged for some distance beyond
the outer margin; the tubercles are conical, with obtuse
points; those next the external border are coated with
shining enamel, and are well produced.

The mandibular tooth differs from the palatal in being
narrower, and is so convex as to resemble the longitudinal
section of a cylinder; the two or three anterior ridges, too, are
much shorter than the rest, the inner margin sloping rather
rapidly away in front.

There are half a dozen of this species in my collection, all
of which were obtained at Newsham; and in the Newcastle
Museum there are two others, which were likewise procured
from the same locality, and are from the collection of G. B.
Forster, Esq. They are all in excellent condition, agree
perfectly well in every respect, and can be at once dis-
tinguished from C. cristatus by the deep and sharp ndges
and by the form of the tubercles, which in C. tuberculatus are
always exactly conical (when they are in a fresh state) at the
outer margin. When worn, however, they are much flattened
at the sides in the direction of the ridges ; and then they are
wedge-shaped, and they and the whole of the mdges become
granulated.

3. Ctenodus corrugatus, n. sp.

Tooth plate-like, thin, subtriangular, 3 inches long, 2 inches
broad; the surface 1s slightly convex, and raised into nine
stout, somewhat irregular, rounded ridges or wrinkles,
the grooves dividing them being wide and rounded ;
the ridges die out towards the inner and outer margins, but
are enlarged a little as they approach the external border,
and are indistinctly and irregularly tuberculated ; the inner
margin is nearly straight, the outer slightly convex, the
anterior slopes forward from the imner margin, and the
posterior is produced and rounded. The whole surface is
strongly and irregularly punctured.

I have seen only one specimen of this fine, large, distinct
species: it is a palatal tooth, and is in a very good state. It
was obtained from the Collingwood Main Pit, and was pre-
sented by George Johnson, Esq., to the Newcastle Museum.
It is readily distinguished from its allies by the fewness of the
ridges, by their roundness and wide separation, as well as by
their greater size and general form.

A, Ctenodus obliquus, un. sp.
Tooth depressed, lanceolate, 14 inch long, 3 inch broad ; the in-

from the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. 85

ner margin regularly and much arched, the outer only slightly
curved ; the surface with six or seven strong, compressed,
sharp-edged ridges, placed transversely in a somewhat radia-
ting manner towards the outer margin, where, being enlarged,
they are curved downwards and denticulated ; the anterior
ridges are very oblique, being much inclined forwards ; the
denticles or tubercles are much compressed in the direction
of the ridges, and are lancet-formed, with sharp points ;
they are coated with brilliant enamel in finely preserved
specimens. The above is the description of the palatal
tooth ; the mandibular is narrower than the former, and is

‘broadest in front, tapering pretty regularly to the posterior

extremity ; the anterior ridge is very wide, and much pro-

duced beyond the outer extremities of the others, and they
are all more curved downwards than those of the palatal
tooth.

This is a very distinct form, and cannot be confounded with
any of the other species. I have collected between forty and
fifty specimens of it, most of which were procured from the
Low-main shale at Newsham; the rest are from Cramlington :
many of them have the jawbone attached in a very perfect
condition. The palatal tooth is a little more than half the
length of the bone, the posterior extremity of which is much
expanded and truncated. The mandibular bone is not much
widened posteriorly, and is about half as long again as the
tooth.

The specimens vary much in size, the largest being a little
over an inch and a half long, while the length of the smallest
is not more than three-eighths of an inch. The former has
seven ridges, the latter six; so that it is evident that age does
not make any material change in this respect. This is highly
satisfactory, as we can with greater assurance assume that the
number of ridges 1s a good specific character.

The anterior portion of a fish of this species has occurred at
Newsham, exhibiting one of the gill-opercles and two of the
dental plates with the denticles interlocked; numerous scales
are also displayed, but they are in such a mashed-up state
that the characters cannot be determined with precision.
Enough, however, is seen to show that they agree with those
of C. elegans, though the ridges or plaits ornamenting the
surface are not so numerous and are considerably coarser; the
rosette, too, in the centre of the exposed portion is not so con-
spicuous, and seems to be smaller. The opercular plate, which
is upwards of an inch across its longer diameter, and a little
more than three-quarters of an inch in the other direction, is
thick and irregularly ovate, with the margin sinuous; the

86 Mr. T. Atthey on various Species of Ctenodus.

hinge-line is long, and has a slight projection in the centre ;
the surface is strongly punctured and granulated.

5. Ctenodus elegans, n. sp.

Tooth depressed, triangular, upwards of % inch long and 5;
inch broad; the inner margin is produced and angulated
in the centre, whence it slopes m front and behind to-
wards the outer margin, which is regularly but slightly
arched; the surface is provided with eight strongly denti-
culated ridges, which radiate from the inner marginal angle,
where they are very minute, to the outer border; the ante-
rior ridge is a little produced at the outér margin beyond
the rest; there are six or seven denticles or tubercles on
each ridge; they are much compressed at the sides, are
sharp-pointed and lancet-like with the inner limb a little
shouldered, where there is occasionally a minute toothlet ;
the denticle and ridges are coated with enamel, and shine
very brilliantly.

There are sixteen specimens of this minute species in my
collection ; they were obtained at Newsham and Cramlington.

The mandibular tooth is very similar to the upper one, but
is a little narrower ; the latter is somewhat more than half the
length of the maxillary bone, the posterior extremity of which
is not much enlarged, and is diagonally truncated.

This is the tooth before alluded to as having been found in
connexion with the head of the entire fish, of which a general
description has already been given. It is therefore unneces-
sary to say more respecting it on the present occasion.

6. Ctenodus imbricatus, n. sp.

Tooth depressed, very thick, hollowed or slightly concave,
21 inches long and upwards of an inch broad, with the
inner margin well and regularly arched, the anterior slope
being much longer than the posterior; the outer margin is
nearly straight, but, on account of the projection of the
surface-ridges, is coarsely denticulated ; there are six of these
ridges or plaits; they enlarge rapidly towards the outer
margin; they are strong, smooth, and somewhat distant
from each other, and, though mostly inclined forwards, are
laid over towards the posterior end, having an imbricated
appearance ; the grooves dividing the ridges are angulated ;
the surface is minutely granulated, and the edges are ena-
melled. The mandibular tooth is very narrow and fusi-
form; the ridges are not imbricated, and the grooves are
scarcely angulated.

Dr. A. Krohn on Glandular Sacs in the Phalangiide. 87

This species is not common: I have found only six or seven
specimens of it; they were all obtained at Newsham. Two of
these, an upper and a lower, are large and in an excellent state
of preservation ; the others are quite small, but, like the large
ones, have six ridges, and agree with them in every particular.

This and the following species have some resemblance to
Ceratodus, but correspond in every respect to Ctenodus, except
in the deficiency of tubercles or denticles on the ridges,

7. Ctenodus ellipticus, n. sp.

Tooth flattened, thin, elliptical, 13 inch long and ? inch broad;
the mner and outer margin irregularly arched; the surface
with five transverse, smooth, distant, angular ridges, in-
creasing in size towards the outer margin; the furrows are
wide and round, and the anterior and posterior margins of
the tooth are extended a little beyond the ridges before and
behind ; the whole surface, including the ridges, is minutely
punctured. he mandibular tooth is narrow, with the inner
border gibbous; in other respects it agrees with the upper
or palatal tooth.

The maxillary bone is considerably more than twice the
length of the tooth, and has the posterior extremity greatly
expanded and truncated.

Five or six specimens of this tooth have come into my pos-
session. They occurred at Newsham, and are all fully deve-
loped and in good condition.

This well-characterized species is not likely to be mistaken
for any of those above described. The only one with which it
might possibly be confounded is C. ¢mbricatus ; but the com-
parative thinness of the plate and the non-imbrication of its
ridges sufficiently distinguish it.

XIII.— On the presence of two Glandular Sacs in the Cephalo-
thorax of the Phalangiide. By Dr. A. Kroun*.,

On the dorsal shield of the cephalothorax of the Phalangiide,
close to each of its lateral margins and a little way from their
junction with the anterior margin, there is a rounded elongate
opening, which was observed by Latreille, and through which
the point of a fine needle may easily be passed to a certain
depth. Each of these apertures is surrounded by a thickening
of the integument projecting in the form of a wall or chitinous

* Translated by W.S. Dallas, F.L.S., from Wiegmann’s Archiv, 1867,
pp. 79-83.

88 Dr. A. Krohn on the presence of two Glandular Sacs

ring, often of a blackish colour; it leads into a roundish sac,
often wrinkled in folds, situated in the cephalothorax, and
communicating with the orifice by a short, narrow canal or
neck. In many species (Cerastoma cornutum, Phalangium pa-
rietinum) the two sacs immediately attract the eye, after the
careful removal of the dorsal shield, by their dark tile-red or
dark-brown colour, whilst in other species (Opilio hystria, »
Letobunum rotundum) they appear quite destitute of pigment,
and are therefore at first easily overlooked*.

The two sacs, already noticed by that very meritorious ob-
server Treviranus, but erroneously regarded by him as two
lateral eyes, prove, upon closer examination, to be glands, the
intimate structure of which resembles that of many glands of
Insects. In the first place we may distinguish a very delicate
outer envelope or tunica propria, immeshed in tracheal rami-
fications ; this is followed by an epithelium composed of secre-
tory cells, which is lined by a very transparent cuticle or ¢n-
t’ma, bounding the cavity of the sac and thrown into numerous
fine folds. This intima is continuous with the integument at
the exterior orifice, and consequently proves to be a greatly
attenuated inversion of the latter into the sac.

The secretory cells lie close together in a single layer, and
contain, besides a turbid, finely granular substance, a roundish
nucleus, and in the vicinity of this a vacuoliform cavity, which
usually exceeds the nucleus more or less in size. ach cell
appears to be connected with the intima by an extremely fine
efferent canal. ‘The presence of these little canals may be
easily demonstrated by the action of a weak solution of potash
upon the sac, by which the cells and pigment are indeed dis-
solved, but the canals and the folded intima are thereby only
brought more distinctly into view. The layer of cells may
be most distinctly perceived in Levobunum.

In Cerastoma cornutum and Phalangium parietinum, in
which the sacs, as already stated, are of a dark tile-red or
brown colour, the pigment, consisting of very minute granules,
is situated between the cellular layer and the intima, but
seems, at least partially, to insert itself between the cells. In
these cases the cellular layer extends to the neck of the sac,
and the excretory canalicula are much longer than in Letobu-
num rotundum and Opilio hystrix; at the same time they are
strongly coiled together, somewhat in the same way as the
blood-vessel in the glomerules of the kidneys of Vertebrata.
Opilio hystrix, the largest of the mdigenous species in our

* In Opilio hystrix ouly the neck of the sacs shows a blackish or reddish-
brown tinge.

in the Cephalothorax of the Phalangiide. 89

district [near Bonn], in which the cells may likewise be traced
to the neck of the comparatively large sac, possesses the
shortest and widest canals, merely bent into simple loops. In
Leiobunum, on the contrary, the cells oceupy only the bottom
of the sac, sometimes, however, extending a little higher up ;
the canals are certainly shorter and less strongly twisted, but
not less fine than in the two species first mentioned.

In all the species named the canals appear to grow gradu-
ally a little wider, a little before they reach the intima in
order to open into the cavity of the sac. It is, however, quite
uncertain from what part of the cell the canal originates.
Notwithstanding many attempts, I could never succeed in
discovering any mixture fitted to demonstrate the direct con-
nexion of the canal with its cell. Nevertheless, from analogy
with certain glands in insects, we may assume that the canal
issues from the vacuoliform space. ‘Thus, according to Ley-
dig’s observations, there is a similar cavity, but furnished
with a distinct membrane, in the cells of the salivary gland
occurring in the proboscis of some Diptera. As shown in
Leydig’s excellent figures, we here see the excretory tubule
decidedly originating from this vesicle*.

With regard to the secretion of the glandular sacs, I must
confine myself to a few statements, and these, indeed, not of a
kind to lead to any certain conclusion as to its exact nature
and its employment during life. In the sacs of some indivi-
duals of Phalangium and Leiobunum I detected very small
crystalline deposits, which had a straw-yellow colour by trans-
mitted light, and seemed to resemble quadratic or rhombic
tables. Amongst them there was in some cases a larger and
definitely developed crystal, apparently an octahedron with
flat truncated ends. In another example of Letobunum, on
the contrary, the sac was distended by a milk-white fluid,
which, under the microscope, proved to consist of numerous,
small, colourless oil-drops.

To refer to the observations of preceding naturalists with
relation to this subject, it may be mentioned, in conclusion,
that Treviranus, misled by the rounded form of the sacs, and
still more by their dark-brown pigment, regarded them as two
accessory or lateral eyes in Phalangium opilio, Linn. (P. parie-
tinum, De Geer)t. The external orifices of the sacs were
taken by him for the cornez of these supposed eyes, although
Latreille several years before had recognized their true nature,
but certainly referred to them, without any clearly apparent

* Leydig, “Zur Anatomie der Insekten,” Miiller’s Archiv, 1859, p. 69

et seq., pl. 2. fig. 19 (Musca vomitoria) and pl. 3. fig. 26 (Tabanus bovinus).:
+ G. R. Treviranus, Vermischte Schriften, vol. i. p. 25.

90 Dr. C. Collingwood on the Distribution of Species of

reason, as stigmata. This opinion is still maintained by several
recent observers, especially Leydig* and Meadet. As regards
Tulk, there is nothing in his well-known memoir f differing
essentially from the opinion of 'Treviranus§.

XIV.— Observations on the Distribution of some Species of
Nudibranchiate Mollusca in the China Sea. By Dr. C.
CoLLinawoop, F.L.S8.

In my rambles upon numerous beaches on the coast of China,
Formosa, Labuan, Singapore, &c., I always kept my eyes
open for the species of these often beautiful animals; and being
tolerably well acquainted with their habitats and the character
of the most likely localities for meeting with them, I was in
hopes of making a large collection of perhaps new species
from these seas. In point, however, of the number of species
that rewarded my search I was disappointed, and not a little
surprised at the paucity of individuals and the rarity of
species. I expected to find such animals m abundance
upon tropical shores; whereas, although day after day I
have searched for them, it has been only now and then that
I have been rewarded by finding one. The shores of these
regions, so far as I have had opportunity of examining them,
are less fertile in species than those of our own country ; and
whether this arises from the season of the year at which my
examination has been made, or from local circumstances, I

* “Zum feineren Bau der Arthropoden,” Miiller’s Archiv, 1855, p. 433.

+ “Monograph on the British Species of Phalangiide,” Ann. & Mag.
Nat. Hist. ser. 2. vol. xv. p. 395.

t “On the Anatomy of Phalangium Opilio,” Annals of Natural His-
tory, ser. 1. vol. xii. p. 153.

§ I may be permitted to notice here a matter somewhat beside the
present question. In the same volume of the ‘ Annals and Magazine of
Natural History’ (ser. 3. vol. xvi.) in which the translation of my memoir
on the male generative organs of the Phalangude appeared, there is a
short notice by Sir John Lubbock, in which he indicates that four years
previously, in a memoir published in the ‘Philosophical Transactions,’ he
had explained the same subject in a manner essentially agreeing with my
observations. Mr. Lubbock was kind enough to send me this important
memoir (Notes on the Generative Organs of the Annulosa, /. c. 1861,

. 610), which had been overlooked by me ; and from it I certainly per-
ceive that Lubbock is perfectly justified in claiming the priority with
respect to the correct interpretation of the previously misunderstood
testis and the proof of its connexion with the vas deferens through the
two canals which I indicated in my paper as vasa efferentia. The same
memoir also contains some indications of the structure of the accessory
sexual glands, in the cells. of which, I may remark in passing, I have
lately met with a vacuoliform cavity besides the nucleus.

Nudibranchiate Mollusca in the China Sea. 91

know not; but this I do know, that it has not been for want
of diligent search, made day after day under a tropical sun,
the result of which was that I have counted one a prize, the
more valued from its infrequency.

The first time I had an opportunity of ransacking a new
shore was at Aden, where I procured three specimens of what
is most probably the Bornella digitata of Adams, a very beau-
tiful species, which Mr. Adams discovered in the Straits of
Sunda, when voyaging in the ‘Samarang.’ It also occurs
among the Madras Nudibranchs collected by Sir Walter Elliot,
and described in the ‘Zoological Transactions’ by Messrs. Alder
and Hancock. On both these, the only other occasions on
which they have been met with, two or three specimens only
were found. ‘Thus we have this little animal extending from
side to side of the Indian Ocean, and occurring also at an
intermediate station, on the Coromandel coast.

On some rocks im the middle of Hongkong Harbour I
searched in vain, although I had been informed that some
species were to be found there; and my informant having
conducted me to the spot, we were both equally unsuccessful.
Almost the next place which I had any opportunity of exa-
mining was the basaltic rocks of Makung Harbour, in the
Island of Ponghou, Pescadores archipelago. These shores
were remarkably barren of most classes of marine animals ;
but I was here fortunate enough to meet with a specimen of
an extremely richly coloured species of Dorts, which Mr. Han-
cock tells me he believes to be like the Doris Barnardii of
Kelaart, a MS. species which he met with on the shores of
Ceylon. This species, probably a species of Chromodoris (A.
& H.), is marked with deep-blue and yellow spots upon a
light-blue ground, the tentacles and branchie being of a bright
vermilion. It is a question at present whether this species be
really the Ceylon species of Kelaart; but it is certain that I
afterwards met with the same species on two occasions upon
the shores of Labuan, separated from the first locality by the
whole extent of the China Sea, or about 20° of latitude. A
very minute species, of a scarlet colour, measuring only one-
eighth of an inch in length, I found also in Makung Harbour ;
but its minuteness did not prevent me from meeting with it
again afterwards upon the coast of China, about 150 miles
further north.

In Formosa, Kelung Harbour (on the north-east side) was
the only place I was able to examine; and here the result of
numerous searches among the sandstone and coral rocks was
but three (new) species—one a small blue Doris, but the other
two of greater interest. Both of them were remarkably beau-

92 Dr. C. Collingwood on the Distribution of Species of

tiful species; but one of them possesses especial interest as
probably representing a new genus of swimming Nudibranchs,
its natation being performed by a vertical or up-and-down
motion, and not, like that of Bornella, by a lateral, vermicular
movement. I met with neither of these species, nor the next
to be mentioned, on any other occasion.

When dredging about 170 miles to the north-east of For-
mosa, in 60 fathoms water, amidst a mass of delicate branch-
ing corals &c., I obtained a glorious new species of Chromo-
doris, translucent, of a rich amethystine tint, with yellow ten-
tacles and branchie. And I may be permitted to mention
that at the same time and place I obtained large specimens of
Orbitolites and a Cycloclypeus, only inferior in size to those
dredged by Sir E. Belcher on the coast of Borneo, my speci-
men being one inch and three-quarters in diameter.

On a small island in Haitan Straits, on the coast of China,
I met with five species. One of these I have already alluded
to as having also occurred in the Pescadores. Of the remaining
four, found upon a promising stony beach at spring tide, one
was a large velvety-brown Doridopsis, the second a small
Euplocamus, or, perhaps, Plocamophorus, and the other two
were richly coloured species of Chromodoris. Of these, one,
studded with round crimson tubercles upon a cream-coloured
ground edged with chrome, I afterwards found to be not un-
common at Labuan, not only on the shores of Labuan itself,
but also on two small islands adjacent—another instance of
rather more than twenty degrees of separation, nearly the
whole of the China Sea being between the two localities.

On a submerged coral-reef, nearly in the centre of the China
Sea, I found two species: one was probably a new species of
Chromodoris, and the other a variety of the Doris exanthemata
of Kelaart, described by him in the ‘ Annals’ for 1859, among
the Ceylon Nudibranchs. The specimen I obtained upon this
reef was small, about 3 inches long, and by no means an
ugly object; but upon a small coral-island on the west coast
of Borneo, 74 degrees south of the reef, I again met with
this species—this time, however, much larger specimens,
nearly 7 inches long and 43 wide, which were truly wretched-
looking objects for Nudibranchs, and much more like the
“loathsome diseased mass” described by Kelaart.

When I was at Labuan, on showing some of my drawings
of the above Nudibranchs to a gentleman who had indulged
in shell-collecting on the reefs, I was assured that many beau-
tiful species of the family were to be found there ; and I there-
fore was greatly in hopes of adding largely to my collection
at this place. The first species which occurred to me was,

Nudibranchiate Mollusca in the China Sea. 93

singularly enough, the Chromodoris which I had already found
at the Pescadores; the next I recognized as an old acquaint-
ance of Haitan Straits, and I began to think there was nothing
new—in Labuan at least; but I ultimately discovered a new
species of Doris, beautifully marked with longitudinal lines
alternately nearly black and white, the tentacles and branchiz
being also mottled to match this colouring, the whole mantle
and foot having a border of orange. This species was at that
season of the year (August) pretty common; and I found it
at Labuan, and also on both the small adjacent islands before
mentioned.

The gentleman who had described to me the appearance of
certain species which he ayerred having seen in his shell-
collecting rambles, kindly accompanied me to the spot; and
we both searched in every direction, but without success, and
I was obliged to leave them to my successors to discover and
bring to light. Probably it was not the right season. Upon
one of the small islands I met with a large mottled-grey and
tuberculated Dorid, 4 inches long, with capacious tentacles and
expansive gill-tufts (not unlike Doris tuberculata), which exhi-
bited a singular habit. Several specimens which I took home
for examination, after a short time performed a spontaneous
amputation of the mantle close round the body, as cleanly as
if done with a pair of scissors, after which they soon decayed.
At first I was inclined to attribute this circumstance to a large
Pyrula, which was in the same vessel; but having removed
the other specimens into a separate vessel of clean water until
I should have time to attend to them, I found the next day
that they also had amputated their mantles. It appeared in-
deed to be a suicidal act, produced probably by the fouling of
the water, and analogous perhaps to the breaking-up of Coma-
tule and the self-evisceration of Holothuric.

At Singapore I found a variety of Doridopsis rubra, a fine
rose-coloured species which occurs among the Ceylon Nudi-
branchs of Kelaart, and also among the Madras Nudibranchs
described by Messrs. Alder and Hancock, and is perhaps syno-
nymous with a Cuvierian species, Doris solea. It is not a
little curious and interesting to find such small and delicate
animals existing in places separated by so many hundreds
(and, in some instances, thousands) of miles of trackless ocean ;
and there seems scarcely any limit to the geographical range
of these creatures, which evidently require abundant food,
whose locomotive powers are very limited, and whose soft
bodies are ill calculated to resist much rough treatment by the
waves. Probably their dispersion has mainly been effected
by their multitudinous ova; and yet in many cases their

Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser.4. Vol.i.

94 Mr. F. P. Pascoe on the Names applied

ribands of spawn are fixed to stones and rocks, and compara-
tively rarely to substances which could be easily transported
by the waters. Although indeed we may be acquainted with
or may easily imagine numerous methods of dispersal and dis-
tribution, there must evidently be many others we do not
dream of, which are nevertheless common and effective.

I need hardly add that I have careful drawings, as well as
specimens, of all the above-mentionedspecies of Nudibranchiata,
which I hope to be able to publish at some future day. They
have already (the drawings at least) had the advantage of
being inspected by Mr. A. Hancock, who has kindly given me
some valuable hints concerning them.

14 Gloucester Place, Greenwich, 8.E.

XV.—Remarks on the Names applied to the British Hemiptera
Heteroptera. By Francis P. Pascos, F.L.S. &e.

Messrs. Douauas and Scott having kindly undertaken to pre-
pare for the Entomological Society a list of British Hemiptera,
I should like to make a few observations on the names adopted
by them, or rather on the principles which led to their adoption,
in their well-known work*. In no other order of Insects is
there so great a discrepancy in the nomenclature—Fieber, Flor,
Dallas, Barensprung, Dohrn, and others agreeing only to differ.
It will therefore be useful, I think, to examine the causes which,
to a certain extent, have led to this result. The study of the
Hemiptera is limited at present to comparatively few ento-
mologists; and until “unnecessary genera”’ shall have been
ignored by common consent, no uniformity can be hoped for.
Putting this cause aside as one that will gradually disappear,
there remain two faulty principles at work, and, singularly
enough, among hemipterologists only, viz.:—(1) the applica-
tion of the generic names of the older authors to obscure, some-
times extra-European species, instead of to the larger number
of better-known species which those authors must have had
most prominently before them, thus rendering the use of new
names necessary ; and (2) giving new names to such genera
as were formed by the union of two or more genera of a pre-
ceding writer.

As an example of the first of these principles, we will take
the old name of Cimex, under which Linnzus was content to

* The British Hemiptera, vol. i.: Hemiptera-Heteroptera. 1865 (Ray

pon
+ I have not quoted this author because he uses a trinomial nomencla-
ture which is rather difficult to explain.

to the British Hemiptera Heteroptera. 95

include all the Hemiptera Heteroptera known to him, putting
C. lectularius at their head. Fabricius, who seems to have
delighted in capricious changes, then applied it to various
forms of Scutelleride, Pentatomide, &c., Fieber eventually
retaining it for Pentatoma vernale and its allies prasinum and
dissimile : but it is rejected altogether by Messrs. Douglas and
Scott as well as by H. H. Dohrn, Flor, and Barensprung. In
its old classical sense, as Linnzeus doubtless intended it, it
keeps its place in the works of Latreille, Westwood, Blanchard,
Gerstaecker, and apparently in most authors conversant with
general entomology. With one exception, that can be satis-
factorily accounted for and need not be explained here, there
is not a single Linnean genus, so far as I know, in the whole
animal kingdom, that has not been adopted by zoologists ; and
the rule has been, apparently, to take the best-known species,
which have been generally the commonest, as the types of
the illustrious Swede. Why the Fabrician name Acanthia*
should have been preferred, it is difficult to say, seeing that
species belonging to various modern genera are included under
it, and therefore that it is as indefinite (if that be the objection)
as the Linnean Cimex. In the same way Cydnus, Fab., has been
discarded entirely by Messrs. Douglas and Scott, who refer the
single British species retained under that name by Dr. Fieber
to Sehirus of Amyot and Serville, who in their turn get rid of
Cydnus by applying it to an obscure Indian insect. Again,
Mr. Dallas, im his British Museum List, gives the name of
Aithus to the Cydnus as understood by Fieber, and applies
Cydnus to another genus—Brachypelta. Dr.Gerstaecker takes
C. morio as the type, a species placed by Fieber under Sehirus,
and by Biarensprung, who adopts the latter genus, under Cyd-
nus: the difference between the two genera cannot be very
ereat; and Sehirus, therefore, may as well sink. Tetyra, another
Fabrician genus, is converted into Hurygaster by Dr. Fieber,
who is followed by Messrs. Douglas and Scott: Drs. Gerst-

* Looking a little further into this genus Acanthia, we find that Fabri-
cius proposed it in 1794 in his Ent. Syst., Crimea lectularius, the first spe-
cies, being followed by forty-four more ; in 1803, in his Syst. Rhyng., he
confines it to two species, the first keeping its place and a new one added,
the rest being dispersed. But in 1796, Latreille, in his Précis de Caract.
&c., had so defined the genus as to limit it to the species for which Fabri-
cius afterwards proposed the name of Salda. Furthermore, Latreille, in
his Hist. Nat. des Crust. et des Ins. (published in 1802), redescribes_the
genus, giving Acanthia zostere (Fabricius’s second species in the Ent.
Syst.) as the type, leaving the first as the true type of Cimezx. In.this he
was followed by Germar, Curtis, and Westwood, Salda to them being a
synonym of Acanthia. It would be increasing the confusion if it were
now attempted to restore Acanthia to the place to which its priority en-
titles it; the best that can be done is to drop it altogether.

se

96 On Names applied to the British Hemiptera Heteroptera.

aecker and Biirensprung, as well as Prof. Westwood, adopt
the older name, with 7. maura as the type. Asopus, Bur-
meister (a collective name for genera not otherwise admitted
by its author), having for its type the well-known Zcrona
cerulea, is limited by Dr. Fieber to one of the three species
forming Hahn’s genus Arma—A. lurida; by Birensprung it
is applied to Cimex punctatus, Linn. (Rhacognathus, Fieb.), a
British species, and by Dohrn to two extra-Huropean forms.
Fieber, in his generic table, uses the word “ Podisus,” which
would have been unobjectionable if the genus (which is very
slightly differentiated from Arma by the comparative length
of the joints of the antennz) is to stand; it does not, however,
seem likely to do so.

As examples of the second principle, I may mention the
following :—1. Hypnophilus, a new name for the combined
genera Macrodema and Ischnocoris, neither of which -appears to
be satisfactorily differentiated from Pterotmetus, Amy. & Serv.;
indeed Dr. Dohrn (erroneously, I think) includes them under
Rhyparochromus. 2. Lopomorphus, combining Acetropis (in
pt.) and Leptopterna, Fieb. 3. Litosoma, a collective name
for four of Fieber’s genera. 4. Sphyracephalus (since changed,
the name having been preoccupied) for two more genera.
5. Idolocoris, the same. It would also be satisfactory to know
why Mr. Scott’s Monosynamma was discarded for Neocoris,
and Macrophysa, Westw., was rejected for the later name of
Zygonotus. Whether Allodapus and Halticus should be changed
because of a prior Allodape and Haltica, respectively, is a matter
of opinion; if the objection is a valid one, then numerous changes
in all branches of natural history are inevitable—the change of
three at least of Messrs. Douglas and Scott’s above-mentioned
genera among them (Hypnophilus, Litosoma, and Neocoris).

Another most unaccountable perversity is the substitution
by so many entomologists of Hydrometra for Gerris. The
latter name was first used by Fabricius in 1794 (Ent. Syst.) ;
in 1796 Latreille, in his ‘ Précis,’ separated one of the species
(Cimex stagnorum, Linn.) under the name of Hydrometra* ;
and this genus was afterwards more systematically treated in
his ‘ Histoire’ (1802). But in 1803 Fabricius (Syst. Rhyng.)
quietly appropriates this name for the greater part of the spe-
cies which he had formerly placed under Gerris, the latter
being reserved for a few, mostly exotict species. He still,

* Gerris is very clearly separated (inter alia) from Hydrometra by the
“four posterior legs long, the anterior short” (p. 86).

+ One common European species (now Plearva vagabunda) was retained
in the altered condition of Gerris, and, according to the general rule alluded
to above, this was considered by Burmeister to represent the true Gerris

Mr. A. G. Butler on the Cocytus Group of Adolias. 97

however, saw no objection to keeping two forms so very dis-
tinct (Fieber refers them to different families) as Hydrometra
stagnorum and his old Gerrides in the same genus and thus
entirely ignoring Latreille’s more critical acumen, although
he was perfectly aware of the fact, as he adds, under Hydro-
metra stagnorum, “ Hydrometra Latr. Ins.” Dr. Fieber quotes
Hydrometra, “ Fab. S. R. Gen. 37,” Gerris being added as a
synonym, which it certainly is not if the “S. R.” is to be also
quoted for it. In the midst of all this most unnecessary con-
fusion, Dr. Burmeister slips in with a new name (Limnobates)
for this Cimex = Gerris = Hydrometra stagnorum. If anything
like a law of priority is to be retained, Zydrometra must be
confined to H. stagnorum, Gerris reverting to its original
members ; and this may be said for other names besides those
mentioned in these remarks, but which, as they do not apply
to British species, need not be examined here.

XVI.—Notes on the Sexes of the Cocytus Group of the Genus
Adolias. By A. G. Butuer, F.Z.S8.

SINCE writing my remarks upon Cocytus and its allies, I have
made a rather important discovery as regards the sexes of
some of the species of Adolias.

Dr. Felder (Wien. ent. Monatschr. v., December 1860) has
described the male of Moore’s A. Puseda; at the end of the
description he adds the following observation :—‘ Auctor hujus
speciei foeminam tantum cognovit et propter signaturas in sec-
tionem A. palunge, pulasare &c. palpis distinctissimam lo-
cavit. A. Cocytus Fabr. proxima autem ejus affinis est.’’
Moore should, however, have placed the Cocytus and Amba-
lika groups together, the former being the males of the latter.

I had previously separated the sexes, both male and female,
as being possibly distinct species; and now that I have been
enabled to match them, I find that in almost every case we
received the opposite sexes together, and from the same collec-
tions ; a comparison of the underside markings shows similar
modifications of pattern in both sexes. The following altera-
tions will therefore have to be made in this genus :—

1. g. Adolias Cocytus, Fabricius.
29. Adolias Gopia? var., Moore.
Siam (Fabr.); Assam. f ?, B.M.

in its, for the second time, contracted sense. Except for this what is now
with all entomologists a synonym, Gerrits would disappear with these au-
thors altogether from the European list.

98 Mr. A.G. Butler on the Cocytus Group of Adolias.

2. 3. Adolias Blume?, Vollenh.
9. Adolias (ambalika, var., of Moore).
Borneo, ¢ 2°, B.M.

3. 9. Adolias puseda, Moore.
g. Adolias Cocyta, Fabricius.

Singapore; Penang; East Indies. ¢ 9, B.M.

The opposite sexes of the following known species may be
characterized as follows :—

4, Adolias ambalika, Moore.

3. Als supra obscure fusce ; anticee paulum falcatee, maculis obso-
letis subviolaceis discoideis a lituris consuetis nigris limitatis ;
margine externo anali ceruleo, violaceo tincto: postice area ex-
terna ad cellam fere cerulea, violaceo tincta ; apice roseo tincto ;
margine ipso tenuissime nigro, ciliis niveis.

Ale subtus ochracee: antice lineis consuetis discoideis nigris, stria
media undata pallide fusca angulari, altera discali obscuriore
obliqua sexmaculari: postice lineis nullis discoideis; striis dua-
bus disvalibus approximatis indistinctis undatis fuscis.

Exp, alar. unc. 23.

@. A. ambalika, Moore, Trans. Ent. Soc. (1859) p. 74, pl. 5. fig. 3.

Collected by H. Lowe. Borneo. ¢ 9, B.M.

§..Adolias Diardi, Vollenhoven.

g. Ale supra fere velut in A. Blumei Voll. g , sed paulum breviores.

Ale subtus olivaceo-ochracee : antics area interna et macula apicali
violaceis : postice lineis consuetis discoideis, lineis discalibus magis
approximatis et velut in foemina dentatis; aliter velut in amba-
lika 8.

@. A. Diardi, Vollenhoven, Tijdschrift voor Entomologie (1862),
p. 188. n. 8, pl. 10. fig. 2.

Collected by Capt. Brooke. Borneo. ¢ 2, B.M.

2a. Adolias Blumei, Vollenhoven.

3. A. Blumei, Vollenhoven, Tijdschr. voor Ent. (1862), p. 204. n. 30,
pl. 12. figs. 3, 4.

2. Ale magne, supra fusce, velut in ambalika 9 fere scripte, ma-
culis albis autem fusco nebulosis; disco subanali anticarum et
disco medio posticarum velut in Gopia 9 ceruleo tinctis.

Alz subtus velut in A. Diardi fere scripte sed multo obscuriores ; area
externa fusca, maculis posticarum multo magis regularibus, et ad
angulum ani violaceo paulum tinctis.

Exp. alar. unc. 3%.

From two different Collections. Borneo. ¢ 92, B.M.

Dr. J. E. Gray on the Fur- and Hair-Seals. 99

6. Adolias cocytina, Horsfield.

3. A. Cocytina, Horsfield, Zoological Journal (1855), p. 67, pl. 4.
figs. 3, 3a.

?. Ale supra velut in A. G'opia scripte ; minores, maculis discalibus
anticarum albis fusco magis tinctis, posticarum punctiformibus.
Alze subtus magis ochracez, maculis inferioribus discalibus anticarum
magis elongatis; serie macularum in posticis magis ad marginem

approximantibus ; aliter velut in A. GopiaQ. :

Purchased of Mr. Stevens. Sumatra. ¢ ?, B.M.

XVII.— Observations on Sea-Bears (Otariade), and especially
on the Fur-Seals and Hair-Seals of the Falkland Islands
and Southern America. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S.,
VE Zs, 1. ce.

THE Sea-Bears (Otariade) inhabit the more temperate and
colder parts of the southern hemisphere, and the temperate
and more northern regions of the Pacific Ocean.

Navigators, from the general external resemblance of the
animals, have regarded the Sea-Lion and Sea-Bear of the
northern and southern regions as the same animal. Pennant
(who paid considerable attention to Seals) and most modern
zoologists did the same.

Nilsson, in his excellent Monograph of the Seals, only men-
tions three species of Hared Seal :—1. Otaria jubata, 2. O. ur-
sina, and 3. O. australis. He believed that the first was
common to the Falkland Islands, Chile, Brazil, New Holland,
and Kamtschatka, and the second to Magellan’s Straits, Pata-
gonia, New Holland, and the Cape. We now know that the
species have a very limited geographical distribution.

When I published my ‘Catalogue of the Seals in the British
Museum,’ in 1850, I was satisfied from Steller’s description
that the species he described from the arctic regions were dis-
tinct from those found in the southern seas; and when I at
last succeeded in obtaining specimens and skulls from the
northern regions of the Pacific, I not only found that my idea
was confirmed, but that they did not even belong to the same
genera. I had the skulls of these species figured in the ‘ Pro-
ceedings of the Zoological Society’ for 1859, and thus greatly
extended the knowledge of the animals. But there is yet much
to be learnt respecting them. We do not know the species
of Fur-Seal described by Forster as inhabiting the coast of
New Zealand.

As a proof of how little the Eared Seals or Sea-Bears were
formerly understood, we have only to refer to Fischer’s ‘ Syn-

100 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Fur- and Hair-Seals

opsis,’ where, after quoting the description of Forster’s Sea-
Bear in Cook’s Voyage, and his figures in the Supplement to
to Buffon, vi. p. 536, t. 47, Fischer adds, as a note, ‘“‘ An non
potius generi Lnhydris adnumeranda?” (see p. 232).

The skull of these animals changes so much in form as the
animal arrives at adult and old age, that it is not always easy
to determine the species by it, unless you have a series
of them, of different ages and states, to compare. Thus Dr.
Peters, in his revision of the genus after the publication of my
Catalogue and figures of the skulls in the ‘ Voyage of the Erebus
and Terror’ and in the‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society,’
formed no less than five species from the skulls of the southern
Sea-Lion (Otaria jubata)—O. jubata, O. Byronia, O. leonina
O. Godeffroyt, and O, Ulloe,—referring the first four to the
subgenus Otaria, and the last to Phocarctos (see Monatsbericht,
May 1866, pp. 265, 270). In his second essay, published a few
months later (¢bid. Nov. 1866), after his visit to London, he
placed them all together in one subgenus (Otaria), and seems,
by the way in which he has numbered four of them, to doubt
their distinctness. It would have been better if he had at once
simply reduced them to synonyms (as they must be reduced)
and included with them O. Ulloe, which 1s only the skull of
a young specimen, such as was called O. molossina, Lesson &
Garnot. I may observe that I had shown in my first ‘ Cata-
logue of Seals’ (1850), from the examination of the typical
skull, that two or three. of these nominal species were only
very old or young skulls of the southern Sea-Lion.

It is the character of the Eared Seals or Otariade to have a
very close, soft under-fur between the roots of the longer and
more rigid hairs. They are therefore called Fur-Seals by the
sealers, and are hunted for their skin as well as for their oil.
The quantity and fineness of the under-fur differ in the various
species ; and the skin and under-fur bear a price in the market
according to the country and the species from which they are
obtained.

Some species of the family have so little under-fur when
they arrive at adult age, that they are of no value in the
market to be made into ‘seal-skins;” these are therefore
called Haitr-Seals by the sealers. They are only collected for
the oil, as the skins are of comparatively little value.

The skins of the Fur-Seal are much used in China, and are
more or less the fashion in this country, sometimes being far
more expensive than at others. The skins of the Hair-Seals
are only used, like the skins of the Earless Seals or Phocide,
for very inferior purposes, as covering boxes, knapsacks, &c.;
but the animals are much sought after for the oil they afford.

of the Falkland Islands and Southern America. 101

The furs of the different species of Fur-Seals are exceedingly
different in external appearance, especially in the younger
specimens, or when the fur is in its most perfect condition. In
most species the hairs are much longer than the under-fur ;
they are flat and more or less rigid and crisp. In others the
hairs are short, much softer, scarcely longer than the soft
woolly under-fur; in these species the fur is very dense, stand-
ing nearly erect from the skin, forming a very soft elastic coat,
as in O. falklandicus and O. Steller’. The hair of O. nigres-
cens 1s considerably longer than that of O. cinerea, but not so
harsh, the fur of the half-grown O. nigrescens being longer,
sparse, flat, rather curled at the end, giving a crispness to
the feel; while the hairs of the very young specimens are
abundant, nearly of equal length, forming an even coat that is
soft and smooth to the touch.

Difficult as it is for the zoologist to distinguish the species
by their external appearance, the skins of the different species
of Fur-Seals are easily distinguished by the dealers, even
when they are wet, showing that the practical fellmonger is in
advance of the scientific man in such particulars, as the dealers
in whalebone were in regard to the distinction of the species of
whale by their baleen (see Zool. Erebus & Terror).

At the Dyster, Nalden, & Co. public sale of Cape Fur-Seals
they are subdivided into large, middling, and small “ wigs”
(these are males with a mane), ‘ middlings” and “ smalls”
(females and young males), large, middling, and small “ pups”
(these are half-grown), and black “pups” (very young ani-
mals). They are imported salted in casks.

The longer hairs of the Fur-Seals are very slender and
pale-coloured at the basal half of their length, and thicker and
darker at the upper half, and often have a white tip. The
basal half is subeylindrical, the upper half is flat, tapering at
each end. The absolute length of the hairs and the length as
compared with the length of the under-fur differ in the various
species. Judging from the old and young specimens of A.ni-
grescens, the hairs seem to be longer, both absolutely and rela-
tively to the under-fur, in the young than in the adult animals.
The hairs of the Hair-Seal are shorter, flat, channelled
above, and gradually tapering from the base to the tip, merely
contracted at the insertion into the skin. The breadth of the
hairs seems to vary in the different species ; and in the younger
specimens there are to be observed some soft hairs like the
under-fur of the Fur-Seals.

The Falkland Islands is a sealing-station, and is the home
of several species, the southern Sea-Bear (Otaria jubata)
and a Hair-Seal (O. Hooker?) being found there, as well as the

102 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Fur- and Hair-Seals

two Fur-Seals for which the “ fishery” is chiefly established.
Capt. Abbot says that the Fur-Seals of the Falkland Islands
are of various colours—some grey, others blackish. There are
in the British Museum two most distinct species of Fur-Seal
from the Falklands, which must be of very different value,—
one the Otaria falklandica of Shaw, and the other O. nigrescens.

All the five species of Sea-Bears or Eared Seals found in
South America have been called O. falklandica. I will
proceed to distinguish them.

I. Pennant describes the “ Falkland-Island Seal,” from a spe-
cimen 4 feet long, in the museum of the Royal Society, thus :—
“Hair short, cmereous, tipped with dirty white ;” “ grinders
conoid, with a small process on one side near the base.” It is
to this description that Dr. Shaw applied the name of Phoca
falklandica (Gen. Zool. i. 256). This agrees with a speci-
men in the Museum in all particulars. It certainly is not the
dark blackish-brown Seal which I have described as the Avcto-
cephalus nigrescens, and which Dr. Peters calls O. falklandica.

A specimen of a Seal about 3 feet long has been in the
British Museum for several years. It was obtained from a
dealer as a Fur-Seal from the Falkland Islands. This skin is
mentioned in the ‘ Catalogue of Seals in the British Museum,’
at page 43, as Arctocephalus falklandicus, or “ the skin of an
adult female without skull,” believing that it was similar to
the specimen of the Falkland Seal that was in the Leverian
Museum, described by Pennant as above quoted, to which
description Shaw appended the name of Phoca falklandica.

Mr. R. Hamilton, in the ‘Annals of Natural History’ for
1838, vol. ii. p. 81, t.4, gives a history of the Fur-Seal of
commerce and an account of the catching of them. He depo-
sited two female specimens of this Seal im the Museum of the
University of Edinburgh. He says the two specimens are
nearly alike in every respect, and describes them thus :—‘‘ The
hair 1s very soft, smooth, and compact, of a brownish-black
colour towards the roots and a greyish-white towards the tips;
it extends considerably beyond the fur, and gives the general
colouring to the hide. The fur itself is uniform brownish
white above, and of a somewhat deep brown colour beneath,
and is quite wanting on the extremities. The colour of the
body is of a uniform whitish grey above, passing gradually
underneath into a reddish-white colour, which is deepest in the
abdominal region.” This is certainly the Falkland Seal of
Pennant. Capt. Weddell says that the males of the Fur-Seals
are much larger than the females, an adult male measuring
62 feet, and the female not more than 33 feet in length.

of the Falkland Islands and Southern America. 108

1. Arctocephalus falklandicus.

Fur very soft, elastic; hairs very short, exceedingly close,
slender at the base, thicker above, with close reddish under-
fur nearly as long as the hair; the upper surface pale, nearly
uniform grey, minutely punctulated with white; hairs brown,
upper half black, with minute white tips. The nose, cheeks,
temples, throat, chest, sides, and underside of the body yellowish
white.

Falkland Seal, Penn. Quad. ii.

Phoca Falklandica, Shaw, Gen. Zool. i. p. 256 (from Pennant).

Otaria Falklandica, Desm. Mamm. 252 (from Pennant ; not Peters or Bur-
meister).

Otaria Shawivi, Lesson, Dict. Class. V’H. N. xiii. p. 424 (from Pennant).

Arctocephalus Falklandicus, Gray, Cat. Mamm. in Brit. Mus., Seals, p. 42.

Fur-Seal of commerce (Otaria falklandica), Hamilton, Ann. & Mag. Nat.
Hist. 1838, ii. p. 81, t. 4; Jardine, Nat. Lib. vi. p. 271, t. 25 (not Peters).

Hab. Falkland Islands. Brit. Mus.

This is a most distinct species, and easily known from all
the other Fur-Seals in the British Museum by the evenness,
shortness, closeness, and elasticity of the fur, and the length of
the under-fur. The fur is soft enough to wear as a rich fur,
without the removal of the longer hairs, which are always
removed in the other Fur-Seals. Unfortunately the specimen
is without any skull; and therefore I cannot give a description
of the teeth, or refer it to any of the restricted genera of Otariade.

In the British Museum there is a skull of a young Arcto-
cephalus (No. 311 a) like the skull of Capt. Abbot’s specimen,
but ina much younger state. It was presented to the Museum
by Sir John Richardson as the “skull of the Fur-Seal from
the Falklands.” The teeth in the skull belonging to Capt.
Abbot’s skin are much larger than they are in the one received
from Sir John Richardson. The fifth or last grinder in the series
of the lower jaw, that was being developed, but which had not
yet cut the gums or been raised above the alveolus, is divided
into three lobes, the middle lobe being the largest and most
external, the lateral ones being on the inner side of it. In Sir
John Richardson’s specimen, the same tooth in the lower jaw
is triangular, compressed, with regular, sloping, sharp-edged
sides, and has only a small lobe on the lower part of the
hinder edge, which is on the same plane as the rest of the
tooth. It looks like the skull of a large species. The tento-
rium of this skull of a young animal is well developed and bony.
If the habitat assigned to this skull is the correct one (and
I have no reason to doubt it), itis probably the skull of a very
young Arctocephalus falklandicus, with the grey back and
white underside: it is certainly not the skull of A. nigrescens.

104 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Fur- and Hair-Seals

Cuvier (Ossem. Fossiles, v. p. 220) describes an Eared Seal,
purchased of M. Hauville, of Havre, as coming from the Falk-
land Islands, thus :—‘‘ Elle est longue de quatre pieds deux
pouces, d’un cendré en dessous, blanchatre aux flancs et sous la
poitrine, une bande d’un brun rouge régne le long du dessous du
ventre et une bande noiratre va transversalement d’une na-
geoire 4 l'autre.” It has been called Otaria Hauvillit (Lesson,
Dict. Class. xii. 425) and Phoca Hauvillii (Fischer, Syn.
Mamm. 254). Cuvier adds that this specimen has been indicated
by M. de Blainville (Journ. de Phys. xci. p. 298) under the
name of Otarte de Péron. This animal is probably the same
as the one mentioned by Pennant, and in the British Museum.
The streaks on the lower part of the body were probably only
an accidental or individual variation. The specimen in the
British Museum is uniform white below, without any indica-
tion of a longitudinal streak or cross band.

II. The British Museum contains the skin and skull of a large
blackish Eared Seal, nearly 6 feet long, that was purchased
of a dealer as ‘a Fur-Seal from the Falkland Islands ;” but,
as the dealers seem always to give that as the habitat for all
the seal-skins with a distinct under-coat that come into their
possession, I have quoted the habitat with doubt. When oc-
cupied in describing the Seals of the southern hemisphere for
the ‘ Voyage of the Erebus and Terror,’ I named this Seal
Arctocephalus nigrescens, and had the skull figured under that
name; but the plate has not yet been published, though copies
of it have been given to Dr. Peters and other zoologists. In
the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society’ for 1859, pp. 109,
360, and in the ‘ Catalogue of Seals and Whales,’ I described
the skull of this species. There is also in the Museum a skull
of a younger animal of the same species.

Capt. Abbot, in 1866, sent to the British Museum a large
and a small Seal from the Falkland Islands. The large one
was examined and determined to be the Southern Sea-Lion
(Otarta jubata). The small one, nearly three feet long, was
very similar in external appearance; and as the teeth, which
could be seen without extracting the skull, showed that it was
a young animal, it was regarded as the young of the Sea-Lion,
and it was stuffed without extracting the skull, and labelled as
such. This specimen has been examined by several zoologists,
among the rest by Dr. Peters, when engaged with his paper on
Eared Seals, and has passed unchallenged until this time, thus
showing how difficult it is to distinguish these animals by their
external characters alone. Capt. Abbot, who is now residing
in England, informed me that the smaller specimen was the

of the Falkland Islands and Southern America. 105

Fur-Seal of the Falkland Islands, that it grows to about half
as long again as the specimen sent, and that the old males are
grey from the tips of the hairs. I have therefore had the
skull extracted from the specimen ; and there is no doubt that
it is quite distinct from the Sea-Lion (Otarta jubata) ; and, on
more careful examination of the skin, I have little doubt, from
the colour and the character of the fur, that it is a young
specimen of the Seal that I described as Arctocephalus nigres-
cens. It is interesting as confirming the accuracy of the
habitat that I received: with that specimen, and which until
this time I considered doubtful, as Pennant and others de-
scribe the Falkland-Island Fur-Seal as grey, and white beneath.
Capt. Abbot’s young specimen chiefly differs from the adult
one in the Museum in the hairs being longer, more erect, and
with minute white tips, and in the face, throat, and chest
being rufous brown; but this reddish colour is common to the
young of several Sea-Bears.

Dr. Peters, on the authority of this habitat (which I have
always quoted with doubt), has given the name of Arctophoca
falklandica to the animal and skull on which I established
my Arctocephalus nigrescens.

In the British Museum there is the skin of a very young
Seal which was presented by Sir John Richardson as the
Falkland-Island Fur-Seal, with the observation appended
that the adult is 5 feet long, and its skin is worth fifteen
dollars. It is without its skull. The fur of this young Seal is
dark brown, reddish beneath, and very like that of the young
specimen sent by Capt. Abbot; but the hairs are smoother,
and the white tips to them are longer and more marked, giving
the animal a more grizzled appearance.

There is another young Hared Seal, very like the former,
which was received with General Hardwicke’s collection (who,
no doubt, purchased it of a dealer), said to have come from the
Cape of Good Hope. I suspect this habitat must be erroneous ;
for it is very unlike what I recollect of the young of the Cape
Hared Seals, which are called ‘‘ Black Dogs,” on account of
the blackness of their colour. Unfortunately we have no spe-
cimen of the latter in the Museum Collection. General Hard-
wicke’s specimen only differs from Sir John Richardson’s in
being less punctulated with white; fewer hairs have a white
tip, and the tip is shorter.

Both these young specimens differ from the half-grown one
obtained from Capt. Abbot in the fur being softer and smooth
to the touch ; and Capt. Abbot’s specimen differs from the adult
in the length and greater crispness of its fur, the fur of the
old one being harsh and hard and closer pressed.

106 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Fur- and Hair-Seals

2. Huotaria nigrescens, Gray,
Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1866, xviii. p. 236.

The synonymy of this species will be—

Arctocephalus nigrescens, Gray, Zool. Erebus and Terror, t.; P. Z. S. 1859
pp. 109, 860; Cat. Seals and Whales, p. 52; Gerrard, Cat. of Bone:
147,

p. 147.
Arctocephalus (Euotaria) nigrescens, Gray, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1866,

XVill. p. 236.
Otaria (Arctocephalus ?) Falklandica, Peters, Monatsh. 1866, p. 273.
Otarva (Arctophoca) Falklandica, Peters, Monatsb. 1866, p. 671.

Hab. Falkland Islands, Volunteer Rock (Capt. Abbot).

In the first essay, Dr. Peters places Phoca falklandica,
Shaw, and Otaria nigrescens together, with doubt, observing
that one was known from the skin and the other by the skull,
overlooking the fact that the name nzgrescens implied that
I had seen the colour of the fur, which was not that given
by Shaw to his animal; in his second essay, Dr. Shaw’s,
Dr. Burmeister’s, and my animal are all classed together with-
out any doubt.

The skull of Capt. Abbot’s Fur-Seal from the Falkland
Islands shows that it was a very young animal, which had
only developed its first grinders, the permanent series being
developed below them. ‘The tentorium is bony and well-
developed. The teeth are the same in position and number
as they are in the adult skull; and the upper ones, as far as
developed, are small and conical, except the fifth upper
grinder, which is largest, triangular, with a single subconical
lobe on the base of the hinder edge of the cone. The
lower canines are small, scarcely larger than the cutting-
teeth, which are nearly uniform in size. The lower grinders
are of a much larger size than the upper ones in the adult
skull, as if they belonged to the permanent series: they
are of the same form as the teeth in adult skulls; but the
central cone is higher and more acute, and the anterior and
posterior lobes at the base of the cone are more developed and
acute, the lobes of the last or fifth grinder being larger and
rather on the inner surface of the tooth.

The skull of Capt. Abbot’s animal is evidently not the same
as the skull of a young Eared Seal described and figured by
Dr. Burmeister as the skull of Arctocephalus falklandicus from
the mouth of the Rio de la Plata, in the Ann. & Mag. Nat.
Hist. ser. 3. vol. xviii. p. 99, t. 9, which, from the appearance
of the grinders, I suspect is the young skull of Phocarctos
Hookeri, the Hair-Seal of the Falkland Islands.

There is a considerable difference in the proportions of the
skull sent by Capt. Abbot from those of the one figured by

of the Falkland Islands and Southern America. 107

Dr. Burmeister. In Capt. Abbot’s specimen the brain-case
from the back edge of the orbit to the occiput is as long as the
length of the face from the same edge of the orbit to the end
of the nose. In Dr. Burmeister’s figure, the face from the
same point is much longer than the brain-case.

IIT. On the return of the ‘ Erebus’ and ‘ Terror,’ the British
Museum received from the Lords of the Admiralty several
skins of a Hair-Seal from the Falkland Islands and the Ant-
arctic Sea, of a brownish-grey colour and paler beneath, which
I described under the name of Arctocephalus Hookert, and
figured the skull. Unfortunately we had no very definite
habitat for some of the specimens. All the skins were preserved
in salt.

3. Phocarctos Hookert, Gray,

Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1866, xviii. p. 234.

Fur brown grey, slightly grizzled, pale, nearly white beneath ;
hairs short, close-pressed, rather slender, flattened, black, with
whitish tips, the tips becoming longer on the under part of
the sides; feet reddish or black; whiskers black or whitish.

Young pale yellow, varied with darker irregular patches ;
length 18 inches. B.M.

Arctocephalus Hookeri, Gray, Zool. Erebus and Terror, t. 14, 15 (skull) ;

Cat. Seals B. M. p. 45. £15; P. Z.S. 1859, pp. 109, 360; Cat. Seals
and Whales, B.M. p. 54.

Arctocephalus Falklandicus, Burmeister, Ann. & Mag. N. H. 1866, xviii. t. 9.
f. 1, 2,3, 4 (skull only).
Young or albino? entirely cream-coloured, about 2 feet
long.
Eared Seal, Pennant, Quad, ii. p. 278.
Phoca flavescens, Shaw, Gen. Zool. i. p. 260, t. 73 (from Pennant).
Hab. Falkland Islands.

Pennant, in his ‘ Quadrupeds,’ describes an Eared Seal, rather
more than 2 feet long, the whole body of which was covered
with longish hair of a whitish or cream-colour ; it was brought
from the Straits of Magellan, and preserved in Parkinson’s
Museum on the south side of Blackfriar’s Bridge (see ‘‘ Eared
Seal,’ Pennant’s Quad. ii. p. 278). Dr. Shaw, in his ‘ General
Zoology,’ gave the name of Phoca flavescens to this species,
and figured it (i. p. 260, t. 73).

This is very probably the young of the Hair-Seal of the
Falklands, described by me as Arctocephalus Hookert, which is
of a pale-yellowish colour. Pennant does not mention the
want of the under-fur.
~ Dr. Burmeister observes :—‘ We have in the Museum [at

108 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Fur- and Hair-Seals

Buenos Ayres] a young half-grown specimen [of Arctocephalus
falklandicus| nearly 3 feet in length. From this I have taken
the skull, of which I send you a description and drawings.”
(Ann. N. H. 1866, xviii. p. 99, t. 9. £1, 2,3, 4.) From the
comparison of the figures, and especially of the teeth and the
form of the palate, with our older skull of Arctocephalus Hooker,
T have little doubt that it is the skull of a specimen of that
species before the grinders were all developed. It is not the
skull of Otaria jubata, which the other specimen he called A.
falklandicus is, as proved by the form and position of the
hinder nasal openings. The figure of the young skull differs
from the older skull of A. Hooker? in the British Museum in
having a notch in the middle, while the older skull of A.
Hookeri has a conical prominence in the same place. Such
differences are found in skulls of Seals at different ages.

IV. In1865, a French sailor named Leconte, serving on board
the ‘ Paulina,’ of Buenos Ayres, brought to England a young
male Sea-Bear that was captured near Cape Horn, in the
month of June 1862. A female he had obtained shortly after-
wards had not survived to reach Europe. Having been pre-
viously shown in France, in England it was first exhibited
in the Cremorne Gardens, Leconte having taught it several
tricks, such as ascending a ladder, firing off a pistol, and
sitting in his lap and kissing him, rewarding it for each of
its tricks with a piece of fish. The animal was at length
purchased by the Zoological Society, and Leconte retained to
attend to it. It is well figured in the ‘ Illustrated London
News,’ the ‘ Boy’s own Book,’ and in the ‘ Proceedings of the
Zoological Society’ for 1866, p. 80.

The animal died in 1867; and Dr. Murie has undertaken
to give an account of its anatomy, which I look for with much
impatience, as I am not aware that the anatomy of the family
has ever been given. Leconte has been sent by the Society
to the Falkland Islands in hopes that he may bring to Europe
some other Seals of the southern hemisphere.

When I first saw this Seal, on account of its short fur, dark
colour, and yellow nape, I named it Otaria jubata; and it was
so named for a time in the Zoological Gardens; afterwards
Mr. Sclater determined it to be the Arctocephalus Hooker,
and figured it as such (P. Z. 8. 1866, p. 80), overlooking the
pale colour of the fur of that species.

Dr. Burmeister (Ann. Nat. Hist. 1866, xviii. p. 99) says -
the Sea-Lion ( Otaria jubata) and Arctocephalus falklandicus are
the only Seals “found in the Atlantic near the mouth of the
Rio de la Plata. They were formerly common on the small

of the Falkland Islands and Southern America. 109

islands at the mouth of the river,” the Islas de los Lobos (Islands
of Sea-wolves). ‘They not unfrequently come up as far as
Buenos Ayres, where I have twice seen full-grown living
specimens of A. falklandicus. Both of these were, I believe,
carried to France. ... They were kept here for a long time in
a large basin of fresh water; and I was one of the daily visitors
to these very interesting animals.

““We have in the Museum a young half-grown specimen,
nearly 3 feet in length.” He figures the skull of this specimen,
which is evidently the skull of a Phocarctos Hookert.

The two living specimens mentioned are doubtless those
which Leconte brought to Europe.

I have, since this paper was commenced, received the skull
of the specimen that died in the Gardens, and find that it is a
half-grown, rather stunted Otarta jubata, and may be thus
described :—

Fur dark brown; cheeks, temples, and sides of forehead black;
neck greyish brown; back of the neck yellow brown; belly
dusky black. Hairs flat, tapering, dark brown, yellow, and
whitish intermixed, without any under-fur.

The following synonyms may be added to those of the spe-
cies in the ‘ Catalogue of Seals and Whales :—

Sea-Bear, Illustrated London News; Boy’s Own Book.

Otaria jubata, Label in Zool. Gardens, 1865.

Otaria Hookert, Sclater, P. Z.S. 1866, p. 80 (figure, young male).
Arctocephalus falklandicus, Burmeister, Ann. Nat. Hist. 1866 (not skull).

Hab. Cape Horn (Leconte). Skin and skeleton, B.M.

This animal has the harsh fur without any under-fur of
Phocarctos Hookeri; but it entirely differs from that animal in
the colour of the fur. This cannot arise from the greater age
of the animal, as it is not nearly so large as the half-grown
P. Hookeri in the British Museum.

In the dark blackish-brown colour of the fur and the pale-
brown colour of the nape, and in the absence of the under-fur,
this Seal resembles the adult Neophoca lobata from Australia ;
but in that species the pale colour extends all over the crown,
while in the young male Otarta jubata there are only a few
paler scattered hairs on the middle of the crown and nose.

V. I must refer to another species of Sea-Bear which has
been mixed up with the Fur-Seal of the Falkland Islands.

In the ‘ Monatsbericht,’ May 1866, p. 276, t.2.a,b,c, Dr. Peters
described and figured with considerable detail a skull of a Sea-
Bear (sent to the Berlin Museum by Dr. Philippi, who obtained
it at Juan Fernandez Island) under the name of Otaria Phi-
lippt, forming for it a subgenus which he calls Arctophoca.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.4. Vol. i. ee

Ey Mr. W. T. Blanford on the Occurrence of

In his revision of that paper, published in the same work
for November 1866, page 671, he places it as a synonym or
subspecies of what he calls Otaria falklandica, which is my
Arctocephalus nigrescens, and not the Otaria falklandica of
Shaw nor the Otaria falklandica of Burmeister as Dr. Peters
supposes, as I have shown above. In this paper he removes
Otaria falklandica (that is, nigrescens) from the subgenus
Phocarctos, to which he referred it in his first paper, and places
it in his subgenus Arctophoca.

I have not seen the skull; but I believe, from the figure,
that this alteration is a mistake. The figure of the skull of
his Otaria Philippii has no resemblance to the skull of my
Otaria nigrescens. It is more nearly allied to the skull of
- Otaria Stellert from California, agreeing with it in having a
vacant space with a pit in the bone between the fourth and
fifth upper grinders on each side, looking as if a grinder had
fallen out and the cavity had been filled up.

The subgenus Arctophoca of Dr. Peters’s first essay, not as
modified in his second one to contain O. falklandica(nigrescens),
chiefly differs from Guill’s genus Humetopias, which was formed
on my description and figure of the skull of Otarta Stellert (or
californiana), in the fifth upper grinder not being so far back,
but in a line with the back edge of the orbital process of the
zygomatic arch, instead of far behind it as it is in Humetopias.

XVII.—On the Occurrence of Diplommatina Huttoni and
Ennea bicolor in the West Indies. By Witu1AmM T. Buan-
FORD, F'.G.8., C.M.Z.S.

In the ‘Annals and Magazine of Natural History’ for August -
1867, Mr. R. J. Lechmere Guppy described the occurrence in
Trinidad of Diplommatina Hutton, Pfr., and suggested that
its presence and that of Hnnea bicolor, Hutton, might be ac-
counted for by supposing both to have migrated across the
Tertiary Atlantis. I cannot help thinking that there are se-
veral circumstances opposed to this view; and in order to
explain them it is necessary to describe the distribution of '
Diplommatina Huttoni and Ennea bicolor in India.
Diplommatina Huttoni has hitherto only been found on the
lower slopes of a portion of the Western Himalayas, near
Mastri. It is true that the Himalayas have not been explored
to a sufficient extent to justify the assertion that the shell does
not exist elsewhere; but, as not a single Western Himalayan
Diplommatina has as yet been found in those parts of the
Eastern Himalayas about Darjiling which have been compa-
ratively well explored, nor, wice versd, a solitary Darjiling
species in the Western Himalayas, it is extremely improbable

Diplommatina Huttoni and Ennea bicolorin the West Indies. 111

that the range of D. Huttont extends more than, at the outside,
200 or 300 miles along the base of the mountains. In the
plains of India no Diplommatina has ever yet been found*.
In the hills of Southern India, forms differmg entirely from
those of the Himalayas alone occur. The negative evidence,
therefore, against the existence of D. Huttond, or of any other
Indian species of the genus, over any large area of country is
overwhelming. And this is entirely in accordance, as has
been remarked by Mr. Benson, with the general facts of the
distribution of operculated land-shells in India, none being
met with over so large an area as species of the non-opercu- —
lated forms frequently are.

To the west of Hindustan not a single Diplommatina, or
land-shell allied to Diplommatina, has ever been recorded.
The genus and its allies are utterly unknown in Western Asia,
Europe, and Africa.. Not only are the Diplommatinide absent,
but all their allies, the Cyclophoride, are equally so, with the
exception of two or three obscure species in South Africa and
of the anomalous genus Craspedopoma in the Azores, Madeira,
and Canary Islands; and these few forms have at least as close
an affinity to American types as to those of India.

To the east and south-east of India the case is different.
Species of Diplommatina, many of them sinistral, and of allied
genera have been found in Burma, Labuan (Opisthostoma De-
Crespignii), the Philippine Islands (A7inia), the Moluccas,
the Pelew Islands (Palatina), the New Hebrides, New Cale-
donia, Lord Howe’s Island, Australia, and New Zealand. A
species is said to occur also in the Sandwich Islands. Now,
as Megalomastoma and Cyclophorus are common to the mainland
of India, the Malay archipelago, and the West Indies, it ap-
pears by no means improbable that Diplommatina may have
the same distribution; and certainly, if D. Huttont ever mi-
grated or was transported by natural causes from India to
America, I cannot help thinking that it most probably tra-
versed countries inhabited by its relations. But I cannot help
doubting its having migrated at all over any extensive area.

Linnea bicolor is a shell of much wider distribution. It is
met with throughout the whole peninsula of Hindustan, and
it also occurs in Burma. It lives in the plains, in cultivated
land as well as in waste.

It is easy to conceive that a mollusk with such habits might

* I know of but one, doubtful exception—doubtful inasmuch as I do
not know at what elevation the shell was found. This was in South
Canara, on the Malabar coast. The form was one of the type peculiar to

the hills of Southern India. The whole fauna of the coast of Malabar is
peculiar.

Q*

112 Diplommatina Huttoni and Ennea bicolorinthe West Indies.

be very probably transported with living plants, or with roots
or seeds. Mr. Guppy doubts whether the animals would sur-
vive the voyage from the East to the West Indies. Of this
there can, I think, be no question. Mr. Benson, if I am not
mistaken, has had specimens of Diplommatina alive in Eng-
land; and there are very few Indian shells which, when esti-
vating, will not bear a journey of several months without in-
jury, provided damp or excessive cold be avoided.

That the introduction of a single pair of shells is ample for
the diffusion of the species has been proved in Calcutta in the
case of Achatina fulica. The facts are well known, but will
bear repeating. About twenty-five years ago, two specimens
were brought from Mauritius, and placed in a garden. Now
the species abounds almost everywhere throughout an area of
at least five miles in length. In many places several hundreds
might be collected. Ten years ago, to my own knowledge,
the shell was quite unknown in the Botanical Gardens on the
opposite bank of the Hoogly. ‘The other day I saw it living
there in abundance. Of course, in a large city like Calcutta,
where plants are constantly transferred from one garden to
another at a distance, great facilities for dispersion exist; but
the numbers, all unquestionably derived from a single pair in
the course of so short a time, are nevertheless astonishing. I
have very little doubt that one impregnated female would suffice
equally well to introduce a species.

Another fact in favour of Diplommatina Hutton? and Ennea
bicolor having been introduced into the West Indies by man
is, that both are very small shells, precisely such as would
most easily escape notice and be transported with plants. No
shell is more likely than the Ennea to have been thus carried
into foreign countries. The case of the Diplommatina is cer-
tainly far more difficult, but still it appears to me to present
fewer difficulties than the theory of migration. Is there a
botanical garden in Trinidad ?

If the Diplommatina has not been transported artificially, I
should be almost inclined to suspect that the Trinidad species
is not really identical with that mhabiting the Western Hima-
layas, but that two forms, closely resembling each other, have
originated separately at the extreme limits of the area occupied
by the genus.

With regard to the Hnnea, I have very little doubt of its
having been transported. Many of the cultivated plants of
the West Indies must have been introduced by the Spaniards
and Portuguese, some of them, in all probability, direct from
India; and the date of the introduction may thus have been
sufficiently distant to allow of a considerable amount of disper-
sion amongst the various islands.

On a new and gigantic Fossil Species of Echidna. 113

XIX.—On the Discovery of a new and gigantic Fossil Spe-
cies of Echidna in Australia. By GERARD KRerrt, Cu-
rator and Secretary of the Australian Museum, Sydney.

To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,

In cataloguing the rich collection of Australian fossil remains
in the Museum at Sydney, I observed, among other novelties,
a fragment of the humerus of a gigantic Hchidna (much larger

Fig. 2.
Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Fragment of humerus of a fossil Echidna, view from above.
Fig. 2. Ditto, front view. Fig. 8. Ditto, back view.

Fig. 4. Part of humerus of Echidna hystrix, corresponding to fig. 1.
Fig. 5. Ditto, back view, corresponding to fig. 3.

Fig. 6. Humerus of Echidna hystrix.

114 Prof. W. Thomson on the “ Vitreous” Sponges.

than the corresponding bone in any living Monotreme), whereof
I beg to enclose drawings; the bone is seen from three dif-
ferent points of view,—to which are added sketches of the same
part of an Echidna hystrix slightly enlarged. They may be
figured, however, of the same size as the sketch, because I
have before me the articulated skeleton of an Echidna in which
the humerus is fully as large. The fragment in the possession
of the trustees of this Institution is a portion of the distal part
of this bone; the articulating surface, which fits into the sig-
moid cavity of the ulna, is perfect; and, from its peculiar
structure, it cannot well be mistaken for that of any other
known mammal.

I have not yet seen any of the papers lately published by
Professor Owen on Australian fossil remains ; and as it is pos-
sible that a fossil Echidna is already described, I do not wish
to name the present species; otherwise I should propose the
specific term of H. Owenti for it.

I have the honour to be,
Gentlemen,
Your very obedient Servant,

Australian Museum, Sydney. GERARD KREFFT.
November 28, 1867.

XX.—On the “Vitreous” Sponges. By Professor WYVILLE
Tomson, LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., M.R.T.A.

[Plate IV.]

THE classification of the PoRIFERA is as yet extremely un-
satisfactory. This arises chiefly from the circumstance that
the essential part of a Sponge, the sarcode sheet investing the
supporting framework, presents no visible distinctive charac-
ters, being apparently nearly the same in physical properties
and in chemical composition throughout the whole series.
Characters must therefore be founded upon accessory and
comparatively unimportant parts; and these exhibit, with few
exceptions, so finely graduated a series of minute variations
that it is difficult to employ them in the definition of orders
and suborders. Except in a few cases, but little stress can be
placed upon the external form of the sponge-mass, even as a
specific character. Often the general appearance of a sponge
is characteristic enough, and a practised eye can easily recog-
nize it in almost all its stages of growth; but it is impossible
to embody the impressions on which this recognition is based
in a description, or even to convey them by the most accurate
figures. Hence the extreme difficulty in naming a collection

Prof. W. Thomson on the “ Vitreous” Sponges. LES

of Sponges from monographs and memoirs in which external
form is chiefly considered, such as the beautiful work of
MM. Duchassaing and Michelotti, and Johnston’s ‘ British
Sponges.’

The microscopic characters of Sponges, derived from the
structure and form of the reticulated supports, and from the
special forms of the spicules, are usually well marked; but
these characters are in most cases of specific, in a few of ge-
neric, and in scarcely any of ordinal value. Fortunately, the
chemical composition of the organs of support and of defence,
two or three well-defined general types of structure and form
of the spicules, and the general arrangement and mode of
combination of the different parts, present some good points of
distinction for larger groups.

I think that certainly the most satisfactory arrangement of
Sponges is that proposed by Dr. Oscar Schmidt*. Dr.Schmidt’s
memoir, however, labours under the disadvantage of dealing
with the Sponges of the Adriatic only; so that many remark-
able exotic forms, which might have modified to some extent
his ideas of classification, are excluded. In the second Supple-
ment, indeed, the author institutes a comparison between the
Adriatic Sponges and those described by Dr. Bowerbank ; but
the series 1s still incomplete, from the absence of illustration
from the rich faunz of the East and West Indies.

Dr. Schmidt divides the Adriatic Sponges into six groups, of
the rank of families. The first of these are the Calcispongiz,
which he thus defines :—‘“‘Spongie parvee, plerumque albi-
cantes, corpore spiculis calcareis pertexto.”

It seems to be generally admitted that the Sponges with
calcareous spicules are essentially distinct ; and I am inclined
to agree with Dr. Grayf, who places them in a distinct subclass,
antithetic to the whole of the remainder of the Sponges, which
form in his arrangement a second subclass under the name of
PORIPHORA SILICEA.

There is an evident awkwardness in placing such genera as
Spongia and Halisarca (in which there is no silica whatever
in any separate form) among the siliceous Sponges; still I
think the classification is justifiable; and it is at all events
convenient. The true horn Sponges pass by almost imper-
ceptible gradations into the groups which develope distinct
siliceous elements, either within the fibres (e. g. Chalina) or

* ‘Die Spongien des Adriatischen Meeres,’ Leipsic, 1862 (and two
Supplements).

+ Handbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie. Jena, 1865.

¢t “Notes on the Arrangement of Sponges,” Proce, Zool. Soc, Lond.
May 9, 1867,

116 Prof. W. Thomson on the “ Vitreous” Sponges.

among their meshes (Diplodemia &c,); so that I believe we
may regard the whole group as potentially siliceous.

Dr. Schmidt’s second family are the Ceraospongiz :—‘‘ Spon-
gis quarum sceletum formatur fibris solidioribus, recenti statu
plus minusve elasticis, quae seepius aliena corpuscula involvunt,
sed nunquam spicula in ipsis nata continent.”

His third family are the Gumminex :—“ Spongize Corneo-
spongiis proxime. Parenchyma spississimum et maxime com-
pactum, adspectu Kautschuk, quod tamen fibrillis tenuissimis
contextum est. Generum pars corpuscula silicea continent.”

The fifth family in Dr, Schmidt’s arrangement are the
Halichondrie :—“ Spongiz spiculis siliceis pertexte, quae ob
telam laxiorem et minus spissam quamquam sepius subcor-
neam neque Gummineis adnumerantur, neque Corticatis ob
defectum strati corticalis.”’

The careful consideration of the diagnoses of these three
groups is quite as suggestive as the examination of an extended
series of the Sponges themselves, of a single graduated line of
forms in which there are no breaks of sufficient importance to
justify its subdivision into groups of higher value than fami-
lies.

The horn Sponges and the Gumminez are so nearly allied
that they can be distinguished by comparative characters only.
The fibres of the horn Sponges are thicker, and the meshes
wider, the whole texture is more open than in the Gumminee,
in which the minute fibres are matted together in the consistent
sarcode, and the Sponge, when dried, looks like a piece of
leather. The general aspects of the two groups are very dis-
tinct; and even to the inexperienced eye the Gumminez form
a natural and easily recognizable series, whose characters it is,
however, scarcely possible to reduce to an intelligible defini-
tion. From the absence of positive characters, it is evident
that these two groups are liable at any point to pass into one
another. Among the Gumminez separate siliceous spicules
appear in abundance, the fibrillation of the horny matter
becomes obscure; and we thus pass almost imperceptibly into
the fifth group, the Halichondrie.

Professor Schmidt’s fourth group are the Corticate :—
““Spongize globose vel tuberose; spiculis siliceis pertexte,
peculiari strato corticali circumdate, quod et tela organica
firmiori fibrillosa et plerumque corpusculorum siliceorum ge-
nere a parenchymate interior differt.”

In this group we have positive characters of some value in
the very marked difference between the cortical layer and the
central mass, in the regular arrangement of the various histio-
logical elements, and in the peculiar type of the defensive

Prof. W. Thomson on the “ Vitreous” Sponges. 117

spicules, where these occur. I am inclined to regard the cor-
ticate group, as limited by Prof. Schmidt, as of ordinal value.

Prof. Schmidt’s last family are the Halisarcine :—‘‘ Spongice
molles, non fibrose, corpuscula calcarea vel silicea non conti-
nentes ’’—equivalent to the Halisarcina of Lieberkiihn, an
obscure group with neither horny fibres nor siliceous spicules,
and consisting of little more than an extended sheet of sarcode.

The definitions of the three orders in Dr. Bowerbank’s
‘British Spongiade’ are sufficiently simple; but I cannot
regard the “‘ KERATOSA”’ as a group equivalent to the “ CaL-
CAREA”’ and the “ SmICcEA.”

The diagnoses of the suborders are based upon some impor-
tant modifications in the arrangement of the spicules and horny
matter, which do not, however, seem to be sufficiently definite
for the purposes of classification. The groups are, on the
whole, natural.

Admitting the value of Dr. Gray’s two primary subclasses,
the details of his classification seem to me unsatisfactory. The
author divides the Siliceous Sponges into two primary groups
—(1) those with membranous or unarmed ovisacs, and (2) those
whose ovisacs are strengthened with siliceous spicules. I
doubt if we know enough of the nature of these peculiar
bodies which we for the present call ovisacs, to found upon
them broad distinctive characters The present attempt to do
so separates to the utmost the nearly allied corticate genera
Tethya and Geodia, and places Spongilla and Halichondria
(Isodictyon) (between which, except in the one point of the
structure of the ‘ ovisacs,” it is difficult to define generic dis-
tinctions) in different principal sections. Under the first two
subsections of the MALAcospor&, Dactylocalyx and Spongia
are associated, on account of the common character of possess-
ing a network, while Aphrocallistes is divorced from its beau-
tiful partner Huplectella. 'The third subsection, the ARENO-
SPONGIA, is an excellent group, apparently of ordinal value.

Subordinate to the subsections, Dr. Gray proposes seven
orders and a host of genera, and very naturally anticipates the
general denunciation of a system which complicates the no-
menclature to bewilderment, and founds generic groups upon
such “imperfect materials” as a “ bihamate spicule figured in
Bowerbank’s ‘ British Sponges.’ ”’

The only classification which has any material advantage
over the older classifications of Nardo, De Blainville, Johnston,
and Lieberkiihn, seems to be that of Dr. Oscar Schmidt. Du-
chassaing and Michelotti, Bowerbank and Gray, have each made
valuable individual suggestions ; but Dr. Schmidt’s grouping,
taken as a whole, appears to be the most in accordance with
our knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the class.

118 = Prof. W. Thomson on the “ Vitreous” Sponges.

I believe we are now in a position to define another order,
equal in value to the CorTicaTa and the HALICHONDRIDA ;
and for this new order I would propose the term (Porifera)
VITREA.

The following is an outline of the slight modifications which
I would suggest in Dr. Schmidt’s arrangement :—

Class PORIFERA, Grant.

Subclass I. (Porifera) CALCAREA, Bowerbank. ‘ Skeleton
composed of calcareous spicules which are generally three-
rayed stellate” (Gray), equivalent to Dr. Schmidt’s first
family. Ex. Grantia, Sycon.

Subclass II. (Porifera) Stnicea, Gray. ‘‘ Sponges provided
with a siliceous or horny skeleton, or with a horny skeleton
strengthened with siliceous spicules.”

Order 1. (P. Silicea) VirrEA. Sarcode in small quantity,
very soft ; never containing formed horny matter, either fibrous,
membranous, or granular. The skeleton consists entirely of
siliceous spicules, either separate (in fascicles or scattered) or
anastomosing and combined into a continuous siliceous net-
work. The sarcode contains small spicules of a different cha-
racter from the general spicules of the skeleton, and of com-
plicated forms. The spicules, whether of the skeleton or of
the sarcode, may all be referred to the hexradiate stellate type.
Ex. Hyalonema, Dactylocalyx.

Order 2. (P. Silicea) HALicHonpRIDA. Tuberous, branch-
ing, cup-shaped, irregular, or incrusting ; without any definite
external cortical layer. The sarcode is abundant, consistent,
and in all cases is supported by a greater or less amount of
formed horny matter, which is fibrous, granular and diffused,
or in the form of more or less distinct membranous expansions.
The sponge usually contains an abundance of siliceous spicules
variously arranged.

Suborder 1. (Halichondrida) HALIcHONDRINA (Lieberkiihn).
Sarcode abundant, usually consistent. The horny matter
granular or membranous, but never in the form of a network
of solid horny fibres. Skeleton consisting mainly of siliceous
spicules, which are usually essentially of the same form in all
parts of the sponge. In one family, the Esperiadz, the sar-
code is soft, and the spicules are of two distinct types. Ex.
Halichondria, Spongilla, Esperia.

Suborder 2. (Halichondrida) GUMMININA (= Gumminee,
Oscar Schmidt). Sponge-substance compact; skeleton of
fine densely interwoven horny fibres. Siliceous spicules in
some of the genera. Ex. Gummina, Corticium.

Prof. W. Thomson on the “ Vitreous” Sponges. 119
Suborder 3. (Halichondrida) Sponarna (Lieberkiihn). Ske-

leton an elastic wide-meshed network of anastomosing horny
fibres, frequently containing foreign bodies, such as grains of
sand and spicules of other sponges, and occasionally siliceous
spicules developed within them, and never associated with free
siliceous spicules in the sponge-mass. Ex. Spongia, Chalina,
Dysidea, &e.

Order 3. (P. Silicea) Corrrcara (O. Schmidt). Globular,
tuberous, or branched Sponges, supported by regular radiating
sheaves of long siliceous spicules, and invested with a special
dense cortical layer, often containing spicules of special and
characteristic forms. Hx. Tethya, Geodia, Placospongia.

Order 4. (P. Silicea) ARENOSA (= Arenospongia, Gray).
‘Sponge consisting of a disk of agglutinated sand, with a
series of diverging spicules on the circumference of the disk,
and a pencil of similar spicules at the mouth of the oscules on
the upper surface of the disk.” (Gray, /.c.) Ex. Xenospongia.

Order 5. (P. Silicea) Hanisarcina (Lieberkiihn). Sponge
an extended sheet of sarcode, destitute of either siliceous or
horny support. Ex. Halisarca.

My principal object in the present communication is to de-
fine the first of the siliceous orders, the glassy Sponges. I
believe the following to be the scope of the group in known
genera and species :—

Order I. (Porifera Silicea) VITREA.
Genus 1. HABRODICTYON*, n. g.
H. speciosum, Quoy & Gaimard (sp.).
H. corbicula, Valenciennes (sp.).
Genus 2. HyALONEMA, Gray (in part).
HH. Steboldi, Gray.
H, lusitanicum, Gray.
Genus 3. EUPLECTELLA, Owen.
E. aspergillum, Owen.
Genus 4. APHROCALLISTES, Gray.
A. beatrix, Gray.
Genus 5. DAcTYLOcALYx, Stutchbury.
D. pumicea, Stutchb.
D. subglobosa, Gray.
D. Prattii, Bowerbank.
D. callocyathes, Gray (sp.).
D. azorica, Gray (sp.). ;
D.? torva, Duchass. & Michelotti (sp.).
Genus 6. Farrea, Bowerbank.
fF. occa, Bowerbank.
* dBpos, delicate, and Sixruov, a net.
+ Through the kindness of Dr. Farre, I have had an opportunity of see-

120 = Prof. W. Thomson on the “ Vitreous” Sponges.

—an assemblage of the most beautiful, the most singular, and
the rarest of marine productions.

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF THE GROUP.
Condition of the Sarcode.

From its essential simplicity and the want of any true struc-
ture, the sarcode of the glassy Sponges cannot be expected to
afford any very marked distinctions; still even this element
seems to differ in certain characters from the condition in
which we find it in the other orders of Sponges. It is small
in quantity, very soft, probably semifluid, extending in a thin
layer over the fascicles of siliceous needles and over the sili-
ceous framework. It appears to contain no trace of the dif-
fused granular horny matter with which the more consistent
sarcode of the Halichondrida is so often loaded. When a
vitreous Sponge is dried (and all the specimens which have
yet reached Europe are in a dry state), the whiteness of the
skeleton is barely masked by the pale yellow film which re-
presents the contracted animal matter. Most of the specimens
of Huplectella in the market have been bleached; but some of
them, which may be recognized by their pale fawn-colour, are
merely dried; and if a portion of one of these be steeped for a
short time in a warm weak solution of caustic soda, the sarcode
softens and expands, and may be examined under the micro-
scope with tolerable success. It is generally almost transpa-
rent, with here and there scattered endoplasts and minute
compound granular masses. Among the meshes of the sponge-
network, and everywhere except where it is extended (as in
Hyalonema and Euplectella) over the surface of enormously
long separate needles, the sarcode contains abundance of ex-
tremely minute spicules, scattered through it singly or aggre-
gated in groups. These spicules, as we shall see hereafter,
are often complicated in form and ornament; and are highly
characteristic of the order and of the several genera.

The Siliceous Skeleton.

In Habrodictyon and Hyalonema the skeleton is composed
entirely of separate siliceous spicules of various forms, inter-
woven in fascicles and connected by the thin sarcode layer, or
scattered irregularly among the fascicles of spicules. In Ew-
plectella, Aphrocallistes, Dactylocalyx, and Farrea, certain

ing his lovely specimen, upon which Professor Owen founded the species
Euplectella cucumer. I can have no doubt that this is merely an example
of E. aspergillum of a rather unusual form, which has attained its full
size, but in which the raised spiral crests are as yet imperfectly developed.

Prof. W. Thomson on the “ Vitreous”? Sponges. 121

kinds of these spicules are more or less completely fused to-
gether, forming a continuous anastomosing network.

Two forms of free spicules are extremely abundant through-
out the group. The first are simply fusiform, frequently
slightly curved, and often enlarged and tuberculated or other-
wise armed or ornamented at one or both ends. These spicules
vary greatly in length—from ‘05 to °5 of an inch in the skele-
tons of Habrodictyon and of the sponge-mass of Dictyonema,
where they are grouped in fascicles and make up the greater
part of the flexible network, to 3 or 4 inches in the silky fringe
at the base of Huplectella, and to the enormous length of from
18 to 20 inches in the wonderful vertical wisp which is popu-
larly known as the “ glass rope”’ of Hyalonema.

These spicules have all essentially the same structure ; they
consist of extremely thin concentric layers of silica separated
by films of sarcode, and are traversed throughout their entire
length by a delicate canal, occupied in the fresh state by a
sarcode axis.

The second form is called by Dr. Bowerbank “ cylindro-
rectangulated hexradiate”’ (British Sponges, vol. 1. figs. 185,
186). It consists of a central shaft with the ends often spined
or tuberculated as in the fusiform spicules. Near the middle
of the shaft four secondary branches, at right angles to one
another, form a cross, the radii at right angles to the axis of
the shaft. The central canal is very distinct in the main axis,
and sends branches into the four diverging radii. Rarely only
two secondary branches are produced, but this is evidently by
suppression. ‘These spicules are large, sometimes ‘05 inch in
length. 'They are scattered irregularly among the fusiform
spicules in Habrodictyon, Euplectella, and Hyalonema, and are
sometimes aggregated in groups.

The fusiform and the hexradiate spicules are modifications
of one type. About the middle of one of the fusiform spicules,
whether it be taken from the coil of Hyalonema, from the fringe
of Huplectella, or from the general skeleton of any vitreous
Sponge, if we use sufficient care and a sufficient magnifying-
power, we can always detect one or two fine cross canals cut-
ting the axial canal at right angles. When the cross canals
have an appreciable length, two or four slight bulgings on the
outer surface of the needle indicate their position (Pl. IV.
fig. 1c). It is remarkable that this hexradiate type of spicule,
which is so abundant in the vitreous Sponges, is unknown in
any other order.

In Hyalonema the hexradiate spicules of the second form are
usually if not always perfect and symmetrical. In Habrodictyon
they are very frequently distorted, the rays twisted, and in

122. ~—- Prof. W. Thomson on the “ Vitreous” Sponges.

many cases several are partially united together. In Huplec-
tella perfect and distorted spicules of this class are entangled
in the loose meshes of a framework which is evidently formed
by the still further distortion and anastomosis of spicules of
the same type. In Aphrocallistes (see woodcut) the network
is still more evidently produced by the coalescence of stellate
spicules, though their hexradiate character is somewhat ob-
secured. In the network of Harrea (Bowerbank, Brit. Spong.
vol. i. fig. 277) the hexradiate type is very marked. The
primary axis of the spicule is reduced to a conical tuberculated
spine; and spines of exactly the same form are developed in a
corresponding position on the outer surface of Aphrocallistes
(woodcut, e). In Farrea the spicules are distinctly tubular ;
but this is merely a question of degree. In Dactylocalyx
the reticulation has become very irregular; but I have no
doubt, from the style of netting (see Bowerb. Brit. Spong.
vol. i. fig. 275) and from the close analogy in other respects
between this genus and Aphrocallistes and Farrea, that its
fundamental plan is the same.

I believe that it would be safe to accept the generalization
that the continuous siliceous network, wherever it occurs in
the vitreous Sponges, is produced by the fusion of spicules of
the hexradiate type.

Throughout the whole order the spicules of the sarcode are
very abundant, and are often very elegant in form. ‘They are
extremely minute, usually not more than ‘001 of an inch in
length or diameter, and are seen adhering in groups to the
larger spicules, or entangled in multitudes among the fascicles
and in the meshes of the sponge. However complex these
spicules may finally become, they all, with perhaps one doubt-
ful exception—the bihamate spicule figured by Bowerbank as
from Farrea occa (Brit. Spong. vol. 1. fig. 114)—may evidently
be referred to the hexradiate type. In both species of Habro-
dictyon the most common sarcode-spicule is the “ floricomo-
hexradiate”’ of Bowerbank (Pl. IV. fig. 1 e); and the same
form occurs abundantly in LEuplectella aspergillum. The
‘ coronato-hexradiate stellate” form figured by Bowerbank
(Brit. Spong. vol. i. fig. 195) seems to be the central star of
one of these without the curved processes. Associated with
this type, we have in Habrodictyon multitudes of extremely
minute hexradiate spicules, variously armed and feathered,
and scarcely distinguishable from the ordinary spicules of the
sarcode of Hyalonema. The spicule which in the series de-
parts most trom the hexradiate form is the wonderful double
grapnel of Hyalonema; but, although its ends are split up into
curving flukes, in the very middle of the shaft the cross-canals

Prof. W. Thomson on the “ Vitreous” Sponges. 123

betray the universal type. One set of the sarcode-spicules of
Aphrocallistes is almost identical with the “ fureated spiculated
biternate”’ spicule figured from Farrea occa (British Sponges,

vol. i. fig. 199), but more spiny. Iam afraid to name this form :
but I am sure it would be highly suggestive to Dr. Bower-
bank.

124 Prof. W. Thomson on the “ Vitreous”? Sponges.

Another set from Aphrocallistes are especially interesting
(woodcut, a): they consist of a lengthened shaft ending in
a small expansion, from which spring four equal branches,
each terminated by a little knob. No doubt these are the
separated branches of a complex hexradiate spicule closely re-
sembling those figured by Bowerbank (British Sponges, vol. i.
figs. 190-192) from species of the penultimate genus of our
series, Dactylocalyx.

General Structure of the Sponges.

The netted walls of the two species of Habrodictyon are
formed of a loose open network of fascicles of comparatively
short fusiform spicules, the fascicles loosely bound together by
the soft sarcode. The bundles curve irregularly in all direc-
tions, so that the network is quite irregular. No distinct
bundles of long fibres pass longitudinally from end to end of
the sponge, or transversely round it as in Huplectella. In H.
corbicula the upper truncated end of the tube is closed by a
netted lid, of a denser aggregation of spicules than that which
forms the general wall; while in 1. speciosum the general wall

“extends uniformly over the enlarged end of the tube without
any change of structure.

The spongy portion at the base of Hyalonema resem-
bles closely in minute structure the wall of Habrodictyon.
The spicules are nearly of the same form, and are arranged
much in the same way; but the bundles of needles are meshed
into a porous conical mass whose parts tend to radiate towards,
to be combined with, and to support a bundle of enormous
spicules, whose lower portion is twisted into a close, compact,
tapering coil in the centre of the sponge, while the upper part
of the coil projects a foot above the centre of the sponge, and
is frayed out in the water like a glittering brush of glass*.

In Huplectella, the long vertical spicules, instead of forming
an isolated wisp as in Hyalonema, are separated into small
fascicles, which are spread out symmetrically and connected
into a netted tube by ring-like bundles of transverse fibres.
The result is a wonderfully beautiful and symmetrical net
with square meshes. Over this framework the general sponge-

* T have not space at present to discuss the curious diversity of opinion
which exists as to the relations of Hyalonema. Iwill only refer the reader
to an admirable memoir by Professor Max Schultze, ‘ Die Hyalonemen,’
Bonn, 1860, to a second paper by the same author in the ‘Annals and
Magazine of Natural History,’ March 1867, and to a paper of my own in
the ‘ Intellectual Observer’ of the same date.

Prof. W. Thomson on the “ Vitreous’ Sponges. 125

substance, composed mainly of a siliceous tubing formed es-
sentially by the coalescence of spicules of the hexradiate type
in every condition of distortion, is regularly spread, partially
closing and reducing to rounded pores, by an oblique tissue of
interlacing threads, the square meshes of the frame, and rising
on the surface of the sponge into irregular spiral ridges.

The mouth of the tube is closed, as in Habrodictyon corbicula,
by a cate lid of dense tissue. Not taking into account dif-
ferences in the form of the spicules, of specific value only—if
the siliceous coil of Hyalonema were separated into small bun-
dles and attached by transverse fibres within the wall of the
tube of Habrodictyon, we should have a Sponge which would
be referred without doubt to the genus Huplectella.

Aphrocallistes is very nearly allied to Huplectella. There
are the same fascicles of longitudinal fibres within the tube, and
there is the same netted lid; but the tube is irregular in form,
and the siliceous network is much more dense and compact.
It will be remembered that some of the spicules of the sarcode
in Aphrocallistes resemble those in Farrea, while others corre-
spond with the form hitherto only known in Dactylocalyx*.
In Dactylocalyx the longitudinal fascicles have disappeared, and
the siliceous network is much more dense and irregular. A
specimen from Barbadoes, which I saw in the Paris Exhibition,
had almost the cylindrical form of Aphrocallistes ; an example
in the Belfast Museum is cup-shaped and looks like a silicitied
bath-sponge. I hope to have an opportunity of revising the
whole of this genus or group of genera on some future occasion.
The ultimate structure of its siliceous network and the close
resemblance in form of its sarcode-spicules associate Dactylo-
calyx clearly with Aphrocallistes and Farrea.

Farrea is undoubtedly a vitreous Sponge allied to Aphro-
callistes. The hexradiate type of the framework, and the spi-
cules figured by Dr. Bowerbank (Brit. Spong. figs. 199, 200),
are very characteristic. I am in doubt about the bihamate
spicule (¢b¢d. fig. 114). From the condition of the only known
example of Farrea occa, I should think it possible that one or
many spicules of that form may have been mixed with it,
possibly from some associated species of Esperia.

RELATIONS OF THE GROUP.

It is difficult even to speculate upon the position of thie
vitreous Sponges in the series of the Porifera. There is

* Tam indebted to my friend Dr. Gray for an opportunity of examining
the minute structure of Aphrocallistes. The woodcut represents a frag-
ment of the general network of the wall of the tube, with some of the
characteristic spicules of the sarcode alluded to above.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. i. 10

126 Prof. W. Thomson on the “ Vitreous” Sponges.

something in the wonderful complexity of design and profusion
of ornament in the siliceous skeleton which reminds one
strongly of the PoLycysTINA ; and even, in some cases, the
special forms of the spicules are repeated in the two groups.
iCekipare pl. 12. fig. 1, pl. 17. fig. 4, pl. 18. fig. 15, pl. 21. fig. 7,
pl. 32. figs. 10, 11, pl. 33. figs. 6, 7, &c. of Haeckel’s ‘ Die
Radiolarien’). As yet, we know nothing of any of the spe-
cies in a living state. The sarcode is certainly somewhat dif-
ferent in character from that of the other groups of Sponges,
—softer and more mobile, less loaded with granular formed
‘matter, and more transparent. For sarcode in this condition
we should be inclined to anticipate a somewhat higher form of
vital activity. It remains to be seen whether there may be
any approach by the extension of any form of pseudopodial
processes to the condition of the sarcode in the Rurzopopa.
Under a strong impression that it is through this order that
the Sponges pass into the RADIoLARIA, I have placed the Port-
FERA VITREA at the head of the series of siliceous Sponges, be-
ginning with those genera in which the siliceous elements are
most independent and varied, and the sarcode least consistent.
I believe that Dr. Gray has rightly indicated the base of the
order by placing the Flower-baskets next the Esperiade,
which I should certainly regard as the inosculating family of
the HALICHONDRIDA.

(Porifera Silicea). Order I. VITREA.
HABRODICTYON, n. g.

1, Aleyoncellum, De Blainville, Quoy & Gaimard, ‘ Voyage de l’Astrolabe,’
Zoologie, vol. iv. p. 302. Paris, 1833.

. Aleyoncellum, Deshayes and Milne-Edwards, in Lamarck’s ‘ Animaux
sans Vertdbres,’ vol. 1. p. 589 (1886).

. Alcyonellum, Owen (misprint for Aleyoncellum), Trans, Zool. Soc. vol. iii.
p- 205 (1849).

. Alcyoncellum, Bowerbank, Phil. Trans. and British Spongiadee, vol. 1.
p- 174 (1865).

. Euplectella, Gray, Ann, & Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. xviii. p.487 (1866).

. Corbitella, Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. for 1867, p. 530.

. Heterotella, Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. for 1867, p. 531.

Sponge-body subcylindrical, tubular, attached by a slightly
contracted base. The walls of the tube composed of a per-
fectly irregular network of bundles of siliceous needles
loosely and irregularly arranged in sheaves crossing one
another at low angles, and connected by a small quantity of
soft mucilaginous sarcode. The spicules of the skeleton all
essentially of the hexradiate form, free and separate from
one another, or rarely connected in groups of two or three.
The spicules of the sarcode very numerous, “ floricomo-

NOOO - Co by

Prof. W. Thomson on the “ Vitreous” Sponges. 127

hexradiate stellate,” and various simple and branched modi-
fications of the hexradiate type.

There seems to be something unusually fatal in the fascina-
tions of these beauties. As to Habrodictyon speciosum, it cer-
tainly seems almost “ useless to continue to quote the sing ular
number of errors into which ”’ every one appears to have “fallen
in the description of this beautiful Sponge.” Professor Owen,
of whom this was first said, has certainly gone least astray, as
he has succeeded thoroughly i in the object which he had in
view at the time, by giving us a description of Huplectella
aspergillum which, if we combine with it that of L. cucumer,
can scarcely be surpassed.

1. The use of the name Aleyoncellum by Messrs. Quoy and
Gaimard, and the quotation of De Blainville’s diagnosis of the
genus, is ‘clearly a mistake, arising from some confusion of the
papers on the part of the compilers of this work. ‘Genre
Aleyoncelle (Alcyoncellum). uae phytoide, subpierreux,
solidifié par des spicules tricuspides; 4 branches peu nom-
breuses, ¢ eylindriques ; fistulaire, terminé par un orifice arrondi,
& parois épaisses composées de granules réguliers, polygones,
alvéoliformes, percées d’un pore & l’extérieur et a l’intérieur.
Alcyoncellum speciosum, nob., pl. 26. fig. 8. Aleyoncellum
cylindricum, cavum, extremitate rotundum, album, reticulis la-
pidicis elegantissime contextum.” The specific description
does not in any way correspond with the diagnosis of the
genus.

2. M. Milne-Edwards ignores altogether De Blainville’s de-
scription, and refers the generic name Alcyoncellum to Quoy
and Gaimard. He adds a fair description of the genus :—
“MM. Quoy et Gaimard ont donné le nom A/cy syoncelle & un
corps qui parait appartenir 4 la famille des Spongiaires, et qui
présente une structure trés-remarquable ; on peut assigner au
genre dont ce zoophyte est le type les caractéres suivans :—
Genre Alcyoncelle (Alcyoncellum). Spongiaire lamelleux dont
la charpente est formée de filets trés-déhés, accolés les uns aux
autres, et entrecroisés de maniére 4 former des mailles nom-
breuses, arrondies, assez réguliéres et semblables a celles d’une
dentelle. On ne connait qu’une espece d’Alcyoncelle, qui est
trés-remarquable par sa beauté et qui a été rapportée des
Molluques par MM. Quoy et Gaimard, elle a la forme d’un
panier profond et étroit dont les parois seraient composées d’un
tissu délicat d’un travail analogue a celui des siéges 4 rotang
dont les modéles nous viennent de l’Inde. Ces naturalistes lui
ont donné le nom de Alcyoncelle specieux (Quoy et Gaimard,
Voyage de l’Astrolabe).”

LO

128 = Prof. W. Thomson on the ‘‘ Vitreous” Sponges.

3. Professor Owen recognizes, apparently from the figure in
the ‘ Voyage de |’Astrolabe,’ the generic distinctness of Habro-
dictyon trom Huplectella. He gets into confusion, however,
about the synonymy. “If the basal aperture of the cone were
open, the resemblance to some of the known reticulate Alcyo-
noid Sponges would be very close, especially to that called
Alcyonellum gelatinosum by M. de Blainville (Alcyonellum
spectosum, Quoy & Gaimard); its closure by the reticulate,
convex frilled cap in the present instance establishes the ge-
neric distinction.”

4, Dr. Bowerbank’s references and remarks are curiously
inaccurate: Dr. Gray has, however, already done them full
justice at the close of a short paper in the ‘ Annals’ for 1866,
except in one point. Dr. Bowerbank’s definition of the genus
Alcyoncellum is utterly inapplicable to the Sponge which he
adopts as a type! and, in the simple process of adopting it as
such, he contrives either to misname the Sponge or to mis-
quote the authority.

5. Dr. Gray does not succeed in throwing much light upon
the question ; for, still under the fatal spell, he notices Huplec-
tella aspergillum under the name of H. speciosa, and says :—
“This Sponge was first described and figured, in 1833, by
MM. Quoy and Gaimard, in the ‘ Voyage of the Astrolabe,’
p- 302, Zoophytes, t. 26. f. 3, under the name of Alcyoncellum
speciosum, from a very imperfect specimen which had lost the
netted lid, the fringes on the outside, and a considerable por-
tion of the smaller, lower end of the tubes.” * * * “ There can
be no doubt of the imperfect state of this Sponge, from a com-
parison with a worn and crushed specimen in the British
Museum, that was obtained by Capt. Sir Edward Belcher, and
purchased at the sale of his shells.”

6&7. Dr. Gray has at length fully recognized Huplectella
and the species in the French Museum as belonging to distinct
genera; nay, he has founded two new genera upon the speci-
mens in the Jardin des Plantes. I certainly suggested to Dr.
Gray, in May last, in a letter which he has quoted (op. cit.),
to define a new genus for the French forms; but I cannot
possibly consent to the splitting of that genus. Genera are
doubtless of the highest convenience if they represent groups
of nearly allied species; but to give a generic name to almost
every species, entirely does away with the value of the genera,
and, instead of assisting the student, only adds to his per-
plexity. For a time I doubted whether these two forms
were distinct species; and I was inclined to regard the speci-
men of A. speciosum as a variety grown under peculiar cir-
cumstances, and the short A. corbicula with the netted lid as

Prof. W. Thomson on the “ Vitreous”’ Sponges. 129

the normal form. Jam not quite satisfied on this point even
now. As I am precluded from using either of Dr. Gray’s
names, I substitute one which I had in MS. before I saw Dr.
Gray’s paper.

H. corbicula, Valenciennes (sp.). Pl. IV. fig. 1.

Aleyoncellum corbicula, Val. (in Paris Museum); Bowerbank, British

Spongiadee, vol. i. p. 176.

Heterotella corbicula, Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1867, p. 531.

The Sponge is tubular, shaped somewhat like a wine-glass,
about 4 inches high and 2 inches wide across the lip, and tapers
downwards somewhat irregularly to a diameter of 13 inch at
the base. The wall of the cylinder is formed of a rather thick
irregular network of delicate siliceous spicules, from °01 to °5
inch in length, loosely arranged in fascicles which cross one
another at low angles, and are loosely connected and com-
bined by a small quantity of very soft mucilaginous sarcode,
which, in the dried sponge, remains as a thin yellowish film.
These cords curve upwards and downwards and round, anasto-
mosing in all directions, and leaving between them rounded
openings of various sizes, and show no tendency whatever to
a regular longitudinal and transverse direction. All the long
spicules are formed on the hexradiate type; but the four
secondary rays are usually abortive, being represented merely
by four tubercles at right angles to one another, about the
middle of the main shaft, which is somewhat enlarged and
tuberculated at each end (Pl. IV. fig. 1c). The spicules
have, according to the ordinary plan of sponge-structure, a
delicate centre canal, which sends off four short radii to the
four secondary tubercles. The walls of the spicules consist of
concentric layers of silica separated by films of sarcode, which
can be readily shown discoloured by burning in a spirit-lamp.
This structure can be best studied in the long spicules of Hya-
lonema, which are in every respect, except in size, essentially
the same.

Scattered among the long spicules of the skeleton, there are
many fully developed hexradiate spicules. Some of these are

erfectly regular in form, the rays smooth and nearly equal
(PL. IV. fig. 15); but many of them are irregular, the rays
are distorted and bent (fig.1a@), and in some cases two or
more are irregularly united together. I have little doubt that
tnese latter indicate the first stage, as it were, to the formation
of a continuous network such as we find in Huplectella and
Aphrocallistes. In Habrodictyon, however, the coalescence
never occurs to any extent, and the network remains perfectly
flexible and without a trace of the raised filigree ridges which

130 Prof. W. Thomson on the “ Vitreous” Sponges.

are so characteristic of Huplectella. 'The long hexradiate
clubbed spicules and the irregular hexradiate spicules make up
the mass of the skeleton.

The investing film of sarcode is thickly studded with ex-
tremely minute spicules, which in the dried sponge seem to be
adhering to the larger spicules and irregularly massed among
them. On shaking the sponge, quantities of these minute
spicules of the sarcode fall out. They are of two marked
types. The most abundant are small hexradiate stellate
spicules (Pl. [V. fig. 16, x 250), with the rays nearly equal,
formed exactly upon the same plan as the larger spicules of
the skeleton, with a well-marked but extremely minute six-
rayed tube occupying the centre of the rays. The rays when
broken show the same lamellar structure as the larger spicules.
The second type is also very abundant; but it is rare to find
these spicules at all perfect: it is the ‘ floricomo-hexradiate
stellate” of Bowerbank. The centre of the spicule is hex-
radiate stellate, like the other spicules; but each ray, not more
than four times its own width from the point of divergence,
spreads out into several, probably six or eight, expanded plates:
these plates curve outwards and form a cup; they then bend
upwards and slightly inwards, and become so extremely deli-
cate that they are little more than visible under a high magni-
fying-power ; finally they sweep upwards and outwards, end-
ing in a trifid expansion. These trifid ends turn gracefully
over, so that the processes from each of the six radii unite in
producing a beautiful vase-like form. A perfect spicule with
all its vases complete 1s an exquisite microscopic object. The
star-like centres of these spicules are not very common; but
the sarcode is full of the ultimate branches. (PI. IV. fig. 1)
The vast number of these separate hooks may be explained
by the extreme tenuity of their attachments to the central
stars. The strain of the contraction of the sarcode in drying
may probably be sufficient to break them off.. These spicules
appear to be most abundant near the edges of the openings in
the network.

‘The conical sponge is abruptly truncated above, the wall
ending in a well-defined ridge or lip, somewhat more dense in
structure than the rest of the wall. The tube is then closed
by a very irregular, horizontal, netted lid, composed of fibres
which are much more thread-like and closer in their texture
than those of the wall. The ultimate elements of the fibres of
the lid, however, are exactly the same as those of the wall-
network ; only the large stellate spicules are less numerous, and
the fusiform spicules are usually much shorter. The spicules
of the sarcode are equally numerous and of the same character
throughout.

Prof. W. Thomson on the “ Vitreous”? Sponges. 131

The only known specimens of Habrodictyon corbicula are in
the Museum of the Jardin des Plantes. They are three in
number: one is perfect, another is torn through the middle,
and the third is a mere fragment. Through the friendly cour-
tesy of M. Lacaze-Duthiers, I had an opportunity of examining
them carefully ; and, by his permission, an admirable photo-
graph of the perfect specimen was taken for me by M. Potteau.
This photograph is copied, reduced one-third in size, in PI. IV.
fig. 1. The specimen is labelled “ Aleyoncellum corbicula, Val.
Donné par M. Saches. 1857.”

H. speciosum, Quoy & Gaimard (sp.). Pl. IV. fig. 2.

Alcyoncellum speciosum, Quoy & Gaimard, ‘ Voyage de l’Astrolabe’, Zoologie,
vol. iv. p. 302.

Aleyoncellum speciosum, Milne-Edwards, in Lamarck’s ‘Animaux sans
Vertébres, vol. ii. p. 589

Alcyonellum gelatinosum and A, speciosum, Owen, Trans. Zool. Soc. vol. ii.

. 205.

Alcyoncellum corbicula, Bowerbank, British Spongiade, vol. i. p. 174.

Euplectella speciosa, Gray, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vol. xviii. p. 467.

Corbitella speciosa, Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. for 1867, p. 530.

The Sponge is tubular, about 7} inches in height, expand-
ing gradually upwards from a contracted base 13 inch in dia-
meter to a width of about 24 inches at the upper extremity.
The network forming the wall of the tube is the same in ge-
neral structure and arrangement as in H. corbicula, but the
fibres are finer and more defined and compact in texture. The
wall of the tube rises to no definite lip, and forms no terminal
lid, but the ordinary network of the wall simply arches over
and closes the wide end of the tube without any change of
structure. As a rule, the spicules of the skeleton are identical
in form and arrangement with those of H. corbicula; the fusi-
form spicules seem to be somewhat longer, and the irregular
hexradiate spicules less abundant. All the sarcode-spicules of
H. corbicula are repeated in H. speciosum in nearly the same
numerical proportions ; but in the latter species a minute spi-
cule (PI. IV. fig. 2 a, x 1000) occurs in great abundance, while
it is rare, if it occur at all, in ZH. corbicula. This is probably
Bowerbank’s “bifurcate rectangulated hexradiate spicule ”
(British Sponges, fig. 188) ; it recalls in general character and
physiognomy a small spicule very abundant. in the sarcode ot
Hyalonema, figured in the ‘ Intellectual Observer’ of March
last, plate 1. fig. 10. The abundance of this special spicule in
H. speciosum has chiefly weighed with me in regarding the
two forms of Habrodictyon as distinct species ; it would be ne-
cessary, however, to examine a larger series to arrive at a de-
finite conclusion on this point.

132 ~~ Prof. W. Thomson on the “ Vitreous” Sponges.

Dr. Bowerbank supposes that in this group the openings of
the lid and those of the tube will stand to one another in the
relation of oscula and pores: “The whole of the parietes are
appropriated to inhalation.” The distal end of the cloaca “ is
partially closed by a eribriform veil, the orifices of which ap-
pear to be the true oscula of the sponge.” (Bowerbank, British
Sponges, vol. i. pp. 176, 177.)

This is a gratuitous assumption, and seems improbable.
Even in Huplectella, in which the formation of the lid is most
perfect, the meshes of the tube-wall are individually as large
as the openings in the lid, and collectively represent an area
of a hundred times their extent. It seems to me that ina
fixed organism of the form of Huplectella, with so open a
structure, the resistance at the contracted “oscular area”
would be sufficient to overcome any ciliary current concen-
trated upon it, and to send the water back through the open
network. It is surely much more likely that each of the large
openings in the wall is occupied by an exhalant orifice, and
that inhalation takes place as usual by minute pores in the
interstices between the spicules of the skeleton. Indeed this
is scarcely an open question; for in the unique specimen of
HT. speciosum there is no lid, and the apertures are of the same
character throughout.

The only known specimen of H. speciosum is that figured
by MM. Quoy and Gaimard in the ‘ Voyage de 1’ Astrolabe,’
and now in the Museum of the Jardin des Plantes. It is
represented (Pl. IV. fig. 2) reduced one-third, from a photo-
graph, of the natural size, by M. Potteau.

The specimen is labelled “ Alcyoncellum corbicula, Val.
Tiré par 80 brasses de profondeur dans la rade de St. Denis de
Bourbon par M. Leschenault, 1819.”

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV.

Fig. 1. Habrodictyon corbicula, reduced one-third.
la, One of the distorted hexradiate spicules, x 100.
16. A regular hexradiate spicule, x 250.
lc. One of the ordinary filiform spicules of the skeleton, showing the
tubercles which represent the secondary rays, x 150.
1d. The enlarged end of such a spicule.
le, A portion of one of the “ floricomo-hexradiate stellate” spicules,
x 300.
1 f. One of the separated branches, front and lateral views, x 1000.
Fig. 2. Habrodictyon speciosum, reduced one-third.
2 a. One of the spicules of the sarcode peculiar to this species, x 1000.

Prof. H. James-Clark on the Spongie ciliate. 133

XXI.—Notule Lichenologice. No. XX.
By the Rev. W. A. Leicuton, B.A., F.L.S.

Every lichenist is unfortunately well aware of the great diffi-
culty of preserving specimens of lichens which grow on the
earth. ‘Too frequently he finds, on consulting his herbarium,
that the earth on which such lichens grew has become dry
and crumbled into dust, involving in such disintegration the
destruction of the lichen itself, especially when this happens
to possess a crustaceous thallus. To remedy this a solution
of gum arabic has been sometimes used, but with partially
satisfactory results only, inasmuch as the mucilage does not
penetrate the earth, but only conglomerates its surface. An
effective preparation appears to have been discovered by
M. J. M. Norman, of Trémso, Norway. It consists of a solu-
tion of isinglass in spirits of wine, such as is used in the pre-
paration of English adhesive plaster, which a chemist informs
me is better known as ‘ Prout’s plaster.” This composition,
when liquefied in a vessel plunged into water of the tempera-
ture of 25°-30° C., is greedily imbibed by the earth on which
the lichen grows, and becomes inspissated into a solid gelatine
at a temperature below 15°. The solution may be applied by
a camel’s-hair pencil until the earth becomes saturated ; but
care should be taken that the lichen itself be not moistened
with it, for otherwise it would become discoloured. When the
surface has become dry, the specimen may be submitted to
moderate pressure, which, after some days, produces the requi-
site hardness and tenacity. The favourable experience of
some years encourages M. Norman to recommend this prepa-
ration to his fellow lichenists.

XXIT.—On the Spongie ciliate as Infusoria flagellata; or
Observations on the Structure, Animality, and Relationship
of Leucosolenia botryoides, Bowerbank*. By H. JAMES-
CriarK, A.B., B.S., Professor of Natural History in the
Agricultural College of Pennsylvania.

[Plates V., VI., VIL.]

I HAVE been engaged like others, for some time past, in en-
deavouring to clear up the doubt which prevails in the scien-

* A sketch of the contents of this memoir has already been published
in the ‘ Proceedings of the Boston Society’ for June 20, 1866 ; the ‘ Ame-
rican Journal of Science’ for November 1866, and in the ‘ Annals’ for
January 1867.

+ From a separate impression from the ‘ Memoirs read before the Bos-
oF Society of Natural History,’ vol. i. part 3; communicated by the
author.

134 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Spongie ciliate

tific community in regard to the nature of the Sponge. -The
question has been, is it an animal oris ita plant? Bowerbank,
the highest classificatory authority upon this subject, for a
long term of years held that it was an animal; but his bases
for this theory were such that they did not appear to offer a
satisfactory means of finally deciding the dispute. The latter
remark applies with equal force to the investigations of Lieber-
kiihn. Of later years Carter has made some special investi-
gations in reference to this subject, and in fact he has been the
first to present anything like decisive proofs of the animality
of the Sponge. A few words quoted from his paper, which he
published in the ‘Annals and Magazine of Natural History’
for April 1857, vol. xx. p. 30, will suffice to show to what ex-
tent he has carried his observations. Speaking of the “ mono-
ciliated sponge-cells of the ampullaceous sac,” which, he says,
was set free by the disintegration of the whole mass of the
sponge, he remarks that “ particles .... were thrown [by the
flagellum] almost point-blank on its surface, and rapidly passed
into the interior.” Strangely enough, though, as it seems to
me now, he does not look upon the intussusception of the
particles as a genuine process of swallowing, like that which
obtains among the ciliated Infusoria, but describes it in several
places, when speaking of the various kinds of sponge-cells, as
an enveloping of the food after the manner of Amada. It is
plain, therefore, that he does not believe that the “ sponge-
cells” are endowed with a mouth; and moreover, if I am not
mistaken, he attributes to any part of the “cell” the faculty of
engulfing food. This interpretation, therefore, would exclude
the Sponge from the list of Flagellata, notwithstanding the
presence of the flagellum. 'That, however, does not weaken
the proof as to the animality of this organism, but merely
leaves it (as Mr. Carter believes it to be) in the most intimate
alliance with the naked Rhizopoda; and, as if to confirm this
conclusion, the same authority adds, “These monociliated
sponge-cells present the contracting vesicle* in great activity,
but also in variable plurality.” I believe, however, that the
“variable plurality” of the contracting vesicles does not alone
belong to the Rhizopoda, but, as I shall show hereafter+, that
it is also to be observed among the true Flagellata; and I
would remark, moreover, that when we consider the close re-
lationship (which I hope to prove in this paper) of the Sponge
to the other flagellate monad-like Infusoria, which undoubtedly

* Already noticed by him, in 1847, in the Trans. Bombay Med. and
Phys. Soe. (abstract in Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1848).
+ Salpingeeca marinus, n. sp., § 8, and S. amphoridium, n. sp., § 9.

as Infusoria flagellata. 135

have a definite oral aperture, we must, if on no other grounds,
conclude that it also possesses a true mouth.

Still there would appear to be some who doubt whether, after
all, the Sponges are really animals instead of plants, and more-
over seem to insist that they are neither the one nor the other,
but form with other Infusorians (such as Volvox, Gonium,
Pandorina, Euglena, and other Conferva-like bodies) a group
by themselves, standing intermediate to, and partaking of the
nature of, both animals and plants. This is the group which
has been called Phytozoa, 7. e. plant-animals.

In the midst of this halting decision, I have been for some
years past working upon a class of Infusoria the knowledge of
whose structure fully prepared me not only to recognize the
animal nature of the Sponge, but also enabled me to determine
to what group of Infusoria it belongs. Such a decision, there-
fore, does not leave any trace of doubt in my mind as to the
strictly animal nature of the Sponges. The whole question in
dispute hinges upon the determination as to the animal or
vegetable nature of the Monad-like or so-called Flagellate
Infusoria. And here, again, I would say that it has fallen to
my lot to decide, for the first time, that one of the smallest
of the known Infusoria, the Monad (Monas termo, Ehr. ?) is
an animal. If, now, we can prove this point, the way is per-
fectly clear through the intermediate forms which lie between
the Monad and the Sponge.

Commencing, then, with what I believe to be the Monas
termo of Khrenberg, I shall proceed to describe in detail a
series of forms (several of which are new, both generically and
specifically) which stand in the closest relationship among the
lowest embodiments of infusorial life, embracing among them,
as I hope to show, the true ciliated Sponges, and which, not-
withstanding, lead in unobstructed although varied courses *
to the more elevated kinds of Protozoa, the true Infusoria
ciliata.

§ 1. Monas termo, Ehr. Pl. V. figs. 1, 2, 3, 4.

Upon a slight acquaintance with this infusorian, one would be
strongly inclined to identify it with the younger stages of Antho-
physa Miilleri, Bory (fig. 49); but a more searching investiga-
tion reveals such a number of characters in each which are not
to be found in the other, that one need not have any hesitation
whatever in setting them down as totally diverse organisms.
In fact Monas belongs to the uniciliate Flagellata, whilst the
other genus just mentioned is a biciliate heteronematous form.

Monas lives in two diverse conditions, of which one is a

* See the preliminary remarks upon Anthophysa, § 11.

136 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Spongie ciliate

fixed state (fig. 3), and the other a free and motile stage (figs. 1,
2,4). During its sedentary life, it may be found in great
abundance on the old stems of Myriophyllum, 'Potamogeton,
Ceratophyllum, and other aquatic phenogamous plants which
inhabit quiet waters, and are more or less thickly covered by a
floccose overgrowth of various minute Conferve, Diatomacee,
&c. In its free state it swims with either a sort of hitching,
wriggling motion, or, gliding along smoothly, revolves at an
inconstant but never rapid rate upon its longer axis, of which
the flagellum (fig. 2 #1), which always precedes it, may be said
to be a prolongation. This is the condition in which it is
most frequently to be found after it has been kept a few days
in an aquarium. It then gathers in swarms about decomposing
matter, and thus affords frequent opportunity of seeing its mode
of collecting and swallowing its food.

The form of the body in a fixed state (fig. 3) may be com-
pared to a flattened heart, of which one summit is prolonged
into a broad, conical, transparent beak (/p), and at the opposite
end the apex is attached to a slender, flexible pedicel (pd),
which frequently is equal in length to four or five times the
antero-posterior diameter of the body. In a free condition
(fig. 2) the posterior end is rounded and about as broad as the
front, but still it presents the same lateral flattening as the
fixed form. The prevailing colour is a faint olive or yellowish

reen.

The flagellum (fl) is the only ciltum-like organ which this
creature possesses. It is attached to the front, close to the
proximal side of the conical beak (/p), and consequently lies
in the axial line of the body. In a quiet state, which it most
frequently assumes during the fixed condition, it appears like
an arcuate bristle, and extends from near its base to its apex
in one uniform, slightly but distinctly curved line, and termi-
nates without any very sensible diminution in thickness. The
plane of its curve is in direct extension of the plane of the
greater diameter of the body, and at the same time passes
through the conical beak. During natation the flagellum
takes precedence and vibrates with an undulating whirling
motion which is most especially observable at its tip, and
produces by this mode of propulsion the peculiar rolling of the
body which at times lends so much grace to its movements as
it glides from place to place. During the fixed state of the
body the chief design of the movements of the flagellum is the
prehension of food; and this is accomplished by a peculiar
abrupt deflection of the end of this organ towards the front,
by means of which particles of various kinds are made to im-
pinge upon the region immediately at the proximal side of the

as Infusoria flagellata. 137

base of the broad conical beak—a point at which, as will be
seen presently, the mouth is situated.

The mouth (figs. 38,4, m) lies between the base of the fla-
gellum (jl) and the beak, or lip (Up), as I shall hereafter de-
signate it, from its obvious oftice, presently to be described.
A plane, therefore, drawn through the lip and the base of the
flagellum, would also strike the mouth, and moreover form a
continuation of that of the greater diameter of the body. This
aperture is not visible during its closed state ; but its presence
has been often and unmistakeably determined by seeing the
masses of food enter invariably at the point designated above.
As already stated, particles are thrown with a sudden jerk,
precisely as is done by Anthophysa Miiller?, Bory (figs. 50, 51),
and apparently with great precision, directly against the mouth
(fig. 4,m). If acceptable for food, the flagellum presses its
base down upon the morsel, and at the same time the lip is
thrown back (fig. 4, /p) so as to disclose the mouth, and then
bent over the particle as it sinks into the latter. When the
lip has obtained a fair hold upon the food, the flagellum with-
draws from its incumbent position and returns to its former
rigid, watchful condition (fig. 4, #). The process of degluti-
tion is then carried on by the help of the lip alone, which ex-
pands laterally until it completely overlies the particle. All
this is done quite rapidly, in a few seconds; and then the food
glides quickly into the depths of the body, and is enveloped in
a digestive vacuole (d), whilst the lip assumes its usual conical
shape and proportions.

The contractile vesicle (figs. 2, 3, 4, ev) is a much larger and
far more active organ than that of Anthophysa (figs.47,48, cv).
If we view the body from its narrower aspect (fig. 2), when it
stands so that the lip (/p) is nearest the eye, the contractile
vesicle (cv) appears in profile, on the left broad side, and so close
to the surface that it seems to project beyond the general outline
of the body. It les in the anterior third of the broad side
just mentioned, and close to the transverse plane which sepa-
rates that part which contains it from the one upon which the
lip is placed. From whichever direction, therefore, one views
this organ, it will be seen to stand in an asymmetrical relation
to the rest; and as it is preeminently a dominant feature, it
may serve, perhaps better than any other, as a starting-point
in determining the obliquity of the type of this infusorian,
and its perfect consonance in this respect with that of the more
obviously spiral forms, such, for imstance, as are exemplified
by Dysteria (igs. 77, 78) and Pleuronema (figs. 75,76). It is
so large and conspicuous that its globular form may be readily
seen, even through the greatest diameter of the body; and it

138 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Spongie ciliate

contracts so vigorously and abruptly, at the rate of sia times a
minute, that there seems to be a quite sensible shock over that
side of the body in which it is imbedded.

The reproductive organ may possibly be represented by the
very conspicuous, bright, highly refracting, colourless, oil-like
globule (x), which is enclosed in a clear vesicle, and appears
to be so constantly present in the depths of the posterior third
of the body. Its position seems to be invariably on that side
of the transverse axial plane which is opposite to that in which
the contractile vesicle (cv) lies. Nothing further of a positive
nature can be said in regard to this body; but we may con-
jecture that, inasmuch as it cannot well be assigned to any
other office, not even to that of an eye-spot, it is im all proba-
bility an organ of reproduction. .

In regard to the stem (fig. 3, pd), it may be added that,
although it appears to be of the simplest nature—a mere
gossamer thread as it were, it is none the less positive, as a
support, than that of Anthophysa (figs. 47,48, 49, pd), and
must indeed possess a similar self-reliant power in order to
keep the body in the same relative position in regard to the
object to which it is attached, or to sustain it in an upright
attitude at a time when the flagellum is quiet and there is
consequently no other means of preventing the animal from
sinking down upon the nearest fixed point.

§ 2. Monas neglecta, nov. sp. Pl. V. figs. 5, 5, 55, 6.

To a casual observer this species would appear to be one of
the varieties of Monas termo of §1; and I must confess that,
under an amplification of only five hundred diameters, the
mistake would be easily made, unless one had become perfectly
familiar with the two by prolonged study with a much higher
magnifying-power. There is, though, a physiological differ-
ence which can be observed when all others could scarcely be
noted, which is this: the rate of the systole of the contractile
vesicle (cv) of this species is double that of Monas termo. Like
the latter it enjoys two diverse conditions of life—namely, a
fixed (figs. 5, 5, 6) and a free (fig. 5>) state,—frequents the same
habitat, progresses with the same means and mode of loco-
motion, and obtains its food by similar prehensile organs, and
swallows it in the same manner.

The form of the body is that of an oval, but terminates an-
teriorly in an obliquely truncate front; or, rather, one side of
the front projects in the form of a low, rounded prominence,
which constitutes the lip (ly). The posterior end is either
broadly rounded or very bluntly pointed where the pedicel ( pd)
is attached. The colour is either greyish or there is none at all.

as Infusoria flagellata. 139

The flagellum (ff) has more of a sigmoid flexure than that
of Monas termo (figs. 1-4), and about as much as that of An-
thophysa Miillert, Bory (figs. 47, 48, #). It arises from the
axial point of the front, and extends to about three times the
length of the body. The plane of its curve bears the same
relation to the mouth and lip as that of Monas termo, and it is
used in the same manner as a prehensile organ to assist the
lip (fig. 6, 7p) when taking food, and for a propelling-apparatus
(fig. 5°, #1), as the body whirls along after it during natation.

The mouth (fig. 6, m) lies in the same relative position as
that of Monas termo, and receives its food in precisely the same
manner, and, by the assistance of the lip (Jp), with the same
degree of rapidity passes it into the body.

The contractile vesicle (cv) lies on the same side of the plane
of the arcuate flagellum (//) as that of Monas termo, and at
about the same distance from the front, but in an opposite
region, and directly in the antero-posterior line with the lip.
It is also a more vigorous and larger organ than that of the
other Monas ; and, bulging out (fig. 5%, ev) the body even more
strongly during expansion, its systole takes place at double
the rate (that 1s, twelve times a minute), and very abruptly.

The pedicel (pd) sometimes attains to four or five times the
length of the body, but most frequently it is not more than half
as long as that. It is thin and delicate, but appears to possess
considerable rigidity, either in a fully extended state, or when
(as appears to be the case sometimes) it is contracted into more
or less abrupt curves (fig.6, pd). Its apex (fig. 5%, pd?) is
attached to the posterior end of the body, at a point which is
coincident with the longitudinal axis.

§ 3. Brcosaca, nov. gen.*
Bicoseca gracilipes, nov. sp. . Pl. V. figs. 34, 35.

This genus might be compared to a Monas seated in a calyx,
and upon a highly muscular, contractile stem.

Bicoseca gracilipes is a marine form, and has thus far been
found, although in considerable numbers, only upon Sertularia
cupressina, Linn. It is an excessively minute creature, as may
be readily judged by the reader upon referring to the magnify-
ing powers which are laid down in the description of the
figures. When first met with, it appeared, upon a casual ob-
servation and under a magnifying-power of only five hundred
diameters, to be an elongate, naked Monas, which was kept in
a firm position by some invisible power. It soon, however,
attracted particular attention to itself by its peculiar, spasmodic

* Bixos, a vase ; oikew, to inhabit.

140 ~— Prof. H. James-Clark on the Spongie ciliate

and often-repeated retrocession. Upon putting on a power of
eight hundred diameters, the whole organization was brought
out with sufficient clearness to satisfy one upon every point.
For the purposes of illustration, however, it was thought best
to increase the magnifying-power to a still greater extent ; and
we have, therefore, drawn one figure (fig. 34) to represent this
infusorian as it appears when seen under an amplification of
about fifteen hundred diameters.

This animal has never been found in a free state, or in any
other than that which is represented in these two figures
(figs. 34, 35). It hasan elongate oval body, which is enclosed
in a deep vasiform, pedicellated calyx (c), to whose bottom it
is attached by a slender, colourless, contractile ligament (7’).
It usually rests about halfway between the top and bottom of
the calyx, but is frequently jerked to the bottom (fig. 35) of
the vase (c) by means of the ligament just mentioned. The
anterior end is truncate, and prolonged into two prehensile
organs, one of which is a flagellum (ff), and the other a lip (/p)
similar in position and function to that of the Monas described
in the previous section. The generally prevailing fuscous tint
is interrupted by a transparent colourless streak (71), which
extends from the laterally posited base of the flagellum (7) to
the posterior end of the body, where it seems to : be prolonged
into the contractile ligament (vr). It is not a band, however,
but a sharply defined furrow, of considerable depth. At the
anterior end it is sunk so deeply that it borders closely upon
the base of the flagellum, and from that point it gradually
shallows until it nearly disappears at the point of junction of
the body with the contractile ligament.

We are thus reminded of those heteronematous Flagellata,
like Anisonema (figs. 65-69), whose bodies are so conspi-
cuously suleated in a longitudinal direction ; and the apparent

Ey of the retractor ligament (fig. d4, r) with this
furrow (7!) heightens the impression, by its resemblance to the
highly muscular trailing lash (figs. 65-69, f°) of that genus.
One could hardly be accused of” unduly straining a a in
homology if he were to regard the furrow (fic. 34, 71) in
question as merely a ereatly prolonged ostial notch, and the
retractor (7) as a trailing lash, which originated at the greatest
possible distance from the other, its proboscidal companion (2).

The lip ((p) is a more promiment organ than that of Monas.
It has a conical shape, and is about twice as long as its greatest
breadth. It is so hyaline as to readily escape notice until it is
fully recognized. It is situated at the edge of the truncate
front opposite to that from which the flagellum arises, and
therefore leaves a considerable space between the latter and

as Infusoria flagellata. 141

itself. Within this broad space the simple mouth (m) is
situated.

The flagellum (fl) is the most active of the prehensile organs,
and the only vibratory filamentous body which this animalcule
possesses. In length it is about three times that of the body,
or a little more, and projects far beyond the rim of the vase (c).
It is a curious fact that while in Monas and Anthophysa the
lip and flagellum lie closely together, they stand far apart in
Bicoseca. he flagellum is not an undulatory, vibrating
organ, in the common sense of the term, but usually supports
itself in a rigid condition, except at the tip, which is kept in
nearly constant motion, incurvating with frequent jerks, and
tossing floating particles toward the mouth. — Its distal two-
thirds is quite strongly curved, but not so much as to be abso-
lutely faleate; and at its basal third it is moderately arcuated
in the opposite direction, so that the whole flagellum has a
slightly sigmoid flexure. The plane of this curve is such as
to strike the mouth and lip when carried out in that direction.
The diameter of this organ is about equal from tip to base,
excepting a slight thickening at the latter pomt. ‘The only
times that the flagellum abandons its rigid deportment are either
when it is assisting the lip to seize the food, or during the
spasmodic retrocession of the body. In the latter case it is
abruptly retracted and coiled (fig. 35, f) transversely within
the calyx (c) close down to the truncate front of the body.
When the latter slowly pushes forward from the bottom of its
dormitory, the flagellum as deliberately uncoils, and at first
vibrates with a rapid wriggle, but finally assumes its former
sigmoid curve and rigid deportment.

The mouth (m), as has already been mentioned incidentally,
lies in the middle of the truncate front, and consequently faces
toward the aperture of the calyx (c). Food is brought to it by
means of the flagellum (ff); and the latter and the lip (/p)
force it into the oral aperture exactly in the same way as has
been described in regard to Monas.

The contractile vesicle (cv) is a single globular organ, which
lies on the corresponding side of the body with that of Monas,
and just in front of the middle. In full diastole its diameter
equals one-third of that of the body. Both the systole and
diastole are very slow.

The calyx (c) is about twice as long as the body which it
encloses, and between four and five times its own average
diameter. It has the form of a very deep slender urn, with a
rounded bottom, slightly contracted waist, and a very delicate,
scarcely reverted, truncate rim. It is so hyaline and faint that
it almost defies any magnifying-power below that of eight

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. i. ED

142 Bibliographical Notices.

hundred diameters. The pedicel (pd) which supports it is at
least twice as long, of uniform diameter throughout, and very
slender, in fact not much thicker than the flagellum. It is
attached (pd!) to the bottom of the calyx, exactly opposite to
the point from which the contractile ligament (7) arises; but,
unlike the latter, it appears to be totally incapable of contrac-
tion.
[To be continued. |

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

The Natural History of the Tineina. By H. T. Srarnron.
Vol. X. 8yvo. London: Van Voorst. 1867.

BrForE saying anything upon the contents of the present volume,
we must congratulate Mr. Stainton upon having reached the first
halting-place in his laborious undertaking. He has every reason to
glance back with satisfaction over the ten beautiful volumes which
he has produced in the last thirteen years; and although he himself
speaks, in a somewhat deprecatory tone, of his having failed to keep
up to his original estimate of two volumes annually, we fancy that
most of his readers will think that he has accomplished a gigantic
amount of work. :

The present volume contains the Natural History of twenty-four
species of the genus Gelechia; so that, with the contents of the ninth
volume, Mr. Stainton has illustrated forty-eight species of that diffi-
cult group. But suchisthe progress of discovery now-a-days that it
seems difficult for an author even to keep pace with it. These forty-
eight species are scarcely more than a fifth of the known European
members of the genus, which now, according to Mr. Stainton’s list
of them, amount to 231; but of these the transformations of only
about 100 are known, so that in reality we have in these two volumes
the history of nearly half those species whose life has been thoroughly
investigated.

In comparing the habits of these larvee with those of the nearly
allied genus Depressaria, in which the history of fifty-two out of
eighty-one species was known in 1861, Mr. Stainton arrives at some
curious results with regard to what may be called their botanical
distribution. Thus, whilst nearly half the known larvee of Depres-
saria feed upon Umbelliferous plants, no single Gelechia is known to
derive its nourishment from that order ; the Composite, which nou-
rish fourteen Depressarie (out of fifty-two), have only ten Gelechie
(out of 100) attached to them; the Leguminose are patronized by
about twice the number of the latter in proportion to the former
genus ; and the Caryophyllacez, which are quite free from the attacks
of Depressarie, are known to harbour fourteen species of Gelechia.

It will be unnecessary for us to follow Mr. Stainton through his
elaborate historical notice of the genus, or the histories of the twenty-
four species here set forth; his mode of treatment of his subject must

Bibliographical Notices. 143

be by this time well known to all entomologists. We can only wish
him good speed in the continuation of his great work, and notice the
fact that in subsequent volumes there will be some little departure
from the plan hitherto adopted. The preceding volumes have often
been seriously delayed by the difficulty of making up a set of his-
tories of twenty-four species belonging to one or at most two genera ;
and this difficulty Mr. Stainton finds increasing upon him now that
a considerable proportion of the species in some of the more exten-
sive genera have been described and illustrated. In one instance,
he tells us, a volume was kept waiting more than a year for the life-
history of a single species. Under these circumstances he has re-
solved (we think judiciously) to give up the attempt to fill each volume
with species of the same genus. We hope that he may receive the
encouragement of a heavy subscription list.

The Tineina of Syria and Asia Minor. By H. T. Srarton, F.L.S.
8vo. London: Van Voorst. 1867.

In the preface to the volume just noticed Mr. Stainton announces
his intention of publishing a series of works upon the Tineina of
various districts. The first of these, published early last year, is the
little volume now before us, on the Tineina of Syria and Asia Minor ;
those in contemplation or in progress are on the members of the
same beautiful group of Lepidoptera inhabiting Scandinavia, the
Alps, and Southern Europe.

The inducement to the production of the present work was fur-
nished by a collection of Microlepidoptera found in Palestine in 1865
by the Rey. O. Pickard Cambridge, and submitted to Mr. Stainton
for identification and description. This led him to bring together all
the papers published on the Tineina of western Asia, and to procure
the loan of many of the type specimens; and in this volume we have
the results of his investigations. It appears that, previously to Mr.
Cambridge’s visit, eleven collections containing species of Tineina had
been made in Syria and Asia Minor by German travellers ; and no-
tices of these, with descriptions of new species, were published in
various periodicals by MM. Zeller, Mann, and Lederer. Mr. Stainton
has here reproduced the lists of species, and reprinted (in the original
German) the descriptions of new forms, so as to bring into a focus,
as it were, all the specially Levantine literature of the Tineina. To
these he adds a catalogue of the species and descriptions of the new
forms collected by Mr. Cambridge, descriptions of many of the species
previously characterized by the above-mentioned authors, and of
some other new species obtained from various sources. The number
of species is 389, which are brought together in a table at the end
of the book, showing, in parallel columns, the expeditions in which
they were collected, with indications of their comparative abundance
or rarity in the different localities.

Although unpretending in its form, this little work is one that
must have taken no small labour in its preparation, and its import-
ance is not to be measured by its bulk. In the present aspect of

dee

144 Bibliographical Notices.

natural history, no department occupies a more important. place
than that which treats of the geographical distribution of organized
beings. It is from considerations founded upon this that nearly all
the questions connected with the origin of species must be decided ;
and upon our solution of these depend, in great measure, our views
of the philosophy of natural history. From this point of view it is
almost impossible to overrate the importance of limited faunistic
works, such as this of Mr. Stainton’s; and its value is the greater as
it relates to that remarkable region which constitutes the point of
contact of the three great continents of the Old World.

The Fishes of Zanzibar. Acantuorreryet, by Lieut.-Colonel R.
Lampert Prayrarr, Her Majesty’s Political Agent and Consul at
Zanzibar. PHaryneoenatut &c., by Arperr C. L. G. Ginruer,
M.A., Ph.D., M.D. 4to. London: Van Voorst.

Sivce Adam Smith brought the phrase into vogue, the “ division of
labour” has been by most persons regarded with favour ; but, some-
how or other, naturalists were a long time before they found out the
convenience of such an arrangement; and hence sprang a thick crop
of controversies which had an awkward habit of developing into very
pretty quarrels. May we hope that this contentious age has passed
away, and that the outdoor observer, whose lamb-like virtues were
aforetime sounded in our ears, has, once and for ever, lain down
comfortably with the closet collector, undeterred by his leonine den-
tition and claws. In the work now before us the compact of eternal
friendship is signed, sealed, and delivered (to the public) by person-
ages no less than Lieutenant-Colonel Playfair, some time Her Ma-
jesty’s Consul and Political Resident at Zanzibar, and Dr. Albert
Ginther of the British Museum. To say that they have succeeded in
their undertaking is almost unnecessary ; for that would of course be
expected from the gallant Scottish gentleman who, until recently,
superintended British interests on the East Coast of Africa, and the
able German philosopher who presides over the ‘“ bottle-department”’
of the National establishment in Great Russell Street. But we think
a word of recognition is also due to the authorities of the Bombay
Government, who have most liberally encouraged the present work.
Ichthyology has never been a popular branch of study, and in con-
sequence ichthyological books have seldom been lucrative under-
takings. Few but the initiated can distinguish at sight between a
Cyprinoid and a Salmonoid, and fewer still give themselves the trouble
to undergo the course of scientific study which such an initiation, to
be well founded, properly requires. Goggle eyes and scaly bodies
of unsightly form, sometimes beset by confusing appendages, some-
times free from them, but always immersed in a liquid more or less
resembling the mixture which advertising wine-merchants term
“Golden Sherry,” are the sole reminiscences which most persons
carry away with them after looking over a collection of fishes in a
museum. ‘This arises from the necessity of the case. We know not
how to make an ichthyological cabinet attractive to the public, and

Royal Society. 145

can hardly wonder at its general apathy on this subject. All the
more credit, therefore, to those who have so laudably aided in the
publication of the ‘ Fishes of Zanzibar !’

That the value of this work will be fully recognized by the scien-
tific there need be no doubt ; we therefore deem it less necessary for
us to expatiate upon it. It will be sufficient to quote from the “ In-
troduction,” that hitherto

No attempt has been made to illustrate the Fish-fauna of that large
extent of coast stretching between the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb and
Mozambique. The labours of Lieut.-Colonel Playfair go far to supply
this hiatus. In the course of a residence of many years at Aden and
Zanzibar, during which he made frequent excursions to the African coast
and the adjacent islands, he formed a considerable collection of Fish, of
which the following pages contain a description.

This collection contains 500 distinct species, obtained in the following
localities :—

AU AREY ZUR ces un ein sg tg ta ds, Udes igeak tp) ws eye ole AS
GAARA 8 fe seagate hs sad ghee LO
ORCME MCE we. Me. are at a at tek Ae
Comtororistnnds. ()" “ye Ete) ar dias 2 ay
Adentand dus yiemuby oF NOPE Ets Oe NB
Chagos archipelago . . . 1h

We have thought it advisable that there should be only one authority
for new species, on which account each of the authors has attached his
name to a moiety of the work; but it must not be imagined that we have
worked otherwise than jointly and continuously throughout.

In conclusion, we have only to offer our thanks to the joint authors
of this work. Dr. Giinther will of course pursue the noiseless tenor
of his way, and continue to earn the gratitude of all zoologists by his
unwearied labours ; while Col. Playfair, we can scarcely doubt, will
find at his new post something to glean, even though the officials of
the “ Exploration Scientifique de l’Algérie” have been harvesting
before him. May they again join forces to produce another work as
satisfactory as the ‘ Fishes of Zanzibar !’

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.
ROYAL SOCIETY.

December 5, 1867.—Dr. William Allen Miller, Treasurer and
Vice-President, in the Chair.

“On some Alterations in the Composition of Carbonate-of-Lime
Waters, depending on the influence of Vegetation, Animal Life,
and Season.” By Ropert WaRINGTON, F.R.S., F.C.S.

In carrying out through a series of years the principles of the
aquarium for sustaining animal life in a confined and limited por-
tion of water through the medium of growing vegetation *, I had
observed that, during the summer months of the year, a consider-

* Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society, vol. iii. p. 52.

146 Royal Society -—Influence of Animal

able deposit made its appearance on the leaves of the plants and the
glass front of the containing vessel, which was found to consist of
carbonate of lime in a crystalline condition. This deposit formed a
nidus for the growth of confervoid vegetation, which, at certain sea-
sons of the year, increased very rapidly. These observations were
alluded to at one of the Friday-evening meetings of the Royal Insti-
tution, March 27, 1857, when portions of the deposit were exhi-
bited, and its composition demonstrated by experiment.

The formation of this deposit was then explained as arising from
the fact that, as the summer season advances, and we have a longer
continuance and also a greater intensity of the light of the sun, the
absorption and consequent decomposition of carbonic acid by the
plants is carried to a much greater extent, while the quantity of
carbonic acid produced by the fish remains unchanged. The solvent
of the carbonate of lime contained in the water being thus with-
drawn, a deposit slowly takes place, incrusting the sides of the
tank, particularly towards the light, where the confervoid growth,
consequent upon it, accumulates in large quantities.

In continuing these observations, my attention was particularly
arrested by the steady increase of deposition, attendant upon the
renewed activity of the leaves, during the spring; and this deter-
mined me to ascertain by experiment the quantity of carbonate of
lime existent in the water at fixed intervals during a long period
of time. And inasmuch as the degrees of hardness, indicated by
the measures of Clark’s soap-test, presented a very ready, accurate,
and simple means of arriving at this result, that mode of estimation
was adopted, care being taken to displace any uncombined carbonic
acid by agitating the sample with atmospheric air prior to the addi-
tion of the test, as directed by Dr. Clark, the indications or degrees
thus obtained representing the quantity of lime-salts contained in
an imperial gallon of the sample (70000 grains of distilled water)
in terms of carbonate of lime.

In order that the nature of the experiment may be more clearly
understood, it will perhaps be better for me, before stating the
results thus obtained, to describe briefly the construction and
arrangement of the aquarium, its position, and its contents. The
tank consisted of a rectangular zinc framing, twenty inches long by
thirteen broad, and twenty-one in depth, having slate cemented into
it at the bottom and sides, and being glazed at the back and front.
It was filled with water to the height of twelve inches, or a volume
equal to ten gallons, and on the slate sides were cemented, at the
water-line, ledges of rockwork composed of sandstone and tufaceous
limestone from Matlock, on which were planted a few ferns, chiefly
Trichomanes, for ornament. The bottom of the tank was covered,
for about two inches, with a mixture of sandy loam and gravel, into
which several plants of the Vallisneria spiralis, the vegetable mem-
ber of the arrangement, were inserted. Some large fragments of
rough rockwork, principally limestone, were also placed upright on
the bottom to break up the stiff outline of the square framing, and
give a pleasing effect to the eye. The animal branch of the circle

and Vegetable Life on Carbonate-of-Lime Waters. 147

consisted of four small crucian carp with a gold carp. — Several
freshwater mollusks, principally Planorbis corneus and Limneus
palustris, were also introduced to act as scavengers and consume
the decaying vegetation. The taak was loosely covered with a plate
of glass, so as to allow of a free admission of the external air, and’
at the same time keep out a great deal of the soot and dust of the
London atmosphere and impede the too rapid evaporation of the
water. As the Trichomanes were stated to delight in shade, a thin
muslin blind was placed over the covering glass.

The aquarium was located in a window-way having an eastern
aspect, but, being surrounded within a few yards by the high walls
of adjoining houses, the direct rays of the sun only reached it for
about three hours in the morning during the months of June and
July. It was established in January 1851, and has not since been
disturbed, except by occasional supplies of distilled or rain-water,
to replace the loss in volume arising from evaporation. It had
been my custom to weed out the excessive growth of the Vallisneria
during the summer, and also to remove some of the flaky deposit of
calcareous matter from the surface of the glass nearest the light ;
but as I considered that such disturbances might interfere with the
course of the investigation, these operations were discontinued.

The results that have been obtained from this investigation dur-
ing the years 1861 and 1862 are as follows :—

1861. March 13 .. salts, per imperial gallon, in terms

- degrees of hardness, or grains of lime-
26°2
of carbonate of lime.

May by ssh WLS - és
talyne tSiiletos h2*S sf 3
August 1.... 13°6 re bs
Depts we k7). 2)-915°0 4 .,
Oct. 8 eglae5 ¥ -
Nove; W204 18:0 3 bs
Dec Opi) £620 a ue
1S62idames 4/8). 3 923:5 ef z
Feb. Sia to t a
March 3.... 23°0 % "
Komal yi Seen taes 45 -
May Pe ae . re
dunes) <4 vuignho . is
July 4 vn 44:0 uy *
August 5 .... 12°0 a ie
Nepte ii 2 tow lro 55 "

The amount of calcareous matter dissolved will be seen to have
steadily decreased during the spring and summer months, from
its maximum in March 1861 and February 1862 to its minimum
in July 1861 and August 1862, and then to have increased as
steadily during the autumn and winter months.

Part of this hardness, however, unquestionably arose from the
presence in the water of other salts of lime besides the carbonate.

148 Royal Society :—Influence of Animal

To determine how much was the next point for investigation.
Portions of the water were taken on several occasions and boiled
for a considerable time, filtered, and the volume restored to its
original bulk with distilled water. On examining these portions
with the soap-test, it was found that the hardness was lowered to
5°6 degrees, equivalent to 5°6 grains of carbonate of lime. But
inasmuch as carbonate of lime is soluble in water to the extent
of 2:4 grains in the imperial gallon*, this will be reduced to 3°2
grains, which amount will therefore have to be deducted from each
of the above results, in order to arrive at the true quantity of car-
bonate present in solution.
The maximum and minimum results will then stand thus :—

CaO, CO, in the CaO, CO, in the

imperial gallon. f imperial gallon.
1861 Ferien Ki aI) 1862 | Maximum .... 21°8
7 Minima 75° "93 "| Manimam 3). 788s

The data thus obtained will help to elucidate several very im-
portant and interesting phenomena in respect to all the three
elements of the arrangement—the water, the fish, and the vege-
tation.

l. The Water.

The importance of growing submerged vegetation in maintaining.
waters, rich in carbonate of lime, in a meliorated state by dimi-
nishing their hardness has been clearly demonstrated by the fore-
going data; and how necessary, therefore, it is that this association
should be kept in view whenever a soft and healthful water is re-
quired for domestic purposes. Unfortunately this appears hitherto
not to have been well understood, or at all events has been little
attended to, since the very agent which has been provided naturally
for effecting these beneficial results has been most commonly re-
garded as an evil, and studiously eradicated in all directions. These
data will also explain the cause of the rapid growth of vegetation in
well-waters rich in carbonic acid, when pumped into tanks or reser-
voirs and exposed to the full light of day. The plant-germs, natu-
rally contained in the water or absorbed from the atmosphere, being
supplied with an abundance of appropriate nourishment, rapidly
vegetate, and the containing vessels, particularly during the summer
months, soon become thickly coated with a dense confervoid growth.

It will also follow that all fish, as generators of carbonic acid,
should be excluded from waters flowing over carbonate-of-lime
strata, and intended for the supply of towns &c., as tending to
increase their hardness. Of course the absence of calcareous matter
would prevent such an effect taking place—a fact borne out by the
well-known softness of springs and rivers flowing out of or over

granite or sandstone rocks, even when thickly inhabited by the scaly
tribe.

* Chemical Report on the Supply of Water to the Metropolis, June 17,
1851, by Messrs. Graham, Miller, and Hofmann; and Quarterly Journal of the
Chemical Society, vol. iv. p. 381.

and Vegetable Life on Carbonate-of-Lime Waters. 149

2. The Fish.

It is well known that water has the property of absorbing air from
the surrounding atmosphere, and holding it in solution to the extent
of from one-fortieth to one-thirtieth of its volume, not, however,
without somewhat changing the proportion of its constituents; for
when the absorbed air is abstracted from water it usually contains
about thirty-two per cent. of oxygen gas, instead of twenty-one.
This oxygen is converted by the respiration of the fish into carbonic
acid, which is held dissolved by a still stronger affinity, the water
being capable of retaining as much as its own volume of this gas
in solution at the ordinary temperature and pressure of the atmos-

here.

: In the above-described arrangement the carbonic acid thus pro-
duced is absorbed by the submerged vegetation under the influence
of the sun’s light; the carbon is appropriated for its growth, while
the oxygen is again liberated and held in solution by the water,
provided the evolution is not too rapid, an effect produced by too
great.an exposure to the sun’s light. When this is the case, much
of the oxygen necessarily escapes into the air in a gaseous state
and is lost. During the winter season, however, when the active
functions of vegetation are to a great extent dormant, from the
diminished quantity and intensity of the sun’s light, the amount
of carbonic acid produced by the respiration of the fish is greater
than the plants are capable of consuming, and the excess must neces-
sarily accumulate in the water. Were the production of carbonic
acid confined to a short period, the water would doubtless right
itself after a time, the poisonous gas passing away and fresh atmo-
spheric air being absorbed. As, however, the production of carbonic
acid is constant, this ameliorating action can have little effect ; the
water must remain always highly charged with carbonic acid. Here,
then, its solvent action on the carbonate of lime, present in the rock-
work and gravel, comes into play, and the hardness of the water is
gradually imcreased in proportion as the light diminishes. Now,
supposing for an instant that no carbonate of lime had been present
in the arrangement, the question arises, what must then have ensued?
The fish would have continued to respire, and would produce carbonic
acid as before, which, remaining in a free state dissolved in the water,
would unquestionably have had a most detrimental effect upon their
health. Every one must have noticed the manner in which the golden
carp confined in a globe of water, in which there is no growing
vegetation to decompose the carbonic acid generated, or no limestone
to combine with it, rise to the surface and continually gulp in the
air required for their vital functions. Nothing whatever of this
kind has ever been noticed in the aquarium under consideration,
although the quantity of carbonic acid dissolved in the water has
been at times very large.

From the experiments of Bischof*, we glean that the carbonic

* Bischof’s ‘Elements of Chemical Geology,’ Cavendish Society’s edition,
vol, iii. p. 5.

150 Royal Society.

acid contained in a saturated aqueous solution is entirely displaced
by a current of atmospheric air passed through it for five minutes ;
and also * that, by the same means, a solution of carbonate of lime,
in water previously saturated with carbonic acid, will have all the
excess of gas displaced in fifteen minutes, leaving the water with
bicarbonate of lime in solution. It is in this form of combination
that MM. Peligot + and Poggiale t consider the carbonate of lime
to exist in the water of the “Seine, and M. Bineau § in that of the
Rhone, in which rivers they state there is no free carbonic acid. In
the present investigation we shall therefore assume it to be in the
same state of combination. We have, in the series of experiments
detailed above, an increase in the quantity of carbonate of lime held
in solution, amounting to 14:2 grains in the imperial gallon, which
would require nearly 6; grains of carbonic-acid gas to dissolve it.
Besides this there is also the quantity already present in the water
at its minimum, which amounts to nearly four grains more, or in
all to about ten grains, equal to nearly 215 cubic inches of that
gas in the ten gallons of water, or more than {/;th its volume. _ The
exact numbers “will be seen in the following Table :—

CaO, CO, in the gallon. CO,,.
1861 { Maximum 23-0 grs., requiring 10°120 grs. to form CaO,2CO,,.
Minimum 9°3_ ,, As AVF es ~ Dy
1862 | Minimum 218 55 Bs 7592 “3 Ni
Minimum 88 ,, = Sc br a
Car. acid required todissolve the increase 6°248 grs.= 13-269 cub. in.
us A minimum 3°872_,, rear arash eee

LO°T20 | ge) SASS oS

Yet, although the quantity of poisonous gas had been thus in-
creased, we find no deleterious action on the health of the fish, no
disturbance in the ordinary respiration, no gulping at the surface
of the water for fresh air. It is quite evident, therefore, that the
carbonic acid, by entering into combination with carbonate of lime,
however weak that combination may be, is thereby rendered per-
fectly innocuous, and a wonderful provision is thas afforded for
preventing this poisonous agent from becoming fatal to animal life.

We turn now.to the next member of our arrangement.

3. The Vegetation.

It will be seen from the foregoing numerical results that the
maximum quantity of dissolved carbonate of lime, and consequently
of carbonic acid, is found just before the period of the reviving
energies of the plant’s growth, namely, the spring time of the year,
when the days are lengthening and the sun’s light is continually
increasing in strength; the minimum quantity when this growth

* Op. cit. vol. iii. p. 7.

+ Comptes Rendus, vol. xl. p. 1121, and Bischof’s ‘ Elements,’ vol, ui. p. 117.
t Journal de Pharmacie, vol. xxviil. p. 321, and op. cét. vol. iii. p. 118.

g Comptes Rendus, vol. xii. p- 511, and op. céé. vol. iii. p. 118.

Miscellaneous. 151

has attained its greatest exuberance, namely, when the summer
months are past and the light is beginning to decrease in its in-
tensity and the days to shorten. So exactly, indeed, are the ener-
gies of the plants regulated by the amount of light to which they
are exposed, that a constant arrangement, such as that here des-
cribed, affords an excellent indication of the variation of the seasons
in different years, or might even be made a rough measure of the
total amount of light from month to month.

But while the demand for carbonic acid on the part of the plant
varies in this manner with the seasons, the amount of that gas pro-
duced by the respiration of the fish is very nearly the same all
through the year. Whence, then, does the plant obtain that addi-
tional quantity of food which its stimulated energies require during
the spring and early summer months, and which its rapid and
luxurious growth show to be readily supplied? After what has
been stated, I think the source must be apparent to every one: it
is the carbonic acid which has been gradually accumulated, and
rendered innocuous to animal life from its being held in combination
with carbonate of lime, in so marvellous a manner during the
winter months. Stored up, yet held in feeble combination, a com-
bination so weak that the vital forces of the fresh-growing vegetation
can easily overcome it, and resolve once more into carbonate of lime,
carbon, and oxygen the bicarbonate of lime contained in the water *.

Thus beautifully are the necessary irregularities in the purifying
action of the plant compensated and provided for, that the balance
of existence between the animal and vegetable organisms be not
disturbed or overthrown, and thus additional proof is furnished, if
such were needed, of the wisdom of that creative power that has
ordered all things to work together for good, and by endowing certain
bodies with such seemingly minute and insignificant affinities, main-
tains the glorious harmony of the whole.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Errata in Localities of Indian and Burmese Squirrels. Necessita y of
defining more exactly what is understood by India.

To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural Hi istory.

GrentLtemEN,—In Dr. Gray’s very useful Synopsis of the Asiatic
Squirrels in the Collection of the British Museum, published in the
October number of the ‘ Annals,’ some of the localities are incorrect.
I venture to point out two or three such cases. I do not suppose
that Dr. Gray is responsible for their accuracy, as he has doubtless
taken them from the specimens in the British Museum; but, in any

* The rapid growth of submerged vegetation in rivers and waters containing
a considerable amount of carbonate of lime must have been observed by all
interested in the subject, in some cases obliging the cleansing of such streams
three or four times during the year.

152 Miscellaneous.

case, I have no doubt he will not object to my calling attention to
the errors referred to.

1. Sciurus Phayrei, Blyth, is said to be from Malabar, on the
authority of Mr. Blyth. It should be Martaban (in the Tenasserim
provinces of British Burma) ; the species does not occur in India

roper.
: 2. S. chrysonotus, Blyth, is from the Tenasserim provinces. See
‘ Catalogue of the Mammalia in the Museum.of the Asiatic Society’
(of Bengal).

3. S. atrodorsalis, Gray, was found by Mr. Blyth to be common
at Maulmain. It certainly does not occur at Benares.

4, S. Blanfordii, Blyth, is not known from any part of India,
nor from Pegu. It is, so far as is known, peculiar to Upper Burma,
and my specimens were from within a few miles of Ava. How the
mistake of ascribing this squirrel to India or Pegu has arisen I
cannot understand. Mr. Blyth and myself are quoted as authorities
for the localities. Now Mr. Blyth, in the two places in the ‘ Journal
of the Asiatic Society of Bengal’ in which he mentions the species,
and also in the ‘ Catalogue of Mammalia in the Museum of the Asi-
atic Society,’ distinctly gives Ava or Upper Burma as the locality,
and I am certain I gave the same with the specimens which I pre-
sented to the British Museum. .

There are a few other points in which Dr. Gray’s localities differ
slightly from those given by Mr. Blyth in the catalogue above cited
(to the correctness of Mr. Blyth’s localities in general I can bear
testimony), but the differences are not of much importance. Those
T have noted above are cases where the mistake extends to parts of
different zoological provinces, which India and Burma are.

I feel sure, too, that there must be some error in attributing
Sciurus Finlaysonii to Guzerat as well as to the neighbourhood of
Java; and I very much indeed doubt if S. vittatus is found both in
the Malay peninsula and in Ceylon.

T think it is much to be regretted that naturalists in Europe will
not use the term India in a more definite and restricted sense. Dr.
Gray, in this, follows the prevailing custom ; but it is an objection-
able one, I think. Thus I find India, Nepal; India, Nilgherries ;
India, Ceylon; India, Pegu and Upper Burma(!), as if all these
places were equally included in India. I should have thought
neither Ceylon nor Pegu would be considered parts of India; and
I should much like to see Nepal excluded also, as it must be before
the zoological characters of India proper begin to be properly under-
stood. I may mistake Dr. Gray’s meaning; if so, I beg to apologize
for my error. The fact to which I allude is, however, notorious,
It will, perhaps, be thought that India and Burma are parts of one
zoological province. This is, I know, generally believed, and Dr.
Giinther has gone so far, in his ‘ Reptiles of British India,’ as to join
all the Malay countries, and even Southern China, with India
proper. Indeed I believe that when I assert that the fauna of Hin-
dustan, exclusive of the Himalayas and of the hills of Southern
Indian and Ceylon, is quite as much African as Malay, I make a

Miscellaneous. 153

statement no less novel than true. Yet a moment’s reflection will
show that a country abounding in wolves, foxes, hyznas, antelopes,
bovine antelopes, and gazelles, bustards and sandgrouse, can scarcely
be a part of the Malay or so-called Indian zoological province, where
not a single representative of one of these animals exists. In this
very instance, the squirrels attributed in error to India proper be-
long to a group shown by Mr. Blyth (Cat. Mam. Mus. As. Soe. p. 101,
note) to be peculiar to the Indo-Chinese and Malay countries, and
foreign to the peninsula of India with Ceylon. And that this most
important fact of the mixture of African and Malay forms, the
former prevailing in the plains, the latter in the hills, and perhaps
on the Malabar coast of the Indian peninsula, is not recognized
generally by European naturalists, I believe to be mainly due to the
careless way in which specimens are labelled “ India,” when in
reality they come from other parts of South-east Asia.
I am, Gentlemen, your obedient Servant,
Aden, Dec. 15th, 1867. Wit1am T. Buanrorp.

Preservation of Objects of Natural History.
To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

GrNTLEMEN,—I am not aware whether the following practical hint
on the preservation of natural-history objects in glycerine is known
or not; but, taking the risk of its being known, asitis a useful one,
I send it for insertion in the ‘ Annals’ if it be worth anything.

The specimens are to be soaked thoroughly for some days in the
glycerine, the glycerine is then to be poured off, all but some five or
six drops, and the bottle is to be well corked. I have by me some
specimens of a species of Vaginulus, from Mauritius, which were,
by accident, prepared in this way, and they look now (nearly one
year since they were preserved) as fresh as they were on the next
day after they were collected.

Of course the chief value of this method consists in its economy :
and none who have tried glycerine as a preserving medium, but,
I should think, would prefer it to alcohol ; but the expense has
hitherto been a bar to its common use.

I am, your obedient Servant,
Witmot H. T. Power,
Portland, Dorsetshire. Assistant-Surgeon, 13th Light Infantry.

On Leskia mirabilis. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.

Professor Lovén has received some specimens of this interesting
Echinoderm, which I first published in the second series of this
Journal, vol. vii. p. 134, and figured in the Catalogue of the Recent
Echinide or Sea-eggs in the British Museum, t. 4. f.4. They were
obtained by Mr. Kinberg in the Indian seas between Singapore and
Batavia. Dr. Lovén, in a paper in the Proceedings of the Swedish
Academy for 1867, confirms the opinion that I expressed in the
Museum Catalogue, that it is intermediate between the Spatangoid

154 Miscellaneous.

Echinide and the fossil Cystidea of Von Buch, which are fossils
chiefiy confined to the Silurian region. Professor Lovén describes
the animal at great length, and figures the mouth and vent; and he
proposes to form for it a new section of Echinodermata, for which
the name Palewostomata is proposed. The name Leskia, which I
gave to the genus in honour of Leske, the echinodermist, had already
been used for a genus of mosses and for one of Diptera. Prof. Lovén,
being adverse to the changing of my name, suggested that I should
give the genus another one, when he was in London; but the sub-
ject was forgotten. I would therefore now propose that Leskia
be changed to Paleostoma.

Macacus lasiotus, a new Ape from China.

The Zoological Society has just received an interesting new Ape
from Szechnen, in the interior of China, intermediate in appearance
between the Tailless Ape of North Africa and the Rhesus Monkey.

Macacus lasiotus—Tail none; ears ovate, exposed, and covered
with hair; fur yellow olive, redder behind and greyer beneath ; skin
near callosities crimson ; face whitish, with a,small red spot on the
outer side of each orbit. Hab. China.—J. E. Gray.

Additions to the Zoological Collection in the British Musewn.

The Zoological Collection in the British Museum has received a
million of specimens since 1837, when the registration of the specimens
was commenced under the charge of the present keeper, Dr. Gray.
The specimens have almost all been acquired by purchase ; and they
have invariably been selected, primarily, to complete the series of
specimens of each class, and especial trouble has been taken to
acquire the original type specimens from which the species have
been described, and, secondly, to show the geographical range of
each species, taking great’ care to prevent the collection being en-
cumbered with any useless duplicates. The average yearly increase
has been about 36,000 specimens.

On Pteronura Sanbachii, an Otter from Surinam.
By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.

The British Museum has lately received a large female Otter with
its cub, from Surinam. It is a fresh specimen of the animal that
was described and figured many years ago in this Journal as Ptero-
nura Sanbachii from a young specimen in the Museum of the Royal
Institution, Liverpool, which has remained unique until the present
time. The sides of the tail and feet in the Liverpool specimen had
been artificially depressed and unduly stretched out by the preserver.
In the natural state the tail is rounded and only marked with a
rounded ridge on each side. The Surinam Otter has a hairy nose,
large feet with bald soles, a thick, rather depressed, tapering tail,
with a subcylindrical raised border on the middle of each side, which
is covered with hair like the rest of the tail, and a large tuft of hair

Miscellaneous. 155

on the outside of each ankle. It is a large Otter, nearly 5 feet long.
The fur is beautifully soft, of a golden-brown hue, with a white
streak on each side of the throat.

Artificial Hybridization in the Genus Gossypium.
By J. E. Batsamo.

In the province of Terra d’Otranto, one of the most southern dis-
tricts of Italy, the cotton-tree has been cultivated from time imme-
morial. The processes of cultivation there generally followed are well
adapted to the nature of the plant, and in this particular there is
nothing to be changed: but the species of cotton-tree are not so well
selected ; for although the short-stapled Gossypium herbaceum is not
much cultivated, but more commonly the G. hirsutum, which is pre-
ferable as regards its textile qualities, this is far from having the
length, fineness, softness, and lustre of the cotton of Gossypium bar-
badense, commonly known as Sea-island or long-staple eotton.
During the American war I experimented upon many American
varieties of cotton, particularly the Sea-island, New Orleans, and
Louisiana, and I distributed a great part of the seed which I obtained
among the cultivators of my province. The last two of these va-
rieties, which, from some of their characters, may be referred to the
Siamese type, prospered ; the Sea-island, which is less hardy and
ripens later, did not succeed. Most of its capsules open in the months
of September and October; and the rains of autumn spoil its fibre.
It then occurred to me to unite the two types with long and short
staples, in the hope of obtaining a variety of cotton which should
combine the precocity and hardiness of the Louisiana or Siamese with
the length, fineness, and silky lustre of the Sea-island cotton. The
six hybrids and mules which I present to the Academy, taken from
among many others which I have obtained, are derived from the
harvest of last summer, and are crossings gf Gossypium hirsutum of
the improved white Siamese variety, and of the variety with red or
nankeen cotton, with Gossypium barbadense. I purposely selected
the nankeen, because, as it is reddish, we may the better judge of
the predominance of the red or white type of the parents by the
different shades of the hybrid cottons. This is the most striking
character for those who are not accustomed to distinguish the or—
ganic, botanical, and physical differences of hybrid products.

Each species of cotton-tree has five petals and a great number of
monadelphous stamens, all bearing anthers, and surrounding the
pistil at different heights. They seem to be so many radii implanted
obliquely upon the central cylinder or bundle formed by the styles.
There are as many styles as stigmata, and they may easily be
separated with the point of a penknife. They may be recognized by
the naked eye in the form of three, four, or five delicate nervures,
united together on the inside. The number of cells in each capsule
invariably corresponds to that of the styles; it is therefore of im-
portance to select the capsules which have the greatest number of
cells, in order to obtain a greater number of tufts of cotton.

156 Miscellaneous.

. The oblique position and nearly radiating arrangement of the
stamens renders artificial fecundation difficult, in consequence of the
difficulty of cutting them all down to the bottom of the calyx and
removing them without the falling of a little seminal dust upon the
stigmata. Nevertheless I have succeeded in avoiding the contact of
the anthers with the latter, and in transporting the pollen to the
pistils of flowers from which I had removed all the stamina. I took
the precaution of cultivating the species intended for mutual fecun-
dation at a distance from each other, and of waiting for the moment
of the escape of the pollen, which usually takes place about noon,
when the flower opens. Hence the hottest hours of the day are those
of the dehiscence of the stamina. During and after fecundation the
petals close again, the stamina acquire a more vertical position, and
the pistil lowers its stigmata towards the stamina which are beneath
it ; the corolla changes from yellow to rosy red, and on the following
day it falls withered. Ifit happens to rain on the day of the flowering
of the cotton-tree, the water which remains in the flower alters and
blackens the pollen ; in that case natural fecundation itself may fail,
and the withered flower does not fall, or falls very late. Strong winds,
by carrying off the greater part of the pollen, may also cause natural
fecundation to be imperfect; in this case the capsule remains rudi-
mentary, withers, and falls in a few days.

My six hybrid plants, obtained from the nankeen cotton-tree, fe-
eundated by the pollen either of the Siamese cotton-tree or of Gossy-
pium barbadense, and from G. barbadense fecundated by the pollen
of the nankeen cotton-tree, show in the colour, softness, elasticity,
and length of the fibre, in the nakedness of the seeds and the form
of the leaves, their relation to the two types which produced them.
It is as well to state that in the floral organs of these hybrids I have
not observed any deformity or modification, except that the ner-
vures of the style present a helicoidal deviation at the extremity.

Being engaged with cgtton-trees, I wished to study the influence
of light upon the germination of their seeds. I selected those of
Gossypium barbadense, which are black, and more easily followed in
the changes which they undergo during germination. I made use of
a large glass vessel, into which I put a homogeneous vegetable soil.
T introduced cotton-seeds at different depths, in such a manner that,
being in contact with the inner wall of the vessel, I could see one
side of them from without. A portion of these seeds were protected
from the chemical rays of light by means of pieces of yellow paper
pasted on the outside at the points corresponding to the seeds; the
rest were left freely exposed to the light. The vessel was in the
open air, and was watered every three days. This experiment was
commenced on the 15th May; on the 24th the seeds covered by the
paper began to show the radicle and the plumule, whilst those ex-
posed to the light did not show the least sign of germination. The
former throve in their vegetation ; the others, when taken out in ten
days’ time, appeared sensibly altered. It appears, therefore, that
light is injurious to the germination of the cotton-tree—Comptes
Rendus, November 4, 1867, pp. 763-766.

THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[FOURTH SERIES.

No. 3. MARCH 1868.

XXIII.—On the New Bat (Amblyotus atratus) discovered by
Prof. Kolenati. By L. H. JEITTELES*.

SomE astonishment was excited in the scientific world when
the late Professor Kolenati, of Briinn, in 1858 published (in
the Sitzungsber. der Wiener Akad., mathem.-naturw. Klasse,
XX1x. pp. 250-256) the description of a Bat discovered by him on
the Altvater, and which he not only regarded as a new species
in the South-European fauna, but actually set up as the type
of anew genus. Could it really be possible, in the middle of
the nineteenth century, to discover new species and even new
genera of Mammalia in the heart of Europe? This seemed,
even to many scientific men, so incredible that they felt them-
selves obliged to oppose more or less doubt to the very exist-
ence of this newly described animal, which, moreover, has
remained undetected even to the present day in any other re-
gion of Germany, and to assume that there had been some
error in the determination. I must admit that I also was not
disinclined to partake of these doubts ; and I was the more in-
duced to do so, as one of the greatest living European authori-
ties on the Mammalia expressed an opinion, in a letter to me,
that Kolenati’s new Bat might probably be only Vesperugo
Nilssonii, Blas. During my residence in Olmiitz I took pains
to obtain Bats from the Altvater, in order to be able to form
an opinion for myself, from my own investigations, as to this
doubtful new mammal. By the kindness of M. Theisler, at
that time tutor in the house of M. Primavesi, a merchant in
Olmiitz, and who passed a great part of the summer of 1864 in
Grifenberg, I obtained at last a Bat (found on the 11th of August,
1864, in the daytime, under a stone near the Swiss dairy on
the Altvater) from the careful examination of which I con-

* From the fourth Programm der N.-6. Landes-Oberrealschule zu St.
Polten.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. i. aly.

158 M. L. H. Jeitteles on the new Bat

vinced myself that Kolenati was quite right in introducing the
Bat of the high valley as a new species into our fauna.

The specimen brought to me by M. Theisler was a male,
and had a length of 94 millims., of which the body occupied
54 and the tail 40 millims. The expanse of wing | could not
determine, because the specimen had already lain for a con-
siderable time in spirits, and, owing to the stiffening of the
muscles, the wings could not be sufticiently pulled out. The
other measurements were as follows :—

mill

iheneth ofhead wiaces tye niiian eae oe 17:5
Greatest length of ear at outer margin.... 15
Length of tragus at outer margin........ 6

3 a3 immer Marea. 4... .: 4
Meas ers Lettie «eh eae ais ere ee aie 25
Thower-arin Ary s Pek seule anes Perea ne 40
a8 BO Te Cy ee a 34413541046
Rourth, finger... 5.5.07. : 33°54+-12:54-7542
PSGtR GM CR wie ses y aie mY ees 324+8+455+41°5
SEY s Be eats es oh ae ease: Simla G) hfe ana 13°5
LITE Tle ae tps eee MER Sa Na ce RRR ESL 2 18
Gah Pe see aOR ORE ea ee eae 9
Pree anexon ales. oho saan cM ee ee ee 4:5

As regards the formation of the ears, the most remarkable
point is the entire absence of transverse folds. The outer
margin of the ear, which is not notched at any part, terminates
in front of the tragus, on the same level as the cleft of the
mouth, and at a distance of 3 millims. from the angle of the
latter. The ear is obtusely rounded above, and pretty strongly
hairy on the inner surface. The inner margin of the tragus
runs at first straight, but curves outwards and upwards in its
upper third; Kolenati’s description, ‘‘ konvex bogig und nach
aufwirts gebogen,” is therefore perfectly correct. Nevertheless
I must not conceal that in my specimen the tragus of the left
ear does not agree so accurately with this statement as that of
the right one, to which it accurately applies. The upper ex-
tremity (the apex) is rounded off in both tragi more than is
the case in Kolenati’s figure (p. 252). The tragus attains its
greatest breadth about in the middle of the outer margin, and
possesses an obtuse tooth at the base of the same margin.

When pressed down, the ears not only reach the apex of the
snout, but extend with their obtuse ends more than 5 millims.
beyond the latter. The region between the eye and the nos-
tril is strongly tumid, sparingly clothed with hair, and of a
black colour ; the muzzle appears rather obtuse. The whiskers
on the muzzle of my specimen are much shorter than they
should be according to Kolenati’s figure and description.

discovered by Prof. Kolenatt. 159

The cutting-edges of the lower incisor teeth stand in the
direction of the jaw. The outer (second) upper incisor is not
quite so high as the outer point of the bicuspid inner (first)
tooth, and is strikingly weaker than the first tooth in its
transverse section. ‘The upper canines are remarkably large,
nearly twice as long as the lower ones. In the upper jaw there
are four, and in the lower jaw five molar teeth on each side.
The first inferior molar is nearly one-half lower than the
second.

On the spur-bone there is a very inconsiderable membranous
lobe, measuring only 4 millim. at its broadest part; this does
not project angularly, but runs parallel to the spur-bone, or,
rather, becomes very gradually narrower and terminates about
the middle of the spur-bone. ‘This membranous lobe is so
slightly developed that it may easily be overlooked on a cur-
sory examination, but it nevertheless exists.

The wing-membrane is attached as far as the roots of the
toes. The tip of the tail stands freely out of the membrane.

The colour of the long fur is dark brown above, yellowish
beneath. The hairs are of two colours, both above and below,
the base dark blackish brown, the apical third above and the
apical half below light yellowish brown. The apices of a
portion of the dorsal hairs have a nearly golden lustre. The
interfemoral membrane is furnished with tolerably close, uni-
formly brown hairs, without golden lustre. The ears, muzzle,
and wing-membrane are dark brownish black.

The animal here described by me consequently agrees very
well (leaving out of consideration the shorter whiskers) with
the description of Kolenati’s Amblyotus atratus, with the ex-
ception of two characters. My specimen has a very narrow,
but still unmistakeable membranous lobe on the spur-bone; and
the second joint of the fourth finger is much longer in propor-
tion to the third, in my individual, than accords with Kolenati’s
description, as my measurements of the joints in question are
7°5 and 12°5 millims., and Kolenati’s 9 and 19 millims.

The question now was whether this Bat could not be referred
to some previously known species. From the number of molar
teeth it could only be referred to Vesperugo Nilssonii, Keys. &
Blas., or to V. discolor, Natt. But from V. Nilssonzi the ani-
mal from the Altvater is distinguished by the lower incisor
teeth standing quite distinctly in the direction of the jaw, and
by the second upper incisor being lower and far weaker in
proportion to the first; from V. discolor by the smaller height
of the first upper incisor, which in the Altvater Bat is scarcely
once and a half the height of the second tooth, whilst its outer

point is, indeed, somewhat higher than the second incisor, but
12*

160 M.L. H. Jeitteles on Amblyotus atratus, Kolenati.

at the same time much lower than the inner point of the first
tooth,—also by the termination of the outer margin of the ear
neither below the line of the cleft of the mouth, nor close to its
angle, and, finally, by the golden lustre of the dorsal hairs.
And, from both species, Amblyotus atratus, Kolen., differs most
strikingly in its foldless ears and in the formation of the
tragus, which is quite different from that of any other species
of Vesperugo. From Vesperugo maurus, Blas., with which
the Altvater Bat agrees in respect of the golden lustre of the
dorsal hairs, it differs in the position of the lower incisor teeth,
in the want of the second unicuspid molar in the upper jaw,
and in the structure of the ear.

Kolenati’s new Bat consequently really forms a good species.
And the establishment of a new genus also appears to be justi-
fied, as this Chiropter differs,in the structure of the ear and
the very inconsiderably developed membranous lobe of the
spur-bone, from all other species of the genus Vesperugo, Keys.
& Blas., and likewise from those of the genus Vespertilio,
Linn.

The generic character of Amblyotus, Kolenati, should there-
fore be as follows :—

“‘ Above four, beneath five molar teeth on each side. Ears
without folds, with the outer margin terminating in front of
the tragus. Tragus convexly curved at the upper third of
its inner margin, with the rounded extremity bent upwards
and outwards. The spur-bone on the hind foot bears an ex-
tremely narrow, straight, lateral membranous lobe.”

From this it appears that this genus, as already remarked
by Kolenati, constitutes a true intermediate form between the
genera Vesperugo and Vespertilio.

The species Amblyotus atratus, Kolen., may be thus charac-
terized :—

‘“‘Kars much shorter than the head. Wing-membrane at-
tached to the base of the toes. Tip of the tail freely projecting
from the interfemoral membrane. Edges of the lower incisor
teeth standing in the direction of the jaw. First upper incisor
bicuspid, rather higher, and in transverse section much stronger
than the second. Muzzle broad and obtuse, sparsely hairy,
black. Dorsal hairs with golden lustre.”

I have still to express the opinion that this remarkable ani-
mal may be a hybrid, possibly of Vesperugo Nilssonit or dis-
color, and a species of Vespertilio, perhaps V. Daubentonii or
mystacinus.

Dr. J. E. Gray on Sponges. 161

XXIV.— Observations on Sponges and on their Arrangement
and Nomenclature. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., V.P.Z.S.,
F.L.S., &e.

I READ before the Zoological Society, in May last, some Notes
on Sponges, in which I gave a Synopsis of the different
arrangements that had been proposed for Sponges, and sug-
gested a new one by which I hope that any one who will col-
lect together the spicules of any specimen of sponge will be
able at once to determine the order and family and also the
genus to which it belongs.

As the proposed system contained many innovations, it has
produced some discussion and opposition, which was to be ex-
pected. In the following observations I have attempted to
meet the objections that have been made by various persons.
As these persons generally take Dr. Bowerbank’s ‘ British
Sponges’ as their text, I fear my observations will appear as if
chiefly directed against that work. They are made, however,
in the cause of science and in the hope of rendering the struc-
ture and arrangement of Sponges better understood, and not
in the least from any ill feeling towards the author, for whom
I have great personal regard.

Until the publication of Dr. Bowerbank’s Essay in the
‘Philosophical Transactions’ and Dr. Oscar Schmidt’s work
on the Sponges of the Adriatic, no attempt was made to ar-
range Sponges into genera based on their structure and or-
ganization, or to arrange the genera into natural groups.
Bowerbank’s series of papers commenced in 18583; but the
systematic part of these works appeared nearly simultaneously
in the year 1862.

Nardo, it is true, studied the Sponges of the Adriatic, and
some years before proposed an arrangement of them; but he
never published any characters for the genera or species which
he names; and his names are only known by prescription or
to those who may have received specimens named by him.
Dr. O. Schmidt uses some of Nardo’s generic names, giving
characters to them, and in some cases evidently restricting their
significance. Such genera can only date from their publica-
tion in Dr. O. Schmidt’s work—that is, from 1862.

One of the most careful and intelligent students of the lower
animals in this country, whose name often appears in the
‘ British Sponges’ (not observing that Dr. Bowerbank’s and Dr.
O. Schmidt’s works on the genera of Sponges were published
simultaneously in 1862), speaking of Dr.O.Schmidt’s work, ob-
serves :—‘‘ Bowerbank, in the most extraordinary fashion, has
completely ignored everything that has been written on the

162 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Arrangement

Continent, and in this and in many other particulars it is most
unsatisfactory.” The author of the ‘ British Sponges’ is
himself partly to blame for this misconception. Though the
writer above referred to places “‘ Bowerbank”’ after each generic
name (as he does after almost every specific name), he does
not refer to his paper in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions’ for
1862, in which they were first defined and published. In-
deed I believe that many possessors of the ‘ British Sponges’
have no idea that the first volume at least is only a reprint
of the papers in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions,’ with inferior
copies of the plates; and therefore they may be easily misled so
as to believe that the genera date only from the issue of that
work.

Dr. Bowerbank’s work is a rich mine of observation ; and it
is astonishing that a naturalist who has collected so many im-
portant facts and figured so many spicules should have formed
such orders and genera, and have described his species in a
manner so incomprehensible. I believe this chiefly arises from
his having set himself to work to make an arrangement and
nomenclature of the spicules which are in his collection of
microscopic slides, rather than to study the sponges themselves.
His entire absence of any knowledge of physiology leads him
into most extraordinary theories about the uses of the spicules
and the organization of the sponges, which are chiefly pro-
pounded in his introductory chapter, but equally deform his
specific descriptions. In fact he undertook a work that required
considerable scientific acquirements without any preliminary
training.

In the ‘ British Sponges’ the spicules are divided into seven
classes, which are again subdivided and at length separated
into several hundred kinds, some of them with names long
enough almost to take away one’s breath to pronounce them ;
and most of these are figured. After all this labour, the forms
of the spicules are never used as generic characters. The
genera often contain spicules that belong to what he considers
different classes. Though the differences of the spicules found
in each species form the principal part of the specific descrip-
tions, the author does not even think it necessary to refer to
the figures on his plates which represent the spicules he de-
scribes—which is to be regretted, as there can be no doubt that -
a reference of this kind would have rendered his descriptions
more intelligible. In fact the author seems to have collected
more material than he knew how to employ, like a soldier
with a great stock of ammunition that he does not know how
or fears to use.

In the system of Sponges which I have proposed, certain

and Nomenclature of Sponges. 163

families are determined by the presence or absence of certain
kinds of spicules. Thus, in the more inconspicuous siliceo-
spicular Sponges, the presence of bianchorate or birotulate spi-
cules characterizes Hsperiade, and of stellate spicules Tethyade;
both kinds are absent in Halichondriade. Now Dr. Bower-
bank’s own specific descriptions show that some of his genera
contain species belonging to two, and some to all of these three
families ; yet he does not use the presence or absence of these
spicules to divide the genera into sections, though in his pre-
liminary chapters he shows that he believes the stellate and
bihamate spicules have an important use in the habits and
economy of the animal.

The following analyses of these genera show the details of
this statement :—

Almost all the Dictyocylindri belong to Halichondriade ;
but D. fascicularis and D. stuposus have stellate spicules, and
belong to Tethyade.

Hymeraphia vermicularis and H. clavata belong to Hali-
chondriadx, and H. verticillata and H. stellifera ave Tethyade,
having stellate spicules.

The three species of Hymedesmia, for example, belong to
three families—H. radiata to Halichondriade, H. stellata to
Tethyade, and H. zetlandica to Esperiade.

Six out of the eight species of Microciona have anchorate
spicules and belong to Esperiade, and the others, MZ. levis
and fallax, to Halichondriade, having only fusiform spicules.

Of the genus Hymeniacidon, which contains thirty-nine
species, by far the greater part belong to Halichondriade, one
to Clioniade ; but there are scattered among them (why, I can-
not comprehend) nine belonging to Esperiade, as (9) H.
perarmatus, (15) H. variantia, (16) H. macilenta, (24) H.lingula,
(25) H. floreum, (27) H. plumosa, (28) H. jecusculum, (33) H.
subclavata, and (37) H. paupertas,—one, (39) H. Buckland,
to Tethyade.

Of the twenty-eight species of Halichondria more than half
do not belong to Halichondriade : thus (8) H. angulata is a
Tethyad ; (9) H. corrugata, (10) H. Thompsoni, (11) H. for-
cipis, (14) H. incrustans, (15) H. candida, (16) H. irregularis,
(17) H. Dickiet, (18) H. Pattersoni, (19) H. pulchella, (20) H.
Ingalli, (21) H. scandens, (22) H. Batei, (23) H. granulata,
(24) H. Hyndmani, (25) H. nigricans, (26) H. albula, and
(28) H. tnornatus belong to Esperiade.

Isodictya is the great magazine genus of the work: it con-
tains no less than forty-three species; about two-thirds of
them belong to the family Halichondriade. 'The following—

164 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Arrangement

(15) L. yugosa, (20) I. robusta, (25) I. palmata, (31) I. Nor-
mant, (32) I. fucorum, (33) I. Aldert, (34) I. Edwardit, (35) I.
lobata, (36) I. paupera, (38) I. Clarke, (39) I. gracilis, (41) I.
Beanit, (42) I. lurida, (43) I. fombriata, belong to Esperiade.

With such a mixture in each of the genera, one is not
astonished to hear, as one often does, that it is utterly impos-
sible to make out any sponge by Dr. Bowerbank’s work. Be-
heving that the work contains much that is valuable, I have
done what I could, in the paper published in the Proceedings of
the Zoological Society, to make it useful to the British zoo-
logist, among other ways by referring to the plates in which
the spicules of his species are figured.

Dr. Bowerbank prides himself on having proved that eleven
of the fifty-six species of British Sponges described by Dr.
Johnston “‘are only repetitions with new names, or otherwise
no species’ (Brit. Sponges, i. p. 2). Further on, at p. 222, he
shows his reasons for these reductions. It remains to be seen
how many of the 193 British species described by Dr. Bower-
bank will suffer the same fate at the hands of his successors in
the study of this group of animals.

It would be very premature, with the very imperfect know-
ledge we possess, to attempt to give any arrangement showing
the relations that the genera have to each other, though one
cannot study them without observing that no linear arrange-
ment that can be formed will show more than a few of such
relations, and must separate some genera which appear to have
considerable analogy, if not affinity, to each other.

The Coral Sponges (Coralliospongice), for example, are
closely allied to the Huplectellade, the genus Aphrocallistes
forming a-passage between Dactylocalyx and FHuplectella.
The Coral Sponges and the Euplectellade are peculiar among
Sponges for having the sarcode studded with long-rayed stel-
late spicules. And it would not be difficult to point out a num-
ber of such alliances; but this must be deferred until we have
more works like the ‘ British Sponges’ and the ‘Sponges of the
Adriatic Sea.’ I am very glad to hear that Dr. Oscar Schmidt
is now engaged on the Sponges of the Mediterranean, and
especially of Algeria, and hope he may hereafter be induced
to take up the exotic fibrous panied

It has occurred to me that if I abstained from dividing the
Sponges into Netted and Spicular Sponges in my arrange-
ment, and commenced by separating them according to the
spicules, as I had divided the Spicular Sponges, the arrange-
ment of the families would be simplified and more natural, as

and Nomenclature of Sponges. 165

the Coral Sponges would be placed near the Euplectellade,
thus :—

Section I. MaLAcospor#. Soft-spored Sponges.
Subsection I. Lerosponcia. Spicules none, or, when pre-
sent, of only one kind.

Order I. Keratosponc1a (Horny Sponges), including
the families Spongiade &c.

Order II. Rapuisponc1# (Needle Sponges)—that is, the
order Leiospongie of my Table, including Halichon-
driade &e.

Subsection II. ACANTHOSPONGI. Spicules always pre-
sent, of more than one form, akin in each Sponge.

Order III. CoraLiiospone1 (Coral Sponges). Spicules
anchylosed by siliceous matter, as Dactylocalycide,
Aphrocallistide, Euplectellade.

Order IV. ARMATOSPONGLH (Armed Sponges). Spicules
distinct, more or less immersed in horny or fleshy mat-
ter. Includes Esperiade and Tethyade.

Subsection III. ARENOSPONGIH, or Sand Sponges, &e.

Dr. Bowerbank has complained to me that I have erro-
neously described the Coralliospongiz as formed of “ siliceous
spicules anchylosed together by siliceous matter, forming a
netted mass.”’ He says that I have confounded fibre with
spicule. As the siliceous spicules are of the same structure,
whether they are short and thick, or very long cylindrical
filaments like those of Huplectella, I can see no reason why
they should not all be called spicules.

Dr. Bowerbank states that fibres always anastomose and
form a network, spicules never do so. According to this rule,
some of the spicules of the Huplectella do anchylose and some
do not; so that some should be called spicules and others
fibres. Perhaps this is why Dr. Bowerbank speaks of the
“long siliceous spicula or fibres of Huplectella” (Brit. Spong.
ips 9).

este Dr. Bowerbank characterizes the Coral Sponges as
having a siliceo-fibrous skeleton (B. 8. i. p. 203); and he re-
marks that the structure and mode of growth in this suborder
of siliceo-fibrous Sponges “ appears to be precisely the same as
that of the cerato-fibrous sponges” (¢bid.).

This is true to a certain extent, as the spicules of the sili-
ceous and the fibres of the horny sponges are each secreted by
the animal and deposited in successive layers, and merely
differ in the quantity of animal or horny and of siliceous mat-
ter that they contain. Some spicules are almost all silica,
with scarcely any horny matter, and some horny fibres almost

166 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Arrangement

all horny matter, with scarcely any appreciable silica; but in
a large collection of spicules from different sponges the two
forms pass into each other almost insensibly. I must consider
that the Coralloid Sponges are sponges which have the sili-
ceous spicules anchylosed together by siliceous matter; some
of the fibrous sponges consist of siliceous spicules cemented
together by horny matter, and others of horny matter only,
without any imbedded spicules—the only difference between
the two extremes being the abundance of silica in the first and
the more or less entire absence of it in the last kind; so that it
is a matter of little importance whether they are called spicules
or fibres.

Dr. Bowerbank’s considering the distinction of so much
importance perhaps leads him into the following extraordinary
observation :—‘ In the solid siliceous fibres of Dactylocalyx,
fig. 274, pl.15, and in the tubular siliceous fibres of Farrea occa
(Bowerbank’s MS. fig. 277, pl. 15), and especially in the latter,
we observe a very much closer approximation to the tubular
form of the bones of the higher classes of animals” (B. 8. i.
p- 28). Dr. Bowerbank has odd notions respecting the analo-
gies between the parts of sponges and vertebrate animals :
thus, in the characters of G'eodia, he speaks of pores furnished
with ‘ esophageal tubes” (B. 8. i. p. 167).

Dactylocalyx pumicea was well described by Mr. Stutchbury
in the Proceedings of the Zool. Soc. for 1841, p. 86, from
a specimen that had been sent from Barbadoes to the Bristol
Museum. Mr. Stutchbury most kindly let me have half of
the Bristol specimen which he described, which is now in the
British Museum. Dr. Bowerbank repeatedly refers to this
species, under Stutchbury’s name, in his ‘ British Sponges’
(see pp. 204, 274, &c.). There is a similar sponge in the
Museum of the Jardin des Plantes, where it is called “ Zphi-
teon panicea (Dactylocalyx, Stutchbury),” a gemmule of which
is represented by fig.341 of Dr. Bowerbank’s ‘ British Sponges.’
Some years ago I obtained from the late Mr. Thomas Ingall
a beautiful small specimen of this sponge, which he had re-
ceived from St. Vincent, in the West Indies, where, I believe,
it was obtained by Mr. Lansdown Guilding. Mr. Ingall in-
formed me that he bought it with a number of sponges in a
very dirty condition at the sale of Mr. Guilding’s specimens
in King Street, Covent Garden. Dr. Bowerbank, at p. 259
of his first volume of ‘ British Sponges,’ observes, “ [The
spinulo-quadrifureate hexradiate stellate spicules] occur abun-
dantly in a beautiful and unique specimen of a cup-shaped
siliceo-fibrous sponge formerly in the cabinet of my friend
My. Thomas Ingall, now in the British Museum.” This spe-

and Nomenclature of Sponges, 167

cimen is figured by me in the Proc. Zool. Soc. 1867, t. 27. f. 2.
Dr. Bowerbank calls this specimen Dactylocalyx Ingallii,
never observing that it is identical in every respect with the
D. pumicea of Stutchbury and the [phiteon panicea of Valen-
ciennes ; so that Dr. Bowerbank formed two species out of the
same, regarding the second specimen as a unique sponge ;
and I am by no means certain that he does not think Jphiteon
panicea a third one, as he only records it as belonging to the
genus Dactylocalyx of Stutchbury, without mentioning its
being the same species.

It is to be observed that though I have Dr. Bowerbank’s
own authority for regarding MacAndrewia azorica as iden-
tical with Dactylocalyx Prattii, at p.79 he observes, ‘The
external characters of these fibres vary in each species. In
a new siliceous Sponge in the British Museum, designated by
Dr. Gray MacAndrewia azorica, the fibres are quite smooth,
as represented by fig. 274, pl. 15; but in the greater number
of species they are more or less tuberculated, as in fig. 275,
pl. 15, which represents a group of fibres from the type speci-
men of Dactylocalyx pumicea, Stutchbury, a portion of which
is in the possession of Dr. Gray ; in other species in my pos-
session the tuberculation is very strongly produced, as repre-
sented in a few fibres of Dactylocalyx Prattii, Bowerbank’s
MS., fig. 276, pl. 15” (Brit. Sponges, i. pp. 78, 80). These
observations are repeated at p. 204.

I quote these observations as showing that spicules are
liable to variation within certain limits, most likely peculiar
to each species, and that the idea of separating certain
sponges because a slight difference in the surface of the spi-
cules may be shown in two microscope-slides is exceed-
ingly fallacious. In fact I am convinced, from the examina-
tion of many specimens, that spicules vary quite as much as
the external form of the sponge, whatever those microscopists
who confine themselves to the examination of slides may say.

MacAndrewia azorica was first described and figured by
me from a specimen collected by Mr. MacAndrew at St. Mi-
chael (Azores), in the Proc. Zool. Soc. for 1859, p. 438, pl. 15.
Dr. Bowerbank quotes my name, adding a needless s to it, in
‘ British Sponges,’ i. p. 204, f. 2745 at p. 237, f. 53, he calls
it Dactylocalyx Bowerbankit, Johnson, from a specimen col-
lected at Madeira by Mr. Johnson. Both these specimens are
in the British Museum, and there can be no doubt of their
identity. But at p. 18 of the same volume Dr. Bowerbank
mentions ‘a new species of siliceo-fibrous sponge from India,
Dactylocalyx Prattii, Bowerbank, MS.” The name is repeated
at pp. 19 & 20, and occurs again at pp. 204, 274, 278, where

168 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Arrangement

the spicules are figured, viz. f. 52, 276, 278, & 306. I have
Dr. Bowerbank’s authority for considering the latter a syno-
nym of M. azorica, he, when examining the specimens in
the British Museum, having brought to me as a good example
of his Dactylocalyx Prattii the specimen I described and
figured, not recognizing it as the Sponge to which he had
already given two other names (I believe the Indian ha-
bitat is a mistake) ; so that this Sponge has been referred to
two genera and regarded as three species by Dr. Bowerbank.

I suspect that these errors arose from Dr. Bowerbank’s habit
of working from microscopic preparations, often made by his
friends Mr. Tyler and Mr. Lee as well as by himself, from
fragments which they obtained from various collections, under
different names, without Dr. Bowerbank taking the trouble
to compare the specimens from which they were obtained. If
mistakes such as these arise in well-marked Sponges like
MacAndrewia azorica, what may not occur in obscure, incon-
spicuous, nearly allied British Sponges ?

Dr. Bowerbank informs me that Placospongia melobesiotdes,
Gray, P. Z. 8. 1867, pp. 128 & 549, is the “ Geodia carinata,”
Bowerbank, MS., mentioned, but without any description
otherwise than that there occur in its interstitial membranes
“ multiangular cylindrical” spicules, in common with another
Sponge in the British. Museum (see Phil. Trans. 1858, p. 314,
and Brit. Spong. i. p. 239, f. 71, & p. 254), as having abundant
“ arborescent elongo-subsphero-stellate spicules ”’ (see f. 163).
Such names cannot have any claim to be used as having any
priority ; indeed I cannot suppose that Dr. Bowerbank would
propose that they should ; for he repeatedly objects to other au-
thors that they do not define their genera or species. Thus:—
“¢ Although the Sponge was designated Dactylocalyx pumicea,
no generic characters were given; I propose therefore to cha-
racterize it as follows” (B.8. i. p. 203). “ Professor Owen
has not attempted to characterize his own genus ” (Huplectella)
(B.S. p.175). “ Grant, I believe, gave no generic description
of Cliona” (B.S. ii. p. 221). This observation is the more
remarkable as Dr. Bowerbank quotes, just before this remark,
the excellent generic character given by Mr. Stutchbury,
which is far better than that proposed by Dr. Bowerbank
himself; for if he had adopted it, he would not have placed
in the genus the incongruous D. Prattii = MacAndrewia
azorica.

The system of giving a number of names without any
description, which is to be found in Dr. Bowerbank’s ‘ British
Sponges’ and Essay, is a very bad one. It is loading the
list with a quantity of names which may very probably never

and Nomenclature of Sponges. 169

come into use; for if the author is too idle to describe them
when he names them, and therefore defers doing so, it is very
likely that he will never have the time or the inclination to
do it. The insertion of these MS. names is so easy that the
writer may give names to specimens without sufficient exami-
nation for ascertaining if they are distinct. Dr. Bowerbank
has fallen into this error repeatedly, as I have pointed out in
this paper. In the first two pages of the explanation of the
plates, vol. i. pp. 229, 230, Halichondria coccinea, Bowerbank,
H, Alderi, Bowerb., H. crustula, Bowerb., and H. variantia,
Bowerb., are each mentioned. I do not find any of them de-
scribed. They are probably British species to which other
names have been given. The last may be Hymeniacidon va-
riantia, Bowerb. Brit. Spong. fig. 174; but no reference is
made to the figure or the name.

Dr. Bowerbank, because he has found that the Sponge at-
tached to a single specimen of Hyalonema lusitanicum, out of
twelve that have been obtained belonging to the genus Car-
teria, has the same spicules as the Sponge attached to the
Japanese Hyalonema, concludes that the two species are only
one, and blames me for having formed them into two genera.
He has entirely overlooked the fact that the barks of the
Portuguese and Japanese species are of very different texture,
that the animals when contracted are of very different form
(the one circular and the other oval), and that they have a
different number of tentacles, in one placed in a double, in the
other in a single row. Now, whether the polype forming the
bark is a part of the coral or a parasite is a matter that may
be open to discussion; but the difference in the structures of
the polypes is sufficient to distinguish them from each other
as species or genera.

But it is not astonishing that Dr. Bowerbank should over-
look such differences; for he seems to have the faculty of
seeing what he desires, and of not seeing what he does not
wish to see. ‘Thus, for example, he persists in denying the
existence of the tentacles and cnidia in the polypes of the
genus Hyalonema, though they have been figured by Brandt,
Schultze, and Bocage, and have been seen by hundreds of
persons at the late soirée of the Microscopic Society, where
they were exhibited by Mr. Lee, Mr. Steward, and several
other microscopists.

I am not convinced of the identity of the Sponge found at-
tached to the Japanese and Portuguese specimens of Hyalo-
nema. Professor Bocage sent me a fragment of the Sponge
attached to the Portuguese Hyalonema. I examined it very
carefully, and could only find needle-like spicules, without

170 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Arrangement

defensive spicules of any form. The fragment was a very
minute one, and it might be not a good specimen of the
sponge; but I should like to be assured that Dr. Bowerbank,
in preparing his slide, has not somehow mixed up the sponge
of the Japanese and Portuguese species together; and I hope
that Professor Bocage will give us a figure of the spicules he
finds in the Portuguese Sponges. But should it even prove to
be correct that the Sponges attached to Hyalonema mirabile
and /usitanicum both belong to the genus Carteria, it would be
no proof that the coral belongs to the Sponge. Mr. Carter
has well observed that, if the polype that forms the bark can
secrete the siliceous spicules that occur in the bark, there can
be no difficulty in believing that it can secrete the longer
spicules that form the rope-like axis.

Even if the Sponge of the two Hyalonemata belongs to the
same genus, that affords no proof that the glass rope is part of |
the Sponge. It is remarkable that the Palythoc, to which the
polypes of Hyalonema are most nearly allied, are constantly
parasitic on one particular animal; and yet we do not believe
that they are part of the animal on which they are parasitic.
Some forms of Palythoa are only parasitic on some bodies in
a peculiar state. The one that Dr. Johnston called Spongia
suberea (see Mag. Nat. Hist. vii. p. 491, f. 60) is only found
growing on shells; but it is never found growing on a living
shell, but only on shells inhabited by Bernhard crabs; and
somewhat similar species with the same habit are found on
the American coast and in other parts of the world; yet no
one thinks there is any connexion between the Palythoa and
the crab or the shell, as Dr. Bowerbank does because the
Japanese and Portuguese Hyalonemata are sometimes found
affixed to a Sponge of the same genus.

Dr. Bowerbank states that he has found in the Portuguese
species of Carterva all the spicules that are found in the Japanese
species, but one. If his observation is accurate, this, to my
mind, goes to prove that there are two species of Carteria
(C. japonica and C. lusitanica) as well as two species of Hya-
lonema, each having an Hyalonema sometimes growing from
them, as the species of Palythoa on different coasts live on
shells inhabited by Bernhard crabs.

I find that I neglected to state that the genus Carteria is
named in honour of Mr. H. J. Carter, of Budleigh-Salterton,
who observed so accurately the structure, habit, and develop-
ment of the Spongilla of Bombay, and has described so well
the structure and development of the Foraminifera.

I may also say that the genus Jngallia is named in honour

and Nomenclature of Sponges. 171

of the late Mr. Ingall, formerly in the Bank of England, an
excellent microscopist and collector of sponges, fossils, &e. ;
Collingsia after Mrs. Collings, of Sark, near Guernsey, who
has inherited from her father, Dr. Lukis, his love for natural
history and the desire to extend it.

During the time this paper has been in type, Dr. Wyville
Thomson, in the ‘ Annals’ for February, p. 114, has proposed
another arrangement of Sponges. He modestly calls it “a
slight modification of Dr. Schmidt’s arrangement ;” but any
reader, even Dr. Schmidt himself, would find it impossible to
detect the characters assigned to the families in the very ge-
neral and indistinct comparative characters assigned by Dr.
Schmidt himself to the groups as printed in a previous page
of the paper. These characters show the effect of Dr. Bower-
bank’s researches and figures, and my explanation of them.
This arrangement is a step in advance; but it would be better
if the step had been made from the examination of specimens
instead of from the study of books.

Dr. Oscar Schmidt simply undertook to describe the Sponges
of a limited fauna, and only formed an arrangement of them,
never intending it for a general system. His work is a very
excellent one of its kind, just such a one as we should expect
from an experienced and educated naturalist on Sponges, after
the publication of Dr. Bowerbank’s essay in the ‘ Philosophical
Transactions.’

In consequence of Dr. Wyville Thomson adopting Dr.
Schmidt’s arrangement, which does not contain several groups
of exotic Sponges, he has found it requisite to introduce what
he calls a new order. His order VirrEA is only a new name
given to Dr. Bowerbank’s Suborders VI. and VIL. (which I had
called Coralliospongic) with the genus Huplectella added, but
deformed and its character rendered prolix by trying to make
it include Hyalonema! as his genus Habrodictyon is only a
name given to my section of the family Euplectellade con-
taining the genera Corbitella and Heterotella.

I have always considered that the characters that Dr. O.
Schmidt gives to his families are the weakest part of his work.
He perhaps felt that the very limited number of species he
had examined did not justify his entering into greater detail.
Three of his families were well recognized groups before his
time; he added Gumminex and Halisarcine for a few very
fleshy Sponges. Dr. W. Thomson observes that “the horn
Sponges (Ceratospongie) and the Gumminez are so nearly
allied that they can be distinguished by comparative characters
only.” The last group is founded on a mistake, as Dr. Bower-

172 Dr. J. E. Gray on Sponges.

bank has shown that Halisarca contains spicules. If Dr. W.
Thomson’s arrangement had been founded on the examination
of specimens rather than on the characters in books, he would
have found that the Gumminee are allied to Halichondrize
rather than to Ceratospongie.

Dr. W. Thomson objects to my separation of the Sponges
into Malacosporee and Chlamydospore. The spores of many
Sponges are not known, as he observes; but, though we may
not know the structure of the spores of many species and ge-
nera, we do know that they have not ovisacs or spores like
the Geodiade and Spongillade; for if they had, we should
have observed them, as it is almost impossible to examine a
fragment of a Sponge of either of those families without seeing
them. The skeleton of Spongilla is doubtless very like that of
Halichondria, or rather L[sodictyon, as Dr. Thomson says after
Dr. Bowerbank. The ovisacs of many Jsodictya are known,
and they are all membranaceous.

Both Geodiade and Spongillade are well defined recognized
groups: the latter lives only in fresh water, and is green, all
the other Sponges being marine and never green. And Dr.
Thomson must regard the solidified ovisac as a good character,
or I do not see how otherwise he can arrange the solid calca-
ceous Placospongie, which certainly have no bark distinguish-
able from the axis, such as characterizes his corticata.

I believe the proper way to form a natural system, or one
as near nature as we can discover, 1s to search for some cha-
racter that is common to a large number of the species, and
when one is found, if the group appears a natural one, to
use that character for the group, however trivial it may have
appeared to our preconceived notions. And this is the course
I followed when studying the Sponges ; and the result of that
study was the belief that the nature of the ovisac does form a

ood character to separate the Sponges into two groups.

The “ fatal fascinations of the beauties” do not seem to have
come to an end; and J think I may add to the instances re-
corded by Dr. W. Thomson that he regards “ A. speciosum as
a variety grown under peculiar circumstances, and the short A.
corbicula with the netted lid as the normal form” of the spe-
cies. Another is, surely, that Dr. Schultz has proposed to
unite LEuplectella and Hyalonema into one family, called
Lophospongie (see Arch. micr. Anat. iti, 212)! It is asto-
nishing that such an anatomist should regard Hyalonema as a
Sponge, as it has not one character of the class, except its
siliceous spicules; and even if it were a Sponge, no two ge-
nera of the same class could be more unlike in structure and
form than Huplectella and Hyalonema.

Dr. R. Greeff on Autolytus prolifer. 173

I cannot understand Dr. W. Thomson’s habitat of the two
species of Venus’s Flower-basket. He says, “‘ The only known
specimen of H. speciosum is that figured by MM. Quoy & Gai-
mard in the ‘ Voyage de |’Astrolabe,’ and now in the Jardin
des Plantes. The specimen is labelled ‘Aleyoncellum corbicula,
Val. Tiré par 80 brasses de profondeur dans la rade de St.
Denis de Bourbon par M. Leschenault, 1819.’” If he will
tum to MM. Quoy and Gaimard’s work, he will find those
authors state that their specimen was given to them by Mr.
Merkus, the Governor of the Moluccas. The same specimen
cannot have two habitats or be collected by two persons at dif-
ferent periods. Does not the label belong to the true Alcyon-
cellum corbicula? The label is of little importance if Aleyon-
cellum speciosum and A. corbicula are one species !!

XXV.—On Autolytus prolifer. By Dr. R. GREEFF*.
[Plate VIII.

In the year 1850, Grubet established, under the name of
Autolytus, a new genus of Annelids, previously regarded as
forming a species of Syllis. Autolytus, indeed, has characters
so definite and so different from those of Syllis, as is shown
by even a cursory comparison, that this separation must be
indicated as not only perfectly just, but actually necessary.
For the actual establishment of this idea, however, we are
indebted to A. Krohn, who, in his classical memoir ‘ On
the Phenomena of Reproduction in Syllis prolifera and Auto-
lytus prolifer,” first distinctly pointed out the distinctive cha-
racters of the two generat. The interesting processes in the
reproduction of Syllis prolifera and Autolytus prolifer (which,
however, as regards the latter, had certainly already been
carefully observed by Leuckart and Frey§) are elucidated in
this memoir from careful observation, both as regards what
they have in common and what is peculiar in each. With re-
gard to Autolytus prolifer, Krohn was able to confirm the
results already in part obtained by Leuckart and Frey, al-
though those observers still erroneously identified Autolytus
prolifer with Syllis prolifera, and therefore also could not

* Translated by W.S. Dallas, F.L.S., from the ‘Archiv fiir Natur-
geschichte,’ 1866, pp. 352-367.
t eae Archiv, 1850, p. 309, and ‘Familien der Anneliden,’ 1851,

t¢ Wiegmann’s Archiv, 1852, p. 66.

§ ‘Beitrage zur Kenntniss wirbelloser Thiere, &c.,’ 1847, p. 91, pl. 2.
fig. 1. For the earlier observations of O. F. Miiller, Milne-Edwards,
Quatrefages, Johnston, &c., consult the authors just cited,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.4, Vol. i. 13

174 Dr. R. Greeff on Autolytus prolifer.

satisfactorily account for the observations previously made by
Quatrefages upon the latter*. A further step in the natural
history of Autolytus was furnished by Max Miillert in his
excellent observations on Sacconerets helgolandica, although
the genetic connexion between Sacconereis and Autolytus re-
mained unknown to him. It was again Krohn} who correctly
recognized and established the connexion between these two
animals, and showed that the male and female individuals of
Sacconereis helgolandica observed by Max Miiller were merely
the freed male and female buds of Autolytus prolifer. In the
same year (1855), and independently of Max Miiller’s state-
ments, P. H. Gosse§ also described Sacconereis, and indeed
its male form, to which that observer gives the new name of.
Crithida thalassina.

For a very detailed memoir, published in the year 1862,
upon the natural history and, especially, the sexual relations
and development of Autolytus, we are indebted to Agassiz\|,
who, however, on the whole only carried further the notions
already expressed by Krohn, especially with regard to the
connexion between Autolytus and Sacconereis, but also proved
that the genus Polybostrichus, founded in 1843 by Cirsted]], is
likewise only a male bud of Autolytus, and therefore identical
with the male Sacconereis helgolandica of M. Miiller** and
with Crithida thalassina of Gosse. Agassiz, moreover, was the
first who observed the brood of the sexual buds of Autolytus
and their development into the primary individuals, and thus
filled up what had previously been an important gap. Never-
theless, notwithstanding the great amount of material pre-
sented by him, he still remains in many respects behind Krohn
as regards the accuracy and clearness of his observations. The
generic characters so distinctly pointed out by Krohn for Aw-
tolytus especially have not been duly noticed by Agassiz : thus,
for example, the characteristic elegant circlet of little pointed
teeth which crowns the entrance into the tortuous cesophagus is

* Comptes Rendus, August 1845, and Annales des Sci. Nat. 1844,
tome i. p. 22. See also the subsequent more detailed treatise upon Syllis
prolifera, “ Mémoire sur la Génération alternante des Syllis,” in Ann. Sci.
Nat. sér. 4. tome ii. p. 148, pl. 4.

+ Miiller’s Archiv, 1855, p. 15, pls. 2 & 3. t Ibid. 1855, p. 489.

§ Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 2. vol. xvi. p. 305, pl. 8. fig. 5.

|| “On Alternate Generation in Annelids, and the Embryology of
Autolytus cornutus,” Boston Journ. Nat. Hist. vol. vii. p. 384, pls. 9, 10,
ie

q| Gronland’s Annulata Dorsibranchiata, p. 30, pl. 5. fig. 62. Copen-
hagen, 1843. _

** The identity of Sacconereis and Polybostrichus was indicated in the
same year, and apparently before Agassiz, by Keferstein, ‘ Zeitschr. fiir
wiss. Zool. Bd. xii, p. 113, pl. 11. figs. 1-6.

Dr. R. Greeff on Autolytus prolifer. 175

completely omitted both in the description and in the numerous
figures. Claparéde, who also notices this defect, in his valu-
able work on Annelides published in 1864*, has reestablished
the genus Awtolytus as previously indicated by Krohn, and
has also enriched our knowledge by three fine new species.
Ehlers}, on the contrary, in his work on the Polycheta, has
again treated our genus very unkindly, forming a new genus,
Procercea (picta) of a worm which appears to be undoubtedly
an Autolytus. That the dorsal cirri on the third body-segment
are rather longer than on the following segments (which,
moreover, occurs also in other representatives of Autolytus—
for example, in A. scapularis, Clap.) cannot possibly suffice
by itself for the establishment of a new genus; and yet this
appears to be the only differentiating character, as in other
respects, according to the excellent and careful description and
figure, Procerea picta in all its essential characters is a true
Autolytus. Nor must Ehlers’s worm be separated from Auto-
lytus merely because Ehlers observed no alternation of genera-
tions in it. Without taking into consideration that the state-
ments as to the sexual conditions in Procerewa are imperfect,
even the ascertained absence of alternation of generations,
such as Claparédef quite correctly establishes for his A. sca-
pularis, would by no means of itself justify the establishment
of a new genus. I therefore think that I may propose to
change Procerea picta provisionally into Autolytus pictus.

Under the generic name Polybostrichus, CHrsted, already
referred to, and the connexion of which with Awtolytus has
been described by Agassiz, Keferstein§ has likewise furnished
valuable observations on the male bud of Awtolytus, the iden-
tity of which with Max Miiller’s Sacconerets helgolandica he
endeavours to demonstrate. It is remarkable, however, that
in neither of his memoirs does he say a single syllable of the
genetic connexion of Sacconereis and Polybostrichus with Auto-
lytus, so definitely expressed by Agassiz and Krohn, but treats
his Polybostrichus as a perfectly independent genus.

My own communications are founded upon observations made
last year in Heligoland, and partly also during a subsequent
residence on the coast of the Channel (chiefly at Ostend). Their
principal object is the discussion of three important points in
the natural history of Awtolytus, in the face of the still greatly
varying statements, as above indicated, namely :—in the first

* Glanures zootomiques parmi les Annélides, p. 102, pl. 7.
t+ Die Borstenwiirmer, (Leipzig, 1864) p, 263,
t Loe. eit. p. 109.
§ Zeitschr. fiir wiss, Zool. Bd. xii. p. 115, pl. 11. figs, 1-6, and p. 464,
pl. 42. figs, 5-11.
13*

176 Dr. R. Greeff on Autolytus prolifer.

place, the definitely marked generic character; secondly, the
relation of the bud or shoot to its primary individual, together
with the connexion of Sacconereis and Polybostrichus with
Autolytus; and, thirdly, some remarks upon the species hi-
therto chiefly investigated, but still very unstable as regards
its accurate determination, namely Autolytus prolifer, Grube.

As regards the first point, I would, from my observations,
sum up the generic character as follows (see Pl. VIII. fig.1) :-—

Cephalic lobes not separated, but only indicated by an
emargination on the lower surface. ‘Three inarticulate frontal
tentacles, which, by their lively movements and contractions,
present throughout their whole length irregular transverse and
annular furrows, so that they appear as if twisted. First body-

.Segment without setigerous feet—but with two tentacular cirri
on each side, of the same nature as the cephalic tentacles. On
the following segments, on each side, one dorsal cirrus and a
uniramous setigerous foot. The composite sete of the foot (fig.3)
have on their short sickle-shaped appendage three uncini—a
middle and two lateral ones. Ventral cirri are wanting on all
the segments.

The protrusible, finely chitinized cesophageal tube (fig. 1a) is
surrounded by a muscular sheath, and armed at its anterior ori-
fice with a circlet of small pointed teeth, whilst a large median
boring-tooth, otherwise so frequently occurring as the armature
of the mouth in the Syllidea, is wanting. ‘The cesophageal
tube is remarkable for its considerable length, so that only
about the anterior half of it follows a straight course, whilst
the second half is always folded together in loops. The ceso-
phageal tube is followed by the pharynx or glandular stomach
(fig. 16) common to all Syllidea. 'This passes, without any
special appendages on its lower part, into the intestinal canal,
which runs straight backwards, and is lined in its terminal
portion with ciliary epithelium.

In some representatives of Autolytus an alternation of ge-
nerations has been observed, of such a nature that from the
primary individuals (= nurses—Ammen), by gemmation for
the most part, sexual animals are produced and thrown off,
which contain either male or female reproductive materials,
and after swimming about freely for a certain time, reproduce
the form of the parent animal by a sexual process. The
budded offspring are not only different from the parent ani-
mals, but the males and females differ from each other.

With regard to the second point, I would in the first place
once more point out that Krohn was the first who perfectly
recognized and declared the genetic connexion between the

Dr. R. Greeff on Autolytus prolifer. 177

free offspring (Sacconerets and Polybostrichus) and the primary
individuals of Autolytus. In his first memoir (Wiegmann’s
Archiv, 1852) he not only correctly described the female Sac-
conerets, but also the male, indicating especially the charac-
teristic and different structure of the tentacles of the male.
He says (p. 70), ‘On the other hand, in the male, the two
lateral tentacles are furcately divided into two diverging
branches, one of which is shorter than the other.” In his
second communication (Miiller’s Archiv, 1855, p. 489) he
definitely indicates the origin of Max Miiller’s genus Sacco-
nereis from Autolytus. I have myself repeatedly observed
the whole of the forms just mentioned, and can confirm their
mutual relation in the most positive manner, although I
have made some divergent observations upon the mode of
prolification. In his description of the structure of the
bud-sprouts (/.c. p. 74) Krohn says that, with the exception
of the first offspring at the hinder extremity of the parent
animal, produced at the expense of the hinder part of the
‘body of the mother (as, according to Leuckart and Frey, the
buds are produced only between the anterior and posterior
sections of the body, 7, e. push themselves in between these),
and which is therefore a true product of fission, ova and
semen are not produced in any of the individuals subsequently
developed from buds, until at least the head with the traces of
the eyes and tentacles has been formed. I have had examples
under my eyes in which above the youngest sprout (which
therefore hung next to the parent animal) some segments of
the primary body already contained ova, although not the
smallest trace of head &c. could be detected either upon or
above these segments. In a case represented exactly in PI]. VIII.
fig. 2, the hinder female sprout was already completely deve-
loped, with its head and three tentacles, and had its two fol-
lowing segments stuffed with ova, so that the second body-
segment had acquired an unusual degree of extension. But
the last segments of the primary animal impinging on the head
of the sprout also already contained ova, although no formation
of a head de. could be detected. It is therefore evident that
the above statement of Krohn’s cannot be maintained in its
universality. But our observation also imports a not unim-
portant modification into our notion of the mode of reproduc-
tion, as this case proves not only that the fully developed
sprouts are capable of producing ova &c., as has hitherto been
assumed with regard to Awtolytus, but that ova may be pro-
duced even in the parent body (that is to say, in the nurse
itself), and, indeed, in segments which still belong to it entirely
and unchanged, as has already been ascertained in the case of

178 Dr. R. Greeff on Autolytus prolifer.

Syllis prolifera. Hence, therefore, the nurse would at the
same time produce asexually by gemmation an offspring des-
tined on its part to generate sexual products, and likewise be
capable of giving origin to sexual products (namely, ova) in
unaltered segments of its own body. Nevertheless this case,
when carefully considered, scarcely presents a serious diver-
gence from the ordinary process of prolification in Autolytus
as it has been concordantly described by authors. In this, as
has already been remarked, the bud-sprouts are originally
produced, not at the end of the parent body, but nearly in its
middle, by becoming as it were inserted by gemmation between
two segments, and in such a manner that the youngest sprout
is always the foremost, and consequently nearest to the anterior
part of the primary animal. By this means, therefore, the whole
primary individual is divided into two parts, an anterior and a
posterior, separated by the intervening sprouts and removed to
a greater distance apart in proportion as the number of these
increases. But the hinder part of the primary individual is
not lost, but becomes formed, like the buds, into a new indivi-
dual, which is also, like these, destined to generate sexual pro-
ducts. Therefore here also we see sexual products originate
in a previously continuous part of the primary individual, in
primitive segments of the original nurse, only that this part is
no longer in direct connexion with the anterior primary part
as was the case in the example above described by me. Ne-
vertheless it cannot be denied that the two cases present a
great analogy, inasmuch as, in both, sexual products originate
in primitive segments of the original nurse-body.

Through these circumstances, as I would particularly indi-
cate, the mode of reproduction of Autolytus (which, as above
described, always produces at least one offspring by fission)
remarkably approaches that of Syllis prolifera, in which, ac-
cording to the investigations of Krohn * and Quatrefagest,
the new individuals originate only by fission. It appears,
however, on closer examination, as Ehlerst was the first to
show, that in Syllis prolifera also the increase by fission is
only apparently general, but is fundamentally for the most

art produced by gemmation as much as in Autolytus. Thus
it is certain that the segments of the parent animal are made
use of for the formation of new individuals; that is to say,
those which are by this means thrown off are immediately
replaced by gemmation from the primary individual at the
point of separation, and this either while the young’ are still

* Wiegmann’s Archiv, 1852, p. 66. + Loe. cit. supra.
{ Die Borstenwiimer, p. 208.

Dr. R. Greeff on Autolytus prolifer. 179

connected with the parent, or immediately after their separation.
These segments newly formed by gemmation are then, just like
their predecessors, developed into a new generation of offspring,
and thrown off as apparent products of fission, whilst in reality
they only represent newly developed buds. This first gemmi-
parous prolification is then again followed at the foremost point
of separation by a second gemmation, which, after attaining
maturity, probably gives place to a third, and so forth. In Syllis
prolifera, therefore, only the first generation thrown off con-
sists of true primitive segments of the primary animal, whilst
all the following ones undoubtedly originate for the most part
from newly developed segments (that is to say, by gemmation).
I say, for the most part, as according to Krohn’s observations
(loc. cit. p. 72) it is certainly possible that, in a new budded
generation, some segments of the primary animal may
again participate in the division and be thrown off with the
budded portion, especially if these segments were previously
filled with ova &c., and had consequently attained a certain
degree of maturity. From these considerations, therefore, it
is clear that the processes of prolification in Syll’s and Auto-
lytus, although apparently so different, scarcely present any
essential differences when accurately examined. As we have
seen, both in Awtolytus and Syllis, the first offspring are always
pure sprouts of fission, but the following ones originate in
both by gemmation.

Another and different mode of asexual propagation occurs,
as is well known, in Nats, in which, according to the beautiful
and careful investigations of Max Schultze*, a segment of the
primary animal is thrown off for each new individual, and
employed in the formation of the latter. This segment is not
reproduced ; so that, during the continuance of prolification,
the parent animal loses as many segments as it throws off
young. Max Schultze justly names this process a reproduction
by fission, inasmuch as, for every new animal, an original
portion of the mother is absorbed. Nevertheless it should not
be overlooked that from this single primitive joint the actual
many-jointed animal is produced, only by the development or
budding forth from it of such a greater or less number of seg-
ments as may be necessary for the fully formed animal. In
this way, therefore, every new individual thrown off from the
primary animal is the product of a pure fission with sub-
sequent pure gemmation ; and thus we have here, again, to a
certain extent the, same point of view for the mode of propa-
gation as in Syllis and Autolytus, namely the combination of

* Wiegmann’s Archiv, 1849, p. 295, and 1852, p. 3.

180 Dr. R. Greeff on Autolytus prolifer.

Jission and gemmation, only that in Nats these occur very
regularly and distinctly in the formation of each new indi-
vidual.

To return once more to our figured example (PI1.VIII. fig. 2),
it is evident that the offspring is still frmly united to its
parent, even by the possession of a common intestine, although
it is already completely filled with mature ova. This observa-
tion, however (as indeed has already been indicated by Krohn),
contradicts the assertion of Frey and Leuckart that the new
individuals produced by gemmation, so long as they remain
inserted in the common stock, do not attain such a degree of
development as to render them capable of the production of
ova.

Lastly, as regards the third point to be elucidated, namely
the establishment of Awtolytus prolifer as a species, I must
admit that I was at first inclined to think that in the animal
figured in PI]. VIII. fig. 1 I had a new species before me. This
was due in part to the insufficiency of the specific description
of Autolytus prolifer and the want of accurate figures*. On
further comparison, however, I cannot resolve upon the esta-
blishment of a new species, but rather believe that my animal
coincides with Awtolytus prolifer. I also think I may say,
with probability, that Autolytus cornutus of Agassiz is likewise
identical with A. prolifer; at least, neither from his descrip-
tion nor from his figures (which certainly are not sufficient for
specific determination) have I been able to find any essential
differences between A. cornutus, A. prolifer, and my own
specimen. What Agassiz says (/. c. p. 391) as to the differ-
ences in the number and form of the segments and in the
number of the long simple bristles, between the progeny of
Autolytus cornutus and prolifer (Sacconereis helgolandica), ap-
pears to me to be by no means suflicient for establishing specific
distinction between the primary individuals, as, from the above
statements with regard to number of segments &c., the pro-
lificate progeny not only may, but frequently even must, ne-
cessarily, differ from each other in these respects.

It is otherwise with the male progeny of an Autolytus known
under the name of Polybostrichus longosetosus, Qirst., which in
all probability represents a species distinct from A. prolifer, as
the accurate investigations of Keferstein established the exist-
ence of essential differences, in the structure of its head &e.,
from Polybostrichus Miillert (Sacconereis helgolandica), the
male progeny of Autolytus prolifer.

* Excellent as O. F. Miiller’s figure of his Nereis prolifer (Zool. Dan.
fase. ii. tab, lil. fig. 6) is for that time, it does not suffice for specific
determination.

Dr. R. Greeff on Autolytus prolifer. 181

The specific characters* of Autolytus prolifer are in many
respects difficult to fix; thus, as a matter of course, we must
give up even an approximate determination of the length or
number of segments of the primary individuals, since these
characters, as may be easily seen, vary greatly in consequence
of prolification. The smallest primary individual engaged
in prolification, observed by me, measured 2 millims. to the
youngest bud offspring, and contained to the same point four-
teen segments, with the exception of the head. The largest
primary animal engaged in prolification, on the other hand,
measured more than twice as much as the former, and con-
tained thirty-nine segments to the commencement of the bud
offspring. The fully developed animal before the commence-
ment of prolification must therefore have been a good deal
longer. I think, however, that the length of Autolytus pro-
lifer will not usually much exceed 2 lines, as stated also by
Krohn.

The head presents no indication of lobe-formation on its
upper surface; but on the lower surface there is a narrow,
median, longitudinal, impressed line, which divides and widens
in a curve to right and left posteriorly, and thus forms the
anterior buccal angle, so that the hinder parts of the head-
lobes at the same time form the anterior buccal lobes or
lips. Directly opposite to this anterior buccal angle there is
a posterior one, the arms of which join those of the anterior
angle, so that by this means a lateral angle is also pro-
duced on each side. The buccal orifice has a quadrangular
form, bounded by curved lines with their convexity in-
wards. On its upper surface the head bears four reddish-
brown eyes, furnished with lenses, the position of which,
however, varies according as the two on each side are more or
less approximated to or removed from each other, as shown
in our figures. Usually they group themselves in a quadran-
gle, the anterior pair being further apart than the second (pos-
terior) pair. The three cephalic tentacles occur of very different
sizes in different individuals; generally, however, they do not
attain the very considerable length represented in fig. 1, but
are much shorter. They are then capable of very lively move-
ment, are constantly waved to and fro, and pushed through
each other, feeling about, and, when thus employed, show the
peculiar transversely furrowed and twisted appearance already

* T shall refer only to the specific characters of the primary individuals
of Autolytus prolifer, as good and perfectly satisfactory descriptions of the
male and female bud offspring (Sacconerets and Polybostrichus) have been

given by the authors already cited, and to these I can add nothing essen-
tial.

182 Dr. R. Greeff on Autolytus prolifer.

referred to in the description of the genus. The tentacles, as
also the following tentacular and dorsal cirri, are usually
greyish yellow, with the exception of the apex, which is some-
times light yellow. The whole of the tentacles and cirri are
more or less densely clothed throughout their length with fine
soft bristles (tactile hairs), and exhibit in their interior peculiar
sharply outlined corpuscules, of a roundish, elongated, or irre-
gular form.

The cephalic segment is followed by the first body-segment,
which is very narrow (especially when seen from above) and
bears on each side two rather short tentacular cirri, but no
setigerous paddles. It is only on the second body-segment,
which is considerably broader than the first, that a short uni-
ramous paddle, with two slightly prominent lobes, makes its
appearance on each side. In the paddle there is a bundle of
from eight to ten closely approximated strong and short
sete. Two of the sete (and these are the strongest and
usually placed rather behind the rest) are simple, the others
are composite. The simple sete have exactly the form of the
composite ones, except that in the former the sickle-shaped
terminal joint is wanting, and the otherwise short apical por-
tion is somewhat elongated, especially on the hinder segments.
The composite sete bear the short tridentate terminal joint
already described in the generic character (fig. 3). Above the
paddles of the second segment there is on each side a long
dorsal cirrus resembling the cephalic tentacles. The dorsal
cirri of the following segments are considerably shorter. All
the dorsal cirri consist of two jomts—a short, conical, tuber-
culiform basal, and a thinner terminal joint. In all the cui
the basal joint shows a lively ciliary movement, but this never
extends over the terminal jot. Ventral cirri are deficient on
all the segments. The caudal cirri are usually long, and fur-
nished with many tactile hairs.

With regard to the characteristic alimentary apparatus, es-
pecially the cesophageal tube, I may refer in general to the
description already given under the generic character, and to
the figure (fig. 1, a, 6,c). Usually the cesophagus commences
in Autolytus prolifer within or below the second setigerous
segment. The glandular stomach commences at the eighth or
ninth, and generally includes two or three segments in its
length. The intestine is broad, and presents no constrictions
corresponding with the individual segments ; but at every two,
three, or four segments there is a constriction, which, however,
does not penetrate deeply. The head and body present a
yellowish-brown coloration, sprinkled with dark-reddish-brown
nregular small granules, spots, and streaks. Frequently also

Rev. E. Williams’s List of Shropshire Lichens. 183

a reddish-brown longitudinal streak is seen on each side, com-
mencing at the head and running along the back; but these
usually reach only to the glandular stomach.

In conclusion, [ may cite an observation upon the occurrence
of the freed, sexually mature bud offspring (Sacconereis and
Polybostrichus), which I do not find mentioned anywhere else.
These bustle about exactly in the manner of the swarming
Annelide-larve, and, indeed, among the latter at the surface
of the sea; so that, in nearly every glass filled with the small
animal forms fished from the surface of the calm sea by means
of the fine net, I regularly found several of them, and usually
male examples. These possessed great mobility. Primary
individuals I have never found at the surface ; and the reason of
this is easily understood.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VII.

Fig. 1, Anterior part of Autolytus prolifer, with the head, the first body-
segments, and the principal sections of the alimentary apparatus :
a, esophageal tube, with its circlet of pointed denticles at its
anterior orifice, and its posterior half bent into loops; 6, glan-
dular stomach ; ¢, intestine.

Fig. 2. The posterior segments of the primary animal, containing ova, with
a young animal adhering to them, still united with them by a
common intestine, and completely filled with ova: d, the new-
formed head of the young animal, with the new-formed eyes and
tentacles.

Fig. 38. Composite uncini of Autolytus prolifer.

XX VI.—Notule Lichenologice. No. XXI.
By the Rev. W. A. Lreicuron, B.A., F.L.S.

Amonest the MSS. of the late Rev. Edw. Williams, Incum-
bent of Battlefield and Uffington, Shropshire, is a catalogue
of all the plants which he had detected during many years’
careful herborization of the county of Salop. Mr. Williams
was in frequent correspondence with Sir J. E. Smith, the
Sowerbys, and other contemporary botanists. His accuracy is
well known, and perfect reliance can be placed on any plant
which he recorded. The whole of the Catalogue, so far as
regards the flowering plants, is embodied in my. ‘ Flora of
Shropshire.’ But I have thought it might not be altogether
unacceptable to publish the list of Shropshire Lichens. Though
not a complete list, it is a fairly comprehensive one, consider-
ing that at the period of its compilation the microscope was
not used in the determination of these plants.

To this list I have added between brackets [ ] brief remarks

184 Rev. E. Williams’s List of Shropshire Lichens.

identifying the lichens according to more modern nomencla-
ture.
LICHENES.

Lichen alpestris [Cladina alpestris (Scher.)]. Bomere Moss, Stiper-
stones, &c.

Lichen antiquitatis [probably a Byssus]. Cound churehyard-wall.

Lnchen apthosus [Peltigera aphthosa, Hoffm.]. Side of walk in Sun-
dorn Wood; wall of Acton Burnell Park.

Lichen aquilus [Physcia aquila, Fr.]. (See pullus.)

Lichen ater [Lecanora atra, Ach.]. Branches of trees and walls.

Lichen atro-albus [Lecidea atro-alba, Flot.]. Rocks.

Lichen aurantiacus [Lecanora aurantiaca, Lightf.]. Trunks of trees.

Lichen byssoides [Beeomyces rufus, Ach.}. Stone-quarry on Cound
Moor; rocks about Bishop’s Castle (Dillenius).

Lichen brunneus. [Without examination of specimens it is impossible
to say whether this is Lich. brunneus, EK. Bot. t. 1246 = Parmelia
triptophylla, Fries, or Lich. brunneus, Swartz = Parmelia brunnea,
Fries, the habitat being similar in both.] On stones on Cound
Moor, on the bank sloping down to the brook below a cottage
belonging to the clerk (Dr. J. E. Smith).

Lichen Becomyces [Beeomyces roseus, Pers.]. About Ludlow.

Lichen cycloselis [a state of Physcia obscura, Fr., E. Bot. 1942].
Trunks of oak and ash trees (Dr. J. E. Smith).

Lichen calicaris [Ramalina calicaris, Fr.]. Branches and trunks of
trees.

Lichen candelarius [E. Bot. 1794]. Walls.

Lichen canescens [Lecidea canescens, Ach.]. Walls and trunks of
trees.

Lichen caninus [Peltigera canina, Hffm.]|. Dry ditch-banks; common.

Lichen carpineus [possibly a state of Pertusaria communis, DC. ].
Trunks of trees.

Lichen confluens [most probably Lecidea contigua, Fr.]. Loose stones
below Pontesford Hill.

Lichen caperatus [Parmelia caperata, Ach.]. Rocks and trunks of
trees on Haughmond Hill, &e.

Lichen cartilagineus [Squamaria crassa, DC.]. Rock on Overley Hill;
on Wrekin, and on Abury Wood.

Lichen cerinus [Lecanora cerina, Ach.]. Trees in Vesson’s Wood,
under Stiperstones.

Lichen chalybeiformis [a form of Alectoria jubata (Zinn.)}]. On Sti-
perstones (see Dillenius, p. 67, tab. 13. f.10).

Lichen ciliaris [Physcia ciliaris, DC.]. Trunks of trees.

Lichen cocciferus [Cladonia cornucopioides, Fr.|. Rocks on Overley
Hill; Frodesley Hill, &e.

Rev. E. Williams’s List of Shropshire Lichens. 185

Inchen coccineus [Lecanora hematomma, Ach.]. Rocks on Haugh-
mond Hill; Pontesford Hill; Frodesley; Acton Burnell, walls;
Titterstone Clee.

Inchen concentricus [Lecidea petrea, var. concentrica (Dav.), E. Bot.
246]. First canal-bridge between Uffington and Atcham.

Inchen corallinus [Stereocaulon corallinum, Schreb.|. Rocks and
walls; Frodesley ; Stiperstones; north side of a hill between the
Wrekin and the Arcoll Hill; Acton Burnell.

Lichen erispus [Collema crispum, Ach.]. Bottom of shady walls.

Lichen cristatus [Collema cristatum, Scher.]. Bottom of shady walls.

Inchen errcetorum [ Beomyces icmadophilus, Hhrh.]. Sides of banks
about Ludlow.

Lichen excavatus [Urceolaria scruposa, Ach. |. Walls of Col. Charlton’s
park, Ludlow. Fy

Lichen fagineus [probably Variolaria faginea, Pers., a : Soreaiate
state of Pertusaria communis, DC.]. Trunks of trees, common.

Lichen farinaceus [Ramalina calicaris, Fr., var. farinacea, Ach. ].
Trunks of trees.

Lichen fascicularis {without examination of specimens it is difficult
to say to what species of Collema this should be referred]. Trunks
of trees in a wood on the north-east side of the Stiperstones.

Lichen ferrugineus | Lecanora ferruginea (Huds.)]. Parapet-wall of
Cound Stank bridge.

Lichen flavescens [probably comprehending Placodium murorum, DC.
and its var. citrinum (//ffm.), and Placodium elegans, DC., and
Lecanora aurantiaca (Lightf.), var. erythrella (Ach.). Walls and
rocks.

Lichen floridus [Usnea florida, Zinn.]. Trunks of trees in wood
below the Stiperstones and near Ludlow.

Lichen foliaceus {Cladonia alcicornis, Flk.]. Rocks on Haughmond
Hill; Lyth Hill; Pontesford Hill.

Inchen rae [Ramalina calicaris, Fr., var. fraxinea, Fr. ]. Trunks
of trees ; common.

Lichen furcatus [probably Cladonia furcata, Scher., including pun-
gens (Ach.), not at that time separated]. Rocks and heaths.

Lichen furfuraceus [Evernia furfuracea, Mann]. Rocks on the
Stiperstones ; Frodesley Park-wall; rocks north side of Wrekin.

Lichen fusco-ater [Lecidea fusco-atra, Ach.]. Walls; by side of turn-
pike road near Cound Hall (wall taken down).

Lichen geographicus [Lecidea geographica, Scher.]. Rocks.

Lichen glaucus [Platysma glaucum, Hffm.]. Frodesley Park-wall;
Wrekin ; Stiperstones ; Caradoc Hill.

Lichen globiferus [Spherophoron coralloides, Pers.]. Rocks on
Haughmond Hill; Frodesley Hill; Stiperstones; Caradoc.

Lichen glomuliferus [Ricasolia glomulifera, De V.]. Trunks of trees
between Castle Pulverbach and Stiperstones.

186 ~—- Rev. E. Williams’s List of Shropshire Lichens.

Lichen gracilis [Cladonia gracilis, Fr.]. Stiperstones Heath.

Lichen hymeneus [ Pertusaria Wulfenii, DC.]. Trunks of trees (Dr.
J. E. Smith).

Lichen inquinans [Trachylia tympanella, F'r.]. Old pales.

Lichen inclusus [Thelotrema lepadinum, Ach.]. Holly trees on Acton
Burnell Hill.

Lichen linceus [Opegrapha lyncea, Borr.|. Trunks of trees.

Lachen herbaceus [Ricasolia herbacea, D. N.]. (See letevirens.)

Lichen hirtus [Usnea barbata, Fr., forma hirta]. Trunks of trees.

Lichen hispidus [Cetraria aculeata, Fr.]. Walls on Frodesley Hill ;
rock on Overley Hill; Wrekin ; Stiperstones; Caradoc; Brown Clee.

Lachen horizontalis [Peltigera horizontalis, Hffm.]. East wall of
Frodesley Hill and Acton Burnell Hill.

Lichen hypnorum [E. Bot. 740]. Whitecliff, near Ludlow.

Lichen jubatus [Alectoria jubata, Ach.]. Wall of Frodesley Park ;
Upton Park pales; Pimhill Rocks; Caradoc; Stiperstones.

Iachen letevirens” [Ricasolia herbacea, De V.]. On stones at Comb
Floyd, near Bishop’s Castle (Dillenius).

Lichen luteus (luteo- einus) [Lecanora cerina, var. pyracea, Ach. |.
Trunks of trees.

Inchen niger [Pannaria corallinoides, Scher.]. On Cound church-
yard-wall.

Inchen nigrescens [Collema nigrescens, Ach.]. Old ash trees near
Radnor Bridge; crab-trees on Pontesford Hill and about Pulver-
bach.

Lichen Gderi (this, in all probability, comprehends many things, as
Lecidea petreea, var. deri (#. Bot.1117), Lecidea melanophea, Fr.,
and forms of Urceolaria, &c.]. Stiperstones.

Lichen olivaceus [ Parmelia olivacea, Ach. ]. Trunks of trees ; common.

Lichen omphalodes { Parmelia saxatilis, Ach., var. omphalodes, Ach. |.
Rocks on Haughmond Hill.

Lichen pallescens {Lecanora parella, Ach., var. pallescens, Ach.]. On
trunks of trees.

Lichen parilis [Nephroma levigatum, Ach., var. parile, Ach.]. In
an old stone-quarry on Cound Moor.

Lichen parellus [Lecanora parella, Ach.|. Trunks of trees.

Lichen parietinus [Physcia parietina (Linn.)]. Walls and trunks of
trees.

Lichen perlatus [Parmelia perlata, Ach.]. Trunks of trees ; common.

Lichen pertusus [Pertusaria communis, DC.]. Bark of trees and
walls.

Lichen physodes [Parmelia physodes, Ach.]. Old pales ; common.
Lichen polyrhizus [Umbilicaria polyrrhiza (Zinn.)]. Stiperstones.

Lichen prunasiri [Evernia prunastri, Ach. |. Branches of bushes and
trees ; common.

Rev. E. Williams’s List of Shropshire Lichens. 187

Lichen pulicaris [probably Opegrapha varia f. pulicaris (Hffm.), in-
eluding also possibly Hysterium pulicare, a fungus]. Trees.

Lnchen pullus [Physcia aquila, Fr. (aquilus, #. Bot. 982)}. Rocks
on Haughmond Hill.

Lichen pulmonarius [Sticta pulmonacea, Ach.]. Trees at the back
of Acton Burnell Hill and below Stiperstones and Frodesley Hill.

Lichen punctatus [E. Bot. t. 450: a saxicolar form of Lecanora sub-
fusca, Ach.|. Cound churchyard-wall; Ludlow.

Lichen pyxidatus [Cladonia pyxidata, Hffm.|. Dry ditch-banks;
common.

Lichen querneus [ Lecidea quernea, Ach.|. Trunks of oak trees.

LInchen rangiferinus [Cladina rangiferina (Hffm.) and sylvatica
(Linn.)]. Dry heaths; common.

Inchen rugosus {according to Fries, Lich. Europ., a fungus, Hysterium
rugosum, Dill. Muse. xviii. f. 2]. Trunks of trees.

Lichen salicinus. (See awrantiacus.)

Lichen sanguinarius {Lecidea sanguinaria, Ach.|. Trunks of trees.

Lnchen sawatilis [Parmelia saxatilis, Ach.|. Stones, walls, trunks of
trees, and tiles.

Inchen scriptus [including most probably all the Graphidei]. Trunks
of trees.

Lichen scrobiculatus [Sticta scrobiculata, Ach.]. Stones on Frodesley
Hill; Stiperstones; Caradoc.

Lichen serwposus [Urceolaria scruposa, Ach.]. Cound churchyard-
wall; Acton Burnell Park-wall; walls on Harmer Hill.

Inchen sinuatus [possibly Leptogium scotinum, Fr.]. Rocks about
Ludlow.

Lichen spinosus [probably Cladonia furcata, var. spinosa, Flk., Dill.
xvi. f. 25]. Stiperstones rocks.

Lichen spherocephalus [Calicium spherocephalum, Ach.]. Trunks of
trees ; common.

Lichen stellaris [Physcia stellaris, Fr.]. Trunks of trees.

Lichen subfuscus [Lecanora subfusca, Ach., and its innumerable
forms]. Trunks of trees.

Lichen subulatus [probably some state of Cladonia furcata, Scher.].
Heaths and rocks.

Lichen sulphureus [Lecidea sulphurea, Ach.]. Stone wall by side of
the road over Haughmond Hill; Cound churchyard-wall.

Lichen tartareus {Lecanora tartarea, Ach.|. Rocks at the top of the
Stiperstones ; Overley Hill; Caradoc and Frodesley Hills.

Lichen tremella [possibly Leptogium lacerum, Fr.]. Cound church-
yard-wall.

Lichen tremelloides [possibly Leptogium tremelloides, Fr.]. Springs
under the Wrekin; stumps of trees and stones on Acton Burnell Hill.

Lichen Turnert {Lecanora tartarea, var. Turneri (Sm.) E. Bot. 857).
Trunks of old ash trees &c.

188 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Spongie ciliatee

Inchen uncialis [Cladonia uncialis, Hffm.}. Rocks and heaths.

Lichen varius {Lecanora varia, Ach.}. Old pales.

Inchen venosus [Peltigera venosa, Hffm.]. Near Ludlow (Dr.
Babington).

Iachen vernalis [Lecidea vernalis, Ach.]. Walls.

Lnchen vespertilio [Collema nigrescens, Ach.]. (See nigrescens.)

XX VII.—On the Spongie ciliate as Infusoria flagellata; or
Observations on the Structure, Animality, and Relationship
of Leucosolenia botryoides, Bowerbank. By H. JAMES-
Criark, A.B., B.S., Professor of Natural History in the
Agricultural College of Pennsylvania.

[Continued from p. 142. ]
4, Bicoseca lacustris, n. sp. Pl. V. figs. 33, 338, 33°, 33°.
) P g ’ ) )

This species lives in quiet streams and lakes, attached to
. filamentous Algze, and is quite common, especially on old
specimens of Zygnema. It is tinged throughout with a yel-
lowish colour, which seems to add a good deal to the difficulty
of distinguishing its various parts. When protruded (fig. 33),
it occupies the anterior half of the calyx (c) and projects a
little beyond its edge, and consequently its retractor ligament
(r) stretches over the whole posterior half of the dormitory.
The shape is rather elliptical than elongate-oval ; but it varies
more or less between these two forms, and seems to have the
latter shape in the largest individuals. Posteriorly the body is
rounded ; but its broadest region is about the middle, and from
thence it tapers considerably to a truncate front, and ends on
one side in a laterally projecting flagellum (fl), and on the
opposite side in a long incurved ip (/p).

The longitudinal furrow (7!), which is so conspicuous in B.
gracilipes, is much narrower in this species, and not so deep ;
yet it holds exactly the same relations to the base of the fla-
gellum (ff) and the contractile ligament (r). After a number
of observations upon the frequent and sudden retraction of the
body to the bottom of its calyx, during which in every instance
that side along which the furrow (fig. 33°, 7!) runs was con-
tracted much more than the opposite one, I feel quite confident
that this sulcus is the seat of a highly contractile band, and
moreover that it is continuous with the posterior retractor liga-
ment (7). The latter is very slender and thread-like, and is
attached to the posterior end of the body on one side (see
fig. 334, r) of its axial line, and has very much the appearance
of being a free continuation of a ligament in the furrow just

as Infusoria flagellata. 189

mentioned. The /ip is nearly twice as long in proportion to
the breadth of the front as that of B. gracilipes, and has an
incurved digitate form (figs. 33, 334, Ip).

The flagellum (fl) is the most remarkable and distinguishing
feature of this species, when contrasted with B. gracilipes, on
account of the wide angle at which it diverges from the longi-
tudinal axis of the body; for whilst in the latter it deviates
but little from parallelism with the axial line, in the former it
arises at an angle of from forty to forty-five degrees (fig. 334, #1)
with the same line. At its base it curves away from the lip,
but for the remaining four-fifths it bends with a long arch in
the opposite direction, but not so much as to bring its tip in a
line with the body. It is therefore altogether eccentric; but
yet its curve lies in the same plane relatively to the mouth
and lip as that of its marine congener. Its length is about
two and a half times that of the body; and it scarcely,
if at all, tapers from one end to the other. It usually
is held in a rigid attitude, except at the tip, which is always
kept in a rapidly gyrating state, accompanied frequently by
spasmodic incurvatures, when floating particles are thrown by
it towards the mouth (m). Its flexibility is exhibited during
the frequent spasmodic retrocessions of the body (fig. 33°), in
the same way as in the other species; and the like remark
applies to its action when assisting the lip to force the food
into the mouth.

The mouth (m) opens in a slight hollow which lies between
the base of the flagellum on one side and the lip on the other,
and therefore is concentric with the longitudinal axis of the
body. It very readily takes in quite large particles (fig.33,m)
of food, with the aid of the incurvating lip (/p) and the flagel-
lum (7), and immediately encloses them in a digestive vacuole,
or, more properly speaking, a hyaline envelope, within which
they revolve for a while with considerable rapidity. The anus
(fig. 33, a) lies in the same hollow as the mouth, but further
up on the base of the lip. That it is distinct from the mouth
was frequently demonstrated by the collection of large globular
masses In the base of the lip, and sometimes further up, and
their subsequent exit thereabouts.

The two contractile vesicles (cv, cv) form another very strong
mark of distinction, since they are not only double the number
of that of B. gracilipes, but are also situated at the extreme
posterior end of the body. They are quite conspicuous, and
appear to he right and left of the plane which passes through
the lip, flagellum, and furrow. The systole of each alternates
with that of the other, and occurs from five to six times in a

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol.i. 14

190 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Spongie ciliate.

minute, but with nothing remarkable in its action, unless it be
that it operates more moderately than in Monas.

The calyx (c) has, in its fully developed condition, about the
same shape and proportions as that of the marine form (figs.34,
35), but, like the body, it is much larger. In its younger
stages (figs. 334, 33>, 33°, c, c!) its aperture (c!) almost closes
when the body is retracted (fig. 33°), and during the protrusion
of the latter its rim (fig. 33, c!) embraces it very closely, so
that on the whole the calycle has an elongate-ovate shape, with
a narrowed, truncate, smooth margin. During the undeveloped
stages of the calyx, the pedicel (pd) is less than half its length,
and from that it varies down to little (figs. 334, 33°, pd) or no-
thing ; but when the former is full-grown (fig. 33, c) the latter
(pd) is at least half as long as it. It is more slender than that
of B. gracilipes, and, like the latter, is attached to the base of
the calyx opposite to the insertion of the retractor ligament (7).

§ 5. Copona@ca, nov. gen.*
Codoneca costata, nov. sp. Pl. V. fig. 36.

Of all the calyculate Flagellata, the species before us is
» perhaps by far the most beautiful, both in physiognomy and
proportions. It is a marine form, and was found with Bicos-
aca gracilipes. Generically it differs from Bicoswca (§§ 3
& 4) in having neither a basal retractor muscle, nor lip, nor
lateral longitudinal furrow, and by the attachment of its
single flagellum (7) to the central point of the front. From
Salpingaca (§§ 7, 8, & 9) it differs principally in not possessing
a projecting collar or rim about the anterior end; but, as in
that genus, the body is not attached to the calyx by any visible
means. It cannot be a Dinobryon, since that, as Claparéde
has already shown, has but a single contractile vesicle, and,
moreover, it is situated near the anterior end of the body, and
just behind a red eye-spot. Dinobryon has a slightly notched
asymmetrical front ; in fact it is a calyculated Euglenian. The
general tint of the body of Codoneca costata is a dingy yellow,
whilst the calyx (c) is colourless and excessively transparent.
The shape of the body is oblong, rounded posteriorly, and
slightly pointed in front, where the flagellum (2) is attached.
Its posterior half nearly fills the basal third (c?) of the calyx.
The flagellum (fl) has not that rigid carriage which is so
characteristic of that of Bicoswca (§§ 3 & 4) and Anthophysa
(§ 11), but is a truly vibratile organ. It is kept in an almost
constant state of rapid agitation, and projects at the same time
far beyond the rim (c!) of the calyx. It is by no means easy

* xodwv, a bell; oixéw, to inhabit.

as Infusoria flagellata. 191

to detect, even with a power of eight hundred diameters, not
only because it is seldom at rest, but on account of its exces-
sive delicacy ; yet when it does stop its vibrations, its charac-
ter and proportions can be unequivocally demonstrated under
the proper circumstances of illumination and adjustment. It
is about twice as long as the body, and has a decided although
not rapid taper at its distal termination.

The mouth remains yet to be discovered. There can be no
doubt, however, that it is an aperture of no very small extent,
or at least that it is capable of considerable distention, inas-
much as we find quite large angular particles within the body.
That it is terminal rather than lateral, is probable from the
similar position of this organ in the not very distantly allied
genus Codosiga (§ 6).

The two contractile vesicles (cv, cv) are situated midway be-
tween the front and hind ends of the body, and at two nearly
opposite points. They are of moderate size, yet not so large
as those of Codosiga (§ 6), which they resemble, but exhibit a
much feebler action than the latter.

The calyx (c! ¢ c*), or carapace so called, has an ovate-
campanulate outline, but is divided by a constriction into two
regions. One of these, the basal (c*) or posterior third, is about
one-half as wide as the remaining two-thirds (c), and possesses
an ovate-obconical form, which tapers abruptly into the pedicel
(pd). The anterior two-thirds (c) arises from the sharp con-
striction with a strong swell or bulging, and then, narrowing
a little, terminates with a truncate aperture (c!); so that on the
whole this portion may be compared, in shape and proportions,
to a claret-glass. This region is peculiar, moreover, in being
longitudinally banded or sulcated by about twenty furrows,
which terminate at the rim in as many notches, that alternate
with a like number of distinct scallops. Of these two regions,
the basal one is quite distinct, although perfectly hyaline; but
the banded part is much fainter, and requires a careful adjust-
ment of the light in order to bring it out clearly. The pedicel
(pd) is moderately slender, colourless, at least as long as the
calyx, and of a uniform thickness from base to top.

§ 6. CoposiGa, nov. gen.*
Codosiga pulcherrima, nov. sp. Pl. V. figs. 7-27.

This infusorian is as eminently a compound Flagellifer as
Anthophysa (§ 11), and, although not a heteronematous form
(like the latter), it bears a very striking general resemblance to
it, as one may see by comparing figs. 8 and 47 with each other.

* kadar, a bell; ovyda, to be silent.

14*

192 Prot. H. James-Clark on the Spongie ciliate

It also frequents the same habitat as Anthophysa, where it is
quite abundant, and readily recognized, when one has become
familiar with it, even under as low a magnifyimg-power as two
hundred diameters. The greater number of individuals are
found attached singly (figs. 9 and 24) or in twos to a slender
peduncle (pd); but often three or four constitute a colony. A
group of these monads seated on their short pedicels (fig. 8, pd?),
and the latter arising from a nearly common point at the end
of a long slender peduncle (fig. 8, pd), might be designated, in
botanical parlance, as umbellate. Very seldom are more than
four or five bodies assembled in one colony; but occasionally
as many as eight (fig. 7) are united in a single umbel. ‘They
bear the same remarkable relation to each other and to the
main stem (pd) that we find in Anthophysa: that is to say,
the arcuate flagellum (7) of every member of the group curves
backwards towards the. base of the common peduncle (pd) ;
and consequently the rest of the organism of each one holds a
corresponding position. When there are but three or four in
a colony, the longer axis of each monad usually diverges at an
angle of not more than thirty or thirty-five degrees from the
axis of the main stem; but when the number is greater, the
divergence is also greater, and frequently amounts to seventy
or eighty degrees. Oftentimes it will be observed that several
of a group of bodies are attached in pairs (figs. 21, 22) to the
pedicels, instead of each being possessed of a support of its
own. ‘This, as will be explained more fully under the head of
Jissigemmation, arises from an incompleteness of the self-divi-
sion of which the pairs are the several resultants; and it will
be noticed also that they are smaller than those which arise
singly from the common peduncle.

The usual form of the body is an oblique oval (figs. 25, 26,
27), which is twice as long as it is broad; but in old indivi-
duals which are about to undergo self-division, the shape is
very broadly oval (fig. 247), and its one-sidedness is not very
conspicuous. ‘The same may be said of specimens which have
lived for a while in stale water, and have lost nearly all their
yellow colour (fig. 24). Posteriorly it tapers, more or less
abruptly, into the pedicel (figs. 25, 26, 27, pd*); but anteriorly
it is slightly constricted (6?) a short distance behind the front,
and thence projects in the form of a low truncate cone (fig.
242, fr). From the constriction (0?) there projects, in direct
continuation of the epidermis of the body proper, a very high,
membranous, campanuliform collar (b b'), presenting on the
whole an appearance as if the body were seated in the lower
half of a deep urceolate calyx. That this collar is not the
upper portion of an urceolus, in any sense of the term, may hb

as Infusoria flagellata. 193

demonstrated in two ways at least. In the first place, it is
highly flexible and retractile, as it occasionally shows itself to
be, either by narrowing its aperture almost to absolute closure
(fig. 24, 6), or by reducing its height to a small fraction of its
greatest altitude (as seen in fig. 27, 6), and then extending it-
self again, within a few seconds, by a direct protrusion (fig. 26, 6),
to its original proportions (fig. 25,5). In the second place, it
divides longitudinally, like the rest of the body, when self-
division occurs (figs. 11-22)—a process in which no genuine
calycle was ever known to be concerned. In an adult state
(figs. 8, 11, 24, 25) it is slightly constricted by a gradual in-
curvature extending from the base (fig. 24, 6%) to the distal
margin (51); but frequently, and apparently always just before
self-division takes place, its sides bulge slightly outward (fig.
11,4). ‘Taking all these things into consideration, therefore,
it is perfectly clear that this infusorian is not a calyculate form,
but one of those mimetic shapes which occasionally deceive
the eye and puzzle the observer, until he becomes familiar with
their various phases of growth and development.

This phenomenon is most singularly exemplified by the
creature before us now, in its almost indistinguishable resem-
blance to a genuine calyculate Flagellifer (Salpingeca marina,
Pl. VI. figs. 28-3828) which abounds in our marine waters.
This similarity arises chiefly from the fact that the urceolus
(figs. 28-32, c) of the latter has an oval shape like the body
of the former, and is constricted so closely at its aperture (c!)
as to present the appearance of being continuous with the high
campanuliform collar (6) which projects from the front. Usu-
ally, however, the body proper of this animal (Salpingaca
marina, nov. sp.) lies loosely within, and considerably with-
drawn (fig. 28) from, the parietes of its calyx; but occasionally
in older specimens it completely fills (fig. 31) its sheath; and
then it is next to impossible to distinguish it, in this respect,
from a Codosiga. In a sessile freshwater species of Salpin-
geca of the urceolate type (S. amphoridium, figs. 37-37°),
the resemblance to Codosiga is almost as strong, but the dif
jerence 1s equally marked.

The flagellum (figs. 8 &e., ff) is the only prehensile organ
which Codosiga possesses. It arises from the middle of the
low truncate cone (fr) which constitutes the front, and con-
sequently within the campanulate collar (6), remmding one of
the curvate style of a labiate monopetalous flower. It is usu-
ally rigid, excepting at the tip, which is constantly occupied
in throwing particles of various kinds toward the mouth (m)
by vigorous spasmodic incurvations or jerks. At its basal halt
it is slightly curved towards the longer side of the body, but

194 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Spongie ciliate.

gradually reverses the are and, assuming a much stronger bend
in the opposite direction, terminates abruptly, and far beyond
the edge (61) of the collar, with about the same thickness as at
its base. Itis avery conspicuous organ, and therefore its whole
sigmoid length may be studied with any amount of detail that
could be wished for. The plane of this sigmoid curve is a
direct continuation of that which passes through the opposing
longer and shorter curves of the obliquely oval body. Calling
to mind now what has been said in regard to the direction of
the curve of the flagellum of the respective individuals of the
colony, it will be seen that if these planes are projected in-
wardly and downwardly, at the same time passing along the
pedicels (fig. 8, pd*) of each body, they will all meet at the
main stem (pd).

Besides being used as an organ of prehension, the flagellum
is occasionally devoted to other purposes,—for instance, to act
as a scavenger by whirling in a gyratory manner, and thus
clearing the area within the collar of feecal matters which have
been ejected from the anus at a point near to, or perhaps co-
incident with, the mouth (m). At other times it acts as an
organ of propulsion during the act of natation (fig. 23), when
one of the resultants of self-division breaks loose from the
colony and seeks another point to settle down upon and secrete
its stem. During this wandering life of the Monad it swims,
at times very rapidly, with its basal end (fig. 23) preceding it
in the direction of its course, and the flagellum (fl) following
behind and vibrating in rapid undulatory and gyratory curves,
as if it were the screw propeller of some subaqueous vessel.

That the mouth (figs. 23, 24, 24°, m) is situated near the
base of the flagellum (7) is rendered certain by the fact that
particles of food are thrown by that organ directly against the
area (fr) upon which it is based, and are taken within the
body somewhere in that region ; but, on account of the minute
size of these morsels, and the rapidity with which they are
swallowed, it has not been possible to determine precisely at
what point. The position of the anus, which, as I have al-
ready suggested, may possibly be coincident with the mouth,
is easily determined, even to the narrowest limits, as the fecal
matter is discharged in large, highly refractile pellets (fig.244,d)
close to the base of the flagellum. The digestive vacuoles are
quite conspicuous, and frequently very large; but they never
have been observed to be so numerous as to obscure the view
of the interior of the body.

The contractile vesicles (cv, cv) are two quite conspicuous
globular organs, which lie close to the surface and in the pos-
terior third of opposite sides of the body. Occasionally three

as Infusoria flagellata. 195

(fig. 10, cv) of these vesicles are found together; but it has
always been evident at such a time that the body was prepa-
ring for fissigemmation (figs. 9,10), and that the increase in
number of these organs arose from the fact that one of them
had already undergone self-division. In another genus (Sal-
pingeca, S. marina, nov. sp., figs. 28,29,30) no less than four
contractile vesicles (cv) have been observed to arise from two,
under the same circumstances.

The systole of each vesicle of Codosiga occurs regularly
once in half a minute, and usually that of one alternating
with that of the other. Both the systole and the diastole pro-
ceed very deliberately, each, however, not occupying more than
a few seconds. During the interval between the end of the
diastole and the beginning of the systole the vesicles have a
rather irregular, indefinite, spheroidal outline ; but just at the
moment of systole they assume a sharply defined and perfectly
globular shape, and raise the surface of the body into a quite
perceptible bulge. During this momentary expansion a vesicle
equals at least half the greatest diameter of the body.

The reproductive organ, if we are not mistaken in our inter-
pretation, is seated at the posterior end of the body, behind the
contractile vesicles. It is a globular, highly transparent body
(figs. 23, 24, x), and sometimes almost fills the space on each
side of it. That it is solid, and not a mere vacuole, appears
conclusive from its resilient action after being indented by the
expansion of the contractile vesicles. It should be mentioned
that this body was not observed in the fresh specimens which
were collected in December, but appeared to be constant in
some stale examples which had been kept on hand for two or
three months,

The pedunele (fig. 8, pd), or main support of the colony, and
the pedicels (pd*) or immediate bearers of the individuals,
share in the general gamboge-yellow colour of the latter, and
also in their vitality. The latter statement has been verified
fully in regard to the pedicels, by seeing them split down to
their bases after the body proper has undergone self-division ;
and in regard to the peduncle, although only one observation
was made, and the splitting was followed in its slow course
downward for only a short distance, it was evident, from its
much more than usual thickness and the presence of a distinct
median furrow which extended to its very base, that it even-
tually would divide into two stems. The length of the
peduncle varies from a mere disk, when it begins to develope
from the base of some newly settled Monad, to five or six
times the length of an individual. It always carries a single
body until it is at least three or four times its length (figs. 9,

196 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Spongie ciliate

24, 24), and frequently much longer; but in the latter case it
was sometimes observed to arise from the falling away of one
of the resultants immediately after self-division occurred. It
has a uniform thickness, or occasionally the slightest possible
taper, from base to apex, and appears to be solid and homo-
geneous in texture. It is apparently inflexible, and, even when
carrying a single body, is united to it at a sharp angle with
the longer axis “of the latter (fig. 244).

Fissigemmation.—This is the only process of reprodeered
which has been observed. Several instances of this kind were
partially followed through in an incidental way, and two com-
plete courses were carefully noted and drawn within a half-
hour of each other. The set of figures 13, 15, 17,19, 21 relate
to one individual, and figures A, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22
to another belonging to the same colony. "The rate of ‘pro-
gress of the former when the drawings were made was not
noted; but that of the latter set was observed in four out of
six of the intervals which occurred between the phases which
the figures represent; and during the progressive steps of the
latter it was carefully recorded which of the successive stages
of the former filled the intervals between those of the latter ;
so that it can be said, in the strictest sense, that all the figures
of both sets of observations represent the phases which were
distinctly marked in the second series. In this way the fullest
illustration possible was obtained, and no point was left unex-
plained. The whole time occupied by the process in the se-
cond series was forty minutes. It has already been mentioned,
when describing the form of the collar, that it assumes a
bulging campanulate outline (fig. 11, >) as a preparatory, pre-
liminary act in fissigemmation. In addition to this, it should
be stated that it widens inordinately at the distal end, so as to
exceed by one-third its normal breadth; but before it finally
settles itself into this shape and proportions, it contracts and.
expands its diameter by a peculiar sort of vibrating motion,
and passes through a series of changes of form which vary
from a funnel-shape to a narrower cylindrical outline, or from
either of these to a broader cylindrical proportion,—such, for
instance, as figures 9 and 10 (representing the same individual)
exemplify. This would appear, also, to be the time when the
contractile vesicles divide; for at no other period were they
observed to be more than two in number, as they are repre-
sented in figs. 9 and 10 (cv).

Immediately after this preparatory sign was disesrerd (the
time being noted at 12.55 p.m.), the flagellum became unusu-
ally conspicuous and much thicker, and moreover it lost its
sigmoid flexure and assumed a perfectly straight carriage, with

as Infusoria flagellata. 197

the slightest possible tremulous vibratory motion. Within a
very few minutes after this, the flagellum began to shorten as
if retracting, reminding one of the running down of a cotton-
thread in the flame of a candle, and in one minute’s time it be-
came reduced (fig. 12, 7) to a length which was somewhat less
than half the height of the collar (4), and then it rapidly dis-
appeared and left no trace of its former position. During this
process the body shortened and became broader (fig. 12) in the
same direction that the plane of the are of the flagellum for-
merly trended in, and consequently the contractile vesicles (cv)
were more widely separated; and the front (7) also having
become proportionately extended laterally, the base of the col-
lar (6) was also increased in diameter until it almost equalled
that of the distal end, so that, as a whole, it was almost cylin-
drical.

In less than fifteen minutes after the preparatory stage was
observed, the collar had become cylindrical (fig. 13,6) by a
combined action of the base and distal end, which consisted in
a narrowing of the latter and a broadening of the former.

It was not until 1.15 p.m. that a decided mark of incipient
self-division became evident in the guise of a narrow, slight
furrow (fig. 14,¢), which extended, medianly, from the front
to over halfway toward the posterior end of the body. By this
time the body had broadened until it was wider than long, and
the collar (4), having followed this expansion at its basal por-
tion whilst its upper extreme had contracted a little, had as-
sumed the form of a high truncate cone.

In two or three minutes after this, the body had become
distinctly indented (fig. 15, e!) at the anterior termination of
the furrow (fig. 15, ¢), and the latter had grown longer and
more distinct, whilst the collar (b) had approximated more
closely in shape to a perfect cone.

In another minute or two the anterior indentation (fig. 16, e?)
had become so deep and broad that the body presented a
cordate outline when seen from its broader aspect, whilst the
furrow (e) appeared to extend to its base, and the distal end of
the collar (6) had so nearly closed up as to give that body an
almost completely conical form, with a slightly collapsed
periphery.

From this moment the process of reduction ceased; and soon
after, the cone-shaped collar began to expand (fig. 17, b). Con-
sentaneously with this, the anterior indentation (e!) had be-
come sharper and deeper, and (with the lateral median furrow
(e) of each of the opposing broad flanks of the infusorian act-
ing in combination with it) had split the body about halfway
to its base. The most remarkable phenomenon observable at

198 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Spongie ciliate

this time was what occurred at the rounded ends of the two
half-separated bodies of the new pair of individuals. This was
no more nor less than the incipient development of the flagel-
lum, which proceeded in this wise:—At each of the rounded
ends just mentioned a slight commotion appeared, resembling
the molecular vibrations of a granule; and then there arose
quite rapidly a sharp and distinct filamentous outgrowth (/2),
which kept itself in a constant state of narrow vibrations, or a
sort of shivering.

By 1.23 p.m. the newly born flagella (fig. 18, #7) had risen
to half the height of the collar (6), and still remained in a
shivering condition, whilst the body had divided almost to its
base, and the collar had broadened to a widely terminating
truncate cone.

In about a minute more, the dividing process had risen into
the collar and split it (fig. 19, e®) upwards for one-quarter of
its height; and the still tremulous flagella (7) were slightly
longer than in the last phase.

By 1.26 p.m. the body was divided (fig. 20) to its posterior ter-
mination, and the fissuration (e”) of the collar (>) had reached half-
way to the distal edge, and was further sketched out as it were
by two opposing shallow longitudinal furrows, which extended
to the margin. At this period the collar was broader at the
still undivided portion than below; so that on the whole it had
a very wide campanuliform shape, or rather (since the divided
portion was rolled inwards at the opposing edges) was like
two slightly flaring, broad funnels, merged into each other at
their broader ends. The flagella (7) also had developed con-
siderably, and extended a short distance beyond the collar ;
and the front end of the body, from the middle of which the
flagellum arises, had assumed the low, truncate, conical shape
of the adult form.

From this time onward the division did not appear to go
forward so rapidly; and the new bodies seemed to be more
particularly occupied in shaping themselves into the charac-
teristic form of the adult. The collar, however, was not long
in dividing itself up to its margin (fig. 21), but still the two
cylindrical halves (6,6) did not separate at their extremes as
soon as the fission reached that point.

At 1.35 P.M. the self-division was completed (fig. 22), as far as
the body proper was concerned, and had extended a short way
down the pedicel (pd?). The margins of the two collars (6)
seemed merely to le in contact; and each collar had a slightly
funnel-shaped outline, and was considerably more elevated in
proportion to its diameter than in the adult form. The flagel-
lum (#7) was nearly as long as that of the full-grown body,

as Infusoria flagellata. 199

but yet had neither the sigmoid curve of the latter nor its
stout and rigid aspect, but was much more delicate, and in
fact still exhibited a slight tremulous motion. The two con-
tractile vesicles (cv) of each body were as distinct as those of
the adult, and had the same proportionate size and relative
position.

In a very few minutes the two resultants were totally sepa-
rated and divergent from each other at a sharp angle; and in
less than half an hour after the last time noted, they had as-
sumed the proportions of the other members of the colony.
Shortly after the investigation of the phase just described, the
last stages of self-division of another body, belonging to the
same colony, were observed ; and thus the group, which within
two hours before consisted of five individuals, was increased to
eight (fig. 7). It seems to be a rare occurrence that so many
bodies remain long together, since it very seldom happens that
more than four or five (fig. 8) are found in a colony ; and now
and then, in such instances, I have seen an individual drop off
and swim away. When we meet with them settled down
upon some point, amidst others which have scarcely any stem
and those which are seated on very short peduncles, it becomes
perfectly clear that they are there for the purpose of secreting
a new support from the posterior end.

§ 7. SALPINGGCA*, nov. gen.
Salpingeca gracilis, nov. sp. Pl. VI. figs. 38, 39.

The difference between this genus and Codoneca has already
been pointed out. It might well be compared to a stemless
Codosiga (§ 6) enveloped in a sheath. I have met with three
quite diverse species of this genus, of which that under present
consideration and another (S. amphoridium, nov. sp., §9) are
freshwater denizens, and the third (S. marina, nov. sp., § 8)
is a marine inhabitant. SS. gracilis (figs. 38,39) was found
upon only one occasion, and then in an old aquarium, which
could not be said to be in a perfectly healthy condition, al-
though its contents were by no means putrid.

The body is yellow, and has a cylindrical shape, about four
times as long as broad, narrowed and rounded behind, and
rounded-truncate in front. Like Codosiga it bears a filmy,
membranous, colourless collar (6), which is attached to the
extreme edge of the frontal area (fr), and rises to a height
which is equal to two-thirds of the length of the body. The
outline of the collar is generally cylindrical, and truncate
at the distal end, but still is subjected to various degrees

* oddmvy&, a trumpet ; oikéw, to inhabit.

200 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Spongie ciliate

of momentary change. Unless it be by means of the vibra-
tions of the flagellum, there is no other immediate agent
which can be supposed to move the body up and down in its
sheath. There is no visible movement in itself, like creeping,
to be observed; and moreover the body progresses so quickly,
when changing its place in the calyx, that it becomes evident
that it is not due to any reptant mode of transposition. When
withdrawn (fig. 38) into the basal tapering portion of its calyx,
the collar (6) does not extend beyond the rim (c!) of the latter,
but, on the other hand, the body occasionally moves so far in
the opposite direction (fig. 39) that nearly the whole of the
collar (6) projects outside of the dormitory.

The flagellum is a delicate filament which arises from the
axial point of the front, and projects a short distance beyond
the edge of the collar. It presents a constantly undulating
aspect, and vibrates from base to tip.

The mouth, we are obliged to presume, as we did in regard
to Codosiga, lies somewhere about the base of the flagellum.
Abundant digestive vacuoles were observed, as well as loose
particles of food, in various parts of the body; but at no time
were we so fortunate as to see the introception of nutritive
material or the ejection of feecal matter.

The contractile vesicles (cv) are two in number. They he
between the second and posterior thirds of the body, usually
on opposite sides, and close to the surface. In aspect and rate
of systole they resemble those of Codosiga pulcherrima, but
they are a little smaller in proportion to the size of the animal-
cule. Sometimes the protean changes of the body are so ex-
tensive as to throw the two vesicles into a line with each other
in an antero-posterior direction; but they hold this position
only temporarily, and soon return to their normal relations.

The calyx (c c! c?) has the general shape and proportions
of a champagne-glass, and appears to be hollow to the very
bottom (c?) of its pedicel-like inferior third. Anteriorly it is
truncate, smooth, and flares (c!) quite strongly. About the
middle it bulges very sensibly, and thence tapers gradually
into a slender posterior third (c*), but expands again slightly
as it terminates upon its place of attachment. It 1s colourless,
excessively transparent, and exhibits considerable flexibility
under the movements of the body, apparently having the con-
sistency of a mere film.

§ 8. Salpingeca marina, nov. sp. (Pl. VI. figs. 28-322.)

The remarkable generic resemblance of this species to Codo-
siga has already (p. 193) been commented upon. It is very
common, especially upon the marine Hydromedusa Dynamena

as Infusoria flagellata. 201

pumila, Lamx., but is so excessively minute, and withal so
transparent, excepting the body proper, that under a magnify-
ing-power of five hundred diameters it appears to the casual
observer like a mere globular speck. It was discovered when
searching after specimens of Codoneca costata with a power of
eight hundred diameters. Although sometimes met with in
groups of forty or fifty, it always appeared single. In its
general aspect it may be compared to an oval flask which is
supported by a slender stem (pd), and has a broad funnel in-
serted in its mouth. Upon close inspection we find that the
funnel (>) is a direct projection from the body (which hangs
freely within the flask, ¢ c!), and is in no way connected with
the latter.

The body proper has a dark fuscous colour, and consequently
is quite conspicuous. It is mainly oval in shape, but is con-
stricted anteriorly into a short thick neck (¢), which terminates
in a truncate front. It hangs quite loosely within the calycle
(c), and usually at a considerable distance from its parietes ;
but at the mouth (figs. 31,32, c!) of the latter the neck (7)
presses so closely against it as to seem, without the most careful
scrutiny, to form a continuation with it. Occasionally, how-
ever, the neck narrows and retreats-from the aperture of the
calycle to such a degree as to allow a clear and unmistakeable
view (fig. 32) of the relations of the former to the latter.

The collar (6), which has just now been likened to a funnel
set in the mouth of the flask-shaped calyx, is most frequently
seen in a very broadly expanded state (fig. 28, 6), in outline
resembling a low, obtuse-angled, truncate cone inverted upon
the front of the body. It arises from the extreme circular
margin of the head (7), and, widening to about twice the equa-
torial diameter of the calyx (c), terminates in a smooth edge
at an altitude which is hardly equal to one-quarter of the width
of its distal expanse. It is hyaline, and so extremely thin and
filmy as to require the most careful manipulation of the light,
even with so high a power as eight hundred diameters, in order
to define its boundaries clearly. In its plasticity it is even
more marvellous than that of Codosiga; at least it exhibits it
over a far wider lateral range than the latter, and with equal
rapidity in its changes. In a few seconds it narrows from its
greatest expanse to the proportions of an obverted acute-angled
cone (fig. 29,5), and at the same time assumes an altitude
which is equal to the length of the body; and then, within an
equally short period, it contracts into the form of a cylinder
(fig. 30, 6) whose height more than equals that of the calyx.
These changes are carried on with the same peculiar vibrations
as were noted in regard to Codosiga, reminding one of the

202 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Spongie ciliate

glimmering outlines of the prongs of a tuning-fork when vi-
brating. When observed with a poorly defining lens, I can
readily see that this phenomenon might be mistaken for the
cone of light produced by the gyratory vibrations of a single
filament, or for the bright dwmen of a circular row of vibrating
cilia. As regards the former category, it may be said that the
flagellum is far more conspicuous than the collar, and may be
seen clearly projecting in the line of the axis of the body, and
vibrating after a manner of its own. As for the latter supposed
case, one might be inclined to dismiss it without any scruple,
upon the simple assumption that no flagellate infusorian can
bear numerous cilia, were it not that I call to mind my own
discovery of a flagellated animalcule (Heteromastizx, figs. 70-74)
of the heteronematous form, which is at the same time abun-
dantly ciliated. I have therefore taken all possible pains to
ascertain that this ‘‘collar”’ (figs. 28-32, >) is a genuine mem-
brane, and not the similitude of one.

Occasionally individuals (fig. 82) were seen which bore an
inverted conical collar (6) that remained, at least for a time,
at an expansion and altitude equal to the breadth and height
of the calyx (c). These were among the largest specimens
found, and almost or altogether filled the calyx. Rarely were
examples found which crowded the calyx so fully as to seem
to bulge it out laterally. Figure 31 represents such an in-
stance, in which the aperture (c!) of the calyx is absolutely
inseparable from the head, excepting that, knowing that it is
not really continuous, one recognizes the line of demarcation
by the abrupt change in the thickness of the seemingly uninter-
rupted membrane. ‘This case is also remarkable, inasmuch as
it at the same time furnishes us with an example of an enor-
mously large, bulging, campanulate collar, nearly as broad as
the most common and normally permanent form (fig. 28), and
yet higher than it is wide. In all probability, judging from
appearances, which in every respect remind one of the prepa-
ratory steps of fissigemmation of Codosiga pulcherrima, this
individual is soon about to undergo self-division. Unfortu-
nately the drawing was made at a time when the impending
process could not be watched.

The flagellum (fl) is as highly flexible as that of 8. gracilis,
and very active throughout its length. Itis attached to a more
or less elevated axial prominence in the middle of the frontal
area, and extends to a length which is at most not more than
one-third greater than that of the body.

Regarding the digestive organs nothing can be said, except-
ing that dark irregular pellets and loose foreign material were
abundant enough, and so irregularly scattered that they could
not be looked upon otherwise than as nutritive matter.

as Infusoria flagellata. 203

The contractile vesicles (cv) are two or three globular bodies,
which, in appearance, position, relative size, and rate of sys-
tole, may be compared with those of Codosiga pulcherrima.
On one occasion (fig. 30) they amounted to four (cv) in num-
ber, and were arranged in pairs, one above the other.

The calyx (cc!) usually has the form of a Florence flask,
but with a very short, thick neck, which flares (c!) slightly at
the aperture. It sometimes, however, is slightly pointed at its
base where it joins the pedicel (pd). When not filled by the
head (fig. 32,7) of the animalcule, the neck and the sharp
margin (c!) of its aperture may be clearly distinguished from
the collar (6) which rises just above them; but very frequently.
this discrimination is attended with a good deal of difficulty,
because when the body presses closely at this point, it overlaps
the margin in question, and obscures it. The pedicel (pd) is
not much longer than the calyx, and joins the latter with little
or no expansion. It is colourless like the calyx, moderately
slender, of a uniform diameter from top to bottom, and appears
to be solid and homogeneous in texture. Figure 32? repre-
sents one of three bodies which were found in the midst of
several living animals of this species, and which had every
appearance of being the deserted calycles of the same, with a
collapsed aperture. In the next species (S. amphoridium) the
deserted calycles (fig. 37°) were found so numerous among
those which were occupied, and moreover. retaining the shape
of the latter so perfectly, that there could be no doubt that the
calyx is not only a separate organism apart from the body-
wall, but also may be as readily vacated as that of Cothurnia
or Vaginicola.

§ 9. Salpingeca amphoridium, nov.sp. PI. VI. figs. 37-37%.

Although this species bears a strong resemblance to S. ma-
rina (§8), there are several prominent points of difference
between the two. S. amphoridium is a freshwater form, and
appears especially to frequent old specimens of Zygnema and
other filamentous Alge. It is very common in such places,
and lives in more or less crowded groups. Excepting the main
part of the body, it is very transparent, but not so faint as S.
marina. It varies much in size, even down to half that of
fig. 374. Like its marine congener it always occurs single, and
never with a trace of a pedicel to the calyx (c c!). As a com-
pensation for this, if one may use the expression, it has a long
neck, which is frequently seen bending from side to side
(fig. 375, 7) with a gentle motion, and apparently in search of
something.

The body is grey or greenish yellow in colour, which fades °

204 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Spongie ciliate

in the neck (7) and disappears altogether in the collar (6)... In
its general aspect the body with its collar might be compared
to a : wine-glass with a long stem and a globose pedestal. The
globose part is the posterior half of the body ; and the stem is
its neck, or anterior half, which tapers rapidly from the main
part to one-quarter or one-fifth its diameter, and then gradu-
ally widens to nearly double that thickness at its front, where
the collar is set on. The front is truncate, or rises into a low
cone, upon which the flagellum (//) is based. The posterior
half of the body usually fills the bottom of the calyx (c); but
the rest and the neck (¢) stand off from it at a very appreciable
<listance. In this respect there is a marked difference between
this species and S. marina (§ 8). In the latter we might say
that the body is suspended from the aperture of the urceolus ;
but in the former it rests on the bottom of the calycle. Not
unfrequently, however, the whole body of this species les
loosely within its calyx (fig. 37).

The collar (b) is an excessively hyaline, filmy membrane,
whose distal margin is so extremely delicate as to almost
defy detection with the highest powers. In the latter respect
it is a more difficult object of research than that of S. marina.
Generally speaking, it may be described as obconical, but with
greatly varying degrees of width. In this relation it agrees
perfectly with that of S. marina, and therefore need not be
redescribed here. At its greatest height it equals that of the
body, and always terminates in a smooth edge. In plasticity
it is also equal to that of the marine species. In one instance,
when the animal was disturbed by a predaceous Rotifer, its
whole body quickly retracted, and the collar totally disappear ed,
as if melted down with oreat rapidity, but soon after protruded
slowly, at first with a broad base (fig. 374, 6), and then rapidly
narrowed at the latter point and assumed its usual proportions.

The flagellum (fl) differs from that of S. marina, both in
proportions and deportment. It is usually rigid, and projects
considerably beyond the collar when the latter is at its greatest
height. It has a decided arcuate figure, with a uniform thick-
ness throughout, excepting near the base, which tapers rapidly
from the low cone in the middle of the front. Its apex moves
with quite gentle spasmodic twitches, and the whole becomes
flexible (fig. 37>, 2) when feeces are ejected or some unde-
sirable particle enters the area within the collar.

The mouth was not actually seen; but that it exists some-
where about the base of the flagellum was sufficiently demon-
strated by minute particles of food being seen thrown by the lat-
ter organ against the front, and rapidly disappearing there. The .
anus (fig. 37, a) certainly opens within the same area, as parti-

as Infusoria flagellata. 205

cles of considerable size were seen to make their exit at the
base of the flagellum. No digestive vacuoles were noticed,
although the body was often found filled with food.

The contractile vesicles (cv) usually amount to three or four,
and rarely to five in number; or there are two very large ones,
which occupy nearly the whole breadth of the body (fig. 374).
They occur in all parts of the body except its neck, and beat
with a sluggish systole about at the same rate as those of
Codosiga (§ 6).

The calyx (c, c!) has very much the same proportions as the
body, over which it is fitted as if upon a mould. Its posterior
half (c) is globular, and is attached at its hindermost, axial
termination to the point of support. Although hundreds of
specimens of this species were observed, not one of them had
a pedicel. The anterior half tapers, like the thick neck of an
urn, from the posterior one to one-third of its diameter, and then
rapidly widens and terminates with a flaring, smooth-edged
aperture (c!), which is about twice as wide as its narrowest
portion. The margin usually is exceeded by the projecting
head, so that the former may be seen quite readily as a distinct
ring behind the circular edge of the front, from which the collar
rises. The empty calycles (fig. 37°) were found very frequently,
and so nearly identical in form with those of the living body
that they must have possessed considerable rigidity. That
they are, however, to a certain extent flexible and plastic, was
shown on one occasion, when the body and neck suddenly re-
tracted and swelled laterally (fig. 374) to an extent which was
considerably beyond the usual breadth of the calyx and its
neck, and then returned to its former shape and proportions.

§ 10. Leucosolenia (Grantia) botryoides, Bowerbank,
Pl. VI. figs. 40-44; Pl. VII. fig. 64.

If I were now to describe merely the congregated Monads
of this compound animal without giving it a name, any one
who had already become acquainted with the structure of Co-
dosiga (§ 6) would set down the first as a colonial, massive
form of the latter. In fact a glance at a figure of a free-
swimming individual (fig. 23) of Codosiga in one of its nume-
rous attitudes, and then a momentary inspection of the monad
(figs. 42, 43, 44) of this Sponge would almost induce one to
believe that the two belonged to the same genus, nay, even to
the same species, as far as the representations referred to are
concerned.

In the introductory section of this memoir I have already
discussed the theory of Carter as to the alliance of Sponges

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol.i. 15

206 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Spongie ciliate

with Rhizopods, and i will therefore only state here my firm
conviction that the true ciliated Spongie are not Rhizopoda in
any sense whatever, nor even closely related to them, but are
genuine, compound flagellate Protozoa, and are most intimately
allied to such genera as Monas (§$1, 2), Bicoseca (§§ 3, 4),
Codoneca (§ 5), Codosiga (§ 6), and Salpingaca (§§ 7, 8, 9).
What are the special relationships of the numerous genera of
Sponges I am not prepared to say ; yet, in regard to Leucoso-
lenia botryoides, there can be no doubt that it is very closely
allied to Codosiga and Salpingeca; but to which one more than
to the other would be difficult to determine. Codosiga (§ 6)
is a compound form like Lewcosolenia, and its individuals are
united by a common branching support, which has been shown,
by the changes which it passed through during fissigemmation,
to be as fully alive as the glairy, spicule-secreting cytoblastema
of the Sponge. Salpingawca (§§ 7, 8,9), on the other hand, is
a single monad, but excretes around it an envelope, or calyx,
into which the body is sunken in the same way that the mo-
nads (fig. 41, md) of the Sponge are imbedded in the surface
of their common dormitory. Inasmuch, however, as the calyx
is probably an excretion rather than a secretion, and appears as
inanimate as that of Cothurnia, Vaginicola, and other Vorti-
cellidz, it is more comparable to the spicula (sp) than to the
cytoblastema of Sponges. If one may draw an inference from
the above considerations, it does not seem at all improbable
that hereafter we shall find that the monads of the different
genera of Sponges resemble the various genera of single and
branching Flagellata; and then we shall be able to divide the
former into such family groups as Monadoide, Bicoscecoidee,
Codosigoide, Anthophysoide, &c. &e.

Leucosolenia botryoides, Bowerbank, occurs on our sea-shore
among the groups of Dynamena, Sertularia, &c., and may be
readily recognized by its ivory-white colour. The colony
is an elongate mass, seldom exceeds an inch or an inch
and a half in length, and resembles an iregular group
of slender contorted spines or forked horns (fig. 40), which
vary in thickness from one-thirtieth to one-sixteenth of an
inch in diameter. At the tip of each horn is an aperture, the
so-called excurrent orifice, large enough to be seen by the un-
assisted eye. The whole mass is so transparent that not only
the currents in the interior, but even the vibrating flagella and
the pulsation of the contractile vesicles, may be seen with a
strong light. The exterior consists of an excessively hyaline,
cytoblastematous layer, with scarcely, if any, trace of organiza-
tion of a cell-like character in it. Within this layer, or im-
mediately beneath it, but certainly not in the monadigerous

as Infusoria flagellata. 207

stratum, the faint yellow spicula (fig. 64, sp, sp!) are imbedded
in systematic order, and overlap each other irregularly in two
or three layers. ‘They present two diverse forms—namely, a
simple aciculate shape (sp!) and a stellato-triradiate (sp) one.
The rays of the latter are slender, tapering frequently to a
bifid termination, divergent at equal angles from each other,
and lie in the same plane. Without exception they are all
arranged with one ray (often longer than the others) projecting
backwards, ¢. e. away from the excurrent orifice, and the other
two extending symmetrically right and left, and obliquely
transverse to the longer axis of the branch. In this manner
they are disposed in a sort of network over the whole colony,
even close up to the excurrent orifices; and as the aciculate
spicula lie parallel with the rays of the other kind, there are
consequently no projecting spines specially devoted to guard-
ing the entrance to these apertures.

The ostioles (fig. 64, 0), or incurrent channels, are very nu-
merous, there being at least two, and often three, opposite to
every interstice of the spicula. They are very small, but quite
conspicuous, especially at their inner ends, where they plunge
through the monadigerous layer (md). They aftord great as-
sistance whilst studying the contractile vesicles and the action
of the flagella, since they enable one to get a freer view of the
monads in an undisturbed state than where they are observed
through all the tissues. It should be mentioned, however, in
this connexion, that the profile view (fig. 41) of the monads
was obtained by making an actual section of one of the younger
branches and allowing it to revive and expand in a fresh sup-
ply of sea-water.

The monadigerous layer (figs. 41,64, md) lines the cavity
of the body; and it is by the combined action of the vibrating
flagella (ff) of the monads that currents of water and floating
particles are kept up. This layer is composed of monadiform
animalcules (md), packed closely side by side in a vast colony,
which extends over the whole length and breadth of the ge-
neral mass. In this respect we are reminded of the similar
arrangement of the individuals of that floating Ascidian, Pyro-
soma. 'These monads crowd so closely upon each other that
their sides are mutually compressed, and they thus form a sort
of irregular polygonated pavement (fig. 64, md). They all lie
with the anterior end (fr) turned inwardly and projecting into
the general cavity, and the posterior extremity imbedded in
the cytoblastematous, external, general envelope.

The body of a monad is yellow when seen by transmitted
light, and in general terms may be designated as broadly oval,
with the longer axis extending antero-posteriorly. Behind it

15*

208 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Spongie ciliate

is broadly rounded, at the sides lightly indented and irregu-
larly polygonal by mutual contact with others, and extended
in front into a delicate, membranous, circular collar (b b!),
which might be compared to a transverse section of a tube
which is about as long as itis broad. This collar is capable
of variations in form, like that of Codosiga (§ 6) and Salpin-
geca (§§ 7,8, 9), at one moment assuming a truncate conical
shape (figs. 43, 44,0), and in the next instant expanding its
distal margin into a distinct flare (fig. 42, 6) which is at least
two-thirds as wide as the body; or, finally, it retracts alto-
gether and disappears for a while, but eventually reappears
and expands to its fullest dimensions*.

The flagellum (fl) is the only prehensile organ which the
monad possesses. It arises from the middle of the frontal area,
and extends to a great length, at least five or six times as long
as the body, with scarcely any diminution in thickness. It is
a comparatively thick filament, and quite conspicuous, on
which account it is so easily seen through the whole mass of
the colony. It usually vibrates with considerable vigour from
base to tip, but occasionally assumes the quiescent state and
arcuate form so eminently characteristic of that of Codosiga
(§ 6), Bicoseca (§ 3), and others.

The mouth is the only organ which has not been actually
observed, although its position has been inferred, not only
from the otherwise similar structure of the monad of this crea-
ture to that of Codosiga (§ 6), but because currents of floating
particles are constantly whirled in by the flagellum and made
to impinge upon the area within the collar. In addition to
this it may be added that more or less numerous coarse and
fine particles (fig. 44,d) are always present and scattered irregu-
larly about the interior of the monads, apparently under various
degrees of digestive decomposition.

The contractile vesicles (cv) are two in number, and lie near

* In this connexion it may be well to mention the latest decision of
Carter in regard to the structure of the monociliated sponge-cell. In the
Annals and Magazine of Natural History, vol. xx. 1857, pl. 1. figs. 10,
11, this cell is represented as an oval body, with a single ciliary appen-
dage; but in a subsequent communication to the same periodical (vol. iii.
1859, p. 14, pl. 1. figs. 12, 18, 14), a partial recantation seems to be
made, and the cell in question is figured with ‘two spines or ear-like
ce projecting backwards, one on each side of the root of the cilium.”

f, now, we suppose these “two spines” to be the right and left profiles
of a membranous, cylindrical collar, such as I have described in Leucoso-
lenia, then it follows that the monociliated sponge-cell of Spongilla is like
that of the former. That Carter did not always find these “‘ two spines,”
may be explained by the fact that the membranous collar, as I am in-
clined to believe the “ spines” to be, was retracted, since I have frequently
observed this to happen in the case of Leucosolenia when it was disturbed.

as Infusoria flagellata. 209

each other, at or about the middle of the body. When fully
expanded, they are from one-fifth to one-fourth the diameter
of the monad, and have a perfectly globular shape. In ap-
pearance, and manner and rate of systole and diastole, they
resemble those of Codosiga so closely that the former might
be substituted for the latter with scarcely a chance for a detec-
tion of the change. As the rate of systole of each vesicle,
which is once in half a minute, was observed directly through
the undisturbed layers of the colony, and moreover at the edge
of the ostioles, there need be no hesitation in accepting the
record as that of the normal measure of pulsation.

§ 11. Anthophysa Miilleri, Bory. Pl. VI. figs. 47-61 ;
Pl. VII. figs. 62, 63.

A description of this infusorian, but without illustrations,
has already been published in the ‘Annals’ for December 1866.
In order to carry out the object of this memoir to its fullest
extent, I propose here to make quite large extracts from this
paper, and also to add a number of figures, both for the better
understanding of the character of the animal and for the sake
of comparison with others which are illustrated in the accom-
panying plates.

The mononematous FJagellata which are described in the
foregoing pages (§§ 1-10) are connected with the hetero-
nematous forms through two diverse lines; or, rather, they are
closely allied to two different types of diversiflagellate Infusoria,
of which Anthophysa is an example of one type, and Anisonema
(§ 13) a representative of the other—both of the flagella of the
former being proboscidiform, and, of the latter, one being
gubernaculiform and the other proboscidiform. ‘The intimate
alliance of Anthophysa with Monas may be best expressed by
saying that the former is a Monas modified by the addition of
a comparatively minute ciliwm, which is affixed to the head
near the flagellum.

Anthophysa Miilleri, Bory (Epistylis? vegetans, Ehr.), is
quite common among freshwater plants, such as Myriophyllum,
Ceratophyllum, and Utricularia, and adheres to their filiform
leaves like an irregular, floccose, brownish deposit.

“Under a low magnifying-power this floccose matter appears
to consist of clusters of very jagged, irregularly branching and
contorted, semitransparent, intertwined stems, and projecting
tapering and flexible twigs (pd). Hach of the tips of the
latter sustains a single, more or less globose mass of spindle-
shaped bodies (md), which radiate from a common centre of
attachment, and are kept in a constant agitation by the spas-
modic jerks of a long, stout, usually rigid, arcuate filament (2),

210 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Spongie ciliate

with which the free end of each one is endowed. The whole
bristling mass revolves alternately from right to left and from
left to right, whirling upon its slender pivot with such a degree
of freedom that one might almost suspect that it merely rested
upon it, and had no truer adhesion to it than the juggler’s top
to the end of the déton upon which it spins. The largest
of these twirling groups contains as many as fifty fusiform
bodies; but most frequently not more than half that number
are grouped together; and from this they vary in decreasing
numbers down to only one or two (fig. 48) upon each filamen-
tous twig. In the last instances the bodies are comparatively
quiet, scarcely moving out of focus at each spasmodic twitch
of the arcuate filament. On this account, and because they
offer an unobstructed view, the latter are by far the most
available as objects for the imvestigation of their internal
organization.

“The relationship of the individual monads to the whole
colony must, however, be studied where they are more nume-
rously congregated, since, as will be shown presently, each
monad sustains a definite relation to every other one and to the
twig to which it is attached.”

“Form d&c.—The adult monads (figs. 47, 48, md) have a
truncate fusiform shape, and are slightly but quite appreciably
flattened on two opposite sides, so that, in an end view, they
appear to be broadly oval transversely. The attached end
tapers gradually to a point; and on this account it is difficult
to determine where the body ends and the twig begins. All of
the members of a group radiate from a common point of at-
tachment, to which they adhere by their tapering filamentous
ends (fig. 48, pd'!). The free end is truncate; but one corner
of it (as if in continuation of the line along which the opposite
flattened sides meet) projects in the form of a rather blunt tri-
angular beak (4p). At the inner edge of the base of this beak
lies the mouth (m), to which the former, as frequent observa-
tion has proved, acts as a lip or prehensile organ when food is
taken into the body. The prevailing tint is a more or less
uniform light gamboge, without the least trace of an eye-spot
of any colour.

“A most singular uniformity prevails in the arrangement
of the several members of a group. Hach monad (md) is at-
tached to its mooring in such a position that its flattened sides
lie parallelwise with those of its nearest neighbour; and the
beak (/p) projects from that corner of the head which is most
distant from the twig (pd). ‘To give a full idea of the pecu-
liarity of this arrangement, it must be stated here that the
rigid, arcuate, spasmodically twitching filament (/7) mentioned

as Infusoria flagellata. 211

above is attached close to the mouth (m), and invariably curves
away from the beak, and consequently always towards the
pedicel (pd) of the colony.”

“* Prehensile organs.—The only motile organs which this
animalcule possesses are preeminently prehensile in character;
and their apparent appropriation to the office of propulsion,
when a colony breaks loose from its attachment, I can scarcely
doubt is an accidental one, inasmuch as the arcuate cilium
continues its spasmodic twitching without any apparent devia-
tion from its usual mode of action.

“There are two cilia, of very unequal size, attached to the
truncate end of the body. The larger one of these has already
been mentioned casually, as a rigid, arcuate filament (fl). It
does not taper, but has a uniform thickness from base to tip,
and is about half as long again as the body. It arises near
the base of the triangular beak (/p), but appears to be separated
from the latter by the intervening mouth (m). When quiet,
it appears like a bristle, and projects in a line with the longer
axis of the body—at the base bending slightly toward the beak,
and then sweeping off in a moderate but distinct curve in the
opposite direction, so that on the whole it presents a long,
drawn-out sigmoid flexure. The plane of this curve lies in
strict parallelism with the plane of the greater diameter of the
body ; in fact it may be said to be a direct continuation of it.
It does not appear to have the character of a flagellum, except
when assisting the smaller cilium (/f!) to convey the food to
the mouth; and then it lays aside its rigid deportment, and
assumes all the flexibility and wavy vibration of the prehensile
organ of an Astasia.

“ The smaller cilium (fl') is an excessively faint body, and
almost defies the detective powers of the highest objectives.
This is partly due to its almost incessant activity ; for when it
is quiet or nearly so (which happens when food is passing into
the mouth), it becomes comparatively quite conspicuous under
a one-eighth-of-an-inch objective. It is scarcely as long as the
greater diameter of the truncate end of the body. It arises close
to the base of the larger cilium (#1); but whether on the right or
left, or nearer or more distant from the mouth than the latter,
cannot be said positively. Most frequently it was observed to be
flexed in the same direction as its companion ; and occasionally
it seemed to be quite evident that it was attached nearer to the
mouth than the latter. It is highly flexible, and vibrates with
great rapidity in what appears to be a gyratory manner.

““ The mouth.—This organ is never visible except when
food is passing through it (figs. 50,51,m). It then may be
seen that it les close to the beak, which acts as a sort of lip

212 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Spongie ciliate

by curving over the introcepted particles as they pass into the
body. The mouth is highly distensible, at times allowing
particles as wide as two-thirds the greater diameter of the body
to pass in without any apparent extra effort (fig.51,m). It
seems undeniable that it possesses discriminative powers in
regard to the quality of its food. This one may readily judge
of for himself by seeing the unerring precision with which the
particles of floating matter are thrown, by the spasmodic in-
curvature of the larger flagellum, against the mouth, where, if
they are not swallowed, they are detained but for an instant
by the smaller cilium, quickly adjudged to be worthless, and
then thrown off with a twirl of the organ which held them in
temporary abeyance. If, however, the captured morsel proves
to be agreeable, the larger cilium (fig. 47, //) assists the opera-
tions of the smaller one (#!) and the lip, by abruptly bending
itself at its point of attachment and laying its basal part across
the food, pressing it into the mouth, while the terminal portion
is kept in a constant wavy vibration, and curved towards the
posterior end of the body. This is usually done in three or
four seconds; and then the cilia return to their usual positions,
while the introcepted edible passes towards the centre of the
body, and is there immediately enclosed in a digestive vacuole
(fig. 51, d@). For a while the food dances about in this vacuole
with a very lively motion, but finally it subsides into quietude.
“ The contractile vesicle (cv).—There is a twofold difficulty
in discovering the presence of this organ. In the first place, it
is comparatively quite small; and, secondly, it pulsates so
slowly that it is very rarely possible to see it contract twice in
succession between any two of the abrupt lateral deviations of
the body which the spasmodic twitchings of the arcuate fla-
gellum produce. On this account it has not been possible to
determine the precise rate of its systole and diastole. It seems
to contract from three to four times a minute. It lies near the
‘surface, about halfway between the two ends of the body, and
nearly midway between the two extremes of its greater dia-
meter. At the completion of its diastole it has a circular out-
line, and appears like a clear colourless vesicle in the midst of
the yellowish tissue of the body. Upon contraction it disap-
pears, and leaves no trace of its presence. The systole pro-
gresses slowly, as in Anisonema (A. sulcatum, Duj.?, and_A.nov.
sp. [A. concavum, §13]), Cyclidium (C. nov. sp.), and Phacus
pleuronectes, Duj., and in this respect contrasts strongly with
. the same process in Heteromita fusiformis, Jas.-Clk., Astasta
tricophora, Clap. (§ 12), and Cryptomonas (C. nov. sp.), in
which the last half of the systole is very abrupt and marked.
“ The stem.—In addition to what has already been said of

as Infusoria flagellata. 213

the general appearance of this part of the organism, it may be
added that the older and basal portions (fig. 63) of the branches
are flat, and have a distinct longitudinal irregular striation,
to all appearance made up of the older, laterally agglutinated
twigs. The youngest, terminal portions (fig. 47, pd) of the
branches which, under the name of twigs, have been described
in this paper as the immediate supporters of the colonies of
monads, are evidently tubular (fig. 62). They appear to be
as flexible as a spider’s thread, and are usually quite irregular
in outline, and in the calibre of the canal which permeates
them. The wall of these tubular twigs is quite thick, and is
alike rough on the exterior and interior faces. The substance
within the tubes appears homogeneous, but whether it is solid
or fluid could not be determined. The oldest part of the
stems is of a reddish-brown colour; but as they taper off into
branchlets they gradually assume a gamboge-colour, and finally
terminate in scarcely coloured twigs.

“ Reproduction by fissigemmation (figs. 52-61) is the only
method of propagating individuals which I have observed.
As a preliminary to this process the monad gradually loses its
fusiform shape, and assumes at first an oval contour, and finally
becomes globular (fig. 52). During this transition, both of the
prehensile cilia (ff, #!) become much more conspicuous than
usual ; and the body developes a closely fitting hyaline enve-
lope (A) about it, thus passing into a sort of encysted state.
The contractile vesicle (cv), however, does not seem to cease
its pulsations during this period, and moreover it becomes
quite conspicuous. ‘This arises mostly from the fact that the
body is in a nearly quiet state, and allows the observer to ob-
tain a prolonged and undisturbed view of it. Unfortunately the
rate of the pulsations of this organ was not ascertained when
the following observations were made, because the whole time
was occupied in watching and drawing the various and rapidly
changing phases of self-division.

“ After the body assumes a globular shape, as above-men-
tioned, both the larger and smaller cilium seem to be under-
going a change, and become indistinct in outline. Presently
two larger flagella (fig. 53, 1) burst upon the view, apparently
by the longitudinal splittmg of the previously single one of
the same kind, and rapidly separate from each other by the
broadening of the body, leaving between them the smaller
cilium. The latter at this time appears much thicker than
usual, and seems to be composed of two closely approximated
parallel threads (7l!). By this time the contractile vesicle has
also divided into two, which lie closely side by side.

“‘ At this moment the time noted in one series of observa-

214 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Spongie ciliate.

tions was 2.30 P.M. By 2.35 p.m. (fig. 54) the larger fla-
gella (fl) had separated still further, and the smaller cilium
had split into two (jl!) very conspicuous filaments, as yet,
however, attached to a common point of the body. From this
time forth to the completion of the process of fissigemmation
all of the cilia kept up a slow vibration, in which they undu-
lated from base to tip with a sort of snake-like motion. By
2.45 p.m. (fig. 55) the body had become quite appreciably
broader than long, the contractile vesicles (cv) were widely
separated, and the smaller cilia had left between them a con-
siderable space, and each one had approximated quite near to
the base of a larger flagellum. At 2.50 P.M. (fig. 56) the
body had become nearly twice as broad as long, and the space
(e!) between the two pairs of cilia was nearly twice as great
as in the last phase, and considerably depressed in the middle,
so that the body had a broadly cordate outline. By 2.52 P.M.
(fig. 57) the posterior end of the body (at a point a little to
one side of the spot where it was attached to the pedicel) was
also slightly indented, so that in outline it presented a guitar-
shaped figure, each rounded half of which bore a pair of un-
equal cilia, and contained a contractile vesicle. In one minute
more the contraction had increased to such an extent that the
body was divided about halfway through (fig. 58). By 2.54
p.M. (fig. 59) the animal had a dumb-bell shape, and the
pedicel (pd) was attached to one of the segments near the

oint of constriction. Still the process went on very rapidly,
and by 2.55 p.M. (fig. 60) the new bodies were widely sepa-
rated, but still attached to each other by a mere thread. At
3 P.M. (fig. 61) the body which was attached to the pedicel
was left alone, and its companion swam away to seek a new
attachment and build up its stem.

“T'o the last moment the hyaline envelope remained about the
segments, and in fact so long afterwards that time and cireum-
stances did not allow me to ascertain its final disposition. I
would remark, however, that when the ovate bodies of the
half-grown monads (fig. 49) are contracted temporarily into a
globular shape, they appear identical (excepting that they
lack the hyaline envelope) with these recently fissed forms.
In all probability, therefore, the latter lose their envelope and
assume the shape of the former.

“ As to the development of the stem, I think it quite cer-
tain that it grows out from the posterior end of the body. The
best proof of this is, that I have frequently found a monad
(especially in the condition of the one which I described above
as breaking loose from its companion) nearly sessile upon a
clean spot, and attached by a very short, faint, film-lke

Dr. J. E. Gray on Fur-Seals. 215

thread. From this size upward I have no difficulty in finding
abundant examples as gradually increasing in diameter as they
did in length—thus furnishing a pretty strong evidence that
the stem grows under the influence of its own innate powers,
and is not, therefore, a deposit emanating from the body of the
monad, except, perhaps, as far as it may be nourished by a
fluid circulating within its hollow core.”
[To be continued. ]

XX VITI.— Observations on the Fur-Seals of the Antarctic Seas
and the Cape of Good Hope, with the Description of a new
Species. By. Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., V.P.Z.S.

FurTHER research and additional specimens have shown that,
with all the attention I had bestowed on the Seals which had
been named Phoca falklandica, I have some additions which
require to be made to my former paper.

Capt. Abbot assures me that there were only three kinds of
Seals found in the Falkland Islands when he was there, about
ten years ago,—viz. (1) the Sea-Bear (Otaria jubata), (2) the
Fur-Seal (Arctocephalus nigrescens), which are Kared Seals,
and (3) the Sea-Leopard (Stenorhynchus leptonyx), which is an
Earless Hair-Seal.

According to Pernetty (Voy. aux iles Malouines, p. 202),
Sea-Lions or Sea-Elephants (Morunga elephantina) were found
there in his time: they may have been driven away or all
destroyed by the sealers; and some other species that for-
merly lived in the islands may have shared the same fate.
If that is the case, the beautiful Fur-Seal in the British
Museum which [have named Arctocephalus falklandicus is not
now found in the Falkland Islands, though it was received as
a Seal from there. On my showing Mr. Bartlett the specimen,
he brought me a furrier’s small imperfect skin of the same
species, which he had purchased of a fellmonger, who assured
him that such Fur-Seal skins were only received from the
arctic part of the Pacific Ocean. If this be true, the skin
was probably that of a young individual either of Steller’s
Sea-Bear (Humetopias Steller’) or of a species allied to it,
which, as I mentioned in my former paper, are the only Seals
that have such a close, soft, elastic fur.

The statement that the Museum specimen of Arctocephalus
falklandicus was not a Falkland but a northern species renders
it necessary that further research should be made to determine
the two specimens in the Museum of Science and Art at Edin-
burgh, which were, according to Mr. R. Hamilton, conveyed to

216 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Fur-Seals

this country and deposited in this museum by Capt. Weddell,
the enterprising navigator who visited the Antarctic regions in
1823. They are both females, and were prepared in Edinburgh
and described by Mr. R. Hamilton in this Journal (as referred
to in the former paper), who observes that “the personal
observation of Capt. Weddell enabled him at once to identify
the [Phoca] falklandica with his Fur-Seal” (see Ann. Nat.
Hist. 1838, vol. ii. p. 91). I do not find it stated whence
Capt. Weddell procured these specimens ; it is only said that
‘he encountered the Fur-Seal in South Georgia, among the
South Orkneys, and in much greater numbers in the South
Shetland Islands, which he was the first to discover” (¢bid.
p. 84-85); and he expressly states that the only Seal inhabit-
ing the last-named islands is the Fur-Seal; so that probably
the specimen he gave to the Edinburgh Museum came from
either South Georgia or the South Shetlands.

I wrote to my friend Mr. Thomas C. Archer, the Director of
the Edinburgh Museum of Science and Arts, to ask him if he
would kindly send me a few hairs from one of these Seals ; he
most readily acceded to my request by return of post, accom-
panied by an offer to send one of the Seals to the Museum for
examination, if I wished it. As the hairs alone showed that
the Seal was not like any other of the South-American Seals
that I had described in my former paper, being most like
those of the Seal to which I had referred it, but still appearing
rather harsher, I most gladly accepted his very kind and
liberal offer.

I was much pleased, when the specimen arrived, to find that
it evidently is the same as my Arctocephalus falklandicus, and
that my reference to Mr. R. Hamilton’s description and figure
was correct. The fur in this specimen is considerably darker
and harsher than in that in the British Museum ; but this may
arise from the animal having been stuffed and exhibited for
many years, and, perhaps, collected at a different time of year.
In every other respect, both as to the form and size of the
limbs (which are small compared with the size of the body)
and the distribution of the colours, they agree.

This animal, which was brought from the Antarctic Ocean,
may formerly have inhabited the Falkland Islands, and, like
the Sea-Elephant found there by Pernetty, have been destroyed
or driven away. The Sea-Leopards (A. Hookerti) were
Peaeht from the Antarctic Ocean as well as from the Falk-
lands.

If that was the case, it may be the Falkland-Island Seal
of Pennant and the Phoca Hauvillii that Cuvier described, as
I formerly believed. There are no other Fur-Seals now

of the Antarctic Seas and the Cape of Good Hope. 217

known of a dark-grey colour, with a whitish underside, that I
have seen.

The A. falklandicus is very like the Fur-Seal from Australia
(A. cinereus) in the length of the under-fur as compared with
the length of the hairs, and also in the colour of the under-
fur and hair; but the fur is much softer, and its general colour
is much darker, both above and below.

M. de Buffon describes a small Eared Seal, which he calls
a “second Phoque”’ (vol. xiii. p. 341, t. 43, where it is named
“le petit Phoque’’), which he was assured came from India,
but very probably came from the Levant; and he considers it
adult, because it has all its teeth. It is only one-fifth of the size
of the Seal of the European seas (Hist. Nat. xii. p. 344). He
further speaks of it as “le petit Phoque noir des Indes et du
Levant” (p. 345). It is evidently a young Eared Seal. The
figure is probably from the skin, with the bones of the toes
and jaws, presented to the cabinet by M. Mauduit (mentioned
at p. 433. n. 1273), and said to have come from India.

The specimen Buffon figured, then being in the Paris Mu-
seum, was thus described by Cuvier (Oss. Foss. v. p. 220) :—
“ Cet animal a deux pieds de long; ses oreilles sont grandes
et pointues ; son pelage est fourré, luisant, d’un brun noir trés-
foncé et a sa nuance blanchatre. Le ventre seul est brun jau-
natre.”’ The teeth show that it is young.

The figure and description of the Petit Phoque of Buffon
have had the following names given to them :—

Little Seal by Pennant and Shaw.
Phoca pusilla, Schreber, Siiugeth. 314.
Phoca parva, Bodd. Elench. 78.
Otarta pusilla, Desm. N. Dict.

Otaria Peronit, Desm. Mamm.

Fischer, in his ‘ Synopsis,’ under Phoca pusilla, p. 252, gives
the Cape of Good Hope and Rotteness Island, on the coast of
Australia, as the habitat of the species.

The description of Cuvier much more nearly fits that of the

oung Arctocephalus nigrescens from the Falkland Islands,
The fur of the young Cape Seal is dark, black above and be-
low; the hairs are slender, and brown (not whitish) at the
base; and the underside is not yellowish brown; so that it is
very doubtful if it is the young of the Cape Seal.

Dr. Peters, believing Buffon’s specimen to be a young Cape
Seal, changed the name of Delalandii to pusilla.

There formerly existed in the Museum of the Royal Society
an Eared Seal without any habitat; it is called the Long-necked
Seal in Grew’s ‘ Rarities,’ p. 95, described and figured under

218 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Fur-Seals

that name by Parsons in the Phil. Trans. xlvii. t. 6, and
noticed in Pennant’s ‘ Quadrupeds,’ ii. p. 274. Dr. Shaw,
in his ‘ Zoology,’ i. p. 256, translated the name into Phoca longi-
collis, and copied Parsons’s figure. The name and the form
of the front feet are enough to show that it is an Eared Seal;
for the neck of these animals is always long compared with the
neck of the Earless Seals or Phocide. Fischer, in his ‘ Syn-
opsis,’ p. 240, overlooking this character and the description
of the front feet, considers it the same as the Sea-Leopard of
Weddell (Phoca Weddelliz) from the Antarctic Ocean, an Kar-
less Seal. Though the habitat is not given, there can be no
doubt, when we consider the geographical distribution of the
Eared Seal, that it must have been received either from the
southern part of South America or from the Cape of Good
Hope, as the animals of the Northern Pacific and of Australia
were not known or brought to England in 1686. As no ac-
count of the colour of the fur is given, it is impossible to de-
termine to which of the species inhabiting these countries it
should be referred. It is most probably the Sea-Lion (Otaria
leonina), as that is the animal which is most generally distri-
buted and commonly brought to England. The sailors some-
times call it the “‘ Long-necked Seal.”

Dr. J. R. Forster, during his voyage with Cook in 1775,
observed an Eared Seal at the Cape of Good Hope, which he
called Phoca ursina, believing it to be the same he had pre-
viously observed in New Zealand. (See Descript. Animal.

. 815).
: The sixth volume of the Supplement to Buffon’s Hist. Nat.
contains an account of the Sco Bears of the Cape of Good
‘Hope, communicated by M. de Pages (vi. p. 848, 354, 357).
He described the hairs of the young as blackish, becoming
silver-grey at the tips as they increase in age.

M. Cuvier described an Eared Seal received by M. Delalande
from the Cape, 3 feet 6 inches long. The fur is close, soft,
woolly at the base, the tips annulated with grey and black,
giving a general reddish grey-brown tone. The belly is paler,
and the legs blackish. The whiskers are strong, simple, and
black. (Oss. Foss. v. 220.) M. Delalande also sent the skele-
ton of a young animal and the head of an adult; the skull of
the latter is figured by Cuvier (Oss. Foss. v. t. 18. f. 5).

These specimens were described as Otaria Delalandit, Cuvier,
by M. F. Cuvier (Dict. Sc. Nat, xxxix. p. 423) ; and the skull
of an aged animal was figured by me as that of Arctocephalus
Delalandit in the ‘ Proceedings ot the Zoological Society,’ 1859,
p. 107, t. 69; it is also described in my ‘ Catalogue of Seals
and Whales in the British Museum,’ p. 52. The species grows

of the Antarctic Seas and the Cape of Good Hope. 219

to a much larger size than the specimen described by M.
Cuvier. There are two well-grown stuffed specimens of it in
the Collection of the British Museum, and there is very little
to add to Cuvier’s description above referred to,

My. Bartlett kindly sent to the British Museum for my ex-
amination a series of the skins of this Seal as they are sold by
the fellmonger, on which I made the following notes :—

1. Adult male, with slight mane, called in the sale-catalogue
“large-wig.” Fur whitish, with a few intermixed black
hairs ; under-fur short, reddish.

2. Adult, without the mane, called in the sale-catalogue
“middling.”? Fur reddish white, grizzled with scattered black
hairs ; underside of the body darker, reddish brown ; under-fur
short, reddish.

3. Young, about 18 inches long, called in the sale-catalogue
“black pup,” from the Cape of Good Hope. Fur black,
polished, soft, smooth, without any grey tips, rather browner
black beneath ; under-fur brown, very sparse; hairs slender,
polished, black, with very slender brown bases.

With these skins were two others, sold at the same time,
and called ‘ middling”? Fur-Seals; but they are so different
from all the others in the form of the hair as well as in its
length, and they are also so nearly destitute of under-fur, ex-
cept just on the crown of the head, that I am convinced they
could not be dressed as Fur-Seals; and I believe they are a
most distinct species, which I propose to call

Arctocephalus nivosus.

Fur very short, close-pressed, black, varied with close, small,
often confluent, white spots; underside of neck with a few
scattered white hairs; belly red brown (nearly bay); hairs
short, thick, of one colour to the base ; under-fur none, except
a very few hairs on the crown of the head.

Hab. Cape of Good Hope. B.M.

Length of skin nearly 8 feet, but stretched and flattened.

Unfortunately these skins are without skulls; so I cannot
decide to which subgenus they ought to be referred.

These and those previously mentioned have been transferred
by Mr. Bartlett to the Museum Collection.

220 Royal Society :—

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.
ROYAL SOCIETY.

January 30, 1868.—Lieut.-General Sabine, President, in the Chair.

“Remarks upon Archeopteryx lithographica.”’ By Prof. T. H.
Houxtey, LL.D., F.R.S.

The unique specimen of Archeopteryx lithographica (von Meyer)
which at present adorns the collection of fossils in the British Mu-
seum, is undoubtedly one of the most interesting relics of the extinct
fauna of long-past ages ; and the correct interpretation of the fossil
is of proportional importance. Hence I do not hesitate to trouble
the Royal Society with the following remarks, which are, in part,
intended to rectify certain errors which appear to me to be contained
in the description of the fossil in the Philosophical Transactions for
1863*,

It is obviously impossible to compare the bones of one animal
satisfactorily with those of another, unless it is clearly settled that
such is the dorsal and such the ventral aspect of a vertebra, and that
such a bone of the limb-arches, or limbs, belongs to the left, and such
another to the right side.

Identical animals may seem to be quite different, if the bones of
the same limbs are compared under the impression that they belong
to opposite sides ; and very different bones may appear to be similar,
if those of opposite sides are placed in juxtaposition.

The following citations, and the remarks with which I accompany
them, however, will show that these indispensable conditions of com-
parison have not been complied with in the memoir to which I refer.

1. “The moiety (Plate I.) containing the greater number of the
petrified bones exhibits such proportion of the skeleton from the in-
ferior or ventral aspect’ (/. c. p. 34).

I propose to show, on the contrary, that the fossilized animal pre-
sents, in general, its dorsal aspect to the eye, though one of the most
conspicuous bones may have been so twisted round as to exhibit its
ventral face.

2. The demonstration that the bones of the Archeopteryx are
thus wrongly interpreted, may be best commenced by showing that
what is called “right femur (65), tibia (66), and bones of the foot
(68,'2, 2; i2,.w)) Lex p. a5, ure respectively the left femur, left
tibia, and bones of the left foot.

That such is the case is very easily proved by the circumstance
that (as is very properly pointed out in the memoir) the second toe
of the foot in question is that which lies uppermost, while the plantar
surface of the foot is turned outwards, and its dorsal aspect towards
the vertebral column.

If the limb in question were, as the describer of the fossil sup-

* “On the Archeopteryx of Von Meyer, with a description of the Fossil Re-
mains of a Long-tailed Species, from the lithographic stone of Solenhofen.” By
Professor Owen, F.R.8. &c.

Prof. Huxley on Archeeopteryx lithographica. 221

poses, the right leg, it would obviously be impossible to place the
foot in its present position, unless the numbers of the phalanges in its
toes were the reverse of what is observed in Birds; that is to say, the
uppermost toe, that which has three phalanges, must also be the
outermost. Nevertheless the describer of the fossil justly lays great
stress upon the fact that the toes have the same number of phalanges
as in birds. As a matter of fact, this is quite true; but it would
not be true if we were to assume with him that the limb in question
is the right leg.

3. Certain parts of the fossil which lie upon the opposite side of
the spine to the so-called ‘right leg’? are named, at p. 34 of the
memoir cited, ‘“ Portion of the left os innominatum, showing part of
the ilium (62) and ischium (63), with the acetabulum (a).”

A full description of this mass of bone as ‘the left os innomina-
tum, including the anterior two-thirds of the ilium, and the anterior
half, or more, of the coalesced ischium,” is given at p. 39; and at
p- 40 I find, “The inferior or central* face [of the sacrum], as in
the case of the slightly dislocated left innominatum, is towards the
observer.”

There is no doubt on any side, that the end of the bone in question
which at present is directed forwards is its true anterior end, and
that the edge which is turned towards the spinal column is the true
dorsal edge. The question is, whether the face of the bone which is
exposed is its outer (or dorsal) or its inner (or ventral) face. In the
former case it must needs be a right ilium, in the latter a left
ilium.

That it is the outer face of the bone which lies uppermost appears
to me to be demonstrated—

(a) By the fact that the iliac margin of the acetabulum is promi-
nent, and that the adjacent surface of this ilium rises to this margin.
I am not aware that any vertebrate animal exists in which the ace-
tabulum lies at the bottom of a funnel-shaped depression, such as
would be the case in Archeopteryz if the bone in dispute were the
left os innominatum seen from the inner side.

(6) By the fact that a small portion of what appears to be an inno-
minate bone can be descried in close relation with the proximal end
of what has just been shown to be the left femur; while the right
femur (called left in the memoir), though dislocated, is not very far
from the bone under discussion.

(c) By the further consideration, that if this were not the right
os innominatum, it would be as curiously unlike the corresponding
bone of a bird in the form of its surface as it resembles it in all other
respects.

4. The bone marked 51! is named “left scapula” (J. c. p, 34),
and that marked 51 “right scapula”’ (7. c. p. 35); and a full de-
scription of these bones, as such, is given at pp. 36 and 37 of the
memoir cited.

* “Central” in the original. The word appears to have been substituted
by an error of the press for “ ventral.”

Ann, & Mag, N. Hist, Ser. 4. Vol.i. 16

222 Royal Society :—

Nevertheless I venture to affirm that 51! is the right scapula and
not the left ; for it will not be denied that the anterior or glenoidal
end of the bone, as it now lies, is directed forwards, its posterior or
vertebral end backwards, and its glenoidal articular surface outwards
and forwards: it would be quite impossible to put a left scapula of
similar construction into this position.

Further, the glenoidal end of this scapula remains in connexion
with what is obviously the glenoidal (or humeral) end of the right
coracoid (marked ¢ in plate i.). The author of the memoir, indeed,
gives a different interpretation of the osseous projection thus marked
(U. c. p. 37) :—

“The prominence beyond the left scapula (Plate I. 51') sug-
gested at first view the humeral end of the coracoid, but I believe it
to be part of the humerus corresponding with the tuberosity on the
ulnar side of the sessile semioval head, overarching the pneumatic
foramen in the bird.”

And this view is pictorially embodied in the restoration of the
humerus of Archgopteryz given in plate ii. fig. 1.

But a most distinct line of matrix separates the humerus from the
prominence in question, in which may be seen, with great clearness,
the glenoidal facet of the coracoid, as well as the excavation of the
exterior surface of the bone which is characteristic of the glenoidal,
or humeral, end of the coracoid in birds and pterodactyles.

I think, then, there can be no question that the parts marked 51!
and c in Plate I. of the memoir cited are the right scapula and the
glenoidal end of the right coracoid, and not, as the author affirms,
the left scapula and a tuberosity of the humerus.

5. Even apart from the fact that the humerus marked 53! lies in
almost undisturbed relation with the right pectoral arch, it is ob-
viously a right humerus. On no other supposition can the relative
position of the deltoid ridge and of the various contours of the bone
be accounted for. Nevertheless this is called ‘‘ proximal half of left
humerus (53'), entire, and part of the distal half” at p. 34 of the
memoir cited.

It is probably needless to pursue this part of the inquiry any
further. As the so-called right leg turns out to be the left, the so-
called left os innominatum the right, and the so-called left scapula
and wing-bones to be those of the opposite side of the body, the
necessity of a corresponding rectification for the other limb-bones
needs no evidence.

6. As both the hind limbs and one-half of the pelvis have just
such positions as they would readily assume if the hinder part of
the animal’s body lay upon its ventral face, it is highly improbable
(to say the least) that the caudal and posterior trunk-vertebrz should
have turned round so as to present their ventral aspect to the eye, as
they do according to the memoir (J. ec. p. 44).

But I apprehend that evidence can be found in the vertebree them-
selves sufficient to prove that their dorsal and not their ventral faces
are turned towards the eye. In several of the best-preserved of these
vertebree, in fact, (and plate i. imperfectly shows this,) the remains

Prof. Huxley on Archeeopteryx lithographica. 223

of two small articular poocesses are distinctly visible at each end of
the vertebra. The superior surface of each articular process is raised
into a low longitudinal ridge; and the posterior pair of processes lie
at the sides of a narrow, parallel-sided plate of bone, which projects
beyond the posterior edge of the vertebra, and is received between
the anterior articular processes of the vertebra which succeeds it.
A low linear longitudinal elevation occupies the place of spinous
process.

If my interpretation of these appearances is correct, it is clear
that the caudal vertebree (as was to be expected) turn their dorsal
faces to the eye.

7. One important and extremely conspicuous bone, the furculum
(if it be such), undoubtedly turns its ventral surface to the eye;
and I cannot but suspect that it is the douleversement of this bone
which has led to that reversal of the proper nomenclature of the
other bones which, could it be sustained, would leave Archeopteryx
without a parallel in the vertebrate subkingdom.

When the specimen of Archeopteryx is once put into its right
position, many points of its structure acquire an intelligibility which
they lose to those who accept the interpretations given in the memoir.
The so-called right foot, for example, which, as a right foot, is like
nothing in nature, becomes strikingly ornithic as a left foot, from
the backward direction of the hallux and the apparent anchylosis of
the metatarsal bones. The distal ends of the second and third meta-
tarsals appear to me, however, to be separated fora much greater
distance, proportionately to the length of the metatarsus, than in any
existing birds, except the Penguins.

The femur is more slender and more curved in proportion to its
length than in any recent bird with which I am acquainted. The
representation of the bone in fig. 1 of plate iii. is inaccurate, as
may be seen by comparing it with that given in plate i.

The small size of the cnemial crest of the tibia is also very re-
markable.

The right innominate bone is imperfectly represented in plate i.
of the memoir cited. Its anterior end is not, as it there appears to be,
abruptly truncated: there is an elevation in the region which would
be occupied by the prominence against which the base of the great
trochanter works, and which is so characteristic of birds. The greater
part of the ischium is not represented; and the sacrosciatic space
certainly has not the form which it is represented to have. The
references o to the “‘ obturator foramen,” and 63, to the “ischium’”’
(J. c. p. 40), are unintelligible to me.

The ischium can be traced back for 2? of an inch from the ace-
tabulum ; and so much of it as is preserved remains narrow through-
out this extent, and is convex upwards, but concave downwards or
towards the matrix.

The ventral edge of the ischium appears to be entire throughout
this extent; but the posterior moiety of its dorsal edge is somewhat
rough and angular. It is therefore very probable that the ischium

1s

224. Miscellaneous.

expanded behind the sacrosciatic notch and united with the ilium, as
it very generally does in carinate birds. It is very desirable that this
part of the skeleton of Archeopteryx should be figured again.

The scapula has a distinct clavicular process, as in carinate birds ;
and it seems to be pretty clear that the scapula had that twofold
‘angulation upon the coracoid which is characteristic of the Carinate.

The glenoidal end of the coracoid is unlike the corresponding part
of that bone in any of the Ratite; but it is more like that ofa
Pterodactyle than that of any carinate bird which I have met with.
It is less prominent (and the counterpart shows that this shortness is
not the result of fracture) than in any recent bird, provided with a
strong furculum, with which I am acquainted. In fact, in its form,
and strength relatively to the shoulder-girdle, the so-called ‘ fur-
culum”’ appears to me to be the greatest osteological difficulty pre-
sented by Archaopteryx. I prefer waiting for the light which will
be afforded by another specimen to the indulgence of any speculation
regarding this bone ; in the meanwhile, I by no means wish to deny
that appearances are strongly in favour of the interpretation which
has been put upon it.

In conclusion, I may remark that I am unaware of the existence
of any ‘law of correlation’? which will enable us to infer that the
mouth of this animal was devoid of lips, and was a toothless beak.
The soft tortoises (Trionyx) have fleshy lips as well as horny beaks ;
the Chelonia in general have horny beaks, though they possess no
feathers to preen ; and Rhamphorhynchus combined both beak and
teeth, though it was equally devoid of feathers. If, when the head
of Archeopteryzx is discovered, its jaws contain teeth, it will not the
more, to my mind, cease to be a bird, than turtles cease to be reptiles
because they have beaks.

All birds have a tarso-metatarsus, a pelvis, and feathers, such, in
principle, as those possessed by Archeopteryr. No known reptile,
recent or fossil, combines these three characters, or presents feathers,
or possesses a completely ornithic tarsometatarsus, or pelvis. Compso-
gnathus comes nearest in the tarsal region, Megalosaurus and Igua-
nodon in the pelvis. But, so far as the specimen enables me to judge,
I am disposed to think that, in many respects, Archeopteryx is more
remote from the boundary-line between birds and reptiles than some
living Ratite are.

MISCELLANEOUS.
Size of Foetus of the Pilot Dolphin.

Mr. Epwarp Gerrarp, junior, extracted the foetus from an adult
female of Globiocephalus svineval that was thrown ashore at the
Firth of Forth. The female was 12 feet, the foetus 3 feet long.
The head of the foetus is very globular ; and the beak is well marked,
but very short.—J. E. Gray.

Miscellaneous. peas

Notice of a remarkable new Genus of Corals, probably typical of a
new Family. By F. B. Merx.

Among some fossils sent on for investigation by Professor Whitney,
the State Geologist of California, from the Silurian rocks of Nevada*,
there are a few specimens of a new genus of corals presenting such
an extravrdinary and interesting combination of characters that it
is thought desirable to call attention to it herey.

The specimens of this fossil contained in the collection are slender,
slightly flexuous, arched or nearly straight, and subcylindrical, ex-
cepting near the lower end, where they taper to a point, by which
they were probably attached. They may have grown in tufts or
groups ; but all the specimens yet seen are single, and show no eyi-
dences of growing in contact.

To the unassisted eye, the external surface of these corallites
(with the exception of obscure annular swellings and constrictions
of growth and faintly marked linear septal coste) seem to be nearly
or quite smooth. When examined under a strong lens, however, it
is seen to be beautifully punctate—the punctures being minute, of
exactly uniform size, and arranged with mathematical regularity in
quincunx, and so closely crowded that the little divisions between
them are scarcely equal in breadth to the punctures themselves,
and form, as it were, an extremely delicate kind of network. So
remarkable is the appearance of this punctured outer wall, that the
first question that suggests itself, on examining it under a magni-
fier, is, whether or not it may be merely an exceedingly delicate
Polyzoon encrusting the whole surface. A clear examination, how-
ever (especially in carefully prepared transverse sections), shows
that the punctures actually pass entirely through the wall, which
is very thin, and that they are not due to the growth of a Polyzoon,
nor to surface-ornamentation.

On grinding away this very thin punctured wall, the septa are
seen immediately within to be stout, equal, straight, and very equi-
distant ; but on grinding a little further in, they are observed to
become very regularly waved laterally, evactly lke the septa in the
foraminiferous genus Fusulina. So striking is this resemblance,
that it was not until after ascertaining from cross section that the
fossil has not an involuted structure, that I could get rid of the
suspicion that it might be a new type of Foraminifera allied to Fu-
sulina, instead of an extraordinary coral.

By grinding still further in (to a depth of about 0-06 inch, in a
specimen 0-34 inch in diameter), the lateral waving of the septa
already mentioned is seen to be there suddenly and so strongly
marked, that they connect laterally, in such a manner as to form a

* A notice of the discovery of Silurian rocks at this distant western
locality has already been published by Prof. Whitney in the Proceedings
of the Californian Academy of Sciences.

+ Figures and descriptions of this and the other Silurian fossils from
this ee will be given in the second volume of Prof. Whitney’s report
on the geology of California.

226 Miscellaneous.

kind of complex inner wall between the great central cavity and the
outer septate zone. This wall, however, does not completely isolate
the septate outer zone from the central cavity, but is perforated by
a series of round equal canals, very regularly placed one within each
of the lateral curves of the septa, so that those on the opposite sides
of each septum alternate with exact regularity, as do those of each
of the two rows within each interseptal space. These canals have
no similarity to the minute punctures of the outer wall, being
greatly larger and very differently arranged. They do not pass
directly through the inner wall, but are directed obliquely upward
and inward, so that, as seen in transverse sections of the corallites,
they present the appearance of a double row of vesicles cut across.

Both longitudinal and transverse sections show the large central
cavity to be without any traces of septa or columella. From these
sections I was likewise at first led to believe this central portion to
be also an entirely open cavity or calice, the whole length of each
corallite ; but on sending specimens to Prof. Verrill, he called my
attention to some obscure appearances of transverse plates in one of
the specimens cut longitudinally, and requested me to cut others
with the view of ascertaining whether or not these are plates. A
longitudinal section of another specimen, however, when carefully
polished, reveals no traces of proper transverse plates ; but when
examined by the aid of a strong magnifier, it shows the whole inte-
rior to be occupied by a dense vesicular tissue, the walls of the ve-
sicles being of extreme tenuity. This structure is seen in the in-
terseptal spaces of the outer zone, as well as in the central cavity
within.

In regard to the affinities of so remarkable a type, it seems
scarcely safe to express an opinion without a better series of spe-
cimens for study.. Some of its internal characters, as suggested by
Prof. Verrill, would seem to indicate remote affinities to the Cya-
thophyllide ; but its peculiar perforated outer wall would, on the
other hand, appear to remove it from the primary division of corals
including that family.

I am therefore led to believe it a new genus,.and most probably
typical of a new family, in which opinion Prof. Verrill concurs with
me. For this genus I would propose the name Ethmophyllum.

Among the specimens in the collection under examination, there
are apparently two species of this fossil. That considered the type
of the genus is larger and more robust than the other, and more
conical in form, especially near its smaller end. None of the spe-
cimens seen are quite perfect at the larger extremity. One mea-
sures 0-37 inch at its imperfect larger end, and seems to have been
21 to 3 inches in length. In this there are sixty septa, while its
outer septate zone is 0-07 inch wide. Another fragment, however,
measures 1:20 inch in diameter at the larger end, and was probably
5 to 6 inches or more in length, with 112 septa at the larger end.
This large fragment shows that the septate outer zone does not in-
crease in thickness or breadth in proportion with the size of the
corallites, since it is only 0-15 inch broad in this specimen, the in-

Miscellaneous. 227

crease in thickness of this corallite being made up by the increased
size of the non-septate interior. For this larger species I would
propose the name Lthmophyllum Whitneyi, in honour of Prof. J. D.
Whitney, to whom I am indebted for the use of the specimens.

Of the other species I have seen but a single specimen, which is
imperfect at both extremities, about 2°15 inches in length, and only
about 0-20 inch in diameter at the larger end, and 0°15 at the
smaller, with some 24 to 28 septa. In addition to its much more
slender form, it differs from the other species in having its septa so
strongly waved laterally as almost to divide the interseptal spaces
into cells, nearly to the outer wall. For this, if it should prove
to be a distinct species, I would propose the name Ethmophyllum

racile.
: The specimens were all obtained at Silver Peak, Nevada, and
were discovered by Mr. Clayton.—Silliman’s American Journal, Jan-
uary, 1868.

Note on the Polymorphism of the Anthozoa and the Structure of the
Tubipore. By A. Korircer.

The polymorphism of individuals, so remarkable among the Aca-
lephze, has had nothing corresponding to it among the other Ccelen-
terata; it is therefore a very unexpected discovery that M. Kol-
liker has lately made, of a true polymorphism in various genera of
Anthozoa Alcyonaria. This polymorphism consists in the existence,
besides the large individuals capable of taking nourishment and
furnished with generative organs, of other, smaller, asexual indivi-
duals, which appear essentially to preside over the introduction of
sea-water into the organism, and then over its expulsion, and which
are perhaps at the same time the seat of an excrementitial secretion.
Like the others, these asexual individuals possess a body-cavity
divided into chambers by eight septa, and a pyriform stomach with
two orifices. On the other hand they are entirely destitute of ten-
tacles; and instead of the eight ordinary mesenteric filaments there
are only two, supported upon two consecutive septa. The cavity of
the body of these individuals is always in communication with that
of the sexual individuals ; but the mode in which this communication
is effected is liable to vary with the genera.

We may distinguish two types in the mode of distribution of the
asexual individuals upon the polyparies. In the first they are distri-
buted in great abundance over the whole polypigerous region of the
polypary, among the sexual individuals. This is the case in certain
Aleyonids which M. Kolliker refers to the genus Sarcophyton, and
also in Veretillum, Lituaria, Cavernularia, and Sarcobelemnon. In
the second case the asexual individuals are restricted to certain per-
fectly definite places, which, however, are variable according to the
genera. Thus in certain species of Pteroeides they oceur on the
lower surface of the pennate leaves of the region serving for attach-
ment, in the form of a larger or smaller plate; in other species of
the same genus they are also found at the apex of the polypary; in

228 Miscellaneous.

the Pennatule the varicosities of the trunk correspond to the places
where the asexual individuals are seated ; Funiculina quadrangularis
shows them arranged in longitudinal rows between the sexual indi-
viduals; lastly, the Virgularie always present behind each lamella,
upon their trunk, a simple transverse row of asexual individuals.
It is probable that all the Pennatulide present a similar dimor-
phism; at least, in Renilla we see, between the fully developed
polypes, rudimentary bodies which seem to be individuals of a dif-
ferent form. On the other hand, with the sole exception of the
genus Sarcophyton, M. Kolliker has sought in vain for dimorphism
in the Alcyonidee and Gorgonide. It must not-be forgotten, how-
ever, that there seem to exist some relations between the buds of
the sexual and asexual individuals in the polymorphic polyparies ; for,
in Veretillum at least, the asexual individuals seem, under certain
conditions, capable of being transformed into sexual individuals.
M. Kolliker has also been able to investigate a polypary of T’ubi-
pora, still enveloped by the soft parts, obtained from the Fiji archi-
pelago. Notwithstanding the great resemblance of the polyparies
of the Tubipore to those of the Madripores, the author considers that
in their whole structure and development these polypes are Alcyo-
naria which must occupy a place by the side of the genus Clavularia.
Both the tentacles and the body of the polypes of Tubipora contain
spicules.— Wurzburger Zeitung, January 4, 1868 ; abstract by E.
Claparéde in Bibl. Univ. February 15, 1868, Bull. Sci. p. 171.

On the Saliva and Salivary Organs of Dolium galea and other
Mollusca. By MM.S. vE Luca and P. Pancerr. (Note by E.
CLAPAREDE, )

Ten years ago M. Troschel made the unexpected discovery of the
presence of a considerable quantity of free sulphuric acid in the saliva
of a Gasteropod, namely Dolium galea. MM. de Luca and Panceri
have lately resumed the investigation of this subject, and have con-
firmed, in their general features, the results obtained by their prede-
cessor. They find the quantity of free anhydrous sulphuric acid
varying from 3-3 to 3°42 per cent., a quantity which is even a little
more than that ascertained by M. Troschel. On the other hand the
Neapolitan naturalists have found no trace of free hydrochloric acid,
whilst the analysis formerly made by Boedeker at the request of
Troschel indicated 0-4 per cent. of this.

It was interesting to ascertain how far this phenomenon is iso-
lated. MM. de Luca and Panceri have fur this purpose investigated
the saliva of various mollusca, and found free sulphuric acid in nota-
ble proportion in four species of Tritoniwm, in a Cassis, a Cassi-
daria, two Murices, and an Aplysia. Moreover in all these mol-
lusca, including the Dolium, these naturalists have seen a gas evolved
from the salivary liquid at the moment of the rupture of the gland.
This gas was found to be pure carbonic acid, and its volume in one
case amounted to as much as 20-6 cubic centimetres from a gland of
about 75 grammes in weight.

Miscellaneous. 229

These different salivary liquids have the properties of not under-
going alteration spontaneously in contact with the air, and of pre-
serving unaltered albuminoid substances immersed in them.

The part played by these acids, which are secreted in such con-
siderable quantities, is still very obscure. The authors remark that,
in the mollusca in question, the blood is still alkaline; they promise
further investigations of the subject—Bibl. Univ., February 15,
1868, Bull. Sci. p. 170; abstract from Rendiconto d. R. Accad. Sei. di
Napoli, August and September 1867.

On an Hermaphrodite Nemertian (Borlasia hermaphroditica) from St.
Malo. By W. Kererster.

Great importance was formerly attributed in zoology to the union
of the two sexes in the same individual, or their separation in two
distinct individuals ; and quite recently a French naturalist has en-
deavoured to distribute the Invertebrata into classes, chiefly in ac-
cordance with this character.

It is, however, now certain that monceciousness and diceciousness
have only a secondary value. Thus we know, for example, that
both in the Annelida and in the Nematoda, which generally have
the sexes separate, a certain number of hemaphrodite species are to
be met with; we also know some dicecious Trematoda, in a group
otherwise entirely hermaphrodite ; and recently, in the group of her-
maphrodite Planarie, we haye become acquainted with a species in
which the sexes are separated (Planaria dioica from St. Vaast).

Hence the discovery made by M. Keferstein at St. Malo of an her-
maphrodite Nemertian is not particularly surprising; but in any
case it is an important fact, since it is the first example of herma-
phroditism in this group. In this animal, to which M. Keferstein
gives the name of Borlasia hermaphroditica, the testes were found
full of mature spermatozoids, and the ovaries of ovules in course of
formation. The author having studied only a single individual, it
might be suspected that the organs designated by him under the
name of testes were seminal receptacles filled with semen ; never-
theless M. Keferstein believes he has ascertained that this interpre-
tation would be erroneous.

However this may be, the author asks whether the discovery ot
an hermaphrodite Nemertian would not serve to throw a little light
upon the Nemertians in the perivisceral cavity of which well-
developed living young have been found by M. Max Schultze, M.
Claparéde, and M. Keferstein himself.— Gottinger Nachrichten, Janu-
ary 15, 1868; abstract by E. Claparéde in Bibl. Uni. February
15, 1868, Bull. Sct. p. 173.

Anatomical Investigation of some Blind Coleoptera.
By M. C. Lespis.

Many insects destitute of eyes have been described in the last few
years, and among these the Coleoptera especially have attracted

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol.i. iy

230 Miscellaneous.

attention. Some of them live in caves, others in the earth, and some
are domesticated among the Ants.

The absence of the eye is not the character of a distinct family ;
several genera belonging to different families present the same ano-
maly. None of these insects have hitherto been made the subject of
anatomical investigation ; but I have examined the nervous system of
five species, the only ones that I have been able'to procure in suffi-
cient number. Several of the others are so small that they cannot
be dissected. These five species belong to four families of Coleoptera ;
three live in caves, namely, Aphenops Leschenaultii (Carabide), Ade-
lops pyrenceus, and Pholeuon Querilhact (Silphales); one lives with
ants, namely Claviger Duvalii (Pselaphide); and the last is found
deep in the earth, this is Langelandia anophthalma (Latridiide).

In all these insects the eye is entirely wanting. The abortion of
this organ induces the disappearance of the optic nerve, and even
that of a portion of the nervous centres; for the cerebroid ganglia,
instead of forming a mass placed transversely in the head, have the
form of two elongate-oval bodies placed nearly parallel to each other.
This form resembles that of the cerebroid ganglia of some blind larve
the perfect insects of which possess eyes.— Comptes Rendus, November
25, 1867, p. 890.

Action of the Induction-current upon Plants.
By C. Bronpzav.

M. Blondeau has pursued his investigation of the effect of the in-
duction-current upon the vegetable organism (see p. 38) by examining
its action upon the fruit and seed.

Acting upon fruits the current hastens their maturity. Apples,
pears, and peaches which had been subjected to the action of the
current arrived at complete maturity when the other fruits of the
same plant, which had not been operated upon, were still far from
being ripe.

The most curious results were obtained by electrifying seeds before
placing them in the ground. Seeds were rendered conductive by
soaking them for some time in water, and then submitted for a few
minutes to the action of the current. Peas, French beans, and wheat
were experimented on. The electrified seeds always germinated
sooner than those which had not been acted on by the current; the
development of the plant was more rapid, and the stalks and leaves
greener and more vigorous.

Some of the electrified French beans presented a very curious pe-
culiarity ; they germinated downwards, the gemmule and cotyledons
remaining in the ground, and the root rising into the air. The au-
thor remarks upon this peculiarity, which he compares to the effect
of the current upon the poles of a magnet, and indicates that the
embryo may hence be assimilated to a little magnet, having its neu-
tral line, and its two poles each charged with a peculiar fluid tending
to cause its organs to grow towards the centre of the earth or towards
the sky.—Comptes Rendus, November 4, 1867, pp. 762-763.

Miscellaneous. 231

.

On the first Formation of the Body in the Vertebrata.
By Professor Hts.

Professor His, in continuing his researches upon the ovular de-
velopment of the Vertebrata, has arrived at some results fitted to
produce a considerable change in the theory of blastodermic la-
mellze as modified by Remak. According to the author, the blas-
todermic lamellze would seem to constitute only secondary forma-
tions, and even the median lamella cannot at any period be regarded
as an anatomical whole.

M. His distinguishes, from the first, in the hen’s egg submitted
to incubation, two primitive blastodermic formations: at the ex-
pense of one are formed all the organs closely or distantly related
to the nervous system—the central nervous system, the peripheral
nerves, the epidermis, the glands, and the muscles, both striped and
smooth ; from the other originate the blood and the connective
tissues. The former is what is generally denominated the proli-
gerous disk ; but M. His gives it the name of archiblast or neuroblast ;
the latter is the white vitellus, or the parablast or hematoblast, ac-
cording to M. His.

The archiblast is derived from what Meckel von Hemsbach de-
nominated the ovule properly so called—that is to say, the part of
the ege which undergoes segmentation after fecundation. The pa-
rablast, on the contrary, is an adventitious formation, comparable
to the cells of the granular tunic of the ovum in the Mammalia; and
its constituent elements are similar in both the fecundated and un-
fecundated ovum.

In the fecundated but not incubated egg, M. His distinguishes
the germinal disk and the white and yellow vitelli. The white
vitellus forms a thin stratum surrounding the yellow one, and is
prolonged beneath the germinal disk in the form of a cord to the
centre of the egg. The germinal disk is a thin plate which rests
upon the white vitellus, in the place where the ovule, properly so
called, occurs in the unfecundated egg. After fecundation, this
ovule, by segmentation, becomes converted into the germinal disk.
Beneath this there is a cavity filled with liquid, the bottom of which
is formed by the white vitellus. The peripheral part alone of the
germinal disk rests immediately upon the white vitellus. Their line
of union is what M. His names the dlastodermic circumvallation
(Keimwall). The part of the germinal disk beneath which the cavity
is situated is the pellucid area; that which assists in forming the cir-
cumvallation is the opaque area. The author reverts to the opinion
of MM. Schwann and Reichert, according to which the elements of
the white vitellus are true nucleated cells. The cells of the germi-
nal disk form at first a continuous layer—the superior blastodermic
lamella. From the inner surface of this lamella start cords which
anastomose and form a sort of network, but never, before incuba-
tion, produce the true inferior blastodermic lamella.

The first result of fecundation is the complete formation of the

2o2 Miscellaneous.

inferior blastodermic lamella, which still remains for a time united to
the superior lamella by filaments. Then the axial lamina of Remak
is formed, in which M. His distinguishes three parts :—1, a layer
detached from the superior blastodermic lamella; 2, a layer de-
tached froin the inferior lamella; and, 3, an axial cord of union
between these two layers. The first two of these parts (inferior and
superior accessory lamine) are characterized by vertical strie. The
third is designated by M. His the avial cord. These parts give origin
to the medullary tube, the dorsal cord, the protovertebree, and the
cephalic and lateral plates. The first indication of the place where
the descending aortz will subsequently be situated appears in the
form of lacune behind the rudiments of the protovertebree. The
situation of the heart is marked by a similar lacuna.

As the superior blastodermic lamella sends prolongations down-
wards into the pellucid area, it sends perfectly similar ones into the
opaque area. But then these prolongations do not form, properly
speaking, a continuous lamella, but they penetrate the subjacent
stratum of white vitellus, to form in it a sort of network embracing
in its meshes the elements of that vitellus. The tissue thus formed
receives from the author the name of circumvallatory tissue (Keim-
wallzewebe). Subsequently, in the central part of the opaque area,
the superficial layer separates to form the vascular area, whilst the
peripheric adherent portion forms the vitelline area.

In the interior of the circumvallatory tissue there now appears,
according to the author, a complete system of lacunz, which, speedily
opening one into the other, cut off a thin superior layer. This sends
off filiform prolongations both upwards and downwards. It is the
hematogenous membrane, formed of cells of the archiblast united
into a network of which the meshes enclose bundles of cells of the
white vitellus. These packets of cells are the starting-points of
the formation of the blood-vessels: fusiform cells start from them
to penetrate into the subjacent lacunze and clothe them with a
continuous endothelial layer; thence they enter the pellucid area,
where they extend themselves in the lacune between the inferior
accessory lamina and the inferior blastodermic lamella; finally, con-
tinuing their centripetal advance, they introduce themselves into the
cardiac and aortic lacunz mentioned above, where they arrange
themselves in a coil, which merely applies itself to the walis of these
lacunze without becoming amalgamated with them. From these
primitive vascular walls are subsequently developed all the rudi-
ments of vessels, as also the mass from which are derived the con-
nective and cartilaginous tissues, and in general all the conjunctive
tissues. We may therefore say that, from a genetic point of view,
all the conjunctive substances may be assimilated to the adventitious
tunics of the vessels.—Archiv fiir mikrosk. Anat. Band ii. p. 513;
Bibl. Univ. August 25, 1867, Bull. Sci. pp. 330-332.

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

{FOURTH SERIES.]

No. 4. APRIL 1868.

XXIX.— On Lithodomous Annelids. By EK. RAy LANKESTER,
Junior Student of Christ Church, Oxford.

[Plate XI.]

Two years since, my friend Mr. Charles Stewart, then residing
at Plymouth, told me of certain Annelids which were in the
habit of perforating limestone rock in that neighbourhood,
and which he had found, when removed from their excava-
tions and placed on blue litmus-paper, to give a strongly acid
reaction. aes after this, I received, by his kindness, specimens
of this Annelid, which proved to be a Sabella, described by
De Quatrefages as Sabella saxicava, and abounding on certain
limestone coasts. The species is a small one, forming a dirty-
looking leathery tube, about one inch and a half in length.
Of this, one inch is buried in a perfectly cylindrical and
straight excavation in the limestone, to the walls of which
gallery the tube closely fits; the other half inch of tube pro-
jects freely from the surface of the rock (Pl. XI. fig. 4).
Having had my attention called to the subject, I remem-
bered certain perforated stones and pebbles abundant on the
south coast of the Isle of Wight, which seemed to me to be
very possibly the work of an Annelid; and when there, a year
since, I searched carefully for specimens. Below the Lower
Greensand cliffs near Luccomb Chine there are but few large
calcareous boulders on the shore, though there are many of
indurated sandstones, of varying hardness and colour. Not a
fragment of the sandstones, though some were very soft, exhi-
bited a single worm-perforation ; but wherever a boulder con-
sisting largely of carbonate of lime lay between tide-marks, it
was more or less excavated by minute passages; and these in
many cases were so numerous that it was obvious that the
author of these “riddlings” must play an important part in
the destruction and solution of such masses of carbonate of

Ann. &: Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Voli. 18

234 Mr. E.R. Lankester on Lithodomous Annelids.

lime (figs. 1 & 2). On breaking off fragments of these stones
(often so hard as to defy a heavy geological hammer), the pas-
sages were found to extend in many cases to the depth of an
inch, and in some cases to two inches and a half, the breadth
of the cavity varying proportionately. The excavations in this
case were not cylindrical, as with Sabella, but in transverse
section presented a keyhole- or figure-of-eight outline (fig. 3).
As seen in the drawing, they do not terminate abruptly, but
appear to be formed by the bending-round of a single cylin-
drical gallery. Within these galleries, and coiled round so
that the head and the tail both point to the aperture, many
specimens of the worm which made them were found (figs. 5, 6).
The worm does not lie in immediate contact with the stone,
~but the interior of the gallery is lmed and its substance im-
pregnated with a viscid secretion derived from the worm’s
body. The partition between the two parallel passages of the
gallery is often formed solely of this material. Boulders are
not unfrequently found which have been entirely deserted by
their occupants, or from which these have passed away by
death and decay ; and in those cases the animal matter which
lines the excavated passages is very easily seen, and sometimes
may be peeled off as a black carbonaceous film.

Having the case of Sabella saxicava in mind, I was fully
prepared to ascribe to a chemical action the perforation of the
hard limestone boulders by the Lewcodore ; for to that genus of
Johnston (Polydora of Bosc) the worm proved to belong. In this
view Lreceived a quite unexpected confirmation on subsequently
visiting White Cliff Bay, where the shore is covered with huge
masses of chalk rounded by the sea’s washing and overgrown
with Alege, A very large proportion of these blocks were
perforated on the surface, just as the limestone boulders further
west; and yet it would be difficult. to find two rocks differing
more in density and molecular structure than chalk and those
limestone boulders, Their only resemblance was in their
chemical composition. It was noticed that in this chalk bay
the perforations were by no means so closely disposed: there
was abundance of material, and therefore no cause for crowd-
ing. Specimens of the worms from the chalk-perforations
were obtained in great abundance, and proved identical with
those from the limestone, whilst the galleries were identical in
every respect. Subsequently to this, I received specimens of
limestone from Felixstow, on the coast of Suffolk, where the
whole shore is clay, masses of soft clay being exposed at low
tide, overgrown with weed and abounding with life. Not a
single Leucodore-perforation is to be found in this clay, though
Pholades and Hunice are abundant in it. Here and there in

Mr. E. R. Lankester on Lithodomous Annelids. 235

the clay is a septarian nodule (carbonate of lime); and this
presents the characteristic keyhole apertures and double gal-
leries which the Leucodore makes in the chalk and limestone
boulders of the Isle of Wight.

These two cases of the boring of stones by Annelids are the
only ones which at present have come under my notice. ‘The
case of Sabella saxicava is described by De Quatrefages ; but of
the boring of Leucodore [have seen no clear description or figure.
Thousands of persons and hundreds of naturalists must have
seen these borings; yet none have given more than a brief
allusion to the matter. M. de Quatrefages alludes to the fact
in a general way in speaking of the family of ‘‘ Leucodoriens:”
he says, ‘Some species evidently bore very hard calcareous
rocks,” and mentions fragments of rock “entirely worm-eaten.”
Mr. Templeton, in a paper on various marine animals, pub-
lished in Loudon’s Magazine in 1837, has given the most de-
finite allusion to the boring of Leucodore. He gives a rough
outline figure of the gallery, without describing its form, and
speaks of the worm as Spio calcarea: the Spio of Fabricius
was very probably a “‘ Leucodorien.”” My. Spence Bate, in a
paper on marine boring animals, alludes to certain Annelids,
by which he may very possibly mean to indicate both Sabella
and Leucodore. Mr. Gwyn Jettreys also alludes to borings by
Annelids in the same anonymous manner. ‘The most remark-
able allusion, however, to lithodomous Annelids, and one
which shows how very indefinite the knowledge of this matter
has been, is that of Dr. Bowerbank, quoted by Mr. Albany
Hancock in his recent paper on Cliona. Dr. Bowerbank at-
tributes the passages in shells which are inhabited by Cliona
to a “lithodomous Annelid.”” He does not venture to say that
he has seen this animal, but speaks of it as a very likely being
to play such a part. Mr. Hancock, in replying to this, did
not adduce the most complete refutation of this theory (viz.
that no such lithodomous Annelid was known), but urged that
the form of the passages was not such as an Annelid would be
likely to produce. The two above-described cases of perfora-
tion are, I believe, the only ones at present observed; and
certainly, in both, the form of the perforation is very unlike that
of any Cliona.

2. Having thus described what is the form of the perfora-
tions made by the two lithodomous Annelids, the question
arises as to how these perforations are made, and in what way,
if any, the structure of the worm is related to such a habit.
With regard to Sabella saxicava, in the first place, there is no
hard structure in this species which is not possessed by other
non-lithodomous species; and no one can maintain that the

18*

236 Mr. E. R. Lankester on Lithodomous Annelids.

chitinous setee would be of much avail against hard limestone.
Mr. George Busk, at the meeting of the British Association at
Dundee, suggested in discussion that the perforation was pos-
sibly effected, both in this case and in that of Zeucodore which
I then described, by means of sand rubbed by the worm against
the rock or introduced into its gallery when once begun.
This he had witnessed in Pholas. The objection to such a
view in the case of either of the Annelids is, that they do not
possess the necessary power of lateral movement, or any
point @apput, also that they only bore carbonate of lime;
and, further, it is impossible to guess how an attack could be
commenced on a stone in such a manner. We are reduced to
the theory that the gallery of Sabella is formed by the con-
stant apposition of the tail of the Annelid to the carbonate
of lime. The tail has been proved to be acid, and is therefore
a perfectly sufficient cause.

The boring Leucodore is represented in Pl. XI. fig. 7; and
it will be seen that, whilst the ordinary bristles are situate on
each somite, the fifth alone possesses very thick dark-coloured
sete, more or less blunt at the point (fig. 9). We cannot sup-
pose that these have any effect in perforating limestone, since
they are merely chitine, and, moreover, are present in species
of Leucodore which do not perforate, and which live by hun-
dreds in the silt filling cracks of rocks &e., or construct for
themselves rough and fragile tubes. At the same time they
may very possibly be efficient in excavating loose material.
They are undoubtedly homologous with the dark bristles pre-
sent in the anterior region of Chetopterus, and perhaps are
only rudimentary organs—Nature’s certificate of a long pedi-
gree. ‘The sand-theory fails in the case of Leucodore for the
same reason as in that of Sabella. In fact no mechanical ex-
planation of the perforation will account for a chemical selec-
tion of material. In every case of Leucodore-perforation to
which I have alluded, and with dozens of fragments from va-
rious stones, often presenting the most different appearances,
_ and looking more like sandstone than limestone, I have tested
for the presence of carbonate of lime, and have invariably
found it in large quantity; all the fragments which I sub-
mitted to analysis were rapidly disintegrated under the action
of weak acetic acid. Another fact in favour of chemical action
is the extremely clean and sharp character of the galleries,
both in Sabella and Leucodore.

My friend Dr. M‘Intosh was the only observer at Dundee
who expressed a belief that these Annelids perforate rocks
other than carbonate of lime. He said that he had seen
aluminous shale so bored; but I think he had other excava-

Mr. E. R. Lankester on Lithodomous Annelids. 237

tions in mind, such as Annelids will make in the semi-
solid silt filling cracks in shale, or else that he has since
seen reason to change his opinion; for he has not produced
any such specimen of shale, although then challenged to do
so. I submit that the opinion as to aluminous shale, unsup-
ported by any chemical test or specimen, and contessedly only
casually noticed, should not be of any weight in the balance
against the facts as to the exclusive erosion of limestone which
are above recorded.

Supposing, then, the agency in Leucodore to be a chemical
one, has any acid been observed? It has: specimens of
Leucodore, placed on litmus-paper, give a strong acid reac-
tion, besides which the constant evolution of carbonic acid
in the respiratory process, and its efficiency as a solvent of
carbonate of lime, are well known. At the base of each para-
podium in Leucodore is a little clear sac containing clear vesi-
cles: its function and homology are doubtful (fig. 8); it may
possibly secrete an acid fluid. But it seems much more pro-
bable that the erosion of the limestone, as a rule, is due to the
evolution of carbonic acid. At the same time, these sacs
(which exist also in the arenicolous species) may secrete sul-
phuric acid, as MM. Panceri and De Luca have lately observed
in the salivary gland of Doliwm and other mollusks. All
chemists know well the powerful solvent effect of water,
charged with carbonic acid, on limestone >but some zoologists
seem unable to realize it. The objection to the action of car-
bonic acid has been made that it would continue to dissolve
after the gallery was of sufficient size, and that Serpula and
Mollusca would by it dissolve their own shells. There is a
very simple answer to this, admitting of experimental proof :
it is, that the viscid secretion which the Annelid or mollusk can
exude affords a complete protection to any surface from further
erosion by the acid. One argument in favour of chemical
action in cases of boring generally, which seems to me to
have some force, is that in all cases the same surface which
deposits a shell, bone, or other such structure, can also reabsorb
it. Now in Serpula we have a dense calcareous shell depo-
sited by the surtace of the body; why in other cases should
not a similar mass of carbonate of lime be absorbed, or exca-
vated, by that surface, as in Leucodore? In Mollusks we
know that the shell may be deposited and reabsorbed ; and in
Vertebrates the absorption and deposition of bone goes on at
the same surface. The case of Pholas boring gneiss must by
no means be held to have put chemical action out of court in
all cases of perforation ; and whilst, in the cases of Sabel/a and
Leucodore, I believe the greatest effect must be attributed to

238 Dr. H. A. Nicholson on the Occurrence

such an action, and an auxiliary, but decidedly feeble, power
to the sete, there are many cases of molluscous excavation
also in which chemical erosion has a large share in the result.

3. A few words remain to be said as to the specific title and
distinction of the lithodomous Leucodore. In the first place,
it appears, from the remarks of Mr. Alexander Agassiz, lately
published in this Magazine, that Leucodore of Johnston is
truly a synonym of Polydora of Bosc. Claparéde and De
Quatrefages have both described species as belonging to the
genus Leucodore, which do not possess the characteristic modi-
fication of the fifth segment, and are really species of Nerine
of Johnston. If this be so, Johnston’s name Leucodore
will have to fall. At the same time, it seems probable that
both generic terms will be wanted; and I will not undertake
to say how each shall be limited. The boring species does
not differ obviously from Leucodore ciliata. I have not been
able to make a comparison of specimens ; but it seems probable
that they differ only in habit. Nevertheless, on account of
this habit, it may be well to give Templeton’s title (which has
precedence) of “ calcarea” to the boring form, which may be
designated Polydora (Leucodore, Johnst.) calcarea. The same
form of seta (fig. 10), the same copious ciliation of the branchial
cirri which arch over the dorsum, the same remarkable anal
cup or sucker (?), and the same form of head, with two tenta-
cles which readily drop off, and a producible prostomium,
characterize both P. ciliata and P. calcarea. It is quite pos-
sible that more careful examination may disclose marked spe-
cific differences, not only between these, but also between the
various individuals boring limestone, chalk, &e.

XXX.—On the Occurrence of the Genus Ptilograpsus in Bri-
tain ; with Notes on the Ludlow Graptolites. By HEnry
ALLEYNE NicHoxson, D.Sc., M.B., F.G.S.

THE genus Ptilograpsus was originally described by Hall as
occurring in the Quebec group in Canada; and two species
have been differentiated by him, viz. P. plumosus and P.
Geinitzianus (see ‘ Graptolites of the Quebec Group,’ pp. 139,
140, pl. 21. figs. 1-8). In the Skiddaw Slates, our English
equivalent of the Quebec group, no traces of this genus have
hitherto been found; nor does it appear to occur in the Upper
Llandeilo rocks of the south of Scotland, or in the Coniston
Flags in the north of England—both especially rich in forms
of Graptolites. Recently, however, by the kindness of Mr.
Lightbody and Mr. Marston, of Ludlow, I have been furnished

of the Genus Ptilograpsus in Britain. 239

with specimens of a new species of Ptilograpsus, which I pur-
pose to describe briefly under the name of P. anglicus. ‘The
generic characters of Ptilograpsus consist in the possession of
a branching plant-like frond, the branches and branchlets
plumose. The pinnules spring alternately from opposite sides
of both the primary and secondary divisions of the frond, and
are celluliferous on one side only. The base of the frond is
not known, the probability, however, being that the organism
was fixed.

As pointed out by Hall, Pélograpsus closely resembles the
modern Plumularia ; and,as far as its characters are yet known,
there is perhaps no really important point of difference. Cer-
tainly the resemblance to such forms as Plumularia cristata
and P. myriophyllum, the first especially, is most striking,
and must be more than merely mimetic. Like Dictyonema,
Dendrograpsus, and Callograpsus (all genuine Graptolites),
Ptilograpsus was probably permanently attached, though in
none of these genera has the commencement of the ‘“ hydro-
caulus’’ been yet detected. Another point in which Peilo-
grapsus agrees with the above-mentioned genera and differs
from the great majority of Graptolites is in the apparent ab-
sence of the “ solid axis” *, the individual branchlets consisting
simply of cellules or ‘‘ hydrothecz ”’ springing from a common:
canal or ‘“ coenosare.”” By this absence of the solid axis, of
all Graptolitic structures the most anomalous, Pélograpsus
manifestly approaches very closely to the Sertularian type,
though not more closely, perhaps, than do Callograpsus and
Dendrograpsus. Dictyonema, again, though certainly belong-
ing to the same natural subgroup of the Graptolitide as the
above three genera, has a fresh structure superadded in the
shape of transverse dissepiments connecting together the dif-
ferent branches which constitute the frond.

Ptilograpsus anglicus, spec. nov.
Spec. char. Frond slender and branching, all the branches,
large and small, being provided with pinnule, which spring
alternately from opposite sides, and bear angular cellules on

one face. Pinnule from twenty to twenty-eight in an inch,
their length varying from two to three twentieths of an inch.

* The “solid axis” has usually been supposed to be an essential element
in the structure of every Graptolite, the genus Retiolites alone excepted.
In common with the great majority of writers on the subject, this belief
was shared by myself, and I did not believe that even the above-mentioned
exception would be found to hold good. Recent investigations, however,
into this particular point have led me to the opinion that the axis is not
so constantly present as has been generally thought, that it is certainly
absent in the genera I have spoken of, and probably absent in others.

240 Dr. H. A. Nicholson on the Occurrence

The cellules are from three to six on a pinnule; when well

exhibited, they are angular, projecting, and closely resem-

bling the cellules in some forms of Graptolites Nilssoni,

Barr. The test is cormmeous, and there are no traces of any

solid axis. }

The entire frond is not known to me; but I have seen frag-
ments of nearly two inches in length. Whether this species
is absolutely distinct from that of the Quebec group, termed
by Hall P. plumosus, it is difficult to say, in the absence of the
cellules of the latter. It is, however, highly improbable that
the species should have survived through a period of time so
vast as this would imply. Our species, too, is of a much more
slender and graceful habit than is the case with either of the
American species, whilst the branching is more diffuse and the
pinnulz are shorter.

Loc. In a greenish-grey mudstone, of Lower Ludlow age,
from Bow Bridge, near Ludlow.

ae

\

wee
J by 9”

4

3

Ptilograpsus anglicus, spec. nov.
. A small portion of a frond, natural size.
. A single branchlet, enlarged.
. A single pinnule, enlarged, to show the cellules.
. Branched Graptolite (Ptilograpsus?) from the Lower Ludlow rocks
of Bow Bridge, near Ludlow, nat. size.
. A portion of the same, enlarged, showing pinnule and cellules(?).

ona Pwhre

In the same bed with Ptilograpsus anglicus there occurs a
branching fossil, in the same state of preservation as the former,
and almost certainly Graptolitic, though I have failed to de-
tect cellules except in one instance, and then not with cer-
tainty. I possess, however, but a single specimen, which I

of the Genus Ptilograpsus in Britain. 241
owe to the kindness of Mr. Lightbody, of Ludlow. Its mode

of branching is much more discrete than that of P. anglicus ;
and the branches, which arise alternately from opposite sides,
are not provided with pinnulz or cellules near their origins.
Whether true pinnule are developed on the terminal portions
of the branches, or not, is doubtful; but both pinnule and
cellules appear to be present on one of the branches of my
specimen (see fig. 5). If this is really the case, then the fossil
would form a new species of Ptlograpsus ; but it is just possi-
ble that it may be referable to Dendrograpsus, a genus equally
ancient with the former, and equally unknown in beds of such
a late age.

Besides the above, the Ludlow rocks in the neighbourhood
of Ludlow contain at least three other species of Graptolites.
One of these is the familiar Graptolites priodon of Bronn—
the G. ludensis of the ‘Silurian System.’ The second is cer-
tainly distinct from Gt‘. priodon, though none of the specimens
at present in my possession are in a state of sufficiently good
preservation to enable me to come to an accurate determina-
tion. It is identical with a Graptolite which occurs in the
‘‘sheer-bate”” beds at the top of the Coniston Flags of the
north of England; and it seems almost, if not quite, undis-
tinguishable from one of the forms of G. colonus, Barr. (See
Barrande, Graptolites de Boheme, pl. 2. fig. 5; Geinitz,
Graptolithen, pl. 2. fig. 34.) The third presents a considerable
resemblance to some varieties of G‘. Ne/ssont, and also to the
younger forms of G. sagittarius, Linn.; but it is remarkable
for the peculiarity that the cellules are on the concave (instead
of the convex) side of the stipe. This condition is probably
of specific value ; but it seems better to refrain from making a
new species until, by the examination of an extensive suite of
specimens, the peculiarity in question is proved to be constantly
and persistently present. Whether specifically distinct or not,
the existence in the Ludlow rocks of a form so closely allied
to the above-mentioned Lower-Silurian species, along with a
genus hitherto only known from the base of the Lower Llan-
deilo series, is a highly suggestive and noteworthy fact. For
one thing, it seems to be exceedingly probable that the Grap-
tolitidee will ultimately be found to be not so exclusively
Silurian as has generally been supposed. Hall has taken the
first step in this direction by the discovery in America of
species of Dictyonema in the Old Red Sandstone (Upper
Helderberg and Hamilton groups); and subsequent researches
will very probably show the coexistence with these of other
genera of which the Graptolitic nature is more universally
acknowledged.

242 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Geographical

XXXI.— On the Geographical Distribution of the Balenidz or
Right Whales. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., V.P.Z.S.,
PL... Cec.

Pror. VAN BENEDEN has read a paper to the Royal Belgian
Academy on the geographical distribution of Les Baleznes,
which is published in the first number of the ‘ Bulletin’ for
1868, accompanied by a map. He acknowledges only five
species of Right Whales, having the following geographical
distribution :—

1. B. mysticetus. 'The Arctic Ocean on both sides of Green-
land, and on the coast of Siberia to the Sea of Okhotsk.

2. B. biscayensis. The North Atlantic, from latitude 65°
to 45°, and a belt across the Atlantic to the coast of the United
States, from lat. 45° to 50°.

3. B. japonica. A band across the North Pacific from
lat. 60° to 45° on the west coast of America and 45° to 30° on
the coast of Japan.

A, B. australis. A belt across the South Atlantic from
lat. 25° to 30° on the west coast of Africa and lat. 35° to 50°
on the coast of South America.

5. B. antipodarum. In a similar belt across the South
Pacific from the west coast of South America, in lat. 45°, to
New Zealand.

Thus it will be seen that M. Van Beneden supposes that
Right Whales inhabit belts across all the seas except the
Indian Ocean. ‘This exception is extraordinary, as Capt.
Maury’s chart shows that Right Whales are comparatively
abundant in a belt between latitude 30° and 50° from the
Cape of Good Hope to Australia. It is in this belt that
Balena marginata and B. australiensis are most probably
found; but M. Van Beneden ignores the existence of these
species.

Mr. Blyth also mentions a species of Right Whale, under
the name of B. indica, founded on some bones in the Museum
of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, which he says inhabits ‘the
Bay of Bengal, Arabian Sea, and occasionally enters the
Persian Gulf.’ But this must be a mistake, as these places
are situated in the torrid zone, which is to these animals, as
Capt. Maury justly observes, ‘forbidden ground; and it is as
physically impossible for them to cross the equator as it would
be to cross a sea of flame. In short, these researches show
that there is a belt, of from two to three thousand miles in
breadth and reaching from one side of the ocean to the other,
in which the Right Whale is never found.”” (Maury, Whale-
Charts, p. 233.)

Distribution of the Balenide. 243
The distribution of the species here propounded by M. Van

Beneden is simply founded on a theory: he does not give any
authority for the range of any of the species; and | believe
that no materials exist for verifying the distribution pro-
osed.

; M. Van Beneden compares his map with those of Captain
Maury; but these maps were formed from actual observation
made by the masters of whalers; and they only undertake to
show where Sperm and Right Whales have been observed,
without attempting to define which species of Right Whale
inhabited the respective districts; indeed Capt. Maury seems
only to allow two Right Whales—one inhabiting the northern,
and the other the southern hemisphere.

I should be sorry to say that the species, or at least some of
them, may not have the range that M. Van Beneden has
assigned to them, because I have no material for such a state-
ment; but many facts we do know militate against the theory.
At the same time I do not think that science is profited
by the propounding of such a map without more material, as
it may mislead some zoologists to believe that authority for
the distribution of the species may exist, and thus prevent
them from studying the subject ; and Cuvier has well observed
that “‘ when imagination is left at liberty in scientific pursuits,
the result is almost always error and confusion.”

As a proof of the want of authority for the distribution here
given, I may observe :—

1. That I am not aware that any bones or other remains
(even a piece of whalebone) have ever been received of a
Right Whale or Balena caught on the coast of Siberia; so
we cannot decide whether it is the B. mysticetus of the coast
of Greenland that inhabits the seas of Siberia.

2. We only know the Right Whale found on the Siberian
coast from a wooden model made by some Aleutians, though
Capt. Maury’s chart shows they are abundant in those seas.
Some whalers seem to think they are like those in Baffin’s
Bay, and others that they are very different from them, re-
marking that ‘‘it is not the easiest thing in the world to dis-
tinguish the different kinds of whales, even to those who have
been in the whaling busimess; and a ship must be brought
close by a whale to tell for certain his kind” (Whale-Charts,

. 259).
‘ Capt. Roy, who believes “ the Whales of Behring’s Straits
and Baffin’s Bay are the same,”’ observes, “they differ very
much from the Kamtschatka or North-west Whale, or the
Right Whale of the China seas,” showing that in his opinion
the Right Whale of the coast of Siberia and Kamtschatka is

244 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Geographical

different from, and not, as M. Van Beneden supposes, the same
as B. mysticetus.

3. Balena biscayensis is only known from the skeleton of a
young specimen taken at St. Sebastian, in the Bay of Biscay,
now in the Museum at Copenhagen. Mr. Flower informs me
that this skeleton belongs to my genus Cuvierius, which has
brittle whalebone, with a large coarse fringe (which easily splits
into strips), and a bifid first rib. It is very doubtful if this is
the Whale found on the coast of North America, as it ought to be
according to M.Van Beneden’s chart. The only reliable account
of the Whale of that coast is to be found in Dudley’s paper in
the ‘ Philosophical Transactions’ (xxxiii. p. 258), who says the
“Scrag-Whale” (B. gibbosa, Erxleben) has white whalebone,
“thatwon’t split,” which seems to show that itwasa true Balena,
which is separated from Hubalena on account of the toughness,
flexibility, and unsplittability of its whalebone; and, indeed,
Dudley says the Scrag- Whale “ is nearest the Right Whale (B.
mysticetus) in figure and quantity of oil.” This does not prove
that B. biscayensis does not inhabit the coast of North America ;
but it goes far to show that a species very like B. mysticetus does;
and M. Van Beneden does not note this fact, though he places
without doubt the geographical range of B. bisceayensis as ex-
tending to that country, for which there is not a particle of
evidence. It may be observed that Capt. Maury’s ‘ Whale-
Charts’ do not offer any confirmation of Prof. Van Beneden’s
distribution of this species of Right Whale : they are very rare
m the North Atlantic and off the coast of North America ; a few
have been observed in the midchannel between Morocco and
North America, but they were probably animals accidentally
carried out of their course.

Professor E. D. Cope, of Haverford College, United States,
described the “ Black Whale” of the whalers of the east
coast of the United States, from a nearly complete skeleton
in the Museum of the Academy of Natural Sciences in Phila-
delphia, under the name of Balena (Hubalena) cisaretica
(Journ. Acad. Nat. Science, Philad. 1865). This may be
the same as B. nodosa; but it is certainly not the Balena
(Hunterius) biseayensis ; for it has ‘ fourteen pairs of ribs, the
anterior single-headed,” and therefore is a true Hubalena.
Prof. Cope says, “ Individuals are occasionally cast ashore
eastward, and some are known to enter New-York harbour.
They were formerly abundant about the mouth of the Delaware:
a letter of William Penn, dated 1683, states that eleven were
taken that year about the capes. Five specimens are stated
to have been seen in the Delaware River since that time ;
and ten of great size are recorded to have been found on the

Distribution of the Balenide. 245

coast of Maryland. Three have come under my notice—one
taken opposite this city three years ago, one cast ashore in
Rehoboth Bay, Del., and one in Molzach Bay, Va.”

B. japonica.—I am not aware if any bones or other remains
of this species are to be found in any European museum, except
the whalebone that is imported under the name of “‘ northwest-
coast whalebone,” meaning thereby that of the whales of the
north-west coast of America. I first brought this whalebone
under the notice of zoologists in the ‘ Zoology of the Erebus
and Terror.’ There is no doubt that an extensive whale-
fishery is carried on by the Japanese, from the works they
have published on the subject; and it is very probable that
the whalebone imported as north-west whalebone may be the
same as that obtained by the Japanese ; but we have no means
of determining this point, as I have never been able to procure
any whalebone imported from Japan. This is probably what
the whalers call the Kamtschatka or North-west Whale, which
they say is very different from the whale of Behring’s Straits
and Baftin’s Bay (Whale-Charts, p. 255).

B. australis—This species is only known from two skele-
tons brought from the (Cape of Good Hope by M. Delalande,
now in Paris, and some bones, sent from the Cape, in the
British Museum; but we have no material to determine what
is the species of whale that inhabits the vicinity of the Falkland
Islands and the east coast of South America.

It is supposed that the whalebone sold in London as the
“*South-Sea whalebone” is the baleen of this species ; but Iam
informed that that kind of whalebone is collected by the ships
that fish in the great southern oceans; and there certainly is
found a second most distinct species of Right Whale near the
Cape of Good Hope. A very fine skull of an adult and a
nearly complete skeleton of a young individual, both obtained
from the Cape of Good Hope by Dr. Horstock, are contained.
in the Leyden Museum. ‘These are briefly described by
Schlegel, in his ‘Abhandlungen aus dem Gebiete der Zoologie,’
part 1, p. 137, as B. mysticetus australis; and I have named
them Hunterius Temminckii (Cat. of Seals and Whales in
British Museum, p. 98). M. Van Beneden entirely overlooks
this species in his distribution of the Whales in his chart.

Balena antipodarum is only known to zoologists from a
drawing by Dieffenbach and a skeleton in the Paris Museum
which was obtained in New Zealand. Dieffenbach gives some
account of the migration of this species, but he gives no au-
thority for extending its geographical distribution to the west
coast of South America. I have never seen any whalebone
said to have come from New Zealand, though Dieffenbach says

246 On the Geographical Distribution of the Balenide.

the strand of Tory Channel is strewed with the baleen and the
bones of this Whale.

Capt. Maury’s Whale-Charts show that Right Whales of
some species have been observed in almost all parts of the
the South Sea, from the south of the Cape of Good Hope to
the coast of Van Diemen’s Land (that is, a belt of sea from
latitude 35° to 50°), and even a few in latitude 55°. I have
no means of determining if the Right Whale inhabiting this
district is B. australis, B. Temminckii, B. australiensis, or a
peculiar species not yet determined. Prof. Van Beneden, in
his chart, does not mention any Right Whales being found in
the district.

I think that we must wait for more material before we can
attempt a sketch of the geographical distribution of these
animals in which any reliance can be placed. The only infor-
mation we possess may be thus summed up :—

Capt. Maury’s Whale-Charts show that Right Whales are
found in almost all seas, from the poles to within 35 or 30
degrees of latitude on each side of the equator. An expe-
rienced whaler observes that ‘‘ Right Whales are as seldom
seen in that belt as Sperm-Whales are found out of it.” Right
Whales, that were comparatively common in the temperate
part of the North Atlantic, are now very rare: they were pro-
bably greatly destroyed by the whalers who formerly fished
there, as they do now in the Southern Sea and North Pacific;
and the great traffic, and the bay being all inhabited, prevent
these animals having the requisite privacy for replenishing
their race. Maury’s maps show how few are now found in
this part of the ocean; and only a single specimen of the B.
biscayensis is in any collection ; and the Scrag-Whale (B. no-
dosa) of the coast of North America has not been observed
since Dudley’s time.

1. We only know, from the examination of specimens, that
Balena mysticetus is found in Greenland.

2. Balena biscayensis, on the coast of Spain.

3. Balena australis and, 4, B. Temminckii at the Cape of
Good Hope.

5. Balena antipodarum, New Zealand.

6. Balena australiensis and, 7, .b. marginata on the shores
of Australia; the latter only known from some blades of its
whalebone.

8. Balena japonica, of Japan, which is probably the whale
that yields the baleen sold as north-west whalebone. No
other part of this Whale is known to exist in any museum.

9. Balena nodosa, the Scrag-Whale of Dudley, inhabits
the coast of North America; but, unfortunately, no specimen

Mr. H. J. Carter on a Variety of Spongilla Meyeni. 247

or part of a specimen of this species is known to exist in any
museum.

10. Balena cisarctica, the Black Whale of the whalers of
the east coast of the United States of America, may be the same
as B. nodosa. There is a skeleton in the Museum of the Aca-
demy of Sciences, Philadelphia; and it is probably a skeleton
of this species that ‘is exposed to all weathers on the roof of
the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts.”” (See Agassiz, Rep. 1864-65.)

How. far the species dicated. range beyond the habitats
whence they were received is yet to be discovered and re-
corded. No doubt their range is influenced by many local
circumstances (peculiarities in the currents, and disposition of
the food) that are not easily observed or understood. For
example, Capt. Maury observes :—‘'The Sperm-Whale, ac-
cording to the result of this chart, appears never to double
the Cape of Good Hope. It doubles Cape Horn. Since this
fish delights in warm water, shall we not expect to find off
Cape Horn an under-current of warm water heavier with its

salt ?”’ (Maury, Whale-Charts, p. 267.)

XXXIT— On a Variety of Spongilla Meyeni from the River
fixe, Devonshire. By H. J. Carrer, F.R.S. &e.
Spongilla Meyeni (Ephydatia, Gray)*, var. Parfitt’, Carter.
Massive, flat, more or less lobed, sessile, spreading. Colour
reenish, yellowish. Texture friable. Structure reticulate.
eens) bodies spheroidal, accumulated towards the base,
largest about +35 inch in diameter. Spicules of skeleton
fusiform, slightly arched, acerate, abruptly pointed, largest
s'y inch long; of two kinds, smooth and spinous ; one-third
of the largest thickly set with short vertical spines through-
out, except towards the points. Spicules of seed-like body
birotulate, z'55 inch long, more or less sparsely scattered
throughout the wall of the seed-like body, wherein they are
arranged vertically, with the outer rotule projecting a little
beyond the amorphous (siliceous?) substance that chiefly
keeps the whole together; rotules deeply dentate, stellate,
wider in diameter than the spicular shaft which unites them;

shaft cylindrical, the same size throughout.

Hab. River Exe, Devonshire ; Salmon-pool Weir, near Exeter.
On a beam of wood over which the water falls. In masses
attaining a maximum length of 1 foot, with 14 inch thick-
ness (Mr. Parfitt).

* Proc. Zool. Soc, Lond. May 9, 1867, p. 550.

248 Mr. H.J. Carter on a Variety of Spongilla Meyeni.

Obs. This Spongilla chiefly differs from Sp. Meyent of Bom-
bay in the decidedly spinous character of one-third of its largest
spicules, while about the same proportion in the Bombay spe-
cies can be only termed “ incipiently spinous.”’ The excess in
size of the elementary parts generally of the Bombay species
over those of the variety in the river Exe amounts to nothing,
specifically considered.

But there is a much more decided difference between var.
Parfitt and the birotulate English species termed Sp. fluviatilis,
which also grows in the river Exe, inasmuch as the spicules
of the skeleton in the latter are all smooth, the shaft of the
birotules, somewhat constricted in the centre, approaching to
hour-glass shape, with the margin on/y of the rotules minutely
dentate, almost fringed*.

Iam indebted to my intelligent friend, the able naturalist of
Exeter, Mr. E. Parfitt, for having brought to my notice the
existence, in the river Exe, of the variety and species of
Spongilla above mentioned, where this gentleman found them
some time since; and, he having kindly submitted them (in the
dry state, with his own notes of what they were when alive)
for my examination and publication, I cannot do better than
dedicate the variety to him.

The indistinct colour of var. Parfitt? may perhaps be attri-
buted to the filtering position in which it grows, viz. on the
beam of the weir over which the Exe falls at the Salmon-pool,
if not also the more spinous state of its spicules generally ;
while the position of Sp. fluviatilis, taken from the Canal and
parts of the Exe just above, where Mr. Parfitt found it incrust-
ing the stems and leaves of Anacharis and on hard substances
respectively, presents not only the usual fawn-colour of Sponges
in general, but also a less spinous state of the spicules—per-
haps from a less agitated state of the water in which it
grows.

I still adhere to the term “seed-like body,” instead of
adopting that of “ ovary,” used by Dr. Bowerbank ; for where,
literally, we cannot yet make “ head or tail” of an organism,
it certainly is premature to designate any part of it by a term
which is essentially connected with the true process of genera-
tion. Moreover | have already pointed out the identity in
structure and composition of the seed-like body of Sp. Cartert
with the winter-egg of the Bryozoat; and I am pleased to
find just now, by chance, that Meyen, long before this, had

* See also Dr. Bowerbank’s figures and descriptions, Proc. Zool. Soe.
Lond. Nov. 24, 1863; and Ray Soc. publ.
+ Annals, 1859, vol. iii. p. 331.

Mr. H. J. Carter on a Variety of Spongilla Meyeni. 249

stated, “they [the seed-like bodies] are similar to what are
denominated the winter-eggs of Polypes”’*.

I have also lately observed that the seed-like bodies in
Sp. Cartert (which Spongilla grows rapidly round the stems
of herbaceous plants during the six months that the upper
parts of the freshwater tanks in Bombay are filled) are de-
veloped towards the periphery, that Sp. plumosa developes
its seed-like bodies throughout all parts of its structure
almost equally, while the three other Bombay species deve-
lope theirs respectively chiefly towards the base or first-formed

arts.

, In Prof. James-Clark’s paper entitled “ Spongie ciliate
as Infusoria flagellata,” now being republished in the ‘An-
nals,’ the author—after having most carefully examined
Leucosolenia (Grantia) botryoides, Bowerbank, im connexion
with a number of flagellate infusoria, both new and old in
description—states his ‘conviction that the true ciliated
Spongie are not Rhizopoda in any sense whatever, nor even
closely related to them, but are genuine compound flagellate
Protozoa.”

Thus a flagellate infusorium would have to be considered
the animal expression of Granta; and if it can also be shown
that these flagellate infusoria can reproduce their sponges re-
spectively, directly or indirectly, by the trwe process of genera-
tion, and that all the sponge-cells which take in food, both
ciliated and unciliated, receive it through an oral orifice, and
not directly through-any part of their bodies, then, so far, the
Sponges can be disconnected from the Rhizopoda, and, I expect,
generally will have to be regarded in the light in which the
sagacious Professor of Natural History in the Agricultural
College of Pennsylvania views the Spongie ciliatee.

Still, if this be shown, I cannot yet see to what extent it
could disassociate the Spongiadee from the Rhizopoda, which
evidently possess a like power of polymorphism.

But Prof. Clark’s paper is far too able to justify a hasty
conclusion or cursory criticism in any respect; and therefore
this is not the time or place for me to add more than that it
appears to possess extraordinary merit, which will be realized
the more it is studied by the practical microscopist, who at the
same time feels sensible of the duty he is performing towards
the public in directing their attention to that end of the scale
of organized beings concerning which we are still so profoundly
ignorant.

P.S. Mr. Parfitt adds that Spongilla fluviatilis is plentiful

* Johnston, Brit. Sponges, footnote, p. 154 : 1842.
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. i. 19

250 . Prof. H. James-Clark on the Spongie ciliate

in the Exe and in the canal near Exeter, throughout the summer
months; but, by attaching itself to plants which die down in
the autumn, the specimens are all swept away by the winter

floods.

XXXITII.—On the Spongie ciliate as Infusoria flagellata; or
Observations on the Structure, Animality, and Relationship
of Leucosolenia botryoides, Bowerbank. By H. JAMES-
CiarK, A.B., B.S., Professor of Natural History in the
Agricultural College of Pennsylvania.

[Continued from p. 215. ]
§ 12. Astasia trichophora, Clap. Pl. VI. figs. 45, 46.

The transition from the mononematous Monas, Codosiga,
Leucosolenia, &c. to those heteronematous Flagellata which
possess at the same time a proboscidiform and a gubernacli-
form flagellum is most aptly exemplified by that curious mi-
metic combination of Amaba and Anisonema known as As-
tasia trichophora, Clap. (Trachelius trichophorus, Ehr.). At
first sight it appears to be capable of all the abrupt retrogres-
sive motions and short turnings of an Anisonema (figs. 65-69),
without being endowed with a similar means of locomotion.
One is not long, however, in discovering the homologue of the
trail (fl?) or rudder (gubernaclum) of the latter in the posterior
abdominal, triangular prolongation (fig. 45, 4?) of the body of
the former. That this is the true interpretation of the pro-
longation is warranted not only by the use to which it is put,
as a sort of point d’apput during the amceboid retroversions of
the body, but also by its persistent form whilst the animal is
contorted into a shapeless writhing mass. In the midst of the
paucity of distinctive topography, we are also furnished by
this organ, if I may so call it, with a basis of ready discrimi-
nation between the practically ventral and dorsal sides of the
body ; for, although it may not lie strictly in the central line
of progress during reptation (nor could we expect to find it
there upon being referred to its homological relation to the
asymmetrically attached gubernaclum of Anisonema), it none
the less belongs to the reptant side of the animal, and, as it
were, controls its motions and acts as a keel, upon which the
posterior end of the body vibrates and reels from side to side.
Finally, in reference to this point, it may be added that this
species does not swim, properly speaking, nor has it the cha-
racter of the revolving natant forms, such as Dujardin sepa-
rated from the Astasia of Ehrenberg and described under the
name of Peranema.

as Infusoria flagellata. 251

For the sake of accumulating and multiplying diagnostic
characters that shall serve us hereafter as discriminative points
in determining the classificatory relations of Flagellata, it is
most desirable that every critical study of one of these forms
should be carefully recorded, even to the minutest details.
On this account, therefore, and particularly in the present
connexion, notwithstanding that this species is so frequently
met with, and apparently so well known, it will not be out of
place here to describe it anew, especially as some of the fea-
tures presented for the consideration of naturalists are not in
accordance with the interpretation put upon them by previous
observers.

The dody of this animalcule is colourless, but frequently has
a slight yellowish or reddish tinge, which is derived by diffu-
sion from the granular contents of the interior. The only
legitimate colour present lies in the very faint red eye-spot (s).
The form is variable, from elongate-ovate to cylindrical, with
a gentle taper at the anterior third into a narrow truncate-
emarginate head. Posteriorly the dorsal region is rounded;
but on the ventral face a broad triangular prolongation (/?),
already spoken of as the homologue of the gubernaclum of the
reptant Heteronemata, extends backward beyond the outline
of the dorsum. 'The exact relation of this prolongation to the
axis of the body is not to be determined beyond a doubt, be-
cause of the constantly shifting attitude of the animal: at one
moment the gubernaclum (fl?) is on the left, and then at the
next instant it appears on the right of the mesial line, or fol-
lows for awhile between these two points, according as the
body keels over more or less from one side to the other or ba-
lances itself in a median position. It appears most frequently,
however, to be unilateral,

The ameeboid contortions (fig. 46) of the body have already
been mentioned; but I would add that this is only a resem-
blance, a mere suggestion, if one may use the term, of the
mode of locomotion of Ama@ba; for it is not, as in the latter,
an actual flowing out of a glairy mass into protean reptant
processes, but an exceedingly variable puckering, and always
accompanied by a longitudinal contraction of the body, the
one being evidently necessary to the other. If I may carry
out the niceness of distinction further, I should say that, whilst
Ameba is contractile and plastic, Astasia is retractile and
flexible.

The flagellum (fl) also, by its subterminal attachment to
the head, carries out the typical plan of the reptant Hetero-
nemata. It is based strictly on the ventral side of the front,
descending from the latter with such an abrupt turn forward

iF

252 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Spongie ciliate

that it appears, without close observation, to be a mere taper-
ing prolongation of this region. Yet it is neither related to
the body in the latter sense, nor an extension of it from any
point of view, but is as strictly an appendage as any form of
vibratile cilia*, and alike as incapable of contraction. It is so
stout and thick that one need not be surprised to find Ehren-
berg, in the absence of a knowledge of the structure of this
animalcule, mistaking the scarcely tapering flagellum for the
frontal prolongation of a Trachelius. Usually it is about half
as long again as the body; but that of very large animals
often greatly exceeds this proportion. Its mode of action, as
a propulsive organ, is not like that most frequently exhibited
by the flagella of the truly natant Flagellata; for whilst in
the latter case the vibrations pass along the whole length of
the ciliwm, in the former they are confined to its distal end;
and, moreover, they seem to be different in character, since,
instead of simply undulating in a more or less restricted plane,
the flagellum twirls at the tip rather after the manner of a
‘revolving helix.

This method of progression is singularly modified by a
rhombic meniscoid species of Cyclidium, Duj. (non Ehr.),
whose flagellum during reptation projects (from a deeply sub-
terminal point of the convex side of the body) without flexure
almost to its tip, and then simply bends with frequent and
vigorous strokes in the form of a hook, which it applies side-
wise against the surface over which the creature is passing,
and drags it after it, tilted over on one of its flanks, in a hitching
sidelong manner.

As a tactile organ, and for the purposes of prehension, the
flagellum appears, by its great flexibility and vigorous action,
to be eminently capable. Feeling about it with all the appa-
rent expectation of finally meeting with something, the ani- _
malcule keeps its proboscis in a constant quiver, lashing it
backward and forward in the meanwhile, or thrusting it along
its flanks and then abruptly withdrawing it, very much after
the manner of a Lacrymaria. When a particle of food is
brought near the mouth (m), it is, as it were, coaxed into it by
the light pulsations of the flagellum, apparently assisted by
the movements of the buccal margin.

The eye-spot (s), so called, naturally comes under considera-

* As my views in regard to the relation of vibratile cilia to underlying
cells may not be fully understood in this allusion, I would refer to my
published opinion on this subject, in a note appended to some remarks
upon Actinophrys, in the ‘ Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural.
History’ for September 1863, p. 283, and republished in the ‘ Annals-and
Magazine of Natural History’ for November 1864,

as Infusoria flagellata. 253

tion in connexion with the tactile organ. It is a very minute
circular body, apparently about as broad as the diameter of the
flagellum, which lies a short distance behind the end of the
head and just in front of the mouth (m). Frequently, from its
excessive faintness and light-red colour, it appears to be ab-
sent; but, under careful scrutiny, it may always be detected.
The tendency which prevails to undervalue the importance of
this body, because it is present in an apparently similar posi-
tion in the zoospores of Alge, no doubt hinders our advance-
ment in the knowledge of its true character and function.
Whether it is an organ of vision of any grade, or even a sen-
sorial centre of any kind, can only be brought within the range
of probability. Its constant presence demands attention, and
should excite inquiry on that ground alone; but when, more-
over, we find it in a position which corresponds to that in which
the chief sensorial centres are usually situated, no mere resem-
blance to something else should divert us into a train of fancies
about the homologies of the red oil-globules of the zoospores
of Algee, whilst the main point at issue is left in obscurity.

If we cannot add anything further that is positive in regard
to this organ, it will be well at least to attract attention to it
in relation to its homologue in other Flagellata. In Phacus
pleuronectes, Duj., it is not a uniform red spot, but seems to
be divided into two regions, one of which is lunate in shape
and of a bright red colour, and projects forward from the upper
side of the other like an appendage; whilst the main part is
more deeply seated in the dorsum, and consists of a colourless,
but quite conspicuous, irregularly circular disk, about as broad
as the contractile vesicle, which it partially overlies. In this

_case one might, with a fair show of reasonableness, suggest
that the red portion alone is the true eye-spot, and that the
colourless disk is a sensorial centre, not only for the former,
but also for the flagellum, which arises close to it, on the ven-
tral side. When we recall instances of the presence of a similar
disk, which is unaccompanied by a red spot, in certain species
of uniflagellate natant Flagellata (Peranema ?, Duj.), and mark
how long it is persistent after the body has fallen to pieces for
the lack of fresh water, one cannot but feel that its superior con-
sistency is a fair warrant for the belief that it is at least an
important organ, and that, seeing the very faint colour of that
of Astasia trichophora, the absence of all tint does not neces-
sarily exclude it from the category of visual organs. On the
other hand, it might be justly questioned whether even the
deepest-coloured spots are at all sensitive to light; and the
only answer would be that analogy renders it highly probable
that they are. ;

254 Prof, H. James-Clark on the Spongie ciliate

The mouth (m) is a very marked feature when contrasted
with that of other Flagellifers. It is usually to be observed in
a closed state (fig. 46,m), when it may be recognized as a
short, dark, sharply defined double line trending lengthwise
with the body, and situated on the ventral side,a short dis-
tance behind the base of the flagellum, and just in front of the
contractile vesicle. When open, it has a more or less broad
oblong shape, and is more conspicuous than when closed.
During the introception of food, it is quite active ; but whether
for the purpose of mastication, or merely to manceuvre the in-
coming particles, cannot be said positively, although it is pro-
bably with the latter design. ‘The peculiar knobbed, parti-
coloured aspect of the body is due to the almost invariably
present large, highly refracting red and yellow granules in the
general cavity.

The contractile vesicle (cv) is situated just behind the mouth,
but near the dorsal side of the body. At full diastole it is
globular, and its diameter is one-third of the breadth of the
region in which it is situated. The systole is abrupt, and
appears to be complete; and the diastole is slow, seeming to
occupy all of the intervening time between the systoles. ‘The
rate of systole was not ascertained with sufficient accuracy to
be recorded ; but I should judge it to be not more than four or
five times a minute.

The reproductive organ is probably represented by a very
large, light, oval mass (x) which nearly fills the middle of the
body. It has a decided outline, and, with the exception of a
rather large central nucleiform body, its contents are homo-
geneous.

§ 13. ANISONEMA.

Anisonema concavum, nov. sp. Pl. VII. figs. 65-69.

Among all the heteronematous gubernaclifers, Anzsonema
possesses the highest degree of differentiation in its flagella
(ft, fl?) ; for whilst in Heteromita and Heteronema these organs
are comparatively more like each other, and arise from a nearly
common point, as in the Homotonemata, in the former genus
they exhibit a greater diversity of character, and also originate
from more widely separated regions. These are particularly
observable in the species before us now, and are certainly more
valuable diagnostic characters than the presence of an uncon-
tractile integument, by which to distinguish it from its con-
geners. The habitat of this animalcule is among tangled
masses of confervoid Alge in ponds and ditches, where decay-
ing substances are most abundant. Upon these it moves with
a more or less uneven pace, at one time gliding over a smooth

as Infusoria flagellata. 255

surface with scarcely a perceptible effort, and at another pro-
gressing with a laborious hitching gait, and lashing its guber-
naclum (fl?) about, and swinging its body from side to side,
with frequent jerks, in its efforts to pass over some obstacle.

The body is colourless and enclosed in an uncontractile,
smooth integument. It has an asymmetrically ovate shape,
rounded behind, and rapidly narrowed anteriorly into an ob-
lique, truncate, conical front. Dorsally it is convex (figs. 67,
68); but ventrally, 2. e. on the reptant side, it is concave on the
right and in the middle, and so strongly incurved on the left
that its sharp edge (¢) reaches nearly to the median line. Be-
neath this inrolled border the enclosed space (fig. 68, ¢!) pro-
jects into the left side like a longitudinal covered way. In
front it is very deep, but from that point going backward it
narrows gradually, and finally, with the inrolled edge, fades
out at the posterior third of the body.

The two flagella (fl, fl?) are as widely diverse in character
and function as any two similar organs in the whole group of
Protozoa. The anterior one (//) is, strictly speaking, the pre-
hensile organ, as well as the main propulsory agent. It is
quite delicate, and tapers gradually, from its subterminal base
within the longitudinal covered way, to an extremely fine tip.
In point of length it varies from one-half to two-thirds longer
than the body. It is always carried in an extended position
in front, and vibrates very actively, especially during repta-
tion.

The posterior flagellar organ, or gubernaclum (fl?), is from
three to four times the length of the body, and arises far from
the front, in the deepest part of the covered way (fig. 68, ¢!),
and immediately beneath the contractile vesicle (cv). It is
therefore attached quite near to the left margin of the body,
and between the anterior and middle thirds. Its base, which
is applied very obliquely to its point of attachment, is quite
broad ; but it narrows rapidly into a uniformly but scarcely
tapering lash, which always projects forward more or less, and
then curves backward and extends to a long, distance behind.
During reptation over smooth surfaces, it lies along the abdo-
minal median line, and trails behind in long gentle undula-
tions. Although it never vibrates, it frequently lashes about,
and applies itself against obstacles on the right and left, or
even in front, and acts as a prop upon which the body is
thrown to one side or the other, according to varying cir-
cumstances. That it is contractile would seem incontestable
upon observing the sudden jerk with which it sometimes draws
the body back toward its distal end; but I am pretty well
convinced, from a careful study of this movement, that, al-
though this organ may be to a slight degree reszlient, it is not

256 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Spongie ciliate

truly contractile, but rather flexible, and exhibits its muscular
power by bending itself into coils or zigzags. Occasionally
specimens are met with which have an additional pair of fla-
gella (fig. 69, 1%), of a more delicate kind, attached near the
others. ‘That these originate as a preliminary step to fissi-
gemmation, although that phenomenon was not witnessed in
this case, there can be scarcely a doubt, inasmuch as it accords
perfectly with what has been observed in Anthophysa (p. 213).

The mouth has not been demonstrated to a certainty, by
actually seeing food pass into it; but an approximative deter-
mination was reached by observing particles of matter, which
were brought down by the prehensile flagellum (fl), pass ito
the body somewhere near the front, and apparently within the
compass of the covered way.

The anus (figs. 65, 66, a) was adjudged to be at the posterior
end of the animal, by noticing, in a couple of instances only,
a clear, more or less irregular, rounded mass in this region,
and its final disappearance while under observation; but the
substance was so transparent that it was not possible to decide
positively whether it made its exit upon the dorsal or the
ventral side.

The contractile vesicle (cv) is a comparatively large organ,
with a rounded contour when in full diastole, and quite faint
and inconspicuous. It lies above the base of the gubernaclum
(fi?), the expanded base of the latter appearing at times to
form a part of it, and by its movements (causing an alternation
in light and shade) tends to mislead one into the belief that
systole is very irregular. A careful adjustment of the lens,
however, reveals the true pulsation, and shows that the sys-
tole has a very slow rate.

§ 14. Hereromastrx, Jas.-Clk.*
Heteromastix proteiformis, Jas.-Clk. Pl. VII. figs. 70-74.

I shall not describe this infusorian in the same systematic
manner that has been adopted in treating of previous genera,
because I do not know much about its internal organization ;
but in order that the direct alliance of the Flagellata with the
Ciliata may be illustrated in this memoir in its strongest light,
and inasmuch as Heteromastix is by far the best example of
such a transition between the two above-mentioned orders,
I shall take the liberty of quoting what I have already pub-
lished in regard to it in another place.

“Here is an infusorian (figs. 70-74), from fresh water,

* érepos, dissimilar; pdorsé, alash. This genus was originally de-

scribed in my published volume of Lowell Lectures, ‘Mind in Nature,’
p- 146, fig. 88. + See note *.

as Infusoria flagellata. 257

which, although it has a pretty strong resemblance to Huglena,
heightened by the presence of a red eye-spot (s), will be found
upon investigation to possess some additional and decidedly
different characters. In the first place, it has two vibrating
lashes (ff, #7), which differ remarkably among themselves both
in position and character. One of them is always carried in
front, like a sort of proboscis (1); and in fact it seems to have
the office of such an organ, like that of an elephant, to feel and
to take hold of objects. I must confess that I was struck with
astonishment at the apparent intelligence with which the in-
fusorian extended, and twisted, and turned, and felt about with
this extraordinary organ. Never did an elephant seem to use
his trunk with more thoughtfulness. With like control did
the animal also use the other lash (ff?), always keeping it
turned back along the body, so that it formed a kind of move-
able keel when the little creature glided along in its watery
element, or was used to sway it from side to side, or oftentimes
to raise it up on its tail by forming a prop, as we see it in this
other figure (fig. 73).

“The motory or propelling power, on the other hand, is re-
stricted, at least in the greatest measure, to another kind of
vibratile cilia. These are very short, and are crowded toge-
ther in great numbers (c/) in a broad furrow or depression (/)
which extends over half the length of the body, along its in-
ferior middle line. When the body is turned over, and the
anterior end retracted and swelled out sideways, the furrow
(fig. 73, f) becomes quite conspicuous, and the extent of the
group of minor cilia (c/) is easily ascertamed. They are very
minute, and in constant motion, propelling the body backward
and forward, up and down, to the right or left, according as it
is steered by the trailing lash (#*) which extends along its
length. Thus it is that, although similar in form, a diversity
of functions is laid upon these three kinds of cilia that amounts
to the most marked specialization, through the simplest means
—in fact so simple that the eye cannot detect them in any
form besides that of proportion and position, and certainly not
in the intimate structure of these bodies. The whole body,
too, possesses a flexibility and extensibility scarcely inferior to
its cilia: at one moment it is darting through the water, sharp
as a lance at both ends; and at the next it is as round as a ball,
or worming its way through tortuous passages with every
Seeley degree of flexure short of actually tying itself into a

not.

It would be difficult to say now whether Heteromastix be-
longs to the Flagellata rather than to the Ciliata, or vice versé.
The structure, position, and peculiar mode of action of its fla-

258 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Spongiz ciliate

gella recall Anisonema (§ 13) most vividly to mind; but, on
the other hand, the group of cilia (c/) in the obliquely longi-
tudinal furrow (7) in close proximity to, and evidently acting
more or less as allies with, the flagella (7, #7), find their pa-
rallel in the ‘ proboscis-like lash” (fig. 75, #7) and vestibular
cilia (cl) in the oblique buccal furrow of Plewronema (§ 16)
and Dysteria (§ 15). How closely allied the two latter are to
the former is not the immediate question here; it is, are they
related at all? We think there can be no hesitation in reply-
ing in the affirmative; but in order that the reader may have
the proof before his eyes, I think it will not be out of place, in
this memoir, to introduce some of the undoubted Ciliata which
possess at the same time organs that are as truly flagellate in
character as are the flagella of Anisonema, Astasia, &c. The
genus Dysteria shall be our first example.

§ 15. Dysreria, Huxley.
Dysteria prorefrons, Jas.-Clk.* Pl. VII. figs. 77, 78.

This species “is an infusorian between two leaves or flexible
shells (v, v!) of unequal width, which are united by a sort of
hinge along the left border, and gaping to a more than equal
extent along the right side, where the upper one (v) far over-
hangs the other (v!, 64) throughout the whole length of its free
edge. The broader or dorsal shell (v) is convex towards the
eye, and the whole organization lies within its concavity,
whilst the narrower one (bk, v) is flat, simply covering the
body, and as a natural consequence does not include any part
of it. The open space between them is endowed with a row
of closely set, large vibratile cilia (c/), which differ in size ac-
cording to their position, those in front being by far the longest,
and those along the side scarcely more than half as long; and,
in addition, there is one (jf?) which, from its great size, has
more of the character of a proboscis or prehensory flagellum,
and is attached nearly at the extreme anterior border of the
row (cl).

‘Tt is not an easy matter in this case to determine how much
of the one-sided, cilia-bordered furrow corresponds to the disk
or vestibule of Epistylis, Stentor, Paramecium, or Pleuronema;
nor does it affect the question of the degree of obliquity of the
conformation of this animal, so long as we see that, whatever
it may be, either wholly or m part a vestibule, it is at least
extremely oblique, and that it is not possible to view it from
any point but that the body appears asymmetrical in relation
to it.

* See ‘Mind in Nature,’ w¢ supr. p. 171, fig. 100.

as Infusoria flagellata. 259

“The most striking peculiarity of this creature is its habit
of swinging around on a pivot (f/*), which consists of an ovate
or lancet-shaped appendage, of considerable dimensions, that
projects from near the posterior end of the body, and in the
line of the row of cilia. The pivot possesses perfect flexibility
at its base, so that the animal can move over a considerable
distance backward and forward without disturbing the point.
Most of the time it keeps the flat side down when gyrating
around its place of attachment; but now and then it turns
upon its right edge, and performs its eccentric rotations about
the appendage. This is the habit which, as I said before, has
impressed some observers with its similarity to the Rotifera.
In connexion with this, too, it happens that the creature pos-
sesses a pair of jaw-like or, rather, pincer-like bodies (m}),
which lie near the entrance to the mouth, and occasionally
open and shut like a pair of forceps, just as similar bodies
known as the jaws of Rotifers do, whilst food is passing be-
tween them. Excepting the passage between these jaws, there
is not the least trace of an intestine, or of any definite cavity
devoted to digestion. The food occupies the whole length and
breadth of the body, under the same circumstances as are ob-
servable in Paramecium, Pleuronema, Stentor, &c.

“The contractile vesicles are two (cv,cv) quite small globular
bodies, one of which is situated just to the right of the jaws
(m'), and the other close to the base of the pivot (#2) ; and,
although they contract very slowly (not oftener than once in
four or five minutes), they evince every characteristic, in action
and physiognomy, of true infusorian pulsating vesicles. The
large colourless reproductive organ (n) singularly exemplifies
in itself the one-sidedness of the animal, by its conformation to
the shape of the body. One side of it is convex, and, like the
rest of the organization, projects into the concavity of the
larger shell, whilst the other face is flat and, as it were,
moulded upon the plane shell. It forms a very conspicuous
object just to the left of the jaws, and might easily be mistaken
at first glance for a contractile vesicle, especially as the true
representatives of that organ are so very inconspicuous both in
regard to their size and actions.

“¢ Now in all the organization of this animal there is nothing
which is not strictly infusorian in character. The jaw-like
bodies (m!) are not confined to this alone; for there are quite a
number of others which possess a similar apparatus at or near
the mouth. Chilodon has a complete circle of straight rods
around the mouth. As for the pivot (/?), it is nothing but a
kind of stem, such as exists on a larger scale in Stentor, or is
more peculiarly specialized in the pedestals of Epistylis, Zootham-

260 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Spongie ciliate:

nium, or Podophrya; and, as counter to what we see in these
last, I would state that there are certain of the Vorticellians,
closely related to Hpistylis, which have no stem whatever, and
swim about as freely as Dysteria.”

§ 16. PLeuroNEMA, Duj.
Pleuronema instabile*, Jas.-Clk. Pl. VII. figs. 75, 76.

This infusorian bears such a strong resemblance to Hetero-
mastix (§ 14) in some of its external features, that it seems as
if it might more properly have succeeded the latter in the
illustration of my subject; but mere resemblances do not al-
ways indicate relationship: and in the case of Plewronema, in
particular, this is most true; for it is decidedly a far more
highly organized animalcule than Dysterta, as we shall see by
what I shall now quote from an already published descrip-
tion T :—

“What I wish now to show in the Plewronema is the triple,
or, I might say, even the quadruple diversity of the vibrating
cilia, or, in other words, a quadruple specialization of one type
of organs, by their manifold offices ranking their possessors
above those of their class which attain to a less degree of
complexity in this respect. The most prominent of these cilia
are those (fig. 75, cl!) which are arranged in longitudinal rows
over nearly the whole extent of the body, and which most fre-
quently are seen in a quiet state, projecting far out from the
surface, like so many fine rigid bristles. In fact the motions
of this animal are so lightning-like in rapidity, that I have
never seen this form of cilia except when the body was in a
quiet state; and therefore I judge that, as they do not move
then, they are the principal organs of locomotion. There is
on the right side a group of much more heavily built cilia (c?),
which project from the oblique furrow in which the mouth (m)
is set. They are more particularly devoted to producing cur-
rents inwhich the particles of food may be brought to the mouth.

‘““'We-see, also, projecting from the forward end of the
oblique furrow, and near the anterior edge of the mouth (m),
one of those proboscis-like lashes (1) [a flagellum] which are
so characteristic of the lower ciliate [flagellate] infusoria; but
yet it would not seem to have the same office as in the latter,
since it is usually held in this position, apparently as rigid as
if it were a wire; and only now and then does it move, by a
sudden jerk, and disappears in the oblique furrow—probably
acting there in concert with the other cilia in the introduction
of food into the mouth. The fourth and last kind of cilia of

* See ‘Mind in Nature,’ wt supr. p. 148, fig. 90. t+ See note *.

as Infusoria flagellata. 261

which I haveto speak consists of two excessively faint, very long,
and quite large, bristle-like filaments (sd, s/'), which project from
each end of the body. The straight one (s/) always precedes
when the creature is in motion; and the curved one (s/!) is
attached a little to the left of the posterior end of the body.
Both are always rigid when the animal is not in motion, but
yet there can be no doubt that they are flexible; for at times
they disappear suddenly, and probably are bent under the
body. What their office is I cannot say, but conjecture, from
their resemblance to what are called the saltatory bristles of
other infusorians, that they are used as accessory means of
sudden propulsion or leaping—a habit which seems to be the
most frequent mode of leaving any point at which the creature
has fairly come to a standstill.

“The contractile vesicle (cv) lies close to the forward end of
the body, and corresponds in activity to the vivacity of the
motions of the latter. It contracts every ten seconds, and
with more vigour than any other that I know of. It is very
conspicuous, as it is two-thirds of the time in an expanded
state ; and it disappears and reappears like the sudden closing
and opening of a large eye.

“‘T have already indicated the position of the mouth (m) as
being near the broader, anterior end of the oblique furrow, but
again speak of it here in order to make the description of the
digestive system complete. From the mouth (m) the food
passes directly into the general cavity without going through
any throat, and most frequently combines in large masses (d).

“The presence of a reproductive organ (nm), which we find
here in the form of a clear, colourless, globular body, when
added to all the other systems which I have mentioned, puts
this animal in the condition of a fully organized ciliated infu-
sorian, and would seem to give us full warrant for believing it to
be the culmination of a progressive development whose ten-
dency is to pass through such forms of animate organization
as we have just been tracing in the successively more and
more complicated creatures whose images are before us.”

EXPLANATION OF PLATES V., VI., & VII.

The corresponding parts in the figures are lettered alike, excepting
when otherwise stated in the description of any particular illustration.

a, anus: 6, membranous collar; 61, edge of 6; 57, base of 6: bk, the
beaks of the valve of Dysteria: ec, calyx; c', aperture of c; c?, lower half
of ¢: cel, cl', vibratile cilia: cv, contractile vesicle: d, digestive vacuole,
or ingested food: e, furrow in fissigemmation ; e!, anterior end of e; e?,
prolongation of e, e': f, broad sulcus (in Heteromastixr) : ft, flagellum ;

262 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Spongie ciliate

JU minor flagellum; 7, gubernaclum : fr, frontal area: 7, neck or anterior
half of body : dp, lip: m, mouth ; m1, jaws: md, monads of the Sponge, Xe. :
n, reproductive organ: 0, ostioles: pd, pedicel; pd', top of pd; pd?, forks
of pd: r, retractor muscle ; 7", furrow in which r is imbedded and attached :
s, eye-spot: sl, si, saltatory cilia: sp, triradiate spicula; sp!, aciculate
spicula : ¢, margin of the inrolled side of Anisonema; t', the deep furrow
or covered way behind ¢: », broader valve of Dysterta; v', the narrower
valve.

Figs. 1-4. Monas termo, Ehr.?. Fig. 1, a group of free monads, 500 diam.
Fig. 2, a free monad seen from the narrower side, with the lip
(jp) next the observer, and the contractile vesicle (cv) in profile,
950 diam. Fig. 3, an attached form seen from the broad side,
1200 diam. Fig.4, a free monad in the act of swallowing a
large morsel of food, 950 diam.

Figs. 5, 5*, 5°, 6. Monas neglecta, u. sp. Fig. 5, broad-side view of a pedi-
cellated monad, 950 diam. Fig. 5*, a posterior view, showing
the axial attachment of the pedicel (pd!) and the contractile
vesicle (cv) in profile, and the flagellum (77) in the distance,
950 diam. Fig. 5>, a free monad in the act of swimming, 950
diam. Fig. 6, an attached form, contorted in the act of swal-
lowing a large morsel of food, 950 diam.

Figs. 7-27. Codosiga pulcherrima, n. sp. Fig. 7, a colony of eight mo-
nads, drawn within an hour after the fissigemmation of three of
its members, 150 diam. Fig. 8, a group of five, in a bird’s-eye
view, 500 diam. Fig. 9, a single monad with three contractile
vesicles (cv), the dotted lines indicate the degree of the lateral
vibrative expansion of the membranous collar (6), 950 diam.
Fig. 10, the same as fig. 9, preparing to undergo fissigemmation ;
the body is contracted and widened, and the collar (6) broadened,
Figs. 11-22, to illustrate the process of fissigemmation, 750
diam. ; for particulars see the text (pp. 196-199). Fig. 28, a free
monad in the act of swimming, the vibrating flagellum (77)
acting as a propulsory agent and following in the rear, 950 diam.
Fig. 24, a single pedicellated monad from old, stale water, the
membranous collar (6) contracted into a cone, and the flagellum
(fd) vibrating rapidly, 950 diam. Fig. 24*, a very large pedi-
cellated form, just before fissigemmation begins, the body par-
tially contracted, and the collar (6) vibrating ; the peculiar sig-
moid curve of the flagellum (/2) is well shown here, 950 diam.,
—figs. 25, 26, 27, showing the different degrees of contraction
of the membranous collar (6) of the same individual: in fig. 25
the flagellum (ft) is vibrating rapidly, just at the moment when
the collar (6) has returned to its usual form and attitude, 750
diam.

Figs. 28-32%. Salpingeca marina, n. sp. Figs. 28, 29, 380, the same in-
dividual in different states of expansion, 1900 diam. Fig. 31,
the body completely filling the calyx, so that the latter is
scarcely distinguishable except at its mouth (c!), 1900 diam.
Fig. 32, showing the calyx as a distinct envelope considerably
separated from the body at the bottom (¢) and at the aperture
(c!), 1900 diam. Fig. 32*, an empty calyx closed, 1900 diam.

Figs. 33, 33°, 33°, 33°. Bicoseca lacustris, n. sp. Fig. 83, an adult with
the lip (dp) nearest the eye, the flagellum (7) in the back-
ground, and the longitudinal furrow seen through the body.
The flagellum (2) is uncoiling just as the body emerges from
the bottom of the calyx (c), 950 diam, Fig. 33%, a» young

as Infusoria flagellata. . 263

animal in profile, showing the peculiar attitude and curve of the
flagellum (72), the narrow aperture (c!) of the calyx (c), and the
unilateral attachment of the retractor muscle (7); the pedicel
(pd) is just beginning to develope, 950 diam. Fig. 33>, a young
form partially emerged from the bottom of the calyx (c), the
latter contracted at the mouth (c!) and the flagellum (7)
forcing its way through, as is usual, in a loop, 950 diam. Fig.
33°, the same as fig. 332, retracted to the bottom of the calyx (c)
and the aperture (c!) of the latter nearly closed, 950 diam.

Figs. 84, 35. DBicoseca gracilipes, n. sp. Fig. 34, the longitudinal furrow
(7+) and the flagellum (77) next the eye, the lip (J) in the back-
ground, 1900 diam. Fig. 35, the body retracted to the bottom
of the calyx (c) and the flagellum beginning to uncoil, 950 diam.

Fig. 36. Codoneca costata, n. sp. The body seated in the bottom of the
pedicellated calyx (c), 950 diam.

Figs. 37, 87+, 37°, 37°, 874, Salpingeca amphoridium, nu. sp.: all magnified
950 diameters. Fig. 37, an individual suspended freely in its
calyx (c,c!). The dotted lines indicate the attitude which the
collar (b) assumed for a while during the observation upon this
specimen. A particle of feecal matter has just left the anus (a).
Fig. 374, the lower part of the calyx filled by the body, the
upper part (c!) free from the neck (2) of the animal, and the
membranous collar unusually narrowed. Fig. 37>, the calyx
mostly filled by the body, the head (7) bent to one side, and the
flagellum (7) in the act of expelling a particle of undesirable
matter. Fig. 37°, an empty calyx, slightly contracted in dimen-
sions. Fig. 374, the body contracted and filling the calyx, and
the membranous collar (6) partially retracted.

Figs, 38, 39. Salpingeca gracilis, n. sp., 950 diam. Fig. 38, the body
retracted within the calyx (c, cl). Fig. 39, the same as fig. 38,
partially protruded from the calyx.

Figs. 40-44. Leucosolenia (Grantia) botryoides, Bowrbk. Fig. 40, a
colony of sponge, natural size. Fig. 41, view of a profile sec-
tion of the monadigerous layer, the monads (md) closely packed
together, side by side, with the membranous collar (4) and the
flagellum (77) projecting into the general cavity of the colony,
95 diam. Figs. 42, 43, 44, isolated monads with the mem-
ae collar (6) in various attitudes, 950 diam. See also

. 64,

Figs. 45, 46. Astasia trichophora, Clap. Fig. 45, a dorsal view, the mouth
seen through the head, and the gubernaclum (ft?) in the back-
ground, 500 diam. Fig. 46, the body in an amceboid, contorted
state, 500 diam.

Figs. 47-63. Anthophysa Miilleri, Bory. Fig. 47, a colony of adults at-
tached to a single tubular branchlet or pedicel (pd) ; one of the
monads is in the act of passing a morsel into its mouth (m), 950
diam. Fig. 48, a pair of adults seen in profile, 950 diam. Fig.
49, a pair of young monads, one in profile and the other pre-
senting its narrow side, 950 diam. Figs. 50 & 51, different at-
titudes of the same monad as the one in profile in fig. 49, during
the introception of food, 950 diam. Figs. 52-61, to illustrate
the process of fissigemmation, 950 diam. Fig. 62, a piece of
a tubular branchlet like fig. 47 (pd), 1900 diam. Fig. 63, a piece
of a flat branch from an old part of the colony, 950 diam.

Fig. 64. Leucosolenia botryoides, Bowerbk. A portion of the monadi-
gerous layer (md) seen through the spiculiferous stratum, with
the spicula next the eye, 500 diam.

264 Dr. A. Giinther on two new Fishes from Sarawak.

Figs. 65-69. Anisonema concavum, n. sp.: all magnified 500 diameters. Fig.
65, a dorsal view, the inrolled margin (¢) seen through the body.
Fig. 66, a ventral view of fig. 65, the base of the gubernaclum
(jt?) covered by the inrolled edge (¢). Fig. 67, a profile view
of the right side of the body, showing its concavo-convex
character. Fig. 68, an end view to show the lateral extent of
the covered way from which the gubernaclum (fi?) and the an-
terior flagellum (2) spring. Fig. 69, a ventral view of an animal
which possesses two extra flagella (773). It is probably in the
incipient stage of fissigemmation.

Figs. 70-74, Heteromastix proteiformis, Jas.-Clk. All the figures are
magnified 500 diameters. Fig. 70, profile view of the right side
of a fully extended animal, the gubernaclum (77) trailing be-
neath. Fig.71, the same as fig. 70, in a partially contracted
state. Fig. 72, an individual seen directly from below, with its
anterior end strongly retracted and broadened. Fig. 73, an ani-
mal partially contracted and propped up on its tail by its fla-
gella (ji, 7), and exposing its ventral ciliated furrow (f) to
full view. Fig. 74, an end view of the head, with the group of
cilia (c/) on the lower side.

Figs. 75, 76. Pleuronema instabile, Jas.-Clk. Fig. 75, a dorsal (ventral,
homologically speaking) view, 1000 diam. Fig. 76, an end view
of the head; the contractile vesicle (cv) in the foreground, and
the flagellum (7/7) in the distance; a part of the ventral side is
destitute of cilia: 500 diam.

Figs. 77, 78. Dysteria prorefrons, Jas.-Clk. Fig. 77, a view of the dorsal
(homologically the ventral) side, the broader valve (v) next the
eye, and the narrower three-beaked valve (v1, b&) in the extreme
distance, 600 diam. Fig. 78, a foreshortened view of the body
as it appears when turned up on its right edge; the head next
the observer, and the pivot (#7) in the distance : 600 diam.

XXXIV.—Description of two new Gobioid Fishes from
Sarawak. By Dr. A. Gintuer, F.R.S., F.Z.S.

[Plate XII.]

Tue Marquis J. Doria has sent to the British Museum a
collection of Fishes made by him in Sarawak (Borneo). Se-
veral of the species are new to the fauna of Borneo*, viz.
Nemachilus fasciatus (K. & v. H.), Apocryptes viridis (H. B.)t,
FExocetus oligolepis (Blkr.), Caranx atropus (Schn.), Dussu-
mierta acuta (C. & V.), Pristigaster macrognathus (Blkr.),
Saurida argyrophanes (Richards.). Eleotris melanostigma
(Blkr.) is not specifically distinct from LH. butis (H. B.), a spe-
cies ranging from the east coast of Africa to Borneo and
China. The total number of species known from Borneo

* See Bleeker, “Dertiende Bydrage tot de Kennis der Visch-fauna van
Borneo,” in Act. Soc. Sc. Indo-Neerl. 1860.

+ This is not a Boleophthalmus, to which genus it has been referred by
all previous authors.

Dr. A. Giinther on two new Fishes from Sarawak. 265

amounts now to about 340, which is evidently only a fraction
of the number actually existing in this island.

Two of the species were desiderata for the British Museum
Collection, viz. Synanceta asteroblepa (Richards.) and Apo-
eryptes borneensis (Blkr.); and the following appear to be new
to science :—

Gobius Dorie, Pl. XII. fig. A.
DG Ae. Li. lat..27.

Head broad, depressed, rather broader than deep; it is
naked, as is the nape and the lower part of the thorax; there
are only a few scales on the hind part of the gill-cover. Sides
of the head with several series of pores. The length of the
head is contained thrice in the total length (without caudal), the
heightof the body thrice and two-thirds. Snout broad, depressed,
shorter than the eye, which is two-sevenths of the length of
the head. Cleft of the mouth wide, extending beyond the
front margin of the eye. Canine teeth none. Interorbital
space flat, broad. There are ten longitudinal series of scales
between the origins of the second dorsal and anal. Scalesmot/
serrated. Fins low and short. Brownish black, encircled by
three broad yellowish bands—the first round the nape and
opercle, the second corresponding to the space between the
two dorsal fms, the third on the caudal peduncle. Caudal fin
yellowish, with the base deep black.

I have named this very fine species after its discoverer.
Three examples, 15 lines long, are in the collection.

Eleotris dasyrhynchus. Pl. XII. fig. B.

D.6|9. A.8 L. lat. 29.

Head very broad and depressed, cheeks swollen, the greatest
width of the head being equal to its length, without snout. The
gill-covers andthe upper part of thecheek are scaly, the remainder
of the head naked. ‘The preorbital and the supraorbital ridge
are beset with rough prominences or spines. The length of
the head is contained thrice and one-third in the total length
(without caudal), the height of the body four times and three-
quarters. Snout very broad and depressed. Eyes exceed-
ingly small, directed upwards, separated by a broad flat space.
Teeth small, in a band, those of the outer series being a little
larger ; palate toothless. Mouth wide, the maxillary reaching
behind the orbit. Preeoperculum without spine. Scales cte-
noid; there are eight longitudinal series between the origins
of the second dorsal and anal fins. The posterior part of the
second dorsal and anal are slightly elevated; caudal rounded,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. i.

266 Messrs. Hancock & Atthey on Reptile- and Fish-Remains

of moderate length. Brownish black, each scale with the
margin lighter; back with two or three yellowish blotches:
the first, at the origin of the spinous dorsal, is sometimes ab-
sent; the second at the origin of the soft dorsal, and the third
on the back of the caudal peduncle. Dorsal fins coloured as
the body underneath ; caudal nearly uniform white. Pectoral
rays variegated with black.

Three examples, the largest 24 inches long, are in the col-
lection.

XXXV.—WNotes on the Remains of some Reptiles and Fishes
from the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. By
ALBANY Hancock, F.L.8., and THomas ATTHEY*.

THE coal-shales of the Low-Main seam at Newsham and
Cramlington, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne, so prolific in fish-
remains, have also yielded some very interesting reptilian fos-
sils, the largest and most important of which are the posterior
and upper portions of two crania that are undoubtedly Laby-
rinthodont. ‘These are apparently closely related to Loxomma
Allmanni described by Prof. Huxley in the Proc. Geol. Soe.
vol. xvii. p. 291 (1862), though apparently generically distinct
from that form. ‘Two sets of sternal plates have also been
found in the same locality, as well as several ribs, a few ver-
tebree, two of which have the neural arch complete and most
of the processes attached. Several premaxillaries and three or
four portions of mandibular bones, with the teeth attached,
have also occurred. All these most probably belong to the
same large Labyrinthodont Amphibian.

Besides the above interesting remains, an almost entire indi-
vidual of a new species of Ophiderpeton, Huxley, has occurred, as
well as several other fragmentary reptilian fossils. And what
we now propose is to give in the following pages more or less
detailed descriptions of all these, and likewise of some fish-
remains that have been found in the same locality.

Pteroplax cornuta, nobis.

The two cranial fragments of the reptile designated as above
are each composed of the two quadrate supra-occipitals, the
two parietals, portions of the elongated frontals, the post-
frontals, and the epiotic bones, all of which are firmly united
into one great pyriform shield by well-knit serrated sutures,
which can be traced with sufficient accuracy. This shield

* Read at a Meeting of the Nat. Hist. Soc. of Newcastle-upon-Tyne
and Tyneside Nat. Field Club, March 12, 1868.

Srom the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. 267

corresponds very well in form to the central portion of the
fragmentary skull figured in the paper already referred to, by
Prof. Huxley ; but in the new form it is less angulated. The
frontals, too, appear to be longer, though their anterior extre-
mities are broken away; the post-frontals are arcuated in the
same manner, but not to the same degree, forming the inner
posterior boundary of the large orbits, and their connexions
with the parietals and frontals are similar. The parietals
widen backwards; and the foramen, which is situated in the
line of the median suture, where there is an elongated emi-
nence, is a little behind their centre, and is slightly lengthened
in the antero-posterior direction. In the larger specimen it is
one-fourth of an inch im length, in the other it is a little
shorter. The occipital margin is concave, the epiotic bones
projecting boldly backwards, and each terminating in a slightly
arched, pointed, diverging horn or spine, about an inch long.
In neither specimen are these horns (which are very similar to
the “‘ postero-internal cornua”’ of Keraterpeton*) perfect ; but
in the smaller individual the upper surface only is wanting.

The external surface of the cranial shield is strongly sculp-
tured in the usual manner observed in Labyrinthodonts ; that
is, it is covered with anastomosing ridges separating pits and
grooves ; but this peculiar ornament is not equally distributed:
it radiates from the centre of the shield, where it is almost
obliterated, and is strongest at the margins. Here the pits
and grooves are deep and strongly defined. A rather wide
rounded groove extends along the outer margin of the frontals,
resembling the mucus-grooves of the Labyrinthodonts.

The larger of these shields is seven inches long, including
the posterior horns, and three and three-quarters inches wide.
The other is six and one-quarter inches in length, and nearly
three inches wide at the broadest part. Prof. Huxley estimates
the width of the skull of Loxomma Allmanni, including the
lateral portions, which are entirely wanting in our specimens
of Pteroplax cornuta, at ten and three-quarters inches; and
as it appears that the central portion, or that which cor-
responds to the cranial shields above described, is about one-
third the entire width, we are enabled to form an approximate
estimate of the width of the skull of the new form, on the
assumption that it had similar lateral cranial expansions. On
this basis our new Labyrinthodont must have had a skull
eleven and a quarter inches wide at the posterior or widest
part; and, following up Prof. Huxley’s estimate, it could not
be less than fifteen inches in length. If the body, therefore,

* Trans. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxiv., Science, p. 351, pl. 19.
20*

268 Messrs. Hancock & Atthey on Reptile- and Fish-Remains

was only seven times the length of the cranium, which is about
the proportion of these parts in Keraterpeton Galvani, a com-
paratively short species, then Pteroplax must have been eight
or nine feet long.

This new genus, though it seems, as above stated, to be
nearly related to Loxomma, resembles not a little, in the
general form of the skull, as far as it can be determined,
Dasyceps Bucklandi*. The concavity of the occipital margin
and the two lateral cornua are very similar in both species ;
but in the latter these processes or horns are more robust,
and do not look so spine-like as in Pteroplax cornuta. he
proportions and forms of the component bones, too, are very
different; and the parietal foramen in Dasyceps is much nearer
the occipital margin, as are also the orbits, which are likewise
very much smaller. The resemblance, also, of these cranial
bones to those of Keraterpeton cannot be overlooked, so far
as they can be compared. The general form of the crown
of the head, with the narrow projecting frontals and concave
occipital margin, together with the “ postero-internal cornua,”’
are all remarkably alike in the two forms; but, from the deti-
ciency of surface-sculpture in that animal, and its compara-
tive smallnes, it would seem that they cannot be considered
congeneric.

Four left premaxillaries have been obtained; and all of them
have a portion of the nasal bone attached, as well as several
teeth more or less perfect. The premaxillary is about two
and a half inches long, and upwards of half an inch wide; it
is arched most strongly towards the anterior symphysis, which
is oblique and coextensive with the width of the bone; be-
hind, it is prolonged, the articular portion being wedge-shaped;
the surface is strongly sculptured into elevated anastomosing
ridges and depressions; and they all exhibit two strong, wide,
round grooves on the external surface, one of which passes
from the front, the other from behind, converging and meet-
ing at nearly a right angle, close to the alveolar margin.
These grooves are similar to what have been denominated
mucus-grooves in the Labyrinthodonts, and are exceedingly
like those figured and described by Prof. Owen on the muzzle
of Labyrinthodon leptognathust. And in this instance they
seem to indicate the boundary of the nasal bone, which is ap-
parently of a lozenge-form, probably somewhat prolonged
backwards. Half the circumference of an external nasal ori-
fice is distinctly perceptible in two of the specimens ; it is cir-
cular, and about one-quarter of an inch in diameter: the two

* Memoirs Geol. Survey, 1859, p. 52.
t Trans. Geol. Soc. ser. 2. vol. vi. p. 417, pl. 43. fig. 1.

from the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. 269

must be placed considerably apart from each other, and not
much in advance of the posterior margin of the nasal bone ; at
least it is only a short way in front of the posterior mucus-
groove.

There are five or six conical teeth in each premaxillary ;
they are stout, grooved, and circular at the base, with the
crown compressed in the direction of the length of the jaw;
they are provided with wide cutting-edges, and are rather
abruptly pomted. The largest are upwards of half an inch in
length, allowing for their lost apices. The three anterior are
much larger than the rest, and they are placed at some little
distance apart, there being large depressions between them in
the alveolar groove, apparently for the reception of the crowns
of the mandibular teeth. The two or three posterior teeth are
comparatively small, and are placed nearer together than the
anterior.

Two specimens of the anterior portion of the left mandible.
have also occurred, the largest and best preserved of which
is four inches long and about two and a quarter inches wide.
The surface exhibits the same ornamentation as the other
bones. The symphysial surface is perfect; it is considerably
longer than the width of the ramus, being extended by a pro-
cess from the inner or lower margin of the bone; there is a
trace of a mucus-groove along the inferior border of the ramus.
None of the teeth in these specimens are perfect; but enough
is left to show that they are similar to those already described.
The first tooth is small, and is placed close to the symphysis ;
the second is very large, and is immediately behind the first ;
it is half an inch in diameter at the base; a large depression,
five-eighths of an inch wide, succeeds this, and then four small
teeth placed close together, the two posterior of which are
larger than the anterior pair; but one of them is indicated
only by a mere fragment of dentine ; then comes another large
depression, half an inch wide, but whether or not this is for
the reception of the crown of a maxillary tooth, or is the im-
pression of the base of a tooth belonging to the mandible, it is
difficult to say. Close to this depression is the base of another
tooth equal in size to the large anterior one. At this point the
alveolar groove is broken away; and shortly after, the fragment
of the ramus terminates. The alveolar groove is distinctly
defined, but widens inwardly to accommodate the bases of the
large teeth, which consequently have the appearance of being
placed within the smaller ones; they form, however, with the
latter only a single row, and the outer borders of all are placed
on the same external line. The other ramus is very imper-
fect ; but, as far as they are traceable, the teeth have the same
arrangement.

270 Messrs. Hancock & Atthey on Reptile- and Fish-Remains

Besides the above, we have also obtained from the same loca-
lity portions of three other mandibles: one belongs to the left
ramus, and is in a bad condition; two are in a good state of
preservation, but, unfortunately, they both represent the same
portion of the right ramus, the anterior part of each being
wanting, as also the proximal extremity. They each measure
about six inches in length, and widen a little backwards, where
they are two and a half inches broad. If we add to the length
of these fragments that of the anterior portion before described,
and allow for the parts that are wanting, it would appear that
the ramus could not be less than twelve or thirteen inches
long. The internal cartilage having been removed, the lateral
bony walls have collapsed and are inclined inwards. The jaw
is consequently comparatively thin and flattened. The external
surface exhibits the peculiar ornamentation in a very beautiful
manner. It is the same as on the other bones, the sculpturing
extending over the whole surface in the form of smooth ele-
vated ridges composing an irregular reticulation, with the
meshes or depressed spaces deep and of various forms, fre-
quently angular, sometimes rounded, but most commonly
elongated; so that the reticulated ridges, on the whole, have a
somewhat dendritic appearance. This striking embossed or-
nament closely resembles that of Labyrinthodon leptognathus
and L. pachygnathus; only it is considerably finer*. The
inner surface of the bone is smooth, as well as the external
border of the alveolar ridge; and there is a groove along the
lower margin extending the whole length of the fragment.

The teeth exhibit very distinctly on the upper portion or
crown the wide, compressed, sharp cutting-edges, and on the
base the strong fluting or grooves. In several the points are
quite perfect, and are decidedly lancet-shaped. The teeth are
anchylosed to the bottoms of shallow pits in the not by any
means deep alveolar groove.

In one of the fragments there are seven teeth; in the other,
four perfect and three imperfect. In the latter the anterior
tooth is a little more than half an inch long, and the others
gradually diminish in size backwards, and are placed consider-
ably apart from each other, the spaces between them being
nearly three-eighths of an inch wide. In the other fragment
the four most perfect teeth appear to be situated at the poste-
rior extremity of the alveolar groove, though the jaw is con-
tinued for a considerable distance behind them. 'The anterior
of these four is not quite half an inch long, and the others
diminish gradually in size posteriorly, the last being not much

* See Prof. Owen’s paper, Trans. Geol. Soe. ser. 2. vol. vi. pls. 43, 46.

from the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. 271

more than half that length; but its extremity is not quite
perfect. The three imperfect anterior teeth are very much
larger than the four posterior ones; the largest of them, which
is the centre one, cannot have been less than an inch in length
and three-eighths of an inch wide at the base. They are all
placed considerably apart from each other; but they are not
quite so widely separated as those in the other fragment.

We have two other fragments of jawbones of this reptile ; but
they are in such an unsatisfactory condition that not much can
be said about them. One of them, however, is probably a
maxillary bone; it is six and a half inches long, and an inch
and a half wide; but it is so imperfect that its form is not
determinable, and it is much encumbered with other bones.
A portion of the alveolar border is nevertheless distinctly dis-
played, with five close-set teeth, the largest of which 1s up-
wards of half an inch long. Other fragments of teeth are
scattered about. We have also a confused mass of apparently
cranial bones, which show the peculiar surface-sculpture. A
portion of a jaw with a tooth or two is mixed up with these
fragments.

For some time these portions of mandibles were all sup-
posed to belong to Rhizodus lanceiformis, Newberry, as the
teeth attached to them are undoubtedly similar to those of
that reputed fish. But on considering that the sculpture of
- the bone-surface is exactly like that of the cranial and pre-
maxillary bones, that the teeth of the latter are similar to
those of the mandibles, and that the teeth of both exhibit pre-
cisely the same Labyrinthodont structure when examined in
transverse section, the conclusion that these mandibular frag-
ments really belong to this new Labyrinthodont is quite irre-
sistible. The piscine nature of &. lancetformis is therefore
questionable. Certainly the teeth usually so designated be-
long to this reptile; and unless other evidence be forthcoming,
this reputed species of RAizodus will have to be erased from the
list of Carboniferous fishes.

The two sets of sternal plates are characterized by the same
surface-ornament which we have found on the other bones;
and though neither of them is perfect, sufficient is preserved
to enable us, by the aid of both, to form a very good idea of
their shape and characters. In the finer and larger specimen,
all the three plates are present, and by their position exhibit,
though considerably displaced, their relation to each other.
The posterior ends of the two lateral plates le in juxtaposition,
overlapping the anterior portion of the central plate, and di-
verging backwards; a portion only of the posterior margin
of the central plate is exposed. By removing the matrix,

272 Messrs. Hancock & Atthey on Reptile- and Fish-Remains

however, from the underside in both specimens, the entire
form of this plate is developed. The arrangement and general
appearance of the three plates are very similar to those of
Loxomma Allmanni figured by Prof. Huxley in the paper
already referred to; only the central plate is not so much pro-
duced posteriorly and the lateral ones are much more elongated,
agreeing apparently in this latter respect with Archegosaurus,
in which Prof. Owen remarks that the lateral plates “ are
shaped like beetles’ elytra’”*. Those of Pteroplax certainly
resemble in form elongated elytra; but, unfortunately, these
plates are not perfect: even in the best-preserved specimen
only the posterior extremities are entire; they are rounded
diagonally, the slope being apparently upwards and outwards.
What remains of the most perfect plate measures upwards of
seven inches in length, and three and a quarter wide. That
which seems to be the external margin is thicker than the
inner or opposite margin; and here the surface-sculpture,
which is like that of the other bones, is strongest.

The central plate, which in Labyrinthodonts is usually
rhomboidal, is peculiar in form: the two lateral angles are
much produced, forming broad rounded lobes or wings
(hence the generic appellation) ; their anterior margins have a
sigmoidal curve extending to the anterior angle: the poste-
rior margin is almost straight, but is a little produced in
the centre, where there is a broad flat process extending
backwards; this, however, is not perfect in either speci-
men. Here the plate is thickest, and on the surface there
is a strong sinuous ridge which extends transversely from
side to side, just a little in advance of the posterior margin.
When the lateral plates are in their proper position, their
posterior extremities would, no doubt, rest against this ridge,
the anterior extremities converging forwards. The central
plate is upwards of four inches long and six and three-quarters
wide, The surface is not sculptured in the usual manner, and
must be almost entirely overlapped by the lateral plates.

The other set of sternal plates is very imperfect ; the cha-
racters, however, of the central plate are well developed; and
it fortunately happens that while the right lobe of this plate,
in the former specimen, is imperfect, the right lobe of this is
quite entire, the other one being injured; so that, by the aid
of the two specimens, the form can be perfectly restored.

The two vertebrae with the neural arches complete are in a
very good state of preservation; the centrum is quite perfect
in one, and almost perfect in the other; and between the two

* Paleontology, p. 179.

from the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. 273

all the processes can be determined more or less completely.
They were found at Newsham, but at different times. These
very interesting relics closely resemble the figure of the ver-
tebra of Anthracosaurus given by Prof. Huxley in the ‘Journal
of the Geological Society ’ (1863, vol. xix. p. 63). Our speci-
mens, however, are larger, the neural arch differs a little in
form, and there is a very minute notochordal foramen.

The body or centrum is biconcave, and appears to be con-
siderably flattened lengthwise. The margins of the articular
surfaces are reflected, so that in section the faces of the body
would present a sigmoid curve from the centre to the margin.
The height is a little more than the breadth, and the circum-
ference at the sides and below is well rounded, though there
is here and there a tendency to angularity ; but whether this
arises from original conformation or from accidental and un-
equal reflection of the margin, cannot be determined. The
upper margin of the anterior face is produced a little in the
centre, forming a rounded elevation immediately below the
neural arch, and is angulated at the flanks. The same region
in the posterior face presents a shallow concavity, exactly
similar to that represented in Prof. Huxley’s figure referred to.
The sides of the body are somewhat concave, and transversely
wrinkled or coarsely striated. The minute notochordal fora-
men, which is only large enough to admit a stout knitting-
needle, is difficult to determine, though there can be no doubt
of its existence.

The neural arch is comparatively small; it is oval, the long
axis being perpendicular; the lips of the arch are produced a
little in front ; behind they do not appear to. be so. The walls
of the arch are very stout, and pass upwards to form a long
high spinous process, which is nearly as high as the centrum,
and is thin, being much compressed laterally.

The anterior zygapophyses are large ; their articular surfaces
are hollow and elongated transversely ; their inner borders are
confluent. ‘The posterior pair are much distorted; but they
appear to form wide, transverse articular surfaces, the faces of
which look downwards.

The transverse processes are perfect in neither vertebra,
though in one of them the extremities only are lost; they are
broad and much compressed from front to back, and originate
apparently in the sides of the neural arch and the upper sur-
face of the centrum. They project almost horizontally ; but
so much of their extremities is wanting that there is no dis-
tinct evidence that they are divisible into an upper and a
lower portion, corresponding to the head and tubercle of the
rib. ‘The upper portion, however, is thicker than the lower.

274 Messrs. Hancock & Atthey on Reptile- and Fish-Remains

The measurements of the larger vertebree are as follows :—

inch.
Height of the body of the vertebra ...... 1:9
Transverse diameters joe kine ss. 1:8
MarR I Ae ck, orbs. hel Poatemi tee fe sy bis) aia, So Sime 0°83
Siete earl a eleg es ines eee se ee 0-4
Height of spinous process. .............++ iT
LGD eRe Gee CU pele ea eb baton poeiepierrwimeerconee 1-0
APC KMOSS OMT O siz ts x ose ches en fs Blas seaue 0-2
Width of transverse process ............ 0-7
DIGRESS OM GUEEO, cass e+ s+ opus bs oe 2 Os 0:3

Several other well-ossified vertebral centra have occurred
at Newsham; they have all, however, lost the neural arch
and most of the processes. Some, having a minute noto-
chord, probably belong to Pteroplax; and two in parti-
cular, one of which is an inch and a half high, and about the
same wide, agree perfectly well in form with the two above
described. ‘These have on the upper surface two peculiar,
wide, arched, transverse, sessile processes or lobes, with the
anterior faces a little hollowed. There can be no doubt that
these belong to this Labyrinthodont, and are probably caudal
vertebree.

There are three or four other vertebre, quite as large as
the above, with a notochord nearly half an inch wide, and the
remains of lateral processes. These may probably belong to
fishes ; but we know of no fish in our coal-shales to which they
can be assigned.

The four or five ribs that have turned up at Newsham are
not well preserved: two are lying in contact with one of the
cranial shields, one above, the other below it; but in both in-
stances the extremities are either lost or much injured. The
largest is five and a half inches from end to end, and four-
eighths of an inch broad; it is well and regularly arched, and
appears to be a little flattened; a wide groove extends along
the surface; and one of the extremities, which is crushed flat,
exhibits distinct traces of a tuberculum and capitulum, the
. latter projecting quite four-eighths of an inch beyond the
former, and continues the concavity of the inner margin of the
rib. The tuberculum is reflected a little, so as to interrupt the
convexity of the opposite margin. In short, this rib, as far as
can be determined, agrees very closely with that of Anthraco-
saurus as figured and described by Prof. Huxley (loc. cit. p.63).
In another specimen the proximal extremity is better preserved ;
and in it the head and tubercle are quite in accordance with
the above description.

Another rib, which probably belongs to this or to some other

from the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. 275

equally large Labyrinthodont, differs considerably from those
just described. It is not quite four inches long, and near to
the proximal end it is upwards of half an inch wide ; the sides
are flattened from before backwards, and exhibit a wide shal-
low groove from one end to the other. The tuberculum is
scarcely distinguishable from the capitulum, except by its
projecting boldly outward from the convex margin of the rib;
its articular surface is continuous with that of the capitulum,
forming with it a wide diagonal termination. Thence the rib
tapers rather rapidly to the distal extremity, which is a little
recurved.

Two or three limb-bones have likewise been found, which,
from their size, probably belonged to this species. One of
these, apparently a femur, is an inch and a half in length and
five-eighths of an inch wide at the middle of the shaft, which is
much compressed from front to back, and is a little arched in
the same direction ; there is a longitudinal depression extend-
ing from end to end. The extremities are much expanded,
and they both appear to have double articular surfaces; that
which is assumed to be the distal extremity is more expanded
on one side than on the other.

From the shortness of this bone it would seem that the
limbs of this animal were but feebly developed in comparison
with the size of the body.

In concluding this description of the remains of this fine
large Labyrinthodont reptile, a few words may be desirable on
its relationship with the generic forms previously known. It
has been already stated that it is closely allied to Loxomma,
with which it agrees in having large and probably oblique
eyes, placed near together and in a backward position. It
agrees pretty well, too, with it in the general form of that
assemblage of bones which we have called the cranial shield,
though the curves are more flowing. But the parietals differ
considerably in shape: in Loxomma they appear to be simply
elongated, and scarcely, if at all, enlarged behind*; while
in Pteroplax they are much enlarged posteriorly, and the
frontals seem to be more produced. ‘The sternal plates like-
wise differ from those of Prof. Huxley’s genus, in which
the lateral ones are quite short; but in Pteroplax they are
much elongated, agreeing in this respect with Archegosaurus ;
and the central plate in Loxomma is devoid of the remarkable
lateral lobes which characterize that of our genus.

We have also seen that this new reptile resembles to some
extent Dasyceps, particularly in the two occipital horns; but
the small eyes, backward position of the parietal foramen and

* Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. xviii. p. 292, pl. 11.

276 Messrs. Hancock & Atthey on Reptile- and Fish-Remains

external nostrils, and the difference in the form of the cranial
bones, as well as the smallness and different character of the
teeth of that genus, sufficiently distinguish it from Pteroplax.

This new genus is also related to Anthracosaurus, as 18 ap-
parent by the similarity of the vertebree, the only difference of
importance being that in this new Labyrinthodont there is a
minute notochord, while the centrum of Anthracosaurus is
completely ossified, and the neural arch of the former is oval
instead of being triangular as it is in the latter. The
occipital region, also, in the two forms is very different. And,
the teeth disagree both in form and minute structure ; indeed,
the strongly compressed crown, with its wide cutting-edges,
seems very characteristic in Pteroplax cornuta.

When the tooth is seen in transverse section, converging
spaces are observed dividing the internal vertical folds or
plicee of dentine ; these spaces are widest towards the periphery
of the tooth, and are nearly all lost before they reach the pulp-
cavity, the plicee having coalesced at their internal extremities*,
The plice are much undulated or lobulated, and have, extending
through the centre in a radial direction, a double line of gra- .
nular matter, divided by a thin, clear, homogeneous substance.
This compound line takes an undulatory or zigzag course,
and sends a simple process from each angle into the lateral
lobes or undulations. The two granular lines are continuous
with a similar line that follows the sinuosities of the peripheral
dentine; and the clear layer between these granular lines ap-
pears to be continuous with the clear coating of the tooth,
which would seem to be composed of cement, the enamel pro-
bably not extending to the base of the tooth. The Laby-
rinthodont structure of the tooth would therefore appear to be
formed by the vertical infolding or plication of the peripheral
wall of dentine and its external coating. It is evident, then,
that the minute structure of the tooth of Pteroplax differs
considerably from that of Anthracosaurus, in which, according
to Prof. Huxley, the radiating plice are not formed in this
way.

Ophiderpeton nanum, n. sp.

A single individual of a curious serpent-like Labyrinthodont,
which apparently belongs to this genus, has been found at
Newsham. It is not, however, in a good state of preservation,
though the characters are sufficiently distinct to permit of the

* Since the above was in print we have examined other sections of the
tooth, and find that the radial spaces dividing the plice of dentine are
occasionally continuous with the pulp-cavity; it would therefore seem
that in the minute structure the tooth differs less from that of Anthraco-
saurus than we supposed.

from the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. 277

determination of its specific and generic relations. From the
head to the caudal extremity, which appears imperfect, it is
five and a half inches long, allowing for the sinuosities ; as it
lies it is about an inch shorter. The head is so much crushed
that none of its characters can be determined. In its disturbed
state, however, it is three-tenths of an inch long, and nearly
two-tenths broad. Thirty-three vertebra can be counted in a
pretty continuous series extending from the head; they may,
however, be estimated at forty. ‘They do not appear to vary
much in size; the largest are one-tenth of an inch long, and
they are decidedly hourglass-shaped. The processes cannot
be determined, though it is evident enough that the spinous
process is not much elevated and that it 1s shorter than the
centrum.

Numerous rather long, delicate, slightly curved ribs are
scattered along the sides, from the head almost to the caudal
extremity. The proximal end is bifid, the capitulum being
longer than the tubereulum. The ventral shield is distinctly
displayed ; it extends from about half an inch behind the head
almost to the other extremity of the body, in the form of a
broad band, and is composed of very numerous, delicate,
slightly curved, much elongated scales, with the extremities
pointed. They are arranged transversely; and the ends of the
parallel rows overlap each other laterally.

The extreme delicacy of these scutes, which are almost fila-
mentous, distinguishes this species from O. Brownriggii, de-
scribed by Prof. Huxley*. Its diminutive size is also cha-
racteristic. No trace of sternal plates or of anterior and pos-
terior limbs are observable.

Reptile, species undetermined.

A single specimen of the central sternal plate of a second
large Labyrinthodont was obtained at Newsham some time
ago. It is nearly five inches long and about three and a
quarter wide, and is pretty regularly lozenge-shaped, with the
posterior angle produced, forming a wide, depressed, tapering
process half an inch broad at the termination, which is trun-
cate. The sides thence to the lateral angles are a little con-
cave, and from the lateral angles to the anterior extremity
(which is not much produced) are slightly convex ; the anterior
slopes are much shorter than the posterior ones. The surface
is very rugose, with the usual Labyrinthodont structure, which,
however, is not so sharply defined as it is in Pteroplax.
The depressions and ridges have a radial disposition; the

* Trans, Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxiy. p. 351, Science (1867).

278 Messrs. Douglas & Scott on the Names applied

plate is about one-eighth of an inch thick, but diminishes in
substance towards the margins.

In this interesting fossil we have evidence of the presence
of another large Labyrinthodont in the Northumberland coal-
field, which, judging from the measurements of the plate,
cannot be less than the large species previously described.
And if we look to the form of the plate and the character of
the surface-ornament, it would seem probable that it belonged
to a reptile not only specifically but likewise generically dis-
tinct from Pteroplax cornuta.

Two or three other different kinds of small sternal plates
have likewise been found; but particular allusion will be
made only to one species, which appears to be the best
characterized. The others must be left for further elucidation.

Of this species there is a set of three plates lying in juxta-.
position, apparently not very much disturbed; two are very
nearly perfect, the third is partially destroyed. They are
rounded and somewhat elongated, particularly one, which is
probably a lateral plate; it is upwards of half an inch long.

In form and size these plates resemble those of Keraterpeton,
and in structure they are almost identical. These specimens,
as well as those figured of that genus by Prof. Huxley in the
memoir before quoted, appear to have lost the external surface,
and the bone-fibres beneath are exposed to view, radiating and
anastomosing in a very regular manner from the centre of
ossification, which is a little elevated. The appearance is very
peculiar, and not a little resembles that of some specimens of
Synocladia from the Magnesian Limestone. In the species
before us the bony reticulation is not quite so fine as it is in
K. Galvani.

[To be continued. ]

XXX VI.—Remarks on the Names applied to the British Hemi-
ptera Heteroptera. By J. W. DouGias and Joun Scorv.

UNDER the above heading (anté, p. 94) Mr. Pascoe has very
fairly criticised the nomenclature adopted in certain cases by
hemipterologists, with a special reference to us; and we now
claim to say a few words in reply.

The criticism falls chiefly under two heads :—

1. “‘'The application of the generic names of the older authors
to obscure, sometimes extra-Huropean species, instead of to the
larger number of better-known species which those authors
must have had most prominently before them, thus rendering
the use of new names necessary.”’ As an example, is taken “the

to the British Hemiptera Heteroptera. 279

old name Cimex, under which Linnzus was content to include
all the Hemiptera Heteroptera known to him.” Now this is
not strictly the fact; for both in the ‘ Fauna Suecica’ and in
the ‘Systema Nature’ there are, besides Oimex, the genera
Notonecta and Nepa, both of which latter names have been
retained by all authors. With respect to Ocimea the case is
different. In the ‘Systema,’ where Linné first characterized
his genera, the following characters are given for Cimex :—
“ Rostrum inflexum. Antenne thorace longiores. Ale 4,
cruciato-complicatz : superioribus antice coriaceis. Dorsum
planum thorace marginato. Pedes cursori.’’ Yet imme-
diately afterwards he puts the exceptional section ‘ *a*
Aptera,’”’ containing only one species. It is clear therefore
that Linné never could have mtended the apterous lectu-
larius to be the type of his winged genus. Indeed, look-
ing at the very heterogeneous nature of the species com-
posing the genus as left by him, and the breadth of the
characters laid down, it seems equally clear that he had no
idea of a generic type, or that the first or other species on his
list should be taken as representative. Fabricius must have
seen this; and when he had to break up the Linnean genus,
he very properly eliminated the exceptional lectularius. It is
true he at first (in the ‘Entom. System.’) placed it under the
title of Acanthia at the head of many unrelated species; but
he afterwards (in the ‘Syst. Rhyng.’) restricted the genus to
lectularius and another close ally. In the interval between
the publication of these works, Latreille, having retained
Cimex for lectularius, applied the Fabrician name Acanthia
to other species ; but Fabricius, coming after him, showed, in
the ‘ Syst. Rhyng.,’ that Latreille had not rightly interpreted
his idea. Thus Mr. Pascoe’s objection that “ it 1s difficult to
say why the Fabrician name <Acanthia should have been
preferred,” isnot tenable. The excision of Linné’s first section
under another name being valid, the question remained which
of the other nine sections into which Linné had divided his
genus was to be taken as representative ; and, considering that
each of them equally conformed to the characters laid down
primarily, it is no wonder that no two subsequent authors,
including those “most conversant with general entomology ”’
(Fabricius, Burmeister, Germar, Kolenati, Zetterstedt «&c.),
agreed—showing also that there was no generally received
rule by which their proceedings were to be regulated. If the
principle apparently adopted for Notonecta and Nepa, of taking
the first-mentioned species as the type, were esteemed binding,
then it is curious that the first two of the section *b* are
within Mr. Pascoe’s inhibited line of “ extra-European species,”

280 Messrs. Douglas & Scott on the Names applied

and that none of the species in the section have been taken by
any author as exclusively representing the genus Cimex of
Linné, although some of them are so common that they must
have been among those that Linné “ had most prominently
before him.”

But if, by common consent, it were agreed that the name
Cimex was to be retained for certain species, could the genus
so restricted and constituted (a mere fragment of the Linnean
creation) be called, with any sense of truth, Cimex of Linné ?
A part is not equal to the whole: the play of Hamlet with
the part of Hamlet left out “by particular desire” is not
Shakespeare’s work; neither is the genus Cimex of Latreille,
Westwood, Blanchard, Gerstiicker, or Pascoe that of Linné;
it only represents the Cimewx of the particular author. If the
name of Linné is still in any case to be appended to any portion
of his mutilated genera, let it be clearly seen that the species
included therein are really representative of his idea, or, if not,
that the retention of the appellation is merely by courtesy, and
in remembrance of the labours of the illustrious Swede, rather
than a logical necessity. But the fact is that the genera of
Linné represent the modern sections or families; and if the
Linnean appellations were reserved and applied only to such
divisions, the justice and propriety of the case would be met
far more efficiently than by the use of the names of the origi-
nal extensive genera for mere fragments of them—a proceeding
which, in the very nature of things, must be more or less arbi-
trary, and subject to the caprice of any individual systematist.
To this end it must come at last, whether the way be led by
“authors conversant with general entomology” or by mere
hemipterologists, which latter are said to be the only sinners
against the Pascoean Canon No. 1.

As to this last allegation, let us see what has been done in
two or three instances by coleopterists and lepidopterists where
they had large genera to deal with. In Coleoptera the names
Curculio, Cerambyx, Chrysomela, and Leptura have either
been dropped or applied without any rule to common or un-
common, European or exotic species, and without regard to
the position they held in the Linnean list. In Lepidoptera,
to take a single instance, the name Noctua has either been
omitted or employed to designate insects which, if common, are
certainly inconspicuous, and have no claim to be taken as
special representatives. Instances in other orders might be ad-
duced to show that it is not only students of Hemiptera that
have erred in “ the application of the generic names of the
older authors to obscure, sometimes extra-European species ;””
but these may suffice.

to the British Hemiptera Heteroptera. 281

Passing to the remarks on the Fabrician genera, Mr. Dallas
is well enough able to take his own part in explaining why,
when revising the genus Cydnus, he retained the name for a
single species ; nor do we care to inquire why Fieber, Gerst-
ticker, and Birensprung differ in their interpretation of the
genus; for, as we see by the light of what has been done in
other orders, there was no rule to guide them, and we believe
that all are wrong in principle, as shown above.

As to Tetyra, Fab., it was Laporte, and not Fieber, who
eliminated certain species of that genus under the name of
Hurygaster ; and it is therefore improper still to refer them to
Tetyra by the authors quoted. From Asopus, Burm., Amyot
and Serville selected A. cewrulea (which can only be considered
at most a type of part of Burmeister’s genus) as the type
of anew genus (Zicrona); and the European species of Asopus,
except luridus, having been referred by different authors to
other genera, /wridus was the only one left for Fieber to take
as the representative of the genus; but it would have been
better if, as Mr. Pascoe says, he had employed Herrich-
Schiiffer’s name Podisus, as he has indicated in the ‘Schliissel.’

2. ‘Giving new names to such genera as were formed by
the union of two or more genera of a preceding writer.”

The argument of this objection is met by anticipation in the
foregoing remarks ; for it cannot be said with any truth that
the name of a thing should be retained for another thing which
is differently constituted, but of which the former may be an
ingredient. A chemist when he combines two or more elements
does not give the name of any one of them to the resulting
compound ; neither can it be rightly done in the labours of the
naturalist. We heartily wish it could.

Whether or not the names we have given to the combinations
of the genera mentioned will stand is a very small matter, if
the union of species proposed be received as good. Nor are
we anxious on this latter point, as we do not attach an exag-
gerated importance to genera as now understood, regarding
them rather as useful for classification than absolutely natural
divisions*. Microsynamma, Fieb. (MS8.), was discarded for
Neocoris because it was not intended for more than one species,
and the characters drawn for it would not include Plagiognathus
Bohemant, which is now by us associated with N. Scotte.

* Flor’s trinomial nomenclature, which Mr. Pascoe thinks is “ rather
difficult to explain,” is easy to understand, as the first generic name is
used in a collective or “family” sense, and the second as subgeneric.
But the device is cumbrous, and especially inconvenient for quotation;
the purpose intended would have been better served by a reference of the
genera (or subgenera) to families (or subfamilies).

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.4. Vol. i. 21

282 Rey. 8. Haughton on the Muscular

Microphysa, Westw., was rejected because the characters laid
down were drawn only from the female of one species, differing
greatly from the male, while those of Zygonotus, Fieb., included
both male and female.

The remarks about Hydrometra and Gerris appear to be well
founded, the majority of authors having overlooked the fact of
the priority of Latreille’s generic name Hydrometra for the
species stagnorum. Even Burmeister has done so; for in a
note under Limnobates, a genus he established for this species,
he says:—‘‘ Die Aenderung des Gattungsnamens wurde
dadurch néthig, dass ich den Namen Gerris fiir die von Fabri-
cius in diese Gattung gestellten Arten beibehalten zu miissen
glaubte, da er das Recht der Anziennitiit fiir sich hat.” Hy-
drometra, Lat., should be the generic name for stagnorum, and
Gerris, Fab., be restored to the species of Hydrometra of
authors. ;

In these remarks we have been careful not to travel beyond
the record. The argument touches only a few points on the
surface of a great subject (the real signification of genera),
about which no two authors are agreed. The so-called “ ana-
lytic method,” for instance, so much in favour, tends to the
infinite multiplication of genera; so that we are in danger of
realizing the taunt of Curtis “that every species would con-
stitute a genus,” or of going a step further, and, by adopting
Amyot’s “systéme mononymique,”’ which gives to every
creature a new and single name, abolish genera altogether.

XXXVII.—On the Muscular Anatomy of the Alligator. By
the Rev. SamueL Haueuton, M.D., F.R.S., Fellow of
Trinity College, Dublin.

[Plate X.]

In the sixteenth volume of the ‘Annals of Natural History’
(3rd series, p. 326) I published an account of the muscular
anatomy of the leg of the Egyptian Crocodile (1865). Since
that time I have had an opportunity of. studying the anatomy
of the Alligator of the Mississippi (June 1866). The specimen
dissected by me was a female, upwards of 6} feet in length.
Its examination confirms, in most respects, the conclusions at
which I arrived from the dissection of the smaller specimen of
Crocodile previously described; and I believe the results of
my dissection are worthy of being recorded.

Mr. Hair, of Edinburgh, has kindly forwarded me a copy of
a paper on the Alligator, read by him as a thesis in the Uni-

Anatomy of the Alligator. 283

versity, which I have compared with my own results. I feel
indebted to him for having corrected an error in my former
paper on the Crocodile, in which I confounded the gluteus
minimus with the tensor femoris vagine muscle: this error
has been avoided in the present paper; but I have adhered
steadily to the other supposed errors pointed out by Mr. Hair,
as he has failed to satisfy me that I am mistaken in my view
of the true relations and names of the pelvic bones of the
Alligator or Crocodile.

In Pl. X. fig. 1 is represented the pelvie arch of the Alli-
gator (left side), in which the parts, as named by me, are—

PCI eee ES sniccter, 9158643 +(e ssys te Isch.
MR a ches cute ts Finis cl akubee Gtlalsters df,
IEE: SP ce" Ea aa eee m.
LACE SNe, San a aaa ease a SARE p-
These bones are named by other anatomists as follows :—
Tey A> DE OS SP PECL PL ON. ilium.
Dee ea Cre eee ee Sct ischium.
LE PES SOE ODOR PR ASK ea pubes.

The weight of evidence is altogether in favour of the names
given by me, so far at least as the muscles are concerned, as
will appear to any comparative anatomist from the following
description, by which it appears that the usual origins are left
to all the muscles, and that no difficulty occurs with respect to
any muscle, except those named by me marsupiales (Nos. 44,
45), which would be called obturators by those who take a
different view of the pelvic bones. On the other hand, however,
such anatomists would be required to explain why the ham-
string muscles should take origin from the ilium and not from
the tuber ischii, and why the pectineus should arise from the
anterior border of the ischium rather than from its classical
origin on the pectineal line of the pubes.

Such questions, however, relate to transcendental anatomy,
with which at present we have no concern; and I hope the
description here given of the muscles, with their weights,
origins, and insertions, will be sufficient to enable any other
anatomist to recognize them readily.

I. Muscles of the Hind Limb,

1. Sartorius. 0°34 oz. av. O. from the anterior spine of
the ium. I. into the fascia of the imner side of the thigh,

halfway down.
21*

284 Rey. S. Haughton on the Muscular

2. Psoas magnus. 3°67 oz. O. from all the lumbar ver-
tebre. I. into the outer trochanter, and, by a strong tendon,
into the skin at the outer side of the thigh.

3. Iliacus. 1:20 0z. O. from whole inner anterior surface
of the ilium and of the transverse processes of the anterior
sacral vertebra. I. into the mner trochanter.

4, Pectineus. 0°89 0z. O. from the central anterior por-
tion of the pubes, between the two heads of the gracilis muscle.
I. into the upper part of the back of the femur.

5. Adductor brevis. 1°34 0z. O. anterior edge of pubes,
behind origin of pectineus. I. into the middle two-fourths of
the linea aspera.

6. Adductor magnus. 0°88 oz. O. from the posterior edge
of the pubes, its middle third. JI. into the lower half of the
linea aspera, with-a slip inserted into the joint tendon of the
gracilis and semimembranosus.

7. Obturator externus. 0°44 oz. O. from the posterior
edge of the pubes and from the obturator membrane joining
that edge with the vertebre behind the tuber ischii. I. into the
back of the top of the femur, associated closely with the pecti-
neus and with the marsupiales.

8. Adductor longus. 0°91 0z. O. from the posterior end
of the symphysis pubis. I. into the back of the top of the
tibia and having a fascial union with the tendon of the semi-
tendinosus. It forms a spindle-shaped handsome muscle.

9. Quadratus femoris. 1°75 0z. O. posterior margin and
inner surface of the ischium, and surface of the transverse
process of the posterior sacral ‘vertebra. I. into back of top of
femur, and into the tendon of the extensor femoris caudalis.

10. Obturator internus. None.

11. Agitator caude. 0°97 oz. O. from the ilio-ischiadic
crest, behind the origin of the gluteus maximus. I. by a
double tendon, exactly as in the Crocodile (Ann. Nat. Hist.
a a vol. xvi. p. 327).

Gluteus maximus. 1:98 oz. O. from the central two-
re of the ilio-ischiadic crest. I. into the fascia outside
and above the knee-joint.

13. Pyriformis. None.

14. Gluteus medius. 1:14 oz. O. from the central portion
of the ilio-ischiadic surface. I. by a tendon passing over the
outer trochanter to be inserted into a line down the upper half
of the outside of the femur.

15. Gluteus minimus. None.

16. Gluteus quartus. None. .

17. Gluteus quintus. None.

18. Tensor vagine femoris. 0°14 0z. -O. from the anterior

Anatomy of the Alligator. 285

spine of the ilium, near the articulation of the marsupial bone.
I. into the fascia of the inner side of the thigh, near its
middle.

19. Biceps femoris. 1:04 0z. O. This muscle has two
origins (a=0°69, b=0°35), arising from two parts of the
surface of the ischium, below and behind the origin of the
gluteus maximus. I. as in the Crocodile (bid. p. 327), ex-
cept that it is partly inserted into the head of the outer gas-
trocnemius as well as into the peroneus longus.

20. Bicipiti accessorius. None.

21. Semimembranosus. 1°52 0z. O. tuber ischii. I. into
the top of the tibia, by a common tendon with the gracilis.

22. Semitendinosus. 1°93 oz. QO. tuber ischii. I. by
means of a tendon having a double insertion :—a, into the top
of the fibula; 4, into the outer tarsal bone (cuboid) with tendon
of the gastrocnemius.

23. Gracilis. 0°89 0z. This muscle consists of two parts:
—a, 0°24 oz.; 6, 0°65 oz.: a@ derives its origin from the poste-
rior angle of the pubes; 6 arises from the anterior prominence
of the pubes, close to the acetabulum and to the articulation of
the marsupial bone with the pubes.

24. Rectus femoris. 0°77 oz. The origin and course of
this remarkable muscle are the same as in the Crocodile (cid.
p-. 327); its tendon finally terminates by becoming one of the
heads of the plantaris.

25. Vastus externus. 1:01 oz.

26. Vastus internus ;

27. Crureus } Fabel iP

28. Popliteus. None.

29. Gastrocnemius. 2°05 oz. Consists of two parts :—
a, outer head, 1:29 oz.; 5, inner head, 0°76 oz.: a derives its
origin, as in the Crocodile, from the tendon of the great ex-
tensor femoris caudalis (Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vol. xvi. p.328),
and is inserted by a tendon passing in a groove under the
calcaneum into the outer and under surface of the outer tarsal
bone (cuboid): & derives its origin from the inner condyle of
the femur and from the top of the tibia; the tendon of the inner
head joins that of the outer head before it passes under the
caleaneum ; this tendon is also joined by that of the semi-
tendinosus.

30. Plantaris. 0°47 0z. This muscle takes its double ori-
gin, as in the Crocodile (¢b¢d. p. 328), from the tendons of the
rectus femoris and agitator caudz; and it is inserted into the
calcaneum and into the fascial sheet that passes under it,
which forms the origin of the flexor brevis perforatus of the
second toe.

286 Rey. 5. Haughton on the Muscular

31. Soleus. None.

32. Flexor digitorum longus. 0°80 0z. O. usual. I. into
the ungual phalanges of the first, second, and third toes only.

33. Flexor hallucis longus. 0°20 0z. O. from the back of
the outer condyle of the femur, from the tendon of the extensor
femoris caudalis. I. into the tendon of the flexor digitorum
longus.

34, Tibialis posticus. 0°72 0z. This muscle is inserted
into the near ends of the first and second metatarsal bones.

35. Flexor digitorum brevis. 0°76 oz. Consists of three
distinct muscles, distributed to the second, third, and fourth
toes: a, flexor 2% digiti perforatus, 0°45 oz.; 6, flexor 3% di-
giti perforatus, 0°20 oz.; c, flexor 44 digiti perforans, 0°11 oz.
The flexors a and 6 are perforate flexors, and are distributed
to the penultimate phalanges, while flexor ¢ is carried on to
the ungual phalanx, and supplies the office of the flexor longus,
which is wanting in the fourth toe. The flexor brevis of the
second toe (a) takes its origin partly from the caleaneum and
partly from the tendon of the plantaris.

36. Flexori longo accessorius. 0°34 oz. O. from the cal-
caneum and cuboid bones. I. into the back of the common
tendon of the flexor digitorum longus, which is distributed to
the first, second, and third toes only.

37. Tibialis anticus.

38. Extensor hallucis. 1°22 oz.

39. Extensor digitorum longus.

QO. from the tibia and fibula, and by means of a long tendon
from the anterior surface of the outer condyle, inside the knee-
joint.

40. Peroneus tertius. 0°15 oz. The tendon of this muscle
crosses the back of the foot to be inserted into the metatarsal
of the first toe.

41. Peroneus brevis. 0°17 0z. Inserted into the outer
side of the outer tarsal bone (cuboid and rudimentary fifth
metatarsal).

42. Peroneus longus. 0°40 0z. Takes its origin from the
fibula, and is closely associated with the outer gastrocnemius.

43. Extensor femoris caudalis. 14°55 0z. This important
muscle is similar to that found in the Crocodile (bid. p. 328),
and derives its origin from the under surfaces of the transverse
processes, and from the sides of the inferior spinous processes
(chevron bones or hemal processes) of the caudal vertebre,
from the first to the fifteenth.

N.B. The first chevron bone begins at the junction of the
second and third caudal vertebre.

44, Marsupialis externus. 1:05 oz.

Anatomy of the Alligator. . 287

45. Marsupialis internus. 0°59 oz.

These muscles agree with those described under the same
name in the Crocodile (¢bid. p. 330); and they are called
obturator muscles by those anatomists who consider the mar-
supial bone to be the pubes.

46. Peroneo-calcaneus. 0°22 oz. O. from the fibula, at its
lower extremity. I. into the upper surface of the calcaneum.

47. Extensor brevis. 0°87 oz. These short extensors are
distributed to all the toes.

48. Lumbricales. 1°13 oz.

II. Muscles of the Fore Limb.

a. Trapezius. 0°33 0z. O. from the cervical fascia beneath
the cervical scutes. I. into the anterior edge of the acromion,
(Pl. X. fig. 2, aer.).

b, Sterno-atlanticus. 1:46 oz. O. from the whole breadth
of the sternum, in front of its articulation with the coracoid.
I. into the transverse process of the second cervical vertebra.

c. Sterno-mastoideus. Record lost. .

d. Omo-hyoideus. 0°36 oz.

e. Rhomboideus*. 0°45 oz. O. from spinous processes of
last cervical and first dorsal vertebra. I. anterior and verte-
bral edge of scapula.

f. Serratus magnus. 4°14 oz.

Serratus anticus has its origin from the second to the eighth
vertebra. .
| Serratus posticus from the ninth to the fourteenth vertebra
ribs).

1. Teres major. 0°18 oz. Origin and insertion as usual.

2. Latissimus dorsi. 0°95 0z. O. from the four anterior
dorsal scutes.

3. Subscapularis. 0°84 oz.

4. Pectoralis minort. 0°57 0z. O. from the outer surface
of the coracoid.

5. Pectoralis major. 7°68 oz. O. from the entire length
of the sternum and from the abdominal ribs, two-thirds of dis-
tance to the pelvis.

6. Pectoralis (avium)? 0°90 oz. O. from the first sternal
rib. I. into the posterior edge of the coracoid.

7. Coraco-brachialis. None.

8. Subclavius. None.

9. Deltoideus. 1°63 oz. O. from the whole outer and

* Meckel describes the rhomboid as smaller than the trapeze.
+ This muscle is regarded by some as a coraco-brachialis superior.

288 Rev..8. Haughton on the Muscular

inner surfaces of the acromion, winding out from the inner
surface to join the outer portion of the muscle.

10. Supraspinatus. 0°28 oz.

11. Infraspinatus*. None.

12. Teres minor. None.

13. Infraspinatus secundus. None.

14. Biceps humeri (scapularis). None.

15. Brachieus. 0°51 oz.. The brachizus muscle consists
of two distinct portions :—a, brachialis externus, 0°24 oz. ;
b, brachialis anticust, 0°27 oz.:. of these the portion @ is in-
serted into the radius, outside the insertion of the biceps; and
the portion 6 is inserted into the radius, with the tendon of
the biceps.

16. Biceps humeri (coracoidalis). 0°46 oz. O. from. the
anterior edge of the coracoid, near the glenoid cavity. I. by
a common tendon with brachialis anticus, into the radius.

17. Triceps longust. 1°67 oz.

18. Triceps internus.

19. Triceps externus. 135

20. Triceps accessorius. ip

ps acc

21. Anconzus. ‘

22. Pronator radii teres§. None.

23. Flexor carpi radialis||. | 9.55

24, Palmaris longus. ie
tendon of the flexor digitorum, in the centre of the palm.

25. Flexor carpi ulnaris. 0°65 oz. Inserted into the pisi-
form bone. .

26. Flexor digitorum sublimis.

27. Flexor digitorum profundus. -0°31 oz.

28. Flexor pollicis longus.

Inserted into the

* Meckel describes the infraspinatus as distinct from the supraspinatus.
I could not separate them, either in the Crocodile or Alligator.

+ Meckel regards this muscle as a second head of the biceps.

} The ace muscle, although it possesses no accessory cutaneous slip
arising from the latissimus dorsi, yet has four heads, viz. :—

a. Triceps longus; from the posterior edge of the scapula, close to the
glenoid cavity.

b. Triceps longus secundus; from a sling tendon suspended between
the posterior edges of the scapula and coracoid, allowing the subscapularis
to pass between the tendons.

ec. Triceps externus ; as usual.

d. Triceps internus; as usual.

§ Meckel describes two supinators and two pronators in the forearm of
the Crocodile: I found one only of each in the Crocodile and in the
Alligator.

|| This muscle may be the palmaris longus, or, possibly, the flexor pol-
licis longus: its tendon is inserted, laterally, into the broad tendon of the
flexor digitorum communis in'the centre of the palm of the hand; and its
force is expended chiefly on the thumb, index, and middle fingers.

Anatomy of the Alligator. 289

29. Pronator quadratus*. 0°43 oz.
~ 80. Supinator radii longus*. 0°42 oz.

31. Extensor carpi radialis longior. 0°17 oz.

32. Extensor carpi radialis brevior. 0°16 oz.

33. Supinator radii brevis*. None.

34. Extensor digitorum longus (qu. ext. oss. metacarpl
pollicis). 0°10 oz.

35. Extensor carpi ulnaris. 0°24 oz.

III. Muscles of the Jaws and Head.

Herodotus and Aristotle state that the Crocodile, alone,
moves the upper jaw, while other animals move the lower jaw.
This statement 1s borne out by the muscular anatomy of the
animal, which is capable of opening its mouth by lifting the
upper jaw and head while its lower jaw rests upon the mud of
the bank on which it hes.

A. Aristotelis apertor oris. 1:34 0z. O. from the upper
surface of the posterior process of the angle of the lower jaw.
I. into the outer fourth of the occipital ridge.

B. Pterygoideus (clausor oris). 17°90 oz. O. from the
under surface of the posterior process of the angle of the lower
jaw. I. into the tae of the pterygoid plate and all round the
floor of the orbit of the eye, forward.

C. Masseter. 4°90 oz.

D. Cervico-spinal occipital («). 3°30 0z. O. from the tips
of the spinous processes of all the cervical vertebree. I. into
and below the occipital ridge.

E. Cervico-spinal occipital (8). 2°32 oz. O. from the sides
of the spinous processes of all the cervical vertebra. I. into
the occiput, below the insertion of the last («).

IV. Comparison of the Pelvic and Scapular Muscles. .

The plane of motion in which any muscle moves a bone
round the joint is defined by three points :—

O. The origin of the muscle.
I. The insertion of the muscle.
C. The centre of motion of the joint.

The point I varies as the limb changes its position, while
the points C and O remain absolutely fixed in the pelvis, and
comparatively fixed in the shoulder or scapular joint. The
lines joining (C) the centre of the joint with the points (QO)

* See note §, antea.

290 Rev. 8. Haughton on the Muscular

belonging to the various muscles thus mark out fixed lines
round which the planes of muscular momentum must turn in
every conceivable position of the joint.

If we compare together the positions of these fixed lines in
the pelvic and scapular joints, we may readily obtain relations
between the muscles of the hind and fore limb that would
escape notice unless so examined, and which seem to possess
much interest.

Let us commence with the pelvic joint (Pl. X. fig. 1), and
take for the zero of our circle described round the centre of the
joint the plane of the rectus femoris, tensor vagine femoris,
and sartorius, which corresponds with the plane of flexion of
the knee-joint.

Following from right to left (on left side of pelvis) the order
of muscles, we obtain the following table :—

Pelvic Joint.

uit Weight. Azimuth.
Sartorius |

IReCuus temMoOrise +. bah |e | eats ae 1:25 oz. 0°

Tensor vagine femoris

Psoas dfh beth P ROS tateat sie Be cla 4°87 oz. 33°

Iliacus

chile aes seme Ss eee 1-64.02, 45°
arsupialis internus

(Sey rl)

aN

Adductor brevis
Adductor magnus 7 =
Fe aaiespaai } esd raaguneh th 1:79 on. 195
Obiurator Gx bermiaT cose) secs ioc vas)s 0:97 oz. 149°
Quadratus femoris

Extensor femoris caudalis }
Biceps femoris |

“IDA

era alekie 16°30 oz. 194°

ie.)

Semitendinosus
Semimembranosus

Glutzus maximus

ES Se 4:49 oz. EY pas

Gracilis
A ROP OGHINOUSY 2) Aa Bathe. GANS LS 3°22 oz. 106°

=)

Gluteus modias 7 eth ots US se 4:09 oz. 266°

Agitator caude
Total.. 38°62 oz. av.

In the preceding table I have reckoned gracilis in the same
azimuth with pectineus and adductor brevis, because the re-
sultant of its two heads hes in this line.

The fixed lines of the muscles of the shoulder-joint, com-
mencing with the triceps longus, which is in the plane of
motion of the elbow-joint, from Jeft to right (on left side of
shoulder), may be arranged as follows :—

Anatomy of the Alligator. 291
Shoulder-Joint.
Weight. Azimuth.
Do) UCR MEE cls oe s'yin ek 2 os 3°12 oz 0°
2.) POURS Mamie are tae 2's Ss wate wt 0-18 ,, P
3 Tatissimus Gerth e330. 28S. O05), 14°
| SUBSCHPHENRIN, see aio ence = as o's be 0:84 ,, 346°
450 RP eetorslis Ga MeN Cae (alk Ss). e's) sss 8 7°68 ,, 129°
Dy “Peetotalis MInOB Yh hee). S62. ce <h 0:57 ,, 190°
6... Bieeps Thambrtek ae eia: 8s. ws bed 0:46 ,, 258°
de Delieidenw yy Fees wie cs oh esc be 1-63. 310°
sy MESURE Ady ISB: bie <uiardi Shae > Stes 0-28 ,, 342°

15:71 oz. av.

The resultant moment of latissimus dorsi and subscapularis
passes through a line coinciding almost exactly with the line
of teres major; and these three muscles are intimately asso-
ciated in their action.

If we arrange the pelvic and scapular muscles in parallel
columns according to their admitted relationships, we shall
obtain the following comparative table :—

Comparison of Pelvic and Scapular Muscles.

Pelvic Muscles.

Scapular Muscles.

Rectus femoris 0° Triceps humeri...... 0°
1, 4 Sartorius Baas 1,4 Teres major ........ aig
* ) Ihacus 930 | Subscapularis ...... —14°
Psoas magnus Latissimus dorsi ....-+14°
2. Marsupiales ...... 45° }2. Wanting.
Gracilis
Pectineus : 106°
34 eee Ha 3. Pectoralis major .... 129°
Adductor longus } a
4, Obturator externus 149° |4, Wanting.
Quadratus femoris Aa
5. | Wad, fiohac cans dais f 194° |5. Pectoralis minor .... 190°
Biceps femoris
6. + Semitendinosus 217° |6. Biceps humeri ...... 258°
Semimembranosus
: i Deltoideus.......... 310°
a” Glinteass Bare Wea 266° | 7. | Ait cet ll ya

Many important deductions might be made from the pre-

292 Dr. J. E. Gray on the peculiar Structure

ceding table; but I shall content myself with indicating the
following :—

1. The analogous muscles in the hip-joint and shoulder-
joint of the same side of the body are arranged in reverse
order—thus confirming the opinion of Vicq d’Azyr that the
left leg should be compared with the right arm, and vice
versa.

2. The marsupial muscles in no respect correspond with the
obturators, but find their true analogues in a muscle whose
direction lies between that of latissimus dorsi and the pectorals.
This muscle (wanting in the Alligator and Crocodile) is found
in the following animals :—the Armadillo, the Seal, the Otter,
and other animals that dig or swim.

3. The analogue of the obturators is found in the second
pectoral of the birds, which acts as a levator humeri, and
whose line of direction lies between the pectorals. This mus-
cle may possibly be represented in the Crocodile and Alligator
by the pectoral muscle extended from the first sternal rib to
the posterior edge of the coracoid.

XXXVIII.—On the peculiar Structure and Function of the
Spicules of Hyalonema. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S.,
VEIZ.S: WLS. ce.

OnE of the chief reasons assigned for regarding the rope-like
axis of Hyalonema as part of a Sponge, to which some speci-
mens have been found attached, is that it consists of spi-
cules which are composed of silica, and formed like the spi-
cules of sponges. Prof. Max Schultze, Prof. Wyville Thom-
son, and others compare them with the long filiform spicules
of Huplectella.

Zoologists and microscopists have overlooked the importance
of a very marked peculiarity in the formation of the spicules
of Hyalonema that is not to be observed in the spicules of any
kind of Sponge that I have examined or seen figured. This
is the more remarkable as the peculiarity to which I refer
was mentioned when I first described the genus, and is figured
by Max Schultze, Brandt, and Bocage, and, indeed, by all au-
thors who have figured the genus; but these authors have not
considered why the peculiarity existed and the bearing it has
on the question of the structure of the animals to which the
spicules belong: ° pe

The spicules of Sponges are formed of a number of con-
centric layers round a central line, and they always have a
perfect, more or less acute end, which is simple and formed of

_ and Function of the Spicules of Hyalonema. 293

coats like the rest of the body; in fact they seem to be in-
creased in size by a layer of siliceous and animal matter being
deposited on their whole surface, on the apices as well as the
rest of the body.

On the contrary, the spicules of Hyalonema are subcylin-
drical, rather thicker above, and very slender at the base,
formed of numerous concentric lamine round a central line;
but the outer layers do not reach the ends of the spicules.
The ends are truncated, and there is a succession of lamin,
each terminating shorter and shorter of the top of the spi-
cules; so that the ends of the spicules are furnished with a
succession of rings, each formed by the termination of a layer
of siliceous and animal matter, as is well figured in the plates
of Professors Max Schultze, Brandt, and Bocage.

I believe that this difference in the structure arises from the
very different functions which the spicules of the axis of Hya-
lonema have to perform in the coral from those for which the
spicules of the sponges are formed in the body of those beings.
In Hyalonema the coral is gradually being extended in height,
and the spicules are extended in length, par? passu, to support
the coral as it grows. To allow of this extension of length, the
ends of the spicules are not finished off as they are in the sponges,
where they are completed at once, and are only slightly
thickened and lengthened to a certain limit as the sponge
grows. The spicules of sponges merely form a support for a
more or less massive sponge, and are of a definite size ; while
the spicules of the rope-like axis are continually increasing in
length and thickness to support a continually growing mass
of animals, which require a larger and stronger axis to sup-
port them as the community assumes the adult form. The
spicules of the rope-like mass are of different thickness; and
they increase in number as the axis increases in diameter,
those last formed being the most slender and consisting of the
fewest concentric layers.

It is to be observed that the short rugose cruciform spicules
in the bark of the Hyalonema, which do not require to be
lengthened as the coral increases in size, are formed like the spi-
cules of sponges, and are complete in form when first deposited,
and have complete ends. This difference in the structure of
the spicules of the axis and of the bark, I think, goes far to
confirm the theory I have propounded, that the spicules of the
axis are of different structure, because they have a peculiar
function to perform,

This peculiarity in the structure and function of the spicules
of the axis, I think, proves that they are no part of the sponge,
but a secretion of the hard flesh of the polype that surrounds

294 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Spicules of Hyalonema.

each of them and forms the mass of them, and that they are a
part of the community of the Palythoe, and not a mere bundle
of spicules arising out of the sponge.

If I understand the theory of those who regard the rope-like
axis of Hyalonema as the spicules of a sponge, they believe
that the spicules of the sponge are clustered together in the
centre of the sponge, and are produced, forming an elongated
columnar coil, which, according to Bowerbank, is covered
with a skin forming part of the sponge, and according to
Professors Brandt and Max Schultze is covered with a coat
of parasitic Palythoe. If either of these theories is true, the
spicules should be of the same form and structure as the spi-
cules of sponges, and complete and acute at each end.

I have shown that the spicules of the coil are not formed
as the usual spicules of Sponges, but have their ends, and
especially their upper or distal ends, always in an incomplete
state of development, and that they are constantly being
lengthened by the addition of coats to the end of each of the
layers of which the spicules are composed. I think we may
conclude that the spicules are produced or secreted by the coat
of corium that covers them (and this coat has, I think, been
most indisputably proved to be formed by the community of
animals allied to Palythoa), and therefore that the axis is not
a part of the sponge, but the proper secretion of the Palythoan
animals.

Prof. Max Schultze, though he figures this structure (t. 2.
f.4&5), appears not to understand its importance; for he
compares it to a fusiform spicule with a central spherical
knob that he found in the sponges which are furnished with
some spines which are directed towards the centre. But this
is evidently only a variety (and one I have not seen) of the
stellate spines figured on tab. 4. f. 2,4, 7,8 & 9, though in these
the spines on the rays are all directed towards the tips. These
spinulous spicules are all perfect and acute at the tips, and are
not truncated and growing at the end like the spicules of the
coil of Hyalonema.

Prof. Brandt’s figures of the spicules of Hyalonema, on tab. 2.
f.12,13,14, & 15, much more accurately represent the structure;
but it is to be remembered that figs. 12 & 13 represent wrong
ends of the spicule upwards; that is to say, the slender end of
the spicule is the one that is immersed in the sponge, and the
blunt truncated lower end, as it appears in these plates, is the
end of the spicule that is furthest from the place of attachment
and which is being extended to accommodate itself to the in-
creased height of the bark or community of polypes. And
tab. 4. f. 14 also well represents the coat of which the spicules.

Bibliographical Notices. 295

are composed, and the sheath of fleshy matter or corium with
which each is surrounded. The existence of this sheath, which
is of the same structure and substance as the inner layer of the
bark, I have always regarded as a proof that the spicules were
formed by the community of Palythow that compose the bark
or corium. | .

The long free filamentous spicules of the Huplectella, which
are regarded by Dr. Max Schultze and Prof.Wyville Thomson
as most resembling in form the spicules of the axis of the Hya-
lonema, have an acute simple tip, or have the tip armed with
three or more recurved hooks, as figured by Bowerbank. It
is curious how Dr. Max Schultze, who has figured the pecu-
liar structure of the spicules of Hyalonema, and must have
seen the spicules of the Huplectella furnished with hooks,
could have thought of uniting the two genera into a group,
which he called Lophiospongie ; for nothing can be more dis-
tinct than the structure, form, and use of the spicules of these
two genera belonging to orders of animals of such different
degrees of organization. ;

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

Coleoptera Hesperidum, being an enumeration of the Coleopterous In-
sects of the Cape Verde Archipelago. By T. Vernon Wo ttaston,
M.A., F.L.S. 8vo. London: Van Voorst, 1867.

How far Mr. Wollaston is warranted in applying the term Hes-
perides to the southernmost cluster of the North Atlantic islands
is a question which we must leave to the classical student for deci-
sion; perhaps they have as good a right to the title as any others.
But to the entomologist, since the publication of the book whose
title is given above, the Hesperides will most certainly be identified
with the Cape Verde Islands, seeing that Mr. Wollaston’s visit to
them has enabled him to present his brother entomologists with a
treasure of higher value than any amount of golden apples ever
guarded by the most terrible of dragons.

_ The materials for the ‘ Coleoptera Hesperidum’ have been chiefly
collected by Mr. Wollaston himself, during a visit to the little
archipelago in Mr. Gray’s yacht. Mr.Gray, Mr. Hamlet Clark, and
Mr. Lowe had also previously landed on some of the islands; and
Mr. Wollaston acknowledges the receipt of specimens from some
other gentlemen ; but the arid nature of the group, in some of the
islands of which rain scarcely ever falls, renders the most careful
working unproductive, and accordingly the whole number of species
obtained from all sources amounts only to 278. This number might
perhaps be slightly increased by an investigation of the three eastern
islands of the group, which Mr. Wollaston did not visit; but the very
name of “ Salt Islands” applied to these seems to indicate that pro-

296 Bibliographical Notices.

bably no great results would be obtained from them. The materials
at Mr. Wollaston’s disposal were, however, sufficient to bring out
some very interesting results.

The first of these is, that the relative proportions of the different
great groups of Coleoptera in these remote islands is nearly the
same as in the more fruitful regions of the Madeiran and Canarian
groups, with the exception that the Heteromera and Rhynchophora
exactly change places in the series, and that the Eucerata (Longi-
corns) are, as far as our author is aware, entirely unrepresented.
The comparative inferiority of the Rhynchophora may perhaps be
due, as Mr. Wollaston seems to think, to the improvident destruction
of the timber by the inhabitants; and the same cause would also, to
a great extent, account for the absence of the Longicorn Beetles.
Considering the arid nature of the islands, it is a little remarkable
that whilst the Philhydrida and Hydradephaga hold the same rela-
tive position in the numerical scale, their actual proportion to the
whole number of species is greater in the Cape Verde than in the
more northern islands ; for we have 7 Hydradephaga and 6 water-
loving Philhydrida in the former, against 29 and 20 in the latter,
the totals being about in the proportion of 28 to 145.

Nor is it only in these statistical results that the two sets of islands,
which Mr. Wollaston has subjected to examination, agree; even the
exponents of Coleopterous groups, although not very frequently
identical, are generally so nearly allied that Mr. Wollaston seems to
think that it would be most natural to regard the fauna of all the
islands as forming a whole, differing in certain details in the more
distant islands, but characterized throughout by a similarity of type.
Thus, although the predominance of Heteromera would seem at first
sight to indicate that nearer African relationship which might be
inferred from the position of the islands, we find on inspection of
the list that the types are, for the most part, like those of the more
northern islands. It is to be observed, however, that, notwith-
standing this similarity of the types which are represented in the
Cape Verdes to those prevailing in the more northern clusters, Mr.
Wollaston remarks upon the total absence in the former of types
highly characteristic of the latter. This, however, as he points out,
is probably the result of distance, assisted perhaps by the breaking
up of the province into such a number of small islands.

Of truly tropical forms Mr. Wollaston enumerates only three,
namely, Dineutus wreus, Diplognatha gagates, and Aspidomorpha
cincta.

Of the species enumerated by Mr. Wollaston a great number seem
to occupy the same position in relation to other known species which
characterized so many of those catalogued by him in his former
work ; that is to say, they differ so slightly that, but for the differ-
ence of habitat, they would perhaps hardly be regarded as species.
All these are carefully indicated by Mr. Wollaston in his geogra-
phical table by means of arrows leading to the name of the probable
derivative species; and it will be a task for some Darwinist here-
after to work carefully over Mr, Wollaston’s indications of this

Bibliographical Notices. 297

nature, and to see whether any real material towards the final solution
of the great question of the origin of species can be derived there-
from. Mr. Wollaston, in accordance with his known views, holds
that these changes (if such have taken place) will have been effected
rapidly. Whatever conclusion may be arrived at upon this subject,
no one will doubt that in his present work and its companion, the
‘Coleoptera Atlantidum,’ Mr. Wollaston has furnished a most im-
portant contribution to philosophical zoology.

Naturhistorisk Tidsskrift (Journal of Natural History), edited by
Professor J. C. Scuroprn, at Copenhagen. Third Series, vols. iii.
& iv. (1865-1867), 568 pages with 15 plates, and 552 pages with
22 plates.

J.C. Scutépre on Phthiriasis ; on the genus Stalita ; on the Classification
of Buprestes and Elateres; on some Tunnelling Coleoptera; on the
Structure of the Mouth in Sucking Crustacea, and on the Metamor-

hoses of Coleoptera.—Dr. R. BERGH, Contributions to a Monograph of

leurophyllididee.—Dr. V. Brreséx on Philichthys Xiphie, St.; onthe
Italian Tarantula and Tarantism.—Dr. BrrGsox and Dr. MEINERT on
the Danish Species of Geophili—Dr. MEINERT on Campodee; on
Miastor metraloas (three articles),—M. FiscHEer on the Ege of Caryo-
catactes guttatus; on Larus Rossii and on Syrrhaptes paradoxus.—M.
Strom on the Danish Species of Orgyia; List of Danish Lepidoptera.

Tue third and fourth volumes of this periodical, which have just
been completed, are in every way worthy of their predecessors,
which were noticed in the ‘ Annals’ (ser. 3. vol. xv. p. 475). They
consist entirely of original papers by Danish naturalists, and are
admirably illustrated by engraved plates. Several of the papers
above mentioned have been translated or excerpted in English or
other continental periodicals, Prof. Schiddte’s papers on Phthiriasis,
Elateres and Buprestes, tunnelling Coleoptera, and sucking Crustacea
have been translated in the ‘Annals,’ as well as Dr. Meinert’s papers
on Campodez and his observations on those remarkable larvee of
Cecidomyis which exhibit alternating generations, and on genera-
tion generally; whilst M. Fischer’s discovery of the true egg and
nest of Caryocatactes has been communicated to English ornitho-
logists through the ‘Ibis.’ But there remain several papers well
worthy of attention.

The volumes before us contain two further instalments (vol. ii.
p- 131, and vol. iv. p. 415) of Prof. Schiddte’s memoir ‘“ De Meta-
morphosi Eleutheratorum Observationes,” which has now grown up
to 279 pages of text and 31 plates, and is still being continued.
The larve as yet described amount to 100, belonging to 57 genera
of the families of Carabi, Dytisci, Gyrini, Hydrophili, Silphe, Histri,
and Staphylini, and representing the principal groups of these fami-
lies, except the last, which is not yet completed. A few of these
larvee have been described before, but mostly in loose and general
terms; and it may well be said that never have the larve of any
insects been the subject of such complete and accurate investigation

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.4. Vol. i. 22

298 Bibliographical Notices.

and illustration. Almost everything in this memoir is therefore
new ; and it would be so much the more difficult to make a suitable
extract from the host of new observations, as, in spite of the great
mass of detail, nothing has been included in the descriptions but
what really has scientific value. It is an exceedingly difficult task,
in commencing the study of a new branch, to limit properly the
detail to be inserted in the descriptions, because experience alone
can show what has systematic and philosophical value, and what not.
But in the memoir before us the matter seems to have been prepared
so long and weighed so carefully that there is nothing superfluous,
nothing that does not really serve to complete our conception of the
animals. One question, however, may fairly be asked, viz., What
light do these investigations throw on the systematic relations of the
families to which the larvee belong? And a few leading results may
easily be pointed out. The new division of the family of Carabi,
proposed by Prof. Schiddte some years ago (Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3.
vol. x. p. 380), and based on the development of the epimera meta-
thoracica and the position of the antenne &c., is fully borne out by
the larvae, particularly the union of Carabini, Elaphrini, and the
anomalous genus Loricera, Latr., into one natural group. The close
relationship of Carabi, Dytisci, and Gyrini, which form such a well-
defined group at the head of the order, finds an expression in the
fact that their larve possess true, almost invariably double, claws,
with proper apparatus of muscles, whilst the larvee of all other fami-
lies have only a “tarsus unguiformis.” The union of Silphe and
Anisotome is also strongly supported by the similarity of the larve;
and the received division of Dytisci and Hydrophili into groups is like-
wise most markedly expressed in the larve. The larve of Haliplini
are distinguished from those of the other groups not only by their
dorsal segments being armed with spines, which gives them a very
grotesque appearance, but by their possessing only one claw, whilst
all others have two, and by their anal segment (which is rudimen-
tary in all other Dytisci) being enormously elongated and bifurcate,
so that the anus is placed on the underside of this peculiar tail, and
the spiracles of the eighth pair, which are terminal and tubiform in
other Dytisci, here become lateral and quite plain. The larve of
Hydroporini are all distinguished by the production of their fore-
head so as to form a kind of horn, against the under surface of which
the mandibles, being very long and curved upwards, work, whereby
they are enabled to keep their prey very firm while sucking it out ;
they are also swift swimmers, thanks to the shape of their body
and their (usually) ciliated legs. Then follow the well-known
larger larve of Dytiscus, with large, free, round heads, narrow
prothorax forming a kind of neck, and ciliated abdomen. Still
greater variety is met with amongst Hydrophili, beginning with
the amphibious larve of Helophorus (which catch their prey run-
ning), whose lateral abdominal appendages are stiff and adapted for
supporting their crawling movements, and who are also destitute of
the peculiar hairy or felty covering which enables the larvee of Hydro-
philus and others to carry with them a supply of air surrounding their

Bibliographical Notices. 299

body when diving, instead of which the peritrema of the spiracles in
Helophorus is dilated and so arranged that a small quantity of air will
adhere to it. In the larve of Hydrophilus the lateral appendages
of the abdomen are soft, flexible, ciliated, and assist in buoying up the
heavy fleshy body of the larva (for which purpose even the antenne
are ciliated); but they do not serve for respiration as in the
larve of Berosus, where they form true branchiz of considerable
size. In this last genus the terminal (eighth abdominal) pair of
spiracles, which in the family of Hydrophili are usually very large
and lead into a capacious air-chamber, are accordingly very minute,
and the air-chamber is wanting. In the larva of Hydvous these
lateral appendages are very small; and they are entirely wanting in
the larvee of Hydrobius and of Philhydrus, which simply walk about
on submerged objects, the latter even assisted by five pairs of abdo-
minal feet. In the larve of Cercyon and Spheridium, which re-
present the Hydrophiline type modified for life on dry land (though
in humid places), we find neither lateral abdominal appendages nor
even true feet, the animal wriggling its way through the débris
amongst which it lives, whilst the last abdominal segment is the
largest of all, and often armed with hooks. In the family of Sta-
phylini a remarkable division presents itself, separating the family
into two main parts,—one of which comprises the typical forms of
the family, the group of Staphylinini; whilst the other embraces all
the remaining groups, of which, however, only Oxytelini find a
place in the portion of the memoir as yet published. But regard to
space forbids our extracting more details or entering upon the ge-
neral considerations which are largely suggested by the contents of
this memoir, of which the above gives but a very inadequate idea ;
and we shall only add that nothing can be more varied than the
succession of beings represented on the plates, or more instructive
than the mode in which the author has handled the enormous mass
of new and interesting details which he has observed.

In his present paper on Stalita (vol. iii. p. 70), Prof. Schiddte
recurs to an observation made by him in a paper on the classifica-
tion of Cerambyces, in Nat. Tids. ser. 3. vol. ii. p. 483 (Ann. &
Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vol. xv. pp. 182, 183), to the effect that
Arthropoda exhibit analogous variations with regard to the man-
ner in which they tread the ground to those observed amongst
Vertebrata, especially Mammalia; so that amongst them, too, we
find plantigrade, digitigrade, and unguligrade groups, which are dis-
tinguished by analogous modifications in the development and outer
appearance of the different parts of the limbs. ‘The true key,”
says he, “to the differences in structure between the leg of an insect
and that of a spider, to the manner in which the respective divisions
of the leg participate in the building up of the limb, and to their
relative position, size, and shape, lies in the circumstance that spi-
ders are digitigrade. If we thoroughly appreciate this, we shall
also admit that the nomenclature now in use is faulty. In order to
enable the spider to tread on the under surface of the point of the
foot, that part of the leg which is outside and below the knee re-

22*

300 Bibliographical Notices.

quires several inward bends ; and in order to give the movement the
necessary softness and elasticity, without detriment to the carrying-
power of the limb, these bends must follow each other with short
intervals near both extremities of this line (7. e. just below the knee
and near the point of the foot). This arrangement therefore neces-
sitates that the first division under the knee should be much shorter
in spiders than in insects; for whilst in insects, being plantigrade,
this division constitutes the only lever for carrying the weight of the
body, it forms in spiders, which are digitigrade, only the uppermost
section of a compound lever, consisting of a succession of joints,
each carrying a part of the burden. But this first division below
the knee is the tibia, and it ought not to change name only because
its size and the manner in which it enters into the composition of
the leg are changed. That division of the leg, therefore, which
araneologists call ‘ patella’ is the true tibia, and what they call the
tibia is the first joint of the tarsus lifted up from the ground.”
That is to say, Prof. Schiddte proposes that we should cease making
a mistake with regard to spiders similar to that popularly com-
mitted with regard to horses and other Mammalia, whose wrists are
called knees, and whose so-called shanks are merely the metacarpal
portion of the foot raised from the ground and simulating a tibia.
The genus Stalita was first established by Schiddte in his ‘ Specimen
Faune Subterranez,’ in which he described a series of remarkable
Insects, Arachnida, and Crustaceans, discovered by him in the caves
of Adelsberg in 1845, and wonderfully adapted in conformity with
their life in darkness and on the stalactites. Since then, the cave-
fauna has been carefully studied, without, however, adding much
to our knowledge. The present paper on Stalita has been caused by
a memoir of Count Keyserling in the ‘ Transactions of the I. R. Zoo-
logical and Botanical Society of Vienna’ for 1862, on a new caye-
spider (Hadites tegenaria) from Lessina, in Dalmatia, in which the
author, having also received some female Stalitas from that locality,
submits Schiédte’s original account of Stalita to a severe criticism.
Alluding to two figures in the Spec. Faun. Subt., viz. fig. 3¢ and
fig. 3d, pl. 2, he says that they are intended to represent the same
parts of the mouth in the two sexes of Stalita tenaria, but that the
difference is so great that Schiddte must have confounded two spe-
cies. He regrets that Schiddte has not described the female, but
only figured some parts of its mouth ; and, on the supposition that
his own Stalitas from Lessina belong to the same species as Schiddte’s
from Adelsberg, he proceeds to give what he thinks a more accurate
deseription of these animals than is found in the ‘Spec. Faun. Subt.’
Unfortunately for his criticism, a reference to the figures in question
shows that they represent, not the same, but utterly different parts
of the mouth of the two sexes of Stalita tenaria, fig. 3¢ being de-
scribed as ‘maxilla foemine dextra cum labro palpoque maxillari,
supra, decies aucta,” and fig.3d as ‘maxilla maris sinistra, cum
labio sternali inferne visa, sedecies aucta ;” that is to say, one re-
presents the upper lip from above in the female, the other represents
the lower lip of the male from beneath, as indeed an able araneo-

Bibliographical Notices. 301

logist ought to have seen even without reference to the explanation.
There is consequently not the slightest vestige of the alleged con-
fusion on Schiddte’s part; and the Latin description of S. tenaria
comprises evidently both sexes, which, apart from the ordinary sexual
differences expressly referred to, are exactly alike. Nor can there
be much doubt, if Count Keyserling’s description be correct, that his
specimens from Lessina belong not to S. tenaria as he thinks, but to a
new and different species. Count Keyserling’s new account of Stalita
is therefore only calculated to create considerable confusion ; and his
considerations on the relations of Stalita to other genera are not
without grave errors. He says, for instance, that Stalita differs from
Dysdera by having three foot-claws, and by the palpi of the female
terminating in a claw. But neither Stalita nor any other genus of
Arthropoda has really three claws, though the claw-shaped onychium
may give it such an appearance at first sight, as remarked by Schiddte
in his first memoir; in Dysdera the onychium is soft, round, and
hairy. Nor does the female Dysdera lack a terminal claw on its
palpi, though Count Keyserling may have overlooked it. The last-
named author also mentions as remarkable that the patelle are much
elongated in Stalita, the fact being, however, on the contrary, that,
whilst all the other parts of the limbs are much elongated in Stalita,
the patellz do not participate in this modification, but remain com-
paratively short; and it 1s by way of showing the reason of this
circumstance that Prof. Schiddte enters upon the general considera-
tions above quoted.

The family of Geophili is easily distinguished from the other fami-
lies of Chilopoda; but, although there is in reality no lack of good
distinctive characters for genera and species, the attempts hitherto
made at a natural classification of its contents have not been suc-
cessful; and the authors of the paper on Danish Geophili (iv. p. 81),
Dr. Meinert and Dr. Bergsdée, have been able to suggest very con-
siderable improvements. We refer for details to their Latin diagnoses ;
but some general remarks may not be unacceptable. They derive
good systematic characters not only from the organs of the mouth
(with regard to which they follow Savigny’s nomenclature), but also
from the composition of the head. For species living more on the
surface, firmer and more completely chitinized integuments are ne-
cessary than for those which are constantly hidden under stones,
fallen leaves, &c.: accordingly it is found that in some the skull
consists of one piece only, but in others it is divided into two pieces,
a crown piece and a smaller front piece. Generally the posterior
margin of the skull reaches the tergum of that segment which car-
ries the second pair of maxillary feet (segmentum basilare, Newport),
and even covers the anterior margin of that segment; so that the
tergum of the intervening segment, which carries the first pair of
maxillary feet, is entirely hidden from view. But in Scolioplancs,
a new genus, this generally hidden segment is quite free, and its
tergum even divided into two plates more or less widely distant
from one another. The number of the legs is a useful character,
though it varies within certain limits. In males the average num-

x

302 Bibliographical Notices.

ber of pairs of legs is always two less than the average number of
pairs in the females. The number of pairs, counting the anal pair,
is invariably uneven, and all variations, according to species, sex,
variety, are produced by subtraction or addition of an even
number. The authors consider it settled beyond doubt that the
young Geophili at once possess the full number of segments and legs:
not only have quite young specimens taken with their mothers pre-
sented the same number as the adult, but such specimens just
hatched have been observed with a greater number of legs than is
generally found in the adult. The pores of different kinds—yventral
pores (on the ventral segments), the pleural pores (on the pleure of
the last joint which carries limbs), and the anal pores (on the last
protruding apodal segment)—also afford good characters; but their
number increases considerably as the animals grow in size. The
colour is of very little value ; the designs produced by the intestines
shining through the integuments vary according to the state of
feeding ; and the intensity of the usually darker colour of the claws
depends principally on the time which has elapsed since the last
moulting. The length of the body and of the antennz is not with-
out importance, but varies according to the mode in which the ani-
mal is killed and preserved; and the characters derived from the
shape of the individual joints are by far more valuable. The
authors propose a new genus, Scnipeus, distinguished from Geo-
philus by the absence of anal pores, by having a smaller tooth-
less claw on the first pair of maxillary legs, a larger second pair of
maxille, thicker anal limbs in the male, and by the skull-plate
being divided. They enumerate five species of Geophilus as Danish,
of which one is new,—and two of Senipeus, probably both new.
They reject Koch’s genera Linotenia and Stenotenia, because the
principal mark of distinction between them, the varying thickness
of the anal legs, is in most species a sexual distinction; and they
consider the species of Stenotenia to be the females of corresponding
males described as species of Linotenia. They also reject both
names, as being formed in direct violation of the rules of nomencla-
ture, and in any case only applicable to congeners of Tenia. The
species in question are united in the new genus Scolioplanes, of
which they enumerate three species as Danish. They propose a new
genus, Schendyla, based on Koch’s Linotenia nemorensis, and distin-
guished from Scolioplanes by the labrum being united to the clypeus,
the cutting-edge of the mandibles short, with but few teeth; the
maxille of the second pair are small, but the claw of the first pair
of maxillary legs is exceedingly large, and the anal legs, even in the
female, very thick. Himantarium subterraneum, K., is also men-
tioned as Danish.

Dr. Bergsée’s paper on the Tarantula (iii. p. 239) and the curious
phenomena of Tarantism contains a careful and interesting examina-
tion of the voluminous literature of the subject, proving that the
term “tarantism” has been applied to facts of entirely different
nature, which, thanks to popular superstition and ignorance,
have been confounded with and all ascribed to the poisonous wounds

“

Bibliographical Notices. 303

inflicted by certain animals, though in reality only a small minority
can be so explained. He points out a strong analogy between me-
dizval tarantism and the dancing manias which have visited several
parts of Europe at different periods; and he considers it very pro-
bable that a similar epidemic developed itself independently in Italy,
and that only superstition ascribed it to the various kinds of “ ta-
rantola.” But Dr. Bergsde does not think that this explanation
exhausts the question. He is of opinion that a very large part of
these phenomena are to be ascribed to a kind of local fever generated
by the highly unhealthy exhalations from the soil of Apulia, and
that the subjects of this kind of tarantism (which still occurs not
unfrequently in Apulia) were. simply the victims of malaria. This
view of the matter explains why tarantism was so rare out of Apulia,
although tarantulas occur in most parts of Italy,—a circumstance
which has not failed to puzzle the ancient writers on the subject,
and led them into various unreasonable hypotheses—for instance,
that the animals lost their venomous properties by removal from
their native soil. Finally, the undoubted poisonous properties of
the wounds inflicted by some of the various (sometimes, however,
quite harmless) animals comprised under the popular name of “ taran-
tula” (particularly by the well-known spider of that name, by scorpions,
probably also by Scolopendras), may account for some of the lighter
cases of tarantism; but it is only want of hygienic knowledge com-
bined with the instinctive dread, common with uneducated people, of
small, strangely shaped, creeping animals, which has caused so many
different phenomena of disease to be ascribed to their agency. Dr.
Bergsée gives an interesting account of the habits of life of the true
Tarantula, which certainly does not favour the idea of its coming
easily in contact with men; and he mentions several hitherto over-
looked peculiarities of structure, of which we note the existence of
special provisions for facilitating the carrying of the young on the
back of their mother. Not only are the claws and their five teeth
in the young proportionally very long and sharp, but the hairs form-
ing the felt-like covering on the back of the female Tarantula are
specially constructed for the purpose, consisting as they do of a
basal bulb, a short smooth stem, surmounted by a much longer part
covered with stiff spinules or bristles pointing upwards, and termi-
nating in a very minute rounded head or button. The hairs on the
legs present a similar structure, but are much softer and without the
terminal button; but the long stiff hairs interspersed with the felt
on the back are quite plain ; nor is this complicated structure observed
in the hairy covering of the male.

Philichthys Xiphie, Steenstr., was first discovered by the late
Prof. Eschricht on the head of a Xiphias gladius, L., and briefly
described by Prof. Steenstrup, who also drew attention to the pro-
bability of its frequent occurrence as a parasite of that fish, in cer-
tain cavities connected with the muciparous canals on the head.
He was, however, unable to assign it a place in the zoological sys-
tem, on account of its extraordinarily deformed appearance, which led
him to suggest that it might belong to the class of Annelida. This

304 Bibliographical Notices.

hypothesis, however, he abandoned, another specimen of Xiphias
gladius having been taken in the Sound in the autumn of the follow-
ing year, on the head of which the same parasite was observed, in a
similar cavity, but accompanied by a small Entomostracon. Assuming
this to be either the male or the young of the larger parasite, Prof.
Steenstrup inferred from that circumstance that the latter was a
Crustacean; but he did not enter into any further description.
Meanwhile Dr. Bergsée had availed himself of a stay on the shores
of the Mediterranean for an investigation of the history of this re-
markable animal; and the results are embodied in the paper above
mentioned (iii. p. 87), to which is added a Latin résumé for those who
do not understand Danish. The details of the structure are apparent
from the very full description and the plate; and from these the
author concludes that the proper place of the animal is amongst the
Copepoda nearest Ergasilini, though at the same time he expresses
the expectation that, when other similar parasites have been dis-
covered, they will be found to constitute a new family. He gives
besides a very minute account of the cavities in which the animal is
found. It appears that the female fixes itself in a convenient place
in the muciparous canals on the head; and by degrees, as the ani-
mal grows, the cavity grows with it. Where the canal is close to
the surface of the skull, large cavities are formed in the bones; and
in these cases the skin covering them and protecting the parasite is
thin and perforated. But where the cavities containing the Phil-
whthys are developed in parts of the muciparous canals not in
contact with the bones, they are generally smaller, and the integu-
ments thick and without perforations. The cavities rarely contain
more than one female attended bya male. In any case the cavities
are easily observable from without; and the fishermen of Messina
are well aware of the parasite, which they call “ Pulce.” Dr. Bergsée
recommends the examination of other large fishes of the Mediterra-
nean, such as the different species of Thynnus, Histiophorus, Tetra-
pturus, Belone, as he expects that similar parasites will be found in
them. The Philichthys affords one of the very few instances of a
parasitic Crustacean living entirely inside the body of its host, though
its choice of abode, considering how much communication there is
between the muciparous canal and the outside, is not without ana-
logy with the habits of those numerous parasitic crustaceans met
with in the branchial cavities of fishes. -

Dr. Bergh, who for many years past has occupied himself with the
study, and more particularly the anatomy, of Mollusca, and pub-
lished several valuable papers on the subject, has contributed to the
fourth volume of the ‘ Naturhistorisk Tidsskrift’ (pp. 1 & 207) a mo-
nograph of the family of Pleurophyllidide, embracing the substance
of some smaller papers previously published, but containing a far
greater quantity of new matter. The number of species described
is seventeen, of which six are established by Dr. Bergh, belong-
ing to the genera Pleurophyllidium, Meckel, Sancara, Bergh, and
Camarga, Bergh. Having been favoured with specimens for dis-
section, both from private collections and from the museums of

Bibliographical Notices. 305

Copenhagen, Berlin, and Stuttgardt, he has been enabled to present
an exceedingly full account of the anatomy of these hitherto little-
known animals, in which very many new facts will be found, but
which space forbids us to extract. The diagnoses are all in Latin,
as well as the explanation of the plates (nine in number), containing
anatomical details.

M. Strém’s papers on Danish Lepidoptera (iii. pp. 1 & 107; iv.
p- 381) contain several observations of more than merely faunistic
interest, of which we can only find room for one. He points out
a gradual degradation, as it were, in the females of Orgyia antiqua,
gonostigma, and Eric, corresponding to peculiarities in their deve-
lopment, the antenne being dentated in the first, crenulated in the
second, but much shorter and merely filiform in the third; the rudi-
mentary wings are closely covered with hair in the first, sparsely
haired in the second, exceedingly small and naked in the third;
and the legs show a similar gradation. Accordingly he has found
that the female of O. antiqua entirely disengages herself from the
double cocoon, and places her eggs on the outside of it ; whilst that
of O. gonostiyma only perforates the inner cocoon, and remains hid-
den behind the outer cocoon, which forms a sort of curtain, leaving
a sufficiently large opening to admit the male; and the female of
O. Erice, finally, never leaves the pupa-skin, just as is the case with
some species of Psyche. Probably, in order to facilitate the fecunda-
tion, the pupa is placed in an inverted position in the cocoon, which
is found in the tops of the heath.

The Record of Zoological Literature, 1866. Volume IIT. Edited by
Arent C. L. G. Giwrumr, M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S. &. Van
Voorst, 1867.

In consequence of the illness of one of the Recorders, the volume of
‘The Zoological Record’ for the literature of 1866 was published at
a later period than usual. “An undertaking of this kind,” it is
observed in the preface, “‘ must, of necessity, be occasionally exposed
to the danger of such a delay without the Editor having it in his
power to guard against it.”

Each year that this work comes to us we feel more and more its
extreme*usefulness. Without some such help as that afforded by
this volume it is impossible for the zoological student to keep up with
the literature of the day. The number of investigators in every branch
of natural history is year by year increasing: the works published,
in all languages, multiply in like proportion ; many of them are ex-
tremely difficult to procure through a bookseller, and not to be found
in our best public libraries ; and periodicals devoted to natural history
in general or to some particular class, and Transactions and Proceed-
ings recording the investigations of the members of the rapidly in-
creasing number of scientific societies, render the attempt of the
individual worker to keep himself acquainted with all that is being
written almost hopeless. Here, then, the ‘ Zoological Record’ comes

306 Bibliographical Notices.

to his aid; in it he finds the pith and marrow of all that has been
published during any year :—the new genera described; references to
the descriptions of the new species of any particular genus; summaries
of the more important points in papers which treat of geographical
distribution, of classification, of anatomy, physiology, &e. The third
volume of the ‘Record’ forms a systematic guidebook to about 30,000
pages of the zoological literature published (with the exception of a
comparatively small part) within the year 1866. This number, we
further learn from the preface, is divided between the various classes
thus :—Mammals 3000, Birds 4500, Reptiles 1000, Fishes 2400,
Mollusks and Molluscoids 2000, Crustaceans 900, Arachnids and
Myriopods 1000, Insects 11,000 (viz. Coleoptera 5000, Hymeno-
ptera 1300, Lepidoptera 2100, Diptera 730, Neuroptera and Ortho-
ptera 430, Rhynchota 900), Annelids 1000, Scolecides 900, Echino-
derms 170, Coelenterates 860, Protozoa 900. We believe that in
saying we feel we owe a great debt of gratitude to Dr. Giinther and
his able coadjutors for the valuable assistance they give us in the
yearly summaries of the ‘Zoological Record,’ we are giving expression
not to our individual feelings, but to those of students in zoology
generally. That gratitude is enhanced by the fact that we are
aware that the work has as yet been published not only at the cost
of much time and labour, but also at the sacrifice of pecuniary loss
to Dr. Giinther, his fellow labourers, and that most enterprising pub-
lisher, to whom naturalists owe so much, Mr. Van Voorst. We trust
that a yearly increasing sale, as the « Record’ becomes more widely
known on the Continent, may by degrees turn that loss into a profit.
Meanwhile,at the Meeting of the British Association at Dundee, steps
were most justly taken to secure the editor from further loss in the
publication of the volume for the ensuing year. We shall rejoice if at
future meetings of the Association similar aid is volunteered on the
part of the Committee. Most certainly there is no purpose to which
a grant in Section D can be more advantageously applied than in the
preparation of a publication of the value of which every scientific
zoologist is fully sensible, and the discontinuance of which would
prove a great drawback to the “ advancement of science.”

Volume IIT. unquestionably surpasses either of its predecessors
in the carefulness and completeness of its execution. The Re-
corders remain the same as in the former volume; but they have
learned by experience, and, warming to their work, do it more
effectually. Perfection in the first volumes of such an arduous un-
dertaking it would have been most unreasonable to look for; but
they came nearer to perfection than could have been expected.
Improvement is, however, obvious in the ‘Record’ of 1866, especially,
where it was most needed, in the reports on the lower classes of ani-
mals. In the first volume there was no notice on the Coelenterata
and Protozoa; in the second volume the literature of 1864 and 1865
was epitomized, but the analysis was not as satisfactory as could
have been wished. In the present volume, however, we find this
part of the subject well handled.

Mr. Spence Bate, in his references to Mr. Norman’s “ Report of

Dublin Natural-History Society. 307

the Committee appointed for the purpose of Exploring the Coasts of
the Hebrides by means of the Dredge,” in almost every instance
gives the habitat of the new genera and species described as “ Shet-
land Isles!” a lapsus certainly calculated seriously to mislead those
who do not refer to the original paper. We notice also, in this
report on the Crustacea, constant references in cases where, on turn-
ing to the original (e. g. to the papers of Goés, Heller, Sars, &c.), we
find no information beyond that given by the Recorder, viz. the
name and locality. Such references to the commonest of species,
as “ Cancer pagurus (L.), Sars, l. ¢. p. 10,” or “ Pagurus bernhardus
(.), Sars, J. c.; Sp. B., Brit. Assoc. Rep. 1865, p.52, and Ann. Nat.
Hist. vol. xvii. p. 25,” are worse than useless, when, on turning to
the original papers, we find nothing but the name. In dealing with
catalogues it is surely the better plan to give a short abstract of
results in a note following the title of the paper, mentioning the total
number of species recorded, and adding the names of such as seem
peculiarly interesting from the fact of our knowledge of their geo-
graphical range being thus materially extended, or other circum-
stances. In one case, “ Corophium bonelli (Edw.), Heller, 1. ¢. p. 51,”
we cannot find even the name; the species is not mentioned by
Heller either on that page or in any other part of his work.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES,

DUBLIN NATURAL-HISTORY SOCIETY.

The monthly meeting of this Society was held at the Royal Irish
Academy, on Thursday the 5th of February, the Rev. Prof.O‘Mahony,
A.M., in the Chair.

Mr. Bradshaw read a paper “On the Habits of some Irish Birds.”

Dr. Macalister read a paper ‘‘On the Myology of the Otter (Lutra
vulgaris).”

Mr. W. Andrews, M.R.I.A., Chairman of the Natural-History
Committee of the Royal Dublin Society, stated that he was anxious
to have placed on record several species of rare Irish Sponges that had
been noticed at the early meetings of the Society, but which had not
been mentioned as Irish in Dr. Bowerbank’s recent work on British
Spongiade. Very fine specimens of Grantia nivea of Johnston
(Leuconia nivea, Bowerbank) were exhibited by Dr. Scouler, in May
1844, obtained from Roundstone Bay, Connemara. The singularity
of the species from that coast does not appear to have been noticed .
by Bowerbank, who gives no record of any Irish locality; by
Thompson the name is merely given, “ west coast of Ireland, M‘Calla.”
Dr. Scouler, at a meeting early in 1846, gave the characteristics of
Halichondria hispida. This rare species had not been obtained since
it was recorded by Montagu, in the Wernerian Transactions, as met
with on the south coast of England,—this discovery being its first
record as Irish, it not having been until then found since the time of

308 Dublin Natural-History Society.

Montagu ; it is mentioned in Bowerbank as Dictyocylindrus hispidus,
but no Irish locality given. At the same meeting Dr. Scouler brought
to notice fine specimens of Halichondria Johnstonia. Dr. Scouler
considered at the time that it presented features so different from
what had hitherto been recorded, from its remarkable papillous ap-
pearance, and in the peculiarity of the pores, as to form it into a
new genus—Amphitrema. It has not been recorded from the coasts
of Ireland by either Johnston or Thompson. It has been collected
in several parts of Galway Bay; but Mr. Andrews was not aware of
any other locality on the Irish coast. Dr. Bowerbank has formed it
into a new genus, Pachymatisma (Puchymatisma Johnstonia). A
drawing was made by the late Dr. Harvey, and several characteris-
tics of the spicula noticed, which present great variety of forms,
similar to several occurring in other genera. The ovaria are nume-
rously imbedded in the structure.

One of the most remarkable that had been collected in Galway
and Dingle Bays was Halichondria celata, Johnston (Clona celata,
Grant, and subsequently named Raphirus Griffithse: by Bowerbank).
No sponge has caused more confusion than this, whether we con-
sider its range in deep and shallow water, its varied distribution of
attachment, or the very dissimilar outline of form and structure it not
unfrequently assumes—so much so, that H. celata of Johnston had been
divided into twelve species. It still presents such anomalies that it
is not improbable that new features may be described when the ques-
tion of its decided animality is more thoroughly investigated. It is
one of those difficulties that have to be encountered in the examina-
tion of the anatomy and physiology of the sponges ; for unless col-
lected and dissected with care in the living state, no true charaec-
teristics can be depended upon. Dried specimens give by no means
even a correct outline of their form or mode of growth; and the
more remarkable features are altogether lost—the peculiar action of
the oscula and pores, the mode of reproduction,—independent of the
beauty of their tints, which are altogether altered in the dried state
or in spirit preparations. Mr. Andrews frequently noticed the great
alteration of character that almost suddenly takes place in marine
objects, especially delicate species, when placed in spirits. Mr.An-
drews regretted to find, on inquiry, that the collection of sponges
that had been made for the Natural-History Society had been put
astray or lost at the time of the confused removal of the museum
from the rooms which the Society held in Brunswick Street, and
also that not more than one-third of the specimens are at present
forthcoming in the Royal Dublin Society’s collection, formed by Dr.
Scouler—which may be attributed to the same cause, the packing
and stowing away when the change from the rooms and the altera-
tions in the museum were made. There were several unique speci-
mens that had been collected by M‘Calla.

309

MISCELLANEOUS.
On the Gingee Squirrel of Sonnerat.

Sonnerat, in his ‘ Voyage’ (vol. 11. p. 140), very shortly describes
a Squirrel, under the name of ? Ecwrewil de Gingi, thus :—

“ Rather larger than Sciwrus vulgaris; fur entirely earthy grey,
paler on the belly, legs, and feet ; on each side of the belly is a white
streak extending from the armpits to the thighs; eyes surrounded
with white; tail entirely black, with some white hairs.” The fol-
lowing names have been given to the subject of this notice :—

Sciurus dschinschicus, Gmelin, 8. N.i.p. 151.

S. gingianus, Shaw, Zool. ii. p. 147; Kuhl, Beitr. 67.
S. albovitiatus, Desm. Mam, 358; Horsf. Zool. Java.
S. albovittatus, var. dschinschicus, Fischer, Syn.
Macroxus albovittatus, Lesson.

Gingee is in the Carnatic, near Pondicherry. Sonnerat’s descrip-
tion has been considered to indicate a variety of Xerus setosus of
Africa, which has spiny fur; but in that animal the streak is on each
side of the back, and not on the sides of the belly. There is not a
word in the short description to lead one to believe it was a spiny
Squirrel, or lived on the ground; and I have never seen a Xerus
from India. Sonnerat’s animal either belongs to a species not in
Kuropean museums and not noticed by recent Indian naturalists,
probably allied to S. platani of Java, or it may be a variety of the
Macroxus bicolor, which is found in various parts of India and the
Malay peninsula. It would be very interesting to receive a speci-
men, agreeing with Sonnerat’s description, from the Carnatic.—J.E,
Gray.

On the Mode in which certain Rotatoria introduce Food into their
Mouths. By EH. Craparépe.

In the Zygotrocha of Ehrenberg the vibratile apparatus may be
regarded as double. The movement of the cilia is always in the
same direction and opposite to that of the hands of a watch ; hence it
is directed towards the mouth in the right wheel and from it in the
left one. But observation proves that food passes to the mouth both
from right and left, which is incompatible with the received notion
that the currents conveying the food are produced by the vibratile
apparatus. The examination of such Rotatoria as the Melicerte
and Lacinularie leads to the same result.

In Melhcerta ringens, on the lower surface of the membranous
vibratile organ and parallel to its margin, M. Claparéde finds a sort
of crest, between which and the margin there is a deep furrow. The
extreme margin bears the well-known large cilia: the crest also

310 Miscellaneous.

bears cilia; but these are long and delicate, and their movement is
opposite in the two halves of the apparatus. By their means foreign
bodies which get into the channel between the two ciliated crests
are pushed gently along and conveyed to the mouth, being retained
in their position by the inferior range of cilia.

The action of the whole apparatus is explained as follows by M.
Claparéde :—The superior range of cilia when in action produces
currents tangential to the vibratile organ and perpendicular to its
plane. These currents are closed and appear to be nearly of an
elliptical form ; particles involved in them pass repeatedly over the
same course, and if they are thus brought in contact with the ex-
tremities of the inferior cilia, which reach a little above the base of
the superior range, they pass into the channel above mentioned and
are pushed along in it towards the mouth. The author remarks
that the apparent movement of the inferior cilia is from the mouth ;
but this is illusory and due to the circumstance that the slow elevation
of each cilium preparatory to its stroke produces a greater effect upon —
the eye than the more rapid stroke itself. This double row of cilia
in Melicerta and Lacinularia has been observed and described in this
country by Huxley and Williamson, and in Germany by Leydig; but
its existence seems to have escaped the notice of subsequent ob-
servers.

Professor Huxley has also observed this second row of cilia in
Philodina, a genus belonging to the Rotatoria Zygotrocha. M. Cla-
parede here describes and figures it in Rotifer inflatus (Duj.), in
which the inferior cilia are borne upon a crest which is oblique
relatively to the plane of the vibratile wheel ; in all other respects
the arrangement and action of these inferior cilia are the same as in
Melicerta. The same characters have been observed in Rotifer vul-
garis (Ehr.).

M. Claparéde appends to this paper a note confirming Mr. Gosse’s
account of the mode in which Melicerta ringens builds up its tube,
and remarks that this does not appear to have attracted attention on
the continent.—Annales des Sciences Naturelles, série 5, tome viii.
pp. 5-12.

Habits of Volutes. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.

Volutes are rarely collected with their animals, except when they
are accidentally thrown ashore after a storm. They have therefore
been said to be animals which lived in the depths of the sea. The
reason they are not found is that, like the Naticw, they bury them-
selves in the sand as soon as the water falls and the sand is left dry
by the tide; they are only to be procured by digging for them, or
when the storm has been sufficient to disturb the sand and throw
them on the beach. Mr. Cutter informs me that he has walked for
miles along a sandy beach in Australia without finding a specimen ;
but on talking to a fisherman about the shells, he told him the sand
abounded with them ; and taking him back to the sand which he
had traversed, on digging up a spot on the sands which was drier

Miscellaneous. oft

than the rest, as if some one had trodden on it, the Volute was
found ; and in this way many were obtained in a living and beautiful
state.

On Loxosoma Kefersteinii, a soft Bryozoan of the Bay of Naples.
By E. Crararipe.

In 1862 M. Claparéde discovered on the coast of Normandy an
epizoon of the worms of the genus Notomastus, which was shortly
afterwards described by Professor Keferstein under the name of
Loxosoma singulare. It is a Bryozoon, allied to Pedicellina (Sars), in
which the anal extremity of the intestine pierces the wall of the
pharynx, and opens outwards in the middle of the mouth. It is
entirely soft, being destitute of the hard integuments so general
among the Bryozoa. :

The bay of Naples contains a great abundance of a second species
of Zovosoma, measuring about half a millimetre in length (exclusive
of the peduncle) ; it lives, attached by its peduncle, upon various
animals, chiefly Bryozoa of the genus Acamarchis. M. Claparéde
names it L. Kefersteinit.

The body is of an elongate-ovoid form, obliquely truncated in front
by the buccal funnel, into which the ciliated tentacles are usually re-
tracted under the abnormal conditions induced by observation. The
funnel contracts so as to form a sort of diaphragm above the mouth
and anus; but this always presents an aperture by which the water
may penetrate freely into the cavity of the funnel, where it is con-
stantly renewed by the movement of the cilia covering the inner sur-
face of the wall of this cavity and the inner surface of the tentacles.

The tentacles appear to be fourteen in number; L. singulare has
only ten. The digestive apparatus is arranged as in the species from
the Channel; the lower extremity of the buccal funnel passes gra-
dually into the cesophagus, which extends to the posterior extremity
of the body, where it bends round and opens into a large greenish-
yellow stomach. From this springs a short, cylindrical intestine,
which pierces the wall of the pharynx to open externally in the
middle of the mouth. The anal portion does not rise, as in Z. sin-
gulare, like a kind of chimney, to the highest region of the buccal
funnel.

The author thinks that this interpretation of the parts of the ali-
mentary tube is not quite free from doubt, and that it is possible the
part called by M. Keferstein and himself the mouth may be the
anus, and vice versd.

The very contractile peduncle is of variable length, but always
much longer than in Z, singulare. It terminates in a sort of sucking-
disk; and six or seven bands of muscles run from one end of it to
the other ; these are separated from each other by the same num-
ber of rows of nuclei, 0-006 millim. in diameter.

The only individuals showing sexual organs were females, and in
these the ovaries exactly resemble those of L. singulare. Most of
the specimens were engaged in gemmiparous reproduction, the buds

312 Miscellaneous.

being formed only at two points, one on the right, the other on the
left of the posterior third of the body. ‘This is also the case in L.
singulare. The number of buds may reach five or six on each side ;
on attaining a certain size they detach themselves, and then adhere
to the Acamarchis close to their parent.—Annales des Sciences Na-
turelles, série 5, tome vill. pp. 28-30.

New British Fishes.

Mr. William Edwards, of St. Mary-at-Hill, E.C., being at Hull
when the fishing-smack ‘Swallow,’ of Hull, Capt. Thomas Sparks,
arrived, which had been five weeks on a fishing voyage, having been
blown over the north side of the Jutland Reef, observed that she
had brought with her some specimens of Chimera monstrosa, of Se-
bastes viviparus, and of the Black Centrina (Spinaw mger). Mr.
Edwards kindly sent and presented two specimens of Chimera (male
and female) and one of each of the other specimens to the British
Museum. It is the first time that Sebastes vivipara and Spinax
niger have been caught so near the English coast. They are interest-
ing additions to the marine fauna.—J. E. Gray.

Cetacean Animals in Museums.

Prof. Van Beneden has lately published a catalogue of the skele-
tons of Cetacea contained in different museums. According to his
Catalogue, the British Museum contains the skeletons or parts of
skeletons of sixty-one species of Cetacea, the Paris Museum
thirty-four species, the Museum of Louvain (under M. Van Beneden’s
own direction) twenty-five species, the Museum of the College of
Surgeons twenty-one species, the Museum of Leyden twenty-one
species, and the Museum of Brussels nineteen species. These are
the museums mentioned that have the largest number of species.
The British Museum also contains twenty stuffed specimens of Ceta-
ceans, belonging to eleven species, three of the specimens being
whales, the rest dolphins and porpoises.

THE LATE Proressor VAN DER HoEvEN.

Jan Van der Hoeven, the Professor of Zoology in the University
of Leyden, who was born in Rotterdam on the 9th of March 1801,
died at Leyden on the 11th of Mareh 1868. He was the author of
various papers on different branches of zoology. A list of no less
than seventy-eight essays occurs under his name in Engelmann’s
‘ Bibliotheca Zoologica.’ He published a very good ‘ Handbook of
Zoology,’ which was translated for English students by Prof. Clark,
of Cambridge.

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[FOURTH SERIES.]

No. 5. MAY 1868.

XX XIX.— Contributions toward the formation of a correct Sys-
tem of Muscular Homologies. By ALEXANDER MACALISTER,
M.D., L.R.C.S., L.K.Q.C.P., Demonstrator of Anatomy,
Royal College of Surgeons, Ireland, one of the Honorary
Secretaries of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland *.

Tue literature of comparative anatomy is teeming with me-
moirs and essays on that department of homology which treats
of the serial comparison of the muscles of the fore and hind
extremities in vertebrate animals.

Almost every writer has originated an hypothesis of his own
(some of these being plausible and some fanciful), starting from
which he proceeds to work out details, some of which in all
theories are undoubtedly true; but every author has differed
from his predecessors and successors in his reading of these
serial homologies. In the majority of these theories muscular
peculiarities have been regarded as subsidiary to osseous ar-
rangements, and many authors have deduced their ideas of
homotypical myology from the study of bones rather than
from the direct consideration of the muscles themselves and of
their relative positions, courses, and attachments. Such being
the present position of this branch of comparative anatomy, no
apology is needed for bringing forward any observations which
may perhaps have the advantage of novelty, and which may
elucidate in some degree the vexed question of serial homo-
logies. A great number of the misapprehensions into which
anatomists have fallen with respect to these homologies are due
to the fact that the individual components of the fore limb of
a limited number of animals have been compared directly with
those of the hind extremity, irrespective of the differences of
the work to which they may be devoted; but this is a mistake
in principle, and one from which we may free ourselves by

* Communicated by A. Carte, M.D., Dublin.
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.4. Vol. i. yao

314 Dr. A. Macalister on the Formation of

regarding the two limbs not immediately as being representa-
tives the one of the other, but as different expressions of a
certain type limb, to some extent ideal because not found as
an unmodified entity in any animal, but upon whose basis
every vertebrate limb is constructed; and apprehending this,
we should compare the individual limb before us with the cor-
responding part of the type extremity,—just as in the science
of botany we learn that the various parts of the flower (sepal,
petal, stamen, and carpel) are modifications, not of the leaf as
Goethe taught, but of a certain ideal organism or phyton, of
which the leaf itself is only a variety.

As the study of comparative osteology leads us to the con-
clusion that there is a typical skeleton, of which all vertebrate
skeletons are modifications, so the study of myology teaches
us that there is a typical vertebrate myozoon*, of which the
individual vertebrate muscular systems are modifications.

Adopting the theory of a myozoon, the main point of our
inquiry resolves itself into a determination of the nature and
components of the typical limb; and in our researches we
shall commence with such portions as present us with the
most clear and constant uniformities of arrangement, and con-
sequently with the fewest difficulties. Thus we will, in the
first place, endeavour to resolve into their typical positions the
muscles of the terminal segment of the vertebrate limb—the
pes or the manus.

There is no primary difficulty in deciding the landmarks in
this segment: the pollex and hallux, the little toe and little
finger, the carpus and tarsus are undoubtedly correspondent ;
and the latter may be arranged as follows into a tabular series
whose resemblances are evident :—

Scaphoid = og naviculare pedis.
Semilunar = astragalus (body).
Cuneiform = calcaneum.
Pisiform | = sesamoid bone in the long peroneal tendon.
Trapezium = entocuneiform.
Trapezoid = mesocuneiform.
Os magnum
(body) = ectocuneiform.
(head) = astragalus (head).
Unciform = cuboid.

Of the five digits typically present there are two which ge-

* I should, perhaps, apologize for attempting to intrude a new name
upon an already name-encumbered science; but I think any new word
may be admitted whose meaning is easily understood, when it saves us
the trouble of cireumlocution. Myozoon = uis (doy, muscle animal.

a correct System of Muscular Homologies. 315

nerally exhibit an individuality of action separate from the
others: these are the inner and the outer. For these we have
what at first sight appear as separate special muscles often
present ; but, as Meckel remarked, these can be resolved into
the ordinary and typical series which we have developed for
the others, only in a position of greater specialization.

Discarding for the present the longer digital muscles, we
can resolve the muscles of the pes and manus into the fol-
lowing :—

1. A short extensor for the fingers or toes.
2. A short flexor for the fingers or toes.

3. A complete series of palmar interossei.
4, A complete series of dorsal interossel.

The first of these muscles is developed on the dorsum of the
human foot, and is there attached to the four inner toes; only,
however, in the case of the great toe is its typical insertion
into the first phalanx preserved, as in the three other digits its
tendon is confluent with that of the long extensor. It is not
usually inserted into the little toe; but I have once seen this
muscle in man sending a fifth tendon to that organ. In the
manus of man a corresponding muscle occurs as an anomaly
occasionally, and as such has been described by Mr. Wood
(Proc. Royal Soc. 1865, p. 382) and by myself (Proc. Royal
Trish Acad. April 1867); when present, it is often inserted,
fleshy or tendinous, not directly into the fingers, but into the
extensor longus tendons. This muscle is of rare occurrence in
the normal anatomy of lower animals; to my knowledge it is
only described as present in the Bradypus tridactyla, according
to Meckel; and the same writer describes a corresponding
muscle arising from the lower end of the ulna in the two-toed
Anteater. The comparative anatomy of this muscle in the pes
exhibits but little variety; it is present in Ornithorhynchus,
Hyrax, Myrmecophaga, Macropus, Arctomys, Bear, Nasua,
Pteropus, Rhinolophus, Stenops, Macacus, Ateles, Cebus, Calli-
thrix, Cercopithecus, Ai, Hystrix, and many other animals, in
different degrees of perfection, but never varying to any great
extent from its usual place.

The second of these muscles may be looked upon as the
antithesis of the short extensor: it is the short flexor of the
toes and fingers. If we compare the actions of flexion and
extension of the digits, we shall find at once that, usually, the
latter is provided for by the great development of large and
long muscles arising in the forearm. On account of this the
flexor of the first phalanx is not usually needed in this its
- primary capacity ; and consequently we find it aplit up or mo-

23

316 Dr. A. Macalister on the Formation of

dified in several singular ways. As we saw that its antithesis,
the extensor, was sometimes inserted, not into the bones di-
rectly, but into the common extensor tendon, so we usually
see, as in the human pes, part of this flexor arising from the
first row of the tarsus, and inserted, as the musculus acces-
sorius, into the tendon of the flexor digitorum longus. And
as, from the hyperdevelopment of the calecaneum, the latter
tendon is forced to run obliquely to its insertion in the human
and some other pedes, so this muscle is adapted in such cases
to fulfil the special function of obviating what would otherwise
be the faulty direction of the long tendon, and altering its line
of action into one of greater convenience: for this purpose the
muscle is shortened, or at least its belly is tacked on to the
flexor tendons near to the ankle. But the muscle does not
terminate here; for, separated from the typical origin by the
tendons to which the latter has contracted an adhesion, the
continued slips of insertion sink into the interspaces of the
tendons, and thence are inserted into the fingers under the
name of lumbricales. Within the present session I have
seen several distinct examples of the continuity which some-
times subsists in the human foot between the lumbricales and
the massa carnea accessoria. In other animals we find the
musculus accessorius, varied to a slight extent in direction: it
is present in Ateles, Cebus, and other monkeys. ‘This massa
carnea Sylvii, however, is not all of this short flexor; there
is one slip which usually preserves its natural connexions—
the superficial head of the flexor brevis pollicis manus. It is
a typical portion of the muscle, arising from the carpus and
inserted into the first phalanx of the pollex through the inter-
vention of the outer sesamoid bone ; and this leads us to the con-
sideration of this muscle as developed in the manus. In Hyrax
capensis, according to Drs. Mivart and Murie (Proc. Zool. Soe.
1865, p. 341), the muscle is present as a flexor brevis digitorum
manus, sending slips to the second, fourth, and fifth digits, the
slips arising by a large muscular belly in the vicinity of the
palmar cartilage; in this case the muscle is developed typi-
cally. It may seem as an & prior? difficulty that this animal
has two lumbricales (although Meckel denies their existence)
as well as the large typical flexor ; but this in reality can easily
be understood, as the former are but deeper and differentiated
slips of the muscle, just as in the antagonistic foot-muscle, the
extensor brevis, I found on a recent occasion two tendons, dis-
tributed one to the outer and the other to the inner side of the
second toe, all the others being regular. The lumbricales de-
scribed by the above authors in Hyrax are distributed to the
second and fourth toes in the fore limb, but to the second and

a correct System of Muscular Homologies. 317

third in the left foot; of these the second, as indicated in the
foot, is evidently the missing third-toe muscle, while the first
may be the first-toe muscle, which is not otherwise developed.
If this be the case, the matter is still more clearly explicable in
accordance with the type proposed above. In Dasyprocta the
same authors speak of a palmaris brevis muscle attached to the
palmar ossicle, but not connected with the digits, arising from
the first and fifth metacarpal bones. This muscle is a back-
ward prolongation of the type muscle, and evidently represents
the accessorius of the foot; it is not present in the hare or
rabbit, but in the guineapig it is distinctly traceable. A small
muscle invests the flexor tendons still further forward in Agout?,
similar to the flexor brevis manus, but which has no separate
digital insertion; from the tendons themselves spring the
lumbricales, three in number, as in the cavy, guineapig,
rabbit, and hare: thus these three severed portions, if united,
would constitute an accurate and typical flexor muscle of this
series. In the human hand we find that this muscle, losing
its bony origin, is connected to the palmar fascia on the inner
side, and is known by the name of palmaris brevis, while its
digital slips remain as the lumbricales. I have seen this
muscle springing from the pisiform bone. Having thus traced
this flexor series through its various mutations, we see that,
despite its variability of form, it presents a constancy in its
presence, and is sometimes developed in a high degree of com-
plexity—for instance, in Nycticebus and the Lemuride in
general, according to the illustrations of Messrs. Mivart and
Maurie, and the text of Meckel, Vrolik, and others. We find.
in these animals :—first, a double set of ordinary lumbricales,
one on each side of each finger; secondly, an accessory set,
likewise in duplicate ; and, lastly, a third series, passing from
the second to the third phalange of each digit: there are thus,
as Meckel states, twenty-four muscles in all of this lumbrical
group; of these the first and second groups are only highly
differentiated slips of the flexor brevis manus, while the last
set may be continuations of the true dorsal interossei.

The next groups of muscles in this segment are the inter-
ossei, palmar and dorsal, devoted to the purpose of lateralizing
the digits, the first series being flexors, and the second being ex-
tensors. In the typical limb, where each digit has a vital indi-
viduality of action, we should expect to find these muscles cha-
racteristically and perfectly developed; but as in the limbs of
most vertebrates, when possessing four or five digits, only one
or at most two of them maintain this separateness of action, in
the intermediate segments consolidation of the metacarpals or
metatarsals interferes with dependency of action ; still we find

318 Dr. A. Macalister on the Formation of

the uniformity of development of the typical muscle-germs dis-
tinctly traceable. It must at once be noticed that the inter-
ossei of the human hand and human foot do not correspond,
but differ strikingly in respect to their line of action—those of
the manus working to and from the line of the middle finger,
those of the pes having a similar relation to the second toe.
In the pes of the chimpanzee, Humphry has found them ar-
ranged in the same way as we find in the human manus. In
the gorilla, Duvernoy and Halford found them to be arranged
in the same manner; and the latter anatomist has. met with
the same arrangement in Macacus. I have examined them in
Cercopithecus, Macacus, Rhesus, and Cynocephalus; and Mivart
has examined the first-named genus, and found them alike.
Prof. Humphry has dissected them in the dog, and has found
the same arrangement, which I have likewise confirmed, in a
dingo. In the manus of Dasypus I have found them arranged
thus :—the fifth digit had an internal interosseus from the
carpus to the first phalanx; the fourth had none; the third had
a fasciculus attached to its ulnar side; the second had a special
one to its radial side; and the pollex had one to each side.
Thus we see another instance of a variation from the true
manus type. But it is in Ornithorhynchus, Hyrax, and Nyc-
ticebus that these attain their greatest degree of complexity.
In the first named a regular double set of muscles occupy the
interosseous spaces, one for each side of each finger. In Hyrax
there are two sets of interosseals :—first, a regular set, one at
each side of each finger, and inserted into the sesamoid bones
at the base of the first phalanges ; secondly, a group of longer
muscles—one an external muscle for the index, two external
parallel muscles for the annularis, and one for the little finger,
supplemented by an abductor minimi digiti. In the foot of
this animal there are internal and external muscles for the
index, middle, and fourth toes, an external muscle for the third,
and of the longer series an inner tendon for the third, and ex-
ternal muscles for the second and first. The Nycticebus like-
Wise possesses a complex group of interossei as well as of
lumbricales, as in its manus are found an abductor and flexor
brevis pollicis, external and internal interossei for the index,
middle, annular, and little digits, supplemented by a special
abductor of the latter and by a transversus pedis consisting of
two slips, one springing from the second and the other from
the third metacarpal bone. The rat and hare possess four pairs,
as also does the rabbit; while the guineapig and Agouti ex-
hibit three pairs of interossei.

In deducing from these apparently dissimilar series a regular
typical form we see that the entire difficulty may be set at rest

a correct System of Muscular Homologies. 319

by the assumption that for the typical digit there are four such
muscles—a palmar on each side and a dorsal on each side. In
the human manus, which we will take for illustration as the
most familiar, we have these developed as follows. The pollex
on its free side has a muscle, the abductor, which, however, is
generally divisible into two, an abductor exterior and interior,
so named by Sémmerring. The interior of these, undoubtedly,
acts (as Meckel suggests) as a palmar interosseus ; this muscle
is present in Ornithorhynchus, in the opossum, in the bear,
Gulo, and others. On its ulnar side a muscle is occasionally
present as an anomaly in man, described by Henle—the
interosseus primus volaris, which I have never found as a
portion of the normal anatomy of any animal. Meckel, how-
ever, in speaking of the short muscles of the thumb, says :—
“Tl y a quelquefois, par exemple chez le magot, un petit flé-
chisseur plus profond que l’on rencontre parfois aussi dans
Vhomme.” This might perhaps be the muscle of Henle;
and Prof. Huxley has described it as existing in the gorilla
(Med. Times & Gazette, 1864, p. 538). For the index finger
there is a radial palmar muscle, which in the human subject
arises from the os magnum and the base of the third meta-
carpal; but as its function as a radial lateralizer of the index
is better fulfilled by one of the dorsal muscles, its insertion is
shifted to the inner sesamoid bone of the pollex, and it becomes
the deep head of the flexor pollicis. I have found this muscle
in Hystrix cristata; and, as stated above, in Dasypus this
muscle is present and typical, attached to the radial side of the
index. ‘The palmar ulnar interosseus is developed as the first
palmar interosseus of the human hand. It is present in the
pes of many monkeys, of the dog, and the Ornithorhynchus.
For the middle finger the two palmar interossei, being super-
seded in function by the dorsals, would be entirely atrophied,
but that they are devoted to a special purpose; and hence,
coalescing, they are inserted into the inner sesamoid bone of
the pollex, constituting the adductor pollicis. In the dog this
muscle is represented by a fibrous band, not truly muscular ;
it is muscular, however, in Ursus arctos; and in some monkeys
(as Macacus nemestrinus) it is large; in Ursus a slip of it is
occasionally inserted into the second toe at its base, constituting
a special adductor indicis. Nycticebus presents us with the
intermediate state of this muscle, between the foot arrange-
ment, to be referred to presently, and the typical human ar-
rangement; for in this animal the accomplished anatomists
who have given us so complete a monograph upon its myology
have described, besides the typical interossei, fine fasciculi
arising from the third and fourth metacarpals and inserted into

320 Dr. A. Macalister on the Formation of

the pollex: these are differentiated fasciculi of the muscles
utilized for an important special purpose.

The annularis or ring-finger has in man its palmar radial
muscle developed as the second palmar interosseus; and the
palmar ulnar, which arises generally from the unciform bone,
is shifted in its insertion, into the first phalanx of the little
finger, and constitutes the flexor brevis minimi digiti. For
the little finger the radial palmar muscle is developed in man
and the quadrumana as the third palmar interosseus; and as
such it exists in the armadillo. The palmar ulnar muscle is
developed into an abductor minimi digiti in the human hand:
this fact was first noticed in the case of the Ornithorhynchus,
by Meckel; but it will be found equally true in man, the cat,
and in such of the quadrumana as I have examined.

The pedes of vertebrate animals, both mammalian and rep-
tilian, exhibit a corresponding series of muscles. Taking the
human foot as an example, we find for the tibial side of the
hallux a muscle, the abductor pollicis, or at least its calcanean
head, which is found in quadrumana, many carnivora, and
marsupialia. On the fibular side a corresponding muscle, the
flexor brevis pollicis, occurs, a muscle whose single origin
indicates that it is not the complete representative of its syno-
nym in the hand. This muscle is absent in some monkeys, as
the mandril, but large in others, as Macacus. The second toe
has its tibial muscle circumstanced like its fellow of the manus,
and is thus modified into the adductor hallucis, a muscle which
is the undoubted representative of the deep head of the hand
flexor. From the fibular side of the second metatarsal we find
what should be the outer of the plantar muscles modified into
the first slip of the musculus transversus pedis, and crossing
the metatarsal bone to be inserted into the outer sesamoid bone
of the hallux ; the remainder of this transversus is made up of
the fibular interossei of the third, fourth, and part of the fifth
uniting and running transversely : its obvious manus repre-
sentative is the adductor pollicis, to which there is very often
an accessory fasciculus from the fourth metacarpal superadded,
as noticed by Huxley (loc. cit. p. 538). The tibial interosseus
of the third, fourth, and fifth toes remain in man unchanged,
as the first, second, and third plantar interossei respectively ;
of these the two last named exist in Cercopithecus and Macacus,
but the first in these animals is either prolonged as a rudiment
of the transversus pedis or absent altogether. The flexor
brevis minimi digiti is made up of the remainder of the last
fibular muscle that is not required for the transversus.

The plantar interossei having thus been accounted for in
man, it only remains to refer to their types the muscles in those

a correct System of Muscular Homologies. 321

animals already noticed as instances of a greater degree of
complexity than usual—the Hyrax, Nycticebus, &c.; and in
all these we merely see approximation to the true type, in va-
rious degrees of distinctness. The long muscles in Hyrax are
probably displaced dorsal interossei, and the short inter-
phalangeal muscles of Nycticebus may belong to the same
type.
"The last class of muscles in the manus which are specially
devoted to produce the movements of the digits is that of the
dorsal interossei. ‘These we usually find to be bicipital; and
accepting this appearance as an evidence of the coalescence of
two muscle-germs, we can easily allocate these muscles to their
respective places. As extension is a much simpler act than
flexion, the latter being liable to endless modifications in
grasping, &c., so extensor muscles are much less disposed to
vary than flexors. Taking, again, the hand of man as an ex-
ample, we find the radial dorsal muscle of the pollex present
as the abductor pollicis exterior of Sémmerring. The ulnar
dorsal muscle constitutes the polliceal origin of the first dorsal
interosseus, whose thumb insertion is obsolete. For the index
finger the radial dorsal muscle is developed as the first dorsal
interosseus ; this muscle in Macacus nemestrinus has no polli-
ceal; but it is bicipital in Sémia and in the hyena and dog.
The ulnar dorsal muscle constitutes the outer head of the se-
cond interosseus. or the middle finger the dorsal radial
muscle forms the medial head of the second dorsal interosseus,
and the ulnar makes the corresponding head of the third dorsal
of the human hand. In the ring-finger the radial muscle is
modified into the annular origin of the third dorsal interosseus,
and the ulnar constitutes the annular origin of the fourth. For
the little finger the radial muscle forms the ulnar head of the
fourth dorsal interosseus, and the ulnar forms the opponens
minimi digiti.

The pes exhibits an equally regular series. For the hallux
the dorsal tibial muscle is developed as the second head of the
abductor pollicis, and the dorsal fibular as the inner head of
- the first dorsal interosseus. The second toe has its tibial muscle
in the form of the outer head of the first external interosseus,
and its fibular as the inner head of the second dorsal: this
muscle differs from its fellow in the manus in being inserted
into the second instead of the third finger. For the third toe
the tibial muscle constitutes part of the second dorsal inter-
osseus, and the fibular that part of the third which is attached
to the third metatarsal bone. Similarly the two dorsal muscles
for the fourth toe constitute respectively parts of the third and
fourth external interossei. For the little toe the tibial muscle

322 Mr. J.Gould on two new Species of Humming-birds.

forms the second head of the fourth dorsal, while the fibular
constitutes the abductor minimi digiti.

Thus we find that all the muscles of the manus and pes may
be reduced into a regular ordinal series. The only supple-
mental muscles to these are the lateralizers of the metacarpals,
of which two are usually present:—one an opponens of the
metacarpal of the thumb, often present as an accidental variety
in the pes ; and secondly the lateralizer of the fifth metatarsal
bone, present in the foot as the “abductor ossis metacarpi
quinti”’ muscle of Wood, Huxley, and Flower. Perhaps there
may be a complete series of these in a typical limb; but I am
not aware of any others being present in any individual animal.

XL.—Descriptions of two New Species of Humming-birds.
By Joun Gou tp, Esgq., F.R.S.

Eriocnemis smaragdinipectus.

Head and upper surface dullish grass-green ; rump and upper
tail-coverts resplendently luminous yellowish green; on
the throat a patch of violet-blue ; thence to the vent glittering
grass-green ; under tail-coverts bright blue; thighs thickly
clothed with white downy feathers ; bill, primaries, and tail-
feathers black.

Total length 4 inches, bill +2, wing 235, tail 12.

Hab. Ecuador.

fiemark.—This species, which is from the neighbourhood
of Quito, is very closely allied to Hriocnemis vestita, but differs
from that bird in the green of the breast commencing imme-
diately below the blue throat-spot, whereas in fine old males
of L. vestita, when viewed in bright sunlight, a black band
is seen separating the two colours. It is true that this band
is green in certain lights; but the feathers are of a different
structure to those of the Quitan species. Taking the average
of seven specimens of both kinds, I find the H. smaragdinipectus
has a rather longer bill and somewhat shorter wing than the Z.
vestita ; in all other respects their dimensions are very similar.
The green of the abdomen of the former is more pure, or not
so yellow as the same part of the latter; in the gorgeous
colouring of the rump perhaps the Quitan bird is somewhat
less resplendent than the Bogotan L. vestita. I have ample
materials at my disposal for determining the distinctness of
the two birds; and, however similar they may be, there are
sufficient tangible characters by which each may be recog-
nized, and to show that they are really different.

Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar. 323

Gouldia melanosternon.

Crown of the head, neck, and breast glittering yellowish green,
the feathers of the lower part of the neck very obscurely
edged with coppery brown ; chest jet-black, on each side of
which the feathers are light brownish grey, separating the
black of the chest from the green of the flanks ; under tail-
coverts brown and grey; back, rump, and upper tail-
coverts bronzy green, interrupted by a band of white across
the rump; tail long and deeply forked, the feathers almost
filamentous, the outer one on each side grey, the remainder
steel-blue with white shafts ; bill and wings black.

Total length 4$ inches, bill 3, wing 1,5, outer tail-feathers 23.

Hab. Peru.

Remark.—Very closely allied to Gouldia Langsdorffi, but
differs in being a trifle smaller, and in the almost total absence
of the band across the chest, which forms a conspicuous and
beautiful feature in that bird. I have numerous examples of
both sexes of this new species now before me, among which
are three males, one from the Napo, another from Pebas, and
a third from, I believe, the neighbourhood of Ucayali (Bartlett,
No. 1619). The habitat of G. Langsdorffi is, as every one
knows, the neighbourhood of Rio de Janeiro, in Brazil.

XLI.—List of Coleoptera received from Old Calabar, on the
West Coast of Africa. By ANDREW Murray, F.L.S.

[Continued from ser. 3. vol. xx. p. 323. ]
[Plate IX. ]
Lycide.

Lycus, Fab.

§ 1. Males with elytra expanded, and shoulders prominent but not spined.
Females comparatively narrow.

1. Lycus foliaceus, Schin. Syn. Ins. iv. App. p. 26, pl. 5. f.4, 3.

PL. IX. fig. 1.
Lycus oblitus, De}. Cat. 110, 3.

There are three types of the male of one of the forms of this
section of Lycide, which I separate with hesitation and doubt,
the more so that I have been unable to find corresponding
females for them. Still there are sufficient differences to
warrant their being recorded as distinct varieties; and those
who do not think the differences specific will suffer little incon-
venience in having to rank them merely as known and marked
varieties.

324 Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar.

The first is that figured and described by Schénherr, under
the name of foliaceus. It is the oblitus of Dejean ; and the male
is easily recognized from those of the allied species by its large
size and the great degree of expansion and inflation of the elytra,
and by the apical black mark on the elytra not extending across
in nearly a straight line in front, but protruding forwards in three
more or less curved, ill-defined breaks in each, the outer black
mark being marginal and reaching further forward than the
two inner ones, as shown in PI. LX. fig. 1, which represents
the male. The suture is concave towards the apex of the
elytra, and the sutural angle ends in an incurved sharp point,
as shown in fig. 1, d.

In none of the Lycide of this group is much attention to be
paid to the colour of the underside of the body or of the limbs
or basal articles of the antenne. In this species the underside
is yellow, and the legs black; but in some the body is brown;
and in others the femora are yellowish,—considerable variation
occurring in the depth and intensity of the colour.

This species is usually considered the same as the next ; but
I have found the above characters pretty constant, although in
the colouring there are undoubtedly indications of transition
between them, inasmuch as the anterior line of the black apical
patch im the next species shows sometimes breaks which, if
continued, would produce that of this species ; but I have never
been able to find a regular uninterrupted series of gradations
between the two.

One argument in favour of their being distinct is that I have
only received some half dozen specimens of this species, and
these all in one envoz, whereas in all the other collections sent
the following species has been numerous.

2. Lycus immersus. Pl. IX. figs.2(9) &3( 2).

Lycus xanthomelas, Schon. Syn. Ins. iv. App. 26, pl. 5. fig. 5, 9.

Niger, supra flavus, elytris postice nigris. L. foliaceo similis,
sed minor. ¢@. Elytris minus inflatis, macula apicali nigra
majore cum margine anteriore fere recto.

3. Long. 6-9 lin., lat. 5-7 lnm. 9. Long. 54-8 lin., lat. 2-
3 lin.

Smaller than Z. foliaceus, differing in the form of the black
apical marking on the elytra, it being nearly straight in front,
or only extending very slightly further along the margin than
in the middle. The inflation of the elytra differs also a little
in shape, being broadest a little behind the middle, while in
L. foliaceus the expansion is nearly oblong oval, and widest in
the middle. The termination of the sutural angle is different,
being sinuate, as shown in fig. 3 6, instead of incurved as in

Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar. 325

L. foliaceus, or straight as in L. semtamplexus, or rounded in-
curved as in L. dentipes.

The female specimens seem most of them to correspond with
this in size, and came along with them and in equal numbers;
therefore I have presumed them to be the female of this, rather
than of the typical L. foliaceus. Fig. 2 represents one of these
females. They are the L. xanthomelas of Schonherr.

3. Lycus aspidatus. Pl. IX. figs. 4 & 5.

Niger, supra flavus, elytris postice nigris. L. ¢mmerso affinis.
¢. Elytris umbone dorsali prominente, dimidio posteriore
nigro, et sutura apice incurvata dignoscitur. @ ignota.

¢. Long. 74 lin., lat. 53 lin.

Allied to LZ. émmersus. Elytra in the male distinguished
by a prominent dorsal umbo. The apical black patch extends
over fully the half of the elytra, and embraces the umbo. The
suture is incurved and slightly sinuate at the apex, and has
the angle blunt.

Only one specimen was received.

4. Lycus semiamplexus. Pl. IX. fig. 6.

Niger, supra flavus, elytris margine posteriore nigro. L. ¢m-
merso minor, textura leviore; g macula apicali nigra mar-
ginem posteriorem elytrorum amplectente et super suturam
breviter ascendente, sutura angulis apicalibus rectis.

d. Long. 53-64 lin., lat. 444 ln. ¢? Long. 6 lin., lat.
23 lin.

3. Still smaller than L. immersus, and very constant in size ;
rounder behind than it. The reticulations are finer, smaller,
and the texture rather closer; and the form of the black apical
mark on the elytra is different, extending in a well-defined
narrow band more than halfway along the outer margin, and
also encroaching in an oblong patch on the suture, as shown
in Pl. IX. fig. 6; in other respects the colouring is the same.
The suture is straight, and its angle right-angled and a little
rounded or blunt at the point (fig. 6).

I have no doubt that this is distinct from any of the pre-
ceding ; the size, distribution of colour, straightness of the
suture, and fineness of texture are very constant. I have,
however, no certainty about the female.

5. Lycus dentipes, Schon. Syn. Ins. iv. App. p. 25.

PL. IX. figs. 7, 7a, & 70.

Lycus Bremei, Bohem. Ins. Caffr. i. p. 427 (haud Guér. Lefebvre, Voy. en
Abyss. pl. 3. figs. 7-9, et Rev. Zool. 1847, p. 223).

Niger, supra flavus; thoracis disco (medio et postice), scutello,

326 Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar.

humeris elevatis totis elytrorumque apice irregulariter ni-
gris; abdomine lateribus late flavis.

$. Elytris amplissimis, conjunctim fere orbiculatis, humeris
oblique valde elevatis, femoribus tibiisque quatuor poste-
rioribus dentatis. Long. 10-14 lin., lat. 8-10 lin.

9. Elytris subparallelis; costa humerali rotundatim et hori-
zontaliter extensa; pedibus muticis. Long. 10-14 In.

There is no doubt that this is the species described by Bo-
heman as the Bremez of Guérin. But he cannot have seen the
original figure of that species given by Guérin in Lefebvre’s
‘Voyage en Abyssinie,’ which is quite different from it, and
much nearer L. foliaceus, or rather that form of it (whether
species or variety) which I have above characterized as L. ¢m-
mersus. The reference which Boheman gives is to Guérin’s
separate description in the ‘ Revue Zoologique,’ where there is
no plate; but a figure of it is given in Lefebvre’s ‘ Voyage,’
of which the entomological part is by Guérin-Méneville. To
remove all doubt from the subject, I figure both. Figs. 12,
13, and 14 (see LZ. Breme? posted) are taken from the plates
in Lefebvre’s ‘ Voyage,’ and represent Guérin’s Breme?. Fig.7
represents Boheman’s Bremez.

But although the latter is quite distinct, it is not new.
Schénherr had previously described it under the name of L.
ht as may be seen from his description, which is as fol-
ows :—

“Niger, thoracis lateribus elytrisque latissimis flavis; his
macula basali apiceque nigris; femoribus posterioribus den-
tatis.

“ Habitat in Cap. Bon. Spei. Mus. Schonh.

“Perhaps only the male of L. rostratus; the size of the
body and the facies nearly as in it, viz. the disk of the thorax
almost entirely black, the elytra with a large basal patch at
the scutellum, and the apex sinuately black; to be sure, it is
larger, and chiefly in the elytra almost twice as broad, com-
peting with ZL. foliaceus in magnitude. The elytra behind the
middle very much dilated, with the lateral margin reflexed.
The shoulders very much raised, inflated; the suture not in-
fuscate. The body below black; the abdomen with the sides
' Juteous. Legs strong and black; the posterior thighs armed
below with a strong subobtuse tooth. The wings pale, with
the apex black.”

The above, with one exception, is a perfect description of
the present species: the exception is, “the elytra behind

Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar. 327

the middle very much ditated” (elytris pone medium valde
dilatatis). It is true that they are very much dilated behind
the middle, but so are they before the middle; and if the
meaning were “‘ very much dilated, most so behind the middle,”
then it would be correct; but I rather incline to treat this as
an inaccurate turn of expression. There is no African Lycus
that I know of, except this, which has any of the thighs
toothed.

A single male of this species is all that I have seen from
Old Calabar. Boheman’s description was made from specimens
taken by Wahlberg near the River Limpopo; so that we have
here the same species apparently ranging across the whole
continent. The Abyssinian habitat, resting on its being the
species described by Guérin, must be cancelled.

6. Lycus subcostatus. Pl. IX. fig. 8.

¢. Niger, supra flavus; thoracis disco, scutello elytrorumque
apice nigris, lateribus abdominis flavis vel piceis; elytris
sublinearibus, quadricostatis, costa secunda et quarta magis
quam ceteris elevatis, humeris horizontaliter costatis.

Long. 53 lin., lat. 24 lin.

¢ ignotus.

Similar in appearance to the female of L. émmersus or folia-
ceus, but with the following differences :—the disk of the thorax
black; the elytra with four coste slightly raised, the second
raised a good deal more than the rest, and the fourth next in
degree; the shoulders slightly expanded, not tumid, but flat,
and with the margin costate; the black apex of the elytra
narrowest at the suture. The antenne are broader than in L.
foliaceus, and with a tendency to flabellation. Male unknown.

Only one specimen received.

7. Lycus scapularis. Pl. IX. fig. 9.

L. palliato affinis et similariter coloratus ; elytris longioribus,
humeris parum minus inflatis; subtus fuscescens et abdo-
mine testaceo.

Long. 8 lin., lat. 3} lin.

Closely allied to LZ. palliatus of Fabricius and to L. pallio-
latus of Schénherr, which are probably, as the latter divined,
male and female of the same species. This is still longer and
proportionally narrower than éither, and has the underside
fuscescent, except the abdomen, which is testaceous instead of
black ; the shoulders are more restricted in their inflation ; the

328 Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar.
apex of the abdomen is dark. It is doubtless the Old-Calabar

representative of that Senegalese species.
Only one specimen received.

8. Lycus Bremei, Guér. in Lefebvre, Voy. en Abyss.
Zool. p. 287. Pl. IX. figs. 10-14.

Lycus dissimilis, Bertoloni, Ilust. Rer. Nat. Mozamb. 35, pl. 2. fig. 5, and
Comment. Acad. Bonon. 1849, x. 413.

9. L. immerso (2) similis, minor, angustior; thorace magis
elongato, disco fusco vel nigro; elytris magis parallelis,
humeris vix prominentibus.

Long. 44 lin., lat. 12 lin.

9. Like a small female of Lycus tmmersus, and not un-
like a small specimen of L. sinwatus, only the elytra not so
rapidly attenuated behind. The thorax, however, is more
elongate, being somewhat gable-shaped; the posterior angles
do not project laterally so much, and the disk is piceous or
black. The antenne have a greater tendency to flabella-
tion. The scutellum is piceous or black; the elytra narrower,
without humeral projections, and with a coarser reticulation ;
the apex more attenuated.

In a paper by Bertoloni, entitled “ Ilustratio rerum Natu-
ralium Mozambici,” published in 1849 in the Comment. Acad.
Bonon. x. p. 413, there is a species of Lycus described and
figured under the name of L. dissimilis, the female of which
agrees with the specimen from which I have taken the above
description ; but on comparing Bertoloni’s figures and descrip-
tion with Guérin’s of Breme?, which I have here copied (Pl. IX.
figs. 12 & 13 from Guérin, and fig. 14 from Bertoloni), it seems
to me that the two are the same. Guérin’s publication being
the prior, his name must stand.

It will be seen, from the above figures, that the form of the
expansion of the elytra in the male of Guérin’s figure is dif-
ferent from that of emmersus.

I have only received one specimen of this; and it being a
female, and somewhat immature, and the females of the allied
species of this group being so like each other, I should wish
the reader to receive my determination of J. Bremez as an in-
habitant of Old Calabar with a point of doubt, and as requiring
confirmation.

9. Lycus pyriformis. Pl. IX. fig. 15.

Subpyriformis, niger, thorace et elytris supra flavis; thorace
medio, scutello et elytris regione scutellari et apice interne

Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar. 329

sinuatim nigris, his rugoso reticulatis, quadricostatis, costa
humerali parum elevata, lateribus parum reflexis.

Long. 5-6 lin., lat. 4 lin.

Subpyriform in outline, black; antenne rather stout and
with the articles rather short. The thorax is rounded in front,
with a black longitudinal band (widest behind) up the middle;
the scutellum black. The elytra flat, except at the shoulders ;
the scutellar region black; the shoulders slightly raised into a
narrow sharp ridge, up to which the black comes, but does not
touch it; there is a broad black band along the apex and pos-
terior half of the elytra; the margins are sharply reflexed ;
there are four coste, which are most pronounced at the base,
almost disappearing at the apex. Abdomen black, with the
sides broadly yellow. ‘The pyriform outline, the thorax
nearly rounded in front, the elytra flat, the scutellar space
black, and the margins of the elytra reflexed are the most im-
portant characters of this species.

I have received specimens of this from the Cape, under the
name of L, rostratus, Fab. If, however, the Lycus rostratus
of Fabricius is the same as the Lycus rostratus of Linneus
(which I presume it is), then my specimens have been incor-
rectly named; for they are certainly distinct from the figure
and description of L. rostratus of Linneus (Lampyris rostrata
Linnei) given by Wulfen, in 1786, in his ‘ Descriptiones
quorumdam Capensium Insectorum,’ of which fig. 16 is a copy.
The truth seems to be that the name has been bandied about,
by the earlier authors, among any of the African species which
had the scutellar region black. There are not many of them.
Schénherr supposes dentipes to be the female of it, in which I
do not agree. The texture is different, that of dentipes being
somewhat shining, that of the present species dull and pubes-
cent.

10. Lycus ustus, Pl. IX. fig. 17.

Niger, thorace lateribus et elytris, exceptis regione scutellari
et marginibus exterioribus posticis, flavis.

Long. 6 lin., lat. 3 lin.

Rather narrow, black below, above orange-yellow, with a
broad stripe down the middle of the thorax, the scutellum,
the scutellar region, and the exterior margin of the posterior
half of the elytra black; not so peaked behind as L, stnuatus,
nor so pubescent. :

Not unlike L. pyriformis; but, besides differing in shape
and colouring, the elytra are not so flat, and have not the
margins reflexed.

One specimen ; probably a female.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol.i, 24

330 Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar.

§ 2. Males with a projecting blade on the shoulder terminating in a spine.
Females narrower, and with the projecting blade rounded off and
without a spine. (See Pl. IX. figs. 18 & 18+.)

11. g. Lycus premorsus, Schén. Syn. Ins. App. p. 25, pl. 5.
fig. 1; Westwood, Introd. to Entomol. 1. p. 254, fig. 27 (6).

@. Lycus latissimus, Schon. ibid. fig. 3.
bo z harpago, Thomson, Arch, Ent. ii. 76; Lacord. Genera Col. pl. 45.

g. 3.

I know of at least four varieties of Lycus premorsus.

Var. a. premorsus (type). The typical form, figured by
Schénherr and Westwood, in which there is no median black
band across the elytra, but merely two marginal spots and the
apical one. This variety has the emargination of the apex of
the elytra very distinct. The underside is said by Schonherr
to be black.

This I have not received from Old Calabar.

Var. 8. harpago. The Lycus harpago of Thomson, which
appears to be only a variety of praemorsus. He says it is very
nearly allied to it, but differs by its size being greater, by its
elytra being more strongly dilated, by the median band being
complete, by the truncature not being so strongly spied, and
by its yellow abdomen. Now, as to its size, the difference is
too slight to allow that alone to be reckoned as a distinctive
character; and I have specimens agreeing in all other respects
with the characters of L. harpago, but no larger than Schén-
herr’s typical premorsus. Indeed the only difference between
one of the Old-Calabar varieties of pramorsus and the figure of
harpago in Lacordaire’s ‘Genera des Coleoptéres’ is that it is
somewhat smaller. Next,as to the elytra being more dilated, this
is the case in my own larger specimens, but not in the smaller.
It is a character, or perhaps a deceptio visus, arising from the
increased dimensions. The median band, although styled by
Thomson complete, is not complete-in Lacordaire’s figure, but
only interruptedly complete, the two large, broad median mar-
ginal patches bemg only semiunited by a much narrower,
black, irregular line, of diverse thickness, interrupted in two
parts. I have specimens, both male and female, with the band
exactly so interrupted, and others not interrupted at all, others
without the uniting line at all, and another with about the
whole of the latter half of the elytra invaded by black. This
extension of the black colour across the elytra cannot, therefore,
be regarded as a character of much importance. The trunca-

‘ture of the apex of the elytra being more feebly emarginate is
also a small character; and I should scarcely like to say that
in my specimens it was more feebly emarginate ; in the next

.

Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar. 331

variety it certainly is. The last distinguishing character is
that Schénherr describes the underside as black, while Thom-
son’s harpago is yellow, except the terminal segment of the
abdomen. ‘This difference is, I suspect, not one in the insects
themselves, but due to the process of drying. My reason for
suspecting this is that the underside, on a slight examination,
appears to be yellowish in many of my specimens, piceous
yellow in some, and black in others; but, on a more careful
examination, I can see a yellowish tinge shining through both
the brown and the black; so that there is little doubt that they
have all been more or less yellow in life, and have acquired
the darker hue either from having been in spirits before being
dried, or through the process of drying itself.
This variety occurs at Old Calabar.

Var. y. subdenticulatus. A variety still larger than any of
my specimens of harpago, in fact almost as large as the figure
of it given by Lacordaire, but with the band wholly inter-
rupted, exactly as in the typical premorsus. It has, however,
the apical truncature much less emarginate; and the little
tooth at each corner of the emargination in premorsus is here
almost entirely absent, particularly at the external angle. In
this respect and in their size my specimens would agree better
than the preceding banded variety with harpago; but this
only seems to furnish additional proof that they are all varie-
ties of one species.

This variety also occurs at Old Calabar.

Var. 5. fenestratus. In this variety the apical and median
black bands have coalesced, leaving only a small spot or two
of yellow surrounded with black.

This is a variety of which I have a single female from Old
Calabar.

Many specimens have been received of the variety which I
have called subdenticulatus; only a few of the variety with a
median band.

12. Lycus Afolus. Pl. IX. fig. 19.

Capite nigro, thorace subtus nigro, supra aurantiaco, disco
longitudinaliter nigricante; metasterno nigro, postice flaves-
cente ; abdomine flavo, medio fuscescente, apice piceo-nigro ;
elytris aurantiacis, apice et lateribus posticis nigris, hu-
meris breviter armatis, lateribus expansis tumidis ; antennis
pedibusque nigris.

Long. 8 lin., lat. 6 lin.

The head black; the thorax above orange-coloured, with
the disk brownish black, and beneath black; the scutellum
dark, and the elytra bright orange-coloured, wath the apex

24

332 Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar.

and posterior margins broadly black; the metasternum black,
with a yellowish space in front of the trochanters of each of
the hind legs; the antenne, parts of the mouth, wings, and
legs black. Antenne moderate. Thorax with the sides broad,
and the middle space in front projecting triangularly over the
head ; anterior angles rounded, posterior slightly acute. Ely-
tra with the humeral blade short and flat, the spine or point
in the male short, and its angle obtuse and only slightly
curved ; two strong coste run down in the space between it
and the suture; and on the outer side the elytra expand, leav-
ing a defined line marking the point of the expansion; and
this expansion is anteriorly swollen, like the cheeks of A®olus
(whence I have derived its name), broadest before the
middle, sloping obliquely backwards; and the black apical
margin is as broad as this swollen portion. In the male
the suture is incurved in its posterior half, and the apex
of each elytron is truncate obliquely and with a slight curve
inwards, the outer angle rounded, and the sutural angle is
nearly right-angled. From the analogy of the next species,
LL. elegans, which is nearly allied to it, I presume that
the apex of the elytra in the female is rounded to the su-
ture, and not truncate, and that the suture is straight in the
female.

A very handsome species, the rich orange-colour and deep
black making a fine contrast.

Rare. I have only received two males; but I have seen
one or two others, from the west coast of Africa, in the British
Museum and other collections.

13. Lycus elegans. PI. IX. fig. 20.

L. Afolo affinis, sat similiter coloratus, sed elytrorum lateribus
postice angustius nigro notatis et elytris magis elongatis
et lateribus minus tumidis. ,

3. Long. 8-9 lin., lat. 53 lin. 9. Long. 10-11 lin., lat.
5 lin.

Alhed to L. 4olus; but the black margin near the apex is
much narrower, and cannot be said to extend along the apex;
for its inner side starts from the sutural angle, and from that
part it runs parallel to the outer margin for nearly the half of
the elytra (less in the female than the male) ; the colouring in
other respects is nearly the same, except that the metasternum
is wholly black, and the abdomen all yellow, except the last
segment. In shape, however, and general appearance it differs
more materially. It is a larger, longer, and more elegantly
proportioned insect. The thorax is more transverse and

Prof. G. Seguenza on Ellipsoidina. 333

squarer, and the triangular projection of the middle over the
head is not so great and is wider; the posterior angles are
rounded at the points and channelled. The elytra are widest
about the middle, and slope more gently both backwards and
forwards; the swollen lateral expansion is longer, narrower, and
not so tumid; the humeral blade is longer; the suture in the
male is curved concavely behind the middle, and the apex
truncate obliquely, terminating at the sutural angle in a sharp
little yellow tooth; in the female the suture is straight, and -
the apex rounded ovately ; tibiz simple.

This I think the handsomest of the West-African Lycide,
It is apparently rather rare, not many specimens having
reached me.

§ 3. Elongate, attenuate at the apex; the elytra in neither sex expanded
nor armed with blades or spines on the shoulders.

14. Lycus sinuatus, Schon. Syn. Ins. iv. App. p. 28.
Pl Ae fie. 21

Of this I received several specimens, divisible into two
groups, one larger than the other, and with longer and propor-
tionately more slender antenne: they were, doubtless, the
sexes, the one with longer antenne probably the male. The
abdomen in some is black, but in most is slightly margined
with yellow; and the median black stripe on the thorax is
broader in some than in others.

{To be continued. |

XLIT—On Ellipsoidina, a new Genus of Foraminifera*.
By G1USEPPE SEGUENZA, Professor of Natural History in
the Royal Lyceum, Messina. With further Notes on tts
Structure and Affinities, by Henry B. Brapy, F.L.S.,

EGS;
[Plate XIII]

[A portion of the following translation was prepared some
years ago; but the difficulty of accepting the author’s conclu-
sions, without some modification which there was then no means
of verifying, caused it to be laid aside. Quite recently I have
received from Professor Seguenza a number of specimens, the
careful examination of which has led to results differing in one
or two important particulars from those detailed in his paper,

* From the ‘Eco Peloritano, Giornale di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti,’
Anno y, serie 2", fase, 9,

334 Prof. G. Seguenza on Ellipsoidina,

and more in accordance with the phenomena observable in allied
Foraminifera. His introductory observations seem of sufficient
general interest to warrant reproduction: the paper has there
fore been translated entire, with the exception of the concluding
portion (referring to specific subdivision), which is based upon
views since abandoned by the author. The notes and supple-
mentary matter are placed at the end as an appendix.—H. B. B.]

“Natura maxime miranda in minimis.”—LZinneus.

“ Berore the celebrated Italian, Soldani, had commenced his
elaborate researches upon the microscopic creatures now known
under the name of Loraminifera, several other authors had
mentioned them in their writings, e. g. Beccarius*, PlancusT,
Gualtieri t, Ginanni§, Ledermiiller ||, and others; yet it was
Soldani who, by close and persevering study, opened an un-
limited field for future discovery by the publication of his
widely celebrated works.

“ Subsequently the immortal Linneeus, by classifying them
amongst other animals, endowed these little beings with scien-
tific importance—an importance further increased by the work
of Fichtel and Moll**, published in 1803, in which the Fo-
raminifera are well illustrated and described. Accumulated
observations afterwards opened the way for the dismemberment
of the large genus Nautilus of Linneus, which was effected by
Lamarck tt} and Montfort tf.

“The indefatigable Alcide d’Orbigny followed, and, by his
unremitting labours and accurate observations upon these
little animals, succeeded in forming his ‘ Tableau des Céphalo-
podes,’ by classifying in genera all the known species, together
with those he had himself discovered. ‘Till then it had been
firmly believed that these microzoa were Cephalopods, be-
cause they are provided with many-chambered shells, as some
Cephalopods are; and the observations of M. d’Orbigny up to
that time only confirmed this idea. Alas! to what great mis-
takes anticipation may lead! We may from this error learn
how much impartiality and accuracy is needed in every kind of
observation, and especially in those pertaining to microscopical

* De Bononensi arena (Comment. Academ. Bonon. i. p. 68).

+ Ariminensis, De conchis minus notis. 1739,

} Index testarum conchyliorum. 1742.

§ Mare Adriatico, opere postume. 1757.

|| Amusements microscopiques. 1764.

{| Saggio orittografico, ovvero ec. 1780, e Testaceographia.

** Testacea microscopica &c. ++ Animaux sans Vertébres,
tt Conchyliologie systématique. 1808.

anew Genus of Foraminifera. 335

science. But it was given to the celebrated M. Dujardin to
discover the simplicity of the organization of these animalcules,
and to demonstrate that they are only formed of a fleshy mass,
resulting from the coalescence of numerous filaments, and
filling a calcareous shell, through the pores of which the fila-
ments pass, performing the office of locomotive organs. By
reason of the great simplicity of their structure, they were
placed amongst the lowest of the zoological series, near the
zoophytes.

“De Férussac would not bow to the clear and well-proven
discovery of Dujardin, but adhered to the former belief. Not
so D’Orbigny, who, struck by the clear light of the newer
views, gave up his opinion to adopt them, and, devoting in-
creased attention to the Foraminifera still living in the sand of
our seas, as well as to those which have left their shells in
the rocks formed from marine deposit, established a methodical
classification which is still followed, and compiled many in-
teresting and valuable treatises, amongst which are numbered
those in which he gives his observations on the Foraminifera
of the Canary Islands and of South America, of the fossils of
the white Chalk of Paris and of the Tertiary basin of Vienna,
together with other valuable memoirs.

“Numerous other zoologists have continued the investigation
of this class of Radiata, amongst them Deshayes and Michelotti,
and more recently Reuss, Czjzek, and Costa, who, pttshing
forward in an unlimited field, have by their researches added
many new facts to the interesting science of minute life.

“Whilst zoologists by their researches have settled the posi-
tion of these Radiates, they have not been of one accord as to
the name to be assigned to them; and science has been re-
tarded by the useless differences that have thereby arisen.
Thus Blainville called them Bryozoaires; Dujardin, Rhizostomes
or Simplectoméres ; Deshayes, Polypodes; Michelotti, Rhizo-
podi-Foraminifert ; Menke, Trematophores ; and, finally,
D’Orbigny used the term Foraminiféres, which denomination
has been adopted by modern writers.

“Although animals of this class are endowed with extreme
minuteness, they are equally remarkable for the immense mul-
tiplication of individuals, so that a handful of our sea-sand may
contain several thousands of specimens; and not only do they
manifest themselves in such large numbers in the present
geological period, but they must have existed to even greater
extent in the Tertiary epoch, to have formed the numerous rocks
and extensive strata which in certain places are built up of
their fossil shells. And though not a few writers have de-
scribed the Foraminifera of particular beds, if we consider how

336 Prof, G. Seguenza on Ellipsoidina,

limited in number are the localities explored in comparison
with those still to be worked out, we must believe that pale-
ontology is still to be enriched by countless new species, and
within a few years it must record in its annals many fresh
genera and novel facts concerning them.

- “Our own island of Sicily, which has been but little searched
by the paleontologist, has been still less studied in respect to
its Foraminifera; in fact nothing is known concerning them,
except the few species mentioned by Sig. Hoffmann and re-
peated by Calcara, and those recently discovered by Prof. O.
Costa, of which the names alone are given in his ‘ Paleonto-
logia del Regno di Napoli.’ Yet the number of their calca-
reous shells occurring in the Tertiary beds of Sicily is very
great, and the variety of species, recognizable by their fossil
remains, considerable.

“In my paleontological researches in the district of Messina,
T have frequently met with enormous Foraminiferous deposits ;
and from them I have already obtained the fossil shells of
about three hundred species, which in the course of their suc-
cessive discovery have confirmed my belief in the existence of
Miocene strata on the two opposite sides of the Peloritan
chain*, Their general characters and similarity to species
already known yield a strong support, an undeniable evi-
dence, and a clear argument in favour of my views of the
geological structure of the neighbourhood of Messina. The
object of the present memoir is to describe a new generic
form of these minute shells, which I have observed in the
Miocene marls of the locality alluded to.

“ Amongst the numerous beautiful and striking forms I have
noticed there is one which has the external characters of an
Oolina, perfectly oval or ellipsoidal in shape, and terminating
in a tube not showing on its external surface, even under the
microscope, any trace of sutural constriction. From these
characters I believed it at first to be a Monostegian Forami-
nifer, in reality an Oolina, very much resembling, if not iden-
tical with, the O. ellipsoides of Costa. On breaking the shell,
however, the reality proved to be in complete opposition to the
ideas I had formed from its external features. It was seen to
consist of a series of chambers, similar in shape but decreasing
in size, each succeeding chamber completely enveloping the
previous one. The chambers, however, are not concentri-
cally arranged, but each is fixed by the inferior extremity to
the base of that which contains it, whilst the extremity of the
tube is fixed where that of the exterior chamber commences.

* Vide “Del terreno Miocenico osservato sui versanti della Catena
Peloritana” (Eco Peloritano, Anno y, serie 2*, fase, 5).

a new Genus of Foraminifera. 337

“Such being the structure of the calcareous shell, it may
easily be seen that the chambers, besides being of uniform
shape, are so arranged that their axes are in a right line, each
chamber being altogether closed and fixed at both extremities
of its longer axis. It is therefore evident that this Foraminifer
belongs to D’Orbigny’s order Stichostéques. Further, it be-
comes the type of a well-defined genus, approaching in its
structure the Glanduline and Nodosariv, but showing the
successive chambers completely enveloping each other, whilst
in the Glanduline they appear in part projecting to the ex-
terior, and in Nodosaria they are placed one on the top of the
other, overlapping each other but little, if at all. This will
show clearly how well-defined is the new genus, which I name
Ellipsoidina, and that it is related to Nodosaria through Glan-
dulina.

‘“‘ By minute study of these microscopic shells, I succeeded
in distinguishing three specific forms belonging to the genus in
question ; and after I have recapitulated the generic characters,
I shall describe the species.

““T was led to adopt the name Ellipsoidina in order to pre-
serve the generic terminology of the class, inasmuch as almost
all authors who have written on the subject, and especially
D’Orbigny, have derived the chief portion of their generic
terms from resemblances in external form: hence the name
given, referring to the nearly elliptical contour of the shell, is
consistent with common usage.

Characters of the Genus.
ELLIPSOIDINA, mihi.

“Shell free, regular, ovato-ellipsoidal, vitreous in texture,
terminated at one extremity by a tube, which is closed at the
base where it joms the shell. In the interior are a series of
chambers similar to the external one, decreasing in size, which
successively completely envelop each other, each attaching
itself to the base of that which immediately encloses it, and
fixing itself to the apex of the same by means of the extremity
of the tube.

“ Relations and Differences.—This genus, as I have already
remarked, is closely allied to Glandulina, but it has sufficiently
distinct characters. The most remarkable fact is that, although
Ellipsoidina is multilocular, and hence very distinct from the
order Monostegia, still it is impossible, from exterior appear-
ance, to distinguish it from Oolina, so. much do they resemble
each other externally ; indeed the form of the shell, the absence
of pores, the elongation of the anterior portion into a tube, the

338 Mr. H. B. Brady on Ellipsoidina,

absence, in short, of every mark that would indicate the plu-
rality of chambers, are characters which accord well with those
of Oolina, whilst those of Hllipsotdina have their origin, as we
may readily understand, in the arrangement of the chambers.

“Tt must still be noted, however, that this genus presents
certain peculiarities altogether dependent on the disposition of
the various portions of the shell. In general the chambers of
a multilocular shell are im direct communication with each
other by means of apertures or pores variable in size and form,
so that each cell opens into the interior of that which imme-
diately follows it. This is not the case in Ellipsoidina, the
cells of which have no apertures; and should a perforation be
found in the base of the tube at the anterior portion of each
chamber, this is not in communication with the succeeding ones,
whilst the extremities of their tubes are adherent to the ante-
rior portions of the enveloping chambers.

“ Distribution.—The three species of Eilipsoidina, that up
to the present time I have been able to observe, belong to the
Miocene epoch, and appear in the marls of many localities
around Messina, and not far distant from it.”

Then follow the descriptions of three forms differing in little
beyond the mere variations of external contour indicated by
the trivial names assigned to them—E. ellipsoides, E. oblonga,
and H. abbreviata. I gather, from a letter received but lately
from Prof. Seguenza, that he has abandoned this subdivision,
a conclusion in which, judging by analogy, I should entirely
agree; so that it is needless to repeat the details of their sup-
posed differences. The precise localities given are, for the
first-named (typical) form, the beds in the neighbourhood of
Scoppo, Gravitelli, Scirpi, and 8. Licandro, in all of which
places it is very common, and those of Masse, in which it is
rare. ‘The second form is stated to be found near Scirpi,
Scoppo, and Masse, but always rare; and the third at Scirpi
and Scoppo, likewise uncommon.

The genus may be regarded, therefore, as represented by
one species only, having the following characters :—

Ellipsoidina ellipsoides, Seguenza.

Shell oval, oblong or subspherical ; posterior extremity rounded,
anterior more or less obtuse, sometimes terminating in an
elongate tube-like process, which is either cylindrical or
somewhat obconical. Chambers numerous (two to five).
Colour white, opaque; young and small specimens sub-
hyaline. Surface smooth. Length 5 to +; inch.

anew Genus of Foraminifera. 339

The Foraminifera brought under notice in the foregoing
memoir are in a high degree interesting from certain peculiari-
ties of structure not hitherto recognized in members of the
group to which they belong. It is necessary, however; in the
first place to notice one or two errors in the description of the
genus; and this | am enabled to do (through the courtesy of
Professor Seguenza) from observations made upon specimens
collected in the Sicilian localities alluded to in the text.

That we have in these beautiful little shells from the Miocene
Clays representatives of a new subtypical form of Nodosarian
Foraminifera, no one will doubt; but the characters assigned
to them would indicate, if correct, not merely generic or sub-
generic peculiarities, but rather a plan of growth entirely new
to the order. The most important of these is indicated by the
statement that there 1s no communication between the interior
of one chamber and that of the succeeding one. 'This is proba-
bly intended to mean intercommunication in the ordinary
way by a central orifice, though no qualification is made of
the broad general statement. Were such a supposition verified,
it would necessitate the conclusion either that the animal
vacated the smaller chambers as succeeding larger ones were
formed, or that the minute foramina existing in the shell-
wall were sufficient for the exercise of its functional require-
ments so far as concerned the intercommunication of the sar-
code-segments—suppositions equally without parallel in the
economy of species whose. shell-structure has been well made
out. The difficulty of accepting the relation of parts indicated
in the sectional diagram accompanying the original paper led
to the observations of which I now give the results.

The normal mode of growth amongst the straight Nodosa-
rine consists in the formation of a straight line of sarcode-
segments united by narrow stolons. Hach new chamber-wall
is produced by the deposit of a calcareous test on a lobe of
sarcode issuing from the terminal aperture of the last-formed
chamber. Hence each stolon represents the interior of what
was in its turn the terminal aperture, and its length depends
on the character of the orifice. In some species, in which the
mouth does not protrude, the length of the stolon is only as
much as the thickness of the shell-wall, whilst in others the
chambers are surmounted by a neck nearly equal in length to
the main body of a segment. Prof. Seguenza’s figures of
ellipsoides show a long terminal neck somewhat of the latter
description, as indicated by the dotted lines in figs. 1 & 2,
Pl. XU. Unfortunately no specimen has come under my
notice in this condition ; consequently my remarks are founded
on the corresponding structures in the interior of the shell.

340 Mr. H. B. Brady on Ellipsoidina,

On exposing the interior of the shell, by carefully breaking —
away the chamber-walls (fig. 4), or on mounting young and
transparent specimens in Canada balsam, it is seen at once
that the column extending from the apex of the primordial cham-
ber (or sometimes from within it) to the anterior of the termi-
nal segment bears only superficial resemblance to the neck in
the chambers of the Nodosarie, and is in no way its homo-
logue: indeed the description of it in the memoir under notice
is correct in most of its features. The term ‘ tubular,” as
applied to it, is apt to mislead ; for although in form the column
is often cylindrical and hollow, the walls have almost invaria-
bly perforations of considerable size, and are often even split
up into several smaller and independent portions. Figure 5 is
a drawing of one of these divided into three spreading arms ;
and in fig. 6 the tendency to separate into several distinct
members may be well seen. When partaking more of the
cylindrical or tubular form, a high magnifying-power and
careful regulation of the light will generally show the existence
of perforations, longitudinal and slit-like, from which it may
be inferred that the column consists of delicate lines of shell-
substance associated in perpendicular bundles. This conclu-
sion is further strengthened by the frequent occurrence of
surface-irregularities running in the same direction. When
the column takes the common and more or less tubular form,
its apex is usually swollen at the point where it joins the en-
veloping chamber, whilst nearer the base little, if any, altera-
tion in diameter is observed ; in some instances it tapers regu-
larly down to the point of junction with the inner chamber.

The shell-wall is not, as a rule, perforated at either the an-
terior or posterior extremity within the walls of the column.
In the exceptional cases in which an orifice occurs in the por-
tion of the chamber-wall corresponding to the upper end of a
segment of the central column, it may or may not form the
channel of communication. But the function of the central
body is not that of a stoloniferous tube ; and when it performs
this office (if ever), it arises from casual irregularity in growth.
The purpose which it serves is, I believe, purely that of a sup-
port for the chambers, which are otherwise so lightly held
together that the slightest shake would separate them. The
adhesion between the posterior portions of the chambers is
scarcely perceptible, and amounts to little more than the mere
juxtaposition of surfaces. If Professor Seguenza’s figures be
drawn from perfect specimens, and not from such as have had
the outer chamber broken away, it would follow that the sup-
port is formed before the enveloping chamber. The form of
the column and its relation to the shell make it improbable

anew Genus of Foraminifera. 341

that this is the usual order of growth; and as, in the only two
instances I have seen of segments having the central pillar in-
complete, the portion formed was attached to the inner surface
of the apex of the enveloping chamber, I am disposed to think
that, as a rule, this portion of the shell is built up on an ento-
solenian plan. It occasionally happens (as in fig. 5) that, on
breaking a shell, the central column remains attached to the
inner chamber, leaving the outer one at its point of union ; but
this is quite an exceptional case; for in a very large majority
of instances the fracture takes place at the opposite extremity.
On the other hand, the tendency to entosolenian growth is
evinced strikingly in the somewhat anomalous condition of the
first and second chambers of a large specimen shown in fig. 11,
in which the primordial chamber, containing nothing requiring
support, has a rudimentary tongue-like extension of shell-
substance from the interior apex. It may be noted, also, that
Signor Seguenza figures one of his varieties without any ex-
ternal tube. I suspect, therefore, that, having found in one or
two instances an ectosolenic tube arising from the breaking-
away of an enveloping chamber, the conclusion has been drawn
without further investigation that specimens not presenting
this outgrowth were imperfect. I speak with considerable
reservation, as none of the specimens which have fallen into
my hands had an ectosolenian neck, or indeed any evidence
that such had ever existed.

But, recognizing the fact that the central column is not the
counterpart of the produced septal orifice seen in many Nodo-
sarine, in other words, that it is not a stoloniferous tube, we
have still to find how communication between the chambers is
kept up—a matter of greater difficulty than at first sight ap-
pears, on account of the extreme brittleness and delicate tex-
ture of the shell. The condition shown in fig. 11, bemg in
other respects monstrous, is of little value as an indication that
the septal orifice may occur at the summit of the central co-
lumn; nor is it needful to dwell upon it, inasmuch as I have
never seen another example with similar characters. The
usual form of the aperture is that of a curved slit, either entire or
bridged over here and there, situate at a little distance from the
periphery of the column, and to some extent concentric with it.
The only two perfect specimens which I have left are almost
exactly alike in the aspect of the exterior aperture ; and fig. 8,
drawn from one of them, would answer equally well for either.
The projecting tongue of shell-substance im the centre. is some-
what raised, and has a valve-like appearance, on being viewed.
more laterally. In figures 9 & 10 the septal orifices:of inner
chambers are shown, one of ‘them: with; the‘other without, the

342 Mr. H. B. Brady on Ellipsoidina.

succeeding internode of the column; whilst figures 6 & 7 show
the perpendicular relations of similar structures taken from
other specimens. Altogether E/hpsoidina differs strikingly in
the character of its septal and pseudopodial orifices from other
genera of Nodosarine ; and it exhibits no tendency to assume
the radiate corona, the circular lip, or the pouting aperture
common to some portions of the group.

It has been stated that the texture of the shell is singularly
delicate. This is especially true of the inner chambers, which
have at the same time a roughened surface not easy to account
for. It can scarcely be called crystalline ; yet it seems to pre-
sent minute angles which sparkle in a strong light, as though
covered with a glistening dust. I can scarcely, without more
opportunity for pursuing the subject than I have yet had,
ofter a satisfactory explanation of this appearance. Circum-
stances lead me to think that the peculiar condition of surface
arises from the partial re-solution of an originally smooth and
thicker shell-wall, in the process of supplying the increased
requirement for calcareous matter in the formation of the later
chambers. The appearance is that of a corroded surface in
which crystalline structure or lines of deposit may have
been rendered apparent by unequal solution. My friend Dr.
Alcock has remarked a subcrystalline condition (which I have
also many times observed) in the fistulose outgrowths of Poly-
morphina horrida; but this is of a somewhat different charac-
ter, and may be referred to a quite distinct cause.

Another point also I must pass over, equally without com-
ment, for want of sufficient material for definite conclusions.
In the innermost chamber of one of the shells which were
broken in order to ascertain the internal arrangement, a very
minute nucleolar body was found slightly adhering to the in-
terior of the cell-wall. It was a slightly rough, transparent,
multicellular, calcareous shell, as represented in fig. 12, and
about +> inch in its long diameter. It apparently had existed,
free, in the body of the sarcode, and had no structural con-
nexion with the general shell-wall. Without the opportunity
of making search in other examples for bodies of the same or
similar nature, it would be useless to attempt to define its
office.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIII.

Fig. 1. Ellipsoidina ellipsoides, side view, X 25 diameters. The neck in
this figure and in fig. 2, indicated by dotted lines, and the corre-
sponding portion in the centre of 1* are inserted on the autho-
rity of Prof. Seguenza’s drawings,

Fig. 1%. The same, end view, x 25 diam. ;

Mr. 8. Hanley on a new Indian Clausilia. 343

Fig. 2. inning ellipsoides, elongate form, originally described as E,
oblonga.

Fig. 3. The same, subglobular variety, at first described as E. abbreviata.

Fig. 4, Same specimen as fig. 1, but with the two outer chambers partially
broken away so as to show the internal structure; X 25 diam.

Fg. 5. Inner chamber of another shell, showing the central column
(usually more or less tubular) tri-cleft and spreading.

Fig. 6, Part of a central column dividing near its summit into smaller
members, with the portion of the shell-wall immediately above
it still adhering.

Figs. 7-10 are intended to illustrate the form of the external and septal
apertures. Fig. 8 is an end view of a specimen without a neck,
but otherwise perfect, showing what seems to be the ordinary
condition of the external orifice. Fig. 7 is a representation of a
similar shell broken down the centre. Figs. 9 &.10 relate to
the inner chambers.

Fig. 11. Abnormally formed primordial chambers of an elongate specimen.

Fg. 12, Multicellular nucleus found in the primordial chamber of a large
example, x 180 diam.

XLUI.—Deseription of a rare Indian Clausilia.
By Sytvanus Hantey, Esq., F.L.S.

Clausilia tuba, Hanley.

Testa (pro genere) magna, subcylindraceo-fusiformis, apicem
obtusum versus cylindracea, albido-cornea, unicolor, tenuis,
subdiaphana, haud rimata, lineis elevatis vix continuis
et (presertim in anfractu ultimo, ubi remotiores fiunt)
oblique corrugata. Anfractus 10-12, sutura profunda et
minime crenata divisi; apicales unice convexi, subeequales ;
ceteri convexi, et satis rapide crescentes ; penultimus major,
altior; ultimus curvatus, verticaliter descendens, infra su-
turam submarginatam subcoarctatus, denique insigniter di-
latatus, basi rotundata nequaquam cristatus. Apertura
permagna, soluta, porrecta, subcordato-rotundata, undique
patentissima. Peristoma continuum, late expansum: la~
mella supera conspicua, angusta, arcuatim subverticalis ;
lamella infera adjacens, obliqua, magisque profunda; plica
subcolumellaris parvula, verticalis; plica palatalis (si sit
ulla) labrum haud attingens: lunella opacitate conspicua.

Long. 1} poll.

Hab. Shan, provine. Ind. or. Mus. Theobald, Hanley.

I am indebted to W. Theobald, Esq., for this remarkable
species, which must closely resemble the American C. episto-
mium. It was taken by Mr. Fedden from the valley of the
Upper Salwen.

344 Mr. T. G. Ponton on some Species of Oliva

XLIV.—Remarks on some Species of Oliva recently described
by Mr. Frederick P. Marrat. By 'T. Granam Ponton,
F.Z.S8.

In the ‘ Annals,’ ser. 3. vol. xx. p. 213, Mr. Marrat published
descriptions of twelve new species of Oliva. With your per-
mission I would beg to make a few remarks upon some of
them.

The genus Oliva is one of the most interesting to the stu-
dent of variation. Colour, which has been so frequently
taken as a guide in the determination of specific differences in
shells, here almost completely fails. This has been well shown
in the fine monograph of the genus published by the late Mr.
L. Reeve; and I cannot help thinking that Mr. Marrat has
somewhat lost sight of the fact.

For example, the Oliva violacea described by him is almost
identical with some specimens of Oliva reticularis, from Ma-
zatlan, in the Museum of the Bristol Philosophical Institution.
These shells have the pale zigzag lines and semilunar dots
described by Mr. Marrat. The base of the columella is stained
with violet, which, by the way, is a marked character of O. re-
ticularis. The interior of the aperture is pale bluish—thus
making a decided approach to Mr. Marrat’s shell. In fact I
cannot help thinking that O. véolacea is nearer the typical
form of O. reticularis than some Californian examples of the
species in our Museum, which are of a deep brown, marbled
with a darker colour; the columella in these examples is
of a full, rich brown tint. Similar specimens are figured in
Reeve’s monograph.

Oliva jamaicensis, Marrat.—This shell, Mr. Marrat remarks,
is intermediate between O. splendidula and O. reticularis.
This observation goes far to prove that the opinion entertained
by many conchologists respecting the identity of the two spe-
cies mentioned is a correct one. I cannot distinguish Mr.
Marrat’s shell from varieties of O. reticularis with a depressed
spire—a feature which is not uncommon even in very typical
forms of the species.

Oliva polita, Marrat.—I cannot help thinking this shell is
merely a variety of O. jaspidea, which varies much both in
form and colour: certainly varieties of that species in our
Museum answer well to Mr. Marrat’s description.

Oliva piperata, Marvat.—Mr. Marrat remarks that this shell
is allied to O. conoidalis, Lam. The O. conotdalis of Lamarck
is simply a variety of O. jaspidea. Is not Mr. Marrat’s shell
the same ?

Oliva faba, Marrat.—This shell, Mr. Marrat observes, is

recently described by Mr. F. P. Marrat. 345

intermediate between O. todesina, Duclos, and O. dspidula.
The O. todesina is merely a variety of O. carneola, Lamarck,
which very variable shell presents every form intermediate
between the typical broadly angulated carnelian-coloured
specimens and the narrow, oblong, cylindrical, dull-purple,
reticulated ones. Some of these varieties are well figured by
Reeve; and Mr. Marrat’s description of O. faba answers well
to some of them and to others I have seen.

Oliva blanda, Marrat.—I am much disposed to think that
this is but a variety of O. ¢sp¢dula. ‘The more or less swollen
condition of the columellar lip is a very variable character :
specimens of the white variety of O. ¢spidula present it in a
marked degree.

Oliva cylindrica, Marrat.—The description of this shell
answers well to the var. e of O. trisans figured by Reeve.
O. trisans is an exceedingly variable shell, and its forms have
even not yet been completely worked out.

Oliva pallida, Marrat.—I believe this to be a variety of O.
scripta, which species is mainly distinguished from some va-
rieties of O. hiterata and O. reticularis, which closely resemble
it, by its short spire and pale aperture.

Oliva oblonga, Marrat.—Is not this the shell figured by
Reeve under the name of O. fusiformis ?

Oliva truncata, Marrat.—I cannot help thinking this is
merely a variety of O. polpasta, which, in its turn, I am much
disposed to believe is merely a variety of O. reticularis, and
that it is connected with that species by numerous indefinable
variations. ‘The mere circumstance of locality would not in
itself be any evidence of specific distinctness. The Olives
present many remarkable anomalies in this respect: for ex-
ample, O. cruenta inhabits the Philippines, Zanzibar, Australia,
and the Society Islands—widely diverse localities. O.Duclost
is found at the Philippines and at the Society Islands. O. re-
ticularts occurs in California and in the West Indies—all
strangely different habitats.

With respect to Mr. Marrat’s other two species, viz. O.ornata
and O. similis, I will say nothing, sufficient evidence being
wanting ; but I must confess to beihg somewhat suspicious as
to their specific value.

Clifton, near Bristol,
March 30, 1868,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. i. 25

346 Messrs. Hancock & Atthey on Reptile- and Fish-Remains

XLV.—Notes on the Remains of some Reptiles and Fishes
from the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. By
ALBANY Hancock, F.L.S., and THomas ATTHEY.

[Continued from p. 278. ]
[Plates XIV., XV., XVL]
Rhizodus Hibbert, sp., Agassiz.

The teeth of this species have not yet been found in the
shales of our neighbourhood ; but large scales which appear to
belong to it are not by any means uncommon at Newsham
and Cramlington. They are rarely found perfect; sufficient
examples have, however, been obtained to enable us to identify
them with the scales of Lhizodus Hibberti described by Dr. Young
in vol. xxu. p. 599 of the ‘ Journal of the Geological Society.’
The largest we have seen measures three inches in diameter ;
they usually appear quite thin, and are of an iregularly
rounded form with the front margin a little flattened, the pos-
terior a little produced, and the sides only slightly arched.
The surface is marked with numerous sharp concentric lines
of growth and minute, close, radiating strie, requiring a good
lens to show them. ‘There are also a few distant delicate
ridges, extending from the centre to the anterior border.

Such scales are undoubtedly in an imperfect. condition.
When complete, they are considerably thicker, and the under
surface has a smooth bony appearance, exhibiting nevertheless
decided concentric lines of growth, a subcentral elongated
boss, and numerous small pits, particularly on the posterior
portion, which, however, we have never seen in a good con-
dition. On the posterior or exposed area there are a few ob-
scure, irregular, radiating ridges, which are rendered still more
indistinct by the granular tubercles that are scattered over the
surface. The smaller scales, which are usually about one inch
and three-quarters long and scarcely one and a half inch wide,
have all the characters of the large scales; but they are ge-
nerally more elongated in form, and the minute radiating striz
are coarser.

Besides these scales, several bones have occurred at News-
ham, which, from the peculiar surface-sculpture, most probably
also belong to this powerful fish. We were anxious to prove
this by comparing them with some authenticated fragment of
the bone of RAizodus showing the surface-ornament, but have
failed in our endeavour. They agree, however, in this respect
so well with the descriptions, that we cannot hesitate to assign
them provisionally to this species.

Of the two most remarkable bones of this collection, one

from the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. 347

approaches in form to the malar of the Alligator, and reminds
one somewhat of the bone in Asterolepis considered by Agassiz
to be a premaxillary* ; but in our specimen the articular por-
tion is wanting. The other bone is apparently the posterior
part of a mandibular ramus with a wide articular process at
the hindermost part, not perfect though very distinctly dis-
played. The former of these bones is quite four and a half
inches long, and upwards of one inch wide at the broadest
part; it is thin in front, thickens backwards, and bends rather
abruptly down at the posterior extremity, which is broken.
Along the under margin there is a wide, flat, thin, squamous
process, probably for the articulation of the maxilla; the op-
posite margin is not perfect; but in a smaller specimen of the
same bone a similar flat articular process extends from the
upper margin also.

The bone which we suppose to be the posterior portion of a
mandibular ramus is nearly five inches in length and one and
a half inch wide, including the lateral squamous expansions ;
it is thin, flat, and rounded in front ; behind it is much thicker;
and though the posterior extremity is wanting, the greater
portion of the articular process is present; it has a wide
oblique glenoidal surface. The lateral squamous expansions
will undoubtedly articulate with the dentigerous bone.

Other interesting bones have also occurred, some of which
can be identified as jugulars. One distorted and folded mass
comprises two large jugulars, apparently the pair of principal
plates. A considerable portion of one of them is well dis-
played, exhibiting in very good condition the surface-orna-
ment. Were this plate unfolded, it would be about seven
inches long and two and a half inches wide. Three or four
inches of what seems to be the posterior portion lies flat upon
the matrix, and shows the contour quite perfectly. The plate
is apparently equally thin throughout; and the outer margin
seems, judging from the portion that is displayed, to be pretty
regularly arched, and the posterior margin to be rounded and
sloped a little forwards towards the inner border.

Another bone, probably also a jugular, is worthy of notice.
This appears to be an anterior plate; nearly one-half of it can
be made out: it is symmetrical, having a stout angular midrib
with two lateral wing-like expansions. When entire, it would
be four and a half inches wide and one inch and three-quarters
long. It is impossible to overlook the resemblance of this
bone to the jugular plate of Asterolepis; and, like it, this pro-
bably fitted into the top of the arch formed by the junction of

* Poissons Fossiles du Vieux Grés Rouge, troisiéme livraison, p. 95,
tab. 32. figs. 18, 19.

25*

348 Messrs. Hancock & Atthey on Reptile- and Fish-Remains

the mandibular rami. In Rhizodus, however, there appear to
be two other plates, as we have already seen: these would lie,
one on each side of the median line, immediately behind the
anterior plate, which is very nearly as wide as the two others
put together.

All these bones, as well as several other fragmentary speci-
mens, have the surface covered more or less densely with
strong vermicular sculpture composed of hollows and ridges ;
the latter in some become tubercular, but in others stream over
the surface smoothly and regularly, with here and there an
occasional bifurcation ; in others, again, the vermicular grooves
are intricately involved, and sometimes they are broken up to
form circular pits. These are the dominant markings in the
bones already before us; but the sculpturing on the surface of
some opercular plates which we also assign to the same large
fish, and which will presently be described, is somewhat modi-
fied. In these the vermicular ornament is less developed, and
the pitted and tubercular predominate, the ridges being rough
and much broken up.

It is on account of these peculiar surface-characters that we
deem these bones to belong to Rhizodus; but this is not the
only evidence. On the slab with the anterior jugular plate
there is a portion of a scale of Rhzzodus ; and on that with
the two large jugulars several scales of this fish are found
lying in contact with them. If we are right in attributing
these scales to Rhizodus, we have in the above facts strong
corroborative evidence that these bones also belong to it.

The opercular plates above referred to are four in number :
three are opercles, one is apparently a preoperculum. They
are all crescentic in form, having their anterior margins well
hollowed, and both extremities considerably produced. ‘The
largest operculum is six inches from point to point, and is up-
wards of two and a half inches wide; the posterior margin is
a little sinuous, and is bordered with several parallel depressed
lines, probably indicative of growth; the anterior margin is
bounded by a wide, smooth, articular surface, which is divided.
from the rest of the operculum by a ridge. The preeoperculum
is similar in form to the operculum, but it is wider in propor-'
tion to its length, and there is a single groove following the.
sinuosities of the posterior border; the anterior margin is con-
cave, with a very narrow articular surface.

Note.—It is the intention in this and the following notes to
comment on the value of the various genera and species re-
cently proposed by Prof. Owen in his paper “On the Dental
Characters of Genera and Species, chiefly of Fishes, from the

from the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. 349

Low-Main Seam and Shales of Coal, Northumberland”’*.
It has become necessary to do this, as the anticipated bene-
ficial results from the former ‘“ Criticism” of the “ Abstract”
of the paper as read have not been realizedt, though the in-
fluence of this criticism is distinctly traceable in the text of the
published paper, as well as in the appended footnotes.

The first gentis we have to refer to is that named Mcogano-
dus (pl. 8), which is founded on the section of a tooth that in
no respect differs from that of the so-called Rhizodus lancei-
formis, Newberry. We have shown in the former part of this
communication that this reputed fish is most probably a Laby-
rinthodont amphibian; but be this as it may, we have teeth
of this species attached to the dentary bone exactly similar in
contour to, and not larger than, the figure of the tooth of this
so-called new genus: and when a longitudinal section of
these teeth is examined under the microscope, there is no per-
ceptible difference in the minute structure from that of the
tooth of Mioganodus; even the concentric layers of dentine,
which are considered characteristic, are equally well marked.
Certainly, when the tooth of 2. /anceiformis is perfect, the base
exhibits the Labyrinthodont infolding of the peripheral wall
of dentine; but when the tooth is found detached (and that
figured by Prof. Owen was so found), the basal portion is
rarely if ever present ; and then the dentinal walls are observed
to thin out from the interior and to terminate below, when
seen in section, in sharp wedge-shaped points, just as they are
represented in the figure of Mioganodus laniarius. 'The tooth,
then, on which this genus is founded is merely the upper por-
tion or crown of a tooth of the so-called Rhizodus lanceiformis.

Rhizodopsis sauroides, sp., Williamson.

Several specimens of the elegant fish upon which Professor
Huxley founds the genus Rhizodopsist have occurred at
Newsham. They are all in a very incomplete state, though,
with the aid of the whole series, many of the characters can
be determined. The most perfect specimens are between five
and six inches in length; the largest 1s eight inches long, exclu-
sive of the tail, which is wanting; and the smallest is not
more than two or three inches in extent. There is proof,
however, that this species sometimes attains a considerable
size: a crushed head has been found that measures nearly
three and a half inches in length; and ossified vertebral rings
have occurred that are nine-tenths of an inch in diameter.

* Trans. Odontological Society, 1867.

+ Geological Magazine, vol. iv. pp. 823 & 378.
¢ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxii. p. 596 (1866).

350 Messrs. Hancock & Atthey on Reptile- and Fish-Remains

In all respects our specimens agree well with Dr. Young’s
description of this species in the ‘Journ. Geol. Soc.’ (loc.
cit.). ‘The scales are usually well preserved ; all the fins, as
well as the tail, can be determined; and the gill-opercles,
mandibles, and upper jaws, in a more or less entire state, with
the teeth attached, are all displayed.

The scales vary, of course, greatly in size; on the smallest
fish they cannot be more than a quarter of an inch long, while
large detached scales measure an inch in length. They are
all, however, so perfectly similar that it is impossible to deny
their specific identity. The coarseness of the surface-sculp-
ture and the thickness of the scale vary, as might be expected,
with its size; but no other difference can be detected. It is
therefore only left us to follow the prudent caution of Dr.
Young, and to wait for further information before doing any-
thing so rash as to divide specifically the thin and delicate
from the thick and comparatively coarse scales. There is one
character, however, which seems to have escaped the notice of
this paleontologist, and which is pretty distinct in one or two
of our examples. ‘The dorsal and ventral fins are protected in
front by a series of thick enamelled scales, which are brilliantly
glossy and minutely punctured, not at all like the body-scales,
but similar to those in front of the fins, in Megalichthys. The
first or proximal scale is very stout, if not a solid cylinder, and
is three-quarters of an inch long; it looks almost like the base
of a spine, but is probably composed of two lateral plates.
This is succeeded by a double longitudinal series of elongated
rectangular pieces, which extend apparently almost to the
distal margin of the fin.

The premaxillary bones, which were wanting in Dr. Young’s
specimens, are present in some of ours; and they, as well as
the mandibles, have a large, slightly curved lamary tooth at
the distal extremity. This is succeeded by a series of numerous
small conical teeth, of the same size and character as those of
the maxilla. These, as well as the small mandibular teeth,
are placed at pretty regular intervals, though it is not uncom-
mon to observe two or three pressed close together. Traces of
two or three additional laniary teeth can be observed in the
mandibles, situated on a line a little within the row of smaller
teeth. ;

The premaxillary bone is unusually long; the maxilla is
shorter than the former, and is narrow in front and expanded
considerably behind. The mandibles are long, narrow bones,
with the margins nearly parallel and the distal extremity
rounded. The surface of all these bones is rugose, with irre-
gular reticulated ridges or wrinkles and punctures.

from the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. 351

All the bones of the jaws frequently occur detached. A
large series of such have been procured, many of which are
associated with the scales of the fish. ‘The anterior laniary
teeth are nearly always present in both the premaxille and
mandibles; but the additional large teeth of the latter are
seldom present. In four or five instances, however, they are
distinctly displayed ; and in one specimen there are five laniary
teeth, including the anterior one.

In the detached state the form of these bones can be well
observed. ‘The maxillaries are usually seven-tenths of an inch
long and about three-tenths of an inch wide at the broadest
part. They are flat thin bones, produced and pointed in front,
and widened rather suddenly behind, as already stated; the
alveolar border is nearly straight; the upper border in front is
parallel with the alveolar border for some little distance back-
wards ; it then suddenly ascends to the posterior margin, which
slopes backwards and downwards. There is, at a little. dis-
tance from the anterior extremity, a well-developed narrow
articular process, which stretches upwards and forwards. The
teeth vary somewhat in number; there are usually about
twenty-five, which are arranged along the alveolar margin in
regular order. ‘This regularity, however, is frequently dis-
turbed by the approximation of two or more; sometimes three
or four are placed close together.

The premaxillaries are long narrow bones, about as long as
the maxillaries, being usually seven-tenths of an inch in length
and nearly three-tenths of an inch broad; the alveolar margin
is almost straight; the opposite margin gently slopes back-
wards in a somewhat sinuous course; so that the bone is prett
regularly wedge-shaped, the posterior extremity being ect
There are about the same number of teeth as in the maxilla,
with the addition of a large conical laniary tooth in front, im-
mediately before which is a small tooth or two.

The mandibular bone we have never seen quite perfect:
one of the most complete in the series measures one inch and
four-tenths in length, and about two-tenths of an inch wide
near the front; the upper and lower margins are nearly
parallel; itis rounded in front, and appears to taper a little at
the posterior extremity ; the anterior extremity is slightly bent
upwards. ‘There are from fifteen to twenty teeth in our frag-
ments ; the number must be much greater in the entire ramus.
There is likewise a large laniary tooth in front, and three or
four others placed along the ramus, in a line within the small
teeth ; in front of the anterior laniary there is a small tooth or
two like those in the premaxilla. These, however, are not
always to be seen; and the posterior laniary teeth are very

352 Messrs. Hancock & Atthey on Reptile- and Fish-Remains

rarely present, or are perhaps frequently buried in the matrix.
They are placed at some little distance from each other; and
the small external teeth, like those of the upper jaw, frequently
exhibit considerable irregularity, though on the whole they
are placed apart at pretty regular intervals. The above de-
scription of the jaws applies to those of the usual size ; but we
have a mandibular bone which, if complete, would be upwards
of three inches long, and a maxillary or two of corresponding
dimensions.

The laniary teeth are grooved at the base; and here the
peripheral dentine is a little infolded or plicated ; and in fine
specimens the surface of the crown exhibits a ‘thin film of
enamel. Traces of enamel, too, are occasionally found on the
small teeth; but they are most frequently without it, probably
in consequence of erosion.

One curious fact in connexion with the occurrence of this
species is worth recording. Several of our specimens were
found concealed within the stems of reed-like plants, which
bear somewhat the appearance of calamites. A single indivi-
dual occurred in each stem, nearly filling it. How they got
into this position, whether accidentally or otherwise, it is 1m-
possible to form an opinion; but as, out of a score of indivi-
duals that have been found, four or five have been so placed,
it would seem that something more than mere chance has had
to do with it.

Note.—It is apparently on fragments of the jaw-bones and
on the teeth of Rhizodopsis sauroides that Prof. Owen has
founded his Dittodus parallelus, Ganolodus Craggesti, Chara-
codus confertus, and the Batrachian genus G'astrodus. ‘The
figure of Dittodus parallelus (pl. 1) seems to us to repre-
sent nothing more than a fragment of either a mandible or
maxilla of this fish, with a few pairs of the teeth in juxta-
position, the rest having been removed either before deposition
or in making the section.

When two teeth grow up close together, as we have seen is
not unfrequently the case in this species, the peripheral den-
tine of the two is often united at the base, and then we have a
“twin-tooth ”’ in all respects similar to those figured of this
so-called Dittodus, and just as well entitled to be compared to
the “ Siamese twins.” We have now before us numerous sec-
tions, many of which were made several years ago, demon-
strating this fact; and in one or two instances there are even
three or four teeth so united.

That which is denominated “ osteo-dentine,” in the apical
part of the pulp-cavity, is, we apprehend, a mere film of the

9

from the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. 353

inner layer of dentine. A similar substance occurs in many
of our sections, exhibiting the general appearance and dotted
structure given to it in Prof. Owen’s figure; and this is
undoubtedly the inner film of dentine; and. the dots are the
orifices of the calcigerous tubules. When the film is a little
thicker, the dots become elongated; and in other specimens
they gradually assume the regular tubular appearance, in ac-
cordance with the increased thickness of the section.

Ganolodus Craggesti is founded on a mandibular bone of
the same fish. This fragment is a little distorted, and has the
posterior extremity broken off and turned forwards; and all
the laniary teeth, with the exception of the anterior one, are
lost, as we have already seen is frequently the case in the
mandibles of Rhizodopsis. The size, form, and surface-sculp-
ture of the bone, which latter is well represented in the wood-
cut, as well as the character, size, and arrangement of the
teeth, all prove this.

There is no difference whatever between this mandibular
ramus and several that are now before us of Rhizodopsis.
Ganolodus Craggesii, Owen, will therefore have to give place
to Rhizodopsis sauroides, sp., Williamson.

Ganolodus sicula (pl. 7) is very intimately related to a very
different fish. The tooth on which this species is sought to
be established is perhaps the commonest in the shales of the
Low-Main seam ; it belongs to Megalichthys, and is apparently
a laniary tooth of a young specimen. There is not the slightest
perceptible difference in the form and structure of the tooth,
as represented in the figure of this so-called species, and the
form and structure of the numerous sections of teeth of Megal-
ichthys which we happen to possess. That the specimen
figured was grooved and plicated at the base, like the tooth of
this fish, is proved by the remnants of the plice, as may be
seen on referring to fig. 106, pl. 7. Prof. Owen calls these
fragments “part of the parietal dentine.” Were this strictly
eorrect, the calcigerous tubules would be seen cut across, pro-
ducing the appearance of dots more or less elongated, as is
well represented by Mr. T. West in pl. 14. fig. 4 (Gastrodus).
On the contrary, the tubules in the fragments alluded to are
all exhibited lengthwise, as they are in the cut edge of the
peripheral dentine—proving to demonstration that these frag-
ments are portions of the basal plice. To be satisfied of this,
it is only necessary to examine a longitudinal section of the
tooth of Megalichthys or any other tooth with a plicated base.

The variety G. undatus (pl. 7. fig. 7) is most assuredly the
tooth of Strepsodus saurotdes, Huxley: the double bend of the
apex and general proportions of the crown put this beyond

doubt.

354 Messrs. Hancock & Atthey on Reptile- and Fish-Remains

A fragment of a maxillary bone of RAdzodopsis has, it is im-
possible to doubt, served for the establishment of the so-called
Characodus (pl.13). Here there is not one tooth left ; they are
all broken away; but the form of the fragment itself, tapering
at one extremity and suddenly expanding at the other, as like-
wise the columnar structure of the bone for the support of the
teeth, prove this to be an imperfect maxillary of Rhizodopsis
saurotdes. 'These peculiar pillars of bone supporting the teeth
are very characteristic of the jaw-bones of this fish ; but in the
premaxilla they are most developed. Some of our specimens
(Pl. XVI. fig. 5) are precisely similar to that figured as
Characodus, the teeth having been all broken away, with the
exception of three or four. The display of this curious struc-
ture depends much on the plane of the sections; it is possible
to cut it nearly all away, leaving merely the external layer of
bone on one side; and it is never developed to the same
extent in the preemaxilla and mandible.

The premaxilla is the basis of the genus Gastrodus (pls. 14
& 15) the supposed Batrachian, as is evinced by the shape of
the fragment, the size, form, character, and disposition of the
teeth ; nor is there any important difference in the minute
structure of the teeth in this so-called genus. According to
Prof. Owen’s measurements, the dentinal tubules in Dettodus
parallelus have a diameter of +5455 of an inch, in Characodus
sets Of an inch, and in Gastrodus +4553; while in Rhizo-
dopsis we have ascertained that they are likewise about ;>4g5
of an inch in diameter. The teeth of the so-called Gastrodus
are certainly represented to be without enamel; but we have
seen that it is frequently absent in Rhizodopsis; and many of
the teeth, as exhibited im the figure, are cut diagonally short,
so that their form and proportions are destroyed. The ap-
pearance thus presented is very common in sections of minute
jaws, and, unless clearly understood, may readily lead to error.
The diagonal section of a quill illustrates this very well:

The bone-cells of the jaw of Rhizodopsis are quite as Ba-
trachian as are those figured of the pseudo-G'astrodus ; and so
are those of Megalichthys and many other sauroidal fishes.

There is, then, no evidence in the paper referred to of a
minute air-breathing Batrachian of the age of the lower seams
of the Northumberland coal-field, the so-called genus Gastrodus
being resolvable into Rhizodopsis sauroides, a Ganoid fish.

Ctenodus cristatus.
Since the publication of the paper on Ctenodus*, the matrix
* Ann, & Mag. Nat. Hist. Feb. 1868.

from the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. 355

has been carefully removed from the upperside of the large
sphenoid bone of this species by which the size of the fish
was estimated. And now this interesting specimen reveals to
us the cranial bones of the occipital region in an undisturbed
and excellent state of preservation. The whole of the bones
of one side are almost perfect; so that there is no difficulty in
restoring this portion of the cranium, the constituent bones of
which are arranged exactly as they are in the figure of the
“cranial buckler” of Dipterus given by Hugh Miller in his
‘ Footprints of the Creator.’

The bones vary little in size, and, with the exception of the
central occipital and parietals, are mostly irregularly penta-
gonal. There are three occipitals: the central one is not much
larger than the lateral; the former is nearly as wide as it is
long, and is seven-sided, with the anterior margin a little
pointed in the centre, and the posterior margin nearly straight.
The lateral occipitals are connected with the postero-lateral
margins of the central occipital, and, diverging in front, admit
a bone on each side, which is wedged in between them and
the antero-lateral borders of the central occipital and the ex-
ternal margins of the parietals. External to these bones, and
im connexion with their outer margins, are three other bones,
which form the lateral borders of the cranium. In all there
are five bones on each side of the central occipital and poste-
rior part of the parietals. Only a small portion of the left
parietal is preserved ; but enough is present to show that this
pair of bones are elongated, being widest apparently a little be-
hind their centre, and having their posterior margins slightly
divergent to receive the anterior angle of the central occipital.

The surface of the bones is not ornamented with “ waved
and bent lines,” as those of Dipterus are described to be by
Miller (2d¢d. p. 61), but is minutely granulated and punctate,
similar to that of the opercles described in the paper on Cte-
nodus already referred to, and here and there are indications
of the radial bone-structure beneath.

The original estimate of the width of this head was nine
inches. It is now evident that it really was eight and a half
inches across the occipital region, without taking into account
a fragmentary bone, probably a portion of an operculum.
Were this added to the above measurement, the width would
be ten inches.

The external characters of the palatal plates of the various
species of Ctenodus were described in the paper on that genus
mentioned above. Nothing, however, was said of the internal
structure, such matters of detail having been reserved for some
future occasion. But it is now perhaps desirable to give some

356 Messrs. Hancock & Atthey on Reptile- and Fish-Remains

account of the microscopical characters ‘of these peculiar dental
plates.

In sections made across the transverse ridges that cover the
whole surface of the plates, a very beautiful structure is pre-
sented to view. The entire substance is found to be com-
posed of a minute reticulation of bone-like matter, the meshes
or medullary canals being large and much complicated. The
ridges stand up from the surface in the form of conical tooth-
like processes ; and the reticulated matter of which they are
composed is perfectly continuous with that of the plate or
base; but the meshes or medullary canals in them are a little
elongated, and the surface is protected by a compact, rather thin
layer, which is only distinguishable from the rest of the tissue
by its density and darkness of colour; on this layer there is a
thin external coating of enamel.

At the base of the plate there is a stratum of considerable
thickness in which the reticulation becomes somewhat closer,
and which is characterized by numerous short elliptical bone-
cells, the radiating canaliculi of which are frequently oblite-
rated, but in well-preserved specimens they can be observed
distinctly. The network of this stratum is continuous with
that which lies immediately above it, but is at once distin-
guishable by its darker colour, greater density, and the pre-
sence of radiating cells. The substance forming the reticula-
tion of the upper portion of the plate is, on the contrary, de-
void of bone-cells, and is pale and transparent ; but it is coated
with a thin layer of a darker matter, in which are numerous
branched tubules. When the section is made very thin, these
tubules, however, all disappear, and the substance is then to
all appearance perfectly homogeneous. These tubules are
likewise very frequently invisible, even in comparatively thick
sections, probably on account of the state of the fossil; or it
may be that the canaliculi have all disappeared under the in-
fluence of the balsam used in mounting the specimens.

The peripheral enamel is very often wanting ; and even the
dense continuous layer of bone-like matter immediately be-
neath it is frequently entirely worn away; and then the section
presents a rugged margin.

The microscopic structure of Ctenodus has been figured and
described by M. Agassiz, in his ‘ Poissons Fossiles’ (vol. iii.
p- 166, tab. M. #3). The figure is very good, so far as it is
worked out; but when the author describes the “ cellules
calciféres” at the base of the plate as without ramifications, it
is evident he has been decejved, probably by the use of bal-
sam; or it is just as likely that the canaliculi had not been
preserved in the specimen he examined. He is also wrong in

Jrom the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. 357

his assertion that “la substance qui forme la surface extérieure
de la dent est parfaitement homogéne, sans trace de structure
quelconque.”” If his sections had been made very thin, this
substance would undoubtedly have appeared so. ‘The exami-
nation of many specimens is frequently necessary to correct
errors of this nature.

Note.—It is on the palatal tooth or plate of Ctenodus,
probably of Ctenodus obliquus (or, perhaps, C. elegans, or it
may be on a minute plate of one of the larger species) that
Prof. Owen has founded his genus Saganodus (pl. 12).- This
is one of the genera on which no remark was made in the
“¢ Criticism ’’ of the “‘ Abstract ;” but a mere glance at the figure
in the paper is sufficient to satisfy us that it represents nothing
else than a small imperfect palatal plate of this genus. One
of the authors of the present communication has had in his
cabinet for many years numerous sections of the palatal plates
of C. obliquus; and on comparing them with the figure of the
“teeth and a small portion of the jaw’ of the so-called
Saganodus, no difference of the slightest importance can be
perceived. The six wedge-shaped ridges seen in transverse
section stand up from the bony network of the plate in the
form of conical tooth-like processes, all inclined a little to one
side, and increasing in size towards the same side, and having
their reticulated substance continuous with that of the plate.
In all these respects the resemblance to the figure is so great
that no one can doubt for a moment that the so-called jaw
and teeth of Saganodus are identical with the palatal tooth of
one of the Ctenodi.

In the example figured by Prof. Owen, as also in many of
our specimens, the external enamel and the peripheral walls
of continuous matter have been worn away. His section is
evidently a little diagonal, as proved by the increased depth
of the plate (“jawbone”). And the minute structure, as ren-
dered in fig. 3, is perfectly similar to that of many of our
specimens.

_ In the so-called Saganodus we see a remarkable example of
the danger of trusting entirely to sections of minute objects,
the planes of which are not understood, ‘The oral armature of
Ctenodus we have seen is composed of plates having on the
surface several transverse wedge-shaped ridges, which are
usually denticulated or tuberculated. Had it been understood
that the specimen examined was a section cutting such ridges
transversely, it never could have been described as a fragment
of a “jaw supporting conical teeth.”
It has been already stated that the enamel is frequently

358 Messrs. Hancock & Atthey on Reptile- and Fish-Remains

worn away. It is, however, generally persistent towards the
outer margin of the plate; a little further back it is almost
invariably removed; and still further back, on the older por-
tion of the plate, the peripheral wall of hard matter is scarcely
ever found, having undoubtedly been worn down by the action
of the jaws. It is therefore clear enough that, in accordance
with the line of the section, we might have the margins of
the tooth-like processes rough, without any distinct peripheral
wall, as in the figure of the so-called teeth of Saganodus ; or
there might be such a wall, without any external enamel; or,
again, both the enamel and peripheral wall might be present:
and such a series of sections of Ctenodus we possess. Were
we, then, ignorant that the sections were made from different
parts of the same object, we might readily be led to erect
three distinct genera on the palatal plate of a single species of
Ctenodus. And, again, were we disposed to create species,
various degrees in the obliquity of the section would afford
excellent opportunities for so dog, as the tooth-like processes
would vary in length and form in each section.

Paleoniscus Egertoni, Agassiz.

Two large patches of scales, representing the greater portion
of the fish, have occurred at Newsham. The scales are in a
very good state, and show the characteristic markings of this
very pretty species; when examined with the microscope, it
is perceived that the surface of enamel is regularly covered
with extremely minute punctures or dots. The larger patch
is one inch and five-eighths long, and upwards of three-eighths
of an inch wide. The fins are not displayed; neither are there
any traces of head or tail.

Several other Paleonisct have been found in our shales, as
well as one or two species of Amblypterus. ‘There is also in
the collection a specimen or two of what we take to be a spe-
cies of Hurylepis, Newberry. Though these are not in a very
perfect condition, they are in a much better state of preserva-
tion than the specimens of P. Egertont. In many of them the
head is present; and both the tail and fins are frequently de-
terminable. Several of them are probably new; but at pre-
sent we cannot enter more fully on this branch of the subject,
and must leave it for some future opportunity. A few words,
however, may be said on the dentition of these fishes, particu-
larly as it seems to be little understood; indeed it appears
that little or no attention has been given to this matter.

M. Agassiz, in his great work, ‘ Poissons Fossiles,’ states
that the teeth of Paleoniscus are “en brosse”’ (tome ii. pt. 1.
p-42); but the words which immediately precede this expression

from the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. 359 .

must be taken to qualify it. They are,—‘ Mais les dents sont si
excessivement petites qu'il est trés-rare de pouvoir les distin-
guer.”’ From this it is pretty evident that this distinguished
naturalist knew very little about the matter. Succeeding
writers, however, appear to have rested satisfied with this
description. Mr. Binney, indeed, so long ago as 1841* figured
the jaw of Palwoniscus Lgertoni, showing a row of large, co-
nical, sharp-pointed teeth, as well as a few of the small ex-
ternal ones. He says that the jaw is “armed with sharp
conical teeth of a nearly uniform size, inclining from the
front.”” This communication, however, has been unfortunately
overlooked.

The teeth of these jaws are not ‘en brosse,” neither are
they of that feeble “ villiform”’ structure so much insisted on
of late. They are disposed in two distinct rows, one within
the other, much in the same fashion as in Megalichthys and
Rhizodopsis, but still much more like that which obtains in
Pygopterus, in which the teeth are likewise arranged in two
rows—one being of large laniary teeth, the other of small
external ones. And, according to M. Agassiz, they do not in
this genus form “ une.brosse ou répe comme les dents du Po-
lyterus.”’ The inner row in Paleoniscus (Pl. XV. figs. 3, 4, 5)
is composed of a few comparatively large, curved, sharp-pointed
conical teeth, which are placed at some little distance apart
from each other. In the outer row the teeth are numerous,
small, conical, and pointed, occasionally crowded, and in some
species apparently not quite in regular order.

It is this outer row of comparatively small teeth that appears
to have been seen and described by M. Agassiz, the inner row
of laniary teeth having escaped his observation. Nor is it any
wonder that such a matter of detail should have been over-
looked by this naturalist; and, indeed, many such omissions
are found in the great work alluded to. But when we con-
sider the novelty and vastness of the matter before him, and
especially that the bent of his mind was directed mainly to the
larger problems of his subject, the only marvel is that such
blunders are not more numerous. ‘The laniary teeth are
very frequently concealed in the matrix; and when the jaw
is i its natural position, they are liable to be obscured by
the external row, which stands up on an elevated ridge of the
alveolar margin.

The laniary teeth vary in number in the different species,
and probably, in a limited degree, even in the same species :
but this is difficult to determine; for it rarely happens that the

* Trans. Manchester Geol. Soc. vol. i. p. 167, pl. 5. fig. 12 (1841).

360 Messrs. Hancock & Atthey on Reptile- and Fish-Réemains

row is complete, these large teeth being frequently broken off:
Nevertheless in several of our specimens they can be observed
arranged at pretty regular intervals, evincing that the series,
as far as it extends, is complete. In one mandible, in which
the row is nearly entire, there are eighteen or nineteen teeth ;
and in the mandible of another species fourteen or fifteen can
be counted. The teeth in the maxilla appear to be equally
numerous.

The teeth themselves (Pl. XVI. figs. 1 & 2) are, as we have
already said, sharp-pointed and conical; they are a little re-
curved, the bend being usually greatest a short way above the
base. Fine large specimens are upwards of one-eighth of an
inch long; but they are generally much less; they vary con-
siderably in this respect in the different species. They are
most frequently wide at the base, and contract rather sud-
denly immediately above; thence the attenuation is very
gradual, until within a short distance of the apex, a little be-
low which the crown is slightly swelled; from this point the
sides of the tip incline more rapidly towards each other, and
unite to form an extremely sharp apex. In some species the
apex is much produced and attenuated, in others it is com-
paratively short; but in all it is characterized by its sharp-
ness. ‘The sharp-pointed tip or apex is formed of a thick cap
of enamel, and is usually quite smooth and highly polished.
Below the cap, in all the species examined, the crown has a
subdued lustre, and is fretted in a very beautiful manner with
numerous minute, short, close-set, longitudinal depressions,
which, being arranged lengthwise, have occasionally a lateral
inclination : hence the peculiar fretted appearance of the sur-
face.
On making a longitudinal section (Pl. XVI. fig. 2), the pulp-
cavity is seen to conform to the shape of the crown; the
cavity is wide below and narrow above, tapering gradually
towards the apex, and terminating just within the extremity
of the dentine. The tip of enamel fits on to the top of the
dentine like a ferrule, and is in the form of an inverted V,
with the angle filled up for some distance, and the stout limbs
turned out a little below and mortised, as it were, into the
dentine. The enamel-cap varies a little in form in the different
species ; but it varies still more in accordance with the plane
of the section. When the section is made directly through the
centre, the solid apical portion of the enamel is seen to be
much produced, and very sharp. By making the section a
little eccentric, the solid tip is reduced in length and sharp-
ness; and. by carrying the process a little further, the enamel-
cap becomes a mere thin covering, like a transverse section of

from the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. 361

a low-pitched roof; and at last it entirely disappears, and is
replaced, as it were, by a somewhat obtuse point of dentine.

In the finest specimens, the whole tooth below the enamel-
cap is coated with a distinct film of enamel, which is perfectly
colourless; in others traces of it are observed only here and there;
but in by far the greater number it is entirely wanting : when
this is the case, the surface of the tooth is frequently observed
to be roughened, as if by erosion, And it may be here stated
that it is not merely the enamel that is eroded, but it frequently
occurs that in the teeth of Palewoniscus, as well as in the teeth
of other small fishes, the dentine itself is worn away to such
an extent that very little of it is left to protect the pulp-cavity.
It is, therefore, not unlikely that all the teeth of Palwoniscus
were originally coated with enamel; or it may be that in some
species there is an external coating of enamel, and in others it
is wanting. When the tooth is perfect, its walls are thick in
proportion to the calibre of the pulp-cavity; the calcigerous
tubes are very fine and numerous.

Note.—After the above description of the tooth of Paleo-
niscus, it is scarcely necessary to say that there is no character
by which it can be distinguished from that of the so-called
genus Ganacrodus of Professor Owen (pl. 6): the teeth of the
latter and former agree in size, form, and structure. We have
found the enamel-tip to exist in P. comtus and other species
from the marl-slate as well as in the species from our Coal-
measures. This we have proved in the most satisfactory
manner, not by taking the teeth at random as they are scat-
tered through the matrix, but by taking the jaws from the
heads of well-authenticated Paleonisc’, and examining the
teeth both externally and in section. After having done this
in a great number of specimens, we are enabled to state that
the small enamel-tipped teeth found detached in the Cram-
lington and Newsham shales are exactly the same as those
attached to the jaws. They are of the same size and form,
with the same bright tip of enamel and finely fretted walls ;
and in section there is no difference whatever; the general
form, the enamel-cap, the pulp-cavity, and dentine are all
precisely the same; and all precisely agree with the tooth of
the so-called Ganacrodus. It is therefore hard to under-
stand what is meant by the use of such terms as “the
villiform teeth of Amblypterus and Paleoniscus,” “ the vague
and ill-defined characters of those en brosse of Palwoniscus
and Amblypterus.”’ Such expressions may indeed mislead,
as they or similar words appear to have misled their author ;

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist, Ser. 4, Voi... 26

362 Messrs. Hancock & Atthey on Reptile- and Fish-Remains

but they can never for a moment obscure the light derived
from a thorough examination of the facts.

The laniary teeth of Paleoniscus and Amblypterus agree in
all essential characters; and the tooth of the former is in
every respect similar to that of Prof. Owen’s “ new genus.”
Consequently this genus can never be adopted by palzon-
tologists.

With regard to the coating of enamel on the crown of the
tooth, on which much stress is attempted to be laid, we can
only say, in addition to what has been previously stated, that
it is most frequently absent from teeth attached to the jaws,
and that by far the greater number of our specimens are de-
prived of it, (as we are inclined to believe) from the effect of
erosion. Be this, however, as it may, the fact remains un-
changed. Authenticated Paleoniscus-teeth in connexion with
the jaws agree in all respects with the tooth of Ganacrodus,
even to the absence of enamel on the crown of the tooth.

Paleoniscus, however, is not the only genus in which this
beautiful enamel-cap exists. Although Prof. Owen is pleased
to ignore what is stated in the previous ‘ Criticism” on the
subject, we here venture to assert that the teeth of Pygopterus,
Amblypterus, Gyrolepis, and Cycloptychius have a perfectly
similar tip of enamel. This we have determined by our own
independent research, and can prove the fact by numerous
sections of the teeth of all these genera.

Considerable importance, however, appears to be attached
to the supposed novelty of this peculiar tooth-structure in the
paper so often referred to. Prof. Owen therein states, on this
subject, “‘that he had not before met with any similar
tooth in the whole range of his odontological researches” *.
Between twenty and thirty years ago, however, M. Agassiz
described and figured the very same structure in the teeth of
Pygopterus +, Saurichthys t, Polypterus, and Lepidosteus §, the
last two being recent sauroid fishes.

After giving a full description of the general characters of
the tooth of Pygopterus, M. Agassiz says, ‘ Un céne de den-
tine entoure cette cavité pulpaire de tous cétés; il est plus
massif au milieu, 14 ot se voit le renflement extérieur, plus
mince vers la base et vers le sommet, et recouvert en haut
d@’un capuchon en émail, qui occupe A-peu-pres le tiers de
la dent et forme & lui-seul toute la pointe. En examinant

s epblet reprinted from the ‘ Trans. of the Odontological Society,’
+ Poiss, Foss. vol. ii. pt. 2. p. 152.

t Ibid. vol. ii. pt. 2. p. 153, tab. H. figs. 2-5.
§ Ibid. vol. ii. pt. 2. pp. 27 and 43, tab. G. figs. 9-12.

from the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. 363

la dent & la loupe, on reconnait au plus fort du renflement
extérieur une ligne circulaire qui indique la limite du ca-
puchon émaillé et de la dentine. La dentine elle-méme
n’offre rien de remarquable. Les tubes calciféres..... . ;
Ceux du sommet se continuent, comme chez le Polypterus,
dans l’émail, ot ils paraissent plus roides, mais en méme
temps plus fins et moins réguliérement disposés que dans la
dentine.” -

Of Polypterus the same author writes as follows :—‘‘ Cette
dentine forme la plus grande partie de la dent; elle n’est re-
couverte qu’au sommet par un petit capuchon d’émail tres-
dur, et dans lequel je n’ai pu reconnaitre ces fibres composées
de petits cubes superposés, telles qu’on les a reconnues chez les
mammiféres. L’émail du Polypterus (fig. 12) est transparent
comme du cristal, sans trace de structure, et ce n’est que
dans sa base que pénétrent les derniéres extrémités effilées des
canaux calciféres de la dentine,” etc.

Respecting Saurichthys it is stated: —“‘ Cette différence
entre le socle et le sommet est encore plus frappante, lorsqu’on
examine leur structure au microscope; le premier est com-
posé de dentine, le dernier d’émail. La cavité pulpaire est
un céne creux entouré d’un céne de dentine massive, sur
lequel repose le capuchon émaillé comme dans les dents du
Polyptére.” This description of the structure of the tooth of
Saurichthys is very different from that given in the ‘ Odonto-
graphy’ (page 170), where the cap of enamel is certainly de-
scribed, but not recognized as such, the author apparently not
being aware of the difference between the base and the summit,
pointed out by M. Agassiz. And indeed the description seems
to be confined to the enamelled or upper portion alone, the
basal portion evidently having been deficient in the specimen
examined,

Similar passages might be quoted respecting Lepidosteus ;
but perhaps enough has been said on the supposed recent dis-
covery of the ‘ enamel-tipped spear teeth.” We have seen
that M. Agassiz fully described and accurately figured this
form of tooth in four genera (Pl. XVI. figs. 3,4) between twenty
and thirty years ago (1833-1844) ; and we have determined
its existence in four other genera, and have likewise verified
the accuracy of M. Agassiz’s observations in Pygopterus,
Lepidosteus, and Saurichthys, making in all eight in which
a cap of enamel is found. It is therefore highly probable
that, when the subject is fully investigated, enamel-tipped
teeth may prove to be not at all uncommon. But how has
all this escaped the observation of the learned author of the
‘Odontography’? for escaped him it assuredly has; or he

26

364 Messrs. Hancock & Atthey on Reptile- and Fish-Remains

never could have written as he has recently done respecting
Paleoniscus, Amblypterus, Pygopterus, Polypterus, and Lepi-
dosteus.

_ Acanthodopsis Ward, sp., Egerton.

For some time past one of the authors of this paper has had
in his collection several jaws of a fish with large triangular
teeth, five or six in number, and appearing like processes of
the bone; and of so peculiar a character are they that it was
impossible to say even to what family of fishes they belonged,
It was not until similar specimens were found associated with
other remains, that any light could be obtained respecting
them. At length a crushed head or two were procured exhi-
biting the same peculiar jaws with the like curious teeth
attached, lying in juxtaposition with the spines of one of the
Acanthodet, partially buried in what appeared to be the broken-
up skin of the fish, crowded with minute rhomboidal scales.
In one specimen the two pectoral spines are placed in their
proper position behind the head, and united to it by the con-
tinuity of tissue, so as to leave no doubt that they and the
head belonged to the same fish. The uniting tissue, too, was
mainly composed of granule-like scales of a lozenge-form. A
tail likewise of an Acanthodian has occurred in the same
locality, the scales on which agree both in size and character
with those found with the heads. It is therefore quite certain
that the jaws alluded to belong to the Acanthodet, notwith-
standing the abnormal character of the teeth, which in this
family are usually described as minute and conical.

In the genus Acanthodes, indeed, the teeth appear to have
been determined only in one species, though M. Agassiz states,
in his description of the genus, that fine teeth disposed in
a simple range appear to garnish the circumference of the
mouth *. The species in which the teeth have been deter-
mined is A. pustllus; and of this the same author writes that
the mouth is “‘ garnie de trés-petites dents qui, méme sous une
trés-forte loupe, ne paraissent que comme des petits points
noirs”’ t. ‘This is so definite that it is impossible to doubt its
accuracy; we are therefore forced to the conclusion that in
this genus, as at present understood, there are two very dis-
tinct kinds of dentition, so distinct, indeed, that it seems ne-
cessary to establish a new genus for the reception of those
species which, lke A. Ward’, may have large triangular
teeth, similar to those alluded to. We therefore propose the
generic appellation of Acanthodopsis for those Acanthodet
with this peculiar dentition.

* Poissons Fossiles du Vieux Grés Rouge, premiére liyraison, p. 39,

+ Ibid. p. 36,

From the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. 365

The remains in our possession of such fishes are divisible
into two species by the characters of the spines, scales, and
teeth. One of these is very much larger than the other. It
is the smaller of the two that appears to be identical with A.
Wardi. 'The larger species is probably the same as that of
which Sir P. Egerton had obtained the head and anterior
parts, and which is supposed by him to “ have measured two
feet six inches in length”’*. A pectoral spine of this is stated
to have been three and a half inches long.

The mandibular ramus of A. Wardi (Pl. XV. fig. 6) is
about one inch and a half long and a quarter of an inch
wide at the broadest part, which is near the proximal extre-
mity, whence it tapers gradually to the distal end, which
is rounded; the proximal end turns upwards, and presents a
well-defined concave articular surface. The dentigerous bone
is very thin, and its walls are usually pressed close together ;
the outer wall is irregularly striated longitudinally, the inner
wall is smooth; the lower margin is strengthened by a stout
styliform process, c, which is very liable to detach itself, when
it assumes the appearance of a cylindrical spine graduating to
a point in front; it is united behind to the articular process,
and is probably nothing more than a prolongation of the
angular bone.

This styliform process has been described as the entire
mandibular ramus in some of the Acanthode?, and is seen oc-
casionally attached to the head,—the dentigerous bone, with
the teeth, having been detached. In Sir P. Egerton’s figure
of A. Wardi these styliform bones, so denuded, are seen still
articulated to the head and thrown backwards. The teeth
are frequently found attached to the thin-walled dentigerous
bone, the styliform process having probably been left so at-
tached to the head.

The teeth are never found separated from the bone. There
are five or six in each ramus, two of the larger being in the
centre, the smaller ones in front and behind; they are com-
pressed in the direction of the jaw, and when seen in this po-
sition they have the shape of as many equilateral triangles
with the lateral margins a little hollowed towards the apices,
which are recurved; they are expanded at the base, where
they become confluent, and are coarsely and irregularly stri-
ated from one extremity to the other; and the surface being
liable to erosion, the striation is frequently exaggerated.

The upper jaw is coextensive with the mandible, and is ap-
parently formed of one piece. The teeth are like those of the
under jaw, and lock very accurately into them; they are of

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xxii. p. 470,

366 Messrs. Hancock & Atthey on Reptile- and Fish-Remains

the same size and character, and are equal in number to those
of the mandible. The largest teeth are nearly one-sixth of an
inch in length; they are much wider than they are thick from
back to front.

On making a longitudinal section of the teeth in the diree-
tion of the jaw, the structure is found to be very peculiar.
The jaw itself is composed of very dense bone on the surface,
in which the Haversian canals are well defined, and the ra-
diating cells are very numerous and minute; they are elon-
gated-fusiform, with the canaliculi (when observable) sufficiently
abundant and arranged for the most part at mght angles to
the long axis of the cells. In the superficial and denser por-
tions of the tissue the cells and tubules are the most minute ;
in the deeper portions they are larger and less regular in form,
and the bone becomes riddled with medullary cavities, until at
length it is entirely reduced to a sort of cellular structure.
This curious cellular tissue is continued into the teeth, and
forms their central mass, there being apparently no distinct
pulp-cavity, or, if any, it is confined to the base. This tissue
becomes less open as it approaches, and gradually forms a
dense layer at, the surface of the teeth, in which layer the
Haversian canals are as distinct as they are in the bone of the
ramus, and the cells, diminished in size, assume their regular
elongated form, and at the extreme margin they disappear.
This peripheral layer, which represents the dentinal wall of
ordinary teeth, is found to be continuous from tooth to tooth ;
it differs, however, in no respect from the dense external sur-
face of the ramus. Indeed it is quite evident that the bone
of the jaw is continued into and forms the teeth; they may
therefore be looked upon as processes of the jaw. We have
failed to detect the least trace of enamel on the surface of the
teeth.

A considerable portion of one of the pectoral spines lies near
to the crushed head of this species, in which the jaws are dis-
tinctly displayed with the teeth interlocked. The spine has
lost its distal extremity; the fragment, however, is flattened
towards this end; at the basal extremity it is thickened, and
assumes a triangular form; a groove extends along the ante-
rior margin. Detached spines have also occurred, agreeing
exactly with Sir P. Egerton’s description of the pectoral spine
of this species.

The scales are minute rhombs, with the upper surface
smooth and slightly convex. Some appear to be minutely
and uregularly granulated. Perfectly similar scales clothe
the heterocereal tail which was procured at Newsham, and
which we believe to belong to this fish. It is about three-

from the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. 367

quarters of an inch wide, and, including the pedicle to which
it is attached, it is one inch and three-quarters long; the
under lobe is not much produced, and the upper is rather
obtuse; no rays are perceptible. ‘The scales are well pre-
served, and are in an undisturbed state. Some of them are
brilliantly glossy, and have towards the posterior angle a boss-
like swelling ; others are dull and minutely granular. Which
is the true natural surface it is difficult to say, though it seems
probable that the latter is. Be this as it may, both kinds of
scales are found scattered in the vicinity of the head and
spine.
Acanthodopsis Egertont, n. sp.

A crushed head with the pectoral spines attached, a de-
tached jaw or two, a few separate spines, and some scattered
scales are all the remains that have occurred of the large
species alluded to. ‘The head, which could not have been less
than two and one-quarter inches long, has one of the man-
dibular rami well displayed, with the teeth attached; but they
are, unfortunately, in a very imperfect state. The ramus 1s
very similar in character to that of A. Wardi; but the den-
tigerous bone does not appear to be striated; the styliform
process is not much arcuated at the proximal extremity, and
tapers gradually to the anterior point. The teeth are arranged
in the same manner as in the smaller species—that is, with the
larger in the centre and smaller at the extremities of the jaw;
with the aid of a detached mandible we are able to ascertain
that there are seven or eight in each ramus; they are not
nearly so wide at the base as in the previous species, and the
are more regularly and finely striated. Some of the bones of
the head are finely and regularly tuberculated ; these are pro-
bably the orbital plates. The similar plates of the other
species appear to be irregularly granular.

The spines attached to the head are upwards of two and a
half inches long, though they are not entire; but the largest
detached specimen in our possession is quite an inch longer,
though in it, too, the point is broken. ‘This must have been
longer than the largest mentioned by Sir P. Egerton; it is
upwards of one-quarter of an inch broad, and is flat and
curved like the others, resembling the blade of a scimitar ;
towards the base the inner margin is thickened and angulated,
and a depressed line or groove extends from end to end a little
within the anterior or arched margin; a few fine longitudinal
lines are seen near to and almost parallel with the opposite
margin; the point appears to be rounded, but is not quite per-
fect in any of our specimens.

The scales which are found associated with the head and

368 Messrs. Hancock & Atthey on Reptile- and Fish-Remains

spines are very similar to, but they seem to be smaller than,
those of the other species, as pointed out by Sir P. Egerton ;
they also appear to have the surface more elevated and
rounded.

From the character of the scales and great size of the pec-
toral spines, but more particularly from the difference observed
in the teeth, we consider ourselves justified in dividing this
from the A. Wardi, and beg to dedicate it to Sir P. Egerton,
who was the first to point out the probability of its specific
distinctness. We therefore propose for it the name of Acan-
thodopsis Egertont.

Gyracanthus tuberculatus, Agassiz.

The gigantic spines of this little-understood fish occur
pretty frequently at Newsham and Cramlington in a fine state
of preservation. In conjunction with Mr. J. W. Kirkby, one
of the authors of this paper pointed out in 1863 that these
spines were not, as usually thought, dorsal, but were paired
spines, most probably pectoral*. We have now before us
seventy-one of these formidable weapons; and the first thing
that strikes the observer is, that by far the greater number
have lost the apical extremity, and that they are not merely
bent from front to back, but are also laterally curved. On
closer examination it is found that there are as many bent to
the right as to the left side, and that of such bent spines there
are just twenty-four pairs. Thus twenty-three spines are left
unaccounted for; these may be considered straight, being bent
only from front to back, and their points are entire. But first
respecting the paired spines: we have said that they have all
lost their points; they are not fractured, however, but are all
worn smoothly down diagonally at a very acute angle; and,
what is still more interesting, this wearing always takes place
at the side opposite to that of attachment. Assuming, there-
fore, that these spines are pectoral, and that they were inclined
backwards and downwards, as assuredly they would be, then
the wearing of the points is exactly such as would take place
oy their coming in contact with the ground. And, again, the
largest or oldest spines are uniformly the most worn; some,
indeed, are reduced to mere stumps. In one such specimen
now before us, which is seven inches in circumference, and
which must have been one of the very largest, only ten and a
half inches are left. Another example, six inches in circum-

_ * See paper entitled “ Fish-Remains in the Coal-measures of Durham
and Northumberland,” by Messrs. T. Atthey and J. W. Kirkby, read in the
Geological Section at the Newcastle Meeting of the British Association.

from the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. 369

ference, is only seven inches long, including the portion buried
beneath the skin.

All this seems to demonstrate, beyond doubt, that these are
really paired spines, most probably pectoral; and from this
wearing we may fairly assume that Gyracanthus was a ground-
fish, and that the spines assisted its motions at the bottom of
the water.

The straight spines, or those which ‘are not laterally bent,
are all regularly arched from before backwards; and their
distal or pointed extremities are all perfect, not being in the
least degree worn. These are apparently dorsal spines; and
that there is only one of such in each fish seems probable from
the fact that they occur in the ratio of one to two of the paired
spines, as shown by our previous division of the seventy-one
specimens.

The dorsal spines are considerably smaller than the paired
ones ; they are more compressed, and the posterior denticu-
lated keel is more strongly developed; the extreme point is
smooth, compressed, and rounded in front. The largest are
about eleven inches long, and three and one-quarter inches in
circumference at the thickest part. The paired spines are
fifteen or sixteen inches in length, and upwards of six and a
half inches in circumference.

One or two specimens of the species denominated G. for-
mosus have likewise occurred; and as the same spine of G.
tuberculatus is occasionally found with both tuberculated ‘and
smooth ridges, the former can scarcely be considered a good
species. M. Agassiz’s figure of G. formosus *, like Gt. tuber-
culatus, is laterally bent.

Large flat triangular bones are frequently found associated
with the spines, measuring sometimes eight and a half inches
long and six and a half inches broad at the widest part.
Their structure is very open; and as they are seldom well pre-
served, they are probably only imperfectly ossified ; the bone-
fibre radiates from the apex to the expanded base. There can
be little doubt that these are carpal bones, similar to those in
connexion with the pectoral fins in the Sharks and Dogfishes.
This bone is thickest at the apex, which is rounded, and thins
out towards the distal expanded margin or base. The large
longitudinal groove at the root of the spine probably corre-
sponds to the lower or anterior margin of this bone ; or it may
be that it was fitted to a lower carpal which was coadjusted
to this bone but, being entirely cartilaginous, has disappeared.
However this may be, it can scarcely be doubted that this

* Poissons Fossiles, vol. iii. tab. 5. figs. 4, 5, 6.

370 Messrs. Hancock & Atthey on Reptile- and Fish-Remains

triangular bone supported, directly or indirectly, the great
pectoral spines. |

There are found also frequently associated with the remains
of Gyracanthus large thin layers or patches of matter, almost
entirely composed of minute compressed bodies, of which
there are two kinds. One, much smaller than the other, and
by far the more numerous, is upwards of one-twentieth of an
inch high and not quite so broad; it has usually two, some-
times three, conical, recurved, diverging points rising from an
expanded base. The large kind is usually one-tenth of an
inch high, and is somewhat wider at the base ; it is sometimes
a little larger, but more frequently much smaller. It is much
compressed, and the base is considerably widened; the upper
margin is divided into from four to seven much recurved
conical denticles, which are sharp-pointed, and have four or five
stout longitudinal ridges on the arched or dorsal surface. Several
large patches of these bodies have occurred, one of which mea-
sures twenty inches by fifteen inches. It is therefore pretty
clear that they cannot be teeth, which are not usually found
together in such vast multitudes; they are much more likely
to be dermal tubercles, and these patches to be the remains of
the skin of Gyracanthus. It should also be mentioned that
Cladodus mirabilis has occurred three or four times at News-
ham, and always associated with these dermal patches. May
it not, therefore, prove to be the tooth of Gyracanthus?

Note.—Mitrodus quadricornis of Prof. Owen (pl. 3) is un-
doubtedly nothing more than the larger kind of these dermal
tubercles. In size, proportion, and form it agrees exactly with
them ; and in the minute structure there is no difference what-
ever, as is demonstrated by the numerous sections of them
which we have had the advantage of examining. This
“minnow,” then, of our shales is found to be identical with
Gyracanthus tuberculatus, perhaps the largest fish of the coal-
measures.

In the figure of Mitrodus only a small portion of the den-
ticles is shown; the points, being strongly recurved, are neces-
sarily cut away in such a section as that represented. It is
only the base of the toothlets that Prof. Owen has seen; and
consequently his knowledge of the true form must be very
imperfect. The angles represented at the margin of the den-
ticles indicate the external ridges described above.

Diplodus gibbosus, Agassiz.
This is a common fossil at Newsham and Cramlington, and
is usually found in connexion with a thick granular layer of

from the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. 371

a substance resembling shagreen, large patches of which fre-
quently occur studded all over with it. One such patch has
been obtained which measured fifteen inches long and about
seven inches wide. On this the Diplodi are comparatively
few in number, and are scattered about. But in another
patch, of which there are fifty-six square inches, they are very
numerous, and are crowded together without order.

There can be little doubt that these shagreen-like patches
are the remains of the skin of some large fish, and that the
Diplodi are dermal tubercles in connexion with it, analogous
to the spinous tubercles of the Rays. At the same time it
must be admitted that it is possible enough that the larger
specimens may have clothed the lips or jaws with a spinous
pavement resembling in arrangement the oral armature of the
Rays or Cestracionts; or they may have ranged along the
back or sides of the body in serial order, as the dermal spines
frequently do in the Rays; or perhaps they may have been
scattered here and there among the smaller ones, as is not un-
frequently the case with such tubercles.

Diplodus has usually three recurved spines, two being large,
the third quite small; they stand up from a common, rather
deep, rounded or oval base. The two large or lateral spines
are ranged side by side; they are stout, conical, and diver-
gent, both being curved from before backwards, and a little
compressed in the same direction. The small spine is similar.
in form, and is placed immediately behind the large ones, at
their basal junction; and in front of them, in a similar posi-
tion, there is a large, rounded, depressed tubercle. All the
spines are strongly carinated at the sides from the apex to the
base; and in well-developed specimens there are two other
ridges, one in front, the other behind, extending downwards
for some distance from the apex.

These are the normal characters of Diplodus; but it is very
variable in form. The spines are not unfrequently found stiff
and short, and much bent and divergent; on the other hand,
they often occur much elongated, almost parallel, and compa-
ratively slender. The number of spines also varies; some-
times there are only two, sometimes only one. When the
latter is the case, the specimen is usually exposed in profile,
and the long heel-like projection is well displayed; when,
however, a complete tubercle is buried in the matrix with
only one of the lateral spines and its base exposed, the ap-
pearance is much the same. A tubercle so seen is repre-
sented by M. Agassiz in ‘ Poissons Fossiles,’ vol. i. tab. 22 0.
fig. 5.

If Diplodus differs much in form, it also varies greatly in

372 Messrs, Hancock & Atthey on Reptile- and Fish-Remains

size. The largest are three-quarters of an inch from the base
to the apex of the large or lateral spines; the smallest, mea-
sured in the same way, are not more than one-twelfth of an
inch in extent. Between the two extremes, tubercles of every
size occur. Now the smaller individuals, which are by far
the most numerous, agree very well with Dzplodus minutus
of Agassiz, so far as the imperfect specimens described and
figured by that author permit a comparison. M. Agassiz says
he was not able to discern the median cone; but this is not
to be wondered at, for none of his figures represents the base
entire.

Note.—Dittodus divergens, Aganodus apicalis, Aganodus
undatus, Pternodus productus, and Ochlodus crassus, described
in the paper ‘‘ On the new Coal Fishlets,” are all referable to
Diplodus. The genus Dittodus is established on two very
dissimilar fossils: D, parallelus is, we have already seen,
founded on the fragment of a jaw with a few of the teeth of
Rhizodopsis sauroides ; Dittodus divergens (pl. 2) is apparently
nothing more than Diplodus minutus * of Agassiz; and, like his
figure, that given by Prof. Owen is represented without the
small central spine: indeed it is scarcely possible to show
it in such a section as that figured in plate 2. The size,
form, and histological characters all agree with those of our
sections of the minute specimens of Diplodus,

Pternodus productus (pl. 10) is the single-spined variety of
Diplodus gibbosus seen in profile, with a well-produced base ;
or it may possibly be a lateral section of a fully developed
specimen in which one of the large spines only is exhibited.
In either case the same appearance would be presented of the
. large projecting “heel,” with its outline sweeping into the
curve of the spine; and, in fact, the form, proportions, and
size all exactly agree with those of similar sections in our
possession of the single-spined variety of Diplodus, The mi-
nute structure is precisely the same; the greater portion, how-
ever, of the basal marginal boundary, from m to 6 in fig. 1,
pl. 10, has been ground away; and that which is designated
“ osseous tissue of jaw” is merely a portion of the osteo-den-
tine of the pulp-cavity.

There are two species of Aganodus described : one, A. api-
calis (pl.9), is based apparently on a section made from before
backwards of a single straight spine of the small variety of
Diplodus. The two processes (0) below the spine are project-
ing portions of the base, the most of the base itself having
been broken away. The opening between the two processes

* Poissons Fossiles, vol. iii. p. 205, tab. 22. f. 6-8,

from the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. 373

is in part a natural cavity, frequently seen in sections. A. un-
datus (pl. 10) is a lateral section of a single minute spine of
the same variety of Diplodus, somewhat abnormal in form.
There is no difference of importance in the minute structure,
and it exhibits in a most distinct manner the numerous con-
centric layers of dentine mentioned by M. Agassiz as charac-
teristic of Diplodus (vol. iii. p. 209).

Diplodus has supplied Prof. Owen with still another generic
form, which is the fourth based upon this variable fossil.
Ochlodus (pl. 5) is nothing more than one of the large varieties
of this dermal tubercle, crushed laterally—a variety, probably,
having originally one of the large spines smaller than the
other. A figure of such a tubercle is given by Mr. Binney
in the paper before quoted*, From the representation of
Ochlodus it is evident that the specimen has been crushed: the
dentinal walls are cracked in several places, the upper wall has
been forced in upon the osteo-dentine of the pulp-cavity, and
the continuity of the tissue of the spines has been severed ;
the osteo-dentine of the pulp-cavity has, in a great measure,
been displaced, and the base shattered to fragments. All these
appearances are shown in a section now before us, which was
made of a specimen crushed laterally or a little diagonally,
and which closely resembles in size and contour Ochlodus,
It is evident, too, that much of the fractured base in this genus,
and also a considerable portion of the two smaller spines, have
been removed in making the section.

The thickness of the dentine and the size of the pulp-cavity
are very variable features in Diplodus. Kven in the same spe-
cimen the peripheral dentine occasionally varies considerably at
different parts of the circumference, as may be seen on making
a transverse section of the spines; and as they are com-
pressed, as we have stated above, the relative size of the pulps
cavity varies with the plane of the section. This is one source
of variation; but were the pulp-cavity quite cylindrical, or
rather circular im transverse section, its apparent relative pro-
portion to the dentinal wall would depend upon the degree of
eccentricity of the section. The pulp-cavity is consequently
found to vary extremely in size in Diplodus. In the crushed
specimen we have spoken of, this cavity is quite as large as it
is represented in the figure of Ochlodus; and, again, in other
specimens it is no larger than we see it in the figure of the so-
called Pternodus productus.

The acute points represented in the section of Ochlodus are
not the apices of the spines as believed by Prof. Owen; the
true apices have all been removed in making the section

* Trans. of the Manchester Geol. Soc. vol. i. pl. 5. fig. 17,

374 Messrs. Hancock & Atthey on Reptile- and Fish-Remains

These sharp prolongations are merely the ridges or keels de-
scribed above as extending from the apices downwards, seen
still projecting after their base (the dentinal support) has been
removed, The same appearance is presented at the apex of
the figure of Aganodus undatus, and strengthens our opinion
of the nature of that form.

At the point of the largest spine of Ochlodus there is evi-
dence of two of those ridges or keels, one probably being a
lateral ridge, the other apparently the intermediate or dorsal
one. At the extremity of the small lateral spine, one of the
strong lateral keels is well exhibited; and the small central
spine displays distinct evidence of two keels. In many of our
sections these ridges assume the very same appearance which
we see in this figure; and they are all found to be composed
of enamel, as these points are represented to be in Ochlodus ;
and there can be no doubt that the trace of enamel described
and indicated at g, on the large spine, is a lateral view of the
keel the lower point of which terminates at g.

We thus find that Ochlodus does not only agree in general
form, but eyen in the minutest details, with Diplodus ; and we
ean find no distinguishing histological characters on which to
found this so-called genus.

Ctenoptychius pectinatus, Agassiz.

This species is not uncommon in the shales at Newsham
and Cramlington. One of the authors of this paper has a
large suite of specimens gathered at these localities; they
agree perfectly well with C. pectinatus, though they usually
have a greater number of denticles than represented in the
figure in ‘ Poissons Fossiles.’ The number ranges from
eight or nine to fifteen or sixteen. Well developed specimens
measure one-quarter of an inch wide and a little less high.
They are in the form of wide, flattened plates, with the upper
margin a little arched transversely and denticulated, the den-
ticles being rather obtusely pointed, compressed from before
backwards, and recurved; the marginal surface is concave
behind and convex in front, and thickened posteriorly, where
it is strongly defined from the base by a deep transverse con-
striction. A lateral section consequently presents a sigmoid
eurve, the lower member of which is the larger and less bent.
The whole of the denticulated margin, including the denticles,
is coated with a thin layer of enamel, only traces of which can
usually be seen in sections. The base narrows suddenly im-
mediately below the denticulated margin, and is frequently
considerably longer than the upper glazed or enamelled por-

from the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field, 375

tion ; and the lower margin is often produced into two or more
fang-like processes.

In the base of each denticle there is a small pulp-cavity
that extends only a short way upwards, and is in direct com-
munication with the wide medullary canals of the basal por-
tion, which are for the most part elongated ; but in this respect
there is considerable variation. The canals are most elongated,
as might be expected, in elongated specimens. The dentinal
tubules, which are nearly vertical, are coarse, fasciculated, and
much branched; and the osteo-dentine of the base exhibits
also a few branched tubules, strongest and most numerous
above and at the margins; below they are comparatively
small and obscure.

A few specimens have occurred which are much elongated
transversely, and have upwards of twenty denticles; these are
probably C. denticulatus of Agassiz. Ctenoptychius is pro-
bably a dermal tubercle, though it certainly has more the ap-
pearance of a tooth than either Diplodus or the spined dermal
tubercles which have been assigned to G‘yracanthus.

- Note-—That Ageleodus diadema of Prof. Owen (pl. 4) is
the fossil above described cannot for a moment be doubted.
In general form, size, number and character of the denticles,
as seen in section, all exactly agree; and there is no difference
whatever in the histological features: only the specimen
figured and described in the paper referred to is shorter than
usual; hence the medullary canals are not so decidedly elon-
gated as they frequently are. Now no paleontologist would
hesitate to pronounce our specimens to be Ctenoptychius pecti-
natus of Agassiz. It is therefore futile to assert that the figure
of the structure of this genus in the ‘ Poissons Fossiles ’* shows
‘Cat a glance” that it 1s generically distinct from Ageleodus ;
and it is certainly erroneous; the difference is merely a dif-
ference in degree. The medullary canals are more elongated
and somewhat more regularly parallel in Agassiz’s figure than
they are in our specimens, in many of which, however, the
parallel and elongated character predominates. In fact there
is quite as great a difference in this respect between individuals
of our suite of specimens as there is between some of them and
Agassiz’s figure referred to. And it must not be forgotten
that this figure represents the structure in a different species.
We repeat, then, that no generic difference is perceptible at a
glance. M. Agassiz certainly states that the substance at the
base of. the tooth is perfectly homogeneous. In some of our
specimens, too, the basal portion has lost nearly all traces of

* Tome iii. pl. M. figs. 4, 5.

$76 Messrs. Hancock & Atthey on Reptile- and Fish-Remains

structure; but such specimens are mounted in balsam, which,
we have seen, is liable to render minute structure invisible.
It is therefore not improbable that the specimens of M.
Agassiz may have been mounted in this medium; and it is
equally likely that the minute structure was not preserved in
the fossil examined by him. Such discrepancies must be ex-
pected in the examination of fossi/s ; and accordingly we have
already seen that the minute structure in Ctenodus had escaped
the observation of that naturalist.

In Ageleodus we see another striking instance of the danger
of trusting entirely to the sections of objects not previously
understood. From this cause the denticles are described as if
their whole contour was seen, whereas there is nothing but
the mere stumps left in the section, the crowns all having been
cut away in making it. As the denticles are (as we have
already stated) recurved, they must necessarily, to a great ex-
tent, be removed in such a section as that figured. Had this
been previously known, the bases of the denticles could never
have been mistaken for their crowns, nor could the latter have
ever been described as ‘broader than they are high;” nor
could it have been stated that they all “terminate obtusely ;
and this seems to be an original form, not due to wear or
abrasion.” In fact, Prof. Owen describes merely a diagonal
section of the basal portion, and supposes that he describes the
whole denticle. This author has likewise been deceived into
the belief of the existence of a common pulp-cavity, by the
removal in the section of the osteo-dentine near the centre of
the specimen. Here all the substance has been ground away
in consequence of the lateral sigmoid bend before described.
A lateral section proves that no such cavity exists; and, in-
deed, the large series of sections now before us, and which
were made many years ago, entirely disprove this assertion.
The inference drawn from the supposed presence of this cavity
is therefore of no avail.

We have now examined the whole of the new genera and
species of Fishes and Batrachians proposed by Prof. Owen in
his paper published in the ‘ Transactions of the Odontological
Society,” and find ourselves compelled to conclude that there
is positively not a single novelty in the whole series. Thirteen
genera were enumerated in the ‘¢ Abstract”’ of the paper as
read; in the paper as published there are only twelve, one
(entitled “ Oreodus’’) having been withdrawn. It is unfor-
tunate that some circumspection had not been also observed
with regard to the remaining twelve, which, we fear, are fated
to fall into the like obscurity. We have found as we
approached the “New Coal Fishlets” that they gradually

V

From the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. 377

dwindled away, and at length entirely disappeared ; or rather
we perceived that they never had had any real existence, and
that the ‘‘ Minnows and Sticklebacks ” of the Northumberland
coal-shales have yet to be discovered,

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES,
PuatTeE XIV.

Fig. 1. Sternal plates of Pteroplax cornuta, about half the natural size:
aa, lateral plates ; b, posterior portion of central plate appearing
from beneath the former; ¢, posterior process.

Fig. 2. View of underside of central sternal plate, two-thirds natural
size: a, perfect lateral wing or lobe; 0, posterior process.

Fig. 8. Preemaxilla of Pteroplax cornuta, natural size, the apices of the
teeth having been restored: a, anterior extremity ; 6, posterior
articular process; ¢ c, mucus-grooves; d, external nostril.

PLATE XV.

Fig. 1. Cranial shield of Pteroplax cornuta, about two-thirds natural
size: a, frontals; 6, parietals; c, occipitals; d, postfrontals;
e, epiotics; f, parietal foramen; g, posterior horns ; h, inner pos-
terior orbital border.

Fig. 2. Front view of vertebra, three-fourths natural size: a, centrum,
showing a minute notochordal foramen in the centre; 6, neural
canal; c¢, spinous process, restored from another specimen ;
d, transverse process ; e, anterior zygapophysis.

Fig. 3. Inside view of mandibular ramus of Pale@oniscus, showing the row
of laniary teeth almost perfect, but turned by pressure so as to
present their sides; the row of small exterior teeth is buried
in the matrix : a, anterior extremity ; b, posterior articular pro-
cess ; ¢, impressions of the surface-striz in the matrix, a portion
of the bone having been removed.

Fig. 4, External view of a maxilla of another species of Palconiscus,
exhibiting both rows of teeth, the laniary and the small exterior
teeth appearing to be in the same line, on account of pressuré ;
a, anterior extremity; 6, tooth figured in next plate.

Fig. 5, Inside view of a portion of the alveolar border of the jaw of Pa-
lezoniscus, showing the row of laniary teeth within the small
exterior row: a, laniary teeth; 6, impressions in the matrix of
the teeth of the exterior row; cc, three of the small exterior
teeth left adhering to the matrix.

Fig. 6, External view of a mandibular ramus of Acanthodopsis Wardi:
a, anterior extremity; 6, posterior extremity; ¢, styliform pro-
cess attached to the dentigerous bone, d.

PuLatTE XVI.

Fxg. 1. Tooth from maxilla of Palzoniscus (Pl. XV. fig. 4); a, enamel-
tip.

Fig. 2. Section of tooth of Paleoniscus, exhibiting the cap of enamel, a;
6, film of enamel coating the crown, very frequently absent.

Fig. 3, Section of tooth of Pygopterus, from Agassiz, showing the ena-
mel-tip, a.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol.i. ath

378 Prof. J.C. Schisdte on the Development of

Fig. 4. Section of the upper portion of the tooth of Polypterus, from
Agassiz, showing the cap of enamel, a.

Fug. 5. Section of portion of maxilla of Rhizodopsis, much enlarged, ex-_

; hibiting the bony pillars supporting the teeth: aa, bony pillars ;
b, 6, teeth in an abraded condition, the enamel having all disap-
peared, and, in some instances, portions of the dentine.

XLVI.—On the Development of the Position of the Eyes in
Pleuronectide. By Prof. J. C. ScuiépTz. Communi-
eated by C. A. Gosch, Esq.

{THE question of the asymmetry of Pleuronectide has of late
attracted so much attention, and we possess so few reliable
descriptions of the appearances presented by very young spe-
cimens (whereby alone that question can be solved), that the
following observations on this subject by Prof. Schiédte will
doubtless be found highly interesting, not only to ichthyolo-
gists, but to zoologists generally. I wish particularly to draw
attention to two of his results, now established by actual exa-
mination of successive stages of development of the same spe-
cies, viz. :—first, that the eye of the blind side glides across the
head in front of the dorsal fin without ever disappearing from
view, and, when arrived on the other side of the dorsal fin and
clear of it, recedes backward alongside the fin, which does not,
as supposed by some, prolong itself after the passage of the eye;
and, secondly, that this shifting of place is a very slow process,
for which, in all probability, preparation is made in the foetus.

Prof. Schiédte’s article is destined shortly to appear in the
fifth volume of the ‘ Naturhistorisk Tidsskrift ;? but having
been favoured by the author with a separate impression, I am
enabled already to present it to the readers of the ‘ Annals.’
The author begins by describing the specimens which form
the principal material of his treatise in the following manner. ]

_ On examining a young specimen of Rhombus barbatus which
lies before me, and which measures 18 millims. in length
from the apex of the closed lower jaw to the extreme end of
the caudal fin, I observe that the ramifications of the mucipa-
' rous canal on the head are not traceable; but the outline of the
parts of the mouth, of the preeoperculum, and the opercula are
clearly perceptible through the skin, as well as the layers of
the muscles, particularly of the great masseter on the right
side. The left eye stands very nearly opposite to the middle of
the upper jawbone. The right eye is placed at the top of the
head, in front of the dorsal fin, but so much inclined to the
left, that only one-third of its surface is visible when the fish

the Position of the Eyes in Pleuronectide. 379

is viewed from its right side. The right eye is rather more
round in outline—that is, a little shorter and broader than the
left. This difference is caused by its being under pressure,
wedged in as it is between the anterior frontal bones and the
- dorsal fin; and the pressure causes the interspinous part of the
dorsal fin to form a small slightly upward-curved projection
above the eye.

The smallest of three young of Pleuronectes platessa, which
I have also before me, has a length of only 10 millims., the
measure being taken as above. ‘The ramifications of the mu-
ciparous canal cannot be discovered on the left (blind) side of
the head, whilst on the right side they are just traceable as
indistinct lines; but no ducts are to be distinguished. The
whole head has a clumsy, toad-lhke shape, the parts of the
mouth presenting soft swelling outlines. The right eye stands
over the beginning of the lower third of the maxillary bone.
The left eye stands at the top of the head, so much inclined to
the right, that from the left side only a trifle more than one-
third of the pupil can be seen; it stands in front of the dorsal
fin, so that the front ray of the latter is just behind the end of
the left and beginning of the middle thirds of the eyé.

On comparing with this the head of another young P. pla-
tessa, which measures 14 millims. in length, one observes at
once that the head has a somewhat less clumsy appearance, and
the ramifications of the muciparous canal are more clearly ob-
servable. The position of the left eye is so far changed that
when the head is viewed straight from the left side the pupil
is invisible, only a part of the iris can be seen ; and its position
with regard to the dorsal fin is at the same time altered so that the
latter touches the left margin of the eye, which cannot now be
described as entirely situated in front of the dorsal fin ; for the
foremost ray of the fin stands at the side of the eye, a little in
advance of the extreme posterior margin of the eye. When,
therefore, the fish is examined from the blind side, the outline
of the eye cannot be followed in its whole extent, the posterior
extremity being hidden from view behind the first ray of the
dorsal fin.

In a third young P. platessa, measuring 40 millims. in
length, the head presents almost the same pointed shape as in
the adult fish. The ramifications of the muciparous canal are
much more distinct, and the ducts are easily distinguished on
the preopercular branch on both sides, as well as on the infra-
orbital branch on the blind side. The right eye stands over
the lower extremity of the upper jawbone; but, in spite of this
more depressed position of the right eye, the distance between
the eyes is nevertheless only a little greater than in the speci-

27*

380 Prof. J.C. Schiddte on the Development of

men last described, on account of the change which is observed
in the position of the left eye, which is now placed not only
above the right eye, but at the same time a little behind it.
The left eye is entirely transferred to the right side, though it
stands so high on this side that its pigment, dimly shining
through the skin, can still be seen from the left side as a small
dark border. A striking evidence of its having receded further
back is afforded by the fact that the first ray of the dorsal fm
in this specimen stands so far forward, in comparison with the
eye, that it is on a level with the middle of its left margin,
whilst the third ray occupies the place relatively to the eye
which in the former specimen is occupied by the first ray.
The specimens of young Hippoglossus pinguis which I
have before me present a similar progressive development.
The smaller is 57 millims. long. The outlines of all the super-
ficial parts of the skull are distinctly seen through the skin, as
well as the branches of the muciparous canal and their nume-
rous ducts. The left eye is placed at the top of the head, so
much inclined to the left (blind) side, that from the right side
the iris is only partly visible, and the pupil altogether mvisible;
it is placed straight in front of and close to the dorsal fin, which
points alongside the right margin of the pupil. On the head of
a second specimen, which is nearly twice as large (100 millims.)
the ducts of the muciparous canals are evidently more nume-
rous, and the infraorbital branch on the left (blind) side, which
on the smaller specimen appears curved, is here almost straight.
It has got space to grow straighter; for on this specimen the
left eye has moved across the head so much that it now inclines
as much to the right side as formerly to the left; and whilst
in the smaller specimen it stood nearly straight before the
dorsal fin, the latter would, if prolonged in the larger speci-
men, cross the eye just inside its left margin. That the
eye is under pressure, wedged in between the interspinous
part of the dorsal fin and the anterior frontal bones, is evident
from an indenture in its outline on the posterior margin; and
this pressure evidently cannot cease till the eye, gliding still
further to the right, has got clear of the dorsal fin.
~ Jn order to explain how the upper eye of the Pleuronectidee
comes into that position relatively to the dorsal fin which it
occupies in the adults, naturalists have had recourse to the
hypothesis that the dorsal fin prolongs itself in a forward
direction when the upper eye, by the torsion of the head, has
come into its final place. This hypothesis was first proposed.
by Van Beneden (Ann. Sc. Nat. sér. 3. t. xx., “Note sur la
Symétrie des Poissons Plewronectes dans leur jeune age,” p.342),
and has been adopted also by Dr. Traquair, in his exhaustive and.

the Position of the Eyes in Pleuronectide. 381

instructive treatise “On the Asymmetry of the Pleuronectidee”’
(Trans. Linn. Soc. 1866, vol. xxv. p. 263)*. The fact, however,
that the young fish, at least those examined by me, possess
the same number of rays in the dorsal fin as the adults, would
im any case render this theory very doubtful, even if it had
not now been proved by the observations above detailed
that the eye of the blind side does not only glide over from
its own to the eye-side of the fish, but, when arrived here, it
recedes a little along the dorsal fin. It is consequently the
eye which moves round the anterior end of the fim, not the
fin that prolongs itself past the eye. A comparison between
different specimens of the same species shows that the change
of place is rather a slow process. On the head of the young
Lh. barbatus above referred to, which is 18 millims. long, the
eye is still quite in front of the fin; on another specimen
of the same species which I have before me, and which is
45 millims. long, the centre of the eye is on a level with
the second and third ray of the fin; on a third specimen,
90 millims. long, the eye is on a level with the third and
fourth rays, and on a fourth specimen, 115 millims. long, it
has receded as far as the fourth and fifth rays.

The total length of the first-described young P. platessa was,
as stated, 10 millims. including the caudal fin. If, then, we take
into consideration the proportionally great size of the eggs of
this species, which measure 2 millims. in diameter, as well as
the fact that the fish-embryo is, as it were, rolled up inside
the ovum, it becomes clear that the specimen in question must
have been caught not many days after having left the egg.
Even allowing a margin for more rapid growth during the
first days after hatching, it must be conceded, on comparing
the three specimens above described, respectively 10 millims.,

* Dr. Traquair ascribes to Fr. Rosenthal the opinion that the upper
eye of the flounders attains to its anomalous final position by passing
under the dorsal fin right through the head ; but, although Rosenthal’s
expressions (Ichthyotomische Tafeln, ii. 5, Berlin, 1821, 4. p. 5) are vague
enough, and may be so interpreted, I think that he may equally well be
supposed to have intended only, by a sort of figure of speech, to illustrate
the peculiarity of the flounder-skull. The idea that a highly complicated
organ, after having attained its full development, should loosen itself
from the ground out of which it has grown, wander about amongst other
utterly different organs of the body—nay, even go right through the
body of the animal, in order to turn up again on the other side and
take root there—this idea is one which scientific zoolegy now-a-days can
only put aside as a curiosity. I therefore think it due to the memory of
so able an anatomist as Rosenthal that such a crude opinion should not
be ascribed to him except on more cogent grounds, although the plate
in the explanation of which the expressions in question occur was pub-
lished as early as 1821—that is, only a few years after the foundation of
comparative anatomy by Bichat.

382 On the Position of the Eyes in Pleuronectide.

14 millims., and 40 millims. long, that the development of the
position of the eyes after hatching is upon the whole a very
slow process, and that consequently the position of the eye on
the future blind side can scarcely have been quite symmetrical
even in the new-born fish. In the young fish of 10 millims.
length the anomalous eye has already, in every essential par-
ticular, the same position with regard to the bones of the skull
as in the adult, being placed in its orbit; and I therefore con-
sider it in the highest degree probable that the arrangement
of the frontal and anterior frontal bones round the eye of the
future blind side takes place in all essential points already in
the embryonal state; nor could the matter very well be ima-
gined otherwise according to all we know about the formation
of the embryo. But then the whole case falls under a very
well-known biological law, and becomes plain enough. The
young Pleuronectide are born with a position of their eyes
calculated for life nearer the surface of the water, and grow
slowly and gradually more asymmetrical in proportion as the
adult fishes seek more the bottom of the sea, or, at any rate,
are more calculated upon movement along a firmer surface *.
Hence the well-known long series of forms exhibiting a gra-
dual transition, from Hippoglossus pinguis, which does not in
any considerable degree alter the shape in which it leaves the
ovum, to the soles, which are entirely thrown on one side. It
appears, however, that Hippoglossus pinguis is not the least
asymmetrical form ofthe family. I have before me two perhaps
not quite adult specimens of an apparently undescribed oceanic
flounder, taken in the Atlantic, which I propose to call Bas-
canius tedifer, n.s., and which, in the series above alluded
to, would take place before the Hippoglossus. It is, as is the
case with other oceanic animals, clear as water, very high and
narrow, about 25 millims. long, foliaceous, almost symme-
trical; only the left side is a little more developed, and the
eye on that side is placed a little lower on the head. The
greatest height of the body is at the commencement of the
anal fin, where it almost reaches one-half of the total length.
The muciparous eanal makes a very slight bend over the
pectoral fin. The dorsal fin reaches the nostrils in front, and
approaches behind (as also does the anal fin) close to the caudal
fin, which is slightly rounded at the end; the open space be-
tween the ventral fin and the anal fin is longer than the
ventral fin itself. The rays of the fins exhibit only few
and long joints; their number I find to be in my two spe-

* Monstrosities, caused by the eye of the blind side being arrested in
its process of transfer in front of the dorsal fin, have long been known.
Comp. Dr. Traquair’s treatise, p. 265.

Bibliographical Notice. 383

cimens, in the dorsal fin 110-112 rays, in the anal fin 78-80,
in the caudal fin 16-18. The entire body of the fish is rather
closely strewn with small protuberances, which, on the head,
stand without perceptible order, but on the greater part of the
body, on the interspinous part of the dorsal and anal fins and
on the base of the caudal fin are arranged in longitudinal
rows. These protuberances are almost round, about 0-1 millim.
in diameter, almost flat at the top, and armed with a few very
small and short spines; only along the extreme edge of the
interspinous part of the dorsal and anal fins and on the base
of the caudal fin these protuberances. are more projecting,
almost semiglobular, equipped with more numerous and longer
spmes. The mouth is small, delicately formed, both jaws
well armed with pointed, needle-shaped teeth. The eyes are
round, very projecting, with a broad white ring of sclerotica
visible around the iris. Between the right eye and the dorsal
fin there is a semiluniform depression, where the body is so
thin that it easily breaks to pieces or separates itself from the
dorsal fin when incautiously manipulated. In that case, of
course, a part of the opposite eye is seen through the hole,
and, to a superficial examination, the extraordinary appearance
is presented of a flounder having two eyes and a half.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE.

The Birds of South Africa, A Descriptive Catalogue of all the known
Species occurring south of the 28th Parallel of South Latitude.
By Epvear Lezoporp Layarp, F.Z.8. &. Cape Town: 1867.
(London: Longmans.) 8vo, pp. 382.

‘« ConrRisvToRs cannot be criticised:” this.is the principle on which
a good many publications are conducted ; and in politics or in general
literature it may answer well enough. Naturalists, however, are
exempt from any such consideration. They may, nay they are
bound to say what they think of the labours of their fellows.
Hence, in speaking of Mr. Layard’s recent wo:k, we dismiss from
our thoughts the fact that he has been, and we hope will again be,
one of the contributors to this Journal. The Ceylon ornithologist
whose graphic pen enlivened our pages fifteen years ago, and more,
must stand at our bar and listen to our summing-up without being
able to call the court as a witness to his character. Indeed he has
entirely changed his mode of life since then—of necessity, it necd
scarcely be said (for no man in his senses would do so willingly) :
be has abandoned the jungle and the forest for tue museum and the
library. In this new sphere he is certainly not yet so successful ;
but non cuwis contingit. A drouthy ‘Descriptive Catalogue’
affords but little scope for that kind of talent which distinguished
his former writings. It must be judged by other rules.

384 Bibliographical Notice.

First of all, in such a case, to make his descriptions complete and
of the most service, the author should make them also comparative.
This Mr. Layard has not done. His descriptions have been penned
at various times and in various places, which was probably unavoid-
able; but, then, they should have been subsequently compared with
one another, so as to ensure theirsymmetry. For species the author
has not himself seen, of course he is quite right to quote the original
descriptions unaltered ; and this, the safest plan, Mr. Layard appears
to have followed. But we are speaking of descriptions written by
himself; and the “broken and disjointed style” for which he in a
measure apologizes in his “preface” is here unnecessary: it not
merely disfigures the book, but is an absolute hindrance to its
utility.

The next important point is that the author of such a Catalogue
as the present should be very precise in quoting from his predeces-
sors. But here there is much room for improvement. Mr. Layard
is weakest in his ‘bookwork.” We have no bibliographical in-
formation afforded us, no list of authorities given, and the references
to the publications cited are now put in one form and now in another,
while many, and these most necessary, references are not made at all.
This is especially to be regretted in a book on South-African birds ;
for respecting the ornithology of few parts of the world are the mate-
rials so widely scattered and so little digested. It would have been
a great achievement for Mr. Layard to have drawn up his references
on a well-arranged system. Very likely it would have been a
troublesome job, but still one quite feasible and quite worth the
labour bestowed upon it. Besides, we are much mistaken if it
could have been done anywhere better than at Cape Town. Take
for instance the numerous contributions to South-African ornitho-
logy by Sir Andrew Smith. In this country we doubt whether any
library contains a complete series of them. Some of his descriptions
originally appeared in newspapers published in the colony; and at
the Cape, if anywhere, copies of these papers should be accessible.
Now Mr. Layard evinces no sign of haying made search for them,
and yet, from all we have heard of the public library of Cape Town,
they are to be found there.

We do not make these depreciatory observations without reason.
The fact is that Mr. Layard’s book, as far as it goes. is so good and
so useful, that it ought to be better and more useful. He modestly
says of it that “it is a move forwards, and may serve as a founda-
tion for the labours of others whose opportunities may be greater.”
But we would impress upon Mr. Layard that he has the greatest
opportunities of any one. We believe that he has informed his
friends at home that he is already preparing a second edition. We
are very glad to hear it; but we trust he will take care that the
work undergoes a very thorough revision before a second edition is
printed. Moreover we venture, in addition to the hints for its
improvement given above, to recommend him to eliminate all those
species, now included, which he himself shows have been erroneously
introduced in the South-African fauna. By doing this he will leave

Miscellaneous. 385

more room for the proper treatment of the rightful natives. To our
readers we would give the advice that they should at once purchase
the ‘ Birds of South Africa, as, the sooner this edition is sold off, the
sooner we may expect the new and improved one. To Mr. Layard
we tender our best wishes for his health and zeal, that he may
successfully prosecute his task.

MISCELLANEOUS.
Natica catenata (Philippt).
To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,— What is the true habitat of Natica catenata?

Reeve, in his monograph of the genus, gives “ Sicily,” but without
quoting any authority.

Moreover Philippi, whose description Reeve copies, in his original
account of the species (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1851, p. 233), in which he
describes it from specimens in the collection of Mr. Cuming, assigns
no locality; it may therefore be presumed that none was ; attached
to the Cuming specimens.

Some shells in the collection of this Museum, belonging to this
species, are labelled as from Mazatlan; but no authority is given for
the habitat. I should therefore be glad to know if any examples of
this species have been recently obtained, and, if so, from where.

I perceive Reeve changes Natica Incei, Philippi, into V. Jncit, and
Natica caribea, Philippi, into NV. caribbea,

Do not these seem rather unnecessary alterations, and apparently
founded on no good reason?

I have, &c.,
Institution, Bristol. T. Granam Ponton,

Balatro calvus, a New Genus and Species of Rotatoria entirely desti-
tute of Vibratile Cilia. By HK. Craparkpe.

M. Mecznikow has lately described (Siebold and Kolliker’s ‘ Zeit-
schrift,’ 1866, p. 346), under the name of Apsilus lentiformis, a
Rotatorian entirely destitute of vibratile cilia; and M. Claparéde
now communicates an account of an animal of the same kind
observed by him some years ago in the Seime, a small river of
the Canton of Geneva. It was found creeping on the bodies of
Trichodrili and other small Oligocheeta.

The body of this animal, to which M. Claparéde gives the name
of Balatro calvus, is more or less vermiform and very contractile.
Its posterior extremity (foot) is divided into two lobes, of which the
ventral is semilunar, with acute angles which are capable of inva-
gination. The dorsal lobe forms a flattened cylinder terminated by
three mammille. Between the two lobes the anus is situated.

The anterior extremity, which is indistinctly annulated, is capable
of retraction as in other Rotatoria. The mastax is not largely de-
veloped and is armed with a very small incus and with two curved

386 Miscellaneous.

mallei; it opens directly into a thick-walled intestine, the inner
layer of which is brownish. This intestine is more simple than in
the Rotatoria generally ; it extends in a straight line from the mouth
to the anus, and its narrowed anterior part scarcely merits the name
of cesophagus. No glands were observed in connexion with the
stomach. When the animal is extended the curved mallei project
externally.

All the individuals observed were females. The ovary occupies
the ventral portion of the body, beneath the intestine; the mature
ovules are ovoid, and occupy the posterior extremity of the body.

M. Claparéde characterizes his genus Balatro as follows :—Body
vermiform, very contractile; posterior extremity terminated by
two lobes: one ventral, of a semilunar form, transverse ; the other
dorsal, nearly cylindrical, acting as a foot. Mallei in the form of
crooks. No vibratile organs; no eyes.

Besides Apsilus and Balatro, Taphrocampa of Gosse is a genus of
Rotatoria destitute of vibratile cilia. Mr. Gosse placed it originally
near Notommata and Furcularia, but has since removed it to the
neighbourhood of Chetonotus among the Gastrotricha. In this M.
Claparéde thinks he is wrong, as Y'aphrocampa possesses a mastax
the structure of which is very near that of the Furcularie and Mo-
nOCer Ce.

M. Dujardin also describes his genus Lindia as destitute of cilia;
and M. Claparéde regards it as nearly allied to his Balatro, which is
still more closely related to Albertia (Duj.).—<Annales des Sciences
Naturelles, série 5, tome viii. pp. 12-16.

Occurrence of Terebratula (Waldheimia) pseudo-jurensis (Leymerie)
in England. By J. ¥. Watxsr, B.A., F.G.8. &e

Among the Brachiopoda which I have obtained from the Lower
Greensand deposit at Upware, Cambridgeshire, I detected a species
which, on examination, proved to be the Terebratula pseudo-jurensis
described by M. Leymerie (Mém. Soc. Géol. Fr. 1842, tome v. p. 12)
from the Neocomian beds of France. Mr. Keeping has also obtained
specimens of this fossil for the Woodwardian Museum. As the
species had not previously been discovered in this country, I thought
that a notice of its occurrence would have some interest for the
readers of the ‘ Annals.’

The inspection of the loop proves that this species is a Waldhewmia.

Fossil Ivory.

The ivory of Mammoth-tusks is an article of trade peculiar to
Siberia. Although forming too slight an item to be taken into con-
sideration in the statistical returns of the trade of Russia, still, as
this ivory formed one of the earliest articles of export from Siberia
to China, the few statistics I have been able to collect with reference
to this curiosity of commerce may not be without interest.

About 40,000 lbs. of fossil ivory (that is to say, the tusks of at
least 100 mammoths) are bartered for every year in New Siberia, so

Miscellaneous. 387

that, in a period of 200 years of trade with that country, the tusks
of 20,000 mammoths must have been disposed of, perhaps even twice
that number, since only 200 lbs. of ivory is calculated as the average
weight produced by a pair of tusks.

As many as ten of these tusks have been found lying together in
the “Tundra,” weighing from 150 to 300 lbs. each; the largest
are rarely seen out of the country, many of them being too rotten to
be made use of, while others are so large that they canrot be carried
away, and are sawn up in blocks or slabs on the spot where they are
found, with very considerable waste, so that the loss of weight in
the produce of a tusk before the ivory comes to market is of no trifling
amount. A large portion of this ivory is used by the nomad tribes
in their sledges, arms, and household implements; and formerly a
great quantity used to be exported to China,—a trade which can be
traced back to a very distant period ; for Giovanni de Plano Carpini,
a Franciscan Monk, sent by Pope Innocent IV., in 1246, into Tartary,
describes a magnificent throne of carved ivory, richly ornamented
with gold and precious stones, belonging to the Tartar Khan of the
Golden Horde, the work of a Russian jeweller, the slabs of which
were so large that they could only have been cut out of large mam-
moth-tusks. |

Notwithstanding the enormous amount already carried away, the
stores of fossil ivory do not appear to diminish ; in many places, near
the mouths of the great rivers flowing into the Arctic Ocean, the
bones and tusks of these antediluvian pachyderms lie scattered about
like the relics of a ploughed-up battlefield, while in other parts these
creatures of a former world seem to have huddled together in herds
for protection against the sudden destruction that betell them, since
their remains are found lying together in heaps.

In 1821, a hunter from Yakutsk, on the Lena, found in the New-
Siberian Islands alone 500 poods (18,000 lbs. English) of mammoth-
tusks, none of which weighed more than 3 poods—and this not-
withstanding that another hunter, on a previous visit in 1809, had
brought away with him 250 poods of ivory from the same islands.
The inhabitants on the mainland pile up in heaps the tusks which
are found scattered about on the “ Tundra,” and convey them in
large boats up the Lena. In the period from 1825 to 1831, at least
1500 poods reached Yakutsk yearly ; the trade in fossil ivory at
Turuchansk, on the Jenissei, has for many years past amounted to
from 80 to 100 poods annually, and that of Obdorsk, on the river
Ob, from 75 to 100 poods.

Entire mammoths have occasionally been discovered, not only with
the skin (which was protected with a double covering of hair and
wool) entire, but with the fleshy portions of the body in such a state
of preservation that they have aftorded food to dogs and wild beasts
in the neighbourhood of the places where they were found. They
appear to have been suddenly enveloped in ice or to have sunk into
mud which was on the point of congealing, and which, before the
process of decay could commence, froze around the bodies and has
preserved them up to the present time in the condition in which
they perished. It is thus they are occasionally found when a land-

388 Miscellaneous.

slip occurs in the frozen soil of the Siberian coast, which never thaws,
even during the greatest heat of the summer, to a depth of more than
2 feet; and in this way, within a period of a century and a half,
five or six of these curious corpses have come to light from their icy
graves.—From a Report by Mr. Lumley, H.M. Secretary of Embassy
and Legation, Russia, 1867.

On the union of the Tympanic Bone with the Lower Jaw occurring
in the Marsupials during development, as a fresh proof of the agree-
ment of this bone with the os quadratum of the other classes of
Vertebrata. By Professor W. Prrers.

The articulation of the lower jaw in the Mammalia is effected, as
is well known, by means of a condyle, which fits into an articular
cavity of the zygomatic process of the temporal bone, either directly
or by the mediation of an interarticular cartilage, whilst in the
other classes of Vertebrata the lower jaw is united, by means of an
articular cavity, with the condyle of a bone which, after Hérissant’s
example, is usually called the os quadratum.

This bone is either articulated to the cranium (Birds, Lizards,
Snakes), or united to it by suture (Crocodiles, Tortoises, Batrachia).
In the former case it may assist in the formation of the tympanic
cavity and in the attachment of the tympanic membrane; in the
second it always does so. This bone may be united to various parts
of the temporal bone, and to the pterygoid, sphenoid, and occipital
bones. Of all these unions, that with the temporal bone, and,
indeed, with its squamous portion, is alone constant, whilst all the
others may be wanting.

The question, with what part of the mammalian skull the qua-
drate bone is homologous, has given rise to many disputes, and has
been answered in various ways :—

1. Hérissant regarded the ascending ramus of the lower jaw as
the part corresponding to it.

2. Tiedemann, Platner, and apparently Késtlin regard the qua-
drate bone as a part separated from the squamous (and petrous) por-
tion of the temporal.

3. Geoffroy St.-Hilaire regarded the os tympanicum with the pro-
cessus styloideus as representing it.

4. Oken, Cuvier, Blainville, Spix, Meckel, Carus, R. Wagner,
Hallmann, Stannius, Owen, and others interpret it as the os tym-
panicum.

5. Reichert, O. Schmidt, and Huxley declare that, as Carus had
previously supposed, the incus or the middle ossicle of the ear in the
Mammalia is the quadrate bone of the other Vertebrata.

I had hitherto adhered to the opinion that the os tympanicum of
the Mammalia was homologous with the os quadratum of the other
Vertebrata, as also used originally to be indicated by J. Miiller, in
his lectures, whilst subsequently he used the expression “ quadrate
bone.” To me the proof of this interpretation lay in the similar
position of the bone in its relations to the tympanic cavity and
membrane, and in the union of the bone with the sphenoid occurring

Miscellaneous. 389

even in the Marsupialia. The absence of the articulation with the
lower jaw seemed to me to be of the less importance, as the qua-
drate bone is also inconstant in its other unions, and only that with
the squamous portion of the temporal is constant. That a distinct
bone, which is constant throughout the whole series of the Mam-
malia, should at once disappear, seemed to me to be improbable;
nor could I accept the small fragments of bone found in birds, by
some observers, as representing it.

I could never reconcile myself to the opinion, supported especially
by Reichert and Huxley, that the incus of the Mammalia is the
homologue of the quadrate bone, both on account of the objections
raised against it by J. Miiller*, who had the opportunity of care-
fully examining the preparations made by M. Reichert for the
proof of his opinion, and also because it seemed to me very impro-
bable that the incus, which in the Ornithorhynchus does not occur at
all, or only appears as a minute rudiment, should suddenly make
its appearance again in the Birds in such gigantic proportions and
in a totally different position, not to mention the difficulty of inter-
preting the incus and malleus which certainly likewise occur in a
cartilaginous rudimentary state in Birds.

Leaving this last circumstance, especially, out of consideration,
from the similarity which two parts issuing from or connected with -
Meckel’s process (namely, the articular portion of the lower jaw in
Birds and Amphibia, and the malleus of the Mammalia lying behind
the lower jaw) present to one another at a certain period of deve-
lopment, a conclusion is arrived at as to the homology of these
parts, upon which a number of other hypotheses upon the homologies
of other parts of the skeleton (e.g. in the fishes) are supported ; and
the latter, of course, fall if the former be erroneous.

At the present moment, when I am occupied with the conclusion
of other investigations, I should hardly have been led to take up
again a question which has been so long in dispute, if Mr. Huxley,
who had already + given his decided adhesion to the opinion of the
homology of the quadrate bone and the incus, had not, in a memoir
upon the classification of Birds, otherwise containing much that is
admirable, and which is destined to find a very large circle of
readers, represented the matter as if all doubt upon the point in
question had been got rid of §.

As it appeared to me that a solution of the question was most
likely to be found among the lower Mammalia, which approach
Birds in so many respects, I first sought for it among the Monotre-
mata, but have been compelled to interrupt this investigation for
the present, and in the next place took young Marsupials in hand.

* Archiv fiir Anatomie und Physiologie, 1838, p. clxxxvii.

+ Even if there may be some doubt with regard to the incus in Birds,
this must be quite baseless with respect to the malleus. But the bone
which is denominated incus in the Mammalia is always situated between
the stapes and the malleus.

{ Lectures on the Elements of Comparative Anatomy. London, 1864,
pp. 229 et seq.

§ Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1867, p. 416.

390 Miscellaneous.

In a young Halmaturus Bennettii, measuring (without the tail)
85 millims., the os tympanicum forms a ring broken through
before and behind, just asin the developed state in the Monotre-
mata. The anterior and stronger part of this ring divides into a
fork above, and embraces Meckel’s process from without and behind,
whilst beneath it fits exactly with a convexity upon the inner sur-
face of the ascending portion of the lower jaw, and with a smooth
articular surface into the upper concave surface of the incurved
angle of the jaw.

I find the conditions exactly similar in older examples of Didel-
phys aurita, only that the tympanic bone is already separated by a
thin layer of connective tissue from the angle of the lower jaw.

From this the peculiar characteristic formation of the angle of
the Jower jaw in the lower Mammalia is at once explained ; its in-
wardly projecting portion corresponds, as a provisional articular
process, with the permanent inner articular process of Birds.

It is possible, and appears to me even probable, that the malleus
in Birds contributes to the formation of the quadrate bone, as in
Birds there is still a second outer articular cavity, no part corre-
sponding to which exists in the Marsupialia. This will probably
find its explanation among the Monotremata, as in Ornithorhynchus
- a peculiar external process of the lower jaw occurs, corresponding
in position to the outer articular process in Birds; and I hope soon
to be able to make further communications upon this point.—
Monatsber. Berl. Akad. der Wiss. Noy. 21, 1867, pp. 725-729.

On the Tympanie Bone and Ossicles of the Ear in the Monotremata,
in connexion with the question of the interpretation of the Quadrate
Bone in Birds. By Professor W. Prrsrs.

My hope of obtaining very young Monotremes, and by their inves-
tigation solving, as I expected, the question of the homology of the
quadrate bone of birds with the tympanic bone, has not been ful-
filled ; but yet, from the examination of a not completely developed
skull of Tachyglossus hystrix, for which I am indebted to the kindness
of Dr. Mobius, and from that of a still younger skull of Ornithorhyn-
chus belonging to the Zoological Museum of Berlin, some results have
been obtained which seem to me worth communicating.

The os tympanicum of Tachyglossus is, indeed, at a later period
amalgamated with the long process of the malleus, but the boundary
between them may still be distinctly recognized. It then forms a
half ring, the thinnest middle part of which is applied directly to the
os pterygoideum, and at the spot which lies nearest to the apex of
the long process of the malleus it is but little widened. But in the
young specimen now before me, this entire region is the broadest of
the ring, and moreover it is furnished on its lower free surface with a
slight convexity, which corresponds to the inner concavity of the
small angle of the lower jaw, and which, in all probability, and
judging from the conditions in the Marsupials, was previously united
hke a joint with this cavity. The extraordinary size of the long
process of the malleus is likewise remarkable; in proportion to the

Miscellaneous. 391

entire size of the animal it shows a more gigantic development than
in any other mammal. Exteriorly the malleus unites by an
articulation with the squama temporalis at a point which appears to
be depressed by the externally projecting hinder extremity of the
zygomatic bone*. Nevertheless this union does not take place
directly, but by means of a small acutely triangular ossicle, widen-
ing from before backwards, which, on careful examination, proves
to be nothing but a portion of the incus which is amalgamated with
the malleusf.

But if the malleus be examined on its upper surface, a distinct
suture appears to be present in places at the point where the long
process unites with the malleus; and this leads us to expect that in
very young animals a dividing suture will be found here.

At any rate it is of importance to the question of the interpreta-
tion of the quadrate bone in birds, that in the full-grown Tachy-
glossus there is a bone, consisting originally of three or four sepa-
rate pieces, which effects an articular union of the squama temporalis
with the os pterygoideum and (at an earlier period) with the lower
jaw.

In Ornithorhynchus, in which the incus remains separate through-
out life, the os tympanicum unites directly by the malleus with the
squama temporals ; nevertheless it is to be observed that the ineus
situated above it is likewise united with the squama temporalis,
which is the cause that, in this genus, it is difficult to remove the
auditory ossicles in connexion.

Here, therefore, we see, in the Monotremata, that a bone composed
of two or more pieces presents the same articular connexions as the
os quadratum in birds, that by these pieces, through the os tympa-
nicum, 1s effected the union with the os pterygoidewm and the inner
angular process of the lower jaw, whilst that with the squama tem-
poralis is effected by the malleus and incus, or by the incus alone.
The question still remams to be solved, in the young Monotremata,
whether the long process of the malleus (occurring as a distinct
bone, and, in part, representing a part of the os tympanicum of the
higher Mammalia) at any time forms a condyle corresponding to
the outer cavity of the articular process of the lower jaw in birds.—
Monatsber. Berl. Akad. der Wiss. Dec. 5, 1867, pp. 779-781.

* To me the interpretation of this peculiar bone, which attaches itself
like a scale upon the sguama temporals, given by Laurillard and Duver-
noy seems to be quite correct, although it is remarkable that it assists in
the formation of the cranial cavity, which, indeed, induced Mr. Owen not
to agree in this interpretation, without, however, giving a better one
(Monotremata, Cycl. of Anat. & Phys. p. 7). Ihave been able to investigate
this bone upon a very beautiful dissected skull, most kindly communi-
cated to me by Professor Keferstein of Géttingen.

+ That this small intermediate bone, which effects the articular union
with the sguama temporalis, is a portion of the incus was first made plain
to me by a kind communication from my friend Flower, whom I induced
to investigate this subject, and who wrote to me that he had found ina
young skull of Tachyglossus the incus, which had previously been entirely
overlooked, and which would only subsequently be amalgamated with the
malleus, but was then distinctly to be recognized.

392 Miscellaneous.

Leucodore calcarea.
To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

GrentLEMEN,—Allow me to draw your attention, and that of your
readers, to the figure of Leucodore calcarea appended to my paper
last month. I have to apologize very greatly for its erroneous and
sketchy appearance. The sete are by no means correctly indicated,
whilst the great branchial cirri, which curve over the back, are
omitted altogether. This is owing to illness, which prevented me
from seeing to the proofs of the plate. The figure given by Dr.
Johnston originally, I believe, in this Magazine, and republished in
the ‘ B. M. Catalogue of Worms,’ is a very fair representation of his
Leucodore ciliata, which I must refer to as a correction of the erro-
neous one in my plate. Since my paper did not deal with the
morphological peculiarities of Leuwcodore, the figure was only of
secondary importance.

I am, Gentlemen, truly yours,
E. Ray LAnxester.

On the Growth of the Stem of Fontinalis antipyretica.
By Professor H. Lrrrens.

The apical growth of this moss takes place by repeated divisions of
a three-sided apical cell. The divisional walls are parallel to the
lateral surfaces of the apical cell. The spiral of division is as often
directed io the right as to the left. The segments cut off from the
apical cell by the divisional walls are arranged, in accordance with
their origin, in three longitudinal series, and at first incline towards
each other at an angle of about 70°. Each segment is divided by
a longitudinal wall into an outer and an inner part. The inner part
of the segment, which subsequently becomes horizontal (the stem-
part of the segment), displays in general the same development as
the segments in the roots of many vascular Cryptogamia and in the
stem of Equisetum. Itis divided by the sextant-wall into sextants,
in the larger of which an inner cell is cut off by a tangential wall.
From the stem-part of the segment is formed the widely cellular,
axile tissue of the stem.

The outer part of the segment (the leaf-part) partially retains
its inclined position. It divides by a horizontal wall into the acro-
scopic and the basiscopic basilar portion. The former grows out into
the free leaf-surface, a two-edged apical cell being formed in it.
From the basiscopic basilar pieces the buds are developed. Hence
each bud and the leaf standing above it belong to the same segment.
One wall of the apical cell of the bud is always turned towards the
apex of the parent shoot. Thesegmental spiral of the bud is always
antidromous to the segmental spiral of the parent shoot. The tan-
gential growth of the basiscopic basilar piece always remains much
behind that of the acroscopie portion.—Anzeiger der Akad. der Wiss.
in Wien, February 13, 1868, pp. 43-44.

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[FOURTH SERIES. ]

No. 6. JUNE 1868.

XLVII.—On Balanus armatus, and a Hybrid between this
Species and Balanus improvisus, var. assimilis, Darw. By
Dr. Fritz MULLER*.

[Plate XX.]

In Acasta purpurata, which lives in the bark of an Jsis, as
also in Acasta cyathus and sulcata, which live in sponges,
Darwin found that, in the outer branch of the fourth pair of
cirri, the anterior margins of some of the inferior joints were
armed with strong decurved teeth, by which means, he thought,
these joints were converted into jaw-like structures, and became
wonderfully well fitted to seize any prey (Darwin, ‘ Balanide,’
pp. 84 & 811). In no other Cirripede has a similar armature
been hitherto detected.

When I first met with Balanide imbedded in a sponge, I
of course at once looked for this armature, and had the grati-
fication of finding both branches of one of the cirri equipped
with similar but much more numerous teeth. But on closer
examination it appeared, to my great astonishment, that in
my species it was not the fourth, but the third pair that bore
the teeth, and that the animal was not an Acasia, but a true
Balanus with porous walls and a porous base, and scarcely
distinguishable, as regarded its shell, from Balanus trigonus,
Darwin.

Occurrence.—This Balanus armatus (as I have called it, on
account of the abundant armature of its cirri) lives almost ex-
clusively in sponges. I found the first three mutually adhe-
rent shells (two of them with the animal still in them) thrown
up upon the shore, and rather worn. ‘They appeared not to
have been attached to a solid body; and in sheltered parts,
especially beneath the deeply excavated base of one specimen,
there was some loose sponge-mass, which, from the spicules,

* Translated by W.S. Dallas, F.L.S. &e., from Wiegmann’s ‘ Archiv,’
1867, pp. 329-356,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. i. 28

394 Dr. F. Miiller on Balanus armatus.

could be determined as belonging to a large sulphur-yellow
Papillina not uncommon here. This Papillina (and perhaps,
indeed, the whole genus Papiilina, Schmidt), however, is no-
thing but a Vioa which takes up its abode im shells and other
calcareous structures, penetrates them, and in course of time
almost entirely destroys them, and, finally growing over them, .
increases into large cake-like masses, which may attain a dia-
meter of more than a foot. It was therefore doubtful in this
case whether the Balanus had sought out the Sponge, or the
Sponge the Balanus, especially as the shells were attacked by
the Sponge in several places.

Subsequently I have frequently found Balanus armatus in
abundance in a Reniera which, in shape, colour, and form of
spicules, closely approaches R. aqgueductus, Schmidt, and is
particularly characterized by its greatly developed fibrous
framework, which is as readily washed out as that of the
common sponge. Very rarely (I have as yet only once found
three specimens) the Ba/anus occurs in one of our commonest
sponges, which coats whole rock-walls in the form of a dark-
red mass beset with steep, jagged, mountain-like protuberances,
and in its hard structure approaches Reniera digitata, Schmidt.
On the contrary, it is frequent on an eight-rayed polype,
Carijoa rupicola, F. Miill.*, which grows at the depth of

* Carijoa rupicola (fig. 56), The entire stem of the polypary (which
attains a height of 0°15 metre, rising straight or slightly curved, and is
about 2 millim. in thickness, is formed by a single polype, which unfolds
its tentacles at the extremity, and the body-cavity of which penetrates
the whole stem. The polype can retract itself into the upper extremity
of the stem. This retractile part is snow-white. The plumose tentacles
are produced into a thin terminal filament, which appears nodose, like
the slender lateral appendages. Beneath the-circlet of tentacles there are
some delicate calcareous spicules. The dissepiments surrounding the
stomachal tube are continued throughout the whole length of the hollow
stem as eight slightly projecting longitudinal lines: two of these, lying
close together, bear an undulated membranous border with a thickened
margin, in which the dark brownish-violet ova are developed, likewise
throughout the whole length of the stem. The wall of the stem below
is sometimes as much as 0°5 millim. in thickness; above, it becomes
thinner and flexible; in the lower part the stem appears smooth; in the
upper, softer portion it is traversed by eight longitudinal furrows. There
are no projecting calcareous spicules. The wall acquires firmness by
closely approximated calcareous spicules, which are deposited in all pos-
sible directions in planes parallel to the axis. These are straight or
slightly curved, irregularly beset with more or less numerous knots:
some of them are longer (average 0°25, single ones more than 0°5 millim.),
slenderer, and smoother than the rest; the others, which pass into the
former by intermediate forms, are shorter and stouter, and beset with
more numerous and stronger processes. The latter occur here and there
fused together.

From the stem spring numerous branches, usually four or five, at nearly

Dr. F. Miiller o7 Balanus armatus. 395

about a fathom below the level of the water at midtide, on an
isolated rock (not far from the shore at the south end of the
Praia de Fora), and forms dense, slightly branched bushes of
as much as 0°15 metre in height. The flesh-coloured stem of
this polype, about 2 millims. in thickness, is usually coated
by a dark-yellow sponge with pin-like siliceous spicules, form-
ing a thin crust; and Balanus armatus is rarely absent from
such sponge-coated polyparies: as many as ten or twelve are
frequently seated, closely pressed together, upon such a poly-
pary ; and these are likewise covered by the sponge up to the
opening.

On the same rock four other Balanide reside :—uppermost,
above midwater, Chthamalus siellatus; at the lower limit of
this species, and usually closely covered by it, Zetraclita po-
rosa, especially on the seaward side; a little lower are seated
some large shells of Balanus tintinnabulum; and then follows,
extending down into the domain of the Car¢joa, which is
domiciled on the landward side of the rock, Balanus impro-
visus, var. assimilis. The latter occurs also in single speci-
mens seated on the Cartjoa and sometimes on Balanus armatus,
or serving as a support for the latter. Once only I found a
small B. tintinnabulum, only 8 millims. in height, upon the
Carijoa.

Sometimes, but rather rarely, B. armatus is found attached
to rocks. On one occasion I found two of its shells, in com-
pany with numerous specimens of B. émprovisus, var. assimilis,
upon a living Purpura. Lastly, I possess two specimens

the same level: the great majority of these remain short (about 4 millims.
in length) and simple; but some become elongated, and again put forth
lateral branchlets. The branches and branchlets perfectly resemble the
stem in their structure. Hach of them bears a polype at its extremity, and
is traversed by its body-cavity. The body-cavities of the individual po-
lypes which, as stem, branches, and branchlets, compose the polypary,
are not connected with each other. From the lower extremity of the
stem issue some thinner tubes, which act as roots, and, when applied to
flat surfaces, are often flattened and dilated. Sometimes two neighbour-
ing branches grow together superficially ; this takes place more frequently
in the roots. When exposed to the light, the dried polypary is very ra-
pidly and completely bleached. Even in the fresh state, individual poly-
paries are almost colourless ; but others are, on the contrary, much darker
than is shown in the figure. The name Carijoa is derived from that of
the inhabitants of our island (Santa Catharina) at the time of its disco-
very by Europeans,—the Carijos.

Besides the yellow coat [mentioned in the text], four or five species of
Reniera are found, but not very frequently, adhering to the Carijoa ; these
are of a dark-red, pale-violet, greenish-grey, or snow-white colour; and
one can imagine nothing of a gayer appearance than a bush of Carioa
such as I have seen, traversed and enveloped by all these sponges at the
same time.

28*

396 Dr. F. Miiller on Balanus armatus.

which are seated close together upon the tube of a Serpula
(Lupomatus floribundus, ¥. Miill.), which bears, close to them,
two shells of B. improvisus, var. assimilis. This, which is the
commonest of all the Balanide here, sometimes even occurs in
Reniera as the companion of B. armatus.

General appearance.—The shell of Balanus armatus (fig.1),
as regards form and colour, is very variable in its general
appearance. or the most part, in this, as in other species,
this difference is caused by the support upon which the animal
has domiciled itself. Hence the most regular shells are gene-
rally those imbedded in soft sponges, the development of
which never meets with any obstacles. They are usually
found here of a steeply conical form sometimes nearly cylin-
drical, the longitudinal diameter (from the rostrum to the
carina) generally rather greater than the transverse, the ros-
trum and carina nearly of equal height, the base always con-
cave, and generally in a high degree. In this respect, there-
fore, B. armatus agrees with the allied B. spongicola, and
differs, like the latter, from the sponge-haunting Acaste, im
which the base is strongly convex. But even in Reniera very
divergent forms are not wanting. I have seen shells in which
the rostrum was only half as high, and others in which it was
twice as high, as the carina.

The form of the shells seated upon the Carijoa is particu
larly variable. It differs according as they are attached longi-
tudinally, or transversely, or obliquely to the stem of the polype,
which usually forms a deep furrow in their base. This is
elongated in the direction of the furrow, which, again, has an
influence upon the whole shell, so that even in its middle the
breadth varies from two-thirds to four-thirds of the length.
Not unfrequently the separate pieces of the shell are of very
different heights, all the pieces of one side being sometimes
twice as high as those of the other. Rarely the furrow of the
base 1s closed, so as to form a complete tube. On one occasion
I found Balanus armatus adhering to the apex of a branchlet ;
and in this case the base formed a conical tube round the
branchlet, longer than half the height of the shell; the dia-
meter of the base was only half the length of the orifice. In
other cases, again, the base is more than twice as long as the
orifice. Shells inflated in the middle also occur. A particu-
larly remarkable form was seated transversely upon the stem
of a Carvyoa. The rostrum and carina are unusually broad,
almost equilaterally triangular; they embrace the stem and
meet together beneath it upon one side in a sharp edge. The
walls of the lateral and carino-lateral pieces, on the contrary,
are quite narrow strips. But it would be necessary to figure

Dr. F. Miiller on Balanus armatus. 397

hundreds upon hundreds of different forms to exhaust the va-
rieties of these Balani seated upon Carijoa; nevertheless in
these, and likewise in the shells seated upon rocks, a steeply
conical form predominates. The two shells observed upon
Purpura were flatter than usual; their walls were less steep,
and their base larger in proportion to the orifice.

The surface of the walls is usually smooth, rarely furnished
with inconsiderable longitudinal ribs; the shells attached to
rocks generally have stronger ribs. The colour of the walls
is sometimes quite pale; sometimes they are striped with a
lighter or darker dingy brownish purple. The radii usually
exhibit a more or less distinct dingy purple colour. Not un-
frequently there is a remarkable difference of colour between
the two sides of the same shell; and if we may imagine that
the influence of light has something to do with this, this ex-
planation is not applicable to a group of three shells of which
the lowest and largest is unusually dark-coloured, the second,
sitting upon this, is almost white, and the third and youngest,
which adheres to the second, has particularly distinct whitish
ribs, and between these pale-brown streaks. ‘The sheath is
pale; the opercular pieces partly pale, partly dark, but usually
reddish, at least towards the apex.

I never found the epidermis preserved upon the radii, and
rarely in traces upon the lower part of the walls; but I possess
an example from a Reniera the walls of which are still com-
pletely covered with a yellowish membrane, and the radii of
which are, moreover, distinguished by their white colour.

But, different as the shells of Balanus armatus may be in
their form and colouring, they all agree completely in the pe-
culiar form of the mouth, which reminds one of that of B. tri-
gonus, though, unlike that of the latter species, it is always dis-
tinctly toothed*. ‘The radii are always oblique, especially those
of the rostrum ; their free margins usually form with the wall of
the rostrum an angle a little under, and with that of the lateral
piece a little over 60°, meeting the ale of the lateral piece
about in the middle. In like manner the margins of the radii
of the lateral piece and of the ale of the carimo-lateral piece
meet each other about in the middle, whilst the margins of the
alee of the carina only meet the radii of the carino-lateral pieces
close to the walls of the latter. Like the denticulation of the
orifice, we find, as a second peculiarity in all well-preserved
shells, that the rostrum is a little bent inwards at the orifice.

* The sole exception (and this is probably only apparent) is furnished
by the three shells which I found thrown up on the shore. Their mouths
are entire and toothless; but I believe that they only lost their teeth
during their rolling in the sea and surf.

398 Dr. F. Miiller on Balanus armatus.

If the orifice be looked at from above, its denticulation is not
apparent, and we then see, taking the greatest breadth of the
orifice as a base, on one side an isosceles triangle, the apex of
which, with an angle of 50°-54°, is formed by the carina, and
on the other a low trapezium, the smaller base of which is
slightly curved inwards and formed by the radii of the rostrum
up to their crossing-points with the alee of the lateral pieces.
The sides of the triangle reach from the apex of the carina
nearly to the points of the lateral pieces; the height of the
trapezium is about one-fourth of that of the triangle; and the
height of the triangle is about equal to its base, the greatest
width of the orifice.

Pentagonal orifices, formed by a triangle and a trapezium
having the greatest breadth of the orifice for their common
base, occur elsewhere among the Balanz, as, for example, in
B. improvisus, var. assimilis ; but the lowness of the trapezium
in B. armatus is peculiar. In B. trigonus it becomes still
lower, and, indeed, nearly disappears; so that here the orifice
appears like an equilateral triangle with two slightly truncated
angles. Ifa line be drawn through the apices of the carina
and rostrum parallel to the straight lines passing through the
apices of the lateral pieces, or, to express it rather practically
than mathematically, if a line be drawn in the direction indi-
cated upon the apices of the carina and rostrum, we find that
the apices of the carino-lateral pieces do not quite reach this
line, and that those of the lateral pieces are still more dis-
tant from it. It is remarkable how very rarely, and in how
small a degree, the regularity of the orifice is affected by the
greatest irregularities of the shell.

Stze.—In the Sponge allied to Reniera aqueductus I found
only small shells, the diameter of the base and height of which
rarely attained 8 millims.; they grow larger on the Carioa
and on rocks; and the largest that I have seen are the three
from Papillina. Here follow some measurements :—

I II. It. IV. v. VE wile
Length of base .. 6 C3 VAS, 83) 20. ts oe
Breadth of base.. 5 6:3 9:3 6-9 14 16 6:2
Length of orifice 36 51 69 5 6 6 26
Breadth of orifice 2°8 3:8 5:5 4 54 5 2
Height of rostrum 5:5 8-1 SEN mee 17 5 4
Height ofcarina 55 91 II 8-5 4°» 124° Oe

1. Mean of eight measurements; shells from Reniera.

11. Mean of five measurements; shells seated on Carzjoa.

111. Mean of five measurements; shells adhering to rocks.

tv. Mean of twenty measurements, in which the preceding
eighteen are included.

Dr. F. Miiller on Balanus armatus. 399

vy. & vi. Two of the shells from the Papillina seated on
the third empty shell; v. has the carina, and vi. the rostrum
turned towards the orifice of the subjacent shell : in the former
the rostrum is more than four times as long as the carina, in
the latter the carina nearly three times as long as the rostrum ;
but the planes of the orifices of all these shells are nearly
parallel.

vu. Shell seated on a Purpura.

Scuta.—The scuta are very narrow; the occludent margin
is nearly or fully twice as long as the basal margin ; the ter-
gal margin is a little shorter than the occludent margin. The
apex is usually slightly curved upwards; the outer surface is
covered with strongly projecting lines ‘of growth, and with
from one to six longitudinal rows of pits, which are generally
very deep, and frequently of considerable width (fig. 2). In
twenty-eight animals taken at random, there were in the
lower part of the scuta :—once, two on each side; eight times,
three; eight times, four; once five, and once six rows; fur-
ther, six times, three rows upon one scutum and four on the
other; twice, four on one side and five on the other ; and, lastly,
once, five on one side and six on the other. A single row of _
pits was seen by me only on the two animals adhering to
Purpura. In the inside of the scutum there is an articular
ridge, not of great breadth, which reaches beyond the middle,
or even to the lower third of the scutum, and terminates there
in a rounded end or ina small point. The adductor ridge is
inconsiderable, and extends scarcely further downwards than
the articular ridge. Sometimes there is a very fine, sharp
longitudinal ridge between the articular and adductor ridges.
For the musculus depressor lateralis there exists a pit which
is usually narrow and deep. In the larger animals especially
the scuta are often of remarkable thickness.

Terga.—These agree perfectly with the descriptions given
by Darwin of Balanus trigonus. ‘The six to seven ridges for
the musculus depressor* never extend beyond the basal mar-

* Darwin’s statements as to the action of the three pairs of muscles
which descend from the operculum towards the base of the shell appear
to me, from what I have observed, especially in Tetraclita porosa, not to
be quite correct. According to Darwin, the operculum is opened by the
depressores scuti laterales; sudden contractions of the depressores ros-
trales probably cause the strokes which the animal gives with the beak-
like apices of the terga; by the common contraction of the three pairs
the operculum is held down with surprising force; the operculum can
only be raised by the pressure of the body against the base. (Darwin,
‘ Balanide,’ p. 62.)

If we attempt to cut the operculum of Tetraclita porosa out of the shell,
the knife will find a free passage everywhere except in two opposite

400 Dr. F. Miller on Balanus armatus.

gin of the tergum. The rows of bristles upon the lines of
growth of the opercular pieces are more strongly developed in
Balanus armatus, especially upon the scutum, than in the few
other species which I have been able to compare with it.
They are short and delicate upon the carinal side, and 0°2
millim. or more in length, and delicate, upon the scutal side of
the tergum, of the same length, but far thicker and closely
packed, upon the seutum. Longer and shorter bristles alter-
nate, but not as two clearly ditierent forms, as. is the case in
Bb. improvisus, var. assimilis. The chitinous cords (tubuli,
Darw.) which, proceeding from the bristles, permeate the oper-
cular pieces in an undulating course, become rapidly dimi-
nished into delicate filaments, which may easily be extracted
from the surrounding mass by breaking up the opercular pieces
when deprived of lime by acids (figs. 14-16) *.

points in the neighbourhood of the spurs. Here the operculum is closely
applied to the sheath; the membrane which unites the base of the oper-
culum with the sheath is here narrower and firmer than elsewhere. Thus
these two points form an axis (which is certainly somewhat displaceable)
round which the operculum can turn. We may now, in fresh animals,
readily seize the individual muscles and pull them, so as to arrive at an
explanation of their action. As might be expected from the mode of
attachment of the operculum, the carinal margin of the tergum is drawn
down by the depressores tergi, whilst, on the contrary, the rostral angle of
the scutum is elevated and the occludent margin acquires an almost hori-
zontal position. These muscles alone effect the powerful holding-down
of the closed operculum; the latter is then supported by the carinal mar-
gins of the terga against the sheath, which at this point usually shows
more or less distinct traces of wearing. By the depressores scuti, both
laterales and rostrales, the bases of the scuta are drawn down, and the ca-
rinal margins of the terga elevated, whilst the occludent margin attains a
more or less upright position. Because its apex projects further, the
entire operculum then appears elevated ; this, however, is only apparent,
and this elevation of the apex may be produced by pressing from without
upon the rostral angle of the scuta, instead of pulling from within upon
the depressores scuti. Elevation and sinking of the entire operculum,
however, takes place, only to a rather limited extent ; how far a pressure
of the body against the base assists in it, I will leave undecided.

The opening of the operculum is brought about, I believe, only by the
pressure of the animal against the opercular fissure ; the depressores late-
rales cannot open it. As may be easily ascertained from opercula which
have been removed with their connecting membrane, the two halves of
the operculum, in opening and closing, turn upon an axis passing through
the rostral angle of the scuta and the carinal angle of the terga; what-
ever is situated above this axis departs during the opening from the me-
dian line, and whatever lies beneath it approaches this line. But the
depressores scuti laterales pass from points beneath the turning axis
downwards and somewhat outwards, and therefore cannot possibly ap-
proximate their points of insertion to the median line, as would be neces-
sary for the opening of the operculum.

* In Tetraclita porosa, in which the chitinous cords remain tolerably
thick to the end, I have seen a pale filament projecting from their extre-

Dr. F. Miller on Balanus armatus. 401

The compartments of the Shell.—The tubes which penetrate
the walls are tolerably wide; in the uppermost part they are
completely filled, without transverse septa. The inner surface
of the walls is ribbed longitudinally, usually throughout, but
sometimes only below. The radii are externally smooth and
shining, with a fine striation in two directions, the one parallel
to the septa, the other to the sutural edge. The former is al-
ways more distinct; it is not caused by prominence of the
septa. In the radii of the rostrum and of the lateral pieces
this striation is nearly perpendicular to the walls of the lateral
pieces ; in the radii of the carino-lateral pieces it is perpendi-
cular to the wall of these pieces. Within, the radii, where
they do not lie upon the alex, are often finely ribbed by the
projecting septa; these ribs are generally very distinct, but
sometimes scarcely perceptible, and sometimes the radii are
quite smooth internally. In the septa of the radii, the inter-
stices of which are closely fied up to the suture, but often
distinguished by their reddish colour from the white septa, I
have been unable to detect any distinct denticulation. The
sutures of the ale are smooth. The sheath has a sharp edge
projecting freely below.

Base.—The base is porous; only in very rare cases it
projects beyond the lower margin of the shell. Even in the
animals domiciled in sponges the cement-tubes are well deve-
loped, whilst in Acasta they were not detected by Darwin.
After the base has been treated with acids, they appear as
colourless empty tubes. Their ramification differs in different
animals, but is exactly the same in the different older and
younger tubes of the same animal, so that the branches of
each younger circle run parallel to those of the older inner
ones. Not unfrequently cecal diverticula occur. At the
margin of the base, which is rarely got under the microscope
in a good state of preservation, I have seen the cement-tubes
dividing into very fine reticulated branchlets, such as Darwin
describes and figures in Balanus tintinnabulum (Balanide,
pl. 28. fig. 4a).

Mouth—The upper lip (fig. 10) has three approximated
teeth on each side of the central notch. The mandibles
have four distinct teeth; the fifth is sometimes entirely de-
ficient, but is usually to be distinguished as a small tubercle
above the lower angle of the mandible. On one occasion I
found in the same animal the fifth tooth uncommonly dis-
tinctly developed on one side, whilst on the other it was en-

mity, as though a nerve entered the cord; between the bristles and the
chitinous cords there seems to be a sort of articulation.

402 Dr. F. Miiller on Balanus armatus.

tirely wanting. The mazille have a straight margin, with
a very minute notch below the uppermost sete, or with-
out any such notch. There is no projection for the lower
bristles. The upper and the two lowest sete are only a little
longer than the longest of the middle ones. Only about one-
third of the upper margin of the maxille is hairy.

Cirrt.—First pair: the longer branch is about twice as long
as the shorter one, sometimes still longer, and has twice as
many joints (eighteen to twenty) ; the last joints are consider-
ably longer than the lower ones, cylindrical, and beset at the
end with an almost complete circlet of sete. The shorter
branch has usually from nine to eleven short joints, with
densely setiferous processes on the bowed side, most consider-
able on the middle joints.

Second pair short, stout, densely bristled; the anterior or
outer branch with from eleven to thirteen joints, only about
one-fifth or one-fourth longer than the inner one; the latter is
9-10-jointed, and about as long as the shorter branch of the
first pair. In cast skins, and also usually in other cases, the
longer branch is seen straightly extended, and the shorter one
slightly curved.

Third pair: from the base of this pair of feet a line densely
beset with long thin hairs runs upwards towards the back.
In length and form this pair hold a middle place between the
short and stout cirri of the preceding and the long slender
cirri of the following pairs. The slightly longer anterior or
outer branch has about fifteen to seventeen joints, the hinder
branch one or two fewer. The branches are about as long as
the longer branch of the first pair. A larger or smaller num-
ber of the joints of both branches are armed on the curved
side with strong curved teeth: in young animals the armature
is weaker and confined to some of the middle joints; in the
larger animals, only the last two joints of the outer and the
last four or five joints of the inner branch usually want the
teeth. The armature of the outer branch is always stronger
than that of the inner one. These hooked decurved teeth
(fig. 21) not only occupy the upper part of the strongly pro-
minent margin of the flexed side of the joints, but extend
thence, gradually becoming smaller, and finally converted
into mere minute points over a larger or smaller part of the
outer surface of the joints. This portion which is beset with
teeth and hooks is usually elevated, in the form of a low swel-
ling, a little above the surrounding parts. Besides the teeth of
the flexed side, there are, especially on the lower joints, acute
spinules directed upwards on the extended side, a few spines,
also directed upwards, on the outside of the upper margin, and

Dr. F. Miiller on Balanus armatus. 403

frequently, at the same place, several groups of very delicate
oints.

The middle joints of the outer branch also bear, within the
toothed armature, from two to four pairs of sete; with these
are sooner or later associated at first a single, and afterwards
several rows of setee on the inner margin of the upper end of
the joints, and finally, on the last joints, a dense irregular coat
of setee which often covers a great part of the inner surface.
On the inner branch the sete of the inner surface are more
numerous, even on the lower joints.

Fourth to sixth pairs: the cirri of the last three pairs of
feet are rarely all found uninjured; sometimes one, sometimes
another of them wants a larger or smaller piece. These losses,
as 1s well known, are more or less completely replaced by the
formation, in the last of the remaining joints, of a number of
new joints, which come into use after the next change of skin.
The frequency of such mutilations scarcely allows us to say
anything as to the number of joints in these cirri. In the last
pairs this may exceed forty-five, and their length is often more
than three times that of the third pair. The joints of all these
cirri are thinner, but much longer, than those of the anterior
pairs; the upper joints almost always bear on the flexed side
four pairs of sete, but frequently only three in the fourth pair
of feet.

In the fourth pair the dorsal surface of the first joint of the
outer branch is usually armed with rather strong denticles
directed upwards ; on the middle joints of both branches, but
especially the outer one, besides the short pointed spines, and
in their vicinity, more or less numerous spines directed up-
wards are scattered over the outer surface of the joint; in rare
instances these spines become converted, on the outer branch,
into slightly curved teeth directed downwards, so as to produce
an armature similar to that of the third pair, although certainly
weaker (fig. 22).

The fifth pair of feet is distinguished by a strong, some-
what curved tooth, directed upwards, which stands at the com-
inencement of the dorsal surface of the second peduncular
joint; this is usually followed by a similar smaller tooth, or
more rarely by two. ‘These are seldom altogether wanting.

On the sixth pair of feet the peduncular joints and the first
joints of the cirri have their dorsal surface covered with very
numerous, short, close-sitting points, directed upwards.

Penis.—At the base of the penis, between it and the anus,
the usual conical process exists ; the penis, which is extensible
to several times the length of the cirri, is beset only with a
few short hairs.

404 Dr. F. Miiller on Balanus armatus.

Ova.—0°17 millim. long, 0°09 millim. thick. In the larve
I find nothing remarkable; they are very like those of Tetra-
clita porosa.

Affinities —The nearest ally of Balanus armatus is B. tri-
gonus. Indeed, whether the former might not better be regarded
as a mere variety, and indicated as B. trigonus, var. armatus,
can only be decided by comparison with numerous examples
of B. trigonus from various localities. But it may be cited, nm
favour of its specific title, that B. trigonus has hitherto been
found only in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, and not in the
Atlantic, and only on the shells of mollusca and on wood, but
not in sponges—that in B. trigonus the shell is usually shal-
low and ribbed, and the mouth has entire margins and is
almost equal-sided, whilst in B. avmatus the shell is usually
abruptly conical and smooth, and the mouth always distinctly
toothed and pentagonal—that the scuta are narrower in B. ar-
matus—and that the armature of the third pair of feet, which
was never missed in B. armatus, and indeed caught the eye at
the first glance, is not mentioned by Darwin in B. trigonus,
any more than the strong tooth on the peduncle of the fifth
pair, which is always present in B. armatus.

The shells seated upon Carijoa, when predominantly deve-
loped in length, and especially when the base somewhat pro-
jects, sometimes resemble in general appearance the species
living on Gorgonie, which, in Darwin’s work, form the sec-
tion B of the genus Palanus; but this resemblance is merely
the consequence of the similar mode of adhesion, and scarcely
the sign of any near affinity. In other respects Darwin’s re-
marks upon the affinities of B. trigonus apply to our species.

Signification of the armature of the cirri.—A similar arma-
ture of the cirri with spines and points, although not so strongly
developed, occurs in other Balani. In individual examples
of B. improvisus, var. assimilis, these spies, elsewhere di-
rected upwards, even occur directed downwards and backwards,
as in B. armatus, on the outside of the joints of the third and
fourth pairs of feet. This armature of spines and points occurs
almost exclusively on the surfaces turned towards the margin
of the opercular fissure, as on the outer surface of the middle
pairs and on the dorsal surface of the last pair. In this posi-
tion they cannot serve for the seizure of any prey, but scarcely
for any other purpose than the cleansing of the fissure. In
fact, in living animals, we see that the cirri of the third and
fourth pairs, the outer surface of which is particularly richly
spinous, are those which pass closely along the margin of the
opercular fissure during their protrusion and retraction.

Now, that it is exactly in spongicolar species, otherwise by

Dr. F. Miiller on a Hybrid Balanus. 405

no means nearly related, that this armature is developed into
large curved teeth, intimates that there is a connexion between
the peculiar armature and the peculiar domicile; and it is not a
far-fetched supposition that the teeth serve to tear in pieces
and remove the rapidly growing sponge-mass which threatens
to grow over the aperture of the shell. It is a remarkable
circumstance that in Acasta the teeth stand on the outer
branches of the fourth, and in B. armatus on the branches of
the third pair of feet. This circumstance might be adduced in
favour of the Darwinian view of the origin of species, in the
same way as the different structure of the posterior entrance
to the branchial cavity in the different air-breathing crabs*.
Balanus armatus is much moye nearly allied to other, not
spongicolar Balant than to Acasta; B. armatus and spongicola
on the one hand, and the species of Acasta on the other, can-
not consequently have inherited the habit of domiciling them-
selves in sponges from a common ancestor. Contrivances
which stand in relation to this peculiar dwelling-place must
therefore have been produced independently in each case; and
therefore it cannot appear strange that we find them developed
on different parts of the body in Balanus armatus and in
Acasta.

tT.

Until recently the Balanz passed universally as self-impreg-
nating hermaphrodites. But that self-impregnation does not
take place in all cases was proved by a remarkable observation
of Darwin’s, who found the penis rudimentary and imperforate
in several individuals of Balanus balanoides, although there
were well-developed larvee in their shells (Balanide, p. 101),
To me it has long been doubtful whether self-impregnation is
really the general rule. For what purpose should the length
of the penis be often three times the diameter of the shell, if it
has nothing to seek outside the latter? Some observations
which I have recently made have confirmed me in this doubt.

At is well known that the Balani are very sensitive to lightT,
so that they immediately retract their cirri and close the oper-

* Fritz Miiller, ‘ Fiir Darwin,’ p. 20.

+ The sensitiveness of the Balant to luminous impressions is not de-
pendent on the eyes discovered by Leidy. I had taken a large Balanus
tintinnabulum living out of its shell, and separated it from the operculum,
with which the eyes remained in connexion. It lay in a saucer of water,
with its cirri half unrolled. As often as the shadow of the hand fell upon
it, it rolled up the cirri with a sudden movement. In B. tintinnabulum
the eyes are very distinct: in B. armatus I have not yet found them;
and this is not due to the smaller size of the latter species, as they are
very easy to detect even in small specimens of B. tintinnabulum.

406 Dr. F. Miiller on a Hybrid Balanus.

culum when the hand, for example, is passed between them
and the window.

It is remarkable that individual animals are much shyer,
and others, again, bolder than the rest—that the former always
remain longer closed, and the latter venture out more quickly,
and even become accustomed to the passage of the hand at
regular intervals. I may remark, in passing, that I detected
similar mental differences between the animals of a group of
Hupomatus floribundus.

Once when, in repeating these observations, I was watching
the action of the cirri in some examples of Balanus armatus
which I had taken freshly from Carijoa and cleaned from their
coating of sponge, I saw that one of them suddenly ceased strik-
ing with its cirri, held them for some seconds immoveable
and widely spread out, and during this period the penis ex-
tended to its utmost length and moved about as if feeling or
seeking for something. I then no more disturbed my animals
with the shadow of my hand, in order, if possible, to see this
spectacle repeated; and in fact I soon witnessed the same phe-
nomenon again, not only in the same animal, but also in three
or four others. I now placed these ardent animals close to-
gether, in order to facilitate their reciprocal copulation ; but as
often as the elongated penis came within reach of the cirri of
a neighbour, it was pushed to and fro by them, and the animal
did not remain quiet so as to give access to it. Upon this I
examined two of the animals, and found the entire canal of
the penis densely filled with semen; but in both there were
also ova which had already completed their segmentation, and
consequently no longer required fecundation. With the penis
so filled, when extended to its utmost length, semen must
certainly have been expelled from it (which I could not have
seen upon a white saucer); but at the same time, from the
length of the penis, usually extended in a lateral direction,
this semen would be removed from the vortex produced by the
cirri of the same animal and placed within reach of neigh-
bouring animals which might require it. It is remarkable
that, although at that time I made the observation upon four
or five animals simultaneously, I have been unable to repeat
it, notwithstanding that I have repeatedly looked for it in nu-
merous fresh animals.

The second observation which seems to prove that fecunda-
tion sometimes occurs even between different species of Ba-
lanus is as follows :—Among the Balani obtained on Carzjoa,
which I had at the first glance determined as B. émprovisus,
var. assimilis, there was one that struck me by a somewhat
reddish coloration, such as I had never seen in this infinitely

Dr. F. Miiller on a Hybrid Balanus. 407

abundant species. On examining it more closely, I found,
instead of the narrow radii covered with a yellowish membrane
of B. assimilis, the well-developed shining radii of B. armatus
with their peculiar striation.. At the same time, however, the
form of the mouth, the appearance of the scuta, and the walls,
with their translucent streaks and the septa of their tubes
rendered doubly distinct by the reddish coloration, were ex-
actly as in B. assimilis. Amongst hundreds of B. armatus, I
had never seen anything like these walls, aperture, and scuta,
nor amongst countless thousands of B. assimilis any radii at
all similar; and I could not help in all seriousness asking
myself the question whether I had not before me a hybrid be-
tween the two species the peculiarities of which were here so
wonderfully united. I have subsequently met with three of
these supposed hybrids: two of these were seated, like the first,
immediately upon the Cardjoa, and the third upon a B. ass?-
milis; on the other hand, a B. asstmilis was seated upon one
of the others. A close examination of these four animals gave
the following results :— .

General appearance.—In the form of the distinctly toothed
aperture, the greatest breadth of which is nearly in the middle
between the carina and the rostrum, in the translucent strize
of the smooth walls, and in the peculiar curvature of their
walls, which it is difficult to reproduce in words, all the four
animals resembled B. assimilis; in the formation of the radii,
except that the margin runs somewhat more obliquely, B.
armatus. 'The colour in one was somewhat reddish, in the
others nearly white, yellowish at the lower part of the shell
in two of them. Accidentally, in consequence of their mode
of attachment, the base in all was much longer than broad,
and the rostrum higher, in one more than twice as high as the
carina.

Size.—Mean of the measurements of the four shells :—
length of base 7-1 millims., its breadth 3°7 millims.; length
of the aperture 4°3 millims., its breadth 3°4 millims. ; height
of rostrum 8 millims., of the carina 4°4 millims.

Scuta.—The basal margin of the scuta is more than three-
fourths of the length of the occludent margin, and is even
longer than the tergal margin; on the outer surface, which
shows no trace of pits or longitudinal striz, the striee of growth
only project moderately ; on the inner surface there is a strong
adductor ridge, which is amalgamated with the articular ridge
above, and may be traced below nearly to the basal margin.
The pit for the depressor lateralis is shallower and more
roundish than is usual in B. armatus.

Terga.—The terga, like the scuta, are far more similar to

408 Dr. F. Miiller on a Hybrid Balanus.

those of B. assimilis than to those of B. armatus, hardly dif-
fering from the former, except in a somewhat broader spur.
They are broader than in B. armatus; the spur, which does
not occupy one-third of the breadth of the base, is distant
almost its own breadth from the scutal margin; a shallow
longitudinal channel occupies nearly the whole breadth of the
spur. The ridges for the depressor carinalis are very strongly
developed, and project beyond the basal margin.

I was particularly curious as to the hairiness of the oper-
cular pieces, as in this respect B. armatus and assimilis differ
greatly from each other. In B. armatus there are short deli-
cate hairs upon the carinal side, and long slender hairs upon
the scutal side of the terga, and long, strong, closely approxi-
mated hairs upon the scuta; in B. assimilis there are every-
where short thick spines alternating with every one to three
of the longer delicate hairs. I was surprised at finding in the
supposed hybrid neither the one nor the other, nor an inter-
mediate structure. On the terga there stood, on each side of
the hairless furrow, rather long and delicate hairs; on the
scuta the hairs were shorter, but neither thicker nor closer to-
gether. I may remark that I examined these hairs only in
one animal.

Pieces of the shell_—The pieces of the shell, which in B.
asstmilis may be readily separated even in the living animal,
adhered firmly together in the single animal in which I sepa-
rated them, even after boiling in solution of potash. The
walls, of which I have already stated that their tolerably wide
tubes have numerous septa in their upper part, are longitudi-
nally ribbed within throughout their length. The freely
prominent lower margin of the sheath is narrower than in B.
armatus, but more strongly developed than in B. assimitlis.

Paris of the mouth.—In one animal the labrum exactly re-
sembled that of B. armatus; in the others also it had only
three teeth on each side; but in two of them the outer tooth
was widely separated from the others, and in the fourth the
two outer teeth were brought close together, and somewhat
distant from the inner one. Neither of these structures has
occurred to me in B. armatus; but the former is frequent in
B. assimilis, Of the numerous denticulations with which the
margins of the median notch are beset in B. assimilis there
was nothing to be seen.

The mandibles might be equally well regarded as belonging
to a B. armatus as to a B, assimilis, as they do not notably
differ in these two species.

In the mazille of all four animals the median sete were
shorter than in B. armatus, and longer than is usual in B. as-

Dr. F. Miiller on a Hybrid Balanus. 409

similis; as in the latter species more than half the upper
margin was clothed with hair.

Cirri,—F ust pair: the longer, 19-22-jointed branch was
in three animals about twice as long as the shorter one, in the
fourth about one-fourth longer; the shorter branch in two
animals had fourteen joints (in the others eleven and thirteen),
I have not met with so great a number of joints in B.armatus;
in B. assimilis it is frequently still greater (fifteen to eighteen).
In the latter species, as is well known, the two branches are
generally of almost equal length ; nevertheless, even in this, I
have observed a difference of nine joints (fifteen and twenty-
four).

Second pair: thirteen to sixteen joints in the outer, twelve
to thirteen in the inner branch; in B. armatus, eleven to thir-
teen in the former, nine to ten in the latter; in a B. assimilis
which I have at hand I count seventeen and sixteen.

Third pair: in three animals I found in the outer branch
thirteen to sixteen, in the inner twelve to fourteen joints ; the
fourth had on one side thirteen and twelve, and on the other
twenty-one and twenty joints! The bristlmg and armature
of this pair of feet were in all four animals the same as in B.
assimilis ; the sete on the inner surface of the joints were very
numerous ; and on the outside there were only straight spines
and points, chiefly directed upwards.

Fourth to sixth pairs: the flexural side of the upper joints
in the fifth and sixth pairs of cirri in all four, and in the
fourth in three animals, bore five pairs of sete; the fourth
animal had only four pairs of sete: on the joints of the fourth
pair of feet. In B. assimilis six is the usual number of pairs
of sete on the joints of the posterior cirri. The outer surface
of the joints in the fourth was armed in the same way as in the
third. No trace of the strong tooth which in B. armatus stands
on the peduncle of the fifth pair was to be found in any of the
four animals.

Penis as in B. armatus. In B. assimilis this organ is ge-
nerally beset with longer and more numerous hairs.

Affinities—The discovery just described seems to me to
admit no other supposition than that the four animals are
really hybrids of B. armatus and B. assimilis. If we do not
choose to let them pass as such, we must either regard them
as a variety of B. armatus or of B. assimilis, or as a distinct
species.

But in B. armatus the walls never have translucent longi-
dinal lines, or transverse septa in the tubes which run through
them ; the greatest breadth of the aperture never falls nearly

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.4. Voli. 29

410 Dr. F. Miiller on a Hybrid Balanus.

in the middle between the carina and the rostrum; the scuta
are always considerably narrower; the rows of pits on the
outer surface are never wanting; nor on the inner surface are
adductor ridges, traceable nearly to the basal margin, to be
seen; the terga never have such narrow spurs, or a longitu-
dinal furrow, or ridges for the muse. depressor projecting be-
yond the basal margin; the strong curved teeth on the cirri of
the third pair and the strong tooth on the peduncle of the fifth
pair are never wanting; there are never more than four pairs
of setee on the posterior cirri, &c.

In B. assimilis, on the contrary (a species so common here
that every potsherd, shoe-sole, or rope’s-end which has lain
for some time in the sea is covered with it), I have never seen
a similar reddish colour to that presented by one of the sup-
posed hybrids; I always found the radii quite narrow, covered
with a thin membrane, never broad and shining; I always
found short spines between the hairs of the opercular pieces,
and the spur narrower, the labrum always beset with nume-
rous teeth; and in the animals which I have to-day examined
for this purpose, but which, indeed, are not very numerous, I
found constantly six pairs of sete upon some joints of the
posterior cirri, not to mention other small distinctions.

It is evident that the differences from either species are too
considerable for a mere variety; they would be of sufficient
importance to lead us to regard our animal as a distinct spe-
cies, if there were not other considerations opposed to this
view. Species of Balan, where once they occur, do not usu-
ally appear so isolatedly that in the course of a month only
four specimens can be brought together*. And how surprising
would it be that upon the stem of Carijoa a third species
should be domiciled amongst B. armatus and assimilis, stand-
ing in so peculiar a manner in the middle between the two
species as do our animals, which agree with B. armatus in
almost everything by which they differ from B. asstmilis (in
the coloration of one of the shells, in the firm union of their
pieces, in the structure of the shining striated radii, in the
structure of the labrum), and which in almost everything by
which they differ from B. armatus (in the formation of the
walls, the aperture, the opercular pieces, &c.) agree with B.
asstmilis, and, again, in other respects (as in the number of

* IT cannot say exactly among what number of B. armatus the four
hybrids were found, as I have used up.a great quantity of the former
without counting them; the number may be about 400. For a month or
more I have daily dived upon the Carijoa rock whenever the sea was
sufficiently quiet, and not unfrequently obtained from thirty to forty
Balani at once upon the polypes brought up.

Dr. F. Miiller on a Hybrid Balanus. 411

pairs of setze on the posterior cirri), stand exactly in the middle
between the two species.

From all this, it seems to me to be the simplest and most
natural course to explain the astonishing mixture of the cha-
racters of B. armatus and B. assimilis which our animals
show, by a true intermixture, and therefore to regard them as
hybrids of the two species.

But why, it will be asked, if this supposition be correct, are
not hybrids of Balant remarkably abundant, if they occur at
all? ‘The different species so commonly dwell intermixed with
each other, that three or more species may not unfrequently be
found united in the same group. To this I can only answer
with suppositions. In order to obtain hybrids of plants, the
stigma must be carefully protected from the pollen of the same
species. If pollen of the same and of another species be placed
upon the stigma at the same time, the latter remains inactive.
In the same way, in animals, if the semen of the same and of
another species be simultaneously in contact with the ovum,
the latter may remain inactive. Now, wherever species of
Balanus reside together in abundance, the ova will never miss
the semen of their own species, and therefore no production of
hybrids will take place. This can only occur when the ova
of one animal come in contact only with the semen of a different
species. Now this might easily be the case in an isolated B.
assimilis which had wandered into a tuft of Cardjoa, and here,
deeply hidden, was surrounded only by B. armatus. If this
explanation be correct, our hybrids would be produced from
ova of B. assimilis fertilized by semen of B. armatus.

A further question raised by these hybrids is, why they
have received from B. assimilis precisely the formation of the
walls, opercular pieces, cirri, &c., and from B. armatus the
precise structure of the radii, labrum, &c. It may be said
that the merely transversely striated scuta and the weakly
armed cirri of B. assimilis, and the broad smooth radii and
sexdentate labrum of B. armatus, differ less from the ordinary
characters of the genus than the deeply pitted scuta and the
strong teeth on the cui of B. armatus, or the narrow radii
clothed with membrane and the 22-28-toothed labrum of B.
assimilis. 'This applies also to the uniformity of the hairy
covering of the opercular pieces. But by this means the
matter of fact is only brought under a general point of view,
and not explained. Out of this difficulty in this case, as
usual, we can hardly escape without Darwin’s theory of the
origin of species. But if we regard the species of a genus as
descendants of a common primitive form, and at the same
time, in accordance with the well-known Papemcure of gar-

29*

412 Dr. F. Miller on a Hybrid Balanus.

deners, regard their various peculiarities as so much better
fixed, or so much less variable, the earlier they were acquired,
the longer they have been inherited unchanged, it becomes
intelligible that, above all, the characters proper to the primi-
tive form persist, and that consequently, in the crossing of two
species, these are more readily transferred to the hybrid than
later-acquired peculiarities of the father or mother.

From this point of view I think we shall be able to explain
many peculiarities of hybrids and, vice vers@, perhaps in
many cases to trace from the form of the hybrids to the
primitive form of the genus,—the latter, of course, only with
the greatest care; for the mere fact that the hybrids produced
by males of one species with females of another do not agree
with those produced by males of the second species with fe-
males of the first, furnishes a proof that other circumstances
aid in determining the form of the hybrids.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XX.

visus.

. 9. Outline of the mouth in B. improvisus, var. assimilis.

Fig. 10. Labrum of B. armatus.

Figs. 11-13. Labrum in three different individuals of B. cmprovisus, var.
assemilis.

Fig. 14. Setee from the carinal side of the tergum in B. armatus.

Fig. 15. Setee from the scutal side of the same piece.

Fig. 16. Setee from the scutum in B. armatus.

Fig. 17. Setze from the tergum in B. tmprovisus, var. assimilis.

Fig. 18. Setz from the strie of growth on the tergum of B. improvisus,
var. assimilis.

Fig. 19, Anterior ramus of the third pair of cirri of B. armatus, from
within, wherefore only the teeth which project beyond the
margin are visible.

Fig. 20. The same ramus from the hybrid, from without.

Fig. 21. Ninth joint of the outer ramus of the third pair of feet in a large
B. armatus, from without.

Fig. 22. Tenth joint of the outer ramus of the fourth pair of feet in B.
armatus, from without.

Fig. 23, Seventh joint of the outer ramus of the third pair of feet in the
hybrid, from without.

Fig. 24. The same joint of a B. improvisus, var. assimilis, from without.

Fig. 1. Specimens of Balanus armatus, seated upon Carioa: c, carina;
r, rostrum.

‘Fig. 2. Scutum of B, armatus, seen from without, with particularly large
pits and distant striz of growth.

Fig. 5. Another (remarkably broad) scutum, from within.

Fig. 4. Hybrid of Balanus armatus and B. improvisus.

Fig. 5. Scutum of B. improvisus, var. assimilis, from without.

Fig. 6. The same scutum, from within.

Fig. 7. Outline of the mouth in B. armatus.

Fig. 8, Outline of the mouth in a hybrid of B. armatus and B. impro-

9

Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes. 413

XLVIIL—Stxth Account of new Species of Snakes in the
Collection of the British Museum. By ALBERT GUNTHER,
M.A.) MD Ph nS.

[Plates XVII., XVIII. XIX.]

TuE following species of Ophidians have been added to the
Collection of the British Museum since the publication of the
last paper on the same subject in this Journal (July 1866,
XVili. pp. 24-29). The total number of species in that collec-
tion amounts now to 863, and that of the typical specimens to
330. In the following lists some of the species are marked
with an asterisk (*) ; of these, as well as of some others, [ have
added descriptions or shorter notices.

I. List of Species which were formerly desiderata.

*Silybura grandis, Bedd. Anamallay Forest. Capt. Beddome.
rubromaculata, Bedd. Anamallay Forest. Capt. Beddome.
*Platyplectrurus trilineatus, Bedd. Anamallay Forest. Capt. Bed-
dome.
Elapomorphus acanthias, Kréyer. Sierra Leone. J.C. Salmon,
Esq.
Liophis (Diadophis) Arnyi, Kennicott. City of Mexico. Hr. Door-
man.
Tropidonotus nigrocinctus, Blyth. Pegu. Mr. Theobald.
Ahetulla punctata, Ptrs. Zanzibar. Dr. Kirk +.
dorsalis, Bocage. Benguella. Dr. B. du Bocage.
*T'ragops javanicus, Steindachner. Pegu. Mr. Theobald.
Pareas margaritophorus, Jan. Pegu. Mr. Theobald.
*Boodon variegatus, Bocage. Benguella. Dr. B. du Bocage and Mr.
Monteiro.
Hoplocephalus fuscus, Steindachner. Van Diemen’s Land. G.
Krefft, Esq.
Elaps gastrodelus, Dum. & Bibr. Chyavetas. Mr. Bartlett.

*

II. List of the new Species procured and described since
July 1866.

*Xenocalamus bicolor, Gthr. Zambeze. Museum of Cape Town.
*Geophis latifrons, Gihr. Pebas. Mr. Bates.

‘a bicolor, Gthr. City of Mexico. Hr. Doorman.

*Simotes amabilis, Gthr. Arrakan Hills. Mr. Theobald.

= cruentatus, Theobald. Pegu. Mr. Theobald.

= Theobaldi, Gthr. Pegu. Mr. Theobald.

*Ablabes bistrigatus, Gthr. Pegu. Mr. Theobald.

*Cyclophis nebulosus, Gthr. Nagasaki. Mr. Whitely.

+ Besides the species mentioned in these lists, the following have been
sent by Dr. Kirk from Zanzibar :—Prosymna meleagris, Uriechis capensis
(Smith), Psammophis sibilans in three varieties, Boodon lineatus, Clotho
artetans, Dasypeltis scabra.

414 Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes

*Dromicus viperinus, Gthr. Pebas. Mr. Hauxwell. -

* laureatus, Gthr. City of Mexico. Hr. Doorman.
*Herpetodryas occipitalis, Gthr. Pebas. Mr. Hauxwell.
*Tropidonotus Swinhonis, Gthr. Formosa. Mr. Swinhoe.
*Hydrops callostictus, Gthr. Upper Amazons. Mr. Bartlett.
*Mimophis madagascariensis, Githr. Madagascar. Rev. W. Ellis.
*Rhagerrhis unguiculata, Gthr. Zanzibar. Dr. Kirk.

* triteniata, Gthr. East Africa. Mr. Warwick.

*Aheetulla Kirkii, Gthr. Zanzibar. Dr. Kirk.

Dendrophis calligaster, Gthr. Cape York. Purchased.
*Leptodira nigrofasciata, Gthr. Nicaragua. Dr. Seemann.
*Dipsas ochraceus, 7'heobald. Pegu. Mr. Theobald.
*Pythonodipsas carinata, Gthr. Zambeze. Museum of Cape Town.
*Lycophidium acutirostre, Gthr. Zanzibar. Dr. Kirk.
*Callophis japonicus, Gthr. Nagasaki. Mr. Whitely.

*Elaps Batesii, Gthr. Pebas. Mr, Hauxwell.
*Atractaspis rostrata, Gthr. Zanzibar. Dr. Kirk.

Plectrurus trilineatus (Bedd.).

This is another very interesting addition made by Capt.
Beddome to the family of Uropeltide. It differs from Plec-
trurus proper, and, like Melanophidium, approaches the Cala-
maride. 'The head is remarkably flattened, obtusely rounded
in front; no mental groove; tail comparatively long, with a
distinct double series of subcaudals, terminating in a horny
shield, the edge of which is horizontal, and not vertical as in
Plectrurus ; the shield is one-, and not two-pointed. I propose
the generic name Platyplectrurus for it.

Silybura grandis.

Rhinophis grandis, Beddome.

This snake is more closely allied to Stlybura ocellata than
to Rhinophis pulneyensis, to which it has been compared by
its discoverer. However, these species show that the distinc-
tion between St/ybura and Rhinophis is scarcely generic, and
that they may be united before long.

XENOCALAMUS (g. n. Calamar.).

Body cylindrical, elongate ; tail short ; head long, depressed,
narrower than the neck. Hye extremely small, with round
pupil; rostral large, conically produced, the mouth being quite
at the lower side of the head; one pair of frontals; vertical
enormous; occipitals small; nostril between two shields;
loreal none; scales smooth, without apical groove, in seven
teen series; anal and subcaudals paired. Maxillary teeth few
in number, smooth; palate without teeth.

in the Collection of the British Museum. 415

Xenocalamus bicolor, Pl. XIX. figs. A.

The principal characters by which this interesting snake
may be recognized at once are contained in the generic dia-
gnosis, and may be completed thus :—

The vertical shield is the largest shield of the head, six-
sided, with an obtuse angle in front and a pointed one behind ;
the occipitals are comparatively small, ovate shields, forming
only a very short suture behind the vertical. The nostril is
situated between two shields, the anterior being very small,
the posterior elongate, similar in form and size to the pre-
ocular; supraorbital and postocular very small; six upper
labials, the anterior very small, the third and fourth entermg
the orbit, the fifth forming a long suture with the occipital,
and larger than any of the other labials, the sixth very small
again; one large temporal; five lower labials besides the small
anterior median shield; the first pair of lower labials form a
suture behind the median labial; the second small; the third
very large, as long as the others together; a single pair of
narrow lanceolate chin-shields. Ventrals 219.

Upper parts uniform black; lower parts and the two outer
series of scales uniform white. I have examined a single
specimen, 17 inches long (tail mutilated), found by Mr. J.

hapman on the Zambeze.

The three figures on Pl. XIX. represent the head, of twice
the natural size.

Geophis elaps (Gthr.).
Rhabdosoma brevifrenatum, Jan.

We have received this snake recently also from Pebas.

Geophis latifrons. Pl. XIX. figs. B.

Scales in seventeen rows. Ventrals 155; anal entire; sub-
caudals thirty-six. Upper labials six, the third and fourth
entering the orbit; two postoculars; temporals 1+2; one
pair of chin-shields in contact with four labials. Vertical
very broad, broader than long, with the lateral edges short
and convergent; frontals longest in their transverse diameter.

Head and neck black, with a yellow ring across the pos-
terior half of the occipitals and the temporal shields. Body
encircled by ten pairs of black rings, each ring being as broad
as the red interspace. Each scale of the red interspace with
a black tip; tail with two pairs of similar rings.

One specimen has been sent from Pebas by Mr. Hauxwell,
a correspondent of Mr. Bates. It is 10 inches long, the head
being 4 lines, the tail 18 lines.

416 Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes

Geophis bicolor.
Head rather broad, short, and depressed; body and _ tail

of moderate length. Eye small. Anterior frontals about
one-fourth the size of posterior; vertical rather longer than
broad, with the anterior angle very open; occipitals as long
as postfrontals and vertical together, rounded behind; six
upper labials, the third and fourth entering the orbit; the
fifth is the largest and forms a long suture with the occipital.
The remainder of the temple is covered by scale-like temporals
1+2. Two postoculars. Anterior chin-shields twice as
long as posterior, in contact with four labials. Scales in
seventeen rows, smooth, without apical groove. Ventrals
160-168 ; anal entire; subcaudals 39-48.

Upper parts uniform black; below white; on the two or
three outer series of scales the white colour appears in more
or less distinct small spots, whilst the black of the upper parts
extends to the angles of the ventral shields. Hach subcaudal
black in front.

We have received four examples of this species in a collec-
tion made in the neighbourhood of the city of Mexico by Hr.
Doorman. The largest is 144 inches long, the tail being
3 inches, and the head 5 lines.

Simotes bicatenatus (Gthr.).

Specimens of this snake have been collected by Mr. Theo-
bald in Pegu.

Simotes venustus (Jerdon).

We have lately received well-preserved examples from Mr.
Theobald and Capt. Beddome. I find that this snake, ori-
ginally referred to Xenodon by Mr. Jerdon, has only one or
two palatine teeth, and is therefore intermediate between
Simotes and Oligodon.

Simotes amabilis. Pl. XVII. fig. A.

Scales in nineteen rows. One pre-, two postoculars ; loreal
square; seven upper labials, the third and fourth entering the
orbit; temporals 1+2; ventrals 178; anal entire; subcaudals
seventy-five.

Head with the markings usual in the species of this genus.
Back with forty-one narrow yellow cross bars, each edged with
black in front and behind, the entire marking being scarcely
broader than a scale; tail with similar markings, but more or
less broken up into spots. Lower parts white, a rather ir-
regular series of small blackish spots along each side of the
belly, not continued on to the tail.

in the Collection of the British Museum. 417

One specimen, 10 inches long, was obtained by Mr. Theobald
on the Arrakan Hills.

Simotes cruentatus.

Scales in seventeen rows. One pre- and two postoculars ;
loreal rather longer than deep; eight upper labials, the fourth
and fifth entering the orbit; temporals 1+2; ventrals 165-
167; anal bifid; subcaudals 33-37.

Head and neck with the markings usual in the species of
this genus rather indistinct. Body brownish olive, with four
very indistinct darker lines ; abdomen white, with square black
spots; anal shield white; the three or four first subcaudal
shields black, the others red; generally another black spot at
some distance from the end of the tail.

We have received several examples, under the name given
above, from Mr. Theobald, who discovered this snake in Pegu.
The largest of the specimens is 15 inches long; one female
example, 13 inches long, has five ova in the oviduct, each
ovum being 9 lines long.

Simotes Theobaldi.

Scales in seventeen rows. One pre- and two postoculars ;
loreal much longer than high; eight upper labials, the fourth
and fifth entermg the orbit; temporals 14+2+35 ventrals
177; anal bifid; subcaudals 34.

Head and neck with the markings usual in the species of
this genus; upper parts of the body brown, with a light ver-
tical line commencing from the occiput and longitudinally
dividing the black nuchal spot; another light line on each
side of the back, along the fifth outer series of scales. Back
crossed by numerous very narrow reticulated black streaks ;
the outer two series of scales light olive-coloured ; abdomen
with square black spots; subcaudals uniform white.

This species is allied to Stmotes cruentatus, but differs from
it in the coloration and form of the loreal shield. We have
received one example, 16 inches long, from Mr. Theobald,
who discovered it in Pegu.

Ablabes bistrigatus.

Closely allied to the species of the group Enicognathus.
Scales in seventeen rows ; loreal square; one preocular, reach-
ing to the upper surface of the head; two postoculars; the
occipital extends downwards to the lower postocular; one
temporal in front, in contact with the lower postocular only ;
two posterior temporals; upper labials ten, the fourth, fifth,
and sixth entering the orbit; ventrals 192; anal bifid; sub-
caudals 82.

418 Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes

Body brownish olive; upper side of the head and neck
black, with symmetrical yellow markings arranged along the
margin of the head; a pair of yellow dots on the occipitals ;
a series of black dots along the vertebral line; a well-defined
deep-black streak runs along each side of the body along the
meeting edges of the fourth and fifth outer series of scales; it
extends to the extremity of the tail. Lower parts uniform
whitish.

A single specimen, 103 inches long, was obtained by Mr.
Theobald in Pegu; tail 3 inches long.

Cyclophis nebulosus. Pl. XIX. figs. C.

Body slightly compressed ; tail rather short; head of mo-
derate length, distinct from neck. Hye of moderate size;
loreal elongate; one preocular, scarcely reaching to the upper
surface of the head; two postoculars; eight upper labials, the
fourth and fifth entering the orbit, the sixth small, much
smaller than the fifth; temporals elongate, 1+2; anterior
chin-shields longer than posterior, in contact with four labials.

Scales in fifteen rows, short, rounded, without apical groove;
ventrals 174; anal bifid; subcaudals 77.

Greenish olive. Anterior part of trunk with four or six
series of obscure nebulous spots, which are confluent into lon-
gitudinal bands on the posterior part of the trunk. Head im-
maculate; lower side uniform whitish.

A single example was obtained by Mr. Whitely at Naga-
saki. Total length 93 inches, length of head 5 lines, of tail
2 inches.

Enicognathus annulatus (D. & B.).

Varies in the number of the black cross bands, which are
irregular in shape; ventral shields 140-156. An example
from Vera Paz is considerably more slender than others from
the city of Mexico. It appears to be rare.

Dromicus viperinus.

Scales in seventeen rows. Ventral shields 160-161; anal
bifid; subcaudals sixty. Upper labials eight, the third, fourth,
and fifth entering the orbit ; loreal higher than long ; one pre-,
two postoculars; temporals 1+2+3. The posterior maxil-
lary tooth is the longest, and separated from the preceding by
an interspace. Upper parts blackish grey, this colour extend-
ing, without interruption, over the sides to the edge of the
ventral shields. Neck with a darker collar, from which a dark
zigzag band proceeds along the median line of the back; it
becomes indistinct on the posterior part of the trunk, and re-

in the Collection of the British Museum. 419

appears asa straight band on the tail. Upper part of the
head uniform brown, separated from the white colour of the
lower part by an indistinct black line, which runs from the
orbit to the angle of the mouth, and is indistinctly edged with
white below. Ventral and subcaudal shields uniform white,
having only a blackish spot on the side, as mentioned be-
fore.

Two specimens were sent by Mr. John Hauxwell from
Pebas; they are 12 inches long, the length of the head
being 4 lines, and that of the tail 33 mches. Another ex-
ample, collected by Mr. Fraser in Western Ecuador, appears
to belong to the same species.

Dromicus laureatus. Pl. XIX. figs. E.

Scales smooth, in seventeen rows, many with a small apical
groove. Form of the head as in Coronella levis; body and
tail moderately slender. Eye of moderate size; the rostral
does not extend to the upper surface of the head; anterior
frontals scarcely half as large as posterior; vertical longer
than the snout, but shorter than the occipitals, which are
rounded behind; loreal square; one preorbital, reaching to
the upper surface of the head, but not extending on to the
vertical ; two postoculars; seven upper labials, the third and
fourth entering into the orbit; temporals 1+2+3, the ante-
rior in contact with both postoculars; two pairs of chin-
shields, nearly equal in length; ventrals 163; anal bifid;
subcaudals 95.

A lead-coloured band, three scales broad, runs from the
nape, along the median line of the back, to the end of the tail ;
flanks reddish, with a very indistinct greyish streak along the
fourth outer series of scales; two yellow lines across the ros-
tral, the lower runs along the upper labials and across the
neck, thus entirely encircling the head; the upper runs along
the canthus rostralis, and stops or terminates in the temporal
region. Lower parts uniform yellowish.

One specimen was in a collection made by Hr. Doorman
in the neighbourhood of the city of Mexico. It is 21 inches
long; head 6 lines, tail 7 inches.

The dentition of this species is neither distinctly diacran-
terian nor syncranterian. ‘The maxillary is armed with nine
teeth, gradually becoming stronger, longer, and more widely
set behind; the last is conspicuously the longest, but scarcely
more distant from the penultimate than this is from the ante-
penultimate, although these three teeth are much more distant
than the others are from each other.

420 Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes

Herpetodryas occipitalis.

Similar to Herpetodryas Rappii. Habit moderately slender.
Eyes large. Shields of the head normal; eight upper labials,
the third, fourth, and fifth entering the orbit; loreal nearly as
high as long; preocular reaching to the upper surface of the
head, but not extending to the vertical; lateral edges of the
vertical nearly parallel; occipitals subtruncated behind. Two
or three postoculars; temporals 2+2. There are four lower
labials in contact with the front chin-shields, which are three-
fifths as long as the posterior.

Scales smooth, in fifteen rows. Ventrals 175; anal entire ;
subcaudals 96.

Upper parts brownish black, with narrow greyish transverse
lines, separated from one another by five or six transverse
series of scales; a broad white band across the occipitals, ex-
tending behind the orbit to the posterior labials; hind margin
of each labial black; ventrals pearl-coloured, marbled with
black on the sides.

A specimen, 14 inches long, has been obtained by Mr.
Hauxwell at Pebas. Head 6 lines, tail 34 inches.

Tropidonotus Swinhonis. Pl. XIX. fig. F.

Head rather narrow and elongate; trunk rather slender.
Eye of moderate size. Scales in fifteen rows. Ventrals 150;
anal bifid; subcaudals between 50 and 60. Anterior frontals
rounded in front, half as large as posterior ; occipitals obliquely
truncated behind, longer than vertical ; loreal as deep as long ;
one preocular, reaching to the upper surface of the head ; three
postoculars. Six upper labial shields, the third and fourth
entering the orbit, the fifth very long, nearly as long as the
three preceding ones together; temporals 1+2, the anterior
rather elongate, in contact with the two lower postorbitals.
Dentition diacranterian.

Upper parts nearly uniform olive-brown, anteriorly with a
few indistinct and irregular blackish spots. Neck reddish
olive, with a broad black collar: a small blackish spot below
the eye, and an oblique blackish band across the temporal
region. Lower parts uniform whitish, slightly and finely
marbled on the side.

Formosa. <A single specimen, 25 inches long, has been
obtained by Consul Swinhoe. Head 9 lines long, tail 5 inches.

Tropidonotus punctulatus (Gthr.).

This snake proves to be a native of Pegu, whence specimens
were brought by Mr. Theobald.

in the Collection of the British Museum. 421

Gerarda bicolor (Gray).

This snake is not from the West Indies, but from Pegu,
where specimens were collected by Mr. Theobald.

Hydrops Martti (Wag].).
Hygina fasciata, Gray.
Scales constantly in fifteen series.

fydrops callostictus. Pl. XVII. fig. B.

Scales in seventeen rows. Anterior frontal nearly twice as
broad as long; occipitals as long as the vertical and frontals
together ; two postoculars; eight upper labials, the fourth en-
tering the orbit; the second upper labial in contact with the
posterior frontal; loreal none; temporals 1+1. There are
four lower labials, in contact with the front chin-shields. Ven-
trals 168; anal bifid; subcaudals 90. The upperside of the
head and of the back reddish olive. Sides and belly of a
lighter colour, approaching to white; body and tail encircled
by numerous black rings, each about two scales broad and
edged in front and behind by pearl-coloured dots; the bands
are frequently broken on the median line of the back and
belly. Snout black, with a yellow band across the prefrontal ;
temple black, separated from the first black ring by a yellowish-
white cross band.

One specimen, 11 inches long, was found by Mr. Bartlett
at Chyavetas (Upper Amazons).

Mimopuis (g. n. Psammophid.).

Body and tail moderately slender, scarcely compressed ;
form of the head as in Psammophis, but with the loreal region
less distinctly grooved; rostral shield not enlarged; eye of
moderate size, with round pupil; nostril small, placed in a
single shield, behind which is another small shield; loreal
none, replaced by the posterior frontal, which is bent down-
wards on the sides; scales smooth, with one apical groove, in
seventeen rows, those of the vertebral series not enlarged;
ventrals not keeled; anal and subcaudals bifid; the third or
fourth maxillary tooth enlarged; posterior maxillary tooth
grooved; front teeth of the lower jaw larger than the pos-
terior.

This genus bears a similar relation to Psammophis as Tro-
prdococcyx to Tragops, and illustrates in some measure the
affinity between the Dryophide and Psammophide.

Mimophis madagascariensis. Pl. X VIII.

In habit very similar to Psammophis sibilans. Snout

422 Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes

slightly pointed, tetrahedral, the canthus rostralis being dis-
tinct ; loreal region scarcely concave; eye of moderate size.
Rostral shield not quite so high as broad, reaching to the
upper surface of the head; anterior frontals small, triangular,
pointed in front, as long as broad; posterior frontals rather
longer than anterior, bent downwards on the sides, and form-
ing a broad suture with the second upper labial. Vertical
elongate bell-shaped, as long as the occipitals, which are
rounded behind. ‘The nasal shield proper is trapezoid and
large, pierced by the small nostril in its upper posterior por-
tion. A smaller quadrangular shield, which is higher than
long, is intercalated between the nasal and posterior frontal,
and may be considered to be a posterior nasal; there is no
loreal, One preeocular, concave before the eye, and bent up-
wards on the upper side of the head, without reaching the |
vertical. Two postoculars; eight upper labials, the fourth
and fifth entering the orbit ; temporals small, rather irregular,
2+3. The anterior chin-shields are shorter than the posterior,
and in contact with four labials. Ventrals 151, 854; sub-
caudals 62-170.

Brownish yellow; a broad blackish-brown band, which is
four scales broad in the middle of the body, runs from the
upper side of the head, along the back, to the tip of the tail.
Another, narrower and less intensely coloured stripe runs from
the nostril, through the eye, along the meeting edges of the
third and fourth outer series of scales; a third, of about the
same width, but of a brighter colour, along the meeting edges
of the two outer series of scales: all these bands have more or
less distinct darker edges. Lower side yellowish, with four
faint purplish longitudinal bands.

Three specimens of this beautiful snake were presented by
the Rev. W. Ellis to the British Museum. The largest is
22 inches long, head 74 lines, tail 5 inches. They were
collected in Madagascar.

Rhagerrhis unguiculata. Pl. XIX. figs. G.

Scales short, rounded, without apical groove, in seventeen
series; ventrals 176; anal bifid; subcaudals 100. Body mo-
derately slender; head short, high, with the upper profile
convex, terminating in a broad rostral shield, which is bent
downwards and provided with a sharp edge like a nail; ante-
rior frontals much broader than long; posterior frontals not
twice as large as anterior, broader than long. Vertical six-
sided, with the anterior and posterior angles equally obtuse,
and as broad behind as in front; occipitals short, shorter than
the vertical, rounded behind. Nostril in a single shield, the

tn the Collection of the British Museum. 423

posterior edge of which is rather irregular; loreal as high as
long; two preoculars, the upper of which contributes to the
canthus rostralis, extending to the upper side of the head, but
not by some distance reaching the vertical; two postoculars ;
eight upper labials, the fifth only entering the orbit ; temporal
shields small, irregular.

The median lower labial shield is extremely narrow; the
chin-shields of nearly the same length, the anterior in contact
with four or five labials.

Greyish olive; many of the scales, especially on the hinder
part of the trunk, with a dark or blackish dot, a blackish
streak through the eye; lower parts nearly uniform whitish.

A single specimen has been sent by Dr. Kirk from Zanzibar.
It is 15 inches long; length of the head 64 lines, of the tail
4 inches.

Rhagerrhis triteniata. Pl. XIX. figs. H.

I have been in some doubt as regards the systematic posi-
tion of this snake. Although it evidently belongs to the group
of Psammophids, it does not perfectly agree with any of the
genera. Having the coloration of a true Psammophis, it differs
from the species of this genus in its dentition, in which cha-
racter it agrees with Rhagerrhis; but the rostral shield is not
so much produced—scarcely more than in Celopeltis, from
which it differs in the structure of the scales.

Head rather short, scarcely distinct from neck; body and
tail moderately slender. Eye of moderate size; rostral shield
as high as long, extending to the upper surface of the head,
slightly advancing between the anterior frontals; anterior
frontals not very much smaller than posterior ; vertical narrow,
rather longer than the snout, and conspicuously longer than
the occipitals, which are obliquely truncated behind; two
nasals; loreal square; preorbital single, slightly concave, not
quite reaching the vertical; two postoculars; eight upper
labial shields, the fourth and fifth entering the orbit; tempo-
rals 2+3+45; two pairs of chin-shields, nearly equal in
length.

Scales smooth, much imbricate, in seventeen rows, with a
small apical groove. Ventrals 161; anal bifid; subcaudals 61.

Brownish olive, with three dark-brown bands edged with
black. The median band occupies the vertebral series and the
halves of the adjoining series of scales, a white line running
along its middle; this band commences immediately behind
the occipitals, and terminates in the anterior part of the tail.
The lateral band runs along the third and fourth outer series
and the halves of the adjoining series of scales, commencing

424 Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes

on the nasal shield, crossing the eye and temple, and termi-
nating near the end of the tail. Lower parts uniform whitish.

This snake is probably from South-eastern Africa, and was
obtained of Mr. Warwick. It is 20 inches long, the tail being
4 inches, and the head 6 lines.

Ahetulla dorsalis.

Leptophis dorsalis, Bocage.

Maxillary dentition “coryphodont,” the posterior teeth
being but little longer than the preceding. Ventral shields
keeled. Upper labials nine, three entering the orbit. Anal
bifid; ventral plates 184. Temporal shields 1+1+1. Skin
between the scales black; each scale with a whitish spot on
its outer margin.

Angola.
Ahetulla Kirkii.

Ventral shields with strong lateral keels. Upper labials
nine, two of which enter the orbit; arrangement of temporal
shields rather irregular; anal bifid; ventral shields 171, 173;
subeaudals 136-140.

Scales smooth, in fifteen rows, without apical groove. Lo-
real elongate ; preocular in contact with the vertical. Teeth
longest behind, in a continuous series.

Green; skin between the scales black ; without white spot.

Three examples have been sent by Dr. Kirk from Zanzibar.
The longest is 40 inches long; tail 15 inches.

Dryophis argentea (Daud.).

We have lately received specimens of this snake in collec-
tions made at Pebas and Yuimaguas, together with Rhino-
bothryum lentiginosum.

Tragops fronticinctus (Gthr.).

Specimens of this snake have been collected by Mr. Theo-
bald in Pegu.

Tragops javanicus (Steindachner).

This is a very distinct species, occurring also in Pegu, where
specimens have been collected by Mr. Theobald. The anal
shield is sometimes entire, sometimes divided; ventrals 189-
192-193. Scales in the coccygeal region generally keeled.
Prof. Peters (Monatsber. Ak. Wiss. Berl. 1868) has ob-
served such keeled scales also in Tragops prasinus ; only a
few of our numerous examples of that species show slight |
traces of keels in that region. Troptdococcyx (Gthr.) is based
on the difference of the shields of the head (the form of which

in the Collection of the British Museum. 425

approaches that of Psammophis, see Rept. Brit. Ind. p. 301),
and is more distinct from Zvragops than Passerita from the
latter genus.

Leptodira annulata (L.).

A singular, nearly uniform slate-coloured variety, with the
markings very indistinct, occurs at Chiavetas, Upper Amazons.
It has the scales in nineteen rows.

Leptodira nigrofasciata.

Scales in nineteen rows, smooth, with two apical grooves.
Rostrals scarcely reaching to the upper surface of the head ;
anterior frontals nearly square, two-thirds the size of posterior;
vertical as long as the snout and a little shorter than the occi-
pitals, which are rather narrow and rounded behind ; loreal as
high as long; one pre- and one postocular, the former not
quite reaching to the vertical; eight upper labial shields, the
third, fourth, and fifth entering the orbit; temporals 1+2+3;
ventrals 174; anal bifid; subcaudals 74.
~ Body with sixteen broad black cross bands, which are from
three to four times broader than the interspaces of the whitish
ground-colour, and confluent on the posterior part of the trunk.
Head black above, separated by a white collar from the first
black band; tail with about eight black cross bands. Lower
parts whitish. The posterior maxillary tooth grooved.

_ One specimen was found by Dr. Seemann in Nicaragua; it
is 14 inches long, the tail being 34 inches.

Dipsas ochraceus.

Scales in nineteen rows, with an apical groove, those of the
vertebral series larger than the others. Ventrals 239-242 ;
anal entire; subcaudals 100; nostril rounded, immediately
below the anterior frontal ; loreal nearly as high as long. One
preocular, not reaching to the upper surface of the head ; two
postoculars ; temporals varying in number, ‘the two anterior
are elongate and generally in contact with the postoculars ;
eight upper labials, the third, fourth, and fifth entering the
orbit; two pairs of chin-shields, the anterior not much larger
than the posterior. Anterior palatine and mandibulary teeth
not much enlarged.

Uniform brownish olive. Inside of mouth not coloured.

We have received this new snake from Mr. Theobald, who
named it. Two specimens, the larger of which is 44 inches
long, were found by him in Pegu.

PYTHONODIPSAS.

Head depressed, very distinct from neck; body depressed,
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.4. Vol.i. 30

426 Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes

of moderate length. Eye of moderate size; two pairs of fron-
tals; one vertical; superciliary well developed ; occipitals re-
placed by scales; labials separated from the eye by a ring of
scales ; scales keeled, in twenty-one rows; subcaudals simple ;
maxillary with the hindmost tooth slightly enlarged and
grooved in its basal portion ; anterior maxillary teeth and an-
terior palatine teeth rather larger than the middle ones.

Pythonodipsas carinata. Pl. XIX. figs. K.

Rostral shield broader than deep, just reaching the upper
surface of the head; anterior frontals small, scarcely half as
large as posterior; (nostril very narrow, between two small
shields*). Loreal region covered by two or three scales, one
of which points upwards and reaches the vertical; przorbital
larger than the seven other scales which complete the orbital
ring; occiput and temple covered by equally small scales, the
occipital being represented by a small shield situated behind
the superciliary shield ; nine or ten small upper labials. Scales
much imbricate, with the keel rather flat. Ventrals 192;
anal entire; subcaudals 51.

Upper parts yellowish olive, with two dorsal series of
blackish spots, the spots of several pairs confluent into cross
bands ; flanks with smaller and less distinct spots ; lower parts
uniform white.

I have examined one specimen of this singular snake. It
was found by Mr. John Chapman on the Zambezi. The spe-
cimen is 244 inches long, the head being 10 lines, and the tail
34 inches long.

Lycodon rufozonatus (Cant.).

In two young examples from Formosa the loreal does not
quite extend to the eye, although it is produced backwards.

Ophites albofuscus (D. & B.).

Occurs also in Formosa; feeds on lizards.

Boodon lineatus (D. & B.).

Specimens from the Zambezi and Zanzibar have the scales
in twenty-five or twenty-seven rows. Its food consists of
nocturnal lizards, as well as mammals.

Lycophidium irroratum (Leach).
Coluber irroratus, Leach. -
Hypsirhina maura, Gray.
Metoporhina irrorata, Gthr.
Alopecion fasciatum, Gthr.

* This portion of the head ‘is unfortunately so much dried that the
nostrils have become rather indistinct; they must be extremely smali.

in the Collection of the British Museum. 427

We have received from Mr. Salmon several very fine exam-
ples of this snake, collected about one hundred miles inland of
Sierra Leone, the largest being 16 inches long. I find, from
their examination, that this species cannot be separated from
Lycophidium, the names mentioned having been given to
young examples in an indifferent state of preservation. There
are two nasal shields, the nostril being in the anterior; the
posterior nasal very small. Ventral shields from 164 to 190.
The black spots or bands vary in number and extent; they
are larger and more band-like in very young examples.

Alopecion annuliferum being most probably a Boodon, the
genus Alopecion may be erased from the system. Bocage’s
Alopecion variegatum is likewise a Boodon.

Lycophidium acutirostre. Pl. XIX. figs. D.

Snout much depressed, spatulate, with rather sharp edges.
Body of moderate length; tail short. Eye very small; ros-
tral shield very low, extending to the upper surface of the
head; anterior frontals about one-fifth the size of posterior ;
vertical subtriangular; loreal elongate, large; preeorbital in
contact with the vertical ; eight upper labials, the third, fourth,
and fifth of which enter the orbit; two postoculars ; temporals
1+2+3, the anterior in contact with the lower postorbital
only; chin-shields small, the anterior not larger than the first
lower labials. Scales in seventeen rows. Ventrals 140, 146
(twice), 145. Anal entire; subcaudals 23.

Upper and lower parts deep black; scales on the sides and
the outer part of the ventral shields finely marbled with bluish.
Side of the head yellowish, marbled with black ; margin of
the snout nearly uniform yellowish.

Several specimens, from 8 to 11 inches long, were sent
by Dr. Kirk from Zanzibar ; two or three were adult females,
each with four ova in the oviduct. This snake feeds on small
Scincoids. It is a species very distinct from any of the va-
rieties of Lycophidium Horstockwi, being distinguished by the
peculiar form of the snout and the constantly much smaller
number of ventral shields.

The figures represent the head, of twice the natural size.

Lycophidium Horstockit (Schleg.). |
The museum of Cape Town is in possession of a specimen
from Bayana Bay, Madagascar: it represents one of the nu-
merous varieties of this species, and is uniform dark brown
above, whitish below, with numerous brown spots. Ventrals

182. Bigs) yuh
30*

428 Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes.

_ The number of ventral shields varies much in examples
which I refer to L. Horstockit. I find

~ 208 in one example trom West Africa.
208 in one, habit. ?
202-200 in two, variety with square white dorsal spots.
188 in one from the Cape.
176 in one from Angola.
~ 153 in one from Ambrizette.

CYLINDROPHIS.

The snakes of this genus are viviparous.

Hydrophis lapemoides (Gray).
_An example, 3 feet long, from Madras, has only one post-
ocular.

Callophis japonicus. Pl. XVII. fig. C.

~ Ground-colour whitish in spirits, with a reddish tinge. An-
terior half and sides of the head black; a black band, one
scale broad, runs from the occipital, along the vertical line,
nearly to the tip of the tail; another, narrower and less distinct
line runs along the meeting edges of the third and fourth
outer series of scales. Body with black cross bands besides,
the width of which is about one-third of the interspace be-
tween them: some extend round the belly, others do not;
there are thirteen of them on the trunk and two on the tail.
Belly with a series of large round black blotches, each blotch
corresponding to the middle of the interspace between two
black dorsal bands.

Seven upper labials; two postoculars; ventrals 205; anal
entire; subcaudals 31.

One specimen, 93 inches long, was obtained by Mr. Whitely
at Nagasaki.

Elaps Batesti. Pl. XVII. fig. D.

Upper labials seven, none of them in contact with the occi-
pital; one pre-, two postoculars; temporals 1+1+2; ven-
trals 196; anal bifid; subcaudals 50. Upper parts uniform
shining black; trunk with about sixty transverse series of
very small yellow specks; each supraorbital provided with a
similar spot; lower parts of the trunk white (in spirits), with
a few-irregular yellow cross bands; lower part of the tail with
alternate: yellow and blackish bands.

* One example, 12 inches long, was sent by Mr. Hauxwell,
a correspondent of Mr. Bates, from Pebas.

On the Terrestrial Mollusca of Dominica. 429
Elaps filiformis (Gthr.).

An adult example from Bogota differs from the typical spe-
cimen in having two postoculars. Ventral shields 295.

Atractaspis rostrata. Pl. XIX. figs. I.

Head broad, depressed; snout slightly turned upwards, the
rostral shield beimg provided with a sharp anterior edge, and
extending backwards for some distance between the anterior
frontals; two pairs of frontals. Vertical extremely broad ;
one pre-and one postocular; five upper labial shields, the
third and fourth entering the orbit; temporals 1+ 1, the ante-
rior descending between the fourth and fifth labials: a very
long lower labial shield corresponds to the third, fourth, and
fitth upper labials. Scales in twenty-three rows. Body elon-
gate. Ventrals 227-244; subcaudals simple, 22 or 23.

Two specimens, 22 inches long, were sent by Dr. Kirk from
Zanzibar. ‘This is the fifth species of this genus in the Col-
lection of the British Museum.

XLIX.—On the Terrestrial Mollusca of Dominica and Gre-
nada; with an Account of some new Species from Trinidad.

By R. J. LecuMeERE Guppy, F.L.S., F.G.S., &e.
Part I. DOMINICA.

Domrnica is, I believe, the only island in the Antilles of
which no list of terrestrial Mollusca has yet been published.
In Mr. Bland’s Catalogue, in the ‘Annals of the New York
Lyceum,’ still the most complete list we possess of the land-
shells of the West Indies, it is stated that no species from
Dominica were known to the author. To remedy this defect,
I took advantage of a vacation to visit and explore that island,
which I found to consist chiefly of mountains composed of
voleanic rocks, and ranging from 2000 to 5000 feet high.
This is perhaps the highest land in the chain of the West-
Indian Islands between Jamaica and South America.

There is but little which may be properly called lowlands
in Dominica; but on the lower slopes near the sea I found a
few Mollusea, chiefly Bulimulus exilis, Stenogyra octona,
Succinea approximans, and Helicina humilis. Ascending
higher, we find Helix dentiens, H. badia, H. Josephine, H.
nigrescens, Amphibulima patula, Bulimulus laticinctus, and
Helicina epistilia. Excepting the last one, these species are
found everywhere above 300 or 400 feet of elevation. The
dense and excessively humid forests which cover all the higher

430 Mr. R. J.L. Guppy on the Terrestrial

parts of the island afford a congenial habitat to the land-snails.
An ascent of Mount Kuliabon, 3000 feet high, furnished me
with examples of the four Helices already mentioned, Hyalina
Baudont, Amphibulima pardalina, Cyclotus amethystinus, and
Glandina perlucens. On Morne Diablotin, at the north end
of the island, I found Hyalina Baudoni, the four Helices
Flelicina rhodostoma, H. conuloides, H. plicatula, H. velutina,
Amphibulima pardalina, Cyclotus amethystinus, and Glandina
perlucens. On the very summit of this mountain, stated to be
5314 feet high, I collected Helix badia, H. Josephine, and
Helicina conuloides. Amphibulima pardalina is another spe-
cies fond of the thickly wooded heights; but several of the
Mollusca (e.g. Helicina rhodostoma and Cyclotus amethystinus)
appeared to cease at about 3300 feet.

The general aspect of the molluscan fauna of Dominica is
precisely what we might have expected from its position be-
tween the islands of Guadelupe and Martinique, the land-
shells of which are well known. Of the total of twenty spe-
cies determined by me, eleven are found in the neighbouring
islands, whilst [ have considered nine to be undescribed.

1. Glandina perlucens, n. sp.

Testa subulato-turrita, levis, diaphana, fusco-flavida, vix striatula,
lineis distantibus ornata; apex obtusissimus ; anfractus 7, parum
convexi, lente accrescentes, ultimus applanatus, spire longitudi-
nem circiter equans ; sutura valde impressa ; columella valde torta,
truncata; peristoma simplex, margine externo aliquanto pro-
minente.

Long. 16 millim., lat. maj. 4 millim. ; apert. alt. 4, lat. 2.

A subulate-turrite, smooth, brilliantly polished, yellowish-
red shell, marked by obscure striz and by distant variciform
lines, of which there are from three to six on a whorl; with
a very obtuse apex and seven slowly increasing, scarcely con-
vex whorls, the last somewhat flattened and equal to about
half the length of the shell; columella strongly curved, trun-
cate; aperture oval, elongate; peristome simple, its external
margin somewhat prominent.

& species allied to G. arcuata, Pf., of Jamaica. Of three
examples I obtained, one only was of full growth.

2. Stenogyra octona, Chemn.

3. Hyalina Baudoni, Petit.

I was rather in doubt whether to refer the Dominican shell
to this species or to H. concolor, Fér. It appears to be rather
intermediate between those two very closely allied forms. Its
whorls are more like those of H. concolor in contour, except in

Mollusca of Dominica. 431

the convexity of the spire, and in that particular our shell is
nearer to H. Baudont; and the balance of characters is in
favour of the latter name. The animal is viviparous, often
containing twenty young of different sizes. The smallest
shells resemble a Bulla in shape. The lingual teeth are like
those of H. cellarta, and the animal is not furnished with any
caudal appendage.

4, Helix Josephine, Fér.

5. Helix dentiens, Wér.

6. Helix badia, Fér.

7. Helix nigrescens, Wood.

These four Helices are common throughout the island.
Their mandibles and lingual dentition are similar.

8. Bulimulus laticinctus, n. sp.

Testa perforata, conico-elongata, tenuis, fusca vel flava, nitida, de-
cussata, castaneo 4-fasciata (in forma § unicolor), fascia media
latior ; anfr. 6, convexiusculi, regulariter accrescentes, ultimus 2
longitudinis teste circiter equans; spira elongata; apex acumi-
natus ; apertura semiovalis; peristoma simplex, acutum, vix ex-
pansum ; columella torta, dilatata, reflexa.

Alt. 24 millim., lat. 10; aperture alt. 10, lat. 5; anfr. ult. alt. 15.

a. Shell perforate, conic-elongate, fuscous or yellow, thin,
shining, decussate, zoned by four dark chestnut bands, of
which two are visible on the upper whorls, the second (reckon-
ing from the suture) being the widest; whorls 6, a little con-
vex; peristome thin, columellar margin reflected over the
narrow perforation ; columella slightly twisted.

B. Like «, but yellowish or greenish, devoid of colour-
bands, and somewhat broader.

A species allied to B. multifasciatus, but narrow and rela-
tively more elongate, and with only four wide colour-bands.

9. Bulimulus exilis, Gmelin.

10. Bulimulus stenogyroides, n. sp.

Testa rimata, turrita, elongata, cylindrica, parum nitens, albido-
cornea sub epidermide brunnea, sinuato-striata ; anfr. (? circa 5-6)
convexiusculi, ultimus spire longitudinem superans; apertura
elongato-ovalis, angusta, producta; peristoma simplex, acutum,
marginibus callo tenui junctis ; columella reflexa.

Long. —?, lat. 53 millim:; apert. alt. 6, lat. 23; anfr. ult. alt. 10.

A rimate, turrite, elongate cylindric, scarcely shining shell,
whitish horn-coloured under a brown epidermis, the striz of

432 Mr. R. J. L. Guppy on the Terrestrial

growth somewhat sinuate ; whorls (? about five or six) little
convex, the last narrow and forming half or more of the length
of the shell; aperture narrow, rather produced anteriorly,
elongate oval; peristome simple, a little effuse anteriorly, its
margins joined by a thin callus on the body-whorl; columella
reflexed over the narrow umbilical fissure.

I obtained a single living example of this species ; but, un-
fortunately, the spire got broken off, so that my description is
somewhat imperfect. Nevertheless it seems to be a very dis-
tinct species; and, although very like a Stenogyra in shape, I
am inclined to place it rather with Bulimulus. It is, perhaps,
allied to B. montivagus, D’Orb. ; but its proportions are much
more elongate relatively.

11. Amphibulima patula, Brug.

More common on the outskirts than in the interior of the
forests.
12. Amphibulima pardalina, n. sp.

Testa elongato-ovalis, succinoidea, tenuis, flexibilis, diaphana, leviter
decussata, fulvo notata; anfr. 3; spira parva, obtusa; apertura
ampla, ante dilatata; peristoma simplex, superne inflexum ;
sutura descendens.

Long. 20 millim., lat. 11 millim.: spire alt. 3; aperture lat. 9.

An oval-elongate, Succinea-shaped, thin, flexible, somewhat
diaphanous shell, finely decussate and generally marked by
irregular rows of small, elongate, fulvous spots; having a
small obtuse spire and a very large aperture, much dilated
anteriorly, ‘The animal resembles that of Omalonyx unguis,
Fér. (D’Orb. Voy. Amér. Mérid. pl. 22. f. 1-7). The foot is
translucent, like a bit of ice dipped in milk, the internal organs
showing as a dark variegated patch about the shell, into which
the body is incapable of retraction. It lives buried in the very
thick moss on the trees in the higher regions of the forest,
where the vegetation is always dripping with moisture. A.
pardalina is very near to A. tigrina (Lesueur) ; but the dif-
ferences induce me provisionally to assign a new name to the
Dominican shell.

Forming my judgment from the soft parts and the lingual
dentition, I should separate Amphibulima as a genus from
Succinea. The genus Amphibulima might then be divided
into the following groups :—

Amphibulima s. strict. Type A. patula.
Omalonyx, D’Orb. Type A. unguis.
Brachyspira, Pf. Types A. pardalina and A, tagrina.

Mollusca of Dominica. 433
13. Succinea approximans, Shuttl.

14, Cyclotus amethystinus, n. sp.

Testa turbinato-depressa, rubra vel straminea, subdiaphana, spira-
liter striata, lines incrementi rugose ; spira depressa, conoidea ;_
anfr. 5, convexi, infra leves, supra (in forma «) spiraliter lirati
lineis angustioribus quam interstitia eorum (in forma £ leves) ;
umbilicus latus, profundus; apertura parum obliqua ; peristoma
simplex, continuum, breviter affixum, margine externo parum
prominente,

Alt. 84 millim., lat. maj. 19, lat. min. 15.

Operculum corneum, diaphanum, externe concavum, interne carti-
lagineum.

a. Shell turbinate-depressed, reddish or straw-coloured, sub-
diaphanous, spirally striate, the strie of growth generally
rather tugose; spire depressed, conoidal; whorls 5, convex,
smooth beneath, lined above by spiral strie narrower than
their interstices, the last scarcely descending anteriorly. Oper-
culum horny, diaphanous, concave externally, cartilaginous
within, the nucleus projecting internally; with from ten to
fourteen very narrow whorls, their rather lamellar outer edges
slightly free.

8. Smooth, shining, not striate spirally, generally some-
what more depressed, deep chestnut or reddish brown ; whorls
a little flattened near the suture. Operculum as in a.

This is a notable species, owing to its operculum, which
departs widely from that usual in this genus. In no specimen
did it present the least approach to the shelly consistency of
the opercula of most Cyclot?. The spiral striation of the shell
is generally very distinct, but in var. A it is altogether want-
ing. The present species approaches C. popayanus in shape,
being, however, a little more depressed; and it is not closely
allied.

15. Helicina plicatula, Pfeiffer.

Some examples of this species are reddish, and some are
yellow.
16. Helicina epistilia, n. sp.

Testa orbiculato-conoidalis, solidiuscula, lineis incrementi striata,
rubro-brunnea vel obscure flava; spira elevata, apex acuminatus;
anfr. 5, paulum convexi, inferne applanati; sutura paululum
crenulata, parum descendens; apertura parva, semiovalis, lata
eeque ac alta; peristoma anguste reflexum, parum incrassatum ;
callus basalis tenuis, vix distinetus ; columella simplex.

Alt. 53 millim., lat. 83.

Operculum pallide corneum.

An orbiculate-conoidal, obscurely yellowish or reddish shell,

434 Mr. R. J. L. Guppy on the Terrestrial

striate by lines of growth; spire raised, with a pointed apex ;
whorls 5, moderately convex, flattened beneath; suture some-
what crenulate, slightly descending ; aperture rather small, as
broad as high; peristome narrowly reflexed. Operculum pale
horn-coloured.

A species akin to H. Dysoni, but without colour-bands. It
has a more convex form and a flatter base than H. barbata
(Guppy), and in the former of these particulars it is more like
some examples of H. foveata, Pf.

17. Helicina humilis, n. sp.

Testa orbiculato-depressa, lineis incrementi regulariter et dense
striata, pallido-fusca ; spira brevis, depressa ; apex vix acuminatus;
anfr. circa 4, carinati, superne applanati, ultimus paulo productus;
apertura obliqua, semiovata; columella brevis, in nodum termi-
nans; callus basalis amplus, tenuis, leviter circumscriptus.

Alt. 4 millim., lat. 7.

Operculum corneum, ad marginem rubescens.

A depressed pale-fuscous Helicina, striate obliquely by very
close and regular lines of growth; whorls about 4, flattened
above and carinate on the periphery ; aperture oblique, semi-
ovate; peristome somewhat thickened and dilated.

Allied to 7. velutina and H. subfusca, but generally smaller
and more obscurely coloured. Most examples, though living,
have a weathered appearance, which exhibits the close stria-
tion very plainly. It may possibly prove to be a marked
variety of H. velutina.

18. Helicina velutina, n. sp.

Testa orbiculato-depressa, oblique valde striata, rubro-brunnea, epi-
dermide velutina induta; epidermis decussata, pubescentia in
ordinibus punctorum exiguorum disposita; spira brevis, apex
breviter acuminatus; anfr. 5, vix convexi, ad peripheriam cari-
nati, carina distincte lirata lineis pubescentibus ; apertura obliqua,
semiovata ; peristoma parum incrassatum et expansum ; columella
in nodum distincte terminans; callus basalis amplus, circum-:
scriptus.

Alt. 5 millim., lat. 83.

Operculum tenue, corneum, margine rubescente.

Shell depressed, somewhat strongly striate obliquely, dark
brownish red, covered with a velvety epidermis, which is de-
cussate, the pubescence disposed in rows of minute dark points;
spire short, apex somewhat pointed ; whorls five, keeled on the
periphery, the keel bearing two or three distinctly marked
spiral lines of pubescence; base little convex, very decidedly
decussate.

A species somewhat like H. subfusea, but distinguished by

Mollusca of Dominica. 435

being more keeled, by its pubescence, and by its basal callus
and columellar knot.

19. Helicina rhodostoma, Gray.

A handsome species, variable as to colour, often nearly
white. The expanded peristome varies from white, through
orange and red, to a deep chestnut. The operculum of all my
specimens is large, thin, and horn-coloured. The spine at the
base of the columella is also of variable length, and sometimes
it is obsolete.

20. Helicina conuloides, n. sp.

Testa conica, trochiformis, tenuis, levis, nitens, diaphana, rubro-
brunnea; spira conica, elevata; apex acuminatus; anfr. 6, vix
convexi; apertura leviter obliqua; peristoma tenue, rectum ; co-
lumella in callum albidum et circumscriptum dilatata.

Alt. 4 millim., lat. 53.

Operculum tenue, diaphanum, margine interno paulo incrassato.

A conic-trochiform, thin, smooth, shining, diaphanous,
reddish-brown Helicina, with an elevated conic spire and a
pointed apex; whorls 6, scarcely convex; aperture slightly
oblique; peristome thin, straight; columella dilated into a
whitish, rather circumscribed, not very large callus. Oper-
culum thin, diaphanous, somewhat thickened on the inner
margin.

Allied to H. trochulina, D’Orb. (Moll. de Cuba, tab. 20.
f. 10-12). It differs in being scarcely so high relatively, in
its more pyramidal form, and its thinner peristome, which is
not expanded ; its colour, also, is reddish brown, instead of
yellow. One of my examples was furnished with two oper-
cula. I have named the species from its great resemblance, in
colour, shape, and texture, to the shells of the subgenus Co-
nulus of Zonites.

Part II. GRENADA.

1. Veronicella levis, Fér.
Vaginulus Sloaner, Fér. (Guppy).

2. Conulus vacans, Guppy.

It has been suggested to me that this mollusk, which I
described as occurring in Trinidad, is possibly the same as
Stenopus lividus of Guilding. I had, however, made a careful
comparison of Guilding’s figure, and it seemed to me that the ~
two were distinct, although there can be little doubt that both
mollusks belong to the same group. I venture to think, how-

436 Mr. R. Fd. Guppy on the Terrestrial

ever, that, in view of their affinities, the name Conulus is the
proper one for the group. The name Stenopus cannot be
allowed to stand, having been preoccupied for a crustacean.
Such shells as Conulus semen-lint and C. G'undlachi are evi-
dently not separable from the present group. The mucus-
pore and retractile appendage on the truncate tail are found in
the genus Nanina and also in Zonites (as restricted in ‘ Die
Heliceen’ of Albers) ; and Conulus vacans has also the median
part of the foot defined as in Nanina (e. g. Helicarion Frey-
cinett). I think, therefore, that the best classification will be
.to refer to Zonites all those species (of the group now under
consideration) in which a caudal appendage exists. Conulus
will thus form a section of Zonites comprising the minutely
perforated trochiform species. To the group Agopis will be
assigned those species having shells like Stenopus cruentatus,
Guild., S. Gucldingi, Bland, and Helix nitensoides, D’Orb.
The genus Hyalina will then consist of the species, such as
ff, cellaria and H. nitens, which have no caudal appendage.

3. Helix diminuta, C. B. Adams.
4. Helix perplexa, Fér.
I did not collect this species myself; but I have received

examples of it from a former Governor of Grenada, His Ex-
cellency Mr. Keate.

5. Plekocheilus glaber, Gmelin.
var. grenadensis.

This differs from the Trinidad shell described by me as P.
auris-sciurt in its greater solidity and more ventricose figure,
and in being less impressed in the middle of the last whorl.
Its lip is thicker, and its columellar tooth more prominent.
In all these respects, except the compression of the last whorl,
it agrees better with the Brazilian P. glaber than the Trinidad
form does.

6. Bulimulus indistinctus, n. sp.

Testa subperforata, tenuis, oblongo-conica, ventricosa, pallido-
brunnea vel lutescens; anfr. 6, regulariter accrescentes, ultimus
ventricosus, 2 teste longitudinis equans; spira conica, apex
acuminatus ; apertura oblongo-ovalis ; peristoma simplex, acutum,
haud expansum; margine columellari reflexo.

Long. 23 millim., lat. 12; aperture long. 11, lat. 6.

Shell subperforate, somewhat thin, oblong-conic, rather
ventricose, pale reddish brown or inclining to yellowish white;
whorls 6, gradually increasing, the last somewhat ventricose,
equal to about two-thirds of the length of the shell; spire

Mollusca of Grenada. 437

conic, sharp; aperture oblong oval; peristome acute, not ex-
panded ; columellar margin reflexed over the narrow umbi-
licus. The dimensions given above are those of a typical
example.

This shell is probably nearest to B. tenuissimus and B. se-
pulcralis. It is larger than either of those species, and ap-
proaches to B. liliaceus in some respects.

7. Tornatellina lamellata, Pot. & Mich.

The Grenada shell to which the name 7. Funcki is applied
in Bland’s list (1861) is identical with the form from Trinidad
which has recently been described by Dr. Pfeiffer as 7. Blan-
diana, and which I refer to the 7. lamellata of Potiez and
Michaud.

8. Stenogyra caracasensis, Reeve.
9. Stenogyra octona, Chemn.

10. Stenogyra plicatella, Guppy.

The description of this species will be found under Part IIT.,
Trinidad. The Grenada specimens are intermediate between
the vars. a and y. They were probably included in Bland’s
list as St. subula, Pfeiff.

11. Ennea bicolor, Hutton.
12. Succinea approximans, Shuttl.

13. Cyclotus grenadensis, Shuttl.

This is very nearly allied to C. rugatus, Guppy. It may be
distinguished by the comparative smoothness of the last whorl,
upon which, in C. grenadensis, the wrinkled strize become ob-
solete. The present species is of a lighter colour than C.
rugatus.

14. Helicina Heatei, Pf.
I did not collect this species.

Part III. TRINIDAD.

With one exception, the species now described have not
hitherto been recorded from Trinidad; and most of them are
minute and of rare occurrence. Stenogyra plicatella was in-
cluded in my list in the ‘ Annals’ (ser. 3. vol. xvii. p. 50) as
Bulimus octonoides, Adams, from which, however, I find it is
very different. Zonites Guildingit, Helix bactricola, and Heli-
cina ignicoma inhabit the mountains of Aripo.

The proportion of minute species of shells in Trinidad is

4

438 Mr. R. J. L. Guppy on new Species of

somewhat noticeable. Not less remarkable is the rarity of
individuals—so much so that travellers may be pardoned for
having doubted if land-shells exist in Trinidad. The only
exception is perhaps Stenogyra octona. Bulimus oblongus and
Cyclotus translucidus, however, are rather abundant in some
very restricted localities. A contrast to this is presented by
the Antilles, where an hour’s ramble or a search amongst
almost any group of balisiers or grove of trees is generally
rewarded by examples of the more abundant species.
1. Spiraxis simplex, n. sp.
Testa cylindrico-turrita, longitudinaliter sinuato plicata, lutescens,
epidermide straminea induta; anfr. 8-9, vix convexi, ultimus
longitudinem spire superans; sutura incisa; apertura ovato-

oblonga; columella valde torta vel reflexiuscula, truncata ; peri-
stoma simplex, supra et in mediis partibus paulo prominens.

Shell turrite, rather thin, longitudinally sinuate-plicate,
whitish, covered with a light straw-coloured, somewhat shining
epidermis ; whorls 8-9, scarcely convex; aperture ovate-ob-
long; peristome simple, prominent above, receding below.

Var. a. Columella strongly twisted, broadly and obliquely
truncate ; aperture much dilated anteriorly.
Var. 8. Larger, rimate; columella reflexed, scarcely truncate.

Dimensions of three examples.
a. Height 14 mill., greatest diam. 4, height of last whorl 73, of apert. 43
” = ” ” ” ”? ” 73 ” 5
B. 5 15 ,, ” Thee ” ” 73 ” 43
2. Stenogyra plicatella, n. sp.
Bulimus octonoides, Guppy, non Adams.

Testa subulata, elongato-cylindrica, subperforata, cornea, parum.
nitens, sinuato-striata; anfr. 8-9, lente accrescentes, convexius-
culi, ultimus ventrosus ; sutura valida; apertura elongata, ovalis ;
peristoma simplex, supra paulo sinuatum, marginibus callo tenui
junctis ; columella recta, super umbilicum late reflexa.

a. Shell subulate, elongate-cylindrical, subperforate, horn-
coloured, slightly shining, marked by numerous sinuate striae;
whorls 8-9, slowly increasing, the last, somewhat ventricose ;
aperture elongate-oval; columella reflexed over the narrow
perforation.

8B. Generally larger ; whorls flattened, and impressed in the
middle by an indistinct sulcus; the last whorl not ventricose ;
outer margin sinuate above; aperture with its margins joined
by a callus.

y. Smaller, more slender, waxy-white, shining ; columella
arcuate, not reflexed, sometimes subtruncate. . ee

Terrestrial Mollusca from Trinidad. 439

This species is very variable in dimensions as well as in its
other characters, as the following measurements of three varie-
ties will show :—

¢. Length 13 millims., breadth 33, height of aperture 3.
33 2

B. ” 15 ” ” 2 ” ”

© 1
Y: ” 9 ” ” 2 ” ” 13

ty

This is generally a longer and larger shell than S. octo-
noides, to which I had previously referred it. The var. y also
is longer, though more slender, than the Jamaican species.
But S. plicatella is really more near to S. subula, Pf. In
uniting the three forms now described under one name, I am
guided by the characteristic striation and by the gradation of
forms.

3. Stenogyra coronata, n. sp.

Testa obsolete rimata, subulata, cylindrico-fusiformis, albida vel
cornea, costellibus distantibus ornata; anfr. 8-9, vix convexi,
superiores lente accrescentes et gradati, inferiores subeequantes,
ultimus parum arctatus; sutura impressa; apertura angusta,
elongato-ovalis ; peristoma simplex, marginibus callo junctis.

Long. 7 millim., lat. 2; apert. alt. 13, lat. 2.

Shell obsoletely rimate, subulate, fusiformly cylindrical,
white, adorned by low, distant, somewhat sinuate, longitudinal
riblets, of which there are about eighteen on a whorl; whorls
8-9, scarcely convex, the upper ones step-like, slowly increas-
ing, the lower ones nearly equal, the last somewhat narrowed;
aperture narrow; peristome simple, its margins joined by a
narrow callus on the body-whorl.

Allied to S. gracillima, Pfr., Cuba. The group Melaniella,
of which this is a member, appears to be related to Cylindrella,
whilst the forms like S. plicatella and S. octona seem to ap-
proach Spiraxis.

4. Zonites Guilding?, Bland.

Stenopus Guilding?, Bland, in Ann. Lyc. N. H. New York.

I would refer to what I have said under Part II., Grenada,
when treating of Conulus vacans, for my reasons for rejecting
the name Stenopus. .

This shell is so like Hyalina cellaria, Miill., that, were a
dozen examples of each mixed together, it would be difficult
to assort them. The animal differs, according to Bland, in
having a caudal appendage, and is therefore referable to Zo-.
nites, and not to Hyalina. I have only found this species on
the heights of Aripo, 2000 to 2700 feet high, and have had no

opportunity of examining the animal. Mr. Bland’s examples
were from Porto Cabello in Venezuela.

440 Mr. R. J. L. Guppy on new Species of

5. Zonites implicans, n. sp.

Testa minuta, discoidea, aperte et late umbilicata, albida, pellucida,
nitens; anfr. 4, depressi, superne applanati, lente accrescentes ;
spira applanata; apertura suborbicularis.

Alt. 4 millim., lat. maj. 2; apert. alt. 3.

A minute, discoidal, widely umbilicate, whitish, smooth,
shining shell, with four depressed, slowly increasing whorls,
flattened above; spire scarcely, if at all, rising above the last
whorl; aperture suborbicular.

This is distinguished from Z. wmbratilis by the absence of
striation, by its planorbiform shape, depressed spire, and wider
umbilicus, and by its large suborbicular aperture, scarcely
encroached upon by the penultimate whorl.

6. Zonites umbratilis, n. sp.

Testa minuta, depressa, profunde umbilicata, distincte et regulariter
striata, diaphana, cornea vel albida; anfr. 54-6, lente accres-
centes; spira convexa, depressa; apertura lunaris; peristoma
simplex.

Alt. 2 millim., lat. 13; apert. alt. 3.

A minute, depressetl, deeply umbilicate, horn-coloured shell,
distinctly and regularly striate ; whorls five and a half or six;
spire convex, depressed ; aperture lunate; peristome simple.

This species has a wider and deeper umbilicus than the last,
showing all the whorls. Some examples are a good deal more
depressed than others, and approach Z. ¢mplicans in that re-
spect; but the striation is a definite character. It is possible
that these two species may, upon examination of the soft parts,
prove not to have caudal appendages, and will then be refer-
able to Hyalina, not to Zonites.

7. Helix bactricola, n. sp.

Testa pyramidalis, conoidea, perspective umbilicata, dense radiatim
costellata, corneo-fusca ; anfr. 7, angusti, lente accrescentes, ul-
timus ad peripheriam valde carinatus; spira conica; apex levis,
nitens ; apertura angulariter subovalis, leviter obliqua ; umbilicus
infundibuliformis, + latitudinis teste circiter equans; peristoma

simplex, acutum, margine columellari parum dilatato.
Alt. 23 millim., lat. 4.

A small, pyramidal, deeply umbilicate, fuscous-horny Helix,
with seven narrow, slowly increasing, closely costellate whorls,
the last carinate on the periphery ; spire conic, apex smooth,
shining ; umbilicus infundibuliform, about one-third the width
of the shell; peristome simple, acute, columellar margin
slightly dilated.

This little shell is ornamented in a manner similar to i.

Terrestrial Mollusca from Trinidad. 441

diminuta and H. perspectiva; but it is much more conical
than those species or any of their allies that I am acquainted
with, having in this respect more of the shape of H. laby-
rinthica, Say.

8. Bulimulus tenuissimus, Fér.

A species not hitherto distinguished by me from B. frater-
culus. If the Trinidad form now recorded is really B. tenuis-
stmus, it differs from Antillian examples in having a narrower
mouth.

9. Pupa uvulifera, n. sp.

Testa umbilicata, cylindrica, paulum ovata, leviter striatula, corneo-
brunnea, parum nitens; anfr. 5-6, convexi; apertura semi-
ovata, plicis munita, plica parictalis verticalis, lamelliformis ;
margo externus incrassatus, reflexus, margo columellaris late

reflexus ; umbilicus apertus, haud profundus.
Long. 3 millim., lat. 1.

Allied, probably, to P. jamazcensis. Itis of somewhat stouter
»~P Wig RO tea
figure than that species.

10. Pupa auriformis, n. sp.

Testa subperforata, ovata, brunnea, subpellucida, leviter striata, vix
nitens ; anfr, 43—5, convexi, ultimus dimidiam longitudinem su-
perans; spira brevis, convexa, apex obtusus; apertura semi-
ovalis, auriformis, plica parietali munita; peristoma incrassatum,
reflexum, margine externo valde sinuato, margine columellari late
reflexo.

Long. 2 millim., lat. 13.

Distinguished from the last by its shorter and more ovate
figure.
11. Helicina ignicoma, n. sp.

Testa orbiculato-conoidalis, radiatim sinuato costellata, tenuis, sub-
diaphana, nitens, subrufa; spira brevis, conoidalis; apertura
oblique semiovata; columella brevissima, simplex; peristoma
anguste expansum et reflexum, margine basali parum sinuato ;
callus basalis tenuis, albidus.

Alt. 3 millim., lat. maj. 44, lat. min. 4.

Operculum tenue, diaphanum.

An orbiculate conoidal Helicina, sculptured with numerous
fine, oblique, somewhat sinuate riblets; with five whorls, the
last somewhat carinate; aperture oblique, semiovate; peri-
stome narrowly expanded and reflected ; basal margin slightly
sinuate.

Very closely allied to H. rugosa, Pf. (Cuba), and scarcely
less so to HZ. plicatula (Martinique, Dominica, &c.). One
character gives a ready distinction: in the two species men-

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.4. Voli. 3831

442 Dr. R. O. Cunningham on the Zoology of

tioned there is a sort of tooth on the basal margin of the-peri-
stome, whilst in H. zgnicoma the basal margin is only slightly
sinuate.

Note.—The shell identified by me with Bulimus immacu-
latus, Reeve, seems probably not to be that species, but an
uncoloured variety of the Trinidad form of B. multcfasciatus,
determined to be B. vincentinus, Pf.

The Planorbis regarded as identical with a Cuban species
should be P. terverianus, not terversanus.

Port of Spain, Trinidad, April 1868.

L.—Carcinological Gleanings. No. UI.
By C. Spence Bate, Esq., F.R.S.
[Plate XXI.]

Dr. Cunningham writes me from

At sea, November 8, 1867.
(Between Monte Video and Magellan Strait.)

My DEAR Sir,

I have long had it in my mind to write to you, as you were
so good as to express a wish to hear from me occasionally during
my absence from the United Kingdom, when I had the plea-
sure of meeting you at Plymouth last year; and I now put my
intention into execution. We left Plymouth on the 8th of
September, 1866, but encountered such a severe gale that after
battling with it and vainly attempting to run into Brest, we
were forced to return to the Sound on the 10th, and lay there
till the evening of the 17th, when we again set forth, and, after
a rather rough passage, reached Madeira, where we remained
for about a week. Untortunately, we were placed in quaran-
tine for the first five days of our stay, so that I was not able
to see nearly as much of the island as I wished. So much
has been said of the wonderful beauty of Madeira that I will
not enlarge upon it, but content myself with observing that I
think it is about the most lovely place I have seen since I left
home. I accomplished a little dredging in the Bay of Funchal,
and obtained a variety of Mollusca, chiefly belonging to Kuro-
pean types. A Dentaliwm was specially abundant in the fme
mud of the bottom, existing in hundreds. I, however, met with
no Crustacea. I had a delightful ride up the Grand Canal on
the 2nd of October; and on the evening of the same day we left
Madeira for St. Vincent, in the Cape Verde group. There
we arrived on the forenoon of the 9th, and remained four or
five days, in the course of which I had some pleasant rambles.
I need hardly say that St. Vincent is noted for its extreme

his Voyage to South America. 443

sterility ; but, owing to the prevalence of heavy rains, which
had shortly before taken place, it was much greener than usual
at the time of our visit; and I was surprised by the variety of
plants I met with. I devoted one afternoon to marine re-
searches, and I met with a considerable number of Mollusca
and a few Crustacea (principally crabs). I also got a species
of Hippa or Remipes, which burrows in the sand, and is, I was
informed, employed as bait for fish. We took our departure
early in the evening of the 13th for Rio. In the course of the
voyage I employed the towing-net whenever practicable, and
with tolerable success, obtaining specimens of Janthine, va-
rious Pteropods, Porpite, Velelle, &c. I saw some beautiful
Physalie, but did not capture any. On the 16th I got a large
suctorial crustacean off the gills of a flyingfish which flew on
board; and Iwas nearly forgetting to mention that on the 14th I
got.a specimen of Alima hyalinu { Appendix, I.] in the towing-
net. We entered the magnificent harbour of Rio de Janeiro late
on the evening of the 2nd of November, and we stayed till the
afternoon of the 18th. On the stones in shallow water in the
harbour an Isopod allied to our British Ligia [App., L.] was
abundant. We encountered two gales between Rio and Monte
Video, where we arrived on the 23rd. During our stay of
nearly a fortnight I saw as much as I could of the neigh-
bourhood. The country is very monotonous, consisting for the
most part of gently undulating pampas covered with tall thistles.
Some parts of these plains, however, are rendered beautiful
by the beds of purple and scarlet Verbenas. The marine life
except the fish, which are numerous, is barrenness itself.
One day when I took a long walk along the beach outside the
town, and diligently searched for marine animals in the rock-
pools, the only living thing that I could find was a small
dusky-coloured shore-crab, which existed in numbers. I for-
got to say that between Rio and Monte Video I one day pro-
cured three specimens of an Jdotea [App., III.; Plate X XJ.
fig. 1], or some closely allied form, in the towing-net, 200
miles off land. They were at first of a brilliant blue tint,
but have faded in the spirit in which they were put. We left
Monte Video on the 6th December, and, after spending a day
at Maldanado, shaped our course for the Strait, which we
entered on the 21st. On the afternoon of the 22nd we an-
chored off the Chilian settlement of Puntas Menas, better
known to us as Sandy Point; and shortly after, I landed for
the first time in Patagonia. It is a truly delightful sensation
to land for the first time in a new and wild country, and I
greatly enjoyed my walk that day. Pursuing my way along
the beach, the first Crustacean I met with was Serolis Fabricz,
= ld

444 Dr. R. O. Cunningham on the Zoology of

with whose curious form I had long been familiar from figures.
This animal occurs plentifully about Sandy Point, and was
taken in hundreds in our seine. When on the ground, it crawls
along very sluggishly ; but I have seen it paddling rapidly on
its back along the surface of shallow pools. The same day I
found numerous fragments of a large spiny Lithodes, very
closely resembling our L. arcticus, about which we had some
correspondence a year or two ago. This and another species
of the same genus, which is not nearly so spiny, the spines
being replaced in great part by tubercles, appear to be two of
the most abundant Crustacea in the eastern part of the Strait.
In both, as in all the other foreign species of Lithodes which
I have had an opportunity of examining, the pleon is formed
on the same plan as that of our British one; 7. e.im the male
the plates are symmetrical, while in the female they are pro-
minently asymmetrical. I got a small male specimen of what
I think may be a third species, at Port Famme, one day we
spent there. I procured several other Decapoda in the Strait,
a small Munida [App., [V.] among the number, and a variety
ot sessile-eyed Crustacea, though not so many as I anticipated.
I got one or two Nymphons and a species of Hyperia [App., V.]-
We left the Strait about the middle of February for the Falk-
land Islands, to get fresh supplies of provision and coal, and
reached Stanley Harbour in the course of three days. While
we were there, the weather was very broken, so that I could
not accomplish any long excursions; but, as far as I could
judge, there appears to be a very great similarity between the
fauna and flora of the Falklands and those of the Strait. We
left Stanley on the 2nd of March, and on the following day,
in the forenoon, we noticed several brilliant scarlet-coloured
patches in the water floating past the ship. We investigated
their nature by means of a bucket let down over the side,
and found they were composed of multitudes of a small ma-
crurous decapod which swam rapidly about by rapid flexions
and extensions of the tail, the movement being backwards, as
in our common lobster. I preserved several specimens of the
animal, besides making a sketch of it [App., VI.; Pl. XXI.
fig.2],which I send to you. The entire length of the crustacean,
when the tail, which was ordinarily curved underneath the
body, was extended, was about three-fourths of an inch; and
the limbs bearing the chele were nearly an inch long. The
general colour was scarlet, the eyes, a large patch on the
carapace, and a line extending along the abdominal segments
bluish black. I have not been able to identify the animal from the
descriptions I have with me. I ought, however, to state that
I have a very small stock of books at hand. Captain Mayne

his Voyage to South America. 445

has pointed out to me that in the narrative of the voyage of
the Nassau fleet, undertaken in 1623, as given in Binney’s
Voyages, vol. iii. p. 9), it is recorded that on the 19th and
20th of January, 1624, when the fleet was off the coast of
South America in lat. 42° 15'S., “the sea near them was in
many parts discoloured with an infinite number of small red
shrimps.” On our return to the Strait, we continued our
operations till the middle of June, when the increasing seve-
rity of the weather caused us to move northwards for winter-
quarters. We reached Rio de Janeiro on the Ist of July, and
remained there for three months and a half. I need not des-
cant on the glorious scenery or the wonderful profusion of
animal- and plant-life in that magnificent country; for that, I
presume, is well known to you. I could not afford time for
any very long journeys, but went far enough to see the
virgin forests in all their glory. I paid two visits to the house
of a most hospitable Scotchman who lives on the Serra do
Mar, about fifty miles from Rio; and I spent a few days at
Tijuca, about ten miles from the city, where I saw the most
wonderful exhibition of boulders that it has ever been my
lot to witness.:

The mention of Tijuca reminds me of a matter that I
shall feel much obliged to you if you can give me a
little information upon, viz. how far is the development
of the land and freshwater decapods made out? I am
aware that the crayfish is stated not to undergo any meta-
morphosis in the young state; but I have not been able to
ascertain, in the limited number of books which I have here
for consultation, whether the same thing holds good in the
Brachyurous Decapoda. I obtained several specimens of a
crab, in the province of Rio de Janeiro, which frequents
streams and damp rocks in their vicinity; and while exploring
the banks of a cascade in the neighbourhood of Tijuca, I ob-
tained a female specimen, which, to my surprise, had between
fifty and sixty fully developed live young ones under the
pleon, in the ordinary position of the ova. These little crea-
tures were very active, and several escaped on the parent
being captured; but I have preserved a number of them, and
I send you specimens in this letter, together with a careful
sketch of the parent. This occurrence, it appears to me, goes
far to prove that this species either undergoes no marked
metamorphosis between the egg and the perfect animal, or
else that the metamorphosis takes place while the young ani-
mal is beneath the pleon of its parent. The body of the adult
crab is of a dull purple colour; the legs are of a considerably

paler tint. [App., VII.; Pl. XXI. fig. 3.]

446 Mr. C. Spence Bate on some Atlantic

I obtained several species of marine Crustacea while at Rio.
In an excursion which I made along the beach outside the
harbour, I saw many specimens of an Ocypoda, but only suc-
ceeded in capturing one, owing to the extreme rapidity of
their movements; and on another occasion I obtained speci-
ae of a Lupea, a Hepatus, and a Hippa, in Five-fathom

ay.

in the month of September the screw of the vessel was raised
in order to clean it, and [found numbers of Caprella[App., VIII. ]
clustering amongst the tufts of zoophytes with which the
metal was profusely covered. I send you specimens of this, as
well as of a crustacean * which has occurred in plenty in the
towing-net several times in the course of our voyage south-
wards to the Strait. We expect to enter the Strait in the course
of a couple of days, and shall be there and in Smyth’s Channel
for six or seven months, after which we shall probably spend a
few months at Valparaiso. If you have leisure to write me a
few lines, it will be doing me a great favour; for am very much
cut off at present, as you may imagine, from scientific intelli-
gence. My address will be “ H.M.S. ‘ Nassau,’ Valparaiso,
vta Panama.”

With kind regards, believe me,

My dear Sir,
Very truly yours,
RoperT O. CUNNINGHAM.

Appendix. By C. SPENCE BATE.

I. Alima hyalina.—From researches made by Dr. Power
during his stay in the Mauritius, and which are now in my
hands preparatory to publication, I have great reason to be-
heve that the genus Alima is but the. second stage in the de-
velopment of the genus Squl/a and its allied forms.

Il. Ligia.—No species (that I am aware of) has been re-
corded from the eastern coast of South America. It may
therefore be L. Baudiana of Milne-Edwards, from the Gulf of
Mexico, which bears a very near general resemblance to the
British species. The habitat, however, is very remarkable ;
for the European species is never found in water, but only
within reach of the spray of the sea.

III. Jdotea annulata, Dana (Pl. XXI. fig. 1)—The deep
blue colour of which Dr. Cunningham speaks appears to be
a peculiarity belonging to pelagic species. I have received
specimens of this same from Dr. Wallich, who says that it “is
a parasite on Physalia, almost invariably adherent to the

* Idotea annulata.

ay!

and South-American Crustacea. 447

float.” He took them between the Bay of Bengal and the
Cape of Good Hope. The specimen from which Dana de-
scribed the species was ‘taken in the Antarctic seas south of
New Holland.”

IV. Munida.—Probably same as VI.

V. Hyperia.—Having received several specimens of these
from Dr. Cunningham, I have been enabled to identify them
as being Themisto antarctica of Dana.

VI. (Plate XXI. fig. 2)—Judging by Dr. Cunningham’s
drawing, I think that these must be the young of Galathea
monodon of Milne-Edwards, of which the Munda ( Galathea)
alluded to in No. IV. as being captured in the Strait was a
stray specimen.

VIL. Uca Cunninghami (P|. X XI. fig.3).—The development
of the land-crabs, of which this is one, has been carefully
worked out and figured, in the ‘Transactions of the Royal
Society,’ by Prof. Westwood. I know this species only by
Dr. Cunningham’s figure, and place it in the genus Uca rather
than in that of Gecarcinus, because there are no teeth or spines
on the legs. The two genera, as well as those of Cardisoma
and Gr'ecarcoidea, are distinguished from each other by the
different form of the gnathopoda, which, not being shown
in Dr. Cunningham’s drawing, I cannot appeal to. But since
the species of the several genera described by M. Milne-
Edwards are distinguished by having rows of spines or teeth
on the walking-legs, I think it more probable that this species
may be more closely allied, through the form of the oral ap-
paratus, with Uca than with either of the others.

Female. Carapace circularly oval; lateral margins not con-
verging until over the penultimate pereiopod, then sud-
denly narrowing to about one-third of the broadest dia-
meter of the carapace; anterior or intraorbital margin
smooth and continuously emarginate; latero-frontal mar-
gins rounded, not defined, furnished with two short teeth
formed rather by depressions than dental elevations.
Orbits broad, and not deeply impressed in the carapace.
Antenne short. First pair of pereiopoda chelate, un-
equal, right the larger ; chele strong, having the internal
margin of digital process of the propodos straight, taper-
ing, and armed with four or five strong tubercles; dac-
tylos curved, tapering, and armed with one or two small
tubercles. The rest of the pereiopoda are subequal in
length, the last being somewhat the shortest, and have
the tarsi smooth and unarmed. ‘The pleon has none of
the segments fused. The telson is narrower at the base
than the preceding segment.

448 Dr. A. Dohrn on Eugereon Boeckingi

VII. Caprella—Among the numerous specimens sent to
me by Dr. Cunningham, all appear to correspond with Dana’s
description of C. dilatata, except one, which more nearly co-
incides with C, robusta—a circumstance that confirms the opi-
nion expressed in the British-Museum ‘ Catalogue of Amphi-
podous Crustacea,’ that the two species are but sexually dis-
tinct. Dana’s specimens, like those of Dr. Cunningham, were
brought up with the anchor in Rio Harbour.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXI.

Fig. 1. Idotea annulata, Dana.

Fig. 2. Galathea monodon, Milne-Edwards (young), natural size: c, cara-
pace slightly enlarged; 4, first pair of pereiopoda.

Fig. 3. Uca Cunninghami, nu. sp., 2, nat. size: P, pleon, seen on the outer
side; P”, the same, inside, i situ, showing :—p, pleopoda;
Vv, young crabs; z, termination of intestinal track; ¢, one of the
pleopoda.

LI.—On Eugereon Boeckingi and the Genealogy of the Arthro-
poda. By Dr. Anron Donrn*,

THE LEugereon [described and figured by the author in
Dunker’s ‘ Paleeontographica,’ Bd. xi.] was found in an iron-
stone-pit belonging to M. Boecking, near the Abenteuerhiitte, in
the district of Birkenfeld. The stone containing it is an argil-
laceous spherosiderite, which occurs between the carboniferous
formation and the Lower New Red Sandstone, and which also
contains a number of known Fishes and the celebrated Arche-
gosaurus, together with ligneous fibres as the sole vegetable
remains. I have lately received from the same pit an admi-
rably preserved impression of the fore wing of a Blatta; so
that it is to be hoped that the insect-fauna of former ages will
be further enriched from this locality. As early as 1856,
however, F’. Goldenberg described some insects from the Coal-
measures of Saarbriick; and still earlier, in 1842, Germar
described several species of blattina from the carboniferous
rocks of Wettin. Still older discoveries have been made in
North America: Samuel Scudder has described two new Neu-
ropterous forms from the Coal-measures of Illinois, Miamia
and Hemeristia, for both of which he requires the establish-
ment of new families, Paleopterina and Hemeristina,—and also,
from the still lower Devonian strata of New Brunswick, wings
which he identifies as those of Ephemeride, but one of them

* Translated by W.S. Dallas, F.L.S., from the ‘Stettiner entomolo-
gische Zeitung,’ Jahrg. xxviil. (1867) pp. 145-165.

and the Genealogy of the Arthropoda. 449

as belonging to an insect which must have been precisely in-
termediate between the Orthoptera and Neuroptera. By this
discovery and that of Hugereon, important and hitherto quite
unsuspected steps have been made towards the establishment
of the genealogical relationship of the order of Insects.

As regards Hugereon, in order to indicate the position which,
in my opinion, it must occupy in the genealogical tree, I will
here reproduce the concluding paragraph of my memoir in
the ‘ Paleeontographica.’

“Tf we compare the organization of the recognizable parts
of our fossil with living forms of Insects, we arrive at the
surprising result that we have to do with an animal which
will not enter into any of our orders of Insects hitherto re-
garded as so firmly established. Not only M. Tischbein, to
whose kind intervention I am indebted for the intellectual
possession of the animal, but also Dr. Hagen, of Kénigsberg,
to whom I sent it for his: inspection and opinion, regarded it
as an Hemipteron, the latter, however, with this limitation :—
‘ Probably it constitutes a perfectly new form, which, on ac-
count of the labium, scarcely agrees with the existing Hemi-
ptera, but can only be referred to them.’ My own opinion was
originally the same; but I am now decidedly of opinion that
I have an insect before me to which our divisions do not
apply, and which therefore stands outside our system. The
wings, especially, prevent my referring it to the Hemiptera.
No Hemipteron is destitute of the clavus on the anterior wings;
and in none do the longitudinal veins show a tendency to attain
the inner margin, but all are directed towards the apex of the
wing. Moreover there are no Hemiptera with antenne re-
sembling those of Hugereon. The antenne of Hemiptera are
of several (7. e. 4-5) joints, or, if we count all the small inter-
mediate joints (e. g. in Ectrichodia), of 8-9 joints; but this
is the highest number. The form, however, of these joints is
essentially different from that of the antennal joints of Hu-
gereon. In the Hemiptera they are long, unequal, and here and
there furnished with dilatations or other alterations of form ;
in the latter small and all alike. To this we may add the
formation of the buccal organs. The rostrum of the Bugs
consists, as is well known, of a nearly closed multiarticulate
tube, in which the filiform mandibles and maxille are freely
moveable. The tube consists of the labium amalgamated with
the labial palpi. In Hugereon we find all these elements pre-
sent, but very differently developed. The mandibles and max-
ille are not filiform, nor does the labium form a tube. And
yet it is not difficult to regard this structure of the buccal
organs as a preliminary step towards the existing Hemipterous

450 Dr. A. Dohrn on Eugereon Boeckingi

mouth. If we suppose the labial palpi to lay themselves to-
gether by their free, smooth, inner margins, and to enclose
the jaws within them, we have before us a picture exactly
analogous to the rostrum of a Bug. All that would then be
necessary is the amalgamation of the two palpi so as to pro-
duce the tube, and the gradual conversion of the rather stronger
jaws into weaker ones, to attain the formation of the Hemi-
pterous rostrum. ‘The structure of the head, the breadth of
the thorax, the form of the legs, which so distinctly remind
us of the Hulgoride, are, moreover, the clearest indications that
we have to do with an animal which is very nearly allied to
the Hemiptera. On the other hand, however, the form of the
wings, the venation, and the antenne do not altogether nega-
tive a comparison with the Neuroptera; and thus we get as
the probable final result that Hugereon is to be regarded as a
very ancient insect, which indicates a still older progenitor,
in which Hemiptera and Neuroptera were still entirely undif-
ferentiated. It would be impossible to regard Hugereon itself
as this progenitor, because, in the first place, Neuroptera were
already in existence along with it, their remains having been
found; but, on the other hand, we can hardly fail to see how
it would gradually entirely lose the characters of the one order
and change and bring to perfection the others alone. It is
much more intelligible to regard it as part of an extinct side-_
line, which had a common progenitor with the Hemiptera and
Neuroptera, if, indeed, my view as to the relationship of
Eugereon with the latter order in the structure of the wings
and antennz should prove correct.”

Thus, therefore, we have in Hugereon an animal which
again demonstrates with extraordinary distinctness the truth
of the Darwinian theory, and does its part in assisting to throw a
little more light upon the principles of morphological science.
It was to be expected, and, indeed, was regarded as certain by
all unprejudiced naturalists, that morphology in general would
undergo a powerful shock and a complete revolution by means
of the Darwinian theory, and that a gigantic step would have
to be made in this science. Already, before any one could
have expected such a thing, this gigantic step has been made
by Hickel, the celebrated zoologist of the University of Jena.
In his work on the general morphology of organisms* are
laid down the principles of a new science, Morphology. I
shall have occasion elsewhere to refer fully to the wide signi-
ficance of this work, and its extremely rich and many-sided
contents; here I will only extract one thing, namely, the

* Generelle Morphologie der Organismen, von Ernst Hackel. 2 vols.
Berlin, 1866.

and the Genealogy of the Arthropoda. 451

genealogical tree of the Arthropoda, which must possess a
special interest for the readers of this journal.

Hiickel derives the Vermes and Arthropoda from a common
root, which stood in genetic connexion with the Infusoria,
and from which the Rotatoria have also originated. The Ar-
thropoda then divide into two large sections (Cladus) :—the
Carides, Crustacea (Branchiferous Arthropoda); and the Zra-
cheata, Insects (Tracheiferous Arthropoda). Hiackel very
correctly justifies this division by saying that the orders of
Arachnida, Myriopoda, and Insecta are more closely connected
than certain families of the Crustacea; and it seems pretty
certain that the Tracheata were only developed from the
Carides. Paleontology, indeed, furnishes but little evidence
upon this pomt; but more is offered by the developmental
history of individuals; and it is well known that the larve of
certain Neuroptera for a long time retain branchial respiration,
which they only subsequently exchange for tracheal respira-
tion. As, however, it is to be regarded as an established law
that the development of an animal in the egg and in the
larval state (the ontogenetic development) is only an abridged
and partially obscured picture of the development of a genea-
logical tree (the phyletic development), we are justified (as
also for many other reasons) in drawing this far-reaching con-
clusion as to descent from so remarkable a phenomenon as the
change in the mode of respiration in the larve of Neuroptera.
Hence, also, developmental history, the study of which has
now been taken up with fresh vigour, acquires an extraor-
dinary importance ; and it is to be hoped that the necessary aid
will not be denied on the part of entomologists: and this will
consist essentially in their undertaking a description and sys-
tematization of the larvee as well as the description and clas-
sification of the perfectly developed insects, and in ascertaining
by observation the external changes which the body of the
larva undergoes until it becomes transformed into the perfect
insect.

I will not enter into the details of the development and
descent of the Crustacea, but only refer to the hypothetical
order of the Zoépoda, which, according to the concordant opi-
nions of Fritz Miiller and Hiickel, included the progenitors of
the Schizopoda (Mysis, Euphausia), and consequently of the
Stomatopoda, Decapoda, and all the Edriophthalma originating
from these, as also of the Tracheata. The assumption of this
order is founded upon the Zoéa, so well known to all crustaceo-
logists, a developmental form in the ontogenesis of most
Podophthalma, which refers us back to the Zoépoda. The

unknown common original form of the Arachnida, Myrio-

452 Dr. A. Dohrn on Eugereon Boeckingi

poda, and Insecta must have been a Zoépod, which accus-
tomed itself to living on the land and to direct aérial respira-
tion, and thus gradually, in the course of a long series of
generations, acquired the very characteristic tracheal respira-
tion. It must have been developed in the time between the
Silurian and Carboniferous periods ; for in the Silurian period
there were as yet (at least so far as we know at present) no
terrestrial organisms, but in the Carboniferous period, and
even in the Devonian (according to the most recent publica-
tions of 8. Scudder), the earliest developed Tracheata, both
Insects and Arachnida, had already made their appearance.

The primitive forms of the three sections Arachnida, My-
riopoda, and Insecta, as to which we can now only form ana-
logical conclusions, are named Protracheata (Urkerfe, Primi-
tive Insects) by Hickel, who characterizes them as follows :—
‘“‘Of these primitive forms of the Tracheata, developed from
the Zoépoda between the Silurian and Carboniferous periods,
no fossil remains are known to us. Nevertheless the com-
parative ontogeny of the Malacostraca, Arachnida, Myriopoda,
and Insecta enables us to arrive, with tolerable certainty, at
definite conclusions as to their form. Like many Zoépoda
(which are still preserved to us in Zoéa-states) and like the
true insects, between which they occupy an intermediate posi-
tion, the Protracheata, as the type of which we may establish
the hypothetical genus Zoentomon, must have possessed three
pairs of jaws and three pairs of locomotive extremities. From
these hexapod Zoentomide, in all probability, the Insecta have
been developed as the direct branch, and the Arachnida as a
weaker lateral branch. The Myriopoda constitute only an in-
considerable lateral branchlet of the Insecta. Whether any
Protracheata are still in existence is doubtful. The Solifuge
might, perhaps, be placed in this category, and perhaps also
those ‘ apterous insects’ (if there be any such among existing
insects) in which the want of wings is aboriginal, and has not
been acquired by adaptation.”

The Arachnida I likewise leave out of the question here,
and will only mention the one highly remarkable form which
alone in this class has still retained the old type, and which
allows us to arrive at a certain conclusion as to the original
community of ancestry of the Insecta and Arachnida—that of
the Solifuge. In this family we find no amalgamation of the
head and thoracic segments to form a cephalothorax, but three
perfectly separated regions of the body—head, thorax, and
abdomen. ‘The head bears the pair of eyes, the pair of an-
tenn, and two pairs of maxillary palpi. The three segments
of the thorax bear the three pairs of true legs. The abdomen,

and the Genealogy of the Arthropoda. 453

which is destitute of appendages, is composed of ten segments.
By the fusion of the head and three thoracic segments we get
the primary form of the Arthrogastres (Scorpions, &c.), and
by the further fusion of the abdominal segments into one piece
the Spherogastres (true Spiders).

The Myriopoda have broken out from some early insectan
branch. This is clearly shown by their embryonal form and
development ; for the embryos possess only three pairs of legs,
and perfectly resemble larvee of insects. Moreover the in-
ternal anatomy of the Myriopoda is so nearly related to that
of insects that there can be no doubt of the fact of their
derivation. The great number of body-segments, and con-
sequently of legs, is a subsequent addition, acquired after the
branching off, as is proved by their development, and is also
shown by the analogy of many Crustacea (Hdriophthalma).

Thus we come to the true Insecta. Here, following the
example of Fritz Miiller and Hiickel, we must in the first place
dispose of a strong prejudice, namely, the principle of classifi-
cation according to the “complete” or “ incomplete’ meta-
morphosis. This is now-a-days a perfectly untenable prin-
ciple. We now know not only what is the significance of
metamorphosis in general and what we are to conclude there-
from, but we have also learnt, thanks to the brilliant investi-
gations of Fritz Miiller upon the Crustacea, what modalities
may affect the metamorphosis, lengthening, abridging, or
altering it; and we know that the so-called “ perfect’? meta-
morphosis of many, and perhaps of all insects, has been
acquired during ontogenesis (and not ¢nherited from the ori-
ginal progenitor). Moreover we have obtained from the facts
the abstraction that the metamorphosis is always abridged in
proportion as more generations follow one another, and that
the tendency of the organisms (if we may use the expression)
is always striving to attain, by the shortest possible way, from
the egg state to the perfect, sexually mature animal. For this
reason I have already indicated how important, and how rich
in unexpected results, a comparative investigation of larve
will be. One of the most striking examples of a perfect dif-
ference of metamorphosis, with the greatest similarity in its
starting and finishing points (the egg and the sexually mature
animal), is presented by a species of the genus Grecarcinus, a
Brachyurous Crustacean which, like the Crayfish, quits the
egg at once in its definitive form, whilst all other crabs, and
even all other species of the genus Gecarcinus, only attain
their definitive form after passing through a metamorphosis.
Similar peculiarities will certainly be presented to us by a
careful investigation of larve, and the notions of complete and

454 Dr. A. Dohrn on Eugereon Boeckingi.

incomplete metamorphosis will not hold their ground against
a sharper examination and criticism of the facts.

Hickel has also entirely given up this principle of division,
and retained instead of it the form of the buccal organs, so
far as they are arranged either for biting or sucking. Whether
this is a permanent principle must be shown hereafter, when
more means of observation may be employed than at present.
Discoveries like Eugereon, in a paleontological direction, and
the larva of Sisyra (described by Westwood as Branchiotoma
Spongille, see Gerstiicker and Carus, ‘ Zoologie,’ p. 73), which,
as I have been informed by Professor Grube, and also find
repeated in Gerstiicker’s ‘ Handbuch,’ likewise has a sucking
buccal apparatus, although its imago belongs to the Neuro-
ptera, are certainly adapted to render the certainty of this mode
of division somewhat doubtful. However, it is of no con-
sequence whether or not there is such a principle of division ;
when we have a knowledge of the ontogenetic and phylo-
genetic development we can subsequently select any principle
we like, and employ it for the sake of convenience. For the
present we must adhere to Hiickel’s classification. Hiickel is
of opinion that the first Protracheate (belonging to the hypo-
thetically adopted family produced from the Zoépoda, but
which still united in itself the germs of the Insecta, Arach-
nida, and Myriopoda), which possessed two developed pairs of
Wings, is to be regarded as the common progenitor of all the
living and fossil insects known to us, as the apterous forms
undoubtedly all (?) originate from winged ancestors, and have
lost their wings by adaptation and secondary generation. The
development of this progenitor falls in the interval between
the Silurian and Carboniferous periods, and probably in the
ante-Devonian period ; for we have insects from the Devonian
as well as from the coal, and these are exclusively Masticantia
(Orthoptera, Neuroptera, Coleoptera). These Hickel regards
as the oldest insects, in opposition to the Sugentia, which have
branched off from the Masticantia; and this is certainly pro-
bable when we glance at the ontogenesis of the former. The
Masticantia he divides into three orders :—Toroptera, Coleo-
ptera, and Hymenoptera. The Toroptera are the scarcest,
and combine the Pseudo-Neuroptera, Neuroptera, and Ortho-
ptera, which are very nearly allied to each other in many re-
spects, and were formerly only separated by the metamor-
phosis. As, however, the systematic value of the metamor-
phosis, as a means of division, has been diminished, these
former orders are certainly justly united. Hiickel thinks that
the Orthoptera and Neuroptera have been developed from the
Pseudo-Neuroptera—an opinion which obtains a (nediiien of

Mr. J. Gould on new Species of the Genus Kutoxeres. 455

fact by the discovery, in the Devonian strata of New Bruns-
wick already mentioned, of an organism uniting the characters
of both orders. With regard to the Coleoptera, he assumes
that they were developed from the Orthoptera, and the Hy-
menoptera from the Neuroptera or Pseudo-Neuroptera.

The Sugentia, again, include three divisions :—Hemiptera,
Diptera, and Lepidoptera. All these, Hiickel supposes, ori-
ginated from the Toroptera later than the Coleoptera and
Hymenoptera, as their first paleontological traces. are derived
only from the Jurassic strata. The knowledge of Eugereon,
however, on the other hand, makes him think it not impro-
bable that the Hemiptera diverged from the Toroptera as
early as the Primary periods. The origin of the Diptera and
Lepidoptera he leaves in doubt, as, in consequence of the
segregation (Abgeschlossenheit) of these two orders, no con-
clusions can be derived from probabilities about them.

With this I conclude my report upon this part of Hickel’s
remarkable book. I hope soon to be able to make some com-
munications upon special .embryological investigations and
their general results, as this department is now being worked
on several hands with particular predilection. At any rate,
however, the satisfactory fact is to be proved that entomo-
logy, as well as morphology in general, has acquired a new
and fruitful impulse from the Darwinian reform, and that it
will be the fault of entomologists themselves if they do not
assist in the construction of the new road.

LIL.—On some additional Species of the Genus Kutoxeres.
By J. GouLp, F.R.S. &ec.

I HAVE for some time past had reason to believe that the
Humming-birds of this highly singular form comprised more
species than the two already described (Hutoxeres aquila and
. Condamint) ; but it is only of late that I have acquired
sufficient materials to justify my arriving at any satisfactory
conclusion on the subject. At this moment I have before me
three specimens of the true #. aquila from New Granada, seven
skins of a bird from the neighbourhood of Quito, which I con-
sider to be distinct from that species, and three from Veragua,
which differ shghtly from both.

E. aquila is the largest species of the genus, and is distin-
guished by the snow-white shafts of its tail-feathers, which
doubtless show very conspicuously when the bird is on the
wing and the tail widely spread; this character is found in
every specimen I have examined, and, I believe, will prove

456 Mr. J. Gould on new Species of the Genus Eutoxeres.

constant. The Quitan bird, like some of the Phaéthorni, is
extremely variable in its markings: for instance, the tail, in
some specimens, has the tips of the feathers white for nearly
half an inch from the tip, in others for a quarter, in others,
again, for an eighth; and I possess one in which the
white tipping is absent, all the feathers being of a uniform
olive-grey : but in no instance that I have seen does the white
extend down the shaft as in H. aquila. On comparing the
seven Quitan specimens with the Bogotan birds, | find that
the striz on the breast are black and white in the former and
black and buff in the latter. I shall designate the Quitan
bird L. heterura, with the following description :—

Upper mandible wholly black, under mandible yellow for
two-thirds of its length from the base, the remainder olive-
brown; crown of the head nearly black, each feather glossed
with green at the tip; upper surface dull grass-green; tail
olive-grey, in some instances tipped with sullied white ; wings
deep purplish black; under surface, from the throat to the
vent, striated with black and buff, the buff becoming lighter
on the centre of the abdomen ; under tail-coverts brown, varied
with black. ;

Total length 5 inches, bill 1, wing 2%, tail 21, tarsi 1.

Hab, Kxcuador.

The Veraguan bird is much more nearly allied to the Ecua-
dorian than the New-Granadian species, but possesses cha-
racters differmg from both, and which, though slight, appear
to be constant, none of the specimens I possess having the
pure-white shafts of the New-Granadian EL. aguila, or the
uniformly-coloured tail of the Ecuadorian H. heterura, but
having all the tail-feathers tipped with white; it moreover
assimilates to this bird in size, as it also does in the buff
colouring of the striz of the throat and breast. For this Vera-
guan bird I propose the name of Eutoxeres Salvin, in com-
pliment to a gentleman who assuredly deserves that a finer
bird should bear his name; but as this species lives on that
side of the Isthmus of Panama his labours whereon have
been rewarded with such fruitful results, I embrace the first
opportunity aiforded me of testifying to the benefit he has
conferred upon the branch of science to which we are both
attached. It may be asked, and with some show of reason, if
characterizing birds as distinct which present such trifling dif-
ferences is not like splitting straws? to which I would answer,
such differences not only exist but are as constant as the
seasons which run their courses without variation, and it is
well known to all who have studied the natural productions
of the two Americas that their faunas, with but few excep-

Dr. A. Giinther on new Fishes from Zanzibar. 457

tions, differ 7m toto. How these differences have been brought
about is beyond our comprehension; but when we do find
them, they ought assuredly to be made known.

The three species of Hutoxeres above described are on a par
with Phaéthornis Guyt, P. Emilie, and P. yaruqui, which
every one now regards as distinct. Sufficient has been said
to point out the specific peculiarities of H. aquila, E. heterura,
and EH. Salvini; it is therefore unnecessary to give a descrip-
tion of the latter.

The species of the genus Hutoxeres now known are :—

Eutoxeres Oondamini. THabitat Archidona in Eastern
Ecuador.

heterura. Uab. Central Ecuador.

aquila. Hab. New Granada.

Salvint. Hab. Veragua and Costa Rica.

LITI.—Additions to the Ichthyological Fauna of Zanzibar.
By Dr. A. GUNTHER, F.R.S.

Dr. Kirk has lately sent a collection of Fishes from Zanzibar
to the British Museum ; it contained the following new forms
(besides several others previously not known to exist on that
coast, viz. Dules Bennettit, Rhynchichthys pelamidis, Brama
orcint, Eleotris madagascariensis, El. fusca, Chromis mossam-
bica, Hxoceetus nigripinnis) :—

Tholichthys osseus.
I propose this name for a fish which, although young, is

(Six times the natural size.)

evidently the type of a new genus, and appears to belong to
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.4. Vol. i. 32

458 Dr. A. Giinther on new Fishes from Zanzibar.

the Scombroid group Cyttina. I am well aware that the
young of numerous Scombroid and Carangoid fishes are pro-
vided with an armature of the head which disappears with
age, and I have but little doubt that the appearance of this
fish also is different in old individuals ; but I do not think that
the osseous plates behind the head disappear; and they will
form the character by which the fish may be recognized at all
ages. Having only a single example, 11 millims. long, I must
omit the description of several characters, as the dentition,
gills, &e.

Body compressed, suborbicular, the greatest depth being
contained once and one-third in the length (without caudal) ;
head enormous, the root of the ventral fin being consider-
ably nearer to the base of the caudal than to the anterior
profile of the head; eye very large, situated nearly in the
middle of the depth of the head, and nearer to the end of the
snout than to that of the operculum. Mouth extremely small,
opposite to the lower part of the eye. The entire head is co-
vered by bone; and several of the bones are much enlarged, so
as to cover the anterior part of the trunk; there is an ovate
suprascapulary plate covering the back below the first dorsal
fin, and a humeral plate between it and the ventral. Both
these plates are attached to the skin of the body in their basal -
portion only. The preopercular angle is much dilated and
produced backwards into a very large subtriangular process,
which is rounded behind, extending nearly to the anal.

The remainder of the body is covered by scales, which are of
moderate size and much deeper than long.

There are two dorsal fins; the first, composed of six spines |
(which are of moderate strength and short), is much less deve-
loped than the second, which is formed by twenty-two rays.
Anal fin corresponding in size and position to the soft dorsal,
with twenty rays. Caudal subtruncated. Pectoral moderately
developed. Ventrals thoracic, with one spine and five rays.

Salarias Kirkiv.
Allied to Salarias tridactylus.
D. 38. A. 28.

The height of the body is rather less than the length of the
head, which is nearly one-seventh of the total length (without
caudal). The single specimen obtained has a triangular crest
on the head, tapering into a point ; a very small fringed tentacle
above the orbit. The dorsal fin is slightly emarginate, the
anterior dorsal spines being as long as the posterior rays; the

Mr. A. Adams on the Species of Helicide found in Japan. 459

last dorsal ray connected by membrane with the root of the
caudal. Canine teeth none.

Dark blackish olive, with scarcely a trace of lighter or darker
bands on the body. Dorsal fin with very indistinct whitish
oblique lines; anal fin with a broad black margin.

A single specimen, 34 inches long.

Exocetus melanopus.
Dia... Ae 1s.

Mandible with a long black band-like appendage, bifid at
the end and nearly extending to the end of the head. The
height of the body is one-fourth of the total length (without
caudal) ; the length of the head is contained thrice and three-
fourths in it. Head nearly as deep as long, broad in its nuchal
portion, and compressed in the rostral; snout obtuse and very
short, one-half the length of the diameter of the eye, which is
more than one-third of the length of the head. Pectoral fin
extending beyond the root of the caudal. Root of the ventrals
nearer to the end of the snout than to the base of the caudal ;
and they extend somewhat beyond the origin of the anal. The
dorsal fin commences nearly opposite to the first anal ray.
Trunk and tail with three blackish cross bands, the first cor-
responding to the space between ventrals and anal; pectoral
uniform white, black at the base; ventrals deep black ; caudal
white.

One specimen, 2 inches long.

LIV.—On the Species of Helicide found in Japan.
By Arruur ApAms, F.L.S.

Tue following systematic list of inoperculate Pulmonifera
which live upon the land contains notices of species collected
by myself in Japan. It is doubtless very imperfect, because
the interior of these beautiful islands has never yet been ex-
plored by naturalists. Newcombe (Proc. Cal. Acad. Nat. Se.
1865) has described two species of Helix (H. Blakeana and
HM, declivis) and one species of Succinea (S. japonica) which
I have not seen. Von Martens has made mention of Helix
(Aigista) Friedeliana and Stenogyra (Opeas) javanica, Rve. ;
but I am not acquainted with either of these species. Opeas
juncea of Gould has also been said to inhabit Japan; but I
believe my Opeas pyrgula has been mistaken for that species.
I obtained examples of Helix (Plectotropis) Mackensii, Val.,
at Cone Island, and specimens of Helix (Plectotropis) ciliosa,
32*

460 Mr. A. Adams on the Species of

Pfr., at Port Hamilton; but these localities belong to the
Korean archipelago, which I have not included in my enu-
meration of Japanese Mollusca. Helix (Plectotropis) elegan-
tissima, Pfr., is stated to have come from Japan; but I never
met with that charming shell during my explorations. —__

In a future communication I shall examine the remainder
of my Japanese Helicide, comprising the subfamily Pupine.

Fam. Philomycide.

Genus Puttomycus, Rafin.

Philomycus bilineatus, Cantor.
Incillaria bilineata, Cantor, Bens. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1842.
Hab. Takano-Sima, Sado, Tabu-Sima, Tago.

Fam. Limacide.
Genus Limax, Linn.
Limax varians, A. Ad.

L. corpore elongato, postice subcarinato, sordide albo, interdum
nigro, nunquam variegato; clypeo elongato, concentrice rugoso ;
foramine antico; tentaculis attenuatis, elongatis.

Long. 14 poll.

Hab. Hakodadi, Rifunsiri, Risiri.

The only true slugs I have noticed. They are either white
or black, and belong, I believe, to the same species. May be
var. of L. agrestis, Linn.

Fam. Helicide.
Subfam. Suvccrwivz.
Genus SuccineA, Draparn.
1. Succinea lauta, Gould.
? S. japonica, Newe. ;
Hab. Hakodadi, Vladimir.
2. Succinea putris, Linn.

Hab, Olga Bay, Vladimir Bay.

Subfam. Herron».
_ Genus Hetrx, Linn.
1. Helix (Acusta) Sieboldiana, Pfr.
_. Hab. Tsus-Sima, Sado, Mososeki.

2. Helix (Acusta) leta, Gould.
iTab. Matsumai, Hakodadi.

Helicide found in Japan. 461

‘ 3. Helix (Acusta) conospira, Pfr.
Hab. Nangasaki, Yeddo (Martens).

4, Helix (Camena) quesita, Desh.
Hab. Simoda, Tabu-Sima, Sado.

5. Helix (Camena) peliomphala, Pfr.
Hab. Mososeki, Tago.

6. Helix (Camena) luchuana, Sow.
Hab. Dagelet Island.

7. Helix (Camena) Simode, Jay.
H, Herklotsi, Martens.
Hab. Simoda, Vladimir Bay, Olga Bay.

8. Helix (Camena) myomphala, Martens.
HT, daimio, A. Ad.
Hab. ‘Tago,

9. Helix (Camena) orientalis, Ad. & Rve.

H. germana, Rve.

Hab. Nangasaki, Mososeki, Tsus-Sima.

10. Helix (Camena) pyrrhozona, Phil.
Hab. Hakodadi, Olga Bay, Vladimir Bay.

11. Helix (Camena) miranda, A. Ad.

H. testa depresso-globosa, late perforata; spira turbinata, elatius-
cula, apice obtusa; anfract. 6, convexis, strigis obliquis conspi-
cuis et striis volventibus confertis decussatis; anfractu ultimo ad
peripheriam rotundato, ad basim conyexo; apertura obliqua, lu-
nata; peristomate expanso, reflexo, intus incrassato. Straminea,
fascia rubro-fusca ad peripheriam et ad suturas ornata.

Lat. 1 poll. 3 lin., alt. 9 lin.

Hab. Rifunsiri Island.

A handsome species, of a deep straw-colour, adorned with a
red-brown band at the periphery and another at the suture. I
found several specimens adhering to the stems of a gigantic
species of Archangelica, in the little island of Rifunsiri, near
the Straits of La Perouse.

12. Helix (Camena) serotina, A. Ad.

H. testa subglobosa, late perforata; spira elato-turbinata, apice ob-
tusa; anfract. 6, convexis, oblique strigatis (strigis insequalibus)
et striis minutissimis volventibus confertis decussatis ; basi con-
vexa; apertura lunata; peristomate expanso, reflexo, intus albo,

462 Mr. A. Adams on the Species of

incrassato, ad umbilicum dilatato. Serotina vel straminea, interdum
fascia transversa rufo-fusca ornata.
Lat. 9 lin., alt. 7 lin.

Hab. Sagaleen, near Cape Notoro.
A pretty species, orange- or deep straw-coloured, very much
resembling in general appearance the bright-yellow varieties

of Helix hortensis. I found it living in the dense thickets of
bamboo near the shore.

13. Helix (Camena) Editha, A. Ad.

H. testa depresso-conoidali, late perforata; spira elatiuscula, obtusa,
apice obtusa; anfract. 6, convexiusculis, oblique strigosis et striis
volventibus confertis decussatis; anfractu ultimo ad peripheriam
rotundato, ad basim planiusculo ; apertura obliqua, lunata; peri-
stomate subexpanso, reflexo, intus vix incrassato. Albida, fasciis
duabus rubro-fuscis in anfractu ultimo et fascia unica ad suturas
ornata.

Lat. 82 lin., alt. 4 lin.

Hab. Risiri Island, Vladimir Bay.

This species resembles in general appearance H. pyrrho-
zona of Philippi; but the spire is more elevated, and the out-
line of the shell is more conoidal.

14. Helix (Fruticicola) similaris, Fér.

Hab. Kino-O-Sima, Simoda.

15. Helix (Fruticicola) textrina, Bens.
Hab. Tago.

16. Helix (Fruticicola) genulabris, Martens.
Hab. Nangasaki.

17. Helix (Fruticicola) japonica, Pfr.
Hab. Tabu-Sima, Matsumai.

18. Helix (Fruticicola) Stimpsont, Pfr.
Hab. Simonoseki.

19. Helix (Fruticicola) patruelis, A. Ad.

H. testa globoso-conoidali, perforata ; spira elata, turbinata ; anfract.
7, planiusculis, oblique striatis et striis subtilissimis confertis vol-
ventibus decussatis ; anfractu ultimo ad peripheriam obtuse angu-
gulato, ad basim planiusculo ; apertura oblique lunata; peristo-
mate expanso, reflexo. Luteo-cornea, interdum fascia transversa
pallida ad peripheriam ornata.

Lat. 8 lin., alt. 63 lin.

Hab. Tabu-Sima.

Helicide found in Japan. 463

Very similar in general appearance to H. japonica, Pfr., but
more conoidal, and with the periphery more decidedly angu-
late. It is also a smaller and thinner shell.

20. Helix (Fruticicola) peculiaris, A. Ad.

H. testa globoso-conoidali, anguste perforata, tenui, luteo-cornea ;
spira turbinata, modica, apice obtusa; anfract. 6, convexis,
oblique striatis et striis volventibus subtilissime decussatis ; an-
fractu ultimo ad peripheriam rotundato, antice deflexo et con-
stricto, basi convexo; apertura perobliqua, lunata; peristomate
expanso, reflexo, ad basim rectiusculo et callo vix elato instructo,
ad umbilicum late reflexo.

Lat. 6 lin., alt. 63 lin.

Hab. Tanabe.

H. japonica, H. patruelis, and the present species form a
group which seems peculiar to Japan, and which is charac-
terized by the conoidal form of the shell, by the base being
more or less flattened, and by the straight horizontal basal
portion of the peritreme. To this section may be assigned
the name Satsuma.

21. Helix (Fruticicola) gibbosa, A. Ad.

H. testa depresso-globosa, tenui, perforata; spira parva, conoidali,
apice acuta; anfract. 6, convexiusculis, striis incrementi et vol-
ventibus minutis decussatis; anfractu penultimo gibboso, ultimo
subinflato ad peripheriam rotundato, antice deflexo; apertura
obliqua, lunata; peristomate expanso, breviter reflexo, Albido-
cornea.

Lat. 64 lin., alt. 5 lin.

Hab. Tanabe.

A species remarkable for the sudden deflection of the last
whorl anteriorly, which produces a gibbose appearance of the
penultimate whorl. The peristome on the left side is broadly
reflexed, and nearly covers the umbilicus.

22. Helix (Fruticicola) sphinctostoma, A. Ad.

H. testa globoso-conica, anguste perforata; spira conoidali; anfract.
6, convexis, oblique striatis, ultimo ad peripheriam rotundato, ad
aperturam valde constricto ; apertura perobliqua, lunata ; peri-
stomate albilabiato, late expanso, reflexo. Lutescenti-cornea,

Lat. 6 lin., alt. 5 lin. herd (pe

Hab. 'Tago.

A species remarkable for the constriction of the last whorl
just behind the aperture, and with the peristome white, ex-
panded, and reflexed.

464 Mr. A. Adams on the Species of
23. Helix (Fruticicola) Collinsoni, A. Ad.

H. testa globoso-conica, late perforata, tenui; spira elata conoidali ;
anfract. 6, convexiusculis, oblique striatis, creberrime transversim
striatis, anfractu ultimo ad peripheriam rotundato; apertura
obliqua, lunata; peristomate subexpanso, breviter reflexo. Al-
bido-cornea, fascia lata ad suturas et ad peripheriam ornata.

Lat. 54 lin, alt. 3 lin.

Hab. Tago.
A pretty, fragile species, somewhat conoidal, and adorned
with a spiral red-brown band.

24. Helix (Fruticicola) commoda, A. Ad.

H. testa globoso-conoidali, late perforata, tenui, corneo-rufescente ;
spira obtusim conica, elata; anfract. 5, convexis, oblique striatis,
ultimo ad peripheriam rotundato; apertura orbiculato-lunata ;
peristomate breviter reflexo. .

Lat. 3 lin., alt 24 lin.

Hab. Mososeki.

A very neat and pretty little species, of a reddish horn-
colour, and with a conoidal spire and rounded whorls.

25. Helix (Fruticicola) despecta, A. Ad.

H. testa depresso-conoidali, perforata, tenui, cornea, fusca, subtilis-
sime oblique striata; spira conica; anfract. 4, planiusculis, ulti-
mo ad peripheriam angulato; apertura angulatim lunata, peristo-
mate recto, acuto, ad umbilicum breviter reflexo.

Lat. 3 lin., alt. 23 lin.

Hab. Mososeki.

A small, thin, horn-coloured species, with angular periphery,
found on the foliage of plants at Mososeki, a village on the
Straits of Simonoseki.

26. Helix (Fruticicola) craspedocheila, A. Ad.

H.testa depresso-conica, late perforata, albido-cornea ; spira vix elata,
apice obtusa; anfract. 5, convexiusculis, striis incrementi et vol-
ventibus decussatis; apertura perobliqua, lunata; peristomate
rectiusculo, infra reflexo, intus albo, incrassato, ad basim callo
instructo.

Lat. 42 lin., alt. 3 lin.

Hab. Kino-O-Sima.
A depressed species, with the peritreme internally thickened,
and with a slightly elevated callus at the basal portion.

27. Helix (Fruticicola) proba, A. Ad.

H. testa orbiculato-depressa, late umbilicata, rufo-fusca, oblique
striata; spira vix elata; anfract. 6, planiusculis, ultimo ad peri-

Helicidee found in Japan. 465

pheriam obtusim subangulato; apertura rotundato-lunata, per-
obliqua; peristomate breviter reflexo, ad basim regulariter ar-
cuato.

Lat. 5 lin., alt. 23 lin.

Hab. Kino-O-Sima.

This species resembles somewhat in form and colour //.
Stimpsont, Pfr.; but it is more depressed, the umbilicus is
wide and perspective, and the peritreme has not the peculiar
bend seen in LH. genulabris and H. Stimpsoni.

28. Helix (Fruticicola) coneinna, A. Ad.

H. testa orbiculato-depressa, rufo-cornea, tenui, perforata, umbilico
modico, oblique strigosa, striis volventibus conspicuis decussata ;
spira obtusa, elatiuscula; anfract. 5, convexiusculis, ultimo ad
peripheriam rotundato; apertura lunata; peristomate recto, acuto,
ad umbilicum reflexo.

Long. 6 lin., alt. 4 lin.

Hab. Tago.
A thin light-horncoloured species, with the revolving striz
very distinct, and with the peritreme sharp-edged.
29. Helix (Aigista) Friedeliana, Martens.
Hab. Nangasaki (Martens).
I do not know this species.

30. Helix (Plectotropis) ciliosa, Pfr.
Hab. Tsus-Sima, Awa-Sima, Tabu-Sima.

31. Helix (Plectotropis) squarrosa, Gld.
Hab. Kino-O-Sima, Tsus-Sima, Tsaulian.

32. Helix (Plectotropis) conella, A. Ad.

H. testa orbiculato-conica ; spira depressa, umbilico modico, perfo-
rata, ochraceo-cornea, tenui, squarrosa, oblique valde strigosa ;
epidermide in lineis interruptis obliquis disposita; anfract. 6,
planis, ultimo ad peripheriam acute carinato, basi convexo ; peri-
stomate acuto, expanso, et breviter reflexo.

Lat. 5 lin., alt. 3 lin.

Hab. Tabu-Sima.

Most like H. squarrosa, Gld., in colour and surface, which is
scabrous and scaly; but the periphery, instead of being rounded,
is acutely keeled; and the umbilicus, instead of being large
and deep, is moderate.

33. Helix (Plectotropis) setocincta, A. Ad.

H. testa orbiculato-conica ; spira depressa, umbilico lato et profundo

466 Mr. A. Adams on the Species of

perforata, tenui, rufo-fusca, oblique striata; epidermide in lineis

elevatis radiantibus disposita, ad peripheriam in ciliis modicis pro-

ducta; anfract. 6, planis, ultimo ad peripheriam acute angulato,

basi convexo ; apertura obliqua, lunata; peristomate recto, acuto.
Lat. 6 lin., alt. 3 lin.

Hab. Sado, Awa-Sima.

Most like H. ciliosa, Pfr.; but the outline is more conical,
and the epidermis at the periphery is developed into longer
hair-like projections than in that species.

34, Helix (Plectotropis) trochula, A. Ad.

H, testa orbiculato-conica; spira elata, umbilico lato et profundo
perforata, tenui, rufo-fusca; epidermide in lineis obliquis inter-
ruptis disposita, ad peripheriam in ciliis brevibus producta; an-
fract. 6, planis, ultimo ad peripheriam acute angulato, basi con-
vexo; apertura obliqua, lunata; peristomate acuto, expanso,
breviter reflexo.

Lat. 64 lin., alt. 4 lin,

Hab. Tsus-Sima.

A larger and more conoidal species than H. setocincta, and
with the epidermis forming raised, radiating, but interrupted
lines, and with the ciliary fringe at the periphery much
shorter.

35. Helix (Plectotropis) scabricula, A. Ad.

H. testa orbiculato-conoidali, late umbilicata, ochraceo-cornea, squar-
rosa; spira depresso-conica; anfract. 63, convexiusculis, ad peri-
pheriam subangulatis; epidermide in squamulis elongatis, ra-
diatim dispositis producta; apertura parva, angusta, lunata ;
peristomate breviter reflexo.

Lat. 44 lin., alt. 3 lin.

Hab. Awa-Sima.

Of the same form and with the same rough scaly surface as
HH. squarrosa, only smaller and with a more elevated spire
and narrower umbilicus.

36. Helix (Patula) paupera, Gould.
Hab. Matsumai, Hakodadi, Olga Bay.

37. Helix (Patula) elatior, A. Ad.

H. testa orbiculato-conica, oblique costulata, late umbilicata; spira
conica, elatiuscula; anfract. 43, planis, ad suturas marginatis, ul-
timo ad peripheriam acute carinato; apertura perobliqua, rotun-
dato-lunata; peristomate simplici, acuto.

Lat. 33 lin., alt. 2 lin.

Hab. Dagelet Island.

A larger and more conical species than H. paupera, Gould,

Helicidee found in Japan. 467

with the whorls flat, the last acutely keeled, and with the
sutures margined. Found under bark of dead trees in the little
island of Dagelet, in the Sea of Japan.

38. Helix (Patula) depressa, A. Ad.

H. testa discoideo-conica, late umbilicata, rufo-cornea, oblique cos-
tellata ; spira depresso-conica ; anfract. 44, planis, ultimo ad peri-
pheriam acute angulato; apertura perobliqua, anguste lunata ;
peristomate simplici, acuto.

Lat. 3 lin., alt. 1 lin.

Hab. Viadimir Bay.

A small, depressed species, with the whorls very finely
obliquely ribbed, and with the last whorl acutely angulated at
the periphery.

Subfam. Virrrinz.
Gen. Hyarina, Fér.
1. Hyalina? nitida, Mill.

Hab. Tsus-Sima.

2. Hyalina? electrina, Gld.

Hab. Kino-O-Sima.

3. Hyalina (Pseudohyalina) minuscula, Binney.

Hab. Viadimir Bay.

4, Hyalina (Microcystis) rejecta, Ptr.

Hab. Tsus-Sima.

5. Hyalina (Microcystis) labilis, Gld.

Hab. Hakodadi.

6. Hyalina (Conulus) pupula, Gld.

Hab, Hakodadi (Stps.), Vladimir Bay (A. Ad.).

This is the species most probably mentioned by Middendorff
as H. chersina, Say, in which, however, the whorls are nar-
rower and more numerous.

7. Hyalina (Conulus) phyllophila, A. Ad.

H. testa subgloboso-conica, imperforata, nitida, tenui, oblique
striata, pellucida, succinea; spira elata, conica; anfract. 53,
planis, ultimo ad peripheriam obtuse angulato, basi convexo ;
apertura rotundato-lunata.

Lat. 2 lin., alt. 2 lin.

Hab. Mososeki.

A thin, imperforate, turbinate, amber-coloured species, with

468 My. A. Adams on the Species of

the spire elevated and the last whorl rounded. I found it at
the Straits of Simonoseki, adhering to the leaves of trees in the
vicinity of the village of Mososeki.

8. Hyalina (Conulus) incerta, A. Ad.

H. testa globoso-conica, anguste perforata, corneo-fusca, tenui,
oblique tenuiter striata; spira conica, elata; anfract. 43, planis,
ultimo ad peripheriam obtuse angulato; apertura angulato-
lunata; columella ad umbilicum breviter reflexa.

Lat. 13 lin., alt. 13 lin.

Hab. Tabu-Sima.

This may be an immature shell; but I know of no species
from Japan to which it can be referred.

9. Hyalina (Conulus) tenera, A. Ad.

H. testa orbiculato-conica, imperforata, tenui, pellucida, luteo-
cornea ; spira conoidali, convexa, apice obtusa; anfract. 6, planis,
oblique striatis, ultimo ad peripheriam acute carinato, basi nitido,
convexo; apertura obliqua, lunata; columella ad umbilicum sub-
reflexa.

Lat. 3 lin., alt. 2 lin.

Hab. Matsumai, Straits of Tsugar.

A depressly conical thin species, with no very marked cha-
racters, except its size, to distinguish it from others belonging
to the same group. I found it among dead leaves in damp
situations.

10. Hyalina (Conulus) stenogyra, A. Ad.

H. testa globoso-conoidali, tenui, imperforata, succinea, pellucida ;
spira conica, elata, convexa, apice obtusa ; anfract. 94, planis, an-
gustis, oblique striatis, ultimo ad peripheriam acute carinato, basi
convexo, glabro; apertura obliqua, anguste lunata.

Lat. 13 lin., alt. 13 lin.

Hab. Tsus-Sima.

This is a very pretty little beehive-shaped, transparent,
amber-coloured shell, with numerous narrow whorls. I found
it, in considerable numbers, crawling over dead leaves in the
woods.

11. Hyalina (Conulus) acutangula, A. Ad.

H. testa conoidali, imperforata, tenui, succinea; spira elata, conica,
convexiuscula ; anfract. 53, planis, oblique tenuissime striatis,
ultimo ad peripheriam acute carinato, basi glabro planiusculo ;
apertura anguste lunata, perobliqua.

Lat. 14 lin., alt. 12 lin.

Hab. Tago.

This is a well-marked species, of very peculiar form, very

Helicide found in Japan. 469

similar to the former, but larger and with fewer whorls. I
found but a single ascallag, at Tago, on the shores of the
inland sea.

Subfam. Cravszi#.
Genus Baus, Prid.
Balea variegata, A. Ad.

B. testa sinistrali, rimata, fusiformi, tenui, oblique striata, corneo-
fusca, albo variegata; anfract. 6, convexiusculis, lineolis trans-
versis impressis ornatis ; apertura pyriformi, obliqua; peristomate
albilabiato, interrupto, marginibus expansis.

Long. 43 lin., diam. (anfract. ultimi) 1} lin.

Hab. Tago.

This is a very interesting addition to a genus so limited in
species as Balea. It is a prettily variegated shell, and is found
in localities similar to those preferred by Clausilie.

Genus CLAusILiA, Draparn.
1. Clausilia (Phedusa) Martenst, Herklots, Zeitschr. 1859.
Hab. Tabu-Sima.
2. Clausilia (Phedusa) Buschii, Kust.
Hab. Japan (Kuster).
I did not meet with this species.
8. Clausilia (Phedusa) Steboldi, Ptr.
Hab. Tsus-Sima.
4, Clausilia (Phedusa) pluviatilis, Bens.
Hab. Awa-Sima.
Found also by Mr. Benson in Chusan.
5. Clausilia (Phedusa) aculus, Bens.
Hab, Tsaulian, Odsi.
6. Clausilia (Phedusa) valida, Pfr.
Hab. Awa-Sima.
Found also in the Liewkiew Islands. ;
7. Clausilia (Phedusa) plicilabris, A. Ad.

C. testa rimata, fusiformi, solida, oblique striata, luteo-fusca ; spira
sursum attenuata, apice obtusa; anfract.10, planis, ultimo antice
tumido, rotundato; apertura pyriformi, obliqua, lamella supera
valida, compressa, infera profunda bipartita ; lunella inconspicua ;
plica palatali 1, suture parallela, longa, arcuata, subcolumellari

470 Mr. A. Adams on the Species of

usque ad marginem peristomatis producta ; perist. continuo, bre-
viter soluto, crasso, margine dextro plicis pluribus corrugato.
Long. 8 lin., diam, (anfract. penult.) 2 lin.

Hab. Tanabe.

The most striking peculiarity in this species is the wrinkled
or plicate nature of the right margin of the peristome.

8. Clausilia (Phedusa) Stimpson, A. Ad.

C. testa vix rimata, fusiformi, solida, pallide fusca, oblique striata ;
anfract. 9, planatis, ultimo antice angustato, rotundato ; apertura
parva, pyriformi, lamella supera valida compressa, infera pro-
funda, callosa; lunella inconspicua ; plica palatali longa, arcuata,
suture parallela, subcolumellari usque ad marginem peristomatis
producta; peristomate albilabiato, undique expanso, margine
subincrassato.

Long. 63 lin., diam. (anfract. penult.) 1 lin.

Hab. Tsus-Sima, Awa-Sima.

A pale-brown, rather coarsely striated species, with the
peristome white and thickened, and with the subcolumellar
plica ending conspicuously on the right margin.

9. Clausilia (Phedusa) stenospira, A. Ad.

C. testa rimata, fusiformi, solida, oblique strigillata, viridi-fusca ;
spira sursum valde attenuata; anfract. 11, planiusculis, ultimo
antice in cristam basalem compresso ; apertura pyriformi ; lamella
supera compressa, infera valida callosa; lunella imperfecta ; plica
palatali 1 longa, suture parallela, subcolumellari intra marginem
peristomatis desinente; perist. continuo, undique expanso, sub-
reflexo, margine sinistrali inflexo, subincrassato.

Long. 83 lin., diam. (anfract. penult.) 2 lin.

Hab. Kino-O-Sima.

A greenish-brown species, with the peristome expanded but
not reflexed, and with the left margin bent imwards and
thickened.

10. Clausilia (Phedusa) Gouldi, A. Ad.

C. testa vix rimata, fusiformi, solida, pallide fusca, oblique striata ;
spira sursum valde attenuata, apice acutiuscula; anfract. 9, pla-
niusculis, ultimo antice rotundato; apertura obliqua, pyriformi;
lamella supera compressa, infera valida, arcuata, producta ; lunella
imperfecta ; plica palatali 1 longa, suture parallela,subcolumellari
usque ad marginem peristomatis producta; perist. albo, subin-
crassato, undique breviter expanso.

Long. 8 lin., diam. (anfract. penult.) 12 lin.

Hab. Tago.
A neat, dirty-brown, strongly striated species, with the
spire very much attenuated towards the apex.

Helicidee found in Japan. 471
11. Clausilia (Phedusa) proba, A. Ad.

C. testa arcuato-rimata, fusiformi, solida, oblique striata, corneo-
fusca; spira subattenuata, apice obtuso ; anfract. 8, planiusculis,
ultimo antice rotundato; apertura pyriformi; lamella supera
valida, compressa, infera profunda, substricta ; lunella inconspicua,
imperfecta; plica palatali longa, parum curvata, suture paral-
lela, subcolumellari profunda; perist. breviter soluto, crasso, un-
dique expanso.

Long. 53 lin., diam. (anfract. penult.) 13 lin.

Hab. Kino-O-Sima.

A neat, simple, horn-coloured species, with several small
palatal plicee seen through the shell, forming an imperfect
lunule.

12. Clausilia (Phedusa) spreta, A. Ad.

C. testa vix rimata, fusiformi, luteo-fusca, obsolete oblique striata ;
anfract. 8, convexiusculis, ultimo antice rotundato; apertura
parva, pyriformi, obliqua; lamella supera valida, infera profunda,
sursum bipartita; lunella imperfecta; plica palatali suture pa-
rallela, subcolumellari inconspicua ; peristomate continuo breviter
soluto, luteo-labiato, undique expanso.

Long. 5 lin., diam. (anfract. penult.) 17 lin.

Hab. Tago.

A small, smooth, yellowish-brown species, with the surface
generally very much eroded, and with the spire usually de-
collated.

13. Clausilia (Phedusa) pinguis, A. Ad.

C. testa arcuato-rimata, pupoidea, oblique striata, lutescente, solida ;
spira attenuata; anfract. 8, convexiusculis, ultimo basi in cristam
brevem compresso ; apertura obliqua, pyriformi; lamellz valide,
supera compressa, infera ascendente incrassata; lunella imper-
fecta; plica palatali longa, suture parallela, subcolumellari
usque in marginem peristomatis producta ; perist. crasso, continuo,
undique expanso.

Long. 64 lin., diam. (anfract. penult.) 2 lin.

Hab. Kino-O-Sima.

A short, fat, pupiform species, with the peristome thickened
and expanded, but not widely reflexed.

14. Clausilia (Phedusa) lirulata, A. Ad.

C. testa arcuato-rimata, fusiformi, tenui, lete fuscescente oblique
striata; spira elongata, sursum attenuata; anfract. 10, planius-
culis, lirulis transversis impressis ornatis, ultimo antice subcon-»
stricto rotundato; apertura parva, pyriformi; lamina supera com-
pressa sursum bipartita, infera profunda, ascendente; lunella
imperfecta; plica palatali 1 longa vix curvata, subcolumellari

472 Mr. F. P. Marrat on proposed new Species of Oliva.

usque in marginem peristomatis producta; perist. pallido; mar-
gine subincrassato, undique expanso.

Long. 6} lin., diam. (anfract. penult.) 13 lin.
Hab. Mososeki.

A very pretty slender species, with several transverse im-
pressed lines on the whorls.

LV.— Observations on some proposed new Species of Oliva.

By F. P. Marrat.
In the May Number of the ‘Annals,’ p. 344, Mr. Ponton, of

Clifton, has taken exception to the whole of my proposed new
species of the genus Oliva. It is, I think, a grave offence to
occupy the pages of the ‘Annals’ with conclusions hastily
adopted ; and I therefore beg permission to clear myself of the
implied charge of having done so.

The collection from which the materials of my paper were
taken has been the work of several years: it contains of each
of the more variable species from forty to one hundred or more
specimens, and includes, with the exception of a very few (per-
haps five or six), every species and every named variety that
I have been able to find figured or described in the works of
Lamarck, Sowerby, Chenu, Gray, and Reeve. In such a
series, numbering some thousands of specimens, it might
reasonably be expected that undescribed forms would occur as
much deserving to be named as many of the forms identified
by the above-named authorities. My supposed new forms
have been selected with much care and reserve; and all pre-
tensions to be able to make positive assertions on the extent or
limit of particular species I freely resign to others.

Mr. Ponton states that colour altogether fails as a specific
character in this genus. It is not surprising that an inspection
of such species as O. dspidula, Linn., O. irisans, Lam., O.
maura, Lam., and O. ventricosa, Soland., should produce an
impression of this kind; but nowhere amongst the Gastero-
poda are the indications afforded by colour of more value than
in the genus Oliva. Even slight differences of shade may
often afford a clue leading to the recognition of affinities after-
wards abundantly substantiated by more permanent characters.

I find in Reeve’s monograph, after the description of O.
volvarioides, the followimg remark :—‘‘ The uniform chestnut

_colouring appears to be peculiar to the species in this instance.”
At the same time Mr. Reeve forgets to tell us that Duclos has
figured a nearly white variety on the same plate; and also that
there is a variety of O. lepida, Duclos, of a uniform chestnut-

Mr. F. P. Marrat on proposed new Species of Oliva. 473

colour. Again, in his description of O. pulchella, Reeve (not
Duclos, as quoted) tells us that it differs from O. lanceolata,
Reeve, in having the spots invariably removed from the
sutures.

Mr. Ponton says that the purple stain at the base of the
columella is a marked character of O. reticularis, Lam. I will
enumerate the species or varieties with and without this stain.

1. Having no stain :—0O. reticularis, Lam. (Reeve, pl. 10.
fig.16a), stated in Reeve’s description to be the type. ‘There
are forty specimens of this variety before me, and I have ex-
amined at least two hundred more without finding in any one
of them the slightest trace of the stain mentioned by Reeve
and quoted by Mr. Ponton ; neither does it occur in any speci-
mens of the smaller West-Indian variety examined by me.
O. timorea, Duclos, O. obeséna, Lam., O. Melchersi, Mke.
(O. araneosa, Lam.) (four pale varieties), O. pindarina, Du-
clos (six pale varieties), O. ustulata, Lam., O. hepatica, Lam.,
O. julieta, Duclos, O. polpasta, Duclos, O. peruviana, Lam,
(normal form), and O. fusifornis, Lam.

2. More or less stained :—0O. ancrassata, Soland. (O. angu-
lata, Lam.), five out of fourteen specimens; O. subangulata, Phi-
lippi, O. Melchers?, Mke. ( O. araneosa, Lam.), all the dark varie-
ties; O. pindarina, Duclos, all the dark varieties; Reeve’s
shell, figured at pl. 10. fig. 16, of which there are two very
much finer specimens than the one figured lying on my table
(they were sent by a resident inJamaica, and gathered by himself
on the shore of that island; but I must remark that the resem-
blance, spoken of by Reeve, to the variety O. araneosa, Lam.,
does not appear to me so striking). The shell figured at pl. 11.
fig. 16 A has the columellar lip of a uniform dark-brown colour.
O. splendidula, Sow.; O. Cumingti, Reeve. Ihave not observed
an approach to the colour of this shell in any specimen in the
reticularis group; whereas shells of a similar colour and character
with the stain at the base are of frequent occurrence among the
abnormal forms of O. perwviana, Lam. (of which the O. ligneola,
Reeve is one), the O. intertincta, Carpenter, O. inflata, Lam.,
O. nebulosa, Lam., and O. undatella, Lam. In fact O. reti-
cularis, as at present constituted, is (like the term Fucus in
geology, anything in the form of a plant) anything in the
form of an Olive. Having the whole of the species and varie-
ties described both by Reeve and Duclos, and at least twelve
others in that group of which I have seen either a figure or
description, neither my O. violacea nor jamaicensis will agree
with any of them.

Now, with regard to O. truncata, Marrat ; since describing
this species, several other specimens have been examined by

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol. i. 33

474 Mr. F.:P. Marrat on proposed new: Species of Oliva.

me, all agreeing in form and marking with my shells; so. that
I am more convinced that this is a good form.

O. polita, Marrat, is made a variety of O. yaspidea of some-
body not quoted. My shell has no affinity with the O. jaspi-
dea, Gmelin, but somewhat resembles the O. jaspidea, Duclos,
which is the same as O. Duclosii, Reeve.

O. piperata, Marrat. Here Mr. Ponton remarks that O.
conotdalis, Lam., is simply a variety of O. jaspidea, not men-
tioning whether it be the O. jaspidea, Duclos, or O. jaspidea,
Gmelin. If the former, there is no relation; if the latter, the
names are synonymous.

O. faba, Marrat, is placed as a variety of O. carneola, Lam.
(O. aurora, Soland.). According to a recent monograph by
Dr. Gray, my shell belongs to the genus Strephona, having
the spire open to the tip, and O. carneola, Lam., to the genus
Galeola, embracing shells with a callous spire. I may remark
that after three years’ search for any open-spired shell in this
group—viz. O. calosoma, Duclos (a beautiful species), O. t-
grina, Meusch. (0. tessellata, Lam.), O. todosina, Duclos, O.
lepida, Duclos, O. volvariordes, Duclos, O. athenia, Duclos
(not figured by Reeve, but quoted as a variety of O. carneola,
Lam.), and OU. picta, Reeve—I have failed in my attempt.
In a drawer on my table one hundred specimens are arranged,
consisting of all the figured varieties in the series, and several
others neither figured nor described.

O. blanda, Marrat. Mr. Ponton considers this to be a form
of O. ispidula of somebody. If he mean the shell of Linn.,
I must inform him that the white shell of which he speaks is
the O. candida, Lam. (O. olerinella, Duclos), and was sepa-
rated by both these able conchologists, in consequence of the
broad plaited columella.

O. oblonga, Marrat. Will Mr. Ponton kindly refer to the
figures mentioned in my description ?

O. cylindrica, Marrat. Again a species with an open spire
and rounded spiral whorls has been referred to the figure of a
shell with a callous spire, but in this case with good reason.
My description certainly favours the idea; but let me refer, to
the group in my cabinet. I find seventy-three specimens under
the head of O. irisans, Lam., including all the varieties figured
in any work to which I have access, and many more beautiful
than their more favoured paper brethren; but the eighteen
shells under the head of O. cylindrica, Marrat, will not agree
with any of them.

O. ornata, Marrat, has been imported in considerable num-
bers, and is an acknowledged species by every conchologist
who has seen it.

Dr. A. Giinther on new Freshwater Fishes. 475

O. pallida, Marrat, will not agree with any figure or de-
scription of O. scripta, Lam. There is a very considerable
difference between the O. scripta, Lam., as figured by Reeve,
and the O. scripta, Lam., as figured by Duclos; and a much
greater difference exists between the shells in my cabinet and
the forms figured.

O. similis, Marrat, is so decidedly distinct as to require no
comment.

2 Peveril Terrace, Edge Lane, Liverpool.
May 16, 1868.

LVI.—Diagnoses of some new Freshwater Fishes from Suri-
nam and Brazil, in the Collection of the British Museum.
By Dr. ALBERT GUNTHER.

THE Trustees of the British Museum obtained, in the course
of last year, several collections of South-American Fishes,
of which we may mention that made by Mr. Edward Bartlett
on the Huallaga and at Xeberos (Upper Amazons), others
sent by Hr. Kappler from the Maroni River (Surinam),
and, finally, numerous examples from Surinam, formerly in
the museum of the late Dr. van Lidth de Jeude. For the
present I give the diagnoses of those species which I have
found to be undescribed; and more detailed descriptions with
illustrations will be published in the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoo-
logical Society,’ before which the paper was read on March 26.

Doras helicophilus.

Lateral shields well developed, entirely uncovered by the
skin ; the depth of the third is one-half of the length of the head,
those on the tail only half as deep as the tail; their whole
surface is covered with minute spines. Humeral process
without spines, with a very slight ridge extending to the
hinder third of the pectoral spine. The posterior lobes of the
nuchal carapace are rounded, reaching to the base of the se-
cond soft ray of the dorsal fin. Dorsal spine serrated in front
and behind, the anterior denticulations being directed upwards.
Caudal peduncle shielded above and below. Uniform blackish;
dorsal fin white, the middle black.

Surinam.

Oxydoras acipenserinus.

This fish is distinguished from all its congeners by the pe-
culiar shape of the head and snout, which is elongate triangular,
pointed, and much depressed in its anterior portion. L. lat.42.

Xeberos.
33*

476 ~—srDr. A. Giinther on some new Freshwater Fishes

Callichthys armatus. vi

This species belongs to the group with compressed head.

Dorsal spine as high as the body, finely serrated behind ;
pectoral spine rather stronger but shorter than that of the
dorsal, longer than the head. Anal spine shorter and more
feeble than that of the adipose fin. Olive-coloured (in spirits),
the nine or ten anterior scutes with vertical series of small
blackish spots.

Xeberos and Huallaga.

Cheetostomus Fordii.

Head much depressed, elongate, its length being one-third
of the total (without caudal). Eye small, one-eighth of the
length of the head, and two-fifths of the width of the inter-
orbital space, which is rather flat. Each jaw with six or seven
stoutish teeth on each side; each of them has a lobe on its
outer side, rather distant from the brown flat apex. Throat,
thorax, and belly naked. The first ray of the dorsal and anal,
and the upper and lower of the caudal, slightly thickened and
rough. Pectoral spine strong, extending to the second third
of the ventral fin, covered with short hooks. Each scute of
the body with a series of three or four very prominent spines.
Ten scutes between anal and caudal, and eight between the
two dorsal fins. Brownish black ; most of the scutes have a
round bluish-white dot at the base; lower parts with nume-
rous similar but more distinct white dots.

Surinam.

Cheetostomus depressus.

Head and trunk much depressed and flattened. The length
of the head is rather more than one-third of the total (without
caudal) ; the diameter of the eye is one-fifth of the length of the
head, and two-thirds of the width of the interorbital space. The
margin of the snout is covered with short bristles ; interoper-
culum with a bundle of about eight similar bristles, the longest
being only half as long as the eye. The lower side of the
head, thorax, and belly entirely naked. Pectoral spine ex-
tending to the second third of the ventral, and rather rough ;
eleven scutes between the anal and caudal fins. Scutes with
numerous striz, each stria composed of numerous very small
spines. Brown; each scute with several round, very small,
whitish dots; dorsal and caudal rays with a series of similar
dots, the interradial membrane being immaculate.

Surinam.

; Cheetostomus megacephalus.

Head but slightly depressed, rather longer than broad, its

in the Collection of the British Museum. 477

length being more than one-third of the total (without caudal).
The horizontal diameter of the orbit is more than one-half of
the width of the interorbital space, and about one-fifth of the
length of the head. Margin of the snout granulated, without
bristles ; interoperculum with a bundle of about twenty seti-
form spines, the longest of which are about one-fourth of the
length of the head, and extend backwards to the root of the
pectoral fin. Thorax and belly entirely naked. Twelve scutes
between the anal and caudal fins. Scutes of the body without
keels, but with vertical series of spines, the anterior scutes
with one series only, the middle with two, and the posterior
with three or more. Blackish brown; head and body with
numerous indistinct round yellowish spots, each about as large
as the pupil; each dorsal ray with a series of round whitish
spots, the black ground-colour forming a network on the fin.
Surinam.
Chetostomus dentex.

Interoperculum with a bundle of about ten straight setiform
spines, the longest of which is as long as the eye. ‘Thorax
and belly nearly entirely naked, there being only a few granu-
lations behind the throat. Teeth comparatively large, with
the apex dilated, scarcely lobed; there are about six on each
side in the upper jaw, and three in the lower. Scutes not
keeled, but covered with strong spies. Uniform greyish
brown.

Xeberos.

HyYPopropoma (g. n. Hypostomatin.).

This genus differs from Plecostomus in the peculiar forma-
tion of the head, which is depressed, spatulate, the eyes being
on the lateral edge of the head. The moveable gill-covers are
reduced to two bones, viz. :—the operculum, small and placed
as in Plecostomus ; and a second, larger bone (interoperculum ?),
separated from the eye by the narrow suborbital ring, and
placed at the lower side of the head.

Hypoptopoma thoracatum.

D. < ee A. G6.” PLU6. V2 1/5. Ee lat. 24:
Xeberos.

Loricaria lanceolata.

Head and body much depressed, but narrow, the greatest
width of the head being three-fifths of its length. Lower lip
broad, slightly notched behind, fringed. Teeth very fine, few
in number, about five on each side in the upper jaw, and about
seven in the lower. Orbit with a rather shallow notch behind,
its horizontal diameter (the notch included) being two-thirds

478 Dr. A. Giinther on some new Freshwater Fishes

of the width of the interorbital space, which is flat. Thorax
and abdomen covered with irregular scutes. The length of the
head (measured to the occiput) is a little more than one-fifth of
the total (without caudal). Origin of the dorsal fin opposite to
the root of the ventral. Brown; back with about five obscure
dark cross bands; fins with broad, irregular, confluent, black
cross bands.

Xeberos.

Loricaria platystoma.

Snout of moderate length, slightly poimted; mouth broad,
upper lip well developed, lower semicircular, of moderate
width, papillose, not frmged, and with a minute barbel near
the angle of the mouth. Teeth very fine, about forty on each
side of each jaw, the series occupying nearly the whole width
of the mouth. Orbit nearly circular, without notch, its hori-
zontal diameter being two-thirds of the width of the inter-
orbital space, which is slightly concave. Scutes remarkably
smooth, even the lateral ridges of the body and tail being
obtuse. There is a series of seven or eight scutes between the
roots of the pectoral and ventral fins. Thorax and abdomen
covered with small irregular scutes. The length of the head
(measured to the occiput) is contained five times and one-third
in the total (without caudal). Origin of the dorsal nearly op-
posite to that of the ventral. Uniform brownish (in spirits).

Surinam.

Loricaria lamina.

Head and body excessively depressed; snout of moderate
length, very broad, the head being nearly as broad as long.
Labial folds thin, frmged. Teeth minute, few in number;
there are about five on each side in the upper jaw, and seven
in the lower. Orbit small, with a shallow notch behind ; its
horizontal diameter (the notch included) is three-fourths of the
width of the interorbital space, which is nearly flat. Edge of
the snout trenchant. There is a series of nine scutes between
the roots of the pectoral and ventral fins. ‘Thorax and ab-
domen covered with small, irregular scutes. The length of
the head (measured to the occiput) is contained four times and
one-third in the total (without caudal). .

Xeberos.

Curimatus asper.
JOUAL. s A. 12-13. Vi S105 i dat. ol, Gc iransv. a

The height of the body is contained twice and two-thirds
or thrice in the total length (without caudal), the length of the
head thrice and one-half. Snout as long as the diameter of
the eye, which is a little more than one-half of the width of

in the Collection of the British Museum. A479

the interorbital space. Snout somewhat projecting beyond
the mouth. The second suborbital bone is twice and one-half
as long as deep. Abdomen flat before the ventrals, compressed
behind them. Scales with their entire margin conspicuously
serrated. Coloration uniform.

Huallaga and Xeberos.

Curimatus leuciscus.
D.11. A.9. V.10. L. lat. 64. LL. transv. 3.

The height of the body is contained thrice and two-thirds
in the total length (without caudal), the length of the head
four times. Upper profile of the head and nape straight.
Snout a little longer than the eye, which is three-fifths of the
width of the interorbital space. Snout somewhat projecting
beyond the mouth; the second suborbital bone is more than
twice as long as deep. Origin of the dorsal fin equidistant
between the end of the snout and the adipose fin, considerably
in advance of the ventrals. Pectoral terminating at a con-
siderable distance from the ventral, ventral terminating close
to the vent. Abdomen rounded before and behind the ven-
trals. Scales with their entire margin conspicuously serrated.
Coloration uniform.

Huallaga.

Curimatus dobula.
Allied to C. Troschelit.
Deg cae 10 Nat, 43.0.1, transy, 6/7,

_ The height of the body is contained thrice and four-fifths
in the total length (without caudal), the length of the head
four times. Upper profile slightly convex on the nape. Ab-
domen rounded in front and behind the ventrals. Snout
rather shorter than the eye, the diameter of which is con-
tained thrice and one-third in the length of the head, and is
less than the width of the interorbital space. The origin of
the dorsal fin is nearly midway between the end of the snout
and the adipose fin, corresponding to the tenth scale of the
lateral line. The pectoral fin terminates at some distance
from the ventral. Scales with a few obtuse denticulations.
Body silvery ; dorsal fin with an indistinct, oblique, blackish
band ascending forwards.

Huallaga. .
Hemiodus Kapplert.

Closely allied to H. notatus, but with the body much more
elongate. .

Surinam.

480 Dr. A. Giinther on some new Freshwater Fishes

Leporinus hypselonotus.
D.10. A. 13. V.9. L. lat. 37-38. L. transv. 6/7.

The height of the body is contained twice and one-half or
twice and two-thirds in the total length (without caudal), the
length of the head four times and one-half or four times and
two-thirds. Back much elevated, with its profile very convex
to the dorsal fin. Body with seven more or less broad,
oblique, blackish cross bands—the two anterior in front of the
dorsal, the third from the anterior dorsal rays to behind the
ventral fins, the fourth corresponding to the vent, the fifth to
the middle of the anal, the sixth from the adipose fin, and the
seventh round the last caudal scales. Anterior part of the
base of the dorsal and the ventrals deep black, the other fins
yellowish.

Xeberos.

Tetragonopterus ovalis.
D. 11. A. 26. LL, lat. 31. L. transv. 54/6.

The height of the body is one-half of the total length (with-
out caudal); the length of the head is contained thrice and
two-thirds in it. Upper profile rather more convex than
lower, slightly concave on the nape. The diameter of the
eye is more than the width of the interorbital space, less than
the length of the snout, and one-third of that of the head.
The maxillary extends somewhat beyond the vertical from
the front margin of the orbit. Origin of the dorsal fin imme-
diately behind the root of the ventral. Pectorals extending
beyond the ventrals, ventrals to the vent. There are four longi-
tudinal series of scales between the lateral line and ventral fin.

Xeberos.

APHYOCHARAX, g. n.

This genus belongs to the Tetragonopterina, and is, tech-
nically, distinguished from Chirodon by the presence of max-
illary teeth.

Dorsal fin placed in the middle of the length of the body,
behind the ventrals; anal rather long. Body oblong, covered
with scales of moderate size. Lateral line visible on a part
of the scales only. Abdomen rounded before the ventrals.
Cleft of the mouth narrow; maxillary short; intermaxillary,
maxillary, and mandibles with a single series of pointed teeth,
those in the intermaxillary having a minute lobe on one or
both sides ; all the others appear to be simply pointed.

Aphyocharax pusillus. _
D9: A. 18." V8. cl Aate 36. Taare eas
Huallaga and Xeberos.

in the Collection of the British Museum. 481

Anacyrtus affinis.
Dts A. 50... lat. 80.

Upper and lower jaws on each side with a pair of short,
conical, tooth-like processes directed forwards and outwards.
Intermaxillary teeth in two irregular series,—those of the man-
dible being in a single series, two pairs of them larger than
the rest, canine-like. Maxillary with four or five distant,
short, conical teeth. Back much elevated, the profile on the
nape being deeply concave. The height of the body is con-
tained twice and two-thirds in the total length (without
caudal), the length of the head four times.

Lower jaw considerably shorter than the upper; maxillary
not extending to the vertical from the front margin of the eye.
Suborbital touching the lower preopercular limb. The dia-
meter of the eye is equal to the width of the interorbital space,
or to the length of the snout, and two-sevenths of that of the
head. Origin of the dorsal fin opposite to that of the anal,
rather nearer to the end of the snout than to the root of the
caudal. Pectoral extending beyond the vent.

Huallaga.

Anacyrtus (Cynopotamus) amazonum.
Dod... A..40. ,V. 8-9... lat. 110.

The height of the body is contained twice and two-thirds
in the total length (without caudal), the length of the head
thrice and three-fourths. Upper profile deeply concave on
the nape, the back being much elevated. Abdomen not com-
pressed, but with a median ridge from behind the ventrals.
The intermaxillary and mandibulary teeth are in a single
series. The upper jaw overlaps the lower slightly ; the max-
illary extending far behind the eye, which is rather small,
placed in the middle of the depth of the head, nearer to the
snout than to the gill-opening. Suborbital slightly and ir-
regularly striated. Origin of the dorsal fin nearer to the end
of the snout than to the root of the caudal, its last ray being
opposite to the origin of the anal fin. Operculum very
narrow; a naked space between the suborbital and lower
limb of the opercle. ;

Xeberos.

| Sternopygus axillaris.

Orbit without free eyelid; mouth of moderate width, with
the jaws even in front; upper profile of head and nape nearly
straight. A large blackish spot on the beginning of the
lateral line.

Para.

482 Dr. W. Nylander on new British Lichens.

LVII.—WNotule Lichenologice.. No. XXII.
By the Rev. W. A. Lercuton, B-A., F.L.S.

In the ‘ Flora,’ May 6, 1868, Dr. Wm. Nylander publishes

the following additions to our British Lichens :-—

1. Calicium diploéllum, Nyl.
Thallus vix ullus proprius; apothecia nigra, brevissime stipi-
_ tata, capitulo turbinato (crassit. 0°05—0°07 millim., in humido
statu duplo crassiore), aperto, massa sporali vix prominula ;
spore nigrescentes, oblongee, simplices, longit. 0-°006—0-009
millim., erassit. 0-003, deinde (in massa sporali) 1-septatee
_ et nonnihil crassiores (crassit. 0°0045 millim.).

- In Hibernia, Killarney, ad corticem ilicis (Carroll).
Species omnium minutissima et facillime dignota. Prope
C. disseminatum locum habet.

2. Calicium retinens, Ny]l.

Thallus albus, opacus, tenuis, subfarinaceus, effusus (an pro-
prius ?); apothecia nigra, minuta (crassit. 0°10-0°25 mil-
lim.), sessilia, lecideiformia, massa sporali non distincta ;
spore nigrescentes, oblong vel oblongo-cylindrice, con-
spicue 1-septate, longit. 0°008-0-011 millim., crassit.
0:0025-0:0035 millim. ; hypothecium rubricoso-fuscescens.

In insula Cesarea (Jersey) ad corticem quercus (Larba-
lestier).
3. Lecanora holophea, var. glaucopsora, Nyl.

Thallus squamuloso-crenatus vel squamulis totis granulatis
(vel passim subleprosis) ; apothecia livido-fusca, mediocria
(latit. 1 millim. vel minora), margine thallino subintegro
cincta; spore 8, incolores, fusiformes, 1-septate, longit.
0:012-0°018 millim., crassit. 0-003-0°004 millim.; para-
physes gracilescentes, apice clavato fuscescente. Todo gela-
tina hymenea cerulescens.

In insula Cesarea (Larbalestier).
Spermatia longit. 0°003 millim., crassit. 0°001 millim.,
arthrosterigmatibus infixa.

4, Lecidea arceutina, var. hypnea, Nyl.
Thallus albidus vel albo-cinerascens, tenuissimus; apothecia
fusca vel nigricantia, demum convexa (latit. 0°5 millim.) ;
~ spore: longit. 0°045-0°070 millim. Iodo gelatina hymenea
ceerulescens.

Supra muscos in insula Ceesarea (Larbalestier).

Dr. W. Nylander on new British Lichens. 483
5. Lecidea ascaridiella, Ny.

Thallus albidus, tenuis, opacus, rimulosus, determinatus ; apo-
thecia nigricantia, innata, minutissima (latit. 0°09-0°15 mil-
lim.), intus incoloria, margine quasi thallode crenatulo
seepe coronata; spore 16-32, vermiformes (utroque apice

- acutee), semel curvatze aut bis torte, simplices, longit. 0°025-
0-030 millim.; paraphyses gracillime, non conferte ; epi-
thecium leviter fuscescens; hypothecium incolor. Iodo
gelatina hymenea non tincta.

Ad saxa calcarea prope Killarney in Hibernia (Carroll).
Species stirpis Gyalectarum minuta, bene distincta, prope
Lecideam leucaspidem (Kphb.) locum habens.

6. Verrucaria hibernica, Ny}.

Vix nisi var. V. pyrenulotdis (Mut.), Nyl. Pyren. p.44. Facie
fere V. nitide, sed apothectis aggregatis, sporis multi-:
loculosis (seriebus transversis 12 et pluribus pluriloculosis)
4-8 (longit. 0°070-0°110 millim., crassit. 0°025-0°038 mil-
lim.). odo gelatina hymenea leviter vel thece vinose
rubescentes.

Ad corticem Coryli avellane loci umbrosi in Killarney,
Turk Mountain (altit. circiter 800 pedum) legit (Sept. 1867)
I. Carroll.

7. Verrucaria elongatula, Ny}.

Similis V. punctiformi vel atomarie, Ach., sed sporis clavato-
fusiformibus, longioribus (longit. 0°023-0-033 millim., cras-
sit. 0°005-0:006 millim.), uniseptatis. Apothecia minu-
tissima (latit. 0-1 millim. vel seepe minora); perithecium
infra (hypothecium) incolor. Paraphyses nulle evolute.
Ad corticem, in Hibernia, Killarney (Carroll).

Forsan modo forma V. punctiformis.

8. Verrucaria punctiformis, var deminutula, Nyl.
Apotheciis minutissimis (latit. circiter 0°07 millim.) ; sporis
oblongis, 1-septatis (longit. 0°016-0°022 millim., crassit.
0-0045 millim.).
In Hibernia, Killarney (Carroll).

9. Verrucarta leptospora, Nyl., Flora, 1864, p. 487.
Thallo fusco vel fuscescente, tenui; sporis acicularibus, 7-9-
septatis (longit. 0:040-0:060 millim., crassit. 0:003-0-004
millim.).
AV. olivacea, Borr., differt jam perithecio integro et sporis-
Jongioribus.

484

MISCELLANEOUS.

Note on Hyalonema boreale, Lovén.
By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.RS. &e.

Dr. Lovén, in the ‘ Ofversigt’ of the Swedish Academy for 1868,
p- 105, describes and figures in detail a small sponge under the
name of Hyalonema boreale. I hope shortly to receive a translation
of this paper from the author, for insertion in the ‘ Annals;’ and I
have no doubt it will contain many interesting observations.

Believing that facts were accumulating that would prove the
Hyalonema to be a coral, as I first described it, I was rather dismayed
when I heard from my friend that he was describing a northern
species of the genus that would prove it to be a sponge. On seeing
the paper, my difficulty was to understand why so accurate and
philosophical a zoologist as Dr. Lovén could have referred it to my
genus Hyalonema.

Hyalonema boreale, Loven, is a typical siliceous sponge belonging
to my family Halichondriade, of a pear-shape, with a single sub-
central terminal oscule, with a long cylindrical pedicel, and fibrous
roots. In general form and structure and in form of spicules it
agrees so well with Halchondria ficus of Johnston, which is the
type of my genus Ficulina (see Proc. Zool. Soc. 1867, p. 523), that
I am inclined to refer it to that genus. But perhaps it may be
necessary to form it into a separate genus, characterized by the
length and structure of the pedicel and the absence of the pin-
shaped spicule; but at present I should call it Ficulina borealis. I
cannot find that it presents a single character of the genus Hyalo-
nema. In that genus the elongated spicules that form the coil,
which induced me to call the genus Hyalonema (that is, glass rope),
arise out of the centre of a sponge with a flat expanded base, by
which it is attached to some marine bodies; and the sponge is
furnished with numerous superficial oscules. In H. boreale, on the
contrary, the sponge is clavate, with a pear-shaped body on a long
slender cylindrical pedicel having a fibrous root. This pedicel is a
true part of the sponge, and cannot in any way be compared with
the coil of siliceous fibres that arises out of the upper part of the
sponge in Hyalonema.

- Dr. Lovén observes :—“ You will see that, if Iam not very wrong,
all who have treated of the Hyalonema have inverted it, turned it
upside down, and that the twisted rope, instead of rising out of
the sponge, in reality is nothing but the remaining part of the
stalk.”

I fear Dr. Lovén has only had very imperfect specimens of the
Japan Hyalonema to examine, or he could not have adopted such a
theory.

Dr. Wyville Thompson has informed me that he dredged a speci-

men of Dr. Lovén’s Hyalonema boreale a couple of years ago, in
Oban Bay.

Miscellaneous. 485

Note on the Shell-structure of certain Naiades.
By C. A. Wurte, M.D.

Those who have given attention to fossil Lamellibranchiates can-
not fail to have observed that, whenever the shell-substance is pre-
served at all, it is universally thin, even in large specimens—too
thin, indeed, to have given sufficient protection to the mollusk which
it enclosed. It seems evident, therefore, that some portion of the
shell-substance must have disappeared during the process of
fossilization. Thus those fossil shells which possess a prismatic
outer layer usually have this layer alone preserved, at least when
they occur in calcareous strata. Numerous specimens of Myalina
subqguadrata from the Upper Coal-measures, and Inoceramus proble-
maticus of the Cretaceous of Western Iowa, illustrate this well, in
which the interior markings are uniformly obliterated. While
lately examining the Naiades of the Iowa river I observed that they
all possessed a prismatic outer layer of a character not distinguishable
from that of Myalina subquadrata. The prisms are of about the
same size in each; but those of the Inoceramus are nearly twice as
large.

The following species have thus far been found to possess the
characters referred to:—Unio alatus, Say, U. cornutus, Barnes, U.
crassus, Say, U. ebenus, Lea, U. plicatus, Say, U. rectus, Lam., U.
securis, Lea, U. tuberculatus, U. ventricosus, Barnes, Alasmodonta
complanata, Barnes, A. truncata, Say, and an undetermined species of
Anodonta.

This comprises all the genera (or subgenera) found in our region ;
but it is not improbable that the prismatic structure is common to
the whole family. The prismatic layer is of about the same thick-
ness in all, the Anodontas and Alasmodontas being thinned at the
expense of the inner or structureless layers; it is from half a
millimetre to more than a millimetre in thickness, the epidermis
resting directly upon it. Except in very old specimens, this layer
constitutes the whole thickness of the shell for the width of a
couple of millimetres from the margin ; and in very young specimens
it exclusively occupies about half the space between the margin and
the pallial line.

The prismatic structure may be detected by the naked eye, and
can be well studied by the use of one of Tolles’s 32-inch triplet
lenses. Under this magnifier the inner surface of the marginal
border is seen to be finely granular, each granule being the con-
vex end of one of the prisms which constitute the layer. These
prisms extend through the layer to the epidermis without inter-
ruption, reminding one, in their appearance upon fracture, of certain
species of Chéetetes. But viewing the prisms upon their ends they
are seen to vary in size much more than the cells of Chetetes do,
and consequently to lack that uniformity in cross section presented
by the coral.

If our Naiades were fossilized under the same circumstances that

486 Miscellaneous.

the Coal-measure and Cretaceous shells before mentioned have been,
even the most massive Unios would doubtless be found with as thin
a shell as Myalina and Inoceramus now possess. —

Mr. F. B. Meek’s investigations have shown that the prismatic
structure is a very common (if not a constant) character of the fossil
Aviculide ; and it is doubtless of much value as a family character ;
but since it is also seen in certain genera of Mytilide and the
Naiades, it is known that it is not the peculiar property of any
family.—Silliman’s American Journal, May 1868.

Smelts breeding in an Aquarium.

Mr. Brightwell, passing through the Norwich fish-market the
other day, had his attention called by a man to his aquarium, in
which he found some smelts, caught in the river, were kept alive.
They had deposited spawn on the stones at the bottom; and the
young fry had emerged, so exceedingly minute as scarcely to be
seen, but distinguishable as young smelts. They make excellent
microscopical objects.—L. B.

On the Formation of Coral Reefs. By Cart Semper.

The well-known annular form of the reefs containing lagoons, the
atolls, was formerly explained by supposing that the polypes had
built their dwellings, perpendicularly upwards, upon the margins of
the craters of submarine volcanos, by which an external ring (an
outer reef) must necessarily be produced, closing the crater, now
become a lake, against the outer sea. In this, however, the allied
forms of the barrier reefs (that is to say, such as fringe elevated
islands lying in the sea) and the coast reefs occurring in all tropical
seas were not taken into consideration, Darwin, by his theory,
brought the three forms into mutual connexion. He thought he
could demonstrate that the atolls and barrier reefs could only be
explained by the assumption of the gradual sinking of a continent or
island, and the coast reefs by an elevation of the shores. Although
he himself called attention to some difficulties, he believed he could
support the value of his theory in opposition to such obstinate facts,
especially by demonstrating how in general the coast reefs were
formed only on shores now in course of elevation, the atolls and
barrier reefs, on the contrary, in regions of the sea in which the
want of all active volcanic energy indicates a depression.

. Nevertheless cases do occur which cannot be explained thus.
Leaving out of consideration the Philippines, where several atolls
are found in the midst of islands in course of elevation, the western
Caroline Islands, the Pelew Islands, furnish a very striking example
of an association of extreme forms. At the north of the chain of
islands (which stretches nearly north and south, and is about sixty
geographical miles in length), there are true atolls; in the middle,

Miscellaneous. 487

barrier reefs surrounding volcanic islands, and passing gradually
towards the south into coast reefs, which are closely applied to coral
reefs elevated to as much as 200 feet. The group of islands termi-
nates in a small island entirely destitute of reefs, separated from
the rest by a channel four geographical miles in breadth. If we
were to apply Darwin’s theory to this example, we should have to re-
gard this southernmost island as a resting point, whilst the northern.
-part, by sinking, had rendered the formation of atolls possible. In-
dependent of the improbability that a mountain-chain ascending from
‘the deep sea at a distance from all other insular groups, and haying
so small a horizontal extension (sixty miles in length by six to seven
miles in breadth), should possess so great a difference of vertical
movement, facts directly observed testify against a depression,
nay, even render it probable that an elevation has taken place in
recent times. The northern volcanic islands are formed by two dif-
ferent basaltic eruptions, one of which bears the present and the
older elevated reefs of the south, whilst the second partially overlies
them. Traces of a trachytic eruption also occur, but, apparently,
isolated from the larger basaltic island. These islands, therefore,
belong to a comparatively very recent geological period. And the
elevated coral reefs of the south, partly converted into dense coral-
line limestone, in other places decomposed into chalk, pass directly
over into the existing reefs. A depression is further disproved by the
nature of the submarine surface in the interior of the lagoon-chan-
nel, Whilst in the north there is a deep and often very broad
channel which separates the outer reef from the shore of the island,
the numerous small elevated coralline limestone islands of the south
are united by a surface extending for many miles nearly horizontally
scarcely 4—6 fathoms beneath the surface of the sea, and which, in
~ still water at the time of the spring tides, may be traced out of the
sea into the supramarine rocks and islands. A horizontal surface
attaining such colossal dimensions could not possibly be formed
during a depression which, a few miles further north, had produced
a channel of.70 fathoms in depth.
The author rather regards the physical influences, especially the
internal sea-currents caused by the rain, and the exterior direct and -
diverted ones, as the causes which have produced in the north the.
atolls, and in the south the coast reefs, simultaneously with an
elevation. Whilst in the latter the deep-going eroding action of the
-waye-blow or the wash of the sea has gradually planed away the -
dense and solid coralline limestone to a nearly horizontal surface,
which lies at about the depth to which the sea-wash is capable of
acting, in the north the becks coming down from the mountains,
conjointly with the wash and currents of the sea, have acted much
‘more strongly upon the uncommonly soft, readily decomposable
basalt of the west, than was the case with the limestone in the:
south, and have eaten out the deep lagoon-channels, which in par-
ticular places extend to the width of a mile between the solid -
ground and the outer reef.— Verhandl. der phys.-med. Gesellsch. m
Wurzburg, February 1, 1868.

488

INDEX to VOL. I.

ABLABES, new species of, 417.

Acanthodopsis, on some remains of,
364,

Adams, A.,on the Helicide found in
Japan, 459.

Adolhias, new species of, 70; on the
sexes of the Cocytus group of the
genus, 97.

Aheetulla, new species of, 424,

Alligator, on the muscular anatomy
of the, 282.

Amblyotus atratus, observations on,
157.

Amphibulima, new species of, 432.

Anacyrtus, new species of, 481.

Andrews, W., on some rare Irish
Sponges, 507.

Animal life, on the influence of, on
the composition of carbonate-of-
lime waters, 145.

Anisonema, new species of, 254.

Annelids, on lithodomous, 233.

Anthophysa Miilleri, observations on,
209.

Anthozoa, on the polymorphism of
the, 227.

Aphyocarax, characters of the new
genus, 480. '

Archzeopteryx lithographica,remarks
on, 220.

Arctocephalus, new species of, 219.

Arthonia, new species of, 28.

Arthropoda, on the genealogy of the,
448,

Astasia trichophora, on the structure
and affinities of, 250.

Atractaspis, new species of, 429.

Atthey, T., on various species of
Ctenodus from the shales of the
Northumberland Coal-field, 77;
on the remains of some Reptiles
and Fishes from the shales of the
Northumberland Coal-field, 266,
346.

ger prolifer, observations on,

3.

Balenidz, on the geographical dis-
tribution of the, 242.
Balanus armatus, observations on,

and on a hybrid between this spe-
cies and B. improvisus, 393.

Balatro, description of the new ge-
nus, 385.

Balea, new species of, 469.

Balsamo, J. E., on artificial hybridi-
zation inthe genus Gossypium, 155.

Bate, C.8., Carcinological gleanings
by, 442.

Bergsée, Dr., on the structure and
affinities of the Geophili, 301;
on Tarantula and Tarantism, 302;
observations on Philichthys Xi-
phiz, 303.

Bicosceca, on the structure and rela-
tionship of the new genus, 139;
new species of, 188.

Blanford, W. T., on the occurrence
of Diplommatina Huttoni and
Ennea bicolor in the West Indies,
110; on errata in localities of In-
dian and Burmese Squirrels, 151.

Blondeau, C., on the irritability of
plants, 83; on the action of the
induction-current upon plants, 230.

Books, new :—Baily’s figures of cha-
racteristic British fossils, 71;
Stainton’s History of the Tineina,
142 ; Stainton’s Tineina of Syria
and Asia Minor, 143; Playfair
and Giinther’s Fishes of Zanzibar,
144; Wollaston’s Coleoptera Hes-
peridum, 295; Schiddte’s Natur-
historisk Tidsskrift, 297; the Re-
cord of Zoological Literature for
1866, 305; Layard’s Birds of South
Africa, 383.

Borlasia hermaphroditica, observa
tions on, 229.

Brady, H. B., on the structure and
affinities of the genus Ellipsoidina,
333.

Bulimulus, new species of, 431, 436.

Burmeister, Dr. H., on a new species
of Globiocephalus, 52.

Butler, A. G., on the Papilio cocytus
of Fabricius, 70; on the sexes of
the Cocytus group of the genus
Adolias, 97.

INDEX.

Calicium, new British species of,
482.

Callichthys, new species of, 476,

Callophis, new species of, 428.

Carcinological gleanings, 442.

Carter, H. J., on a variety of Spon-
gilla Meyeni, 247.

Cheetostomus, new species of, 476.

Claparéde, E., on the mode in which
certain Rotatoria introduce food
into their mouths, 309; on Loxo-
soma Kefersteinii, 311; on a new
genus of Rotatoria, 385.

Clausilia, new species of, 343, 469.

Codoneca, description of the new
genus, 190.

Codosiga, on the structure and rela-
tionship of the new genus, 191.
Coleoptera, anatomical investigation
of some blind, 229; on the meta-
morphoses of, 297; from Old Ca-

labar, descriptions of, 323.

Collingwood, Dr. C., on some gigan-
tic sea-anemones containing with-
in them quasi-parasitic fish, 31; on
the distribution of some Nudi-
branchiate Mollusca in the China«
Sea, 90.

Coral reefs, on the formation of, 486.

Corals, on a remarkable new genus
of, 225.

Crustacea, on the structure of the
mouth in sucking, 1; on some
Atlantic and South American,
446.

Ctenodus, on various species of, from
the shales of the Northumberland
Coal-field, 77.

Ctenodus cristatus, observations on,
354.

Ctenoptychius pectinatus, observa-
tions on, 374.

Cunningham, Dr. R. O., on the zoo-
logy of his voyage to South Ame-

_ Tica, 442.

Curimatus, new species of, 478.

Cyclophis, new species of, 418.

Cyclotus, new species of, 433.

Cylindrophis, note on the habits of
the genus, 428.

Cymothoz, on the structure of the
mouth in the, 1.

Cynthia cardui, on the Australian
representative of, 76.

Dendrohyrax, on the species of, 48.

Diplodus gibbosus, observations on,
370.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.4, Vol.i.

489

Diplommatina Huttoni, on the oc-
ee of, in the West Indies,
110.

Dipsas, new species of, 425.

Dohrn, Dr. A., on Eugereon Boec-
kingi, and the genealogy of the
Arthropoda, 448,

Dolium galea, on the saliva and sali-
vary glands of, 228.

Doras, new species of, 475.

Douglas, J. W., on the names ap-
plied to the British Hemiptera
Heteroptera, 278. .

Dromicus, new species of, 418.

Dublin atienk [into Society, pro-
ceedings of the, 307.

Dysteria, new species of, 258.

Echidna, on a new and gigantic fos-
sil species of, 113.

Elaps, new species of, 428.

Eleotris, new species of, 265,

Ellipsoidina, on the structure and

adlinvees of the genus, 333.

Ennea bicolor, on the occurrence of,
in the West Indies, 110.

Eriocnemis, new species of, 322.

Ethmophyllum, description of the
new genus, 226,

Eugereon Boeckingi, observations
on, 448.

Euhyrax, on the species of, 46.

Eutoxeres, new species of, 455.

Exoccetus, new species of, 459.

Eyes, on the development of, in the
animal series, 73.

Fishes, on two new Gobioid, 264;
on the remains of some, from the
shales of the Northumberland
Coal-field, 266, 346 ; new British,
312; diagnoses of new freshwater,
from Surinam and Brazil, 475.

Flora, Miocene, of the polar regions,
on the, 61.

Fontinalis antipyretica,on the growth
of the stem of, 392.

Foraminifera, on a new genus of, 333.

Fries, Dr. Th. M., on new species of
Lichens, 25.

Gasteropoda, on the structure of the
eye in the, 73.

Geophili, observations on the, 301.

Geophis, new species of, 415.

Glandina, new species of, 430.

Globiocephalus Grayi, description of,
52.

—— svineval, on the size of the
foetus of, 224.

34

490

Gobius, new species of, 265.

Gossypium, on artificial hybridiza-
tion in the genus, 155.

Gould, J., on two new species of
Humming-birds, 522; on some
species of Eutoxeres, 455.

Gouldia, new species of, 525.

Graptolites, on the Ludlow, 238.

Graptolitide, on the nature and zoo-
logical position of the, 55,

Gray, Dr. J. E., on the species of
Hyrax, 35; on Adanson’s Black
Crocodile, 75; on rare British
sharks, 76; on the Fur- and Hair-
Seals, 99, 215; on Leskia mirabi-
lis, 153; on a new ape from China,
154; on Pteronura Sanbachii, 154 ;
on Sponges, their arrangement
and nomenclature, 161; on the
size of the foetus of the Pilot
Dolphin, 224 ; on the geographical
distribution of the Baleenidee, 242 ;
on the structure and function of
the spicules of Hyalonema, 292 ;
on the Gingee Squirrel of Sonne-
rat, 309; on the habits of Volutes,
510; on new British fishes, 312 ;
on Hyalonema boreale, 484.

Greeff, Dr. R., on Autolytus prolifer,

ies:

Giinther, Dr. A., on two new Go-
bioid fishes, 264; on new species
of snakes, 413; on additions to the
ichthyological fauna of Zanzibar,
457; on some new freshwater
fishes from Surinam and Brazil,
475.

Guppy, R. J. L., on the terrestrial
Mollusca of Dominica and Gre-
nada, with an account of new spe-
cies from Trinidad, 429.

Gyracanthus, observations on, 368.

Gyrophora, new species of, 26.

Habrodictyon, description of the new
genus, 126.

Hancock, A., on some reptiles and
fishes from the shales of the
Northumberland Coal-field, 266,
346.

Hanley, S., on a new species of Clau-
silia, 345.

Haughton, Rey. S., on the muscular
anatomy of the alligator, 282.

Heer, Prof. O., on the Miocene flora
of the polar regions, 61.

Helicide, on the Japanese, 459.

Helicina, new species of, 433, 441.

INDEX.

Helix, new species of, 440, 461.

Hemiodus, new species of, 479.

Hemiptera Heteroptera, on the names
applied to the British, 94, 278.

Hensen, V., on the structure of the
eye in the Gasteropoda, 73.

Herpetodryas, new species of, 420.

Heteromastix, description of the new
genus, 256.

His, Prof., on the first formation of
the body in the Vertebrata, 231.
Huxley, Prof., on Archzopteryx li-

thographica, 220.

Hyalina, new species of, 467.

Hyalonema, on the peculiar structure
and function of the spicules of,
292.

Hyalonema boreale, note on, 484.

Hydrops, new species of, 421.

Hypoptopoma, characters of the new
genus, 477.

Hyvrax, revision of the species of, 35.

Ichthyological fauna of Zanzibar, ad-
ditions to the, 457.

James-Clark, Prof. H., on the Spon-
giz ciliates as Infusoria flagellata,
133, 188, 250.

Jeitteles, L. H., on Amblyotus atra-
tus, 157.

Keferstein, W., on Borlasia herma-
phroditica, 229.

Kolliker, Prof. A., on the poly-
morphism of the Anthozoa and the
structure of the Tubiporz, 227.

Krefft, G., on a new and gigantic
fossil species of Echidna, 113.

Krohn, Dr. A., on the presence of
two glandular sacs in the cephalo-
thorax of the Phalangiidee, 87.

Lankester, E. R., on lithodomous
Annelids, 233, 392.

Lecanora, new species of, 25, 482.

Lecidea, new species of, 26, 482.

Leighton, Rev. W. A., Notulz Liche-
nologice, by the, 25, 155, 185, 482.

Leligeke Prof. H., on the growth of
the stem of Fontinalis antipyretica,
592.

Leporinus, new species of, 480,

Leptodira, new species of, 425.

Leskia mirabilis, note on, 153.

Lespés, C., on the anatomy of some
blind Coleoptera, 229.

Leucodore calcarea, note on, 392.

Leucosolenia botryoides, on the
structure, animality, and relation-
ship of, 133, 188, 250.

INDEX.

Lichens, on the preservation of spe-
cimens of, 183; of Shropshire, list
of the, 183; new species of, 25, 482.

Limax, new species of, 460.

Loricaria, new species of, 477.

Lovén, Dr., on Hyalonema boreale,
484.

Loxosoma Kefersteinii, description
of, 311.

Luca, 8. de, on the saliva and sali-
vary glands of Dolium galea and
other Mollusca, 228.

Lycophidium, new species of, 427.

Lycus, new species of, 325.

Macacus, new species of, 154.

Macalister, Dr. A., on the formation
of a correct system of muscular
homologies, 313.

M‘Coy, Prof., on Phascolomys setosus

and P. niger, 30; on anew Volute,
54; on the Australian representa-
tive of Cynthia cardui, 76.

Mammoth-tusks, commerce in, 386.

Marrat, F. P., on some new species
of Oliva, 472.

Marsupials, on the os quadratum in,
388.

Meek, F. B., on a new genus of co-
rals, 225.

Meinert, Dr., on the Geophili, 301.

Melicerta ringens, note on, 309.

Mimophis, description of the new
genus, 421.

Mollusca, on the salivary glands of
some, 228; on the terrestrial, of
Dominica and Trinidad, 429.

Monas, new species of, 158.

Monas termo, on the structure and
relationship of, 135.

Monotremata, on the tympanic bone
and ossicles of the ear in the, 350.

Miiller, Dr. F., on Balanus armatus
and a hybrid between this species
and B. improvisus, 395.

Murray, A., on Coleoptera from Old
Calabar, 323.

Muscular homologies, on the forma-
tion of a correct system of, 315.
Naiades, on the shell-structure of

certain, 485.

Natica catenata, on the habitat of,
385.

Nicholson, Dr. H. A., on the nature
and zoological position of the
Graptolitide, 55; on the occur-
rence of Ptilograpsus in Britain,
and onthe Ludlow Graptolites, 238.

491

Norman, J. M., on the preservation
of specimens of Lichens, 133.

N Ses Lichenologice, 25, 133, 183,
482.

Nudibranchiate Mollusca, on the
distribution of some, in the China
Sea, 90.

Nylander, Dr. W., on new British
Lichens, 482.

Oliva, on some species of, 344, 472.

Ophiderpeton, new species of, 276.

Otariadze, observations on the, 99.

Oxydoras, new species of, 475.

Palzoniscus Egertoni, observations
on, 358.

Panceri, P., on the saliva and sali-
vary glands of Dolium galea and
other Mollusca, 228.

Pascoe, F. P., on the names applied
to the British Hemiptera Hetero-
ptera, 94.

Peters, Prof. W., on the os quadra-
tum in the Marsupials and Mono-
tremata, 388, 390.

Phalangiidz, on the presence of two
glandular sacs in the cephalotho-
rax of the, 87.

Phascolomys setosus and P. niger,
notes on, 30.

Philichthys Xiphiz, observations on,
303.

Pilot Dolphin, on the size of the
foetus of the, 224.

Plants, on the irritability of, 33; on
the action of the induction-cur-
rent upon, 230.

Plectrurus trilineatus, note on, 414.

Pleuronectidz, on the development
os the position of the eyes in,
378.

Pleuronema, on the structure and
affinities of, 260.

Ponton, T. G., on some species of
Oliva, 344; on the habitat of Na-
tica catenata, 385.

Power, W. H. T., on the preservation
of objects of natural history, 155. -

Pteronura, new species of, 154.

Pteroplax, new species of, 266.

Ptilograpsus, on the occurrence of,
in Britain, 238.

Pupa, new species of, 441.

Pythonodipsas, description of the
new genus, 425,

Reptiles, on the remains of some,
from the shales of the Northum-
berland Coal-field, 266, 346.

492 INDEX.

Rhagerrhis, new species of, 422.

Rhizodopsis sauroides, observations
on, 349.

Rhizodus Hibberti, on some remains
of, 346.

Rotatoria, on the mode in which
certain, introduce food into their
mouths, 309.

Royal Society, proceedings of the,
145, 220.

Salarias, new species of, 458.

Salpingceca, description of the new
genus, 199.

Schiddte, Prof. J. C., on the struc-
ture of the mouth in sucking
Crustacea, 1; on the metamor-
phoses of Coleoptera, 297 ; on the
genus Stalita, 299; on the posi-
tion of the eyes in Pleuronectide,
378.

Scott, J., on the names applied to
the British Hemiptera Hetero-

_ ptera, 278.

Sea-anemones, on some gigantic,
containing within them quasi-
parasitic fish, 31.

Seals, on the, of the antarctic seas
and the Cape of Good Hope, 215.

Sebastes viviparus, note on the occur-
rence of, off the British coast, 312.

Seguenza, Prof. G., on a new genus
of Foraminifera, 333.

Semper, C., on the formation of
coral-reefs, 486.

Sharks, note on rare British, 76.

Silybura grandis, note on, 414.

Simotes, new species of, 416.

Smelts breeding in an aquarium, 486.

Snakes, on new species of, 413.

Sonnerat’s Gingee Squirrel, note on,
309,

Spinax niger, note on the occurrence
of, off the British coast, 312.

Spiraxis, new species of, 438.

Sponges, on the “ vitreous,” 114 ; on
the arrangement and nomencla-

ture of, 161; on some rare Irish,
307.

ue ciliate, on the, 133, 188,

50.

Spongilla Meyeni, on a variety of,
247.

Squirrels, Indian and Burmese, er-
rata in localities of, 151.

Stalita, observations on the genus,
299.

Stenogyra, new species of, 438.

Sternopygus, new species of, 481.

Terebratula pseudo-jurensis, on the

~ occurrence of, in England, 386.

Tetragonopterus, new species of, 480.

Tholichthys, description of the new
genus, 457.

Thomson, Dr. W., on the “ vitreous”
Sponges, 114.

Tragops javanicus, note on, 424.

Tedeidonetas new species of, 420.

say ag on the structure of the,
227.

Uca, new species of, 447.

Van der Hoeven, Prof. J., notice of
the late, 312.

Vegetation, on the influence of, on
the composition of carbonate-of-
lime waters, 145.

Verrucaria, new species of, 29, 483.

Vertebrata, on the first formation of
the body in the, 231.

Voluta, new species of, 54; on the
habits of, 310,

Walker, J. F., on the occurrence of
Terebratula pseudo -jurensis in
England, 386.

Warington, R., on the influence of
animal and vegetable life on car-
bonate-of-lime waters, 145.

White, Dr. C. A., on the shell-struc-
ture of certain Naiades, 485.

Xenocalamus, description of the new
genus, 414.

Zonites, new species of, 440.

END OF THE FIRST VOLUME.

PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS,
RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.

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