TRANSACTIONS OF THE EDINBURGH FIELD NATURALISTS’ AND MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY pare a, aii = Pat ete gee yp OG " ected \ ptew: ¥ m, Aah me ee Lis TRANSACTIONS OF THE EDINBURGH FIELD NATURALISTS’ AND MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY INSTITUTED AS THE EDINBURGH NATURALISTS’ FIELD CLUB VOL AE (SESSIONS 1886-91) Printed for the Society by WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS MDCCCXCI — II. Ill. CONDENS. SESSION 1886-87. . Opening Address.— Mr Symineron Grieve, President, . : 1 . Notes on Bird-Life.—Mr R. Srewart, S.S.C., . : : : 12 . Polyporus giganteus, Fr.—Mr A. B. STEELE, . : : : 18 . Exhibition of a White Sparrow.—The Szcrerary, . ; : 19 . Apochromatic Object-Glasses.—Mr W. Forean, : : : 21 . Jottings on a Ramble in Wester Ross.—Mr J. ALLAN, 23 . Ormiston Hall: Its Yew-tree and other Antiquities. —Mr a LINDSAY, : ; : : ; : 30 . The Paride, or Tienes _Mr A, Gnare : 41 . The Fossils of the Red Crag and Chalk Pits, Suffolk, ie M. M‘Kran, - 51 . Notes on some New and Bare British Pianie ir Sree carne GRIEVE, President, S 55 . On Dark-ground Illumination, as Sita Peeiae ite of cer ie Dae —Mr W. Penman, Assoc. M.Inst.C.E., . P 56 - Hume’s Projection Mieroseare: —Mr W. Hume (comedy. 61 . The Hare.—Mr T. Sprrupy, - ; 64 . Swallows and Starlings Feeding in ances _Mr ids B. Herperr, 71 . Fawside or Falside Castle.—T. A. Doucnas Woon, F.S.A.Scot., 72 . List of the Less Common Plants gathered at the Excuraions during 1886 and 1887, with Localities. The Srcrrrary, : 79 . The Diatoms of Linlithgow Loch.—Mr J. Linpsay, . t : 80 . Grouse Disease.—Mr T, Sprrpy, < ; A : : ‘ 82 Meetings of Microscopic Section, : “ : ; : = 89 Annual Business Meeting, . ; : é ; : : : 90 SESSION 1887-88. . Recent Notes on the Great Auk or Garefowl (with two Plates). —Mr Symineron Grirve, President, . . 5 A 93 The Rook.—Mr T. Sprepy, r ‘ : ; : 120 Notes on the Coniferee.—Mr H. ane : : ; ; oe AG vi Contents. . Polarised Dark-ground Iluminaiion.—Mr W. PENMAN, Assoc. M.Inst.C.E., . An Ancient ake. ieee in Guess fens (with Sheteh- Plan}, —Messrs J. A. Jounsron and J. Linpsay, . On an Ornithological Visit to Warwickshire.—Mr A. Crate, jun., . Some Peculiar Occurrences in Natural History.—Mr R. STEWART, 8.8.C., . Optical Beaomenen seen in n @lenure. _Mr W. Co ars, . Note on Eucalyptus globulus.—Mr H. FRASER, . Stoats and Weasels.—Mr T. SPEEDY, . . List of Plants gathered in Switzerland.—Mrs Gra icum . Fungus Folk-Lore.—Mr A. B. STEELE, . Remarks on the Genus Aulacodiseus Ehrb.—Mr J. Ranrnan M. ne B.Sc., F.B.S.E., . A New Form of Eréezing Sr Rabedding RE PObDING. Bi x Frazer, M.A., Meetings of Microscopic Section, Annual Business Meeting, . SESSION 1888-89. . Notes on Natural History in India.—Dr Wm. Watson, President, . A Sporting Tour in Norway.—Mr T. SPrEpy, . Kintail and Glenelg, with Notices of the Brochs Goa Sige ee Plates).—Mr A. CRAIG, jun., . . On Dry-Rot.—Mr A. B. STEELE, . The Genus Colletia.—Mr H. FraAsgEr, . The Ichneumon or Mungoos.—Mr R. Stewart, 8. S. C., . A Few Notes on Bird Life, &c.—Mr A. B. HERBERT, Vill. In Memoriam: John Allan.—Mr J. Linpsay, . Meetings of Microscopic Section, Annual Business Meeting, SESSION 1889-90. . An Account of Gurhwal, a District in the Himalayas.—Dr Wm. Watson, President, . The Eloupoes in Westmoreland. Saat Watcor, . A Few Notes on a Journey from Bombay to Jeypore, Beqaniuas: —Mr SyMIncTon GRIEVE, . ; a . Rats and the Balance of Nature—Mr 7. Sp EEDY, . The Garden-Spider (Zpeira diadema) as an Architect. _Mr R. Strwart, 8.8.C., . On the Echinoidea or Sea- Urchine =e de Tee . The Kaurie Pine (Dammara australis)—Mr H. Fraser, Vill. Stray Notes on the Birds of Angleseaa—Mr A. Crate, jun., 127 135 141 155 159 165 166 174 175 183 189 192 193 197 209 229 246 252 253 260 275 279 279 281 308 310 323 337 341 357 360 Contents. vii IX. Round about the Northern Cliffs.—Mr J. Surnernanp, 372 X. On Sclerenchymatous Cells——Mr W. Coats, 378 XI. The Tufted Duck (Fuligula cristata).—Mr A, B. Picea 382 XII. The Magpie.—Mr T. Sprrpy, : ; : : 384 Annual Business Meeting, : 391 SESSION 1890-91. I. A Description of Kumaon, in the Central Pree tes —Dr Won. Watson, President, : a - - =) aoe II. The Kingfisher.—Mr T. SPEEDY, 411 III. The Common Lump-fish.—Mr SomMERVIELE Guys, 413 IV. Plant Multiplication.—Mr M. Krve, 416 Y. The ‘* Green Balls” of Loch Kildonan,—Mr 7. B. SPRAGUE, F.R.S.E., . - 420 VI. Natural History Notes. ate R. Srewasn, 8, 8. C., : 422 VII. The Structure and Life-History of a Sponge.—Mr J. Liypsay, 428 VIII. Birds of the Great Glen.—Mr A. Crate, : 3 IX. The Andromeda Family.—Mr H. Frasmr, . E 457 X. On Vegetable Ivory (with Plate).—Mr T. Wricut, 459 XI. How I Robbed the Eagle’s Nest, and Why.—Mr T, SrEnpy, 463 XII. On a Peculiar Mode of Fishing in the Estuary of the Thames, — Mr A. B. HEerpert, 467 XIII. A ‘‘ Colonial” Hertanera ee ahi Th H. Wirsoy, D. ae F.R.S.E., : . 469 XIV. Bear and Wolf Ghildvens _Mr Scere Grieve, 476 XY. List of Plants gathered at Excursions, 1890.—The SEoRmrary, 477 Annual Business Meeting, . : : : 4 : 479 INDEX TO VOLUME, 481 Lists oF Mremperrs, 1886-91, . : ‘ : ; . 1X-Xxxviii ft ee, | ~ YAKN . “46 MAY OF Het a / ? A tad — Ss, Pa te ae iC see ory, eee een A st! 4889 FS VOL. II. PART TRANSACTIONS Ole Gdinturgh Fielb Maturalists’ Wirrosropiral Society SESSION 1886-87 | 46 CONTENTS. I. Opening Address.—Mr S. Grieve, President, II. Notes on Bird-Life.—Mr R. Stewart, S.S.C., III. Polyporus giganteus, Fr.—Mr A. B. Steele, IV. Exhibition of a White Sparrow.—The Secretary, V. Apochromatic Object-Glasses.—Mr W. Forgan, . ‘ VI. Jottings on a Ramble in Wester Ross.—Mr J. Allan, x VII. Ormiston Hall: Its Yew- tree , and other Antiquities. — Mr J. Lindsay, 5 ‘ E : 4 3 VIII. The Paridsz, or Titmice. Mr AL Cae IX. The Fossils of the Red Crag and Chalk Pits, Suffolk. _ Miss M. ny M‘Kean, X. Notes on Some New said ‘Gane ‘British Plants, Mr s. Guieee President, XI. On Dark-ground Tlumination; as showing Peculiarities of certain Diatoms.—_Mr W. Penman, Assoc. M.Inst.C.E., ‘i XII. Hume’s Projection -Microscope.—Mr W. Hume (Commumicated), XIII. The Hare.—_Mr Tom Speedy, . XIV. Swallows and Starlings Feeding in Guucect: _Mr. A. B. Harbert. XV. Fawside or Falside Castle.—T. A. Douglas Wood, F.S.A.Scot., XVI. List of the Less Common Plants gathered at the Excursions during 1886 and 1887, with Localities.—The Secretary, XVII. The Diatoms of Linlithgow Loch.—Mr J. gp t XVIII. Grouse Disease.—_Mr Tom Speedy, - 5 > Meetings: of Microscopic Section, . Annual Business Meeting, List of Members, 1886-87, * Publishen for the Society BY WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS ‘ : MDCCCLXXXVII § Pea oa OT TONS. SESSION 1886-87. I.—OPENING ADDRESS. By Mr SYMINGTON GRIEVE, PresipEnt. (Read Nov. 24, 1886.) ALLOW me to express my thanks for the honour you have been pleased to confer upon me by electing me as your Presi- dent for another year. As you are aware, we have this year made some important alterations not only in the name but in the constitution of the Club, and we trust that these reforms may tend to make it more popular, and also supply the neces- sary funds to make its microscopic section increasingly suc- cessful. Instead of having fortnightly meetings for the read- ing of papers during the winter months, we are now to have a larger number of monthly meetings—these being continued till June. We trust this arrangement may prove advantageous in every way, as it is intended to introduce some variety into the meetings by having each evening not only papers on Natural History subjects, but also others on Microscopy, as well as demonstrations. At those meetings to be held after the field excursions begin, we hope to have the results of the observations of our members at those excursions brought before us in the form of contributions for our ‘ Transactions.’ The Microscopie Section intend also to have regular evening VOL, II. A 2 Opening Address. [Sess. | meetings in the room of the Society up-stairs. The Council hope that the great majority of our members will join this section, as if they do, they may hope to obtain much infor- mation that is invaluable to every naturalist. When I had the honour to read to you last year my open- ing address,-I had occasion to refer to the advantage that would accrue to our members if we had committees appointed to devote special attention to each of the following subjects— viz., Flora, Fauna, Geology, Archeology, and Microscopy. I am sorry to say we are still without any of these committees, except that for Microscopy. I hope the matter may not be lost sight of, as I feel sure the subjects above enumerated are not likely to get the full attention they deserve until we appoint some properly constituted authority to give them special attention, and at the same time direct the efforts of our younger members in whatever line of study they may desire to take up. It is with great satisfaction that I see the printed ‘ Trans- actions’ of the Society for last year now ready, as it completes our first volume, which records the labours of five years, and represents a large amount of creditable and useful work on the part of some of our members. I wish every one connected with our Society would give us contributions; and I can assure them that it will give us the greatest pleasure to print any special scientific information they may possess. I am sure you will all join with me in expressing thanks to our joint editors, Mr Andrew Moffat and Mr John Lindsay, for the able and careful way in which they have seen our publications through the press. There is only one other matter to which I need refer be- fore proceeding to the subject proper of my address, and that is the summer excursions of next year. We are all most anxious to make these interesting and successful; and with the object of attaining this end, a committee has been appointed to consider the matter, and make suggestions. If any members can give information regarding places not previously visited by the Society, or have any suggestions as to the way in which our field meetings may be made more useful and interesting, they might kindly write the Secretary, who will lay their suggestions before the committee. 1886-87. ] Opening Address. 3 A FEW SUGGESTIONS TO OUR YOUNGER MEMBERS ON HOW TO EQUIP THEMSELVES FOR USEFUL BOTANICAL WORK IN THE FIELD. In addressing you to-night, I must claim your indulgence, as I am about to venture to offer our younger members a few suggestions on how to equip themselves for useful botanical work in the field. I have been led to make this attempt for several reasons—the principal of them being, that I fancy my remarks may perhaps induce some to undertake studies that may lead to investigations full of results; whereas if I con- fined myself simply to narrating the results of some investiga- tions of my own, as I at one time intended, it would have been quite beyond my subject to narrate the studies undertaken be- fore even a partial understanding of the things observed could be obtained. I cannot pretend to be a very capable teacher, but I may plead a little practical experience. I cannot treat the subject exhaustively, as time will not permit of my doing so, but I will endeavour to throw out a few hints, and illustrate my subject by the experiences of others as well as myself. In the first place, let me say I have invariably found that one of the first questions young naturalists ask themselves when they join a Society such as ours, is—What subject should I take up so as to do useful work? Perhaps they feel a little shy, and do not care to push themselves forward until invited; but all the same, they are most anxious to become active workers, and nothing would give them more encouragement than to be taken in hand by some of our more experienced members. Can any of you doubt that if we had such committees as I have just told you of, they would prove most helpful to our new members, whether young or old, by indicating useful fields of research, and by associating them in more intimate relations with kindred spirits in our Society ? But however valuable the friendship and association with brother naturalists may prove, all students of science will remember that they must have an independent equipment of their own, unless they court failure. Natural inclinations and abilities yaay go a long way, but having chosen a theme they must have it thoroughly mastered before they can ex- pect to obtain information or results beyond what is already 4 Opening Address. [Sess. known. I do not mean by this, that before they can hope to make some new discovery they must have a thorough know- ledge of every branch of a great subject. If they have little leisure, they will find it possible, with an ordinary amount of general knowledge of a subject, to take up one branch of it, and excel in their knowledge of this branch in a way quite surprising to their fellow-men, and this without such great effort as may be supposed requisite. While in a general sense we may take it as an axiom that men with a university train- ing are much more capable of undertaking original research than those who have not had similar advantages, or are only self - taught, still there are so many striking exceptions to this rule in every field of study, that one is almost led to doubt if such great advantages accrue from this special train- ing after all, unless it is combined with an earnest determina- tion to make life a success in some particular department of study or work. In far too many instances parents lavish great expense upon a training that is quite unsuitable for the development of the energies, mental or otherwise, of sons or daughters. Young people who have had a good education to begin with, would, in most instances, be much better to be encouraged in the particular line of study to which their inclinations point, instead of being forced to cram with know- ledge of a kind they do not like or appreciate, only to suit the eager desires or ambitions of a parent. Life is too short and too earnest with most of us, to warrant that even a single hour should be misspent. It is therefore necessary that each of us should form, as early as possible in our career, some definite ideas of what we are best adapted for, and direct our studies accordingly. Now, while what I have said applies to every course in life, to-night you must look upon yourselves as strictly Field Naturalists. May I ask you to try and apply what I have said to your daily life, whether in the field, or in your homes studying the results of your field work, For my own part, I believe that if a man makes up his mind to succeed in life, with God’s help he will; but he must be patient, and have a strong and fixed determination. This, properly exercised, will carry him through every difficulty. He will be stepping out when other men are resting: once give him a start, and he will 1886-87. ] Opening Address. 5 keep it. Now I say this for the encouragement of every one who has the feeling that he can make no new discovery, and cannot even help us, as a Society, in our investigations. The sooner that all who have these feelings disabuse their minds of their supposed inability the better. In fact, until you try you cannot tell how great an amount of success you will attain, and I promise each of you that if you strive properly, you will surprise yourselves as well as others. My own experience is, that a man who studies any particular subject for a short time, soon knows much more about it than most of his fellow-men, and he will probably get credit from them of being a great deal wiser than he really is. Even that is something to aspire to, and should give us encouragement. Besides this, you will find that you cannot strive to improve yourself in one branch of study without imperceptibly gaining a large amount of general knowledge. Ask those who con- tribute papers to our own and other Societies, and they will tell you how much they have felt benefited by even reading up for the preparation of a short note. “Whatever is worth doing, is worth doing well;” but it not unfrequently happens that in endeavouring to do well, the student of science strives to do too much, and when this occurs, it generally follows that the work done is unsatisfac- tory. It is well to be careful to avoid this mistake, as it is one into which I am convinced most of us fall, and we have not far to seek for examples of how earnest workers of previous generations have committed the same error. Let me give you a simple illustration of what may probably happen with some of you when collecting plants for your herbarium, unless you are careful. We will suppose you are having your holidays, and start for a botanical excursion that will occupy some days. As you wish to travel with as little impedimenta as possible, you take only absolute necessaries, and none of the appliances for drying your plants, in the hope that when you get home they will still be in a fit state for preservation. The first day is warm, but wet: however, you get on very well; your vasculum is half filled, and you think you can remember where you got each plant. By the end of the second day your vasculum is very full, and you rejoice over the speci- mens of rare plants you have met with. The third day you 6 Opening Address. [Sess. start for home, collecting more plants on the way, and press down your plants in the vasculum to make room for fresh treasures you may never have an opportunity of collecting again. At night you get home so tired after your travels that you cannot think of starting to arrange and press your plants, so allow the vasculum to remain untouched until next morn- ing, when you think you will have plenty of leisure, and feel more inclined to bestow time upon the careful arrangement of the foliage and flower of each plant. The morning arrives, and you turn out the contents of your vasculum before some interested friend. To your dismay, you find that you pressed the plants far too tightly into the tin box, crushing the flowers, leaves, and stems, and rendering them useless for specimens. When you come to your collections of the first day, which was wet, you discover that all the plants are mouldy, and most have to be thrown out. But what is even perhaps more vexatious, you find that, through having gone over so much ground during the three days you were from home, you have forgotten the exact locality where you got each plant. How- ever, you think this of secondary importance, and it does not trouble you much so long as you can get the plants named. On further examination of your mutilated specimens a few days after your return, you find that some of them are quite unfamiliar to you, and that even with the aid of an illustrated Flora you cannot identify them. So you ask some botanical authority to help you with their identification. Having got the promise of his assistance, you send him a plant of each variety collected. He has no sooner looked over the speci- mens than he notices one to be a plant of the greatest rarity in Britain, and never previously recorded from the locality you have visited. He at once communicates with you, congratu- lating you on your find, and asking for full particulars, with, if possible, one or two specimens. To your dismay you discover that, beyond telling him where you visited, you cannot state any particular locality, and have only the one specimen which he has identified. I need not try to picture to you the sorrow and regret that fill the young botanist’s heart, all through endeavouring to do too much in a limited time. Permit me to remind you that when a rare plant is found, the knowledge of its discovery should not remain concealed 1886-87. Opening Address. "4 p oS s from the scientific world. The discovery should at once be made known through the recognised mediums of publicity; but how much of its value is taken away when the precise locality, surroundings, and soil in which the plant grew are unknown even to the collector himself? I am not one of those who believe in publishing the precise spots on which rare plants grow, as it has too often led to their eradication. However, it can do no harm to name the mountain or glen where the rarity is to be found, as it will place on record the locality, and prevent future botanists, if they come across the station, claiming a record. Beyond this, a very accurate note of the spot where the plant grew should be preserved in the herbarium in which the specimen is placed. It is extra- ordinary how much doubt has been thrown upon the work of some botanists through their want of keeping a proper record of stations. Perhaps no man suffered more in his reputation at one time from this than the greatest of our Scotch field botanists, George Don. He was a man that each of us may well aspire to take as an example in his zeal to add to the existing knowledge of the Scottish flora. His solitary wander- ings among our Highland mountains for weeks at a time may well astonish us—at night generally making some mossy hollow his bed and a stone his pillow, with no roof over him except the arch of heaven. But even with all his enthusiasm and devotion to science, George Don sometimes did too much. Long after his death acrimonious disputes took place among botanists regarding Don’s work, as there were numbers of plants which he alone had recorded in Scotland, and for which he gave either vague localities or none at all. As time rolled on and Scotch stations for these plants were not found, the botanists of fifty or sixty years ago began naturally enough to cast doubts on the reality of Don’s work. Some even hinted that he had got specimens of certain plants from abroad and noted them as Scotch; while others, who thoroughly believed and trusted him, did their best to defend his memory. The war of differing opinisns was waged for years, and was carried on till recent times. However, one by one the plants noted and recorded by him have been rediscovered where he found them about ninety years ago, and now we hold his memory sacred as that of a noble and honest man. It was only last 8 Opening Address. [Sess. year that Mr Brebner of Dundee, along with the President of our Microscopic Section, Dr J. M. Macfarlane, and Mr P. Neill Fraser, Treasurer of the Botanical Society, rediscovered on Ben Heasgarnich, Carex ustulata Wahl., one of Don’s long- lost plants. It had been deleted from the list of the British flora, as it appears in the second edition of ‘Topographical Botany.’ But how came all this doubt regarding the great botanist’s work ? Such a question is easily answered. He lived at a time when the methods of conducting scientific studies were less accurate than they are now; and when he went on his long excursions, he did not think it of such importance as we do at present to note localities with particular care. He therefore appears to have made his collections from day to day without keeping each day’s work separate, with the result that when he got home, and in arranging his specimens came across some rare plant that was new to him, he sometimes could only tell the name of the district which he had brought it from, but not the exact spot at which it had been found. If he knew, as some suppose, the exact places where such plants grew, it is at least remarkable that he did not keep some record of these stations. I have said sufficient about trying to do too much, so let me now direct your thoughts for a moment to what I may define as doing too little. It frequently happens that field botanists quite forget what should be their aim in con- ducting their researches. It is not merely to make collections for their herbariums, or only to search for rare plants. If this were all that had to be done, it would take away half the charm of field work. No; the botanist must note everything botanical, and take time to do so too. I can never forget the earnestness with which the late Rev. W. W. Newbould repeated- ly enforced upon me the feeling that seemed to be the message of his life to botanists, and a great topographical botanist he was himself, He used to say, “ Never mind rarities, and tell all your botanical friends the same. Note all plants, and the conditions under which they grow, and you will be sure to come across the rare ones.” He also told me that in his long experience he always found that those who made the greatest discoveries, and were the best field botanists, were those that did not forget to look for common plants. I feel sure the Rev. Mr Newbould was right, and would advise every young 1886-87. ] Opening Address. 9 botanist to keep in mind that common plants, owing to their wider distribution, are much more useful to the topographical botanist to draw inferences from than rare plants that are found sparsely scattered over isolated areas widely separated from each other. Of the older field botanists who worked in Scotland, perhaps no one, according to the standard of his time, was more accurate in his observations than Dr John Lightfoot, author of the ‘Flora Scotica,’ published in 1777. He sometimes visited a locality and noted very few plants, but he made a record of those that were common as well as rare. He had the faculty of taking in, as it were, at a glance, what were the most striking botanical features of a locality, and recorded them. I have more than once had most surprising instances of his faculty of coming across uncommon forms that would have been overlooked by most botanists, had they been such a short time as he was at some of the places he visited. The season I began to record the flora of the island of Colonsay I found Orchis pyramidalis, and when I returned home was told that it was the first record of that plant in the west of Scotland. One day I was look- ing over the ‘Flora Scotica,’ when I observed, to my surprise, that Dr Lightfoot had found the plant growing more than a hundred years before at or near the same place where I had re- discovered it. Later I found another station for the same plant on the island of Oronsay; and I believe that these are, up to the present time, the only two stations known for Orchis pyra- midalis in the extreme west of Scotland. At both stations the plant grows on sandy soil in the midst of a rabbit-warren, and these animals seem to have a great liking for the succulent leaves and stem of the orchis, which they generally eat down close to the ground, so that it is easily overlooked. Two years ago I had further evidence, at the island of Rum, of the per- sistence of plants at stations where undisturbed, and also additional proof of the accuracy of Lightfoot’s work. With the aid of the information given in the ‘ Flora Scotica’ and the routes mentioned by Pennant (‘Voyages and Travels,’ vol. iii. pp. 312-315), I was able to go over most of the ground visited by Lightfoot. As I came upon the plants where he noted them, one after another, I gazed upon the descendants of the flora of 1772 with most peculiar feelings. Perhaps no botanist 10 Opening Address. [Sess. had visited these places and looked upon the wild-flowers ir found, or their predecessors, for more than acentury. Yet they had flowered on year after year, unknown and neglected, and it almost seemed as if they had been growing on through all the decades of a hundred and twelve years for me alone. I can- not express to you how overwhelming was to my mind the feeling that the Creator of all things had preserved such beauti- ful forms to flower far from the beaten track in the bleak wilds of Rum, for all these years unnoticed and forgotten, but in me once more to gladden a human heart. But time will not permit me to go further into an investiga- tion as to the merits of Dr Lightfoot, and I must endeavour to point out to you one or two fields in which, as botanists, you can work with success, and confer at the same time a benefit on science. I have no doubt you have all heard of the late Mr Hewett Cottrell Watson, the author of ‘Topographical Botany.’ He was a man of whom it may be said that in some respects he lived before his time, and I am afraid that some of his fellow botanists of fifty years ago were hardly able to appreciate his genius. It is to Mr Watson that we owe the present position of British Topographical Botany. It has been through his labours that such a correct record of the plants discovered in each district has been obtained. His researches revealed those parts of our country that were neglected, and set botanists to work to record the flora of these districts. The outcome has been, that willing workers have laboured steadily during recent years with splendid results. Still the work goes on with earnestness, and some of you might join in it. I had a large amount of correspondence with the late Mr Watson, and in one of his last letters to me he said that Wigton and Wester Ross-shire were the two districts in Scotland that needed most attention. Both districts have now been pretty well worked up, but that there is still work to do is evidenced by the new records for Wester Ross-shire obtained by the parties forming the camp of the Botanical Society this summer. Remember, commou plants as well as rare, if discovered in a district for the first time, are records, and at times it is much more valuable to have the evidence obtained from ob- serving common plants than from those that are seldom met with. In collecting plants, as far as possible take a 1886-87. | Opening Address. 1% note of the climate, soil, and the elevation at which the plant grows. There is another department of British Field Botany that is attracting much attention, and that is, its Scandinavian flora. I think it is to Mr Arthur Bennett of Croydon, Surrey, we are most indebted for drawing attention to this interesting feature, which is most likely to be studied with success at those parts of the British coast nearest to Scandinavia. We may therefore expect new discoveries to be made on the east and north-east of Scotland, and I trust some of our members may be fortunate enough to help on this work by obtaining new records for our metropolitan district. You are doubtless all aware that the flora of our country is not endemic, or peculiar to our insular position, but has been nearly all derived from the European continent. In a paper read before you in 1884, I had occasion to refer to the introduction of the Continental flora to these islands, but at that time I was not fully appreciative of the number of Scandinavian plants we have representatives of in Scotland. While it is principally in the north-eastern counties and the Orkney and Shetland islands that we may expect the best results, we may perhaps find plants that will surprise us much further south. This knowledge should inspire each botanist who has time and health with a new energy. Month after month new discoveries are being made that quite surprise us, as it is no new ground that is being gone over, but the old beaten tracks. Now it is Caithness, then Sutherland, and so on, until it seems doubtful what other well-known field is next to add new plants to our Scottish flora. I might con- tinue this subject much further, but I feel I have said enough to let each of you see there is work for you to do, and that old Scotland is still a mine of botanical wealth. How this work can best be done, is well worth the consideration of every botanist. I wish we had a good herbarium in connection with our Society, so that members could always have a series of good type-specimens within their reach, and critical specimens could thus be determined with some certainty. It might be well to begin a collection as soon as possible ; and if the gentle- men do the hardest part of the outdoor work, perhaps the ladies might assist by drying and mounting the plants on paper. In conclusion, let me ask you to be enthusiastic. Equip 12 Notes on Bird-Life. [Sess. yourselves as best you can with advice and aid from your fellow botanists who wait to help you. In the field or in your study, be determined to succeed, and be sure you will. Il.—NOTES ON BIRD-LIFE. By Mr ROBERT STEWART, S.S.C. (Read Nov. 24, 1886.) WHEN it was arranged that I was to observe and report on Bird-Life in the Royal Botanic Garden, I was in hopes that some interesting facts would be brought to light in this connection; but so far I have only been able to ascertain generally, that although the numbers of birds which frequent the Garden are considerable, still the varieties are compara- tively few. During the spring and early summer—and the season at that time promised well—I paid a good many visits to the Garden, thoroughly exploring every bush or shrub where a bird might build. Thrushes’ and blackbirds’ nests were abundant. It has often occurred to me to inquire why the nest of the thrush should be plastered inside, and the only reason I can think of is, that as this bird builds in the early spring, the cold winds are kept from the eggs and young by this mud interior. This appears probable, for the blackbird, which, next to the thrush, brings in the nesting season, also uses mud or decayed wood in the manufacture of its nest, only the layer in this case is in the centre and not in the inside of the nest, as with the thrush. Next in order of numbers came the hedge-sparrow, and it was amazing the number of nests of this quiet and retiring bird that was this year in the Garden. These birds are always more plentiful than one would suppose, as they are given to frequent- ing the quietest corners, and appear quite content to spend the oreater part of their existence in an uneventful popping out and in at the fuot of hedges or among the shrubs. The hedge- sparrow’s nest is usually easily found, as it is built for the most part in hedges while they are yet bare; and a well-built 1886-87. | Notes on Bird-Life. 13 and comfortable habitation it is, while the contents, in the shape of its complement of blue eggs, usually figure as the first contribution to all amateur collections. Of all birds, one would expect the hedge-sparrow to follow the beaten track, and not to introduce any questionable innovation; but this year there was to be seen in Warriston Cemetery a hedge-sparrow’s nest built upon the ground, and covered to a certain extent by one of those “in memoriam” circular glass-shades which are placed at the head of graves, one end of which was propped up by wires at the back. In this same cemetery last year there flew past me and alighted close at hand a bird which, to all appearance, was a great titmouse or ox-eye, but of such a peculiar colour that I was fairly at a loss to name it. On watching it for a minute or two, it suddenly disappeared, and on examination I found it had gone into a hole in one of the iron pillars surrounding some private ground, where its nest was built, and that in the passage out and in it had got so impreg- nated with rust that, as the saying goes, “its own mother would not have known it.” This year, in the Botanic Garden, the Curator, Mr Lindsay, showed me a nest of one of these birds inside an iron pump, where the birds had to go up the spout every time they wished to visit their young. The nest and contents were readily examined by lifting off the iron top; but the parent birds had so easily accustomed themselves to their being taken notice of, that at the time I paid them a visit the lady who was in charge disdained to desert her post, and “fuffed” defiance at the intruders. A most interesting paper could be written on the subject of birds’ nests, dealing par- ticularly with the curious freaks which possess almost all var- jeties at times to build in out-of-the-way and unnatural places. For instance, I found a blackbird’s nest a short time ago in one of the nurseries on the top of a large stone which had fallen out of the dyke, in quite an exposed position, while all around were hedges and shrubs where one would imagine the most fastidious bird could find a place where she “safe her young ones forth might bring.” I remember also a robin-redbreast which chose for itself so peculiar a nesting-place, that it was only when the young ones by their cries gave up the secret that we could find the nest. We were sure the nest was some- where near the foot of some bushes at the bottom of a garden, 14 Notes on Bird-Life. [Sess. but the minutest search failed to discover it until at last, as we said, the young ones came to our assistance, and we found it in an old tin coffee-pot, which had been the most noticeable object during all our repeated searches. To return, however, to the titmice, I find it noticed in almost all books on the subject that they disarrange the thatch of out-houses in quest of torpid insects. Gilbert White says: “The great titmouse, driven by stress of weather, much frequents houses; and in deep snows I have seen this bird, while it hung with its back downwards, to my no small delight and admiration, draw straws lengthwise from the eaves of thatched houses in order to pull out the flies that were con- cealed between them, and that in such numbers that they quite defaced the thatch and gave it a ragged appearance.” Now, while I don’t dispute that the titmice may do this in search of food, still it is the fact that they shelter themselves during the night in the holes they so make under the thatched eaves; and I have taken dozens of them in a night by going round the old-fashioned farm-offives and searching all such holes by thrusting the hand into them. To do this, one does not require to be of a nervous temperament, as the titmice are of a bold nature, and bite the hand in quite a savage manner when they feel themselves taken hold of. They make first- rate pets, and thrive well in captivity, provided they can be kept in the cage, but they have such a faculty for getting outside that it is a difficult matter to confine them. They delight greatly in nuts, and manage in a very clever way to scoop out the contents of a nut suspended in the air by a string from the top of the cage, grasping the nut with their feet in the process. In addition to blackbirds, mavises, and hedge-sparrows, we found the nests of greenfinches, chaffinches, and robins: but it would be difficult to give any idea of the numbers of nests in the Garden, because very often one found that, since the previous visit, the eggs had been taken from a particular nest, while near at hand a pair of the same species, evidently the owners of the harried nest, were engaged in nidification. The Garden is not well suited for birds nesting, as the greater number of otherwise suitable trees or shrubs are of the ever- green species, and as a general rule birds, with perhaps the 1886-87. ] Notes on Bird-Life. 15 exception of the very birds whose nests are most common— blackbirds and thrushes—do not care to build in these. I noticed, when visiting the Garden the other day, a sparrow- hawk darting hither and thither in search of a victim; while earlier in the season, from the road adjoining Fettes College, we had a splendid opportunity of watching the kestrel at work. Nothing is prettier in its way than the sight of this hawk on the wing in search of a meal, as every short time it poises itself in the air, and is quite motionless—for all the world like a paper kite. I have seen also in the Warriston district the missel-thrush, the long-tailed tit, and the fallow-finch; while in Warriston Cemetery a pair of flycatchers regularly build. During the month of August last I was residing at Glendevon, near Rumbling Bridge, which is a perfect paradise for birds. There you get the sparrow fresh and clean-looking, and with nothing of the draggled and rakish air of his town brother. The golden-crested wren was there in great numbers; while we also saw upon more than one occasion the redstart. On the Devon, which, as most of you know, is an exceptionally clear stream, there were several families of the water-ousel, and we could see how they worked their way on the ground under water looking for grubs, &c. They were very tame—in fact, perhaps a little too much so, as it was annoying to have two or three of them come plump down into the pool you were fishing. It was very interesting to watch them at play. One would sit on a stone in the middle of the stream, dip, dip, dipping away at his companion who was up to the neck in the water at the side. Suddenly the latter would, with a brisk chirrup, make for his friend, who then plunged out of sight into the pool, closely followed by the other, when, after a minute or so, they both suddenly appeared a little further up the stream, shot up as it were from the bottom, and then bobbed about with all the seeming buoyancy of corks. That they walk on the bottom is not, I think, correct, as it must require some considerable force to enable them to breast the stream, at the same time keeping under water, as the mere ceasing of exertion appeared to have the effect of sending them to the top like an air-bubble. Occasionally the game was varied by the players keeping their heads alone above the water; and in this way they chased one another in and out of 16 Notes on Bird-Life. [ Sess. the shallows until, a sudden thought striking them, away they flew to some other pool. Here, too, at night owls were plentiful, and it was rather eerie to feel them flying past in the gloaming without seeing them. One missed such old friends as the bullfinch and siskin; but bird-fanciers seem to have almost exterminated these once very plentiful favourites. Some of you may have noticed a letter in the ‘Scotsman’ a month or so ago regarding a crow which came regularly to a gentleman’s house for food. One day, while in the village of Muckhart, and standing at a shop- door speaking to the owner—a very old man—we were rather mystified by his calling out to the inmates, “There’s the craw!” On looking across the road, we saw sitting on the dyke, and eyeing us curiously, a very patriarch of the crow species; and when my old friend, who, in answer to his summons, had been supplied with bread-crusts, threw a piece on the road, the veteran hopped down and leisurely consumed it. We learned that she came daily for her meals for years, and when the supply at any time exceeded the demand, the crow carefully collected all scraps and buried them at the bottom of the dyke for future consumpt. I was also informed that before the sacramental raid on the young crows, our friend put in an appearance with her family, and to the number of half a dozen would sit in a row on the dyke waiting to be fed. This coincides exactly with the facts narrated in the case I refer to, and proves, I think, that crows will be crows. A point on which a good deal of curiosity is always expressed is as to the powers of the corn-crake as a ventriloquist, and how it is that it is so difficult to make this bird take wing, even with the assistance of a dog. I could ere now have supplied the needed information, as I have heard the matter solemnly dis- cussed on many occasions at our meetings, and indeed have often been tempted to do so; but there was a reason for my silence, which, being in a confidential mood to-night, I will now explain. Know then, when you get a little accustomed to the sound, that you can pick out the exact spot in the field where the bird is; and if you have sharp eyes you will see, after every “eraik,” his head appearing to make sure that you are still where you ought to be. Should you make the least movement, down goes our friend’s head, and no greyhound could cover the distance 1886-87. ] Notes on Bird-Life. 17 from one end of the field to the other quicker than he can, so that when you get to the place where you thought you heard him, and where indeed he really was, you hear him uttering his peculiar cry at the other end of the field. Knowing this, when, as boys, there were a number of us together, and we heard the corn-crake in a field, we spread ourselves out in a line, a short distance being between each, and when we found we had our friend in the centre of the line, the signal was given, when away we went as fast as we could run across the field, and invariably succeeded in sighting him. But you may say, “ Why did you not give this information before?” The reason is, that the corn-crake is indelibly associated with a certain episode in my life, where I certainly did not figure to advantage. It arose thus. Many years ago, it used to be the case that every Saturday afternoon saw a party of boys, as soon as school was over, make for the country, intent on scientific discoveries. But I am sorry to say that these researches were carried out utterly regardless of the sacred rights of property; and anything in the way of game which unfortunately fell into the hands of the expedition was ruthlessly confiscated. On one of these excursions, a corn-crake was heard to give tongue in a neighbouring field: the usual tactics were gone through ; the bird was flushed, only to fall a victim to the unerring aim of the leader of the gang. The ex- pedition speedily came to the conclusion that the bird was not good to eat, so a council of war was held as to how the body was to be disposed of. Finally, it was resolved on to try and dispose of it to the game-dealer in the village; and as a corn- crake was not a marketable commodity, it was thought, with the elastic conscience of youth, that we were in these circum- stances entitled to represent it in the light of a partridge. The game-dealer, who was known in the place as “the laird,” on account of his being a large holder of house property, in addition to dealing in game, dealt in confectionery, tallow, hides, and other miscellaneous articles, to which he added the duties of money-lender and bill-discounter. He was always in a chronic state of drunkenness, but notwithstanding this he seldom made bad debts, and usually had the best of a bargain. It was there- fore a matter of moment who was to dispose of the game, but ultimately one of the party was fixed upon as being of good character, and a favourite with the laird. It was found, on in- VOL. Il. B 18 Polyporus giganteus. [Sess. spection, that the gentleman was in fine form for being operated upon, seeing that he was lying in a helpless condition, with outspread arms, upon the counter. Enter first conspirator, followed by an admiring but select few as assistants. “Fine day, laird.” One eye opens partially, but never a word spake he. “We thought you might like to buy a partridge,” and the corn-crake is thrust invitingly before his view. The eye gradu- ally closes, while a quiet humorous voice gently says, “Ou ay, Robbie, get awa’ wi’ your sparra.” IIL—POLYPORUS GIGANTEUS, Fr (GIANT SAP-BALL). Exuipitep By Mr A. B. STEELE. (Nov. 24, 1886.) THE specimen exhibited was gathered from a splendid group growing in the policies of the Marquis of Lothian at Mount Teviot, near the entrance-gate at Penielheugh. The enormous size and beauty of the plants attracted the notice of the Marquis, who takes an interest in Natural History, and orders were issued that they were not to be removed. Application being made to his lordship personally for a specimen, permis- sion was at once courteously granted. The specimen was un- fortunately gathered during the wet weather in September last, and was not in a favourable condition to be permanently pre- served. When fresh it weighed nearly 20 lb., and measured 2 feet across. The species is not common. It grows in tufts on under- ground roots and stumps of trees. It is formed of imbricated, dimidiate pilei, covered with a rigid velvet pile, and springs from a common root. The surface is irregularly zoned, and the colour various. In the Mount Teviot group the colour varied from a pale yellow to a date-brown. The flesh, when torn longitudinally, comes away in white cotton-like fibres, termin- ating in tubes which are sometimes half an inch indepth. The spores are pale yellow, and may be seen lying on the ground under the ripe plant like a mass of gold-dust. 1886-87. ] Exhibition of a White Sparrow. 19 IV.— EXHIBITION OF A WHITE SPARROW. By THe SECRETARY. (Read Dec. 22, 1886.) THE sparrow now exhibited was sent me by Mr John Cruick- shank, Aberdeen, that I might bring it under the notice of the Society. In his accompanying letter he says, “ He has been in my possession since June 1878, eight years and a half. He fell out of a nest, and could neither eat nor fly. I fed him till he could do both, and Jet him out to fly away; but he did not do so, and was taken into the house again. I had several canaries, and he seemed to prefer their company to being free: indeed he was free enough, for he was allowed to fly about, but he never would leave the canaries. He ate nothing but canary- seed and anything the canaries got to eat. He was quite of the colours of a common sparrow till the first moulting of his feathers, which was in 1879, and they then came in as you see them, and have always come in the same year by year till the present, when he has not had strength to cast them, and death has been the result. J thought last year he would hardly have come through the casting; but he did, and got as lively as be- fore. I attribute the white feathers to the domestication and the food he lived on. He was clean and tidy in all his ways, bathing every day like the canaries. In his earlier years he picked up some turns of their song, and performed very agree- ably. He was gentle, even timid in his ways, and if any dif- ference arose the canaries easily mastered him. If any thing or person that was strange appeared, he made for his cage at once ; indeed he never lost sight of it, and when it was removed to be cleaned he invariably followed it: no open window presented any inducement to him to lose sight of it.” The sparrow is not a very pure albino, being not nearly so white as some which are occasionally seen in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, but is interesting from the fact of its changing the colour of its plumage after the first moult. 20 Microscopic Apparatus. [Sess. Mr A. Frazer, M.A., Secretary of the Microscopical Section, exhibited at this meeting the following pieces of apparatus, some of which had been forwarded to him for exhibition by Mr H. Crouch, of London :— (1.) Crouch’s Large Premier Microscope of the Binocular Pat- tern.—It was explained that this instrument did not differ in any marked manner from other large instruments of its class, and that it was exhibited chiefly for the purpose of enabling members to examine a large modern microscope of the best construction. (2.) Crouch’s Photo-Micrographic Camera.—This camera is similar to an ordinary photographic camera of small size, but is provided, at the part to which the lens is usually fixed, with a flange carrying a tube of the same dimension as an eye-piece tube. By this device the eye-piece can be with- drawn, and the camera put in its place, thus affording a ready means of preparing photo-micrographs. (3.) An Improved Tripod Knife-Carrier for Freezing and other Microtomes: by A. Frazer.—This knife-carrier is so arranged that an ordinary razor occupies the place of the specially prepared knife in a Williams’ microtome knife- carrier. It was explained that special knives are not, in many cases, readily to be procured, and are always more difficult to sharpen than an ordinary razor; hence the need of this new knife-holder. The method of holding the knife now adopted (that of grasping it by the handle end) avoids the incon- venience, sometimes found in the Williams’ instrument, of the knife-clamp rubbing against the tissue at the time of cutting. (4.) Crouch’s Petrologist’s Microscope—It was explained that this instrument had been made at the suggestion of Prof. Geikie and others, and was intended to meet the wants of those desiring a good petrological microscope at a moderate price. (5.) The Syracuse Solid Watch-Glasses—These are glass dishes with a concavity similar to an ordinary watch-glass, but are made of glass about half an inch thick, so that they may not readily be overturned. The glasses are intended for staining sections and similar purposes. 1886-87. ] Apochromatic Object-Glasses. 21 V.—APOCHROMATIC OBJECT-GLASSES. By Mr Wm. FORGAN. (Read Dec. 22, 1886.) Wuat is an apochromatic object-glass, and in what respects is it better than an ordinary achromatic one? ‘The term apochromatic means “free from colour.” Now we have hitherto always regarded an achromatic lens as essentially possessing this property of freedom from colour. To enable one to understand the matter properly, it is necessary to begin with an illustration of what takes place when light is trans- mitted through and refracted by an ordinary convex lens. Light so refracted is bent or brought to a focus behind the lens at a point nearer to or farther away from it, depending upon the ex- tent of its curvature. But from the fact that the separate rays of light have not all the same refractive power—those at the violet end of the spectrum having the greatest and those at the red end the least—the coloured rays into which the light is broken up by the lens do not form the focal point at one and the same distance, but each ray has a focus of its own, the consequence being that the focal point of the violet ray is nearest to the lens, and the focal point of the red ray farthest away. It may be readily seen from this that every ordinary lens has as many focal points as there are rays in the spectrum. When the principle of achromatism was discovered, it was found to be possible, by using glass of different densities, to combine two of these rays, and so render the images produced by such a lens what was termed achromatic— the two rays selected for combination being those which gave, by means of the glass, the whitest and purest image. In this case all the other colours were left necessarily out of view, and, so to speak, to shift for themselves. These outstanding or uncorrected rays are what is called the “ secondary spectrum.” The combination of the two primary rays by the lens rendered the others so little conspicuous, except in certain cases, that they had to be, and were, necessarily disregarded. Another point in regard to this so-called achromatic com- bination, and a very important one, is this, that as every ray 22 Apochromatic Object-Glasses. [Sess. has its own focal point, depending upon its refractive power, so each one must of necessity have a separate magnifying power with the same lens. This, it will be seen, introduces a very strong element of confusion in the image rendered by an achromatic lens of the very best construction. In the con- struction of an achromatic lens any two of the rays might be taken for combination. The lens might be, as many are, corrected for the red end, or give a very red image; or they might be corrected for the violet end, as is done in photo- graphic lenses. But the point to be kept prominently in view is, that whatever two were taken, there could only two be taken, and the others left. Now, taking that as the principle of construction of the ordinary achromatic lens, we shall see why so much has been done to get rid of the “secondary spectrum,” and the effect it has always had in the deterioration of the image in the best constructed lenses. We have heard of it specially in the construction of object-glasses for telescopes, in the best of which it has usually made itself apparent, declining to be left out of view. The object in view in the construction of the new apochromatic lenses has been, to get rid of this secondary spectrum, and to combine at least four of the refracted rays, so as to produce a still further perfected image, and render the other outstanding and uncombined rays, termed the “tertiary spectrum,” of little, or at least of much less, account in the formation of the image. This object has been sought to be attained by two means—/irst, by the formation of certain kinds of very dense glass containing other substances than lead, which has been used for density, in the con- struction of the object-glasses; and second, by the use of specially constructed eye-pieces to correct still further the effects inherent in the flint-glass. It is unnecessary here to detail the nature and kinds of glass used. These may be found in detail in the printed pamphlet issued by the makers of the glass. They have been able to construct glass having a density very much greater than that of the diamond. The makers of the new apochromatics have of course kept their methods of construction a secret, and we know nothing as to the formule upon which they are constructed, and can judge them only by the results they give us with known tests. 1886 87.] Fottings on a Ramble in Wester Ross. 23 These results are certainly very wonderful, and the glasses deserve the highest praise. The images they give of these tests are undoubtedly clearer and brighter and freer from colour than other glasses of the same magnifying power, and their resolving power is consequently very much increased. The price put upon them, however, by the makers is so excessively high, that they may not become popular ex- cept with those who can afford the luxury of buying them. There are very few, if any, tests resolvable by them which cannot be as easily seen by means of a homogeneous oil- immersion. To see, however, the striz upon Amphipleura pellucida by means of diffused daylight from a north window at 5 p.M.in the month of April with a Zeiss condenser, is certainly what no ordinary oil-immersion would readily do. These notes have been written at the request of the editors of our ‘ Transactions,’ although it is feared they may not be of much service to the members of the Society, none of whom may possess apochromatic lenses. The above short detail of the principles involved in their construction, and of defects in previous glasses to which we are indebted for apochromatic lenses, may, however, be interesting to those members of the Society who take a genuine pleasure in the microscope, and everything which tends to improve it. VI—JOTTINGS ON A RAMBLE IN WESTER ROSS. By Mr JOHN ALLAN, (Read Jan. 26, 1887.) In the end of July and beginning of August last, I had the pleasure of forming one of a party who, under the auspices of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, passed a fortnight in investigating the flora of the parish of Applecross, more parti- cularly of that part of it lying on the southern shore of Loch Torridon. Our headquarters were the schoolhouse in the small erofter and fishing hamlet of Arrin-a-chruinach. We met with but a moderate degree of success in our search for plants, not many rare ones being found. Our report on this head, 24 Fottings on a Ramble in Wester Ross. [Sess. however, will be laid before the Botanical Society; and the object of this paper is mainly to give you a short account of the place, and of some of the incidents which came under our observation while in that locality. We left Edinburgh about 5 o’clock on a July morning, travelling by the Highland railway to Inverness, and thence, by the Dingwall and Skye section, to Strathcarron station, where we arrived about 5 P.M. Having dined at Strathcarron Station Hotel, we drove to Shieldaig, a distance of twenty miles, where we found a sailing-boat waiting to take us to Arrin-a- chruinach, the last stage of our journey, and at a distance of nearly seven miles, where we arrived about 11 P.M. The route as far as Inverness is too well known to need description. On leaving that place, the railway skirted the flat shores of the Moray Firth to Beauly, and thence through a fertile and well-cultivated country to Dingwall, a neat, well-to- do county town at the head of the Cromarty Futh. The town seemed to be well stocked with churches, judging from the number of steeples visible from the railway. The branch to Skye diverges here, and this was our route. We soon com- menced a long ascent by the base of Ben Wyvis, which was some distance off on our right hand, obtaining a very fine view of the neat little watering-place of Strathpeffer, situated in a tine fertile strath about two miles to our left, and to which a branch railway was lately made. The picturesque old mansion of Castle Leod, a seat of the Duchess of Sutherland, who is the owner of Strathpeffer, lies between the town and the railway. Continuing our ascent, we got into the valley of the Black- water, along which we went in a westerly direction through a chain of straths interspersed with lochs, the largest of which is Loch Luichart. We reached the summit about Achnasheen, where the road to Loch Maree diverges on our right. The country is here very bleak and bare, but the scenery improves as we reach Strathcarron station, which is at the head of the sea-loch of the same name. The post-office village of Janetown, through which we passed, is on the north-west shore of the loch, three miles distant ; and after passing it we crossed over a high neck of land till we reached the head of Loch Kishorn, a branch of Loch Carron. After passing Courthill, a gentleman’s seat at the head of the loch, the road to Applecross diverges, 1886-87.] Fottings on a Ramble in Wester Ross. 25 and is seen winding up between high and precipitous hills to the Bialloch pass, a height of about 2000 feet, said to be the highest road in Scotland. The scenery now becomes very grand, and soon the colossal and almost perpendicular precipices of Beinn Bhan, 2936 feet high, tower up on our left. From this on to Shieldaig the view of the surrounding mountaius is as grand as can be obtained in any part of Scotland. The village of Shieldaig stretches in a straggling way along the shore of Loch Shieldaig, which is an arm of Loch Torridon, and divides the outer from the inner loch. There is a precipitous hill behind the village called Ben Shieldaig, and an island in the loch immediately in front of it well clothed with fir-trees. On arriving at Shieldaig, we found two of our party who had preceded us by a week; and we embarked in the sailing-boat by which they had come that evening from Arrin-a-chruinach. The wind being against us, we had to take many a tack to get round the peninsula of Ardheslaig, and it was quite dark before we reached Camas-an-eilein, the residence of Lord Middleton’s gamekeeper, where we landed; and we had great difficulty in picking our way through the wood in the dark to Arrin-a- chruinach, The track was most uneven ; aud having our impedi- menta to carry, we were very glad indeed to see the light which shone from the window of the schoolmaster’s house, which was to be our home for the next fortnight. The situation of Arrin-a-chruinach is rather pretty. The few houses, not more than a dozen, are situated almost in a row on the western bank of a small stream which takes its rise in Loch-na-Creige, a fresh-water loch about half a mile distant, and flows into Loch Torridon at the top of a small sheltered bay. Behind the houses is a desolate track of moorland stretching away to the Atlantic, a distance of three or four miles, while to the front rises a high rocky ridge clothed with wood, chiefly birch and hazel. The view from the village across the loch to Ben Alligin and the high picturesque range of hills bordering upper Loch Torridon, was very grand. There are no roads in the district, but only tracks, which are barely distinguishable in many parts. This desolate moorland con- sists chiefly of mosses, with occasional low hills and many inland lochs, both large and small. From some of the heights fine views are got of the Atlantic, with the island of Rona in 26 Fottings on a Ramble in Wester Ross. [Sess. the foreground and the island of Skye beyond, showing a high and picturesque outline, and on clear days the island of Lewis is distinctly seen. The cattle and sheep of the crofters pasture in common on this moorland, while they have small patches of corn and potatoes on land reclaimed by their own exertions in the more sheltered places in the vicinity of their houses. These houses are mostly very small, built of rough unhewn stones gathered from the adjacent shore, and thatched with heather, but can be made very comfortable within. The accommodation for their cows is of a still more primitive de- scription. They each possess two or three cows, with followers, and a few sheep. There are no horses about the district, and indeed they could not be used for want of roads. The cows are of the small, shaggy, Highland breed, and their milk is very rich. The crofters dig their crofts with an implement called a caschrom, which has more the appearance of a tool used by drainers to clear and level the bottom of their drains than of a spade. It consists of a piece of wood about 14 foot long and 4 inches broad, shod with iron at one end, and having a handle at the other end projecting at an angle, and about 4 or 5 feet long. It is shoved into the ground with the aid of the foot, and pushed along, the furrow being turned over as it goes by regularly canting the handle to one side. It goes over the ground a great deal quicker than a spade, but to my mind not nearly so good a job is made, as the furrows it makes are very shallow. The land is manured with sea-weed. It is quite evident that these primitive modes of cultivation can never yield anything but poor and barren results in such a region as this. And when the scanty harvest of both sea and land fails, the condition of the poor inhabitants must be sad indeed. The crofters themselves seem decent, honest, and industrious, and I do not think the characteristics recently manifested by the crofters on the opposite coast of Skye belong to them. ‘They are mostly engaged in fishing in the summer season, but their fishing last season was not successful. They have small fishing- yawls of two or three tons burden, which carry a crew of from three to five. They are generally part owners of a boat, and the earnings are divided among the crew. They are a very re- ligious people, and very strict in their observance of the Sab- bath, going frequently long distances to church. They are 1886-87.] Fottings on a Ramble in Wester Ross. 27 almost to a man Free Churchmen, the local F.C. minister exer- cising a very great influence over them. The whole popula- tion, especially the young women and children, have very sal- low complexions, caused, I suppose, by a want of iron in the blood, their diet being too exclusively fish, without the addition of butcher’s-meat. Exposure to the weather gradually causes this sallow hue to disappear. The Gaelic language is univer- sally spoken, the bulk of the women and the older men being unable to speak English: the children are taught oaly English at school, but use the Gaelic almost exclusively as soon as they are outside the school. They go about without any head-cover- ing, and are very scantily clothed, the boys’ dress consisting generally only of a shirt, jacket, and short ragged kilt. Those children we conversed with were very intelligent, and their manners were very much superior to those of the children of a corresponding age and class in the Lowlands. One very pleasing feature of their character was their non-molestation of the birds; and I was much struck with the utter want of fear in many of the smaller birds, such as the yellow-hammer, which hopped about almost among our feet. The inland lochs, before referred to, are nearly all full of trout, and in most of them the white water-lily (Wymphea alba) grows in great beauty and profusion. Lobelia Dortmannii is another plant found very plentifully in them; while round their banks Drosera angelica and D. rotundifolia grow in great luxuriance. On a warm sunny day large numbers of dragon- flies skim along their surface. In the small streams issuing from these lochs Chara and Myriophyllum grow plentifully ; while Batrachospermum and fresh-water sponges are less com- monly found. In the wood, before referred to, in front of the village, we found Hymenophyllum unilaterale growing plenti- fully on the northern sides of large stones and on the trunks of decayed trees. Mosses and lichens were plentiful everywhere. I searched in Loch-na-Creige one afternoon for diatoms, and on going over them carefully after getting back to town, I found I had collected specimens of the following: Tabellaria, Epithemia, Nitzschia, Navicula, Cocconema, and Gomphonema. I also found a good many Desmids, chiefly forms of Closterium and Cosmarium. There was a small island, just beyond the corner of the bay, 28 Fottings on a Ramble in Wester Ross. [Sess. called Eilan Mor, which we often visited, and which was the resort of large numbers of gulls and terns. They built their nests among the heather on the top of the island—or, more strictly speaking, they laid their eggs there, for their nests hardly deserved the name. We found nests with eggs, two or more in each, in all stages of development, the young chick being occasionally seen with only its bill protruding, and busy picking a hole large enough for its emergence. Young gulls unable to fly were sitting about on projecting rocks: our ap- proach always caused a great commotion among them, and much screaming. Cormorants, puffins, and oyster-catchers were seen in smaller numbers, but they did not frequent or breed on the island. The cormorants seemed to have their home on a small rocky islet close by Ardheslaig Point, which is known as the Cormorant Island. The crowberry was plentiful among the heather on the top of the island, and the fruit, which was quite ripe, was in great plenty. There was abundance of crowberry on the mainland also, but no fruit. I suppose these had been plucked by the grouse, while on the island there was nothing but sea-birds, and they appa- rently did not take the berries. I picked up the cast skin of an adder, which shows they frequent the island, but I saw none. The shores are very rocky, and there are numerous caves. We penetrated one at Fearnimore to the distance of 140 yards, by the aid of candles. It divided into two at that distance, one part ending in a round chamber of considerable height, and the other, after rising considerably, was closed by a pool of water. The cave-moss (Zurhynchiwm pumilum) grew here for some dis- tance inwards, depending from the roof and sides. There was another cave between Arrin-a-chruinach and Eilan Mor, where, when approaching it, 1 was struck with a singular projection of the rock from one of the sides in the shape of the profile of a man’s head with a pipe in the mouth. We found a few plants of lovage (Ligusticwm scoticwm) on the rocks over this cave, while on the roof inside the sea-spleenwort (Aspleniwm marimum) grew in tufts. These caves must be very convenient for the operations of the illicit distiller, who still carries on his operations in the Alligin district, on the opposite shore of Loch Torridon, The Excise have made several seizures in this 1886-87.] Fottings on a Ramble in Wester Ross. 29 neighbourhood lately ; and that the natives appear to live in constant wholesome dread of these “gentry” is pretty evident, for we were at once taken for Revenue officers when we visited that district one day. We crossed over to Diabaig, which is a most picturesquely situated crofter village in a small bay, surrounded by high, rugged, and almost perpendicular rocks. A burn comes down a tremendous fissure in the rocks behind the village, and at the lower bottom of this gorge the royal fern grows in large patches, and in splendid condition. We dug up several specimens, and then commenced the steep ascent of the gorge. A small cottage was perched a short distance up, and on our approach to it a comely middle-aged woman, the mistress of the house, came out with a tumblerful of milk for each of us. This we received very thankfully, as we were hot and tired climbing up the steep ascent after our ex- ertions in digging up the ferns, and we were much pleased with the kindness she showed us, total strangers as we were. On reaching the top of the ravine we found the burn to issue from a large loch lying between us and Ben Alligin, which was about three miles distant. We were anxious to ascend this moun- tain, which is the highest in that neighbourhood, being over 3000 feet, but were unfortunately prevented. We observed enormous numbers of jelly-fish in the sea, chiefly between Eilan Mor and Arrin-a-chruinach Bay. They were of various kinds and sizes, and were sometimes so numer- ous, especially in the evenings, when they seemed to rise to the surface of the water, that it was impossible to row without bringing the oars in contact with them. We were careful not to handle any of them, on account of their stinging propensities. The fishermen told us they often got their hands badly pricked while taking the long threads off their hooks. We used to go out in the evenings to fish for lythe, which seemed to be the most plentiful fish in the loch, and sometimes we were very suc- cessful. We caught them with an artificial bait, made of india- rubber, resembling a lob-worm of two colours, red and white ; and it is curious to note that some evenings the fish indicated a decided liking for the red, seizing it only, while on other evenings it was the white that had the preference. We also found many large and fine specimens of Echinus sphcera adher- ing to the rocks at low water. A very beautiful zoophyte, Coryne pusilla, and a Botryllus, were also found. 30 Ormiston Hall: its Yew-Tree [Sess. Red-deer were very plentiful in Lord Middleton’s forest in the neighbourhood. On one occasion, while two of our number ascended Beinn Bhan, they saw a herd of over 200 at one time. We noticed few wild animals, but Mr M‘Rae, Lord Middleton’s gamekeeper, informed us that he occasionally trapped wild cats, large and splendid specimens, and that he sent the skins to Inverness, where he got five shillings each for them. Though we met with nothing very rare, as I have already said, in our rambles, still we enjoyed a most delightful holiday trip, not alogether without profit, amid the wild and picturesque scenery of this Ross-shire village, overlooking the Western Isles ; while, last but not least, we laid up a store of health and had our energies renewed for the labours of the winter. VIL—ORMISTON HALL: ITS YEW-TREE AND OTHER ANTLIQCLIILES. By Mr JOHN LINDSAY. (Read Jan. 26, 1887.) A visiTor to the quiet little village of Ormiston is at once struck by its peculiar aspect, it being so unlike all other Scottish villages with which he is acquainted, and so remarkably similar in appearance to some English villages which he may have seen. It is situated on the north bank of the Tyne, in the centre of a fertile district, and is noteworthy for its acres of straw- berries and other fruits. Sitting down beside the monument lately erected to the memory of Dr Moffat, the African mission- ary, in this place of his birth, on a still, warm June day like that on which the Club visited it last summer, we may rest a while to take in the scene before us. The silence is almost oppressive as we look away west, up the long line of village street, with its tall and fine trees set at regular intervals on each side, and casting dark shadows athwart the wide interven- ing space. Not a living thing is to be seen moving out-of- doors, suggesting the fancy that some enchanter’s wand has been waved over the scene; while the only sound is a dull clang which reaches us lazily through the heavy noontide air from the 1886-87. ] and Other Antiquities. 31 village forge. Right in front is the ancient village cross, gener- ally supposed to be a remnant of an old Roman Catholic foun- dation which at one time occupied the same site,— though Chalmers, in his ‘ Caledonia,’ affects to make merry over this suggestion, and says ‘“‘it is obviously the market-place of a prosperous town, in the midst of an agricultural country.” Letting the eye wander on beyond this point, there may be discerned in the distance a sign-board thrust out a little into the roadway on the right, which we afterwards find marks the village inn or Hopetoun Arms, and represents the crest of that noble family, with the punning motto, “At Spes non fracta.” The vista is closed by a background of foliage, so that altogether the scene is a very pleasant one; and we almost envy the lot of these villagers in this quiet rural retreat. Here is a picture which is still much the same, in all its details, after the lapse of fully half a century. The minister of the parish, writing in 1835, avers that “the great bulk of the people are contented and comfortable in their circumstances;” yet he has perforce to complain of some “ who disturb, by their irregularities, the peace of a place which, from its beautiful and retired situation, seems peculiarly fitted to be the abode of tranquillity and happiness.” The sign-board of the village inn reminds us that the Hopetoun family is now dominant in the parish, and we natur- ally inquire how and when they thus came into possession. Ormiston derives its name from a half-mythical Saxon settler called Orme, who dates as far back as the twelfth century, and whose descendants continued to hold “ Orme’s toun,” or Orme’s dwelling, down through the thirteenth century. Orme, it has been remarked, was a common name during the eleventh and twelfth centuries, as we know from the chartularies still in existence. From the Ormes the lands passed into the possession of the Lindsays, until, in 1368, the only daughter of Sir Alex- ander Lindsay, Joan, married John, the second son of Sir Alexander Cockburn of Cockburn, and this historical family was then vested in the lands and barony of Ormiston, with several other lands contiguous. The Cockburns continued in possession until 1747, when John, second Earl of Hopetoun, acquired the whole by purchase from the last member of the family, and became the sole proprietor of the parish. 1 Chalmers’s ‘ Caledonia,’ vol. ii. p. 552. 32 Ormiston Hall: its Yew-Tree [Sess, I have spoken of the family of Cockburn as a “ historical family”; and it was, in truth, bound up intimately with the history of Scotland during centuries “big with fate” to our native country. For many years the office of Lord Justice-Clerk was retained in the family ; other members of it were Lords of Session; while John Cockburn, best known as “the agricul- turist,” sat in the old Scots Parliament, took his share in the negotiations regarding the Treaty of Union, and again repre- sented his native county in the British Parliament, after the Union had been effected. One of the family who held the office of Justice-Clerk, Adam Cockburn, appointed to that honour in 1692, was rather a notable character in his day. Ina profusely illustrated work, published a few years ago in two quarto volumes, entitled ‘The Castles and Mansions of the Lothians,’ the late Mr John Small, Librarian of Edinburgh University, who wrote the descriptive letterpress for the work, tells us, when dealing with Ormiston Hall, that Adam Cockburn was very unpopular from his zeal in suppressing the Rebellion of 1715. And he adds the curious fact that when, at that time, “ladies at cards were playing the nine of diamonds, commonly known as the curse of Scotland, they called it the Justice-Clerk.” But it is John Cockburn, son of this Whig Lord Justice-Clerk, whom I would more particularly speak of at present. This Laird of Ormiston, born about 1685, was long resident in England, which circum- stance explains the distinctively English character of the village of Ormiston. From the ‘New Statistical Account’ we gather that about 1732 he “made great improvements in the village, and laid out the fields contiguous to it upon a plan furnished by Mr Lewis Gordon, a land-surveyor, whom he brought from England for that purpose. They were all divided into small portions, and enclosed with thorn-hedges and hedgerow trees. This plan was extended over the whole barony of Ormiston, by which it was, and still is, distinguished from all other parishes in the neighbourhood.” He also endeavoured, we are told, to promote the growth of flax, founded a school for teaching the spinning of linen yarn, and established a bleachfield—said to have been at that time the second in Scotland—for the bleach- ing and dressing of fine linens, which formerly had to be sent to Haarlem for this purpose. (The first bleachfield in Scotland was that of the British Linen Co., in the neighbouring parish 1886-87. | and Other Antiquities. oe of Salton; and in the same antiquated little village the first barley-mill in Scotland was erected, by William Adam, the architect, who carried the plan in his memory from Holland.) But it is as an enterprising agriculturist and landlord that John Cockburn’s chief renown rests. The system of long leases which he introduced is said to have ruined himself, the leases being on too easy terms, and to have compelled Capt. George Cockburn, on his father’s death, to sell the estates to the Earl of Hopetoun, as already mentioned. Whether this be so or not, these long leases certainly did much for the ultimate im- provement of the agriculture of Scotland. Formerly lands were usually held on a five years’ lease; but John Cockburn fixed a thirty-eight years’ lease, as an inducement to tenants to improve their farms, with a renewal every nineteen years, “ for all time coming,” on payment of a grasswm, or stipulated extra sum, as rent, at the expiry of each period of nineteen years— a system which has now, in its turn, given place to still better and fairer methods. He was, in truth, far ahead of his time as an agriculturist, and the various improvements he began were taken up and continued by the noble family who came next into possession. In an interesting newspaper article which appeared lately, entitled “Reductions of Rent in East Lothian,”! it is stated that “in 1748 the estate of Ormiston was regarded as a model for imitation by landlords and ten- ants.” And to show that its prestige still continues, the writer proceeds: “ Ormiston has bravely sustained its early reputation. The reduction of rents indicated by the Valuation Roll for the period from 1872-73 to 1883-84” (the latest then available) “is only £59 on a previous rent of £7154;” and this although, as we are informed, “from 1872 rents have been reduced in some cases more than 40 per cent ”—the adjoining parish of Pencait- land being cited as one in which there has been a large deduc- tion during that period. Our subject, however, is more particularly Ormiston Hall, and not the parish of Ormiston, though the two are closely re- lated. And here behind us is one link of connection with the old Hall: let us turn round and look on the bronze medallion, by Mr D. W. Stevenson, of the veteran missionary — pro- nounced by his son to be “one of the best portraits that I 1 ‘Scotsman,’ Jan. 12, 1887. VOL. I. c 34 Ormiston Hall: its Yew-Tree [Sess. know,” of the many that have been executed. The face recalls vividly to my own mind a rather memorable occasion, when Dr Moffat gave an address in a village church not far from Ormis- ton, on a summer Sabbath evening some years ago. “The old man eloquent” became so engrossed with his memories of African scenes, that he forgot the flight of time, continuing his discourse until the shades of night had fallen, and the congregation had at length to be summarily dismissed. In ‘The Lives of Robert and Mary Moffat,’ lately written by their son, the Rev. John S. Moffat, the following sentence will be found in the preface: “At the entrance of the grounds” of Ormiston Hall “stands the gardener’s house, a substantial stone building, in which Robert Moffat’s mother spent her youth a hundred years ago; and in the churchyard stands a stone to the memory of her parents, William Gardiner and his wife, erected by the Earl of Hopetoun of that date, in whose service they had lived and died.” Let us therefore suppose that we have now passed over the mile of road between the village and the entrance to the Hall, and that we are proceed- ing down the avenue to the mansion-house. This avenue con- sists of stately trees—beech and elm and oak—mostly planted by the John Cockburn, Laird of Ormiston, of whom I have already spoken. The modern house, too, which by-and-by comes in sight, was built originally by the same laird in his later years—in 1745—though various additions have been made by the Hopetoun family since then. John, fourth Earl of Hopetoun, on succeeding to the title in 1816, lived at Ormiston Hall for a year and a half while Hopetoun House was being enlarged, and made numerous improvements at that time not only on the house but on the whole estate. After his death at Paris, in 1823, his widow, the Dowager Countess of Hopetoun, took up her residence at Ormiston Hall, when further extensive alterations were made both on the house and grounds. It was then that the yew-tree, to be afterwards specially mentioned, was left outside the orchard-wall by the contraction of the orchard—though this is to the advantage of the tree, giving it a more prominent position. Sir Thomas Dick Lauder has described the mansion-house as being “in the tea-canister style of architecture, with three additions to cor- respond, one canister being added to another till the accommo- 1886-87. ] and Other Antiquities. 35 dation wanted was completed.” He admitted, however, that the interior arrangements for comfort were well planned. Or- miston Hall is at present leased to George Dempster, Esq., LL.D.,—who, it should be here mentioned, at once consented to permit the Society to inspect the grounds, and paid our party much kindness on their visit to this most interesting place last summer. The benign influence exerted by this gentleman and his like-minded lady over the surrounding district is worthy of all honour and praise. The old fortalice, or rather what remains of it, stands about 200 yards west of the present mansion-house, and one cannot look upon the ancient buildings without being stirred in thought. Though now in great part dismantled, enough re- mains to suggest what once had been. Here was the prin- cipal entrance, through this low archway, with pieces of the old iron stanchions still embedded in the masonry at the sides. This gave entrance from the outside to the courtyard round which the buildings were ranged. Part of the principal stair- case, close to this gateway, still remains, and at the top we come on the room whence Wishart is said to have been taken, before his martyrdom, at the end of the year 1545. The whole story is picturesquely told in Book I. of Knox’s ‘ History of the Reformation,’ but is too long for quotation here. There is first the sermon at Haddington ; then the travelling on foot to Ormiston, accompanied by the Laird of Ormiston and several of his friends (Knox adds the graphic touch, “it was a vehement frost”); then supper, and the singing of the 51st Psalm; when Wishart passes to his chamber, to be aroused at midnight by the tramp of armed men, and angry voices demanding admit- tance—for the Earl of Bothwell has just left Cardinal Beaton at Elphingstone Tower, a mile distant, and is come to demand that Wishart should be delivered over to him. After many solemn promises on the part of Bothwell that Wishart would be kept in safety, he was at length given up, and the party then marched off in triumph, their tread ringing out sharp in the clear frosty air of that December night, as they returned to Elphingstone. We all know the sequel: though not directly and at once handed over to the tender mercies of the Cardinal, that wily prelate at last succeeded in getting Wishart into his power, and on the 1st of March following he suffered martyrdom 36 Ormiston Hall: tts Yew-Tree [Sess. before the Castle of St Andrews, in presence of Beaton and his friends. Knox was greatly influenced by Wishart’s preaching ; and several of the landed gentry, including the Laird of Or- miston, were also much attached to him. Thus it is related that “when, in 1545, George Wishart courageously ventured to preach in Leith, among his auditors were the Lairds of Brun- stane, Longniddry, and Ormiston, at whose houses he after- wards took up his residence in turns, accompanied at times by Knox, his devoted scholar, and the bearer of his two-handed sword.”! The mention of Knox recalls the circumstance that Alexander, son of Sir Alexander Cockburn, was a favourite pupil of the Reformer, and is spoken of in affectionate terms in his ‘History of the Reformation.’ A monumental brass to the memory of this talented young man, who died in Aug. 1564, in his twenty-eighth year, is on the north wall of the only part left standing of the old church, within the grounds of Ormiston Hall—viz., what was probably the chancel. The classic elegiac verses of George Buchanan, in praise of his linguistic attainments and regret at his early death, are still perfectly legible ;? but the building itself is dark, half choked up with rubbish, and has been roughly roofed over at some late period. It is said that a number of stone coffins, the last resting-places of several Cockburns of Ormiston, are here at no great depth below the surface. A brief notice of this old church, where both Knox and Wishart are believed to have officiated oftener than once, is found in a volume printed by the Maitland Club, in 1835, from a manuscript discovered acci- dentally about that time in the Register House. It is there stated that “the Kirk of Ormistoun of old wes ane of the Kirkis of the Trinitie College of Edinburgh, consisting of 4 1 “Old and New Edinburgh,’ vol. iii. p. 150. 2 This monumental brass forms the subject of a short paper by the Rev. Dr Struthers of Prestonpans, in the ‘ Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland,’ vol. iv. p. 225. The late Dr David Laing adds the remark to Dr Struthers’s paper, that the tablet “is of peculiar interest ; and as few specimens of the kind exist in Scotland, it was thought desirable to give a reduced fac- simile of the ‘rubbing’” which Dr Struthers had made. This facsimile has been executed in a very artistic manner, and will be found in the Society’s ‘Proceedings.’ Dr Laing was of opinion that the tablet in St Giles’s, in memory of the Regent Earl of Morton, was of the same period, perhaps executed by the same hand; while the inscription upon it, by a curious coincidence, is also by George Buchanan. 1886-87. ] and Other Antiquities. 37 prebendaries, a paroche priest, and a vicar. Bot sen reforma- tioun it is a laik patronage, according to the new erectioun, quhais patron is the Laird of Ormiston.”! The only entrance to this old parish church was through the laird’s garden-gate ; and as this was felt to be rather inconvenient for all parties, another church was erected on a different site in 1696, which in turn gave place to the present edifice. Surrounding the old church, from pre-Reformation times, was the ancient churchyard, both situated a little to the west of the mansion-house of Ormiston Hall; and probably in or near this churchyard stood originally the venerable tree now known far and wide as “the Ormiston yew.” The age of this tree is unknown, though there is evidence to prove that it was of considerable size in 1474, when a lease of a piece of ground, granted by the superior of the religious house in the village, was signed beneath it. The uniform tradition is that Wishart occasionally preached under its branches to con- gregations composed of the Ormiston family with their friends and retainers; and there is every reason to believe the accuracy of the report. Strange to think that we now look upon, not a crumbling ruin, but a living object which has existed all through these centuries, from the beginning almost of authentic history in our own country, and yet lives and thrives, green and flourishing. How many generations of men have passed away during its existence; and how many stirring events, ecclesiastical and civil, have taken place! And it may con- tinue to grow for as many centuries still, so far as any one can predict. The tree is very graceful and well-proportioned ; and standing in the midst of a clear space, as it now does, it is seen to the full advantage. It has frequently been measured by visitors and others, amongst the more recent of these measurements being one carefully made by the late Professor Balfour and Mr Isaac Anderson Henry, in August 1879. Mr John Hamilton, forester at Ormiston Hall, kindly measured the tree, by request, on the 6th of December last, and wrote as follows: “Its circumference, at 3 ft. 9 in. from the ground (where the branches begin to spring), is 16 ft. 2 in. The outside circumference, where the branches lie on the ground, is 227 ft.; and the inner circumference, 147 ft. I am sorry 1 «Reports on the State of Certain Parishes in Scotland, 1627,’ p. 125. 38 Ormiston Flall: its Vew-Tree [Sess. I can tell nothing about its age. I am glad to say it is in good health: in seven years the bole has increased in cir- cumference 2 inches, and the outside branches 8 ft.” As there was no mention here of the height of the tree, I asked Mr Hamilton for this measurement, and received the reply, dated Jan. 7, 1887, that it was at that date 35 ft. 3 in. high. I have drawn up in tabular form authentic measurements of the tree for periods stretching over nearly a century. The first is from Sir John Sinclair’s Statistical Account, of date 1792; the second, from the ‘ New Statistical Account,’ 1824; the third from Croal’s ‘Sketches of East Lothian, in 1864; and the fourth, Mr Hamilton’s measurements of December last. The only uncertainty is regarding the girth, which is not in every case at exactly the same distance from the ground; but the variation is slight, and the height may be taken in each instance as 3 ft.9 in. The following are the figures :— Average — 1792. 1824. » 1864. 1886. growth in five years. Girth, . ; . | 11 ft. | 13 ft. 10in. | (No record.)! 16 ft. 2 in. 3} in. Height, P AB tite 20 eite 34 ft. 35 ft. 3 in. 63 in. Outside diameter F Sea ae \ 53 ft. | 59 ft. 69 ft. | 72 ft. 1 ft. It will be seen from this comparative statement that the Ormiston yew is still enjoying the vigour of youth; and with the careful attention which for long has been, and still is, paid to it, the tree may yet reach a “green old age,” which, in the case of a yew-tree, is very much of an unknown quantity. Any one who has had frequent occasion to consult the Old or the New Statistical Account of Scotland, cannot but have noticed the meagre references to the flora and fauna of some parishes, as contrasted with others. This, indeed, is just what we might expect, when we consider the different tastes or pre- dilections of the various writers; and especially when we remember that Natural History was not then the popular study which it is now. Yet there are instances where the geology, botany, and zoology of a district are all very fully described, either by the minister of the parish or by some scientific ; 1886-87. ] and Other Antiquities. 39 friend; and in one case—that of the parish of Prestonpans— the writer bewails the difficulties in the way of his study of Natural History, especially the domain of ocean-life. The Rev. W. B. Cunningham thus writes, half in anger, half in sorrow: “Tt is to be regretted that, in some of those districts in which the most ample fields of Natural History are presented to the inquirer, the means of exploring them are unfortunately denied to him. Notwithstanding the writer’s most anxious exertions to procure the rare specimens (which the sea occasionally yields up to dredge, net, and line) from the fishermen under his own pastoral superintendence, he has almost entirely failed in attaining his purpose, through their utter apathy to everything like a love of the ‘unsaleable’ creatures that ‘swim the ocean’s stream.’” Ihave no doubt that the experience of several amongst ourselves has been much the same as that of this clergyman half a century ago—though his case had its own peculiar ageravations. But to return to the Ormiston yew. In both Statistical Accounts this tree is noticed at some length, while the yew at Whittinghame, which is often looked upon as a rival to the Ormiston tree, is mentioned in neither Account. Nor does Loudon include the Whittinghame yew in his long list of remarkable trees, though the Ormiston yew has a paragraph devoted to it. A stranger omission still is that of the late Sir Thomas Dick Lauder, who edited in 1834 ‘ Gilpin’s Forest Scenery, making many curious and useful additions to that well-known work. Among other remarkable trees, he gives an interesting notice of the Ormiston yew, with detailed measurements of its circumference. Yet the Whittinghame yew is not once referred to by him, though it was only a few miles distant from his own estate of Fountainhall. Some days after inspecting the Ormiston tree, I accompanied a friend to Whit- tinghame to see the eucalyptus there growing. This tree was planted as a seedling in 1846, and though cut down nearly to the ground at one time by frost, is now 60 feet high. When at Whittinghame, I made a careful survey of the yew-tree there, while the appearance of the other East Lothian specimen was still fresh in the memory. Although the Whittinghame yew is certainly a very fine old tree, and has also its own historic associations, it did not appear to me to be so stately or so well- proportioned as the Ormiston yew. When the Berwickshire 40 Ormiston Fall. [Sess. Naturalists’ Club visited this fine estate in July 1884, the yew-tree was found to have an inside diameter of 40 feet 6 inches, which is not very far behind that of the Ormiston yew —viz., 47 feet. But the girth of the Whittinghame yew at 5 feet from the ground is only 11 feet, while that of the Ormiston yew at the same distance is nearly double, which would go to prove that it is much the older of the two. At 5 feet up, the Whittinghame yew separates into a great number of inter- lacing shoots, thus shortening the stem, though making it more dense in appearance—so much so, that from the inside the branches seem like an impenetrable wall. It is to be hoped that our Society, having visited Ormiston Hall, with its ancient yew and other interesting sights, may yet include Whittinghame, with its historic tree, its old tower, and other notable features, in some future list of excursions. It may be mentioned here that to the north of the mansion- house of Ormiston Hall there is a narrow glen through which the Belsis burn flows, containing a mass of vegetation, and where are several large and fine trees—oaks, beeches, and syca- mores. It may also be of interest to some of the members of the Society to know that there is growing near the flower- garden the parent of a very distinct form of the Portugal laurel (Laurus or Cerasus lusitanica). This form is popularly known as the “Ormiston laurel,” and has dark leaves of a thick, leathery texture—therefore the varietal name which has been given to it of coriacea. There are several specimens of this laurel in the Royal Botanic Garden, some of them as- suming the dimensions of trees. I am informed that it was a particular favourite of a respected “past president” of this Society, the late Mr Wm. Gorrie, and that he did much to spread it, sending cuttings to several places throughout the country which were thought suitable for its growth. I can find no mention of this variety of the Portugal laurel in any of the numerous works on the subject which I have consulted. The forester at Ormiston Hall is of opinion that it was in all likelihood brought by Sir John Cockburn from Portugal in the early part of last century. In concluding these remarks, the fig-trees growing on the south wall of the orchard at Ormiston Hall deserve notice. These, too, were planted by Sir John Cockburn, and are said 1886-87. | The Parida, or Titmice. 41 to have produced at one time figs of peculiarly fine quality. Though cut down to the ground by frost during the inclement winter of 1880-81, they are again throwing out fresh shoots, in some instances over 3 feet in length, and form no unfitting memorial of the far-sighted, enterprising cultivator who origin- ally planted them, and whose memory will always be so in- timately bound up, not only with the lands of Ormiston, but with the whole fertile county of East Lothian. VIIL—THE PARIDA, OR TITMICE. By Mr ARCH. CRAIG, Jun. (Read Feb. 23, 1887.) THE Paride, or titmice, are a small group of birds that present great attractions to the student of Natural History, in conse- quence, so far, of their possessing the dual advantages of not only being very numerous, but from their constant residence in this country throughout the year. Opportunities of observation are not, therefore, confined to the narrower limits afforded us in the case of migrants. Strictly speaking, partial migration does take place among some of the species; but as they never actually leave our land in a body like the swallow tribe, and are more or less to be met with in suitable localities at every season, for all practical purposes they may be designated non- migratory. They form a distinct and select little clan by themselves, both as regards their habits, plumage, and song; and although frequently accompanied in their wanderings by other birds of kindred tastes, they seem notwithstanding to be so intent upon their own affairs as to furnish ground for the belief that they fill the more honourable réle of leaders, while the others again enact the character of the escort. Be that as it may, they are essentially a unique and highly interesting fraternity, and I shall endeavour to bring under your notice a 1 On a visit to Ormiston Hall during the present summer (Aug. 1887), the fig-trees were found in good health and vigour, and would probably have. borne fruit this season had they not in 1880-81 been so severely damaged by frost. 42 The Paride, or Titmice. [Sess. few of the more prominent features of what all naturalists unite in considering an order of birds most worthy of attention. One of their leading characteristics, even to the inexperienced eye, is their constant restlessness and activity, carried to an extent which has almost no parallel save in the well-known instance of the Hirundines, or swallows; and if proof of this assertion were wanting, a few hours spent in following the track of a flock in autumn would be sufficient of itself to bring conviction to the most incredulous mind. Another peculiarity is their intense inquisitiveness. This latter trait when de- veloped in the human animal is not always to be considered commendable, but in the case of the titmice it is much to be admired, and, besides, is most beneficial to the growth of trees and plants directly, and indirectly of course to the owners of these. Just take the trouble to watch a titmouse hanging on the trunk or branches of a tree, and see how eagerly he re- connoitres every little crevice or crack in the bark, hammering away with his hard little bill, or poking the same into some small recess barely visible to the naked eye. The uninitiated in many cases imagine he is doing harm, whereas he is a decided benefactor, being busily engaged destroying insect-life in the shape of eggs, larve, or the creatures themselves, which ultimately would injure the growth of the tree. Yet, neverthe- less, the day was, and unhappily in some parts of Great Britain still is, where a premium was paid for the destruction of the whole race of titmice, probably the best friends that gardeners or tree-growers have. It has been advanced as an argument on the opposite side that they eat grain, destroy plants for the sake of the seed, and tear open buds in early spring. This is true, but to a certain extent only, as the grain devoured is trifling, and the buds burst usually contain insects in one form or other; so that, even painting them in as black a hue as perversity is capable of, their bad qualities are a mere bagatelle in comparison with the good services they render. Their fear- less nature, and trusting disposition in the presence of man, made them an easy prey; but it is pleasant to record that this prejudice is fast dying out, in common with many other equally mistaken ideas that our forefathers, from want of knowledge, indulged in at the expense of the feathered fauna of our country, and it is perhaps not too much to hope that, with the 1886-87. ] The Parida, or Titmice. 43 rapid march of education, in a few years they may exist in the minds of people as obsolete traditions only. As a whole they are insectivorous, except when pressed by scarcity of their natural food to eat seeds and other viands—even flesh at a pinch is not despised. For this reason they are rather difficult to keep in confinement, although with care as to diet they may to a certain extent be successfully caged. The practice, never- theless, savours of cruelty, as they are of such a roving, active disposition as to rouse in us a feeling of sorrow when we look — at the little captives cooped up into such narrow prison-houses, when they would otherwise be so happy in the enjoyment of their liberty. The same may be said likewise of all insectiv- orous species, who cannot be so readily inured to captivity as the granivore, owing to the difficulty of procuring the proper food to maintain them in a state of good health. One and all are accomplished acrobats, it apparently making no difference to them whether they hang with their backs up or down, or whether, figuratively speaking, they stand on their heads or their tails. Sometimes you see them diligently working on the upper surface of a branch, to shift instantaneously to the under ; next minute they are clinging to the trunk like a creeper, fluttering in the air like a butterfly, or dangling like a cork at the end of a swinging twig, and all the time never for a moment losing sight of the main object of their quest, calling to each other in shrill clear notes that penetrate to a consid- erable distance, especially when uttered amidst the solemn silence of dark and lonely pine woods. It is chiefly at these times when foraging in bands that they are joined by other species, such as the goldcrests, siskins, redpoles, creepers, &c.; but concerning this companionship more may be said at some future time. Their plumage is striking, being characterised in most examples by clearly defined colours and decided con- trasts—yellow, slaty blue, black, white, and combinations again of all these, being the chief factors in forming the sum total of their outward covering ; and in the cases of the great and blue tits their garb is really handsome. In some the feathers are of a soft, fluffy nature, and as a natural sequence specimens are diffi- cult to shoot clean, and decidedly more difficult to stuff after they are secured; therefore really good and satisfactory skins are seldom to be seen. Although by no means formidable as 44 ; The Paride, or Titmice. [Sess. regards bulk, they possess daring that would put to shame birds six times their size. Just attempt to rob the nest, or put your hand into the hole where the same is concealed, and you will soon have painful evidence of their dislike to your inter- ference. The sitting bird will hiss like a small snake and salute your fingers with no gentle bite, particularly the great tit, to whose natural disinclination to be meddled with is to be added a longer, and correspondingly stronger, mandible, capable of inflicting considerable pain on the assailant. One cannot help admiring the pluck displayed by these mites of creatures when guarding their eggs or young,—a bravery, when we take their size into account, far exceeding that of most birds whose powers of defence are infinitely greater. Why titmice should be gifted with larger powers of resistance than other small birds is not easy to understand. It can hardly be that Nature, taking into account their usefulness, endows them with courage disproportionate to their size, in order to allow of their in- crease,—as in the case of many other equally useful species, notably the Warblers, the reverse is the rule, the mere acci- dental finding of the nest or touching the eggs being sufficient to make the birds desert. There can be no doubt, however, that Providence, who has ordered everything so wisely, must have bestowed the quality for some rational end, and with the knowledge of that we are fain to be content. Enough, perhaps, has been said by way of introduction, so we will now turn to look at the species in detail. Of the true titmice, six exist in Scotland, and one other, known as the bearded tit, forming a separate genus, has been found in England; but of this latter no mention need be made, as it is quite unknown in our more northerly part of the island. The names of the six are as follows :— Great tit, . . Parus major. | Marsh tit, . Parus palustris. Blue tit, . : n caeruleus. Long-tailed tit, . 1 caudatus. Cole tit, . : " ater. | Crested tit, . nu cristatus. The great tit, or ox-eye, is the largest of the genus, and can be readily distinguished from the broad black band down its breast and lower parts. The cognomen ox-eye is occasionally applied to the blue and cole tits, but erroneously so. How the name originated is not clear, and in reality is of little im- 1886-87. | The Parida, or Titmice. © 45 portance. Some writers aver that its call-note in spring has a resemblance to the syllables “ox” “eye,” but if that be so, the believers in this theory must be gifted with livelier imagina- tions than have fallen to the lot of most folks, as by no pos- sibility can its notes be contorted into a sound resembling these words. While upon the subject of names, it may be as well to mention that “tom-tit” is a favourite synonym for the genus, but as it is rather a weak and puerile designation it would not be much loss to ornithology if it fell into disuse. Many popular names have a real significance, and are of great value, but the same can scarcely be said of this one. For example, take a few of the more absurd epithets by which the Paride are known in different parts of England: “Sit-ye-down,” “Tom Collier,” “Billy Biter,” “Joe Bent,’ “Long Tom,” “Mum Ruffin,” “ Bottle Tom,” and “Poke-pudding.” _I think it will be confessed that these do not add much dignity or weight to ornithological nomenclature. It is of great importance, there- fore, to adhere as far as possible to one recognised denomina- tion, and this, combined with the scientific name most in vogue, will prevent dubiety. The plurality of scientific names in ornithology is most puzzling at times, but this may be over- come by taking up one well-known system and holding to it. The great tit haunts woods, gardens, hedges, and brushwood, but is often to be seen about the vicinity of houses and farm- yards. In spring the note of the male is peculiar and pretty constantly repeated, and although not attaining to the dis- tinction of a song, is cheerful and lively. Some of his efforts, however, are the reverse of musical, being grating and dis- cordant, and not unlike the sound made by a saw when it encounters a nail in a piece of wood. Asa rule, this species does not travel about in such large numbers as the cole or long-tailed tits, and is decidedly more vicious in disposition when captured. Like the robin, they often alight upon the limed twigs set round the call-bird’s cage, and I have frequently made their acquaintance under these circumstances, but, to speak truth, never with any great desire to renew it, as while endeavouring to release them from their self-imposed position they bit so persistently as in many instances to draw blood. The nest is fabricated of moss, hair, feathers, &c., and is most commonly placed in the hole of a tree or wall. A decayed and 46 ' The Paride, or Titmice. [Sess. hollowed-out stump is a favourite site, especially where there is a narrow hole deep enough to prevent access by the human hand; but occasionally other and more singular situations are adapted to the purpose, such as the disused nests of magpies, or even a squirrel’s drey. It is amazing how agilely they wriggle in and out of a small space. Last summer I watched one at Temple Bridge flying in and out of a long narrow aper- ture in the masonry, apparently one of those outlets for the escape of the water after rain. It alighted on a tree within five or six yards of the bridge, and then flew like a flash straight for the slit. The latter, however, was too small for it to pass into direct; so as quick as thought it grasped the sharp edge of the stone, turned itself sideways, and disappeared into the recess, to emerge again in a few seconds with equal rapidity. This performance was repeated every few minutes; so taking into account the length of a summer day, one can gather an idea of the indefatigability of the parents while feeding the young, and of the incalculable benefit they confer on sylvan life by destroying countless insects. Some authors accuse it of cannibalistic tendencies, in so far that it now and then kills and eats other small species; but upon this point I should not care to hazard an opinion, never having come across a case of the kind. That it does so when confined has been indubitably established by Dr Bechstein in his valuable work on ‘ Chamber Birds’; but one is loath to credit such evil of this little ornament of the woods in its native state, although, from the evidence adduced in support of the statement, it seems likely to be too true. A friend who possessed a number of marsh tits, in- formed me that on one occasion, when by some blunder food was omitted to be put into the cage, they fell upon each other, and, like the far-famed Kilkenny cats, in the morning none were left to tell the tale, the last survivor having evidently succumbed through exhaustion. Any one who has kept an aviary must have observed how intensely cruel birds are to any of their number who fall sick. In nine cases out of ten the healthy set upon the weak and peck them to death. It is hard to com- prehend the motive of this seemingly relentless nature, unless it be with the object of putting the sufferers out of pain, or from some inherent desire to extirpate all who cannot “ fend ” for themselves ; but this is all the more difficult to reconcile when 1886-87. ] The Paride, or Titmice. 47 we take into account the loving care that they bestow upon their young broods. The great tit is no favourite with apiarists, as, if all tales are true, it manages to destroy a good many bees as they issue from the hive, by perching on the little shelf outside the entrance-hole and dabbing the unsuspecting insect as it emerges! The female is very like the male, but hardly so bright in colour. It would be useless to take up time describing the plumage of the various species, as the accompanying specimens speak for themselves, so we will pass on to the next in order—viz., the blue tit. This is the prettiest and at the same time the most impudent of all the Paridew. It seems to be regardless of the presence of human beings, and is not easily frightened, coming close to houses, farmyards, and gardens at certain times of the year, particularly autumn and winter. If a person remains still in a wood where these tits are feeding, they will often alight on trees within a few feet, and hammer away at the bark close to your elbow, with as much nonchalance as if you were a hundred miles distant. In general habits they resemble the great species, but, if anything, utter their shrill notes oftener, and have a knack of dropping down to the ground when least expected, in this respect being very like the robin. When upon the nest they show a marked reluctance to leave, and display even greater intrepidity in defending their young than their larger relation. They build in cavities of trees, rocks, or walls, and sometimes the entrance is so small as to make one wonder how they get in or out so readily. Many extraordinary breeding-sites are recorded, such as inside bottles, old pipes, pumps, &c., for full descriptions of which I would refer any curious upon the subject to well- known works on ornithology, such as Yarrell, Morris, or Jardine. A very good method of observing this bird’s powers of clinging and curious attitudes, is to hang an old bone with meat upon it by a string to the branch of a tree, and in winter especially it won’t be very long ere the dainty morsel is discovered by one or more tits, who, notwithstanding the swaying motion, manage to retain their foothold and satiate their appetite at the same time. The popular name of this beautiful bird in Scotland is “blue bonnet,’—an appellation that calls to the recollection of en- thusiastic Scotsmen the “bonnets” of quite a different nature, 1 This is disputed, and apparently with some show of reason. 48 The Paride, or Titmice. [Sess. whose wearers played such a prominent part in the days of Border warfare. Next on the list is the cole tit. This word is spelt alterna- tively cole or coal. The latter is perhaps the more correct form, and has been adopted in the latest edition of Yarrell by Professor Newton, who adduces as proof that the French name “ petite charbonniére ” clearly points to the fact that it has connection with the fuel burnt in our fires, and not with a plant known as cole. This bird is usually found to be more plentiful in high- lying plantations than any of its brethren; but it is by no means confined to these, as thick woods in the low grounds often abound with them. It can never be mistaken for the blue tit save by a novice, as its note is different, and as a rule it travels in bands, a constant calling to each other going on all the time. Whether owing to its greater sociability or from a similarity of tastes, you mostly find it consorting with other small species, notably goldcrests and creepers; and while the former are chiefly busy among the leafy branches, the latter devote their attention to the trunk. In autumn in suitable dis- tricts of the Highlands there is a constant succession of the afore- mentioned hunting the woods in concert; but, besides these, siskins and redpoles often join in the campaign. Where cross- bills are numerous this is very noticeable, the smaller fry tak- ing advantage of the greater powers possessed by the larger birds, to extract the seeds from the half-opened cones left by the former. It is amusing to see the pertness with which the minuter species mix with the crossbills and perch within a few inches of them, evidently with the assurance of perfect safety and immunity from assault, which says a great deal for the good-nature of the crossbills, who, all the same, have probably very little intention of reversing the order of things and becom- ing jackal to their lion. At a distance this species is apt to be confounded with the marsh tit; but when near enough to admit of scrutiny, the white patch on the nape of the neck is a sure distinction, the latter never having that at any time of life. The whitish spots on the wings also occur in the cole tit alone. The marsh tit is not nearly so common in Scotland, and must be considered very local in its distribution. In England, again, it is much more plentiful, and during last May it was my good fortune to make its acquaintance in. Warwickshire, in suffi- 1886-87. | The Paride, or Titmice. 49 cient numbers to become familiarised with its note and general appearance. The name “marsh” implies a fondness for swampy localities, but in the district of Snitterfield it was frequenting a thick forest of small trees (ash principally) known as “The Bushes,” and miles away from any marsh. The nest of one which I found accidentally was in the hollow stump of an ash- tree, rising about a foot from the ground. The bird alighted on the edge of the stump, and dropped into the hole, which ap- peared to be about eighteen inches deep. The aperture was much too narrow to admit the hand, so, gently inserting a thin twig, the hissing noise began at once. Being very anxious to identify the species, and be satisfied that it was not the cole- tit, I rattled the twig against the edge of the hole; but the little creature was not to be dislodged so easily, and it was only after several louder applications of the twig that it evidently lost patience, and flew up the narrow space like a shot, perch- ing on a tree close by, and chirping in a very angry tone in- deed. Having now a good opportunity of observing both it and its partner, who was attracted by the noise of its mate, I was much pleased to distinguish the marsh-tit, previously al- most unknown to me. Further investigations in the same dis- trict proved them to be very numerous. It has been found nesting in various parts of Scotland, and was seen by a friend of mine inhabiting a wood a few miles south of Inverness. Before calling attention to the long-tailed tit, it may be as well, in a few words, to advert to its crested congener. It has fallen to the lot of few ornithologists to recognise this species in the flesh, and it must on all accounts be considered a rare bird. The only district where it is really known to frequent regularly is Strathspey, among the pine and fir forests that skirt the base of the Grampians east of Grantown, in that lovely locality Rothiemurchus and Glenmore. The extent of wood is so great on the Gordon and Seafield estates, that one might go specially a dozen times to look for it, and never have the felicity to come across a single specimen ; but it is be- yond doubt that it makes its home in the neighbourhood men- tioned. The fact of its being so difficult of discovery is in reality the only safeguard against its extermination—for to speak truth, and entre nous, ornithologists are in many cases little better than hypocrites, in so far that they do not always VOL. II. D 50 The Parida, or Titmice. [Sess. practise what they preach ; and although inveighing against the slaughter of rare birds, I am just afraid, if temptation in the shape of a crested tit were put in some of our own ways, we might be apt to eat our principles for the time being in order to possess the skin. A stuffed example may be seen in the Museum of Science and Art, and judging from it and the coloured plates in several ornithological works, it must be a very pretty bird to watch in life. We come now to. the last, the loug-tailed tit. This is the creature that rejoices in the names of Bottle Tom and Poke- pudding. The peculiarity about this species is the dispropor- tionate length of tail to the size of the bird, and in many re- spects it is different from other tits,in none more so than in its plumage, which is fluffier, more muddled in its colours, and not so decided in its contrasts. To watch the old birds and ‘the newly-flown young herding together among the woods is a never-tiring treat. The fledglings look no larger than humble- bees, and the long thin tail attached gives them somewhat the appearance of a comet as they flit from branch to branch. To add two other similes, the one ornithological and the other reptilian, they may be said to resemble a magpie in shape, though not in colour, and a powet or tadpole, though not in size. The body is exceedingly small, and is the most diminu- tive of British species, save the gold and fire crests: the bill also is shorter than that in any of the other tits, and is nearly obscured by the soft downy feathers at the base. It is not an uncommon bird by any means, and may be seen during late autumn, and winter even, in the suburbs of Edinburgh where there are belts of high trees; but perhaps it may only resort to those localities when driven in by stress of weather. The scientific name adopted by most modern writers is Acredula caudata, it having been made the type of a sub-genus from its dissimilarity in many points to the other Paride; and certainly, when you examine a specimen, there is sufficient evidence to warrant the change. With a slight description of its nest I shall conclude this paper. Unlike other tits, this species does not hide its nest in holes, but forms an elaborate structure, which is placed between the branches of bushes or in the fork of a tree. It is composed of moss, coated with lichens, after the manner of the chaffinch, and lined with soft feathers. In * ¥886-87.] Fossils of Red Crag and Chalk Pits, Suffolk. 51 shape it is oval rather than round, and the means of entrance and exit is a small hole near the top. How the sitting birds dispose of their long tails is more than I can tell. It has been stated, and probably with truth, that they turn them backwards over their heads, after the manner of those contortionists we occasionally see in the theatre, who, by doubling back their bodies, manage to gaze at the audience through their legs. They may, perhaps, put them straight up against the side of the nest; but it is really of very little use hazarding theories, as they would be extremely difficult to prove, especially when the smallness of the entrance-hole is taken into consideration, and the fact that the bird is not likely to remain long enough in the nest to permit of close investigation. In conclusion, let me urge upon every member of this Society who may have it in his or her power, to do what they can to protect the little subjects of this paper, and by their influence and good example endeavour to uproot those silly and cruel prejudices which in the past have done so much to deprive our woods and gardens of the presence of that most interesting and useful race, the titmice. [Stuffed specimens weve shown in illustration of the above paper. ] IX.—THE FOSSILS OF THE RED CRAG AND CHALK PITS, SUFFOLK. By Miss MINNIE M‘KEAN. (Read Feb. 23, 1887.) Last November, being in Suffolk, I visited, with some friends, one of the red crag cuttings and one of the chalk pits in the neighbourhood of Ipswich. I had heard a great deal about the crag formation, but it was all so new to me that I wished much to see it, and to make a collection of its fossils for my- self. This desire was strengthened after inspecting the inter- esting collection in the Museum at Ipswich,—a building which I would advise any lover of Nature in most of her departments to visit as soon as possible. We had a beautiful day, and after driving four miles or so through lanes bordered with hedgerows on either side, over 52 _ Fossils of Red Crag and Chalk Pits, Suffolk. (Sess. which the briony-berries were clustering in scarlet masses, while the tufts of wild clematis-seed (Clematis vitalba) clothed everything in a mantle of snow, we arrived at Foxhall Crag Pit. This pit is leased at present by the farmer on whose ground it is situated, and he accompanied us to the place where the men had just left off working. A few words as to the nature of the crag formation will ex- plain it at once. In the Phocene period in geology, Britain, after a long time of exposure as a land-surface, when it under- went great denudation by weathering, began gently to subside. Nothing definite can be said as to the extent of this subsidence, but it is well known that that part which forms now the south- east counties of England was gradually submerged, when sand- banks and shelly deposits were laid down in the shallow waters of the North Sea, and it is these accumulations that are termed “crag.” Many of the “crag” shells still live in arctic seas. Geikie, in his ‘Text-book of Geology,’ says :— It is evident that in these fragmentary accumulations of the “crag” series we have merely the remnants of some thin sheets of shelly sands and gravels, laid down in the waters of the North Sea, while that great lowering of the European climate was beginning which culminated in the glacial period. The “crag” series is subdivided into five groups, of which the “red” is the second oldest, and it is principally in Norfolk and Suffolk that all of these groups are exposed. The cutting which we visited seemed to be about 6 or 8 feet thick. Its natural colour is a deep red, and in some parts it is stained deeper still by a mixture of iron. The section here is very good, and shows the “red crag” resting on the “‘ London clay.” The crag shells are 230 in number, and there are five dif- ferent species exhibited to-night—viz. Trophon antiquum, Pectunculus glycimeris, Cardita senilis (extinct), Astarte Omallii, and Nucula Cobboldiz. The Foxhall Crag Pit is worked for the purpose of obtaining those valuable phosphatic nodules called “coprolites.” These are gathered by the ton, after being extracted from the “crag,” and are then conveyed to the crushing and chemical works and converted into manure. As there are various opinions regarding the nature of these nodules, I shall quote an extract from Dr J. E. Taylor’s book, ‘Nature’s Bye-Paths,’ which gives his verdict on the subject :— 1886-87.]. Fossils of Red Crag and Chalk Pits, Suffolk. 53 The well-known red crag phosphates of Suffolk are scarcely less interesting to geologists than those of the south of France. They occur as nodules, often enclosing fossils ; but, singularly enough, these fossils are never those of the red crag itself, but always those of the much older “Tondon clay” formation. These crag phosphatic nodules still go by the name of “coprolites,” from an antiquated but erroneous opinion that they are the fossil excrement of animals. Instead of this being their origin, however, we know that they represent that portion of phosphorus which has entered into the structures of the soft bodies of those very animals whose hard parts, as bones, shells, &c., also occur in the fossil state ; in fact, they are phosphuretted hydrogen set free from the decom- posing bodies of the animals which died in the sea along whose floor the “London clay” was deposited. Phosphoric acid, so forming, combined with lime, and in this manner the nodules of phosphate of lime were formed by segregation. Here is another short extract bearing on the same topic, from Dr Taylor’s ‘Geology of Ipswich’ :— . There is every reason to believe that the so-called coprolites or phos- phatic nodules were in reality accumulated on an old exposed land-surface of the “London clay,” before the area was submerged to form the bed of the red crag sea, Teeth of “mastodon,” rhinoceros, and deer are not un- frequently met with, associated with bones of older date. Fossil wood, as well as bones, teeth, &c., of animals, chiefly cetaceans, are met with in the “crag,” these having been re- deposited in the crag beds after having been washed out of the London clay in which they were originally embedded. I am indebted to Dr J. E. Taylor for several specimens of Otodus obliquus (shark’s teeth) which are shown to-night, as well as for the beautiful “box-stone” containing Pectunculus glyci- meris. The nature of these box-stones will be best described in Dr Taylor’s own words :— Very singular are the roundish masses of coarse sandstone which are met with at the Foxhall Crag Pit. From Foxhall, the bed containing them, which usually lies directly on the “London clay,” extends to Felixstowe, and heaps of them may be seen by the roadside, waiting to be broken up for road-mending. They are very curious as representing a lost formation, older than the “coralline crag,” for they are also found under it, which is probably of late Miocene age. It is the quarrymen who have termed them “box-stones.” You strike them with a sharp blow of the hammer, and about one in every ten will break in halves, revealing the cast of a fossil shell within. These “ box-stones” are the broken-up and rolled remains of a bed of sandstone which once covered this part of Suffolk, and which still underlies Antwerp, Brussels, and other places in Belgium. ° 54 Fossils of Red Crag and Chalk Pits, Suffolk. (Sess. Let us now turn from the fossils of the crag to those of the chalk. The chalk pit we next visited was a very large one, near the village of Bramford, about three miles from Ipswich. It was a very deep cutting, the walls of pure chalk towering up like lofty hills above our heads. The men were busy burning the chalk for lime. We were not so fortunate as to chalk fossils, but secured a pretty specimen of Ananchytes ovata, an Hchinoid of the Cretaceous period, locally termed “ Fairy loaves.” We found them difficult to dig out of the close, compact mass of chalk, the outside shell being so delicate. At the same place I picked up a completely round ball of flint, and on splitting it in two halves, I came upon a ball of pure white chalk, which, Dr Taylor informed me, when carefully washed, would be found to be full of sponge-spicules. Flint, indeed, is closely connected with sponge-organisins, and there are various theories as to what flint itself really is. Thus ended our excursion to the red crag and chalk pits of Suffolk—very pleasant in the carrying out, and no less pleasant in the retrospect. A systematic search would of course bring many more fossils to light, and such a search I hope soon to undertake. What was accomplished on that November day was just enough to whet the appetite for more. In addition to the shells found, and now exhibited, I have brought for your inspec- tion a small quantity of the ferruginous shelly sand of the red crag. This sand has for centuries been used for enriching poor clayey soils, on the surface of which it is spread. Jam indebted to two gentlemen, members of the Society, for the preparations shown—viz., to Mr Johnston, for the section of a coprolite which he has made, and which is now exhibited under the microscope ; and to Mr Pearcey, of the Challenger Commission, who has kindly prepared slides of some of the chalk which I brought with me from Suffolk. These slides show a very considerable number of Foraminifera of various forms, some of them being new species. The lessons to be learned from the Suffolk crag and chalk pits are extremely interesting, and reveal to us much of the later geological history of this island of ours. Perhaps some of our members have not yet turned their attention to the subject ; and if I have succeeded in bespeaking their interest for it, then something has been gained by these remarks. 1886-87.] Notes on some New and Rare British Plants. 55 X—NOTES ON SOME NEW AND RARE BRITISH PLANTS. By Mr SYMINGTON: GRIEVE, PRESIDENT. (Read Feb. 23, 1887.) I am indebted to Arthur Bennett, Esq., F.L.S., Croydon, for kindly sending me some of the following plants from his herbarium, and also for identifying one or two which were collected by myself during a visit to the island of Rum in July 1884. As all the plants are exceedingly interesting, it is my intention to hand them over to the keeper of the herbarium at the Royal Botanic Garden of this city for preservation. Potamogeton prelongus Wulf, from the island of Rum. This plant has been recorded in most of the eastern counties of Eng- land and Scotland, from Essex to Caithness. On the western seaboard it appears to be a rare plant, and has hitherto only been recorded from Westmoreland and Kirkcudbright. Carex flava var. Gauda of Gay, from the island of Rum. Although Mr Bennett is not quite certain about the identi- fication of this plant, owing to the immature state of the fruit, still he has little doubt regarding it, after comparing it with specimens in the herbarium at Kew. If this plant is correctly named, it is the first record of it in Scotland, and it has only been once recorded in South Britain, where it was many years ago collected upon Snowdon. In any case, the plant in question is a remarkable form of Carex flava, and as none of its varieties have previously been recorded in the North Ebudes, it is at least a new record for Watsonian County 104. Cerastium arcticum Lange, var. Edmonstonii Beeby, grows on Serpentine Hills, Unst, Shetland. This seems to be a var- lety of Cerastium latifolium L., var. nigrescens, of our Floras, and which appears as yet to have been only found in Britain in the Shetland Islands. From a paper contributed about a year ago to the ‘Scottish Naturalist’ by Mr A, Bennett, it would appear that the Cerastiwm arcticwm of Dr Lange was not thought to be the same as Cerastiwm latifolium L., var. nigrescens. It appears to have been supposed that Cerastiwm arcticwm Lange, which was found in Greenland and Iceland, might be found as far south as the Faroes. It is exceedingly 56 On Dark-ground [lumination, [Sess. interesting to find such a near variety to the true Cerastiwm arcticum Lange as the specimen upon the table, from a station much farther south. Alsine hirta var. foliosa, Hartm., from Serpentine Hills, Unst, is very close to Alsine rubella. Dr Lange, in his ‘Flora Greenlandica,’ p. 24, places A. hirta and A. rubella as mere varieties of 4. verna, which grows so plentifully on Arthur’s Seat, and which some of you may know better as Arenaria verna. Luzula maxima D.C., var. gracilis Rostrup, was gathered by Mr W. H. Beeby on Saxa Vord Hill, Unst, on the 28th July 1886, and appears to be an entirely new British plant. It is found. abundant on the upper slopes of the hill, but flowers on the small plateau which forms the summit. Psamma baltica R.& S. This plant has been previously record- ed from only one locality in Britain—namely, the Holy Isle and adjoining coast of Northumberland. The specimen before you is from a second British station—Caistor, in East Norfolk. Festuca sciuroides var. intermedia Hiichel med. This is a new variety, recorded July 1886, from Mitcham Common Surrey. Mr Bennett remarks, “It appears to be a connecting form between Festuca sciuroides and F. myurus L.” XI—ON DARK-GROUND ILLUMINATION, AS SHOW- ING PECULIARITIES OF CERTAIN DIATOMS. By Mr WILLIAM PENMAN, Assoc. M.Inst.C.E. (Read March 23, 1887.) DARK- GROUND illumination must not be confounded with opaque illumination. The latter takes its name from the man- ner in which the object viewed is mounted—that is to say, the object is mounted upon an opaque ground, and treated with super- stage illumination. Dark-ground illumination, on the other hand, deals with mounts through which light can be trans- mitted from beneath in the usual way. Besides this, however, there are a few distinctions that must be attended to in the selection of suitable objects for this treatment. Briefly, they 1886-87.] as showing Peculiarities of certain Diatoms. 57 may be condensed into two necessary conditions: jirst, that the object is iridescent; and second, that it is mounted in a reasonably thin medium. There are several kinds of micro-accessories in general use for the production of dark-ground illumination, but I shall confine myself to a description of those that I have tried :— I. By Means of an ordinary Stand-Condenser.—The lamp is placed so that the flame is about the same height as the stage, and the edge of the wick turned towards the microscope. All sub-stage arrangements are removed, so as to allow the light greater range, and the mirror turned aside or taken off altogether. The condenser is now placed, and the microscope tilted to allow the rays to strike the object upon the slide, and then the con-. denser is moved until the rays are brought to a focus upon the object. After the rays pass the conjugate focus at the stage, they diverge, and do not enter the objective at all. For, pro- vided they fall upon the under side of the glass slip at a reason- able angle, they will pass onwards in their original course ; but should they impinge at an angle exceeding, say, 70°, they will, if properly focussed, be almost totally reflected downwards,—so that in the first case they strike the object as they pass, al- though not entering the objective ; while in the other case they do not properly illuminate the object. It is, therefore, mani- festly important that the slope of the microscope should not be such as to cause a loss of light by reflection. Granted, therefore, that the object under examination is an iridescent one, the ob- server will see it by reflected light, which passes up from it into the objective. The object will thus stand upon a dark ground, illuminated and examined according to the same optical principles as the moon or the stars. It is important that the focal length of the objective be taken into account, in order to procure the best results from this kind of illumination. Sup- pose the objective to be a high power with short working dis- tance, it will be found practically impossible to exclude the direct rays from entering the objective; but I have found that even with a high-angled {-inch it is quite possible to get dark- ground illumination from the stand-condenser. If. By Means of a Spot- Lens—This instrument may: be generally described as a plano-convex lens with a slice taken off the convexity, and the flat face thus formed rendered 58 On Dark-ground [lMumination, [Sess. perfectly opaque by a coating of dead-black varnish. On throwing parallel rays upon the under side of this lens, the central ones strike the opaque surface and do not reach the object; but the marginal ones that fall outside the stopped centre or spot are transmitted, refracted, converge, and come to a focus, which focus may be made to rest upon the object by mov- ing the lens up or down. Now these marginal rays diverge, after passing the focal point, in the same way as those we have already considered, but with this difference, that they pass onwards on each side of the objective. They, however, do not enter the tube, consequently the reflected rays only are seen on looking through the microscope, so that the object thus illumin- ated appears upon a dark ground. This method is better than the first, because both of the transmitted beams pass at equal angles to the axis of the microscope tube—or in other words, the axes of the objective and the spot-lens are coincident. On account of this the spherical corrections of the lenses are not so severely taxed; and the diffraction, or fringe of light in the object, is not rendered eccentric, but is better distributed round the edges. Ill. By Means of the Abbe Condenser—Most of you will know that this is the form of condenser almost exclusively used in Continental microscopes. It is a non-achromatic combina- tion; and whether or not the want of achromatism is against its usefulness as a sub-stage condenser, certain it is that, as a dark-ground illuminator for diatoms, its performance is not. thereby impaired. Like the spot-lens, it is lit up by rays from the mirror underneath the stage, the central rays being cut off by an opaque surface. There is, however, a decided difference in the way the exclusion is effected. Underneath the Abbe combination a circular central stop is inserted, so that the cutting off takes place in the centre of the entrant rays, whereas in the case of the spot lens the stop takes effect upon the emergent rays. Owing to the peculiar construction of the apparatus, the rays are brought to a focus almost at their emergence from the upper lens, and thus a much closer working distance is available ; or in other words, a higher power may be used without admitting transmitted rays into the objective. By this instrument the size of the stop can be regulated, and the more intense beam gives brighter illumination. The 1886-87.] as showing Peculiarities of certain Diatoms. 59 peculiar feature of the Abbe condenser is its non-achromatism, on account of which there is dispersion of the emergent rays into coloured pencils, and through the different refrangibility of the chromatic rays the focus is lengthened out along the axial line, and consists of a series of points forming a complete spectrum. Thus the red rays, being least refrangible, come to a focus at a point on the axial line farthest from the condenser, and would illuminate an object placed at that point with a monochromatic red light. Similarly the blue rays come to a focus nearest to the condenser, and would affect an object in their focus. In practice these changes are effected by moving the condenser up or down. The appearance of diatoms upon dark-ground illumination is very striking ; for, not only do we see them projected upon a dark ground in the same way that we can see foraminifera, but for the most part they present themselves either in monochro- matic light or in variegated colours—that is, some stand out in one colour only, others are lit up by several spectral colours. Now, as the light which falls upon the diatom by transmission through the condenser consists of decomposed light by virtue of the aberrations of the combination, it follows that, upon whatever horizontal plane of the spectral focus the diatom is placed, a monochromatic light will fall. Thus, as we have al- ready seen, if the diatom is placed at the focus farthest from the light, it will be illuminated by the least refrangible ray —namely red. Placed at the focus nearest to the light, the illumination will be blue—the other end of the spectrum. Or, practically speaking, by racking up the condenser you get blue light, by racking down you get red. This is the actual effect presented to the eye in the case of a great many diatoms, but with others it is not so; consequently it must be concluded that, because the reflected light does not conform to the colour of the incident ray, and that it is impossible to disperse or alter the colour of a homogeneous ray by interference, there must be something in the composition or form of the frustule itself to produce one effect. In the first place, we know that diatoms are siliceous, and this accounts for their iridescent and reflective power. For- aminifera, on the other hand, are also iridescent, but because 60 On Dark-ground [Mumination. [Sess. they are calcareous their reflective power is impaired, and no -colour is detected in their illumination by this process. The optical difference between diatoms and foraminifera is some- what the same as between ice and snow. Reflection from ice enters the eye from one extended surface at a time; when this reflection is lost you have transparency: so you have with many diatoms in certain positions of the illuminator. In snow, on the other hand, you have the same iridescent medium; but each particle throws its reflection upon its neighbour, and the appearance of opacity is created. The only theory, therefore, that I can give for the appearance of more than one colour upon certain diatoms, is that they must be possessed of an irregularity of surface sufficient to intercept two or more rays of the spec- tral focus at the same time, and that the minute planes of re- flection upon that surface are not turned towards each other, but reflect the particular ray they impinge upon straight up- wards to the objective, and thence to the eye. I have recently examined upwards of 150 different diatoms by dark-ground illumination, under powers ranging from 50 to 600 diameters,’and in doing so discovered that, when using high powers, a better result is got by placing a drop of water or glycerine between the top of the condenser and the slide. Those of you who are familiar with the theory of immersion objectives, or the principles of refraction generally, will readily understand in what way the benefit arises. Curiously enough, a few days after I had noted this effect I stumbled upon a short communication to the American ‘Micro Journal,’ 1884, in which Mr Grunow of New York points out the very same thing. From my cursory examinations I find there are many diatoms unaffected by chromatic light, and appear perfectly transparent. Of these, Navicula rhomboides may be taken as an example. Another class take on from a bluish-white to a deep blue, as, for instance, the Pleurosigmee. Others appear in orange, yellow, or green; while a select few are radiant in variegated colours. Selecting some of the most conspicuous, I find that Aulacodiscus pruinosus shows its flowery markings in bluish-white; Gomphonema geminatum in the same colour, with black dotting very distinct. The spokes and rings of. Arachnoidiscus are made to stand out in relief, the black dots are well seen, and the differences between A. ornatus, A. japon- 1886-87. | Flume’s Projection Microscope. 61 icus, and A. Ehrenbergii can easily be detected. Pleurosigina angulatum is perhaps the most beautiful diatom for this light. It varies from a milky to a deep blue; and I consider that unless where resolution is desired, this diatom should always be shown by dark-ground illumination. Pleurosigma balticum, Navicula major, Pinnularia, &c., take on the yellow, orange, or red rays. Amongst diatoms capable of reflecting variegated colours there is Podosira maxima, which is seen to consist of flat radiations (Maltese-cross fashion) ; and while the body of the diatom is of greenish blue, these radiations are tinted with purple, sienna, and yellow. On examining this frustule with ordinary means, it appears flat and uninteresting. Heliopelta is also seen to much advantage: the fine colours form a most gorgeous object. I think it a pity that there is no published account of dia- toms giving a classification with respect to their appearance under this illumination; but I feel confident that our skilled diatomists will some day be induced to take the matter up. Certain it is that any one engaged in this will have matter in hand for profound speculation as to the causes of these exqui- site diffraction spectra, and will perceive for himself that his preconceived notions of the structure and forms of many dia- toms were erroneous and misleading. [On the table were placed three microscopes giving dark-ground illum- ination in the three different methods above explained—viz., by the ordin- ary stand-condenser, the spot-lens, and the Abbe condenser. ] XIL.—HUME’S PROJECTION MICROSCOPE. By Mr Wm. HUME. (Communicated March 23, 1887.) I sHALL do my best to first describe the general mechanical and optical arrangements of this micro-lantern, and then will, I hope, be able to show you, what will be more interesting, a number of micro objects thrown on the screen from it. By means of this its actual performance will be made visible, and you will be provided with a test for judging its capabilities. Until a comparatively recent date, the demonstration of 62 Hume's Projection Microscope. [Sess. micro objects on large screens was in a very primitive state, and it is only lately that any real progress has been made. One of the great difficulties in the way of successful projection is the want of a very high illuminating power which is capable of easy manipulation. Even the lime-light, as used in the mixing burner, is insufficient for the higher objectives. In the earlier forms of lantern-microscopes, very little attempt was made to collect all the rays of light emitted from the radiant ; and, as a rule, no other condenser except the ordinary double- lantern condenser was used. Since then, however, more lenses have been introduced in this and other forms of micro-lanterns for the purpose of, as nearly as possible, concentrating the whole of the effective rays on the. object. For this purpose some provision has also to be made so as to adapt to higher and lower objectives of varying aperture. Another difficulty lies in the want of objectives specially suited to this work. The objectives which are used to-night have been picked out of a large number which, however suitable for ordinary micro- scopic work, are useless for projection. Many objectives which yield excellent results in the microscope, produce only a very small-defined circle in the centre of the screen, while the greater part of the field is very blurred. It is very difficult, indeed, to find one which gives sharp definition all over. This defect for lantern-work is fully recognised by micro-objective makers, and several are experimenting with the view of bring- ing out glasses suitable for projection. Among these are Zeiss and Wray, the former having a place fitted up, and under the direction of his son, for this special purpose. In general, the objectives used are of low power. Those which I have found best are a 2-inch Zeiss; a 1-inch Zeiss; a $-inch Crouch; and a t-inch Wray. This is about the limit possible, as even in the case of a 4-inch some objectives touch the cover-glass be- fore the object is in focus. With low-power objectives and a moderately large screen the best results are obtained. In the matter of slides suitable for projection, those are, as a rule, best which present any good contrast or decided markings or feat- ures. They do not necessarily require to be thin sections, since in the case of some very thin objects the light may be so bright that all detail will be lost, and only a white glare appear to the observer. In the mechanical arrangements of the apparatus, 1886-87. ] FTume’'s Projection Microscope. 63 the two great essentials are steadiness of the whole, so that any adjusting or focussing does not produce a visible movement on the screen; and also, it must be capable of easy and rapid ad- justment, and of picking out on the slide any part desired to be brought to the centre. In the lighting arrangements, also, steadiness and freedom from flickering, as well as easy man- ipulation, are essentials. In the apparatus before you these requirements are obtained in a very high degree, as I shall show you afterwards. These being the general principles essen- tial to successful projection, it remains for me to describe to you Mr Hume’s apparatus for obtaining them. In it the lime- light is used by means of the mixing burner, having a power of about 500 candles. This is fitted with an ordinary lime- turning arrangement, and has adjustments for bringing the light to the optical centre. This is contained in a mahogany body, iron-lined, with air-passages to keep it cool. In front of this burner is a 4-inch double condenser, consisting of a men- iscus with the concave side towards the light, and a plano- convex with the convex side to the light. This combination has a back focus of about 2 inches, and has the light set about 21 inches from it, giving slightly convergent rays. Another single 34-inch condenser, double convex, of 4$-inch focus, which is capable of adjustment, slips in a tube before this. All the rays emitted from the first condenser are taken up by. this, and are breught to a focussing-point at 4 inches from the lens, where the disc of light is about }-inch diameter. At this point the slide is introduced, where it has all the rays of light converged on it. This arrangement of condensers is used for low powers, stops being introduced for special objects to sharpen the disc, For the higher powers a third condenser is introduced, plano-convex, 12-inch diameter and 1-inch focus. ‘This possesses the function of an Abbe’s illuminator, bringing the rays to a very bright spot about } inch from the front of it. The object is held by means of clips in front of this lens, or the stops, on a steady mechanical stage, with vertical and horizontal movements. This is mounted on a tube, within which is carried the objective, which is held in a fitting cap- able of being pulled out for the insertion of other objectives. The whole is fitted with rack-and-pinion for quick focussing, and micrometer adjusting-screw, one complete turn of which moves 64 The Hare. [Sess. the objective 33, inch. For the purpose of absorbing the heat rays, an alum-bath is introduced before the first condenser, which effectually prevents any heat being communicated to the object during the transmission of the light. The whole apparatus is, for rigidity and compactness, mounted on a cast- iron base, having at one end an upright which holds the mechanical stage and objective tubes. [Mr Dixon, who read the above paper, then showed a large number of slides, including both animal and vegetable preparations, on the screen, and the clear definition and illumination of these were much appreciated by the members present. ] XIII—THE HAEE. By Mr TOM SPEEDY. (Read April 27, 1887.) In writing a paper such as the present upon any of the fauna of our country, one is apt to take for his subject the badger, the otter, the wild cat, or some other of those animals which are exceptionally rare. I have, however, chosen one of the most common of our wild animals, though modern legislation has put it in a fair way of becoming very soon as extinct as the great auk. A few years ago, several of our statesmen were clamorous for the protection of sea-gulls, which are of compara- tively little use to man, while they, in fact, by feeding to a large extent upon young fish, tend to destroy the food-supplies of the nation. That the feathered tribe should be protected during the breeding season is only justice, in the interests of humanity; but the animal from which that most enjoyable re- past, hare-soup, is made, is surely entitled to a like protection. That the hare is now in many parts subjected to slaughter dur: ing the entire year is beyond dispute ; and if steps are not forth- with taken, and a law passed to protect them during the breed- ing season, genuine hare-soup, like that of the turtle, will only be indulged in by our wealthy gourmands, or vile imitations will be palmed off upon the unwary. Notwithstanding that the hare is so well known in all parts of the country, it is un- doubted that there is a deal of popular ignorance regarding 1886-87. | The Hare. 65 many of its habits and peculiarities. I shall therefore, in the first place, direct attention to a few particulars on these points ; and as I do not profess to lay claim to infallibility, nor have any desire to indulge in dogmatism, I shall be glad to hear the criticisms of any whose opinions may not coincide with my own. There are several questions of interest to the naturalist af- fecting the hare, which I shall here put in consecutive order :— First, Do hares necessarily pair during the breeding season ? Second, How long is their period of gestation ? Third, How many do they produce at a litter? Fourth, How often do they breed in a year? Fifth, Do young hares born in March breed the same year ? As regards the first question, I am of opinion that by natural law hares pair, and I shall very briefly give my reasons for making this statement. In districts where hares are limited in numbers, they are, as a rule, in the month of February to be found in pairs lying in proximity to each other on ploughed fields or on rough sheltered grounds. I do not mean to assert that this is their invariable habit, but in places where they are undisturbed, when one is started in the conditions indicated, another at no great distance may be expected. That they pair must therefore appear manifest, but whether they keep faithful to conjugal laws is a controverted question. Rabbits, as is well known, pair, being found in holes together in the early spring; and I have seen a male rendering assistance in carrying into the hole the material for making the nest in which the female deposits her young. At the same time, I have proved, in a locality where I knew only one pair of wild rabbits existed, that by turning out at night a black and white female tame rabbit she very soon produced a litter which generally took after the wild progenitor in colour. All such cases, however, are exceptions to the general rule, though confined to no single class of animals. Secondly, regarding the period of gestation in the hare, in my opinion it is one month, or more probably nearer five weeks. I have no correct data to guide me, but have often dissected hares in the spring and found them rarely with young till the end of January. As I have noticed young hares in the end of February, and as they are quite common in March, it will thus VOL, Il. E 66 The Hare. [ Sess. be seen that the period of gestation does not, as already in- dicated, exceed five weeks. I have never kept adult hares in confinement with the view of observing their habits, which, I think, would be the only way of testing the matter under con- sideration with any degree of certainty. At the same time, I think it dangerous to rest any theory, or argue in support of any experiment, founded on the artificial conditions produced by dissociating animals from their natural environments and plac- ing them in confinement. Nature resents all such interference. Thirdly, as to the number hares produce at a litter. This is generally two, though very frequently only one. I have, how- ever, seen three and have heard of four; but, though I have skinned and dissected very many gravid hares, I have never, with only some two or three exceptions, found more than two young ones, and certainly never more than three. The fourth point, as to how often hares breed in a season, is a much-controverted question—gamekeepers and others, who have spent their lives in the country, holding a wide diversity of opinion. There are, I am persuaded, no certain data to warrant the general application of any definite theory, many circumstances and conditions falling to be considered which necessarily preclude the operation of any uniform law. There are, for instance, the nature of the climate and the abundance or scarcity of food-supplies to be taken into account. Then there is the circumstance of “puss” being allowed to luxuriate in conscious security from her enemies, or that of her being subjected to daily disturbance by farmers’ collies or miners’ lurchers, each and all of which exercise an influence in deter- mining the extent to which hares are prolific. It may safely be assumed that the natural time for hares dropping their young is in the month of March—some, of course, earlier, and others later. Still, this may be regarded as a fact which few will care to dispute. There are, I am satisfied, very many—lI would be disposed to say the greater proportion—which do not again breed that season; but there is still a considerable number, certainly not young hares, which have a second litter late in August or in the earlier part of September. I have shot hares in milk in October, although in rare instances. This, however, is no unusual thing in September—a fact which leads me to suggest that, in so far as the sportsman is concerned, hares 1886-87. ] The Flare. 67 should not be shot till the commencement of the partridge season. This remark, it will be understood, does not apply to the protection of leverets. On the fifth and last point, as to how early young hares breed, it would be rash to affirm that hares dropped late in February or early in March never breed during the same year: still such cases, if any, are, I am certain, exceedingly rare. There are several points of resemblance between the hare and the rabbit, but in this respect there is an essential difference. Having thus disposed of these physiological questions, I would now briefly advert to a few characteristic traits which I have observed in the hare. Though somewhat unusual, it sometimes happens that in the early spring hares are seen en- gaged in furious combat, like the red deer which have been immortalised by the genius of Landseer. I was once fortunate enough to witness such an encounter, which lasted about half an hour. The two rivals stood on their hind legs, and, with wonderful dexterity, hammered each other on the head and breast, tearing off the down with their fore feet; and so deeply engrossed were they in their engagement, that I managed to get within thirty yards of them unobserved. How long they had already fought I, of course, had no means of ascertaining ; but, as they seemed equally matched, I lay down and watched the result with interest. For a considerable time neither -yielded an inch to the other, but they stood, like the “Saxon and the Gael,’ in deadly strife. Besides their loud and rapid breathing, which I distinctly heard, they emitted a peculiar defiant noise, which I am afraid I am unable adequately to describe. Still the fight continued, but I could see their sides heaving and their blows becoming feebler and less desperate. At last one of them, evidently worsted, turned and galloped off, hotly pursued by his antagonist. Within fifty yards, however, they again closed, and the battle was waged as before. But it was this time of short duration, as unfortunately the barking of a shepherd’s dog, gathering the sheep in the field, caused them to scamper off into a young wood, where I have no doubt the battle would be decided. I hurried to the place where they disappeared, got up into a tree, but was disappointed in not seeing the end of this most interesting incident in Natural History. 68 The Hare. [Sess. Instances are recorded of deer, and even of the fox with all his wariness, being caught napping; and it is perhaps worthy of note that I have seen a hare sound asleep. Forming one of a shooting-party some years ago in Berwickshire, we were beat- ing a grass field, when I spied a hare in her form. Telling the sportsman next me to be ready, I walked close up to “puss,” when, to my surprise, I observed that her eyes were closed, and that she was evidently in an unconscious snooze. Calling out to the others, “ Here is a hare sleeping!” the sound of my voice in such close proximity caused her to awake, and, giving a wild stare, she bounded off. This does not comport with the general opinion that hares sleep with their eyes open. Though hares feeding is a common sight to those who live in the country, few have had opportunities of seeing them drink- ing. Once I was fortunate enough to see this, when fishing at dusk in Loch Garry. Casting down the side of the lake, I struck the heather on the bank behind me and lost the fly. Sitting down to put another on the cast, I was interested in observing two hares, one behind the other, coming down the hill towards where I sat. Keeping perfectly still, I watched their movements, and was not a little surprised to see them go close to the edge of the lake—one of them on to a large flat stone bleached white by the sun and the action of the water—and drink for a considerable time. After assuaging their thirst, they cantered up hill again and commenced to feed. Through the hare being subjected to daily danger from numerous enemies, Nature has extended to her the means of self-preservation by her senses of seeing, hearing, and smelling being all extremely acute in an equal degree. In this hares are unlike most other animals, which are dependent chiefly for protection upon one or other of the senses, as illustrated in the case of the red deer, with its marvellous power of detecting the presence of an enemy, sometimes nearly a mile distant, by its sense of smell alone. Ido not mean to assert that deer do not quickly both see and hear, especially the latter; but, as is well known, they trust much more to their sense of smell for protection. Hares are also, though in a more limited sense, dependent on their nasal organ. I have been interested, when sitting quietly under a hedge on a moonlight night, to see them feeding, and directly one got leeward of where I was, she 1886-87. | The Hare. 69 would immediately sit up for a second, then scamper off. None know this better than poachers, who, when hanging nets on gates, always take care to keep to the lee-side. I have fre- quently noticed the keen scent of hares by observing one following the track of another, sometimes after an hour had intervened. That hares are quick-sighted may be inferred from the fact that when one is discovered lying on a field—it may be hun- dreds of yards off—directly any person goes over the fence, or even stops opposite it on the road, she will at once squat closer. The quick sense of hearing in the hare is noticeable when being driven out of a wood where they had shortly before been dis- turbed, and where they may be seen stealing away at the other end, sometimes half a mile ahead. Hares trust a great deal to being passed unnoticed, and will sometimes allow people almost to trample on them before making off. When one is squatted in a field, and the sports- man goes straight towards where she is concealed, she will very frequently rise out of shot. Human intelligence, how- ever, 1s superior to animal instinct, and when one is seen in its form, the sportsman, by circling round as if going to pass her, will get within easy range. Another peculiarity by which the hare very frequently makes good her escape is by doubling back on her tracks, and thus throwing dogs off the scent. In my boyhood I was frequently surprised at seeing harriers and beagles “full cry” on a burning scent, when, all at once, the “music” would cease, and the sport was brought to an abrupt termination. I was, however, fortu- nate one day in having the mystery unexpectedly solved. The harriers were out, and hares being plentiful, they were very soon “full ery.” I climbed a tree in order to have a good view of the sport. It was not long before I descried the hare, a long distance in advance of the hounds, coming near to where I was concealed. “Puss” galloped up the centre of a field, then sud- denly stopped, sat up, and for a second, with pricked ears listened to the distant full ery of the hounds. Instantly she wheeled round and galloped back for a couple of hundred yards exactly where she had come up, then struck off at right angles down wind, and speedily disappeared from view. I then turned my attention to the hounds and riders, who were fast approach- 70 The Flare. [Sess. ing, and wondered if they would discover the manceuvre, or follow up to where the hare had doubled. I was not long kept in suspense, for, on the hounds getting through the hedge, they took up the double scent, giving tongue as if vying with each other which would be the loudest. A number of ladies and gentlemen came galloping up, evidently enjoying the sport. In an instant the music of the hounds had ceased, horses were sud- denly pulled up, and disorder and disappointment ensued. I am almost ashamed to confess that I betrayed the secret of poor “puss,” which conscience told me should have been kept sacred. Again the hounds were “full cry” on the trail, and, taking ad- vantage of some elevated ground, I watched the remainder of the hunt. Several checks were made, and the hounds seemed baffled; but, unfortunately for the hare, some of the “field” or an onlooker would yell out a “tally-ho,” and the chase con- tinued. The instinct and cunning displayed by “ puss” were therefore of no avail, and now, struggling up the furrow of a ploughed field, the hounds ‘from scent to view” speedily ter- minate the chase, and tear their victim to pieces, making a savoury meal of her remains as the reward of their persistent pursuit. The hare almost invariably doubles back on her track for fifty or a hundred yards, then makes a spring of six or eight feet down wind, and goes a short distance before settling for the day in an open field. So strongly are hares endowed with this instinct that, as I have observed after a snow shower in April, it is practised by leverets a few weeks old. One word on the cruelty of greyhound coursing in the months of February and March. The trusty shepherd is ever jealously on the watch to prevent any strange dog from crossing the field among his flock during the lambing season, as causing sheep to run at this time is known to havea prejudicial effect. Coursing hares, therefore, in similar circumstances is cruel in the extreme. Should any Bill be introduced into Parliament providing close- time for hares, care should be taken to protect them from being coursed by greyhounds during the months referred to, so that there would thus be an end put to a species of cruelty which must be deprecated by all humane and thoughtful persons. 1886-87.] Swallows and Starlings Feeding in Concert. 71 XIV.—SWALLOWS AND STARLIINGS FEEDING IN CONCERT. By Mr A. B, HERBERT, (Read April 27, 1887.) A RATHER curious coincidence came under my notice on the 14th of August last, while on a visit at a country-house in Warwickshire. I had observed that the “Daddy long-legs” or erane-flies (Tipula oleracea) were most abundant just at that time—indeed it was impossible to walk in the pastures without arousing these insects at almost every step—and on one of my customary walks about the grounds before breakfast, I saw over the garden hedge a large flock of starlings sitting and stretching out in a long line across a meadow, and working against the wind in a very methodical manner, as is their usual custom, those in the rear flying over the others and settling again in front, and in this manner beating over the whole length of the field. Immediately the starlings settled, a vast concourse of swallows appeared on the scene, and these kept flitting about in a long line just over the heads of the starlings, and feeding on the crane-flies which the starlings disturbed from the grass. Thus the flocks of birds of two very diverse species and habits kept in parallel lines over the whole pasture, feeding in concert ; and when the starlings, on approaching the hedge, rose up in a body and wheeled round for another beat, the swallows followed them, and commenced again flitting just over their heads ina similar manner as before. I watched these peculiar proceed- ings with much interest till the breakfast-bell summoned me indoors. Whether the starlings were eating the “daddies,” or searching for grubs, &c., in the grass, I could not distinctly ascertain, but as to the food of the swallows there could be no doubt, and it appeared to me an intelligent act on their part to avail themselves of the services of the starlings in procuring what we well know is a favourite article of swallow diet; and when we consider how destructive to the crops of farmers and gardeners these insects are in their larva stage, we cannot over- estimate the value and importance of the services rendered by these most useful birds. From their peculiar toughness these 72 Fawside or Falside Castle. _ [Sess. larve are in some districts called “leather-jackets” ; and as an illustration of their destructive habits, Kirby and Spence state that “in the year 1813 hundreds of acres of pasture were entirely destroyed by them, being rendered as completely brown as if they had suffered a three months’ drought, and destitute of all vegetation except a few thistles, and when a’ square foot of dead turf was dug up, 210 grubs were counted on it.’ Curtis also mentions a case at Southall where two crops of mangel-wurzel plants were utterly destroyed by them. Pheasants are known to be great devourers of these larve. Mr Melton of Great Marlborough Street states that he once took from the crop of a cock pheasant the almost incredible number of 852 of these destructive grubs. A female crane-fly lays about 300 eggs. I may mention that almost all the swallows I saw were Hirundo rustica, but there were also among them a few of the species H. urbica. At this meeting Mr Hugh Fraser, of Leith Walk Nursery, made a few remarks on the “ Oaks of the World,” illustrated by a large collection of herbarium specimens of oak leaves, divided into four main groups—viz., British, Continental, American, and ‘Chinese (including Japanese). XV.—FAWSIDE OR FALSIDE CASTLE. By T. A. DOUGLAS WOOD, F.S.A.Scozr. (Read May 25, 1887.) Since I last had the honour of submitting a paper before your meeting, I have frequently intended to take up and study the history of the ancient royal burgh of Musselburgh, and become acquainted with its many relics—for, be it remembered, though now it lies in a semi-dormant condition as if removed far from the stir of a busy metropolis, the time was when its streets were thronged with the soldiers of the Roman occupation, and in later times with those who fought for the beautiful Mary and 1886-87.] Fawside or Falside Castle. 73 the Young Pretender. Not far from its borders were two battles fought of the greatest interest and importance to Scotland. Musselburgh, then, is ancient, and much could be written about it and its surroundings, the difficulty being to condense the material in hand so as to form a concise sketch. It is my intention to submit from time to time short notices, giving what particulars I may be able to lay my hands on regarding such names as Loretto, Elphinston, Pinkie, Inveresk Church, the Town Hall, and, if I may include within its pale the neigh- bouring parish of Tranent, the names of Fawside or Falside Castle and Morrison’s Haven. To-night, then, my subject will be Falside, or more properly Ffauside or Fawside Castle. It stands seven and a half miles from Edinburgh Castle as the crow flies, two from Tranent ina westerly direction, the same from the Forth or Musselburgh on the south, and one from Elphinston Tower on the north-east. Standing as it does on an eminence, it can be seen from a great distance, and for the same reason those who used to inhabit it could descry friends or foes long before they reached its pre- cincts. I have long desired to learn who were its occupants and what was its history, but not till lately have I been able to get any information except what is to be found in any school history—viz., that here, or on the brae below, was fought the famous battle of Pinkie, and from here also Mary Queen of Scots watched the progress of the battle of Carberry Hill, which proved so disastrous for her. Little, then, is known of those who in earlier times defended its walls, but what is known leads one to the belief that they were hard, brave men—inclined to live peaceably with all around them, but if once roused it would be difficult to say what the consequences would be. Its date cannot go further back than the eleventh or twelfth century. M‘Gibbon and Ross, in ‘The Castellated and Domestic Archi- tecture of Scotland, lately published, give the latter part of the fourteenth century, but a deed has been found with the name of William de Ffauside as witness in the reign of David I, in the twelfth century. From this time down to the sixteenth cen- tury abundant evidence has been adduced connecting the chain of the Ffausides by the granting of deeds and mortgages. To take a few examples :— In the twelfth century a charter was granted by David I. to 74 Fawside or Falside Castle. [Sess. Thor of Tranent of certain lands, which was witnessed by Ed- — mondo de Ffauside. Another, in the time of William the Lion, Gilberto de Ffauside, witnessed a charter of the monastery of St Maria of Newbattle. In 1246 Donatius Sybald witnessed a charter by De Quincy, Count de Wynton, to Adam of Seaton, de maritago heredes Alani de Faside. Seven years thereafter this same Alan bound himself to pay to the monks of Dunfermline yearly the sum of “ quinque solidas argenti.” In 1371 William de Seaton granted to John de Fawside, for true and faithful ser- vice, the whole lands of Wester Fauside in the barony of Trau- ernent—a gift which was confirmed by King Robert IL. on the 20th of June. Again, in 1425, William of Fawside and Marjorie Fleming his spouse obtained the lands of Tolygart; and the lands of Wester Fawside were confirmed to John of that Ik in June 1472. John Fawside married Margaret, daughter of Sir John Swinton of that Ilk, and at his death she became prioress of the Cistercian nunnery of Elcho. The family is now extinct. The nearest lands to the east were those of Preston, belonging to a kinsman of the Fawsidians, Hamilton by name. With them, as with all those around them, the Fawsidians lived in the greatest concord and friendship up to or near the year 1520. At this time disputes and misunderstandings arose between the two families regarding the removal of certain landmarks on the estate of Preston. The Fawsidians were charged with the offence, which was indignantly repudiated. Occasionally, too, there would be a raid made into each other’s keeps, and depredation committed. These did not improve matters, but nothing of a serious description took place, nor was blood shed between them, till about 1540, when matters became more ‘serious and complicated. There happened to be a small stream not far from the estates—indeed it flowed between the two, and served to water the cattle of both. As ill-luck would have it, the Prestonian cattle became suddenly sick, and many died. What was the cause of this sickness? The cattle had been quite well till within a day or two; now they suddenly dropped off. Had any one been seen near them? Their kins- men the Fawsidians had, and the conclusion was that it was they who had poisoned the upper waters, for none of their cattle had as yet, at any rate, been so afflicted. Retaliation must take 1886-87. | Fawside or Falside Castle. 75 place, and that immediately ; so the warders at Fawside were surprised and killed, and the gates and walls burned. The Fawsidians, now thoroughly roused by so daring an act of injustice, could stand matters no longer. Accordingly the great bell was rung, and a council of war summoned: nothing but the sound of the war-horn was heard. Arrangements being settled, the next evening a strong select band was to be seen emerging about midnight from the gates, and treading gently, first to the east, and then, turning suddenly northwards, they slipped down by the Whinney Loan. Evading, if possible, Dol- phinston Tower, they arrive at Preston before ever those near at hand knew of their presence. Having performed their murder- ous purpose, they as quickly and quietly disappear. These were, however, but the works of skirmishers, for on the next day both parties ranged their respective hosts, and nothing was to be heard but the noise of arms, each party thirsting for the other’s blood. The Fawsidians, of course, were there to a man, led by their old chieftain, whose lady (a warlike woman) was left in the keep to defend it with the last drop of blood. It need not be stated that the battle was a fierce one: the prejudices and feel- ings engendered during the years gone by, with many raids and incursions that had taken place during these times, all culmin- ated here; a decisive blow was now to be given, and each strove to give it. From east to west the forces came down heavily on each other, until at one time it seemed as if the Hamiltons were to have the worst of it. In time, after the battle had been waged hot and sore without much difference being made on the Preston side, Hamilton was seen to make a move to the east from the thickest part, and gain some ground. Old Fawside, anxious to meet him, pressed forward, and thus isolated himself from his followers. He was slain, and they, beholding their chief lying on the ground, fled. Thus the battle was ended. But what about the result? Had the cattle been poisoned? No; the Fawsidian herd also took the same sick- ness and died, and on proper inquiry being made, murrain was found to be the cause. Thus if a little forethought had been taken on both sides, and especially on that of the former, and. inquiry into the cause been made, much bloodshed might have been saved, and the Laird of Fawside would have been spared at least to die in a nobler cause. When the real cause had been 76 Fawside or Falside Castle. [Sess. ascertained, and no further doubt existed, Hamilton, like a man, went to Fawside and apologised to the widow for slaying her husband, and tried to make amends for what had been done in hot haste. To their honour no fresh outbreak of the kind ever took place again, so far as we can hear. Let us hope that before any dispute on so trivial a matter took so serious a turn, they would weigh the evidence better than they had done before. Seven years have come and gone, and during that time the inmates of Fawside, and those near them, I doubt not plodded on their way quietly and cheerily, tending their flocks, sowing their seed, and reaping their harvests. There was nothing to disturb them. But the time did come when the sound of trum- pet and roll of cannon were again heard. The crown of England was worn at the time by Edward VI. Negotiations had been made for the marriage of the young Queen Mary of Scotland with Edward; but these failing, war was proclaimed to compel the Scotch to submit. Accordingly an army crossed the Borders and marched on Edinburgh, Somerset being the Protector dur- ing the English minority, and the Earl of Arran Regent during the Scotch. The Scotch sent an army to meet the invaders, and both met about two miles from Musselburgh, on the ridge of ground just above Pinkie and close to Fawside. It was just seven years since old Fawside lost his life at Preston, and one could have wished he had lived to this time. On the 9th Sep- tember 1547 a renewal of hostilities took place; it was but the precursor of the more bloody battle of the morrow. If more bloody, it was less fierce than that waged in 1540. The com- batants were the English and Scotch; then it was between two kinsmen and neighbours. The English the next day renewed the fight, and as both parties waxed hotter and hotter in the fray, the scene lay in time around the castle, which at length had to stand a siege. On the ramparts might be seen the re- tainers and body-guard dving what was in their power to beat back their foes. Commanded by Lady Fawside, the widow of the same old Fawside, as each charge of the English was made she and her followers would stoop and throw over volleys of large stones, working considerable havoc on those beneath, while others would occasionally make a sortie from the gate. This continued till the English, tired of the siege, set the castle on 1886-87. | Fawside or Falside Castle. 77 fire—the brave old lady preferring to die among the ruins of her ancestral home rather than flee, only to be captured and killed by her enemies. I need not enter further into the details of the struggle—it is well known to all; suffice it to say that, though victorious, the English gained nothing, for Mary was secretly sent across to France, there to be married to the Dauphin. After this, Fawside was rendered for a time at least useless as a dwelling. By-and-by, however, it recruited itself, its massive walls and arched roof saving it from utter destruction. Of its after-history we know little or nothing. Twenty years elapse, and we find in Pitcairn that a Thomas Fawside signed a bond of association for defending the coronation and govern- ment of the young King James VI. against his mother, and in 1570 he formed one of the assize for the trial of Carkittle of Moreless for treason. In 1616 the servant of James Fawside was “delated for the crewl murder (slaughter) of umquhile John Fawside, in the house of Fawside, with a knife or dagger, on the 10th of November.” For this offence he suffered the ex- treme penalty at Edinburgh Castle. In 1631 Robert of Faw- side is found to be on the commission for augmenting the stipend of the minister of Inveresk. Some years thereafter the estate was sold to one of the name of Hamilton in Edinburgh. In 1666 James, eldest son of the deceased Fawside, witnesses a charter of George Earl of Haddington. He seems to be the last of the race of Fawside of Fauside. I now come to the second part of my paper, and it will be brief—viz., the description of the building itself and its archi- tecture. M‘Gibbon and Ross, in their interesting work already mentioned, rank Falside as a keep extended into a mansion, and put it down to the Third period, which period, they say, “ began with the fifteenth century.” Our authors continue: “About that time a few castles began to be erected on a different model from that of the keep tower. These consisted of buildings surrounded by a courtyard or quadrangle. The great castle of Doune, built by the Regent Murdoch, Duke of Albany, is of this description. The powerful castle of Tantallon, which also belonged to the Duke of Albany, and the rebuilding of Dirleton and Caerlaverock (both destroyed by Edward I.), were likewise carried out on this plan.” The original building, then, or that which existed before or at 78 Fawside or Falside Castle. [Sess. the time of the battle of Pinkie, was 39 feet 4 inches by 30 feet 7 inches over the walls, and contains four storeys, the upper being vaulted. The height to the under side of the vault is 41 feet 7 inches, and the entrance is by a round arched doorway to the north. On the ground-floor was the keep, on the first floor the common hall, and on the second the original great hall. The addition, evidently built after the battle, when the buildings were restored, contains on the ground-floor a kitchen with large fireplace nearest the keep on the one side, and another small one at the opposite. Above on the first floor, immediately above the kitchen, is the dining-hall, also with large fireplace: there is off this room a good - sized private apartment, at the end of which, on the west, there has been a window, splayed out like our own bow, in order to allow the inmates as good a view of Edinburgh and the district as possible. On the second floor of this building we have above the dining-hall two bedrooms, and also one above the private room. Off the first of the two bedrooms there was a small closet sufficiently large to admit a bed: here, too, was situated, a little to the west, a hiding-hole 3 feet 6 inches under the closet floor. These additions to the castle extend southwards, and measure 41 feet in length—indicating, according to M‘Gibbon, a distinct advance in house-planning. The walls are 10 to 12 feet at base, and range from 44 to 6 feet thick. The gable-ends at the south were turreted, and range about 50 feet in height. There is a building, or the ruins of one, to the south of the castle. Whether it belonged to it, or was merely a house built for a dependant, I cannot say; it, however, bears the date of 1618, with the initials “I. F. 1. L.” I. F. is supposed to be John Fawside, to whose memory a tablet is erected in Tranent Parish Church. “The mode in which the additions have been made at Falside,” say M‘Gibbon and Ross, “is somewhat peculiar, resembling rather an addition of modern times than of old. In the six- teenth century an old keep was generally extended by the addi- tion of single buildings round a courtyard, but here we have an addition made so as to render the whole building, old and new, one solid block.” There used to be a considerable village near at hand, at the base of the hill, numbering 145 of a population. They were principally composed of the mining class, and worked in the 1886-87.] List of Less Common Plants. 79 coal-fields of Prestongrange or the distillery of St Clement’s Wells. This was in the year 1791. The castle itself is now in the Prestongrange family, who have come to it through their maternal ancestors, the Setons, Earls of Hyndford. M‘Neil, in his ‘ History of Tranent, thus describes his feelings as he enters these ruins, and with it I conclude: “As we enter the ruins the sensation becomes even more intense: we think how our feet now tread the same rough floor on which the Fawsidians of old were wont to stand, and that we gaze out from the same strong iron-stanchioned windows at which the lords and ladies of the fortalice used to wait and watch with heart and hand, ever ready to welcome a friend or oppose the incursions of an enemy; and as we musingly seek to recall the loud laughter, the grim jest, or the merry song of those stern but jovial retainers sitting round the wassail-bowl on a blithe Yule F’en, or anon cracking their jokes while tightening their girths and sharpening their swords for the bloody encounter of the morrow, spectres innumerable of the departed heroes we seem to see peering round every corner, or gazing out from every dark nook, eagerly listening to the footfall or keenly watching the scrutinising eye of the daring intruder on their ancient domain. Nothing, however, is seen, save the wicked leer of some limping old rat as he hies from one hiding-place to another, or heard save the gentle cooing of the timid stock - dove hurriedly taking its flight through the crumbling archway overhead.” XVI.—ZLIST OF THE LESS COMMON PLANTS G.ATH- ERED AT THE EXCURSIONS DURING 1886 AND 1887, WITH LOCALITIES. By Mr ANDREW MOFFAT, Srcrerary.! Thalictrum minus L. Caroline Park. Ranunculus auricomus L. Roslin. Cerastium arvense L. This plant I was able to gather abundantly in the Queen’s Park on Ist June 1887. 1 Former lists will be found in ‘ Transactions,’ vol. i. pp. 254, 298, 80 The Diatoms of Linlithgow Loch. [Sess. Stellaria glauca With. This very rare plant in the Edinburgh district was gathered abundantly at Philpstoun Loch on 3d July 1886. Pyrus Aria L. Arthur’s Seat. Chrysosplenium alternifolium L. Auchendinny and Roslin. C. oppositifolium L. Auchendinny and Roslin. Parnassia palustris L. Pentlands near Clubbiedean. Adoxa Moschatellina L. Firth Woods, Roslin. Senecio aquaticus Huds. Duddingston. Vinca minor L. Roslin; naturalised. Littorella lacustris L. Philpstoun Loch. Veronica montana L. Firth Woods. V. scutellata L. Philpstoun Loch. Bartsia Odontites Huds. Pentlands between Clubbiedean and Currie, and in the neighbourhood of Balerno. Alisma Plantago L. Philpstoun Loch. Butomus umbellatus L. Duddingston Loch; introduced. Sparganium ramosum Huds. Duddingston Loch. Typha latifolia L. Duddingston Loch. Asplenium septentrionale Hull. Arthur’s Seat. Polypodium Phegopteris L. Tynehead, Habbie’s Howe, Auch- endinny. P. Dryopteris L. Tynehead, Auchendinny. XVIL—THE DIATOMS OF LINLITHGOW LOCH. By Mr JOHN LINDSAY. (Read May 25, 1887.) At the Society’s excursion to Linlithgow on the 30th ult., it occurred to some of the members of the Biological Section that a few: samples of water from the loch might be taken, to be afterwards examined under the microscope. It was be- lieved that a number of very interesting forms of “low life” were present in this loch: indeed, a few years ago Mr Pearcey, of the Challenger Commission, made an investigation on this 1886-87. | The Diatoms of Linlithgow Loch. 81 point, more particularly of the Ostracoda, from dredgings fur- nished by the son of the late Prof. Sir Wyville Thomson, when fourteen species of crustaceans alone were found, be- sides several other minute forms. It is well known, however, that “pond life” is very capricious, some species being found at one time in great abundance, while at another these may be almost entirely absent, and their place filled by others, and this altogether irrespective of the season of the year. It was therefore determined to take some samples from the loch, and a few bottles were filled from a boat in shallow water,—taking care to include not only some of the mud or ooze, but also sub- merged plants which had rusty - brown parasitic growths on them, as these growths were in all probability diatomaceous in character. When examined afterwards under the microscope, many beautiful specimens of Rotifera and Vorticellee were ob- served, besides entomostraca, amcebze, and numerous diatoms. Unfortunately, after a few days most of these interesting organ- isms began to disappear, probably for want of proper nourish- ment, or because of the small quantity of water in which they had been gathered ; and by-and-by little or nothing was left but the indestructible siliceous frustules of the diatoms which had been seen shortly before under the microscope in the living state, moving through the water. It was therefore determined to secure these frustules, so as to preserve them in a permanent form; and Messrs Pearcey and Rattray kindly lent their valu- able aid in preparing and naming the specimens. The result is, that to-night no fewer than twenty-three named forms are shown under the microscope, while there are several others which have not yet been identified. The full list is appended, showing that Gomphonema is represented by five species and varieties; Navicula by four; Cymbella, Diatoma, Fragilaria, and Synedra by two each; while other forms of fresh-water diatoms are also present, including the beautiful star-shaped Asterionella formosa. These diatoms are all, of course, very minute, requiring a high power of the microscope in order to examine them—fresh-water forms, as a rule, being smaller than those found in salt water. Additional species and varieties of diatoms are doubtless present in the loch, and those members who turn their attention to this subject are recommended to make further investigations, as opportunity offers. VOL. II. ee 82 Grouse Disease. (Sess: The following is the list of diatoms now exhibited :— Achnanthes exilis, Kiitz. Gomphonema olivaceum, var. vul- Asterionella formosa, Hassal. garis, Grun. Cocconeis placentula, Ehr. " olivaceum, var. sub- Cymbella cistula, Hempr. ramosum, Kiitz. " cistula maculata, Kiitz. Melosira, sp. Diatoma elongatum, Ag. Navicula gracilis, Ehr., var. 1 vulgare, Bory. " major, Kiitz. Encyonema ventricosum, Kiitz., var. 1 pelliculosa, Hilse. minuta, Van Heurck. 1 sp. (apparently similar to Fragilaria mutabilis, var. elliptica,| the unnamed form figured by Schum. Schmidt (pl. 47, fig. 22) from near " virescens, Ralfs. York). Gomphonema capitatum, Ehr. Synedra ulna, var. danica, Kiitz. " dichotomum, Kiitz. » ulna, var. vitrea, Kiitz. " olivaceum, Ehr. Tabellaria fenestrata, Kiitz. At this meeting Mr Hugh Fraser made some remarks on the subject of “Fasciation,” as found more particularly in the Ash, exhibiting at the same time several interesting examples of this curious abnormal growth. Mr A. Frazer also exhibited and described certain objectives constructed by Mr Edward Swift of London. The lenses were submitted to the Society on the ground that they combined high quality with moderation in price. The objectives submitted were of 34-inch and }-inch focus, and an immersion (water) objective of :-inch focus. The last mentioned lens cost but £3, 15s., and the others were equally moderate in price. At the close of the meeting an opportunity was given of examining the lenses. XVIII GROUSE DISEASE. By Mr TOM SPEEDY. (Read June 22, 1887.) From the interest taken in grouse disease by all sportsmen and naturalists, it has occurred to me that a paper on this subject might not be unacceptable to the members of this Society. I confess to be one of those who regard these period- 1886-87. | Grouse Disease. 83 ical outbreaks of disease among the grouse with concern. For the last quarter of a century I have been interested in study- ing the haunts, habits, and peculiarities of all kinds of game in Scotland, as well as the ravages of this malignant distemper among grouse. I therefore propose to deal shortly with the history and origin of the grouse disease, and to add a few words in the way of suggesting a remedy for it. First, as to the history of the disease. It is difficult to say when this dreaded malady first made its appearance, but so early as in the ‘Sporting Magazine’ for October 1817, a para- graph appeared stating that “an extraordinary disease has lately spread more havoc among the grouse in the north of Scot- land than the double-barrelled guns of the numerous sports- men. The birds are found dead on the hills in great numbers, and in a state of extenuation, as if they had perished from hunger.” It would be a mistake to suppose that the disease did not prevail prior to this period. Indeed it may have exhibited itself centuries before. This is by no means improbable, in view of the considerations that the value of grouse and grouse moors was then of little account, and that the means of dissem- inating information were at that time of a meagre kind. Be that as it may, it is now a matter of history that since the time referred to there have been periodic visitations of the epidemic, and, though differing in many respects, it is similar in this, that it is generally fatal in its character. In 1838 the disease attracted considerable attention south of the Forth, proving specially virulent in Lanarkshire and on the western extremities of the Pentland range. Again, in 1867, there was a more wide- spread visitation, the malignant and destructive character of which stimulated an inquiry into its nature and causes; but, like all subsequent investigations, this one was without any practical result, in so far as the remote or originating cause of the distemper was concerned. The next serious recurrence of the epidemic was in 1873. In the preceding year grouse were exceptionally numerous, but so fatal was the visitation that whole tracts of country were swept by the plague. The first time the disease obtruded itself upon my personal attention was in 1867, in that wild and mountainous tract of moorland between Blair Athole and Kingussie. On that occasion it proved alarmingly fatal, sweeping whole mountain ranges as 84 Grouse Disease. [Sess if by a fiery scourge, leaving few parts of the country unscathed by its desolating influence. For virulence and prevalence in all parts of Scotland, the grouse disease of that year was quite unprecedented; and whether it was a new kind of disease, or the former disease in a more aggravated shape, competent scientific authorities were divided in opinion. In previous attacks the birds were all externally wasted and “drageled,” as if they had been starved to death; and a characteristic of the disease was the plucked appearance about the eyes and legs,— grouse in a healthy state being feathered to the claws. I must confess my inability to explain why, on their being smitten with disease, the legs should so speedily become denuded of feathers. Second, as to the origin of the disease. Though I have read almost every article that has been written upon this subject, aud spared no amount of effort to ascertain the originating cause of this dire calamity, I must confess that I am as yet ignorant of its primary origin. Notwithstanding the several conflicting theories that have, from time to time, been dogmati- cally submitted, and the pretentious claims of self-confident discoverers of the cause of the malady under discussion, I am persuaded that those remote forces, or germs, which /irst assail the healthy bird, are up to the present hour a profound mystery. What may be the results of the experiments and investigations undertaken by M. Pasteur I shall not anticipate; but if he shall be able to solve this mysterious problem, he, with the Editor of ‘Land and Water, will have earned the gratitude, not merely of naturalists and sportsmen, but of the entire commun- ity. There are those superficial thinkers who direct attention to the parasites which are found in incredible numbers in diseased grouse, and who triumphantly point to these as the cause of death. More recent discoverers point to the unhealthy condition of the blood, and affirm this to be the cause of death. But why those parasites? and why that condition of the blood ? are questions which press for solution, in the absence of which we have no explanation worthy of the name. The eating of frosted heather, overstocking, the disturbance of the balance of nature, wet seasons, dry seasons, feeding on corn in late harvests, and the outrageous theory of the grouse picking up lead pellets on heavily-shot moors, are each in their turn sub- 1886-87. | Grouse Disease. 85 mitted as the cause of those internal and diseased conditions of the grouse, but any evidence we have in support of these theories is absolutely nil. The first of these supposed causes of the grouse disease, that of eating frosted heather, is so prominently and plausibly urged that it calls for a passing notice. It is argued by those who advocate this theory that on those moors where burning is not practised the heather becomes old and “ fushionless, ” and when subjected to the frost, lacks nutriment, and is thus responsible for lowering the vitality of the birds. This theory is invested with a reasonableness which doubtless accounts for its being by many readily accepted; but a close examination of facts and conditions disposes of it in common with the others I have referred to. Some years ago I found the disease exceptionally fatal in Tweedsmuir, where rank old heather was very rare, and where young fresh heather was abundant. This in itself was sufficient to shake my faith in the frosted heather theory. The accuracy of my convictions has very recently received confirma- tion. A few days ago I made a tour of investigation along the base of the Pentlands. Last year I knew the grouse to be very plentiful, more especially along that watershed where the river Lyne takes its rise. I know few moors that have been more extensively burned, and where young fresh heather is more abundant. What, then, are the facts amid such condi- tions? There are few places where the disease has been more general, and more fatal in its consequences. Diseased birds were found in incredible numbers dead by the water-courses, one shepherd having observed that during his lifetime he had seen many visitations of the grouse disease, but in no case did he ever see anything approaching to it for malignity than dur- ing the present season. On asking him if the disease still con- tinued, he replied that during the last week or two it appeared to have ceased, but it was only after the birds had disappeared ! Another shepherd in the same district informed me that although on the moors daily, he had only seen one young bird during the entire season. It would be difficult to find a more conclusive reply to the advocates of the “frosted heather” theory than is here presented. Had time permitted, I would have referred somewhat in detail to those other theories mentioned, although less reason- 86 Grouse Disease. [Sess. able and important. Any one present interested in any of these, will find them discussed and disposed of in my recent work on sport and natural history. Setting aside all these theories as most unsatisfactory, personally I cannot divest my mind of the notion that the cause of this mysterious epidemic is largely atmospheric, and pertains to a class of diseases in the animal and vegetable world which have as yet baffled the researches of the most skilled scientific investigators. May it not reasonably be supposed that there is an affinity—not in the nature, but in the unseen causes in which the cattle plague may origin- ate? Mark, I do not say so; but surely the supposition is admissible. I can remember a number of beautiful cows, belonging to my friend and neighbour, Mr Jack, of Liberton, which I often admired as they grazed in an adjoining park. After having one evening had them shut up in his byres, he retired to rest, but on the following morning he discovered that during the night the place had been visited by a destroying angel, and in little more than a week thirty-four out of thirty- five cows succumbed to the insidious malady. Similar attacks have manifested themselves in the vegetable world. Those of you who have lived in the country must have seen and admired the growth of a field of potatoes, few things being more beauti- ful when in full bloom. Everything indicates an excellent crop, and the farmer’s prospects look bright. Without warn- ing, however, “like a thief in the night,’ a mysterious agent visits the field, and in the morning it is discovered that the entire crop has been smitten with disease, leaving them black- ened, and with an odour which is most offensive. Here, I ask, if the originating forces—spores, germs, or call them what you will—are not present in the atmosphere, where are they? Mr Jack, just referred to, informed me that both his father and his father-in-law were victims to cholera at Cambuslang about thirty years ago, and that the development of the disease was striking in its resemblance to that which proved so fatal among his cows. As already indicated, I have given considerable attention to the subject in hand, and have, in conjunction with competent professional authorities, dissected scores of grouse, old as well as young, in all stages of this fatal epidemic. Since the present outbreak of the malady, I have had specimens sent me from 1886-87. | Grouse Disease. 87 different parts of the southern counties, and I was interested to note that in some districts cocks seemed to suffer more than hens, and in others exactly the opposite. A gentleman from Peeblesshire writes, “Is it not singular that no cocks have been found dead? One old cock last week remained beside his dead mate a whole day, strutting round and near her, and evidently doing his best to attract her attention.” With the same post I received a letter from a gamekeeper in Lanarkshire, who stated, “The grouse are dying here thick and fast. They are generally about burn-sides, and mostly old cocks.” Receiv- ing numerous similar statements, and getting specimens for- warded from different parts, I subjected them to a searching examination. The result only corroborated the examinations of previous years, no new facts being elicited. At the same time, I received specimens of healthy birds from Mr Campbell, game- keeper to A. J. Balfour, Esq., in Strathconan forest, in Ross- shire, and specimens of diseased ones sent alive from Mr Stewart, gamekeeper to Sir Edward Colebrook, Abington, Lan- arkshire, for purposes of comparison. The internal organs of the healthy and diseased birds corresponded in all particulars, with the exception of the intestines. In the healthy birds I found both strongyli and tenia calva, though in very limited numbers, and from which they seemed in no way to suffer. The diseased birds were externally of a wasted and emaciated appearance, and as bare about the legs as a plover, with the breast-bone almost cutting the skin. Only a few tenia calva were to be seen; but I discovered millions of strongyli in the cecum, and which would undoubtedly have caused death in a short time had the birds not been killed. On examining some specimens forwarded from Ayrshire, I found them plump and fat, perfect and beautiful in their plumage, and feathered down to the very claws. In them I discovered that death was trace- able to parts of the bowel being literally packed with tania calva, and being so inflamed as to constitute a species of gangrene around this loathsome parasite. I have here an illustration which proves beyond question that the immediate cause of death was that which I have indicated. Here, also, are a large number —millions I should say—of strongle taken from the cecum of an emaciated grouse. I am, therefore, of opinion that the mortality of plump fat birds is caused by tenia calva, and in thin ema- 88 Grouse Disease. [Sess. ciated birds by strongylus pergracelus ; but in view of both being found in healthy birds from Ross-shire, where disease has not been seen for years, we are forced to the conclusion that they are the natural parasite of the grouse. Why, then, should they cause death? Simply by a lowering of the vitality by some occult cause: the birds become weakened, the tone of their digestive organs and intestines lowered, and the internal action ot the organisms is finally arrested. In such circumstances, it is apparent that increased mortality is inevitable. Looking back upon these investigations, it is a significant fact that it is only in connection with the digestive organs that any departure is found from the condition of health, and in this respect the grouse disease clearly shows its aftinity to those diseases for- merly referred to. What can be done for the preservation of the grouse from this subtle distemper, is the question which presses itself upon the attention of all sportsmen and naturalists. While it may be impossible altogether to avert the malady, I feel sanguine ‘that it might be modified. By a change of stock all over the country, there is no doubt that the general health of the birds would be vastly improved, and one of those forces in nature— viz., close breeding, which invariably tends to the deterioration of the species, would be counteracted, and an impulse given to the healthy and vigorous development of the stock. Were ~ keepers to attend to this by a fair exchange of eggs and young birds from one district of the country to another at a consider- able distance, I feel assured they would be amply repaid. This suggestion is no merely speculative proposal. It is an experi- ment which has been repeatedly acted upon by the Duke of Hamilton in transferring grouse from his Lanarkshire moors to the Island of Arran, with the best possible results. At this meeting Mr A. Frazer, M.A., read a short communi- cation from Mr John Turnbull, Galashiels, describing his process of taking photo-micrographs. It was explained that Mr Turnbull’s apparatus consisted only of his microscope and a packing-case, and that by these appliances he was able to produce excellent photo-micrographs. Some specimens of Mr Turnubull’s work were exhibited, and were much admired by the members present. 1886-87.| Meetings of Microscopic Section. 89 MEETINGS OF MICROSCOPIC SECTION. THE Microscopic Section has now been put on a more firm basis than heretofore, with a Secretary and two Assistant Secretaries as office-bearers. For the past Session these were: Mr A. Frazer, M.A., Secretary; Mr J. Lindsay, Assistant Secretary, Biological department; and Mr J. D. Murray, Assis- tant Secretary, Optical department. The Session was opened by a Business Meeting, when office-bearers were appointed and the course of study for the Session was mapped out; and it was closed by a General Meeting of both departments, when the work done throughout the Session was reviewed, sugges- tions were made for future operations, and a statement as to funds was given in. The bi-monthly Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society is now also provided for the use of the members, and it is hoped that similar publications may be added as funds increase. The meetings of the Optical department were held fortnightly during the Session, and had an average attendance of about twenty —the meetings taking place in the Society’s room. The subjects chiefly considered were: Achromatic Condensers, Angular Aperture of Objectives, and the Polarisation of Light. Attention was also given to the phenomena of light. The meetings were, for the most part, of a conversational character, but papers were also read, explanatory of the subjects above mentioned, by Messrs Murray, Forgan, Penman, and A. Frazer. The meetings of the Biological department were also held at intervals of a fortnight throughout the Session, when demon- strations of a practical nature were given. The subjects taken up were the following: The Structure of Insectivorous Plants, by Dr J. M. Macfarlane (two demonstrations); the Mounting of Marine Algze, by Mr J. Allan (two demonstrations) ; the Mounting of Fresh-water Alge, by Mr J. Terras; the Prepara- tion and Mounting of Crystals, by Mr W. Penman; the Col- lecting and Mounting of Foraminifera, by Mr F. G. Pearcey ; the Mounting of Animal Tissues in Glycerine-and-water, by Mr A. Moffat ; the Hardening and Cutting of Animal Sections, by Mr A. Frazer; the Cutting, Staining, and Mounting of Vege- table Sections, by Mr J. Lindsay ; and the Preparation and go Annual Business Meeting. [Sess. Mounting of Mineral Sections, by Mr J. A. Johnston. The Society’s room at 20 George Street was inconveniently crowded at most of these meetings, and the use of a larger room has been kindly granted, where the meetings of both departments will be held next Session. A few of the members of the Microscopic Section contributed to the monthly meetings of the Society various exhibits of Microscopic apparatus and preparations; and two interesting papers, on subjects connected with Microscopy, by Messrs Penman and Forgan, are printed in extenso in the Society’s ‘Transactions’ for the present Session (ante, pp. 21, 56). The Annual Conversazione, which took place in the Free- mason’s Hall on March 29, partook largely, as in former years, of the character of a Natural History and Microscopic exhibi- tion. The exhibits were numerous and varied, illustrating nearly every department of Natural History; while about seventy microscopes were placed, under which were shown a most interesting series of preparations, including animal and vegetable tissues, fungi, crystals, minerals, insect parts, diatoms, foraminifera, &c. These were examined by the large company present with keen enjoyment. As on a former occasion, the Albany Orchestral Society kindly supplied the music, aided by Messrs Chumley and Campbell. ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING. THe Annual Business Meeting of the Society was held in the Hall, 20 George Street, on the evening of the 26th October 1887,—Mr Herbert, ex-President, in the Chair. From the Report submitted by the Secretary, it appeared that in all 27 meetings had been held during the past Session, 10 of these being indoor meetings,! and 17 field meetings. The following list gives the dates and localities of these meetings, viz. :— Inpoor MeeEtiInGs: (1) Annual Meeting—Oct. 22, 1886. (2) Ordinary Evening Meetings, 1886—Nov. 24, Dec. 22; 1 This does not include the meetings of the Microscopic Section, which are re- corded separately, ante, p. 89. 1886-87. | Annual Business Meeting. gl 1887—Jan. 26, Feb. 23, March 23, April 27, May 25, June 22. (3) Annual Conversazione—March 29, 1887. Frexp Meerines, 1887: April 30, Linlitheow—Palace and Church; May 7, Polton to Roslin; May 14, North Berwick ; May 21, Dunfermline; May 28, Crichton; June 1, Arthur Seat; June 11, Driving Excursion to Moorfoots; June 15, Visit to Pilrig Park Nursery; June 18, West Linton; June 25, Gosford; June 29, Duddingston Loch; July 2, Driving Excursion to Carlops; July 9, Dredging Excursion; July 13, Visit to Leith Walk Nursery ; July 16, Haddington; July 23, Balerno; Oct. 1, Fungus Foray in Roslin Glen. The Treasurer’s Statement showed that, including a balance from last account, the income had been £83, and the expendi- ture £66, 11s. 3d., leaving a balance in favour of the Club of £16, 8s. 9d. The election of Office-bearers was next proceeded with, when, after the vacancies were filled up, the complete list stood as under :— President.—Symincron GRIEVE. Vice-Presidents. AuEex, Frazer, M.A. | GrorcE Birp. ! Rosertr Stewart, S.S.C. Council. WILLIAM ForGAN. JOHN ALLAN. Dr J. M. MAcFARLANE. WILLIAM BoNNAR. J. D. Murray. JAMES TERRAS. JoHN HENDERSON. JoHN LrInpsay. F. G. PEARCEY. A. B. STEELE. Wm. PENMAN. WILLIAM COATS. Secretary and Treasurer.—Anprew Morrat. Auditors.—Hveu H. Pintans; Joun Parrmay, §8.S.C. During the past Session 40 names have been withdrawn from the roll,and 51 new names added, making a net increase of 11, and giving a total roll of ordinary members at the close of Session 1886-87 of 232. Although the Society’s field meetings have been on the whole always well attended, there was a marked increase at the meetings during 1887. A new feature of the field meet- ings was the Driving Excursions, of which there were two, both of them numerously attended. More attention was paid, also, to Archeology, four of the excursions having that subject 92 Annual Business Meeting. [Sess. 1886-87. specially in view—viz.: Linlithgow, Crichton, Dunfermline, and Haddington. At Linlithgow, Mr John Lindsay read a paper giving a short account of the Palace and of St Michael’s Church; at Crichton, Mr T. A. D. Wood, F.S.A.Scot., gave some notes on the history of the Castle; at Dunfermline, the party were met by Mr Geo. Robertson, F.S.A.Scot., Custodian of the Abbey, who explained the various features of the build- ings; and at Haddington, Dr Brown and Mr Wm. Davie, of Haddington, conducted the party over the various antiquities of the town. Eliot OF--PAST PRESIDENTS. Dr Rost. Brown, 1869. Rey. R. F. Cotvin, 1877-1879. Mr R. Scor Sxrrvine, 1869-1874. Mr JoHn WaALtcort, 1879-1882. Mr Wm. GorrRir ) Mr A. B. Herpert, 1882-1885. (deceased) ( 1874-1877. Mr Symineton GRIEVE, 1885-1887. OFFIGE-BEARERS, (1867-86. President. SyMINGTON GRIEVE. Vice- Presidents. ALEXANDER Frazer, M.A. | Rozperr Stewart, 8.8.C. GrorcE Brep. Council, WILLIAM FORGAN. JoHN LINDSAY. WItitrAmM Bonnar. Wma. PENMAN, JOHN HENDERSON, Dr J. M. MACFARLANE, A. B. STEELE. JAMES TERRAS. JOHN ALLAN. F. G. PEARCEY. J. D. Murray. WILLIAM COATS. doint-Gditsrs of ‘ Transactions.’ ANDREW Morrat, JoHN LINDSAY. Secretary and Treasurer. ANDREW MorFrrat, Auditors. Hues H. Pirtans; Joun Parrmay, 8.S.C. Elst OF MEMBERS, 1886-87. Oriyinal Members marked thus*. Honorary Wembers. Brown, Ropert, Ph.D., F.L.S., London. GrizveE, Davip, F.R.S.E., 1 Lockharton Gardens, Slateford. Henverson, Prof. Jon R., M.B., C.M., The College, Madras. Corresponding Wembers. ARCHIBALD, STEWART, Carroch, Kirriemuir. BroTHERSTON, ANDREW, Kelso. CruicksHank, T. M., South Ronaldshay. Hopxirk, CHArwes P., Huddersfield. Hossack, B. H., Craigie Field, Kirkwall. TuHomson, JOHN, Stobo. 10 30 List of Members, 1886-87. Ordinary Adam, James, Comely Park, Dun- fermline. Adams, William, Royal Bank, St Andrew Square. Aitken, D. Percy, 5 Grosvenor Cres. Alexander, Robert, 9 Montrose Ter. Allan, John, 15 Rosefield Avenue, Portobello. Amoore, J. 8., 7 Abercromby Place. Anderson, G. R., 33 Howard Place. Archibald, Jas., 13 Clifton Terrace. Arthur, Charles, Royal Infirmary. Ayton, Alex., 43 N. Bruntsfield Pl. Barbour, T. F., Chemical Laboratory, University. Bashford, W. T., Argyle House, Portobello. Bathgate, John, 8 Wardie Avenue. Bird, George, 24 Queen Street. Black, William, 8.8.C., 3 Hill St. Boa, Peter, 119 George Street. Bonnar, Wm., 54 Castle Street. Brodie, J. A., Bonnington Iron Foundry, Leith. Brotherston, G. M., 18 St John Street. Brown, George L., Millburn House, Morningside. Brown, R. Smith, 5 Marchmont Ter. Brown, Thos., 1 Gillespie Street. Bryden, Mrs, 72 Great King Street. Bryden, Miss, 72 Great King Street. Burn, C. M. P., Prestonfield House. Cairns, Wm. M‘Gregor, 16 South Charlotte Street. Carter, A. E. J., 9 Argyle Crescent, Portobello. Carter, Wm. Allan, M. Inst. C.E., 5 St Andrew Square. Clapperton, Mrs Wm., 9 Strathearn Road. Clark, Alex., S.8S.C., 80a Princes St. Clark, William, Greenside Cottage. Coats, William, 21 Nelson Street. *Colvin, Rev. R. F., 50 Ann Street. Cooper, James, 31 Howe Street. Cotton, Miss Maria, 26 Mayfield Ter. Cowan, Alfred, 19 Rutland Square. Cowan, Charles Wm., Valleyfield, Penicuik. Coyne, R. A. F. A., 21 Archibald Pl. Members. 40 60 Craig, Archibald, jun., 16 Blacket Place. Crawford, Wm. C., M.A., 1 Lock- harton Gardens, Slateford. Crichton, George, 30 Restalrig Ter- race, Dickson, Professor Alexander, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.L.8., 11 Royal Cireus. Dobbin, Leonard, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., 4 Cobden Road. Dobbin, Mrs Leonard, 4 Cobden Road. Dowell, Mrs, 13 Palmerston Place. Dowell, Miss, 13 Palmerston Place. Duncan, Esdaile, Dean Public School. Dundas, George, 10 Grosvenor Cres- cent, Eld, Thos. W., 50 South Bruntsfield Place. Elliot, G. F. Scott, M.A., Royal Botanic Garden. Ewart, James, 1 Dundas Street. Farquharson, Miss, Roseville, Catherine’s Place, Grange. Farquharson, Thos. Ker, Roseville, St Catherine’s Place, Grange. Ferguson, John, 15 Brighton Place, Portobello. Forbes, Miss Mary, 5 Brunstane Road, Joppa. Forgan, William, 3 Warriston Cres. Foulis, James, M.D., 34 Heriot Row. Fraser, Dr Angus, 232 Union Street, Aberdeen. Fraser, Charles, 13 Greenhill Place. Fraser, Mrs, 13 Greenhill Place. Fraser, Hugh, Leith Walk Nurseries. *Fraser, P. Neill, Rockville, Murray- field. Frazer, Alex., M.A., 7 Lothian St. Galloway, James, St Fillans, Trinity. Gibb, Philip B., M.A., 14 Picardy Place. Gilchrist, James, 17 Manor Place. Gloag, David, 9 Barnton Terrace. Gordon, James, Royal Institution, Mound. Gray, Arch. Gray, Jos. T., M.A., Parkside. Gray, Mrs Robert. St 80 90 100 List of Members, 1886-87. Grieve, Miss Amelia, Salisbury View, Dalkeith Road. Grieve, Somerville, Salisbury View, Dalkeith Road. Grieve, Symington, 1 Burgess Ter- race. Grieve, Mrs Symington, 1 Burgess Terrace. Grosert, Robert, So. Oswald Road. Groves, Charles H., M.D., 36 Inver- leith Row. Guthrie, Mrs, Almora, Liberton. Hardie, William, 49 Morningside Road. Hart, James, M.A., Dean Public School. Hately, W., 12 Bruntstield Place. Heggie, John, 1 Greenbank Terrace. Henderson, John, 21 Nicolson Sq. Henderson, Miss Jessie, 17 W. Preston Street. Henderson, Mrs, 6 Carlton Terrace. Henderson, Miss, 6 Carlton Terrace. Herbert, A. B., 13 Polwarth Terrace. Hoyle, W. E., M.A., M.R.C.S., F.R.S.E., 8 Kilmaurs Road. Hume, William, 1 Lothian Street. Hunter, James, 7 Melgund Terrace. Hurry, Miss, 56 India Street. Hutchison, Robert, F.R.S.E., Chester Street. Inches, Miss Ella M., 10 Broughton Place. Jamieson, P., Natural History La- boratory, University. Jenner, Charles, F.R.S.E., Easter Duddingston Lodge. Johnstone, Alex,, 38 Lady Menzies Place. Johnstone, J. A., 30 Haddington Pl. Johnstone, Miss Annie, Eskhill, Roslin. Keith, Sydney, 69 So. Clerk Street. Keith, Miss Catherine, 16 Mentone Terrace. Kennedy, Adam, 63 Haymarket Ter. Key, Rev. D. Ritchie, M.A., 17 Elm Row. Kilgour, Thos. W., 4 East Brighton Crescent, Portobello. King, J. Falconer, Minto House. King, Mark, 120 Pitt Street, Leith. Knight, Donald, 33 Regent Place. Kynoch, Miss, 2 Darnaway Street. Laing, Jas. H. W., M.A., B.Sc., 105 Warrender Park Road. 29 110 130 140 XI Laughton, Wm., So. Darenth, Kent. Law, Mrs John, 41 Heriot Row. Lee, William, 15 Craiglea Drive. Lennie, Joseph C., 25 Gayfield Sq. .Lewis, David, 32 Findhorn Place. Ligertwood, George C., M.A., 9 Spot- tiswoode Street. Lindsay, John, 43 James St., Pilrig. Livingstone, Matthew, 108 Gilmore Place. Lockie, John, C.E., 39 Restalrig Ter. Lorimer, Miss, 16 Mayfield Terrace. MacAdam, W. Ivison, F.C.S., F.1.C., Surgeons’ Hall. M‘Bride, James, 31 Buccleuch Pl. M‘Craith, Miss, 26 Haddington PI. MacDougall, W., Woodburn, Mor- ningside. Macfarlane, J. M., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., 1 Wardie Avenue. M‘Glashan, D., 12 West End Place. M‘Glashen, Robert L., 1 Brandon St. M‘Intosh, James, 42 Queen Street. Mackay, Miss, 69 Northumberland Street. M‘Laren, J. R., M.A., 9 Gt. King Street. M‘Kean, James, 3 Warrender Park Terrace. M‘Kean, Miss J., 1 Inverleith Ter. M‘Kean, Miss Minnie, 1 Inverleith Terrace. M‘Kechnie, Campbell, 60 Northum- berland Street. Macpherson, C. E. W., C.A., 28 St Andrew Square. Macpherson, John C., 3 Warrender Park Terrace. Marshall, Hugh, B.Sc., 1 Lorne Ter. Marshall, Ralph, 1 Lorne Terrace. Maxwell, Graham, Royal Botanic Garden. Melvin, Alex., 40 Warrender Park Road. Methven, John, 6 Bellevue Crescent Millar, R. C., C.A., 8 Broughton Pl. Millar, Miss Isabella, 8 Broughton Pl. Millar, Thos. John, 8 Broughton PI. Miller, Rev. Robert, M.A., 15 Thirl- stane Road, East. Miller, R. K., 13 Lennox Street. Miller, Peter, 8 Bellevue Terrace. Moffat, Andrew, 5 Scone Gardens. Morham, Robert, 2 Bright Crescent. Muir, John, 115 Warrender Park Road. Xil List of Members, 1886-87. Murray, Chas. G., 68 Haymarket Ter. 150 Murray, J. D., 68 Haymarket Ter. Murray, Wm., 8 Clifton Terrace. Neill, John, 3 Sylvan Place. Nelson, W. F., Salisbury Green. Nesbit, John, 162 High Street, Portobello. Nisbet, Miss, 28 E. Claremomt St. Norfor, Robt. T., C.A., 47 So. Bruntsfield Place. Ogilvie, Miss, 18 Buckingham Ter. Oliphant, J. C., M.A., 23 Charlotte Square. Oliver, G. E., 4 Mostyn Terrace. 160 Oliver, John 8., 12 Greenhill Park. Pairman, John, 8.8.C., 50 George St. Paton, Henry, 15 Myrtle Terrace. Patterson, J. C., 6 Mentone Terrace. Peacock, Alex., 9 M‘Laren Road. Peacock, Miss, 9 M‘Laren Road. Peacock, Thomas R., 9 M‘Laren Rd. Pearcey, F. G., 37 Raeburn Place. Penman, Wm., 8 Lauriston Park. Philip, James, 5 Argyle Place. 170 Pillans, Hugh H., 12 Dryden Place. Pillans, Miss, 12 Dryden Place. Purves, Samuel, 70 Haymarket Ter. Ranken, William, 11 Spence Street. Reid, Andrew, 2 Lixmount Terrace, Trinity. Richardson, A. D., Royal Botanic Garden. Robertson, C. F., 54 Blacket Place. Robertson, George, Lothian Road Public School, Sanderson, Dr Alfred, Lixmount, Trinity. Saxby, Charlie, 15 St Leonard’s Bank. 180 Semple, Andrew, Deputy Surgeon General H.M.&%., United Service Club, Shaw, JohnO., Beauly, Victoria Park, Trinity. Simpson, James, 4 Middlefield, Leith Walk. Skinner, Jas.,8.S.C., 14 Frederick St. *Skirving, R. Scot, 29 Drummond PI, Smith, Miss, 34 Dublin Street, Smith, Mrs Geo,, 25 East Claremont Street. Smith, Walter A., Falcon Lodge, Murrayfield. Somerville, Alex., B.Sc., F.L.S., 34 Granby Ter., Hillhead, Glasgow. Speedy, Tom, The Inch, Liberton. Caledonian 190 200 210 230 Sprague, T. B., M.A., F.R.S.E., 29 Buckingham Terrace. Sprague, Mrs T, B., 29 Buckingham Terrace, Steele, Adam B., 10 Comely Bank. Steele, Miss, 16 Upper Gray Street. Stewart, James R., 10 Salisbury Rd. Stewart, Miss, 53 Lothian Street. Stewart, Robert, $.8.C., 21 Warris- ton Crescent Storrie, James, 5 Bowhill Terrace. Summers, Miss Maggie, 32 Craig- millar Park. Sutherland, John, 4 Caledonian Rd. Tait, John, Lochend Road Public School Tait, John Scott, C.A., 8 Claremont Terrace. Taylor, William, M.D., 12 Melville Street. Terras, James, 34 Findhorn Place. Thomson, Mrs, 6A Bruntsfield Place. Torrie, Robert, 198 Bonnington Road, Leith. Turnbull, George, 16 Thistle Street. Turnbull, J. M., 6 Rose Street. Turner, Daniel, 8.L., 24 George St. Usher, Andrew, Blackford House. Walcot, John, 50 Northumberland Street. . Walker, David, 2 Bellevue Terrace. Walker, Wm. F., 5 Restalrig Ter. Wallace, William, Jesstield Terrace, Newhaven Road. Wardlaw, Geo., 14 St John’s Hill. Waters, James, 3 St Andrew Sq. Watson, Dr Wm., 49 Grange Road. Watson, Mrs, 49 Grange Road. Weir, James Lind, 3 Beechwood Ter. White, Miss, 9 Bernard Terrace. Williams, Caradoc, 4c Pilrig Street. Wilson, Geo. A., 46 Queensferry St. Wilson, James T., Restalrig House Wilson, Miss Helen, 1 Lennox St. Wilson, Miss Katie, 2 Archibald Pl. Wood, Alex., 4 Avondale Place. Wood, T. A. D., Viewforth, Brun- stane Road, Joppa. Woodhead, Dr G. Sims, 6 Marchhall Crescent. Wright, Hilda, Ravensrood, Craig- lockhart. Wright, Thomas, 6 Greenside Place. Young, David E., 22 Rosehall Ter. Young, Mrs D. E., 22 Rosehall Ter. Yule, Robert, 6 Mansfield Place. 6 dt!’ qasgq = @ ce VOL. II. PART II. TRANSACTIONS OF. Gie Edinburgh Field Waturalists’ and Wirrosropiral a aoe Ta OG S>> ~ ‘SESSION 1887-88 CONTENTS. 4 k PAGE ie _ I. Recent Notes on the Great Auk or Garefowl.—Mr S. Grieve, oe President, . BAe Ie. eo etes Ne eC Re Ee 93 II. The Rook. Mr Tom Bpaadn 3 5 y Z ; ; : : F 120 III. Notes on the Conifers. Mr H. Fraser, A 126 IV. Polarised Dark-ground Illumination. — Mr w. Peniian: ae a M.Inst.G.E., . 127 2 V. An Ancient Lake- Deposit i in Queen’ 8 Park, Peary J. A. ‘Jounston and J. Lindsay, . : 135 ey VI. On an Ornithological Visit te Warwickshire. Mr x eae jah. 141 ne VII. Some Peculiar Occurrences in Natural History. — Mr R. Stewart: a SBC. ot Stayt poeel eB a VIII. Optical Phenorhenon seen in Sieanre: Mr Ww. Coats, A ; , 159 om IX. Note on Eucalyptus globulus.—Mr H. Fraser, . , : ‘ ’ 165 an X. Stoats and WeaselsMr Tom Speedy, 3 ‘ : ; 166 om XI. List of Plants gathered in Switzerland.—Mrs Saraeic, : ; - 174 _ XII. Fungus Folk-Lore.—Mr A. B. Steele, . 5 175 a _ XIII. Remarks on the Genus Aulacodiscus Ehrb. _Mr J. igibtay: MLA., aes BiSc., -F:R.S8.E., >. 183 _. XIV. A New Form of Freezing and Embedding miaratenie, _—Mr rt R. : Frazer, M.A., ; : ° z ; 3 188 Meetings of Microscopic Section, . : : i : : é ‘ 191 Annual Business Meeting, ; gia Fy ‘ ‘ E ; - ; 193 List of Members, 1887-88, Xlii Published for the Society BY | WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS ¥: MDCCOLXXXVIII oS Price to Non-Members, Half-a-Crown. PLATE |. SPECIMEN OF GREAT AUK (Alca impennis Linn.) or NATURAL HIsTORY, CENTRAL PARK, New YORK. In AMERICAN MUSEUM I—RECENT NOTES ON THE GREAT AUK OR GAREFOWL (ALCA IMPENNIS Liv.) By Mr SYMINGTON GRIEVE, PresipEnt. (Read Nov. 23, 1887.) I PRESUME you are all more or less acquainted with Great -Auk history, and that none of you are under the belief I am about to address you regarding the sayings and doings of some Eastern potentate. It is not the first time that I have found persons who should have been better informed making such a mistake. They seemed determined to confound this poor bird with some ancient or modern human ruler, like the Great Moeul or the Khan of Khiva. However, in case there should be any one present who has forgotten the salient points of Great Auk history, I shall very briefly recapitulate some of its principal features, so as to present before your minds a few of the facts that make all that is known about this bird so in- teresting to every naturalist. The Great Auks were large birds, and were good for food. They were so abundant at certain points on the coasts of the North Atlantic basin, that they attracted the attention of the early voyagers. Their wings were so small that they were unable to fly. At the nesting-season each year they landed in immense multitudes at the places at which they hatched their single egg, and fell an easy prey to such an enemy as man. The Great Auks may be said to have been stupid birds. They were not easily frightened, and allowed them- selves to be massacred by the mariners, who knocked them over by striking them upon their heads with short sticks or clubs. At an island off the coast of Newfoundland, and pro- bably at other places, they even permitted themselves to be driven across planks or sails stretched from the vessels to the shore. In this way such multitudes were captured that they VOL. II. G 94 Recent Notes on the Great Auk. [Sess. are described as having been got on board by the ton weight. The birds thus procured were salted down lke herrings and packed in barrels, and formed for many years the staple food of the fishermen and others who visited the Newfoundland banks and explored the North American coasts. It may be admitted as a fact that, without the presence of the Great Auks, the explorations that led to the settlement of North America so quickly could not have been carried on, nor would the fisheries upon the banks of Newfoundland have been de- veloped as they were. The Great Auk was also a British bird, and appears to have afforded food to our ancient inhabit- ants in much the same way that at a later date it supplied the wants of the voyagers to North America. The remnants of the Great Auk colonies, in sadly reduced numbers, lingered around the coasts of Britain and Iceland probably after the birds had disappeared from the coasts of North America. The final act in the drama, however, took place in the early days of June 1844, when what are believed to have been the last two Great Auks were killed upon a skerry called Eldey, off the south-west coast of Iceland. The remains of this bird, exterminated by man within the memory of those now living, are so rare that they are among the most prized objects in natural history collections. The skins and eggs are worth many times their weight in gold, and the prices fetched at public sales have caused quite a flutter of excitement far out- side scientific circles. It is therefore no unworthy object we have in view if we can place on record any information re- garding the Great Auk; and it is with that intention I am about to address you to-night. Most of you are aware that a book was published a little over two years ago, entitled ‘ The Great Auk or Garefowl; its History, Archeology, and Remains.’ In those departments of Great Auk research of which it treats, it may claim to be pretty exhaustive; but perhaps the most important result of its pub- lication has been, that it has called attention to matters con- nected with the Great Auk. This has led to accurate infor- mation being given by critics and others upon a number of points that might otherwise have remained unascertained. It is with a portion of this supplementary information that I in- tend to try to interest you. As it is desirable that I should 1887-88. | Recent Notes on the Great Auk. 95 endeavour to treat the subject in as connected a form as possible, I intend first to refer to some matters in connection with THE GREAT AUK OR GAREFOWL WHEN LIVING. In my work on this bird already mentioned (p. 62), I refer to the last notice of the occurrence of the Great Auk in the north-east of England, and perhaps it may be interesting to give you the original reference, which occurs in ‘The Natural History and Antiquities of Northumberland, and so much of the county of Durham as lies between the rivers Tyne and Tweed, commonly called North Bishoprick.’ In two volumes, by John Wallis, A.M.: published in London, 1769. In vol. i. p. 340 is the following: “The Penguin, a curious and un- common bird, was taken alive a few years ago in the island of Farn, and presented to the late John William Bacon, Esq. of Etherston, with whom it grew so tame and familiar that it would follow him with its body erect to be fed.” You will observe that the name used in the above quotation for the Great Auk is the “ Penguin,’ which was one of its most common names, especially on the shores of North America, The capture of what are believed to have been the last two Great Auks took place at Eldey at the beginning of June 1844, and the dead birds were sent by Hansen, the purchaser, to Herr Moller, the apothecary at Reykjavik, to be skinned. In a note at p. 21 of my book, I quote a letter of Professor J. Steenstrup of Copenhagen, in which he says that “the only claim this person had to be called an apothecary was that he prepared skins.” After my book was issued, the venerable professor wrote me saying he was sorry there had been a mis- understanding as to his meaning in the letter referred to, and he adds, “ Certainly my friend Moller was a good apothecary in every sense, but he also skinned birds extremely well.” In the ‘ Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass., vol. xiii‘ The Water- Birds of North America,” by 8. T. Baird, T. M. Brewer, and R. Ridgeway, issued in continuation of the publications of the Geological Survey of California, vol. ii. p. 471, published at Boston, U.S., 1884: Little, Brown, & Co.,—there is the follow- ing: “In a work on ‘Newfoundland and its Missionaries,’ 96 Recent Notes on the Great Auk. [Sess. printed in Halifax by Dakin & Metcalf, and published at the Wesleyan Book-room in 1866, p. 64, the following reference is made to the Great Auk: ‘ Half a century ago the Penguin was very plenty. It is a handsome bird, about the size of a goose, with a coal-black head and back, a white belly, and a milk-white spot under the right eye. They cannot fly well, —their wings are more like fins. They have on their bodies short feathers and down. The Penguin is now but seldom seen: such destruction of the bird was made for the sake of its feathers, that it is now all but extinct.’” Mr George A. Boardman having seen the above paragraph, and meeting its author, questioned him more particularly about the Penguin, and obtained a few further details. At the time of his resi- dence in Newfoundland he was a Methodist missionary stationed on the coast, not far from Funk or Fogo Island, between the years 1818 and 1823. “He saw the Penguin during the whole of his stay in the island in considerable numbers, and frequently lectured the inhabitants for their cruelty in de- stroying them merely for their feathers. It was quite com- mon for the boys to keep them tied by the legs as pets.” The foregoing is a most interesting and important statement, and refers to a period (as far as the history of the Great Auk on the shores of Newfoundland is concerned) about which very little appears to have been recorded. If the statement can be thoroughly depended upon, the Great Auk must have been much more plentiful in the region referred to from 1818 to 1823 than we have hitherto been led to suppose. There are one or two inaccuracies in the above statements, such as the reference to the bird having a white spot over only the right eye, and the remark, “not far from Funk or Fogo Island ”»—Funk Island and Fogo Island being separate places, although not far from each other. From other references to be met with, it appears that the fishermen who lived on Fogo Island were in the habit of visiting Funk Island to obtain the Great Auk, so it is probable the missionary was located on Fogo Island, as there are no human beings resident on Funk Island, and it is only visited a few times each season." 1 Since the foregoing was written, Mr Frederic A. Lucas of the United States National Museum, Washington, has contributed a paper to the American Ornithological Journal, ‘The Auk,’ vol. v. p. 278 (July 1888). At p. 279 he 1887-88. ] Recent Notes on the Great Auk. 97 We may now go on to consider DOUBTFUL OCCURRENCES OF THE GREAT AUK. It is generally admitted that the last thoroughly authentic occurrence of the Great Auk in Scotland was the capture of one at St Kilda in 1821. But there have been stories told that may be more or less authentic, pointing to the occurrence in Scottish waters of the Great Auk nearly twenty years later than the time of the above capture. I need not refer to those treated of in the book I have already mentioned, but may as well place on record an interesting account I have received, through the kindness of Henry Evans, Esq. of Jura Forest, island of Jura, regarding the supposed occurrence of a Great Auk upon Stack-an-Armin, one of the skerries of the St Kalda group. The first communication I received from Mr Evans is dated “ At sea, off St Kilda, 8th August 1885.” He says :-— Having read your account of the Great Auk at St Kilda in the year 1821, I can now give you particulars of the occurrence of a second example of this bird about the year 1840, or a year or two later, also on the St Kilda group of islands. You may at first sight imagine two stories have been made out of one, because Donald M‘Queen’s name appears in each instance. However, I am satisfied such is not the case, and I think the enclosed particulars will also satisfy you. Donald M‘Queen died in 1880, aged 73. I know his son Donald very well. I often go to St Kilda and have conversations with the inhabitants. The present Donald M‘Queen can tell me nothing about the Great Auk of 1821, except that, as other St Kilda men also say, the old men there remember their fathers talking about that bird. But M‘Queen says his father with two other men helped to catch a Gairfowl on Stack-an-Armin, off Borera, about forty years ago, —perhaps a trifle over forty years. They kept this bird, tied by the legs, alive for three days, and then killed it with a stick, thinking it was a witch. The bird was left to decay behind the little bothy built of stones half-way up Stack-an-Armin, where they stay fishing for a week or ten days at a visit. I have seen this bothy, and the men are to search for the bones. I entertain little hope of discovering them. I enclose details. There are but few flat ledges of rock near sea-level about the St Kilda says, “‘ There is a rumour that twenty years ago the Great Auk was still to be found on the Penguin Islands, in the mouth of Gros Water Bay, sixteen miles from Grady Harbour, a locality about 250 miles north of Cape Norman, N.F. Of course this is possible, but it seems hardly probable.” In a note he adds, ‘*For this report I am indebted to Mr William Sclater of St John’s, N.F.” 98 Recent Notes on the Great Auk. [Sess. group of islands. I know every rock there, and I think it impossible St Kilda can ever have been a great breeding-place of the Great Auk. The following are the details referred to above :— The Great Auk at Borera, St Kilda, about 1840-43. Lauchlan M‘Kinnon, now aged 75, tells me that, with his father-in-law and Donald M‘Queen, he caught and killed a Gairfowl on Stack-an-Armin. He dates the event at about forty years ago. Donald M‘Queen’s son also says it was about forty years ago, or perhaps a year or two more. Lauch- lan M‘Kinnon is the only survivor of the three men. I know him quite well: he appears as bright and sharp as any man in St Kilda. He recog- nised at once as the Gairfowl a picture of the Great Auk I showed him. He especially called attention to the little wings for so large a bird, and to the white spot on the side of the head, which he remembered was on the bird. He spoke much of the great bill the bird had, which he said it kept open very long and often, “as if it would never shut its bill again.” He also put both hands to his sides, and said the bird was very fat and fleshy there. The three men were fowling on Stack-an-Armin isle, off Borera, St Kilda, when they found this bird, which they caught sleeping. They tied it by the legs behind the bothy on Stack-an-Armin, where they stay a week or ten days at a time fowling. They kept it alive for three days, then killed it with a stick, thinking it must be a witch. It was left to decay. In answer to my further inquiries, Mr Evans wrote me from Jura Forest on 24th October 1885, as follows :— I think it is hopeless to search for remains of the Great Auk killed on Stack-an-Armin about 1840, but I asked the natives to look. I shall not see them before June 1886, but you may be sure we shall get nothing there. In August 1886 I wrote Mr Evans, asking him kindly to let me know the result of the search for the Great Auk bones, and he replied from Jura Forest on the 26th September fol- lowing :— The bones of the Great Auk could not be found—it was very unlikely. I heard more on the same subject, and it all confirms what I have already told you. Mr Evans refers to Donald M‘Queen, who died in 1880, aged 73, who caught the last undoubted Scotch Great Auk in 1821. An obituary notice of him, written by Mr J. Sands, appeared in the ‘Glasgow Herald’ of 14th June 1886. At p. 69 of ‘The Great Auk; its History, Archeology, and Remains,’ reference is made to a Great Auk said to have been’ 1887-88. ] Recent Notes on the Great Auk. 99 shot by Herr Laurenz Brodtkorb, near Vard6, Varanger Fjord, East Finmark, in 1848. Professor Steenstrup, who first re- ferred to this supposed occurrence of the Great Auk as far back as 1855, has no doubt in his own mind that the bird was certainly not a Garefowl, and he had much better opportuni- ties at that comparatively recent period after its supposed observation to get accurate information. His opinion has also been shared by most subsequent writers. However, the fol- lowing interesting statements, published by Professor Robert Collett of Christiania in his valuable paper, “ Uber Alca im- pennis in Norwegen,”—‘ Mittheilungen des Ornithologischen Vereins in Wien, 1884, translated from German, are worth re- cording for English-reading students of alcine history. Professor R. Collett (referring to the statements made by Professor J. Steenstrup in his ‘ Bidrag til Geirfuglens Naturhistorie, &c., 1885, p. 95, as well as Nilsson in his “ Skandinaviens Fauna,” 1858 (‘ Foglarne, p. 571), and Professor William Bla- sius in his ‘Uber die letzen Vorkommnisse des Riesen-Alks,’ 1881-82 and 1882-83, p. 97, “ Alca impennis,” &c.), says :-— I have, however, been placed in a position to give more accurate par- ticulars regarding the specimen in question—particulars which, I trust, will place it beyond doubt that there is here an actual and unimpeachable case of the appearance of the Garefowl,—perhaps of the last appearance of all. I have obtained these particulars directly from the two gentlemen con- cerned in the case—namely, Herr Brodtkorb, who killed the bird, and Herr Nordyi, to whom we owe it that the fact was at once made known in wider circles. I have recently got to know these two gentlemen person- ally, and they have, with the greatest readiness, placed at my disposal the following information, which they themselves put, at my desire, in the form of letters. These letters I subjoin, accompanying them only with the following observations :— Herr Brodtkorb was in 1848 a young man of twenty, who had adopted a business career, and at the same time devoted himself eagerly to sport; and as the place in which he resided is an important breeding-place of sea-birds (Fuglevar), where masses of auks,! mews, and cormorants breed on the adjacent islets of Horné and René, he had the best opportunities for learning all the birds that normally appear near Vard6. When I visited that place last summer (1883), in order to examine these noteworthy bird- cliffs, I came to know Herr Brodtkorb as a man well informed in every respect, and thoroughly trustworthy. I caused myself to be rowed several times over the little strait in which the Alca impennis was shot. This arm of the sea separates the town of Vardé from the adjacent islets of Horné and 1 Alca torda and Arctica alle, in all probability. 100 Recent Notes on the Great Auk. [Sess. René, on which the great bird-cliffs (Fuglevar) are. It is two English miles broad, and has a strong current. The shore of René is flatter than that of Horno, though on it also breed a great quantity of birds, chiefly mews (Larus argentatus, marinus, and canus). The bird-cliff, properly so called, is on Horné, and on its terraces are the nesting-places chiefly of the Fratercula, Alca, Uria, and the two species of Phalacrocorax. Herr Brodtkorb had for the present, however, given up sport, because the attention of every one on the little Arctic seaport was taken up with the whale-fisheries. In a letter dated Vardé, December 31, 1883, Herr Brodt- korb writes me as follows: “ It is exactly so as Herr Nordvi has told you, that in April 1848 I shot near Vardé a strange bird, the like of which I never saw before nor since. . . . I was rowing on that day with some com- panions over to René, when we espied in the strait four large birds that attracted our notice. One of my companions, Herr Wind, now Tensmand Wessel, asked me to fire at them, in order by that means to learn exactly what sort of birds these could be which, instead of flying, only paddled upon the water with their wings. I fired, and one fell. We were all per- fectly convinced we had never before seen that kind of bird. It was the size of a Ringgaus.!_ Its back was black, and, so far as I can remember, its whole head and neck were of that colour, but in other respects it was in shape like an Auk. I remember particularly that we observed a white spot at the eye on the side of the head. On the other side the ball, which had gone through the head, had torn away a piece of the white spot and shattered the beak, so that as regards the form of the beak I can tell nothing. The wings were so small that we were all agreed that this cir- cumstance was the reason why the bird only paddled. .. . The bird was placed in the boat in order that it might be kept ; but when we reached land, it was so soaked through with water and blood that we threw it away upon the shore, though it was my intention to examine it afterwards more minutely. But when I went to get it on the following day, it had been washed away by a high sea during a storm in the night... . A day or two later I was out again to seek for the remaining three birds ; but I never found them. I remember, likewise, that several fishermen had taken notice of these birds before I shot the one referred to; but subse- quently they were never seen again.” On the receipt of this letter I wrote to Herr Brodtkorb asking him to inform me as to any observations he might have made on the nature, voice, &c., of this bird. To these questions he replied as follows, in a letter dated Vardé, February 27, 1884: “On the day when I shot the bird a storm was blowing from the south, so that there was rather a heavy sea. The birds were swimming right against the wind, and as we were rowing in the same direction, we got a sight of them, when they were about twenty-five yards straight in front of the boat, without flying up. In swimming they used both wings and feet, and also dived, but did not stay long under the water. It almost seemed as if they only went through the tops of the waves (“som om de nisten blot gik gjennem Bolge Top- pene”). The birds kept together, and did not seem afraid. We also heard 1 The Ringgaus is the Bernicla brenta. 1887-88. ] Recent Notes on the Great Auk. IOI a ery which they emitted when they drew more closely together. It resembled a cackling, as if they wished to call one another. At first I did not think of shooting, for the boat was rolling hard. It was only when the birds had removed to a distance of about seventy yards, and were only visible at intervals, that I resolved, at the request of my companions, to take aim. When the shot went off all the four birds disappeared ; but shortly after I saw the remaining three paddling on farther until they dis- appeared behind the surging waves of the current.” To what is here said I need only remark, in addition, that during the winter the Colymbus glacialis is along the coast of the whole of Finmark (and also of all the rest of Norway) a perfectly well-known bird, which is called by sportsmen Immer or Hay-Immer (sea-immer). No confu- sion with it can therefore have taken place, as indeed becomes sufficiently plain from the following letter of Herr Nordvi. Any one who is at all acquainted with the nature of our different sea-birds will besides have remarked that none of the diver (Colymbus) species keep close together when they are lying on the water, whilst this is exactly a peculiarity of members of the Auk family. Herr Nordvi, who at present occupies the post of Inspector of the Archeological Museum in the University of Christiania, was formerly a merchant and collector of objects of natural history at Mortensniis, a town lying to the south of Vadso.! He is a man to whom science is indebted for many contributions to the knowledge of the ethnography and natural history of these northern regions, and even at that time he had entered into active correspondence with various men of science. In a letter dated “ Christiania, March 11, 1884,” he writes me as follows: “In December 1848 I received at Mortensniis, to the south of Vads6, then my place of abode, a visit from my friend Herr L. Brodtkorb of Vard6. On my asking him—who had been brought up in Vardé, and was from boyhood familiar with all the birds and fishes there, and whom I knew to be an eager sportsman and good observer—what in the way of novelty he had to tell me about the animal kingdom, he told me that in the last days of April he had, in a sporting tour in the strait between Vardé and René, come upon four birds hitherto unknown to him, one of which he had shot and taken away with him, but had afterwards thrown away upon the shore, I asked him if the bird shot might not perhaps be one of the larger divers (Colymbus glacialis or arcticus). He said that could not be, since he had shot many birds of that genus. When he stated that the bird killed by him had no proper wings, and, as he considered, could not fly at all, because it used its wing-stump (vinge-lapper) to aid it in swimming, and when he mentioned, in addition, that it had a large white spot beside the eye, the thought at once came to me that this might have been the Alca impennis. To be surer of the matter, I asked him to look over a book containing copperplates which I had, and to see if he could there find the bird that he had shot. Without any hesitation he pointed to the Alca impennis and said, ‘ There it is.’ I then gave him some details ' Vardo and Vadsé are two small towns on the Varanger Fjord, which, in its extreme part, forms the boundary between Norway and Russia. Vardé lies farthest up, towards the Arctic Ocean. 102 Recent Notes on the Great Auk. [Sess. regarding the Alca impennis and its history, and asked him to use every effort to discover if the other three birds should yet show themselves ; but none of them were afterwards visible.” When Brodtkorb had learned from Nordvi what a treasure he had cast into the sea, they both instituted in the following year careful searches after other specimens, but in vain. When Mr John Wolley, some years later (1855), visited Vardé, and heard this information from Brodtkorb’s own lips, he too felt personally con- vinced that the bird shot was an Alca impennis, and made diligent inves- tigation along the shore in the hope of finding parts of that or some other specimens. The communications given above hardly leave a doubt possible that as late as 1848 isolated individuals of this species were living as homeless wanderers. It was some of these (perhaps the last survivors of the whole species) that were found in the spring of that year close inshore on the coast of the Arctic Ocean near Vardié—that is to say, a far way to the east of the North Cape, and under a latitude which is considerably higher than that which scientists had felt themselves justified in assigning as the limit of the Great Auk’s diffusion, at least within historical times. So writes Professor Collett; and, while giving due weight to his valuable opinion, we have to put in the opposite balance, as against the theory of the bird observed being a Great Auk, the opinion of Professor Japetus Steenstrup of Copenhagen, who referred to this supposed occurrence of Alca impennis as far back as 1855, as we have already mentioned, when he had far better opportunities of sifting the evidence than Professor Collett twenty-nine years later. After such a length of time even the memories of Herr L. Brodtkorb and Herr Nordvi may to some extent have failed them. Professor A. Newton of Cambridge agrees with the opinion expressed by Professor Steenstrup ; and he has in his possession the manuscripts of the late Mr Wolley, whose opinion regarding the authenticity of this supposed occurrence of the Great Auk he must know, and it is not likely that Mr Wolley had expressed himself (in his notes at least) as at all certain that the bird referred to was really a Great Auk, or Professor Newton would have mentioned it. My own opinion is that it is better to leave such a matter an open question; and in any case the interest- ing statements collected by Professor Collett are well worth recording. If three specimens really did escape from Herr L. Brodtkorb, it is possible that we have not heard the last of the: living Great Auk ; and who knows but some fine morning the daily press will be filled with telegrams upon the rediscovery: of the bird. We can picture the despair of possessors of 1887-88. ] Recent Notes on the Great Auk. 103 alcine remains, if ever such an event should happen. It would cause a tremendous fall in prices! But, if not extinct, the rediscovery of Alea impennis would likely seal its fate, and only be the beginning of its end. It is well known that the Great Auk in prehistoric times frequented the Cattegat, as its remains have been found in the Danish kitchen-middens, but none of the more recently re- ported occurrences of the Great Auk in the Cattegat or on the coast of Norway have been sufficiently attested. As Iam not aware that any detailed reasons have appeared in English for refusing to believe in these alleged observations of the Great Auk, I have thought it worth while to have what Professor Robert Collett says on the subject translated. He only refers to those specimens said to have been met with on the coast of Norway. He says :— I now proceed to discuss the cases of an alleged appearance of the Alca impennis on the coast of Norway in the present century, and I shall treat each of these cases separately. 1. Boie, in his ‘Tagebuch einer Reise durch Norwegen in 1817,’ re- lates that one day in August 1817 he saw in the distance in the Ranen- fjord in Helgeland a bird which, as he thinks, was probably the Imber of Pontoppidan (Alea impennis), which undoubtedly exists in Norway. He also states that among the birds which are to be found in winter in the Westfjord (to the south of the Loffoden Islands), the Imber (Alca impen- nis) is to be included. How far Boie was correctly informed as regards this last case cannot now, of course, be determined. Since, however, he in both cases gives the Norwegian name “ Imber,” and relies for this designa- tion on the authority of Pontoppidan, it must be observed that Pontoppidan by his “ Imber” undoubtedly means the Colymbus glacialis (the Great Nor- thern Diver), and that even Faber in his time (‘ Isis,’ 1827, p. 681) assumes that Boie was in error. 2. In the year 1838 Professor Rasch, in the ‘ Nyt Magazin for Naturvi- denskaberne,’ 1 B., p. 386—“ Fortegnelse og Bemarkninger over de i Norge forekommende Fugle” (“List of Birds found in Norway, with Notes thereon”), mentions that he had just received a communication to the effect that a specimen of the Alea impennis had been killed in the winter of 1837-38 in the neighbourhood of Frederikstad, a town situated between the mouth of the Christiania Fjord and the Swedish frontier. But Professor Rasch’s authority for this statement, the present occupant of the botanical chair in the university of Christiania, Professor Schitibeler, has since informed me that the specimen in question was never actually seen by him, and that there is no positive evidence to the effect that the bird then killed was really the Alca impennis. 3. In the year 1850 Lilljeborg, in the ‘Kgl. Vet. Akad. Handl. f. 1850,’ p. 331—“ Bidrag til Norra Rysslands och Norridges Fauna” (“Contribu- 104 Recent Notes on the Great Auk. [Sess. tions to the Fauna of Northern Russia and Norway”), says: “An Alca ampennis is said to have been shot a considerable time ago in the district of Tromsé.” Since this specimen, too, has not been preserved, this report must be regarded as quite as uncertain as the preceding one! The next branch of our subject for consideration is INFORMATION REGARDING THE HABITS OF THE GREAT AUK, AND SOME OF THE LOCALITIES IN WHICH IT HAS BEEN SUPPOSED TO HAVE LIVED. There are several references by voyagers to North America about two hundred years ago, under different names, to what, from their descriptions, must, I think, be considered to be no other than the Great Auk. They make some interesting remarks regarding its habits. The Baron Lahontan, in ‘ New Voyages to North America, from 1683 to 1694, translated from the French—London, 1735, vol. i. p. 241, says: “The moyacks are a sort of fowl as big as a goose, having a short neck and a broad foot; and, which is very strange, their eggs are half as big again as a swan’s, and yet they are all yelk, and that so thick that they must be diluted with water before they can be used as pancakes.” It would be interesting if any one has an opportunity of obtaining eges of some allied bird, such as Alcea torda, to experiment so as if possible to ascertain if there appears to be good reason for accepting as correct the observations of Baron Lahontan. It is unfortunate we cannot obtain any new-laid Great Auk eggs to definitely settle the question! It may be as well to remark that although Baron Lahontan appears to have visited the coast of Labrador, it was not during the particular voyage in which he met with the moyacks, as he then does not seem to have been farther north than the Gulf of St Lawrence. It must not, therefore, be supposed that he recorded the moyack in a region from which we have no authentic record of the Great Auk. It is evident from what we know that he either met with the moyack in the Gulf of St Lawrence or perhaps farther south, at some of the other then stations for the Great Auk, or, as it was then called, Penguin. A bird named the “wobble” is referred to in a work on ‘ New England Rarities, by John Josselyn, Gent.: London, 1672. 1 For doubtful occurrence of Great Auk at Mevenklint, see post, p. 119, Note. 1887-88. ] Recent Notes on the Great Auk. 105 The following is what appears, and probably refers to the Great Auk: “The wobble is an ill-shaped fowl, having no long feathers in their pinions, which is the reason they cannot fly,— not much unlike the Penguin. They are in the spring very fat, or rather oyly ; but pulled and garbidged, and laid to the fire to roast, they yield not one drop.” Josselyn appears to have lived eight years in Scarborough, a hundred leagues east of Boston. This was probably in the neighbourhood of Casco Bay, in which locality the Great Auk was at one time used by the ancient inhabitants for food, its remains having been found in shell-heaps. Professor F. W. Putnam of the Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., in a footnote in connection with a paper by Professor James Orton which appeared in the ‘American Naturalist,’ vol. ii. p. 540, says :— That the Great Auk was once very abundant on our New England shores is proved beyond a doubt by the large number of its bones that have been found in the ancient “shell-heaps” scattered along the coast from British America to Massachusetts. The “old hunter” who told Audubon of its having been found at Nahunt was undoubtedly correct in his statement, as we have bones of the species taken from the shell-heaps of Marblehead, Eaglehead in Ipswich, and Plumb Island ; and Mr Elliot Cabot has informed me that an old fisherman living in Ipswich described a bird to him that was captured by his father in Ipswich many years ago, which, from the description, Mr Cabot was convinced was a specimen of the Great Auk. I am indebted to Mr Frederic A. Lucas of the United States National Museum, Washington, D.C., for the following extract from the ‘ Gloucester Telegraph, August 7, 1839, taken from the ‘Salem Register,’ no date given :— All the mackerel-men who arrive report the scarcity of this fish, and at the same time I notice an improvement in taking them with nets at Cape Cod and other places. If this speculation is to go on without being checked or regulated by the Government, will not these fish be as scarce as Penguins are, which were so plenty before the Revolutionary war that our fishermen could take them with their gaffs? But during the war some mercenary and cruel individuals used to visit the islands on the eastern shore, where were the haunts of these birds for breeding, and take them for the sake of the fat, which they procured, and then let the birds go. This proceeding finally destroyed the whole race. It is many years since I have heard or seen one except on the coast of Cape Horn.—A FIsHERMAN. It seems, however, exceedingly probable that the Great Auk 106 Recent Notes on the Great Auk. [Sess. went much farther south along the shores of the United States than Massachusetts, as Catesby, in ‘The History of Carolina,’ App., p. Xxxvi, writing early last century, includes the species as an occasional winter visitant to the shores of Carolina. I am indebted to Mr Edward Bidwell of London for the follow- ing extract from an old catalogue. The title rans— A Catalogue / of many natural Rarities / with / Great industry, Cost, and thirty years’ travel in Foreign Countries / Collected by / Robert Hubert, alias Forges, / Gentleman and Servant to / His Majesty, / and daily to be seen at the / place formerly called the / Musick House, near the / West End of St Pauls’ Church, London. Printed by Tho. Ratcliff for the Author. Anno Domini 1665. At p. 9 of this catalogue is this description :— A strange Sea-Fowle as big as a Goose: it is called the Sea Pinguin. It cannot fly, for his wings are like Pinnes, and is so thick of Feathers that one cannot shoot him, unlesse behind against the growth of his thick Down or Feathers. He is found threescore leagues from the coast of Canada. Professor A. Newton of Cambridge, in his paper on “ The Garefowl and its Historians,’ in the ‘ Natural History Review’ for 1865, p. 486, says: “The only place where may possibly linger the last of the American Garefowls is the Virgin Rocks, near the edge of, and midway on the north-west side of, the Great Bank, off the coast of Newfoundland.” On the 29th September 1885, Professor Newton told me in conversation that he was then satisfied that the Virgin Rocks could not have been a breeding-place for the Great Auk, as he had been told that these rocks are at times covered with water. Writing upon this subject in ‘The Auk,’ vol. v., No. 3, July 1888, p. 282, Mr Frederic A. Lucas, who evidently is unaware of the changed views now held by Professor Newton, says of the Virgin Rocks, “ It will suffice to say that they lie three and one-half fathoms under water.” THE FOOD OF THE GREAT AUK. At p. 72 of ‘The Great Auk or Garefowl; its History, Archeology, and Remains, I refer to the statement made by O. Fabricius about the Great Auk feeding upon the lump-fish (Cyclopterus lumpus). The following remarks on the same subject, by Mr Frederic A. Lucas, in ‘ The Auk,’ vol. v., No. 3, July 1888, p. 282, are interesting :— 1887-88. ] Recent Notes on the Great Auk. 107 A word regarding the food of the Great Auk, and in support of the statement made by Fabricius that the lump-fish (Cyclopterus lumpus) formed an important item in its bill of fare. While the lump-fish is rather rough to look upon, the bones are extremely brittle, and the strong beak of the Garefowl would slice through the body of any specimen it might have captured as easily as the knife of the Eskimo does through the body of the lump-fish he dries or freezes for his winter store. The young lump-fish—and these would be most dainty morsels—keep near the surface of the water, and seek concealment in patches of floating rock-weed, where they would easily have been detected by the keen eye of a sea-fow] ; while, being but indifferent swimmers, there would be no safety in flight. REMAINS OF THE GREAT AUK, The skins, bones, and eggs of the Great Auk are of con- siderable value, and the historians of this bird, whoever they are, will find it no easy matter to hear of all the changes that take place in ownership, so that they may be recorded. Much has been already done in recording all existing remains of the Great Auk, and the first place in this department of alcine work deservedly falls to Professor William Blasius of Bruns- wick. Since 1885, when I completed my former list, much interesting information has come into my hands, mostly the result of a large correspondence with numerous individuals both in Europe and America. I am most anxious to place as much of the information as possible on record, but space will only permit of my doing so in a curtailed form. I will first refer to matters connected with skins of the bird, then of the skeletons and separate bones, and afterwards to the eggs. [ will not attempt to give a detailed list, as I did in my book, but will only mention matters that have come to my know- ledge since then, and which I think worth recording. I there- fore append a summary of the total remains now known, Skins. BritisH Isxxs, Boyle Court, Essex, is the proper address of Mrs Lescher, who has a specimen of the Great Auk. In my book, by a printer’s error, the name appeared as Boyne Court. Clungunford House, Aston-on-Clun, Shropshire.—The specimen pre- served here was purchased by the late Mr Rocke from Mr Henry Shaw of Shrewsbury. Leeds, Museum of Philosophical Society.—I am indebted to Mr 108 Recent Notes on the Great Auk, [Sess. R. Champley for introducing me to the Rev. 8. Edward Fitch. M.D., Scarborough, who sent me the following information on 5th October 1885. After mentioning that he had got the information from the Rey. R. J. Buddicom, he says: “It appears about forty years ago a Mr Pinches of Ticherton Church, Shelton, Salop, purchased of Mr Henry Shaw, 45 High Street, Shrewsbury, this bird,—that at the death of Mr Pinches it came into the possession of Mrs Buddicom, his sister, and was sold about thirty years ago to Sir William Milner of Nunappleton, Yorkshire. From the letter received from Mr H. Shaw, to whom I at once wrote, I find that he purchased it from Mr Leadbetter, but does not know how, when, or where Mr Leadbetter obtained it.” This specimen is now loaned to the Leeds Museum by Sir Frederick Milner, son of Sir William Milner. (For further infor- mation see ‘ The Great Auk ; its History, Archeology, and Remains, App., p. 14.) GERMANY. Metz. Town Museum.—Mr G. A. Frank, 9 Haverstock Hill, London, writing me on 25th October 1887, says: “I have seen this summer the specimen in Metz (Malherbe), but I fear that this bird will not last a great many years, as the moths have got in it.” HOLLAND. Amsterdam. Museum of Royal Zoological Society.—On the 29th October 1885, Dr G. F. Westerman, Director of the Royal Zoological Museum, writes me: “I beg to inform you that the proper date we bought the stuffed specimen is May 18, 1840.” Norway. Christiania. University Museum of Natural History—The speci- men that was in the collection of Herr Nicolai Aall at Naes, near Arendal, has been recently remounted, and is now in the above museum. SWITZERLAND. Lausanne. Museum of Natural History.—The Vouga collection from Cortaillod is now in this museum. Mr G,. A. Frank of London wrote me from Lausanne on 13th June 1886, and says: “It may interest you to know that the Vouga collection was sold some five months ago tothe Lausanne Museum. The price paid for it was 12,000 francs. I went to see the collection to-day with Dr Lareguier. The birds are not unpacked yet. The only bird I saw was the Auk, a fine female.” UNITED STATES. New York. American Museum of Natural History.—It has been clearly shown by a writer in ‘The Auk,’ vol. iii., No. 2, p. 263, that there is only one skin of Alcea impennis in this museum, which is the fine specimen originally in the collection of Dr Troughton. (See ‘ The Great Auk ; its History, Archeology, and Remains,’ App., p. 19.) 1887-88.] Recent Notes on the Great Auk. 109 Washington, National Museum.—There is only one specimen in this museum, and not two, as previously recorded. See ‘The Auk,’ vol. ili., No. 2, p. 263. Skeletons. There are twelve, or perhaps fifteen, additional skeletons of Alca impennis to record, besides those mentioned in ‘The Great Auk,’ &c., p. 82; and of the two mummy specimens said to exist in Harvard University Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass., United States, one has to be de- leted, as only one is preserved there. The following are par- ticulars of these specimens:— — British Isues. Durham. Tn the collection of Dr Tristram, Canon of Durham.—I am indebted to the Rev. H. H. Slater, Irchester Vicarage, Welling- boro’, for the following information (see below under Wellingboro’). One skeleton. Edinburgh. Museum of Science and Art.—Mr Wm. Eagle Clarke informed me, 28th August 1888, that Dr R. H. Traquair, F.R.S8., has just acquired from Mr Edward Gerrard, jun., for the Museum, a very fine skeleton of Alca impennis. I have been unable to ascertain its history, so it may be one of those already recorded changing hands. Wellingboro’. In the collection of the Rev. H. H. Slater, Irchester Vicarage.—I am indebted to Mr Wm. Eagle Clarke of the Museum of Science and Art, Edinburgh, for first mentioning this skeleton to me, and for advising me to communicate with the Rev. H. H. Slater, who kindly sent me the following. Writing on 2d September 1885, he says; “The skeleton of Alca impennis in my possession was acquired thus. It is, as you surmise, part of the Funk Island find (Prof. J. Milne’s). I was stopping at Dr Tristram’s house in or about the year 1877, and he had just received a box of Great Auk bones, as far as I remember from Gerrard. Dr Tristram (I mean the Canon of Dur- ham, not the Chancellor and Q.C.) asked me to look over them, and make him up a skeleton. I did so, being at the time in good practice with birds’ bones, and made him a very good one, only a few vertebra, ribs, and phalanges being absent. As Dr Tristram did not care to keep the rest of the bones, which would make a very fair skeleton also, I became their possessor. His skeleton is some degrees better than mine. His has a good vertebral column.” GERMANY. Breslau.—In addition to the foregoing, it is just possible there may be still another skeleton to record in Germany, as will be seen from the following communication Professor Wm. Blasius of Brunswick sent me on 3lst October 1887: “I lately got some information from Breslau, according to which there may still exist a skeleton of Alca.” VOL, II, H IIO Recent Notes on the Great Auk. [Sess. Since the above communication reached me, I have been unable to ascertain anything more about this supposed skeleton, so possibly there is some mistake, UNITED STATES. Cambridge, Mass. Museum of Comparative Zoology.—A writer, “LL, §.,” in ‘The Auk,’ vol. iii., No. 2, p. 265, April 1886, says: “The Harvard University Museum (=Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.) is credited with the possession of two skeletons ‘prepared from mummy Great Auks obtained at Funk Island during 1864” Mr J. Allen, then curator at the Museum, wrote me under March 18, 1885, as follows : ‘We have but one specimen of the Great Auk, and that is to be rated as a skeleton. It is in reality a so-called mummy, and is from the Funk Islands. Only a portion of the bones have yet been laid bare—one wing and one leg; the rest is still cov- ered with the dried flesh. In some unaccountable way it is commonly and erroneously supposed that we have two of these Great Auk mummies. Four mummy Great Auks were obtained on Funk Island—namely, one in 1863, and three in 1864—and of these the specimen got in 1863 is in Cambridge, England, and of the others, one is in London, and the other, as above mentioned, at Cambridge, Mass. The missing one was sent by the Bishop of Newfoundland to the Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science. What has become of it, isthe question, I have addressed repeated inquiries to the Secretary of the Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science, but have had no reply. I hope this may meet the eye of some one who will be able to make the necessary inquiries in Nova Scotia. While referring to this subject, it may be as well to draw attention to an interesting statement made by Mr Frederic A. Lucas in ‘ The Auk,’ vol. v., No. 3, July 1888, p. 280: ‘The soil of Funk Island, by the way, is frozen for only a part of the year; and the statement that a mummy of the Great Auk was “taken from under ice which never melts,” was doubt- less made from a misapprehension of the facts in the case, for al- though floe ice is driven upon some portions of the island, it never reaches those places where the Auk remains lie buried, and never endures into the summer months.’” Washington. National Museum.— Writing me 9th August 1888, Mr Frederic A. Lucas informs me that there are “ten or twelve” more or less complete skeletons among the remains brought home by the Grampus Expedition to Funk Island in 1887. Detached Bones. At the time I wrote my book, my information led me to suppose that only bones representing about 45 or 50 Great Auks had been brought home from Funk Island in 1874 by Professor J. Milne. However, I was informed by Professor = a i, 1887-88. Recent Notes on the Great Auk. III A. Newton of Cambridge, into whose hands the collection was placed on arrival, that there were at the lowest computation from 60 to 70 crania. It was not long after my book was published that Mr Edward Gerrard, jun., dealer in natural history wares, London, into whose hands this collection went, sold the last bones in his possession. On 8th September 1885, Mr J. Whitaker, Rainworth Lodge, Mansfield, wrote me: “I have bought Gerrard’s last bones of Alea impennis.” From a list of the bones sent me, they appear to represent only one individual. On the 22d August 1885, Mr William Eagle Clarke, now of the Museum of Science and Art, Edin- burgh, informed me by letter that Mr James Backhouse of York had some remains of Alea impennis in his possession. I wrote Mr James Backhouse, sen., and got a most courteous reply, on 21st October 1885, from Mr James Backhouse, jun., West Bank, York. He says: “In reply to yours of the 19th inst., my father has a set of 35 bones of the Great Auk from Funk Island, which are in a good state of preservation.” These bones are also part of the Milne collection. In the Natural History Museum, Bergen, Norway, there are a few bones that were brought from Funk Island by Herr P. Stuvitz. The curator of the museum, Herr James A. Griig, writing me on 5th November 1887, says: “In Bergen Museum there are only a cranium (maxill. inf. are wanting; the right os zygomaticus is broken off), a pair of maxill. inf., and a right humerus of Alca impennis.” The bones that were found by the late Professor Wyman in shell-heaps near Ipswich, Massachusetts, are now preserved in the Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Eth- nology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., as I have been informed by Professor F. W. Putnam, present curator, in a letter dated 29th October 1885. He writes: “The bones of the Great Auk mentioned by Professor Wyman are all in this museum. He afterwards obtained others from shell-heaps on Cape Cod, and I presume there are specimens among the many bones which I have taken from the shell- heaps on the coast of Maine, but which, as yet, have only been roughly identified. Cape Cod is the most southern limit of the Auk bones, so far as I am aware.” During the summer of 1887 the United States’ fishery 112 Recent Notes on the Great Auk. [Sess. cruiser Grampus, under the command of Captain J. W. Collins, now in charge of the Bureau of Statistics and Fisheries Investigation in the United States, visited the Bird Rocks in the Gulf of St Lawrence, and also Funk Island, off the Newfoundland coast. A most interesting account of the visit to the Bird Rocks, from the pen of Captain Collins, appeared in ‘The Boston, Mass., Herald, 25th July 1887, and there appears to be little doubt that they are the islands referred to by Jaques Carthier as the islands of Margaulx. When the Grampus reached Funk Island, a landing was effected by the osteologist of the expedition, Mr Frederic A. Lucas, and a party. They were successful in obtaining a large quantity of Great Auk remains. Writing me on 9th August 1888, Mr Lucas says: “I have finished the count of Auk humeri, and find that we have 1424, so that we have representatives of at least 712 birds. This does not include about one and one-half cubic foot of earth containing bones in situ which will not be disturbed. And yet, with all this, we can make up only ten or twelve skeletons.” Through the kind permission of Professor G. Brown Goode of the United States National Museum, Washington; Mr Lucas has been able to favour me with photographs of the skeleton of the Great Auk in the Museum, and also of some remains collected by the Grampus expedition. To both these gentlemen I desire to tender my best thanks. Mr Lucas has already contributed two valuable and interesting papers upon the Great Auk, resulting from his recent investigations. I have already repeatedly quoted from one of them which appeared in ‘The Auk,’ vol. v., No. 3, July 1888, pp. 278 to 283. The other will be found in ‘The Popular Science Monthly, August 1888, pp. 456 to 464. In this paper he gives a most par- ticular description of Funk Island and its skerries. He tells about the places where a landing can be effected, and also the exact position of the island on which the Great Auk remains are found. He mentions that undoubtedly the Great Auks were slaughtered on Funk Island, and did not die natural deaths, as many of the crania are fractured, and one skull bears evidence of the stroke of a knife. The only unrecorded British bone of Alca impennis, so far as 1887-88. ] Recent Notes on the Great Auk. 113 I am aware, is a dorsal vertebra, now in my possession, and found by me while examining a quantity of material brought from Caisteal-nan-Gillean, a shell-mound on the island of Oronsay,—the same place where the other bones discovered by me came from. (See ‘The Great Auk; its History, Archxology, and Remains,’ p. 47.) Lgs. BritisH Istes. Addlestone Hall, Surrey. Collection of Leopold Field, Esq.—This egg was in the possession of the Rev. H. Burney, Woburn, Bedford- shire. It was sold at Stevens’s Auction Rooms, Covent Garden, for £168, on 12th December 1887, and bought by Mr Field. Cambridge. The collection of eggs that belonged to Lord Lilford is now in the Natural History Museum at Cambridge. It consists of five eggs, and the following additional particulars regarding two of these is worth recording. Lord Lilford’s collection. Lausanne Egg.—So as to prevent any mistake as to the way the egg obtained at Lausanne by Mr G, A. Frank, and purchased by Lord Lilford, came into Mr Frank’s hands, it is as well to publish the following statement by Mr Frank, as at page 109 of my book I have given information from another source. He says: “I first heard of the two eggs by chance in 1881, and I quite believed myself to be the only person who knew of them— never having been aware that M. Fatio had seen or had given an account of them. In 1882 I went to see the hon. curator of the Lausanne Museum, and I then asked him if he would sell or make an exchange of one of the two eggs. His reply was that he could not dispose of such a rare specimen without the full consent of the Museum Committee. The Committee met later on, and they decided, as they had two specimens, to let me have one of the two for one stuffed gorilla (not a bad skin, as has been stated), a fine skull, and several bones of Alca impennis from Professor Milne’s collection, and several other specimens which they selected. To this I agreed, fully believing that these two eggs were unknown to science. After keeping it three months, I sold it to Lord Lilford for £110, not £140. That his lord- ship obtained the finest egg was a mere chance, as Dr Larguier wished to keep the most perfect for the Lausanne Museum. I should have preferred the other one.” Dorsetshire Egg.—I am indebted to Mr J. E. Harting, editor of the Zoological and Natural History Department of the ‘Field,’ for the following information regarding this egg. Its owner, a farmer, Mr Hill, was quite unaware of its value, and several times had been in- clined to throw it into the fire—as, being broken at one end, he began to think it was no ornament to his mantel-shelf. One day a clergy- man called, and, knowing something about oology, his attention was 114 Recent Notes on the Great Auk, [Sess. attracted by the broken egg-shell, and having some idea of its value, he asked Mr Hill why he did not take better care of it. The reply he got was that it was a useless egg-shell, aud it had often been intended to destroy it, but that to settle the matter it would be thrown on the fire there and then. The clergyman advised Mr Hill not to be in such a hurry to destroy it, as he believed the ege-shell was of con- siderable value—if it was, as he supposed, that of a Great Auk. The farmer was incredulous, but agreed to wait until the authorities at the British Museum were communicated with. When he heard that, if it was really an egg of the Great Auk, it was very valuable, he brought it to London. He placed it in the hands of Mr Bowdler Sharpe, of the British Museum, who put him in communication with Lord Lil- ford, who bought it for £50. Cambridge. Collection of Mr G. L. Russell—Since this paper was read, this egg, along with a collection, has been presented to the Natural History Museum, Cambridge. Croydon, Surrey. The egg that belonged to the late Mr Alfred Crowley is now in the possession of his brother, Mr Philip Crowley, at Waddon House. London. Collection of the late Lord Garvagh.—On the 5th February 1886 the present Lord Garvagh wrote informing me that the whole collection of the late Lord Garvagh was sold to the Dublin Museum, and that if the broken egg was retained in the collection it would be found there. I have, however, ascertained that they know noth- ing regarding the broken egg in that Institution. London. Collection of Mr Gardiner.—This egg belonged to Mrs Wise, who lived at one time near Reigate, Surrey. This lady re- moved to Steyning, near Brighton, and sold the egg in her possession at Mr J. C. Stevens’s Auction Rooms, Covent Garden, on the 12th March 1888, for the sum of £225, to Mr Gardiner, dealer in natural history wares, Oxford Street, London. Holland was the maiden name of Mrs Wise, and her late father, Mr H. Lancelot Holland, bought the egg on 6th October 1851 for £18 from Williams of Lon- don, who, in turn, had bought it from Lefévre of Paris, Saffron- Walden. The egg that was in the collection of Mr Tuke, Hitchin, Hertfordshire, is now in the Saffron-Walden Museum, The curator, Mr Maynard, is said to have taken some casts of it. Scarborough. Collection of Robert Champley, Esq.—I am much in- debted to Mr Champley for kindly allowing me to publish the follow- ing information regarding the history of the nine eggs in his collection, which is the finest in existence. The information is from Mr Champ- ley’s private notes, made at the time of each transaction :— No 1, figured in Thienemann.—The above egg, and the first I obtained, came into my possession in the following singular manner. IT had written to Mr Newman, the editor of ‘The Zoologist,’ a letter: asking him if he could inform me what had become of the egg that belonged to the late Mr Yarrell. I received no reply ; but my letter 1887-88. ] Recent Notes on the Great Auk. 115 to Mr Newman, unknown to myself, was inserted on the outer cover of § The Zoologist.’ Some months after I received a letter from Kunz, Leipzig. He informed me he had seen my query respecting Yarrell’s egg, and said he had an egg for sale. Would I have it? He wrotea second letter giving the price, £18 (July 1859). Five letters refer to this transaction. The egg, from its beautiful shape, is the finest known. This ege was purchased from Theodore Schultz in 1857, he then residing at Neuhaldensleben, Saxony (a short description of which appears in ‘Cabanis,’ January 1860). Schultz purchased it from a person of the same name then residing at Leipzig. He re- ceived it, with six others, from Iceland. No. 2.—This egg is engraved in Bideker’s ‘ European Oology.’ My first intimation of its whereabouts was from reading a number of ‘ Cabanis.’ I purchased the egg with the bird (said to have laid the egg) in 1861, from the apothecary Mecklenburg, residing at Flensburg, Denmark (now Germany),—the same person who sold Hancock his egg and bird obtained from Iceland, 1829. Egg perfect, well marked with blotches. Mecklenburg’s son, after his father’s death, sent me a catalogue of his eggs and skins for sale, including another skin of the Great Auk, but with, I think, false feet. I don’t know what became of this last skin. No 3.—This egg was obtained during my Italian tour in 1861. I was at Verona, 31st May 1861. I met accidentally a Russian nobleman at the station (Porta Neuva). My acquaintance was renewed at Milan a few days later, on the evening of 2d June. I met him near the Duomo, the day of the celebration of the unity of Italy. He told me he was going to see the Certosa Monastery the following morning. We agreed to go together, and another friend accompanied us. We three took a carriage and pair, and arrived at the convent, fifteen miles dis- tant, about noon. We then drove on to Pavia, five miles farther. After seeing the cathedral, we went to look at the university, and went over the Museum of Anatomy. I inquired if there were any eggs and birds in the museum, and was answered in the affirmative. On looking round the glass cases, I noticed many eggs stuck on wires on shelves, but all black over with dust. I noticed among some large eggs what I thought was an egg of a Great Auk. I asked the attend- ant to open the case, but he had not the key. I told him to go for the sub-director. He returned with him and opened the case, which was fastened with screws. I took down the egg, black over with dirt, and rubbed it clean, and saw it was an Alca impennis. I told the sub- director I would exchange some skins for it. He could not say any- thing, but referred me to the chief director, and at the same time told me that the collection was given by Professor Spallanzani one hundred years before, and that Spallanzani had been one of the lecturers in the University. My friend the Russian interpreted for me. When I ob- tained the address of the chief director, I proceeded to his residence, accompanied by a youth, a student of the college, who spoke English —my friends meanwhile staying at the museum waiting my return. On my arrival at the director’s residence, I told him there was amongst the eggs an egg of “Le Grand Pinguin,” and I should be 116 Recent Notes on the Great Auk. Peas: glad if he would let me have it for an exchange. He accompanied me back to the museum. After looking at the egg, the sub-director told him I had offered five napoleons or an equivalent in exchange for it. He said they would rather prefer the money. I therefore borrowed the amount from my Russian friend, and, after packing the egg care- fully, left the museum, they seeming sorry that they had no more specimens, and considered they had got a good bargain. We arrived at Milan at seven in the evening. I had a box made for the egg the next day. The egg is perfect, and thickly pencilled at the thick end. No. 4.—This fine egg was obtained as follows: Passing through Paris for Italy the same year (1861), I called on Parzudaki, the French naturalist. He told me the Abbé la Motte had an ege of Alca im- pennis, but was then in Algiers. I told him to buy it for me, and to write in three months to me at the Poste Restante, Rotterdam. On arriving there I found his letter, saying the son was at Abbeville, and asking instructions. I at once wrote telling him to buy the egg. This he did for £24. I have four letters referring to this purchase. No history, excepting a statement that it was obtained forty years pre- viously from French whalers. Nos. 5 and 6.—I bought these eggs in London from Ward, the naturalist in Vere Street, in 1864. Pre- viously I had received a letter from Fairmaire, Paris, saying he had two eggs. Unfortunately his letter was sent to Scarborough while I was in London. There was consequently some delay in my knowing he had the two eggs for sale. As Fairmaire did not hear from me, he supposed I either did not care to have the eggs or that I had not got his letter. When I wrote he said he had parted with them. By chance the same week I called at Ward’s, and he showed me one egg, for which I gave him £25, and asked him if he had any more. He then showed me another egg, for which I paid him £30. I then asked him if he had any more, as I would take twenty. He smiled. He would not say how he got them ; but I afterwards found out they were the same as offered to me by Fairmaire. I called on Ward many times after, and he always regretted having parted with these eggs. They are perfect, and well marked. I don’t know their previous: his- tory. Nos. 7, 8, and 9.—These eggs were bought in 1864 from Pro- fessor Flower, then of the Royal College of Surgeons, London. They were part of the collection of ten eggs of Alca impennis in the Hunt- erian Collection. I had difficulty in getting them, as at the time they would not take money. I got over the difficulty by purchasing a col- lection of anatomical specimens for £45, which the museum was anxious to possess, and then exchanged it for the four eggs, all very fine specimens. If I had pressed at that time, I could have got the other four eggs afterwards sold at Stevens’s salerooms in July 1865. FRANCE. Chateau de Manonville, Meurthe.—The three eggs in the collection of the Count de Baracé, Angers, have been purchased by Baron Louis d@Hamonville, Chateau de Manonville, par Noviant-aux-Pres, Meurthe, and are now in his possession, These, added to Yarrell’s egg already a | PCA ES ITs GREAT AUK OR GAREFOWL. (Alea tmpennis Livi.) 1887-88. ] Recent Notes on the Great Auk. i177 recorded as in Baron Louis d’Hamonville’s collection, makes him the owner of four eggs in all. GERMANY. Breslau. Count Rédern’s collection—It is as well to explain, to avoid future confusion, that this is not the egg sold by Herr Mecklen- burg of Flensburg to a Herr Platow of Breslau, and of which Mr Robert Champley of Scarborough has a drawing. HOLLAND. Amsterdam. Museum of Royal Zoological Society.—At p. 89 of my book I print a letter from Professor Schlegel of Leyden Zoological Museum to Robert Champley, Esq., Scarborough, from which it ap- pears that in 1859 one of the eggs in the Leyden Museum had been presented to the Royal Zoological Museum at Amsterdam. From what Mr G. A. Frank of 9 Haverstock Hill, London, writes me, there appears to be some mistake with regard to the date of the egg reaching Amsterdam, as well as the conditions under which it came into that collection. On the 30th October 1885 Mr Frank wrote me: “I re- turned yesterday from Holland. Dr Westerman told me that Tem- minck gave him the egg between 1840 and 1845.” Writing me again on 5th November 1885, he says: “It does not much matter when they came into possession of it [the egg], but I know for certain that it was never in Professor Schlegel’s time. I often made a drawing of it when I was a boy some twenty-five years ago. Dr Westerman told me last week that he obtained it in exchange from Temminck.” Leyden. Zoological Museum.—Mr G. A. Frank, writing me 30th October 1885, says: “I believe that the two eggs (now one in Amster- dam) were bought by Temminck from my grandfather or father.” SumMARY OF ExistinG REMAINS OF THE GREAT AUK. Total number of birds represented. Skins, . 3 ‘ - . : 78 or 79 Skeletons more or less complete . : 21 or 24 Detached bones,? - : : A 841 or 851 Physiological preparations, . : : 2 or 3 Eggs, . : c : : : 67 or 69 1 If the skeleton recently acquired by the Museum of Science and Art, Edin- burgh, is found to be one of those already recorded, it must then be deducted from the above total, which will read 21 or 23. 2 Mr Frederic A. Lucas informs me that the result of his count of the humeri of Alca impennis collected by the s.s. Grampus expedition at Funk Island in 1887 is 1424; and supposing that exactly one-half of that number were right humeri and the other half left humeri, it would be evident that at least 712 Great Auks were represented by these remains. However, it is much more likely that there is an unequal number of either right or left humeri ; and when this is ascertained, it will enable a much more accurate calculation of the exact number of birds represented by these remains to be made. In the meantime, it is only 118 Recent Notes on the Great Auk. [Sess. REPUTED FRAGMENT OF GREAT AUK SKIN. Boston. Collection of Mr Charles B. Cory.—A writer who signs himself “U.S.” in ‘The Auk,’ vol. iii., No. 2, p. 263, says: ‘ Mr Charles B. Cory has a few moments ago orally informed me that what he possesses is only a frag- ment of a skin of a breast and a few odd feathers, said to be from the Great Auk, which he bought some years ago of a dealer a little outside of London, and for which he paid £2.” From the foregoing, it may be inferred that Mr Cory has some doubt as to the above-mentioned remains being really those of Alca impennis Linn, There are so many sea-birds from which portions of plumage can be obtained similar to that of the Great Auk, that it would be as well to have fuller information regarding the fragment of skin and the feathers in question, before including them among the genuine remains of the Great Auk, IMITATION REMAINS OF ALCA IMPENNIS LINN. It may interest you to know that recently the number of imitation skins of Great Auks has been on the increase, and most of them have been sold, or offered for sale, for what they actually are—namely, models. However, I recently heard of a collector who was offered what was described as an unre- corded skin of the Great Auk, but which, on examination, was found to be merely a model. It is only about a year ago that a well-known ornithologist was passing through a town in the midland counties, when by chance he happened to look into a confectioner’s window. There he saw, to his amazement, a stuffed Great Auk. He at once went into the shop to make inquiries, no doubt with the idea that he would be able to record another specimen of Alca impennis. He saw the pro- prietor, who told him it was only an imitation, and that, be- sides selling confectionery, he did some bird-stufting upon his own account in the back premises. It transpired that, having been a trip to Germany, the confectioner had séen a Great Auk model, and determined to make one for himself on his return home. To make sure of proceeding rightly, he visited the museums in York and Leeds, where there are stuffed specimens—made drawings, and then constructed his model from Alcea torda and other skins. The ornithologist was so pleased with the correctness of the model that he purchased a rough approximation. In addition to the detached bones mentioned above, there is about 14 cubic foot of earth got by the Grampus expedition with Great Auk bones in situ, which are not to be disturbed, 1887-88. | Recent Notes on the Great Auk. 119 it, and it has found a place in his collection, no doubt pro- perly ticketed. With regard to the eggs, I may say that numerous casts of different eggs have been taken, and painted so like the origi- nals that, when seen lying in drawers, they can hardly be iden- tified. It appears to me that casts should be made of all Great Auk eggs, as they are so rare, and each egg has some peculiar difference in the markings. The best proof of the value of this practice is in the case of a Great Auk egg which was destroyed in a fire a good many years ago, and all know- ledge of its appearance would have been lost had there not fortunately existed a beautifully painted cast. In conclusion, I may be permitted to say that the tendency is for Great Auk remains in private collections steadily to find their way into public museums, where they will be more acces- sible to ornithologists, better cared for, and unobtainable by collectors. This will no doubt in time, to a great extent, remove the present necessity for recording changes in connec- tion with alcine remains. Nore.—The most recent rumoured observation of a Great Auk comes from Iceland. On the 19th September 1888, after this paper was in the printers’ hands, I was informed by Mr T. G. Paterson, who had just returned from Iceland, that while there he met an official, a well-educated and reliable man, who stated that nineteen years ago, when he was with a vessel engaged in the white-shark fishing near Mevenklint, he saw what he believed was a Great Auk. Mevenklint is said to be a skerry (about the size of Eldey, off Reykjanes) situated 40 miles N.N.W. of Grimsey, in about 67° N. lat. and 18° W. long. It is marked on the chart at the end of my book, but seems a doubtful station for the Great Auk, as it is considerably within the Arctic circle. ILLUSTRATIONS. Prare I.—Figure of a stuffed specimen of the Great Auk in the American Museum of Natural History, Central Park, New York. This specimen at one time belonged to Dr Troughton, and after his death was bought by Mr D. G. Elliot, through the agency of Mr Cook, dealer in natural history wares, for the museum, where it is now preserved. Puate II.—Faesimile of the original figure of a Great Auk, reduced one- third, given by the Danish naturalist, Olaus Wormius, in his ‘ Museum Wormi- anum seu Historie Rerum Rariorum’ (Copenhagen), Leyden, 1655, p. 301. It was probably drawn from a living Great Auk, as Wormius had one from the Faroes, which he succeeded in keeping alive for some months. The white ring round the neck was evidently intended to bear an inscription, and is not natural to the bird. The Scottish Society of Antiquaries has kindly given me the electro- type from which the figure is printed, 120 . The Rook. [Sess. Il—THE ROOK. By Mr TOM SPEEDY. (Read Jan. 25, 1888.) In writing an essay on birds, I propose to introduce to you our familiar friend, the rook. No bird, I imagine, will be more welcome, as with it every person is more or less familiar. Even those living in towns have frequent facilities afforded them for observing the habits of this bird, especially at nest- ing-time, which is denied to many in the country. Rooks often take possession of a clump of trees in large centres of population, where, as a rule, they rear their young more safely than in rural districts, municipal law forbidding the use of fire- arms or the scaling of trees within its boundaries. Those who live in houses of high elevation, with windows overlooking rookeries in towns, as in the Meadows or Newington in our own city, must be interested in observing the habits of those birds. What an absence of sloth! and what a lesson of industry may there be learned! How scientific and business-like they ap- pear, as if their whole energies were centred in their work. No trades-unionism, no strikes, no half-holidays on Saturday afternoons for them. From the time they begin to carry the first stick to the nest, till the young birds can take care of themselves, it is an endless scene of bustle and anxiety from early dawn till darkness has set in. It does seem strange that a pair of young rooks—or indeed any kind of birds—can the following spring commence a structure, and, without ex- perience, but with unerring instinct, build a nest identical with the one in which they themselves were reared. As some of the old nests, with a little trimming and repair, are utilised, I may presume, by old birds, the difficulty of building devolves upon young ones. Their first and not the least important duty is to select a tree with sufficient forks to hold the nest to- gether, and when a fit one is found, in a few days they com- mence the structure. It sometimes happens that they fly to a considerable distance for suitable sticks to make the frame which supports the inner parts of the nest. The branch of an elm or thorn is frequently chosen, and to watch them breaking a af —— a i es 1887-88.] The Rook. 12f one off is most amusing. How they seize it with their power- ful beaks, suspend themselves by it in the air, and bend it backwards and forwards in a most persevering manner till it eventually gives way, when they carry it off in triumph. After their own nest is completed, it is no unusual thing to see rooks assisting others in building their nests—a neigh- bourly act, which, with the exception of the swallow, is rarely indulged in by the feathered tribe. That they occasionally vio- late the eighth commandment is true ; but that they hold trials and condemn the delinquents to death, which is speedily put into execution, as asserted by some naturalists, is questionable. Certainly no such incident has ever come within my observa- tion. The habits of rooks, like those of all other birds, are governed by uniform laws; and while exceptional incidents, which may be regarded as a departure from their normal habits, are occasionally met with, they are, I am certain, exceedingly rare. It has also been recorded that when a rook has been found stealing sticks from a neighbouring nest, the whole colony attack it, tear its nest to pieces, and drive it from the rovkery. This also, if correct, is very exceptional, —though rooks frequently, after nests have been finished, evi- dently change their mind, and in an incredibly short time remove every stick. Why they should do so is one of the many secrets in the habits of birds which the closest observers have as yet failed satisfactorily to explain. In April last a pair of rooks built their nest on the top of a chimney at The Inch, near Edinburgh, the house being im- mediately surrounded by a rookery, and the entire park thickly studded with trees. That they should have indulged in this strange freak is remarkable, as rooks seldom build their nests elsewhere than on trees when the facilities for their doing so exist. In due course five eggs were dropped into the nest, and the process of hatching entered upon. For a fortnight the. hen bird—relieved occasionally by the male—sat closely on the nest, and the following week young birds were expected to be hatched. Though their motive will doubtless for ever remain a mystery, a number of rooks one morning commenced, and in a few hours removed every stick of the nest, using these to build another nest in the wood, though by this time a month behind the normal time for nidification, What be- 122 The Rook. [Sess. came of the eggs was never discovered, but had the punish- ment inflicted been for thieving, it is not too much to say it would have been dealt with more summarily, and that three weeks would not have elapsed before it was put into execu- tion. Though rooks, like most of the feathered tribe, display a deal of pugnacity at pairing time, there are few birds which possess more of social instinct, as in all circumstances they seem to enjoy the fellowship of each other. Though many birds may be termed gregarious, none in this country so strictly deserve the name as the rook. Starlings may be seen in large flocks feeding on our meadows. Plover in immense numbers frequent our fields. Wood-pigeons in thousands roost in our woods, and feed on our turnips and on our stubbles. No sooner, however, does spring come round, than they pair off to their respective haunts, to breed in solitude. It is not so with rooks. They invariably form themselves into colonies, scores and sometimes hundreds of nests being constructed on trees within a very limited area. Whether rooks are the foes or friends of the farmer has long been a controverted question. Some assert they do a very considerable amount of damage to crops, while others maintain that any mischief they do is more than counter- balanced by the immense numbers of slugs, wire-worms, &c., they devour, which are so destructive to young plants. That they work a certain amount of mischief, especially in dry sea- sons, is true; but they are often mistakenly charged with eat- ing up the crops, while they are taking the best possible means of protecting them. In illustration of this, some years ago, in the early spring, a farm-grieve tried to stalk a flock of rooks which were busy feeding on a field of grain. Meeting him, he requested me to shoot some of them, as they were “ playing the vera mischief wi’ the wheat.” Concealing myself behind a hedge, I asked him to go round and startle them, to which he readily agreed, when I had no difficulty in killing a couple as they flew overhead. “ Man, that’s grand!” the grieve ex- claimed, as he came forward. “I'll hing them up in the field to scaur ithers.” Carrying the two birds in my hand, we walked to where the rooks had been feeding, when we dis- covered numerous holes dug by their powerful beaks, and 1887-88.] The Rook. 123 blades of young wheat strewn all around. On minute exami- nation, however, I observed that the blades which had been pulled up corresponded with a considerable number which were not so bright in colour as healthy plants are, and digging one up with my knife, I discovered a small grub adhering to the root. On opening the gizzards of both birds, I found a large number of grubs, while no traces of wheat or green blades were discernible. Another illustration in point. During the protracted drought of last summer, a blight seemed to come over a large quantity of onions in a market-garden at Craigmillar. The plants at first became slightly discoloured, and eventually withered away. My attention was called to the circumstance that the market-gardener was having his onions pulled up and eaten by the rooks. I felt that while it might be true that the onions were being pulled up, I was at the same time certain that it was not that they might be partaken of as food. On visiting the spot, I at once observed that the onions were blighted and fading away, as if they had been sown where there was neither moisture nor soil. This at once led to the solution of the difficulty, as, upon careful inspec- tion, I found, as I had anticipated, that the onions were being destroyed by grubs, which in incalculable numbers pervaded the entire area on which they had been sown. It will thus be seen that the object of the rooks in pulling up the plants was to devour these pestilent insects, as not one of the plants exhibited the slightest indication of having been par- taken of. It was interesting to note the sagacity which the birds displayed in pulling them up, as in no ease did they make a mistake, even when discoloration could not be dis- covered by the human eye. It is needless to say that here, as in the case of the wheat referred to, the rooks rendered a valuable service to the farmer, and to society at large. It will be evident that there is a danger of the interests of the farmer being overlooked by superficial observers rushing to hasty conclusions, as was the case of the grieve referred to. As by scientific investigation many palpable mistakes in agriculture are being discovered, so will the interests of farmers and gardeners be promoted as the facts of natural history become more generally and accurately understood, 124 The Rook. [Sess. The same remarks may be said to apply to those occa- sional descents which are made upon newly singled turnip- fields in dry weather by rooks. While, as I have pointed out, they render immense service to agriculturists in picking up wire-worms and grubs, which are so destructive to plants, it is nevertheless true that in certain seasons they are respon- sible for a very considerable amount of mischief. When potatoes are appearing through the ground, they dig down for the seed, which they rarely fail to carry off, and in con- sequence numerous blanks are visible when the crop grows up, unless vigilance is practised by “herding” them. In the plundering ay potato-fields, rooks display a more than ordi- nary degree of sagacity in their mode of getting at the early potatoes. Instead of digging down along the side of the plant from the top of the ridge, they are often to be found penetrating into the sides of the ridges at a lower level, right opposite the potatoes, so that labour is thereby economised. In protracted droughts, as in hard frosts, rooks have ex- treme difficulty in obtaining their food-supplies. This I have frequently noticed by about a score of them coming regularly to feed in my back-garden, where scraps were thrown out to the birds. No sooner, however, had there been a few hours’ rain than they disappeared, preferring grubs and worms—the catching of which was facilitated by the moisture—to the bits of bread and meat thrown out. So long as the weather re- mained damp, with occasional showers, they were never seen, but in dry weather, as in frost, they immediately returned. The reason of this is obvious, as in dry hot weather grubs go down into the cool earth beneath, but invariably return near the surface after rain. It is asserted by some agriculturists that the damage done to young wheat by rooks is not by eating the seed, “but by nipping off and devouring the shoot, which “of course destroys the plant. If such were the case, it is not too much to say that when pressed by hunger in droughts or frost, they would regale themselves on the shoots of grain or grass, which they would have no difficulty in obtaining. This asser- tion I am exceedingly loath to believe, as in none of those whose gizzards I have examined have I ever found green blades of any description. 1887-88.] The Rook. 125 Recurring to rooks feeding in the garden, it is in such cir- cumstances that their shrewdness and forethought obtrude themselves on our attention. Several cats were in the habit of appearing as soon as the food was thrown out. The rooks, by their noise and attitude of offence, proved themselves able to keep the cats at bay until their appetites were fully satis- fied, when, on their leaving, the cats picked up the remaining food. On the rooks discovering this, it was an interesting study to observe them, as, after having satisfied themselves, they picked up pieces of the remaining meat and carried them off to different parts of the garden, where they carefully buried them in the earth. During the afternoon they regularly re- turned, and with unerring accuracy disinterred the pieces of meat buried in the morning. The reflective instinct exhibited by the rook is proverbial, and developed to a larger extent than in most other birds. Its powers of arithmetical calculation have long attracted the attention of naturalists. It has been found that they can count numbers accurately up to three inclusive, but that this is the limit of their capacity of calculation. This peculiarity in the rook has been discredited by many, but, when tested by experiment, has been again and again verified. For example, when they are so pressed for food during a snow-storm as to visit a stack of grain, let a place of concealment be extem- porised by branches of trees or other material within easy shot, where watchers can successfully conceal themselves. If, after being repeatedly fired at from the ambush in question, the rooks discover one, two, or three persons betake themselves to the place of concealment and leave at intervals, it will be found that they will not descend to feed until the last of the three has left. But should four or more persons place them- selves under cover, it will be found that after the third has left their sense of danger disappears, as will be seen by their beginning to feed with apparent security. I am not aware of this peculiarity being possessed to the same extent by any other bird. I have several times been much interested in observing the ingenuity displayed by rooks in extracting grease from the grease-box above the wheels of railway-waggons. Perching at the side of the wheel, and placing their necks awry, they VOL, II, I 126 Notes on the Conifere. [Sess. pushed their beaks sideways under the lid of the grease-box, and, by a process of ingenuity rarely equalled by the feathered tribe, were thus able to dine at the expense of the railway company. There are few subjects of study more pleasing and interest- ing to the genial and generous mind than that of natural history, and few of our common birds more deserve a passing notice than our sable ubiquitous friend, the rook. IlI.—NOTES ON THE CONIFER. By Mr HUGH FRASER. (Read Jan. 25, 1888.) Amona the many Orders into which the vegetable kingdom is divided, it would be difficult, or probably impossible, to name one more important, either from an economic or orna- mental point of view, than the Conifere. Their wonderful diversity of habit, from the procumbent junipers of Europe, whose stature is measured by inches, to the majestic Welling- tonia of California, rising to the almost fabulous height of 360 feet ; the varieties of colour and tint which the foliage as- sumes, and the uniform gracefulness and symmetry of growth which characterise every member of the family, combined with the fact that a large proportion of the grandest forms are adapted to the soils and climate of this country—all render them universal favourites as ornamental plants. The well- known value, also, of many of them as timber-trees—of some for their resin, and of others for their fruit—must always ensure their extensive use in forest planting in this and every other country over the world. There is no region or continent which does not produce its conifers; and as they are. usually found at high altitudes, a singularly large proportion of the species are suitable for culti- vation in our climate. China and Japan send us their quota of Abies, Cupressus, and Pinus; India, its magnificent cedars, . 1887-88.] Polarised Dark-ground Illumination. 127 and many other most valued forms; South America, its arau- earia; North America, a host of species of sorts which are peculiar to itself, including many which, we are persuaded, will rank one day as most useful timber-trees in Europe; while Europe, including Great Britain, has its pines and spruces, which, while lending their own peculiar effects to the landscape, are almost rivals to the oak as timber-producing trees, From the very limited time at our disposal, and the magni- tude of our subject, it seems very obvious that we will best consult your convenience if we briefly allude to some of the representative forms of the various genera on the table. We have arranged them in alphabetical order for easy reference : the more scientific study of the various divisions must neces- sarily be left for the private study of those who feel more particularly interested in the subject. The following genera were then taken up sertatim, and a short descrip- tive account given of the habit of growth, geographical distribution, and cultivation of each :— Abies. Cupressus. Prumnopitys. Arauearia. Fitz-Roya. Retinospora. Biota. Juniperus. Sciadopytis. Cedrus, Larix. Taxus. Cephalotaxus. Libocedrus, Thuja. Chameecy paris, Picea. Thujopsis. Cryptomeria. Pinus. Wellingtonia. IV.—POLARISED DARK-GROUND ILLUMINATION. By Mr WILLIAM PEN MAN, Assoc. M.Inst.C.E, (Read Feb, 22, 1888.) Last session I had the honour of making a communication to the Society upon the subject of “Diatoms under Dark-ground Illumination ;” and as you have been good enough to embody the paper in your ‘Transactions, I will not recapitulate the methods and phenomena therein described, although they necessarily form the groundwork of the important subject I now desire to bring before your notice. 128 Polarised Dark-ground Illumination. [Sess. Some time ago I had the good fortune to become possessed of a very fine polarising prism, which fits into the substage arrangement of my Ross microscope; and it occurred to me that, on account of the largeness of the prism, I might to advantage employ polarisation with medium powers—especially as my substage is capable of carrying a condenser along with the polariser. With this in view, I began to experiment with a half-inch objective and open aperture on diatoms, and was rather startled to find that certain forms polarised quite readily, and that those were the same diatoms that appeared most brilliantly iridescent under dark-ground illumination. No sooner did this strike me than I introduced a stop, or spot, into the substage condenser, thereby producing a dark ground, and saw for the first time what I believe to be one of the finest microscopical effects—namely, polarised diatoms upon a black ground. I soon found that pursuing these observations only served to bring out fresh examples of the magnificence of this illumination, and so I have thought that a short paper to the Society upon this subject might be acceptable. This polarising—or, more properly speaking, depolarising— property of the Diatomaceze is not in itself surprising, when we remember that they are composed of silica—ze., quartz or flint—which is a positive uniaxial crystal, and consequently depolarises light. Unfortunately, but like very many other things, good results in polarised dark-ground treatment can only be attained by the exercise of some trouble, and the bringing together of certain factors in their most favourable conditions. To begin with: it is necessary to be possessed of a microscope fitted with a substage which is capable of carry- ing both a polariser and a condenser at the same time. The polarising prism should be large, so as to admit a very power- ful beam of light to the condenser above. In order to make the illumination as bright as possible, a good lamp and a large deep bull’s-eye condenser should be used, and the light thrown into the substage from the concave side of the mirror. Owing to the maximum power of ordinary micro. illumination being a fixed quantity, only a limited number of diatoms can be selected for dark-ground exhibition—namely, those that are large enough to be properly seen under a medium-power objective. Smaller diatoms, requiring higher powers, either 1887-88.] Polarised Dark-ground Illumination. 129 have their radiancy killed by the inevitable loss of light, or cannot be made to stand on dark-ground by reason of the increased aperture of the objective. For this work I would therefore recommend the use of a half-inch objective of moderate aperture, so that all the frustules in the field of the instrument may be sharp to the edges. Deep eyepiecing con- sumes light, and should be avoided, although I admit that the effect of occasionally inserting the Kelner orthoscopic C is very striking, on account of its enormous field. Lastly, the selenites should be in the form of discs, set on the top of the polariser, and beneath the condenser, so as not to interfere with the focus of the emergent rays from the condenser. Considering the somewhat complicated nature of the sub- stage apparatus, at first sight it must seem a matter of diffi- culty to adjust this kind of illumination, but in reality it is not so. The operation is as follows: Transmit the light in the ordinary way, focus the object, and centre the stop of the substage condenser so as to get a perfectly black ground, at the same time being careful not to cross the prisms, otherwise, in the first instance, you will get too much darkness. In con- junction with the adjustment of the stop, it is necessary to rack the condenser up or down until a position is found where the field and object are in greatest contrast—namely, where the object is most brightly lit up and the field darkest. One or two movements of the mirror generally require to be made during this operation of centering. By rotating the analysing prism the splendid effects are then seen, the thickness of the selenite governing the prevailing colours. I wish again to mention that, in order to get bright images, and a large num- ber of them in the field, a low ocular should be used. The brightness may be greatly enhanced by the application of glycerine between the condenser and slide; and if a slip selenite is used, it also should be brought into contact with the slide by the same means. With your indulgence I will endeavour to describe the effects of polar dark-ground upon a few familiar diatoms, the power used being a half-inch, with an A eyepiece on a ten-inch tube—that is to say, under a magnification of 100 diameters. A very slight study will suffice to convince the observer that there are two distinct classes of diatoms—first, iridescent 130 Polarised Dark-ground Illumination. [Sess. or spectral; and, second, opaque: and, for convenience, I will call the one iridescent and the other opaque. For example, if you examine Aulacodiscus with ordinary dark-ground, you will find the diatom tinted with certain colours for which it appears to have an affinity; if you now add the polariscope, you will produce an extra colour derived from the selenite. Isthmia enervis, Arachnoidiscus, &c., may be taken as examples of the other or opaque class, because, when viewed by ordi- nary dark-ground light, they appear colourless; but if the polariscope is applied, they are immediately coated over by the selenite colour, and never present more than one colour at a time. In my former paper, I took the liberty of suggesting possible explanations for the phenomenon of colour in diatoms under ordinary dark-ground illumination, and the subsequent examinations I have made confirm my opinion in these respects —(1), that some diatoms have an affinity, so to speak, for a certain colour, and this colour is evolved from those parts of the frustules only where the markings exist; (2), that it is possible, by racking the spot-lens up or down, to change this colour from one end of the spectrum to the other, demonstrat- ing the great dispersive power of the object; and, (3), that on account of the form of other diatoms, the pencils of light may impinge upon various parts at angles of greater or less obliq- uity, and thus appear variegated. Bearing in mind, there- fore, that dark-ground illumination is entirely produced by reflection, the foregoing appearances are the direct outcome of the changed angle of incident ray, depending mainly on the focal length of the condenser. With regard to these spectral colours, let me explain that Sir David Brewster, in his celebrated experiments upon mother- of-pearl, discovered by means of the microscope that the sur- face of that material is of grooved or striated structure, resembling that on the tip of a child’s finger, and that these grooves are not of uniform interval, but range from 200 to 3000 to the inch. It was also discovered that an impression of these lines, taken in wax, or almost any suitably plastic material, gives the same effect, from whence it follows that the beautiful iridescence of this and many other substances emanates. About the same time Sir John Barton succeeded, by cutting fine lines upon steel from 2000 to 10,000 to the 1887-88] Polarised Dark-ground Lllumination. 131 inch, in producing the well-known buttons, known originally as “ Barton’s buttons.” Sir David Brewster, in experimenting on steel lines, found that grooves of 1000 to the inch, with the light striking at various angles, gave as follows: at 90%, White; 74°, brilliant blue; 60°, pink; 24°, green; while a specimen ruled to 500 lines to the inch gave yellow through- out. You will thus observe that we have now two factors in the proposition—namely, (1), fineness or degree of marking; and, (2), angle of incident light. Sir David Brewster also found, that if the surface of the steel be covered with fluid, more orders of colour were developed. For example, it was ascertained that by applying oil of cassia the result was as follows :— Lines per inch, Colour when dry. Colour when immersed, Se eT ee 312 White. Reddish-yellow. 1,000 Yellowish-green, Greenish-blue, 2,500 Blue. Yellow. 3,333 Yellow. Bright blue. 10,000 Blue. Yellow. Now, I think you will readily note the significance of these facts, when applied to the behaviour of some of the Diatomacee upon the stage of a microscope arranged as I have described. In the first place, if the angle of the incident ray is altered by a movement of the mirror, the colour becomes changed ; ‘Second, coarsely lined diatoms, or parts of diatoms, such as P. balticum, Pinnularia major, &¢., the markings of which are from 400 to 800 to the inch, appear yellow or orange, irre- spective of change of direction of light or medium in which they are mounted ; and, third, finely marked diatoms, or parts of diatoms, such as P. angulatum, from 10,000 to the inch upwards in striation, are from pale to bright blue; and, as an example of the effect that a diatom of two different textures presents, I have noticed that Surirella gemma has its main ribs yellow and its fine longitudinal lines blue. Before leay- ing this, I may mention that it is hardly possible to manipu- late so as to be able to compare the change of colour that a single diatom will undergo when dry and mounted in a 132 Polarised Dark-ground Illumination. [Sess. medium ; but on carefully examining different mounts of the same genera, I have invariably found the dry, and also the chloride of zinc, to give the greatest brilliancy : monobromide does not appear to be suitable for this purpose. With regard to the diatoms I have referred to, and classed as opaque, on which there is no dispersion of light, I am inclined to believe that, while they are in all other conditions the same as their brethren, they present a calcareous appearance, their surface being dead, like that of obscure glass. Now, concerning the polarising property of certain diatoms treated with open aperture, I desire particularly to point out that those frustules only polarise which come under the head of my first class—namely, the iridescent ones. Take, as an example, P, angulatum polarised under a blue and yellow selenite. All the valves that appear erect in the field will be coloured, say red, and all those at right angles green. At first sight it seems strange that, by using a blue and yellow selenite, while the field conforms to these colours, the frus- tules should become red and green; but this arises from the fact that the diatoms have the power of retarding the light one quarter of a wave length, in the same way as a quarter plate of mica. This makes a very pretty as well as instruc- tive subject, and is only one of the many interesting phases under which this diatom shows itself. By removing the sel- enite and crossing the prisms, the highly polar nature of this Pleurosigma becomes more apparent. The valves shine out clearly and distinctly on the dark ground—which, as I re- marked before, proves unmistakably their property of polarisa- tion. Beyond this, however, it will be noticed that each valve retains a slight colour—either a tinge of bluish green, or one here and there from a dark purple to a dingy red. By this I conclude that a minute quantity of light is admitted, on ac- count of the imperfections of the prisms or their centering, which reaches the diatoms in a retarded form, and is partially polarised, partially dispersed; but I am inclined to believe that, while both actions are traceable, dispersion is the prin- cipal colour-producer. If the selenite is now replaced, and the dark ground maintained by the insertion of the stop, both the iridescent and polar colours will be visible—the former directly from interference if the prisms are open, 1887-88. ] Polarised Dark-ground [lumination, 133 and from accidental light if they are crossed. These spectral colours can indeed be seen without the use of any apparatus, by simply allowing the light to fall upon a prepared slide of this class. I suppose every one who has handled a slide of P. angulatum has been struck with its glittering colours. I have constructed a table embracing some of the more familiar diatoms that I have found suitable for this light, and arranged them in terms of the classification I have en- deavoured to explain. Diatom. Class. Colours. Remarks. Pleurosigma angulatum _, | spectral | variegated | very brilliant. as balticum ? do. do. do. 4B hippocampus . do. do, do. Heliopelta metu, &c. . 5 do. do. do. Meridion circulare_. : do. do. edges only illuminated. Triceratium septangulatum, &e. c 3 : . | opaque | single meshes brilliant. Naviculalyra . : . | spectral | variegated | dingy. Arachnoidiscus, &e. . . | opaque | single well defined. Eupodiscus Rogersii . . | spectral | variegated | very bright and well defined. Aulacodiscus, &c. s . | spectral do. do. do. Podosira, &e. . : . | spectral do, do. do. Isthmia enervis . . . | opaque | single do. do. In dealing formerly with the subject of dark-ground illum- ination of diatoms, I stated that resolution was not thereby assisted ; but with the class of illumination we are at present considering, the resolving power is undoubtedly augmented. It is, consequently, the addition of the polariscope that brings this about. A few months ago, a writer in one of our science journals announced that, by using the analysing prism in its place on the microscope, he could strengthen the resolving or separating power of his objectives. The matter was immedi- ately investigated, and has been most favourably received by one or two eminent London microscopists; and, along with several of our own members, I have tried this simple means, and found that it was a decided, and therefore a valuable, improvement. I make no doubt that, in polar dark-ground illumination, the increased definition emanates from the same source. In using, say, a }-inch or 4-inch objective, the manipulation 134 Polarised Dark-ground Illumination. [Sess. consists in making use of a high-angled condenser, or, what does equally as well, a small hemisphere of glass not more than 32; of an inch in diameter, either of which must be brought into contact with the under side of the slip by means of glycerine. To this an oblique pencil of light should be admitted, and a zone of dark ground will extend round the periphery of the illuminator, on the edges of which the diatoms may be seen iridescent, polarised, and resolved to great per- fection. I have found that a green colour on the diatom gives best results—consequently, a blue selenite should be used. Another class of subjects equally adapted for examination by this light upon a 4-inch power are insect scales. Micros- copists know that these objects polarise to a limited extent in the ordinary way, but as the colours are dull this quality gives them no particular interest. It is only when thrown upon a dark ground that their beauty under polar light is fully developed. The scales appear almost as brilliant as the feathers of the humming-bird—nmicroscopically familiar to you all. I consider that this opens up a question for deep optical study, at the same time affording one of the. most pleasing sub- jects for the microscope ; and as they generally have more than one colour, or rather lustre, the scales are specially beautiful. Amongst those I have examined under this light are Lepisma saccharina, Pieris brassicee, Hepitus humuli, &. This illum- ination can be applied to low powers by the substitution of the common spot-lens for the stopped condenser—because the emergent rays from most condensers are too oblique, or, in other words, the condense focus is too short for objectives of long focus. In the case of my Ross microscope, I have simply to screw the spot into the substage diaphragm-holder, and add the polarising prism underneath as before; and with this arrangement I can manipulate the light from objectives of from 1-inch to 2-inch focal length. By this means alge and desmidaceous matter can be splendidly shown. Its remarkable differentiating quality is displayed to great advantage on ana- tomical and other tissues; for not only are the various parts differently coloured, but the whole has the appearance of relief, as if seen through a binocular arrangement. Micro-crystals also produce fine effects. Some, however, are disappointing— no doubt attributable to the media in which they are preserved. 1887-88.] An Ancient Lake-deposit in Queen’s Park. 135 One peculiar feature is, that dichroic crystals under this light have their prevailing colour intensified —as in the red of platino-cyanide of magnesium; and in every position of the prisms and selenites, crystals of this class adhere firmly to the one colour, to the entire exclusion of all other polar tints. The reason of this is obvious, when you consider that, in the case of a crystal under polar dark-ground, the light, before reflection, must take the colour of the medium it passes through, thus becoming monochromatic. This fact is pointed out by Tyndall; and the example we here find is particu- larly interesting and instructive to students of polarised light. In closing, permit me to indicate that, by arranging the microscope for polar dark-ground illumination, it will be found that a very large number of slides that may have become comparatively uninteresting under ordinary manipula- tion will be found possessed of new interest; and by attention to the management of the instrument, and care- ful observations of the many optical effects at command, it is possible to acquire a more intimate acquaintance with the various subjects than by mere book study or any other means. [Several coloured diagrams of diatoms, enlarged from photo-micrographs, were exhibited in illustration of the above paper. ] V.—AN ANCIENT LAKE-DEPOSIT IN QUEEN'S PARK. By Messrs J. A. JOHNSTON anv J. LINDSAY. (Read Feb, 22, 1888.) For some months past extensive excavations have been in progress in the Queen’s Park, in connection with the making of a new main-drain, and many interesting sections have thus been exposed, all helping to reveal more clearly the successive geological changes of which this well-known locality has been the scene. At one portion of the workings, near Holyrood Palace, the attention was particularly arrested by the masses of shell-marl which the workmen were throwing out of the 136 An Ancient Lake-deposit in Queen’s Park. [ Sess. cutting, indicating that a lake of somewhat considerable extent had at one time covered the site. This portion of the Queen’s Park has until a comparatively recent date been in some parts of a more or less marshy nature, corroborating the evidence thus furnished of its much earlier condition. The questions thus naturally occur to one, When did this lake probably exist ? and, What was its fullest extent before it had begun to get silted up and choked with decaying vegetable matter? What follows may perhaps help us to give approximate answers to these questions. It is said that a chief reason for Queen Mary’s frequent absences from her Palace of Holyrood was the marshy nature of the ground surrounding it, which rendered this royal residence disagreeable and unhealthy. It is extremely pro- bable that amongst these marshy portions would be the ground now under consideration—which, indeed, in the first half of the 16th century must have been very much of a quagmire. In that most readable volume of essays by Hugh Miller entitled ‘Edinburgh and its Neighbourhood, there is a paper, written in 1842, on the Borough Loch, then in process of being drained to form part of what is now known as the Meadows. In this paper, speaking of the numerous sheets of water at an early period existing in and around the city, the writer says: “ The records of the Medical Faculty of Edinburgh do not extend to a period by any means remote. We have been informed, however, by a medical friend, that among their earlier entries agues and marsh fevers occur as usual diseases of the town and neighbourhood.” And in an earlier essay on the “ geological features” of the city, a beautiful word-picture is drawn, in the author’s well-known graphic style, of the salient points of the landscape in the bronze age, with rocky ridge and alternating valley and blue gleaming lake as prominent objects in the scene. These lakes are enumerated—viz., the Nor’ Loch of what is now the Princes Street valley ; the South Loch, in the valley of the Cowgate and Grassmarket ; the Borough Loch ot the present Meadows; a lake at St Leonards and another at the Hunter’s Bog ; with the two which are still familiar to us —Duddingston and the restored Dunsappie Loch. “And thus,” Hugh Miller concludes, “in a tract of country little more than one and a half square miles in extent, at least seven MNolyrood, = = SY Had (Miike & Brom = : Clay. (Blire Read Rae ae Hogh Gravel, (BSS) Bice Cay. Blas, [Section of Bore att Cer e Pio J clLOjL Krogh Gre A£B 2L 2 | Mad (White a Brom SS = Clay. Dues Rei ae i Horwich Gravel Wocezan f Bore af Cig x. 1887-88.] An Ancient Lake-deposit in Queen’s Park. 137 lakes must have opened their blue eyes to the sky, and given in these early times lightness and beauty to the otherwise shaggy landscape.” We may now add to this enumeration the lake at Holyrood, the site of which has in part been now opened up and spread out before us. After having completed the investigations and collected the facts for this paper, it was discovered that another of our members had some time before been at the same work. In February last, Mr John Henderson read a paper before the Geological Society “On Sections exposed in making a Drain through the Queen’s Park at Holyrood.” In this paper the earlier portion of the cutting, from its commencement at Spring Gardens, is described, as well as part of the excavation south- wards, where the lake-deposit more particularly to be dealt with here was entered upon. In the cutting near the garden wall of the Palace “several thin beds of black shale were _ exposed, containing entomostraca and fragments of fish re- mains.” These fossils have been identified with known carboniferous species, and any of our members who feel interested in the subject may refer to Mr Henderson’s paper, published in the ‘ Transactions’ of the Geological Society, where full information on this point will be obtained. It is now proposed to confine attention to the cutting near the road- way forming the entrance to the Park at Holyrood, through the shell-marl deposit in a south-westerly direction, till the cutting met the old drain from the foot of Arthur Street. In describing this cutting, reference is made to the accompanying diagram (fig. 3), partly founded on measurements and the results of borings kindly furnished by J. Massie, Esq., of the Burgh Engineers’ Office. The present section, then, extending from the road- way to a distance of about 200 yards, exposed, first, a layer of forced material and natural soil from 3 feet to 10 feet in thickness; next a yellowish clay, from 1 foot to 44 feet hick ; then came the peat, varying in thickness from 1 foot to 144 feet ; and underneath this was the marl, from 5 feet to feet thick. On reaching the marl, which was excavated in some parts to a depth of 2 feet, borings were made in six different places in order to secure a solid foundation for the heavy mass of material forming the drain. These borings 138 An Ancient Lake-deposit in Queen’s Park. [Sess. disclosed the soft, loose nature of a considerable portion of the strata beneath the marl, in alternating bands of mud and clay and gravel, so that piles had to be driven to the depth, in some cases, of nearly twenty-five feet for the drain to rest on. No. 3 bore gave a section in all of fully 40 feet before the under- lying rock was struck, and here the peat was 3 feet thick and the white marl 9 feet. At No. 5 bore 9 inches of tree-roots were found embedded in the peat. At No. 6 bore the marl disappeared, showing that the margin of the lake had been reached, and here the peat extended to the thickness of 14 feet 6 inches. The peat and its underlying shell-marl would alone un- mistakably indicate the lacustrine nature of this deposit, and its character in past ages, when the whole trough or cavity was filled by a sheet of water. The peat, when examined under the microscope, revealed an aquatic vegetation in the shape of reeds and rushes and plants of similar nature. The striated and knotted stems of some of these plants were very characteristic, and wonderfully fresh after their long entomb- ment. The marl was studded with countless myriads of shells, testifying to the abundant ‘molluscan life which inhabited these waters. The genera observed were few — viz., one bivalve and three univales—but of some there were several species. The most plentiful was the whorled limnza or pond- snail (Limnea pereger); the next, the bivalve cyclas (Cyclas obtusale), like a miniature cockle ; then the trochus-like valvata (Valvata piscinalis and V. cristata); and, lastly, the beautiful discoid planorbis (Planorbis nitidus and P. glaber), like a tiny ammonite, which seemed to be relatively least plenti- ful. On comparing these shells with, those taken from the Borough Loch in 1842, and included in the “Hugh Miller Collection” at the Museum of Science and Art, they will be found to be nearly identical. Nor need this surprise us when we remember that the same mollusca are still alive in the neighbouring lochs and ditches. The shells were very light, and extremely brittle. Hugh Miller, in the work already quoted, speaking of the shells taken from the Borough Loch deposit, remarks that “twenty of them, of the average size, scarce weigh a grain.” In order to test this, a hundred of by no means the smallest specimens from the Queen’s Park deposit 1887-88.] Ax Ancient Lake-deposit in Queen’s Park, 139 were selected and weighed in a chemical balance, when it was found that the hundred weighed only three-tenths of a grain! So friable were they, that even a slight pressure with a camel- hair pencil in cleaning them reduced many of them to powder. The mar! itself is, of course, largely composed of these rubbed- down shells, in the shape of carbonate of lime. Samples of the marl, from different parts of the cutting, were sent to two of our members, Mr Wm. Wallace and Mr Fred. G. Pearcey, who kindly subjected them to a careful independent analysis, and found them to contain respectively 89.4 per cent and 92.35 per cent of carbonate of lime. When the use of shell-marl in agriculture was more common than it is at present, a rich deposit like this might have been a good “find.” In 1810, at a meeting of the Selkirk Farmers’ Club, when Mr Walter —afterwards Sir Walter—Scott was in the chair, “ the thirty- six members present discussed with energy the question of the day, ‘ Whether, in low land of light soil, ike the haughs near Selkirk, lime or marl would be most profitable during a nine- teen years’ lease, supposing them to be equally cheap?’ By a majority of four, it was decided in favour of marl.”?* While examining under the microscope the finer particles of the marl, a small insect, like a very minute water-beetle, was observed, of which about a dozen specimens were found, but all in a less or more imperfect condition. This insect proved to be one of the Hydrachnidz or water-mites, belonging to the family of the Oribatide, but, owing to the fragmentary nature of the remains, the species was difficult to determine. - We now come back to the two questions put at the outset of this paper—l1st, How large was this lake originally? and 2d, When did it spread out its blue waters under the summer sky? The answers to both questions can, after all, be little more than mere “ guesses at truth.” As to the extent of the lake, Mr Henderson is inclined to think that at one time it stretched northwards for a considerable distance, covering the area now occupied by Holyrood Palace and grounds. In the diagram accompanying this paper (fig. 1) the probable extent is given as somewhat less. But that it must have had its greatest dimension from north to south may be regarded as certain; while as to its-breadth, it would be confined on 1 ‘Hist. of Selkirkshire,’ by T. Craig-Brown, vol, i. p. 248. 140 An Ancient Lake-deposit in Queen’s Park. [Sess. the east, speaking generally, by the northern portion of Salisbury Crags, but in all likelihood extended some distance westwards, for in 1884, when the foundation for the gasometers was being excavated, shell-marl was there met with. As to its age, if we regard it geologically it is of course recent; but reckoned by human chronology, it may well be termed “ancient.” It would, no doubt, be contemporaneous with those other neighbouring sheets of water which have most of them, like itself, now disappeared ; and it may be interesting, therefore, in this connection, to quote what is said in ‘ Edin- burgh and its Neighbourhood’ of the Borough Loch. Hugh Miller writes of it thus: “The bittern has boomed amid its reeds, and the stately swan skimmed over its surface, when yonder Castle rock was a naked cliff, rising amid an uninhabited country, and the gigantic elk and the bear found shelter in the shaggy forest which waved on their ridges, now covered by their ten thousand human habitations, and musical with the murmurous hum of a busy population. It is not improbable that some of the shells in the lower portion of that marl bed were browsing, according to their nature, on aquatic plants, or alternately rising to the surface to respire and descending to feed, full four thousand years ago.”* How this lake came to be gradually filled up may be easily understood, for the process of silting can be seen going on in many of our lochs at the present day, as witness Lochend or Duddingston. In the ‘ Lithology of Edinburgh,’ Professor Fleming says, speaking of Duddingston Loch as it was between thirty and forty years ago, that it was “only interesting to the observer as an example of the process of upfiltering by aquatic vegetation.” “The lake on the west side especially,” he adds, “ would soon pass into a bog or morass if the reeds which now grow luxuriantly were not annually cut down and removed for thatching purposes.’ What Professor Fleming here predicted has actually come to pass, for the lake on the west side is now, and has been for years, represented by a wet spongy bog, and will in the course of time become, no doubt, a verdant meadow. Duddingston Loch itself has only been preserved as a sheet of water by frequent removals of the rank vegetation. ‘ Edinburgh and its Neighbourhood’ (8th edition), p. 145. 4887-88.] Az Ornithological Visit to Warwickshire. I4I It is to the same process of “ upfiltering” that most of our Scottish straths and English dales owe their origin. Here may conclude the notice of this ancient lake-deposit, with the interesting story it tells of its early history, while its banks were yet trod by the foot of the primitive inhabitant. Looking on the tons of peat and shell-marl thrown up and spread out, and the multitudes of tenantless habitations, one is led almost unconsciously to reflect on the time when a luxuriant aquatic vegetation filled the waters or waved in the breeze around its margin, overshadowing still depths where innumerable generations of animal life flourished, and then sank out of sight. And the northern portion of the cutting, with its exposed fossiliferous shales, calls up yet another scene, long ages before the underlying beds of sandstone were tilted up on edge by igneous agency, and the cavity of this ancient lake was gradually scooped out. Over the place where these sedimentary rocks were deposited the sea then rolled, leaving the remains of fishes and marine crustaceans to tell the tale——for there was no human historian to chronicle it! All this, and much more when read aright, is taught by what some may have glanced at, and then passed by with a half- contemptuous shrug, and a muttered “ Only a drain !” VI—WNOTES ON AN ORNITHOLOGICAL VISIT TO WARWICKSHIRE. By Mr ARCHD. CRAIG, Jun. (Read March 28, 1888.) Durine the months of April and May 1887 it was my good fortune, accompanied by a friend, to spend a few days in Warwickshire, and, thanks to the very kind permission of one of the largest landed proprietors in the county (Robert N. Philips, Esq. of Welcombe), I was enabled to traverse a tract of ground several square miles in extent, which, varying con- siderably in aspect, gave opportunity for forming a fair idea of the feathered fauna frequenting the district. With every VOL. I, K 142 An Ornithological Visit to Warwickshire. [Sess. facility offered for identifying the various birds, and absolute freedom to wander alone anywhere on the estate, I cannot conceal the fact that the results were most disappointing, both as regards numbers and species; but this was to be attributed not to the unfavourable nature of the locality, but solely to the inclement weather, which was of a most boisterous kind, being made up of rain, cold, high winds, and hail—incontest- ably the very worst that could be conceived for studying bird- life. Notwithstanding these drawbacks, however, several species hitherto strangers to myself, and unknown, or at best rare, to Scotland, were marked; and this circumstance may perhaps be sufficient warrant for bringing the subject under your notice. A very few remarks upon the county itself, before turning to the other part of the paper, may not be out of place. Our headquarters were at a little inn in the village of Snitter- field, about four miles from Stratford-on-Avon and six from Warwick. The village itself is probably one of the prettiest in all Warwickshire, and thoroughly typical in character— curious cottages of red brick, or the same whitewashed, with high gables and thatched roofs; creepers trained up the walls, and beautiful little patches of garden-ground in front—some laid out in flower-beds, others in lawn studded with fruit- trees, which, at the time of our visit, were hanging thick with blossom ; immense trees scattered here and there by the road- side, overshadowing the houses—the whole place displaying a peaceful air and picturesque appearance that is entirely ab- sent from our colder-looking stone-built villages of Lowland Scotland. Many of the neighbouring hamlets—notably Leek- Wooton and Hampton-Lucy—are even more antiquated-looking than Snitterfield, the brick building interlaced with huge oak- beams predominating, and presenting an object of great inter- est to one who has hitherto been unused to this style of edifice. These combination cottages, so to speak, last much longer than a stranger would imagine, many being several centuries old ; but as age creeps upon them the oak beams warp, and in the process twist the house at the same time in a fantastic manner, so that it is not unusual to find the same cottage leaning towards the four points of the compass, and yet the building seems to stand as well as ever, and, albeit its dis- torted appearance, to give the occupants no uneasiness. 188 7-88.] An Ornithological Visit to Warwickshire. 143 With the exception of a few long worm-like ridges travers- ing the county, and isolated mounds that crop up here and there, the whole ground is flat and richly cultivated, save in some parts where large tracts are entirely under wood. The most important of these latter are the Bearley and Snitterfield Bushes, which in summer, when the leaf is full out, and vege- tation at its prime, will almost vie with a virgin forest in the possession of tangled masses of impenetrable undergrowth, chiefly brambles, blackthorn, and another hateful prickly plant which I am not botanist enough to name. Periodical raids are made upon these obstructions, and a thorough clearance effected, but in a very few years the growth is as thick as ever. Wide turf-walks intersect the woods for the benefit of the sportsman and fox-hunter; but although to all intents and purposes a game-covert, any respectable person is free to wander over it, and, to the credit of the inhabitants be it said, little or no damage is ever done. Apropos of this latter remark, there are two things which cannot fail to strike a Scotsman, however casual an observer, who visits Warwickshire: the first is the number of bypaths through woods and rights-of-way over fields—two items which greatly enhance the pleasure to be derived from a sojourn in these parts, when compared with our own country districts, where one hardly dare leave the bare turnpike without being hounded off the ground by some irate agriculturist, or by the minions of the proprietor. The second noticeable feature is the marked politeness of the labouring population to strangers—a welcome contrast to the manners of the same class in the south of Scotland. What- ever may be said of the relative brain-power of the two—and the Warwickshire farm-servant certainly does not seem to have a superfluity of that commodity at his disposal,—it is beyond dispute that he displays none of that stolid boorishness and want of politeness to visitors which our men indulge in, and errone- ously consider to be independence of spirit. I merely mention these two facts in passing as being too conspicuous to escape observation, and also out of grateful remembrance for the uni- versal civility accorded to us during the time we passed in the county. Over and above the scenic features, which of themselves are well worthy of attention, the historic interest attaching to the 144 An Ornithological Visit to Warwickshire. [Sess. county of Warwick is sufficient of itself to cause thousands annually to make the round of its numerous attractions. Mention need only be made of Leicester’s Hospital, Warwick Castle, Kenilworth, Guy’s Cliff, &., to show that important events in English history have been enacted in this now quiet and tranquil county. But what to most folks in Britain, and, in fact, wherever the English tongue is spoken, is of infinitely ereater importance than all the castles, mansions, battles, sieges, and turbulent actions of the old nobility put together, is the simple circumstance that a little over three centuries ago, in the dead little town of Stratford-on-Avon, Shakespeare first saw the light of day, lived there for a considerable portion of his life, and at last was laid to rest in the old parish church in which, no doubt, he had often worshipped. This event, with all its kindred associations, has been so often commem- orated in writing, and is matter of such universal notoriety, that it would be presumptuous on my part to attempt to add another word on the subject. In wandering through the little hamlets, and visiting towns like Warwick, one feels as if he had fallen asleep, and, by a process of retrogression, awoke in the 17th century, there is such an old-world look about everything —a want of modern bustle, and a quaint standstill sort of aspect, that reminds one of the old Scotch saying, “ As quiet as the grave—or Lauder.” The effect of this feeling is rather pleasant than otherwise, and the total change from bustling cities like Birmingham or Glasgow comes as a relief doubly grateful to all whose daily occupations are of an active and often harassing character. Most of the villages have com- posite names, such as Norton-Lindsey, Henley-in-Arden, Bishop’s-Hampton, and so on; and, as already mentioned, many are beautifully situated and highly picturesque, perhaps none more so than the last named, which is in the immediate vicinity of the park where tradition says that Shakespeare enacted the réle of poacher, and was brought before the Lucy of the day to have punishment meted out to him. The old park is still tenanted by deer and the mansion-house by a descendant of the Lucy family. The latter, however, hardly wields the same power in the district as did his ancestor. As already hinted, the weather during our stay was most unpro- pitious, and, somewhat to our surprise, heavy showers of hail 1887-88.] Az Ornithological Visit to Warwickshire. 145 constantly discharged themselves at unexpected moments, to be succeeded by bursts of bright sunshine, these latter of short duration. The hail itself was about the size of small beans, and not calculated to improve one’s temper as it rattled on the face. But this, it seems, is nothing unusual, if we are to judge from the fact that in Stratford an Insurance Company exists for the purpose of recouping farmers for the damage done to their crops by such destructive climatic vagaries. Time would not permit of further enlargement on the external features of this most pleasant neighbourhood; suffice it to say that, for beauty of a quiet modest nature, a judicious mixture of the agricultural and the woodland, for fine mansion-houses with magnificent policies surrounding them, for pleasing associations of the historic past, there are few counties that can surpass Warwickshire. Now as to the bird-life of the district. It would serve no good purpose to recapitulate and describe all the species found there, as that would not only be a formidable task, but a tiresome process for the listeners, whose patience could scarcely be expected to stand the test, so I shall only advert to the more uncommon members of the family. To commence with the warblers: the blackcap, garden-warbler, whitethroat, willow-wren, and wood-wren were all numerous, but, in addition to these, the presence in considerable numbers must be recorded of the chiff-chaff and nightingale. The former little bird is not much known in Scotland, although it would be wrong to say that it is rare, occurring as it does here and there over the country, but nowhere in such numbers as the willow warbler. It is uncommonly like the last named, and were it not for the distinctive note it would be difficult to dis- tinguish one from the other. Apart from the call-note, the difference lies in this, that the chiff-chaff is slightly smaller in body and darker in the legs, but at a distance, when both Species were mute, he would indeed be a bold man who could authoritatively discriminate between one species and the other. I have never on any occasion observed this bird in Scotland, but in Warwickshire it is abundant, and could be heard giving vent to its somewhat monotonous song in every wood and garden round Snitterfield, even within half-a-dozen yards of the inn-door. No one possessed even of the most elastic 146 An Ornithological Visit to Warwickshire. [Sess. imagination can call its music beautiful, as it seems to consist solely of the same few notes repeated indefinitely ; yet the sound is cheerful, and by no means unpleasant. The bird itself is lively and restless, usually jumping about the tops of high trees, and seldom remaining long in any one posi- tion, although the radius of its movements is not great, as it seems to confine these to one specified locality, where, judging from the sound, it must be indulging in what to it is circum- navigation of the globe on a diminished scale. Why this species is not more frequent in Scotland would be difficult to tell, as it is quite as hardy as the willow-wren and wood- wren—in fact, more so, as in some years it arrives very early, when cold wintry blasts inform us that, notwithstanding the calendar division of the year into seasons, the months of March and April are often only spring months in name, and hardly deserve to be designated as such. Not to prolong description of this less attractive species, let us turn to the much more interesting nightingale. Probably no bird has been the subject of so much writing in prose, or provoked in a greater degree the zeal of the poets, among which latter class are included for the time being all those who imagine themselves possessed of the “sacred fire,’ whatever that article may be. An ill-natured writer once said that a poet was a man who wrote stuff that nobody would read, and that he could not understand himself ; but without acquiescing in that sweeping denunciation, there is no doubt that many rhymers are re- sponsible for much erroneous matter when they go into raptures over bird-life. An old idea, now happily exploded, used to pass muster that the nightingale placed a sharp thorn in her nest, and, by leaning painfully against it, was thereby induced to sing ina more plaintive and sorrowful tone. Over- looking for the moment the curious inaccuracy of attributing vocal powers to the female, as it is only the male who warbles, it can scarcely be thought probable that a thorn inflicting pain upon the performer would be an incentive to melody. Mr Harting, author of several ornithological works, and among them ‘The Ornithology of Shakespeare,’ gives an interesting account of this superstition, and indicates two passages where the great dramatist himself makes allusion to the belief. It by no means follows, however, that Shakespeare believed in its r887-88.] Ax Ornithological Visit to Warwickshire. 147 truth, although he made use of the tradition. In the present day, even, many intelligent people suppose the nightingale to be of large dimensions ; and when they dream of its far-famed song, their imaginations depict a bird about the size of a crow, warbling in the dark, whereas, as the accompanying specimen proves, the species is very small. It is quite a mistake to conclude that the nightingale sings only at night, as it may be heard during the whole day, only then it is not nearly so noticeable, being drowned to a certain extent by the general chorus of other birds in the vicinity; but at the darkening, when most species, with a few exceptions, have retired to roost, the song rings out clearly in the silence of the woods, and rivets attention in a tenfold degree. Without expatiating on its merits, in a word it may claim pre-eminence over all the other warblers that visit Great Britain, and perhaps there is truth in the statement that no other species excels it in these islands. The reason for qualifying the latter assertion is, that many people consider the thrush not to be far short of it in point of merit. There cannot be hesitation for a moment in saying that, taking its small size into account, the variety and depth of melody emitted by the nightingale are perfectly marvellous ; but again, the song of the thrush may be capable of giving as much enjoyment to the listener, and it really amounts in the long-run to a matter of taste. Let me ask you, can anything be finer than the song of the mavis on a calm mild evening in May, when the woods have just been refreshed by a shower of gentle rain? I think not. It may be prejudice, of course, but, having heard both frequently, I am fain to confess that to me the melody of the thrush is quite as pleasing ; and there is no denying that many people whose knowledge of bird-life is limited, on hearing a sweet song at the gloaming, have given to the nightingale the credit of the music, which in reality should have been attributed to the more familiar mavis. It is a trite observation that the nightingale neither appears in Scotland nor Ireland ; and even in England, its visits north of the Trent are rare, and in many parts farther south its distribution is extremely local. It seems also impossible to domesticate it in the northern part of the island, as witness the laudable attempts of the Earl of Buchan and Sir John Sinclair, who procured eggs from England and placed them 148 An Ornithological Visit to Warwickshire. [Sess. in the nests of robins, hedge-accentors, &c.—the former in Roxburghshire, the latter in Caithness ; but although success- fully hatched, when the period of autumnal migration arrived the birds disappeared, but did not return next year, as it was fondly hoped they would. In habits this species is shy, and very easily frightened, and, owing to the matted and dense nature of the thickets it haunts, it is almost impossible at times to observe it, notwithstanding that the curious guttural chatter (the preliminary to warbling) may be quite audible ; and as during this performance it seems to be con- stantly changing its position, the sound has somewhat the effect of ventriloguism. Where its abode borders on a grass field or other open space, by the exercise of a little patience a good view may be obtained, as it has a knack of darting suddenly out from the hedge or thicket, and settling on the ground for a short space, at the same time expanding its rusty- coloured tail, after the manner of the redstart. The robin, as well as the last named, does exactly the same thing, and we might add also the hedge-sparrow occasionally. Many curious and absurd stories are fathered on the nightingale, but the following specimen in illustration will suffice. In a quaint old volume entitled ‘ The Ornithology of Francis Willughby of Middleton, in the county of Warwick, Esq.,’ edited by Ray, and published in the year 1678, occurs a long description of this species, both in a wild state and in cap- tivity ; and among other literary tit-bits, the following tale is told, on the authority of a still older ornithological writer called Gesner, who, moreover, received the anecdote from a friend. This said friend, in the year 1546, was lodging at an inn in Ratisbon, where, owing to illness, he was confined to bed, and, as he says himself, unable to sleep. In the room were three nightingales in separate cages, and according to this veracious individual, when all was quiet at dead of night, two of them began, with what he calls “strange janglings and emulations,” to talk to each other in imitation of the voices of human beings. Their conversation must have been gratifying to our invalid, and pleasing withal, as the topics discussed were various. It appears from the context that the birds incited each other to divulge all the tittle-tattle that went the round of the tap-room during the day, and among other curio- 1887-88.] An Ornithological Visit to Warwickshire. 149 sities they prophesied what was going to take place in a war against the Protestants, and also exposed a plot against the Duke of Brunswick. What was perhaps more interesting, if not so edifying, to the listener, was the apt manner in which they recounted, word for word, the domestic squabblings of the tapster and his wife, whose matrimonial relations seemed to have been none of the happiest; and, as the writer naively remarks, they repeated not only the ordinary recriminations, but apparently with gusto all the bad language attendant thereon. Having regard to the truth of this narrative, it is perhaps as well that the narrator confesses he was incapa- citated at the time of its occurrence, as the sceptical reader may perhaps be excused for attributing the cause of his malady to an over-indulgence in strong waters, which no doubt had the effect of heightening his imagination. Another very curious species common to Warwickshire, but, except in isolated instances, non-resident in Scotland, is the nuthatch. This is a smallish blue-coloured bird, about the size of an ox-eye, and in certain respects not unlike it in habits. Its forte is the ease with which it creeps upon tree trunks or branches in any given direction, perpendicularly, horizontally, or in a downward course—in this differing vastly from the common creeper (or “ tree-speeler,” as it is called in Scotland), which, as a rule, works its way upwards, and rarely if ever downwards. The creeper also, while ascending, makes use of its tail as a prop, and this is useful as a staying power, while it is engaged poking its bill into crevices of the bark ; but the nuthatch, again, relies upon nothing save its claws and legs for a sure foothold, and it is truly wonderful with what ease it runs in any fashion upon the surface of the bark, twist- ing and turning like a gymnast devoid of bones. Its bill is powerful, and well adapted for hammering purposes, such as breaking hazel and beech nuts, upon which it feeds at certain seasons. But its chief object in clambering up trees is to secure the abundant larve, and insect life in various stages, found concealed in the interstices of the bark. Although not numerous, one could scarcely fail to meet with it now and again; and I noticed a pair on the highroad from Warwick to Kenilworth busily pecking at something on the ground, but whether an edible substance, or mud to plaster up the entrance 150 An Ornithological Visit to Warwickshire. [Sess. to a late or second nest, I am unable to say. It does not strike one as being a timorous bird, as it permits a very near approach, and at intervals utters a curious short note, easily enough recognised, but difficult to describe on paper. For further and fuller information regarding it, I cannot do better than refer members to Mr Herbert’s interesting note in the Society’s ‘ Transactions’ (vol. i. p. 184). The stock-dove is another bird very numerous in Warwick- shire, but scarce in Scotland—so much so, that one may almost be excused for supposing that the writer of the beau- tiful song, “ Afton Water,” wherein occurs the line, “ Thou stock-dove whose echo resounds through the glen,” must have mistaken the common ring-dove for this species. In general habits it resembles the wood-pigeon or “ cushie,” but is not so large, and wants the distinctive white patch on the sides of the neck. Besides, the cooing-note is not so clear or loud, and in various minor points it differs considerably from the other. At Snitterfield, the favourite breeding-haunt was a large clump of ivy-grown trees, whose great height was a perfect safeguard against intrusion, and towards nightfall the numbers of birds that flew in there from all directions were astonishing. When startled they set off at great speed, snap- ping their wings together with a sharp concussion, similar to the tame pigeons known among fanciers as “smiters”; and, like most of the Columbidw, the species is timid, and leaves its resting-place on very slight occasion. Although found in various parts of the county, the smaller turtle-dove does not appear to inhabit the immediate neighbourhood around Strat- ford, and I was unable to learn from any one in the Snitter- field direction if it was ever identified there. While on the subject of doves, I trust you will pardon me for once more referring to Willughby’s work. Under the heading, “ Divers sorts of tame pigeons,” the author takes occasion to indicate a large number of diseases which may be cured, or at least alle- viated, by the use of the flesh and blood of doves. Take one quotation as a sample: “ A live pigeon cut asunder along the backbone, and clapt hot upon the head, mitigates fierce humours, and discusses melancholy sadness; hence it is a most proper medicine in the phrenzie, headache, melancholy, and gout— some add, also in the apoplexy.” It is, however, a moot-point 1887-88.] Az Ornithological Visit to Warwickshire. I51 whether the cure or the disease would be the worse to bear. But not to weary you with further quotations, just let me mention, in passing, a few of the more prominent disorders that fly before this sovereign panacea: bleared and bloodshot eyes, colics, vertigoes, lethargies, tumours, blood in the brain, falling out of the hair, and numerous other ailments which shall be nameless. After this varied category, one is inclined to wonder if this same hot pigeon would cure hot tempers, as if so, a stock of doves would be a valuable possession from a commercial point of view. The jay and the magpie abound in the bushes, the former especially, and, notwithstanding the incessant persecutions of the gamekeepers, contrive to flourish, both species having very sound ideas on the subject of self-preservation. In spring the jay is perhaps as wary a bird as one would wish to see. It is not of much use hunting him: he is quite equal to the occasion, and won’t allow himself to be caught napping. Yet nevertheless, with all his caution, great numbers fall victims to the gunner and poisoner, and it is really pitiable to see the rows of these handsome birds hanging at the ends of the keepers’ houses, and at the edges of woods, in all stages of putrefaction. There is no blinking the fact that they are destructive to the eggs of game-birds, and that, of course, causes them to be “ anathema” in the eyes of the sportsman, who, from his point of view, is justified in attempting to pre- serve what he has purchased at considerable expenditure of money. JBut to an outsider uninterested in the game mania, it cannot fail to be a source of regret when beautiful species like the present are exterminated. In many districts of Scotland, where formerly plentiful, this bird is now extinct; and at the present rate of progression it bids fair to become a thing of the past in several English counties as well. On the Welcombe estate they are not hunted down so relentlessly ; but on that of Lord Leigh at Stoneleigh Park, if we are to judge by the numbers of dead specimens hung in clusters about the woods, systematic destruction seems to be the order of the day. The note is very harsh and grating, falling on the ear with alarming suddenness at times while wandering through the woods. The extraordinary talent they display in skulking through the thick bushes completely bafiles pur- 152 An Ornithological Visit to Warwickshire. [Sess. suit, so that the only mode of observing them reasonably near at hand is to sit quietly in one spot for an hour or two, on the chance of their working round in the direction of the place of concealment. What, perhaps, induces their slaughter as much as any other motive, is the circumstance that the blue feathers on the sides of the wings are much prized by the fishing community for dressing fly-hooks; but this prac- tice can hardly be characterised by any milder epithet than that of cruelty, as it really seems a wanton act to kill orna- mental birds of this kind for the sake of luring a few trout out of a stream. Among the rarer birds found in Warwickshire which may be glanced at slightly in conclusion are the woodpecker, king- fisher, goldfinch, and hawfinch. Of the former tribe, the green woodpecker is the commonest, although the greater and lesser spotted species are also found occasionally ; but unfortunately I failed to get even a glimpse of any, notwithstanding that the loud laughing sound could be distinctly heard in the silence of the woods. This failure must be attributed to want of acquaintance with the bird’s peculiar habits, as its shyness and cunning are great, being proverbial in some parts of England. It always manages, as a rule, to keep on the other side of the tree from the observer ; and while you are earnestly scanning the trunks in the direction from which the sound proceeds, the bird has quietly flown off to a distance, only to give vent to another laugh, which seems to be indulged in as if in derision at your non-success. It is impossible to mis- take the cry of the woodpecker ; but it is quite another matter to describe: the same so as to render it recognisable to a stranger. Perhaps the nearest approach in the way of com- parison is to liken it to the laugh of a horse on a subdued scale. In spring the missel-thrush makes a clucking sound, somewhat resembling that of the present species; but no prac- tised ear can possibly be deceived by it, as there is a fulness and big-mouthedness about the cry of the woodpecker that stamps its individuality at once. The strangest feature about the Picide is the length of their tongues, which, when in use, or when pulled out of a dead specimen, look like a long worm, this elongated member being, as is well known, hard and bony at the point—a wise provision on the part of Providence to 1887-88.] Ax Ornithological Visit to Warwickshire. 153 enable the birds to extract their food more readily from the crevices and holes in the bark. The kingfisher, thanks in a great measure to the Wild Birds Protection Act, is not yet extinct, although a few years ago it seemed to be on the highroad to annihilation, from the craze among the vulgar of all classes to possess a stuffed specimen as a chamber ornament, but perhaps more so from the equally culpable desire on the part of the fair sex to add its brilliant plumage to the already numerous adjuncts brought into requi- sition in the manufacture of that wonderful work of art, the modern “bonnet.” It is matter for great satisfaction, how- ever, and, I venture to say, to no one more so than to all ladies of right feeling themselves, to learn that this cruel fashion is on the wane: let us hope it may die out so entirely as only to be remembered among the barbarities of the past. It would be unfair to put all the blame of its diminution on the shoulders of the two aforesaid classes, as naturalists them- selves have been considerable sinners in that respect; but the extenuating circumstance in their case is that the birds are sought after chiefly in the interests of science, whereas this excuse cannot by any elasticity of conception be made in either of the former instances. Although not nearly so plentiful as formerly, yet a considerable number frequent the course of the Avon and its tributary streams, and on many of our own Low- land burns and rivers it appears again to be making headway. On the Tweed and its tributaries it is not by any means a chance straggler, as there are many parts it haunts regularly, and in bird-life there are few more interesting sights than to watch this gaudy-robed species darting up and down the stream, following every bend and turning, uttering from time to time its peculiar whistling note, reminding one to a certain extent of the water-ousel and common sand-piper, which also emit a shrill sharp whistle during the progress of flight. Curiously enough, the cognomen “kingfisher” is occasionally applied in Scotland to both of those birds, although quite erroneously. The species in question, notwithstanding its tropical costume, is a hardy bird, and would flourish excel- lently well on our rivers, if only the same privilege was ac- corded to it that our Roman Catholic brethren enjoy of “ rest- ing in peace.” Those of us who have had the privilege of 154 An Ornithological Visit to Warwickshire. [Sess. being soundly thrashed at school into the mysteries of ancient mythology may have some recollection of the legend of Aleyone or Haleyone, daughter of Aolus, the god of the winds, and her husband Ceyx, who were changed into kinefishers, which cir- cumstance gave rise to the belief that for seven days before and after the shortest day, during the supposed breeding-time of these birds, calm always prevailed at sea, rendering it safe for mariners to embark. This superstition is the origin of our familiar term “halcyon days.” The goldfinch was tolerably plentiful on the Snitterfield estate, numbers feeding daily in a garden adjoining the Park House in the village, and in some parts of the outlying bushes the pretty little song could be heard constantly. Next to the chaffinch, no bird builds a prettier nest, and in appearance it is not unlike that of the aforesaid, but considerably smaller, and is commonly placed in the fork of a fruit-tree wherever it builds near habitations. The zealous efforts of bird-catchers have done more to deprive us of the presence of this beautiful species than all other causes put together, although the greater cultivation of waste lands, and consequent eradication of thistles, eroundsel, dandelions, and similar weeds, on the seeds of which they mainly subsist, has also had a disastrous effect. It is of a most trusting disposition, and easily snared by means of a call-bird, and, when once captured, with proper treatment is readily tamed—hence, probably, the demand for it as a cage pet. In most districts of Scotland it may practically be termed extinct—more’s the pity, as it is a decided ornament and a welcome addition to our native fauna. As an instance in passing of how whole districts have been cleared, I may men- tion that about twenty to twenty-five years ago it was quite common in Glen Urquhart and the surrounding glens of Inver- ness-shire ; but for one or two seasons a bevy of professional bird-catchers turned up, and, by dint of steady application, utterly decimated the country-side—so much so, that, unless my informant is deceived, the entire specimens observed since that deplorable period could be counted on the fingers of one hand. Its natural song is sweet, and the progeny produced by crossing with a canary seem to inherit the fine qualities of both species, and turn out excellent and powerful songsters— in fact, too much so for people of nervous temperaments, to whom the noise is anything but agreeable. 1887-88.] Some Peculiar Occurrences in Natural History. 155 About the hawfinch a few words need only be said. I saw it on two or three occasions; but being on the verge of the incubating period, it was not so conspicuous as it would have been in autumn or winter, when it roves about in small flocks. Moreover, it is unusually shy, and seldom allows one to ap- proach near enough to admit of more than a fleeting identifica- tion. A pair inhabited a thick grove of laurels bordering the roadside in the village; but so careful were they to conceal their persons, that it was only at rare intervals that even a glimpse could be obtained of them flying across the open field. This bird visits Scotland now and then, and one was killed a year or two ago quite close to Edinburgh, in the Corstorphine direction. It was my original intention to append a list of the birds of Warwickshire to this paper, but in consideration of the fact that it has already exceeded the bounds as to length, I refrain from doing so—the more especially as this information can be gleaned from almost any standard work on ornithology, such as Yarrell, Morris, &c. Any further attempts in that direc- tion, therefore, would be, to use a pet clerical phrase, “a mere work of supererogation.” In conclusion, let me only add that, in spite of bad weather, and consequent failure of the trip from an ornithological point of view, the few pleasant days spent in Warwickshire will always remain a green spot in my memory ; and were it possible to repeat the same under better auspices, I feel confident a more satisfactory account of the feathered fauna could be placed before the members of the Edinburgh Field Naturalists’ Club. VIL—SOME PECULIAR OCCURRENCES IN NATURAL HISTORY. By Mr ROBERT STEWART, 8.8.C. (Read March 28, 1888.) Tue first “ peculiar occurrence ” to which I wish to call your attention to-night is in connection with the bird which I have here beside me, It is one of the terns or sea- 156 Some Peculiar Occurrences in Natural History. [Sess. swallows, which was caught last summer in rather an odd way. While a party of gentlemen were out in a boat, fish- ing for sea-trout, some little way from the mouth of the river Findhorn, and near the village of the same name, the bird in question, which was passing the boat overhead at some little altitude, made a sudden swoop, and in a second rose again into the air carrying the line with it, having the hook attached thereto firmly fixed in its bill. The lure used was what is known as the india-rubber tube. Immediately all was excitement in the boat, as the bird made frantic efforts to break away, at the same time causing the line to run off the reel at a great rate. The fortunate or unfortunate fisher who made the unexpected capture played the tern in the most approved style, so that gradually the poor bird’s struggles became weaker and weaker, until ultimately, on the line being bit by bit shortened, and pressure thus brought to bear on the captive, it sank exhausted into the boat, when it was found necessary to kill it before the hook could be extracted. At the time the bird was hooked there appeared to be no terns in the vicinity, but in response to the cry of distress uttered by the captive, scores of terns came from all quarters, so that when the bird was taken into the boat and killed, the operation had to be performed in presence of quite a “cloud of witnesses.” The tube is used in fishing in much the same manner as the artificial fly, and is supposed to re- present a sand-eel, but I have repeatedly caught trout and finnock with it, at portions of the river where the tide never reached, and where, consequently, sand-eels could not exist. J remember once, in the vicinity of the sandhills of Culbin, picking up a tern which had one of its wings injured, and taking it with us into the boat, when we left to cross to the other side of the bar. The bird was perfectly fearless, and ran about among our feet, from one end of the boat to the other. On nearing the pier we let down a line, with the intention of catching a few “ podlies,” or “ queedies,” as they are called in that district, and soon had one and then another in the boat. On looking round, we found that our friend the tern had bolted the first-caught “ queedie,” and to a certain extent had disposed of the other also, only there appeared to be a hitch somewhere, as the bird sat, apparently 1887-88.] Some Peculiar Occurrences in Natural History. 157 quite content that it should be so, with the tail-half of the fish hanging eracefully out of its mouth. It is right to add, how- ever, in the interests of the tern, that he had apparently not overrated his own powers, as in a few minutes, by a process known only to himself, he gradually prevailed upon the tail- half of the “ queedie” to follow the head. Swallows and bats have been known repeatedly to take fly-hooks, and ducks occasionally take the worms on a night-line, to the horror of many an ardent young disciple of old Izaak, who, braving the discomforts of a raw spring morning, finds, on reaching the place where he set his line, that he has unwittingly been the destroyer of the pride of the neighbouring farmyard. Numer- ous sea-birds are often taken on the fishermen’s lines, but it is quite a unique occurrence to capture a bird with a fishing- rod in the manner above described. Some time ago we were walking along the beach between Granton Quarry and Cramond, when we noticed a group of rough-looking fellows, who were evidently enjoying what seemed to be sport of some kind. We thought the attraction must be a dog-fight, as the “ yelping ” of a dog was distinctly heard, but on coming up to the group we discovered that the combatants were—the one a rather large-sized Bedlington terrier, and the other a common crab. It was some little time ere we could realise that a fight was really in progress, as the odds at first sight appeared to be all on the side of the dog. But this was not so, for the crab, with pincers raised, and face to the foe, was manifestly all excitement, and warily watched every movement of the dog. The terrier had evidently in previous rounds felt the strength of the erab’s pinch, and seemed rather inclined to shirk any further encounter, but his owner, with derisive laughter, hounded him on. After one or two feints he at last made straight for the crab, but we were glad to learn, by the yell which followed, that the Bedlington had caught a Tartar, and it was soon seen that the crab had got a firm hold of the dog by the nose, so that the latter had a good deal of difficulty in shaking himself free. The terrier evidently realised at last that in a fair stand-up fight he had met his match, and consequently he resorted to what may be termed the rough- and-tumble style. His mode of attack was from this time VOL. II, L 158 Some Peculiar Occurrences in Natural History. [Sess. most unfair, and consisted of springing suddenly forward and snapping viciously at the poor crab, which evidently had great difficulty in keeping its feet, and the prolonged struggle appeared at last to be telling severely upon it. In one of the attacks the crab got upset, and before it could recover itself the terrier had caught it gingerly in its mouth, and tossed it high in the air. It fell among the broken rocks, and was so stunned by the fall that the dog without difficulty munched it to death. After this the fraternity proceeded leisurely along the shore, looking apparently for a fresh combatant, and the time and place gave a new reading to the lines— ““ Where every prospect pleases, And only man is vile.” For the past few months a robin-redbreast has taken entire possession of what is called the “ Winter House” at the Royal Botanic Garden. He has, so far as one can learn, no legal right to occupy the said premises; but not only does the robin keep and hold possession of the glass-house in question, but he refuses to permit any feathered friend to do more than pay him a passing call, and he chases and chastises without mercy any “forlorn and shipwrecked brother” who, constrained thereto by the late severe weather, desires to take advantage for a short time of the heat and shelter afforded by the Winter House. It has been left also to our friend to dispel another of the fond illusions of our youth, in that he has once and for ever reduced to the category of fables the beautiful stories which old country-folks delight to repeat re- garding the loving character of the robin, and particularly with reference to his conduct to Jenny Wren when the little lady was in trouble, and of the wonderful care and attention which he in such circumstances lavished upon her. On two different occasions has this nineteenth-century tenant chased, captured, and killed wrens, who, trusting to the family traditions, called at the Winter House, expecting to receive food and shelter, but, alas! who only survived their visit long enough to realise that even among friends, when it comes to be a struggle for existence, the weakest must go to the wall. Mr Lindsay, the Curator, tells me that the gardener in charge of this particular house was on each occasion an eyewitness of the tragedy, and 1887-88. ] Optical Phenomenon seen in Glenure. 159 found, on examining the victims, that the robin had pecked a small hole in the ladies’ skulls. Wishing to make the acquaintance of the criminal, we at different times visited the Winter House, in company with a couple of friends. On the first occasion we were met at the door by the occupant, who appeared exceedingly pleased to cultivate our acquaintance, and did his very best to make himself agreeable; and though we also dissembled, the observant eye of the robin must have discovered our real sentiments regarding him, as on every subsequent call he made a point of being “not at home.” We were quite aware, however, that this was only a fashionable fiction, and we knew well that on each visit he was quietly watching us from some remote corner. VIIL—OPTICAL PHENOMENON SEEN IN GLENURE. By Mr WILLIAM COATS. (Read March 28, 1888.) Wate the Edinburgh Botanical Society’s Camp was being held last August in Glenure, one of the detachments, con- sisting of three individuals—viz., Mr Grieve (our President), Mr Webb, and myself—had an opportunity of witnessing under very favourable conditions an aérial optical phenomenon somewhat rarely seen. A sentence or two at the outset re- garding the locality of our camp may not be inappropriate. Glenure is a wild, very slightly wooded glen, in the Appin district of Argyleshire, lying almost at sea-level, and surrounded on every side by high mountains whose bare summits are but seldom without a covering of mist. It is situ- ated about sixteen miles from Connal Ferry, and three miles from the head of Loch Creran, an arm of Loch Linnhe. Its western extremity lies due south from Ballahulish about eight miles, while from its eastern end the head of Loch Etive can be seen distant about six miles. The name signifies “the glen of yew-trees,” and tradition has it that at one time a large number of yews grew in the glen. This is to a small extent borne out by the fact that at the present time a tall, stately, 160 Optical Phenomenon seen in Glenure. [Sess. beautiful yew flourishes close to the house of Mr Mackay, the present tenant of Glenure sheep-farm, and in whose house the members of the camp had most comfortable quarters. Mr Mackay, who is now over 65 years of age, also informed us that about 40 years ago, when there were many more natives about Glenure and Glen Creran—an adjacent glen—than now, the young men of that day were seized with a mania for bagpipe-playing. In order to make their pipes, they cut down the yew-trees then existing, each one taking as much wood as would make two sets of pipes. This extravagance is accounted for by the fact that the wood for the second set formed the payment, or part payment, they made to a turner who lived at that time near the glen, and who made their pipes. Slowness of growth and sombreness of foliage are the persistent characteristics of the yew, and its extremely hard and singularly close grain must have answered their purpose admirably. But the times are changed, and there are now neither young men nor yew-trees in this wild district. That this must have been a beautifully wooded glen at one time is evidenced by two facts—the first, that the bleached stumps of many large trees yet remain about the mountain sides; the second, that there are to be seen in one or two places among the hills what resemble the remains of forts, but what are in reality ruins of buildings formerly used for making charcoal, which was afterwards taken to Bonaw and used in smelting the minerals brought to the district for that purpose. These buildings must have been erected where plenty of wood was close at hand. On the morning of Wednesday, the 3d August, our detach- ment set out before 9 AM. Dr Macfarlane and Mr Allan, the other members present, started before us in an opposite direction. Our intention was to botanise over Beinn Fhionn- laidh, a mountain 3139 feet in height. This height we had to climb, starting as we did from sea-level. There had been rain during the night, the morning did not look very promising, and mist covered the tops of the surrounding mountains, but by eleven in the forenoon the day had improved considerably. At the base of the mountain we _ separated, and soon lost sight of one another, each taking a different course in order to cover as much ground as possible, with 1887-88. ] Optical Phenomenon seen in Glenure. I6L the intention of meeting on the plateau shown on _ the Ordnance Survey map at the 2000 feet level. This we ultimately did. At this time—about 2 p.m—thin mist was covering the whole top of the mountain. We soon got into it without our progress being impeded. Above 2230 feet the ground was very rough, with large detached granite boulders, but very little vegetation of any kind. At 3.15 P.M. we gained the summit, and sat down to rest ourselves by the edge of a precipice overlooking a corrie of great depth. The mist had now nearly cleared away from the summit, but was being driven in large masses into the corrie far below. All at once we saw our shadows distinctly thrown by the sun on the mist away down in the abyss, in the centre of a brilliant triple circular rainbow, a small segment of which was cut off by the edge of the precipice where we were sitting. This phenomenon, which was new to all of us, appeared and disappeared at short intervals several times, after which the sun’s light came out stronger than before, and it disappeared altogether. The movements made by the party were of course reproduced within this brilliant band of colour, the centre of which appeared to be from 40 to 50 feet in diameter. There was little wind at the time, but what there was, was blowing in a circular manner, carrying the mist over the summit in one direction, and up the valley leading to this corrie and over an adjoining neck in exactly the opposite way. We were, of course, considerably impressed with the spectacle, and noted all the points as carefully as we could. At our President’s request I wrote a letter regarding this phenomenon to the ‘Scotsman,’ and also asking whether in the Highlands these occurrences were frequent. This letter appeared in the issue of the 6th August last, but no replies were forthcoming. I have been spoken to by a considerable number of people re- garding this appearance, and have been told by most of them, that “it must be quite common ;” but on asking the question, as I invariably did, “ Have yow seen such a thing?” have as often had “ No” for an answer. Phenomena of this nature are classed together under the name of Anthelia, from two Greek words meaning “ opposite to the sun,” in contradistinction to those phenomena termed Parhelia, meaning “near the sun.” The most common of all, 162 Optical Phenomenon seen in Glenure. [Sess. coming under the former class, is the rainbow, which, speaking in a very general way, is due to the refraction and reflection of light on drops of water. Much more uncommon is the lunar rainbow, which doubtless many of us have seen. This comparatively rare but very beautiful phenomenon differs from the solar simply in the source and intensity of the light producing it; and being only visible at night, the distinction of colours is very difficult to make out, and unless the circum- stances are favourable, little else is seen than a pale gleam of sickly white or yellow light. Anthelia proper are those appearances consisting of a shadow surrounded by coloured rings or bands thrown upon mist. Of these there are some which, to the inhabitants of mountainous regions, possess the characteristics of a supernatural intervention, and foster superstitious cravings. Even now, when the days of legend and superstition have passed away, and science has stripped these phenomena of their marvellous character, and left their names merely, minus their meaning, they are watched by the traveller and the scientist as closely as when they were attributed to a supernatural agency. The most widely known of these is that named the “Spectre of the Brocken.” The Brocken is the highest mountain of the Hartz chain, running through Hanover. Its height is given as 3300 feet above sea-level. It is stated that a traveller named Hane ascended no less than thirty times to the summit before he contemplated the object of his curiosity. In 1862 a French artist, M. Stroobant, witnessed and carefully sketched this phenomenon. He reached the summit just as the rising sun enabled him to distinguish objects clearly at a distance. In his description he says :— My guide, who had for some time appeared to be walking in search of something, suddenly led me to an elevation, whence I had the singular privilege of contemplating for a few instants the magnificent effect of mirage which is termed the Spectre of the Brocken. The appearance is most striking. A thick mist, which seemed to emerge from the clouds like an immense curtain, suddenly rose to the west of the mountain, a rainbow was formed, then certain indistinct shapes were delineated. First, the large tower of the inn was reproduced upon a gigantic scale ; after that we saw our two selves in a more vague and less exact shape, and these shadows were in each instance surrounded by the colours of the rainbow, which served as a frame to this fairy picture. 1887-88. ] Optical Phenomenon seen in Glenure. 163 The phenomenon witnessed by us is, to my mind, that which is known as the “Ulloa circle.” It is so named after the Spanish traveller, Francisco Ulloa, who, accompanied by six fellow-travellers, first observed and described it. The follow- ing is his description :— Suddenly each of the travellers beheld, in the opposite direction to where the sun was rising, his own image reflected in the air as in a mirror, about 70 feet from where he was standing. The image was in the centre of three rainbows of different colours, and surrounded at a certain distance by a fourth bow with only one colour. The inside colour of each bow was carnation or red, the next shade was violet, the third yellow, the fourth straw colour, the last green. All these bows were perpendicular to the horizon ; they moved in the direction of, and followed the image of, the person whom they enveloped, as with a glory. The most remarkable point here was, that although the seven spectators were standing in a group, each only saw the phenomenon in regard to his own person. The strangest point about the appearance seen by us, but upon which I can offer no explanation, was, that in one case the movements of our arms alone were visible, while our lower extremities re- mained stationary. This sae phenomenon has often been seen in the Alps, and has also been observed by the Arctic navigator Scoresby in the Polar regions. The phenomena, however, observed two years ago by the Hon. Ralph Aber- eromby—one of the foremost meteorologists of the present time—at Adam’s Peak, in Ceylon, seem to surpass everything hitherto recorded. The cone forming the summit of this mountain, which is over 7300 feet above sea-level, is a naked mass of granite, terminating in a narrow platform, in the middle of which is a hollow five feet long, having a rude re- semblance to a human footstep. Mohammedan tradition makes this the scene of Adam’s penitence after his expulsion from Paradise. He stood 1000 years on one foot, hence the mark ! A condensed description of what Abercromby there saw is as follows: The party (himself and two scientific friends) reached the summit on the night of the 21st February 1886, amid rain, mist, and wind. Early next morning the fore-glow began to brighten the under surface of the stratus-cloud ; patches of white mist filled the hollows, and occasionally masses of mist coming from the valley enveloped them with condensed vapour. At 6.30 A.M. the sun peeped through a chink in the clouds, 164 Optical Phenomenon seen in Glenure. [Sess. and they saw the pointed shadow of the peak lying on the misty land. Soon a complete prismatic circle of about 8° diameter, with the red outside, formed round the summit of the peak as a centre. This meteorologist, knowing that with this bow there ought to be spectral figures, waved his arms about, and immediately found giant shadowy arms moving in the centre of the rainbow. Two dark rays shot upwards and out- wards on either side of the centre, and appeared to be nearly in a prolongation of the lines of the slope of the peak below. Three times within a quarter of an hour this appearance was repeated as mist drove up in proper quantities, and fitful glimpses of the sun gave sufficient light to throw a shadow and form a circular rainbow. In every case the shadow and bow were seen in front of land, and never against the sky. About an hour later the sun again shone out, but much higher and stronger than before, and then they saw a brighter, sharper shadow of the peak, this time encircled by a double bow, and their own spectral arms were again visible. The shadow, the double bow, and the giant forms combined to make this phe- nomenon a most remarkable one. The question very naturally occurs, Are these phenomena frequent in this country? Their production evidently de- mands several atmospheric and physical conditions, not readily found in combination except in mountainous regions — such as sunlight; mist or fog; cloud (because this appearance has been beautifully observed from a balloon) ; a considerable elevation, such as a mountain-summit or a mast-head; a valley up which mist may be driven by a light wind to the desired height; and the necessary angle between the sun, the observer, and the shadow. All the records of this phenomenon I have seen give some or most of these conditions; and although ours is a mountainous country, in which one would expect the necessary conditions to be easily found, such phenomena do not appear to be frequently recorded—more from the want of observers, I believe, than from any other cause. We seem to be getting more and more content to look at our mountains, evi- dently satisfied that “distance lends enchantment to the view,” which in such a case it certainly does not, never dreaming of the glories to be observed on looking from their summits, when they have been actually climbed. 1887-88. ] Note on Eucalyptus globulus, 165 IX.—NOTE ON EUCALYPTUS GLOBULUS. By Mr HUGH FRASER. (Read March 28, 1888.) Tus plant is one of some 150 species, all, or nearly all, natives of Australia, and belonging to the Natural Order of the Myrtacee. Australia is the headquarters of the genus. The majority of them are trees growing to an immense height, and having proportionately thick trunks. The whole genus supplies timber of a strong, durable quality, which is used very largely throughout the southern hemisphere in shipbuilding, implement-making, and engineering work. It is also cultivated extensively in the malarious regions of many of the warmer parts of the world, especially in the Mediterranean region and in some districts of Italy. It will be in the recollection of many of the members that it was very extensively planted a few years ago on the island of Cyprus, with a view to correct the malaria which was so fatal to Europeans, with, it is said, the most happy results. The most valuable species of the genus is E. globulus, popularly known as the Blue-gum tree. It is abundant naturally, and is also extensively cultivated. Of late years it has become famous as a febrifuge, and a great many properties of a medical kind have been ascribed to the various prepara- tious of the leaves, the oil from which is said to be antiseptic, while in a dried state, smoked in the form of cigars, they have been recommended as a palliative inasthma. This plant ranks among the fastest-growing and the tallest of all known trees. I have known young plants two years from seed attaining a height of 4 feet; and it has been known to reach the height of 120 feet, with a circumference of 9 feet in the trunk, in twelve years. Specimens have been found in its native woods 400 feet high. What suggested this communication was the curious change which the leaves undergo in form and general appearance as the tree advances in age. In young plants the leaves are always opposite, destitute of footstalk, broadly ovate, and covered with a white dust on both surfaces. At a height of about 15 feet, however, a set of leaves of quite a different 166 Stoats and Weasels. [Sess. character begin to develop themselves: these have long foot- stalks, and are lanceolate in form, with a smooth surface. When these two forms of leaves are placed alongside of each other, they are so dissimilar in appearance as almost to con- ceal their identity. Such instances of variation between im- mature and mature forms are very curious, and well worthy of investigation. X—STOATS AND WEASELS: THEIR HAUNTS, HABITS, AND PECULIARITIES. fi By Mr TOM SPEEDY. Z ; (Read April 25, 1888.) THE idea of writing on weasels suggested itself to me in con- sequence of my collecting and keeping a large number of these animals, with the view of sending them out to New Zealand, in order to form a natural check to the rabbits, which are there increasing in inordinate numbers. It is a never-failing law of nature that where animals which have a tendency to increase rapidly have been placed, checks are also found by way of counterbalance; but in the fauna of Australia and New Zea- land, neither rabbits nor their natural enemies appear to have been included. Man, however, who sometimes presumes to be wiser than the Framer of natural law, has introduced rabbits into these countries, and with the most ruinous results. JI am not aware when they were first imported into these colonies, but fifteen years ago they were confined to a small area of 20,000 acres in the extreme south of South Island, and were at that time taken little notice of. In Southland and Otago the ravages of rabbits became a serious matter about a dozen years ago; and, notwithstanding the appeals of the Crown tenants, the Provincial Government looked on with indiffer- ence, until those engaged in agricultural and pastoral pursuits were practically ruined. To illustrate the dimensions which the rabbit pest has assumed, I may mention that Mr Brydon, a friend of my own, who was examined before a Parliamentary Committee last year, stated that “on a run of 100,000 acres 1887-88. ] Stoats and Weasels. 167 in the Queenstown district he had spent £7000 in the two years 1884 and 1885 in rabbit extermination.” The Parlia- mentary Committee referred to, in its report suggested that “the least expensive and most certain remedy is that provided by nature itself—viz., the distribution of the natural enemies of the rabbit throughout the infested country. . . . That stoats and weasels are extremely effective cannot be denied, as it has been proved in every case where they have been turned out that rabbits have been enormously reduced in numbers.” As the consequence of the above report, I was asked to co- operate in collecting a number of stoats and weasels to trans- port to the colonies referred to. To collect three hundred of these animals is no easy task, but where money is ungrudg- ingly spent, it can be accomplished. In my boyish days I often wondered how Samson caught the three hundred foxes he turned among the corn of the Philistines, when it fre- quently took the hounds of the Earl of Weinyss an entire day to catch one; and, in like manner, I at first thought that the collecting and transporting of three hundred stoats and weasels would be by no means a simple accomplishment. We, how- ever, got the machinery set in motion. Advertisements were inserted in provincial newspapers, and circulars were sent to gamekeepers all over Scotland, offering five shillings each for every stoat or weasel forwarded alive. In due course they began to arrive, and we have now collected over a hundred. Tt will thus be seen that I have facilities afforded me for ob- serving many of their habits and peculiarities which have hitherto been denied to the closest observer. In writing on the weasel tribe, it is as well to state at the. outset that there are several species in this country. We have the polecat and the marten, though these two are now so rare. that it is useless enlarging on their characteristics, as only once has a living specimen of each come under my observation. The stoat and weasel are both still plentiful in all parts of the country, and as it is these two species I have been collecting, it is to them I wish now to direct your attention. The stoat: and weasel are often confounded together, and by country people both are very generally designated “ whaasels.” These destructive animals have, as a rule, been always regarded as pests, and hitherto war has been universally waged against. 168 Stoats and Weasels. [Sess. them by gamekeepers and others. The Government of New Zealand, however, now regards them in a very different light, and is spending large sums in transporting them from this country. An amusing conversation recently took place—so says one of our comic papers—between two Cockneys who had been reading an article on the exportation of stoats and weasels to New Zealand. “ What,” asked one, “is the difference between a stoat and a weasel?” “That, I should think,” replied the other, “will not be so weasily explained.” “Oh yes,’ re- marked his friend, “the one’s stotily different from the other.” Though they differ from each other essentially, still it is true that an affinity exists between them, many of their haunts, habits, and peculiarities being identical. Weasels being smaller than stoats, their hunting-ground is in a much more limited area. Dry-stone dykes, cairns of stones, and hedgerows are their favourite habitats. Their staple food, where there is no young game, is mice. This I have clearly demonstrated by examining the contents of the stomachs of those I have shot in the vicinity of Edinburgh. Where young game is abun- dant, the destruction caused by weasels is incalculable. Game- keepers who have had experience in rearing young pheasants are well aware of the havoc one weasel will commit if it should obtrude its presence in the locality. So destructive are the weasel tribe in their habits, that should one effect an entrance where rabbits or chickens are being reared, everything that partakes of life is ruthlessly destroyed. They are merciless tyrants, meaningless murderers, shedding blood from mere wantonness. In illustration of the bloodthirsty and ferocious character of the weasel tribe, I may mention that a neighbour's boys had a pair of rabbits confined in a house, with a brood of eight young ones nearly half grown, and a second litter, seven in number, about ten days old. Hearing a noise about seven o’clock one evening in the rabbit-house, the boys went to ascer- tain the cause. On opening the door, a “ whaasel” made his exit by a small hole and effected his escape. It was, however, discovered that the entire fifteen young rabbits had been cruelly slaughtered, the speck of blood behind the ear reveal- ing the spot where the weasel tribe, with unerring accuracy, seize their prey and cut the artery, which in a few minutes terminates the sufferings of their victims. The noise which 1887-88. ] Stoats and Weasels. 169 attracted attention was caused by the old pair of rabbits de- fending themselves as they best could; but there is no doubt that, had attention not been attracted, they would have shared the same fate as their progeny. A gruesome trait of the weasel tribe is their cannibalistic tendencies. When one is shot or trapped in a district they frequent, and is left lying about, it is quickly removed and eaten by its kin. I have also observed that if a couple are confined in the same box, the weaker is certain to be killed and eaten by the stronger, even though an abundance of food is in the box beside them. In their wild state nothing makes a better bait for trapping weasels than one of their own species. Receiving information from those who had previously trans- ported weasels that, irrespective of sex, three were put in each box, I, as a matter of course, adopted the same tactics. I soon discovered, however, that this method would be most unprofi- table, as in every case two of them were killed, and generally the survivor died from his wounds, Acquiring knowledge by experience, I got boxes made, and confined them separately, with the most satisfactory results; and as I have kept them many weeks, evidently in a thriving condition, I see no difficulty whatever in transporting them to New Zealand, provided cleanliness and fresh water are punctually attended to. All carnivorous animals drink a large quantity of water. It was also asserted, by those who are considered to be com- petent authorities, that live pigeons had to be shipped along with the weasels, in order to give them warm food, blood be- ing deemed indispensable. This dictum I have also exploded, having fed them for weeks on cold meat and eggs, with the best possible results. In feeding them on pigeons, I dis- covered that, as a rule, the head and neck were the first parts eaten. I would therefore suggest, for the information of those transporting weasels, that a large number of the heads and necks of chickens, which can be got from poulterers at a nominal price, should be put in the refrigerators, and these, along with eggs, would constitute the best and cheapest food that can be obtained. In a consignment of three hundred weasels, fed on live pigeons, the expense is enormous. Allow- ing a couple of months to collect them, and a voyage of six or seven weeks’ duration, many thousands of pigeons are neces- 170 Stoats and Weasels. [Sess. sary, three weasels requiring one pigeon per day. It is thus easy to see that considerable expenditure would be incurred. There are, besides, the purchasing of the pigeons; the quantity of corn required to feed them; the freight of them on board the ship, and a man to attend to them. Though both stoats and weasels are largely endowed with curiosity, the latter is much less shy than the former. I have frequently observed their footprints in snow round a box trap, and though they would run round it a good many times, in most cases weasels ventured in and were secured. It is otherwise with stoats. Known from their larger footprints and longer strides, they would also run round the trap, which they evidently regarded as dangerous, as in most cases they did not venture in. The stoat, although a comparatively small animal, is in the habit of travelling very considerable distances, and will settle down at a spot several miles away from his former dwelling-place. In such cases the first indication of his presence is some unlooked-for depredation which attracts the attention of the keeper. So recently as last year I was spending a few days shooting in a district in Forfarshire, from which stoats had been carefully excluded. One morning the keeper called my attention to an exceptionally large stoat which he, without hesitation, affirmed must have travelled several miles. Upon interrogation, he satisfied me as to the correctness of his surmise, for had it been otherwise he must have had previous indications of the animal’s presence. Having my gun in hand, I stood waiting his coming out from a heap of stones, where unperceived he appeared to be amusing himself. To my surprise I shortly thereafter saw him about 150 yards in advance posting up the side of a stone wall with great speed. Knowing that he had not seen me, and had con- sequently no apprehension of danger, I was curious to know the motive by which he was impelled. I stealthily followed in pursuit, and was interested to observe that he occasionally raised his head in the air as if attracted by the scent of prey. Having apparently measured his distance, he again pressed on with increasing speed, as if impelled by some terrible instinct. Hitherto, although familiar with the movements of the stoat, I was not prepared for the alacrity with which he kept in advance. Latterly he seemed to become desperate 1887-88. ] Stoats and Weasels. 171 with excitement, when I was interested to discover a brood of partridges run screaming from the side of the old stone fence right across the field and over a knoll. This movement on the part of the partridges appeared to disappoint and sur- prise the stoat, who halted as if in a difficulty as to his future action. By this time I had got fairly within shot, as in his anxiety to get among his prey he was oblivious of my having been in pursuit. I fired, and no sooner had I done so than I felt I had made a mistake, as I should have liked to have seen how he would have met the unexpected contingency. As it was, on going forward I found him to be a very old stoat, who had doubtless done much mischief in his day: he was certainly the largest of the species I have ever seen. Though, as I have already remarked, stoats and weasels re- semble each other in many respects, there is a difference between them. I refer to the stoat changing his colour from dark brown in summer to pure white in winter, with the exception of the black tip on the tail, which never changes. We discover here how wisely nature makes provision for enabling some animals to capture their prey, and for others, such as the mountain hare, to elude their enemies, Why the weasel should form an exception to this law, so strikingly illustrated in the stoat, is a point which I confess myself unable satis- factorily to explain. In changing from their summer to their winter coats, or vice versd, stoats do not become white or brown all at once, but break out in white or brown patches or stripes, and at times have a piebald appearance. It seems strange that the stoat and weasel resemble each other in almost every other respect, and yet the latter retains its brown colour in winter as well as in summer. Mr Scot Skirving, in his ex- cellent paper, contributed a few years ago to the Society, on “The Stoat or Ermine Weasel” (‘ Transactions,’ vol. i. p. 130), states that he should like to try the experiment of subjecting a weasel to a cold of 30° below zero in order to see if it would turn white. My opinion is that it would not. “Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his spots?” No device of man can change the colour of any animal, unless nature has willed it so. Weasels are not nearly so hardy as stoats, and I venture to affirm that if subjected to a tempera- ture of 30° below zero, they would succumb in a few hours, 172 Stoats and Weasels. [Sess.. This is no mere speculation, as I have had it again and again verified that they die quickly from cold. In hard frosty weather, should one be caught in a wooden box-trap, it will very frequently be found dead, though the trap is looked reg- ularly night and morning. If a wisp of hay be put in the trap, the animal will be found cosily curled up in it, evidently quite comfortable. In the spring of this year I had two stoats and two weasels in separate boxes placed in a large wire- net cage in front of my window, for the purpose of observing their habits. Knowing that they are by no means possessed of a social instinct, I allowed only one of them to run about the cage at once. As you are all aware, we had some sudden changes in the weather, and one night a fall of snow with hard frost was experienced. Notwithstanding that each animal had some hay to sleep in, I discovered in the morning that both weasels had succumbed to the cold. The stoats, however, seemed to be none the worse, but I took the precaution of having them removed into a stable, in order to protect them from further exposure. It may be asked, if weasels thus die from cold, how is it that they live and thrive in places of high altitude, such as Dalnaspidal in Perthshire, where the winters are long and severe? My opinion is, that weasels spend most of the time in hard weather in their nest, which is frequently in a hole deep down below a tree-root or under a rock. The nest is generally made of dried grass and lined with feathers like a bird’s, where the winged tribe exist, and where they are included in the weasel’s bill of fare. Even in confinement they make a similar nest, provided a pigeon or other bird is given them, from which they can pluck off the feathers, and in which they curl themselves up as simply and cosily as possible. Weasels are frequently caught in traps set for moles, which indicates that they hunt for these animals. In one instance I knew of two weasels having met in a mole-run exactly in the trap, which secured them both. When quite a lad, while walking on the road at Ladykirk, in Berwickshire, a weasel crossed in front of me and disappeared in a bank at the side of the road. Going to the place, I saw the hole where it entered, and that there would be no difficulty in digging it out. Taking the precaution of pushing a stone into the hole, I went 1387-8 8.] Stoats and Weasels. 173 to a cottage some distance off and borrowed a spade. Com- mencing to dig, I was not long in unearthing the vermin, and was fortunate enough to crush it with the spade when trying to make its exit. Examining it, I discovered that it was a female, and that she had been nursing. Excavating a little farther, I came upon the nest, which contained seven small, blind, slate-coloured creatures, apparently a few days old. I have stated that the creatures were blind, and it is perhaps worthy of note that the period of gestation in the weasel tribe is six weeks, and that the young ones are six weeks old before their eyes are opened. It is no unusual thing to see young ferrets out of their nest tearing away at a rabbit or other food before they can see. Why the young of the weasel tribe should be so long blind is difficult of explanation. I am not aware of the young of any other animal having their eyes so long closed. Rats are also born blind, but in fourteen days begin to open their eyes, and, as every schoolboy knows, this is longer than most animals. Another peculiarity of the weasel tribe is a gland under the tail, in which is secreted a strong and offensive odour, which the animal emits at will when attacked by an enemy, or when fighting with each other. If one should be shot dead, or killed instantaneously by a trap, it has no smell whatever ; but if trapped by the leg, or wounded by a gun- shot, the strong effluvium is most disagreeable, and any person who handles it has a difficulty in getting rid of the smell Mr St John, in his admirable book, states that the smell can never be got rid of, and that this renders the skins of stoats useless. This I cannot accept; and the fact of their skins, in the form of ermine fur, being so valuable, and worn not only by ladies of rank and by the Judges of the Court of Session, but even by royalty, thoroughly explodes this fallacy. In Norway and Siberia their skins make a valuable article of commerce ; and it is a notable fact that those killed in this country are much inferior, having neither the thickness of fur nor the beautiful whiteness of those killed in Northern regions. VOL. II. 174 List of Plants gathered in Switzerland. [Sess. XL—LIST OF PLANTS GATHERED IN SWITZERLAND. By Mrs SPRAGUE. (Read April 25, 1888.) In the autumn of 1887 Mrs Sprague and party spent two months in Switzerland, travelling about from place to place, and noting the various plants observed by the way. An in- teresting account of the places visited was read to the Society; and there were also exhibited a collection of butterflies, several photographs of Swiss scenery taken by one of the party, and a number of herbarium specimens of plants. The following plants were gathered during the tour at Lucerne, the Righi Pass, Mt. Pilatus, the Briinig Pass, the Furca Pass, Mt. Chamossaire, Villars-sur-Ollon, Montreux, &e. :— Achillea Clusiana. Aconitum commutatum. " napellus " ranunculifolium. Adenostyles albifrons, Allium foliosum, Althzea officinalis. Anemone alpina. » sulphurea. Anthericum ramosum, Aposeris foetida. Aquilegia atrata. Arnica montana. Aspidium Lonchitis. Asplenium septentrionale. Aster alpinus. Astrantia carniolica. " major. " minor. Biscutella levigata. Bupleurum longifolium. " stellatum. Calamintha alpina. " officinalis. Campanula barbata. " latifolia. " rhomboidalis. " rotundifolia, " Trachelium. Carlina acaulis. Centaurea montana, Cerastium arvense, Chrysanthemum alpinum. Circium spinosissimum. Colchicum autumnale. Crepis aurea. Cyclamen europzeum. Dianthus atrorubens. 1 frigida, 1 Superbus. n sylvestris. Digitalis grandiflora. nu lutea. Epilobium rosmarinifolium, Erigeron alpinum. Euphrasia minima. Gentiana acaulis. n _ asclepiadea, un bavarica. " " alba. 1 campestris. " ciliata. un eruciata (7). 1 imbricata. n lutea. " nivalis. nu obtusifolia. m punctata. 1: purpurea, 1 -verna. Geum montanum. Globularia cordifolia. " vulgaris. Gnaphalium dioicum. 1887-88.] Hepatica triloba. Hieracium alpinum. Homogyne (Tussilago) alpina. Impatiens noli-me-tangere. Lathyrus heterophyllus. 1 Sylvestris. Lilium Martagon. Linaria alpina. " " concolor. » minor. Lonicera alpigena. " ccerulea. " nigra, Maianthemum (Smilacina) bifolia. Mulgedium alpinum. Narcissus poeticus. Orchis ustulata, Orobus luteus. Paris quadrifolia. Phyteuma orbiculare. " scorzonerzfolium. Polygala Chamebuxus. Prenanthes purpurea. Primula auricula. n commutata, u_ farinosa. u spectabilis (?). Pulmonaria angustifolium (?). Fungus Folk-Lore. 175 Pyrola uniflora. Ranunculus aconitifolius, Rhododendron ferrugineum. " hirsutum. Salvia glutinosa, "1 pratense. Saxifraga aizoides, " aizoon, " ceesia. nu euneifolia. cotyledon. n Yvotundifolia. nu Stellaris. Scrophularia Hoppii. Sempervivum tectorum. Silene acaulis. "- rupestris. n- Saxifraga (2). Soldanella alpina. " montana. " pusilla. Spireea aruncus. Swertia perennis. Tofieldia calyculata. Trifolium alpinum. Trollius europeus. Verbascum blattaria. Veronica saxatilis. " montana. Vincetoxicum officinale, Pyrola rotundifolia. Viola calearata. nu secunda, grandiflora. XIL—FUNGUS FOLK-LORE. By Mr A. B. STEELE, (Read Dec. 28, 1887.) THE science of folk-lore, as defined by an American writer, is “the comparison and identification of the survivals of archaic beliefs, customs, and traditions in modern ages.” Although the study of the subject has long been looked upon as a mere pas- time, and as likely to be fraught with no useful results, it is one which is rapidly increasing in general interest. In many instances it is a valuable, if not the only, means of obtaining an insight into the prehistoric period in the life of nations, and 176 Fungus Folk-Lore. [Sess. may yet supply ethnologists and archeologists with material for writing the unrecorded history of the various peoples of the earth. : Fungi have given rise to a not uninteresting, though com- paratively small, contribution to folk-lore. The most common form of fungi is the mushroom, in connection with which much folk-lore is associated. Mushroom was formerly spelt “ mush- rump,” and is said to be derived from the Welsh maes, a field, and rhum, a knob or little head ; the French analogue, cham- pignon, being similarly compounded of champ, a field, and pignon, a little head. It is also said to be derived from mousseron, the popular name in France of Agaricus prunulus, because it grows in moss or grass. Dr Prior thinks that it comes from the old French mousche, a fly —the fly-killing Agaric being called mouscheron, from which our word mushroom is derived. The proverbial expression, “ to come up like a mushroom,” is as old as the days of Bacon. “Such as are up- starts in state,” he says, “are called in reproach mushrooms.” Lytton uses the word in a similar sense when he speaks of “a certain mushroom usurper who had bought out this old, simple, hospitable family.” Dwight, an American theologian of last century, says, “ The origin of man, in the view of the atheist, is the same with that of the mushroom ”—-expressing the popular belief of the origin of the plant in his time. Gerarde calls mushrooms “ earthie excrescences”; and the Greeks called them earth-born plants, under the belief that the seeds came direct from the earth. In Worcestershire, mushrooms are called Abrahams, probably from a band of licensed beggars so called, in imitation of whom so many impostors sprang up that, like mushrooms, it was difficult to distinguish the genuine from the false. Country folks regard a plentiful crop of mushrooms as indicative of rain; and among mushroom-growers there is a curious belief that they are more abundant when the moon is waxing than when it wanes. The origin of the name Toadstool is self-evident. In Eng- land generally toadstools are called Toads’ hats or caps; in Scotland, Paddock or Puddock stools— “‘ May sprout like simmer puddock-stools in glen or shaw ;”— in Lancashire, Toad-paddock ; in Berkshire, Toad’s cheese ; in 1887-88. ] Fungus Folk-Lore. 177 Dorset and Isle of Wight, Toad’s meat ; in Northampton, Frog’s seat ; in Holland, Toadstool (Padde stoél) ; in Germany, Toad fungus (Kréten schwamm) ; in France, Frog’s bread (Pain wu crapaud) ; andin Belgium, Toadstool (Padden stoél). The idea that toadstools were used as seats by toads is of ancient origin— “ The grisly toadstool grown there mought I see, And loathed paddocks lording on the same.” There is a very old myth about the “ snayle that crept out of her shell, and was turned eftsoones into a toad, and thereby was forced to make a stoole to sit on, disdaining her own house.” It is said that the name arose from a belief that all fungi were produced from the excrement of toads. In Wales, however, these plants are named Fairy tables, and in Cornwall and Devon Pixy stools. In Yorkshire they are called Cockstools. That fungi have long been associated in the public mind with fairies is proved by the names which have been given to the different kinds, such as Fairy tables, Fairy baths, &e. What is popularly known as fairy rings or circles has given rise to many curious beliefs and sayings, and their marvellously rapid growth has struck the uncultivated as a supernatural phenomenon. The prevalent belief was that they were caused by the midnight dancing and revelry of the fairies; and Shakespeare speaks of the elves “ Whose pastime Is to make midnight mushrooms.” In the west of England these rings are called Hags’ tracks. In the myths and folk-lore of Sweden they are said to be en- chanted circles made by fairies. The elves perform their midnight stimm or dance, and the grass produced after the dancing is called ailfexing. A belief prevails in some parts of this country that any one treading within the magic circles either loses consciousness or cannot retrace his steps. Many absurd theories have been propounded as to the cause of these rings. Aubrey, who wrote the ‘Natural History of Wiltshire’ in the 17th century, said that they were “ generated from the breaking out of a fertile subterraneous vapour which comes from a kind of conical concave, and endeavours to get out at a harrow passage at the top, which forces it to make another 178 Fungus Folk-Lore. [Sess. cone inversely situated to the other, the top of which is the green circle.” Another remarkable theory by a writer, quoted in Captain Brown’s notes to White’s ‘Selborne,’ attributed these rings to the droppings of starlings, which, when in large flights, frequently alight on the ground in circles, and are some- times known to sit a considerable time in these annular con- gregations. It was also thought that such circles were caused by the effects of electricity, and for this belief the withered part of the grass within the circles may have given foundation. Priestley was a strong advocate of the electric theory, and was supported by many eminent men of his time. “ So from the clouds the playful lightning wings, Rives the firm oak or prints the fairy rings,” says Dr Darwin, and appends a note that “ flashes of lightning, attracted by the moister part of grassy plains, are the actual cause of fairy rings.” Archeeologists suggested that they might be the remains of circles formed by the ancient inhabitants of Britain in the celebration of their sports or the worship of their deities. Naturalists of that period came to the conclusion that the rings were caused by the underground workings of insects. In the ‘ Transactions of the Woolhope Club,’ a few years ago, a writer tries to prove that they are the result of the underground workings of moles; and in the same ‘Transactions’ for 1870, Professor Buckman lays down the axiom that “ any- thing which may tend to kill a given area of grass may be the beginning of a fairy ring.” Several kinds of fungi form rings, but the meadow rings are almost invariably formed by the species Marasmius oreades, commonly known in England by the name of Champignon or Scotch bonnets. St George’s mushroom, which sometimes forms rings, is called Champeron in Berkshire and Champilion in Cheshire—both names ap- parently corrupted from the French. This mushroom is believed to be a special gift from St George—a belief no doubt arising from its making its appearance about the time fixed for the celebration of that saint. Bluet or Blewit, the popular name of Agaricus personatus, has puzzled etymologists. It is supposed to be a corruption of blue hat, but why it should be ~ called so when its stem only is blue, raises a difficulty. The Boletus is the toadstool par excellence of the English, who call 1887-88. ] Fungus Folk-Lore. 179 it the Devil’s cushion. The Romans compared it to the food of the gods; and in Holland it is called Devil’s bread, from a superstitious belief that that individual gets the best of everything in this world. Among the group popularly called Sapballs, the best known is the Dry-rot. This name originated from its converting the wood which it attacks into a dry powdery mass. Dr Prior, however, thinks that the name is more probably derived from tree, wood—A.S. treow—and rot. Like the fairy rings, a great many strange reasons have been assigned as the cause of the dry-rot in timber. It was supposed to be caused by a plant like the vine, and wherever this fell plant touched it poisoned the wood, and hydra-like sprouted when deemed dead. Last century a writer stated that he had seen the leaves growing on the plant. “They appear,” he said, “dead for many years, and some crumble into dust, but fresh wood attracts a fresh growth from the root.” In the ‘Gentleman’s Magazine’ last century it was seriously asserted by a correspondent that dry-rot was the Jewish leprosy in houses; and another held that it was the result of putrefactive fermentation. A well-known species of this group, and much esteemed as a food on the Continent, is the Vegetable beef-steak, so called from a supposed resemblance to a piece of fresh beef. It has other popular names, such as Liver of the oak, Ox-tongue, or simply Tongue. It is so like a tongue in shape and general appearance, that in the days of enchanted trees it was never cut off for fear the knight to whom it belonged should afterwards come to claim it. A species which attacks the Canadian pines is an object of some curious beliefs among the Indians of Lake Huron. They believe that it lives and cries like a child, that it bleeds when wounded, and does not fall unless killed. The famous Funeus- stone, Pietra fungaia, of Italy, is regarded by the Neapoli- tans with superstitious wonder. Parkinson quaintly describes it as growing naturally among certain stones in Naples, and that the stones being digged up and conveyed to Rome, where they set them in their wine-cellars, covering them with a little earth and sprinkling a little warm water thereon, mushrooms are produced within four days. The stone is simply a ball of hardened earth impregnated with the spawn of Polyporus tuberaster. Another much-prized Continental species has the 180 Fungus Folk-Lore. [Sess. popular name of the Hen-of-the-woods or Breeding-hen, from a fancied resemblance to the female of the grey grouse sitting on eggs. In Italy, rackrented tenants send specimens of this fungus as surprise presents, by way of inducing the landlords to reduce the rent. Among the group which gets its name from the tremulous gelatinous appearance of several species, there is some curious folk-lore. It is their strange appearance which has given rise to the many curious traditions about them. They are known as Star-jellies or Fallen-stars, from a superstitious belief that they were the remains of fallen stars. In Sweden they are called Sky-falls. Dr J. Russell Lowell, commenting on one of Lovelace’s poetic images, says it is based on the belief that stars shooting from their places fell to the earth and turned to jellies. Jamieson’s Scottish Dictionary explains Shot-star as the meteoric substance often seen to shoot through the atmosphere, or appearing in a gelatinous form on the ground. The ‘Statistical Account of Scotland’ also explains the substance called Shot-stars as “nothing else than frosted potatoes. A night of hard frost in the end of autumn, in which those meteors called falling-stars are seen, reduces the potato to the consistence of a jelly or soft pulp, having no resemblance to a potato except when parts of the skin of the potato adhere below undissolved. This pulp remains soft and fluid when all things else in nature are consolidated by frost, for which reason it is greedily taken up by crows and other fowls when no other sustenance is to be had, so that it is often found by man in the actual circumstance of having fallen from above, having its parts scattered and dispersed by the fall, according to the law of falling bodies. This has given rise to the name and vulgar opinion concerning it.” A great many other curious sayings exist about fallen- or shot-stars, but they have reference more particularly to an alga which was at one time classed among the fungi, The term Witches’ butter or Fairy butter is often generally applied to the yellow gelatinous species, but most country folks, when they refer to Witches’ butter, mean a blackish fungus which feels on the under side like black crape. In Atkinson’s ‘Glossary of the Cleveland Dialect, it is stated that the belief is quite common in York- 1887-88. ] Fungus Folk-Lore. 18I shire that fairies or witches make butter during the night, and scatter it about on the ground. In Sweden there is a similar belief ; and it is said that the witches milk the cows during the night and make butter, or ¢roll smér, as it is called. There is also a belief in that country that if nine kinds of wood be heaped into a pile, and some of the ¢roll smér be thrown into it, those who have been justly suspected as witches are in- voluntarily compelled to adinit it. Another species, the Jew’s ear, as it is commonly but in- correctly called, was an object of superstition in the middle ages. It is evidently a corruption of Judas’s ear. Rabelais ealls it Judas’s ear, and says it is a form of fungus issuing from old elder trees. There is a well-known tradition of the middle ages that Judas hanged himself upon an elder tree, and that the fungus sprouted out in consequence. “ Judas he japed With jewen silver, And sithen on an eller Hanged hymselve,” says Langland in his ‘ Piers Plowman.’ Coles also mentions the elder as “ being supposed that whereon Judas hanged him- self, and that ever since these mushrooms like unto ears have grown thereon.” Gerarde, however, says that the arbor Jude is thought to be that upon which Judas hanged himself, and not upon the elder, as it is vulgarly said. The tree called Judas tree, known also in France and Germany under that name, is a corruption of Kuamos tree (Cercis siliquastrum), the Leguminous or Bean tree of the East, and the corrupt name has probably given rise to the tradition that it was upon that tree that the arch-traitor hanged himself. The old herbalists believed that the virtues possessed by this fungus were in- exhaustible. For sore throats it was a never-failing cure. An allied species in New Zealand is exported annually in large quantities to China, where it is highly valued for its supposed curative powers. It forms one of the principal ingredients of their favourite soup, on account of its gelatinous properties and its rich delicious flavour. Among the next division of Fungi, the most popular family 182 Fungus Folk-Lore. [Sess. is the Puffballs—a name which needs no explanation. Puck or Pouk fist, by which it was anciently called, and is still commonly known by in some districts of England, is not so self-evident. In Gloucester it is called Puckfoust; in Norfolk, Bulfer and Bulfist—a corruption, perhaps, of the German Bofist. The Irish name is Cos-a-phouka or Pouka’s foot; the Saxon is Pulker-fist. The name Puckfist may be derived from Puck—Robin Goodfellow, the celebrated fairy—and fist, a corruption of foot. In Icelandic, however, Puck or Puke means a wee devil; in Swedo-Gothic, the ancient language of Sweden, it also means a devil; and in old English the devil is called the pouke. Hence may have arisen the popular family nickname of the Devil’s snuff-boxes, given to puffballs. Gerarde informs us that it was a common belief that the snuff from the Devil’s box was injurious to the eyes; and Parkinson affirms that if the seeds are brought near the eyes, they will cause blindness—a belief which has origi- nated the names Blindman’s ball, Blindman’s bellows, and Blindman’s een. Another group in this division has attracted popular notice by its fetid odours. It is most likely to one of its members, called the Common Stinkhorn, that the Poet Laureate refers in the line— “ As one that smells a foul-fleshed Agaric in the holt.” In Yorkshire it is called the Devil’s stinkpot ; in Cumberland, Powcat or Polecat; in Norfolk it is called Devil’s horn; and in other places, Wood witch and Stinking polecat. A Con- tinental species, by its insupportable odour, has occasioned the superstition among the peasants of the Landes that it produces cancer. It gets the name of Cancer on that account, and they cover it carefully over lest some one should chance to touch it and become infected with that terrible disease. In the west of England the name Canker is applied to poisonous fungi; and in China and the Cape of Good Hope, species allied to the French Cancer are employed as external applications for cancerous sores. A member of this group, bearing some resemblance to the last-mentioned plant, is a native of New Zealand, where at one time it was economically of some im- 1887-88.] Remarks on the Genus Aulacodiscus Ehrb. 183 portance. The Maoris call it Thunder-dirt, a name apparently derived from some savage superstition regarding its origin—a superstition which can be traced back to the time of the ancient Thracians, who named species of this group as if they were produced by thunder. ‘There is a remarkably interesting group of little fungi also belonging to this division, quite curiosities in their way, and popularly known in some places as Bird’s nests, from their resemblance to a small nest with eggs. One species is found plentifully on bracken stems, but the neatest and prettiest kind is seen growing on the ground, mostly in stubble-fields, in spring. At the first glance they represent miniature open purses filled with silver coins. In England they are called Pixies’ purses, and in Scotland, Siller eups. Scottish country-folks who chance to light upon these fungi on their way to work or market, consider it a lucky omen of the day’s success. Among the other divisions of fungi, folk-lore is almost confined to a small group whose striking appearance has attracted popular notice. They are called Fairy cups, and the loveliest and most striking of them, if not of all the fungi, is the Scarlet cup, Fairy bath, or Whooping cup, as it is variously called throughout the country. XIL.—REMARKS ON THE GENUS AULA- : CODISCUS Eure. By JOHN RATTRAY, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S.E. (Read April 25, 1888.) I RESPECTFULLY beg to submit the subjoined observations on the genus Aulacodiscus Ehrb, to the members of the Edin- burgh Field Naturalists’ Society, in the belief that not a few of the working microscopists who have already found at once pleasure and much material for reflection in the flinty micro- organisms so abundant in every fresh- or salt-water pool, on the 184 Remarks on the Genus Aulacodiscus Ehrb. [Sess. surface of the ocean waters as well as in their most profound depths, may be induced to prosecute their observations still more assiduously in this ample domain, to co-operate in the earnest if humble attempts of the many home and foreign workers now endeavouring to elucidate the story of their life, their minute structure when alive or after death, the still un- known mechanism of their movements, and the riddles of the endo-parasites to whose ravages they, in common with the highest of living organisms, are at all times exposed. The genus Aulacodiscus embraces some of the most elegant forms among the Diatomacez. Marine in its habitat, its species are in part met with in fossil deposits only, but they are also occasionally found in the vicinity of land—continental or insular —in tropical or temperate waters. Among deposits its repre- sentatives are to be found in that of Mors, Jutland; of Sim- birsk and Sysran, Russia; of Barbadoes; of Monterey, Santa Monica, Santa Marta, and Santa Maria, California; of Szent Peter, Szakal, and Kékké, Hungary ; of Richmond and Peters- burg, Virginia; of Calvert County, Nottingham, and Piscataway, Maryland ; of Augarten ; and of Oamaru, New Zealand. From oceanic deposits specimens have been procured in the Pacific by the Challenger, and in the Indian Ocean by the Gazelle. Guanos from Bolivia, Peru, Ichaboe, San Filipe, Patos Island, Patagonia, and South Africa, may also be examined with success. The shores of Great Britain and of the European continent have yielded but a small harvest hitherto, but many recent elegant valves have been procured from New Zealand, New Caledonia, Sumatra, Java, Samoa, Celebes, Japan, the Sandwich and Philippine Islands, Ceylon, Labuan, the Nicobak Islands, King George’s Sound, California, Peru, San Francisco, Sierra Leone, the river Congo in W. Africa, Teneriffe, and other localities. It thus appears that whilst deposits afford the most accessible hunting-ground, ballast of ships trading with foreign ports may frequently be examined with a good hope of dis- covering some of the choicest gems in this department of research. I must refer the members to the monograph which I have recently had the privilege of submitting to the Royal Micro- scopical Society of London for a systematic description of the : ela barbadlercsta Vine SPOTL) | LEQ OTES reituts PUAALOS ELS wala Co. ws zi 7 7 7a auchlanape.t.s ih latiural Sif wily fo) ALIA x Che Cents « Gulltcodesciis | Lee ie s| f_. ee ellalosis Jarbaderesta /xohabiies sirryidew Bravia Congert sehties hyal =| TE EES ianaanaad legares ru tus pe Verret Po ea A ra wie COLI LOSLLS etd Be Tham | : athe nadidiine [ TEL Ea /[eomanens Ratipayié sil we Secodens ; silatiiarnzs | COTO ELLE uigelabrs tad me | 2 / | Pik, is Bae : ens J PRATUTOSUS ail OWL LQTLLS y Lies Weta excayalis Padme acutus | arctangels rans ou eds wes 1887-88. ] Remarks on the Genus Aulacodiscus Ehrb. 185 at present known species of the genus; in this, too, will be found a guide to the relevant literature and to the synonymy —here, fortunately, with few exceptions, less perplexing than in some other genera; and I would also direct attention to certain singularly instructive abnormalities which have been published in the April (1888) issue of the ‘Journal of Botany.’ But by way of supplement to, and extension of, these papers, it has seemed to me desirable to present you with a tabular view of the species as a guide to their natural affinities, and as facilitating the identification of forms when used with discrimination, in conjunction with the artificial key that will be found in the first-mentioned paper. As ex- planatory of this Table, I would point out that the forms have a discoid shape, are sometimes almost flat or slightly con- vex towards the centre, which may be depressed, and are often provided with surface elevations, on the top of which, when present, the large processes of very variable shape are placed. The markings are generally absent from a small central area of variable outline, but often circular, and outside of this are round or polygonal areole arranged in substraight radial and often secondary oblique decussating rows, resembling the markings on the back of a watch. Double rows —— the primary rays— of often more evident markings proceed from the central space towards the border, but stop short of the latter, and for the most part terminate in large and very elegant processes, which vary in shape from a truncated cone to that of an hour-glass, or even a round-headed staff. The markings are often of the most exquisite pearly lustre, or constitute a faint delicate tracery of marvellous regularity, and between them are fre- quently found interspaces either of unornamented silica or bear- ing minute mammillations, by the presence of which the colour and lustre of the valves are often most pleasantly varied, and sometimes greatly enhanced. To the forms possessing within certain limits—depending on the judgment of the observer— modifications of all or some of such characters the specific names are attached; but it must be pointed out that here, as in other departments, there is no absolute fixity of characters within a species. In other words, no two valves from different frustules will be found exactly the counterpart of one another, 186 Remarks on the Genus Aulacodiscus Ehrb. [Sess, and thus it comes about that the species merge insensibly into one another, through forms to which we may sometimes, for convenience of reference, affix a varietal name (or the name of a forma), and which may be associated with one or other of two allied species, according to the “taste” of the observer, without violating any law of natural relationship. The same is applicable, too, to the case of allied genera. Such forms as simple discs, devoid of primary rays or processes, to which we give the name Coscinodiscus, seem at first sight far removed from these Aulacodisci, but in the latter processes are sometimes wanting, and so too are primary rays and inflated areas, whilst the former may have a central area without markings (or, like some Aulacodisci, a central rosette), and even submarginal pro- cesses of considerable size, as in specimens of the so-called Eu- podiscus jonesianus, which is associable with Coscinodiscus concinnus W. Sm. as var. jonesiana, and in Coscinodiscus doljensis, C. odontophorus, C. odontodiscus, C. Rothii, and speci- mens belonging to the Cestodiscoid section of Coscinodiseus— that is to say, to the old genus Cestodiscus, Similarly, no sharp boundary lines can be drawn between forms associated with the genus Auliscus and those that now rank among the Glyphodisci, Pseudaulisci, or even Eupodisci; and so for other genera. In the construction of the Table, the guiding principle is that of transition from the simple to the more complex. Thus a flat or almost flat disc, such as Aulacodiscus suspectus, A. exiguus, A. apedicellatus, occupies a lower position in the scale than others provided with inflations like A. Petersii, A. car- ruthersianus, A. Janischii, or with elevated ridge-bearing zones like A. Lahuseni, or with coarse or delicate reticula like A. Argus, A. Thumii, and A. Grunowii; specimens without distinct primary rays are less evolved than others in which these are sharply defined—contrast in this respect A. suspectus, A. Beeveriz, with A. quadrans, A. margaritaceus, or A. sollittianus ; valves with processes are higher than others devoid of these— for example, A. formosus, A. spectabilis, A. orientalis, as against A. suspectus, A. apedicellatus (in which they are absent), or A. exiguus, A. barbadensis, A. cellulosus, A. septus, A. probabilis (in which they are small); large coarse markings 1887-88.] Remarks on the Genus Aulacodiscus Ehrb. 187 indicate a lower position in the scale than delicate ones—for example, compare A. gracilis, A. polygonus, and A. scaber, with A. cinctus, A. concinnus, A. mammosus; whilst the polygonal outline of A. polygonus is an advance upon the simple circular of A. umbonatus, A. lucidus, A. aucklandicus, and the majority of other species. It is important to point out that within a single species extensive modifications may occur: the primary rays may be absent or well developed, or a single ray may have divided and be replaced by two now contiguous and nor- mally straight or regularly curved rays, as in A. Kittoni; the circular form may be replaced by the lobate, as in A. Petersii ; - surface depressions typical of a species may be wanting from the areas where their presence would naturally be looked for, as in A. excavatus. A central clear area may become excen- tric, with an association of modifications dependent directly on this variation, or geminate valves may be met with, but I have seen none having a triple arrangement of its central spaces or primary rays: this genus seems not to yield triplets, though twin forms are not uncommon among recent West African specimens of A. Kittoni var. africana, and in recent Pisaguan or Vera Cruz gatherings. The known species range themselves naturally into the following sections: (1) ComMPLANATI, embracing A. suspectus, A. Beeveriz, A. simplex, A. probabilis, A. parvulus, A. Browneii, A. Comberi, A. hyalinus, and A. minutus; (2) TENERRIMI—A. exiguus, A. barbadensis; (3) Raprati— A. kilkellyanus, A. decorus, A. spectabilis, A. quadrans, A. dispersus, A. angulatus, A. rotulus, A. grevilleanus; (4) ArEoLATI—A. apedicellatus, A. cellulosus, A. elegans, A. radiosus, A. crux, A. margaritaceus, A. scaber, A. secedens, A. compactus, A. patens; (5) SzEPTaTI— A. septus, A. Schmidtii; (6) Mirabines—A. archangelskianus, A. superbus, A. attenuatus, A. anthoides; (7) SpecraTi—aA. polygonus, A. amcenus, A. oregonus, A. intumescens,