1A * hehe ates’ eee eh f Sn ae THE ANNALS OR, PHILOSOPHY. NEW SERIES. JULY TO DECEMBER, 1825. VOL. X. AND TWENTY-SIXTH FROM THE COMMENCEMENT. ENE London : Printed by C. Baldwin, New Bridge-street ; FOR BALDWIN, CRADOCK, AND JOY, PATERNOSTER-ROW. — 1825. date Sto a tr TABLE OF CONTENTS. mens a a NUMBER I.—JULY. | ; Page Mr. Boner on the Variation of the Mariner’s Compass, its Cause, and the : periodical Revolution of the Magnetic Pole.............. Sp Reg be ESY es 1 ‘Mr. Scanlan on a Compound of Iodine and Carbon.................... 14 Dr. Traill on Copper Sheathing .. 2... occ e ek cece ee eee RineReee teers oe 15 Prof. Sedgwick on Diluvial Fornidtions.. 2... ..c icici cece ec ecs cece ccs 18 Mr. South’s Corrections in Right Ascension of 37 Principal Stars ...... 38 Col. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations. ..............008. Soh eager et 44 Mr. Nixon’s Explanation of the Theory of the Barometrical Measurement ME RUPMITID LCOMEUMMIDT) O'S ecco bys dots sscn test co ccneteeeeenpenn 44 A Letter from Dr. Black to James Smithson, Esq. describing a ey sensi- PSM eC cca nccearscstro eter ex Cater t tes Ce 52 Mr. De la Becke on the Diluvium of Jamaica. .......... 0c. ccsecce ee 54 Mr. Gray on the Genus Ursus of Cuvier, with its Divisions into Sub- QETETA.. . cece ee ce ecccceseccsweees Pelee sahOs ee ce Fiencake o¥scespe.ee 59 Analytical Account of the Philosophical: Transactions for 1824, Part II... 62 Proceedings: of CHE Heyal Sade eer as sett ete aee k 66 LifDeal SOCOM. Ges eee ecce Sis cece ate e terete 67 Astronomical Soesatys oi... eee i eee eee 69 Preparation of pure Potash, ......++.+++- Biaey d ieee swe teteicee oat 72 Mr. Dalton’s Process for determining the Value of hep Sues wea Oe : Geological Situation ofthe Beryl, oo 000 edbeswaves quel Je lekl ay poe, (ng Description of Levéyne, a new Mineral Shdtied: : OU. COLA RSE Uae oe 5 ‘Astronomical Prize... ee eeee SUnNe need siae LAORUO TERED: ei. -76 Falling Star-seen at-Mid-day........secsssssccceerscccessecnesensccnes 76 Notice regarding Sn ene wba dee TeV I ET BOC UT 5 sb HOTTER GIG New Scientific Books . oro 'ae bol US TUBER Veep een, else . lop New Patents... 20. Jsb 8 oe eees SQ ere UD ABTS EDI SE erie 77 Mr. Howard’s Niaceisoliaiead Journal. .... SeevivsNetewsiancse'’s ou ewr ine 79 ER NUMBER I11.—AUGUST. Mr. Nixon’s Explanation of the Theory of the Barometrical Measurement wf Heights (continued). ......cessccccescccnccsscccccseccsesaceevers 8 Mr. Gray’s Synopsis of the Genera of Cirripedes arranged in Natural F- milies, with a Description of some new Species. ..........000. 0000, 97 Dr. Roget on an Optical Deception. (With a Plate.) ............ oa, (107 Col. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations. .....-++ccecsecssrseseceeees 113 Mr. Mill on the Preparation of Acetate of Soda ......sseeceseseeseeeses LIS iv CONTENTS, Page Mr. Donovan’s Description of an Apparatus for filtering, out of Contact with the Atmosphere.........++eesee00 on vigeeh due ped ne eeieeec recs 115 M. Berzelius on Fluoric Acid (continued) Nee ad EL be 2 ae 116 M. Besthiier on Forge Scales. \. «00 ic csvacnassawnen ¥en bide bus cess escscee 130 Mr. Rainy on the Specific Gravity of Hydrogen Sess Civadivanteai 135 Analytical Account of An Attempt. to establish. the First Principles of Chemistry by Experiment ; by Dr. Thomson. .............. Sewases 138 Proceedings of the Linnean Society.......,..+seeeeee0, coneadh seasey 148 Geological Society.....ss0.ssieeesserecreeeeceneee 149 Queries respecting Animal Magnetism..........-+sseeeeesererceeneees 151 Anatomical Difference between Helix Hortensis and H. Nemoralis...... 152 (On Siren Lacertina,.;. Foss ccs sso se bh sd AheaL eae tess sche ta ky neaah 152 On the Animal of Argonauta ........... Oi ss aieits Sem aion Wisin b vine bigrs seas 152 Oi the Animal of Calyptrea ........ basonnpitele’ mesh on dllila nibh ik bied 153 On the Genus Plagiostoma ......... dik aaslyrehais4 «on SMRSRRICD rs dak biees 153 On Fossil Bike oe :sii'5b 5 ii labile 6s ov 0 be wise hie w ow canons ibn stacey sears 159 Fossil Crocodile from Whitby..........scceecereseeeees sawenntenAs w+ 154 Letter from Mr: Herapath.........0esseeseeeees ee a eaieele Aino COWRA »» 154 Luminous Snow Storm on Lochawe........++00++6+ iiteinpeeds IBA Process for rendering i impervious to Water at ‘Air all Kinds of Cloths; _ also Leather and. Paper, 8£6....+0..0.0000000% 0 vontecicevecsscdenseiemes 155 New Scientific Books............+ Bh bedidieveinniba tan «i Npreree p7 eehions . 156 New Patents . .......-.++ See nsecsnensccnasenneenas wee eepieens eee seers 156 Mr. Hwan eee Jourtnal.....ccerercssacswercvececseeeees 159 ~ NUMBER II. —SEPTEM BER. . ; Col. Beaufoy ‘on Naval Improvement........bewnd ainds oeviven vies Grvejesend 161 Mr. Nixon’s Explanation of the Theory of the Dulpiedee Meanie 7 of Heights (concluded) .......+++ Pe rbereerscepeesessewese ‘ daniep-ewwpy fille MM. Berzelius.on Hydracida, ... +++ 000 rp e rosy siilealy Dvn enstinenietdte +». 180 Dr. Carver on a. Meteoric Stone whieh fell. at Nanjemoy. oh Unni bie ov ees 186 ‘Gol. Beaufoy’s Astronomica] Observations... ........0iseeevsesesenee) 188 Drs. Christison and Turner on the Comparative Advantages of Oil and . Coal Gas, po iviieres cn osse corns os'se deep’ dersiene dwieseeneole’e oclapiparent 10 Mr. Gray’s Synopsis of the Genera of Reptiles and ‘Armphibis, writhh a Description of some new Species Tere os cis ed a eo ee SS a ok 193 Mr. Mill on the Influence of the Moon on Animal and Vegetable Eco- i OEE CC ee Te re eT es 218 Analytical Account of the Philosophieal Transactions for 1824, Part TI. Ccoprigded) |’... 0. sis vsh siege eeenenat a> aaetoratecee seevdeaa meets '220 Proceedings of the Geological Society..............eeeeee eee ST, 220 Formation of Ammonia. .,..............0.0. URS, GUM Ae 230 Sulphiato-tri-carbonate- of Lead Cider SATs Seay, BF, OO, tomort, 282 Hydrate of Magnesia «; ALERT Pen eee Meets ieee SEO See | 239 MOONS 65550505550. ne oeete cases es eeebatatran ye TRA oi Ae Y ‘983 CONTENTS. Vv Page Seleniuret of Lead .........++ AMS eam Vie Fone ev dsb ode debates. 298 Selenium in the Sulphur of the Lipari Isles....... ia Raia ale bie wal aif « oe 234, RTE Ss sos oho sab ak Pek aae haa Nae ePereetdedes HWittivnets peecipwiss BOS On the Teeth of the Koala........ git edeersgeeeoeenedeerseescaswceseed 235 ‘On the Umbilicus of Matvibiét-Aniuints ke bsaishe Hh ani dikes wits itd pl al dol se 285 Method of fixing Crayon Colours...... de wach le aie's' hi» ail ove ddeeevceney ) 230 New Scientific Books....... SBI i ae eer Width dalgdi'e's hiatal st 237 New Patents ..... SN ne A oe bin ie Sieip Hanthe whVid-a Adored vinta aaNt’ » 237 Mr. Howat Nibtnesteaosl Journal, ....... old dices yoeeyeneeech oval 230 NUMBER IV.—OCTOBER. Mr. Gray on the Synonima of the Genera Anomia, Crania Orbicula, and DSGING 5.5, v)0;0,0:c/0ldie's pepe vers eeepes bree essing ev eiblale bh ibe cr serecren 241 Mr. South’s Corrections in 1 Right. Ascension of 87 Principal Stars:..s.... 245 M. Andre del Rio’s Analysis of an Alloy of Gold. and Rhodium from, the Parting House, at Mexico. . aes ae ase 040.6 dembl eke dont end SP Col. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations, die inside vole sew She Bigen Hien Bent 256 Mr. Wallan on the Seat of Vision ......e.eceeeseeus Sn: ee nee 258 M. Ferre’s Summary View of the Bosca of the Electro-chemical .. Theory to Chemical Phenomena. ........ceseesneeceeens sEdnesh ved B62 Dr. Moll on the Velocity of Sound ....,..... rend oy stand is lh winiavsica oh so.» 268 On Copper Sheathing. , putea ideaedubodue sive npg eb edateeein pemeineli Sittainny tO M. Rose’s Analysis of the Seleniurets af the Eastern Harz...... aban «+ 284 ‘AcTable of Chemical Equivalents. 23 Jiinicssss ccc deceiesseees eve cone 298 Mr. Phillips’s Reply to Dr. Christison .....,.-.0¢¢seee+s00: wots?! 90:=14/298 ‘Mr..Herries on an improved Air-pump. (With a Pius), sindnete Ak Mr. Dalton on. the. Analysis of Atmospheric Air by Hutiiaie:s i siidien +» 804 Analytical Account of the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of . Philadelphia, Vol. iv. Part 2......000000000000. abot iaG) «riebobeds seee+ 306 Petrifactions.of Mount Carmel. .......020-ssse0eeeeeee8 shies asda kod yp D2 On the flexible.or elastic Marble of Berkskire Counts. vebsbiks cle ctten ath wake Extraordinary. Minerals discovered in Warwick, New York ........+++. 314 Lepidolite .. .....02+. cv heneniaegeas bas wikce'n wacoiuipi'e oth ps eietoasndtne --» 315 Ne ieee NUR cused nAannndannin dais Amand Amhe AS nai Di bien s aah hee ¢, B15 On Lamouroux’s New Division of the Animal Wibgiddin ee alee ps ocesa’s 8315 /On the Horn of Plenty, a Variety of the Common Garden Snail. ........ 316 New. Scientific Books.....4..c00+% see Aid en tbwibenenibl'y aeiayh ok Laces 9 kegs RE New .Patents..2 Oe ERRATA. — Page 46, for 30 inches, read 29°92181 inches, 123, line 13, for fluoric acid, read fluoboric acid. 124, line 12, for neutral, read mutual. 152, line 5, for analysis, read analyses. & ANNALS’. PHILOSOPHY. JULY, 1825. .. ARTICLE I, Essay on the Variation of the Mariner’s Compass, its Cause, and the Parnageeas Revolution of the Magnetic Pole. By Mr. C, Boner. | : (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, Great Bedford-street, Bath. THE direction of the magnetic needle towards one particular point in the horizon evinces a power, by which the needle is attracted. . The progressive change in the direction of the needle proves a change of position in the attractive power. _ The consideration that every thing in nature is governed by imvariable laws, places it beyond a doubt that the change of - position.in the attractive force, and consequently the variation of the needle, are governed by laws as constant as those by which all the other phenomena of nature are regulated. ot Whether the cause of the variation, that is to say, the power which acts upon the compass needle, be in the earth, or in the heavens, is a question which I do not presume to decide ; because, after the consideration that the most able men have been unsuccessful in their efforts to establish their theories upon solid grounds, and that besides circumstances have never per- mitted me to make the necessary experiments, from which | might have drawn just conclusions, 1 should think it ridiculous conceit, if I were positive in affirming that such and no other is the efficient cause of this extraordinary phenomenon. However that neither of the existing systems is the true one, is evident from their disagreement with daily experience ; and, therefore, every new conjecture on so important a subject is worth examining. That there should be within the earth, as some pretend, a large magnet, revolving about.a-center, as the planets move about the sun, is possible, but not probable; and still less so is New Series, Vou. Xe B 2 Mr. Boner on the [Juny, the opinion of those, who attribute the variation to the changes produced in, the iron mines by the continual excavations made therein by men’s,hands. * : | The variation of the compass being evidently the effect of attraction, would it not be more philosophical to look for its cause in that universal power, by which the whole planetary system is acknowledged to be governéd.' Few persons deny the influence of the sun and the moon in raising the waters of the sea; and [ can see no incongruity in the idea, that the varia- tion is an effect of the same, or at least of a similar cause. Repeated observations prove that at the same place the varia- tion is different at different hours of the day; and Mr. Canton affirms, that in574 observations he found the variation regularly increasing westward from about eight or nine in the morning till one or two in the afternoon; when the needle became stationary for some. time, after which the absolute variation west- ward was decreasing, and the needle came back again to its former situation or near itin the night, or by the next morning. I ask now whether there is any thing more like the periodical rise and fall of the waters of the sea, which, as every body knows, happen twice every four and twenty hours, and consi- dering that the diurnal east and west variations are very nearl at the same distance from noon, I have little doubt but that if the observations were made as regularly during the night, we should discover the same changes before and after midnight, when the sun is in the opposite meridian, and thus find two magnetic tides, if I may use the expression, as we have two sea tides every day. It appears therefore not at all an Pisoni to. me, that the sékiodicak change of the variation should be regu- lated by the situation of the heavenly bodies, and the whole revolution of the magnetic pole be performed within the 5 a of 532 years, a period derived from the multiplication of the numbers 19 and 28; that is, of the lunar and solar cycles together. | | , . ut what confirms me still more in the idea that the principal cause of variation resides in the region of the planets, is, that by the first trial which I made to discover the place of the mag- netic pole by means of the dip and variation observed in 1812, { found the annual progress of the magnetic pole in direct: pro- portior asthe annual progress of the nodes of Venus to the annual precession of the nodes of the earth; that is, as 31” : 50°26 :: annual progress of the magnetic pole : to one degree or 60 minutes ; which gives the annual progress 37’ 00” 53°73. And from the dip and variation observed in London in the year 1812, I find the annual progress of the magnetic pole, as it will be: seen hereafter, equal to 37’ 538” 117/+22, differing onl 52” 17”4Y from the former ; and if to’ the first 37"00” 53°77 we add the annual precession of the equinoxes 504” seconds, 1825.) Variation of the Mariner’s Compass. li we obtain 37’ 51” 8””73 for the annual progress of the magne- tic pole as it is derived from the precession of the nodes of Venus and of the earth, being only 2” 2’49 less than that derived from the dip and variation observed in 1812. - This calculation is upon the supposition that it be true, as it is generally believed, that there was no variation at London in the year 1657; an opinion upon which there can remain little doubt, when we consider that Mr. Gunter in the year 1622, that is 35 years before there was no variation, observed it to be 5° 561’ east, and Mr. Halley in 1692, that is 35 vears after there had been no variation, found it 6° west. Now from dip and ‘variation observed in London in 1812, that is 155 years after the time of no variation, I find the longitude of the magnetic pole 82° 7’ 36” west of London, and as in 1657 it was evidently in longitude 180°, it must have proceeded dur- ing the 155 years, 97° 52’ 24”, which being divided by 155, give 37’ 53” 11/22 for the annual progress of the magnetic pole, as it has been stated above, and the whole revolution = 570-1246 years, or 570 years and about 451 days. | If the annual progress be made as tropical revolution of Venus to tropical revolution of the earth, we obtain 36’ 54” 42’”, which is nearly one minute less than the above, and the whole... revolution would require about 12 yeats more. If on the con- trary we assume for the annual progress 38’ 51” 28’”, which is nearly one minute more than the first, the whole revolution will be about twelve years less; namely, 557 years, 21 days, 18" 11™ 515, forming the astronomical period, called the period of eclipses. Further observations, it is to be hoped, will enable us to decide which of these data comes nearest the truth. Mean- while let us observe that a mean between the four following numbers differs less than half a minute from the annual progress of the magnetic pole as derived from the dip and variation observed in 1812. | | Annual progress deduced from annual preces- ‘sion of the nodes of Venus and the earth.. 37’ 00” 53/73 From tropical revolution of Venusand the earth 36. 54 42 From period of eclipses. ......... ee ee 38 51. 28 From solar and lunar cycles. .........4.. -- 40 36 05-4 4153 23 09°13 ~Meanterm 38 20 47:28 Vrom dip and variation of 1812 .........466- 37 .53 ~ 11°22 ; : = _ Difference 0 27 36:06 Tn the calculations of the dip and variation I have taken the dip-inversely as the distance from magnetic poles, of which I am persuaded there are but two diametrically opposite to one ; B2 | 4 9, Mr, Boner on the. (Juny, another, and not four irregularly dispersed within the earth, as some | have pretended. Dhave further to-observe in favour of my theory that, as revolution Ofthé magnetic pole seems intimately connected ie the relative tH tions of the planets; so does its latitude appear to ber ula by the’ inclinations of their axes. he, Stine nor the ‘axis of the sun.is allowed to be 8° or nearly 80, whic h bein subtracted: from 23° 28’, the aghagtion of the axis’6f the earth, leave 15° 28’, whichis very near! me distance’ Ri fh magnetic pole from. ‘the pole of the ear deduced from =e dip ‘and variation of 1812, namely 15° 17’ D3}. And ifthe Tati the‘magnetic pole’be supposed equal to the inclination of the” idk of Venus, its distance from the pole of the earth h will be'15°,: on consequently again very near that found by cale nt ape which, it is well worth observing, is almost a per- fect. ni betw een’ the two numbers 159% 28%and. 15° -resultin from : inelindtiotis’ of the axes of the: ‘sun, of the earth, and. of ‘ie he difference being less than’ 32 minutes. it ‘tees Ruler, ‘suspecting the eause ‘of the variation, ie nouns that have occupied: themselves about this Sone Withiity the er fixed’ the north ch Fag le in Oy ar re onpete ot cia iamony sath, hein teapbetive situations. From: oe we have learnt to: foretel the time of setting,in, and the ‘quantity of" the: tide at’ an papers and fri them ead iation.” “But t “vil eqire yet some labour and. refleetion Beton é we Shall he ounce with certainty upon the ebestt Of their iene uld we: nd ‘onthe ¢orrectness of | frie OB soa ie ions) the work would be/gredtly: abridged, but 18 Haare! ate Wbedousl | For ‘example; The! same year 7 is suid! to have Been! thatan which'there «was mo variation a E and at Leiden) which is; impossible; cif the’ wariation io hy riile’'at all a8" Have no:ddabt itedoes.ox For Dublin eine 6°'6" “6 the west 6f Londony thé time whenithere, was no iat heté thust' havé been’ bout aliize tones gina a served fa! Londons oAgainh: there wag no tion ‘at! Paris in’ 1666% Lise a tine years later han iaslan neh ‘put Paris being 27:20" east Sfbaton ab aks 40 liave,expe- 1825.] Variation of the Mariner’s Compass. & tienced thé’ same but about four years later, I find other instances where the variation amounted to about 7° in 68 years, and afterwards in thé very same place to only 15,minutes in the whole space of 60 years. These contradictions must probably be ascribed to the incorrectness of thé instruments, and the influence of local attraction. Both these inconveniences may now be considered as almost totally removed by the great im- “alee vince in the construction of compasses, and by ‘Dr. Bar- ow’s apparatus to counteract the influence of iron. The best instruments, however, are still found. to have some small defects, which must be ascertained before we can.use them with advan- tage. . [see in Capt. Parry’s voyage in the yeats 1819 and 1820, that at several places the variation was observed with four com- passes, all of the best workmanship, and yet they all disagreed, and consequently three of them at least, if. not all; must have been wrong. - But. this is no objection to their utility, for if after the experiment has been repeated with all of them, in different parts of the world, their differences are found to bear always the same proportion, it is certain that we may then conclude from the variation of any single one, what would be that. of either of the remaining three; and if all the compasses made, use of for discovery had first been tried in this manner, we might then be able to reduce all the observations to oné common standard, in the same manner as we may acquifé the very same notions of the state of the atmosphere with barometers and thermometers of different consttuctions.’ Ihave no doubt, but that some regard must be paid to the temperature of the air, besides the respective situation of the sun; moon, andthe earth, . The latitude of the magnetic pole might also bé Sometimes increased or diminished according to the declinations of these objects, and it remains to be determined, whether it revolves in a circle, or in an ellipsis, As I have neither instruments, nor any of the resources requisite for the investigation of so intricate a subject, I must resign the honour of deciding these questions to those,-whose happier cir cumstances allow them to indulge themselves in,the daily con templation and admiration of the wonders of the creation. After having conceived the idea of establishing my theory on the revolution of the heavens, I chose, to prove it, the observa- tion made in London by Dr, Gilpin, in 1812, the only one of which I had also the dip. The result is, as I haye.mentioned - before, that the annual progress of the magnetic,pole round the pole of the earth is nearly in direct proportion, as annual pro- gress of the nodes of Venus to the annual progress of the nodes of the earth. It would have contributed greatly to my satisfac- tion, if I had been able to obtain the same result from two or more good observations made at the same time in different lati- tudes and longitudes, but these I could not procure ; for those, which I might have taken from several voyages, were either not t 6 sooge a Mir, Boner on the... | ony, free from. local attraction, or in, other NFeSpAnt unfit for ie u aL ; , rie 3 : toe ; t London, in ‘1812, the variation. was | Aa 24° 16’ W. and the dip 70° 32’,..To find the M;---... ~ Se place of the magnetic byte a from these data. mes P, the pole o the earth, ty M, magnetic Fade | ; L, London} latitu et 37 N. +) Nie P L, potiplaaned titude 38° 29/. M L, complement of ap, meeps me 2 38° 56 Z L = 24° 16’. eds Hes 1. Cosine > = 38° 42y teeeee “9+899284 a Cosine MEE EE a 0. 13 tii’ ‘900907 Bs! Cotang: SPs Spaniiroaa 2 BOG BLL BEEN eff) IO MLL, DBAS ( DUG Bua | te cual IO oil} ‘to. 4 moi [22999 q, ageeagy ; _ 4, Tangs, £42 S 2, 809. 28/28". +. oq7a213. —- } 7961 uly to bowjaq. edt og ined Non} ree atk bo ben P79 TEBL2ITO ya af IT ine, AR ARER, 26 7. Cot. No. Bore, all papal ae ys wi “18'956260. oe ae PY cane oi Si 8. Tet ebc 8460133 = 1° 39” 8” Cf -2 EL i> 8S Handa Z°P J igo% 7/ en Hie LEM BO7BE 49-200 ae KD Sine, Na. 8 nese. nee.0 “9.459882, ' Sine, No. 4 ot vere “80 9:993970 Tang. 2:6 o” 98. Ages 500 0.6601 98704 O§ OS ee ar OOS GE MO Tang. =~ omar 9127852. 7° 38/414" si Yiov at dg PM: Ste hv a= ha sfodw 5A B ish 91 5d of sitet tice dot vem big -eseqiles to boms¢4 sit Therefore thealo 2S dies the onetic pételin{ 1812 Was 82° 7’ 36” nvestof London;i-ahd its is latiteide 74° 424 $7”, “Tn 1657 its longitude was 180; therefore in 155 years it has pro- ceeded 97° 52’ 24", or 37! 53" 187per annum. - fe, ~ ~ € eg, a SRaer Od) SoBe Da: TN a Seg ai A Jf RABE trobn0.5 00:00 ef 88 = 1 4 f 1896. ] Variation of the Mariner's Compass. 7 _ A-table of the progress of the magnetic pole as derived from the dip and'variation observed i in London i in. the year, nee OO. Number of Years: hy ay ‘igo ser 53%, ira? ei at 2 1.15 46 22: Ags 5 lo @tpq edt 4 id 1 53 39 336 66)... Moagso VV 4 2 3b. 32 @ z site “to a0 niet ° 3 09 . 25 Ps Fo Sere 001 algaioo , a 7 6. Yd 48) 47, 19%, 07 Siti et secere) el iv! 7 4°95 19 Sr 8 B03, : OB... sag: f SS age Be Eps > 2 ie) I 10 6 18. .51).§2:20 if 1. month-0! 03 09~ 25:93 911700 Progress, of the magnetic pole according ‘to a. meam between that deduced from i Sei Annual precession of the nodes of Venus and of the earth. 2. The tropical revolution of Venus gui-phe earth 3. The period of eclipses. 4. The Dyonisian perida' “formed bf sg een r eycles. Vi Ot ! Nuniber of, 84) 12) of w ) Y hie Bebe 20" '47- m8” 300) 9. Ose mene “16. 41, 34°56 56g 4 "2 33.93 onthe 7 100 | 63 54 38 48:00 ma olin “SID BE math 8° 3 - P 40814. “ge -38! The: wide revolution in 563° 28 years, which is very nearly the period of eclipses, and may =e aOReE require to be reduced toit,to be perfecta ni crgemernonettoramen: eeanigaes ae this table wilt leave little: doubt ofiits being roe er * sig eed di eiss7 C6 nt 910 i Segoe BBW abetall ai Ker . 70 .“bS ‘Sea SY 0° 56° 17”86 4.16 30:00 8 29 00-00 London, 1812. * PON N red Wo ul €9 dD GO R 10rG Zz L. O09 © 0 6 wee bees > oom 742, Was observed:in August .....5 = 24.21/10 .. Difference os. PO: < Ble = By. 2 MOE Pay OS == 2. 38..°77 . 0g) MEL 00'S gid OB) HOE SOY ene eee he ago rons tSedo vel How much-the-dip was by observation, I do not kt w; but to judge by that of 1812,-this cannot be far fron the trut 1, because | it must necessarily hayé inéreased sitive. © = °° 8 ON According to the sttits ‘of observations: placed atthe end, with which I have beet favoured ‘lately by some’ geritlemen of the Royal Society, it appears that the variation had attained the highest degree in 1814, and that it has been gradually dimi- -nishing! from that time) This. diminution, however, is ‘not a ‘sufficient proof of theactual return of the needle towards the north : for I find, from a number of observations made by CA Gilpin, that a much greate? diminution had takén. pla ba n equal space of time to that from 1814 to’ 1824, ‘after which the variation was! found to’ increase again ‘damel¥,"in 1800 it was observed 24° 36’ W. and in 1809 it was found by thé‘same gentleman 24° 11’; that is,.25 minutes Jess} after which it appears to” have ‘coritintéd ‘to increase wnitil 1814, When it amounted to 24° 21’ 10”, and has retrograded | inge,.in the space of ten years, to’ 24° 9” 33”, which is only 1 1°37" less than the greatest of 1814. If, therefore, 25’ diminution in. nine years, did not confi theretart’of the nbedié towards the north, much less can-11/-37” diminution in 10 years confirm such a return ; and the qwéstién must as yet remain undecided, I have further to observe jthat the 4 Main the last exaniple, “being” less than 90°, supposing the data correct, is an evident proof that the variation had not then attained its highest degree, which can only take place when that angle is 90°, which, according to the last given annual progress, will be in the year 1829, when the 10 * Mr. Boner onthe — {Juty, variation will be 24° 40’ 31”; the dip 72° 04’ 44”, and the lon- gitude of the magnetic pole 70° 12% 52", its latitude 74° 56’ 32", When I say that these things are to take place, it will be understood of course that I do not pretend to afirm it positively, but only so far as the observations which J have made subser- vient to corroborate my theory, are correct. So much, I am confident, is true, that the annual progress cannot differ much from what I have stated it to be, and -that ‘in every case it will be found dependant on. some one of: the astronomical periods which I have mentioned. .An inquiry into the cause of variation seems therefore to be a subject. as much deserving the atten- tion of the astronomer as that of the tide and the monsoon, with both of which it is probably connected. The result of his obser- vations being every year inserted’ in’ the Nautical Almanac, would, I should think, be of material service to the Mariner. I need not say, how easy it would be'to find the longitude, if we could depend on the’exactness’ of’ the dip'and variation, as this must be obvious tovevery mathematician. It is therefore of the eatest importancesthat*we should learn’ to determine the true ip and variation, though the instruments made use of should not be quite perfect; in thé sanié° maiitier as we’ may know the exact time of the day by means ofan incorrect watch, assoon as we are acquainted with its defects, I have been told that the dip cannot be.depended on so much as the variation; but on examining a series of obseryations made by Capt, Parry and Capt. Lyon, I find to the contrary the dip almost constantly very nearly, what I should have expected it tobe, whilst.the vanation bears not the least resemblance to truth ; for I see it constantly west, when I’had every reason to’ think it would have'beenieast. The only way of accounting for this\contradiction is to/Stippose that the poles of the needle have been changed, a facet iwhich I have often witnessed myself; and concerning the reality of which.the following passage, taken from the Imperial Encyclo- edia, will remove every doubt;— ae at hha “ Although ‘magnetié attraction generally takes place only between the Opposite poles of two magnets, yet. Aiko Dae that though the north pole of one magnet be’ presented to the north pole of another, that they sh, V Heither Attraction: nor repulsion but 95. wheh pkSedivery ‘ear ea imei will attract. For it often ens that ong, of \the, magnets, . eing ‘powerful than. théd hi changethe pole ofithat other MASAG Ly, AAG CHAM AD URAC &-Piacrubedwppnctwo ° exgh 4 dk{ as) an e same names ecause one of them Confismed.in my opinion by this sage, 4. concluded that if the sar at t f it places, that end of it which, Withéutisuch.a.change,“would have pointed eastward, 1825.) Variation.of the Mariner’s Compass. 11 must now. necessarily point westward, and that to judge rightly of the variation, we ought to make it equal to the supplement of that marked by the compass, and call it by a contrary name, Experience, however, did not, quite answer my expectations ; for in the first example, where [ supposed ‘the variation would turn out) to be 61° 44’ E, being the supplement, of 118° 16 W; computation gave only 53° 50' 26"; that is, nearly eight degrees less; but the dip was only 38’ 36" less than that by observation. Suspecting now that the dip observed might be nearly correet, and having little doubt but that the longitude and latitude of the magnetic pole, calculated for the time of observation by the table ofjmean annual motion; namely, 38! 20" -47!"-28) would not be far from the truth, I concluded that the dip, with the lati- tude. of the place of observation, would suffice to find the longi- tude; inspite ofthe, irregularity of the compass and of time- keepers, without .any, astronomical observation. but -what was requisite for the finding of latitude. The result'was satisfactory beyond all expectation ; the difference of longitude observed and that by computation being, but halfa minute. ocd teateen TAuy ~ Observations from Capt. Lyon's last Voyage. : . -1820.—Regént’s Inlet, Latitude’. 4)... / 972°" ayn 29 Hard MES. Oh ae Ef opermid’ psi, 89) ako 98 ty aay - ‘ou kt 4. L Variation. eneeee 118 46 WwW. Computed latitude of magnetic pole..2..°.71 10 Coinputed longitude of ditto. /,.0..... 98 16 °~ eo? ii 902 3 7OL ShS OF Gps ‘ IAD i : __ Supposing the longitude, unknown, how-could it be found by these hie a, of which the three!last, owing to the uregularity of the compass; are positively, wrong?) \\)oon af) soy as" P M, complement of latitude |. .4ii6h yisys « of magnetic pole 4... 0...) 15%.,035 285.9 4 Cayoetee P R omplement of latitude, ows ‘to asloq ot sertto oct 39% of Regent's Inlet Seon pr AZ, 15, {,00 dtron 9 M R, double. cq lement, of yout Jed tedions » SIO “dip corrected, 877. 47'. 24". Ai o2Biq d@dw sorts dud PeL “meridian ‘df ‘London; aud’ : sf ict Si . a * MPI) i6déitud of tha; ecirad ap an’ 'T8! Oat 0? BB! So 47°28 annital progression "75° 49 31/0 its" latitude considered an invariable Guanéity! a 74° per ggn otis ont to yaote ye z7 << f t - dt to sa0 odusded .2omsen dnote! ib to 2olog asawisd Sine P M = 15° 03' 28”. \hagnado nq 1462 / 3 TIO VEN OIA a Be eUSinesP Roz PRs 161 OO L0G) NE 947209 O~ i» bas deus .2s0slgq bogaasdioxs bsh 39)! rig 3 Kae c Aa e BEES OEY Fe Sa G4 oy viegs bointog aved bikSwm,cgasdy,s tau 88867 (29: aipsog 12 : Mr. Boner on the | [Jury, ‘Complement of sum eerece : o8 eeres iii ee wae been) s 1-11329 a Sine of + sum of three sides.... 18° 21” 50" 3... 9°49837 “i Sine of differ. of } sum and sa 13 56 38 «... 938196 (c M eetereeeeneeeeveeee eee Sumi of a, J, ce. emer aeaupadh voird ety RELI 2)19°99362 | . Colitis’ 2 EOF OF, soe nsnseoseesina tens op 999681 SNCFCIOE 2 onc cd ease nas nacitsacd ans.e4, Ske: Oe + Longitude of magnetic pole, or 2 MPL= 75 49 31 Hence long. of place of observation :../....55 89 41 312 Long. observed. ve cece eee e ee eee se eeesss 89 4 00 © 4 Difference.s.4 0 QO 314. ~ After so perfect an agreement between observation and com- putation, I have reason to think that I had determined the true place of the magnetic pole for the time of observation, and that consequently it may, upon the same principle, be d etermined for any particular time, its revolution being necessarily as regular as the course of the stars. If this regularity be once irrevocably established, we shall-have one side P M of the triangle, and the angle M PL constantly giveh, and P R, the complement of latitude, mostly without much difficulty. If then by any means we can succeed in discovering the error either of the variation, or the dip, we shall always have a sufficient number of data for the discovery of longitude. I know that the longitudes and latitudes of the magnetic pole calculated by Capt, Parry and other gentlemen, agree with their relative variations and dip, but they must be, calculated for every new observation, and every new result contradicts all the preceding operations, which, I am confident, is owing to an error of the compass, and not to a real shifting of the magnetic pole. 2M The.change of position im the pole is slow and regular, and I have sufficient reasons to believe that I have not erred. much respecting the rate of its periodical progress, or that I Have at least pointed out the means of determining it. ) ) _If this be done, the most important question will. be, how we may discover the errors of the compass and of the dipping nee- dle, if we cannot prevent them? I should think, that t e follow- ing experiment might be a means of obtaining that end, or at least of facilitating our research after it. Having determined the situation of the magnetic pole by the preceding table for any particular time in London, and calculated the variation and dip accordingly, then an observation made with a compass and dip- ping needle would show, how near their quantities agree with those found by calculation, and the same operation being repeated, with the very same instruments, at different places, at 1825.) Variation of the Mariner's Compass. 13 a proper distance from one another, then, if the differences between the quantities calculated and the quantities observed, bear every where the same ratio, it is obvious, that these instru- ments, were they ever so defective, would become as ‘useful as the most correct, since we could always make a proper allow- ance for their defects. | vie BE Gy | re ya for the observations to be made: ‘The result of these oO one, who would regulate the sun by the clock insteail of regulat- i renerit £ ot }\ Magnetic: Variations. || fe Sui oB fs RR ae “ig 4e1.4" 02” ditste. cep hy Sayer 1220 . ar ‘16 BOrar toil AY a Sata seb 'q8t44June 9 24 16) ca bo! : » aobptredot Saly W017! 54 4 ree hae) Rg.7°24'21>' 10 greatest “ff FY bits sotto 3%! +f 94 20: 33 vo bas qelgajone 924101750: is Tedoittgeg® etoqo pabo any Bat Tf ES OF SORR Pyts . oe Lee hi 94 OTT : 00 1818. 84 15. ABg onsite: : 8 snaps woly eBalop ail 4g nottizar| Yo bsnl oh ‘Ty oT ge ayent- T 294 £ 14 ‘Ad Dip about T1°.6" Al WEDD YR 10 ceo PR bORGY 231 16 ote orft os 4 OD ST Siri atsIg9 1Hsasser od? juo Hols , worl .9¢ 505 novesip PAs Ogm Aon: st .oaoh 2 ‘9 griqquggalt to bax 2ggriipg oGB'to #10119 ot iovooeib ollot od3 ted3 Ani bluode 1° oradt jo Iveig Jonuso ow TI fhe 1826.7 Diluvial Formations. 27 bowlders which have been drifted across the Firth from the rocks of Dumfriesshire ; and in the di/uvium still further to the south- west, near the termination of the new red sandstone at Maryport, the imbedded fragments of the transition rocks of Cumberland become rare in comparison with the bowlders derived from the opposite coast of Scotland. In the diluvial rubbish capping a hill near Hayton Castle, about four miles north-east of Mary- port, I found some large granitic bowlders resembling the rocks of the Criffel. Among them was one spheroidal mass, the greatest diameter of which was ten feet and a half long, and the part which appeared above the ground was more than four feet high. , : Pees: Maryport to St. Bees Head, the cliffs are occupied by a succession of coal strata; and the diluvial phenomena, though of constant occurrence, present nothing worth remarking in ‘this lace, . ja ¢ Feknbt West Coast of Cumberland. » _ From St. Bees Head to the southern extremity of Cumberland, the region bordering on the coast is formed of one almost conti- nuous mass of diluvium, interrupted here and there by low hills of blown sand, and by other recent formations. In this part of the county, the cliffs are of a deep red colour, caused by the pre» sence of innumerable imbedded fragments of the subjacent new red sandstone. With these fragments, bowlders of granite, por- phyry, and greenstone, are scattered through the. whole diluvial covering ; sometimes in such abundance as to give it the appear- ance of a true conglomerate ; especially in places where, by the infiltration of a new cementing principle, the whole mass has begun to.assume a coherent form.* . ~ Some of the granite blocks imbedded in the cliffs are of great magnitude. In the diluvial cliffs near Bootle, I found one of a rude prismatic form which was twelve feet long, six feet wide, and five feet and ahalf high, All specimens of this kind of rock- have been drifted to the coast from the granitic region which extends from Wastdale foot, through Muncaster fen to the neighbourhood of Bootle; and occupies a part of Wastdale re and all the lower parts of the valleys of the Mite and the sk. : Diiuvium of Low Furness. — If we cross the estuary of the Duddon to. the shores of Low Furness, we find an exact repetition of the phenomena we have * When these diluvial conglomerates are not seen in situ, they may be separated from the older conglomerates by the freshness of their imbedded pebbles. . Fragments imbedded in A § older conglomerates are generally in a state of decomposition, which appears frequently to originate in a similar cause to that which so often produces decom- sex in erystals-after they have become coated over bya depositionef newer crystals ne matter, ‘ ‘ae... Prof’, Sedgwick on (Jury, left behind. “All the country bordering on the western shore is covered by an enormously thick deposit of red coloured diluvial ravel containing innumerable rolled fragments of rocks derived ae every part of the lake mountains ; and all the neighbourin islands are composed exclusively of the same materials. rolled mass of Eskdale granite, which had been imbedded in the highest portion of the diluvial cliff near. Rampside, fell down upon the strand in the year 1822, It rose nine or ten feet above the rubbish in whieh it was at that time partially buried. At the base of the cliffs of the isles of Barrow and Foudrey, among innumerable bowlders of granite, and of other Cumberland rocks, were some specimens of a beautiful variety of compact felspar which I afterwards found in si¢u near the top of Sca-fell and Bow-fell.* : In places where the inferior strata are so completely concealed it is impossible to ascertain the whole thickness of the diluvial covering. In many parts of Low Furness, it must, I think, be considerably more than 100 feet. Near Newbiggin, where the were searching for coal in the year 1822, they passed thrdueh 60 feet of diluvial loam before they reached any rock in situ. — _. The phenomena above described have obviously been caused by a violent rush of descending waters. Whatever forces may have put these waters in motion, it is, 1 think, obvious, from the facts already stated, that they have not acted partially, but have swept over the whole cluster of the neighbouring moun- tains. ~ Diluvial Deposits in the Mid Region of the Mountains, &c. V. If the accumulations of diluvial gravel, such as have been last described, were produced by descending currents which brought fragments of rock down from the very crests of the neighbouring mountains ; we may expect to find some traces of such currents in the mid regions of the district between the highest elevations and the surrounding plains. In such situa- tions, for obvious reasons, we must not look for those accumula- tions of diluvial loam which are extended over the lower country. The transported materials will only find a partial lodgment, or will appear in the form of scattered bowlders which the propel- * The direction in which the diluvian currents have swept over the western coast of Cumberland, is plainly indicated by the immense accumulations of bowlders of Eskdale granite in Low Furness, and in the whole cluster of the neighboring islands, and would lead us to expect the appearance of rolled masses of the same variety of rock on the plains of Lancashire. Prof. Buckland states (Reliquia Diluviane, p. 199), that they : lieve been drifted in great numbers over the plains’of Laricashire, Cheshire, and Stafford. shire. In a description given by Dr. Hibbert, in the Edinburgh Journal of Science for last April, of an interesting diluvial deposit containing granite bowlders which occurs near Manchester, it is conjectured that the transported blocks are derived from the granite of Dufton near Appleby. Had the author been acquainted with. the fucts detailed above, he would probably have referred the bowlders in question to the Eskdale granite, 1825.]} _ Diluvial Formations. ~ 99 ling currents have left behind. Such is the case in the mid region of the lake mountains, where innumerable scattered bowl- ders give the clearest indications of the force and of the direction of the torrents which have swept over it. Any thing like a regular history of such phenomena would lead me into endless details. One or two facts bearing upon the subject will be enough for my present parpere- 1, Onthe granitic hills which extend from Bootle into Eskdale are many large bowlders derived from various parts of the green slate formation. Among the rest are some specimens of a striped hornstone, identical with the rocks immediately under the crest of Sca-fell, the highest mountain in Cumberland. These blocks are at present separated from the parent rock. by the ceep valley of the Esk. Carrock Bowlders. 2, Millions of large bowlders lie scattered over the hills which form the north-west boundary of the mountainous region ; but they are seldem sufficiently characteristic to enable us to determine the exact spot from which they have descended. The syenitic blocks of Carrock-fell, principally composed of hyper- stene and compact felspar, may, however, be traced from the diluvial loam and gravel of the plains, through the valleys and over the hills of the mid region, to the very foot of the parent rock. On the side of High Pike (near the path leading from Nether-row to the lead mines) are innumerable bowlders of the Carrock syenite. The ae (which is known in the country by the name of golden rock) is 21 feet long, more than ten feet high, and about nine feet wide. The back of Carrock, where the same kind of rock exists in stfu, is about two miles distant from the great bowlder, and is at present separated from it by a deep valley. | wk 3. Rolled masses of the porphyry of St. John’s vale almost cover the ground near Penruddock, and from thence follow the course of the valleys of denudation which descend into the Eamont. Blocks derived from a dyke of beautiful red porphyry which traverses a part of the ridge to the west of Thirlmere, are found scattered about on the lower part of the hills near Keswick. Shap Granite. - 4, Spherical bowlders of shap granite occur in great abun- dance on*the calcareous’ hills south of Appleby. Among them I found one or two which were about twelve feet in diame- ter. On the south side of the calcareous zone, the granite blocks are -incomparably more abundant; and on approaching Wastdale Head (a few miles south of Shap), where the granite is in situ, they literally.cover the ground. Near Shap Wells there is a rolled mass of granite fifteen feet long, ten feet. wide, and eight feet high. * 30 Prof. Sedgwick on Dory, ae. Bowlders on Kendal Fells, & ==. _ 5. Equally striking examples may be found on the south side of the mountainous region. On the flat tops of the calcareous hills on the west side of Kendal are many rounded blocks, appa+ rently drifted from the green slate formation at the head of Kents meer and Long Sleddale. These calcareous hills are now separated by deep valleys from every part of the slate formation. Similar phenomena appear on several parts of the mountains between Kendal and Sedbergh, and among the rolled masses are a few bowlders of shap granite. The instances now given are sufficient for my present purpose; for they completely bear out the observations by whiek they were preceded. — ! Proofs of Diluvian Action at the Tops of the Mountains. _ VAL. It is. stated by Buckland (Reliquie Diluviane, pi 221), ‘ that all mountain regions he has ever visited bear, in ihe form of their component hills, the same evidence of being modified by the force of water, as do the hills of the lower regions of the earth.”- My own observations, as far as they go, confirm the truth of this remark. Some of the highest mountains of Cuni- berland and Westmorland, which consist of a soft decomposing slate; are‘as plainly modified by the action of denuding currents as any of the secondary ridges of our island. We must, however, remember that the earth’s surface has been ravaged by the action of water during several distinct catastrophes, and that, the pre- sent modifications. in the form of some of our mountain chains may, therefore, have been effected daria some epoch long antes cedent to that. of the diluvial gravel. _ cedent to. 0 prove that the floods which produced the superficial gravel have swept over the tops ofthe highest mountains, ‘requires, therefore, more’ direct evidence than that which is afforded by. the. external ‘forms of the mountains themselves.* T think it has already been proved that diluvian torrents have swept over every part of the Cum; berland chain; because we find water-worn masses, derived from the highest elevations of the country, imbedded in the diluvial loam which covers almost all the neighbouring plains;’ and because we find large bowlders of the same rocks scattered over many parts of the mid rpion of the mountains, in situations to which they could never have been drifted by an léss' powerful agetit’ than ‘that to which they have been a beat . ‘Lmay also as observe that the bowlders in question, at; Whatever elevation, are albih the sate state of preservation, and all’appéar, ge’ Par as we caw judwé from their external chatacted® to have been produced atthe datdaiegisch, Ae ae se a ion eda wealth oy Re ere Bey iy the ‘fict'that the waters of a peut’ inundation have 21 9TS DED TOL eae ee ese ees eaey. its aol Sis te For the direct evidencé offeted on thivdubject by Prof, Buckland, ‘see the “ Rell, guia Diluviane,” p.221—223, Ore SGP 1825. Diluvial Formations. 3] ‘swept over some of the highest elevations of the earth, it is still © obvious that true diluvial deposits must necessarily he of rare ‘Océurrence near the crests of mountain chains. On this account 1 thought myself fortunate in being able to discover two or three examples of such deposits among the mountains of Cum- berland. ty Sca-fell. | | 1. In the deep water-worn channels which descend from Sca- fell towards Burnmoor Tarn, are great accumulations of detritus, which, when I visited the spot in 1822, I considered to be undoubtedly diluvial. These accumulations are apparently connected with the transported blocks which are scattered over the ground between Barnmoor Tarn and Wastdale Head, and exactly résemble the detritus which still further down is accumu- lated.in the valley of the Mite. aa Bi | ieee Ridge, near Red Pike. ea “ 9, On the very top of the lofty ridge which separates the valleys of Ennerdale and Buttermere, are most striking and unequivocal proofs of the action of diluvian torrents. Between Red Pike and Ennerdale Scaw, the top of the ridge is partly composed of syenite, and partly of a soft variety of clay slate. A smooth round-topped hill (called Starling Dod), composed of the soft slate, forms the highest part of the crest between the two summits before-mentioned. I was persuaded, before I ascended this hill, that its singular form must have been produced by the action of water; and on reaching its summit, which is.about 2500 feet above the level of the sea, I. found it covered with Water-worn bowlders. of red syenite and other rocks drifted from the more lofty eminences of the same ridge.near Red Pike, The same kind of bowlders are found near the top of Mellbreak, a mountain which overhangs the. west side of Crummock lake ; and they may be traced on the sides of the water-worn hills, and down the valleys which communicate with Loweswater and Crummock foot ; and from thence the descending currents have drifted them into the lower regions of the district where they aré mixed with the diluvium of the plains. . | | Borrowdale Fells, &c. 3.'Near the top of Glaramara, one of the mountain crests of Bo rrowdale, and atthe back of the Hay Stacks, near the top of the rid an between. Enperdale Head and Buttermere, [ saw seve- ral bow iders ‘which had been caught among. the. serrated edges of those rugged. elevations, The. transported blocks were not of a kind'to enable one'to point out the spot from which they had been drifted ;, but their pteséuce was enough to demonstrate the former action of violent disturbing forces which had affected the highest points of the mountam region: ~ ot eee 32 _ Prof. Sedgwick on [Juny, To account for such phenomena as those above described, by the bursting of lakes, of the existence of which we have no proof; and which, had they ever existed, could only have existed at much lower levels, would be to adopt an hypothesis contradicted by the very facts which it is intended to explain. The condition of the transported blocks, their association with others which have descended into the mid region, and their identity with many other masses which are imbedded in the diluvium of the plains, forbid us to ascribe their appearance to any of the more ancient catastrophes in the physical history of the earth. The conclusion then to be drawn from them is obvious, and is in accordance with the other facts which have been stated in this paper. Directions in which the Shap Granite has been drifted. VII. The great uniformity in the -mineralogical character of the rocks in many parts of Cumberland, often prevents us from ascertaining the direction in which the diluvial bowlders have been drifted from their native beds. This difficulty we do not meet with in following the blocks of Shap granite, as they can- not be confounded with any other rocks in the north of England. It has already been stated that they almost cover the ground in many places near Shap ; and that they have been lifted over the escarpment of the carboniferous limestone, and drifted over the hills near Appleby. I may now add, that they have been scat- tered far and wide over the plain of the new red sandstone that they have rolled over the great central chain of England into the plains of Yorkshire—that they are imbedded in the diluvium on both banks of the 'Tees—and that a few straggling blocks have, if I mistake not, found their way to the eastern coast. The passage of the same kind of granitic blocks into the valley of the Kent is, if possible, still more difficult to explain by the operations of any known agent. For the granite only exists in situ'on the very outskirts of the. mountain group, and almost abuts against the calcareous zone near Shap wells. Yet a set of gorges have been opened out of the higher and more central parts of the group, through which the granite bowlders have been driven (in a direction exactly opposite to that-in which they have been already traced), and from which they have not only descended in great abundance into the valley of the Kent, but have also been drifted into a part of the ridge between the Kent and the Lune. With these remarks on the extraordi- nary directions in which masses of Shap granite have been dnited from their native bed, I terminate my observations on the osition and extent of the masses of incoherent detrétus which lie scattered over many parts of our island, | 1825.} Dilavial Formations. 33 Concluding Remarks. . As the general result of the facts detailed in this and the pre- ceding paper, we may conclude—-that the floods which produced. the diluvial detritus swept over every part of England—that they, were put in‘motion by no powers of nature with which we are acquainted —and that they took place during an epoch which was posterior to the deposition of all the regular strata of the earth, and prior to all known accumulations of alluvial matter. _ We have evidence, enough to justify us in extending the same. conclusions to every part of the European basin, and there is. sume evidence which makes it probable that they may be extended to the remotest parts of the earth’s surface. Indeed the mighty disturbing forces which produced the accumulations of diluvial detritus between the western extremities of Europe and the central plains of Asia, must probably have acted with, sufficient energy to leave some traces of their power over every quarter of the globe. On the continent of America the succes- _ sion of formations seems to be very nearly the same with that of. our own country ; and over all the regular strata, there occurin many places alluvialand diluvial formations in every respect like those of Europe. Itis, therefore, to say the least of it, probable,. that the diluvial phenomena of Europe and America belong to the same.epoch. Se : : The actual duration of the diluvian era, it is of course impos- sible to ascertain ; fords the powers of the agent.are unknown, it is obviously impossible for us to form an estimate of the time which was necessary tothe production of such effects as are. visible on the earth’s surface.. The facts which have’ been ~ detailed seem, however, to make it probable that the floods. | which produced the diluvial gravel were sudden and transient. - In the present state of our information, we have certainly no. evidence to prove that all the highest elevations of the globe. were submerged by the diluvian waters ;. for the form, of the great mountain chains may have been ‘produced by some niore. ancient catastrophe, and we have no right to assume the’ exist- ence of diluvial detritus in parts of the ‘world which have not been examined, or which are inaccessible.’ We have, however, direct evidence-to'prove; that the ‘dilavian’ flodds acted on‘sonie of the highest points 6f Eurdpe, aud it is|proBable als6’that they have acted on some of the highest parts of Aglasie¥) 8890 9” _As we are unacquainted with” the forces’ Which’ put the” dilu-. vian waters in motion, we aré‘4 $9) ith “very limited excep-, tions, unable to determine the dire ‘ean Hthe cutrents have moved over the earth’s surfiée! “Many parts. of thé north of Europe seem:to have been sWept 6vet a a Sireat Etinent which* set in from the north. In sdmé parts: df" co And there has been New Series, vou. x. (te peaesny HS 10 JHeIZe es’ Pot TN roy ow 34 Prof. Sedgwick on [Jury, a great rush of water from the north-west.* The details given above, show that the currents which have swept over different age of England have not been confined to any given direction. t may, perhaps, be laid down as a general rule, that the diluvi ye has been drifted down all the great inclined whi planes which the earth’s surface presented to the retiring waters. That the details given in the preceding papers tend, as far as they go, to confirm the general argument of Buckland’s “ Reliquie Diluviane” cannot admit of doubt. Indeed, the facts brought to light by the combined labours of the modern school of geologists, seem, as far as I comprehend them, com- pletely to demonstrate the reality of a great diluvian catastrophe during @ comparatively recent period in the natural history of the earth. In the preceding speculations, I have carefully ab- stained from any allusion to the sacred records of the history of mankind; and 1 deny that Professor Buckland, or any other practical geologist of our time has rashkly attempted to unite the speculations of his favourite science with the truths of re- velation.+ ) - The authority of the sacred records has been established by a great mass of evidence at once conclusive and appropriate ; but differing altogether in kind from the evidence of observa- tion and experiment, by which alone physical truth can ever be established. It must, therefore, at once be rash and unphi- losophical to look to the language of revelation for any direct proof of the truths of physical science. But trath must at all times be consistent with itself. The conclusions established on the authority of the sacred records may, therefore, consistently with the soundest philosophy, be compared with the conclusions established on the evidence of observation and experiment ; and such conclusions, if fairly deduced, must necessarily be in accordance with each other. This principle has been acted on’ by Cuvier, and appears to be recognized in every part of the “ Reliquie Diluviane.” The application is obvious. The sacred records tell us—that a few thousand years ago “ the fountains of the great deep were broken up ’”—and that the earth’s surface was submerged by the waters of a general deluge ; and the investigations of geology tend to prove that the accu-' mulations of alluvial matter have not been going on many housand years; and that they were preceded by a great ca- tastrophe which has left traces of its operation in the diluvial detritus which is spread out over all the strata of the earth. * This is proved in an original and excellent paper, published by Sir James Hall, in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. vii. Bee also the “+ Reliquia Diluviane,” p. 201-205, + See the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, No. 22, p, 304, 1825.] Diluvial Formations. 85 Between these conclusions, derived from sources entirely in- dependent of each other, there is, therefore; a general coinci- dence: which it is impossible to overlook, and the importance. of which it would be most unreasonable to deny. The coin- cidence has not been assumed hypothetically, but has been proved legitimately, by an immense number of direct observa- tions conducted with indefatigable labour, and all tending to the establishment of the same general truth, : APPENDIX. pei [The following account of the drainage of a part’of the fen lands bordermg on the “Wash of Lincolnshire, is” principally abridged from ‘Dugdale on “The History of Imbanking and Drayninge,” chap. 545 aiid from “ Badeslade’ on the Naviga- tion of King’s-Lynn, and 'of Cambridge.” — It’ was'mtended to appear in the form of a note to the fifth section of 'a paper in the Annals of Philosophy for April last; but it was not trans- mitted to the Editors in time for the press.] ) A-short account of the drainage of a part of the fens, bor- dering on the Wash, during a period within the reach of au- thentic records, will-explain and confirm the assertion in the text.* In the early parts of that period, the drainage was effected, in the following manner ;, 1. By the channel of the Witham, which pad nearly the same, course which it has at the present time. 2. By the Welland, which, after, descending by Stam- ford, Crowland, and Spalding, united with the waters of the Glen in. the estuary, north of Holland-fen. 3. By the Nene, which, after passing Wansford and Peterborough, descended by Whittlesea-meer, ‘Ugg-meer, and Ramsey-meer to Benwick, where it was joined. by the Old West-water, one of the branches of the Great ane att Benwick it flowed on the north side of March and Doddington (which stand, if mistake not, on low diluvial hills) to Upwell, where it was joined by the Welney river, then the principal branch of the Great Ouse; and from Upwell the. united waters. proceeded directly to Wisbeach, anciently called Ousebeach. 4. By the, Great Ouse,’ which, after passing, Huntingdon and St. Ives, descended. to Erith (a small village at the SW. end of the old and new Bedford rivers) when it divided into two branches. One called the Old West-water,ran to Benwick, as before stated, and there united with the Nene. The other. branch, now called the Old Ouse (sometimes erroneously marked as the Old West-water), de- scended by Cottenham fen, and.was joined by the Cam a few miles above Ely. After passing Ely, it was joined by the Muil-,; denhall river; and it then passed, by the way of Littleport and ~# See Annals for April, Editor’s note, sect. 5, D 36. Prof. Sedgwick on. [Ju “LY; Welney, to Upwell; where (as above stated) it joined the waters of the Nene and descended to the sea at Wisbeach. 5. By the Little Ouse (then a very inconsiderable river), which (after passing Brandon, and being joined by some small tributary streams from the Norfolk side) fell into the sea a. Lynn. In the preceding account, all the old artificial drains, and several minute bifurcations of the rivers, after they reached the alluvial delta, are intentionally omitted. As early as the twelfth century, the accumulations of alluvial silt near the mouths of the Welland and the Nene, caused a great back-water; and in the early part of the thirteenth century (by the great rise of the fen lands near the coast) the out-fall of the waters by some of the old channels entirely failed. During this time, the bed of the Little Ouse, not. having been silted up in the same manner, was much below the mean level of the alluvial delta, extending through the mouths of the other rivers above mentioned ; and a great drain was consequently cut from Littleport Chair to Rebeck, making the first direct communication between the Great and Little Ouse. The effect was. exactly what might have been anticipated. The waters which had been pent up at a higher level deacdulied with irre- sistible force through this new drain into the channel of the Little Ouse, and so escaped into the sea at Lynn. About this time the out-fall at Spalding had so completely failed, that the waters of the Welland found their way through the Catswater into the Nene; and/a new direction having been given to all the currents, in consequence of the channel which was now opened below the level of the ancient out-fall. at Wisbeach, the united waters of the Nene flowed back into the Great Ouse through the Old West-water, through the Welney branch, and through all the other cross drains of the country ; and were then conveyed by the new communication into the Lynn river. In this way, for many years, nearly all the waters of the alluvial delta, south of the Witham, found their way into the sea at Lynn: and the river, which had formerly run between banks which were not more than twelve perches asunder, was, after the changes above described, more h ait a mile wide. Many attempts were made ‘to prevent this great discharge of waters through the Ouse. In the year 1292, several dams were constructed near Upwell; to prevent the influx of the Nene. But they produced such ruinous effects on many parts of the marsh lands, and on the banks of the Ouse as far as St. Neots, that in 1532 they were ordered to be destroyed. For many years afterwards, the great drainage of the delta was effected nearly in the manner above described. In the year 1490, the discharge by the Ouse was partially re- lieved by a great cut (called Morton’s Leam) from Peter- borough to Guyhirn near Wisbeach. This was intended to 1825.] | Diluvial Formations. | 37 convey ‘the waters of the Nene direct to their old channel at Wisbeach, but was never entirely effective before the year 1638: when Vermuyden, under King Charles I. erected high banks on each side of the Leam, and opened out a channel to the sea. Since that time the Nene has continued to flow down to the sea by Wisbeach. | Notwithstanding the indirect nature of the new drainage which conveyed the waters of the Welland, the Nene, and the Ouse, into the sea by the Lynn channel, the fens appear for many years afterwards to have been ina good condition; a fact which can only be explained by the low level of the great out- fall.. In course of time, however, the new channels began to silt up, and new works became necessary. Of these works, the old and new Bedford rivers were the most important, ex- tending from Erith to Salters Lode, a distance of about twenty miles. Soon after the year 1648, when the new Bedford river was completed, the waters of the Ouse were shut out by a sluice at Erith from their old channel, so that they did not mix with the waters of the Cam and its tributary. branches, till they had been'conducted by the new drainage to Salters Lode. These new works appear from the first to have been injurious to the natural drainage of the Cam; for the floods of the Ouse by the new passage reached Salters Lode much sooner than the floods of the Cam; moreover, the bottom of the new Bedford river was about eight feet above the bottom of the old Ouse. On both these accounts, the banks of the Cam were perpetually flooded by the back-waters of the Ouse. One great flood of the Ouse in 1720, is said to have backed up the Cam for twenty days, and to have silted up a part of the old channel below Ely, to the thickness of three or four feet. These ruinous effects have been. partly counteracted by the erection of different sluices ; which, although affording a cure for an immediate evil, have ultimately produced the very evil they were intended to remedy; for, partly by their agency, the hate bed of the Cam is now silted up to the level of the Bedford rivers. | If such extraordinary effects as those described in this note be produced by the accumulation of alluvial matter in course of a few hundred years, we may be well assured that the whole form of the neighbouring coast must have been greatly modified by the same causes acting without interruption, and without any ‘modification from works of art, for 3000 or 4000 years. 38 Corrections in Right Asc?nsion of [Juy, ARTICLE V, Corrections in Right Ascension of 87 Stars of the Greenwich Catalogue. By James South, FRS. Aldebaran| Capella | Rigel Tau ae vy Begasi Polaris |, # Augeiay aw Ceti Mean gas ay aR m, § [lem hem. s |hym. s. jh. m. sv thom. s.. 4 14ds]0 8 17°60 1 87 1977) 53 858 \4 25 53°44)5 3 46°61) 5 6 8400 |5 B 14°29 “huy : + 2°84") 4 11°49") + Q@41 | 4 1-93”) + 1-79"|+ 206" + 1°23 + 1°83”) + 1-47” 87 12°29 Ad 96- 81 09 25 85 49 90 | 13:09 AT 99 84 12 27) 87] . dh 94} 13°88 51 2-01 . 8& 14 29 90 52 97 14-69 54° O4 89 7 31 92 54 ae 2 a =. 4 I~ g S 2 8 S = & S 72 | 35°04 38 82 60} S02 90 61 09 74) 3571 | ° 42 85 63 06 93 64 il 77 | 36-50 88} 66| 10 96 67 14 84 | 38 5A 96 TA| 04 15 21 87 | 39° 58 99 “71 ° 94 06 78 23 40°13 61 | 3-02 80 28 09 81 26 92} 40°85 64 05 88 32 li 84 28 94} 41°53 67 08 86 36 14 87 31 97 | 42-20 70 11 89 40 16 90 33 42-88 %3 14 92 44 19 94 36 401 | 43:56 16 17 95| 48 21} 97 39 03 | 44-23 719 19 99 | 53 241 3:00 A2 o 44- 82 22] 3-02 57 27 03 A4 AB: 85 25 05 61 29 06 AT 09 | 46:18 88 28 08 65 32 10 49 ll | 46-83 91 31 ll 69 35 13 52 13 | 47-48 94 34 14 "3 38 16 55 20 | 49°87 05 A5 26 89 49 29 66 22 | 50:47 08 4 A8 29 93 52 32 69 24) 51°05 Il 50 32 97 54 36 71 1825.) Thirty-seven Principal Stars, 39 ESS ial, « : Pollux | a Hydr: is (6 Virginis |S icaVirg Mean AR oo“ \ ware San jh. m. s. [h, bie ee livanae ene ; dy in hm 1825. ye 37 26°11|7 23 25°30] 7 30 8:4717 34 35°85/9 18 59°40/9 59 2°78 ii ‘40 $90 11 413498 13 15 59°52 "July 1] + 0-90"|+ 1°73] 4 1-40”| 4 1-691 4 1-53" + 1-897 4 2-28") + devsle $295 2 74 Al 10 53 89 Q7 35 4 94. 15 42 71 53 88 26 34 ° 93 16 Ag 71 52 88 26 34 » 92 17 43 12 52 88 25 33 91 18 44 13 52 87 24 32 90 78 A5 14 52 87 23 31 89 79 A5 q4 52 87 22 31 §8 80 46 15 51 86 21 30 87 81 AT 16 51 86. 20 29 86 83 48 17 Bl | 86 19 | 28 85 84 50 18 51 | 85. 18 28 84 86] 51 (i Oh cae) 85] 18! QT §3 87 52 80 | 3) 85 | 17. 26 | 82 89 53 82 51 8A | 16 | 25 | sl 90 54 | 83 51 84 | 15 | 24 | 80 91 | 55 84° 51 | 84 | 14 24 | 79 93 | 57 85 | 51 | 83° 13 | 23 18 94° 58 86 | 51 83. 12. 22 | 1T 96 59} | 88° 52 | 83 | 13 21° 16 - 97 | 60 89 | 52 | 83. 10 {° 20° 15 99 | 62 © 52 | 83}. 09! 20 74 2°01 | 63. 92 52 | 83 08 19 | 13 03 64° 94 53 83 | OT 18 72 04 | 65 96 53° 83 | OT 17 4 70 06 66 OT 53 | 83 | 06 16 | 69 08 «68. 99 | 5A | 83 05 | 16 | 68 09 69 | 200° 54 | 83 | 04 15 67 11° 10 02 54 83 03 14} 66 1372 04 | 55 84} . 02. 14 | 65 16) ' 78 06 55 84 | 02— 13° 64 17 "b 07 56 | 84° Ol: 13 62 19 a7 ° 09 | 56 | 84 | 00 | 12 61 21 | 19 | ae ae 85} 1-99 12 60 23 80 13° 51° 85. 99 11 59 25° 82 - 15 58 | 85° 98 11 58 27 84 16. 58 85> 97 10 56 29 85 18 59) 86° 96. 10 55 Sil * 87 20 60 86. 96. 09 54 38° 89° 22 61° 86 | 96° 09 53 36 9} gh 62 87 95° 08 52 38 93 a7). est 87. 95 08 51 Al’ 95. 29 64 87 95 07 50 A3 97 31 64 88 94 OT A9 AB 99 33 65 88 | 94: 07 48 48} 2-01 35 66 89° 93 06. AT 50 03 38 67 89° 93 06 46 53 05 40 68 90. 93 06 A5 55. O7 AQ 69 | 90 92 05 Ad 58 | 09 A4 10 91° 92 | 05 43 60° ll. AT 71 92> 92° 05 42 63° 13 49 13 93 92 05 Al 65° 15 52 74 94 92 05 AO 68 17 54 15 95 92 05 39 va 19 56 16 96 91 05 38 TA al 59 17 97 91 04 38 16 23. 61 78 98 9] 04 37 19 25 64 80 99 91 04 36 81 QT 66 81} 2:00 91 04 35 84. 29 69 82 01 91 04 34 87° $2 71 84. 02 91 04 34 90- 34: 14 85 04: 91: 04 33 40 Corvections.in Right Ascension of (Jory, Arcturus | 2a Libre Cor.Bor.| « Serpent.| . Antares |«Herculis|aOphiuchi] oq Lyre | » Aquil& a h. m. s. [b. m. 8. [he m. s. fh. m. Ss. |he m. s. [ho im, s.jh. m. s. /h. m. s. |hom & » » 7825. 14 7. 41°06) 14 41 12°92) 15 27 16°97} 15 85 39°42}16 1841°57)17 6 40°44)17 264902118 31 1°01) 19 37 56°55 © July 1) 4 2°90") 4 3°57”| + 3°16" + 3°46") 4+ 4°39”| 4 3-614 + 3°68” + 3-45’ + 3°76” : 2 89 56 15 46 39 61 |. 68 45.) ° 77 3 Ss 56 15} 45 39 61 |. 69 46 | 18 A 87 55 14 45 38 6l |. 69 46 80 5 86 54 14 44 88]. 61 69 AT | 81 : 85 54 13 43 38 61 | - 69 AT | 82 8 25 60 35 88 27 27 53 64 45 99 26 58 34 87 26 26 52 64 AA 99 27 57 33 85 24 25 51 63 44 4-00 28 55 32 84 23 24 50 63 A3 00 2 48 25 16 17 Wis 58 38 Ol 3) AT 24 14 16 16 Ad 57 31 Ol 4) 45 93 13 15 15 43 56 36 02 B} 44 Ql 71 14 13 42 55 35 02 6 42 20 70 12 12 4d. 5A 34 02 . 4 19 68 il 10.| 40 53 33 02 ss 39 17 66. 10 09 39 52 32 02 9} 38 16 65 09 08 38 5l 31 02 10] 36 14 63 07 o1| 36 50 29 Ol Wh) | 35 13 61 06 05 35 48 28 Ol 19} 33 12 60 O4 04 34 47 26 ny 13} 32 10 58 03 03 32 46 25 Ol 4) 30 09 56 02 02 31 45 24 00 15} 29 08 54 00 ok| 29 44 22 00 16} 27 06 52 | 2:99 | 3-99 28 42 21 00 17} 96 05 50 97 98 26 41 19 | 3-99 1s} 94 03 48 96 97:1 95 AO 18 99 19} 23 02 46 94 95 23 39 16 98 20} 00 45 93 93| 2 37 4 98 21} 20] 299 43 91 92 201 | 36 12 97 ev) 19 98 Ai 90 90 19} | 34 10 97 93} 17 97 39 88 gy 17| | 38 08 96 24} 16 95 37 87 87 16.| | 31] | o7 96 25} 14 94 35 85 85 14| | 30] | 05 95 26} 13 98 33 84 83 13] | 98 03 94 o7} Il y2 31 82 81 | | a7} on 94 931 10 90 99 al 79 10} | 2] 9-99 93 1825.] Thirty-seven Principal Stars. 41 ; aw Aquile} @ Aquile | 2 Capri.}| a Cygni ie Aquarii |Fomalhaut| @ Pegasi |xAndrom. Mean AR} \h. m. s. |h.m. s. jh. m. 8. |h. m.-s- |h. m. s. /b. om. s. jhe m. s, jhe im. s. 25. $ 119'4214°84)1946 43-20/20 8 20°34)/2035 28°24 9) 56 47°77|23 47 57°67\22 56 3-16/23 59 21+74 July 1) + 3°79¢| + 3°80") + 4:09") + 3°45”) 43-49) + 3:49") + 3°16") + 2°93” 2 80 Sl {1 AT 52 52 19 96 3 81 83 12 48 54 55 22 3°00 4 83 84 14 50 57 59> 25 03 5 84 86 15 52 59 62 28 06 6 86 87 17 54 62 65: 31 10 7 8T 89 18 56 64 68 35 13 8 89 90 21 58 67 712: 37 16 9 90 92 23 60 69 1b 39 20 10 91 93 24. 61 71 78 AQ 23 1h 92 94 26 63 13 8I 44 26 12 93 95 27 64 75 84 AT 29 13 94 96 28 65 17 88: A9 32 14 95 97 30° 67 79 91 52 35 15 96 98 31 68 82 94 54 39 16 98 99 33 70 84 97 5T A2 17 99 4-01 34 71 86 4:00 60 45 18} 4:00 02 35 13 88 03 62 48 19 Ol 03 37 74 90 O7 65 51 20 02 04 38 15 92 09 67 54 21 02 04 39 16 94 lL 69 5T 22 03 05 40 71 95 13 72 59 23 03 06 Al 78 97 15 74 62 24 04 06 AQ 79 99 17 16 65 25 04 O07 43 79 4°01 19° 78 68 26 05 OT 44 80 03 21 ‘80 TL 27 05 08 45 81 04 23 &3 73 28 06 08 AD5 82 06 25 85 16 29 06 09 46 83 08 27 87 19 30 06 09 46 83 09 29 89 82 31 06 09 AT 84 1] 31 91 84 Aug. 1 07 10 AT 84 12 33 93 87 2 OT 10 48 84 14 35 95 90 3 07 . 10 48 85 15 37 97 93 4| 07 10 49 85 17 39 99 95 5 07 10 49 85 18 Al AOl 98 6 08 1] 5U 86 20 43 03 | . 4-01 (1 08 Al 50 86 21 45 05 03 8 08 1] 51 86 23 AT 07 06 9 08 1] 51 86 24 | Ag 09 08 10 08 11 51 85 25 51 10 10 1 07 11 51 85 26 52 12 12 12 07 10 5L 85. 27 - 54 13 15 13 07 10 51 85 28 55 15 17 14 06 10 52 84 29 57 16 19 15 06 10 52 84 30 59 18 21 16 06 09 52 84 31 60 19 24 17 05 09 52 83 32 62 21 26 18 05 09 52 83 33 63 22 28 19 04 08 52 82 34 64 23, 30 20 04 08 51 82 34 65 24 32 21 03 08 51 81 35 67 25 34 22 03 07 51 80 35 68 26 36 23 02 07 50 80 36 69 27 38 24 02- 06 50 19 37 70 28 40 25 01 06 AQ | 78 38 71 30 42 26 01 05 A9 18 38 13 31 A4 23 00 04 48 716 39 74 32 A5 28} 3°99 03 AT 716 39 15 33 AT 29 98 03 46 15 30, ‘16 34 48 30 97 02 46 73 39 16 B85 50 3i 96 01 A5 72 39 17 85 | 42 Corrections in Right Ascension of [Juny, y Pegasi | Polaris {a Arietis | « Ceti |Aldebaran] Capella | Rigel eau @ Orionis say nad h, m h. h. m.s. (h. m.s. fh. m. s. |h,m.s. (hms. [h. m. 8. Thom. s. 1825. Jf 0 414-25 0 5817°50 |1'57 19°77/2" 53.858 25 53° 3 46°61 5 6 8:00)5 15 1429/5 45 42:18 Sept. 1) 4- 4-36” te 43" + 4°32" 4 3:72") + 3:56" + 4:32”) 4 2°78 4. 3-63") 4+ 2-94" 2 38; 55°94 35 15 59 36 | 80 | 66. 96 3 89 5641 38 17 62 40 | 83 69 99 4 41 | 56:87 40 80 65 A4 86 73] 3-02 5 42) 57:34 43 83 68 49 89 76 05 6 44) 57°81 45 85 71 53 92 80 08 7 45 | 58:27 47 88 74 57 95 83 il 8 46 | 58:67 49 90 17 61 98 86 14 i 9 AT | 59:08 51 92 80 65 300 90 1T 10 48 | 5948 54 94 83 69 03 93 19 1) A9 | 59°89 56 96 86 73 06 96 22 12 50 | 60-29 58 98 89 18 09 99 25 13 51 | 60-65 60 | 400 92 82 ll | 403 28 14 52/ 61-02 63 02 95 86 4 06 30 15 53 | 6138 65 04 98 90 6 09 33 16 54) Gb-75 67 06; 401 94 19 13 36 17 55) 6211 69 08 04 98 22 16 39 18 56 | 62-40 71 11 OT 5-02 25 19 A2 19 57 | 62:69 13 13 10 06, 28 23° 45 20 57 | 62:99 15 16 13 10 30 | 26 A8 21 58 | 63:28 77 18 16 14 33 29 51 22 59 | 63:57 79 21 19 18 36 32 54 23 60 | 63°80 82 23 22 23 39 36 5T 24 60 64°03 84 26 24 27 Al 89 _ 60 25 61 | 64-27 86 28 27 81 44 42 63 26 ‘61 | 64:50 88 31 30 35 47 46 66 27 62) 6473 90 34 33 39 50 A9 69 28 62 | 64:90 92 36 36 43 53 52 72 29 63 | 65:07 94 38 38 AT 55 55 15 30 63 | 65°23 95 40 A0 51 58 59 18 Sirius | Castor | Procyon} Pollux | Hydre | Regulus | ¢ Leonis /¢ Virginis |SpicaVirg. Mean AR et hom. s. |h. m,*s. |h.im. s. |h.im.\s. |h.jm, s. |h. m._s. /h. m. 8, |h. m. 8. |h, m, 8. 1825, § (6 37 26-11)7.23 25-307 30 8-47\7 34'35°85/9 18 69°40'9 59 2°78'11 40 7*80/11 41:34:98)18 15 59°22 Sept. 1| + 2°07”) + 2:93” | +'2:36”| + 2°26” + 187"\ + 2°05”; + 1-91" + 2°04”) + 2-32” 2} 10} 96 ‘39 719 88 06 91 04 31 3 13 98 Al 82; +90 07 92 05 30 A 16; S801 44 84 91 08 92 05 30 5 18° O4 46 87 93 10 92 05 29 6) 21) OT A9 89 94 11 | 92 05 28 7 24° 10 51 92 96 12 92 05 28 8 27 13 ‘54 95; (98 13 93 06 28 9 29) 16 56 98 99 15 93 06 27 10 32, 19 | 59 301 2-01 16 93 06 27 1] 135)| CORR? | 61} 04 03 18 94 07 26 12)" 138 ~ 26 64 OT 05 19 94 07 26 13 A0|} *© 99 | °< 167 10 06 20 94 07 25 14 A3 82 ~ 10° 13 08 22 95 08 25 15 A6 35 12 16 09 - 23 95 ‘08 24 16 A8 38 15) 5° 19 ae a 25 96 ‘09 24 17 51 Al 17 22 13 26 96 09 23 18 54 AA 80 25 “15 28 97 10 23 19 7 AT 82 | <> 28 s4T |) ¥' 80 9T 10 23 20 59 51 85 31 19 Bl 98 11 23 2! 62 54 88 | ~* +34 21 33 99 12 23 22 65 5T 91)}° 87 ‘23 35 2-00 13 23° 23 68 60 93 AO “26 37 00 13 23 24 71 63 96 A3 28 | 39 ol 14 * 22 25 73 67 99 A6 30 AO 02 “15 22 26 716 70 301 AY 82 A2 02 16 22 27 19 73 04 52 84 Ad 03 17 22 28 ‘82 76 OT 55 36 A6 04 18 22 29 85 80 10 59 38 A8 05 19 22 30 "88 ‘83 - 12 62° 41° BO OT rr" 20 22 ThirtyeSeven Principal Stars. 43 Arcturus ‘ih, me Ss 14.7 41°06 Qa Libre h. m. 8. 14.41.1292 a Cor.Bor. h. m.° ss 15 2716°97 « Serpent.| Antares hs m. Ss» |h. m. Ss 15 35.39°42 16 18 41°57 aHerculis Tee ods aQphiuchi| h. m. s. 17 26 49°02 | « Lyre h. m. 8s. 18 31 1:01 y Aquile bsim.: s. 1937 56°55 We 9-85/! 84: 1:99 Ma Q-T5!" 13 4+ 3°12! 70 4 3°03! | Ol £ ‘i+ 2°90” iV a Aquile h..m..s. (11942 14°84 h. m. os. 19 46 43°20 $ 8 Aquilze |2 «Capricor| H. sme: 8. 208° 20°34 oe Cygni h. m.. s. 20:35: 28°24 a Aquarii hem. S. 2156.47°77 Fomalhaut h.- Mm. Se 22 47 57:67 co Pegasi Ne My, Sy 22..56-3°16 aAndrom. h. m, s. 23 59 21°74 G0 scum gly: So 10) © =F D Gr S 00 1 et De + 3° TU! + 4°39" + 53" 54 56 44 Col. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations, [Juny; ArTICLE VI. Astronomical Observations, 1825. By Col. Beaufoy, FRS. Bushey Heath, near Stanmore. Latitude 51° 37’ 44°3” North, Longitude West in time 1’ 20°93", May 81. Lunar eclipse $R°8"" 1)" TS sy ¢ Mn.‘T-atBushey. Shadow ill defined. Observed Transits of the Moon and Moon-culminating Stars over the Middle Wire of the Transit Instrument i in Siderial Time. 1825. Stars. Transit. May 28.—i Virginis Cee eee eros eeeeeseeee be 17/ $2°37" 28.—Moon’s First or West Limb.... 26 37°69 28, —89 Virginis. eeeenreenaeeveeaeenee eee 3 AO 26°31 29.—317. Virginis, ......ccececsccee 1A OL VITT 29.—22 Virginis. .........00- ccceee 14 05 50°19 29.—38 Solitavii ... cles cccdscdeces 14 09 02°69 29.—116 Virginis . .. wocteddcess IM 26 | O69 29. —Moon’s First or West Limb.... 14 26 36°41 £9.—212 Libre. ........ ooenee couse 14. AT 19°70 30.—19 Scorpii... cceccecccccccsece 15 06 20:03 B01 TA. . nticipcncduedes -- 15 21 44:30 30.—Moon’s First or West Limb.... 15 28 51°60 ; 30.—8 Scorpii. eee ereet eee eeeesetad 15 50 04°14 30.—t0* Scorpii......0e0ccccocceces 15 56 39°14 S15 BOOED. -.0:6:0's 06. 0h0.05e Hoseeee 15 50 04-40 31.—w! Restle . «cana ss ees eoevess 15 56. 39°42 31.—o Scorpii....... Vedete as Vee: 1Oe ees Si. —g. Scorpii.. ois oe ocies else'e oe ae: 2604006 31.—é Scorpii.....).+.+ BS -. 16 18+ 40°18 3B) 09 Oph . 3 vse veciec bolvbn coe ie 16 2Li 51-02 31.—Moon’s First or West Limb eoee' 16 82: 18°56 31,.—24 Ophiu............ Shove cd 16 462 00R8 31,—39 Ophiu.<......008 ales stapes. On eres S1.—9 Ophiu. ...cccrccccdsescedece 17 11 21-03 Bl = -b Ophin, § Ses Fat82-00°. Volume 480-00 piven 480: 000 Dry s 90°00: .., 538:00 428°253. 95:23 _ §43°23 424-131 Moist air at 90°, Dew-point-70°.. (Force of the vapour .0°77 in.) Density per formula 424-131 (or 428 253: minus 2 of | 307. of 428°253). : **The density of the moist air is consequently equivalent to that “of dry air of the temperature of 95°23°. ' With'some trifling sacrifice to extreme accuracy, the iistiedling table will also serve to determine the equations for’ air not con- ‘taihing its’ maximum quantify of; humidity. Enter the table with’ the observed dew-point (70°), instead of ithe degree of ‘temperature indicated by the detached thermometer (90°) 5» and .1825.] Barometrical: Measurement of Heights. ol add the:cotrespondings equation (5°) to: the, temperature, of the air y(908).5: and.theit: sum /(95°) will. denote the temperature required. In the extreme case before us the, discrepancy, falls short ofia:quanter.of a, degree,—a quantity much, inferior, to the probable error of observations, ©) ys)s;cormmod}. 8 vd boteorbe ‘In ease the construction of the hygrometer should be,such as torindicate merely. the|,degree. of saturation, find) by, the,table the.equatiom fur saturated air at the observed temperature, and reduée the quantity in. proportion... The correction at 60? for air two-thirds'saturated, with moisture, and supporting a pressure of 30 inches; would, be.equal to 2 of 3:69, or,to; 2:4%,,, (See, the tables given \at:the end of the first volume of the T'raité de, Phy- sique/by M.Biot,to reduce the degrees. of saturation of the hair hygrometer of Saussure to the degree of tension of the vapour "existing in the atmosphere.) epeersy met In the barometrical table of Mr. Daniell before alluded to are given the: densities of ‘saturated ‘air at ‘different’ temperatures. under.the pressure_of thirty inches ; but as no allusion is made to any correction for difference of pressure, and/as the calculation illustrating thé table is: worked without introducing’ ‘one; we must (neeessarily concludethat Mr. Daniell conceives, the den- sity OPbathratad aif of any ‘given temperature, supporting the pressure of 30 inches, td) be specifically lighter than dry ait of ‘that. pressure inthe same ratio that saturated, air of the same températute under any d¢her pressure ‘is aperiecelienelirt than -dry air supporting that ‘other pressure. ‘To prove the inicorrect- ‘ness of the idea, let us find the density of a stratum of saturated air supporting @ pressure of 30 inches, and that of another stra- _ tum _under.the pressure ‘of 15 inches, the temperature’ of both being 90° F. ‘fy . : : 911, Density of dry air at SOANCHES a4» essed Ooosiuns .° Ditto at 15 inches. :...;« #)S)e 09 0 eee © VaeaaWe; onterts ‘ Density of saturated air at 30 in.. 0°876245 000-0 Dittozat, 15 inches s 5.0 ics 800-08 0:430149 Had the ratio been constant, the density of the*siturated air at 15 inches would have’ been 0-4381225." It-is evident that as the;stratum under the lesser pressurejcontains a greater propor= tion of the fighter fluid, jit-must be specifically lighter than,dry ‘air in a greater ratio than the stratum supporting, the heavier ‘pressure.. EAL UF 95H 421% Hi %99 FeLogat ont toy rer a Gor _ When the force of the:vapour rising from .the surface. of a liquid freely exposed, to.the atmosphere. equals jthe; pressy PEP the latter, ebullition ensues. . Consequently if we note the, tempera- ) ture of the liquid, or,that of the, vapour, immediately, above its Surface » when the ebullition’ is) perfect, ;we,may. aa by. the -_. tables giving the force of aqueous vapour at pera ty tempera Mt kia “4 Bay : ‘get? EE? “af a7 7 SC Re Dr. Black’ on a very sensible Batance. [Jexy, 52 tiirds, thé, valud of the atmidsphetic pressiitie, ‘or ‘height 6f'the Sita the vbsecuoan wert method in rega siti and convenience are, however, too serious to induce the obsetver to adopt it as a substitute for the latter instrument; ) “yest, 2 - 1, (Tobe contied.y PL EN olted wre 2e ad arey rs : ee ' WO Meheghal ¥ Sieh: Oe IO. SAB -cawietl isis if Cosh. : . : eft tts Ses vf RO stent Sit Osh TE od ke did dy TO eT Oda) yee yy 4 mony i ; + vax , { . » ee a Dy Ab ghbs i fay | date + AG 4 Bon. dba piled galt. 4 Ay ix ( SAstsi Vehm@alore eters ARTICLE VILL. ix ie tse. Pha AO yd Diese yi b i! gittte) 2 af EMEA td ae aided tig ado 38%. $6 JN QA9 4 A Letter from Dr. Black to James Smithson, Esqw describinga— ite: Cts ros y. 134 very sensible Balanee. df © ,GidstBp S AG} : \ : VILS th 98 ot TORR T ET bbe Bac Yad tigi reurs™ “) (ODEAR sm, Hatinburgh, Sept. 18, 1190. Dap -the pleasure to “reteive your, letter ot ‘the | «the . pparatus LE use for weighing, small. globules. of metals, or 1 e sey. is, as follows :A thin, piece of fir, wood not thicker) than a shilling, ‘and @ foot long, jp ofan inch broad in the middle, and weuiedisn EE, GL Ty ERG 134) SOOe TU FH Ain BAG Beet eat each end, is divided by transyerse, lines, into, 20 -parts ; that is, 10 parts on each side of the middle,’ These’ are the principal divisions, and each of them is subdivided into halves and quarters. Across the middle is' fixed one of ‘the smallest needles I could procure to serve as an‘ axis, and it is fixed in its place by means of'a little sealing wax. The! numeration of the divisions is from the middle to each end of the beam. The ful- crumis a bit of plate brass, the middle of which lies flat on my — table when I use the balance, and the:two ends are bent up to a nent angle so as to stand 6 These two ends are ground at the same time on a flat hone, that the extreme surfaces*of — them may be in the same plane; and their distance is such that the needle whén laid across them rests on ‘them at a small dis- tance from the’ sides ‘of the beam. ‘They tise above the surface of the table only. one and.a half or two-tenths of an inch, so that . , “— the beam is very limited in its play. bipiats ara Y ao — eee foisted) ieH °°. 10 |; Sl Tate 8 oe re ee ay EE PR Oe ey FF i pe weights L tise are one globule of gold, which weighs ‘ore grain; and two or three others which weigh one-tenth of a grain seach; and also a number. of small rings of fine brass wire made in the manner first mentioned by Mr. Lewis, by appending a — “weight to the, wire, and coiling it with the tension of that weight round a: thicker brass wire in a close spiral,after which the extremity of the epital being tied hard with waxed thread, [pat ‘the covered ‘Wite 11 hea and applying a sharp knife whichis _— struck with a hammer, I cu t through ‘a great number ofthe coils. 1825.) ——- Dr. Black on. avery sénsible Balance. 83 at one stroke, and:find them as exactly equal ta Pag another as can, be desired... Those I use happen to, be the. 1, Oth part of a gre FREE 300 of them weigh 10 grains; but I. have others Wwe liwterias. 2) Cbs Dat. 66 BOA 4 Od. ln 1 ok cl EU '» You will perceive that; by means of these weights placed on different parts of the beam, I can learn the weight of any little mass from one grain or a little more to the >,,, of a grain. For if the thing ‘to be weighed weighs one grain, it will, when placed on one extremity OF the beam, counterpoise the large gold weight at the other extremity. Ifit weighs half a grain, it, will counterpoise the heavy gold..weight placed at 5, [fityweigh “6; of a grain, you must place the heavy gold weight at 5, and one of the lighter ones at the extremity to counterpoise it; and ar if it weighs ay’ or 2, or 3, or 4-100ths of a grain, ‘it will be re _ counterpoised by one of the small gold weights placed at'the _ fitst;-or second, or third, or! fourtli division. ' If on the contrary it weigh one grain'and’a fraction, it will be counterpoised’by the heavy gold; weight/at,the extremity, and, one, or more. of the lighter ones placed in some other part ofthe beam. =, f This pea? has served me hitherto sngreaey RHP ae Ae occasion. for a more, delicate one, 1 could, make it easily by taking a.much, Terabe hter slip, of wood, & id Finding the needle to give, it an edge... It would also be easy to make it éaizy small scales of paper for particular purposes, ait Ve have ho c 2 co news, if am. employed in examining the Iceland waters, but, have been often interrupted. I never _ heard before of the quartz-like crystals of barytes acrata, nor of the sand.and new earth from New Holland. Indistinct reports. of new metals have reached us, but no, particulars, Some fur- ESS AEGO Bi otuinesh daines from you will, therefore, be very agreeable, Dr, Hutton joins mein compliments, and. wishing you all good things ; Oey T am, Dear Sir, ese Gra mons ni aopoads A \ Your faithfulhumbleseryant,;,, 0. , iC hnachnn dre Tnchoond oot RARE HAAGE SG ? ea8) Of . 4 Note by Mr, Smithson.—The rings mentioned aboye have the defect of their weight being entirely accidental ; and conse- gnenty, most times very inconvenient fractions of the grain. I haye found that a preferable method is. to ascertain the weight of a.certain length of wire, and then take the length of it which corresponds ‘to the weight wanted.) If fine wire 1s employed, a sét of small weights may be thus made with great accuracy an ease. AIneonvenience from the length, of the wire in the higher weights is obviated by rolling it round a cylindrical body to a ning» and twisting this toa cord. : : a iT ce _ This little balance is a very valuable addition to the plowhipe apparatus,.as.it enables the determination of quantities, in the experiments, with that instrument, whieh’ was’ an -unhopedfor sa Ae tots powers, RA len Virgen eae ot “| Flak, enon me its having ‘bedi used’ by’an assayer.in, Cornwall, to whom he had made, it known}; and 1 hay. anne. beards, from another person, of an assayer in that county, who, finding the assays he Hee ehiloy 1d to make, cost him more in fuel than he was paid for them, had $0 neh means of making them at the blowpipe on one grait of matter, I pre- sume. him to have, been the same Dr. Black had spoken of, tc “London, May 12, 1825, ’ 129 tothe Sant So 7 7 7 © rere Ff . sf : vie » oS ( thi 2 BT | : a cette > ; : eee ‘ ‘ ‘ i) Yr 5 as hee hr rtiet Violet Sil itl - Articie IX, pa bela aoe, i Notice on the Diluwium of Jamaica. “By H.T. De la Beche, _FRS. &c. (Read at “the Bristol’ Phildesphical Society, WARY Age RP Pain ay Wii Me rus) wert pe eae PaaS ATs DIC BIGH(TSMIOD « 3 - Anv addition to: our information respecting diluvium cannot be without interest to geologists, more; particularly, when. it is derived from countries far distant from/those whichjhaye been previously examined.' | Prof. Buckland’s-distinctions , between diluvium and alluvium are too well known.to require. any expla- nation. ' That/objections have been raised) to these distinctions, and the discoveriés' connected with them, is most certain; but as Prof. Sedgwick very justly observes (Annals\-of Philosophy, p> gh 1825), “the greater part of the objectors are undeserving of any animad version, as they appear entirely ignoraut of the very elements of geology, and far too imperfectly acquainted: with the facts about which they write to have it in their power to, turn them to any account.” In this class may not unfairly be placed the work which a writer in the Quarterly Journal of Science very vely informs us is masterly ! ! visi Laoigery evel The following observations were made during a residence in the Island ‘of Jamaica from December, 1823, to December, 1824. The first district'which I shall notice is the great plain of Liguanea, ‘upon the lower part of which the city. of Kingston 1s situated... This presents an inclined surface, falling gradually from a height of about 750 feet (where the plain abuts against the mountains bounding)it. on the N) to the sea. This plain is almost: wholly! composed. 'of ,diluvial gravel, consisting ,of the detritus! of the: Jamaica; mountains, and evidently panviced by catises not howin action. 1) | holt ; aes Un i oi Ses Kingston is sicahles ae, ia 4 i " sii the: Rileeaiun sf henigice "Rs The, above section, will-explain better than, words the manner in which the dtewite PAE tl apathoeth PSt. Ase redress taing (Bsa, as latter ape gomposed of potplity, sy eitey Breet stone, brownish red porphyritic’ conglomerate, "silic#ous sand- stones, shales, and coal, that resemble our piper oenIe TA with, red _sandstones.and conglomerates of ah older date restiig“upon’ transition rocks, - Rounded portions of all these rocks Compose the. gravel of Liguanea ; the pebbles ‘ate ‘Hot in| general “very - large 3, blocks, however, of siliceous sandstone, aiid of Urisider” able dimensions, are found near thé Hope’ estate,’ the property of the Duke of Buckingham. BBE El gM pha The Hope river;-with-the. Mammee- river-.which falls into it, drains a considerable portion of the St. Andrew’s mountains, and, when the waters are low, loses ‘itself among the Liguanea gravels, at that part; of its Song Where Heh anette the rocky defiles of the mountains it enters upon. this diluvial plain; but when the river is swollen by heavy tropical rains, it becomes a torrent of considerable magnitude, rushing with great *force threugh the defile:which opens upon:the plain;'by the continual recurrence of which it has excavated ithe gravel tova considerable: depth ;' so that in fact the causes/now in action tend. to destroy the gravel plain rather than’ form .it:: ‘The section. of diluvial gravel’ made by the river near the Hope: Tavern, cannot be less than between 800. and 400\in:depth, and the tavern itself is, according to the: barometrical: measurement’ made, 698; feet. above the level of the sea. The ‘diluvialy gravel rises some: ba on above thetaverhis!) 2103 1s dish) wiikey BH Nae ohh _ Proceeding up the Hope Valley, a part of the road displays a section of diluvium (the rounded rock pieces of which are large), resting upon a projecting portion of the mountain ‘that mses: about 600 feet above the bed of the river. : In addition to the Hope river,: numerous gullies formed by heavy tropical rains, cut the diluvial plain of Liguanea in various directions, so that far from being formed by the waters: which now descend from the mountains, every stream that traverses: it tends to destroy it, and carry the gravel into the sea. | This plain descending gradually to the sea, and being pro- tected from the ravages of the latter by the Palisades, a sand bank extending several miles from Port Royal to the main land, alluvial matter is deposited on parts of the shore, more particu- larly between Kingston and Port Henderson, on.which mangrove trees are numerous ; in fact these trees are extremely well calcu+ lated for the accumulation of alluvium,.their long. stilt-like-roots collecting mud and other matters together, and then protecting what they have collected from being washed away by any violent rush of water, the numerous roots breaking its force. It is almost impossible to stand upon the gravel plain.of Ligua- nea without feeling convinced that it could not, have been Pee tapee oh Is Fs 56 Mr, De la Beche on. {Juny, formed by any causes now in action, but, that the porphyry, greenstone, ad other pebbles, bape 1 ih Ast with oral and’sand'beds, the mass of the plain, were derived. from, the Jamaic¢a moiintains iv the same manner, and at the same period, as the numerous European tracts of | vel, which have resulted from the destruction of European hs iy and which contain, the remains 6f elephants, &c. It is true that bones have.not yet ‘been discovered in’ the Jamaica gravels, but it should be reeol- lected that the opportunities for such discoyeries,,are by no means so abundant as in those countries where, gravels are extensivély used for roads ; the climate moreover: is such, that few are’tempted to risk their health by prosecuting researches of this nature beneath a tropical sun. At te The diluvial plain of Liguanea is continued westward through the low lands of St. Catherine and St. Dorothy ; sands and clays are more abundant in the latter districts, but im other respects the diluvitim is the same. The sections afforded by the rivers and ‘gullies ‘are of considerable eet SOME 1 nowhere observed one so deep as that of the Hope River...) To the westward of the above-mentioned plain, but separated from it by a range of low white limestone hills, is another great in forming the parish of Vere, and the lower part of that of larendon ; it is surrounded by white limestone hills and moun- tains* on all sides but on the S$ and SW, where it is, washed: by the sea, with the exception of the space occupied by Portland The greater part of this plain is diluvial, consisting of gravels, clays, and sands; the former is principally ¢ sed of porphyry, greenstone, and other trap rock shied which are all most probably derived from the destruction of part of the St. John’s and Clarendon mountains, Toy tO Pain tn ag Sue i fine sections of this diluvium are afforded by the Rio Minho, which traverses it nearly through its whole length, as also by numerous deep gullies: it is easy to remark here, as in the case of Liguanea, that the causes. now in action tend to destroy this plain, and are altogether inadequate to its formation. It is remarkable that though this diluyium is nearly surrounded by hills and mountains of the white limestone formation, very few fragments of it are to be discovered in the gravel, arising robably from its being less hard than the porphyry, and green- stone, and, therefore, less able to resist any violent attrition thait'thils Wttias On eT a ee | aor 7 mrop od 4 Ate Mid OS Nally tip r 4 : _ ® Tt is sufficient at {to lobebeve; that the ‘Jathaica white limestone formation miss of ep: imene naiing the ems ne os limestone; Ot tna ‘yery considerable thickness, and are associated: with softer limestones (ever in some places resembling chalk), white marls, and thick beds of; red sandstone and marl. ‘The whole formation cannot be than 2000 feet thick in suis eas any th which are, however, very rate. in if, of a tertiary Facter, such a3 cones, eevithia, nummulites, Key) oc/s|y9 Fo arc, eiahi viii 1825:] the Dihivinm of Jamaica. 67 - Beneath'this @iluvium;' but, above the white limestone-forma- tions apse wots conglomerate occurs, which, fromthe-supe- ridr dépre® of its consolidation, it seems difficult,to, xefex| tothe diluvial ‘period : ‘the pebbles, however, veryy closely, ,resemble los, those’which are’ ¢ertainly the products. o "that, geologieahera. The''Vere plain, like ‘that of St. Dorothy .and:..laguanea,-is bounded} ‘w ére it touches the sea, by alluvium.and, mangrove OEE, ee ee eee 4... OA Adaitkacao aif jadé. paioal Theré ‘are other’ diluvial districts in J amaica.;. the above: are, however, sufficient for 1 show that the diluvium of usics has been produced, by,similar opportunities of ‘examining in the British Isles, France, Italy, Getiiahy; RES LPO Ee i oe fhe flow through them; the white limestone formation,is,in, fact extremely cavernous, and the rains that fall, which, 4t\ 1s ,well knowii, are’very-heavy in the tropies, are received into innumers able sink ‘holes ‘and cavities, and disappear; sometimes, but rarely, again rising and flowing for a short.distance, again ‘to, be swallowed up, The districts occupied by this.cavernous, lime- stone’ are very extensive, and their places are generally shown on a good map of Jamaica by a wantof rivers; whereas the latter are’ abundant among the other rocks. , Here jwe: have instances| of valleys, several of which are of, very..considerable ‘depth, without running waters in them ;, they, could not, there- ‘fore, belfortied by the waters which now traverse them, since there are none which do so: these valleys, then, are. completely opposed to the theory that. valleys owe, their origin to. the streams or sivers which now run through them, ae _ A yalley of denudation is seen at Williamsfield (the property of Lord Harewood) in St. Thomas in the Vale: . The capsjof the hills, or rather mountains, on either side, are formed.of white limestone in nearly horizontal beds; these rest..on porphyritic and other trap rocks forming the bottom of the,yalley in which the Rio d’Or flows. This valley is, therefore, similar,(as, far as respects dénudation) to the valleys formed in the green sand and | lias neat Eyme, and the green sand and néw red sandstone near Sidmouth; for there would appear no more reason to doubt that the white limestone near Williamsfield had:once:been jomed by strata now, swept away, than that the green sand of the hills in’ the neighbourhood-of Sidmouth and‘Lyme, had once ,heen, con- tIGORRD ee i dmescalona ae yumm Dass Durigg, my ‘residence in Jamaica I visited, among otl caverns, that most celebrated, which is named Portland Cave, § ong other” ' 58 Mr. Dela Becheon the Diluvium of Jamaica. (Jury, from being situated in Portland Ridge, Vere. The following ‘is a section of part of this cave, in which two or three circum- stances deserve attention, as they cannot fail to remind the reader ofsome of Prof. Buckland’s cavern sections. A stalagmitic floor (A) rests upon a fine silty clay (B), the depth of which I could not ascertain ; one or two large stalac- tite columns appear also to rest upon the clay ; but of this I am not certain; the heat, in fact, was so oppressive (from being near the surface) during the time I visited it, that I was prevented from remaining long in the cavern. i GH This cave is situated on the side of a hill; and is a short dis- tance from the sea, but sufficiently elevated above it to prevent the possibility of the clay being derived from it at its present: level. The crust of stalagmite is of sufficient thickness to show that it must have taken a long time to form. 1 did not observe any bones beneath it, and am now sorry that proper search was not made, as the depth ofthe silty clay has not been ascertained, and as it might contain bones. | . ont Portland Cave has been visited by hundreds of persons, most of whom have written their names on almost every accessible ortion of it: the floor, therefore;-cannot be expected to be in the condition in which it was first discovered, and it would-be difficult to say how far the stalagmitic crust might have extended. The portion that I observed was not large, andis in itself of little importance; but, it becomes interesting as con- nected: with the sections of caverns, beneath the stalagmitic floors of which bones have been discovered. shox ,2riels 1825.] On the Genus Ursus:of Cuvier. 5D ' ARTICLE X. On the Genus Ursus of Cuvier, with its Divisions into Subgenera. By John Edward Gray, Esq. FGS. (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, British Museum. Linnzvus placed in the genus Ursus the whole of the heel walking carnivorous animals; but the modern zoologists have reduced it to those of his genus which have one or more small distant false grinders between the true grinders and the canine teeth ; therefore restricting it to Ursus Arctos and Maritimus, the only two species known in his time. But by the exertions of travellers we have become acquainted with six other species, which most authors have found very difficult to characterise, or they have at least been involved in considerable obscurity from the want of observing and comparing them together. Having lately had the opportunity of examining six species alive, three of: which are at present in the menagerie attached to the ‘Tower of London, and the rest moving about the country in the caravans of the itinerant exhibitors, 1 have been enabled to divide the genus into sections, which I hope will facilitate the knowledge of the species. asad The divisions may. be.regarded as subgenera; like most natu ral. groups. they are, each confined to particular parts of the globe, with a few,exceptions, which may be explained by consi- dering the confusion that has hitherto existed regarding their species: thus Desmarest, when he, placed India among the habitat of the common bear, appears by his description to have confounded the Malay: or long liped bear with that species. _I propose to divide the genus into, ) 4 I. Those which have short conical,recurved claws, adapted for climbing. « / t This group may be considered as the type of the genus, amdit contains the LS int 1, European Bears, which have convex foreheads and long heels, as } : 1. Ursus Arctos. Lin. Syst. Nat.i. @ albida, 2. Ursus collaris. £. Cuvier, Mamm. Lithog. 3. - Pyreniacus. . Cuvier, Mamm. Lithog. The two latter may be only varieties of the former species, and Ursus Tibethianus may, perhaps, be more properly referable to this group. ? 2. The American Bears, with flattened foreheads and short heels, as 4, Ursus Americanus, Pallas.» U. gularis, Geoff. 60 Mr. Gray on the... {Juny, The cinnamon, or yellow bear, of Catton’s animals, and the chocolate bear, both of which are alive in the Tower, may, per- haps, be considered as varieties of this species; but I regret that I ani not enabled to yerify this fact, as I haye never seen either a live specimen or skull of the type of the species, which would have enabled me to:speak With more precision, . Il, Those which have long compressed, claws, fitted for, dig- a This group contains three sections, all which differ consider- ably from the type of the genus, but the centre one particularly, as may be judged from the fact, that it has ever been placed in a different part of the system. 5 Pie AO. 18 Jk, aa 8. The Great American Bear, which agrees with the other American bears in theirgeneral form, but differs from them in its longer heels, are very large nearly straight claws,as) _ «6. Ursus, ferox, Desm. Ursus cinereus, U. horibilis, Ord. _. The grisly bear of Lewis and Clark’s Travels. Danis ferox, nob. . This species is very distinct from the two presumed varieties of the other American species, next to which it is placed in the Tower, where it has been kept for 15 years, as is well known to most of the visitors, by the name of Old Martin : it is upwards of seven, feet long, and exceedingly strong ; but itis obedient to the keeper, and sits upon its haunches when desired. it This animal exhibits in a remarkable manner the. fastidious- ness of zoological artists, It has been in this country for many years, and most of the animals which surround it in the above- named collection have been published two, and some even three times over, while this has never even been drawn, I cannot find that any figure has been published of it on the Continent, which is not to be wondered at when we consider its habitation. Mr. Say, in his excellent account of the animals collected in Mr. James’s interesting Travels to the Rocky Mountains, refers to a figure belonging to that work, which may be in the American edition, but it is certainly not to be found in the English one. This section will form.a very. distinct subgenus, for which I pro-~ pose the name of Danis. Clinton considered it to be the recent state of i enionye of Jeferson, but Mr, Cuvier has referred the latter animal to his genus Megatherium;. but as it is probable that it will at least form a distinct genus, I cannot use the above expressive name for the recent animal, as it has been preoccu- pied for the fossil one. fs Penh 4, The Asiatic Bears, which have yery long, extensile, and exceedingly mobile lips, narrow, long, and extensile tongue, ve broad and rather depressed heads, and are, usually of a dar brown olour,, with a white forked. mark upon their chest, as... bce a Prochilus labiatus, nob. Ursus labiatus, Cav, Bra- -dypus ursinus, Shaw. Prochilus ..,... liliger, Me- ‘Yursus. Meyer, Chrondorhyuchus; Fischer 1825.)) Genus Ursus of Cuvier. a! 2). “P¥ochilus “Malayanus, nob, * * Ursus’ Malayanus, on BOM ae 2? Gd 50b Hy SBI BIO, GAB haQOTig ‘2°78, Ursus Tebethianus. F. Cuv. Mamm. Litho: The Spécimien ‘of the’ first described species of this division was destituté of cutting teeth, and was, thérefore, against the example of Linnaeus himself, ia with the Bradypi, the only gelius possessing canine teeth and’ grinders, and wanting the cutting teeth, under the name of Bradypus ursinus, or Ursine Sloth.” The illustrious Mli¢er, not knowing that the: éutting téeth had been destroyed, but aware that it had not the habits — of the'sloth, by ‘its external organisation, formed it intd a‘ genus - distinct from them under the name of Prochilus. Méyer, regard+ less of the name of Illiger, g@ave it the name of Melursus, ‘and Fischer in ‘his Zoognomia that of Chrondyrhynthus.’ Tt was Buchanan, it‘his Travels in'the Mysore, that first pointed it-out as being a bear. This sroup forms a very distinct subgenus; I should, therefore, recommend the adoption of the former name of Iliger’s, On aécoutit of its aptness and pridrity forthe whole. ede Ps A BGA eb ALT) «honk a 1 P R i hive séen four specimens of the Prochilus labiatus; all of which had their cutting teeth destroyed; but whether it' was _ done before they arrived in this country, or by the showmen to. - make them’ sloths, ‘and’thus agree with their bills, know ‘not, nor could ever discover. — RO) ERTIES TERT The Malay Bearis very remarkable for the depressed form 6f its body, and its low mannér of walking ; for its body (when in confinement at least) nearly touches the ground, and its feet are uncurved so as nearly to touch each other. It was first described by Sir Stamford Raffles in the Linnean Transactions, and figured by Mr. Griffith, from a drawing by my friend Major Hamilton Smith, after a stuffed specimen in the Museum, which was pre- sented to that’establishment by Lady Banks ; and again by-him in his Tratislation ‘of Cuvier’s Animal Kingdom, from an excel- lent drawing by Landseer, after the specimen at present alive in the Tower; but the attitude of neither of the plates gives the peculiar appearance of the animal when it walks—a peculiarity to be observed, but not so fully developed in the Ursus labiatus, ‘The Malay Bear has the very peculiar depressed broad- rounded head, the thin lengthened snout, very long, extensile, harrow tongue of the Prochilus labiatus, with which it was ¢on- - founded by the showmen when it was first brought alive to this country.* “I” have not been able to learn if’ the same peculiari- ties are’ found in the Tibeth' Bear, 'as'I only knew that species from the figtire and description of Mr. Frederic Cuvier. “T have, therefore, ‘placed ii ‘this ‘section ‘with a mark of doubt.’ “Pie 3 fs Bi pQU SIG Hk SET art soo \\ ae he QE ELS: 3 Oo kd % 4 AURUCOU AE Tle eva! rae os And this ‘species ‘has been, confounded together on the Coritinent. 62 | _ Analyses, of Books. (Juny, latter species agrees with the rest of the section, in having the white mark on the neck, but this character is also found in the European species. sorrel The peculiarity of the nose and lips is found in a slight degree in the American Bears, especially the Ursus haereblins bias I have not observed it in the common brown bear. Sides Dr. Leach ppured the skull of the Malay Bear from:the spe- cimen in the Museum, if I recollect rightly, under anew generic name ; but I can neither find the skull, or a copy of the litho- raphic plate: the former might have been given by Sir Joseph Renks for his private collection; and with regard to the latter, I do not much regret its scarcity, as it would. only. be adding another name to the numerous synonyma already given to the subgenus to which it belongs. | " ) Ill. Those species which have rather short uncurved. claws, and broad hairy paws for swimming : they are usually of a white colour, and have long heads, and several. false grinders in the space between the canine and grinding teeth, as the Sea Bears. Ursus Maritimus, Lin. nob. Thalarctos polaris. | Thave heard several zoologists observe, that they believe there are two species confounded under the name of the Polar Bear; but I have examined several skulls, and seen three living speci- mens, all of which certainly belonged to one species. This species forms a very distinct subgenus on account of its ‘habits; colour, the form of its skull, and the number of its false grinders. I propose to designate it with the name of Thalarctos. : ’ ArtTIcLeE XI. ANALyseEs oF Books . ‘Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, for Pr EST oeTaA. | Part TL if tf The following papers are contained in this part of the Phi- losophical Transactions :— i : teks _ XI. Some curious Facts respecting the Walrus and Seal, dis- covered by the Examination of Specimens brought to England by the different Ships lately returned from the Polar Circle... yy Sir E. Home, Bart. VPRS. In a letter addressed to Sir H. Davy, Bart. Pres. RS. _ Some account of this communication. will be found in the Annals‘for April 1824, in the report of the proceedings of the Royal Society, p. 307. II. Additional Experiments and Observations on the Appli- cation of Electrical Combinations to. the Preservation of the -1825.] Philosophical. Transactions'for 1824, Part I. 63 ‘Copper Sheathing of Ships, and to.other Purposes.. By. Sir-H. Davy, Bart. Pres. RS. ee ti This valuable paper was given entire in our number for April lasts. 6405 2006 | | XII. On the Apparent Direction of Eyes in a Portrait. By W. H. Wollaston, MD. FRS.and VP. i » As it would be impossible to convey a satisfactory knowledge of the contents of. this curious explanation of an interesting question in perspective, without giving the beautiful engravings by which it is illustrated, in which the skill of the President of ‘the Royal Academy has been exerted; we must refer such of our readers, as may be particularly interested in the subject, to the original communication: the following extracts, however, em- brace the chief points of inquiry, and will indicate the nature of the explanation.» © ae ‘«¢ When we consider the precision, with which we commonly judge whether the eyes of another person are fixed upon our- ‘selves, andthe immediateness of our perception, that even a momentary glance is turned upon us, it is very surprising that the grounds of so accurate a-judgment are not distinctly known, and that most persons, in attempting to explain the subject, would overlook some of the circumstances by which it’ will appear they are generally guided. } is hedat yh “‘ Though it may not be possible to demonstrate, by any de- cisive experiment.on the eyes of living persons, what those cir- cumstances are, still we may find convincing arguments to prove their influence, if it can be shown, in the case of portraits, that the same ready decision we pronounce on the direction of the eyes is founded in great measure on the view of parts which, as far as I can learn, have not been considered as as- sisting ourjudgment. | “ Previous to a full examination of this question, one might _ dimagine that.the circular form of the iris would be a sufficient criterion of the direction in which an eye is looking; since, when the living eye is pointed to us, this part is always cir- cular, but cannot appear. strictly so, when. turned in such a manner that. we view it with any degree of obliquity. But, upon farther consideration, it is. evident that we cannot judge of exact circularity with sufficient precision for this purpose, even when the whole circle is fully seen, and in many cases we see too small a portion of the circumference of the iris to distinguish whether it is circular or elliptic. -' Moreover, in a. portrait, ‘although the iris be drawn most traly circular, and consequently will appear so’ when we have a ‘direct view of it; still, in all oblique positions, itmust be seen as an ellipse. And. yet:the eye, as 1s well. known, apparently con- tinues to look at the spectator, even when he moves to view 64 SO Analyses of Books OO ETeny, eee obliquely; and seés ‘thentof'a form most’ “decidedly Aliptic IO HE .OF 8a" 9 “The teagon why’ tlie eye ‘of a portrait seem ‘to’ follow ed will be "hereafter ‘considered, but ‘cannot ‘Be ti hely ane uiitil ‘the \eiveumstances on which a prado ih the ‘front view depends, “are fully widerstood. Read 0 coma 'y wy RRO “TP qe examine with attention the eyes of a to us, looking horizontally within ie wt either side of us, we'find that the most per tke appearance Et or in Pehenignd eis raietaneal ‘thotion, isawinerease and decrease of the white patts”at, the angles of each eye; dependent on their being: ig eri into “nose. Dy fcetieus ition aa ‘eye, the two portions vec ht are'‘hearly equal. °: By this ty; we’ ate/able to d a wee is looking moro ap ‘to he Tight ‘ndt' to his t forward in’ a thie direction of ‘his: mn0se (a8 weed 6 ‘ wof his face. Me GPRBY GAINS Agere a ocdny » £016, on the « he tum his eyes to one side, We ate ime mediately made sensible of the ¢han ek bi diminution of the white of the eye 6n that side to-whi turn; and by this test alone we-are able. to estimate in what degree ‘they: é indirection fronv the face to which they belong. «+ prep ieeer “ But their direction with reference to-ovitselves i perter “<4 distinet frou the former ; and in judging of this, it, pto~ bable thaty even in viewing real eyes, we are n the'eyes alone, but are unconsciously aided: by. the: | a of theventire face; for inva. oeerilty tae atieas Vin rther condition admits of ‘being pean bya distinet “and decisive experiment. 9) ets ER OM Bed” sdf a'pair of eyes ‘be'dirateniividh cortetiness, looking at the stator, at such moderate deviation from the a ‘ ob the face as.is tsual in the best portraits, w be added to: ‘suggest the turn of face, the direction of seems . vague, and:so undetermined, that their direction’ will not appear the same to. all persons; afd to’ the same “person they may be made appear directed éither to him or from hin by. the addition of other features pg Yb y tarking: that easen- tial cireumstance—the position of the face.” "~ Batik Dr, Wollaston then proceeds to explain the~ Ninstietive engravings already mentioned, which completely establish’ his itions, and: — the subjoined remarks on @ collateral sub- ject at the conclusion of the paper.) OF ANE “ With this previous knowledgé of the: influence which'the general we Sea of the face ina portrait has upon the apparent direction of the eyes, we shall be prepared to examine why, if they look at the spectator when he soni in front of the picture, they follow, and appear to look.at him in every other direction. 41825(] Philosophicad Lransactions for 1824, Part IT. 65 “‘ If we consider the effect produced by our change of position with reference to any other perspective drawing, we finda similar,permanence of apparent position of the objects repre- sented with regpéct to ourselves, and corresponding change of direction. with reference to the plane of representation, of to the room in which it hangs; and we shall be able, in this case, distinctly to trace its origin inthe simplest principles of per- spective drawing. . vig alt 3 OG i MBPIQUO FS . When. two objects are seen on the ground at different dis» — tances from us in the same direction, one will appear, and must be represented, exactly above the other... The Ime joming. them 4s. an uptight line om the plane of the picture, and represents a vertical plane passing through the eye and these objects. When -objects that are at different elevations, are said to be in:a line with us, the strict meaning is, that they are so placed that. a vertical plane from: the: eye: would pass through them. | Now, since the upright line (drawn or supposed to be drawn on the plane of the picture, and representing a vertical plane) will be seen upright, however far we move to one side, and will :con- tinue to represent a vertical plane, it follows that) the same ‘set _-of objects, even in the most oblique. direction in which the re- presentation can be viewed, are still in the same vertical plane, and consequently will seem still to be :in a line with us; exactly as in the front view; seeming, as we move, to turn round with -us; from: their first: direction, toward any oblique position that we may chooseto assume.) ) whet) benbaw, > » “In portraits,the phenomena of direction with reference to the ‘spectator, and corresponding change of apparent position in ‘space. when he moves to either side, depend: precisely on the .same principles. . A. nose drawn directly.in front with its central line upright, continues directed to the spectator, though viewed obliquely. Or, if the. right: side:of the nose is Tepresented, it must: appear directed to the right of the: spec- tator in all situations; and eyes that turn in a due degree from ‘that direction towards the spectator, so as to look at him when ‘viewed in front, wall continue:to do so when viewed obliquely. ' > MIVe Further Particulars of a. Case of: Pneumato- Thorax. By John Davy, MD. FRS;)) ) dpeigads ottoaly A brief abstract of this communication will be found in the Annals for May 1824, p. 383. ies ot . » XV. On the Action of finely divided Platinum on Gaseous Mixtures, &c. By Dr. Henry. | y _ Givew at: large in-our last number. peo (To be continued) New Series, vou. x. ¥ 66 \ Proceedings of Pliilosophical Societies: \ [Juur, ) Articie XII. | Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. ' Lalas ROYAL SOCIETY. : June 2.—A paper was read, entitled, ‘* Microscopical Obser- vations on the Materials of the Brain, Ova, and Testicular Secretions of Animals, to show the Analogy that exists between them ; ‘by Sir Everard Home, Bart. VPRS.” | ye | June 9.—The following papers were ‘read: >) Description of a Method: of determining the Direction of the Meridian; by John Pond, Esq. FRS. Astronomer Royal. ' Further Researches on hePreservetiiit of Metals by Electro- chemical! Combinations ; by Sir Humphry Davy, Bart.. PRS. Tn this paper Sir H. Davy enters into a minute detail of the causes which operate in producing foulness, as itis called, or the adhesion of weeds and shell fish to the copper of ships. ‘This he attributes to a crust of carbonate and submuriate of eopper;and carbonate of lime and magnesia, which gradually fix upon the sheathing, and which by rendering the copper in the surrounding parts positive, occasions its corrosion, so that shi ‘are sometimes found, in the common course of wear, foul m_ 3. t some parts, and the copper worn. in holes in other parts. > He conceives that proper protection, if not in excess, by pro- ducing a similarity of electrical state or of disposition to chemical change in every part of the copper, will prevent the rapidity of its wear without giving it any disposition to foulness ; but if iron or zinc are used in such quantities as to save all the copper, then they will increase the disposition of that metal ‘to ‘become covered with weeds and shell fish, except in cases: of rapid motion, such as in steam boats, where the chemical action of sea water upon copper may be entirely prevented without the possi- bility of the copper benoining foul: bs Midamiie tei tO8s -» The President describes a number of experiments which show that the most rapid motion does not interfere with the principle _ of protection. He describes the relations of this property of electrochemical agency to the conducting powers of metals and ‘of fluid conductors; and he shows that a certain contact with fluid conductors, even upon a small scale, is sufficient to enable oxidable metals to preserve more difficultly oxidable metals ; and that slight chinnieaan changes are sufficient for. the effect. Iron. in a solution of brine which contains no air is very slowly acted upon, and yet iron in brine in one cup will preserve copper in sea water in another cup, provided they are) connected by a moist thread of cotton. He points out the limits to this kind of action, and illustrates it by a very curious experiment. If of two 1828.]) vol ise. dnnean Sotietye so 67 vessels containing salt and water connected by moist cotton, and forming an electrochemical series by, means of zinc and iron, a few drops of solution of potash or soda be poured into that con- taining the iron, the-action of the iron on the sea water will be diminished ; but the copper will still be protected: but if the solution containing the iron be made alkaline to any extent, the copper will begin to-corr si and the iron will become the electro- negative metal,’ _ Sin Humphry. nada this paper by the important practical. con- clusion, that copper may be preserved by nails, or masses of zinc or.iron placed under the sheathing; and that in this: way there is less loss:of the oxidable metal, which is partly revived upon the interior ofthe copper, so that the same metal will act for a long time}/and,thus.protectors may be applied .toisave the whole or any portion, of, the copper without interfermg with the external, surface of, it, and without the deposition of aby matter likely to cause adhesion..| June 16.—MM. Bessel, Fnoke, Fresnel, and Brongniart, wail Count Chaptal, were elected Foreign Members; C, M. Clarke, Esq. was admitted.a Fellow of the Dooley; ; and portions of the — following: papers’ were read :— : On some new Gompounds of Carbon and Hydrocen; ‘ond on certain other Products; obtained during the: Decomponition of Oil by Heat; by M. Faraday, FRS. . )Aecount of the hepetitisiny of M, Arago’s Experiments on the Magnetism developed in various Substances during the Act of Rotation; by a rbokbages Eagp: ERS, and J, F, W. Herschel, — Esq. Sec. RS. Experiments’ on Magnetism produced by Rotation ; by S. H, Cheistie, Esq. MA. FRS. . On-the Annual Variation of some of ie principal, Gxed Shares 5 by John Pond, Esq. PRS. | Description of an improved Hygrometer ; by Mr. T. Jones : : communicated by Capt. Kater, FRS. | On the Nature of the Function. of Mortality, and on a new Mode. of determining the: Value of Life Contingencies ; ; by Benjamin Gompertz, Esq, FRS, . | serge nator then nd jusininel to the 17th of November next. LINNEAN SOCIETY. March 16.—“Read a paper from R. A. Salisbury, Esq. FRS. PLS. &c. on the Trichomanes elegans of Mr. Radge ’s Plante Gwane. It appears that M. Bory de St. Vincent as- serts im the 6th vol. of the Dictionnaire Classique d’ Histoire Naturelle, under the article Kougere, that Mr. ‘Rudge’ ’s plant t.35, 18 composed :of' two ‘species of different genera, one of which Mr, Bory proposes as, a =. and: the ‘other, as consti+ F 68 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. (Jury, tuting a new genus, under the name of Hymenostachys. Mr. Pega however, insists, that M. Bory’s assertions are devoid of any foundation, and he attributes his criticisms to an igno- tance of the Latin language. In confirmation of this’ opinion, Mr. 8. exhibited the specimen itself from which the figure had been drawn, that he might afford ocular demonstration that it consisted of one individual. “To corroborate this opinion, he adduces the testimony of Professor Hooker, who, in his 52d plate of his’ Exotic Flora, refers to Mr. Rudge’s figure, and ‘gives a coloured one of T’ elegans, the involucrum of which contained ripe capsules. “The question being a matter of reference to the Society, the Vice President named Mr. Edward Forster, Mr. Bicheno, and Mr. Menzies, to investigate the matter, and report thereon, in pursuance of a bye-law of the Society.” - Dh ERO - April 5A’ valuable present of stuffed birds and fishes was received from Capt. King, collected'by him in his late expedi- tion to explore the north-west coast of New Holland. prin “The committee’ appointed at the preceding meeting made their report relative to Mr. Salisbury’s ‘paper on’ T’richomanes elegans ; and stated that the plant was represented to have been gathered in Guiana, by M. Martin and to have been purchased ay Mr. Rudge. It belongs to the genus ‘I’richomanes of Smith. . Bory asserts that the spike described as.the mature fructifi- cation, is of a totally different structure from the others, which are regarded as immature. It appears that Hooker did not doubt the fidelity of Mr. Rudge’s plant, though his own figure supports M. Bory’s opinion, inasmuch as the fronds there deli- neated differ from those in Mr. Rudge’s figure. M. Poiret has described, and M. Desveaux has both described and figured, the plant which corresponds with the fructification supposed to be mature. Weber and Mohr have also the same species. , | . : In the Banksian and Mr. Brown’s collection, were found several specimens of each of the two plants, alleged by the French author to be confounded in all stages of fructification. In every instance the Committee found the barren frond of Mr. Rudge’s specimen combined with the fructification which he calls the young; and as constantly the frond, figured by Hooker, with the spike whichis said to be mature. | . "The onrerr itself was also subject to’ their inspection ; and upon; a mnintite examination of it, they were’satisfied that it was. composed of two individuals. ‘They therefore ‘reported ‘that’ M. Bory ip mies to them to be justified in his’ conclhisions It was added, that they thought it but justice to Mr. Brown to. say, that Mr. Salisbury was correct im stating that M. Bory had’ fallen into ‘the error of making Mr. Brown adopt Willde- 1825} ' 4: Astronomical Society... i “69 now’s arrangement of the Ferns; whereas Mr. Brown’s..work made its,appearance in the same spring, but before Willdenow’s, and his,arrangement is materially different.” be eee ier A. farther portion of Dr. Hamilton’s, Commentary, on, the third,part of the Hortus Malabaricus was also read.) , ,. Vy ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY, May, 13.—The reading of Mr. Henry Atkinson’s, elaborate communication on the subject. of Refraction, was concluded. In the..course, of this paper the author has collected ,and_ar- ranged a, great variety of meteorological observations; made in different seasons, and at) different parts of the world, for the purpose.of, enabling him to ascertain. the mean temperature. at the, equator,and. 1m, different latitudes, as well as, the; law, of variation in the temperature, of the air at. different, heights above, the level of thesea. From these data he has: deduced formule, by the use,of which the computed. and observed mean temperatures in any given, place, or at; any given height, ap- pear, to,agree dn ja, remarkable manner... His. next inquiry:is, to ascertain the law by which the height and, the elasticity of ‘the airis,(connected ;, and. also, the relation between the elaste- city. .and,,deusity ,at any, given, -height... These, inquiries are guided by.observations.and experiments that have, been, made and.published. by; men..of eminence in this department of science... The..reasoning, and. deductions are.founded on. ac- knowledged facts; and hypothesis furnishes no part of the data from , which. the .tables,, founded on: these investigations, are computed, Astronomical observations supply no portion of the materials which form the basis of the computations, but all the results axe | obtained. by formule. depending on. optical prin- ciples; so,that.the near agreement. of the quantities contained in these ;tables (when: properly collected) with those given by the most approved modern tables of refraction proves that the various formule. by which these quantities were obtained are founded in.nature, as well.as happily applied. . The atmosphere is divided, into..a. variety of strata, and,each stratum. has its appropriate formula for determining its share of mean.refraction ; and. when, the different portions belonging tothe, diferent strata are put, together, in, succession, they constitute such an ar rangement of quantities as proceed .,by,,a, regular, gradation, or very nearly.so;, and, nothing but, a, close examination of the differences, can. detect. that the whole succession, has not de- pended on.,one,continued formula. Besides, the, ,atmospheric refractions, adapted, as. corrections for celestial observations, the author has ,applied, one of his formule successfully to de- termine the terrestrial refraction as it has reference to two objects standing in different elevations: so that whether this memoir be considered as a meteorological, geodetical, or astro- 70 Proceedings of Philosophiedl Societies; [Jwux, nomical communication, it cannot but be regarded as copious, elaborate, and interesting. nae 9 Lebei There was also laid before the meeting ‘an account’ of obser- vations made at Paramatta, in New South Wales, by Major- Gen. Sir Thomas Brisbane, KCB. Governor, &c.; communi+ cated in a letter to Francis Bailey, Esq. President of this Society. These refér to the solar eclipse on January 1, 1824; to several occultations of fixed stars by the Moon; to’ stars observed with the Moon near her parallel; to observations before and after the superior conjunction of ‘Venus’ with ‘the Sun, July and August 1824: to observations on the planet Uranus near the opposition in July 1824; and to observations on two comets, one of which was not observed in Europe. | Next there was read a report On the Properties and Powers of an Altitude and Azimuth Circle constructed by E, Trough- ton, and divided by T. Jones; drawn up by the Rev. W. Pearson, LLD., FRS. and Treasurer to this. Society. The peculiarities of the construction of this fine instrament cannot be adequately deseribed in an abstract. But some estimate may be observed of its accuracy from stating, that by comparing the mean latitude of South Kilworth Rectory (Leicestershire) with each and all of sixteen separate determinations, it does not differ more than one second and one-tenth from the extreme latitude ; that the true obliquity of the ecliptic at the December solstice 1824, as de- termined by this instrument, was 25° 27’ 44”,01; while the mean of the determinations of Delambre, Brinkley, and Bessel, is 23° 27’ 44,55. Observations on the pole-star, and another determination of the obliquity of the ecliptic, by a method sug- gested by Dr. Brinkley, serve still further to confirm the charae- ter of the instrument for accuracy, and the value of such an instrument when used by a skilful, scientific,:and experienced observer. : , pi tos ahi The reading was commenced ofa paper On the Construction and Use of some new Tables for determining the apparent place of about 3000 principal fixed Stars ; drawn up, at the request of the Council, by the President, the | June 10,—The reading of Mr. F. Baily’s introduction to the new Tables for determining the apparent places of 3000 fixed stars, was resumed and completed. This copious introduction commences with a historic sketch of the most important tables which have hitherto been published for similar purposes; none of which, however, are so extensive as the tables to which the present paper is introductory. They comprehend, first, all stars above the fifth magnitude wherever situated ; secondly, all the stars, not less than the s¢xth magnitude, situated within 30° of the equator; thirdly, all the stars, not less than the seventh magnitude, situated within 10° of the ecliptic. fter a few general observations, Mr, Baily speaks im succes- 1825.] Astronomical Society. 71 sion of the distinct topics of aberration, annual precession, and. nutation; exhibiting the analytical formule which have been proposed for the computation of their respective values at any time, past, present, or future; assigning the reasons for the adoption of those values of the constants which he has preferred ; and so transforming the several formule, as. to facilitate and effect their reduction into one class of comparative simplicity, which forms the basis of the tables themselves. Thus the total corrections for right ascension and declination respectively, assume the forms , , Aa=Aa+Bb+Cc+Dd At=Aad’+BU+ Cc'+ Dd! where the quantities denoted bya, 6, c, d, and the accentuated a’, b’, &’, d’, are constant for each star, while the quantities A, B, C, D, are common to every star. The quantities A, B, are rendered equally constant for all the stars by the assumption of a fictitious year, commencing at that moment when the Sun’s mean longitude at Greenwich at mean noon on Jan. 1, is 281°; which is, therefore, assumed as the tabular date, and the mode of adopting it to the current date is explained. v The author then explains the arrangement and use of the tables. The general catalogue of the stars is arranged in the order of the right ascensions, and reduced to Jan. 1, 1830. The ~ left hand page is confined to the right ascensions, the right hand page to the declinations. Col. 1, onthe left hand, exhibits the numbers of the stars. Col. 2, the names; to whichare prefixed Flamstead’s numbers, and the letters of the alphabet, by which they are usually distinguished. Col. 3, denotes the magnitudes of the stars. Col. 4, AR in time, for Jan. 1, 1830. Col. 5, the annual precession in time, The remaining columns contain the logs. of a, b, c,d, each previously. divided by 15 to reduce them to time. | ! } _ On the right hand page, Col. 1 is the same as Col. 1 on the left hand. Col. 2, exhibits the declinations of the stars, Jan. 1, 1830. Col. 3, annual precession. Cols. 4,5, 6,7, the values of a’, b’, c’, d’. Then there are two columns headed B and P, de- noting the corresponding numbers in the catalogues of Bessel and Piazzi respectively; while the last column. is reserved for those which are to be found in Hevelius, Lacaille, Mayer, Zach, &c;,; ¢ ’ O24 ox Juive 4 There. are (several subsidiary tables which Mr... Baily also succinctly explains; and he further developes the,principles of correction for proper motion, &c. when necessary... .. 5. The general rule |for the use. of the tables is this viz. Take out from the general catalogue, and Dpposiis the given star, the ’ logarithms \of a, b;:c, d,and a’, b’, c’, d’, with their, proper: signs 3 7S Scientific Notices—Chemistry. [Jui and’ from the subsidiary. Tables T.and IL. oppésite the given day, the logs. of A, B, C, D, with their proper signs; : hike must be. written down under the preceding logarithms then add each pairA,a; B,6; &c. together; and take out respectively the natu- ral numbers corresponding to the sum of the two logarithms ; and observing that the signs only affect the ‘resulting natural numbers, incorporate them by addition or subtraction accord- ingly ; the amount will be the total correction required ; that atising froma, b, c, d, being.the correction in‘ AR; that, from a’, b’, c’, d’, the correction in Declination. é gd) omnees The tables are arranged to mean solar time, which, it is presumed, will extend their utility; And-it»may be observed, that, by way of artificial memory to facilitate the recollection of the precise subject to which each column refers (as in B for Bessel, P for Piazza,’ already mentioned), Mr. Baily has made A B represent the quantity by which the A B erration is deter- mined, C the quantity by which the pre C esszon is determined, and. D that by which the D eviation or Nutation is determined, These contrivances, though avowedly subordinate, will not be despised by those who know how much the. pursuits of science are-at all times promoted by the introduction of a happy techni- calmnemonics,. «2 |: : | ih; os he : After the reading of this elaborate and interesting paper, the Society adjourned to Friday. the 11th of November next. . 7c} ARTICLE: SUMED erste od to - SCIENTIFIC NOTICES. = ) CHEMISTRY. ae 1, Preparation of pure Potash. ' Mr. Donovan proposes the following as a more éasy method of obtaining pure potash than the methods commonly employed. The crystallized bicarbonate of potash of the shops is to be peers y dissolving it in water at the temperature of 100°. The saturated solution must be filtered and poured into a flat dish, and placed before the fire; in a few hours a crop of crys- tals of the pure bicarbonate will be obtained, The crystals may then be rinced with a very small quantity of water, and dried on blotting paper. = “OU Ney ae iiteala yk dia bY ela | The crystals are now to be dissolved in water, and boiled with their own weight of hydrate of time for 16'minutes ; the solution is then to be filtered im. the. usual manner.* We have thus at *T re pe): ue ‘thon af the ‘ninple buts ° ‘ invented by Be Detioyga tr MEARE, sclads Out St contact. with Che'atmosphere.- 1825:) .» Scientific. Notices —Chemistry. 79 ve 87a bh 8 necessary. 9» | | | athe - Asa test to: ascertain whether or not a solution of potash be perfectly caustic, chemists make use of a dilute acid; but this method gives ‘no information unless the acid be added in excess. A small quantity will only displace the carbonic acid from one pasteon of potash; but the remaining portion will unite with the berated acid so as to prevent any appearance of effervescence, Thus an alkali that.is in fact. partly carbonated will not be affected apparently. by the affusion of a small, quantity of a test acid.—( Dublin Philosophical Journal.) , 2. Account of Mr. Dalton’s Process for determining the Value of Indigo. ~'Tn order to find the value of any sample of indigo, Mr. Dalton directs us'to take one grain carefully weighed from a mass finely pulverised. Put this into a wine glass, and drop two or three grains of concentrated sulphuric acid uponit. Having triturated them well, pour in water, and transfer the coloured liquid into a tall cylindrical jar, about one inch inside diameter. When the mixture is diluted with water, so as to show the flame ofa candle through it, mix the liquid solution of oxymuriate of lime with it, agitating it slowly, and never putting any more in till the smell of the preceding portion has vanished. ‘The liquid soon becomes transparent, and of a beautiful greenish yellow appearance. After the dross has subsided, the clear liquid may be passed off, and alittle more water put into the sediment, with a few drops of oxymuriate of lime, and a drop of dilute sulphuric acid ; if more yellow liquid is produced, it arises from particles of indigo which have escaped the action of the oxymuriate before, and must be added to the rest. The value of the indigo Mr. Dalton considers to be in proportion to the quantity of real oxymuriate of lime necessary to destroy its colour. - He is of opinion also that the value may be well estimated by the quantity and inten- sity of the amber-coloured liquid which the indigo produces, which is found independently of any valuation of the oxymuriate of lime, The following results obtained with several samples show the great value of this method. _ Cee : i i Sie ee | Oxymuriate of line used to destroy its colour. Precipitated and sublimed indigo 140 grains DREMEL SS cosines ncsvscesas | FU 74 - Scientific Notices—Mineralogy. (Jun, Another sample. .......0.....6 70 grains’ Pwo 8ther indigod (isk APNG | , Two other samples. .......4..... 50 Another sample .........0..0.65 40 Another sample. .............. 80 or 35 Mr. Dalton is of opinion that to destroy indigo by oxymuriatic acid, twice the quantity of oxygen is necessary that is required to revive it from the hoe solution. . See Manchester Memoirs, New Series, vol. iv. p. 437, 438, 439.—(Edin. Jour. of Science.) MINERALOGY. 3. On the Geological Situation of the Beryl, discovered in the County of Down. By Sir Charles Giesecke. This substance, which had been discovered some years ago in the county of Wicklow, in Ireland, in a coarse granular gra- nite, has also been found lately in the county of Down, between Kilkeele and Newcastle, fifteen miles from Rostrevor, where it occurs in a coarse granular granite, which is more or less decom- posed. It is very remarkable that this granite bears an extraor- dinary resemblance to the granite of Adontschelon, in Dauria, in which the beryls are found there. It is of a perfect crystal- line structure, all its constituent parts presenting more or less perfect crystals. Those of rock crystal are the most distinct, and are generally of a brown colour, of different shades.. The felspar is generally of a milk-white and yellowish-white, seldom of an ochre-yellow colour. Mica occurs only in small silver- white and greyish-white particles, and is wanting entirely in some parts of the rocks, particularly where the beryl is found in veins. The beryl itself occurs in a part of the Morne mountains, about three miles from the shore, partly in small veins, partly irregularly imbedded in the rock, and partly in detached and broken crystals in the sand of decomposed granite, and in the overlaying bog land. Then follows a description of the beryl and its crystalline forms, which our limits oblige us to quote very briefly. Their colour is principally blue, of various shades—sometimes green, and pale wine-yellow. Some of the crystals present, on the — end of their lateral edges, towards the terminating edges, per- fect triangular delineations of a pearl-white colour, which have the appearance of a previous truncation of the , terminating angles, filled up. again by some process of nature.:| The largest crystals were eon four to five inches long, and one inch in diameter. The form of the crystals is that of a six-sided prism, perfect, and variously truncated. iszih OF sez0yorg ! The rock crystal which accompanies ‘the’ beryl is:of different ly of brown,seldom of a greyish white, and yéllowish-white colour. , 4825.] . Scientific Notices—Mineratogy. "5 The common felspar occurs of a milk-white, yellowish-white, and ochre-yellow colour. It exhibits sometimes a faintly opa- lescent play of colour similar to that of Adularia. It is found in ‘a crystalline form, and in regular crystals.—( Dublin Philosophi- cai Journal.) i 4, Description of Leveyne, a new Mineral Species. | The following abstract is taken from Dr. Brewster’s paper,~in the Edinburgh beasts of Science for April, 1825. : ~The mineral, of which I propose to give a brief description, was kindly transmitted to me for examination about a year ago, by Mr. Heuland. .In the memorandum which accompanied: it, Mr. Heuland stated that he suspected it to be new, and upon examining its optical properties, and comparing it with those minerals with which it seemed to be most closely allied, I had no doubt that it constituted a new and interesting species. | _. This mineral occurs in the cavities of an amygdaloidal rock, from Dalsnypen, in Faroe, and sometimes accompanies the chabasie and analcime, but particularly a new variety of the hheulandite. : . : , : (Ge _.. Although this mineral is evidently a compound one from the distinctness of the re-entering angles ; yet this composition is not seen when examined by polarised light, through the faces perpendicular to the axis. This circumstance would of itself have been sufficient to show that it has only one axis of double refraction, but L determined this to be the case by the direct exa- mination of the polarised rings. Its double refraction is nega- tive, like that of caleareous spar, and other obtuse rhomboids, and though not great, yet the images may be easily separated. Its ordinary refraction is a little greater than that of almond oil, and very nearly the same as that of primitive chabaste. . Lhave sent a specimen containing a few minute crystals of this substance to M. Berzelius for analysis; but I have not yet received the results which he has obtained from them. : Itis not soluble in acids, nor dves it gelatinise with them. It whitens and intumesces with heat like chabasie and mesotype, and, according to Mr. Haidinger’s observations, it yields with salt of phosphorus a transparent globule, which contains a skeleton of silica, aud becomes opaque on cooling. uae Cleavage, indistinct. Fracture imperfect conchoidal. Lustre vitreous. Colour white:.°Streak white. Sem:trans- parent. LL). a | TSW Este Brittle. -Hardness:=' 4:0. 3 an tous 3 I propose to distinguish this species by the name of Leveyne, m compliment to MriA. Levy, M.A: of the University of Paris, who is already well known:to mineralogists,by his crystallogra- 76 : Scientific Notices— Miscellaneous. (Jury, phic acquirements, and by his determination of several new and AInteresting mineral species.~-(Edin, Jour. Science.) _ *,* Weare obliged to omit Mr. Haidinger’s crystallographic observations on Leveyne, as they ‘cannot ‘bewell understood without a figure.— Ed, _, MiscELLANEOUWS, ae eee 5. Astronomical Prize. ach noaadte i At a Sitting of the Academy of Sciences of Pati oii thé 23d of May, the astronomical prize was nanaeey BS ed to Mr. Herschel and Mr. South for their observations of 38 aeable and triple stars, communicated to the Royal Society of London, and by them published in their Transactioms...45 §6 99) 60090 6. Falling Star seen.at Mid-day. On the [3th of August, 1823, at a quarter-past eleven in ‘the forenoon, as I was employed in measuring” the’ zenith distances of the pole-star to determine the latitude, a luminous body passed over the field of the universal instrument telescope, a ag which was somewhat greater than that of the pole-star. Its apparent motion was from, below upwards ; but as the telescope shows images in an,inverted posyians its real motion, like that of everyfalling body, was from aboye downwards.....It passed over the telescope.in the space of a second, or a,second and a ‘half, and its motion was neither perfectly equal, nor rectilinear, but resembled:very much the unequal and)somewhat.serpentine motion of an ascending rocket, from the unequal burning of the charge, and the irregular reaction of the stream of air issuing from it on the atmospheric air. It was thus evident that this meteor moyed in our atmosphere, but it must have been at a considerable height, since its angular motion was so slow. This is, perhaps, the only instance in which a shooting star has been seen at mid-day in clearsunshine. Hithitien (Edin. Phil. Jour.) | __ 7. Notice regarding Copernicus. — se at The name of this celebrated astronomer was written, Kopper- nick; he was a canon.and physician, and occupied, ,himselfitin directing buildings. -The aqueducts: which he :constructediat: Graudenz, Thorn, and Dantzig, still exist. He itook/24.-yearsctu produce his famous astronomical system, againstowhi¢h- the thunders of the Vatican were hurled when the author Was dead! The sentence of condemnation was only re ee ae nv 1821; Copernicus died i 1548. The mon ae which Bishop Kromer erected to him in the cathedral of, elleubou gv no Jon-" ger exists. Prussia claims Copernicus as one of. er, Sons, although, at this period, Thorn did not belong td the: “USSIADSs : —(Edin, Phil. Jour.) ee eal tS if ) 1825.] New Scientific Books. EF “ARTICLE XIV. NEW SCIENTIFIC BOOKS. PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION, Travels in Brazil, Chili, Peru, and the Sandwich Islands, by F, G. Matheson, Esq. : The Mechanic’s Common Place Book, by Olinthus Gregory, LL.D. of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. I vol, 8vo, with nume- rous Diagrams. The English Flora, by Sir James E. Smith, Pres. Lin. Soc.’ Vol! 3. Disquisitions on painted Greek Vases, and their Conexion with the Eleusinian and other Mysteries, by J. Christie. | JUST PUBLISHED. __. Icones. Fossilium Sectilium Centuria Prima. By C, G. Konig. Small folio.. 10s. coloured; 7s. 6d. plain. « Elements of Operative Midwifery. By D. Davis, MD. Illustrated. with numerous Plates. 4to. 2/. Qs. | Key to Nicholson’s and Rowbotham’s Algebra. 7s. 6d. boards. 8s. bound. | 3 BVM CT Holbroke on Hydrocele. 8vo, 45.6d. = ’ Anew Theory of Light. By W. Hunt. 2s. 6d. Reid's Introduction to Chemistry. 2 vols. 12mo. 15s. 6d. ' Ainslie on the Cholera Morbus of India. 3s. 6d. © “The Dictionary: of Mechanical Science, enriched with apnarii of 100: ner and Cuts. By Dr. Jamieson. vPart'I.) 5s. ARTICLE XV. hi NEW PATENTS. W. Turner, Winslow, Chester, saddler, and. W. Mecedilie; Park- street, Grosvenor-square, coach-maker, for an soya eamneat on collars for draft horses.—April 2. °° R. W. Brandling, Low Gosforth, near. Newcastle-upon-Tyne, for improvements in rail-roads, and carriages to be employed thereon, and elsewhere.—April 12. : W. Shalders, Norwich, . jeather-cutter, for a. gravitating expressing fountain for raising and conveying, water .or any. other; fluid for. amy purpose.—April 12.. W. Gilman, , Whitechapel. road, engineer, and J. W. Sowerby, “aa chin-lane, merchant, for improvements in generating steam, and on engines | to’ be worked by steam or other elastic fluids,—April 13. oT. Sund sy a Crdom’s, Hill Cottage, Blackheath, for a newconi- biflation of faél/—2A pril 20. C. Ogilvy. Bevulsss-baildisis, Gray's inn, for-an ‘hptoved appara- tus for storing gase+-Apeil 20. . 78 »\ New Patents, [Jvy, J. Broomfield, Islington, near Birmingham, engineer, and J. Luck- cock, Edgbaston, near Birmingham, forimprovements in the machinery for pro elling vessels.—A pril 20, 4 L. W. Wright, Wellclose-square, Middlesex, engineer, for improve- ments on apparatus for washing or bleaching of linens, cotton, &c.— April 20. ; nc ahokbed Aw L. Hunout, Brewer-street, Golden-square, for improvements in artillery, musquetry, and other fire-arms.—April 23, . TyA. Roberts, Monford-place, Kennington-green, for a method of preserving potatoes, Ang other yegetables,—April 23, ] : , §. Ryder, Gower-place, Euston-square, coach-maker, foranimprove-. ment in carriages, by affixing the pole to the carriage by new invented aratus.—A pril 28. hia eg Re lesitih . Dunn, King’s-row, Pentonville, for an.improved apparatus, for the purpose of beneficially separating the infusion of tea or coffee from its dregs.—April 30. | ae, 7 | _.W. Davis, Leeds, engineer, for improvements in machinery for reducing or converting wool into slivers .or threads, of any desired length, unlike worsted, namely, presenting more numerous hair points projecting from the surface of the slivers or threads.——May 7, . TD. Hill, the younger, Ashton-under-Line, land surveyorand.engineer, for improvements in the construction of railways and tram-roads, and in carriages to be used thereon, and on other roads.—May 10... E. Elliss, Crexton, near Rochester, lime merchant, for an improved brick, or substitute for brick—May 14,000 | ta hig S. Pratt, New Bond-street, camp equipage manufacturer, for an improved manner of combining wood and metal so. as-to form rails or rods adapted. to the manufacture of bedsteads, cornices, and. other works, where strength and lightness are desirable-—May 14... J.C. C. Raddatz, Salisbury-square, Fleet-street, merchant, for im- provements in steam-engines.—May 14. ages ytd J. F. Gravier, Cannon-street, merchant, for a method of regulating the emission or flow of gas from portable reservoirs, and of increasing the safety of such reservoirs.—May 14. * “ea . T. Pyke, Broadway, near Ilminster, for.an apparatus to prevent the overturning or falling of carriages.—May 14. - A: Galloway, West-street, engineer, for a machine for the forming and moulding of bricks and other bodies usually made from . clay, plastic, or any of the usual materials from which building and fire bricks are commonly made.—May 14. Ee rea (inte 2 ae | W. Grimble, Cow-cross-street, Middlesex, for improvements in the construction of apparatus for distilling spirituous liquors-—May 14. - E. Garsed, Leeds, flax-spinner, for improvements in a machine for hacking, combing, or dressing flax, hemp, and other fibrous materials. —May 14. P f -H. 0. Weatherley, Queen Anne-street, Saint Mary-le-bone, for a machine for the purpose of splitting, or cleaving of wood, and form- ing and securing the same in bundles.—-May 14. . - G. Gurney, Argyle-street, Hanover-squaré, surgeon, for an appara- tus for propelling carriages on common roads or on railways. May 14: - J. Young, Wolverhampton, cooper, for improvements in the con- struction of locks for doors, and other purposes, May 14... 1825.) Mrs Howard’s Meteorological Journct. ° 79° ARTICLE XVI. METEOROLOGICAL TABLE. Se ~ Barometer, THERMOMETER, af 1825, | Wind. Max. -} Min. Max. | Min. | Evap..| “Rain. 5th Mon. May 1) S 29'88 29°82 64 44, — 85 aS 29°86 29°82 62 4.6 — 12 3S Wi. 30:08 29°86 61 48 — 4S Wi 30:08 29°98 |. 71 57 — 15 5| E 29°98 29°95 69 52 on 1 ae 29°95 29°94, 74 52 — 7S Wy 30°04 29:95. 7). 74 1° $0, 94 1 § 6S 30°18 30°04 70 46 — — 9 WwW 30°19 30°18 70 | -50 — vis 10N Wi 30°19 30°14 70 | 52) - lil E ° 30°14 "| $0°02'' 1° 70 50 —_ 9 12) E. 30°04 | 30°02 | 64>] 50 a 1°70 13)... E 30°29 30°04, 82. AO od oe 8 14. N |. 3035 | 30°29 | 60 |" 36. — I5IN . El. 30:34 30°21 |) 66 4 42°05 °— 16N E| 30°28 30°21 60 42 | — WN E| 30°41 30°28 58 | 54 995°) ISIN E| 30°41 30°39 65 40 |) — “JOIN -E} 30°39 30°38 55 34 a 20) ° E 30°38 . |" 30'S > 58 38 _— 21) E 30°31 ae aR RE SR Ry —- "gor" EB | 30°23 | 30°11 | 70: «1° 45 23, W | 3011 | 29:92 | 80 | 50 |. 94]. 24) W 29-92 29°80 70...1:° 80 — 21S WI. 29°82 29°80 69 51 = 26 N 29°88 29°81 63 AA, vo 23 271 N 30°02 29°88 58 36 | — mx ~ 98\S ~“Wi 30°05 30°02 60 36 — ps 2915 ‘Wj 30°17 3005. | 64 | 39 | — . mm 30IN ©) El 30°46 | 30°17 1" 62 32 — Z OSS HN Eb °80°50° | 30°46 64° | 32 "04 30°50 | 29°80 80 32 | 3:97 | 3:45 ‘The observations in each line of the table apply to a period of twenty-four hours, at 9 A.M. on the day indicated in the first column. A dash denotes that Sra is iicluded in the next following observation. — 80. Mr. Howard's Meteorological Journal.’ * (Jury, 1825. ‘ _ REMARKS, © Fifth Month.—1. Fine day: rainy night. 2. Showery, 3, Fine. 4, Fine: some lightning in the evening. 5. A heavy shower about eight, a.m. 6—I1, Fine. 12,. Rainy.. 13, Some rain, a. m.: fine, p. m. _14=—23. Fine. 24, Clondy. 25, Fine. 26, Cloudy: rainy evening. 27. Fine. 28. Showery, 29—31, Fines - RESULTS. Winds: N,83 NE, 7; E, 7; &, 4; SW, 6; w, 35 NW, I Barometer : -Mean height “Fowthe month. .....cbestesegecsceseseeqersebeceg SOLIS inch tl ~For the lunar period, ending the 9th rebeeetereesenes 29-999 | For 13 days, ending the 11th (moon south) .......... 29°984 For 14 days, ending the 25th (moon notth).....+4..+ 30188 Thermometer: Mean height Ree On PRiGe OPE eatery 3 For the months..ssssesceseessecrseseiesenneeneees SETS ” For the lunar period, ending the 9th, . oeepeeveserees . 53-310 For 31 days, the sun in Taurus. vse eneeeeereeecens 54-096 Evaporation ee is oaihs Mccabe aflbondes LPC cabot Dis clec lt adie ie Rain. Pte eH eeee sa seeeenneeeaeseseeenssssrencsntansesseeensssenes 3°45 By a second guage s sidy'e cbse @hkie 4 als Rei ite « AMAR coke aA 3°54. ** At Tottenham, on the 30th, about six, ps m, a smart shower of tain, preceded by large hail, very well indicated the near approach of the ¢old current, ‘by which the temperature on the following nights was lowered to the freezing point. Laboratory, Stratford; Sixth Month, 21, 18%. = =. ROWARD. | ANNALS i OF ‘ PHILOSOPHY. aire guieat o@ad ‘ Emin Ste er wets deat 3) pate AA op F bd 9 OA! VOLES. teal Poa eetih: SeasdOR SI Secbsavs [isch ats oir hs $e a5 “ A UGUST, } BM. t! Sawe) ces Gite i t.. “ets eee) Seeker's Crise wide Gebel WM > 2a Articie I. Explanation of the Theory of the Barometrical, Measurement. of 3 | Heights. i 2 * Whatever the specific gravity of the mercury (or other liquid) of the barometer, 12,060 measures of the dry air.would equal: in weight one measure of ‘the ‘same liquid as that contained. in the barometer ; the liquid in the instrument and in the scales being of the same temperature. . wy Repeating the experiment with water substituted for mercury, and specifically lighter in the ratio of 18 to 1)‘the barometer would now exhibit a pressure of 13 times 26-0988 inches, or'839284 4 inchesy and‘one-thirteenth part of: 12,000 cubic feet, or 923 + cubic feet of the air, would counterpoise one, of water, . Yet as the densities of dry air are directly as the pressures, ‘we should infer that when the water barometer (carried to the requisite altitude) stood at 26:0988 inches, then would the density of the air there be ‘diminished one-thirteenth, and that 12,000 measures of it would be required to balance . one of water, Nt pps ACH a We: Sp fn ..{)'Phe value of-the inch or foot being lost might be easily regained by arcertaining how many measures of dry air equalled in weight one measure of the mercury of the baro- meter. Then dividing 313185:6 inches (= 26-0988 x 12-000) by the number of measures, (or ratio of the specific gravity of the mercury to that of the air) we should have ‘ a New Series, vo. x. G 82 Mr. Nixon on the Theory of the fAve. Method of calculating Heights. We may now proceed to the calculation of the vertical height of an object, situated within the atmosphere of the earth, the data being the height of the barometer at its summit and base, together with the temperature of the intercepted stratum of air (uniformly at-32° F.and perfectly dry). . . ,— | -To reduce the problem to the greater simplicity, we remark in the first place, that it is immaterial whether the instruments are placed in the same vertical line or not, for every point of the surface of the atmosphere of uniform temperature being at the same distance from the centre of the earth,* and the pressures ot directly as the depths below the surface of the fluid, the heights indicated by two or more barometers equidistant from the earth’s centre will be precisely the same without regard to their horizontal distance. Skcobdly, as the pressure exerted by fluids is uninfluenced by their figure, it is unnecessary to have regard to the area of the strata of the atmosphere, increasing (but not in the simple ratio of the height) as we ascend from the surface of the earth.; Thirdly, asthe height of the upper baro- meter exhibits the value of the pressure incumbent on the inter- cepted stratum of air, and thus affords the datum requisite to — ascertain its mean density as far as regards pressure, it would be superfluous even to inquire what is the fluid exerting that ressure. Lastly, as the absolute pressure exerted by a fluid is hirecth as the height multiplied by its mean specific gravity, if _ wemultiply the difference of the heights of the barometer at the two stations by the ratio of the mean specific gravity of the ee intercepted column of air to that of the mercury, we shall have the vertical height of that column ; equal to the difference of level of the base and summit of the object. The heights (or volumes) of equal weights of dry air being reci- procally as the pressures they sustain, and as every stratum of the atmosphere supports the total pressure of those above it, it has been demonstrated that when the altitudes above the lowest station increase in arithmetical progression, the heights of the mercury in the barometer decrease in geometrical progression. Such being the case, it is evident that the difference of some two consecutive terms of the geometrical series will be equal to, or coincide with the difference of any two consecutive terms of the arithmetical one; and that where this equality of differences takes place, the density of the air there will be equal to the mean density of the whole. Or, supposing the density of the column the height in inches of the barometer (if of the syphon construction with branches of equal diameter), without regard to the specific gravity of the mercury. t is almost superfluous to remark, that at ordinary temperatures the liquid of the hatometer should not generate elastic vapours, or the height will be observed in defect ; the depression increasing (unequally) with the temperature. * See § 5, p. 435. + See § 6, p. 435. ° 1825.] Barometrical Measurement of Heighis. 83 of mercury to be equal to the mean density of the equiponderant column of air (a supposition which will not at all affect the result), if we divide the two columns, whose heights will now be equal, into the same number of exceedingly small strata, weigh- ing alike, then will some one or other of the strata of the air, varying in depth, be sensibly of the same thickness, or vertical height, as any one of the uniformly deep strata of the mercury. The density of this stratum is evidently equal to the mean den- sity of the column of air, and khowing the number of the strata it is. distant from the summit of the column of mercury, we easily ascertain the pressure it sustains by adding the sum of the equal weights of these strata to the height of the barometer at the upper station. With the assistance of a table of loga- rithms, together with its modulus, the mathematician would readily determine that the pressure supported by a volume of air uniformly of a density equal to the mean density ofa stratum of dry air imtercepted by the pressures of 15°5 inches and 30-5 inches would be 22:1602 inches, and that the height of the object, or of the column of air at 32° F. would be equal to 30-5 26-0988 oe of 12,000 inches, or to 17,666 feet. Had the pressure expressive of the mean density been 26-0988 inches, the length of the column of air would have been 12,000 times 15 inches, or 15,000 feet; but as the heights are inversely as the pressures, its altitude must _ be increased in the ratio of 22:1602 to 26°0983. But we may calculate the altitude of the object by a process more generally intelligible, and which will have the advantage of demonstrating that the pressures or heights of a barometer carried successively to a'series of stations uniformly increasing in their distance from the surface of the earth, will decrease in geometrical progression. Our plan will be to divide the column of mercury into a sufficient number of equal parts or heights, to which we must affix the corresponding intercepting pressures. The columns not exceeding one inch in height, the mean pres- sure, or half the sum of the pressures at the base and the sum- mit, will not materially differ from (exceed) the pressure supported by a stratum ofair of which the density, supposed to be uniform, is equal to the mean density of the column of air counterpoising that inch of mercury. As the altitude of a stratum of dry air under the pressure of 26*0988 inches counterpoising an inch of mercury is equal to 1000 feet, and as the heights are inversely as the pressures, we ascertain the altitude in feet corresponding to the different columns of mercury by dividing the constant “number 26098°8* by the respective mean pressures. ‘The sum of these altitudes will be equal to the altitude’ of the object. minus 15°5=15 inches of mercury multiplied ky * For air containing its mean quantity of moisture, and to include some corrections for gravity, substitute 26210, 2 84 (The degree of accuracy of ‘the method increasing with ‘the number of the subdivided columns; we may convince ourselves by repeated calculations that it is superfluous to’ divide: the Mr. Nivon on the: Theory. ofthe — column into lengths léss than oneinch.) | Exam le Upper barometer 15°5 inches ;) lower tisreaaetar 5 fAue, 30:5. dnches, 3 ‘Inches. “Feet. - » Feet. « £295 and'30°5 Mean307 > f 870-0) “f 8700 “Bos 295 29/3 | 9000} .| 17700. or BSS] 27-57 OBR F981 Se of "GS2eHE4q:9902 1 OB 1265 “975827 bo9666]3| 3668-7 F255 1265 264-4 © 1003-8 4'2 | 4672-5 ole’ a 25:5 251 wy | 1044-0} = |» 67165 ee sa © 24-5 994 ) BOP 108745} g'| 6804-0 in pis 2198 0 QBS BBY 11347 98 49°7938-7) ay O15! 0 2945 921). 186-33 | 91250 2° Sap 20.5" 21-59 9 21 | S81 1242+8 | Be 103678 etl 195% 205 © 90'h-Bo* }13804-94 8 1116727 8 SS 19-5) 9) 1913401873671 1 130463 oth B18 91-6 18S 14500 | £:}14496-3._ “3 vs 645 8917-5 17 a, 1535:2 | =| 16081°5 ean Gi) Tos J6j* tN 1631 ine | (17662 “6 do et sot hosahsbsedd mort 5! 76627) | neh W 7} (ite altitude 176660 ; “Error — '3'3' feet!) aww AME WHS SET TO" ISS Detling the. sieetrnits of -air inton any) number, of sections of por altitude, we may? find by a little, further.calculation the pressures they sustain, and, demonstrate the decreasing geome- tric:progression of the latter; for if we take any two. consecutive pressures and divide'the consequent by the antecedent,one, and ‘any other two consecutive pressures be taken and the consequent of these be. divided by their antecedent, the two: quotients: (or ratios); will-bier: found to be-equal ,to,each other, *and,less,.than unity; Spe is dhe characteristic: ofa Sayre a iti 9 SeETIES, | tar. or niet WOS- U8 Ap tovgrine; » Hzample + WOH AMIS Gay! Gis! B10) > G\ ene file youions' to Jsd¥ a4 ome ‘Dibsinaniattndiatecss sls bel 96+ 180: 5000in. quotients oF ratios. Beas foot 299rptnh at an altitude of 4416:5.:25°7618 © is, ede (nearly) 8833-0 21-7428 8 “tts 13249:5 » 183579 BOD, jer’ ———— wsbTOG6s "Ob. 1615000 iitov 4 9 5wW Y . | 9° (evar ot ot tatog gitixeett ort 4p tae Focal ‘the-aititade of the object;'the temperature of ‘the air being 32°, let us now suppose the temp: rag re to have been 80°, or 48. degrees ‘abowe the esting poidit. ah 1¢,volume of the dry air is. consequently increased ™ one +-th, and its density, in- 480 1825.] Barometrical Measurement of Heights. 85 versely as the volume, diminished in the ratio of 1 to 0:90909.* The given’ heights of the barometer being, as in the preceding example, 30°5 and 15°5 inches, we must augment the-altitude at: 32°, or 17666 feet, one-tenth, or in) the;ratio, of 90909 to 100000; equal either way to 19432°6 feet. Atthis temperature (12000 + ~-th or) 13200 cubic feet of dry air supporting the pressure of 26:0988 inches, would be required to balance one of mercury. : : Badt Betyord The temperature of the air being 24 degrees below 32° F. or at. + 8° I. we must reduce the altitude at 32° one-twentieth, or in the ratio of the densities, } viz. of 1:05263 to 1, giving 16782:7 feet as the correct altitude of the object. 3 We have hitherto supposed the stratum of air to be of uniform temperature ; a supposition seldom or ever confirmed by.the indications of the detached or exterior thermometers placed in the shade, and freely exposed to the air at the summit aud base. Generally speaking, the temperature, ‘especially when the dif- ference of altitude is considerable, diminishes as we ascend. The mean rate of the diminution, which is extremely variable at different times and places, is usually estimated at 1° F. for an elevation of 300 feet. . My own numerous observations on alti- tudes not exceeding 2000 feet, give 230 feet as the mean—a rate of decrement; differing little from that deduced from the observa- tions of Mr, Dalton; but as the diminution when within 100. or 200 feet of the summit, particularly when the mountain was an extended ridge, and the thermometers were placed on its lee- ward side, was frequently double or treble that of the inferior equal sections, the rate is evidently exaggerated, and some cor- rection seems necessary in order to obtain.a uniform decrement from observations made on mountains of different altitudes. Supposing. the decrement, whatever the rate, to be but uniform, or’ in arithmetical progression ; that is, granting-the differences of temperature indicated by any number of thermo- ‘meters ranged on the side of the mountain at equal perpendicu- lar distances to be the same, we shall commit no sensible error in the calculation if we consider the mean density of the air the same as that of another stratum uniformly of a temperature equal to half the sum of the detached thermometers observed at the base and summit of the mountain. * See § 20, p. 438, + Ibid. } If we expose 440 volumes of air 48 degrees above, and 440 volumes 48 degrees below the freezing point, to the mean temperature (equal to 32° F.), their volume collec- tively will be greater by 1-100th part than the sum of their volumes before the mixture took»place.) ’ 2 N For 400-0. volumes at 32° are equal to 440 volumes at + 80° And 488-9 s2 440 — 6 S88°9 (4). : $80 Afean 32 86 Mr. Nixon on the Theory of the \[Awe. It is to be remarked that any one or more séctions of a cylin- drical column of air, uniformly of a given temperature, maybe heated or cooled without: disturbing, m the least the pressure of ‘the strata mcumbent on that section, or of those on which it vests.* That the density of the lowerstrata of the atmosphere 4s ogeasionally inferior (especially in the middle of a cloudless day declining rapidly im, temperature towards morning and evening), to that of the strata immediately superincumbent is proved by the terrestrial refractions being frequently negative ‘when the intercepted arc is inconsiderable. If we admit the progression of the diminution of temperature as we ascend ‘to be geometrical, and of such a nature that the decrement for the same number of feet is greater at the base than at the summit, the column will evidently contain a greater quantity of air tnferior than superior in temperature to the mean of the detached thermometers at the extremés, and half their sam exceeding the true mean temperature, will introduce an error in excess in the calculated altitude of the object. Still as we have no experiments authorising us to’ conclude that the diminution of temperature is in geometrical progression ; as we are even ignorant whether the rate be greater at the base or summit, and, what is more to the point, being well aware that numerous local and other causes will disturb and render its nature undistinguishable, we may be spared the trouble of cal- ‘culating any corrections, and content ourselves with considering the mean of the thermometers at the extremes as the proper ‘temperature for calculation. We cannot, however, too strongly ‘insist that the principal errors of barometrical measurements are the result ofan incorrect estimate of the mean temperature. “It ‘has also been justly observed by Prof. Playfair, that when the horizontal distance of the barometers is corisiderable, the tem- perature of the air at the lower station may not accord with that at the base of the column of air immediately under the upper * If we increase the temperature of a fluid, ‘confined in a truly cylindrical vessel,, to such a degree as to double the volume, the height will be increased, and the density diminished, in the same ratio, and the pressure at the base will remain unaltered.’ But ‘if the figure of the vessel be that ofthe frustum ofamimverted = 9 _pyramid,. then will the increment of .volume be insufficient, +3+++-+——-—-. on account of the increasing capacity of the vessel upwards, to nut / augment the depth of the fluid im the same ratio, The ab- ~ \ . prealtieys solute pressure being as the height multiplied by theidensity, @) @\- 4 there is a consequent Joss of pressure. Hence it must) be ad-O° Tou \ 1% | mitted that an increase in any ratio of the volume! of;the)», ~~ ' } entire atmosphere (resulting from an elevation of its tempers he ‘ature throughout its mass) ‘will not cause, on account of its © © © °° ~ spherical figure, an ae of its height in ‘the sdme’Qulitiuso ox 5 ‘proportion ; and that the pressures.at the base of an atmosphere-uniformly according in temperature with our climate would be less in summer at noon, than in winter and at night. his view of the subject, if correct, may serve to’ account ‘for the’ horary oscillations of the barometer. a WISH AL WOK + Dr. Horsley considers the method of taking the mean of the temperatures. at the extremes as only ah approximation, yet sufficiently exact.—(Phil. Trans. vol. xiv.) aA | 1825.] Barometrical Measurement of Heights. 87 barometer—a circumstance that cannot fail to vitiate the calcu- lation of the altitude. : | ; witness \ Correction for Latitude. 0 Hitherto we have considered the eatth'as'@sphere*at rest; but if we admit that it revolves on its axis, then would its figure, supposing it to have been’ originally a fluid’ mass, become’ that of a spheroid flattened ‘at ‘the’ poles, and protuberant at the equator. If we. conceive’ the barometer B» to ‘be. so’ placed om & ; ¥ Ai ; . / >) \. yy t - 4 Ji zg | 7 d ‘ P=) VU ; Gos id Ming g Pare 81 . SN i: a ! 7 A jt j iid ND Wo f wy if < 7 j KOR ee : ae OS ad | 2fto 3 J ; ) , im) i043 e ' within the earth that the one branch shall extend from its surface at the equator EE to the centre, and that the other shall protrude rsh ist) t 88 Mr. Nixon on the Fheory of the ~ [Aue. face of the earth at any latitude fromthe nearest point of ‘the. axis. Thus it has been demonstrated that if we call the force. of gravity in latitude 45° equal, to, unity, then will its intensity atthe equator be diminished co at the poles it will be aug- mented in the same proportion. For any intermediate latitude, the fraction must be mu eet by cosine of double the latitude. In stating the number of measures of dry air required to coun~ terpoise one of mercury, we remarked that the barometer indi-’ cating the pressure was understood to be stationed at the level of the sea in latitude 45°. Supposing, on repeating the experi- ment, that the force of gravity has diminished in the interim so as to coincide with its value at the equator, let us inquire what will be the consequences. In the first place, as_ the. absolute weights of the atmosphere and the mercury are diminished in the same ratio, the height of the barometer will continue unchanged, Secondly, as the absolute weight of each particle of air-is diminished =, without impairing its elastic force, the original pressure on any or all the strata is enfeebled in the same proportion, and the height of the atmosphere, or of any portion of it, is increased in the same degree. Thirdly, the particles being more distant from each other, there is a consequent increase of volume without addition of weight relative to that of the mercury, and a quantity of dry air greater by ae than had been required in the previous experiment, will be necessary to balance the measure of mercury. Had we hermetically closed . thé yessel containing the air in latitude 45°, and then transported it to the equator, it would still be found to be an exact counter- . pores ‘toa volume of mercury equal-to that-made ‘use’ of in the oimer latitude; but on opening. the vessel and: allowing. the included air to communicate with the atmosphere (the barometer there standing at the same height as when at the pole), then | would ‘the air, being, of an. elasticity. superior \to, he absolute préssuté Rov ‘incum ® ent 0 1 it, immediately expand,,and a por- tian of it Yushin > but, the residue, would. be insufficient to balance the incompressible mereury.< , - cee R EBT v2 ont 0 STI G7Onh 3 The better ‘to ‘illustrate the variation, of, the \density:-of. air . re ial Hob ane of Jala (oes a proper weight “on a vettical Golumu of elastic wire ae in the manner of a screw; then if we conceive them to be transported toa lower latitude, the weight will press.on the spring ath damasniohed gravity atid th Pheight at the colummuawill:beinereaseds »:!! gata sae s-seb ‘ie caleulations being made Mm ‘the firSt ifistari de ft, the Tati- tnd Ore iaa ae a the Mehigeniaailas tunis aes equator, and dinzwsh those in-parallels approachiny the! polés) in- i scott hrentes pet ve! Tatienee as Chlculat dey {Be ; N 1825.] Baronietrical. Measurement of Heights. 89 rules just :givens® © This) correction, properly the very last in order, may bevreadily effected by:the fractions given by,Biot, in the: third .volume.of: his) Traité-d Astronomie, or more promptly by: the ‘annexed table, differing some: little from the jone ‘by Prof. Littrow, inserted:in the: Memoirs of the London Astrono- mical:Societysfi 01 6 PER ey tia SSP Ao obinion. Correction for the vertical: Diminution of the Foree of Gravity. 0 For the Air.—The' forde of gravity diminishing as, ascending from the surface; we recede from ‘the centre of the earth. as the square of the distance, it is evident: that the density of the air at different: altitudes will diminish, ceteris paribus, im the same ratio.» The mean radius of the earth being about 3956 miles, if we call the force of gravity at the level of the sea 1, uts value at the several altitudes of elas y Piyiy | fos " L,! 2, 3, 4 miles 3956 3956 3956 3956 , : " 3957? 3958? 3959?) 3960? for which we may be allowed to sub-) 2. 4 6 8 , stitute 1 minus. ie cee een wee sf 3958? 8956" 3956? 3956 ° will be equal to 1x square of geet eies consequently we must augment the calculated altitudes: in. pro- portion to the mean diminution of the density of the intercepted column of air, nearly equal to half the sum of the values of the diminution at the extremities ; effected by applying a correction additive found by multiplying the difference of level in feet by the swm.of the perpendicular distances of the summit and base of the object from the surface of the earth, and dividing. the product by 20887680, the mean radius of the earth mm feet. The amount of the correction for an elevation of 8000 feet above the sea, being only three feet, it may be safely disregarded within that limit. At greater elevations the value may be readily found hy Table IV. | ne tea tide . for the Mercury —Having proceeded in our calculations on the supposition of the force of gravity, as affecting the mercury being constant without regard to the altitude, we must now be conscious that the absolute pressure exerted by the upper strata of the atmosphere on the subjacent intercepted column of air, is no longer(correctly exhibited by a barometer situated above the levelvof the sea. The specific gravity of the liquid as transported € - t | ae » * Adwnitting the verticals to have the same latitude. ~% fo'Lhe tippers part of: that! branch of the syphor’ barometer containing the shorter column of mercury being filled at. the pole with dry air ofa certain temperature, and hermetically closed, note. the difference of level of the. mercury in the two branches. Then in’ pro eeding™ towards’ the equator, if we do not change our distance from the surface of theSsea, “and! preserve the temperature of the,air and mercury unaltered,, the iength of tHe eelumn of;air,and the difference of level of the mercury; will continue to augment until ve airive at theequator. ‘The instrument,would; therefore, serve to find the latitude, ‘i 90 Mr. Nixon on the Theory of the [Aue. to different distances from the centre of the earth being dimi- nisbed in the ratio of the square of those distances, its height in the barometer, when counterpoising the same absolute pres- ‘sure, or such as would be indicated by a barometer at the level of the sea, will be proportionally augmented. To comprehend the nature of the correction (additive), we remark in the first piace, coat as it is unnecessary to be acquainted with the speci- c gravity of the liquid of the barometers,* if alike in both, we have merely to correct the observed height of the column of mercury in et/her barometer in the inverse ratio of their specific gravities. Further, as we may be suffered to express the ratio of the diminution of the force of gravity at the several altitudes above the level of the sea of 1, 2, 3, and 4 miles by ‘the fractions 1 2. 3 ; . iois’ 1978’ 1978? *” ‘and having equal differences, it is evident that whatever the elevation of the lower barometer above the same level, the observed height of the other, if situated a mile above it, must d aonb increasing uniformly with the altitude, ' * This is sufficiently established by our previous demonstration that a certain number of cubic feet of dry air will balance one of the liquid of the barometer, without regard to -its, specific gravity, when the observed height is equal to a certain number of inches, ‘However, as Professor Robison asserts, in his Elements of Mechanical Philosophy, that yen the mercury of the barometers is not of the same specific gravity as that made use ‘of in the experiments of Sir G. Shuckburgh,' calculations conformable-to his formula cannot fail to be erroneous, we must so confirm our opposite statement on this important subject as to leave no room for doubt.» - . Gila, dO) Sig003 74 If we augment or diminish in the same ratio any two terms of a series of numbers in geometrical progression, the differences of the corresponding termis of the arithmetical will continue the same. It must, therefore, follow, that as the pressures are in geome- trical, and the altitudes in arithmetical progression ; and as the heights of two columns of mercury supporting the same atmospheric pressure will be constantly, during every _ yariation of the pressure, in the inverse ratio of their specific Bi ties, the altitudes as ’ gompiuted from one and the same formula will be alike, without’ ‘the density of ‘ithe mercury, — a, 10 INST. ONO DontOiUe 2 B1dbI & Booty ) . We, have already found. that when. the pressures, were 15:5 ant AO in oF the alti- tude would be 17666 feet, Supposing we had also observed the Mea two ‘other barometers containing mercury of a density inferior in ‘the'ratid ‘of 11°to 10, the : £928 of) 10 19% heights would have been noted at 15°5 + pa and 30°5 + a or at 17-05 and Magy tt Sith “ts 9st sepodis tt AO Sat tO crosknust. 33°55 inches. The pressure corresponding to the mean density of the air, computed precisely as before, will be found to be 24°3763 inches, and the altitude equal to 16-5 — inches (the difference of the observed:heights, orlength of the column of mercury balanc- ‘ r 26-0988. “§ oy of the airy multiplied b — ‘of 12,000 inches, or to 17,666 fect, the same ing that ofthe airy py ’ Y 24-3763 | RSE oi 9 aN A oft as befbre, :; The pressure incumbent op the stratum of ajrias indicated by the barometers with the rarer liquid, would appear too be by one-te Sve oe ught sea a0 heights being reciprocally as the pressures) that the | e would be calcu- Feed a tionally in a bets but ae Waclengthiof column of merébiy counterpois- - ing the air (16:5 inches) is from its inferior specific gravity one-tenth greater than the ‘equiporiderant column seryusigen = the Vimeo ery ‘ean Optical Deception, = TM will be in the position O «; when the former is at B, the latter will be at O 8, and so on, Again; let us suppose that when the aperture is just passing the centre, the radius should be found in a certain position on the other side OY, and rising towards the summit. Then tracing, as before, the intersections of these lines in their progress, we shall obtain a curve precisely similar to the former. Its position will be reversed; but its convexity will still be downwards. \ If the impressions made by these limited portions of the seve- ral spokes follow one another with sufficient rapidity, they will, as in the case of the luminous circle already alluded to, leave in the eye the trace of a continuous curve line ; and the spokes will appear to be curved, instead of straight. 3 ‘The theory now advanced is in perfect accordance with all the phenomena already detailed, and 1s farther confirmed by extend- ing the experiments to more complicated combinations. =>» It. readily explains why the image, or spectrum, as it may: be called, of the spoke, is at rest, although the spoke itself be revolving ; a. circumstance which might escape notice, if the attention were not particularly called to it. me Since the curved appearance of the lines results from the combination of a rotatory, with a progressive motion of the spokes, in relation to the apertures through which they are viewed, it is evident that the same phenomena must be produced if the bars be at rest, and both kinds of motion be united in the wheel itself. For, whether the bars move horizontally with ‘respect to the wheel, or the wheel with respect to the bars, the relative motion between them, and its effects, in as far as con- cerns the appearance in question, must be the same. The atten- tion of the spectator should in both cases be wholly directed to the wheel, so that the motions in question should be referred altogether to it. Thus, in fig. 4, the real positions, at successive intervals of time, of the ra a A a, when the wheel is rolling on the ground in the direction AZ, are expressed by the lines Aa, Bb, Cc, and Dd. While the spoke is in these positions, the portions of it really seen through the fixed aperture VW, are the parts a, 8, y, 2, the impressions of which, being retained upon the retina, and referred to the wheel when in its last position, ne the series of points m, n, p, and q, in the curved spectrum That the attention may the more‘easily follow the wheel in its progression, it is necessary that its circumference be haat seen, and its.real situation correctly estimated. Hence, althoug it be true, that by a sufficient exertion of attention the phenome- non may be exhibited by means of a single aperture, it is much more readily perceived, when the number of apertures is suchas to allow the wheel to be seen in its whole progress. For this reason the phenomenon is very distinct inthe case of a palisade. »- Fame = 112 Dr. Roget’s Explanation of an Optical Deception. [Avt, Each aperture produces its own system of spectra; and hence, when the apertures occur at short intervals, the number of the spokes is considerably multiplied ; but if the intervals be so adjusted as to correspond with the distances between the spokes. at the circumference of the wheel, the images produced by eure aperture will coalesce, and the effect will be much height- ened. A mathematical investigation ofthe curves resulting from the motion of the points of intersection of a line moving parallel to itself, with another line revolving round its axis, will show them _to belong to the class of Quadratrices, of which the one which touches the circumference of the inner generating circle is that which is known by the name of the Quadratrix of Dinostrates, Such a system of curves is represented in fig. 3, where MC, CN, are the generating radii, A the outer, and B the inner gene- rating circles, and PQ the common axis of the curves. All these curves have the same general equation, namely, y = (6 — 2. tang. a. where the co-ordinates are referred to the axis at right angles to the vertical generating radii, and passing through the centre of their revolution : the basis 6 being measured on the axis from the point of its intersection with the curve to the centre: and x being the arc of the inner generating circle, as well as the abscissa.* | A wheel simply rolling on its circumference exhibits, when seen through fixed bars, only those portions of the curves which are contained within the inner circle ; but when its motion of revolution is more rapid than its horizontal progression, as when it is made to roll on an axle of less diameter on a raised rail-way, then the remaining portions of the curves will be seen, and others, on the lower part of the wheel, having a contrary flexure, will also make their appearance. These are seen at FF in fig. 5. If the spokes, instead of being straight, be already curved, like those of the Persian water-wheel, their form, when viewed through bars, will undergo modifications, which may readily be traced by applying to them the same theory. “Thus, by giving a certain curvature to the spokes, as in fig. 5, they will at one part of their revolution appear straight, namely, where the optical deception operates in a direction contrary to the curvature. _ The velocity of the apparent motion of the visible portions of the spokes is proportionate to the velocity of the wheel itself ; but it varies in diVerent parts of the curve ; and might therefore, if accurately estimated, furnish new’ modes of measuring the duration of the impressions of light on the retina. * This equality between the arc and the abscissa is a necessary consequence of the ive motion of the wheel being equal to the rotatory motion of its circumference : e former motion producing the increments of the abscissa ; and the latter those of the arc of the cjrcle. The equation y = (6 — x). tang. x. is deduced from a simple ana- logy of the sides of similar triangles. 1825: Col. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations, 113 Articie IV. ) Aeshohianieal Observations, 1825. By Col. Beaufoy, FRS. Bushey Heath, near Stanmore. Latitude 51° 31 44*3” North. Longitude West in time 1’ 20-93”. Observed ‘Transits of the Moon and Moon-culminating Stars over the Middle Wire of ae the Transit Instrument in Siderial Time. 1825. Stars. Transits. June 28.—aOphiu. ..... 2... cece nesses 17h OF 41:07” » QR o- RO Onkius 66 ie diene cine eganids 17 O7 02-78 28.—Moon’s First or West Limb.... 17 O08 22°88 Wes d OPlUle vp ccgecccgcncsevcges iT ‘¥F° Sek SR eh Onbitel. S168 Fd. Sed ok 17 20 5011 28,—d Ophi. vseieee eee es bokurk’s 17, 32 50-09 July 1.—f Sagitt.......sccesscccconss 19 35 13°21 ne ES ae pe 19 42 05:98 1g Bagitt. Ve. cece Tees see 19 47 45°42 ‘1.—Moon’s Second or Hast Limb.. 20. 05 15°83 l.—m Capric. ..40--50s sinataseins. OO°.10 : BE14 _ d.—p Capric......-.. Sav Senrang xs 20 18 57°26. 1,—? Capric....+e- eeeseveroececses 20 29 32°86 ARTICLE V. On the Preparation of Acetate of Soda: &c.. By Mr, N, Mill. Pee (To R. Phillips, Esq. FRS. &c.) SIR, : _ . éddington-square, Camberwell. In commenting on Dr. Hope’s observations upon your stric- tures ‘on the Edinburgh Pharmacopezia, Annals of Philosophy, N.S. li. p. 23, you give a process for procuring acetic acid by the double decomposition of acetate of lead and sulphate of soda; and Dr. Henry, in the last edition of his Chemistry, in quoting your paper, has added in parenthesis, that 41 ounces of acetate of lime might be used instead of the acetate of lead. : In. the proportions there stated (nor indeed in any other proportions), have | been able to effect a perfect decomposition of sulphate of soda by acetate of lime. 200 grains of acetate of lime, dried at a temperature of 430° or 440° Pahr. were decomposed by 400 grains of crystallized gul- phate of soda; the solution evaporated, and crystals obtained. These crystals when dissolved in water and tested with the muriate ‘of barytes gave a copious precipitate of sulphate of barytes, but neither sulphuric nor oxalic acid occasioned any precipitate of lime. . These crystals were not, therefore, acetate New Series, vou. x. I 3 114 Mr. Mill on Acetate of Soda. fAve: of soda, but a compound salt, consisting of su/phate of soda and acetate of soda. The mother water when tested gave precipitates of both sulphate of lime by sulphuric acid and sulphate of barytes by muriate of barytes, thereby proving that acetate o lime and sulphate of soda are incompatibles only to a certain extent ; forthey may and do exist at the same time in the same solution. If acetate of lime be added to the mother liquor ad infinitum, the sulphate of soda will not be totally decomposed ; nor, on the contrary, if sulphate of soda be added to the mother water instead of the lime, will the lime which existed in the liquid disappear, for oxalic acid still occasions a copious preci- itate. , Crystals procured from either of these last solutions, whether acetate of lime or sulphate of soda be in excess, still give as large a precipitate with muriate of barytes as heretofore, thereb indicating that the sulphate of soda is not wholly decomposed, and that a perfect acetate of soda cannot be obtained through the medium of sulphate of soda. I am also of opinion, that most of the acetates are deficient in the power of totally decomposing the sulphates, which opinion is strengthened by Dr. Thomson’s experiments to discover the atomic weight of acetic acid, Annals of Philosophy, ii. p. 142, N.S. He found acetate of lead to be nearly in the same situa- tion as acetate of lime ; for he states, that “acetate of lead does not possess the power of throwing down the whole of the sulphu- ric acid from the solution of a sulphate.” If this be the case, the process you have given for procuring acetic acid from the double decomposition of the acetate of lead and sulphate of soda must be defective, inasmuch as this, that the acetic acid is not procured from acetate of soda (which should result from the perfect pg ie Seep in toto, but from a compound salt of acetate of lead and acetate of soda. In order to ascertain the proportions of sulphate of soda in the crystallized salt before alluded to, I dissolved 100 grains of the crystals in water, and added muriate of barytes so 4 as any deposition took place, the precipitated sulphate of barytes was then collected, dried, and weighed 10 grains, which is ep bion to 14°7 grains of the crystallized sulphate of soda. This salt is, therefore, composed of (in 100 parts) Crystallized acetate ofsoda.... 85°3 Crystallized sulphate of soda. .. 14:7 = 100. As the pyroligneous acid manufacturers commonly decompose acetate of lime by sulphate of soda to procure acetate of soda, it must be of some importance to them to know that, indepen- dently of the loss of the salts left in the mother water by this process, they also procure an impure article. Your obedient servant, ~ Nicnouas Miuu, 1825.] Mr, Donovan's filtering Apparatus. 115 ArticLe VI, Description of an Apparatus for filtering out of Contact with the Atmosphere. By M. Donovan, Esq.* We: promised in our last to give a description of Mr. Dono- van’s apparatus for filtering substances liable to be affected by the contact of the atmosphere, as solutions of caustic alkali, Xc. An inspection of the wood-cut annexed will at once explain the nature of the in- strument. It consists of two glass vessels, the upper one A has a neck at 6, which contains a tight cork, perforated to admit one end of the glass tube c. The other end of the vessel A terminates ina funnel pipe, which fits into one of the necks of the under vessel D, by grinding or luting, or by a tight cork. The vessel D has also another neck e, which receives the other end of the tube c, the junction being secured by a perforated cork, or by luting. ' The throat of the funnel pipe is obstructed by a bit of coarse linen loosely rolled up, and not pressed down into the pipe. The solution is then to be poured in through the mouth at b, the a and tube having eee, been removed, and the first droppings are , to be allowed to run to waste, and not : received into the under vessel D. ‘The —_" parts.of the apparatus are now to be jomed 7 together, and the filtration may proceed at the slowest rate, ath the possibility of any absorption of carbonic acid by the alkali, _ The mode of action of this simple but ingenious apparatus is too obvious to require any explanation; .but Mr. Donovan observes, that it should be made of green glass in preference to white,the former being much less acted on byfixed alkalies than the latter. He states that a white glass bottle containing a solution of caustic potash will often be cracked by it in every direction, and in a singular manner, This apparatus is useful for filtering liquids, to which access of the carbonic acid, or moisture of the atmosphere, would be injurious, aS well as for the filtration of volatile substances, as alcohol, ethers, ammoniacal fluids, &c. Ifa stratum of coarselv pulverised glass or flint be substituted for the roll of linen, it may be employed for filtering corrosive acids, which would be weakened by absorbing water from the atinosphere. | * Abridged rama Philosophical Journal. - 116 M. Berzelius on Silicium. . [Auc. | j 2 ArtTicLe VII. On Fluoric Acid, and its most remarkable Combinations. By Jac. Berzelius. (Continued from vol. ix, p. 131.) Decomposition of Silicated Fluoric Acid by Potassium. Tue description of the experiments made by the French chemists leads unavoidably to the conclusion, that they had succeeded in decomposing fluoric acid ; and when I undertook, therefore, to repeat them, my sole object was to acquire more accurate information regarding the composition of the reduced products. In my first trials I obtained the same results which they had already described, with this single exception, that the roduct of the decomposition did not become white by ignition in oxygen gas, but retained its original brown colour almost unaltered, Expecting that this calcined mass would contain silicated fluate of potash, I poured over it concentrated sulphuric acid; but no trace of fluoric acid was disengaged, nor was the slightest alteration produced upon it by evaporating the mixture to dryness.’ All other acids, with the exception of the fluoric, proved equally inactive. This acid extracted a quantity of silica, and left behind a darker brown-coloured matter, which was insoluble in acids, and incombustible when ignited. Was this the radical of the fluoric acid or of the silica, or‘a combina- tion of both? : To obtain a larger supply of this substance, I ignited some potassium in a suitable apparatus in contact with an atmosphere of silicated fluoric acid gas. The metal gradually darkened in colour, until it finally Becuine as black as coal ; soon after, it took fire, and burned with a large dark red coloured flame; which, however, was by no meafs intense, and the gas was at the same time’ rapidly absorbed. The product of the combus- tion was a hard, porous, dark brown-coloured mass, unaltered by exposure to the air, but imparting, when touched or breathed upon, that peculiar odour of hydrogen gas, which is observed when we handle metallic manganese. On being thrown into water, it occasioned a copious disengagement of hydrogen gas, and much fluate of potash passed into solution. By degrees, the evolution of gas Lettsdie less and less considerable, and the mass disintegrated to a powder. When the action in the cold appeared to have ceased, the alkaline solution was replaced by fresh water, and the mixture was heated to ebullition. No additional disengazement of hydrogen was produced by this treatment, but the gaia now became strongly acid, and proved to be a saturated solution of silicated fluate’ of potash. The 1826.] M. Berzelius on Siticiunt: 117 powder was now repeatedly boiled in water until it was rendered completely free from all soluble matter: it was then collected upon a filter.and dried. | - To determine the . alteration which this substance would undergo by combustion, I ignited it in a current of oxygen gas. It instantly took fire, and burned with some intensity, a pale blue-coloured flame being at the same time visible over its sur- face. The gaseous product of the combustion produced an abundant precipitate in barytes water, and this precipitate proved on examination to be pure carbonate of barytes, unmixed with silicated fluate. The calcined mass.had diminished greatly in volume, but retained its original colour almost unaltered, and the increase of weight which it had sustained scarcely amounted to a half per cent. -No corrosion by fluoric acid, and no deposition of silica, could be observed in any part of the apparatus ; conse- quently fluoric acid did not form one of the products of the com- bustion. I’ was therefore disappointed in my expectation of ascertaining by this means the composition of fluoric acid ; yet the result was not the less interesting, for it appeared to me that I had succeeded in isolating the radical of silica, and that the brown pulverulent body was in reality silicium. That it should undergo combustion in oxygen gas and give off carbon without becoming heavier, was easily intelligible; because the same‘cir- cumstance is observable when we calcine the quadricarburets of most of the metals whose oxides contain three atoms of oxygen. The presence of so much carbon appeared at first to be some- what. unaccountable: I speedily ascertained, however, that it had previously existed in a state of chemical combination with the potassium. This potassium had been prepared by Brunner’s rocess, in which a mixture of carbonate of potash and charcoal is strongly ignited in a retort of malleable iron; and by redistil- ling it in a glass vessel, I found that it left behind a carbonace- ous matter which took fire when exposed to the air, and which in water caused the disengagement of hydrogen gas ; whilst, at the same time, potash was formed, and a large quantity of car bon deposited. On repeating the experiment with potassium: purified in this manner by distillation, the powder which I obtained was not so dark brown-coloured, and when burned in oxygen gas it increased in weight 40 per cent. without giving off any carbonic acid. Its colour, however, was scarcely altered by the combustion. This circumstance may be explained by sup- posing, either that silicium possesses a lower degree of oxidation which is produced by calcination, or that (as happens with boren) the portion oxidized at the commencement of the process pre- vents the perfect oxidation of the remainder, The residue of the combustion was treated with fluoric acid. The silica was by this means separated, escaping in the state of silicated fluorie: acid gas, and the colour of the undissolved powder became o 118 M. Berzelius on Silicium. [Ave. much deeper. Being now washed and dried, it constituted sili- cium in a state of purity.. Silicium obtained in this manner has a dark nut-brown colour, and is wholly destitute of metallic lustre. When rubbed upon a polishing stone, it does not communicate a shining streak. It is incombustible both in atmospheric air and in oxygen gas ; and it appears to be highly infusible, for it undergoes no change in the flame of the blowpipe. This circumstance appears contra- dictory of what I have already stated respecting the easy com- bustibility of the silicium which is obtained immediately after its reduction by potassium. ‘The difference between its proper- ties in these two states is indeed highly remarkable; and I have _ fully ascertained that it is not occasioned, on the one hand, by the adherence of potassium, or, on the other, by the subsequent digestion in fluoric acid. Most probably, the combustibility of the silicium. proceeds from its being combined with a small quantity of myaromens for if it be burned in oxygen gas, even after having been ignited. in an atmosphere of hydrogen gas or in vacuo, there is invariably formed a certain quantity of water, although its amount indeed is inconsiderable when compared with the high saturating capacity of silicium. The silicium obtained by treating the reduced brown-coloured mass with water is therefore a hydruret. The reduced mass is originally a siliciuret of potassium, which is Cecomposed by the water; the potassium converted into potash, passes into solution; the greater part of the hydrogen separates in the state of gas, and a smaller portion enters into combination with the silicium. In the incoherent condition in which it is separated from potassium by the action of water, silicium may be compared to the loose tinder (a hydruretted carbon) prepared from linen, which may be easily kindled by a spark from steel; but after having been exposed to an elevated temperature, it may be compared to coke, which is, by itself, quite incombustible. Silicium has an extreme tendency to sail even when in astate of dryness, and it adheres strongly to the glass vessel in which itis kept. It isanon-conductor of electricity. The incombustible silicium is not altered by ignition with chlorate of potash. In nitre it does not deflagrate until the tem- perature has been raised so high that the acid undergoes decom- position, when the affinity of the disengaged alkali co-operates with that of the oxygen. In carbonate of potash it is oxidized with great readiness, and with intense ignition; carbonic oxide is at the same time disengaged, and the mass assumes a black colour in consequence of the reduced carbon. This property gives occasion to a very paradoxical phenomenon. If the incombustible silicium be moderately heated with nitre, no action ensues between the two substances ; but if a bit of anhy- drous carbonate of soda be now introduced, the silicium at the 1825.]} M. Berzelius on Silicium. 119 instant of contact is oxidated at its expense, and deflagrates in the midst of the nitre. The cause why silicium in lower temper- atures is more easily oxidized at the expense of the carbonate than of the nitrate of potash undoubtedly exists in the circum- stance, that the affinity of potash for silica is necessary to dispose it to combustion, eae in the casé of nitre, this co-operation is not obtained, except in the elevated temperature in which the acid of the salt undergoes decomposition. Silicium deflagrates with brilliant. ignition in the hydrates of the fixed alkalies ; and the deflagration takes place as soon as the liydrate begins to fuse, and far below a red heat. It defla- grates also, but with less intensity, in the hydrates of barytes and lime. With the acid fluate of potash, it deflagrates in the low temperature necessary to produce the fusion of the salt ; in melted borax it remains unaltered. | out) ‘If silicium be heated in the vapour of sulphur, it catches fire and burns, but with much less brilliancy than in oxygen gas. The product is a white earthy looking substance, which, in con- tact with water, instantly dissolves, giving off at the same time sulphuretted hydrogen gas. The silicium is here converted into silica, which is taken up by the water ; and if the quantity of that - liquid be small, the resulting solution is so concentrated, that it gelatinizes after a very slight evaporation. In the open air this sulphuret gives off a’strong odour of sulphuretted hydrogen gas, and rapidly loses the whole of its sulphur: in an artificially dried atmosphere, it may be preserved unaltered. When torre- fied, it is converted, but not so rapidly as might have been anti- cipated, into sulphurous acid and silica. It is certainly a most remarkable property that silica, at the instant of its formation in the humid way, should be so abun- dantly soluble in water, and that by evaporation of the solution it should lose this property so completely, that in the analysis of minerals, it is justly regarded as insoluble. This high degree of solubility enables us to understand the copious crystallization of silica in drusy cavities, where, not unfrequently, the volume of water could not possibly have greatly exceeded that of the crystals which it deposited. ' I did not succeed in forming a phosphuret, by passing the vapour of phosphorus over ignited silicium. : hen silicium is heated in a current of chlorine, it catches fire, and is rapidly volatilized. The product of the combustion condenses into a liquid, which appears to be naturally colourless, . but which has a yellowish colour when it contains an excess of chlorine. This fluid is very limpid' and volatile, and evaporates almost instantaneously in the form of a white vapour when exposed to the open.air. It has a suffocating odour, not unlike. that of cyanogen. _ It re-acts as an acid on litmus paper. This fluid is analogous to the combinations of the other electronega-. 120 M. Berzelius oi Siliciunt. paves tive substances with chlorine.’ It constitutes the second known example of a volatile compound of -silicium. No combination ensued when silicium was heated in the vapour of iodine. - Silicium is neither dissolved nor oxidized by the sulphuric, nitric, or muriatic acids, nor even by aqua regia. While still combustible, it is slowly dissolved by fluoric acid, but even in this acid, it: loses its solubility after having been ignited. On the contrary, it is readily dissolved in the cold by a mixture of the fluoric and nitric acids. | Silicium, after it has been insulated, possesses very little ten- dency to form alloys. with metals. Copper, silver, lead, and tin, may be fused with it before the blowpipe, and the alloys, when dissolved in acids, leave behind an inconsiderable portion of silica. The alloy of copper leaves a skeleton of silica which retains the original form of the metal.* : ire Composition of Silica.—Having now succeeded in isolating the basis of silica, it was natural for me to investigate its composi« tion by the direct synthetical process. With this view, 100 parts of pure silicium were ignited with carbonate of soda: the mass was treated with muriatic acid, evaporated to dryness, and the residue strongly ignited. Digested in water, this left a grey coloured silica, which, after washing and ignition, assumed a snow white colour, and weighed 203-75 parts. The liquid filtered from the silica was again evaporated to dryness, and the saline mass ignited. By dissolving the fused salt in water, there separated an additional quantity of silica, weighing, after igni- tion, 1:5 part. Consequently 100 parts of silicium had combined with 105°25 parts of oxygen. On repeating the experiment with a portion of silictum over which I had previously evaporated to dryness some fluoric acid, the augmentation of weight amounted to 108 per cent. According to these two experiments, silica is composed of met Silicium ....... . nine SRL Ss osm» acelin SIEVEOD. 2 wks e'emikrs os D128 pwengs OLS © Both results indicate a larger proportion of oxygen than has been hitherto supposed to exist in silica. According to my earlier experiments, in which I deduced the composition of silica by determining its capacity of saturating saline bases, the quantity of oxygen was only 50°3 per cent. Pe The saturating capacity of silicium may be calculated also from the composition of the salts which contain fluate of silica. Of these, the most suitable for this purpose is the silicated filuate of barytes. 100 parts of this salt, fused with twice its weight of oxide of lead, lost 0°85 part of moisture. 100 parts, weighed out at the same time, yielded 82°933 parts of sulphate ' * The method of preparing silicium, by decomposiug the double fluate of silica and sdda, has been alteady described in the Annals, N.S. vol: viii. p. 122. eee 1825] M. Berselius-on Silicium. 121 of barytes, equivalent to 54-428 parts of barytes. Now,'I have already proved that in the double silicated fluates, the base is associated with thrice as much acid as in the neutral salt. Con- sequently, the silicated fluate of barytes which I analyzed was composed of | , Pt OIICSS cna Seats cage ret inate 54°428 Fluoric acid. ...... canted tes ees Bae | Pe Ree cee ee cas Varennes ed 21:886 , Moisture sae ee tree nese ee ences : 0-850 100:00 These 54°428 parts of barytes were saturated by 7°612 parts of fluoric.acid; the remaining 15:224 parts of this acid had been therefore combined with 21-886 parts of silica ; or the fluate of silica is composed of ROME ACU. Fs cee LUE to as 100 Meg OS OT Togs OO 143-76 . But 100 parts of fluoricacid imply the existence of 74°7194 parts of oxygen.in»the base by which it is saturated: Consequently, this quantity of oxygen must be contained by 143-76 parts of silica, and silica must be composed of ) | pm TT gala gl i 48-025. ..... oe 1) panne an ARY ROD, 9:9 2.0 Nec9nine Qh OS O40 sai ot LUCIE This number corresponds very closely with that of the last synthetical experiment.’ If we suppose silica to contain three atoms of oxygen, the atomic number of silicium will be, accord- ing to the above analysis = 277°2, and according to the synthe- tical experiment = 277°8. , This number exceeds by 12 per cent. the number which has been hitherto adopted, and which corresponds so well with the: — most exact and the most recently performed analyses of pure minerals, that the present one, if made the basis of the calcula- tion, would necessarily indicate in them an excess of silica: I must here mention, however, that we rarely find a mineral to whose constitution silica is even altogether foreion, which does not Contain it to the amount of from one-half to upwards of two per cent. in the state either of quartz or of some other siliceous — mineral; and this mechanical intermixture of silica 1s still more likely to exist in those minerals in which it constitutes at the same time an essential ingredient. snes The number of atoms. of oxygen contained by silica is still left undecided by the foregoing experiments. ‘The circumstance that its carburet does not alter in weight when calcined affords indeed ‘a presumption that silica belongs to the class of oxides which contain three atoms of oxygen; but our knowledge of the 122 M. Berzelius on Silicium. [Aua. crystalline forms of bodies will require to be much farther extended, before it will be possible to deduce unequivocal con- clusions rE the number of atoms of oxygen which exist in oxides, The supposition that silica is constituted of an atom of each of its elements is unquestionably the simplest, and the most convenient for the purpose of expressing the composition of silicates by formule ; but this view obliges us to admit the improbable existence of silicates in which the silica contains six times the oxygen of the base ; as, for example, in apophyllite, ps which one atom of potash would be combined with 12 atoms: of silica. B: Fluoboric Acid. The characteristic properties of a strong and corrosive acid which the pen hitherto styled dacbdtis acid possesses, have caused it, from our earliest knowledge of its existence, to be regarded as a double acid, which, with bases, has a ten- dency to form double salts, containing ¢wo acids and one base. This property indeed it possesses in a far higher degree than the silicated fluoric acid; but, as is the case with that com- pound, its most distinguishing tendency is likewise to produce double: salts containing one acid and two bases, the boracic acid invariably constituting one of the latter. I shall hereafter demonstrate that it thus forms a class of salts, which are ccn- stituted in obedience to the same laws with the corresponding salts of silica. ©” ne _ Gay-Lussac and Thenard, and J. Davy, have stated, that fluoboric acid is absorbed by water without decomposition. This however is inaccurate ; for I have ascertained that when the acid gas is passed into water, it deposits a considerable quantity of boracic acid, just as silicated fluoric acid deposits, one third of its silica. If the liquid acid be cooled or very slowly evaporated, an additional quantity of boracic acid separates ; but if.it be concentrated in an elevated temperature, it volatilizes without leaving any residue, a-proof that, in a certain degree of concentration, the compound which had been decomposed by water, is reproduced. . ? It would be impossible by direct analytical experiments to ascertain the composition of the gaseous fluoboric acid, or to determine the quantity of boracic acid which is disengaged by dissolving the gas in water, and indeed, without a previous knowledge of silicated fluoric acid, the composition of fluoboric acid, and the proportions of its combinations with other bodies, would present two of the most difficult problems which still remain to be resolved by chemical analysis; but in conse- quence of the complete analogy which. subsists between the properties of these two substances, the simplest experiments suffice. to demonstrate, that, with the exception of mere pro- / 1825.] M. Berzelius on Silicium. 123 portions, they are both constituted according to precisely the same laws. } dines | Boracic acid has ‘a more energetic affinity than: silica for fluoric acid; nevertheless, it is incapable of producing a per- fect decomposition of the fluate of silica. The gas obtained by J. Davy’s process is invariably contaminated ‘with fluate of silica; and as my attempts to precipitate the silica from it by means of boracic acid proved unsuccessful, 1: always prepared the fluoboric acid which I employed in my experiments by dis- solving boracic acid to saturation in pure fluoric acid. The methods which first occurred to me, as promising to disclose the composition of fluoric acid, were, to decompose the silicated fluate of potash or soda by boracic acid; to mix a solution of borax with fluoric acid, in the expectation of converting the whole quantity of the borax into a double salt ; or to combine fluoboric acid directly with saline bases; but in all of them I experienced a total failure. It only remained for me to attempt the direct combination of a fluate with boracic acid; and by this synthetical process, I was fortunate enough to attain my object. | Sie Borofluate of Potash.—This salt falls as a gelatinous precipi- tate when fluate of potash is mixed with a solution of borate of potash. By desiccation it assumes the form of a fine, mealy, white coloured powder. Its taste is weakly bitter, but not at all acid, and it does not redden litmus paper. It is anhydrous. {00 parts of cold water dissolve 1:42 part of the salt: boiling ‘water dissolves it in considerably larger quantity. It is slightly soluble also in boiling alcohol. When ignited, it fuses and gives off fluoboric acid gas; but for complete decomposition it requires a much longer continued and more violent heat than the corresponding sait of silica. This salt is soluble in boiling hot solutions of the alkalies and their carbonates, and as the liquids cool, it crystallizes again unaltered. Borofluate of soda is more soluble in water than the acid and neutral fluate of soda, and by slow cooling it crystallizes in large, transparent, four-sided rectangular prisms. ‘This. salt. has a bitterish and weakly acid taste, and strongly reddens. litmus paper. It contains no water of crystallization. It is sparingly soluble in alcohol. Borofluate of lithia may be prepared by precipitating the borofluate of barytes with sulphate of lithia. It is very soluble. in water, tastes like the salt of soda, and crystallizes in large pve In a moist atmosphere it deliquesces and runs to a iguid. Borofluate of Ammonia.—W hen boracic acid is introduced into a solution of neutral fluate of ammonia, it is instantly dissolved; ammonia is at the same time disengaged, and may be, detected by the smell. Ifno excess of acid had: been employed, 124 M. ‘Beraelius on Silitiuin. fAvel the salt obtained by evaporating the solution is the borofluate -of ammonia. Jt ts undoubtedly remarkable that in these circum- stances the boracic acid should be ‘capable, like a base, of dis- placing ammonia ; but such is the operation of the combined affinities. | | The dry salt may be sublimed without undergoing decom- position. Its taste resembles that of sal-ammoniac, and it reddens litmus paper. It is largely soluble both in water and inalcohol. ~ This salt is of a different constitution from the compounds which are produced by the neutral condensation of fluoboric acid and ammoniacal gases. E Borofluate of barytes is most readily obtained by adding carbonate of barytes in small quantities at a time to dilute fluoboric acid, until it ceases to be dissolved. By spontaneous evaporation of the solution, it crystallizes in four-sided rec- tangular prisms. This salt posseses an acid reaction, but its taste resembles that of the barytic salts in general, and is not in the least degree acid. In a temperature above 104°, it effloresces, and loses its water of crystallization. Alcohol de- composes it into asoluble acid salt and an insoluble pulverulent compound, whose composition 1 have not examined. The crystals contain 10-34 per cent. of water, whose oxygen is therefore double that of the barytes. Borofluate of Lime.—A gelatinous mass, which has an acid taste, and reddens litmus paper: | Borofluate of magnesia is very soluble in water, and shoots ing evaporation in large prismatic crystals. Its taste is bitter, like that of the other salts of magnesia. ) Borefluate of alumina and borofluate of yttria are only soluble in water when assisted by an excess of acid; and by slow eva- poration of the solution, they may be obtained in crystals. Borofluate of oxide of lead shoots by spontaneous evaporation: in ‘short, four-sided, A core rectangular prisms or tables, resembling the crystals of the borofluate of barytes. Its taste is at first sweet and astringent, but it finally leaves an impres- sion of acidity. Both water and alcohol decompose it into an acid and a sub-salt. ae : ai siecihded Borofluate of oxide of xinc may be prepared by dissolving zine flows in ducborié acid. It i wncrvabalicoibihs and deli- quescent. Borofluate of oxide of copper is very soluble in water, and yields by evaporation a mass of bright blue-coloured acicular crystals, which are excessively deliquescent. come now to the investigation of the constitution of these compounds; for which, however, a knowledge of the saturating i ae of boracic acid is indispensable. ‘ 08 _ In my chemical tables, I -have estimated the oxygen of boracic 1825.] MM, Bertelius ob Silicium, 125 acid at 74:17 per cent., and its saturating capacity at 37-085. These numbers are founded upon my analysis ‘of borate of ammonia, and of the crystallized hydrous boracie acid. The more recent analysis of L. Gmelin and Arfwedson, led me to distrust the accuracy of these determinations, and I attempted to reproduce a borate of ammonia, similar in constitution to the one which [ originally analyzed. But all my trials with this view proved unsuccessful, and I suspect therefore that some error had been committed in determining the weight of the specimen employed in my first analysis. , To determine the composition of borax, I dissolved: it in a mixture of the fluorie and sulphuric acids, and evaporated the solution to dryness ; 2°634 grammes of the fused salt, decom- posed by this process, yielded 1°853 gramme of sulphate of soda. 100 parts of borax contain therefore 69°173 parts of boracic acid and 30°827 parts of soda. The crystals, by fusion, lost 47:1 per cent. of water. According to these experiments, the crystallized salt is composed of nd oS Boracic acid .. 36°59 | INERT 0 a's ws 16°31 .... oxygen © 41715 had a shee eee ts Loe (al — ** 4¥889 The oxygen of the water is obviously 10 times that of the base. The proportion of the soda would probably be obtained most accurately by computation from that of the water, both because the latter is susceptible of a more rigid analytical deter- mination than the former, and because any error in the quan- tity of the -water would induce a corresponding error of only one-tenth the amount upon that of the soda. The composition of borax, according to this calculation, would be | Boracic acid ..... 365248 .... 100° a a see ron 163753 ..,. 44:8336 Water Ch case acai 47-1000 follows :— eae (1) LR (3) Boracic acid ..., 640 .... 63°34 <... 55°95 PE a cag SPD a ee a AOOO, s.6 vn. CI PONCE bays vu alee Oh bc epee bine erie eu: In these salts the boracic acid is combined with quantities of ammonia which are ‘equivalent, in other bases, to 5-734, 126 M. Berzelius on Silicium. [Aue 11°468, and 17-202. of oxygen:—numbers whose’ respective ratios are 1 : 2: 3. In the borate of ammonia which I ori- ginally analyzed, the acid appeared to be combined with a uantity of base representing 34°4 of oxygen, which is. six times the lowest degree of combination. | From the analysis of native borate of magnesia, M. Arfwedson - deduced the saturating capacity of the acid to be 16°83, that is, very nearly 172. In the crystallized borate of potash, prepared from boracic acid and carbonate of potash, the saturating capacity of the acid proved to be 5'7, and when anhydrous boracic acid was fused with carbonate of potash, and the loss of weight in carbonic acid determined, it was found that 100 parts of boracic acid had combined with 139 parts of potash, whose oxygen amounts to 23°51. By a similar experiment, with carbonate of soda, it was found that 100 parts of. acid had combined with 135°5 parts of soda, which contain 34:66 of oxygen. These experiments therefore gave the following satu- rating capacities : | 5°734 in the biborates of potash and of soda. 11-468 in borax, and in neutral borate of ammonia. ~ 17-202 in boracite, and in borate of ammonia. | 22:93 in subborate of potash. 34:40 in subborate of soda and of ammonia. On comparing these numbers, we find that they are multiples of the lowest by 2, 3, 4, and 6. ie Two methods presented themselves for a determination of the composition of boracic acid ; namely, either an investigation of the relative proportions in which it combines with fluoric acid, or direct synthesis by the oxidation of boron. For the first of these, the analysis ot the borofluates of barytes and of potash appeared to me most suitable. 100 parts of the salt of barytes yielded 10:5 parts of water, and 67:2 parts of sulphate of barytes = 44:10 per cent. of barytes. 150 parts of the salt of potash yielded 103:8 parts of sulphate of potash = 37°417 per cent. of potash. y direct experiments on the oxidation of boron (to be related hereafter) rendered it probable that boracic acid con- tains 68°81 per cent. of oxygen; and this composition would correspond accurately with the analysis of the double salts, if we suppose them to be constituted in such a manner that the fluoric acid contains four times, and the boracic acid three times, the oxygen of the base, or, in other words, that the boracic acid is combined with thrice as much fluoric acid as the al- kaline base. To verify this composition, I dissolved in water 250°6 parts of crystallized bicarbonate of potash and 154-66 parts of crys- tallized boracic acid (the quantities which, according to the 1825.] M.. Berxelius on Silicium. 127 above supposition, represent an atom of each of the two sub- stances), and: added to the mixture as much fluoric acid as. rendered it slightly acid. The solution, after having been concentrated, was found to contain no excess’either of potash. or of boracic acid, and when evaporated in a water-bath, it yielded to the last drop borofluate of potash. This was, there- fore, the real constitution of the double salt. We are now entitled to deduce the following conclusions with respect'to the composition of the boracic and the fluoboric acids, and of the fluoborates. | . Boracic acid contains six times as much oxygen as the soda with which it is combined in borax, that is, 68°8104 per cent. It is capable of combining with bases in such proportions, that its oxygen amounts to 12, 6, 4, 3, and 2 times the oxygen of the bases, and as in these combinations the multiples 12 and 6 occur far more frequently than any cf the others, it appears highly probable that boracic acid contains 6 atoms of oxygen, and that the salts whose constitution is proportional with that of borax, are neutral borates. On this supposition, an atom of boron weighs 27196, and: an atom of boracic acid 871-96. The numerical composition of boracic acid is Peart win ois eo 0:03 0 3 GL OOO. vamees LOUUU Oxygen eecesenveeee 68°8104 eeeeee 220°62 The crystallized boracic acid contains, according to my early experiments, 44 per cent. of water, of which it loses one half when exposed to a temperature above 212°, and the second half when combined with a different basis. It follows from this that boracic acid is capable of combining in two pro- portions with water; and that in the first of these compounds the water contains as much oxygen as the acid; but in the second, only half that quantity. The numerical composition of these two hydrates is BOrecic. AGIA cio6 00 0A, ALOM. -p0iee f2°43 1 atom »+s- 06°38 WBE io rec ota ek ain ans sili LaLa beware we @ Be Fluoboric acid, on the hypothesis that fluoric acid is an oxygen acid, is so constituted, that the two acids contain equal quantities of oxygen ; that is, it consists of an atom of boracic acid and 3 atoms of fluoric acid.. Its numerical com- position is PAMOTIe AOI SIT Se ese ee cc 47942 POVACW AGIA Co eee ee ees 82058 When fluoboric acid gas is absorbed by an excess of water, one-fourth of the boracic acid is disengaged: the compound thus formed consists of an atom of hydrous fluoric acid and an atom of fluoboric acid. : ne M. Berselius-on Siliciuias _ PAwe? . The borofluates are produced when in this compound the: water is replaced by any other base, and they are so. consti-: tuted, that the base is assoctated in them with four times as much, Aluoric acid as in'the neutral salt, and with a quantity of boracic. acid; which contains thrice as much oxygen as the base. These» salts, therefore, contain an atom more of fluoric acid than the corresponding combinations of silica. © | vet I now proceeded to give a final confirmation to these con- clusions, by determining the quantity of oxygen which is ab-: sorbed by boron during its acidification; but after having made: trial of various processes, I found it impossible to prepare boron in a state of such.absolute purity, that the composition of boracic acid could by means of it be determined with more pre- cision than by the indirect. methods already described. The most. successful experiment which I was able to make was one in which 0-035 gramme of boron was converted by ignition in a: current of oxygen gas into.0:091 gramme of boracic acid, and. according to which boracic acid ought to contain 61-5 per: cent. of oxygen; but the boron here employed was contami-» nated with carbon, whose volatilization during. the combustion would necessarily cause the apparent augmentation of weight to fall short of the truth. ae ae Boracic Acid, and Fluate of Silica.—Silicated fluoric acid gas is not affected by dry boracic acid, but it is instantly absorbed bythe crystallized ydeates ‘The product is a true chemical combination, in which the boracic and fluorie acids are so, proportioned that they contain equal quantities of oxygen, and, in which the fluoric acid is, divided equally between the boracic. acid and the silica, This substance does not smoke when exposed to the air, as would happen, were it a mere mixture ‘ef fluoboric acid and silica. Water decomposes it, and disen-; gages about three fourths of the silica... Hao «Briog9A Fluoborates.—By this appellation I propose to designate the, double salts, in which a serg/e base exists in combination with boracic ‘and fluoric acids. “They appear to ‘be produced when the foregoing compounds are ‘saturated with’ the ‘base, ‘and ‘to be capable of existing i a! variety of proportions between the fluate and borate.’ I have riot exaniinéd any of them minutely ;, at present, they possess too little interest}'to induc¢ one’ td en- counter the difficulties which would’ attend ‘aw exiet deternii- nation of the proportions of the two acids.’ af mon mat diy Boron.—The: easiest and most econoinicat aleth od ‘of ‘pte- paring boron, is to decompose ‘adn alkaline: borofliate by potas- sium. Boracic acid; even by protracted ‘fasion; batindt”’bé’ completely deprived of water; “and it “absorbs’ an _dthlitional’ presi! during: pulverization; this» is ‘thé eatse why theres uction of boracic acid is gecompaiied by @ father vicletit!detés nation, and why a portion of the mixture is in general projected 1825.) WM. Berzelius on Silicium. 129 from the crucible, .On the contrary, when the borofluate of potash has been sufficiently dried, the sound at the instant of the reduction is scarcely audible, and for every atom of potas- sium expended we obtain the corresponding quantity of boron. The only inconvenience attending this operation is the tedious edulcoration which is requisite in order to remove the unde- composed borofluate of potash: perhaps this disadvantage might be obviated by employing sodium and the borofluate of soda. .The boron must be washed -with a solution of sal- ammoniac, and finally with alcohol ; because when pure water is employed for this purpose, a considerable portion passes ina dissolved state through the filter. Sulphuret of Boron.—Boren is capable of forming a sul- phuret, but, contrary to what has been hitherto supposed, no combination takes place between’ the two substances except in a temperature’ greatly exceeding the ‘boiling point of sulphur. It takes fire and burns, when strongly ignited in the vapour of ‘sulphur. -The sulphuret is a white opaque mass. When put into water, it is rapidly converted into sulphuretted hydrogen gas and boracic acid; the, liquid at the same time becomes more or less. milky, in consequence of the precipitation. of sulphur. I am disposed to think, from the observations which I have made, that boron is capable of combining in several distinct proportions with sulphur. Chloride of Boron.—Sir,H. Davy ascertained that boron even without the application of heat takes fire spontaneously in chlorine gas and undergoes brilliant combustion; but he did not examine the produet of ‘the combination. I have con- firmed Davy’s statement; if, however, the boron be very pure, and if it has been previously ignited moderately in vacuo, no combination takes place until heat is applied. . The product of the combustion is a new gas, which, in contact with atmospheric air, smokes as strongly as fluoboric acid gas. It must be col- lected over mercury, which absorbs the excess of chlorine. This gas is colourless, and, in consequence of the formation. of muriatic acid at the expense of the atmospheric humidity, it has a strong suffocating odour. It is rapidly, but not instan- taneously, absorbed by water, and when the proportion of the water is small, a quantity of boracic acid is deposited upon its surface. Alcohol also dissolves it, and acquires the same odour of ether, as when it has absorbed muriatic acid gas. __ Chloride of boron, when mixed with ammoniacal gas, ’on- denses and forms a salt, which may be sublimed unaltered, but which is less volatile than sal-ammoniac. If the salt be moistened previously to sublimation, there remains behind a -Aapuy of boracic acid. One volume of the gas condenses + volume of ammoniacal gas. Chloride of boron is com- posed of a ae ott New Series, Vou, x. K ¢ 130: M. Berthier on Forge Scales. [Ave. Chlorine s Peewee eee eereeeees 90°743. Boron ss vs osis ch WN 0 ACRE QOS Fluoric acid, unless aided .by nitric acid, neither oxidates nor dissolves boron. It has been affirmed that boron is dissolved in the dry way by alkalies, and that when the fused mass is treated with water, ‘the boron is taken up by the alkaline liquid; and forms with it a yellow. coloured solution, This is incorrect. When boron is ignited with an alkaline carbonate, it detonates at the expence of the carbonic acid ; and when it is ignited with the hydrate of a fixed alkali, hydrogen gas is disengaged with effervescence, and boraeic acid is formed, | In the properties which have now been brought under review, boron possesses so close a resemblance to silicium, that the two substances may be associated with one another, in the same manner as we have been accustomed to associate arsenic with phosphorus and selenium with sulphur. The affinities of boron, however, are stronger, and in the lower temperatures, more active than those of silicium; thus, it detonates with nitrein a low red heat with such energy, that the explosion may be almost compared to that of gunpowder, | : ; . (To be continued.) | Articre VIII. | On Forge Scales. By M. P, Berthier.* WHEN pieces of iron are heated to whiteness, in order to draw them out into bars, or roll them into plates, they be- come covered with a coat of oxide, which flakes off in scales by the blow of the hammer, or the pressure of the rollers. These are called by the workmen forge scales, poi oa SNe The thickness of the forge scales is proportionate to the time that the masses of iron on which they are formed haye.remained in the fire, but commonly it is from one to two millimetres ; (from viz to +$5 of an inch); they are of a shining black. colour, with ‘a semimetallic lustre; their ,structure;is ,crystalline, and presents intersecting lamin, perpendicular to the surface of the scales. They.are said to have been observed distinctly, crystal- lized, in regular octohedra, 3 PB to vaib » They are usually composed of two parallel lami one granular and blebby, the inner. compact. and ‘This structure forbids a, doubt of their, being ligui ‘foualb 4: e, the outer ‘crystalline. ed jat a, cer- : : pVIisup $e si? OVE 32 LG * From the Annales dé,Chimi® , ; co F > +. 4 ‘ ¢ 1825.] M. Berthier on Forge Scales. 131 tain period of their formation: nevertheless, although they become soft by an intense heat,’ we are unable to fuse them completely. Itis probable that their fusion is effected by the local heat which is developed at the moment when the incan- descent iron combines with the oxygen of the air, and which must necessarily be very intense, but as it is quickly dissipated, the matter soon becomes solid, and assumes a crystalline struc- ture, if not cooled too suddenly. A similar phenomenon is seen in the combustion produced by striking fire with the flint and steel, in cupellation, and in several other instances. The forge-scales are very magnetic. When reduced to grains of the size of a pin’s head, they adhere toa magnet like me- tallic iron. Their specific gravity is 3°5; but, as. they always contain some blebby cavities, this must be too low. Their powder is of a dull greyish black colour. | a . This oxide has hitherto been supposed to be the same as the native. magnetic oxide, and that. obtained. by passing aqueous vapour over iron ‘heated to redness. Having had occasion for some very pure oxide of iron, for some experiments on the sili- cates of that metal, I used the forge-scales, supposing them to be so; but I soon perceived that they do not contain so much - oxygen as the magnetic oxide, which at present is considered as a deutoxide. For instance, when, for the purpose of pre- paring a proto-silicate of iron, I employed calculated propor- tions of forge-scales and iron filings, a certain portion of the — metal always remained unoxidated; and when I reduced forges scales by cementation in a black lead crucible, I constantly obtained a heavier button than the pure native oxide, similarly treated, would have given. I was therefore induced to inquire into the true composition of these scales ; and the results of my experiments demonstrate that they are a new oxide, which, from the quantity of its oxygen, ranks between the protoxide and the native magnetic oxide, ri | | This oxide does not’ produce any peculiar salt; it is decom- posed by the acids into protoxide and peroxide, exactly like the deutoxide, and ‘this property affords a very simple method of analyzing'it, and is the one which T’adopted. I treated. the forge-scales with’ pure’ muriatic acid, in which they dissolve very readily, eVen in the Cold; if the acid be concentrated, and the temperature of the liquid becomes considerably raised. ‘I diluted the s6lution’ with*water, and threw> down the. peroxide, by gradually pouting’ in carbonate of ammonia till the ‘liquid was discoloured. This process is rot attended with any diffi- tulty Pit ‘edve"'me froth 0-34 to 0:36 of ‘peroxide, according to thé ‘seales Pemployéd? and which T obtained, from different forges; “both from=thé’ tilt@hammer and the flatting-mill. The purest gave the largest, quantity, of, yeroxide. When I only obtained °34, Lalwiys observed, a’he' moment of solution, a ie | 132 M. Berthier on Forge Scales. [Auc. slight disengagemeut of hydrogen gas, which lasted only a few seconds, and evidently proceeded from some minute grains of metallic iron, accidentally mingled with the forge scales. The same scales assayed in the dry way with one-fifth of their weight of earthy glass, gave metallic buttons whose weight varied from:0°75 to 0:78. If we compare these results with those which an oxide composed of two atoms of protoxide, and one atom of peroxide would give, we find an almost perfect identity : for such an oxide would contain: Protoxide 0°642 — 2%; orIron, 0°745 — 100 Peroxide 0358 — F°; or Oxygen, 0°255 — 0:44: I believe this therefore to be the true composition of the forge- scales. . _ According to these results, we must henceforth reckon four oxides of iron, in which the quantities of oxygen combined with the same quantity of iron are respectively :: 6: 7: 8: 9. | __ This oxide is formed whenever iron is in contact with a more oxygenated oxide at a white heat, or when heated in contact with the air so as not completely to oxidate it. _- It is necessary to observe that some forge-scales give, on analysis, much less than 0°35 of peroxide; but in that case they are not pure, but contain a mixture ‘of scorie, which is discovered by the jelly it produces with concentrated acids. As these scoriz are silicates of protoxide of iron with a great excess of base, the presence of from 0°02 to 0:05 of silica may diminish the proportion of peroxide nearly one-fifth. Perhaps it may be objected to my hypothesis of the composition of forge-scales, that a mixture of deutoxide and metallic iron, or its protoxide, would give the same analytical results as those which I obtained with my presumed new oxide; but if the scales be such a mixture, it is very extraordinary that the ingre- dients should always be found in the same proportion; I shall, however, obviate these objections by the detail of some facts, which in other respects also I think are not uninteresting. If the forge-scales were a mixture of deutoxide of iron and metallic iron, they would contaih 0:09 of the latter; but then their specific gravity would be much greater than it really is, since that of the deutoxide is more than 4*7, and that of iron 7°5. Moreover, when we treat a mixture of very fine iron filings and the pulverised deutoxide or peroxide, with muriatic acid, the iron dissolves before the oxide with evolution of hy- drogen gas, and we find in the solution quite as much peroxide as there would have been without the admixture of the metallic iron. Hydrogen gas does not reduce this peroxide ; now, since the forge-scales contain one half less of peroxide than of pro- toxide, we should admit, from that circumstance, that they contain half their weight of metallic iron, which it is impossible 1825.]. M. Berthier on Forge. Scales, 133. to suppose, since, when pure, they give no sensible quantity of hydrogen by the action of acids. Besides, if they contained half their weight of iron, they would give 0:85 of fused iron by the assay, which is far beyond what we obtain. It remains to be ascertained if the forge-scales can be a mixture of protoxide and deutoxide. If that were so, since the protoxide is very greedy of oxygen, they should have a great tendency to combine with that body ; whereas, not only are they wholly unalterable by exposure to the air, but are acted on even by concentrated and boiling acid only very slowly and: with great difficulty. I endeavoured to determine their composition by this method, estimating the quantity of oxygen absorbed by the increase of weight; but I was unable to convert them entirely into peroxide. It is, moreover, very doubtful, if the rotoxide of iron can exist in a free state; for being a base which has such attraction for oxygen, that it decomposes water, it is very difficult to obtain it absolutely uncombined. The dry way appearing to be the only means by which we can hope to succeed, I made several trials after that manner, but without success. The following process seemed the most likely to ac- complish the object in a direct manner. : I took several black lead crucibles lined with charcoal, and placed 100 grammes (1544 grains) of pulverised and_ finely sifted forge-scales, in each; [ then filled the crucibles with charcoal, and closed their mouths with covers, carefully luted on, and exposed them in a wind furnace to a heat of about 70° of the pyrometric scale. 1 took them_out-.of the fire in suc- cession—the first in half an hour, and the last in three hours, and compared the results. All the buttons had become solid, without changing their form or diminishing in volume; they were covered with a. coating of metallic iron, ,and’ the oxide in the centre was neither fused. nor -altered; it gave the same relative proportion. of. peroxide and _protoxide by analysis vid humida, as-at first. The thickness of the metallic coat was proportionate to the time the crucible had remained in the fire ; the. maximum ;thickness. was. five millimetres (nearly *2 of an inch.): It has a peculiar aspect;;. its surface is dull, and fracture erantilar.;,its colour.is grey, inclining to: olive; it takes a brilliant »polish. by-.beifg ,rubbed_ against, hard ‘substances ; it may be.cut,with a knife, and reduced, in that manner, to a very fine jpowder ;, it.is; as soft.as.lead, and has no,elasticity ; it flat- tens} by,a;blow,, and, retams, the mark of the hammer ;. its ‘spe- cific gravity, at, the, utmost, does not: exceed one-third that of forged-irons vt is,,in fact, pure iron, minutely divided, and in a state analogous to,that of spongy, platina. : -olf ythe,gementation ‘has. been. continued, for a considerable me, the: section.. of, the “button presents, , from the surface to Hid centres first,/avery.thin. layer. of ‘metallic iron of a deep 134 M. Berthier on Forge Scales. {Aver blue or black colour; secondly, a thick layer of iron, of-an uniform colour, inclining to olive; thirdly, a layer with shades of black and olive, which soon passes to the pure, and slightly metallic black, of the scales. I examined the olive-coloured part, with the idea that it might probably contain a mixture of metallic iron and protoxide ; but I found it composed wholly of reduced iron of the utmost purity, and there is every reason to think that it is even perfectly free from carbon. When treated with muriatic or sulphuric acid, it dissolves without leaving any residuum, and hydrogen gas is. disengaged to the last. The last portions dissolved have the same aspect as the whole mass. When fused in a black lead crucible, either alone or with the addition of an earthy glass, instead of losing weight, as would happen if it contained protoxide, it increases from 0-01 to 0:02. The portion with shades of black and olive be- haves like a mixture of metallic iron and forge-scales ; in the moist way, red oxide is always found init. This fact proves that metallic iron exerts no action on the oxide of the scales, and consequently that it is impossible to obtain the protoxide by heating any oxide with iron. . The bluish coat of the buttons seemed to me to be steely iron, or to have passed to the state of steel, by the absorption of a certain quantity of carbon; but I have not positively ascertained the fact. 0% booale _' The cementation of the peroxide of iron presents as inter- esting, and more varied results, as the cementation of the forge- scales. If the mass be not very large, as long as any red oxide remains in the centre; no metallic iron is produced at the surface, but only black oxide. When the heat has been kept up a sufficient time, we find in the centre only magnetic oxide, and we may observe towards the surface, as in the cementation of the forge-scales, the bluish steel layer, the layer of olive- coloured iron, and the layer shaded with olive and black. The - magnetic oxide in the centre is variable in its composition; in one experiment [found in it 0°48 of peroxide, and 0:52 of prot- oxide, and in another 0°60 of peroxide and 0°40 of protoxide. Since the native magnetic oxide contains 0°69 of peroxide and 0°31 of protoxide, it is obvious that the oxide in question must be a mixture, in variable proportions, of the magnetic oxide of the forge-scales, and native magnetic oxide. w+ It appears, from what we have seen above, that the peroxide of iron is changed by cementation, first, into an oxide similar to the native magnetic oxide, and that as soon as this change has been effected, its reduction begins from the surface to the centre, the process going on in such a manner that, in propor tion as metallic iron is produced at the surface, the deutoxide of the forge-scales is formed in the interior of the mass, to its centre; but these proportions diminish from the surface to this point. Lastly, when the cementation is very far advanced, the . 1825.) Onthe Spevific Gravity'of Hydrogen Gas. ‘135 button. becomes: covered with a layer of steely iron of appre- ciable thickness. . 4 s How does it happen in these experiments, that the oxide of iron is reduced without being in contact with carbon, and even when ‘several centimetres (1 centimetre = 0°39 inch) distant from it? This is a question which in the present state of our knowledge imperiously demands an answer, and deserves to be considered. We might suppose that the effect is produced by the inflammable vapours from the furnace, which penetrate all _ porous substances; but it is easy to satisfy oneself that this is not:the efficient cause, at least of the reduction of the oxides of iron into metallic iron. In fact, if we fill a crucible with red oxide of iron, placing a layer of charcoal below it at the bottom of the crucible, or if we place the oxide at bottom and cover it with charcoal; or lastly, if we introduce charcoal into the centre of a mass of oxide of iron, and heat it for an hour or two, we shall find that metallic iron is formed only. in that part of the mass which was next the charcoal, and that there is not the slightest trace of it at the surface of the button in the other parts, although those parts were exposed, like all the rest, to the inflammable gases of the furnace. _. The formation of the forge-scales on the surface of iron is quite as inexplicable as the reduction of the oxides by cemen- tation. The oxidation of hotiron by the air is a gradual process, for the crust of the scales is much thicker on large masses, which require a long time to be heated, than on thin bars or plates, which heat much more quickly:. now, as soon as a certain quantity of oxide is formed, it covers the iron like a varnish; and prevents its contact with the air; it must therefore attract its oxygen through the oxides, just as the oxides attract the carbon through the metallic iron. ae ’ These effects must have certain limits, which it would be important to ascertain, as they may perhaps furnish an expla- nation of the phenomena. ~ ARTICLE IX. Sabie On the Specific Gravity of Hydrogen Gas, as:modified by the ul, Presence of Moisture. By Mr. Harry Rainy. 3 ' (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, | * Glasgow, July 9, 1825. _Dr. Tuomson, in his First Principles of Chemistry, recently ublished, has adduced various new experiments in proof of the loctrine that the atomic weights of all. substances are multiples by integer numbers of the atomic weight of hydrogen, 136 oS MirRaing on the TA One of the most important. of these experiments is related in vol. i. p. 67 to 76; and is intended to prove that: the: specific vity of dry hydrogen is exactly 51, of that em me Ae but r. Thomson appears; to me in this case to have been led into:a very considerable evror, by urder-rating the quantity of vapour inthe hydrogen. The bvdtaiehd was disengaged at temperature 49°, at which, according to Dalton’s table, the tension of vapour = 0°363 inch. Dr. Thomson supposes the specific gravity of vapour at 49° to be,-00533 compared with dry air at 60°, and. under a pressure of 30 inches. It is easy to show, however, that. ‘00533 is nearly the specific gravity of vapour at tempera. ture 212°, and pressure 0°363 inch; and that the specific gravity of vapour at ¢emperature 49° and pressure 0°363, is considerably reater. ) ; Ifthe specific gravity of dry air at.temperature 60° and baro- meter 30 = 1; the specific gravity of vapour at temperature 212° and barometer 30 will be 0°481, and the specific gravity of vapour at 212° and barometer 0-363 will be 0-481 x =e = 0:00582.. To find from this the specific gravity of vapour at tension 0°363, and temperature 49°, we must consider that the vapour, if reduced in temperature from 212° to 49°, will, without condensing into a liquid, be reduced in bulk, like any of the gases, from 660 parts to 497 ;* and consequently its specific 660 gravity will increase from 0°00582 to 0:00582 x jo1 = 0°00772, which is the true specific gravity of vapour at temperature 49°, and at the corresponding tension 0°363. 7 est) ) Both Dr. Apjohn and Dr.. Thomson have given erroneous formulz for calculating the specific gravity of aqueous vapour, founded on the supposition, that if we take vapour at 212° and. barometer 30 as the standard, the density of vapour at any other temperature is exactly proportional to the pressure which it: supports, without any reference to the temperature.+ This. opinion is quite inconsistent with the properties of vapour, as is evident from the illustration which I have just given; it is also inconsistent with Gay Lussac’s theory of volumes, Several years have now elapsed since that gentleman has shown, that a volume of aqueous vapour (of any tension and temperature) con- sists of one volume of hydrogen and halfa volume of oxygen at the same tension and temperature.. This is true at 212°, but it is equally true at 49° or any other temperature: The specific gravity of aqueous vapour is to the specific gravity of atmo- spheric air always as 0°625 to 1, the temperature and pressure * Dalton and Gay Lussac have shown that 480 volumes of a gas at temperature 32°, expand to 497 at 49°, and to 660 at 212°. The same is true of vapours if not in cone - tact with their liquids. + Annals of Philosophy, N.S. vol, iii. p, $05 and 386. 1825.) ~~ Specific Gravity of: Hydrdgen- Gas. 137 being the same. We cannot indeed have vapour at temperature 49° and barometer 30 to compare with air at 49° and barometer 30; but we can have air at 49° and barometer 0°363 to compare with vapour at that temperature and pressure. I consider.it. to follow.as a necessary consequence from Gay Lussac’s experiment on vapour, and his theory of volumes, that the following is the true formula ‘for the specific gravity of aqueous vapour. Let the specific gravity of dry air at tempera- ture 60° and barometer 30=1, and its volume = V; and let V’ be the volume of air, and p the tension of vapour. at any other temperature, then the specific gravity of vapour at that tempera- ture will be as . P : | y'°30 x 0°625. If in this formula we substitute for V and V’ the numbers 508 and 497, which are the relative volumes at:60° and 49° ; and. if for p, we substitute 0°363, which is the tension of vapour at 49°, we shall find the specific gravity of vapour of maximum tension at 49° = 1 x Tx “2 x 0-625 = 0:00772, as by the former method. 7 | If in Dr.. Thomson’s calculations, we. substitute the number 0:00772 instead of 0°00533, which he adopts as the specific gravity of vapour at.49°, we shall find that 100 cubic inches of dry hydrogen weigh 2:0537 grains; and 100 cubic inches of oxygen weigh 33:915 grains at temperature 60° and barometer 30; and if we admit that in these circumstances 100 cubic inches of dry atmospheric air weigh 30:5 grains, we shall have the spe- cific gravity of hydrogen = 0-0673, the specific gravity of oxy- gen = 1-111, and consequently the specific gravity of hydrogen: to the specific gravity of oxygen as | to 16°54. : From. this it follows, that if Dr. Thomson’s experiment is cor- rect (and of this we can scarcely doubt from the care and atten- tion with which it was performed), it disproves the hypothesis that the specific gravities of all the gases are multiples by inte-. ger numbers, of the specific gravity of hydrogen. It is true that 16°54 does not differ from 16 by more than about ,!; of the whole, and that a.very slight. change in the number adopted for. the specific gravity vofhydrogen would account for the differ- ence; but this merely shows how difficult it is to make any. experiment sufficiently accurate to decide on the truth of the hypothesis. 1x 138 oD) Analyses of Book) 69. — TAwes ARTICLE X. ANALYSEs oF Books. An Attempt to establish the First Principles of Chemistry ‘by Experiment. By Thomas Thomson, MD. FRS. Regius Pro- _.fessor of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow, &c.. In Two Volumes, 8vo. 1825. pad . ’ Turs work may be considered under two different points of view ; first, as a collection of the principal facts upon which the important doctrine of definite proportions or atomic theory is founded ; and, secondly, as containing numerous experiments confirming those which had been previously made, or supply- ing the deficiency which existed as to the atomic weights of va- riots bodies, both simple and compound, | pana After a preface and advertisement, we are presented with an historical introduction of the atomic theory, occupying twenty eight pages: in this sketch we think the author has ree allotted to each philosopher the portion of merit. due to him; there are, however, some statements which call for obser- vation ; and especially with respect to the substance by which the atomic unit is preferably represented—whether by hydrogen or oxygen. Dr. Thomson remarks, p. 14, “ Mr: Dalton made choice of the atom of hydrogen for his unity ; and in this he has been followed by Dr. Henry, of Manchester, and by one or two chemical gentlemen in London. But this method has been rejected by almost all the British chemists, and by all the che- mists, without exception, in Europe and America.” Has Dr. Thomson forgotten, that Sir H. Davy, in his Elements of Chemi- cal Philosophy, has ‘adopted hydrogen as unity? We shall not follow the author in all his arguments for preferring oxygen ; the strongest of these, and in our opinion indeed the only one which possesses any weight, and that but little, is that “ we see at once by a glance of the eye the number of atoms of oxygen which enter into combination with the various bodies.” This fact the Doctor has illustrated by reference to that case which of all others best proves it, viz. the six oxides of manga- nese, for no other body forms so many oxides ; but this facility is, we think, more than counterbalanced by the difficulty of set a a glance whetherthe proposed atomic weight ofa body is sp ly the true one, by determinining whether it is a multiple of the atom of hydrogen by a whole number; thus oxygen bemg unity, fuming sulphuric acid, is represented by 11-125: now it requires an. operation to discover that this is equivalent to 0-125 x 89, and‘ 89 is, in our opinion, a much more convenient number, and more likely to be retained in the memory than 11+]25, unless by 1825.) Dr. Thomson’s' First Principles of Chemistry. 489 some’ process which we have not discovered, : decimals are more easily remembered than whole numbers, and numerous figures than few. | ; bi _ With respect to the decimals included in those numbers which result from the adoption of oxygen as unity, Dr. Thomson observes : “ Now surely it will not be said that the fractional numbers are more unwieldy or more unmanageable than the whole numbers ; while in all cases of whole numbers, the advantage on the s'de of the latter method is very great. Thus if hydrogen be recy 2 atom of uranium is 208, while if oxygen be unity, itis only 26.” - 7 Let it be granted fora moment that provided we haveto remem- ber a certain number of figures, it is indifferent whether they are decimals or whole numbers; and let us then examine in which mode the greater facility is obtained. Dr. Thomson’s third table contains 408 substances hydrogen ; being 1, 319 of these: are represented by two figures, and 89 by three, and consequently no one by any greater number; but oxygen being’ unity, we have 58 bodies -represented by one figure, 104 by two,. 99 by three, 143 by four, and 4 by five figures. It will also appear that of 246 substances represented by three, four, or five figures, oxygen being unity, 200 are represented by two. figures only, when hydrogen is the standard of comparison. The sixth table contains the atomic weight of 646 bodies; of these, 262 are represented by four, five, and 1 by six figures, of which not one would exceed three figures, hydrogen’ being 1. These statements are, we think, sufficient to settle the ques- tion of facility. But in conversation, let any chemist inquire of ‘another by what number he represents any given substance— let it be nitrate of manganese ; if oxygen be unity, the answer will be 19-125. If hydrogen be the standard, the answer will be 153. » Now this is not an extreme case ; there are many such as will be readily imagined from what has been stated. » WM . The author proceeds to the consideration of the relative and absolute weight of oxygen and hydrogen gases, and the compo- ‘sition of water. He discusses the question whether that fluid, according to the views of Sir H. Davy and Professor Berzelius, as a compound of | atom of oxygen and 2 atoms of hydrogen, as ‘mdicated by their respective volumes, or constituted of one atom of each of its elements. ' We need hardly observe that the ‘author coincides with the views of most other chemists in “adopting the latter opinion. Several well imagined and executed experiments are related, all of which tend.to confirm the opinion that'an atom of hydro- gen being 1, that of oxygen is 8, and of water consequently,9. This part of the subject had indeed been so completely setiled in“our opinion by the previous: researches of the author,and others, that it was scarcely requisite to perform fresh experi- 140 Analyses of Books. [Ave ments to decide it. Indeed no difference whatever is to be found between the specific gravities of any gases either simple or compound in the author’s present work, and those contained in the last edition of his System, except in five cases of the latter. ‘The recent experimental researches detailed are not founded upon more obvious or easy principles, but with the increased difficulty of complexity. Of this the last method employed to ascertain the atomic weight of ammoniacal and azotic gases offers an abundant proof. After having determined the atomic weight of azotic gas by the analysis of atmospheric air, nitric acid, protoxide and deutoxide of azote and nitrous acid, and having proved its weight to be 1°75, and having arrived at the same conclusion from the analysis of ammonia, the Doctor offers what he allows to be “a redundancy of evidence,” as to the composition of ammonia, and consequently the atomic weight ofazote. We shall give this as a fair specimen of very complex analysis, executed, we think, with great skill, and as offering confirmatory evidence of the facts which the operations are intended to illustrate. * 1. Oxalate of ammonia is a neutral salt, which crystallizes in beautiful transparent prisms. It is not very soluble in water. Its constituents I have found, by a careful analysis, to be L@h0me OXANC ACIG . oi, onc 0 th'na.c ccneiene oO LOS0R QMAMONIG , . . ony a 0.40 o.00nneee thee i x Se OOS WELL 0.0 0-0 siiein a 0 0.4.0.4. de-eumelae aie nciel 8°875.grains of this salt were dissolved. in, a small quantity of distilled water. 6°25 grains of pure caleareous-spar (equivalent to 3:5, grains of lime). were dissolved in muriatic acid: the solu- tion was evaporated to dryness, and the dry:residual-salt, consti- tuting, muriate of lime,. was redissolyed.in-a little,water... The two solutions being mixed, a double. decompositionook-place, and-oxalate of lime subsided .to..the bottom,;| As soon as»the. supernatant liquid had -become. quite.cleas, it; was tested. by- oxalate.of ammonia, and by muriate of.limej; but was sot -ren- dered muddy by. either of;these.reagents,-~-showing»that it con- pas no lime nor, oxalic, acid. From \this,it;ds obvious,:.that 1875, grains, of oxalate,of,ammonia.contain just the quantity of - oxalic acid requisite to, saturate, 3:5 grains of-limes Weel; 3b being. the atomic weight,of lime, the, oxali¢ acid:in 85875, grains: of the oxalate must be the’ equivalent.of, an,atom,j;ordSgdforuit will be shown,afterwards, that 4:9 is the atomic weight of oxalic ste dtiw boll jojor s-oini beqqorb bas eqsq gaistold oifckhe,diquid from which, the oxalate. of Jime hadi precipitated, was,nentral ;, hence the muriatic acid.in the muridte ofdime was: - just-capable of saturating the» whole. ammoniainithe 8875 grains, 1825.] Dr Thomson's First Principles of Chemistry. 141 of oxalate of ammonia. Now, this muriatic acid. weighed exactly 4°625 grains. And it will be shown in the next para- graph, that 4°625 grains of muriatic acid just saturate 2°125 grains of ammonia. This, therefore, is the quantity of ammonia in 8°875 grains of oxalate of ammonia. . ) wt “We have thus determined the weight of acid and ammonia in 8875 grains of oxalate of ammonia. The surplus weight being undoubtedly water, it is obvious that the constituents of oxalate of ammonia are Vath ORANG BEIG esc eesaasepses 2D | T ALON) SIMMONID. «5 + a'cis as bh erncne cK eee 2 MEE WERE nna % 0, o0h 4 hice 8 bea aceih, ee re 8°875 The atomic weight of ammonia in this salt is undoubtedly 2-125. - 2, Saleammoniac, when newly sublimed, or when dried for some time upon the sand bath, is an anhydrous salt. It is neu- tral; and, therefore, a compound of one atom muriatic acid and one atom ammonia. : ) ~ 1 atom muriatic acid. sacl AT 4:625 BR AIRC a a uh gp 4000 skh 675 6:75 grains of pure dry sal-ammoniac were dissolved in water ; 21-5 grains of pure anhydrous nitrate of silver were dissolved in another portion of water, and the two solutions were mixed. A double decomposition took place, and chloride of silver precipi- tated. As soon as the residual liquid had become clear, it was tested by nitrate of silver and common salt. Neither of these salts produced any effect, if we except an almost imperceptible opalescence which appeared when the common salt was added ; but there was no precipitate whatever, even after the liquid had stood a week. From this experiment it is obvious, that 6°75 rains of sal-ammoniac contain just 4°625 grains of muriatic acid ; or that is the quantity necessary to saturate the 14°75 grains of oxide of silver present in 21°5 grains of nitrate of silver. Hence the other constituent of the salt, the ammonia, must weigh 2°125, because that is the weight wanting to make up the full quantity of sal-ammoniac employed; and, as sal-ammoniac is neutral, and 4625 the atomic weight of muriatic acid, 2°125 must be the atomic weight of ammonia. «3. 13°5 grains of dry sal-ammoniac were wrapped up in blotting paper, and dropped into a retort filled with dichloride of lime (Mr. Tennant’s bleaching powder), made into a thin paste with water. The whole retort and beak was then filled with water, and the beak of the retort was plunged into a water 142 - Analyses of Books, = [Ave. trough, under an inverted graduated jar, filled with water.’ As soon as the paper round the sal-ammoniac was sufficiently softened to allow the dichloride to come in contact with the salt, an effervescence took place, and azotic gas was disengaged. This is just the effect always produced when chlorine and am- moniacal gas come in contact. The lime which was in excess in the salt decomposed the sal-ammoniac ; and the ammonia, as it was evolved, came in contact with chlorine, and was decom- osed ; the hydrogen uniting with the chlorine, and the’ azote Being disengaged in the gaseous state. The action is so violent, if the dry sal-ammoniac be dropped at once into the retort, that it is difficult to collect the whole gas; but when the salt is wrapped in paper, the action is slow, and the gas may be all collected with the greatest facility. The azotic gas obtained in this process was 11°7 cubic inches, at the temperature of 47°, and when the barometer stood at 29°93 inches. This is equiva- lent to 11°853 cubic inches of dry gas, of the temperature 60°, and under a.pressure of 30 inches mercury. jt Octo _.. © This constitutes the whole amount of the azotic gas in 4:25 grains of ammonia, the quantity contained in 13:5 grains of di sal-ammoniac. Now, 11:853 cubic inches of azotic gas weig 3°5147 grains. Hence it follows, that the weight of the other constituent, the hydrogen, is 0°7353 grain. Consequently, am- monia is composed of “ AZOLE.’ i4,* 20-00 0:9.0:4-0 and sO Called ROWME *~. Hydrogen ....+++++0.,-, 03676... 2:94 2:1250 The small excess of azote im this experiment was owing to a small admixture of. common air with the azote, in consequence of the gas standing 24 hours over the water, © 0 “« The experiment was-repeated seven times, in various ways, and the mean of the »pwhole came. exceedingly near 11°8 cubic inches of dry azotic gas from 13°5- grains of salsammoniac. This weighs 3°4993 grains, givingous the: composition of ammonia as follows : 1) seedy ‘Ua IPO: 1iW AGE Ww fe OR oD Self s ) Azote ..a05. odsioas. 061°74966, oridkivolumey 6 © , Uydrogen. season eves 0°37535) 103-0028 1100, _ psbh¢ 49718 vifarogerantoe: ort Fo e1sds jeguir’s: Oo ator v1 12500 i 5 rene: o2 o3} beirioun This. analytical vesult!ofy renineedane ee mr cones ‘within Jess than +i},,th part, of the theoreti¢allestimater? and ,otaleen! towe- ther withthe preceding: facts;vean eave no-doubt of the vottipo- sition of ammonia”. ,wol .60'8 of bsoubes asw bas jatiis: At p. 150; in treating of:the ¢onipounds éficarbon ard hydto- en, a statement oecurs which both: surprised and abused us. ‘author mentions ‘his belief that: no fewer thaw five different 1825.] _ Dr. Thomson's: First Principlés of Chemistry. 143 gases or vapours exist composed of one volume of carbon vapour and one volume of hydrogen gas. He says, “ the first consists of ies YOUNES a worming, Ceroon vanes condensed into 1 volume. 1 volume hydrogen gas “Its specific gravity is 0°4861. One volume of it requires for complete combustion 14 volume of oxygen gas. After the combustion there remains one volume of carbonic acid gas. “ This peculiar gas has not yet been met with by chemists ; but I see no reason to doubt its existence.” , Cr Now, in the name of the first principles of chemistry as esta- blished by experiment, we protest against the admission of so vague a conjecture ina work decidedly of a practical kind ; ‘and it is venturing much too far.to state the specific gravity ofa gas which exists only in the imagination ; and equally objectionable is it to state the quantity of oxygen which it does require for combustion, instead of that which it would require if we could “ first catch it.” Under this head Dr. Thomson states his analysis ofnapthaline, by which it appears to consist of’ ~ ‘Ty atom) carbons ai). awoler i a Sel PAIQ6 a Ve } atom hydrogen 2.00. ih di sida, OLQGsititar™ - In determining the atomic weights of silicon, an experiment is related, which we confess ourselves at a loss to comprehend : it is the following: , | oe UO © About the middle of May, 1823, I fused a quantity of silica, with thrice its weight of anhydrous carbonate of soda, and digested the fused mass in a small quantity of water, till the silica assumed a flocky appearance. The whole was then thrown upon a filter; and the silica was washed repeatedly with distilled water, till no traces of soda could be found in the washings. In two days the filter with the silica became dry enough to be handled. .I placed the filter on several folds of blotting paper, on a table in the middle of my laboratory, where it was allowed to remain for six weeks, without being disturbed. It may be necessary /to mention, that the weather during the whole time was uncommonly cold}‘and I have reason to belieye, that the temperature of the room scarcely ever exeeeded 60°, if it amounted to so much!“When I returned to Glasgow, on the 24th ofj;June; the thermometer iin’ my'laboratory stood ‘at 57°. The silica, to the eye and: the feel, appeared perfectly dry $* it’ weighed 45°23 grains. « By:exposure toia:red heat, it lost 1055. rains, and was reduced to 32°68.: Now, 32°68/: 10:55 :::4 4 144 “ ) > Analyses’ of Books. ron ee » Now the question which arises is this :—Can silica be sepa- rated from the soda with. which it has been fused by >the agency of water, and without the action of an acid?. If the fact be so, it is quite new to us; but we cannot help thinking that some part ‘of the operation is omitted to be stated. The atomic weights of the fixed alkalies, alkaline earths, and their metallic bases, are allgiven.as in the author’s System, so that his experiments which merely confirm former statements call forno particular observations. ° Indeed with respect also to the metals the greater number,°and “all the more: important ones, agree with those given inthe» System.” There ‘are, however, some variations and ‘important’ additions® in’ these: ‘bodies ; ; such are the atomic: weights: ‘of palladiuim, iridium, titanium, tungsten, and uranium, ane of id compounds’ containing them. With respect to: widehie tain} ” is @ ciftious fact 2thatit has a strong dis- position - to' fo juisalts ¢ with “these vadditions,’ we may now consider pence ‘weightaof the metals as settled, except that of osnitumi2e%*° 0 esioJe ads to 1's, While’ nee ery rbsidas -of copper as ‘ usually nas, ae we sig aleve sufficient reason, ane ir tasty OE heiraedente 3 6ristituition ; he now consi- ders the black kid as’ @-cormpounid Joka atonvof oxyven 1, and one of copper: ‘a; and ° the’ red. Oxidé'as a’ suboxide constituted of two atoms of cop cope &, and one ‘atom of oxygen 1599 It is emarkéd/by the'way, that such suboxides asthat: ofcopper “ in general are inedible of’ pomeanenie yemenee salts with acids.” ‘ Now as far as we know} ‘fio 8 uboxides' exist, the only unquestionable one being the suboxide of silver formed by Mr. Faraday, and which’ consists of threé atoms of silver and two of oxygen, It is indeed true that two°suboxides of. niéngasiene have been mentioned, but'their existenée is much too problema- tical to serve as the basis of a general law ; one of them:indeed is stated. to be incapable :ef combining, with acids, and no proof has, ‘we believe, been, ed; that the. ot her nites with; them. arene treating ah pid salts of cop per, vob i > oat pis Dr. omson sa t cons eration of t capper that a i me to idopt 44 or the eae weight ot pik for if we represent the atom,of, copper -by.,8,, all the i ppSOnRer, without exception, will; be be ial Sp fgiwe ee rain FoURMs ¢ a acid united, to Ji,atem af oxid thiag auton aed of too ‘susepinpscpatare aumiaks she lle salts, only ee be meant, and .eyen.the ae iat bale BQH those jwhich,would sree oe fan ents: peates mhig = te disulph ate pd ble puuriete ota nitrate. ai eae hy act were alo ti ~ i the salts of ¢ qiidoluble except the: this cir- cumstance nee -be a su For making so glaring an sg to the general“rule,” that ‘when two 48254] Dr. Thomson's First Principles.of Chemistry. 145 ‘ oxidés of.a'metal exist, the oxide which contains least oxygen is admitted, to consist of one atom of each .of its.elements ; and that which: contains double, of two, atoms of oxygen and one ‘of base..-By the method which Dr. Thomson: has adopted, we have .also, the anomaly of a protoxide represented by. a higher number than a peroxide.. Thus while protoxide of ‘mereury is represented by 208, and the peroxide by 216, the protoxide of copper is 72, and the peroxide 40. . It was our intention to have offered some observations respect- ‘ing the number by which Dr. Thomson represents alumina, but we have extended this article to so considerable a length, that we have room only for one quotation more, and is that which forms’ the conclusion of Dr. Thomson’s work; respecting an empirical law of Berzelius. Pee hae ee den > | “ Before concluding these general observations,” observes Dr. T. “ I may say a few words respecting: Berzelius’ law, that ‘in all salts the atoms of oxygen in the acid constitute a multi- pls bye whole number of the atoms of oxygen in the base.’ This law was founded upon the first set of exact analyses. of neutral salts which Berzelius made. Now, as neutral salts in general are combinations of an atom of a protoxide with an atom of an acid, it. is obvious that the atoms of oxygen in the acid ‘must in all such salts be multiples of the atom of oxygen in the base; because every whole number is a multiple of unity. Neu- tral salts, therefore, are not the kind of salts by means of which the precision of this supposed law can be put to the test. © © Even in the subsalts, composed of 1 atom of acid united to 2 atoms of base, it, is obvious enough, that. the law will hold whenever the acid combined with the.base happens to ‘contain 2 or4, or any even number of atoms. because all even numbers are multiples of 2, -Now,. this,is the. case withthe following acids: +)... °¢ Phosphoric, Nitrous,’ Antimonic, “Citric, | RETeS ia sl Gee otto lo GReraaNts Raison eats. : eoeees o: ort 1a ious,” Molybdous, “Chromous.... ink Teo tog elenic,. git} nes fait, of aon hakisbal cede Consequently, wie woritist HEP go i all’ combinations ‘of 1 Stoii’ of these’ deids With Qatoms OF DASE. .1C'¢90K9 Buc Lh wy * QTR He CASO OF AT those acids which snitaih Only 1 atom of Betis * aire banasy SEH pSsed SFT! LOMO thy acid amited 0% SS age ldlsd' tH some sdrt hold s°for the > Ce Pa) 4 Of Weer iff Bich “acids'4 bp) v¢his nuhiber-cwill é ; = at 2¢HEdnmber Sf atonrs of oxyyeltin at el! PHisis tHe éase With che follow itig aeidsiy 71h {8 Jedd 02a s19W Jost adi svewod_if stevia baer disiiem old invaids atlili@itsd: sqsox9 oldulollypesulphurous, jo »:!c2 ods : 108 MOUS ca s of MOxde-of tellanume. «stg rw NegHSeeths VOlederscoc.cH? of selystns ce eis Os M68) Analyses of Bobkés 000). (NBS. It is only in the subsalts of acids containing an odd number of atoms of oxygen, that exceptions to the law can exist. It is to them, therefore, that we must have recourse when we wish to determine whether this empyrical law of Berzelius be. founded in nature or not. Now, there are thirteen acids, the mtegrant articles of which contain an odd number of atoms of oxygen. e followmg table exhibits the names of these ete eae with the number of atoms of oxygen, in each. Atoms of oxygen. Atoms of oxygen. Sulphuriciacid «0.440, 8 c b Acetic acid. Tatra 3 Arsenic. JUL VIL J hete 3: 2. £RION oSuccinic. | WEG a © wots e 3 Chromics:iais:. © 40.6008 [Bw ping to Benz016e) 66h. eine 3. Molybdie. 213 2.. OL dud ; 3105 : Loo Nitric 'y «39 od bila bhes 5. Tun sticos Lyi aa ¢ MAENY Te lo WA 1 OTT ABDATRE Py EON fb 5 Ox 1c Ou we Uedlin vads Bh 32.10 iy | Hyposulphurie /.... 2 Formin. 2090s C.0i6i999 B 2091 J MOnW WS ail, ae Non ibotah he en ta which 1 have exmanlit is exceedingly small, bec mt Dit dy SH mvestigute the t Begeiusolam, at, fa determine ss aed of water 0 es tallization, w me ve there occur several. which are, conte wi reptile soy ri me is the case, for Knit Lik th fe ie , the atoms of oxygen i the base being 2 2h: pf head 9 panne fol- lowing subsalts are precisel “f My aidedisost gmoe. iyo boing Ly eld a tf Dini ary UIST), MW. FOTLS BIL initrate dlumind:: “ caste ar a ann d 51 risn Ser ahr” APB Ye “on IP pay HOAs ts3Astothb 1 ce Phir Fane ae nga sities i x Adi Yo? tons SYA tds NS 2: ViRSIDSk ar -s qantas aa stam (verdigris) stay Suc brsetior a sen ATOMS tor ISTP UH ip 9 otis acigqaos! ® aldaian'aiws These éxihip! réhénd ‘not only ‘Hitric acid, ! THe Cth Oia a nd ‘no only’ Bie iat erze saute Wa ticlente wad Atte eae: os at gata acid, and acetic ; uP It would datas be a most re ete is apart veaile if 2 atoms of any protoxide were incapable oF combining with | atom of any "ok the 13 acids in the preceding list, .[ have given seven examples of such combinations; and am persuaded that many more will be discovered whenever the attention of chemists is particularly turned to the subsalts. “ There is another kind of saline combination in which ex- ceptions to the law of Berzelius may also be looked for ; I mean those salts which I have mamma by the epithet sesquisalts or subsesquasalts. - In.the eeniegee, ly atom ¢ f acid. unite with 1898.) Dr. Thomson’s First Principles of Chemistry. “147 1 atom of base ; or, which comes to the same thing, 3 atoms of acid unite with 2 atoms of base. In the subsesquisalts, 14 atom of the base unite with 1 atom of the acid; for example, the ses- quicolumbate ‘of barytes is composed of 3 atoms columbic acid, containing’ 3 atoms oxygen: 2-atonis barytes | Here we see, that the oxygen of the acid is not a sfaitpte: of that inthebase. . , (x0 to enor. _* When the acid contains 2 atdinie of oxygen, andthe base 1 atom, it is plain thatthe sesquisalts miust,all come under Berze- lius’ law; because, Lj,atom of acid will contain 3,atoms of oxy- gen, and "3 is, of course; @ multiple of 1 ; but in acids contaming or datoms of oxygen; the law of Barclus cannot hold. “ With respect to the/subsesquisalts they will all come tinder Berzelius’ law when the acid happens to contain 3 ajoine oxygen, and the base only 1. atom 5 but, they will deviate iret it when- ever the acid contains f'dr'2’atoms UE BRP Ben sige “ Upon the whole, though thé subsalts Str cell Hts have not-bheen sufficiently’ investigated toénable ‘us’ to de dea upon the point with perfect cettainty 5 “yet froth what’ We' do’ kriow, inate “appears dumciene evidence that “‘Berzelius” rule ‘cantot be considered as‘a general ‘chemical Taw} and that we ‘run. the tisk of falling into most egregidtis mistakes, if’ we tiaké use of such a law in caléulating” thé atomic weight arid’ chemical ‘tonstitu- tion. of the acids or bases. . I pointed out some remarkable examples of this error when Beneng, ° of uranium, . to which it is merely hecessary to referthe reader.” | In concluding our reniarks, we may observe, that’ we have freely expressed our differences of ety ie with the "rau on certain. subjects; to’ this’ we are sure’ he a ent Ge more . especial as Vea ih eee ets of baths Which we have withheld Oey assent.\” His’ method’ of @ vo menting ap- sabe to us liable exceptionin very few aa pa work must ore Be ghia tas + yh va pies ou Siete OS a standar Watt 4 ABs a6 poh 5 PAS. tP atomic weig fa" 0 fee iy 1 i a eile os cans. of pacartainjog. ete 2k B oe yintisiio bluow 31» tes Beimidarog' To sldeas: gan eisw sbrmoioig Yas, tc 210 vreaved ).) jel garhsooig sid ay abios SI ont to ys to it bsbsuateq fas bas ;enotisnidmoo dove to eal (OPES ci id4iniodo Yo cutee ela tevensdw bersvovaib 9d ‘iw so 4 Vl etisedue of? 03 bonis vl polis x9 iselaaties si péithe idios 9nilea te batd s9diode ei sied lf » co 7108 bedool sd pals ysor euilostetl to wal od} 03 anoitgao sbovinpers tadtigqa odd yd Sener eve [ do: vad atisa sac di. Atiw ottay bios to arcis. 4! ail apap 92 ofli.al . .athazuyaa rave, 148 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies.- +» [Aus. ArticLe XI. Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. LINNEAN SOCIETY. April 19.—The: reading of the Rev. Messrs. R. Sheppard’s and W, Whitear’s Catalogue of the Birds of Norfolk and Suf- folk was continued. May 3.—Prof. F. A. Bonelli, and Mons, C. 8, Kunth, were elected to fill the two vacancies in the list of Foreign Members of the Society; and the reading of the Catalogue of Norfolk and Suffolk Birds was concluded. Annexed to this catalogue was a table of the times of migration of various birds, as observed at several places in the above counties during a séries of years. May 24.—The Anniversa Foden of the Society was held this day at one o’clock, Sir J. E. Smith, President, in the Chair; when the following members were chosen Officers and Council for the ensuing year. President.—Sir J. E. Smith, Knt. MD. FRS. Vice-Presidents—Samuel, Lord Bishop of Carlisle, LLD. VPRS.; A. B. Lambert, Esq. FRS.; W.G. Maton, MD. FRS.; Edward, Lord Stanley, MP. FHS. Secretary.—J. E. Bicheno, Esq. Assistant-Secretary.—Richard Taylor, Esq. MAS. Treasurer.—Edward Forster, Esq. FRS. : Council_—Edward Barnard, Esq. FHS.; Robert Brown, Esq. FRS ; H. T. Colebrooke, Esq. FRS.; Edward Horne, Esq.; Charles Konig, FRS; Daniel Moore, Esq. FRS.; Rev. Li Rackett, MA. FRS.; and J. F. Stephens, Esq. ' The Society afterwards dined at the Freemasons’ Tavern, where the presence of Sir J. E. Smith, in improved health, added much tothe enjoyment ofthe day. Addresses on subjects inte- resting to the cultivators of natural history were delivered by various members and other men of science: amongst others, by the venerable Bishop of Carlisle, Lord Stanley, the Rev. Dr. Fleming, and the respective Presidents of the Horticultural and Geological Societies. Numerous expressions of respect and cordial esteem were called forth towards the late Secretary of the Society, Alexander Mac Leay, Esq. FRS. on the occasion of his quitting this country for a time, to occupy the important station of Ockinial Secretary in New South Wales. June 7.—Some communications were read from Lieut. J. H. Davies, and Charles Willcox, Esq. relative to a species of Mitylus, stated by them to be M. bidens, found in great quantity adhering to the bottom of his Majesty’s ship Wellesley, built at Bombay, and which has been lying in Portsmouth Harbour ever 1825.} sas ” Geological Society. 3. 149 since 1816. It seems to be quite naturalized there, and to pro- pagate abundantly. A paper was also read on the Crepitacula and Organs of Sound in Orthopterous Insects; and particularly’ in the Poblasti camellifolia, a description of which is subjoined ; by the Rev. Lansdown Guilding, BA. FLS. June21.—The following papers were read :—A Descriptive Catalogue ofthe Australian Birds in the Cabinet of the Linnean: Society; by Thomas Horsfield, MD. FLS. and N. A. Vigors, Esq. FLS.: communicated by the Zoological Club of the Lin- nean Society. Inthe introductory remarks to this Catalogue, most of the species described in which are of great interest, the writers express their confident expectation that: the deficiency of our knowledge of the habits of. the birds of, Australia will be in great measure supplied by the exertions of Mr. A. Mac Leay, during his future residence in that interesting country.—A Notice on a peculiar, Property of a Species of Echinus ;_ by E.T. Bennett, FLS.: communicated by the Zoological Club.;, The Society then adjourned to the Ist of Noyember next, GEOLOGICAK SOCiETY. {1S ; Hale wTO.R 19K —~, CANIS OS29T 39) ~ May 6.—A_paper;was read, entitled {* A Brief. Description of an extensive Hollow or Fissure, recently discovered, at the Quar- ries near the Extremity of the ,Western;Hoe, «Plymouth, by the Rev. Richard Hennah.’* 0) y eT bis i I9isi——, 19} . (990) is a ate In this communication the author describes an, extensive hollow or cave in, the. limestone jrocks, near Plymouth, in, which no remarkable bones have syet been discoyered,) byt in which stalactites are particularly.abundant.| Mr.;Hennah, offers some. remarks on the yarious causes and circumstances jwhich;haye contributed to give'to these,stalactites hsrtdeeet sbanerand compositions.) oy jy. ci ni ii ¥ L212 to gongee1q adt.ai9ed A paper entitled.‘ Qn a Dyke of Serpentine cutting through Sandstone inthe County of, Forfar ;”,b Sec. GS, was read in.part.,. i odio bas atadmoem eyoi May 20.--The reading of Mr, Lyell’s, paper was, concluded, In the former part of this, paper; Sha SOGH which, are.exposed on the deft, bank,of the, Carity, a, smallriver in Korfarshite, which descends, from |the; tel tg gh hg Tae Grampians;into Strathmore; are deseribed. The first of}, these/is a.claystone porphyry, next toitisa conglomerate contaming quartz pebbles, and then strata; of/fine, grained micaceous sandstone and, shale, dipping, to ithe.south, and, which: arg; suddenly cutoff at an angle byAhieoserpentine, , |;These, strata ,of|sandstong’ and, shale | form partcof, agueat iseries} which\ overlies, the.clay slate,to whichit umthediately, succeeds, and-is older than, the great conglomerate | :of athe ald }red) sandstone which lies, immediately upon: jt), Phe’ 150 Proseedings of Philosophical Societies. fAwe; serpentine is vertical and is well characterized. It contains, in, pert veins of asbestos, and in parts diallage, and a large mass of ersthene. ? ey 3 , n the other side of this dyke of serpentine, which is 90 yards. thick, fine grained sandstone and conglomerate again appear and dip away from the serpentine savas the S, Next to these a mass of serpentine is seen mixed with dolomite, and at its side altered sandstone and a conglomerate in which the quartz peb- bles are splitand re-united by ferruginous matter. . Lastly, at a short distance a dyke of greenstone parallel to the serpentine occurs flanked on both sides by vertical masses of sandstone and conglomerate much altered and indurated, and charged with, brown spar. ' art tne ‘to Mr. Lyell next describes the rocks on the right bank of the river, which resemble those on the left with one exception, viz. that the great dyke of serpentine seems to be connected with the mass of dolomitic serpentine, a thin bed of fine grained green- stone alone intervening, and the sandstone and conglomerate which appeared between them on the opposite side being absent. | ~ In conclusion the author traces this dyke of serpentine pursu- ing, its course in a direct line to the north-east and south-west of the locality in which it occurs on the Carity. It is found recur- ring at intervals for the space of at least 14 miles from the bridge of Gortachie to Bamff, near Alyth, in Perthshire. ria It is always unconformable to the strata through which it passes, and its course is never interrupted by any otherrock. — . _ A notice was then read “‘ On the Bar ts of Predazzo ;”. by J. F. W. Herschell, Esq. Sec. RS. gs Cre In this communication, the author mentions that,at Canzocoli,, near Predazzo, in the Tyrol, where a junction is seen of a gra- nitiform sienite with dolomite, a layer of serpentine is. found to intervene between the sienite and the dolomite. re ~The dolomite dips at an angle of 50° or 60° beneath the sienite, and near the junction an alteration takes place in its mineralogical character; as it presents, instead of its usual highly crystallized saccharine structure, a flaky and very talcose. appearance. The incumbent sienite is no less affected. Its. grain is smaller, and it is intersected with innumerable veins parallel tothe plane of junction of a white mealy substance, which partly dissolves with effervescence, and partly gelatinizes. with nitric acid. In the midst of this white substance occurs, the =o lamina of serpentine, which is extremely well charac-. terized, . | 4 _The whole of the transition from the sienite to the dolomite takes place within a thickness of about 18 inches or two feet. 9, 1825.) Scientific’ NoticesMugnetism. 151 A notice was read on Carbonate of Copper, occurring in the Magnesian Limestone at Newton Kyme, near Tadcaster ; by, W.. Marshall, Esq. MGS, poe ia . The green carbonate of copper, found by the author in a large uarry ‘of magnesian limestone near Tadcaster, runs through the limestone in thin veins dipping to the west ; the dip of the lime- stone being in the same direction, but at aless angle. At Farn- ham,asmall village two miles north-west of Knaresborough, which is also in the magnesian limestone, a considerable quantity of copper was formerly .obtained, and these are the only: two instances in which Mr. Marshall has heard of any of the ores of copper having been found in the magnesian limestone. eis _ Arnicuz XII. _ SCIENTIFIC NOTICES, — ‘ MAGNETISM. 1. Queries respecting Animal Magnetism. By a Correspondent, — in a Letter to Mr. Children. : MY DEAR SIR, “Cambridge, July 18, 1825. THOUGH many experiments, and some of them of very recent date, have been made on the gymnotus electricus and other fishes having similar powers, yet 1 am not aware that it has as yet been ascertained whether, and to what extent, they-may be possessed of electromagnetic properties. - If this animal electri- ony be similar to common electricity, it is to be expected that it will be capable of magnetising a needle inclosed in a spiral, but not of causing deviation in the galvanoscope ; if it resemble: galvanism, we may expect both effects. From the experiments made by Mr. Cavendish in reference to the Raia Torpedo, it appears that its electricity was most nearly imitated by that of a large extent.of coated surface charged to a very low intensity ; that “ the quantity of electricity was extremely great,” and that “it was gradually transferred from one side to the other.” I should, therefore, anticipate from the torpedo, magnetic action resembling that from galvanism ; and by analogy, similar effects may be expected from the Gymnotus electricus, Silurus eleetri- eus, Tetraodon electricus, and Trichiurus Indicus. dies . Should any.of your readers have the opportunity to resolve these. questions, they will, I hope, consider them sufficiently interesting to deserve their attention. e021, alas Believe me, my dear Sir, 2. 0 ev : Very truly yours, J.C, 152 Scientific Notices—-Zoology.: (Ava. ZooLoey. 2..On the Anatomical Difference between Helix Hortensis and ©. .:. Hd. Nemoralts. By J. E. Gray, Esq. There has been a difference of opinion among the various. — and Continental zoologists respecting the permanency of the distinction between Helix Hortensis and H. Nemoralis, which certainly at first sight appear very distinct, both on account of the small size, thinness, and more polished surface, as well as the white lip of Helix Hortensis ; but no one has yet taken any notice that there exists a difference in the form of that part of the generative orgaus of the shell called visicula, muiltifida by Cuvier in his dissection of Helix Pomatia; in one (4. Nemoralis) it is much more lobed than in the other ; Cuvier’s name for this organ is bad, as in several of the Helices it is singly-forked,. in others. doubly-forked, and rarely many cut. is variety existing in the several organs is curious, as I am informed by a friend, whose experiments I hope will be shortly ed, that the two species will breed together. Pioret v/ anes had the-knowledge of this fact when he named the wn mouth (variety-6f Helix Nemoralis) as a species, with the name of H. Hybrida. mah 83. On Siren Lacertina. : i having observed that the lungs of the Siren Lacertina were to the end of tlie abdomen, and that these organs only did so in the larva of the salamander, used this fact as an t. that the Siren was only a larva; but Mr. Grauenhorst has weakened the position by observing that the lungs of the erfect salamander are sometimes similarly extended.—(Iris, A On the Animabof Argonauta, ‘It has been a matter of considerable dispute amongst the modern zoologists ‘to know if the animal usually tialad in the Paper Nautilus described by Aristotle and Pliny, was the real former of the shell, or only a parasitical inhabitant similar to the soldier crab, &e, Dr. Leach, Mr. Say, and M. Blainville were of the latter opinion, apparent with great reason, Cuvier and Dumerit combated their opinions; and lately Baron Ferussac; M. Ranzani, and the celebrated Sicilian naturalist, Poli, has supported the opinion of the latter authors. The strongest fact brought forward in the support of their position, is that both Mr. Duvernoy and Poli have discovered the exist- ence of the shell on the embryo found in the eggs attached to the animals, which are said to be the:true inhabitants of the shell. .Sir E. Home in his paper (in the Pil. Trans.) appears to refer to the observations of the former, when he observes, that the yolk must have been mistaken for the shell. 1825.] ~ Solentific Notices—Zodlogy. — 153 - Poli agrees with Aristotle and Dr. Leach that the animal has no muscular attachment to the shell; which was the chief argument used by the latter, that it was not its real builder, and indeed the latter, on the authority of the late Mr. Cranch, states that they sometimes swim about without their shells, and even exchange them for others. The fact with regard to the eg requires to be verified. Would it not be a fit subject for the penci of Bauer? . , hic hes wanes The want of the muscular attachment of the animal to the shell isan anomaly amongst Mollusca, as is also a truly external and celled shell amongst Cephalissodes. Indeed the form and structure of the shell gives reason to believe that its former ig more nearly allied to the genera Carinaria and Firola,—J, E. G. 5. On the Animal of Calyptrea. Lo Messrs. Deshayes, (Annals Sci. Nat.) and - Deslonchaniy (Rev. Encycl.) have lately examined the animal of the. g¢ Calyptrea of Lanark, (Patella China noistain) andfound it similar to that of the genus Crepadula dissected by Cuvier indeed it only differs slightly in the position of the gills @iné abdominal viscera caused by the more orbicular form of the shell, Their account agrees with the dissection I made @firee years ago, and proves that the two above-named genet™ are exceedingly allied. . 6. On the Genus Plagiostoma. M. De France has lately divided the genus of Plagiés as established by Mr. Sowerby into two genera. The fits those species found in the chalk (as P. spinosa and P. Hopi Sow.) which he conceived to be allied to Terebratula; Re he 3 and gives for the genus the following character; shell bivalve, inequilateral, slightly eared ; umbones rather distant. ment cavity situated unde "usually very thin, and M. lived in the glush of the s with a fine paste ; the genu consequently to the Famil A) ea i) ) eee is) Q. gg @D ] co bear | a] i] mn < @ “ £ ZI FI iQ" i 2 France considers them to have *shore, as they are usually filled ‘appears to be allied to Lima, and Pectenide.—J, E. G.. | ni ied Ts Oppelossil Etks. | : Dr. Hilbert has given two interesting papers.on the Fossil Elk discovered in the marsh pits of the Isle of Man ; in’which he .attempts to prove thatthe’ bones aré -post diluvian) and 154 Scientific Notices~-Miscellaneous. [Ave, that these,animals’ mostly died by a natural'death ;.and that one of the.chief reasons of their extermination is the gradually fill ing-up the lakes they formerly inhabited, He is apparently not aware that the Jrisa Elk had twice before been bedehed as distinct from the common one, under the name of Cernus gigan- teus by Blumenbach, and C, Hebernicus by Desmarest; as he pro- osed to designate that species, which he considers distinct m ‘the Isle of Man one, under the name of C. Euryceros, thinking it may be the Luryceros of Appian, Sasha Ifthe Manse Elk should be distinct from the Irish species, it ought to have a new specific name. Di Fide 8. Fossil Crocodile from Whitby. The Rey. Mr. G. Young has given a description of a specimen of crocodile found in the alum shale in the neighbourhood of Whitby, by Mr. Brown Marshal, which was purchased by the. Whitby Literary and. Philosophical Society... oe . The length of the animal, which is a species of Gavial, is 14 feet 6 inches following the curvature of the spine, but when it was alive it must have been more than 18 feet long. .. A head of the same species has been figured as an Ichyosaurus in the Geological Survey of the Yorkshire Coast, p. 16; f. 2.— (Edin. Phil. Jour, 1825. 76.).. poor MIscELLANEOUS. ~ 4 9. Mr. Herapath on the Author of an Erronéous Solution of poisoReghT Yo ve HW Beis ; (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, Cranford, July 16, 1825. . _In your Annals for November, 1824, p. 323, I have mentioned Mr. Herschell as the author of an erroneous solution of | Vraex | hull extracted from Mr. Babbage’s aper, Philos. Transac. 1815. I came to this conclusion from Mr. B.’s observations in the 9th and 10th problems of his paper, and an allusion with Mr,. Her- schell’s name in the 19th problem. Having, however, received a letter from Mr. Herschell in which he intorms me that he is not the author, I beg you will have the goodness to say so in your next. I am, Gentlemen, your humble servant, : | J. HeRapatu, « ee 10. Laminous Snow Storm on Lochawe. Towards the latter end of March, in the year 1813, a shower of snow fell on Lochawe, in Argyleshire, which alarmed or asto- nished those by whom. it was witnessed, accordingly as they were influenced by curiosity or superstition. Some gentlemen who had crossed the lake in the morning, hada good opportunity of 485.) Scientific NoticesMiscellaneous. 163 marking the phenomenon. All had been calmly beautiful dur- ing the day, and they .were returning homewards from Ben Cruachan when, the sky becoming suddenly gloomy, they rowed _ more smartly towards the shore in order to avoid the threatened storm. Ina few minutes, however, they were overtaken by a shower of snow; and immediately after, the lake, which was of glassy smoothness, with their boat, clothes, and all around, pre-_ sented a luminous surface, forming one huge sheet of fire. Nor, were the exposed ‘parts of their bodies singular in this respect, for to the eye they all seemed-to burn, although without any feeling even of warmth. When they applied their hands to.any ef the melting snow, the luminous substance adhered to them as. well as the moisture, and this property was not lost by the snow’ for twelve or fifteen minutes. The evening became again muld- and calm, but lowering and very dark. ‘The natives had not witnessed any similar appearance before ; and many of them believed it the forerunner of some dire calamity that was to: befal their mountain. land. Rev. Colin Smith.—(Edin. Phil. Jour.) , Ritia 3 11. Mr. Mackintosh’s Process for rendering impervious to Water: and Air all Kinds of Cloths; also Leather and Paper, &c: This very valuable process, which: we owe to the ingenuity of our countryman Mr. Charles Mackintosh, consists in joining the surfaces of two pieces of cloth by a flexible varnish, made of caoutchouc dissolved in the naptha obtained from the distillation” of coal. The caoutchouc, after being cut into thin shreds, is steeped in the varnish composed of twelve ounces of caoutchouc to one wine-glass full of the oil. Heat may be applied, and the thick varnish must be strained through a sieve of wire or horse- hair. The cloth is stretched on a frame, and then covered by. means of a brush with a coat of the elastic varnish. When the yarnish has become sticky, another piece of similar cloth, simi- larly varnished, is laid upon the first, the surfaces being placed face to face ; and to promote the adhesion, they are pressed’ between a pair of plain rollers, and then dried in a warm room. This cloth, of which we have now several very fine specimens before us, besides being used for outer garments to keep off rain,, will be found highly useful for various purposes in the arts and. seiences.—(Edin, Jour. of Science.) 156 - =. New ‘Scientific Books. °° tAve. ArticLte XIII, NEW SCIENTIFIC BOOKS. PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION, ’ A Treatise on Volcanoes, and their Connexion with the History of the Globe. By G. P. Scrope. 8vo. A Course of Studies in Plane Geometry. By T. S. Davies, Private Teacher of Mathematics, Bristol. Materia Indica, or some Account of those Articles which are employed by the Hindoos and other Eastern Nations, in their Medi- cine, Arts, Agriculture, and Horticulture. By Whitelaw Ainslie, MD. MRAS. late of the Medical Staff of Southern India. 8yo. JUST PUBLISHED. ’ An Historical and Descriptive Narrative of Twenty Years’ Residence in South America; containing ‘l'ravels in Arauco, Chile, Peru, and Columbia ; with an Account of the Revolution. By W. B. Stevenson. 8 vols. 8vo. 2, 2s. ' Practical Remarks upon Indigestion, particularly as bunhectad with Bilious and Nervous Affections of the Head, &c. Illustrated by Cases. By John Howship, MRCS. &c. 8vo. . 7s. -Rennie on Gout. 8vo. 5s. 6d. Welbank on Syphilis. 8vo. 7s. 6d. « The Theory and Practice of Warming and Ventilating Public Build- "t &c. 20 Plates. 8vo. 18s. ~~ ynii’s Nautical Tables. baad aks 8vo!° 2. 2s. Pe 5b 32°39! Height : : 1s> eFet: a? erent 1G0 ? . r9iaTy. 10 asve IDR Das) eo) wo tghive 8 _ ARTICLE XIV. oe OT i Ea ~NEW PATENTS, ia mo! pt | uth, ‘Devonshire, rectifying distiller, for an improved safe to’ Fe Py inthe distillation of ardent ‘spirits.—May 14. C. Macintosh, Crossbasket, Scotland,’ ‘fora new Broa for making steel.-May 19.iod .ronilla™ J: Badaths,“Ashtéd, near’ Bieraiigghitta heist, for a new method of cmelae ven err their ores; and purifying certain metals, il GR 9G Vso .satiosn 10 I. Reviere, Oxford-street, gunmaker, for an improved construction, arrangement, and simplification of the machinery by which ‘guns, pis- tols, and other fire-arms* ‘are discharged. May 20. . Wit Jatnes} Coburg-pilace; Winson-green, seiiBirmiagham, engi- ry for: certain! improvenients’ ity aiiaennay’ ‘for? diving’ under ‘water, ich apparatus is also’ ny emerge tovothier purposés—May 31, J. H. Sadler, Hoxton,’ Mid machinist, for‘an improved power 166m for the’ weaving of silk, cotton, linen, wool; ‘flax, and ‘hemp, and mixtures thereof. May 81. J. ¥. Ledsam, merchant, and B, Cook, brass-founder, both of Birs 1825) New Puients. 157 mingham, for improvements in the production and purification of coal as.——May 31. s r J. Cusine New Radford, Nottingham, lace net manufacturer, for improvements on the Puslew bobbin net machine.—May 31. r Apsdin, Leeds, bricklayer, for a method of making lime.— June 7. C. Powell, Rockfield, Monmouthshire, for an improved blowing machine.—June 6. : A. Bernon, Leicester-square, merchant, for improvements in ful- ling mills, or machinery for fulling and washing woollen cloths, or such other fabrics as may require the process of fulling.—June 7, ' M. Poole, Lincoln’s Inn, for the preparation of certain substances for making candles, including a wick peculiarly constructed for that purpose.—June 9. Ot J. Burridge, Nelson-square, Blackfriars-road, merchant, for improve- ments in bricks, houses, or other materials, and for the better ventila- tion of houses and other buildings.—June 9. : , J. Lindsay, of the island of Herme, near Guernsey, for improve- ments in the construction of horse and carriage ways of streets, turn- pike and other roads, and an improvement or addition to wheels to be used thereon.—June 14. 1s W. H. James, Coburg-place, Winson-green, Birmingham, engineer, for improvements in the construction of boilers for steam-engines.— June 14. J. Downton, Blackwall, shipwright, for improvements in water closets.—June 18. t W. Mason, Castle-street, East, Oxford-street, axletree manufacturer, for improvements on axletrees.—June 18. 2a C. Phillips, Upnor, Kent, for improvements in the construction of a ship’s compass.—June 18. ’ G, Atkins, Drury-lane, and Henry Marriott, Fleet-street, irons monger, for improvements on, and additions to, stoves or grates.— —June 18. : _ E. Jordan, Norwich, engineer, for a new mode of obtaining power applicable to machinery of different descriptions.—June 18. J. Thompson, Vincent-sqaare, Westminster, and the London Steel Works, Thames Bank, Chelsea, and John Barr, Halesowen, Birming- ham, engineer, for improvements in producing steam applicable ta steam-engines, or other purposes.—June 21... ff T. Northington, the younger, and J. Mulliner, both of Manchester, small-ware manufacturers, for improvements in the loom, or machine, used for the purpose of weaving or manufacturing of tape, and such =~ articles to which the said loom, or machine, may be applicable. —JuneZl. Hn. 3 a ' Pek «4 Ross Corbett, Glasgow, merchant, for a new step, or steps, to ascend and descend from coaches, and other carriages. —June 21. to .. P. Brookes, Shelton, in the Potteries, Staffordshire, engraver, for improvements in the preparation of a. certain. composition, and the application thereof, to the making of dies, moulds, or matrices, smooth surfaces, and various other useful articles —June 21. f J. F.,Smith, Dunston Hall, Chesterfield, for improvements in ma- eal for drawing, roving, spinning, and doubling cotton, wool, and. other fibrous substances.—June 21. : - 158 ‘New Patents. Awe. |. J. J. Saintmare, Belmont Distillery, Wandsworth Read; Surrey, distiller, for improvements in distilling —June 28. dD. Redmund, Old-street Road, Middlesex, engineer, for ‘improve. ments in buildin; ee , houses, &e.—June 28. G. Thompson, Wolverhampton, for improvements in the construction of saddles —June 28. J. Heathcoat, Tiverton, lace-manufacturer, for ith provements’ in manufacturing thrown silk.—July 6. W. Heycock, cloth-manufacturer, Leeds, for i improvements in ma- chinery for dressing cloth.—July 8. J. Biddle, Dormington, Salop, glass manufacturer, for his machinery for making, repairing, and cleansing roads and paths, &c.—July 8. - Lieut. Molyneux Shieldham, Brampton Hall, Wrangford, Sf; for improvements in setting, working, reefing, and filing the sails of vessels,— July 8. - W. Furnival and J. Craig, both of Asddertent) Cheshire, salt-mianu: facturers, for improvements in the manufacturing of salt.—July 8. °°) -¥. Day and’ S. Hall, Nottingham, lace-manufacturers, or their improvement on a pusher twist or bobbin-net machine.—July 8, °° 0 Hancock, King-street, Northampton-square, Midd ben,” fox pe a hago in the making of pipes for the pumas of fluids. 6. ETE —-W. and H. Hurst, Leeds; for improvements in n scribbling and card: in sheep’s wool.—July 16. “Hurst, manufacturer, ; ‘and Gu Bradle ‘amschifie-wakter; bot of Lenin for improvements in looms for | cloths.—July 16: °° °° > RW, Stansfeld, merchant, W. Prichard; ‘civil: engineer, . and S. Wilkinson, merchant, Leeds, for se pet in looms and in thé a a 90% connected therewith.—July 16, Saddler, Devizes, for iipepeesramnts in collats for horses and ether atimals—July 16.5 SOE ~M. I. Brunel, Buidats-sprset Blackfriars, for mechanical: arranges ments for obtaining powers from Guide, and wor applying: i same to various useful purposes.—July 16.0. 7 T. Sitlinton, Stanley Mills, engineer; for i idepepeeiciants in'm for shearing ate 2 ping woollen or other ¢lothsJuly 16. ° $- “i reg inn Fields, eas engineer for Improvements in 16. , T, R. Wiliams, gen Norfolk-street, Strand, for awimproved lancet: ouirae ; .|. PONE BO-OG! NA Lieut:'T. Cook, pper Sussex-place; KentRoad, for improvements in the construction of carriages tinal ‘harness’ for the: ppmnerenenty of persons riding July 16. °° i 288-Og iy J. Cheseborough, «dyer, Nocheoes for a‘ method of conducting to and winding Fm or bobbins, seein cotton, flax, wool,’ or other Sbresaishbe —wuly 16s)09) ) -okmR> | Wr? Hirst, and J. , cotton spinner, Leeds, for an or Rage for a new motion to mules or billies.-—July 16...) sccnermecs « givin Dela Fons, . -street,, Hanover-square, dentist, hin im- provements in extractin Nerecupyeninaapier baindonts dherntn J. Downton, Blackwall, Middlesex, Mal ares for i improvement in in machines-or pumps,—July 19, ‘ . > weac- . viis Jd tear , iow we rene ne wee ee ww we He 4 1825.3°°)-) Mr Howard's Meteorological Journals. {150 ARTICLE XV. | METEOROLOGICAL TABLE. nee semian:. aes BAKomeEreR, "THERMOMETER, | : ibioael 4825, «Wind. Max.. |» ‘Min. { Max. [ Min. |° Evap.} Rain. * 6th Mon. " | i tee wie HH ge June 1/8 W| 30°49 30°21 72 50 — 09° 75 W| 3021 29°89 68 54 — — 3IN W| 29°89 29°74 62 | °50 P05 AIS 9 WI 29:74 29°60 65 43 ~— 15 5IN W| 30°12 29°60 55 38: | —. |i 6IN W] 30°12 30°04 64 52 “86 71S . Wi 30°11 SOOS!° [Royascy 98 —ep SiS W 3021 SO'1l | 75 49 ~ 9S W| 30:40 | 3021 [ 75 45 — 10| W | 30°40 30°36 79 | 46 ‘79°? My} EB} 30°36 30°29 81 AA — } 12} EB |4'3029°! 008007 fo08a fp) Qe ‘13IN E} 30°40 | * 30°27 s1'}' 49 | — : 14.N E} 30°43 30°40 80° {VASP BRP 15IN E| 30°40 30°32 82 AS fb — S1GIN EE} 30°32 fogorggs f) 85) pomsec} aah! | 17iIN- -E| «(30°33 30°31 73 | $8 — ' 18sIN- E} 30°32 | "30°20 | 75> |.°39 44S “ 19} S }7 302058 29:93 77°} Aor sap ial 20IN.. W} 30°02 29°93 67. SFR per Pe Fe. “OF * 21IN E} 30°19 30°02 62 35 | tee P - QIN. WI. 30°24 BOD PTA PE MQ fp Ve Hs 23IN Wi 30°23 30°15 75 42 —! a 248 Wl’ 30°15 | 29906 | 75 | 44 fo oe 25|\8 Eh 29°93 29°87 77) WORT 2IBGIEOR |.) OF 26/8 WI. 29°94 29°93 70 44 — 03 — 27\S- WI. 29°94 |: 29°93 72 19 50 — 08 255 Wi 29°93 |} 29°86 | -74 5) 52 Go — 0s 29IN Wi] 29°88 29°87 73 |) 5a poe 02° 30)/N>> Who29'90:: +} 29°88 ISyR ‘Hy bsg onor1gdsagi 06 30°49 | 29601 85 35 |) 4°@g th 46g" The observations in each line of thé ‘table apply to a period of twenty-four hours, beginning at 9 A.M. on the day indicated ‘in the first column.’ A dash denotes that the result is included inthe next following observation. WX9 *RIMAIVOTO 160 Mr, Howard's. Meteorological Journal. [Aves 18265. REMARKS. “Sixth Month.—1. Fine. 2. Fine, with occasional clouds 3, Fine. 4. Rainy. 5. Showery. 6, 7. Fine. 8. Cloudy. 9—19.. Fine. 20. Cloudy: showers. 21—24. Fine. 25. Showery. 26. Fine: showery. 27. Fine, with oar 28, as Be 29. Cloudy. 30, ates £ RESULTS. Winds: NE,17; B,2; SE, 1; 8,1; SW, 10; W,1; NW, 8 Barometer: Mean height ~ / For the month. eeee ; eetree Cee rere weseee eee erees 30-112 inches. Thermometer: Mean height ‘For the WN, 658s be ee dT ses bow. AW... pete Evaporation os mistiielind, dint iatnd 2 Sa de a leat eoeese errr ter err ie. Rain. Sa ddpatae cade éan eek aeennte COO Te meee ne ee rn rere eee eeresees 0°68 Laboratory, Stratford, Seventh Month, 26, 1825. R. HOWARD. ANNALS. PHILOSOPHY. SEPTEMBER, 1825. ARTICLE I. On Naval Improvement. By Col. Beaufoy, FRS. (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, Bushey Heath, near Stanmore, Aug. 1, 1825. Tue building of three experimental vessels for the improve- ment of naval architecture having excited much attention in the public mind, not only from the peculiarly interesting nature of the science under inquiry, but from the professional abilities of the different projectors, the individual success of each ship has been observed with an anxiety commensurate with the import- _ ance of the object in view. : : If, notwithstanding the skill of the constructors, neither of these men of war showed ‘decided superiority in sailing, the failure. must be attributed to our ignorance of the resistance bodies meet with when opposed to the impulse of water. Our ' knowledge of this brasich of physics is nearly as limited as our acquaintance with the laws which govern the motion of the fixed stars; but here: the: parallel ‘must end’: the ‘accumulated industry of ages alone will probably detect the cause which produces change of place amongst these heavenly bodies, whereas the advancement of hydrodynamicsis within the influence of the present generation. : _ Ifstrength, durability, and efficiency, be all that is required in our floating fortresses, these characteristics have already been combined by the talent of Sir Robert Seppings. It appears that much uncertainty existed-im the sailing of the experimental vessels : sometimes one had the advantage, some- times another; the distinction resting mainly on the quantity and stowage of the ballast, alterations in the masts, yards, &c. The requisiteness of these changes is a proof that the highest genius ‘Is incapable of correctly anticipating either the qualities or the sailing powers of a ship prior to her going to sea. New Series, vou. x. M 162 Col. Beaufoy on Naval Improvement. [Serr. One great point has been gained by building these. vessels, in showing that the synthetical proeess is inadequate’ to \obtain the end in view. Is it not similar, to.a chemist who,,desiring to analyse metals, of which, some, ,were known ,and, others unknown, first mixed them altogether, and,then,. after great pains, labour, and expence, discovered. the,,impossibility of arriving at any accurate conclusion in, regard to their respective properties ; whereas had: he, in the ‘first, instance, separately examined each, the result would, have proved less fatiguing, less costly, and more satisfactory? , Inall complex cases, scientific, or mechanical, the most easy and natural way. for, well,under- standing the subject is to resolve it into the component parts. In the construction of ships,, the, great, and. leading features are stability and fast sailing; the theory of the former is suffi- ciently known, but our acquaintance with, the resistance of non- elastic fluids may be termed yet in its, infancy, ,, The. ablest builder is at present ignorant of the, curyes best adapted for dividing the water; and working thus in the dark, it is no, won- der that the aggregate. of slow sailers so far exceeds those that are fast. , ' , . [fit be deemed desirable to persevere in building experimental vessels, the plan proposed in the Annals of Philosophy, for Oct. 1817, may not be unworthy of notice. .. | The importance of discovering the curve of least. resistance is. not confined alone to. vessels moved by the power. of wind. Constructors of steam boats are deeply interested in the fact, If a packet with an engine of forty horse power be driven nine knots in an hour, it will require an effort of nearly. sixty-one horses to increase the speed to ten,, Could this additional mile be gained by giving the hulla more advantageous form for cleav- ing the water, many substantial benefits would accrue, The original cost of the engine would be lowered from the inferior size required, expenditure in fuel and. stowage would be sayed, and less risk incurred of the melting of the grate bars.. In short, from the waterman who plies upon the Thames to the captain commanding the largest ship in the British navy, all are inte- rested in finding the solid of least resistance ; the first by dimi- nishing the labour of the oar, and the latter by out-sailing, coming up with, and capturing the enemy’s ship. Ships have been aptly compared to bridges connecting the whole world together; a slow sailing vessel, therefore, is a bridge longer than necessary. It is not. improbable that the Carthaginian and Roman builders surpassed the moderns in the form they gave theirmen of war for cleaving the water, because, being frequently impelled by oars, to lighten the fatigue of the yowers, must have been a matter of the greatest moment. It is highly gratifying to observe the pleasure. that several 38253] Col, Beaufoy on Naval Improvement. 168 of the nobility and ‘gentry take in maritime’ concerns, The Royal ‘Yacht Club;'by building vessels, and bestowing prizes on the best sailers, enjoy the patriotic and praiseworthy conscious- ness that) money so expended encourages some of the most useful classes of society, and creates a spirit of emulation among the differetit ‘branches ‘of artificers connected with nautical affairs:’‘\ Phis institution, by introducing for trial new and expen- — sive machinery, is capable of performing services which few individiials could undertake}! and it is submitted for the consi- deration of the body whether ‘considerable improvement in the science of sailing’ might not result from the following experi- ments. use cadens Lug sails are usually thought preferable to others in turning . to windward, and suchas are taunt and narrow are deemed more effective than those that are low and square; but this phrase of taunt and narrow is extremely indefinite. In the first instance it is proposed that a vessel rigged as a lugger shall sail with others, and most likely one amongst them will be found either a company keeper, or whose rate is nearly on a par. In the next place, let canvass be taken from the breadth of the sails and added.to the hoist; and a second comparison made ; thus subjecting the sails to repeated alterations and trials, until the maximum of the length to’ the breadth be obtained. This fact established, the next suggestion is to convert the lugger into a cutter, observing the necessary precaution that the main~ sail, foresail, and jib, expose the same surface to the action of the wind, as the sails of the lugger. The third trial consists in changing the same vessel into a schooner, scrupulous regard being paid that the quantity of sail is equal in the three cases, _ and that no variation in the weight, quantity, or stowage of the ballast be permitted either in the boat of comparison, or experi- mental vessel. Rigid adherence to these points is essential to the success of the experiments, ‘inasmuch as it is the action of sails, and not the best trim of the hull, which forms the object of the present inquiry. A vessel of size is for several reasons desirable; one of 14 feet beam, and 57 on deck, might prove sufficiently large; but the beams of the deck should be so disposed as to require no removal in the subsequent alterations of the masts for the various modes of rigging, It is also recommended that the body be clencher built ; vessels so constructed generally excel in sailing such as are carvel made, and this superiority will obtain so long as the resistance of water to curved lines shall be involved in obscurity. 3 _ It is somewhat paradoxical that constructors of boats for con- traband. trade should possess such decided advantage over the builders employed by the revenue as to call forth an Act of M 2 é 164 «Mr. Nixon on the Theory of the ~ [Serr. Parliament regulating the extent and the fixing of the bowsprit, and limiting the proportions which the breadth of a vessel must bear to its length.. Such legislative interference is detrimental to science: experience, teaches us that attempts to run goods will continue so long as high duties create the temptation ; and the boat restrictions, instead of mitigating the evil, have but caused the remoyal.of the, capital and skill of the constructors from our own coasts to,those of Holland. Ifa smuggler buildalug- ger 13 feet beam,.96 from stem to stern, and the bowsprit 60 feet long, why not launch a custom. vessel of 100 feet in length: the smuggler, ifchased, would use his best endeavours toescape; the revenue officer, actuated by duty and stimulated by hope, would exert his utmost to make a seizure, and the relative success of either party would soon determine the most effective limits of length to breadth. Let not these remarks be misconstrued into an advocation of illicit trade. Taxes must be raised, and consequently any per- son who by smuggling evades paying his individual share, com- mits a fraud on the rest of the community by binding on others the obligation of his own) debts... My sole wish is that naval science may not be injured by legal enactments. On the same principle that laws are made for building and fitting of vessels, why should not others pass, restricting residents on the coast suspected of contraband addictions to the services of none but lame horses ; whereas all such as are fleet shall be devoted to the use of those engaged in the collection of the revenue. | 1 remain, Gentlemen, your obliged Markt Beavroy. Artic.e II. Explanation of the Theory of the Barometrical Measurement of Heights. By Mr. Nixon. (Concluded from p. 96.) Calculation by Logarithms. We have seen that when the differences of the pressures sus~- tained at the summit and base of the strata of an atmosphere of dry air are the same, the weights of those strata’ will be equal, and their heights, granting them to be so thin as to be sensibly of uniform density, will be reciprocally as the pressures they support ; consequently as the difference of the logarithm of any given number and that of another, greater by an indefinitely small quantity, compared to the logarithmic difference of any other given number, and one greater by the same difference will ‘ “ 1825.) Barometrical Measurement of Heights. 165 be reciprocally as the two given numbers, it is evident that the natural numbers of a table of common logarithms will represent the préssures for heights of the barometer, and the differeuce of their corresponding logarithms, the difference of level, oraltitude of the strata (or stations), possibly in feet, but at all events in somé constatit ratio of the Seale of the barometer. We have demonstrated that when the pressures, as we ascend a series of Stations, are Wbsetved? to “diminish in geometrical progression, the difference’ of level of the stations will be equal; _ and we shall find ‘that if’ we affix to’ a series of numbers in geometrical progression their corresponding’ logarithms, then will the differences ‘of the latter contiiue equal; thus confirming the propriety of substituting logatithms in‘ our calculations, for the more tedious and’ ‘less accurate method made use of in the first instance. ws ty Example. * 15051500 1*2041200 .... *3010300 0:9030900 .... *3010300 0°6020600 .... 3010300 0°3010300 .... *3010300 0:0000000 .... *3010300 The vertical height of a stratum of dry air of the temperature of 32° F. intercepted by the pressures of 43°42945 inches, and 43°42946 inches, is equal to ‘0060095 foot; but as the logarith- mic difference of the pressures is only 0000001, we must multi- ply the difference of the logarithms of the heights of the baro- meter at the two stations by 60095, and the product will be equal to their difference of level in feet. Differences, Logarithm of 32 Sat ot 16 8 4 2 1 | || ' Example. Lower barometer 30°5in. Log. 1:4842998 Upper barometer 15°5 BEY PL OOSILF Difference 02939681 x 60095 = 17666 ft, When the mean temperature differs from 32°, we must alter the multiplier of the logarithmic differences (termed the constant coeflicient) in the ratio of the variation of the volume of the air; or we may multiply the altitude at 32° by the difference of that temperature and the mean of the detached thermometers, and " Log. of 15°00 ...... 151760913 | Log. of 30°CO ...... 1-47 71213 15-OL i, » 151763807} 8001 seca 1-4772660 Differences 00-01 0:00028° | Dif O0-01 ,..... 0°0001447 Hence 2894 is to 1447 in the inverse ratio of 15 to 30, 166 Mr. Nixon on the Theory of the (Sapa aividnrs te product by 480, add or subtract the quotient accord- ing as the mean temperature is above or below 32°. yen ‘in order to introduce the correction for the diminished speci- fie gravity of the quicksilver in the vertical line, we must augment the constarit coefficient sui or to 60246, and call the debs noit Pe amy oye dilatation of air =, per degree. The indices of the logarithmic differences being sometimes negative as wellas affirmative, it will be advisable to disregard them altogether, considering the tabular logarithms of the pres- sures as decimals: » Wish , ‘Construction of the Barometer. The syphon barometer consists ofa glass tube bent in the form of an inverted syphon, filled with very pure mer- cury freed from-air by carefully boiling it when | l) in the tube.* Each branch being furnished with jy a scale ofinches having their zeros coinciding in to level, the difference of the observed heights of the summits of the (perpendicular) mercurial g columns will be equal to the height. of the baro- meter or pressure .of the bidatin ch In order to dispense with the shorter scale, the index of the longer branch is so constructed as to slide. down to the level of, and extend horizontally to the summit of the mercury in the other branch. in some barometers the zero of the scale is placed anywhere above the shorter leg as at a, and the inches are numbered upwards and downwards) so that the sum of the two measurements, instead of their differ ence, exhibits the pressure. An augmentation in the pressure of the Spm having taken place, a depression of the mer- cury in the shorter branch, and an equal elevation in the longer one, of half the quantity of the variation restore the equilibrium of pressure. ‘To obviate the trouble of measuring the difference of level of the two columns, the shorter one only has been pro- vided with a scale, having the half inches numbered as whole inches ;—a method which renders it impossible to make a proper correction for the variation of temperature of the mercury. (We might inquire why the syphon itself, being laterally confined within cylindrical rmgs, might not be raised or depressed by means of a screw fixed below y, so that the summit of the shorter column might always coincide in level. with the zero of the scale fixed. atz?) . baer ered PO ae “ek 2° The following-methods have been resorted to with a view to render the instrument portable., 1. The two. branches; being * It has been proposed as ah improvemient-to fill the tube in a vacuum, 1825.) Barometrical Medsurement of Heights. 167 connécted by means of a little apparatus furnished with a cock, the whole of the mercury may be confined within the longer branch. 2: The two branches being fixed within a leathern bag poe we hsguck tala a stopper is inserted in the shorter branch, and the mercury forced to the summit of the interior of both branches by means of a screw préssing against thé bag. The screw serves further to bring the shorter column of mercury; under every variety of pressure, to the zeto ofthescale. 3. The syphon being ‘filled ‘with’ mercury in» the tsual»manner, the shorter branch is hermetically closed, and: a. capillary ea made a little above % to-admit the atmospheric air, but too smal to permit the mercury to escape. To break-the force of the shocks to which the instrument may be exposed, the longer tube is bent out of a straight line, or both branches are con- tracted in bore somewhere near the summit.." If we fill a number of strait glass tubes of different interior diameters with mercury, and immerse them (inverted)/in a basin of the samé fluid placed in a vacuum, it will: be observed that the mercury within the tubes will descend below the level of the fluid'in the basin ; the depression being most considerable within the tube having’ the smallest bore. ‘The atmospheric air being admitted to press on the mercury in the basin, it will be found. that the heights of the mercurial columns (exhibiting the pres- sures) will fall short of the elevation of the column within an extremely wide tube, and that the discrepancies will be equal to the depressions below the surface observed before the admission of the air. Hence it is clear that when the interior of the syphon barometer is not of the same diameter in both branches within the range of the summits of the mercurial columns, a correction for capillarity (otherwise unnecessary) will be required : the height of the mercury within the narrower tube must be ery augmented hy the difference of the Ags | | corrections proper for the respective ee ea tubes. It has been objected to the syphon barometer that the adhesion of the ) mercury taking place through the“ «© A}| length of two tubes as well asin the part connecting them, the settling of ° ; the fluid will be more uncertain than ~'' © yh in the single tube of the cistern baro= ° 2 =+—— ci i ae: meter; and that two measurements 0°") [= 3) |= | I are more liable to-error in notifio thé’)© | |- -==N}s a =| y pressure than when one only is re- 5 ae ce Os, quired. Pa aee1 irsad svetl eho p Serr RoR ea _ The cistern’ barometer consists’ ia’) | ES Se Sy its simplest form of a strait tube A — 168°. ~»' Mr, Nixon on the Theory. of the. « [Serr hermetically closed at one end, filled with mercury,* and haying the other immersed in a cylindrical ivory or wooden cistern b, containing a sufficient quantity of the same fluid. The tube and cistern are connected by the cover C, having a small aperture for the admission of air. : ives To render the instrument portable, the cover is constructed without the aperture, but can be opened for the ingress. of the air, or closed to prevent the escape of the mercury by means of an ivory screw. ‘To counteract the oscillations of the mercury within the tube, the central part of the bottom of the cistern is formed of leather having a screw fixed beneath it capable of forcing the mercury to the summit of the tube. At whatever height of the mercury within the cistern the artist may have adjusted the scale of inches so that its zero shall coincide in level with the surface of the fluid, it is obvious, that as the pressure increases (or diminishes), the mercury will sub- side below (or rise above) the level of zero. This constant source of error is remedied in the barometer of Ramsden by rais- ing or depressing the leathern bag sustaining the mercury until the mark made on a piece of ivory floating in the cistern coin- eides in level with some fixed point equally elevated with the mark above the zero of the scale. The adjustment of the float to the gauge being considered as difficult, a superior plan has been adopted by ,Troughton, consisting in having the vertical sides of the cistern formed of glass cased in brass. Near the top of the case is a horizontal slit, and another exactly opposite, both. having their upper edges accurately of the height of the zero of the scale. The adjustment is effected by turning the screw of the leathern bag until the surface of the pice seen through the horizontal slits just excludes the transmitted light. , Barometers of this description are extremely cumbrous difficult in ordinary hands to adjust, and objectionable on account of the mercury being exposed during an observation to humidity, &c. They have in consequence been superseded for general use by the one invented by Sir H. sig sg Its pecu- liarities consist in the cover of the cistern being permanently closed, the air forcing its way through the pores of the wood ; and that instead of an adjustment to bring the surface of the mercury constantly to the level of zero, the computer increases or diminishes the observed heights of the columns, according as they exceed or fall short of the height at which the scale was adjusted (termed the neutral potnt) by a quantity found by divid- ing those differences by the ratio of the area of the mercury within the tube to its area within such part of the cistern as * When the barometer, filled with mercury at ordinary pressures, is carried to the summit of a lofty mountain, a third, or even one-half of the mercury within the tube may subside, and mixing with that in the cistern will render the boiling of it within the tube of very limited utility. i 1825.]; Barometrical Measurement of Heights. 169 surrounds that tube. This ratio is termed (for brevity) the Example. Correct pressures. 30°600 its. wees ec ececceee. Log, 4857214 ZOO iy chai he Vibe bGe wise *3096302 Differences ..........000. 1760912 Observed pressures (capacity 3). 5 ha ,5 5 ARR NT aS Vir § OR AT UM ie hentia seh aa nbn hg ROG Differences: fy HO pee -1760913 When a variation of temperature occurs, the heights of the columns augment and diminish, not only without interfering with the level of the cistern, but the height of the mercury therein is itself subjected to a simultaneous elevation and depression in proportion to its varying depth.* . Setting aside this latter cause of error, as being too trivial to be regarded, it must, however, be admitted that the reduction of the columns for temperature should be made on their observed heights aug- mented in the ratio of the capacity, or that the expansion per degree (ras) should be proportionally increased. The capa-. city being rarely greater than one-fortieth, the error in a differ- ence of 16 degrees of the attached thermometers will be no more than one foot. : | The adjustment in a vacuum being scarcely practicable, let the artist measure the height of the column of mercury (as usual) from the level of the cistern, and subtract the correction for capacity minus that for capillarity. The scale being after- ti ot) i g fas * Admitting the tube and cistern to preserve their diameters unaffected by tempera- ture, A 170 Mr: Nixon on the Theory of the © —- [Surv wards so affixed as to exhibit the height of the column at thé reduced, in lieu of the measured quantity, the calculations may be made as before without introducing any correction whatever for capacity or capillarity. Calculation. Measured height above the level of the mercury .... 30-000 in, Correction for capacity (=) dbo odo dye eae) 600 Capillarity PRM PLEPEPRRT ERE LPT -100 | i ye OU * Height to be indicated by the scale. ... . déeds eee 29500 The correction for capacity is in the ratio of the square of the interior diameter of the tube to the square of the diameter of the cistern minus that of the exterior diameter of the tube.* As an incorrect estimate of the capacity will influence the adjust- ment of the scale in the ratio of the height of the column, the artist should make the measurement at as low a pressure as practicable. 3 The Englefield barometers as at present constructed have their neutral points marked at or about 30 inches, so that the computer has frequently to make the correction for the lower barometer additive, and the one for the msttument at the upper station subtractive. These corrections may indeed be shunned by increasing the calculated altitude in the ratio of the capacity,+ but the method is only an indifferent approximation, capable of introducing an error (in defect, when the mean of the two pressures falls below the neutral point) equal to the 100th part of the altitude. | When the absolute pressure is required, it may be readily found with the zero adjusted as proposed by increasing the observed pressures in the ratio of capacity, and then correcting them for temperature. To adjust the zero of a scale already attached to the barometer, raise the scale, or lower the cistern with the connected tube by a quantity equal to the height of the neutral point divided by the fraction indicating the capacity minus the correction for capillarity.t re * When the tube and cistern are not formed of materials expanding alike from change of temperature, the ratio of capillarity will be (slightly) variable. ii + To reduce the errors of this approximative method,, the neutral point should be equal to the mean of the pressures likely to occur in general barometrical observations, for instance, 26 or 27 inches. — - co + Were we to immerse in the cistern of a stationary barometer a vertical rod of glass of the same diameter as the mercurial column within the tube, and so connected with the index as to move with it in a vertical line; but in an opposite direction, an exact compensation would be effected for the drainage and filling of the cistern at pressures differing from the neutral point. Should the length, equal to the range of the pressure, 1825. . Barometrical Measurement of Heights. 171. Mr. Newman has remarked that when the cover of the cistern of the Englefield barometer is sufficiently porous to admit the air with freedom, the pressure of the screw forcing the mercury to the summit of the tube cannot fail to expel some portion of the fluid through the cover, thus disturbing the adjustment of the zero; and that on the other hand a cover made sufficiently strong to prevent the escape of the mercury will so obstruct the free admission of the air that a very considerable time must elapse before the barometer exhibits the correct pressure of the atmosphere. To remedy these evils, Mr. Newman constructs the cistern of cast-iron having a cover of very porous wood. The instrument being sufficiently inclined, the mercury ascends to the summit of the tube, and is retained therein by a screw _ capped with leather, which, passing upwards through the bot- tom of the cistern, presses against the orifice of the tube. Pros vided this novel method of rendering the instrument portable shall be proved to preserve the column of mercury free from the. admixture of atmospheric air, there can be no doubt that the’ iron cistern will be found. preferable to one of wood and leather, varying in tension, &c. with the hygrometric state of the atmo- Sphere. | General Observations. . i Two barometers filled with mercury of the same specific gra- vity, placed near each other with their cisterns on the same. level, will have their columns (corrected for capillarity, capacity, and inequality of temperature) observed at the same height under every variety of pressure: otherwise, the corrected heights will be inversely as the specific gravities. Hence if two barometers compared at the base of a mountain stand at 30 in. and 302 in. respectively, we must increase the pressures exhi- bited at the upper station ‘by the instrament having the denser mercury in the ratio of 30 to 50°2 ;. in lieu of adding to it, asis more generally the case, the discrepancy observed at the base. It will be in vain to attempt the determination of the difference of level of places distant from each other, by means of the sta- tionary barometer, unless the mercury is known to be of the same specific gravity in all the instruments. If we incline a barometer out of a vertical line the difference of devel of the cistern and summit of the column will remain unaltered, yet as the scale laterally attached to the tube is equally inclined with it, we measure the height of the column in excess in the ratio of radius to the secant of the angle of incli- nation. ‘Nevertheless if the barometers at the two stations require a cistern of an inconvenient depth, the rod might be double or treble the area of (a horizontal section of}) the bore of the tube, but made to describe a vertical space, inferior in the same ratio to the one passed over by the index; easily effected by a pro- oi aa ee of the teeth of a wheel attached to the glass rod and the endless screw of the index, 0d 72 ©) Mr: Nixon on the Theory of the \ ——- [Surr: deviate from the perpendicular by the same angular quantity, the calculations may be correctly made on the supposition of the mercurial columns having been truly vertical. It is merely to imagine the mercury specifically too light in the ratio of the secant of the angle of inclination to radius. Should the degree of obliquity be considerable, the friction will be materially increased, and the mercury will not settle so correctly as ina vertical tube. | ein To verify the adjustment of ,zero, tothe level of the cistern, note the pressures (when very Jow),,with the instrument first in a vertical, and afterwards in an inclined position, . Then if the pressure when inclined does not exceed the other in the ratio of radius to secant of the angle of inclination, the zero dips.within _ the mercury, and the heights will, be|,observed in excess, Or we may find the, correct pressure; and consequently, the error of adjustment, by measuring the height of the longer column of a wheel barometer (freed of, its pulleys), above a horizontal line drawn from the summit of the shorter column: | The, mercury in the two instruments must, however, be of the same specific gravity.* Bi qeomind D0 watasds totus Errors.—When the pressure is,incorrectly measured at. one of the stations, which may. arise from,an inequality, in the.divisions of the scale ; from, parallax in-reading.off,,the.vernier ; from want of horizontal. parallelism, in, the movement ofthe index ; from the barometers differing, in inclination ; from the) varying adhesion of the mercury to, the, sides, of the, tubes ; or fromthe inexpertriess of the observer in adjusting the notch, &c. of the yernier)in 4 tangent to the convex summit of the mercury,—the value of:the etror when equal to,-001, in. will be generally rather more than one foot of altitude ; or more correctly. to . ston} Aber) OLIILS . OMig 110.5 IS All, OA 0°785 foot, the temperature being 0 )*} Pressure 3]:inches. ooo 102 fs , . ‘ 9 | < Aiz2 343 Wn a } Pressure 15 inches. When the zero of the scale is improperly placed, or the allowance for capillarity is incorrect, so that the pressures are always observed in excess or defect by some constant quantity, the calculated altitude will be to the true elevation znversely as the half sum of the observed pressures is to that half sum aug- mented or diminished as the pressures are in defect or excess by the constant error. The subjoined scale exhibits the value in feet of the error at different pressures, the altitude being 1000 feet. * An Englefield barometer in my possession (remarkable for the constancy with which its mercurial columns would settle to the same height on being disturbed, and there is a most material difference in the instruments in this respect) had its zero placed too high by nearly half an inch, 1825.]° Barometrical Measurement of Heights. 173 Constant error, lin, *2 in, *3 in. ‘Ain, °5in. SOOO tae. St. 3 FE TO AB oe a7 25 oe 4 Se Oe oe Me ee ag ot OO 20 ‘cD 6 Io cs QO. S65 Boiteader cain and 20.; Mr, Nixon on the Theory of the [Serr, easily determine by calculation the coefficients for dry air at different degrees of the thermometer. Subjoined are the coeffi- cients for air in a mean state of saturation as deduced from the barometrical observations of Shuckburgh, Ray, and Ramond. Ramond. Shuckburgh and Ray. ‘Air 32° Coefficient 603845 ........ 60000 52 63027 .. +0 vise 062922 60 ~ 64100 .,...%.. 64091 72. =o 65709 .4.5.4.. 65844 T have the honour to'be, Gentlemen, — - Your most obedient humble servant, Leeds, May 10, 1825, *’ HELOsS SHB HIRP BRIS ei ' ; nena SOE SAO V3 chet ij ifyo* ; t, pu ') Haplanation of the Tables. yoome TasLe I.—The degrees affixed to the dew-points being the equations for saturated air urider a pressure of 25 inches multi- . gael by 25, the equations for the dew-points at the two stations are found by dividing the degrees given in the table by the observed pressures in inches, and adding the sum of the two equations to that of the detached thermometers, which call the corrected sum of the thermometers. Example. | Pressure, Air. “Dew-point. Upper station. 27°5 in. .. 822. 2420, Bq 1524-97-5— Lower ditto .. 29°8 -- 840 .. 70 —— 152+29:8=— Sum of thermometers....1662 Sum 106 Equation for moisture.... 10°6 : Corrected sum of therms. .176°8 TasLEe VI.—When the observations have been made without hygrometer, the equations given in this table must be added to the sum of the detached thermometers. ; 55 5h Example. (Chimborazo) Upper station. ...... 29°1° (Pacific Ocean) Lower station s..... 77°5 Sum of thermometers. .....-+.-+0- LOG6 Equation, eeepwew ewer eeee ee ee eae eens 2°9 _—_—_ CCC Corrected sum of thermometers. .... 1091. The tabulated sa (calculated for half saturated air) may be modified according to the estimated degree of saturation. 1825.) Barometrical Measurement of Heights. = ¥75, TABLE V contains the logarithms, (exclusive of the: index 4) of the. coefficients for dry air.at different. degrees and. quarters of a degree of the sum of the detached thermometers, including an exact correction, for the diminished. specific gravity. of the mercury in the vertical line. ) ae Rule.—1. ‘Affix'to the observed heights of the barometers ‘at the two stations the corresponding tabular logarithms (rejecting indices), which consider as natural numbers, and make the first four figures to the left hand'whole numbers, and the remainder decimals. 2, Find the. difference of these two numbers, gene-~ rally termed the logarithmic difference. 3.,‘Take out the loga- rithm of that, difference. (still ayoiding indices), and prefix to it with an intervening decimal point, the number expressive of the quantity of whole numbers contained in the logarithmic differ- ence. 4. Add to this logarithm and index of whole numbers the logarithm of the»coefficient for the corrected sum of the thermometers precisely as given in the table, .4. Pind the natu- ral number of the product, exclusive of the index, which will be the altitude in feet, consisting of the quantity of whole numbers i denoted by the index in the product. 3 Example. » 1) Pressures. Pacific Ocean 29°8781in. Log.4753*53 Chimborazo 14°8296 1711°30 : ‘Log. of 3042-23 (prefix. 4)=4-483192 Log. coefficient of the cor. sum of therms. ...109°5 0°799899 O ie4 | 217 04 Loo. 5°283308 Natural number of 283308 (the whole numbers DOIN OO) och 5 oc5 ac ca seen econ vanes mae oe 19200°0 » Correction for the diminished. specific gravity Of oat cradle the air, sufficiently explainedin the Table(IV)+ | Correction for latitude 2°, Table III.+ ....... ; 54°4 Altitude pf Chimhoraney «. < cie as ccces + epeesen 19272-1 feet, The calculation is effected with the pressures reduced to 32° F. The observations were, Pacific Ocean 300005 in, (77°5)* Log.4771:29 Chimborazo. . 14°8536 (50-0) 1718-32 Diff, of attached therms. 27°5 305297 Log.=4-484723 Log. of coefficient 0-°800116 “ys _ 5:284839 * The indications of the interior thermometers represented by the (:). ’ 176 - Mr. Nixon on the Theory of the [Serr Corresponding natural number .......... 192681 Correction for 27:5x 245° ‘feet (Table in 67:4 rndoq \ “s Fiakiien'' “a 2) stemhad ye: qi aoq ws 19200r7feet. 132 © Tt anccely aie thrée-fourths oft'a foot from: the ie rigid method of calculation. Had the thermometers been gra: duated as proposed, we should have had. ; ae) -Pacifie Ocean... oe. eee? waar ee 180" - Fe Chimborazo'e. 6.8.60 fat % rt 122-0 ee. 12. ei, Correction subtractive . ey Fe ay oor 70 feet. ‘Two wore amnpled are. sibjoined 0a 74 n j ar Hen os Ch] (Gum@aMa Dee bT Seeds ok hhh oa ao ae eo ee . 08 . Air. ir, Dewy x Pressures. ~~ wo *Fort. Thornton. . (84°) 98470: ie 0 29°795 ints: Log.-4741-43 Sugar-loaf hill .... (82.2) 2) “82: 2 > 703: BUBB arisezo7 q 1439759 Diff. Ui Rectan elect me 166-2 3°536356= Oo 3°84 Equa. for inoisturé | at tl 10:6 6 e © 91828295 295 Cel f wate 3 Cor. sum of ideal: iif “76a... 4364651 Log. of 9315: 5 | Correction for attached thermometers —4:7 ¥ silo ia oo ee - Correction for latitude 8 wee ees cee F683 US 8 33171 Fort Thornton above the Sea ssee.sf191°5. ~ Altitude of Sugar-loaf ie ee eee” 6 ft. pre ‘No. If. Pressures. \ Malham Tarn...... (60) 60. 29-223 * ride 4657-25 Great-close hilt Seed (65) 55. 28-903 Jo 4609: 43 Diff. of att. therms... 5.115. 2:679610. Log. of! 47-82 Equation for moisture.» - ; 34 : 0803878. . Coeff. of 1181 ‘1182 3483488 Log. of » B04: 4 Correction: for attached thermometers 12: BY RTE 12:8 Correction: for latitude 54............ 03 BB I ofr Trigonometreal altitude of Great-close wi jikiel 152518 7 22? Altitude of Malham, Tarn, above the Irish Sea 1357 128557 n. © Observations in Sierre Iii Uy: Capt. Sibine At e107} .1 + Loans Sas one untatenets oan at torntediiad dh Tarn. 1825.] Barometrical Measurement of Heighis. di7 Tasie 1.—Correction for Moisture. Dew point. Dew point. Dew point. . Dew point. Dew point. MP. BIST 92°..,. 80° | F79.... OTF | G29... NIG | F793. J oh OMS POSS I) 140 48 .... 70 63 .... 120 78 .... 200° hiiés es AB 4-84 vevs 42 49. wore 73! |--64-o rng IM 79 .... 207 Tete I $51.0... BR BON.) 78 65 .... 128 80°.... 213 seen 17 36 seer 45 §! bets 78 66 dhe d 132 84) 24. 2/220 13..... 19 Been, 2 52) 00s 81 67 .... 137 82 .... 228 21 38 1.65 48 | «58 La 84 68 .... PA2 83 .... 235 his... ° ISL. 98! PSO Layo SO f) Be Sees) 78ts b OD aay AT Be 2... 248 A | te : 26 40 . 52 55 eeee 90 10 eeee 152 85 eeee 251 2400... 29 4l .... 54 66: . 5°.) | (08 Ty su. 2 15ST 86. ....: 259 27) 2.4 32 42 .... 56° ST... OT 12... <-T63 87 .... 268 28 .... 33 43 .... 58° | 58 ..+. 100 1822/04: 368 88 .... 276 29... ‘35 44 .... 60 | 59.... 104 | 74....-174 89 .... (286 30: 2... 36 {45 20. G2 60 .... 7108 715... 180 90 .... 295 31 2... 37 46 .... 65 61 .... 112 765... 186 -| 91 ....:305 ew point by the TaBre I].—Value in Feet of 1° of Difference of the attached Thermomete~s at different Temperatures of the Air. Sum of detached Thermometers, 2°18 feet. 2:21 ie er ay ee EE ee ee WE Chip Wind » bSrid MPG aldiety wie ee Rienhue ae lem BAER C1 ee ee ae 16 8.08 (BOR MTS opens ve gat Cente be hde eee ieee 54 - @ eee ee eoscenr ra eee aeseretees aol | 64 ho Wea ed bo. 4.) 1986 EE Gus ceeWog deep dagaies esse Od 84 Riis DOLCE Ee ees & ait 2:39 PRs aw singing die AIROTW ooo eo. TED 104. ethic CBA ebie 0's SOBs oes pad 6a 2°44 114 a ee ee a 2°47 MEGS. ec oko RUNES ema Oe SUS arb. Ui Pe itddes sss cneie She PI Gest ck Woes oa wicw Wid win-oe «spud GOO ESOT, aoc 2 Soe WeK Eolas 'wape ee RO sy. 35 5c whee ay ss cade 200 SAHA Aid'n wine CARS Coe ek Bene SOS BRA. 6 0k'c ks ee. FOES 7265 Bal ee eeaeeeibidanes “U8 Rule.—llultiply the feet in the second column by the differ-, ence of the attached thermometers, and deduct the product, when the temperature of the upper barometer is inferior to the other, from the difference of level, or altitude. | New Series, vou. x. 8 178 Mir’ Nixon on the Theory of the?’ [Sevr. TAsie [1]. Correction for Latitude. Ad in|? Altitude in feet. © ‘ ig , latitude,} 1000 2000|4000|5000|6000|7000)8 9000}10000|11000|12000} in lat. . |Feet. , : YUU 0° =| 8] 5-7] 85/113 114-2 1170119 9/297 125-5 | 28-4] 81-2) 34-0] 90° 2. | M8) BT) 85/L1-3}14-2117-0119-8/92"6 /25-5} 28-3] 81-1] 340] 88 4. | @8] 56) 8-4 )11-2114-0 116-9 19-7 |22°5 125-3] 28:1] 80-9} 387] 86 6 28! 56} 8311-1 }13°9 |16°7 |19°4/22*2/25-0| 27°83] B0°5| 33-3). 84 8. | Qt | 55} 82/109 }13°6 1164 |19-1 }21°8 |24-5} 27-3] 30°0| 32-7) 82 10. | 27} 5:3} 8-0|10°7|13-3|16*0 |18-7 |21*3 |24-0| 26-7) 29°3| 320] 80 + JQ. | 6} 5-2) 7-8 |10-4 113-0 115*5 |18-4 120°7 123-3} 25-9] 28-5] Sh] 78 114... |. 5} SO} 1-5 110-0}12°5 | 15°O|17-5|20-0/92-5| 25°1] 27-6} 301) 76 16.. | 94} 4-8} 7-2}. 9°6)12-0|1441156°8]19°2|21-7| 24-1] 265] 28:9}. 74 18. . | 3} 4-6} 6-9} 9-2] 11-5 |13*S] 16-1] 18*4/20-7 | 22-0) 25-2) B75). 72 90. | 2) 4-3) 65]. 8-7)/10-9 |18°O}15-2]17'4| 19-6} 21-7] 23-9) 2641) 70 92 | 20} 41! G1] 8°2]10°2|122 |14-3/163|18+4) 20-4] 224] 24-5] 68 24 V9} 3:8} 5%) 7:6} 95/114 118-3 /15-2/17-b| 19-0} 20-9} 22-8) 66 26 ~| IT] 35) 5:3] TO] 88/10°5|12°3/14-0}15°8} 17-5), 19-3] 21-0) 64 28 1-6| 32] 4:8] 63 7-9} O5]II-1/19-7/143) 15-9] 175] 190} 62 30 1:4] 28] 4-3] &7|T1! 8:5] 9-9(11-4/12-8| 14-2] 15°6] 17-0] 60 \ $1. } 1:3} 2-7), 40). 5:3} 6-7] 8-0} 9'3}10'6/12-0| 13-3) 146] 160}. 59 “32 1-2} 25] 3°7! 5:0] 6-2] 75} 8°7/10-0/11-2| 12-4] 13-7] 149] 58 33 4-2}-2'3} 345} 4-6} 5-8} 6-9} ST} 9-2[10-4] 11-5] 127] 198) 57 34 1-1] Q1} 3-2) 4-2] 53] 6-4] 74] 8:5] 9-5} 106] 11-7] 12-7) 56 35 1-0] 1-9} 2-9] 399] 49] 5*8| 68} 7-8) 8-7.) °9°T| 10°7] 11°6| 55 36 | 0:9} 1-8} 26] 3°5| 4°4| 5-3] G2] 7-0) 79) 8:8) 97} 106] 54 37 0-8| 1-6} 23] 3:1] 3-9) 47] 5:5] 62] 7-0) 7°8| 86], 94) 53 38 | OT] 14] 2:1] B7]°3-4) 4°51] 4815-5] G2] 69) 75] B82) 52 39 | O°6| 1+2] 1:8} 24} 3-O} B51 Ah] 4-7] 5B}. SO]. GSP T1| 51 40 0°5| 1-0} 145] 20] 2°5| 29] 3:4] 3-9] 44]. 4°99). 54) 59) 50 Al 0-4| -0°8} 1°21 1°6| 2-0| 2:4] 28] 3:2] 3-6] 4:0] 4:3], 4-7! 49 42 | 03! 06] 0-9} 1-2] 1-5] 18] BT} 2-4) 27] BO)” 33) 3-6) 48 43 0-2] 0-4! 0-6] 0-8] FO} 1°) 1-4]/1-6} 1-81) QO}. V2) BWA) 47 44 | O-1] 0-2} 0-8! 0-41.0:5! 0°6! 0-7! 0-8] 0-9). 1-0). 1-1} 1-2] 46 reeeéa TABLE IV.—Correction. for the diminished Specific Gravity of po vers the Ain. Altitude above the Sea. - ‘ Altitude above the Séa. 5000F. .... ‘12 feet. | 13000F. ....° 81 feet. olny: ee! apes 14000 wee 9! TO i swe oli OO 1EOOE « * see's’ * TOG, SUN'S pe “ST

|0°164004 127 \0-8076f8 20. |0°759508 |& ++238'| 74) |0°784453 | 128. |0°808043 , 21 |0°759983 2 —357|| 75° 0-784902 |49-—112]] 129. |0°808469 | 22 |0°760458 76 |0-785350'4 —224}| 130 |0:808893 23 |0°760932 77. |0°785798 | —336| 131 . |0-809317 |4°—106 24 |0°761406]_ 78 |0°786246 132 |0-809742 |2 —212 25 \O-161879| 19: |0°786693 | 133 |0°810165|3 317 26 |0°762351] 80. |0°787139 |__ | 134. 0°810587 27 |0°762823|4°—118)) 81 |0°787585 135. |0:811010 28 |0°763295|4 —236)| 82 |0-788031 136. |0°811432 29 (0°763766|3 —354|) 83 |0°788476/4°—I111]| 137 |0°811854|—_—- 30 |0°764237 84 |0°788920 ‘$ —222|| 138 |0°812275 31 -\0°T64T07 85 |0°789364 | —-333)| 139 |6-812696 $2 |0°765177 86 0°789808 140 |0°813117 33 |0°765646 87 0790251 141 |0°813536 |4°—105 34 |0°766114 88 0°790694 142 |0°813956|3 —210 35 |0°766582 89 0791136 143 (0814375 |2 —315 36 |0°767050 90 |0°791578| 144 |0:814794 |. 37 |0°767517 |4°—117 4°_110]| 145 |0°815213 a 38 |0-767983|} —234) 4 —220)| 146 |0°815631 39 |0°768449|% —350 8 1831]! 147 . (0°816048 |2°—104 AO \0°768915 148 |0'816465 | —208 Al |0-°769380 149 |0:816883 | —313 42 \0-169845 : 150 0°817299 43 . |0°T70309 |29°—116 151 O°81TT15 Ad |0°TT0772|4 282 4°—109}| 152 0°818131 A5 |0°171235|2 —347 % —218]| 153 |0°818546) iy AG, |07171698| . 3 —328|| 154 |0:818961 “leh 772160 |' 155 (0°819375 |9—103 48° (0°779699 156 wore 207 “7 49 §(0°773083/—— 157 0-826203 |2 —-310 50 . (0°773543| ...., || 158 |0°820616 51 |0-774003 |49—115 ~~ 1 159 |0°821029 52 |0°174463|2 —230 160 |0-821442 53 |0°174922|3 —344)| . 40.108|| 161 |0°821854|" 180 «) Ms Bergelius on Hydracids. . [Sueme Pw CRS ST eres Tie ela at: Ail oe Sa? rarer! ; Te Sum of Sum Sum : Shot Measocarca th therms. { ec \y H. a i Gee ols » ufia ea 12 aah ’ ce 162% [0-S2e266 175° |0°827588}....\,\\ } W88® 10:832885]4°2-2010,, -T63,, {0:822677 |49—103]| 176 ,|0:827989| — || 189. 0: (ROH | 164 {04893088 | = 205] 117 \o-s28805 All 190 “Nolasseuy POSE 165!) |0:82349813)308}| 178 jo-Re8800} = oh I91 “08 SL gMHgc 186 | prezsaon >|] 179 0829205 1492-101} dh 924 110884498) po oc ee 167, /0-824318)) 5 180 |0-829610 4. —202!| 193 _ 0; ‘epee THS (0-824728 18) 0.880015 4 303 194 '|0:8352% pohano 169 |0895137|7—T7|) 1g2 Jo-ss0479) 9 |! 195 lo-esbeR7|go44100° 170 0825545}. 183 |0-830822) of!) [4961 40° cf 171 ,,|0925953 -/, }[, 184, J0-631226 |... |) 197. [0 172 |0-826361 |3°_102]| 185 |0-831629 ond 0° 173 1082676944 —204]/ 186° }0-832081/}'' ||! 199 a 174 |0°827176!3 —306]} 187 > |0-882438 |40—~100}| 200, . dhe Tasie VI.—Mean Correction for Moisture. «4 Sum of, Sum of | Sum of). Isa Wittytll a cdi therms. . Add.| therms, Add.itherms. Add.|therms. Add... Oto 9°.... 0491899 to 90°... 21911269... . 4°09} 1609, 2), 7-10" hgelt : 162 3... 3 4+] (20, 27 ,...06 195 96.4.5. 23 1130.44, 4:2 [164...... 76), 28... 35,05. OF 197. 98 5, SA Seo... Ard 1166, 2 aes Thy, 36 40 .... 08199 100..... 25 134.01, 46/1682... 8 41 46 .... 0-9 {102 cove BO (18660... 47 1170820., Big’ OK AT 52 seee 1-0 |104 ees e7 1387 £205 Ad : LW. was 8°6 ie 53. 56 .... I'l |106 ven ae A O° ...4 5:0 |174 ..., 8:9 |. BT 60 cece 12 1108 ot, SO 14d)... OW [LTS Oe oF Ct OE OPS ING 24 SAAT: SOMITE GOD OOH ht 67 70.50. 14 [2 woshe Sel [146 bao. aco rst. 9-3 TE. T4),,.. 15 |ll4 wee 32 [148 ,.,, 5:8 {182 52.. 10:1 75 76 ..,, 16 j116 ase. 33 [150°.... 6°0 [184 2... 10-4 77-180 222. VT TNS w 05) 85) /152 222 6R9186 02.. 108 B12) B42.) 18 [120 $0 58S! NSA aac ey RE aA ists: 85 86 .... 1-9 {122 54 Te BGS Ke mt GRE BaP YG 87 88 ...., 2:0 {124 eee 39 [158 -... GV] ‘ » Articie IIT. bite oltrweas ' ; ; Oohw oeeda nt On Hydracids, and their Combinations with Saline Bases. > a Gi “By Dr. J. Berzelius.* sore onl nese otselti: By. the term hydracid, we understand a, combination of a simple or compound body with hydrogen, which, although des- titute of oxygen," possesses all the essential characters of the oxygenous acids.. Hydracids must be regarded,, therefore, as. constituted of hydrogen and a peculiar radical, which, asis:the case with the oxygen acids, may be either simple or,compound. In consequence of this dissimilarity, they. naturally dividethems, fh ; IPT lexbvata ebsot. * From Lirbok i Kemien, Andra Delen, Andra Upplagans Appendix Ixvi, 1825. ‘M. Berzelius on Hydracids. 181 selves into two classes, viz. acids with a simple, and acids with a compound radical. | ‘ae , . To the first of these classes belong: 1. Sulphuretted hydrogen gas} 2. Seléniuretted hydrogen gas; 3. Telluretted hydrogen gus ; 4. Hydrochloric acid ; and 5. Hydriodic acid ; chlorine and iodine being regarded as simple substances. My principal arguments against the'new theory of the constitution of muriatic acid were founded upon the little analogy which subsisted between it and its combinations, and the hydracids and their salts, in so far as thé latter'were known at the time of its first promulgation. The subsequent discovery, however, of many hydracids, and'in par- ticular of those with a compound radical, has developed the analogy between muriatic acid and the hydracids so completely, that text objections can no longer be considered as valid. To the latter class ; namely, hydracids with a compound radi- cal, belong: 1. Prussic acid (cyanuretted hydrogen) ; 2. Sulpho- prussic acid (sulphuretted cyanogen combined with hydrogen) ; 3. Ferroprussic acid (a combination of cyanuretted iron with cyanuretted hydrogen); and to these may be added, 4. Another compound not so accurately known, whose constituents, although differently proportioned, are also cyanogen and sulphur. Sniphoptibate acid may be obtained by mixing a solution of sulphocyanuret of potassium in a minimum of water with con- centrated phosphoric acid, and distilling in a retort with a gen- tle heat. The’ hydracid ‘is’ volatilized, and condenses in the receiver. The potassium in this experiment, in order to com- bine with the phosphoric acid, oxidizes itself at the expence of water, and the hydrogen thus set at hberty unites at the same instant with the sulphuretted cyanogen. Sulphoprussic acid is so constituted, that its elements, if reduced to the gaseous state, would all occupy the same volume ; or it is composed by weight of hydrogen 1°68, azote 23°85, car- bon 20°30, and sulphur 54:17. Its saturating capacity, as is the ease with all hydracids, is such, that it combines with a quantity of a base whose oxygen is exactly sufficient to convert its hydro- gen into water. « bias. | The radical of this acid, sulphuretted cyanogen, has not hitherto been isolated, and is known only in the compounds which 4 forms with hydrogen or with metals. When we attempt to’ obtaiiivit’ by “distilling a sulphuretted metallic cyanuret; it always undergoes’ decomposition : a metallic sulphuret contain- iné a 'mitimum of ‘sulphur remains, and sulphuret of carbon, cyanogen, and azote are disengaged. ) , rf “But eyanogen ‘combines also with a double proportion of sul- plitrfand’ forms ‘a bisulphuret, which in udion with hydrogen affords a hydracid, differing in composition from the foregoing, and capable; like it; of combining with metals. This new acid 4 182 M. Berzelius on Hydractds. [Suer. was discovered by Wohler. He found that. when. sulphuretted eyanuret of mercury is gently ignited in a glass vessel filled with muriatic acid gas, or with sulphuretted hydrogen gas, there is depo- pa tb io the colder sides of the vessel a quantity of anhydzous sulphuretted prussic acid in the, state of colourless: tran nt drops, which, after a few seconds, become solid, and, form transparent, stellular, aggregated groupes. of, crystals, These crystals rapidly undergo decomposition, cyanogen is disengaged, and a pomegranate’ yellow, - GRADE HARTY powder remains, ‘This powder is insoluble in water, and is in every respect identical with the precipitate which is:obtained when liquid sulphoprussic acid is boiled: in contact ‘with the. atme- sphere. It appears to be composed. ofi.prussic, acid, combined with twice the proportion of sulphur which exists im sulpho- prussic acid, That it is a hydracid, and not. ah anhydrous combination of sulphur and cyanogen, is proyed by. the circum: stance that when we heat it with potassium,) a combination, accompanied by ignition, ensues between the two substances, hydrogen gas is evolved, and the compound which remains consists of a mixture of the sulphuret and sulphocyanuret of potassium. EY: ph 7 iA reeetig Combinations of Hydracids with Saline Bases, . A full exposition of the nature of the compounds of hydracids with saline bases constitutes a most essential part of the theor of these acids, because it furnishes the only means by which.all the apparent inconsistencies can be reconciled. In attempting this explanation, two different views present themselves: either the hydracid unites without decomposition with the oxidated base, or its hydrogen pplbtallinest vies base, while the radicals of both the acid and base enter into combination, Of these views I consider the latter to deserve the preference; ‘for if a solution of a salt obtained by saturating a hydracid with an oxide be evaporated, it very frequently happens that there crys- tallizes a reduced compound of the radicals of the acid and base, wholly destitute both of hydrogen and oxygen; and when such crystals contain water, that is, in the circumstances in which they may be regarded as compounds of an oxidated base with a hydracid, they frequenthy lose it in vacuo or in a dry ‘atmo- sphere, and effloresce exactly like substances which lose merely water of crystallization. But these compounds of the radicals of hydracids. with the radicals of bases resemble so intimately the salts which are’ formed by oxygen acids and oxides, that they coincide with them in all their physical properties, as taste, appearance, solubility im water, and in other liquids, and it would be difficult, gvithout offering extreme’ violence to natural arrangement, to class them among any other substances except the salts, Gay-Lussac ascertained, for example, that if oxide 4825,}: M, Berzelius.on,Hydracids, 183 of. mereury beplaced in contact with prussic acid. gas, the latter is.absorbed.and water disengaged, while the product is cyanuret of mercury, This water. proceeds, from..the hydrogen, of the prussi¢ acid and the oxygen. of the oxide of mercury,,neither of which, enter into, the new combination ;, but this;compound, for- merly called prussiate of oxide of mercury, possesses so close a resemblance to the saltsiof that oxide, in appearance, taste, and all, its other. properties, that..the, most positive evidence, to the contrary would be requisite,in order to,conyince, one that it,is not a salt of the oxide of mereury., ,J have myself ascertained, that,if:the ferroprussiate of potash, that. is, a,combination of prussic acid with potash,.and, oxidule of iron, be: crystallized, there results'a compound, containing precisely the quantity, of oxygen and hydrogen which would be, necessary. to. convert. it into a double salt of prussic acid with oxidated bases; but,that these crystals lose the whole of their water like an efllorescent salt, either when confined in vacuo in the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere, or when exposed to dry air ina temperature between 77°. and 86°; and it, is.certainly a far simpler view of the phenomena to regard this water as existing in the state of mere water of crystallization, than to assume that. efflorescence, which can result only from the expansive force of water already formed, should -haye occeasioned the’ mutual ‘decomposition of the. base. and,acid.., Besides, we have never been able to.disco- ver any. other, difference. between) the. compounds which are regarded as salts of hydracids, and, those whichjindisputably contain no other ingredient except the radicals of the acids and bases, than that which subsists between salts with and without water of crystallization. 3... + vn a a ee .. We adopt, therefore, inpreference, the theory ¢hat salts con- taamng a hydracid do not exist, but that when,a hydracid is brought into contact with an oxidated base, the hydrogen of the acid combines, with the oxygen of the base and forms. water, while, at the same instant, the radicals of both, unite mutually in. their reduced ‘condition, and the product isa substance which resembles so closely the salts of the oxidated radical of the base, that it cannot be distinguished from them in/any of its physical characters... Hence, when sulphoprussic.acid, which, although wholly destitute of oxygen, possesses a strong and pure.acidity, is mixed, with carbonate, of potash, and when carbonic acid is thereby expelled with the same degree of effervescence which would, be oceasioned by. the addition, of jan .oxygen. acid, the pales is decomposed by the hydrogea of the acid, and a com- ination ensues between.sulphuretted cyanogen and potassium, If the mixture was sufficiently concentrated, it evystallizes, and the crystals, contain neither hydrogen nor oxygen, but. only potassium, sulphur, carbon, and azote ; nevertheless they resem- blea saline compound,. particularly nitre, so perfectly, that they 184 M. Berzelius-on: Hydrdeids. [Suer. might, be:readily: mistaken for crystals lof that salt. In thesnew theory; respecting 'the constitution ofi(muriatic acids thd same! decompositions take place when potaslvor soda iss ywerths muriati¢é: acid; and vally the'-phenomena mayobe: consistently. explainedon the supposition that»chlorine isiaysimplecbodyiso soot as we cease: td maintain ‘the existérice: of) chhborated salts, ‘and admit that what we-have hitherto nates) are combinations “of ‘chloritie withthe! radicals iof dbasess!«Ponitlie nature! of hydracids in-general présupposes that these combiria+ tions Must:in every respect resemble: saltsy « to tidte ne t6 boeog ‘Phe avid» properties: of 'a' -hydracidyconsistitherefore iin’ ats decomposing bases; and notin saturating! them; ‘hence it follows that ‘the pro -of acidity neither belongs:to the substance itself, nor results from the nature of its: constitution, \but/ merely indicates a condition’ opvosed tothe property of alkalinity: > Tu the case of hydracids, therefore, it depends at the same: mstant on the» strong’ affinity’ which! ‘subsists. between |‘ hydrogen’ and : Peach ee erin at 8 radicals of the acid:and the -baseand this is the réason why the radical of a hydracid possesses few! or noneof the characters ‘of an acid substance; because it is unable, unless aided by hydrogen, to deoxidate or decompose the alka- line bases: v ‘Geet ‘ool eraonreies BAW Hexviarlealhise ons Te This reciprocal alteration im: the:elementary constitution of the acid and base, takes: place even in the combinations: of ammonia with hydracids. Here, the ammonia4s converted into ammonium, by seizing upon the fourth atom of hydrogen which forms one of the! constituents of the acid, and this ammenium subsequently enters: into: combination: with! the: radical: of the hydracid. |'For example, when muriatic acid: gas:is combined with animonia, | yielding the compound which, according to:the old! theory, Was’ regarded: as muriate’ of ammonia containing water of crystallization, the acid undergoes decomposition, the ammonia ‘combines with its hydrogen, ‘and is thereby converted. into ammonium, and the latter, remaining im: wunion-with-the chlorine of the muriatic acid, forms with at:chloride: of) amiio- nium. ! When ammoniacal gas is mixed!:with chlorine, a portion of it is: decomposed, the azote is disengaged; and the! hydrogen; combining! with another portion of they ammonia, fortasowithnat ammonium, which now unites with the chlorine. » Sabammobnixe is, therefore, a chloride of ‘ammonium just as commomsaltiis)a chloride of sodiumes )¢ 06! chuscsby il ‘bal yte ebasoqmos -The resemblance between ‘the compounds properly denomi+ nated salts; and those’formed by the radicals of hydtacids: and of bases) is so complete, that (as: I have already \observed); itis impossible, without offering violence to theirexternabcharactet's, to\regard them as belonging to dissimilar classes.) of bodies. Nevertheless; in a'theoretical of point view, there is a-wide différ- ence between the compounds of oxidated acids and bases, and SB} | | Ms: Berzelius:on: Hydracids.. 185 thosecof cdmbiistible! bodies without !oxygen jxand it may,’ per=. haps; be! atgued> from «this, that: our present theory supposes atran which havelno existence) ini reality. iio Dulong has: attemptedo reconcile this:inconsistency lby regarding alliacids: whiehcebntainiwater as hydracids. : He-joins*théeioxygenof the waterctdtheacidy andiforms with the radical of thenacid candats oO wicompéound>radical, whithyin:umon withithe hydrogen otttastraters «constitutes the hydracid. ‘Thus ihe tegards ihyidtioan sulpliurie acid! assal icompound) of hydrogen: with a radical scom- posed of an atom of sulphurand four atoms:of oxygen) thatiis, containing onethird-more! of oxygen than-is ‘consideted :toéxist inv sulphurieiacidins When) this: acid: combines: with: aometal, potassiam for example, hydrogen only is disengaged, «and the otassium ‘combines: withthe compound radical of the hydracid: ‘he sulphate of potash) thus: formed ought to) be:regarded asia compound, not!of:sulphuri¢ acid-and potash; but of ‘potassiam and thesradical ofthe hydracid (that is, sulphur with:the-whole quantity of oxygen, ‘constituting’ a ‘single integraut: particle). When this hydracid is! placed in-contact ‘with potash, the alkali is reduced! by-the hydrogen of the acid, water's formed,) and the potassium unites with the compound radical of the acid.: Again, if this acid be mixed with ammonia, no trace of water-is) pro- duced; but the hydrogen unites with the ‘ammonia, and» forms ammonium, which iow combines! with the radical:of the acid. Now’ there: does: notrexist:a singlé neutral) ammomiacal ‘salt, — which does: not' contain: this: quantity of ‘hydrogen; that: is, which, ‘according to thescommonly received theory, does: not contain a portion ofivhemically ¢ombined water, whose: hydro- gen corresponds with this: quantity.. This: explanation of Du- loiig’s is unquestionably entitled to: considerable praise; because it‘re-establishes the harmony in the doctrine of salts which had been disturbed \by the new theory respecting :the: nature) of muriatic acid; and indeed to a still more general‘extent;:by:the phienomena accompanying the combinations of hydracids:: /The combination) of! ‘hydracids with saline: bases | gives;rise both:to acid aridssabsalts.:\The acid» salts are produded when the-saline looking: compounds. of the radicals: ofthe) acid and baseicombine witha mew-quantity of the-hydracid, the result of whichmntdn~is a body possessed to/a: greater|or! lessiextentyof acidi properties.) -Sueh, are’ the: ferruretted | prussie:acid;! ithe compounds styled hydrosulphuretted alkalies;:andoaccording} to — theonew theory respecting the nature of muriatic acid, theldcid. niuriabesofloxide of gold.; -Hitherto,;however; we have:become acquaiuteds with only: a very: limited::number of these acid salts. ‘The ocomlpounds: containing, an excess)-of baseljare, stich) dess unfbeqvent,,and they ave produced when! the neutralicompounds ofthe radicals: of the acid and; base unite-with @. portion of the oxide of the latter; the result being a-subsalt, comciding in all 186 Notice of a Meteoric Stone, [Surn. its characters with the subsalts, which the same oxidated .basis forms with.the oxygen acids. The, acid salts may be regarded as double combinations of the radical of the acid with two.com- bustible bodies,. for example, fetenproneouinsid is.a double cya- nuret of iron and hydrogen : the subsalts again, may be regarded as double combinations of, the radical of the base with oxygen and, with the radical of the acid; for example,.the, substance styled subprussiate of mercury, is a,combination of .cyanuret of mercury with oxide of mercury. . The existence of these. subsalts appears to me to furnish the strongest argument, which,, in, the resent state of our knowledge, can be advanced. in fayour of Dulong’s theory. respecting the constitution. of salts....),. |, _ From what I have now stated it is obvious that, none. of the compounds which haye hitherto been styled. prussiates, contain either prussic acid or.an oxidated basis, but that they consist of cyanogen and the radical.of ‘the base: we call them, theres fore, cyanurets, .or sometimes metallic, cyanurets (cyanurer. eller cyanmetaller),.'This view enables us to explain. why a solution of the eyanuret. of potassium. possesses, such, little permanency, and why its taste participates.simultaneously both of potash and of prussic acid, All substances,which have, any, tendency to combine with potash, as, for,example, the carbonie acid of the atmosphere, the constituents of saliva, Xc, determine the form, ation of that alkali by oxidation,at, the, expence of water, and prussic acid is at the same instant disengaged. ..., phere __ Neither. does there exist a class of salts, corresponding with the name of sulphoprussiates, because here also,.as we have already seen, the acid is decomposed, by the bases, and com- pounds are formed, which for the present may be styled su/pho- cyanurets and cyanosulphurets,, the latter appellation being reserved exclusively for those compounds which contain cyano- gen. united to the larger proportion of sulphur.) BRA 7 ArtIcLE IV. Notice of a, Meteoric Stone which fell at Nanjemoy, in Maryland, North America, on Feb, 10, 1825, By Dr. Samuel D. Carver, _ In a Letter to. Professor Silliman.* _* Lraxe the liberty of forwarding you a notice of a meteoric stone which fell in this town on the morning of Thursday, Feb. 10, 1825. ‘The sky was rather hazy, and the wind south- west. At about noon the people of the town and of the ‘adjacent country were alarmed by an explosion of some body in the air, which was succeeded bya loud whizzing noise, ‘like that of air * From the American Journal of Science for June, 1825. 1826.}; which fell at Nanjemoy, Maryland, North America. 187 rushing through a small aperture, passing rapidly in the course from north-west to south-east, nearly parallel with the river Potomac., Shortly after, a spot of ground on the plantation of Capt. W..D, Harrison, surveyor of this port, was found ‘to have been recently broken, and on examination a rough stone ofian oblong shape, »weighing sixteen pounds and seven ounces, was found about. eighteen inches. under the surface, ».The, stone, when:taken. from the ground, about half an hour,after itis sup- posed: to. have, falleny wassensibly warm, and had’a strong sulphureous smell. Lt,»has a hard vitreous surface, and when broken appears composed of an,earthly or siliceous matrix, ofa light slate colour, containing numerous globules of varieus,sizes, | very hard, .andiof a brown colour, together with small portions of brownish, yellow. pyrites,. which become dark’ coloured: on ‘being reduced to powder. { have procured for you a;fragment* of the stone, weighing four: pounds: and. ten ourices, which was all I could obtain. Various notions were entertained by, the people in the neighbourhood on finding the stone. Some sup- posed it propelled from aquarry eight or ten miles distant on the opposite side of the river ;. while others thought it thrown: bya mortar froma packet lying at anchor in.the river, and even pro- posed manning boats to take vengeance onthe captain and crew of the vessgelswes ssia% hal nal alt tp ON Log ina! , ».. have. conversed, with many persons living over an extent of ethaps fifty miles square; some heard the explosion, while others heard only the subsequent: whizzing noise in the air,» All agree in stating that’ the noise appeared directly over. their heads.,, One gentleman, living ‘about 25 miles from the place where the stone fell, says, that it caused his whole plantation to shake, which many supposed tobe the effect of an earthquake. I cannot learn that fire-ball or any light was seen in the heavens —all are confident that there was but one report, and no peculiar smell in the air was noticed. I herewith transmit the statement of Capt. Harrison, the gentleman ‘on whose plantation the stone fell. Statement of W..D, Harrison, Esq. On the 10th of Feb. 1825, between the hours of twelve and one o’clock, as nearly as recollected, I heard an explosion, as I supposed, of a cannon, but somewhat sharper. I immediately advanced with a quick step about twenty paces, when my atten- tion, was arrested by a buzzing noise, resembling that of a hum- ming bee, which increased to a much louder sound, something like.a spinning-wheel, or a chimney on fire, and seemed directly over my head; and'in.a short-time | heard something fall. The * This specimen is not yet received.—-Amer.. Bd. 188 . Col. Beaufoy's Astronomical Observations. ° (Sep. time which elapsed from my first hearing the explosion, to the falling, might have been fifteen seconds.’ {then weit with some of my servants to find where it had fallen, but did not at first succeed (though, as-I afterwards found, had got as near as 30 yards to the spot); however, after a short interval, the place was found by my cook, who had (in the presence ofa respectable white woman) dug down to it before I got-there, and a stone was discovéred ‘from 22 to 24 inches under the surface, and which, after being washed, weighed sixteen pounds, and which was no doubt:the one which I had heard. fall; as»the mud was thrown in different directions from 13 to }6steps.”’ The day was perfectly clear, i ile snow was thet On the earth in some places which» had fallen the night previous: . The stone when taken up had a strong sulphureous smell-and there were black streaks in'the clay which appeared markéd’ by the descent of the stone. ,,I have conversed with gentlemen in different direc- tions, some’ofithem from 18 to 20 miles distant, who heard the noise (not'the explosion). They inform’ me that it appeared directly over their heads. There was no. fire-ball seen by me or others that Ishave heard. There was but:one report, and but one stone fell to my knowledge, and there was no peculiar smell in the air. , It, fell on my plantation, within 250 yards of my house, and within 100 of the habitation. ofthe negroes. | I have given this statement to Dr. Carver, ‘at his request, and which is as full as I could give at this distant day, from having thought but dittle of it since. Givenithis. 28thyday of April, 1825. Bp BSc , “WeD. Harrison, _ Surveyor of the port of Nanjemoy, Maryland. t BHD CR ARTICLE VY" dete) '- Astronomical Observations, 1825.°'5 By Col. Beaufoy, FRS £2) cite wali e094 2 noohtnw. [t ,.» Bushey Heath, near Stanmore, Latitude 5)° 37’ 44:3” North. Lorigitude Westin; fine 1’, 20-93”, Observed Transits of the Moon and Moon-culminating Stars over the Middle Wire of scl leevs: the Transit Instrument in Siderial Time. co) -e5ceccrrl 1825. Stars. Transits, July 26,—§ Ophiu......ccecceecerccence 172 11 21-10” BO. Sb COMME: Pooch iets tes S totes 17 15 46°29 26.487 Opliia. (is). eben di ae 17 20 49°86 26.--ad Oniisti wide bs aiwisidostsrdbaosie 17 33 O77 26,—Moon’s First or West Limb,... 17 47 29°56 Wing" Bagh. S. 2G oi se 18 03 22°74 Win Bl: Gagitts svcidsiis Woy 600 vi seve 18 15 01-08 Col. Beaufay’s Astronomical: Observations, 189 _ Stars.,, mised tem yor mort | Transits. de rudy Sis soe Ai ER erect or Gogg «aul send 4 dor’ lpAIush saa DAVEE Sy Seyov19% vat to OF 28 169M ep eneak en t OL cue Wiel bs aca spit e9e@ds) boosoQu% BW 908lq ontt hr? 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Gwe belie ise db pomecdile. 20 + Me Suesinn OF 20 “i ; 29.——7 Capric.. “ere Pere epepe ges 2 9@net 20. rib & 22> Os cr) y2naea MEd. ©), SUste WEDS: se scce Stars caas-sses 40 f1S. BORE. Se easy SIE SPOR 119 a9) is apric. LgSW ISH E) Soe DBO 399 (BERRY OYJ 9571p @! hye By 20 Moots Ki je ot lecld s fain 20 29° 331600 mae ~) 29, s First,or, West Limb, ,.. eR BA ROBB) inca Go g98 Cap Hts Meet hae re ie at OT 28. ™ : 9 VEE apesastinguuen OLA NatG Fe. ‘dt ae Se wets » 29.—8 Aquarii..isu. Wkid aul ah tQ 2 20) 50 2bTZ3 Oe Ft) sos wy 29.—1 A Uu eecloreh + om ee eg eee rae 2h : i O75 j F wok gill. eh g | eer OrsrCl setesresato: Qi Oe peat : | SHO 3681N 7 Woden AEs IS VES Big: hes agg gg oY bir eiy (80419 Abg Hari 3 Vt. COTA LT 21O WII52-91 aie | esa) 9, :80i4-Moon’s/Second or East Limb .. 21 26 25°14 ;: 5) oo se 30.—e Aquarii , saps gras Tornoe 21 28 30-17 SIV ISIN Gehl ea sri MOT © aS ebey 21°35 44-52 30,—c? Capric......... Ee Cre a 21 37 00-42 30.—30 Aquaril . 6... -seeceseseeess 21 54 08-28 I 22 Ol 30°46 Semen OMEN Ce acess as eay + s'e08 4 21 35 44°58 31.—c? Capric. 4... 7 pa. 21 81: 00-45 31.—345 Aquaril.......... eeige gia oh Bhiyy49-. (07 RD 31.—30 Aquaril, «oc. eeesrcenecees « 21,, 54), 08-12 31.—2 Aquatii mittee cece Ie 22 Ol 30°42 31.—6 Aquarii.....002. PUR OM GSS ye 07 40-00 31.—Moon’s > nen or © Hast Limb. 4 52°63 31.—166 Aquarii. 058 Cate Ed 2S Sie ob is 28 45°67 eons a er 3 Aquarii tcecercececetense 22, SL 4913 aida 219 Aquatii. Wee e eee ieee ccs ee ae MO fr to on U7 gibbilf ont agv: _Oceultation by the Moon, ool eiail besyredt Immersion of 4 sunita?! Sa aha ypR ogre 59-87: Serial Time, . ahiaiei) 4 POLIS. 1d i | uilgO $—.98 ut po ; ff} ve Get ths i Cj} *o-—98 Bod AG i ; uidgU Doras 4 ‘ Q 4 . o +. . a ac’ 2s Bout dinnt azo WV 10 terr'h enoolfl— aS TLE > g simp f Beye Kf Ss > j oe 33 Q8e x o¢ 7% ef 7 ‘ Co 80°) os as@ {8,— aS 190 Dis. Christison and Turne® Ser. Articitn VI, On the Comparative APN i of Oil and Coal Gas. By Robert Christison, MD. FRSE, and Edward Turner, MD. FRSE.* ; ? | ) THE question of the relative advantages of oil and coal gas resolves itself into two: the first regards their relative economy ; the second their comparative utility. )Ledep arene ve 1. Before we can determine their relative economy, it is requi- site to settle their average quality. Taking their specific gravity as the ground of comparison, we apprehend that, in ' small towns, where the cannel coal can be had at a low price, coal gas companies may be able to manufacture a gas of the density of 700. In larger cities, such as Glasgow and Edinburgh, where coal of every kind is dearer, and. the cannel coal cannot easily be procured in sufficient’ quantity, the average specific gravity of the gas will not exceed 600. And in such a town as ondon, where the cannel coal can scarcely be procured at all, the average pir ye, selec will not exceed 450. - The average specific gravity of oil gas should eventually be the same every where.. It is difficult to ascertain what the average is at present, as: made by large establishments; but there is no substantial cause why it should fall short of 920. We have assigned strong reasons, however, for believing that it must be soon improved considerably. This improvement indeed may be no great gain; for the question will then occur, whether it can be effected without diminishing the quantity of gas in the same proportion with its increase in quality. It is generally supposed, that an improvement in the quality of oil gas is neces- sarily attended by a loss in quantity ; but, so far as can be dis- covered, this idea rests.on experiments performed by operatives only, whose authority we are satisfied, from repeated observa- tion, can by no means be relied on, If charcoal is left in the retorts at the end of each ¢harge, it is clear that the gas may be improved by the addition of all this charcoal, without any dimi- nution in quantity; for, if it be added to the light carburetted hydrogen, which gives little light, so as to convert it into the | olefiant gas, which is powerfully meets | the change, it is well known, will take place without any alteration in volume. On the other hand, if good oil gas be exposed to a high ‘tem- perature, it is partly decomposed, and deposits some of its charcoal. Part of the olefiant gas becomes light carburetted hydrogen, and without any increase in volume ; for the volume is not increased unless it is resolved into charcoal and hydrogen. * From the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal. 1825.} on Oil and Coal Gas. 191 Hence a bad gas may be made from oil, which shall not exceed in quantity the good’ gas of Taylor and Martineat.. And, in point of fact, we have several times found, when the retorts were choked with charcoal, and the specific gravity of the gas was only 660, that the quantity fell short of 100 cubie feet pergallon, which is said to be about the average produce when the gas is ood. When oil gas hasa specific gravity of 910, charcoal is still found in the retorts. It may therefore be improved by the addition of all this charcoal, and still retain its volume. Besides it may be possible to improve it by the addition of charcoal from other sources. Hence, while we at present assign to oil gas the average specific gravity of 920, we cannot help’anticipating a considerable improvement, and positive gain. 9 From what has been said of the average quality of coal gas in different quarters of the kingdom, it is clear that the question of its economy, compared with oil gas, can be only answered rela+ tively. In Edinbutgh and Glasgow, where coal is moderately cheap, and coal gas of good quality, oil gas must be somewhat dearer; in London, where the coal is dear, and: the gas bad, oil gas should be positively cheaper; and in other places the twd will be nearly the same'in price. This statement is, of course, drawn from: our own experiments on their illuminating power, coupled with the well-known computations of Accum, Peck- ston, Ricardo, and others, regarding their relative cost. The second element im the question of their relative advan- tages, is their comparative utility. It is certain that whatever difference may exist between them in this respect must be in favour of oil gas. . | ! In the first place, the quality of the light is superior. It is whiter, and has a peculiar sparkling appearance, superior to that of coal gas. It is therefore a more beautiful light, fitter for the artificial illumination of colours, and not liable to give the human countenance that unpleasant sallow appearance which every one has observed to be caused by coal gas. | pa An objection has been urged to the employment of gas in general, that it has a disagreeable odour. This objection does not apply at all, unless: the gas is unconsumed ; for neither oil nor even coal gas, so far at least as our observation goes, emits any odour, if properly burnt. But if they escape, and mix with the air, their presence ‘is then readily detected by the smell. The odour of oil gas is purely empyreuthatic, but quite distinct ; we have possessed occasional specimens, which had a faint smell, but we never found it altogether inodorous. The best oil gas appears to have the least smell.. The odour of coal gas is of a mixed kind, being in part empyreumatic like ‘oil gas, and partly of an exceedingly offensive nature, like that of sulphuret- ted hydrogen. - In ‘Edinburgh coal gas we have generally 192 _ On Oil.and Coal Gas, [Serr. observed. the empyreuma alone ; but frequently the ‘other is per- sepuble also, and sometimes it prevails to an insufferable egree. i | ‘he most serious objection to coal gas arises from the pre- sence of impurities. These are, a black matter like tar, and compounds of sulphur,—all derived from the coal itself, and therefore necessarily present originally in every description of coal gas. Without purification, therefore, coal gas could scarcely be used at all; and it becomes a question of importance to deter- mine, whether or not the noxious ingredients may be wholly removed from it. The greater part of the tar is deposited at the works in the proper vessels, but a minute portion does com- monly pass over with the gas. It tends to clog the apertures of the burner, and of course soils substances upon which it is depo- sited. In common shops, where a free current of air is pre- served, the effect is hardly noticed ; but we suspect that a part of the inconvenience found by jewellers to attend the use of coal gas arises from this cause. The most formidable of the compounds of sulphur present in. coal gas is sulphuretted hydrogen. The presence of this gas is hurtful in two ways. If it escape unburnt, it offends by its insupportable odour, and attacks silver, and paint, with great readiness. When consumed, it forms sulphurous and sulphuric acids, which may injure the health, if habitually etek and act chemically on various substances, as on. iron and steel. Hence the necessity of removing it entirely from coal gas. On this subject two important questions naturally occur, to both of which we can give a decisive answer. Ist, Can sulphuretted hydrogen be wholly separated from coal gas? and, 2dly, when it SPOR Can coal gas be regarded as perfectly free of sulphur ? We are satisfied that sulphuretted hydrogen may be wholly removed ; for we have repeatedly examined the Edinburgh coal by the most delicate tests, without detecting a trace of it. f course we do not vouch that it is always equally pure, ‘be- cause the least neglect, on the part of the workmen, must inevi- tably cause some sulphuretted hydrogen to escape into the pipes. It is equally certain, however, that coal gas, when com- pore free of sulphuretted hydrogen, still contains sulphur. n burning a small jet of coal gas, free from sulphuretted hydro- gen, so as to collect the fluid formed during the combustion, the presence of sulphuric acid was uniformly detected, demon- strating the existence of some compound of sulphur. What that compound is has not yet been ascertained ; but from its peculiar unpleasant odour, and the circumstances under which it is generated, the sulphur is most probably in combination with carbon, either in the form of the volatile liquid, sulphuret , ; 1825.) Mr. Gray on the Genera of Reptiles. 198 of carbon; as’Mr. Brande conjectures, or; what is perhaps more likely,\ds'a gaseous compound, containing a less proportion of sulphur than exists in that liquid. Dire ) whateverstate of combination the sulphur may be, it does notiaffect the salts’of lead like sulphuretted hydrogen’; nor does it‘act ‘so readily, “if at all, on polished silver and gold: “Hence the‘gaswhich contains’ only this impurity, will be less injurious, when‘any of it escapes wnburnt, than such as contains ‘sulpliur- ettéd” hydrogen ; “but ‘since it® uniformly ‘yields: acid’ vapours during’ its combustion, “6iie part of the objection remains im ‘full fHPHEE DSI 2OQSD ap iss BNI IO TG TISAI Ls 4; OM PIOUS: ‘These “varios” objections; whatever weight they may ‘have, apply to coal’gas’only.’ °" i By 28 Sab AY ! EUoh ; bon gay eto we Seba eee oes is su shh barat: ARTICLE WTysei so A Synopsis:of ‘the Genera. of ( Reptiles aiid Amphibia: itl a Description. of somenew Species, By John Edward Gray, Esq. FGS. &e. dims “sroes St 2 ! , _” « (Tothe Editors of the Annals.of Philosophy.) > 6 GENTLEMEN; 1 10) 1 !'8o > British Museum, July 12, 1825. ‘* Tue reptiles’ have ‘been ‘comparatively neglected by recent - zoologists, perhaps on account of the popular prejudices against this interesting and curious class of animals which Linneus designates “ Animalia pessima tetra nuda.” It is only necessary to ‘overcome these prejudices, and to examine them” even superficially, and we caniiot but be struck with the beauty of their colours, the wonderful nature of their structure, and the erage of their habits and manners.’ Indeed I’ do not now any olass‘of animals better calculated to excite the wonder and astonishnient of a student of nature. tae Se gro Tt With the hopes of inducing some inquiry into, and exa-_ mination ‘of; this: department of natural “history, I have attempted to bring together into the form of a synopsis, the. labour of the ‘preceding writers on this class, and have also thrown into it my own notes formed on an examination of the specithens at present under arrangement in the British Museum, which’ are ‘exceedingly interesting. to me in several points: of view, first, as containing several undescribed species, and spe- citiens of interesting’ or obscure genera; and secondly, the oldér"'Specimens haying. been examined, and most carefully named by ‘hy late wncle, who paid great attention to. this department ‘of zoolooy, and several of whose manuscript species | still remain anipiubtiched Histo Gt DRE" a4 cotieit ae _ Ineed not dwell on the distinctness of the two classesof rep- «~ New Series, vou, x. ) 194 Mr. Gray on the Genera of Reptiles. [Sept. tiles and amphibia, or of the scaly and naked-skinned groups, as they are allowed to be perfectly distinct hy all modern naturalists, although they do not agree with regard to the rank of the latter group. I am inclined to follow the opinion of Macleay, Blain- ville, and others, in considering them both as. classes, and cons sequently of equal rank. | evlibs | Class JT].—Repri.zia. _ Body covered with scales or hard plates imbedded in the skin; heart. with two auricles and one ventricle respirmg by lungs, The blood is cold; the windpipe ringed ; the ribs are perfect, and there are several vertebra; the penis is distinct, sometimes double. The ere is covered with a shell, mostly hatched im the body of the mother. wen Synopsis or THE OrDERS, Body covered with imbedded hard plates; legs distinct. Ears closed with a valve. .....eeeeee+e+ HMYDOSAURI, Ears naked, valveless ee atereeesoeseneee SAuRI. Body covered with scales, or two large shields. pair Legs 2-4 weak ; ears naked ............ SACROPHIDII, Legs 0 ears Qwi i oe ceauaboads de exoribe! OPNEDII. Legs 4; body covered with two shields. .. CHELONII, Mr, Macleay, in his excellent Hore Entomologice, has observed that the order of this class appears to, assume a circu- lar disposition ; the most visible break m this arrangement is in the passage between the snakes and the tortoises ; for the con- nexion between the latter order and the crocodiles must be visi+ ble to every one, if they only consult Shaw’s figure of the Testudo serpentina, and compare it with that of the crocodile, for it is in fact a crocodile with a shortened body, covered with united instead of distinct shields, and a bird’s beak. .The pas- sage from the crocodiles to the lizards by means of the Minitors, _ has long been known to naturalists, who have often considered the latter as species of the former genus ; and even Linnzus placed them in the same section of his genus Lacerta. The Sincs have always been placed in the same genus or group with the lizards; but their affinity with the slow-worms did not escape the penetrating eye of Linneus, who observes that the Lacerta Chalcides, is “ Media inter Lacertas et Angues;” and the union of the genera Sincus, Anguis, and Amphisbena, into an order, although it has not been done by any zoologist that I am aware of, appears to be strictly natural, for the feet in this order exist in such various degrees of developement, that the being with or without them appears to be only a family or generic character, and not ordinal, Linneus placed the genera Tortrix and Eryx of the true serpents as species of his 1825.) Mr, Gray on the Genera of Reptiles. 195 genus Anguis, thus showing that he considered them as nearly allied. So far the passage from one order to the other has been very easy and Seamuat and indeed sometimes I have been doubtful, as in the last case, to which order I should refer the genera. There is every reason to believe from general structure, that there exists an affinity between the tortoises and the snakes, but the genus that exactly unites them is at pre- sent unknown to European naturalists, which is not astonishing when we consider the immense number of undescribed animals which are daily occurring. Phas | Mr. Macleay thought these two orders might be united by means of Emys Longicollis (the long-necked tortoise) of Shaw; but the family to which this animal belongs appears to be the one which unites this class to the crocodile : if I may be al- lowed to speculate from the peculiarities of structure which I have observed, { am inclined to think that the union will most proba bly take place, by some newly discovered genera, allied to the marine or fluviatile soft-skinned turtles, and the marine serpent. § 1. Body covered with imbedded hard plates ; legs distinct, fit for walking, Loricata, Gray; not Merrem. Order 1. Emyposavuri, Blainv. - Ears closed by two longitudinal valves ; anus longitudinal ; body covered with large imbedded plates ; tongue short adnate ; legs four; toes four before, five behind ; sternum long; clayi- cles none ; lungs not extended to the abdomen ; /iving ¢n or near water. skeet Fam. 1. Crocopirip#, | Feet three clawed ; hinder ones ; palmate or semi palmate tail compressed. | 1. Atigator, Cuv. : Head blunt; hind feet semi-palmate. America. . A. lucius, Gray. Crocodilus lucius, Cuv. 2. CrocopiLus, Cuv. Champse, Merrem. ~ Head blunt ; hind feet palmate. Old and New Continent. ’ C, biscutatus, Cuv. 3. GAviAL, Oppel, .Gavials, Cur. Head very long ; hind feet semi-palmate, Old Continent. G. gangeticus, Gray: Crocodilus gangeticus, Cuv, Fam. I. IcrHiosauRIpm. Feet paddle-shaped; toes five; cervical vertebra 18. Marine. 1. Ierurosaurus, Kenig. Proteosaurus, Home. Teeth inagrove. | . Latreille applied the name Ichiosaurus to the larva of a sala- | 02 196 Mr. Gray on the Genera of Reptiles. (Serr. mander; but the genus has been ‘properly rejected by all latter zoologists. sete * cect I, communis, Kaenig. 2. Savroceruaxus. Harlan, 1824. Teeth in separate sockets. Rebeca Ce tasu t eatnniee Fam, Il, PLestosaurive”. ‘Feet paddle-shaped; toes five; cervical vertebra 35 or 41. Marine. 1. PLesiosaurus, Conybeare. P. dolichodeirus, Cnibbcent ae Pn . Cuvier has described a genus of large lizard fossil under the name of Greosaurus, Oss. Fos. v. ii. 328, which he says is inter- mediate between the monitors and crocodiles. ia Leb The genus Megalosaurus of Buckland, Geol. Trans, is, per- haps, allied to this order.. | 10 stitlarn Order II. Saunt, Blainv. Drum of the ears naked, or covered: with the skin; anus transverse ; body covered: with large.and small imbedded scales ; legs four, toes 5, before and behind; sternum short ; clavicles distinct; lungs extended into the abdomen ; Living mostly on land. ~ §1. Tongue not extensile. Ascolabata, Merrem, Fam. 1. STELLIONIDE. Stelliones, Cuvier. Toes free; inequal; body subcompressed ; throat subpendu- lous, extensile. : aera The throat of all, but more especially of the species of the latter section of this family, are more or less capable of being dilated by the processes of the os hyoides, as noticed by Baron Cuvier in his | a on the Osteology of Lizards (Ossment Fos- siles, v. ii. p. 281); and it-has lately been described and figured in an excellent paper by. Mr. Bell, im the Zoological Journal, as existing in the genus Anolius. "gn: Be s aes + Without any teeth in the throat ; teeth equal, conical; toes simple, Agamina, Gray. Stellionide, Bell, without character. Gen. 1. Uromastrrix, Merrem. Body and head scaly; tail with large whirled pointed scales ; femoral pores distinct. U. Richii, Gray. U. acanthinurus, Bel/, not U. Anthurus, Merrem. Common Africa. - 2. Zonurus, Merren. Cordylus, Gronovias. Body scaly; head and abdomen shielded; tail whorled ; spinose ; femoral pores distinct. Z. Cordylis, Merren.. L. Cordylus, Lin, 1825.) Mr. Gray onthe Genera ee 197 3. AGAMA. Body and head ‘scaly ; tail with small scales ; feeabral’ pores none ; toes 5-5. This genus contains the following subgenera characterized by the form of the scales, &c. 1. Stellio, Daud ; St. vulgaris ; Lacerta bitin rol, Agama, Daud; A. muricata, Daud. 3. Tapa ia, Gray; py orbicularis ; Lacerta, Lin. 4. Trapelus, Cuv.; T. mutabilis, nob. Calotes, Merren. 5. Calotes, Cuv.; C. ophiomachus, nob.; Lacerta Calotes, Lin. 6. Lyriocephalus, Merrem » (Lophyrus, Oppel.). L, margaritaceus, Merren. 4. Prevsres, Merrem. Agama, Daud. Toes four before, five behind ; tail prehensile. P. prehensilis, Merrem. Carapopeba, Margrave. 5. Bastiicus,: Laurent. Head and body scaly; tail with a dornat fin supped by bony rays ; femoral pores distinct. B. mitratus, Daud. 6. Draco, Lin. Head and body scaly; sides of the body with wing-like expan- sions supported by the spurious ribs ; femoral pores none ; tail round, scaly. D. viridis, Daud. 7. Preropactytus, Cuv. The index finger of the fore foot longer than the body ‘ supporting a flying membrane,” Cuv. P. longirostris, Cuv. Pe With teeth in the throat. 8. CLAMyDosAuRus, Gray. Head and body scaly ; tail round scaly; neck with a large pliated frill on each side; femoral pores none. C. Kingii, Gray. New Holland, Capt. P. King; see the inedited Journal of his Voyage. (I am not certain that this genus has palatine teeth.) « 9. Iguana, Daud. Iguanina, Gray. Teeth unequal or compressed, denticulated ; head shielded; body scaly; back furnished with a dorsal crest ; femoral pores distinct ; toes 5-5 simple; tail crested. i tuberculata, Laur. Lacerta Iguana, Lin. 10. Cycitura, Harlan. Head 2 body scaly; back ao a dorsal crest ; femoral pores distinct ; toes 5-5. simple ; tail with large whorled pointed scales. C. carinata, Hertan; Acad, N. S. Phil, 1824. 198 Mr, Gray on the Genera of Reptiles, [Supt 1]. AmMpityruyrncus, Bell. ‘wapA [f Head short, truncated, above tuberculated ; body scaly § neck back and tail with a spiny crest; toes 5-5 simple, nearly equal; femoral pores distinct; teeth trilobate. A. cristatus, Bell, Zool. Journ. ii. t. 12. Mexico, 12, Porycurvs, Cuv. Head pytamidical shielded ; body scaly, inflatile ; not crested ; femoral pores distinct ; toes 5-5 simple. ' P, marmoratus, Merrem. 13. ANotius, Cuv. Anolis, Merrems Head pyramidical ; scaly (or subscutate); body scaly; toes 5-5 very unequal, ends dilated. : | This genus may be divided into several subgenéra, according to its scales and dorsal crests. , 1, Anolius. A. padagricus, Daud. 2..4..++» Lacerta bul- laris, Lin. 3.4.2.,.¢ As limeatus. Daud... 4. A. Cuvieri, Merrem; allied to Basilicus ? The fossil genus Mosasaurus of Conybeare, according to Cuvier, Oss. Fos. v. ii. 337, is intermediate between the Agamina and the Jguanina. | | Fam. Il. Gecxotipm.. —._— Toes nearly equal, mostly dilated, beneath transversely scaly; body depressed ; throat not extensile ; *-eth, conical or three: . lobed; none in the palate. 1, Paytiurus, Gray. Phyllures, Cuv. 7 Tail depressed, lanceolate; toes simple, filiform, clawed ; body and head scaly. | P. Whitii, nob. Lacerta platura, White’s Jour. Agama. Platyura, Merrem. Perhaps belong to the former famtily, _ 2, Uropxiates, Daud, - ee : Tail depressed, edged with a membrane ; toes semi-palmate, dilated at the ends, scales longitudinally divided, claws sunk in the grove. aie *U. fimbriatus. Stellio fimbriatus, Schneid.** Caudiuerbera, Laur. C. cristatus. Lacerta caudiverbera, Lin. ***Gecko tetradatylus, Merrem. | 3. Pryopactytus, Gray, Ptyodactyles,Cuw. =. | Tail round; toes free, dilated at the end, scales longitudi- nally divided, claws sunk in on the grove ; femoral pores none, P.lobatus. L. gecko, Hasselt. 4, Tuecapacty.Lus. Thecadactyles, Cuv. Tail round, scaly ; toes dilated’ their whole length, furnished beneath with scales divided by a longitudinal fullow, containing the claws ; thumb clawless ; thigh oreless. America. T. levis. Grecolevis, Daud. Lac, rapicauda, Gmelin, 1825.) Mr. Gray on the. Genera of Reptiles, 199 5. Hemipactyius. Hemidactyles, Cuv. . : - Tail round, beneath ringed; toes dilated at the base into an oval disk, formed of two series of scales; claws and femoral pores distinct. Old Continent. ’ *H, tuberculosus, Gray. Gecko, Daud. H. maculatus, Gray. Gecko maculatus, Merrem. **? H. triedrus; H. acu- leatus ; and H. platyurus, Gecko, Merrem; belong to this genus. 6. GrcKo. pat sa , Tail round, scaly; toes dilated their whole length, furnished with transverse series of scales, clawed; thumb clawless; femo- ral pores distinct. | G. verus, Merrem. Lacerto gecko, Lin. Gy, vittatus and.G Spectator, Merrem, belong to this genus, Recht 7. TARENTOLA, Gray. " 3 Tail round, scaly ; toes dilated their whole length, furnished with transverse series of scales ; thumb, index, and little fingers clawless; femoral pores none. ) ere par stellio. Gecko stellio, Merrem. Lacerta Mauritanica, In. eo ) 8. PuatypactryLus, Gray. Platydactyles, Cuv.. Tail round, scaly ; toes dilated their whole length, furnished _ with a series of scales, clawless; femoral pores none; thumb very small, Isle of Erance. . P. Cuvieri, Gray. Gecko inungius, Cuv. P.. ocellatus, Gray. Gecko, Cuv. and P. squalidus, Gray. Gecko, Daud. 9. PHEeLtsuma, nob. : Tail round sealy ; toes dilated their whole length, furnished with a series of scales, clawless; thumb small; femoral pores distinct. Isle of France. ! P. crepidianus, Gecko, Merrem. P. ornatum, Gray. Brown, back ornamented with six rows of red oval spots. Capt. King. S11. Tongue extensile. Sauravee, Merrem. fam. Wl. TurinambBipe. , Tongue deeply two cut, very extensile ; teeth only in the jaws; tail mostly laterally compressed ; subaquatic (allied to the Emy- dosauri). Sahai 2 a 1. Uranus, Merrem. Tupinambis, Lam. Monitors, Cuv. Teeth conical; throat collarless ; head and body scaly ; belly annulated; toes 5-5; femoral pores none. The Ancient Continent. ' * Tail rounded. U. Dracena, Merrem. L. Dracena, Lin. ** Tail compressed, beneath rounded.’ 1, U, varius, Merrem. Lacerta varia, White, N. H. 200 Mr. itaenvietiain of Reptiles, . [Serr 2. Ava, Gra ragonnes, Cuv.. . Head Hielded bod body 6 scaly, with larger shickla, on ‘the ‘back; throat with two pleats; toes 5-5; femoral pores distinct; teeth conical ; tail compressed at the end. America. "A. erocodilinus, Gray. Teius crocodilinus, Merrem: La Dra- gonne, Lacepede. , 3. TeErus, Merrem. Les Sauvegardés, Cuv. _ Head shielded ; body scaly, scale of the Ms eee long ; throat with two pleats; toes. 5-5; or 5+4;.femoral.pores. distinct ; teeth denticulated; tail compressed. America. , T. bicarinatus, Merrem, etn Lin, 4. Ameiva, Say.’ Head shielded ; ee scaly ; scale: of the sBadhed vided 2 throat with two leats ; toes 5-5 ; femoral pores distinct ; teeth denticulated ; tail round. America. A. vulgaris. Eaverta Ameiva, Gmelin. Fam, IV. rt ee | Tongue deeply two cut; very extensible; teeth in i jaws and palate ; tail round ; neck surrounded with a collar of vee). _ scales; toes 5-5, 7 boii ‘Lacerta, Lin. Cuv. Head:and abdomen shielded ; back scaly ; a collar of cal scales round the throat ; Somnoral ‘sir distinct ; teeth conica oLvagils, Lines 7 2. Tachtypromus, Oppel. Takyaroms Daud. Head; back, and abdomen shielded ; fours Base none, with two vesicles:at the anus. | , 13d sexlineatus, Daud, t. 39.. The species of this family require further pach and exami- nation: the latter genus is allied in form to the next order, or Saurophidii. Fam. V, CAMELIONID&. Tongue round, club-shaped, very datctulie: teeth thee: fobed tail prehensile ; body and head minutely, scaly ;, toes 5-5, united; two and three together, clasping ; tympanum covered with the skin. 1. Cuame ion, Lin. The only genus as yet known in the family. *C, vulgaris, Latr. Lacerta chameleon, ‘Lin. Africa. #EC, calcaratus, Merrem. ***C. bifidus, Brogniart. This family is allied to several of the Stellionide, as Pneustes, &e. but its affinity with Lacertunide is not so apparent. » § 11. Body covered with scales or a bony. case; legs often 1825.) Mr Graycon the Genera of Reptiles. 201 wanting, or - too small for walking; sometimes adapted for swimmung. Order III. SAuropuipiul, Gray.) 26) | _. Drum ofthe ear deep seated, ese with a,,posterior transverse valve or b the skin ; eyes furnished with longitudinal eyelids ;. skim. covere with uniform imbricate scales, or rings of square plates ; feet two; or four small, weak; sometimes wanting ; occipital condyle three cut; lungs two unequal, or rarely only yey ; ossa quadratam one on each side ; upper maxilla immove- able. t CCTs ’ + ' , . § 1. Body covered with imbricate. scales ;, anus transverse,: not terminal ; tongue extensile? tp 2 Fam. 1. Sincip%, Gray. aa Spee Body fusiform; scales uniform, shining; tongue fleshy, slightly extensile; teeth | denticulated; drum of the ear dog partly covered with a transverse posterior valve ; legs four weak ; toes nearly equal. ? 1.Sincus, Daud. i Ts a aI Ne Sg Body fusiform, uniformly scaly ; head shielded; feet four ; femoral pores none ; toes 5-5 ;. teeth in the jaws, and two rows in the palate. ! 1 Ybod S. officinalis, Schneider. Lacerta Sincus, Lin... 2. Titiqta, Gray. - oe : : Body fusiform, uniformly scaly ; head shielded; feet four; femoral pores none; toes 5-5; teeth only inthe jaws: T. tuberculatus, Gray. Lacerta Sincoides, White. | 3. GYMNOPHTALMUS, Merrem. “‘ Body fusiform ; head shielded ; feet four; femoral pores....? toes 4-5; teeth conical (only in the jaws 2); tongue two-forked ; eyelids none,” Merren. . Salt G. quadrilineatus, Merrem. Lacerta, Lin. 4. Tracuyposaurus, Gray. Body fusiform ; head shielded; back covered with hard bony scales, like the frontal shelds in.form ; abdomen with thin scales ; feet four; toes 5-5; femoral pores none ; tail short depressed. T. rugosus, Gray. New Holland, Capt. P. P. King, RN. 5. Cicicna, Gray. Me Wig oh Body subfusiform, with a distinct lateral line; head shielded; feet four; femoral pores distinct ; toes 5-5 unequal. | C.sepiformis, Gray. Sincus sepiformis, Schneider. fi Fam. II. ANGUDIDE. ” a eb I race Body cylindrical; scales uniform, shining; tongue fleshy 202 Mr. Gray on the Genera of Reptiles. (Ser. necked ; drum of the ear, partly covered with a transverse poste- rior valve ; feet four or two, weak ; anus transverse, not terminal, ‘1. Sers. Daud. Chamiesaura, Schneider. Head shielded ; legs four; toes 3-3 ; body without any dis- ‘tinct lateral line; scale uniform. | | S. chalcidica, Merrem, Grey, with nine grey lines above; tail longer than the body; scales of the head unequal. Lacerta chalcides, Lin. C. chalcis, Schneid. Chalcides Seps, Latreille. a i tridactylus, Daud. . equalis, Gray. Grey ......; tail thick, half as long as the body aren s injured); scales of the head equal; head and body 30-10; tail 17th of an inch; scale of the head numerous, very nearly equal. mis 2. Terrapactyius, Merrem. | Head shielded ; legs four; toes 4-4; body furnished with a distinct lateral line ; scale of the back quadrade of the abdomen hexagonal ; tongue short entire. ¥ FY ah Chalcidicus, Merrem. Lacerta tetradactylus, Lacep, Ann. us. ay | 8, Monopacryutus, Merrem. Chamesaura, Schneid. Head shielded ; body with acute keeled scales; feet four ; toe one to each foot ; tongue short entire. M. anguinus, Merrem. Lacerta anguina, Lin, Chalcides pinnata, Laur, C, anguinea, Laur. fos 4. Birzs, Laup. OM fedtes i Head shielded ;- body with imbrical.scalés; fore feet hid in the skin ; hind feet with two toes; tongue short apex necked. B. anguinus, Merrem. Lacerta bipes, Lin. Merrem describes from Gronovius an animal under the names ° of Pygodactylus Gronovii, but he doubts it being distinct from the former; it is only said to differ in having only one toe to the hind feet. Cuvier, R. A. describes the former as only hav- ing one; on what authority I do not know. 5. Pycorus, Merrem. oe Head shielded; body with a distinct lateral line (“ back scaly ; abdomen with small shelds,” Merrem); femoral pores distmet; eyes large; drum of the ear large ; teeth in the jaws only ; tongue short, entire ; fore feet hid in the skin; hind feet clawless ; rounded, lobed. P. lepidopus, Merrem. Bipes lepidopus, Lacep. N. Holland. 6. Pseupopus, Merrem. Sheltopusik, Latrei/le. Head shielded; body furnished with a distinct lateral line ; fore feet wanting ; hind feet short, two or three lobed ; tongue two-forked; teeth blunt only in the jaws. 1825}, | Mri Gray on the Genera of Reptiles. 203 P. serpentinus, Merren. Lacerta apus, Pallas, Chamesaura apus, Schneid. Bipes sheltopusik, Bonnat. Sheltopusik didac- tylus, Lat. Seps. sheltopusik, Daud. Russia, 7. Opniosaurus, Daud. Hyalinus, Merrem. Head shielded; body with a distinct lateral line; feet none, (hid under the skin) ; drum. of the ear apparent, teeth in the j jaws and palate. O. ventralis, Daud. Woduts, Lin. Chamesaura, Schneid. 8. Aneuis; Lin, Cur. Head shielded ; body without any lateral line; feet none e (hid under the skin) ; ‘drum of the ears covered with ‘the skin ; teeth only in the jaws. A. fragilis, Lin. 9. Aconmias, Cuv. Sik Daud. ' Head shielded ; the anterior shield projecting over the foelth, lateral line not distinet ; feet none, nor no bones (hid under the skin); drum of the ears covered with the skin ; teeth in the jaws and palate, allied to the next famil «Byes distinct. A. Meleagris, ee: Anguis, Lin. Eryx Meleagris, Daud. **Eyes hid with the skin. A. cecus; Cuv. § 2. Body covered with intricate scales; anus terminal. Fam. (ii. Typutopip«, Gray. Body cylindrical, covered with imbricate scales ; feet or legs none;’ head shielded, muzzle advanced ; tongue. long, forked extensile; anus terminal ; drum of the ear hid under the skin. , vith Ty PHLors, Schneider. Eyes visible under the skin. _ Dr. Waggler has published a genus under the name of Stenos- toma which does not appear to differ from this or Aconizas. 3. Body covered with rings of square scales. Fam. rv. Wabi is Bais A Gre Aah Body cylindrical, covered with rings of square scales ; feet or legs none; head and sometimes the chest shielded ; tongue short, cut ; ’ teeth conical only in the jaws ; anus terminal ; drum of the ear hid under the skin: 1. AMpenispana, Lin. Body covered with rings of uniform sized square scales ; head shielded; anus with a series of Skies in front. A. alba, Lan. 204 Mr. Grayon the Genera of Reptiles. (Seer. 2. Leprostermon, Wagler, ay tae Head and chest shielded; body covered with rings of square scales ; anus without any-pores.; L. microcephalus, Wagler 10, t. 26, f. 2. Fam, V. CHALCIDID®. Body cylindrical, covered with rings of uniform square scales ; legs two or four; head shielded ; tongue-....; teeth....; anus transverse submedial; drum of the ear hidden. © — 1. CuirotEs, Cuv. Bipes, Latr. -Bimanus, Oppel.’ Legs two, posterior ; toes five, clawed. | C, canaliculatus, Merrem. ‘La Cannell, Lacep. . Lacerta lum- bricondes, Shaw. " 2. Cuatcipes, Daud. Chalcis, Merrem. © Legs four; toes three, clawed. - | C. flavescens, Bonnat.. Le-chalcide, Lacep. Chameesaura Cophias, Schneid, Chalcis Cophias, Merrem, cahel 3. Copuias, Gray. Colobus, Merrem, not Illiger. Legs four; toe.one, clawed. ~ C. Daudini, Gray. Colobus Daudini, Merrem. Chalcides Monidactylus; Daud. ~ ° : Order IV. Opuivit, Brogniart. Serpentes, Lin. The dram of the ear wanting; eyes destitute of the third lid ; skin covered with imbricate scale or plates; feet none; chest and blade bones. wanting; ribs encircling the body; body of the vertebra uniting by a convex and a concave surface; the os tympanum or pedicel of the lower jaw moveable, and suspended to another similar bone or eactelt, attached to the skull only by ligaments. The branches of the jaw only united together by ligaments, so as to let them separate more: or. less from each other, and allow the animal: to swallow large bodies; the palatine arches movable, armed with sharp recurved teeth. § 1. Upper jaws with fangs only. Venati. The jaws are very dilatible; the tongue very extensile; head large behind; the upper maxillary bones small, supported on a long pedical, and very mobile, furnished with a fang, pieced with a little canal, which give passage to the liquor secreted by a considerable gland under the eye. The fang, when the, animal is not irritated, is hid in a plait of the palatine integu- ments ; viviparous. . am. 1; CroraLip”. 3 : Body and tail coyered beneath with simple transverse plates ; head usually scaly, America, — A, 1825.) Mr. Gray on the Genera of Reptiles. 205 *Witha Ratile. | 1. Croraunus, Lin. yee Head covered with scales ; the muzzle perforated with a small fovea behind each nostril ; tail furnished with arattling appendix formed by the dry terminal scales. _ America, C. horidus, Lin. 2. CroraLopuorus, Lin. Gray. : ' Head covered with. plates ; muzzle with a ienaall foie behind each nostril ; tail furnished with a rattling rn America. OF miliaris, Lin, © Without any Rattles. 3. Ecuts, Merren. Scytales, Latr. not Gronov.. ‘ Head’ covered with scales; the muzzle not perforated ; tail simple. Allied to Viperadee, Merrem. S. zic zac, Daud. ~ Boa horrata, Schneider. 4. Acantuopis, Daud. Ophyas, Merrem. Head with large scales in front ; no pores behind the nostrils ; tail with double plate only beneath the end, which terminate in m very acute point. A: cerastinus, Daud. Boa palpebrosa, Shaw. ‘Ophryas Acantophis, Merrem. . an 5. Lancana, Brug. : S anceuie Shaw. Head covered with larce plates; muzzle long, pointed ; tail surrounded by ring-like plates, except at the end which is scaly. L. nasuta, Shaw. L. scr re tia a mat rem, As this genus allied to Dryinus ? | | Fam. II. Vireripe. | The body scaly ; the abdomen covered with annulated. plates ; ; the tail with divided . scale beneath ; anus without spurs. Head distinct, scaly, behind broad. Viperinay 1. TrigonocePHal Kei vere: Lachensis, Daud. Cophias Merreeh. i Head triangular with a distinct fovea behind the nostrils; tail round ; apex simple, conical, sometimes armed. dial * atrox, Merrem. ay N CRrasEDOCEPHALUS, Kuhl. - Bothrops, Wagler. Head truncated, with a distinct fovea behind each nostril ; ; tail round, the plates towards the anus entire, apex simple, . ‘conical, plates halved. - C. crotalinus, Kuhl. Crotalus Mutus, Lin. 3. Cosra, Laur. Vipera, Laur. Echidna, Merrem, not. Geoff. / Head covered with scales without any fovea behind: the nos- tris’ tail round. HOO g Vv. Cerastes, Laur. Coluber Cerastes; Lin. 206 Mrs Gay onthe Genera of Reptils, — [Snvah 5. Pextas, Merrem. . Coluber, Laut, Head scaly, with three larger plates, without any fovea behind the nostrils ; tail round. © > > haa 09 _ P. Berus, Merrem. Coluber Berus, Lin. ** Head broad behind, with plates. Naiina. 5. Nata, Laur. ahs Head, with nine plates behind, broad ; neck very expansile, covering the head like a hood; tail round. . 0 N. tripudians, Merrem. Coluber Naja, Lin. *** Head indistinct, with plates ; mouth small. Elaphina. 6. Sergepon, Merrem. NL pea | Head with nine plates, without any fovea behind the nostrils ; failround. =". pe | S. Hemachates, Merrem. Hemachate, Lacep, | 7. Exars, Schneid, RBee (re emt Wee, Head rarely distinct from the hogy with plates, without any fovea behind the nostrils; tail round. ee E. Lenniscatus, Schnetd. Coluber henniscatus, . “a The fangs of this genus are said not to be perforated ; it is, therefore, closely allied to Coluberide, and the tribe should be removed to the latter family ; I have at present considered it as the passage between the two sections of Ophidit. 8. Micrurus, Wagler. ~ Head indistinct with nine plates, without any fovea behind the nostrils ; tail very short, acute; subcaudal i fo one and two rowed. , . M. spixii, Wagler. 9.. Praturus, Latr. : ee Head with plates ; tail compressed, broad two edged, allied to Hydride. __P. fasciatus, Latr, Coluber laticaudatus, Lin. Laticauda scutata, Laur. Hydrus colubrinus, Schned. i § 11. Upper jaw with teeth, and with or without fangs 3 ovipa~ rous. Fam, Il. Hyprips. Nostrils on the top of the head, operculated ; teeth and usually fangs ; body covered above with scales, and beneath with scales or narrow plates. | *Tail compressed. Living in water. 1. Aipysurvus, Lacep. Head shielded ; belly with a row of small shields ; tail beneath scaly; neck dilatible. *A, levis, Lacep. Enhydris levis, Merrem. 18254) Mir Gréty on:the Generacof Reptiles 207 29. Enuypris, Merrem. ° ahs ain Head shielded ; belly with a row of small shields ; tail beneath scaly; body keeled; neck simple... | 3 ofl E. spiralis, Merrem, Hydrus spiralis, Shaw. 3. Disterta, Lacep. : Head shielded; belly with a row of shield apparently formed of two rows of scales soldered together; tail beneath scaly ; neck simple. | ‘D. doliata, Lacep. N.W. Capt. P. P. King. 4. Hypropuis, Daud. Leioselasma, Lacep. . Head shielded ; belly and tail, beneath shielded. Li , *H. nigro anctus, Daud. Russel, Ind. Serp. t.6....**Leiose- lasma, striata, Lacep. Ann. Mus, iv, ***? MQ. spiralis, nod. H. spiralis, Shaw. i ae anit | : 5. Peramis, Daud, Hydrophis, Latr, and Daud. ~ Head shielded; body and tail entirely scaly. P. bicolor, Daud, Anguis platura, Lin. 6. CuersyDREAS, Cuv. Acrocordus, Shaw. Head and body entirely covered with small scales ; tail com- pressed, | | C. granulatus, Merrem. Wydrus, Schneider. Pelamis, Daud. | ** Fangs none; tail round, 7. AcrocorDus, Hornstedt. - Head and body entirely covered. with small scale ; tail round; fangs none. : A. Javanicus, Hornstedt. — Fam. V. CoLuBRip&. :} | | | Jaws furnished with teeth, and sometimes fangs ; head covered with plates ; abdomen covered with broad ring-like plates; tail with two, and sometimes only one series of plates beneath; anus destitute of spurs. 3 * Mouth with fangs. _ 1. Trimeresurus, Lacepede. i, _ Head narrow, shielded; body with broad smooth scales .on the sides, and narrow keeled scales on the back ; tail with whole and divided seales. eae T. leptocephalus, Lacepede, Ann. Mus. N. H. 2. Buncarus, Daudin. Head blunt with nine plates; body scaly with the dorsal scales larger than the rest. Subcaudal scale one rowed, entire. B. ceruleus, Daud. Boalineata, Shaw. 208 Mr. Gray on the Genera of Reptiles... [Sepr. 3. Opnis, Wagler. ‘Head with small imperforateteeth placed before butnot behind the fangs ; abdominal plates broad, the subcaudal plates two: rowed. ! | cs ae Rifcet ae O. Merremi, Wagler. ** Mouth without fangs ;, without any fovea before the eyes. . 4, CoLuser, Lin. Notria; Laur. Coronella, Laur. - Head with eight or nine plates ; nostril simple, solid, convex ; mouth large, bent down at the angles; tail beneath with all the lower divided ; scales of the back equal. *C. albus, Lin. C. brachyurus, Shaw. **Coronella, Laur. C. cervina, Laur. Coluber stolatus, Lin. . ***Homalopsis, Kuhl. H. monilis, Coluber, Lin. 2 | y OTOTE 5. Dipsas, Laur. not Leach. Bungarus, Oppel. not Daud. Head large, oblong, with eight or nine plates; rostral seale, simple, solid, convex; mouth large, angle bent down ; shield beneath the tail all divided; scales of the centre of the back hexangular, larger than-those of the sides. *D. mdica, hole, ~ Coluber bucephalus, Shaw. *Bungarus, Catesbeii, Coluber, Catesbeii, Merrem, eh Ae es ~ 6. AHRTULLA, Gray. - Head distinct, oblong, with nine pers before rounded very: blunt, depressed ; rostral plate single, convex, with a concave arch on the labial margin; mouth large, angles recurved ; sub- caudal shields two rows ; scales of the sides linear, adpressed, those on the centre of the back, forming the dorsal series larger, triangular; body long, slender. , A. decorus, nob. Coluber decorus, Shaw. A. cerulescens. C. cerulescens, Lin. A. Sagitalis, Coluber Sagitalis, HK: W. Gray’s MSS. C. sagittatus, Shaw. A. punctulatus, Gray, | N. Holland. Capt. P. P. King. oe . 7. Macrosoma, Leach, without character. _ Head long with nine plates ; rostral plate single, convex, with a concave excavation on the labial margin ; mouth large, angle bent down; shield beneath the tail all two rowed; ieules of the back uniform ; body long, slender. M. elegans, Leach. Bowdich Ashantee, Coluber elegans, Shaw. ee Passenita, Gray. Dryinus, Merrem, not Fabr. Natrix, ur. : Head with nine plates; snout moveable, acute, with two scales in front, one before the other ; plates under the tail rowed ; fangs ‘distinct ; body very thin; scales like the genus Ahatulla ; tail very long. | deat 90) D. mysterizans, Merrem. Coluber mystevizans, Lin. 1825]: - MrvGray on the Genera of Reptiles. 209 9. Hurria, Daud. Head with nine plates; scale of the body uniform: , plate under the tail entire and divided. * Head narrow, indistinct. H.lineata, Daud. Hurriah, Russel, ** Head very broad. Ibiba, Gray. I. mati ‘Hurria j pseu- doboiga, Daud. 10. Scyraue, Gronovius, | - . Head with nine plates ; scale of the body uniform ; : plates cadet the tail all entire. . *Head distinct, blunt. S. coronata, Merrem. %*Heéad indis- | tinct. oi: anguiformis, Merrem. Anguis scutatus, Laur. a jac: 8 ERPETON, Lacep. Rhinopirus, Merrem. Head with large plates, with two soft scaly anpeidiogs at { the end of the nose; abdomen largely shielded ; tail above and, below scaly. _ E, tentaculatus, Lacep. Rhinopirus. _Erpeton, Merrem. Fam. V. Bove. Jaws furnished with teeth, ‘iid yorietiinids fangs ; ‘ head scaly, or. with a few plates in front ; abdomen and tail covered beneath with narrow short plates ; anus furnished with spurs. * Head distinct. Boina, 1. Boa, Lin. Cenchris, Lin. Constrictor, Laur. Head distinet, scaly ; mouth and tail above scaly, below _ broadly shielded ; tail long, round, si tacaia eh Constrictor, Lin. ; 2. Cencuris, Lin. Boa, Laur. Meshes Wagier. Head distinct ; shielded over the nose ; trunk and tail above scaly, below broadly shielded ; tail round, tapering: 3 body come pressed, subfusiform, — C. murina, Boa Ceuchria: Lin: Boa Censhri, Gmelin. 3. Pytuon, Daud. — | Head distinct, scaly, or cabahiades over he. nose ; ‘trink above scaly, beneath broadly shielded; tail round, beneath with divided, and sometimes a few entire ‘plates. wii P. tigris, Daud. powibes Nepa, Laur. C. bowformis, Shaw. Obs. Some of the species of this genus are sditewhat allied to Hydride. ** Head indistinc: ; body ly cylindrical ; mouth ak Totricina. 4. Torquarrix, Haw. Tortrix, Oppel. not Lin. Head not distinct ; from the trunk mouth small ;. body above scaly, below covered with small hexangular shields ; ; tail blunt, round, scales simple and divided ; morith small; tongue short, cut. T, Seytale, Gray, Anguis Scytale, Lin. A, fi calling; Baur. New Series, vou. xX. P 3 210 Mr. Gray on the Genera of Reptiles. [Sepr. 5, Eryx, Daud. Erix, Cuv. 11a AQ Head distinct from the trunk ; body Govered above with hex- agonal scales, below with small narrow subquadrate shields ; tail: short, bhuint, with one row of scales beneath. ~ FE. turicus, Daudi. Toe S : 6. Crotuonia, Daud. _ Head distinct from the trunk ; body covered above with hex- agonal scales, below with small narrow subquadrangular shields ; tail short, blunt, with simple and double shields. , ~ C. anguiformis, Daud. : Order V. Cuztonil, Latreille. Cheloniens, Brogniart, Tes- _ tudinata, Oppell. . } Body short, inclosed between two horizontal shields, with the head, neck, tail, and four legs, passing out between ; mouth toothless, often covered with a horny bill; tongue short. The upper shield, or Carapace, is formed by the ribs (eight pair) enlarged and united together, and to the annular part of the dorsal vertebra,. by toothed sutures, so as to be immovable; the lower shield, or plastron, is formed of the pieces which represent the chest bone (usually nine), and a circle of bones analogous to the sternal cartilages of quadrupeds. The vertebra of the neck and tail alone are movable. The two bony envelopes are immediately covered with the skin or scales, and surround the muscles of the extremities _ . § 1. Feet and head retractile into the carapace; carapace solid, covered with harny scales. Cryptopodi. Fam. 1. Tesrupinip2. ' Body covered with horny shields; carapace convex solid ; sternum, attached by the greater part of its sides to the carapace ; legs horny; feet club shaped; toes indistinct, bluntly clawed ; dorsal plates, 13; sternal, 12. Terrestrial. f Testupo, Dumaril.. Chersini, Merrem, T. greeca, Lin. | Fam. 11. Emypipm, Bell MSS. | Body covered with horny shields; carapace depressed ; ster- num attached to the carapace by a small surface ; lips horny or soft; feet digitate; fingers distinct ; claws sharp ;. fluviatile or ‘lacustral. ° * Beak horny; sternum entire. Emydina. 1. Emys, Brogn. | Toes 5-4, or 4-4; depressed elongated, palmated ; sternum immovable. *Sternum very narrow. Rapara, R. serpentina, Gray. 1825.] Mr. Gray on the Genera of Reptiles. 211 Testudo, Lin. **Sternum 11 or 12 scaled, broad. E. cen- trata, Merren. ‘T. concentrica, Shaw. ***Toes 4-4; sternum 13 scaled. E.longicolis, Gray. Testudo, Shaw. The plastron of the last subgenus is covered with 18 scales ; thatis six pair marginal, and anunequal sided hexangular, one in the middle of the anterior lobe. Ihave only observed an approxi- mating distribution of the eae in a species of strenotherus ; all the other Emyda that I have seen have had only the six pair of marginal plates, the first pair sometimes soldered so as to form only 11 plates. | Beak horny ; sternum transversely sutured. Terraphenina. 2. TERRAPHENE, Merrem. Cistula, Say. Tortuis a boit, . Cuvier. | : Body convex ; sternum of 11 or 12 plates, moveable ; the two central plates united to the carapace by ligament; the posterior lobe broad fixed, the anterior one, of five or six plates, separated by a transverse lisamentous hinge. T. clausa, Merren. Testudo, Gmelin. This genus forms the pass between the Emyde and. the Tes- tudinide, for it has.the convex form and solid shell of the latter, and the feet and general characters of the former. It is also intermediate in point of habits, for it is often found in hot dry laces. ' Mr. Bell observes, that Testudo Europea is a species of this genus ; if so the name of it should be changed, as that was cer- tainly the Emys of the ancients. ? 3.STrernotTuervs, Bell, MSS: Tortuesa boit **Cuv. Body depressed ; sternum of 11 or 12 plates; the central part of two plates united to the carapace by two long processes fixed ; the anterior lobe moveable, separated by a transverse ligamen- tous hinge; the posterior lobe narrow, fixed. S. odorata, Gray. Testudo, Lair. S. pensylvanica, Testudo, Gmelin. . Obs. Cuvier describes the anterior and posterior lobes of the sternum of these species to be moveable; but the hinder was fixed on the specimens which I have examined, which were all dry. 4. KINOSTERNOM, Spiz. : | Body depressed; sternum central part fixed; anterior and posterior lobes moveable ; throat bearded. K. longicaudatum. * Beak soft... Chelidina. 5. Cuetys, Dumeril.' Matamata, Merrem. Claws 5-4; body depressed ; lips soft; nose produced. | P2 212 Mr. Gray on the Genera of Reptiles. [Serr, C. fimbriata. ‘Testudo matamata, ages , This genus is allied by its soft lips to the next family. § 11. Feet and head not or only partly retractile into the cara- pace; carapace mostly soft. Gymnopodi, Fam. U1. Trionicipe. Body covered with a coriaceous skin ; lips fleshy ; feet digi- tate palmate ; five toed, three clawed, Fluviatile. 7 1. Trionix, Geoff. . Nose produced. T. ferox, Geoff, Testudo ferox, Pennant. _ Fam. IV. Spuarcipx. | Body covered with a coriaceous skin; lips horny; feet fin- shaped. Marine. . | ty 1. Spnarcis, Merrem . ' S. mercurialis, Merrem. Testudo coriacea, Lin. Luth, Daubenton. Fam. V. CHELONIADE. | | ‘. Body covered with horny shields; lips horny; feet fin-shaped, Marine. , ]1. Cuevonia, Brogn. Caretta, Merrem. -C. Mydas. Testudo Mydas, Lin. Caretta cephalo, Merrem. , ae A Table of the Affinity of the Orders of Reptiles. Normal Groups. _ Annectant Groups. Order I.—Sauri. ; 1. Stellionide. | 3. Lacertinide. 2. Geckotide. 4. Chamelionide. pi ke 5. Tupinambide. Order I1.—Emydosauri. — ; - 1. Crocodilide. 3. Plesiiosauride. - 3; ? 4. Iethiosauride 5. ? Order I11.—Chelonii. A. Testudinide. 3. Trionicide. 2. Emydide. 4, Sphargide. 5. Carettide. Order 1V.—Ophidii. 1. Crotalide. 3. Hydride. 2. Viperide, is 4. Colubride. 5. Boide. 1825.] | Mr'..Gray on the Genera of Reptiles. 213 Normal Groups. Annectant Groups, Order V.—Saurophidit. 7 1. Sincide. © 3. Typhlopside. 2. Anguide. - : 4, Amphisbenide. 5. Chalcide. _ The last family agrees with some of the Sauri, in having four legs and plates. he first of these columns represents the natural groups which have the characters of the order in the most perfect state, and consequently are not directly allied to the other order, except through the medium of the annectant families, which are the first (No. 3) and last (No. 5) of the right hand column which are themselves united together by the central (No. 4) family of each group. The two fossil families may be the type of Emydosaurt, but the group is so imperfectly known at present, that it is impossi- ble to determine it. : Class [V.—AmPursia. Body witha soft naked skin; heart with one auricule and one ventricule ; respiring by lungs and gill, and often by lungs only when perfect ; claws none; head articulation to the vertebra by two condyles. Blood cold ; windpipe membranaceous ; ribs none, or very short and imperfect ; egg skin membranaceous. Animal often changes its form and habit during growth ; egg fecundated after they are deposited, hatched in the water where they are laid. They do not only differ from the perfect animal by having gills, but they often change their external and internal conform- ation, and generally gain legs. : This class contains so few genera that it is scarcely necessary to divide it into orders. I shall, therefore, for the present merely divide it into families, which may be considered as either, $1. Undergoing transformation ; gills deciduous ; eyelids three distinct; spiracule none. Mutabilia, Gray. The larva elon- gated, respiring by deciduous gills. Order 1. Axoura, Dumeril. Salientia, Laur. Batrachein, Blaine. ; fram. 1. Ranava. Body short, thick; feet four, long ; tail none; drum of the ear apparent ; sternum and clavicles distinct. Larva elongate tailed, apodous; gills turfted on four cartilaginous support, co- vered by the skin, pierced with one or two lateral spiracules. Skin shining. | * Aylina Hyua, Laur. Calamita, Schneid. hid Body slender; skin mostly smooth ; toes all dilated at the end, the fourth one of the hind feet, of a m derate length, 214 Mr, Gray on the Genera of Reptiles, [Surt. *H. tinetoria; Zawr. Rana tinctoria, Shaw. **C. intermixtus, Merrem. ***Calamita, hind feet semipalmate. H. arboreus, Schnetd. Rana arboreus, Lin. ****Boana, Gray, Granulated feet palmate, maxima, Rana Boans, Lin. ** Ranina. Rana, Lin. Laur, Ranaria, Raff; Body subventricose ; skin smooth; back angular; paratoid lands none externally ; toes attenuated, hind ones palmate, the fourth of the hind foot very long ; teeth in the jaws and palate.. R. temporaria, Lin. Mecopurys, Kuhl, | Body ventricose; skin smooth; back convex; toes attenu- ated, the hinder ones semipalmate ; head angular, with a conical horn over eacheye. The Old Continent. M. Kuhlii, nod. Java? Creratopurys, Desm. $ oid Body ventricose ; skin rongh; back convex ; toes attenuated, the hinder ones semipalmate, nearly equal ; head angular, with a conical horn over each eye. America. | ~C, Seba, nob, Rana cornuta, Lin. +tSkin dull, warty. ! *** Bombinatorina. — Brevicerps, Merrem. } Body ventricose; back convex; skin warty; no external paratoids; toes attenuated; the head blunt, confluent; mouth small, not extending beyond the front angle of the eye ; teeth in the jaws. : B. gibbosus, Merrem. Rana gibbosa, Lin. BomBinator, Merrem. ‘ae Body ovate; back convex ; skin warty ; no external paratoids ; toes attenuated, the fourth of the hind foot longest; head rounded, confluent ; mouth large, extended to the back of the eyes; teeth none. B. ventricosa. Rana ventricosa, Lin. *K* Piprina. Pipra, Laur, Body oyate, depressed ; back flat; skin warty ; no external paratoids ; toes attenuated ; head triangular, confounded with the body; mouth large; the young are hatched on the back of their mother. VA, + ; P. Tedo, Merrem. Rana pipa, Lin. eee Bu fonina, | : Buro, Laur. | vole yin Body ovate; back convex; skin warty; paratoids porous; 1825: ‘Mv Gray on the Genera of Reptiles. Q16 distinct; toes attenuated ; head rounded, confounded with the body ; mouth toothless. *B. vulgaris, Laur. Rana Bufo, Lin. O. nasutus, Spiw. ** Head beaked. Oxyrhychus, Wagler. : late friend Dr. Kuhl has noticed another genus of this fainily under the name of Occidogyna, but he only observes that the body is regularly oval, and that the hind legs are peculiar and intermediate between the frogs and toads. Order 2. Urodela, Dum. Caudata, Oppell. Pseudosaurii, Blainv. r Fam. II. SALAMANDRIDR. et Body subcylindrical, long; feet four, short; tail distinct; sternum and clavicles. none. Larva with four feet; branchia turfted, three on each side exposed, supported by cartilaginous “rings, covered by a membranaceous operculum. pi 1. SALAMANDRA, Laur, Tail round ; paratoids porous ; toes 4-5. * ' S. maculosa, Laur. Lacerta salamandra, Lin. 2. Triton, Laur. not De Montf. Triturus, Rafinesque. Molge, Merrem. Tail compressed ; paratoids none ; toes 4-5. The axolotle appears to be the larva of an animal of this genus, although Sir E. Home has discovered that it contains eg¢s, for, according to Baron Cuvier, they are to be found in the tadpoles. The Sirex opercularis of Beauvois (Phil. Trans. Philad.) and the © Proteus New Cesariensis of Green (Jour. Acad. Nat. Sei. Phil.) _ appear also to be larvee, The Tvois doigts of Lacepede is said to be a true lizard. Latreille formed the genus Ichytheosaurus of the larvee of this genus. S11. Not undergoing any transformation ; gill none or perma- nent ; eyelids two; spiracules distinct. Amphipneusta. Order 3.—Sirenes, Lin. Fam. Ul. StreENip2&. . Branchia persistent. Skull formed of several distinct bones’; body compressed ; legs two or four. ! * Gull flaps distinct. Proteina. | Hypocutuon, Merrem. Proteus Laur. not Mudler, Legs four; toes 3-2; branchia three on each side, fringed ; body subdepressed ; tail compressed, finned ; muzzle depressed, long; jaws with teeth. | H. Laurentii, Merrem. Proteus anguinus, Laur. rept. 37, t. 4, f.3. Cuvier, Humboldt, Obs. Zool. i. 119, Rusconi, Anat. Laurentii included in his genus the Axolotle, and the larva of a species of Triton. 7 ok | ; 216 Mr. Gray on the Genera of Reptiles. [Sepr, Menosrancnuvs, Harlan. Nectarus, Raffinesque. ° Legs four; toes 4-4; branchia three on each side ; body sub- depressed ; tail compressed; muzzle truncated, depressed; two rows of teeth in the upper and one in the lower jaw. : M. Sayii, 20d. Above brown, with irregular black spots, and a black band arising from the nostrils passing through the eye, and dilated on the sides, becoming obsolete at the tail. Triton lateralis, Say, James, Travels, i. 303 ; and Anatomy, Jour. of Nat, Sci. Phil. iii; Siren, Barton; Proteus, Mitchell, Silliman’s Journal, iv.; Siren lacertina, Schneid. H, Amph. i.48. Le Comte, 1. c. 57; Menobranchus lateralis, [Harlan Acad. N.S. Phil. iv.; Necturus maculatus, Raffinesque, Ann. Nat.? Icon, Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. iv. t. xxi. ? Inhabit. Ohio, North America. - yh iy Mr. Say, in his description of this animal, pointed out the necessity of, and the character by, whick this arjmal should be distinguished from Triton and Proteus. M. tetradactylus. Two rows of teeth in. each’ jaw, ‘a dupli- cature of skin forming a collar just before the gills. Le tetradactyle, Lacepede, Ann. Mus. x. M. tetradactylus, Harlan, |. c. Re: , This animal is considered by Mr. Say to be a larva. ** Operculumnone. | Serenina. SirEN, Lin. Legs two, anterior; toes fiye; branchie three on each side, tripinnatifid; operculum none; spiracules three ; body long, subcylindrical ; tail compressed; head rounded; teeth in the jaws and palate? Piller ERP pnie Gadeses eye : S. lacertinu, Lin. Murena Siren, Gmelin, S. N. i. 1186; Mud, Iguana, Ellis, Phil. Vans. t. vi. 189. Siren, Pennant, Arctic Sool, ii. 335.2 Siren, Camper. in Berl. Naturf. viii. 482. Cuv. Humb. Obs. Zool. i. 98. Anat. ee PsEUDOBRANCHUS. “ Legs two, anterior; toes three; body subeylindrical ; tail compressed ; spiracules three, furnished with a ileshy trilobate covering (branchia), the lobes entire and naked ; teeth none.” ' P. striata, Siren striata, Le Conte, Ann. Lyceum Nat. Hist. New York, i. 54; t.4. Mr. Le Comte has the idea that neither the Siren nor this animal breathe by the lateral appendages usually called gills, which he thence considers as the covers of the spiracules. ~ Fam. 1V. AMpuiumip. Branchia none; skull formed of a solid bony substance ; gill flaps open during life; body subcylindrical ; tail compressed ; legs four. (08 1825.) Mr. Gray on the Genera of Reptiles. 217 1. Aprancnus, Harlan. Protonopsis, Barton? Legs four, strong; toes 4-5; the outer edge of the feet fringed; the outer toes of the hind feet palmated. — | “A. alleganensis, Harlan Journal Nat. Sci. Phil. iv. Sala- mandra gigantea, Barton’s Account of Siren Lacertina, p. 28. S. alleganensis, Latr. Rept. ii. 253... Molge gigantea, Merrem, 187, not Larva. Hell bender, Oto, Inhab. Lakes of North America. 2. Amputuma, Garden. Chrysodonta, Mitchel? Legs four, boneless; toes 2-2, outer longest ;- body subcylin- drical; tail end compressed ; teeth one row in each jaw, and two in the palate. ; Amphiuma Means, Garden. Letter to Ellis, in the Corres- pondence of Linneus, i. 399, to Linneus, |. c. 1. 333. Sireni similis, Linneus’s Letter to Garden. Siren Lacertina, Garden, Amer. Acad.—R. Harlan, Jour. Acad. N. S.Phil. vii. 54, (Ana- tomy.) Phil. Mag. 1824. Chrysodonta larvee formis, N. Y. Medical Reporter, 1.529. Inhab. North America. | Order 4. Apoda, Merrem. Pseudophidii, Blain. Fam. V. CmciniaDm. | rig Branchia none; head depressed, formed of a solid bony sub- stance ; teeth in the jaws and palate; legs none; body cylindri- cal; tail short, blunt; anus round, nearly terminal. , 1. Caciiia, Lin. C. tentaculata, Lin. Ibiare, Lacepede. | So very little is known:of this curious class of animals, that it is impossible to say any thing with respect to the connexion which exists between the families or orders; but that such an affinity does exist must be obvious to every one who con- siders the diflicuity of distinguishing them. I have attempted tu bring together all the species that bave been described of the Snenide and Amphisumide, as Merrem (the last work published on the species of Amphibia), describes only two of these animals. It is to be hoped that Mr. Say and Dr. Harlan will continue their researches, that have so much illustrated a group, which has particularly attracted the attention of Ellis, Garden, Linnzeus, Cuvier, Schreiber, Rusconi, and Sir Everard Home. 218 Mr. Mill on the Moon’s Influence, (Sarr. ARTICLE VIII. | ‘ Influence of the Moon on Animal and Vegetable Economy. By Mr. N, Mill.” (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, Addington-square, Camberwell, Aug. 3, 1825, The subject of the moon’s influence has engaged but very little of the attention of the philosophical world, and with the exception of the theory of the tides, has been scarcely noticed. Its influence in promoting and accelerating animal decomposition is known only to a certain class of persons, not the most re- nowned indeed for studying the doctrine of cause and effect, or extending philosophical knowledge ; (namely), persons’ in the Navy and Company’s service; but who, ier alabe, are sufficiently alive to interest.’ It is‘a fact well established and. ‘authenticated by numbers of these gentlemen, who have ex- perienced heavy losses thereby, that if an animal fresh killed, be exposed to the full effulgence of the moon at certain seasons, and in certain places, a very few hours only will be sufficient to render the animal so exposed a mass of corruption; whilst another animal, not exposed to such influence, and only a few feet distant, will not be in the slightest manner affected. It would be impossible-in the present imperfect state of our knowledge of this luminary and its influence, to draw any just conclusions from so few facts as have been collected upon this subject; but it will be most desirable to accumulate them as much as possible in order to deduce some accurate reasoning from them; I therefore subjoin some facts which have come to -my knowledge of the: highest. practical ek na to. this maritime nation; and the disclosure of which, I trust, willopen _ a field for investigation that has hitherto been uncultivated and neglected. The influence of the moon on vegetation has not altogether been unobserved, because fruit when exposed to moonshine has been known to ripen much more readily than © that which has not; and plants shut out from the sun’s rays and from light, and consequently bleached, have been observed to assume their natural appearance if exposed to the effulgence of the moon. These are also facts fully established, but from which no rational theory has been drawn. A very intelligent gentleman, named Edmonstone, who was for nearly 30 years engaged in cutting timber in Demerara, and who had made a number of observations on trees during that period, has done me the favour to give me explicit answers to a series of queries which I presented for his inspection; and which, I ‘doubt not, will be appreciated as they merit. 1 shall present them in detail with the answer to each. 1825.) Mr. Mill on the Moon's Influence. — 219 Question.—I|st. Influence ofthe moon on vegetation ?._ Answer.—I have paid but little attention to the moon’s in- fluence on any thing exposed to it but trees; the moon’s in- fluence, however, on these is very great. So observable is this, that ifa tree should be cut down at full moon, it would imme- diately: split, as if torn asunder by the influence of a great ex- ternal force applied to it. This separation of its parts takes place, I presume, owing to the immense quantity of juice which is contained in the body of the tree. Jn consequence of this, trees cut at full moon are of comparatively little use ; ina very short time after being cut down, they are attacked by a moth somewhat similar to what is often found in American flour. Trees cut down at this season are likewise attacked much earlier by the rot, than if allowed to remain to another period of the moon’s age. Question.—2nd. The nature of the trees? Answer.—It is impossible to give in this small space a state- ment of the different trees to be met with in the West: India Islands. and our Colonies in South America. They are as different as those are which we have in our own country, indeed _ by far more numerous. . ee ' Question.— 3rd. If evergreens ? | Answer.—All the trees in those countries may be stiled — a as there is a constant succession of leaves upon them all. Question. —4th. Their names ? FU Answer.—With the scientific names of the various trees to be found. in our colonies in the West Indies and South America, I am unable to supply you. The names given to the most of them are Indian names applied to them by the natives, Question.—5th. If usually cut at particular or in all seasons? Answer.—The trees intended to be applied to durable purposes, are cut only during the first and last quarters of the moon, for the reasons mentioned in the answer to question ]. Question.—Gth. If the sap rises during the ‘absence of the moon, or during its effulgence ? Answer.—The sap rises to the top of the tree at full moon, and falls in proportion to the moon’s decrease. | Question.—7th. Whether common to all trees or only to certain species ! ) Answer.—The influence of the moon over the rising :and falling of the juice of trees is common to all the species of trees with which I am acquainted. I had occasion to observe these _ effects in the experience of 30 years amongst the various kinds of wood with which the colonies of South America abound. From this statement, it appears obvious, that trees cut at the Salt. of the moon will split as if torn asunder by great external force; that they are more liable to the adtacks of worms ; that 290 Loin Mindy of Books 8. TS aR they are attacked much earlier by the rot ; and that the sap rises to the top of' the tree at full:moon, and falls in proportion to the moon’ s « ie ; and this effect is common to all species of trees with which this gentleman wes acquainted, It will be perceived that these observations are confined to the continent of South America and islands adjoining; but if the moon has a correspondent influence in other countries, (which there is no reason to doubt) and this gentleman’s ob- ‘servations be correct, the practical importance of them in felling timber deserves the utmost thanks from those persons who are in any way interested in practices of this kind, as well as from society at large. | ) Arricue IX. ANALYSES OF Books, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, for | 1824. Part II. i (Concluded from p. 65.) XVI. A Comparison of Barometrical Measurement with the Trigonometrical Determination of a Height at Spitzbergen. By Capt. E. Sabine, FRS. ; | An account of the results of this comparison will be found in the Annals for May, 1824, p. 385. tl satel” : XVII. Kaperimenial Inquiries relative to the Distribution and Changes of the Magnetic Intensity in Ships of War. aad George Harvey, Ksq.: communicated by John Barrow, Esq. FRS. We should not be able to give our readers an adequate idea of the results of these inquiries, occupying above forty pages of the Transactions, in the confined space we could devote to the subject, and must, therefore, refer them to. the paper itself. This we must also do, and for the same reason, with respect to another valuable paper by Mr. Harvey, mentioned below, but of which a short notice has already appearedin the Annals, XVIIL. Laperiments on the Elasticity and Strength of Hard and Soft Steel. Ina Letter to Thomas Young, MD. For. Sec. RS. By Mr, Thomas Tredgold, Civil Engineer. ‘“‘ If a piece of very hard steel be i Mr. Tredgold states, addressing Dr. Young, “ it is natural to suppose that the operation will produce a corresponding change in the elastic ower, and that the same load would produce a greater flexure in the soft state than in the hard one, when all other circum- stances were the same. Mr. Coulomb inferred. from some com- parative experiments on small specimens, that the state of 1825.] Philosophical ‘Transactions for. 1824, Part II. 2b temper does not alter the elastic force of steel; and your Expe- riments on Vibration led to the same conclusion (Nat. Philos. ii. 403). But the subject appeared to require further investiga-. tion, and particularly because it afforded an opportunity of ascer- taining some other facts respecting steel, which had not been before examined. ) : “In making the experiments which I am about to describe, each bar was. supported at its ends by two blocks of cast. iron.. These blocks rested upon a strong wooden frame. ‘The scale to contain the weights was suspended from the middle of the length of the bar, by a cylindrical steel pin of about 2ths of an inchin diameter. And as in experiments of this kind it is desi- rable to have the means of raising the weight from the bar, with- out altering. its position, in order to know when the load is sufficient to produce a permanent change of structure, I have a: powerful screw with a fine thread fixed over the centre of the; apparatus, by which the scale can be raised or lowered, when | the cords on which the screw acts are looped on to the cross pity by which the scale is suspended. : : “To measure the flexure, a quadrantal piece of mahogany is: fixed to the wooden frame ; two guides are fixed on one edge of the mahogany, in which a vertical bar slides, and gives motion, to an index. The bar and index are so balanced, that one end. of the bar bears with a constant pressure on the specimen, and. the graduated are over which the index moves is divided into inches, tenths, and hundredths ; and thousands are measured by a vernier scale on the end of the index. There is a screw at, the lower end of the vertical bar, by which the index is set to zero, when necessary. | ! 1 ae “‘The first trials were made with a bar of blistered steel of a very good quality. It was drawn out by the hammer to the width and thickness I had fixed upcn, and then filed true and regular. It was then hardened, and tempered to the same degree of hardness as common files. | : “ The total length of the bar was 14 inches; the distance between the supports 13 inches; the breadth of the bar 0-95 inches, and the depth 0:375 inches; the thermometer. varied from 55° to 57° at the times of trial. in Ibs. ~~” inches. ¢ With a load of 54 the depression in the middle was 0°02 82 , 0:03 110 0:04 The last load remained on the bar some:hours, but produced no permanent alteration of form. “The temper of the bar was then lowered to‘a rather deep straw yellow, and it was tried: again; when the same loads pro- duced exactly the same flexures as before. 209 |) Analyses of Book. >) [Spr - « The temper was then lowered till the colour was an uniform: blue, or spring temper; and the trials were repeated with the same loads ; but the flexures were still the same. — “It was now heated to redness and very slowly cooled. In this state the same loads still produced the same flexures; and the load of 110 lbs. caused no permanent change of forin. «‘The bar was hardened again, and made very hard ; in this state the same loads produced the same flexures; and Ibs. inches. with a load of 300 the depression in the middle was 0-115 : 350 ) ! 0°130 580 . broke. When the bar was relieved from the load of 350 lbs. it retained a permanent flexure of 0°005 inches, which increased to 0:01 with the addition of.10 lbs. to the load. : ‘¢ T found that a bar of much greater length might be tempered without difficulty, and therefore had another bar made of the same kind of steel; the length of which being 25 inches, about double the flexure could be given with the same strain upon the material, and therefore any small degree of difference in the elastic force might be more easily detected, for the preceding experiments are sufficient to show that if there be any difference, it must be extremely small. ) “‘ The breadth of this bar was 0°92 inches; the depth 0°36 inches; and the distance between the supports 24 inches. It was soft, so as to yield easily to the file, - Ibs. t inches. ¢ With a load of 18°6 the depression in the middle was 0:05 37°0 0-10 47:0 0-127 The bar was then hardened, so that a file made no impression on any part of it, and the same loads did not produce flexures that were sensibly different from those in the soft state. | *« [ then lowered the temper till it assumed an uniform straw colour; when Ibs. | inches. with a load of 47 the depression in the middle was 0-127 . _ 86 . 0-230 130 0°350 150 0-400 The load of 150 Ibs. produced a permanent set of 0-012, but 130 lbs. produced no sensible effect. The loading was conti- nued, and t Ibs. inches, with 185 the depression in the middle was 0°50 385 : 1-04 i 1825:] | Philosophical Tranéactions for.1824, Part IT. 993 When 385 Ibs. had been upon the bar about a minute, it emitted a faint creaking sound, and consequently I ceased to add fresh weights ; in about fourteen minutes the bar broke, exactly in the middle of the length. ; “ On comparing the fractures of the specimens, there was no apparent difference except in colour. ‘The grain was fine and equal; the small sparkles of metallic lustre abundant, and équally diffused ; but in the harder specimen they had a whiter ‘round. se sp | ~ From these experiments it appears that the elastic force of steel is sensibly the same in all states of temper. 7 “ The height of the modulus of elasticity, calculated by the formula you have givenin your Nat. Phil. (vol. ii. p. 48) is, According to the first experiment ......++ 8,827,300 feet. And according to the second experiment... 8,810,000 — * “ Now the height of the modulus, as you had determined it for steel by Experiments on Vibration, 1s 8,530,000 feet (Nat. Phil. ii. p. 86). The medulus for cast steel calculated from Duleau’s experiments ‘(Essai Théorique et Expérimental sur le Fer forgé, p. 38) is 2,400,000 feet, and for German steel 6,600,000 feet. | , ~ “ The force which produces permanent alteration is to that which causes fracture in hard steel, as 350 : 580; oras 1 : 1°66 in the same steel of a straw yellow temper as 150 : 385, or as BSG, : ‘‘ When the tension of the superficial particles at the strain which causes permanent alteration is calculated by the formula given in my Essay on the Strength of Iron, p. 146, 2nd Edition, it is 45,000 Ibs. upon a square inch in tempered steel; and the absolute cohesion 115,000lbs. Mr. Rennie found the direct cohesion of blistered steel to be 133,000 Ibs. (Philosophical ‘Transactions for 1818.) : But in the very hard bar, the strain which produced perma- nent alteration was 51,000 lbs. for a square inch, and the abso- lute cohesion only 85,000 Ibs. es | “« From these comparisons I think it will appear, that in the hardening of steel, the particles are put in a state of tension among themselves, which lessens their power to resist extra- neous force. The amount of this tension should be equal to the difference between the absolute cohesion in different states. Taking Mr. Rennie’s experiment as the measure of cohesion in the soit state, it will be 133,000 — 115,000 = 18,000 lbs. for the tension with a straw yellow temper; and 133,000 — 85,000 = 48,000 lbs. for the tension in hard steel. And if this view of the subject be correct, the phenomena of hardening may be explained in this manner, which nearly agrees with what you have observed in your Lectures, I, p. 644: after a piece of steel 224 o. . 0 > Analyses of Books, - | (Serr. has been raised to a proper temperature, a cooling fluid is applied capable of abstracting heat. more rapidly from the sur- face than it can be supplied from the interna parts of the steel. Whence the contraction of the superficial parts round the central ones which are expanded by heat; and the contraction of the central parts in cooling, while they are extended into a sagen space than they require at a lower, temperature, produces that uniform, state of tension, which diminishes so much the cohesive force in hard steel. The increase of bulk by hardening agrees with this explanation; and it leads one to expect, that any other metal might be. hardened if we could find a means of abstracting heat with greater velocity than its conducting power.”, . XIX. A shart Account of some Observations made with Chrono- meters, in two Expeditions sent out by the Admiralty, at the Recommendation of the Board of Longitude, for ascertaining the Longitude of Madeira and of Falmouth. Ina Letter to Thomas Young, MD. For. Sec. RS. and Secretary to the Board of Lon- gitude, By Dr. John Lewis Tiarks. | Dr. Tiarks terminates this. article with the following summary of the ultimate results he has obtained :— _ “From the foregoing observations we may now conclude, that the Sere fin atg A down in the account of the Survey will ‘deviate from the truth, in the same proportion in which the paral- els of latitude on a spheroid, having the degree of the meridian in latitude 50° 41’ equal to that of the earth, and the ellipticity +t, differ from those of the terrestrial spheroid, the compression of whichis nearly 5+... The following comparisons will further illustrate the subject. If the radius of the Equator be =3486908 fathoms, and the semi-axis of the earth = 3475560 fathoms, which is nearly the result of the measurements in France, and Bouguer’s in Peru, and corresponds to the compression 4,4, the length of the degree perpendicular to the meridian in. latitude 50° 41’ will be 6975-7 fathoms. For the spheroid adopted in the Survey, that degree is found 61,182 fathoms, The ratio of these numbers is 296 : 297, and the correction of the longitudes would be 1,3; the same correction is, by the chronometrical observation, =... .The length of the geodetical line BD, sup- posing the difference. of longitude as determined in the account of the Survey, viz. 1° 26’ 47-93”, would be 338231 feet ;. whereas it was found to be 339597°6 feet; but if the longitude be increased in the ratio determined by the chronometers, the line will be 339334 feet, which is only 63°6 feet short of the measure- ment. The spheroid resulting from the compression. which would make the difference of longitude of B and D=1° 27' 4:75! {as it ought to be according to the results of the chronometers), and from the degree of the meridian in latitude 50° 41', viz. 60851 fathoms, would have these dimensions :, radius of the Equator = 3487907 fathoms; semi-axis = 3476687 fathoins; 1825:] Philosophical’ Transactions for 1824, Part II. 225 compression =1. “ The results of the chronometrical observa- tions are therefore as much as could be expected in accordance with the correct determinations of the figure of the earth.” XX. Of the Effects of ‘the Density of Air on the Rates of Chronometers. By George Harvey, FRSE. &c.: communicated by Davies Gilbert, Esq. VPRS. | See above; and Annals for May, 1824, p.392..— : XXI. A Letter from L. W. Dillwyn, Esq. FRS. addressed tar Sir Humphry Davy, Bart. PRS. ; We gave in our seventh volume, p. 177, Mr. Dillwyn’s former letter on the interesting subject of the geological distribution of fossil shells, and the facts in tlie history of the creation which it indicates : we now extract his present communication. | “« I beg leave to offer to the Royal Society some further obser- vations on the relative periods at which different families of testaceous animals appear to have been created, and on the gradual approximation which may be observed in our British strata, from the fossil remains of the oldest formations to the living inhabitants of our land and waters. YS | «“ The series of strata beginning with transition lime and ending with lias, contains shells belonging to various genera of conchifera, cephalopoda, annelides, and herbivorous tracheli- and also some other shells, as for instance, the multilocu- ar and spiriferous bivalves, which cannot be referred to either of those natural orders, or groups of genera, into which all the other testacea, both recent and fossil, have been divided. In the simple bivalves belonging to these strata, the marks which best serve to distinguish their families are generally oblitérated, and but little more can with any certainty be observed, than that the two orders into which Lamark has divided them, have existed together throughout every formation from transition rocks to the present day. An examination of the few perfect specimens which I have met with, however, leads me to suspect that all. the dimyaria of these strata have the ligament external, and consequently, that internal ligaments were confined to the monomyairia, till after the lias had been deposited. 3 “ In the secondary beds above the lias, all the shells may be referred to some of our now existing orders of animals, and the extinction of the unknown orders is immediately followed by the first appearance of another order.of mollusca, to which Lamarck has limited the name of gasteropoda, and, as was first. suggested to me by Mr, Miller, all those fossils of the older strata, which have been supposed to be. inside and outside casts of patelle, were obviously formed in the concave sides of the vertebra, or by the intervertebral cartilages of a fish. As a few of the carni- vorous trachelipoda are said to have beea found in the oolites, their first appearance may probably. be referred to the same epoch; but l-have not myself been able to detect either of the New Series, vou. Xs a 226 | | Analysés of Books, 9 Sern, families of this section of ‘trachelipoda in. ang, secenpiany bed, excepting the denuded tracts of green sand in Devonshire ; and there, perforations exactly similar to those which abound among tertiary and recent shells are also of frequent occurrence, although I have never met with any such perforation in any other secondary formation, nor even inany of those regular beds of green sand, which actually underlie the chalk in other coun- ties. Jam not enough of a geologist to decide, as to whether any admixture of secondary and tertiary fossils may possibly have taken place when these denudations were made, but I can in no other way account for the fact, that all the species which have been perforated, as well as the carnivorous. trachelipodes themselves, are nearly similar to those of the London clay ;.and I have never been able to find any such perforation in either of those species which are found in the more regular beds of green sand, and which are sometimes mixed with them, These per- forations may be readily distinguished from those more oblique and lateral burrowings which are often found in secondary fos- sils, and are always conveniently formed for suction by being broadest in the outer surface, ink go straight through that part of the shell which is immediately over the animal; whereas in the latter the holes are cylindrical, and much more resemble the indiscriminate burrowings which are common in recent oyster shells. 3 “In my former Letter, which the Royal Society has done me the honour to publish in the Philosophical Transactions of last year, I have pointed out some of the changes which took place immediately after the chalk formation was completed; and of the British strata it may be further observed, that it is only in the tertiary beds that any traces of the cirrhipeda, or. of any of the families of naked mollusca have been found. The beak, which has been figured by Blumenbach, and which among the fossils of the lias is mentioned by Conybeare and Phillips as the beak of a sepia, belonged, as I think, unquestionably, to the cephalopode animal of an ammonite; and it sufficiently resem- bles the lower mandible of the parrot-like beak which Rumphius has described of nautilus pompilius. As might be expected, if these mandibles, or rather casts of mandibles, belong to the ammonites, they differ generically in shape from those of every living genus of cephalopoda. which has been figured or described, and I have found them in all those beds; and, so far as I can ascertain, they have been discovered in those beds only of the lias, lower oolite, and chalk, which contain the larger ammonites. From the greater tenuity of these beaks in the smaller species, they may probably have yielded to pressure, and decay before the mud which filled them had become sufli- ciently hard to retain their shapes ; and as the lower mandibles of the cephalopoda are always much larger and thicker than the 1825.]: Philosophical Transactions for 1824, Part If. 297 upper ohes, the non-appearance of any of the latter may be accounted for) in the same way. ‘The sepiz are moreover fur- nished with one of those thick dorsal plates which are commonly called. cuttle-fish bones, and most, if not all the other sepiade, contain an internal horny.'substance of the same nature, which is generally at least.as thick and durable as the mandibles ; and if the fossil beaks of the secondary strata belonged to this family, then, in all probability, some of the dorsal plates would be found with them ; but nothing of the kind has been discovered in any older British stratum than the London clay. So far from being able to detect any traces of the naked mollusca, | have not been able to find, in the secondary strata, either of those shells by which the animal.is only partially covered, nor any of — those of the conyolute, which necessarily change their shells at different periods of their growth, and of which the animal must therefore occasionally remain exposed, till a fresh coat of calca- reous matter has been secreted. In my former Letter I have stated, that all.the marine spirivalves of the secondary strata helong to operculated genera, and these observations serve still more strikingly to prove that, tillthe chalk deposits were com- pleted, the mollusca, in our latitude, required a more perfect protection either from their enemies, or from the surrounding. element, than afterwards became necessary. : . “The same gradual approximation towards recent. shells, which may be traced in the older strata, is also carried on. through the tertiary formations, and the affinity, which is com- plete with respect to orders in secondary beds above the lias, becomes further extended, and every tertiary shell may be refer- red to some existing genus ;. but though the approximation has. proceeded thus far in the London clay, yet all its immensely numerous species are now extinct; and it is only in those upper- most beds of crag, which lie between the London clay and our present creation, that any fossil can be completely identified | witha living species: the shells which may be thus identified are however mixed with many extinct species; and though the: fossils ofthe crab appear generally to have belonged to a warmer climate than ours, yet their characteris much less tropical than those of the London clay, and in every respect they all approach nearer to the present inhabitants of the British coasts. “ | have already observed, that the shells of unknown families are confined to the beds below the lower oolite; and in all the upper formations a relationship is completed between fossil and recent shells in the following regularly approximating series. In the secondary strata above the lias as to natural orders, in the London clay as to genera, and partially as to species in the crag. “These observations refer exclusively to the animals of the 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th, and 13th classes of invertebrata in La- marck’s arrangement; and whether the same sort of regularly o2 | 928 AL ve Analyses of Books. [Sepr. approximating affinity can be observed in the other classes, I Beir! leave it for those who are more conversant with them to ecide.” XXII. An Account of the Organs of Generation of the Mexican Pins ey called by the Natives Axolotl. By Sir E. Home, Bart. The author of this paper considers that Cuvier has proved that the Proteus of Germany, as well as that of Carolina, are actually animals in a perfect state, and not larve. The discovery that the vertebree of the Mexican Proteus were cupped in the same manner as those of the two other species, had already convinced him that it also belonged tothe same tribe, and was conse- quently an animal in a perfect state. To place this question, however, beyond all doubt, Sir Everard obtained from Mr. Bul- lock several specimens, having the organs of generation in a developed state, brought from a Lake three miles from the city of Mexico. The temperature of this Inke is never below 60°, and its elevation above the sea is 8000 feet: in the month of June, the Protei are so abundant in it as to form a principal part of the food of the peasantry. Three plates of these animals, with dissections of dhieir generative organs, are given from draw- ings by Mr. Bauer. The female organs in their developed state are beautifully shown, and there is every probability, from the appearance of the ova contained within them, that they pass out singly. i) ! XXIII. An Account of Experiments on the Velocity of Sound, made in Holland. By Dr. G. Moll, ‘Professor of Natural Philo- sophy in the University of Utrecht, and Dr. A. Van Beek : com- municated by Capt. H. Kater, FRS. GE's In our next number we shall give an abstract of these import- ant and accurate experiments; together with remarks on the questions involved in the subject of the velocity of sound, and on some late investigations of them i XXIV. A Catalogue of nearly all the principal fixed Stars between the Zenith of Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope, and the South Pole, reduced to the 1st of January, 1824. | By the Rev. Fearon Fallows, MA. FRS. | The nature of this first contribution to science from the new Observatory at Cape Town, renders it, of course, unsusceptible of abbreviation. The same may be said of the concluding paper in the volume ; viz. . XV. Remarks on the Parallax of a Lyre. By J. Brinkley, DD. FRS. Andrew’s Professor of Astronomy in the University of Dublin. ! 1825.] Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. 229 ARTICLE X. Proceedings of Philosophical Sccieties. GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. June 3.—A paper was read, entitled “ Remarks on Quadru- peds imbedded in recent Alluvial Strata. By €. Lyell, Sec. GS.” In a former communication to the Society, the author had stated that he had found it difficult to explain the circumstances under which the remains of quadrupeds were very generally found imbedded in the shell marle in Scotland, often at consi- derable depths, and far from the borders of those lakes in which the marle is accumulated. These animals must have been drowned when the lakes were ofa certain depth. Their bones are found in the marle unaccom- ree by sand or gravel, or any proofs of disturbing forces. rom the shape of the surrounding land-in some instances, it appears that floods could not have swept them in, and from the occasional absence of rivers flowing into others, they could not have been washed in by them. ! The author, therefore, suggests that they were lost in attempt- ing to cross the ice in winter, the water never freezing sufficiently hard above the springs to bear their weight, and springs abound- ing always in those lakes in Forfarshire and Perthshire in which marle is deposited. - The skeletons of some of the animals found in the shell marle in Forfarshire are in a vertical position, but some are not. The same circumstance has been remarked with regard to the elks occurring in the marle in the Isle of Man. Of these facts Mr. Lyell offers the following explanation. Cattle which are lost in bogs and marshes sink in and die in an erect posture, and are often found with their heads only appearing above the surface of the ground. When, therefore, a lake in which marle is deposited is shallow, the quadrupeds which fall through the ice sink into the marle in the same man- ner, and perish in an upright posture, but when the lake is deep, and the animals are dead before they reach the bottom, they become enveloped in the marle in any position rather than the vertical. , June 17.—An extract of a letter was read from John King- dom, Esq.: communicated by Joseph Townsend, Esq. FGS. ‘Mr. Kingdom mentions in this letter the situation in which ' certain bones of avery large size, appearing to have belonged to a whale and a crocodile, were lately found completely imbedded in the oolite quarries, about a mile from Chipping Norton, near Chapel House. 230 Scientific Notices—Chemistry:.. | [Surt. A paper was also read, entitled “ Observations, &c. on a Walk from Exeter to Bridport.” Mr. Woods, in this com- munication, describes the nature of the soil in the neigh- bourhood of Exeter, and the strata exhibited in the cliffs and on the sea shore between that city and the east side of Bridport Harbour, » sea ' Se ArtTicLe XI. SCIENTIFIC NOTICES, ¢ CHEMISTRY. 4 7 1. Formation of Ammonia. Mr. Faraday has lately published in the Journal of Science, an account of some experiments on the formation of ammonia by the action of substances apparently containing no azote; he ‘states his belief, however, that the results depend upon the difficulty of perfectly excluding azote, and the extreme delicacy of the test of its presence afforded by the formation of am- monia. The principal. experiments performed by Mr. Faraday, -we shall give nearly in his own words :— 7 Yoh « Put a small piece of clean zinc foil into a glass tube closed at one end, and about one-fourth of an inch in diameter; drop a piece of potash into the tube over the zinc;, introduce a slip of turmeric paper slightly moistened at the extremity with pure water, retaining it in the tube insuch a position that the wetted portion may be about two inches from the potash ; then holding the tube in an inclined position, apply the flame of a spirit lamp, so as to melt the potash that it may run down upon the zine, and heat the two whilst in contact, taking care not to cause such ebullition as to drive up the potash ; in a second or two, the turmeric paper will be reddened at the moistened extremity, provided that part of the tube has not beenheated. On re- moving the turmeric paper and laying the reddened portion upon the hot part of the tube, the original. yellow. tint will be restored: from which it may be concluded that. ammonia has been formed ; a result confirmed by other modes of examination.” The atmospheric being suspected to be the source of the azote, the experiment was repeated on hydrogen gas, but the same results were obtained. It was afterwards imagined that the azote might be: furnished by accidentally touching . the potash with animal. or other substances containing azote; and as a proof of how necessary.it is to avoid fingermg, the sub- stances experimented upon, Mr. Faraday states the following experiment :— — | lage 1825.) _. Scientific Notices—Chemistry. 231 .. Some’ sea sand was heatedred hot for half an hour in, a crucible, and then poured out on to a copper-plate, and left to ‘cool; when cold, a portion of it (about 12 grains) was put into a clean glass tube; another equal portion was put into the palm of the hand, and looked at for a few moments, being moved about by a finger, and then introduced by platina foil into another tube, care being taken to transfer no animal sub- stance but what had adhered to the grains of sand: the first tube when heated yielded no signs of ammonia to turmeric paper, the second a very decided portion. : ‘“¢ As a precaution, with a to adhering dirt, the tubes used in precise experiments were not cleaned with a cloth, .or tow, but were made from new tube, the tube being previously heated red hot, and air then drawn through it; and no zine or potash was used in these experiments, except such as had been previously tried by having portions heated in a tube to ascertain whether when alone they gave ammonia. | Te * It was then thought probable that the alkali might contain a minute quantity of some nitrous compound, or of a cyanide, introduced during its preparation. A carbonate of potash was ~ therefore prepared from pure tartar, rendered caustic by lime calcined immediately preceding its use, the caustic solution separated by decantation from the carbonate of lime, not allowed to touch a filter or any thing else animal or vegetable, and boiled down im clean flasks; but the potash thus. obtained, though it yielded no appearance of ammonia when heated alone, always gave it when heated with zinc. iti “The water used in these experiments was distilled, and in cases where it was thought necessary was distilled a second, and even a third time. The experiments of Sir Humphry Davy show how tenaciously small portions of azote are held by water, and that, in certain circumstances, the azote may. pro- duce ammonia. J am not satisfied that I have been able to avoid this source of error. mats : “« At last, to avoid: every possible source of impurity in the potash, a portion of that alkali was prepared from potassium ; and every precaution taken that could be devised for the ex- clusion of azote’; yet, when a lamp was applied to the potash and zinc, the alkali no sooner melted down and mingled with the metal, than ammonia was developed; which rendered the turmeric paper brown, the original yellow re-appearing by the application of heat to the part. _ © Still anxious to obtain a potash which should be unexcep- tionably free from any source of azote, I heated (says Mr. FP.) a portion of potash with zine, endeavouring to exhaust any thing it might contain which could give rise to the formation of am- monia: it was then dissolved in pure water, allowed to settle, the clear portion poured off and evaporated in a flask by boil- 232 Scientific’ Notices—Mineralogy. [Sups. ing’; but the Pines thus. prepared gave ammonia, when heated with zinc, in hydrogen gas.” ** Potash is nist the re substance which produces this effect: with the metals and vegetable substances. Soda produces it; so also, does lime, and betyée, the latter not being so effective as the former, or producing the phenomena so generally. The common metallic oxides, as those of amg ie copper, tin, lead, Xc. do not act in this manner. «© Water or its elements appear to be necessary to the experi- ment. Potash or soda in the state of hydrates generally con- tain the water necessary. Potash: dried as much as could be by heat, produced little or no ammonia with zinc; but re-dis- solved in pure water and evaporated, more water being left in it than before, it was found -to produce it as usual, Pure caustic lime, with very dry linen, produced scarcely a trace of ammonia, whilst the same portion of linen with hydrate of lime yielded it readil 4 The. metals when with the potash appear to act by, or ac- cording to, their power of absorbing oxygen. Potassium, iron; ‘zine, tin, lead, and arsenic evolve much ammonia, whilst spongy platina, silver, gold, &c., produce no effect of the kind. A small portion of fine clean iron wire dropped into: potash melted at the bottom of a tube, caused the evolution of some ammonia, but it soon ceased, and the wire blackened upon its surface; the introduction: ofa second portion. of clean wire caused a second evolution of ammonia, Clean copper wire, in fused potash, caused a very 10 Seennion of ammonia; and became tavtitstiedk’ Py beara a . MinrRALocy. 2. Sulphato-iri-car bonate of Lead. M. Stromeyer has lately examined. the sulphato-tr i-carbonate of lead, whose composition was first pointed out by Mr. Brooke, His results, which confirm the conclusions of. the latter gentle- man, give, for the constituent elements ofthe mineral, Carbonate of lead... ...cseceseccees. 72°7 Sulphate of lead. ...eeseeeeeeerenee 27'S. 100-0 and it consequently consists of one atom of sulphate of lead and three atoms of ne of lead, as previously determined by Mr. Brooke. tee 3. Hydrate of. Magnesia. A specimen of native hydrate of See ndwreee from Swinaness, i in Unst, examined by M. preteen? et ble . ) .1825.] Scientific’ Notices— Mineralogy. 233. ‘Magnesia. eee ak otee 4 1s Waele eeoveses 66°67. Oxide of manganese. ......00e0e0e8 1:57 Protoxide of iron.. see e ee eeeneeeees 1:18 bie [ii%s.Jasa loiweiasloeca etgekios Og ‘ge Water. TEENIE Oe TOES PIG AN RE SRR SOOT RE He TO 30°39 : i 100:00 4. Magnesite. os 100 parts of magnesite, from Salem, in India, ‘gave the same accurate analyst: ager nai ett ) Carbonic acid .....ce0.ceeeeee sees D188 TTT a Ne RAMEN ES 1). ED oo a ec nti ncRNA LY alin nol €°aat » tania SIGE OF: ON ss whip idien.c hcocain INA 4 o-hdeRAOD 99°99 5. Seleniuret of Lead. MM. Stromeyer'and Hausmann have examined an ore from the Laurence Mime, at: Clausthal, which ‘proves to be a seleniuret of lead. ‘The ore is combined with brown spar, and from its imparting a smalt blue colour to glass, was supposed to contain cobalt, and had been described under the name of cobalt bley- erz, by M. Hausmann, ae Externally, seleniuret of lead has a greater resemblance to some varieties of galena than to any other substance, but its colour is peculiar, and’ partakes more of a blue tint than even the wasserblet of the German mineralogists (sulphuret of molybdena). It has a tendency to crystallization, but its crystalline form has not yet been ascertained. The fracture is fine grained ;. lustre metallic, not very brilliant. It is inferior in hardness to galena, is not harsh to the touch, gives a dark streak, and retains its metallic lustre after being rubbed ; its specific gravity = 7°697. It becomes negatively electrical by friction. ey Selemiuret of lead fuses readily before the blowpipe, gives out a powerful smell resembling that of rotten turnips, and becomes covered with a brownish red crust, which is succeeded by a coating of yellow oxide of lead. When the flame is directed on the ore, a bright blue tint is developed; fused with borax it gives a pale smalt coloured glass. Heated in a glass tube by a spirit lamp, selenium sublimes, exhaling its peculiar offensive odour, and the surface of the glass becomes covered with a light sublimate of a brownish red colour. By heating the tube to redness, the ore fuses, but suf- fers no other apparent change ; but on continuing the heat, the brownish red sublimate gradually disappears, ‘and is succeeded by a white, acicular crystalline substance, which attracts moisture by exposure, and deliquesces, Itreddens litmus paper 234 Scientific. Notices--Mineralogy. [Supt. strongly ; becomes -yellow. by the.action.of sulphuric acid, and me by sulphuretted. hydrogen: hence it is similar to selenic acid, | eet wlohe Aan . | Cold nitric acid acts on.seleniuret.of lead, and after some time the mass assumes a.cinnamon red.colour, in consequence of the separation of selenium. Ifthe acid be heated, the whole of the ore is dissolved, the selenium first separating in the form of red. flakes, which soon lose their colour, turn brown, and gradually disappear. If the quantity of ore be in excess, the selenium collects in brown flakes on the surface of the solution, which sometimes assumes the appearance of an oily film. The nitric acid solution has a pale reddish colour, derived from a slight portion of cobalt; but no other metal, besides lead and cobalt, is contained’ in the ore; neither is any trace of sulphur detected by the action of nitrate ofbarytes. — | The analysis of this ore gave M. Stromeyer per cent. Lead’. 3... POR YE eS 8 70°98 Cobalt OO OSD ODH.O:F 6:0 :0 O:O:2 9,2 OP 2.00.00 o 0°83 PUNT ass dn ale » habia ei hited aie 28°11 : . Oa ae 6. Selenium in the Sulphur of the Lipari Isles, Amongst the volcanic. productions of the Lipari Isles, a sal ammoniac is found combined with sublimed sulphur in alternate white and brownish orange layers, the colour. of the latter of which has generally been attributed to iron. ,On examination, however, heither tincture of galls, prussiate of potash, nor ammonia, gave any indication of that metal, but sulphuretted hydrogen gave a precipitate of orpiment, wing to the presence of some arsenious acid. . we shivered Fiat ei When the sal ammoniac is dissolved in water,..a brownish yellow residuum is left, which fuses readily in a glass tube, and affords an orange coloured sublimate. On hot coals it inflames, and exhales at first a mixed odour of sulphur and arsenic, which is succeeded by the peculiar offensive smell of selenium, By. digestion in nitric acid till the orange colour disappeared, a solu- tion was obtained from which sulphate of potash threw down.a considerable quantity of a cinnabar Pi precipitate, possess- ing all the characters of selenium; and the solution afforded by evaporation acicular crystals of selenic acid,. . This discovery by M. Stromeyer of selenium amongst the vol- canic products of the Lipari Islands, renders.it probable that the peculiar orange tint of the sulphur found. in those islands pro- ceeds chiefly from selenium, and not, as hitherto supposed, from arsenic combined with the sulphur, |. barca: ee 1825.) : Scientific NoticesZoology. ° ‘235 : 7. Latrobite: : M. Gmelin, of Tubingen, has found the composition of the mineyal named Latrobite by Mr. Brooke, and described by him in the’ Annals of Philosophy, vol, v, New Series, to be as fol- lows : Silica Fe ET nae Lee, on no, keke Biluinivie.. aisss ova b bold ob cab anined a 38°814 LaMeirmsisignnailts a Gabe doe ¥6 > eXaalen eee Oxide of manganese....serseeesee0 3d 160 Potash. @oeepe eve ep eevoesvn eee eerweaeeed 6°57 101-493. Zoo LOGY, 8. On the Teeth of the Koala. By J. E. Gray, Esq. Cuvier, in his Animal Kingdom, only describes the cutting teeth of the Koala. Blainville, in his Podomus of a new Distri- bution of Animals, abridged im the ninth volume of this Journal, describes the cutting teeth as upper middle longest, false . . 9 . 4 e . . e canine ae orinders, at with four tubercles. Mr. F. Cuvier, in his work on the Teeth of Mammalia, observes; that he has not seen a skull of the Koala, but that it must doubtless be allied to the Phalangers. J some time ago met with a skull of this animal in the collection of the College of Surgeons, and I am indebted to the kindness: of Mr. Clift for ree me to take a description. of it. The skull. short, compressed, and depressed, so as to. be sub- quadrangular, The temporal fosse large, the cutting teeth 5 upper, two front large, distant at the base, conversing at the Puts the rest pall lower large, approximating together at the tip; canine teeth >~ abies small conical placed on the suture of | the intermaxillary bone, grinders a all, with two fangs, the front one on each side smallest, rather compressed; the rest depressed, each with four acute tabbecies: Blainville describes his animal as chocolate brown, and Cuvier and Goldfus as ash grey, the latter agrees with the five specimens that I have seen, Whether this difference was occasioned by Cuvier and Blainville describing two different animals, or by the latter, im his hasty notes, having confounded it with the Wom- bat i in his description, I am not able to determine. 9. On the Umbilicus of Marsupial Animals. - Ithas been generally thought that Marsupial animals are des- 236 Scientific Notices— Miscellaneous. [Sept. titute of any umbilicus, and are only attached to the mother by means of the mouth. 4 Geoffroy St. Hilaire has lately discovered in some specimens of the foeti of Didelphis Virginiana preserved in spirits, which had been taken from the mother by Dr. Barton very soon after their introduction into the pouch, evident vestiges of placentral organisation, and of an umbilicus. They were only five lines long, and already formed ; in. the:two male which he examined the umbilicus was large for the size of the animal, as it was also in the female, and very distinct-from the entrance of the pouch. Mr. Geoffroy observes, that the series of transformations com- mon to all mammalia are Ovul/um, Embryo, and foetus. These three stages of genital products require three distindt situations which in the other mammalia are found in the sexual canal, but in the Marsupialia they are very differently distributed through in an equally continuous series, The ovulum and the embryo are formed and developed in the sexual canal and the foetus out of it. Tke womb is the third station in the mammalia; where the com- mon foetus is incubated and nourished; and the Marsupium or nursing pouch is for the same purpose in the marsupial animals. ‘The difference, therefore, consists only in the name of the last part.—(Ann. Sci. Nat. and Zool. Jour. 1, 403.) MiscELLANEOUS. 10. A Method of fixing Crayon Colours, By James Smithson, Esq. (‘To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, London, Aug. 23, 1825, WisuiNe to transport a crayon portrait to a distance for the sake of the likeness, but without the frame and glass, which were bulky and heavy, I applied to a man from whom I expected information for a wethod of fixing the colours. He had heard of milk being spread with a brash over them, but I really did not conceive this process of sufficient promise to be disposed to make trial of it. I had myself read of fixing crayon colours by sprinkling sola- tion of isinglass from a brush upon them, but to this too, I ap- prehended the objections of tediousness, of dirty operation, and perhaps of incomplete result. On thinking on the subject, the first idea which presented itself to me was that of gum-water applied to the back of the picture ; but as it was drawn on sized blue paper pasted on can- vass, there seemed little prospect of this fluid penetrating. But an oil would do so, and a drying one would accomplish my object. I applied drying oil diluted with spirit of turpentine ; after a day or two when this was grown dry, I spread a coat of thé mixture over the front of the picture, and my crayon draw- ing became an oil painting. | 1825.] ©. New Scientific. Books. 937° Articte XII. NEW SCIENTIFIC BOOKS. -PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION. Dr. Shearman has in the press a work, entitled Practical Observa- tions on the Nature, Causes, ana Treatment of Water in the Brain.” ~ Sketches Political, Geographical, and Statistical, of the United Provinces of Rio de la Plata, &c, 8vo, y JUST PUBLISHED. ; sO Weheun tien on riBetannsg illustrated by Cases i in . which a new and successful Mode of Treatment has been adopted. By H. Ward. 3s. Flora Conspicua. By Richard Morris, FLS. _ Royal 8vo. No. If. 3s. 6d. Elements of Conchology according to the Linnean System, By the Rev. E. I. Burrow, FLS. &c. New Edition, 16s. Military Medical Reports, containing Pathological and Practical Observations illustrating the Diseases of Warm Climates. . By Janes M‘Cube, MD. 8vo. 7s. Practical Commentaries on the present Knowledge and Tieatnent of Syphilis, with coloured Illustrations of some ordinary Forms of that Disease. By Richard Wellbank. 8vo. 7s. 6d. Directions for drinking the Cheltenham Waters. 12mo. 2s. 6d. | ARTICLE XIII. NEW PATENTS.’ C, Friend, Bell-lane, Spitalfields, sugar-refiner, for apROEAEN in the process of refining sugar.—July 26. J. Reedhead, Heworth, Durham, for improvements in machinery far, * propelling vessels of all descriptions, both in marine and inland naviga- tion.—July 26. ae J. E. Brooke, Headingly, Leeds, woollen manufacturer, and J. Hardgrave, Kirkstall, of the same place, woollen manufacturer, for improvements in or additions to machinery used in scrubbing and carding wool, or other fibrous substances.—J uly 26. D.O. Richardson, kerseymere and cloth printer, and W. Hirst, manus facturer, both of Leeds, for improvements in the process of printing or dyeing woollen and other fabri¢s.—July 26. i J. Kay, Preston, Lancashire, cotton spimer, for machinery for: pre- paring and spinning flax, hemp, and other fibrous substances, . by power.—July 26. | R. Witty, Sculcoates, Yorkshire, civil engineer, for an improved chimney for Argand and other burners.—J uly 30. J. Lean, Fishpond House, near Bristol, for a machine for effecting 238. | New Patents... [Serr an alternating motion between bodies revolving about a common centre or axis of motion ; also certain additional machinery or apparatus for applying the sarne to mechanical purposes.+-July 30. he Rev. W. Barclay, Auldeare, airnshire, for an improved instru- ment to determine angles of altitude or elevation, without the necessity of aview of horizon being obtained.—July 30. R. Badnall, Leek, Staffordshire, silk manufacturer, for improvements inthe manufacture of silk.—July 30. pap es S, Bagshaw, Newcastle-under-line, Staffordshire, for a new method of.manufacturing pipes for the conveyance of water and other fluids.— Aug. 8. 3 G. Charleton, Maidenhead-court, Wapping, and W. Walker, New Grove, Mile-end Road, Stepney, master mariners, for improvements in the building or constructing of ships or other vessels.—Aug. 10. §. Lord, J. Robinson, and J. Forster, Leeds, copartners, merchants,: and manufacturers, for improvements in machinery for and in the pro- cess of raising the pile on woollen cloths and other fabrics, and also int pressing the same—Aug. Tl.) indone'? , | _W. Hirst, H. Hirst, and W. Heycock, woollen cloth manufacturers, and §. Wilkinson, mechanic, Leeds, for an apparatus for preventing » coaches, carriages, mails, and other vehicles, from overturning. Aug. 11. ' i ‘ YM J. Stephen Langton, Langton Juxta Partney, Lincolnshire, for an improved method of seasoning timber and other wood.—Aug. 11, _ J. Perkins, Fleet-street, engineer, for improvements in the construc- tion of bedsteads, sofas, and other similar articles.-Aug, Ll. _ H. R. Fanshaw, Addle-street, London, silk embosser, for an im- proved apparatus for spinning; doubling and twisting, or throwing silk. —Aug. 12. J. lake, Commercial Road, Lambeth, for a method of making coffins for the effectual prevention of bodies being removed therefrom, or taken therefrom, after interment:—Aug. 12. ; M. Lariviere, Frith-street, Soho, mechanicean, for a machine for perforating metal plates of gold, silver, tin, platina, brass, or copper, being applicable to all the purposes of sieves, hitherto employing cither canvas, linen, or wire.—Aug. 15. ' J. A. Taylor, Great St. Helen’s, London, for a new polishing appa~: ratus for household purposes.—Aug. 15. 7 C. Downing, Bideford, Devonshire, for improvements in fowling- pieces and other fire-arms.—Aug. 15.: . , A. Schoolbred, Jermyn-street, St. James’s, tailor, for improvements on, or a substitute for, back stays ‘and braces for ladies and gentlemen, chiéfly to prevent relaxation of the muscles.—Aug. 18. -P. Taylor, City Road, engineer, for improvements in making iron. —Aug. 18. Mee Williams, Leeds, and J. Ogle, Holbeck, Yorkshire, cloth manu- facturers, for improvements in fulling mills, or machinery for fulling and washing woollen cloths, or such other fabrics as-may require the process of felting or fulling—Aug. 20. / { 1825.].: °°. Mr. Howard's Meteorological Journal,’ 239 ARTICLE XIV. METEOROLOGICAL TABLE... tue uv BAROMETER, THERMOMETER, 1825, Wind. Max. Min. Max. |: Minw | Evap. | Rains 7th Mon. Juy 11N W| 30:27 29°90 74 45 — 05 Qh AW 30°30 30°27 76 45 — 31 N 30°27 30°26 83 57 —_— 4N Wi 30°39 50°26 80 55 -—- 5N Wi 30°39 $0°96..1,°.75 48 — 6) N 30°25 30°16 68 45 “Ol O4 7\IN Wi 30°18 30°16 71 Ad — 8| N 30°16 30°13 76 51 — 9}. N 30°13 30°12 79 538 {o— 10} W | 30°12 30°10 87 50 -— 11} W 30°18 30°10 89 |. °58 tiny 12.N Wi. 3018 30°16 89 58 — 13IN W)- 30°25 30°16 86 59 95 1418 Wi 30°25 30°11 92 58 — 15} S 30°24 30°11 95 | 62>) — 16| N 30°32 30°24 OL 58 _ *7? “5 30°24 30°22 92 58 90 18iS .E| 30:24 30°22 97 62°), — 19/S°° E| 30°29 | 30°24 95 58 J — 20\i8 E} 30°33 30°29 87 56- *O4 21; E 30°29 30°27 79 A7 — 29| FE 30°27 30°14 80 52 — 23k 3) Bs ef 9025 30°14" 40 74 AAs — 24IN. E| 30°40 30°25 72 42 — : 25IN E} 80°40 30°38 78 | 40 "85 | — 26IN E| 30°38 30°37 | 74 45 -— Q7iIN El 30°37 30°26 $2 | 48 a 28s} E 30°28 30°26 | 84 49 — 29} E 30°26 30°23 SE Ag — 30]; E |}. 30:23 30°13. 80 A7 05 Sik 30°13 30°10 gl 52 .1. 30 30°40 29°90 97 AO 5°80 ‘09 The observations in each line of the table apply to a period of twenty-four hours, beginning at 9 A.M. on the day indicated in the first column.. A dash denotes that thie result is included in the next following observation. 4 240 Mr, Howard’s Meteorological Journal, (Serr. 1825, REMARKS. Seventh Month.—1. Showers, 2—5.Fine, 6. Conty, with showers. 1, Cloudy. 8-31. Fine, clear, and dry. ‘ RESULTS, Winds: N,5; NE, 4; E,8; SE, 3; 8,1; SW,1; W,3; NW, 6 Barometer: Mean height | For the month. eene etiaietie. J2 penitent vsinae Je 30-229 inches. Thermometer: Mean height Mah Cie is oh. ctunichck decease che cdie 66°S87° Evaporation SC eee eee ee eee eet eeteereewareeatene*aeeeerteeeeeesee 5°80 in. Rain. See eee ee eee Seer eteeeeeseeeeaeees Serer r em aeeeeeeeeeeeeetee 0°09 *,* The very unusual height of the thermometer on several days of this month hav- _ ing led me to examine the position of the instrament, I was induced to think that it indicated a higher temperature than that of the air, in consequence of radiation from the dry and heated earth in the neighbourhood. To ascertain the extreme amount of this error, I suspended a thermometer in a spot thickly shaded with trees, and overhang- ing a river, so as to exclude the influence of radiation, and found it indicate 4° to 5° lower on the days of the greatest heat—probably the real $i ar of the air was between these points. Laboratory, Stratford, Eighth Month, 23, 1825. — R. HOWARD, ANNALS OF PHILOSOPHY. OCTOBER, 1895. ARTICLE [,. Observations on the Synonima of the Genera Anomia, Crania Orbicula, and Discina. By J. E. Gray, Esq. FGS. &e. (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) | GENTLEMEN, British Museum, Scpt. 12, 1825. - Linnazvs, in his Systema Nature, has formed a genus with the following characters, “ Animal corpus. ligula, emarginata ciliata, cillis valvule superiori aflixis: brachtis 2, linearibus, cor- pore ,longioribus, conniventibus, porrectis, valvule alternis, utringue ciliatis, cillis aflixis valvulis utrisque. Testa inequivalvis ; valvula altera planiuscula, altera basi magis gibba, harum altera seepe basi perforata. Cardo edentulus, cicatricula lineari pro- minente introrsum dente laterali; valvulz vero planioris in ipso margine. Rad2i duo ossei pro basi animalis.” This genus he has called Anomia, a name most provably derived from the ‘specific titles of the Concha anomia of Fabius Columna, and the Pectunculus.anomius of Dr. Lester, which appear intended to have been expressive of the inequality or dissimilarity of the valves of those shells. . _ The above character of the animal agrees exactly with that _ given by Cuvier ‘to a group of Mollusca, which he calls Bra- chiopoda, from the belief of their ciliated arms being the modified feet of the Conchophorus Mollusca ; and the descrip- tion of the shell, on account of the larger valve being said to be gibbous and perforated in the hinder part, and the inside of one of the valves being furnished with two bony rays, must have been taken from one of those shells which Bruguiere has since formed. into a genus, under the name of Teredratula; a word most likely derived from Linnaeus, who uses it as a specific name for one of the species which belong to this section of his genus. , Linneus, from not knowing the animal, has placed several New Series, vou, x, R 242 Mr. Gray on the Synonima of the [Ocr. species in his genus which recent observation has proved not to agree with the characters that he has given to it. Thus A. craniolaris has a similar animal, but. has no teeth in its hinge, and has'consequently been formed into a genus, under the name of Crania, by Bruguiere. Ax spina, of which the animal is unknown, has been equally separated into a genus called Pla- giostama, by Lamarck, .The animal again of A, Ephiphium, A. Cepa, A. Electrica, A.squamula, and A, patelliformis, is very dis- similar from that described by Linnaeus as appertaining to Anomia. It is.in fact most nearly allied to that of the oyster, and is, therefore, what Linneus calls‘an Ascidia. To these lat- terspecies, Bruguiere has retained the name of Anomzia, which is much to be regretted, as had he studied the beautiful character of Linneus, he would have found that that author did not intend these species as the type of his genus; and there is little doubt ~that had he known their.animal, he would have placed them with the Ostree, or have formed a new genus for their reception ; there being no part of his system where he so rapidly increased the number of his genera as,in the Testacea. It is more to be regretted that later conchologists should not have corrected this error, but haye let it continue so long, that although it errs against one of the best laws of nomenclature, we are almost inclined to allow it to remain without correction, for Bruguiere’s hames have been in general use both by conchologists and geologists, and consequently any alteration in them would introduce much confusion into these delightful sciences. Still, however, it is but proper to point out that the immortal Swede was the first to describe with accuracy the curious animal of the Brachiopodous Mollusca. 2 3 _. But I do not consider that the same line of conduct, should be pursued in the next case which I am going to state, where even greater confusion has been caused by the haste to form conclu- sions, and by little attention being paid to the characters given by the original describers of genera. | | Linneus, in his ‘ Fauna Suecica,” has placed as the first species of Anomia, a shell, under the name of A. craniolaris ; and here I may object to the opinion held by many persons, that the first species of the genus is to be considered the type of it. This may be the case in the works of Fabricius, but 1 believe not so inthose of most other authors. Linneeus appears to have referred this shell to the present genus, from it having sometimes, as he describes, three holes in its lower valve ; but these holes are only the places where the adductor muscles of the animal have been attached, which, being of a more brittle texture, decay sooner than the rest of the shell, which is always found in a fossil state. Bruguiere has formed this shell into a genus under the name of Crania, from the similarity of the three scars, or holes, to the apertures in a human skull that correspond 1825.] Genera Anomia, Crania Orbicula, and Discina. 243 with the eyes and’ nose of every subject. He has taken the Linnean specific character as a generic one, or at least he describes the lower valve as pierced with three holes. Lamarck has adopted this genus, and referred to it a recent spécies, which T believe to be the same, or very nearly related to the following shell. Miller, in'‘his’ excellent work, Zoologia Danica; has described a shell with the name of Patella anomala, which he afterwards ficured with its animal, and discovered that it was furnished with an under valve ; and yet for some unaccountable reason, hé ‘still considered it as a Patella! Poli, in his superb work on the shells of the Two Sicilies, figured a similar shell under the name of Anomia turbinata, referring it to this genus most likely on account of the animal agreeing with the Linnean character. But as he always gave the animals a new generic name, he called the present animal Crzopus, as he did that of Anomia Epiphium, Echion. Cuvier, from observing that the animals of these species were similar to the Terebratule, and that the shell was soldered to the rock immediately by the outer surface of the lower valve, and not attached, as in the latter genus, by a tendon, formed them into a genus under the name of Orbdicula, taking no notice of the genus Crania of Bruguiere. The genus Orbicula has also been adopted by Lamarck ; but I believe that most persons, on consulting the figures of Muller, Poli, Chemnitz, and of a shell described by Montague, in the Linnean Transactions, under the name of Patella distorta, which has since been discovered to have an attached under valve, and stated to be an Orbicula by Blainville, will agree with me, that these shells are all the same (or two very nearly allied) species, and consequently that the genus Orbicula must be expunged from the system, for it is nothing more than a recent species of Crania. Mr. G. B. Sowerby, in a paper read at the Linnean Society on March, 1818, entitled “ Remarks onthe Genera Orbicula and Crania of Lamarck, with Descriptions of two Species of each Genus, and some Observations to prove the P. distoria of Montague to be a Species of ‘Crania,” has described a shell which was found on some stones which had been brought from Africa, as ballast, and were used to repair the roads. This he considered - to be Orbicula Norvegica of Lamarck, who expressly stated that the latter shell is attached by the soldering of the outer surface of the lower valve to the rock, whereas Mr. Sowerby’s shell is affixed by means ofa tendron passing through a slip in the disk of the lower valve. This tendon he has called a foot; but it has 'no analogy with the foot of the animals of the bivalves; and I believe is only a slightly modified adductor muscle. Some of these shells having been sent to Lamarck, the latter formed then into a genus under the name of Discina, giving a very expres- sive generic character, but being misled by receiving it from R2 244. CO Mr. Gray on the Synonima, &c.... ~— [Ocr, England, he considered it as found on the shores of our coast. Mr. Sowerby’s paper not having been printed till the publication of the thirteenth volume of the Linnean Transactions, which — was several years after the reading of the paper, and the volume of Lamarck’s History containing this shell appearing in the mean time, he added as a note to his paper, that Lamarck had erro- neously described his shell twice over, once under the name of Discina, and again under that of Orbicula, and he has pub- lished the same opinion in his ‘ genera of shells.” But with this idea I am sorry that I cannot coincide, and more especially so as Ferussac, in his Synoptic Table, and several others, have taken Mr. Sowerby’s zpse divit for fact. To prove that. the Discina is not a species of Orbicula, it is only necessary to inspect the bienutifal plate by Mr. James Sowerby, which accom- panies his brother’s paper, and compare: it with the figures of uller; and I believe that most persons will allow that Muller’s figures agree best in the form of the muscular impression with the Crania, on the before-mentioned plate; and the slit in the under valve could never have escaped the accurate eye of Muller, who has figured his shell with so much detail. ‘ It appears to be the fate of this genus thatit should be confused. Blainville, in his article on Mollusca, just published, has divided the genus Orbicula into two sections; 1]. The adherent valve not pierced, O. levis, Sow. Lin. Trans. xiii. 2. The adherent valve pierced, and provided with'a compressed medial apophysis, Discina, O. Norvegica, Sow. Lin. Trans. xiii. when it is only. necessary to consult the shells or plates, for the lower valves of both are exactly similar, and oddly enough the true O. Norvegica of Muller is taken no-notice of. In accordance to these views, the genera before-mentioned appear to require the following synonima;— 1. Anomia, Bruguiere. » Anomie Pars, Linneus. Echioderma (Echion), Poh. | 2. TEreBRATULA, Bruguiere. Anomia, Linneus. - Criopiderma (Criopus), Polt. : To this genus may be added as subgenera Magus, Spirifer, and perhaps l’reductus of Sowerby, and Gryphea of Megerle. 3. Crania, Bruguiere. Anomize pars, Linneus. f Patella species, Aluller, Montague. Criopiderma (Criopus), Poli. Orbicula, Cuvier and Lamarck, not Sowerby nor Blainville. Terebratula, Schweigger. 4; Discina, Lamarck. Orbicula, Sowerby, Blainville, not Lamarck. | 1825.] Corrections in Right Ascension. 245 ArTICLE II. Corrections in Right Ascension of 37 Stars of the Greenwich Catalogue. By James South, RS. | ARa| 7 Pegasi | Polaris | a Arietis] « Ceti Aldafezen Capella Rigel é Tauri ja Orionis Me8. dn. m. s. {h.'m. s. |h.m. s. them. s. |hom. s. [bh. m, s. |h. m. s. [h.m.s. /h. m. 8. 0 4 14:25/0 58 17°50 |1 57 19°77|2'53 8°58 1425 53°44/5 B 46°61) 5 6 8°00-\5 15 14°2915 45 42°18 Oct. 1| + 4°63”| + 65°40” + 4°95” + AAQ"| + 4°42") + 5°55”! + 3°61) + 4°62") + 3-81” 63 65°57 96 4A A5 59 63 65 84 3 64 65:68 97 45 48 63 66 68 S87 4 64 65°80 98 AT} 51 67 68 12 90 5 64 65°91 5:00 A9 54 yh Tl - TS 92 6 65 66°03 Ol 51 57 75 74 78 95 7 65 66°14 02 52 60 79 16 81 98 8}. 65 66°19 03 53 62 83 78 84 AOL gy 65 66°23 05 55 65 87 81 8T 03 10 65 65:28 06 56 - 65 91 83 90 06 11 65 | 66°33 O07 58 ‘70 94 86 , 93 09 12 65 66°37 08 59 i%3 98}. 88 96 12 13 64 | 66:35 10 61 Py orts_p «S02 91} 5:00 15 14 64 65°33 1] 63 8 05 94} 03 1T 15) 64 66:30} 12 64} 8 09 96 06 20 16} » 64 )>>66:28 14}... 66, 83 } 3 99 09 23 17 64 66°25 15 68 86 17 4-02 12 26 18 64 66:17 | = 16 . 69 88 20 04 15 29 19} °~ 63 66:09 Le a6 vet 90 24 07 » 18 31 20) 63 66°00 17 12 93 97 09 21 41 $4 21 63.) 65°91 18 74 4 95 $l iii 24 37 22 63 65°83 49 75 97 34 14 OT FY 89 23} «62 65°68 20 4T 5°00 38 P)-116 ZO Civ 1 42 24) ov 62 65°52 20 78 02 Abd SidBGaCV 83 poe, 46 25]... 62} 65°36 2) 80 04 45. 214, 86 48 - 26 61 | 65-20 22 8l 06 A9 23 39 50 271 © 61} 65°05 22 82 08 52 ‘+ 26 ‘AQ 53 28 61 64‘84 23 83 10 55 28 A5 56 29} ....60 64:63 23 84 i2 58 30 48 58 30 60 |, 64°42 24 85 14] 61 33 50 61 31 59 64°21 25 86 16 64 35 53 63 Noy, ! 59 64:00 26 87 18 67 3T 1 Oy 65 2 58 1.,,63°73 26 88 20 71 $9.4... .°58 68 3 58 63°46 QT ~ 89 22 TA A2 61 70 A 57 63°19 28 90 24 TT Aq 63 13 5 57 2-92 28 91 26 80 46 66 75 6 56 62°64 29 92 28 83 48 68 78 1 55 62°32 29 93 30 86 50 70 80 8 55 62:00 30 94 32 8&8 52 72 83 9 54 61°68 30 94 33 91 54 15 83 10 53 61°36 30 95 wo 94 56 qT &8 11 52 61-03 31 96 37 97 58 80 90 12 52 60°63 31 96 38 700 60 $2 93 13 51 60°23 3l ¥'97 40 |. 02 62 85 95 14 50 59°83 St 98 42 “O05 64 87 98 15 AQ 59-42 31 £98 43 08 66 90 5:00 16 48 59°02 $2 99 A5 1] 63 92 02 17 AY 58°58 32 5:00 AT 13 70 94} 04 18 AG 58°15 32 00 A8 16 71 97 06 19 46 57-71 32 Ol 50 18 73 99 09 20 A5 57°28 32 Ol 51 21 75 6°01 |. i} 21 A4 56°84 32 02 - 53 23 Rl 03 13 22 A3 56°35 32 02 54 26 18 05 15 23 42 55°86 32 03 56 28 79 07 1T 24 Al 55°38 32 03 57 31 81 09 19 25 AO 54°89 32 04 59 83 83° EP ats: QE 26 39 54-40 32 04 61 36 84 13 23 27 38 53°87 31 04 62 38 85 15 25 28 3T 53°35 31 04 63 39 86 16 26 29; - 36 52°82 31 04 64 Al 88 18 28 30 35 52°30 30 05 65 43 89 19 30 246 Corrections in Right Ascension of {Ocr. M ean. AR Sitlus | Castor Lgiaide- Pollux | @ Hydre| Regulus | ¢ Leonis [¢ Virginis |SpicaVirg Ve hb. m. 8. h.m h.m. s. |b.m b. m. 8. /h.m. & |h,m, 5s. ear 9611733 25°30 90 e-a7i7 84 85°85)9 18 59°40/9 59 2°78 ll 40 "790.11 4134-96] 19 1559-22 Oet. 1) 4+ 2°91") + 3°87 + 3°15”| 4 3°65"| + 243”| + 2-52”| 4. 2:08"| 4 2-22” 4. 2-29” 2 (94 90 18 69 45 54 09 23| 93 8| 97 93 Qt 12 48 56 11 24 23 4) 99 97 23 15 50 58 12 25 23 5| 302] 4-00 26 18 52 60 13 26 23 6}. 05 04 29 82 5D 62 14 QT 23 11 08 01 32 85 51 64 15 28 23 8} oll 10 35 88 59 67 16 30 24 9) 14 14 33 91 62 69 18 31 24 ) ga -20F" t#16 17 Al 95 64 72 19 33 24 il} 19 Ql 44 98 67 14 21 34 25 12} 92 25 46] 401 69 17 22 36 25 13} 24] 98| a9] os] 12] 19] 94] 371 96 14] . 97 32 52 07 14 82 25 39 QT 15} 30 35 55 1} 17 84 27 AO 28 16} 32 39 58 14 79 86 28 42 29 17] ° 35 42 61 17 81 88 30 43 30 18) 38| 46] 64] 920 84} 91 92} 45] 31 19} Al 49 67 24 87 94 34 4q| 32 20] = 44 53 70 21 89 96 36 49 33 gi AT 56 13 31] - 92 99 31 51 34 221 50 60 "6 34 95] 38:02 39 52 35 23| 52 63 79 38 98 O4 Al 54 36 24, 55 67 82 41 | 3-01 07 43 56 37 25) 58 70 85 45 03 10 Ab 58 38 26} 61 14+ 88 Ag 06 12]. AT 60 3 27; 64 78 91 52 09 15 A9 62 40 28) «66 si 94 55 12 18 ry 64 42 29} 69 85 97 58 15 21 53 67 43 30| 72 88 | 4:00 62 18 24 56 69 45 3i| 75 92 03 65 21 27 58} 1}. 46 Nov. 1| © 27 95 05 69 24 30 60. 14 48 2} 80 99 08 72 27 32 63 76 A9 3| 83 | 502 il 16 30 35 654 78 51 Al 85 06 14 79 33 38 674 gi 52 5} 88 09 17 82 36 4ibd 704 ~88 54 6| 91 12 20 85 39 44 72 85 55 "| 94 15 23 88 42 Al 731 - 87 BT 8} 97 19 26 92 45 50 18 90 59 9} 99 22 29 95 48] 53 80; - 92 61 10} 4°02 26 32 99 51 56 83} 95 63 Mi} 05 29 34 | 402 55 59 86 97 65 12} 07 33 37 06 58 62 88} 3-00 67 13} 10 36 40 09 61 65 94 02 69 14] 12 40 43 13 641 68 93, Ob] 71 15] 15 43 4G 16 67, 71 96} 08 13 16, 18 41 49 i9 70 "4 99{ 11 15 17} 20 50 52 22 13 11 | S02}. 78 18} 23 53 55 25 76 81 05 17 80 19} 25 BT 58 29 80 84 08 20 83 20,21 60 61 82 83 88. i 23 85 211 30 63 64 35 86 91 14 25 8T 22] 82 67 66 38 89 95 17 28 90 23|. 84 70 69 49 92 98 20 31 92 es 74 12 45 961 401] 28 34 95 25, 39 17 15 48 99 051 26 8%| 97 26} 42 80 18 bi | 402 08 29} 40:; 99 97| . 44 83 81 54 05 1k 82 43°}. 3-02 28] 46 86 83 BT 08 14 85 46| 04 29| 48 89 86 60 11 18 38 49 07 3 50 92 88 63 14 21 AL 52 09 1825.} 247 Thirty-seven Principal Stars. Mean AR} Arcturus | 2a Libre a Cor.Bor aSerpent.| Antares |aHerculis aOphiuchil a Lyre | y Aquile 1825. fh. m. gs. {h. m. s.{b.m. gs, {h. m. s. th. m. s, [he m. s. |b. m. s. [he m. 5, hom. s. 14 7 Al-06}1441 12°92) 15 27 16-9715 35 39°42] 16 1841°57117 6 .40°44/17 2649°02/18 31 1°01/1937 56°55 Oct. 1) 4 1°75’) + 2°55] + 1°69”| + 2°33”] + 3-24] + 2°49" | +. 2-657] + 2°19 + 3°44" 2 14 55 68 32 23 AT 63 16 42 3 14 54 67 31 21 A5 62 14 40 4 13 54 65 30 20 44 60 11 39 5 73 53 64 28 18 42 58 09 37 6 73 53 63 27 17 Al 57 06 35 7 72 52 62 26 15 39 55 04 , 84 8 712 52 61 25 14 37 53 02 32 9 72 51 60 24 13 35 51 1-99 30 10 72 51 59 23 11 33 49 97 28 11 72 50 58 22 10 32 AT 95 QT 12 712 50 57 21 09 30 46 92 25 13 72 50 56 20 08 29 44 90 24 14 72 A9 55 20 DT .4 °°) oT AQ 87 22 15 "2 AQ 54 19 06 26 Al 85 21 16 12 A8 53 18 05 24 39 82 19 17 72 48 52 18 04 23 38 80 18 18 13 48| 51 17 03 22 37 18 16 19 "3 48 50 17 03 21 36 76 14 20 13 48 50 17 02 20 35 13 13 21 13 AQ 49 16 Ol 18 33 71 lL 22 74 AQ 48 16 00 17 32 69 09 23 14 AQ 48 15 00 16 31 66 OT 24 44 49 AT 15 | 299 15 30 64 06 25 74 50 ‘AT 15 98 14 29° 62 04 26 75 50} 46 14 97 12 27 59 02 27 45 50 A6 14 97 re © | 26 51 00 28 16 51 A6 14 97 10 25 55 2-99 29 16 51 A6 14 96 09 24 53 97 30 TT 52 46 14 96 08 93 | - 51 95 31 17 53 A6 14 96 07 22 BO 94 Nov. 1 18 53 46 14 96 06 21 A8 92 2 18 54 A6 14 96 06 20 46 gl 3 719 55 46 14 95 05 19 AA s9 4 80 56 A6 14 95 04 18, AQ ss 5 81 57 A6 14 95 03 17 40 86 6 §3 58 46 14 95 02 16 38 85 7 84 59 A6 14 95 02 15 36 83 pee | 85 61 AT 15 95 01 14 34 82 9 87 62 AY 15 95 01 13 32 81 10 &8 64 AT 16 96 ol 12 30 79 1] 99 65 48 16 06 00 12 28 78 12 91 67 48 17 96 a8) 11 27 17 13 93 68 AQ 17 96 00 11 Q5 16 14 95 69 Ag 18 07 CO Il 24 74. 15 96 70 50 18 97 1-99 10 22 13 16 97 71 51 19 97 99 10 21 12 17 99 13 52 £0 98 99 10 20 71 18; 9-01 74 53 21 99 99 10 19 710 19 03 16 54 99 3:00 99 10 18 69 20 05 TT 55 24 00 99 10 16 68 21 07 19 56 25 01 99 10 15 67 29 09 80 57 27 02 99 10 14 66 /23 ll 82 58 28 03 | 2-00 Wd » 48 65 24 13 84 59 29 04 00 10 1! 64 25 15 86 61 30 05 00 10 10 63 26 IT 88 62 31 06 00 10 09 62 27 19 90 63 32 OT 01 1! 08 61 28 Qt. 92 65 34 08 0) 1! OT 60 29 23 94 66 35 10 Ol 11 06 60 30 25 96 67 31 ll 02 12 05 59 248 Corrections in Right Ascensionof _—»- [Ocr. Mean AR} a Aquile| ¢ Aquil | 2 @ Capri.) « Cygni [x Aquarli |Fomalhaut | @ Pegasi |x Androm, th. m. h. m. 8 |hy m, & [hom. s. fhem.. s. [ho im. h. m..s. |h. m. -s. 19 42148411940 13301908 20°34 2035 28°24]21 56 47*77129 47 57° 6722 56 3°16]23.59 21°74 Oct. 1) + 3°53" = $'59” + 4-10" + 3°15" + 4-29" - 4°80” + A Al” -3 4:79" 2 51 58 09 13 28 80 Al 80 8 50 56 07 1] 27 19 Al 80 4 48 55 06] | 08 26 79 40} 80 S| 46 53 04 06 25 78 40 80 6 45 51 03 03 25 18 39 81 q A3 49 01 0) 24 17 39 81 8 4l 47 00 | 299 23 16 38 81 9 40 45 3:98 96 22 15 38 8h 10 38 44 91 94 21 15 31 8l 11 37 42 95 92 20 74 31 81 12 35 40 94 89 19 13 36 Si 138 34 39 y2 87 18 72 36 80 14 $2 37 91 84 17 71 35 80 415 80 36 89 82 16 70 34 80 16 29 34 88 79 15 69 34 80 1M Q7 33 86 71 14 68 33 80 18 25 31 84 74 “13 67 32 79 9 24 29 83 72 11 66 31 79 20 22 27 sl 69 10 65 30 19 21 20 26 79 67 09 64 29 18 22 18 24 77 64 08 63 28 78 93} 17| 38 76| 62] 07 62| 97] 17 24 15 21 m4 69 05 61 26 77 25 13 20 72 66 04 60 25 16 26) 12 18 71 63 03 59 24 76 27 10 17 69 51 ol 57 23 15 28 09 15 68 48 00 56 22 74 29 07 14 66 46 | 3-98 54 21 74 30 06 12 65 43 97 53 20 13 31 04 it 64 Al 96 * 52 19 12 Noy. 3 03 09 62 38 95 51 18 1 ) 02 08 61 56 93 50 7 11 mA | 06 59 33 92 48 16 70 ~ At 2°99 05 58 30 91 AT 15 69 5 97 03 56 28 89 ‘46 14 68 6 96 02 55 25 88 AA 13 67 q 95 01 54 - 23 (87 p42 “le 66 8 94 00 52 20} © (85 C041 10 65 9 93 | 298 51 18 | «(84 (139 | £909 64 10 91 97 50 416} 782 6138 | ©3508 63 il 89 95 49| -44]| O81 {36 | 9807 | ° 63 12 88 94 AT i 8 ong 0135 | #3805 62 13 86 92 A6 (09 | i.n8 ress |; Ofo4 61 14 85 91 Ad 07 196 hese | iTos | |S! 60 15 83 89 A3 694 | of5 asso | &Yor | ©’ Ag 16 82 88 A2 02 194 ece9 oo | © 58 7 81 87 Al - 00 \q3 eT | B98 | ©) 57 18 80 86 AO | 298 j92 26} °197 | ©! 56 -19 19 85 39| e@5!]. gl trea | SP96 | °! 55 (20! 98 S4\|- <38| 193! 069 W238 95 | >! 54 2) 91.) 83 «87 1 91 68 e121 #94 ).°' 53 1 82 36} 589 | 67 1120 93 52 ve 16 81 135 “87 66 18 ‘92 51 2A Fa 81 984] 085 64 17} £90 50 25 7A 80 083 82 63 15 | CPsg AS (26 73 79 “B82 -80 | 62 14 | 88g 47 Q7 72 78 31 78 61 12 187 1 &° 46 val 17 -80 096 160 | 8085 44 71 17 (29 (74 “58 109 084 43 70 76. 28 val 517 08 83 Al 1825.] Thirty-Seven Princtpal Stars. 249 Y bhi eg hak * Arietis hn « Ceti jetacnerye yanelin | ae 6 Tauri oD rtante Mean AR} jh. m. h. m, .m. s. {h. m. ‘s. |h. m.s. jh. hem. 8. jo. m -* 1825. $40 Tbs 0" s8i7560 "57 1977 2 By Sh8id 25 59-4415 3 46°61 5 6 “s-0018 15 14-29|5 45 42°18 Dec. 1/4 ASA" + BLT?" 4 5° 30" + 5°05"\ + 5°66") + 7:44") + 4°90") 4 6-21”). 531" 2 33 51°18 29 05 67 46 92 22 33. 3 3l 50°59 29 05 68 A8 93 24 35 A 30 50°00 28 05. 68 49 94 26 ST.~ 5 29 49-41 28 05 69 51 95 9 38 6 28 48°82 27 05 10 53 96 29 AO 7 27 A8-21 26 05 71 55 97 30 Al 8 26 47°60 26 05 71 56 98 $1 AS . 9 24 | 46°99 25 05 12 58 99 33 4A 10 23 46°39 | 25 O04 8 59 5:00 34. A6 i] 22 45°78 24, 04 14 60 01 35 AT 12 2i A513 24 O04 TA 62 02 37 49 13 20 | 44-48 23 04 15 63 03 38 50 14 18 | 43°82 23 03 16 65 04 39 52 15 17) 43-17 22 03 AT ih" 66 04 Al 53: 16 16 | 42°52 21 03 TT 67 05 42 54 17 15; 41°85 20 02 77 68 05 A3 55 18 14 Ali8 20 02 78 69 06 43 56 19 13 40°50 19 Ol 78 70 06 44 57 20 12 39°83 18 Ol 18 71 OT AA 58 21) 11.) 39°16 17 00 18 TI O07 A5 59 22) 10 | 38-45 16 4:99 79 12 08 A6 60 23 08 31-74 15 99 19 73 08 AG 61 24 O07 37-02 14 98 79 7A. 09 47 62 25 06 | 36°31) 13 98 19 15 09 48 . 63 26 05 | 35-60 12 97 79 1d 10 AQ. 63 27 04 34°91 il 97 79 16 10 A9 64, | 28} 03 | 34°21 1] 96 79 TT 10 50 65, 291' 2.02 33°52 10 95 79 78 il 51 65, 30! - 01 32°82 09 95 79 79 11 52 66 31): (3:99 32°13 08 94 79 80 11 52 6F Li Sil oe | terior | Jepayon |} Pollux |e Hae lb esREs |B oul 6 Virginis Splcevire. Mean mh ee ‘h. : s. |h, m, s, |b. m. 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Val 12-92 a Cor, Bor,| h. m, 8, 15 2716°97 « Serpent. -m, &. 15.35 39°42 ~ Antares . ™m,. 8. 16 18 41°57 jaHerculis h. m, s. 17 6 40°44 fOcr, aOphiuchi, a Lyre .m. 6. 17 26 49°02 | “Aguile . m. s. 18 311-01 -~m. §&. 19 37 56°55 + 2°98” 3 + 2°38" ” 3°18” + 2°19” + 2°04” 03 +.3°58” “ sae j 19 49 a 84 P naee |i 1940 43° “30 2% 8 20°34 a Cygni h. m. s. 2038 28°24 e« Aquarii h. m. s. 2156 47°77 Rages h. m. 22 47 87°67 em. S&S. a Pegasi fhm. no 22 56 3:16 23 59 3174 + 2:69” 68 + 2.75)" f 1:69” 67 + 4:06” 05. 03 ht 4:40" 1825.] Analysis of an Alloy of Gold and Rhodium. 251 Articie ITI. Analysis of an Alloy of Gold and Rhodium from the Parting House, at Mexico.* By M. André Del Rio, Professor at the College of Mines, and Member of the Institution of Sciences at Mexico.+ In the year 1810, M. Cloud, Chemical Director at the Mint in Philadelphia, discovered an alloy of gold and palladium in two ingots of gold from Brazil.. I have found another alloy here, containing rhodium, which, as yet, is unknown in Europe. At this favourable era we may expect an infinite number of discoveries, as the careful éxamination of a country so vast and richly endowed by nature as this is, proceeds. I am surprised that M. Cloud has not given in his analysis, either the specific gravity of his alloy, nor the proportions of the metals of which it is composed. | 1. 199°2 grains of an alloy of gold, of this Parting House, of the specific gravity, according to Citizen Jean Mendez, of 15:4, left, after the action of aqua regia 1:28 of chloride of silver, = 0°97 silver. The gold of one-fourth part of the solution was separated by ether, when a galvanic current was observed, which occasioned the ether sometimes to swim on the surface of the aqua regia, as it naturally would do, and at others to assume a position below it; a phenomenon deserving closer investigation. Convinced that the gold was still alloyed with some other metal, a brittle button was obtained by means of — borax which weighed 45:5 grains. This lost no weight by bemg | boiled with nitric acid; when fused with nitre in a small platina crucible, a large quantity of the gold attached itself to the platina, and, besides, an efflorescence, formed of very small grains of a tin-white colour. The whole was treated with hot water, which beimg decanted off, and the residuum washed, a very heavy black powder remained, partly composed of very short and thin needles, and also another hghter powder of an olive-green colow. The filtered solution was yellow and black- ened the'filter, but on'dying the colour became a clear olive- green. The yellow solution, saturated with nitric acid, left a cherry-coloured deposit, and gave with tincture of galls.a dark yellowish-brown precipitate ; a proof that it was not osmzum. The black powder being separated from the gold by quick- * From the Annales de Chimie. _ ¢'This Memoir wascommunicated to M. de Humboldt, by M. Lucas Alaman, whose singular merit is duly appreciated by the savans ‘of Europe, and who is at: present Minister of the Interior of the'Confederation of the:-MexicanStates. .M. del:Rio, who studied at Paris, Freiberg, and Schemnitz, is well known by -his labours in analytical chemistry, and by his Treatise.on Mineralogy and Geognostic Tables.—Note by the French Editor. @ if @o 1 aa o 252 M. André del Rio’s Analysis of [Ocr. silver, was dissolved in muriatic acid, and the solution assumed by boiling a fine orange colour., Citizen Mendez was. unable to reduce the green powder before the blowpipe, but he observed _ t at some specks detonated like nitre ; a property of rhodium. Phis green powder, which I wished to treat separately, by transferting it with water from a capsule to a matrass, became black a second time, and I added it to the red solation, and boiled the whole afresh ; although it appeared brown, whilst hot it resumed its red colour on cooling. Sal ammoniac, threw down from the concentrated solution, an orange-coloured” powder, which, separated by decantation and sufficiently ‘washed, was soluble in cold water, and still more'so in hot, and gave by care- ful evaporation an infinite number of orange-coloured crystals. Being reduced alone, in the same crucible that was employed before, the gold was covered with a tin-white, blistered coating of rhodium.* By twice boiling potash and nitre in the same crucible, with the addition of water, the whole of the gold was exposed, and. the lixivium ‘Saturated with ‘sulphuric acid, gave 6 grains of the dark ‘reddish browh deutoxide of rhodium, rom which deducting’ 2-14 for ‘oxygen, there remain. 13-86 grains of rhodium for the 45*5 grains of alloy employed, or 30°4 per cent. JI must not omit to state that the potash made very small holes in the crucible, and'131 grains of protoxide of pla- tina Were extracted’ from it, which were reduced, in another crucible of earthenware, as perfectly as the nature of the cru- ‘cible allowed. | . The black powder was insoluble both in muriatic acid, and ‘aqua regia; solution of potash dissolved it in part, and the residium gave many white metallic points by being heated with tallow in a small crucible. As all the points were not equally brilliant, the weight of the residuum was not added to the former product; I afterwards reflected that I had not employed sufli- cient heat, and that I ought to have added it just the same as that which was dissolved by the potash. © ecotitg 2, The greater part of the acid of the remaining three-fourths of the solution was distilled off, and the rest saturated with ammonia, not added in excess. The orange-coloured precipi- 95 fas *e AL si : Lyi went tate ‘lost.its red tint, and acquired a slight yellow ochre hue; W erefore, and because it became greenish by washing with warm water, I concluded, although it'detonated like fulminating old, rat it was not absolutely pure. In fact, 10 grains mixed Sieh bu? and ised with borax, gave alittle white button} which was too. brittle ‘for pure gold, and internally had a whitish ecennoot OF | {jst 3s ad Ht was afterwards discovered that the blistered appearance was owing to the gold, - a8if it had endeavouréd to quit the platina to combine with the rhodium. The latter always remained white—was that owing to the platina? I believe it to be eminently galvanic. . + This tendency of rhodium to cover the surface of the gold is very singular, 1825.] an Alloy of Gold and Rhodium. 253: copper, or nickel colour; the flux left a glass, partly of a leek green, and partly of acochineal red colour, and the little button weighed 5:9 grains. Its white surface soon changed to a tombac brown, and when fused with nitre it yielded a little buttom of pure gold, weighing 4:3 grains.* Other 10 grains, similarly fused, gave also a brittle button, which left a scoria of a brighter red colour, weighing 7°1 grains, and this by a second fusion, as before, gave a button of pure gold, which also weighed 4°3 grains.. Thus, as 100 parts of ammoniuret of gold gave 43 parts of gold, 212 parts, the weight of the whole precipitate, would have given 91:16. Three-fourths of the solution must, have ‘contained 149-40 of the alloy, or deducting three-fourths of a grain of silver, 148-65. | rca nt ebatias Deducting the gold, there remain 57°49 parts of rhodium, or 38-6 percent. of the alloy. The specific gravity, of this alloy: should be 15°91, but as it was actually only 15:4 if must have: suffered expansion, —s_, , ‘ta ticae aaroibercs The remainder of the solution was distilled to, dryness, and a. dark brown residuum, was obtained, which neither gave. the. changes of colour that characterise iridium bythe action of muriatic acid, nor red crystals with,ammonia ; but it afforded an uncrystallizable double salt, of a flesh red colour, which, when dried, resembled discoloured, brown, frothy iron, (fer écumeux). Citizen Mendez could. not reduce it before, the blowpipe, and obtained with borax only a yellowish green glass, 4, 5... Thus we see that neither ether nor ammonia afford the most certain. nor the most easy methods of separating rhodium. From this consideration 1 had recourse. to what, Dr. Wollaston says on the subject, that it is not capable of forming an amalgam with mercury. ‘ s ) wea bot Sat aalertel 3. For this purpose, Citizen Mendez cupelled, at two opera- tions, a very brittle alley of, gold. with rhodium and copper, weighing 133°7 grains, which gave him two little, globules,. one of which weighed only 53:87 grains, and the, other 66-13... I treated the first with mercury and boiling water, and again by trituration in -an iron ,mortar,,when, the whole amalgamated, except 2:5 grains of a bright olive green powder, which after- wards darkened. in water, and, became greenish black. Can the green powder be a deutoxide, intermediate between the, black and the reddish brown, or puce coloured oxide, and the, greenish black powder a hydrate? I have the highest esteem for,M. Berzelius, but. he. himself desires that truth should be, freety - sought, As to the small button of alloy, however carefully [ washed its amalgam, it always showed a black spot of rhodium at the bottem (dans le fond) after having been heated to redness. After’ fusion’ with ‘nitre’ it weighed 49°7 grains, and its Specific * On'this actount’ Tlined the bottom and sides ofthe Gracie” with “MH ex eee’ OF borax, which has great tendency to vitrify rhodium, i. Lie ats 254 M, André del Rio’s Analysis of [Oor. gravity,'according to Citizen Mendez, was’ 15.°'T suppose its’ specific gravity was diminished by the 'three-eighths'of @ grain of ‘silver which it contained; but it is, at» all events, clearly demonstrated that rhodium easily amalgamates: with inéreury, by the intervention of! gold, although it will not do so alone. I must confess I was much deceived as'to my prineipabobject of knowing if this alloy be obtained at the Parting Housé'from the fused: silver ingots, or from’ the amalgamated ‘silvery ‘which would not a little have assisted us in ascertaining its' local situa- tidns, and the ores’ from which it is derived, circumstances which at present we are ignorant of. PWS 91 2985 Mtl o-4, Having found by experiment that neither protosulphate of iron, nor oxalic acid, precipitate rhodium, dissolved the button | bo i, erains (whose ‘specific gravity according to Citizen Mendez was 15°48) in aqua regia. The button when beat out under the hammer, for want of a flatting mill, présented tin-white spots on the yellow, ground, showing 'that the alloy was not uniform; the chloride of silver which precipitated from the solution, contained’ half a grain of silver, which gives more than three quarters of! a grain per ‘cent.’ This' clearly: shows how necessary it is'to use/sulphuric acid to extract all the silver at the Parting House)»: T'meant to'take only one half ’of this solution, but for want of graduated tubes I took more, ‘arid pre- cipitated it with protosulphate of iron; the reduéed button weighed 30°7 grains, ‘and its specific gravity was 19'07. On adding the protosulphate to the solution, it became as black as ink, and red by refraction in the sun, with much’ effervescence and disengagement of deutoxide of azote ; but as soon as that ceased it resumed its former transparence. Having distilled it to dryness, to expel the nitric and muriatic acids, ‘aiid added water; a large quantity of subsulphate of iron remained undis- solved; by the addition of a little sulphurie acid and boiling the liquid, the whole dissolved, and the solution assumed’ a pale bright flesh colour ; I then immersed im it a plate‘ofiron, which became copper red, but by washing in’ distilled water, the coloured coating appeared very slight, and\a very fetid odour was éxhaled, which I know not how to ‘describe, \ Ihave per- ceived ‘the same odour on adding water to the alloy fused with potash. After filtering and washing, slightly flexible’ pellicles remained; which, when dry, had the colourof tombac, and weighed 10-6 grains. On attempting.'to reduce them entirely with borax (for, according to ‘Thomson’s' Chemistry, even the rotoxide may be reduced), I obtained’ merely a green’ glass. Thus, considering them as metallic (for if they were not abso- lutely, they were very nearly so) we shall have 26°4 per cent. of rhedium im the, alloy, without reckoning ‘what still remained alloyed with the gold. .I:had taken for that the lower half of the solution which had been left at rest for along time. Could 1825] © am Alloy of Gold and Rhodium. - 255 it have contained a larger quantity of gold? I should be the more inclined to think so, because, from the fourth part ofthe game solution, precipitated by ammonia, which should ‘have contained 16:5 grains of alloy, I obtained only 9:3-o0f gold’; which gives 43 per cent. of rhodium in the alloy. The remain- ine‘ solution had the colour of protosulphate of iron. 5. In this, state of things, Citizen Mendez conceived the idea of adding sulphuric acid to a solution of i0 grains: of another alloy (specifie gravity = 16:8) in ‘aqua regia, and distilling it to dryness... When all the muriatic acid had come over, andthe liquid in the retort had assumed a very deep red’ colour, the receiver was changed’; a yellow matter rose with thie acid, and the gold remaining in the retort, had the appearance of aurum musivum. The yellow matter partly dissolved in water, colours ing it first yellow, afterwards green, and a sub-trito-sulphate of rhodium, of a yellow ochre colour, deposited. On pouring water into the retort, a similar deposit was obtained, which was separated by decantation; the gold was then twice fused with potash and nitre; after the first fusion it left a very dark leek- green glass, anda brighter one after the second; so that it would be necessary to repeat the operation several times to obtain the gold perfectly pure ; it-weighed in the state in which we left it, 8°2. grains. We see, therefore,)from what: has been said, that rhodium alloys with gold in different proportions, the mean, according to what L have observed, being 34 of rhodium in 100 parts of the alloy ; or more than one third. I am sorry to be compelled to say that Dr. Wollaston is mis- taken, in stating that the alloys of gold with rhodium are very ductile. The contrary has long been observed at this Partin House, and was attributed to the sharpness of the acids (dcreté des acides), as if we employed more than one, and they were very volatile, and very easily decomposed. We can now con- ceive that a brittle metal in so large a quantity must necessarily render the alloys it forms brittle also. I imagine our practical men will not any longer assert, that with a cupel, and two.or three acids, any fraudulent mixture may be detected in gold, now that they have this new instance of rho- dium, in addition to those known before, of platina and palla- dium, and I hope that iridium will also some day play its part, As to the enormous. losses at the Parting House, I understand that in former times long reports have been made concerning them, but experiment is the right method of discovering phy- sical truths. The reports are like Spartan money, far greater in volume than in value. ) | I do not believe that the complete separation of rhodium can be effected by softening (adouc?ssant) the alloy: with corrosive sublimate, although this method be more chemical than that) of 256 Col. Beaufay’s Astronomigal Observations. [Ocr. washing the marguetas * of silver with soapiand as is done at fiebb, ino peut, iy remoye. the, black powder ae oxide of another metal has much resem é to selenium; at lean re ‘and’ I shave’ found, nae t the Tasco pata silver, in small , tables, with aed” aha and age as if, they: had ae their golgnr.se rey t acy. were very du be seen in our “espe uny No. 102, pet ae The object. wo d be better iittdibed by. treating the sulphuret of antimony, on act ount of the greater affi rhodium for sulphur, and, that. is certainly the mode,.a di: by a certain person, who purified a qpentity last. yearn 18 piastres, making a Li ret of his process, as if this were the age of mystery, o Spat oe resembled the in i ; of Otaheite. The preceding g analysis only too. plain ioe the wretched state of our Ja bora tory in, Mexico, ter baving ‘been for thirty tees ieee és ee dupcion. of so ed,.a chemist: as M. Elbuyar; slachvere of wee Cerium. It is true that un et th Id. government, this « mteate found himself obliged to ake aman of business, undoubtedly, much against his Sion ;» for it. .is. impossible, that: ‘who has once imbibed a 58 Fis ones can ever abandon i it. (* Mexico, seeing evbeii i) Ae fd FS. 5 negens ok nt 6 90 ye ft We have translated the: preceding paper: t verbatim from the article in the Eine: number, of the Annales de Chimie, for the present years: It-is, not, in, some. set wally free from ; Precck Cabeigcd whethier the fault Jie with’ -atithor or the French tr we cannot eon have given it, to } A ¥ the best of:our i ha faithful: a8 Menuet 1 abil « Sect Sl ove 0, ROO Gh me SE ce Zee al Mc ee, | ah a eee ie AOR, Fe Articuz_ IV. Astronomical. Observations; A825. yore Byst Coly BeaniapeliPew conrceegreastel surest ex ore te nt yf Heath, “near ? Stanmore. Latitude 51° 37’ 443” North. ‘Longitude West in time I’ 20°93”. nine tal we ano, et ato the-baeck)of.the eye under the, angle, in questionts| edt vd bas waty.to bleth aft .io.obra iitel ods co Sh f Althoughothe whole of these remarks|are stated.as-conclusive evidences of facts;it is by no means, intended that a0, possible objection may be-urged against the propriety ofthem, and J am pethaps:thé more-readily induced to, make this.concession from a knowledge of other, peculiar. appearances, and, which were noticed atithe same,time that those were observed, which-haye been Aitherto the, subject of consideration... |, TAGS Ohe) LBS j x10 VOSS While paying attention, tothe, effect produced by, directing my_eye|towards) the, moon,).on remowing the lens from one eye to the-other Lmany}times, founda, dark, jspot,| sometimes ,sur+ rounddd with colour, frequently, situated near, the centre, ofthe — nebulous; light, but often) im.ether places; and nothing except the, eccentricity of the) situations,of these spots would, have prevented:.me, from placing: the | spots;ebseryed.upon the suns dis sby:| astronomers,| to) the accountjof, the sanie allusion, of vision»; This-eccentricity, being /however considerable, | cannot wholly;; permit! myself] to ascribe, (to2,a,,stmilar, deception, the spots observed upon the|sun, from which. its, whole phenomena of r otation, and, the position, of its. axis, Se, wath; regard, to the | eclipti¢-has,been inferred ;, and yet, it, behoxes us, to be extremely circumspect in making) our, deductions in.cases.where |the, subs jects: aie o89; continually, prolific of deceptions., .At.the.same time, however, that this;apology, for,our imperfections.is given, 1 cannot, ati; present, ;conceive, it, possible, that. any, effects; actually; travelling from), the, substance ofa lec Yeats like the sun, can-be yisible tojus.,. So far asthe moon. is.concerned, in whieh) the; same forms ane, always, recognised -in, the | same relative|; places,i the, -probabilities.,.of. truth. areyery; different, besides that the, characters of, the.tyo) bodies differ, essentially from éach,other; and, it) certainly appears eyident,thatnothing less, either than an,interposing body, between, the earth and jthe sun, or, what is highly probable, an illusion of vision, similar toe the one above-mentioned, could, produce, the ,effect, of a, dark spot)on, the face) of the body, in question: Ifjwe even admit that ithese spots; are, openings in the. sun’s. atmosphere, /as,some have imagined, jor that they are chasms,in its body,-how great must be-the,extent of these;chasms,or openings to,allow,of our discovering them at distances! so,immense? Leaving: gratuitous assumptions, out of the question altogether,however, 14 will appear-evident, onan unprejudiced consideration: of, the matter, that:weicam;no, more discover the surface: of the,sun with the best instruments than we can discover with the naked eye, the centré of this’ Garth By means of a pit} whose ER as its semi-diameter. . sired ies ot 3 ‘action of ire », This the negative electricity of acide’ isha 0s 262 M. aon on the Application il the ‘[Qer. iaupsemoo bas layer b nts a re * 3 j Bow Vi SOF to Wwitoels SV (lies, iJ 0 ani to vii ‘40 9 nisaed odj to ao ouse . 8 Sistad - a aie ay 193 ce cn r! ip: i ie ed} 9909 ‘Gd “isgotbyi ‘salt mort bedostel yithssi, siour 18 ~anoitas ‘Suiimdry View the Application of the weahenead ner vd abiaee ito Chemical Pbenomenc ei he yc JOTLOS! Resea 3, on, the chemical ‘infle ence ide ‘of eldctht ve oe ied the ari tend to pr omy es Sida peel in, the, combination of bodies, an Loews i ia to show by i ae in = ie is a source of chemical action pe t my en sho uire, if, on, applying these id 1 ei me the results me be Sh the se a i fo t- wation,: ft te of the presen Pil ca fst ie ils hotions’ prapert i 1S st 2 4 mie mic: BGI S1 ae » Age ri a a i @ vie ti ih bie sis den PRR JAILS ite e endowed with n ppeste eet tles, spe Irigdi te cane Suu ec ricit ies be » e eo he eompi spa wa rt d, i thy negative, trie. a if “th ; — : pe ety te Soret orf = he maical, co rey we Lmao chug for t e union of the parti- eles permanent, th t they, retain their resp ive el ee aaa combination, and consequently that t | povesnnt quit. the particles to unite with, and les other ; otherwise. we cannot imagine, how the p one, combination, to enter into another, sited by electrical state im the first, they must pee fous ene ie er time, all tendency to contract asecond. Action of Acids and Alkalies on Waier. “As. water combines with equal facility with: both: acids’ and hy bodies which are endowed’ with: opposite’ electrical tiv and which water, in whatever quantity, never n or is ‘evidently a neutral compound, and’ cols beny! haven no ‘inherent tendency to unite with ome RAN > Hise, gee it actually does combine with a great’ mbeér it must He bs their action sometimes, a positive, ei a ate lat as, otherwise if, electricity | be the chitie Of eflni afin of wih ot enter into chemical union with them at alle Sitce "A inte hil syalactles exhibit no electricity, ‘i edi ott vibe fioin ‘the rf bodies particles, on biooeeo site eléetri- dies dissolved by the, boi ee t the 3g i sting 29 [XO Y webaiou ih voli from (‘Antal ci Sa tees ot 1826.] Electrochemical Theory to. Chemical Phenomena. 263 positive electricity, of the hydrogen, and repel and consequently liberate a portion of the negative electricity of the oxygen, and hence the latter acquires a tendency to enter into fresh combi- nations, and is more readily detached from the hydrogen y other bodies having an affinity for. it. \:'Thus: many metals whic cannot alone’ take oxygen from*water, decompose it rapidly by thevintervention of weak acids... a | a iteling. on the contrary, being positively electrified, attract the oxygen,of water, and repel its hydrogen, during which a part of the electricity of the latter is set free, and it thus acquires a tendency, to abandon the former. In this manner the hydrogen of water combines, with. chlorine and iodine, which alone’ could ot. take it from. its oxygen, at least whilst all the physical condi- tions remain unaltered... aldo ont “Enotno ne The. prevailing .chemical theory is. tte in8ufficient'' to explain rationally the, influence’ of acids and alkahes in ‘promot- ing the, AegoMPORHPR,Bt, water in the cases, above-mentioned. It would be erroneous to attribute it to their’ affihity for the oxides or acids about to be formed, for if'we suppose the ‘force £ ; <% which, tends to, unite hem to be inherent in. the moléciles, ‘we must admit that it can exert itself only when aio are’ foymed, unless they,be simple. This cause, therefore, can have’ no effect till that, which is,attributed to it has already been produced. ~ It is, in.like manner, by diminishing the reciprocal action of the elements.of, water by the attraction of one of then, and’ the repulsion, of the other, and thus setting free a part of their con- cealed. electricity, that acids and alkalies fadi litate the decom- posing, powers, of the yoltaic apparatus; and hence’ also’ the rapidity of its action is increased in proportion to their eriergy. Salts . issolved in water, acting, as we shall presently see, ‘as acids or alkalies, produce analogous effects, 9 009" Reciprocal Action of Acids and Oxides. .. When anacidicombines with an oxide, if the free antagonist electricities,of their molecules be capable of mutually balancing each, other,,it,is,eyident.that no. change can ensue in the ubion of their, xespective.elements... But if that. of one of them,’ the positing electricity, of the oxide, for example, be comparatively eeble, ,the, acid,.from its predominating negative electricity, causes dts developement by attracting that. element which ‘is endowed .with, it, and repelling the other; and this influence -may,.go.so,far.as, to, determine. their, partial separation, ‘Thus many, oxides are reduced to a.lower, state of oxidation by the giiged action, of acids.;..for instance, the deutoxide of bariumis re to, the, state.of protoxide by th BCI a cs 4a asathaliessi.pn the ,contrary,, by,.their action: on certain oxides which perform the part,of acids with respect’ to them, Separate aportion of the metal, and raise the remainder to a eaction of muriatic acid AA Lead $F 2. 264 _M. Ferr? on the, Application of the [Oor, higher acai of oxidation, Thus, potash causes protoxide) of tin. to-pams ait ¢ fe in deutond hy 4 fii habeas. when the alkalies met pat positive electricity b ste te er tem silly acon new quantity | een said ab rena acids aa cai ve ae sae 1s (app Leshle:te-this ‘ pis e aes mm a ia I ase renee fects oe fall oe if ca ol i Ge BS aie cri when; gtingiom An anids dentd to Separate its elements reg should Ais ye eed Sia acietetns gee t} ea 4 Jerx9 JonnSD Laie ea ayra fact seh thmartal mbeceering i Woesenta aD 5 y may, easily, explained } namely, why; sthe DS ng fi capacity of saburation of on has pith sheiproporacniet oo Pp ” fe ctricity ber ge pa oe oO of , ne might suppose ‘that |the hi nett i vp seta sm should fellow de po on,of oxygen am the oxid syayiis ae eases, It i teenie e cd destroys); b y. etnies a Loi nate oy eae part. of that of the acid; whose quantity for an quantit etal, must thus increase in the ratio, 8! iner ease that, prineiple, tq dotdw sasmonsdg 916 gio T [s yay te ywy.199 moi eth i a r Salts Uy the Tatervention of Walen,.. All sale oh of! soluble. in, water.,..An andisp obama tion, of of sal ti eee non-netrality, for the; oneideing a n ip Batis nah A r equally neutral, cani -haye |iio, action’ ue At... Put, 1618, not, Binnie y, true. a’ Si dy at mere rn sit i Hi me e, it must, therefore; be neutral; forithe epee as olecules may ren os itinsdkuble altho ght dé Hy ne of fy ocit | 1d swied beqoleveb nod? 918 9vodn i10 cee pee cf ta s, therefore, dissdlves: qm water, AC Ar aad p by, an-excess |of positivévor-negay tive ,¢lec sae net ata one ofits celernanits: nen pe Be 1 this way) Fitetsen a account for a nfacty ia seek ained by, any) theory, namely 5 ithe! be Sh nets by the .interventions of swaters @, mixed; together, the: elements giiie a crite & Part, dao the electricity dn the ISSOLVI igul oe 0 F thew: must etermine to that endowed 1826.] Electré-chemieul mnie! to Cheinicad Phenomena, 265° with if Contrary Clecthigny iin’ the aisha tigi of the other. The: nd mel aaty' oP he wate ats ning tl Nee ‘libe- ratedjoaepaw @aely Solution ‘at thd insta ft ‘th arat te in an opposite ae inebadb ‘elements of the alt’, jike van two poles of — the dxygen' tépels the ‘acid, whith, on the contrary, is attr acted by the h di'o roach, | 1; “but it attracts the alkali pane : it detérmines' to the h: ‘of the other’ solution, ‘with wi hic it iotorpoannaeahiiee alkali combines with ‘the'acid thee it finds thatey ate’ produees! new Salt, Phe _ onld ogo theoéhaneé, therefore, Batweeh” ‘the: priadip ipleg. ‘orth ithe molecules 6f the Shae Hid determinds that of the’ clenints 0 thelgales) oThiS chine aldo takes’ place, as: ‘As well ki own, W He wateris decomposed! by the voltaic pile, and it, fp in like, teh ‘by these nvea nl thatiit Rut the’ ‘disunioti, wth the assistan ce “ a ge oes eléments’ bfdodipounds whic dh it holds }' Pts ip Observed that’ the’ esta os ita f saline Hoouliaseeltdait vobeare ais that of the wi water, 2 to peiosinte M ei said) that: ‘te 0 SE lawl cannot exist togéther ieee HERE ee de ensuing & betwee n the elanients 6f tectwo Suit ; this’ Veulnedee ts ’ thé'o pido iHerto ror se Aye beens posed tha tie (Shenae are R bet ng tee iisoluble Nate ene Gipitates ie ormed, TtWONéE attributed the dee Sitio a cH Jasolbity ssalbatiinenaes been: qustly remar a irate onde sid vtallwhieh the iso ubihity'is | ‘wis oft tit nae ti ddectnposiGen has’ taken place, aiid ‘Gris suqite ently ‘carinot be, ihe eansd GPItY HELE It is” ‘only secondary ellis which renders it/permanent atid intinifest, whereas, otherwise: it. as ‘continual and Itepite1 od} oi sesoival 2nd There are phenomena which prove! ‘the! yeatity oF éhiis Vatenie® action ue een. two saline solutions, in which no pracimiaie is fornied, As ih'thé ‘action of the carbonates. of potash and soda, on inbolublelsetes |= "Phe ‘decomposition os never com) léte, but waysktops ata éértaifl pdint, ‘although a portion ‘of th é Bir betes still remains id Wlution. “This arises frou thé fornidtion’ of disolubleisalto by the? wnidt of the’ alkaline’ base. athe acid, of ithe inkoluble dle whee! tiatitity continually inereasés with thé jriguesloncldunenento aes “The phenomena mentioned above are then developed between: the two salts in solutidh) aid thissre ciprood aebione ppldsed that ‘of the’ alkaline ee é‘on. the dinsobuble’ sale. olga thie!Warite ‘time rénders’ that WHich thé soluble lsalt} resulting from! thé! ‘decomposition would § ert On theainsoluble @altyulsesderived from the'same soutce, ir} eal fortintheidecomposition of stilphate’of tout for in sae i ; carbonate of potash; the soluble sulphate that'is formed aftersthe separatidir of this’ carbonate, ‘decompose that of ~ the batiy tes! butiothis decomposition is ‘algo ‘always ‘inept lefe” bawobns 3sd} 03 soln » Sea 266. AM, Ferrévon the Application of the... {Oer, sequence of the formation of carbonate) ofpotash, which. is gain hasnt Mtbdesit to ytivitiasl4 vitieog edi vd belssaaos vilusg ot} 08 beoerel e1g, y: } .d wITTO, STF apy yoamon waa ods Jn9Mom 18 Mister vei Of Organic, Chemical Phenomena... , 9 QT8116 We have seen combinations effected between bodiés whose molecules: are naturally endowed with free opposite electricities, and jothers) in which only one: of the combining substances poss sessing acid or alkaline oor, Wen developes byrits influence the electricity of the other, and renders it a-sort,ofaceidéntal acid ov alkaliy.the induced state being only, momentary and -condi- tional, and ceasing with the influence that occasioned: it, ). We have now. to consider a third kind, of. combination. between bodies, some of which only possess alkaline or. acid propertiess as in the preceding instance, but develope them ee the others ; in a word, realiacids or alkalies are formed; and thui two compounds. are) oduced: instead of; ones: ‘The definative compound is preceded»by the formation of another; which merely assists in forming, partoof\the first.’ bis ,omydo otarhsitevaos A-remarkable:instance}of this kind of combination is:seen in the action of alkalies onifatty substatices. The molecules:ofithe former not finding a)free megative electricity in those of the latter: capable of neutralizing their own positive electricity, devés lope: it, .as,in-theiy action! on water, (by attracting, sich of their elementary molecules as are negatively electrified, and repelling the others; but. water-being formed of only two, constituent molecules, it is evident that this influence could not produce;& new compound, | Organic substances, containing, a greater num- ber of elements, they are;eapable, by a change |in their relative disposition, of so arranging| themselves as to form compounds in *which the negative electricity predominates, and consequently are able .to neutralize, the positive electricity of the alkaliese sco» .This:mode ‘of combination |is very different from that which gives rise to inorganic compounds. In fact, in their formation the: constituent. molecules, left to their reciprocalaction, are free to obey their tendency \to combine molecule with moleeule,,and the combination is thus always binary, or produced|by:theaction of only two forces. The proportions of their elements,depend solely)on, this, binary disposition of) their; molecules, and) their numbers; Their electrical state /has,noinfluence,on their propor: tions) but in| the formation of acids: by; the-action ofjalkalies on fatty|, substances; their: constituent; molecules: .are)sno longer abandoned to their sole reciprocal action ; they-are regulated. the, influence; of the positive, electricity ,of the alkalies, whi opposes/thein, tendenoy, to combine molecule with molecule, and obligés them to, unite)in| such numbers, and to assume such rela- tive, disposition, as shall produce: compounds, whose electrical Statens; capable) of neutralizing that which,acts,upon them, )da | tenm 2zooapiedue (sauder te eto\s sd) ) .gaseoibyd ed? go 1825.] Electro-chemical Lheory.to Chemical. Phenomena. 267 fact the’ négative ‘electricity of the molecules: attracted, pbeing partly concealed by the positive electricity of the‘alkaliesy at the moment the new compounds are formed, they are forced so to arrange themselves ‘with ‘the’ others’ as that they may retain an excess of ity” moowied bojoolts .eaovsaidaies,asea eved o V4 Atis evident im this case: that the proportions of the-elements of thes compounds must depend on the electrical statethat they assume lt 1s/important to notice this pecuharity, for the dif- ferendeofithe properties of organic substances depending solely onthe different) proportions of their elements, the prodigious variety! of the former must lead us to infer that the cause which determines the latter:cannot: be the same as in inorganic sub- staricesy whic combine in very hmited proportions.:io% 9100 ) Allthe substances of the first :class seem to: owe their formas tion ‘too a) mode oof combination analogous to that~we shave examined ; for instance, let:us firstotake the substances that are produced by the act of digestion, by which the food is partially converted into chyme, and the latterintochyle, which is'e flected by thediquors' poured out by the excretory organs into the-intes- tmalcanah It:has beemobserved thatithe substances which are thereoinjected ‘are in a short: time acidified: “This confirms:our theory, /sincéoall the liquors/poured imto th¢:intestinal canal are alkaline.\°The:chymeiand ‘the chyte, therefore, ave merely: salts composed of those alkaline liquors andof the aeids developed: by their influence in the food forthe chyme, and in the-latter for thewhiyley fo0 bivoo mn aids tedt doobiva et hs .eoluostom «Theaet ‘by whieh the organs give rise-to the liquors: they: secrete, différs' from the preceding merely inasmuch asthe ‘acid or alkaline’ products resulting from the influence of the particu- lar matter'which:composes each of them: on the blood,’ donot combine! with it.) \Hence:all the secreted liquors are alkaline.or acid.’ ‘This is not the only example of the kind. ‘Fermentation, whether vinous: or acetous, is an analogous phenomenon; for; as In secretion, the products formed do not combine with the mat- ter which determined their formation, at least if we may judge by ‘the small quantity ‘of ferment that disappears: durme? thié operation! (9111919 Moos ii) welt J{0g i tT OW) (iff0 to J Letus say one word-on the causes of the spontaneous decom- position ‘of organic substances;which are derived ‘from thentode m which |‘their elementary! molecules ‘are’ disposed: with respect to:their electrical states It/is mot! the same with-all molecules! of the same nature, In: vegetable substances, ‘for’ instance, the oxyen “never being’ in /stifficient proportion to ‘forma water with the hydrogen and oxide lof carbon, ‘or! carbonic! acid! with the carbon, some of: the molecules of ‘the latter must be-endowed with positive electricity;)‘and tend to‘combine: with’ the oxygen) ahd the others with négative electricity, and actanorees pecrally on the hydrogen... The azote of animal substances, must be 268 DiMollonthe = Fen, Pg Fe a em scbutnot so the: land duydroge the'former being 'n incase jonah dainnedoce db atonedeede to'alb th others!) ied to yiiimsup: add omtariss3sb ot sldiaaogmni Hence we' see that organic substances dust’ have2 constant: tendenty to be°trarisformed into’a certain number! of! inorganic: compounds); forim onejof them, composed, of four,elements, the; positively electrical molecules of carbon, ten to, form, casbonic, acid with the oxygen, and the negatively. coisa buret hydrogen with the hydrogen ; slat a part of the latter at also jpevonen water with the oxygen ~or> ammonia with the Boniee oe iBeaR the! oe decomposition OF ofganiéSb- a8, ther ie ow y deriv A a (iiral ‘tend _— ter tert oy Binet) mee eeffects remy fi a ff ‘it by setting thentiatliberty) amons win ! ‘tent eg Ge! Of ee Thost® Ms bap Weincuecie ecnen are’ succeded)? a8"the Vast wt The inorganic bye compouni s, such as water, carbonic acid, ammonia, &c. is the outline of the theoretical idaratiqns to ih anernhie to, call .the. fe enting of > Mere, numerous applications, Syn a8, facts on which they are founded, w Abra alg incr tga Wi sais tc 10 eon ib auksberaee ige limi ; to whi lam cb to con ine myself. iw doidw > ‘noitooni6: » aidt lo mons: Jeon ob 8 9189 ,ogonl eae suspended; and prevail bsisqi Moa 8e ys doidw bis Fiaqsq Jo2sig jit of boaiojdyua od 7a, bestuntei9b ABW ~ toh eH a 22104 Mi io sedi diiw bne 4. bis19 bas in fee ore .e1e29M to ecerenE mot sosiqad AnsAccount of Experiments on the| Velocity: of, Sonridy anadle sda Holland. © By Dv.'G: Moll; Professor of -Natural)Philosdphy, oer tere of Utrecht, rand Dn Ad Van Beek.* dion A ie saad ti eieizs “rio bas bavae to yiioolev aft Bib shes Nerieah formula, expressing the, Yelactty, Sf sou Old’zt ti ay idw croit noitseibiodt of eaibiosos .bavoa to otf} ai boislidiaecs od veo cmA FEBeues 2idt tedt aissaqs IT ymnse od} te ylisszs boiioxs brows tet s9n08m oitiwollot has sie his eine bede riveseiblieed aid demonstrated by several fidtlaee thatheiaticians: “Actialexperitients-howeverior this veloeity, isticated M''vatious “eduntriesp atid’ under odifferent bireaadwareds! wert 16 prove thae the Celeney SPebanay folidd he ag abit dHelsigtl redter that! cant’ bé dbdticed y theo The colebPited Laplitc Bichnitit toh this ie nee between ‘ay cionce Geet aaa experiment and theory; e Stay nes ST. .vxxz! .ino3 ent sheslenth -bidl 2 * Abstracted fron the Philosophical Transactions for 1824, Part II. 1825.] Velocity of Sound. 269 to the:heat evolved by the compression iof the particles, of; aix, whichsis: effected) bythe) undulations .of;soundy. Tt was found impossible to determine the quantity of heat thuscewolyedj,by; the:compnession! which sound occasions in the particlesoof ithe aingsanditherefore vit wasodeemed) expedient. to,multiply, )Sin Rade? Newton's formula bya constant factor! / de opody the RRMoPWwhiGh Was determined by experiment. Sir Dsaac’s! forg va male thisultéred, becanie P2099 opyxe silt ditw bios yer tWiisl oft Yo disq a jepew ; aqgorbvd 9d} diiw oogoibyd of FS ~ Mi isk. aleve souboiq oals , . DO .SIOSE -df hus, :by» the experiments of the, French. A plenit ‘of 1738, the most, accurate.on this subject of that.time, the value of k:was found, equal, to, 0,4264...[t is, plain, a this correction ofthe original, formula 4s;.merely empirical, 5 F iependant oa the accuracy of experiments, which in, 1738, .had, certainly, not atfained. the perfection which, is.required at, pr yeu fs dale seAn consequence, this, formula, was. thus, altered by, Laplace oinodiso ,19isw es dove éYipeginos vgnid otnset0gs yd .2iluesr Isoitet10sds odd to saitf/o opt iA doee 98 .sicomears. bios if wie ‘s°the Specific Heat SP thie! air uiider @ constant? pres e, can qulggin, Y specie’ ebicvad volte r¥ . . git diiw sinomois Cie 5 heat’ of “hea! utiddt a -ebnstant jaiduobay bivow -bobasot sis yods doidwi no eost MY fiehd Dr. Vail Rees, “Prb fessor it" the ‘Whiversity!°6f é - _ tisaymn satdoo of bo‘eildo ms i ds i W Of slo Liege, gave a demonstration of this correction -, which will 3 : be subjoined to the present paper,}+ and which may be compared with that of Mr. Poisson.{; yThe value,of ~ was determined by Laplace from experiments of Messrs. Laroche and Berard,§ and founthequaltod 4954 ;> but later andimorevaccurate experihents of! Messrs Gayo Lugsac and Welter!brought ito F,3748.0\\oK\ Anothe¥.dause of thé difference: between actual experiments : the v locity of sound and its theory, exists,in the yen le Pooh BP tne witaPWHtch Lithet wasbleraraPdn tetard¥AhGh dhdee of sound, according to the direction from which it is blowiig. It appears that this causé ‘of error,may be annihilated in the following manner. Let sodnd¥ be excited exactly at the same fime, on bpth sends, ofa basis,ianddettwo ebseryers statignad.en _ thésesends,, measure, thexelecity;with which sounds,travels from one, ¢hdof the basis.to the, other., Itis.quite clear;that, th Qn of:the wind amast necessarily aecelerate,the velocity of the sound éxcitediat one, end, of the, basisj,as, much, ascit will xetardthat at ; -viosd3 yd neaswiad Som: in Ann, de Phys, et Chim. tom. iit pe®385o155 oT botudintis ODM Cat Uk TERS f bas inamireqxe § Ibid. Annales de Chimie, tom. Ixxxv. p.72. “AT traD ASSLT x02 encitosensiT (enidcoaolidd adi aot botoantedA * 270 “Dy Moll on the [Ocr. the oll etd, gt te spe ake aro 8’ Will thé'Véldcity in tranguiPaic” "Thi i y thé Frenéhi Jn endbi realy r1708 in” their’ "é betweet Monthléry dntmartte! a reac sy é ston fiat the observers were i i tlitisY sults remained affected: “by “thie! ¥ ffede x, wind. Tt was found expedient therefore to repéat these'e ments with ‘more accuracy,’ and this was’ exeéut vin taation on Mr. Laplace's A at by ai te he athieu;) Bouvard, denbila t, and Gay’ ssa¢ e° aa spe nients (pete mie in 1822, on the basis of Mother if, | TREO ia en da ays, the’ 21st oi of) aiator shots were fired on’ both stations, and’ phe ¢ iF ae? diffe lice ‘Of tinte’ in’ which ‘the ¢ ae ondine ae were fired at | oth stations’ not" a ce o" thinutes? and froi these svt scene ‘ i a hs ever been ‘nad im @ou wine pi it ets thks ee, His’ Royal’ High Price’ i ie ‘se éeond ‘sono as " peyoene icing! ” pe er and bei enc or thé’ rdnance; was” sed re our sal of repeating the same} and’ io ath Wagl benontatdaunee Ty ett ed and the offi Ba: said of thé battalion’ of! Artillery’ tnder‘his command, to of ed cement their power, aid’ to take ant actial ai ety = % was’ aero riments FSS fied paves te make’ men ede ehaea! tivo'dewuted ots were’ selected on the | extended heaths of the “Pr ‘of Utrecht. ‘One’ ‘of these is a small hill between the (sien “Of Naarden and the village of Blaricum, and called'the Kéolt vote the other is somewhat higher, and situated ‘on the ‘ti road from Utrecht to ‘Amersfoort, and very néar' th an ot to Both places were distinctly visible from “ohie ‘anot er, and: the distance was between 17000 and 18000 metres or fatho Our'tithe Was kept’ by two’ time-keepers, ‘whitch th é' Minis fi Martine had kindly furnished us with ; onie thade y Arnold t othér by our cotintry mat Mr. Kiiebel.'” But! thé’ exact inte between thé ‘observation of light, and the' percep tion ‘of s6und; and consequently the velocity’ of sound, “wis medsvited with stall clocks’ with conical’ pendalums:’’! “Ph y are’ sratutagl * ‘Mr: Withelm Pfaffius, and proved 'trem "kay ‘adapted: fot'this’ Ass eo" NGM ell Wri tha hie et of the conical, or semua prcA k we nia sisehioh; ‘they were: employed at tipebled Yok the: fied! ite ‘by the’ German’ philosopher Banvanher im Th clogks with’ if eonital! a pool | divide 'the ‘24h of the” | on Ge Amat Physik, 1804, B. 9 wi jelidw .aovete ted a ant of th ks is Ps, Vi “and | New Seles, Solr P. 1825.) Velocity of Sound. 271 in.10,000,000 parts, and'one of the indexes, gives guns fired at the station 14. | 52,52 of Kooltjesberg. 15 52,54 | 16 52,43 17 51,91 19 §2,50 {J Sum 628,39, which being divided by twelve, the number of observations, gives the passage of sound along. the basis 52,37. Thus the mean velocity in I’ was 337,39 = 1107,268 feet. | The mean temperature at the time of these experiments pry Centigrade. at Zevenboompjes............ at Kooltjesberge. ow. eee e ss 8, 54 Mean temperature of the air. .. 7 ,975 =t Mean height of the barometer corrected for capillarity, and at Q° cent. : <, Sa ror eae ) at Zevenboompjes. ..i.44. 64. 0",7522 which quantities substituted in the formula, we have for tem- “perature 0° cent. and in_ perfectly dry air the velocity of sound a = 331,85 metres = 1089,087 feet. | “Experiments of 26th June, 1823, when the Shots were not reci- procal. 3 The 26th of June, the following shots were.seen dnd heard at Kooltjesberg and fired at. Zeyenboompjes, but no shots from the first station were heard at the latter. ; 280 Dr. Moll on the “{Ocr. Number | Time between |. of shots. {lightand report. 1 50,20” 2 50,80 3 51,44 4 52,20 5 51,10 Guns fired at Zevenboomp- 9 50,11 > jes, heard and seen at ll 50,99 Kooltjesberg. 12 13 14 16 ~ 50,81 51,00 51,01 61,12} 4 Total of 12 shots} 560,78 | The mean of which is 50”,98 which gives a velocity of 346,59 metres = 1137,134 feet in 1”. The temperature was at that time maf ae at Zevenboompjes 11°, 57 Kooltjesberg 12, 54 Mean temperature ........... . 12,055 = ¢. Mean atmospheric pressure at Zevenboompjes. —- 0, 7493. Mean atmospheric pressure at Kooltjesberg 09,7512. Mean pressure of atmosphere 0,75025 = p. Mean tension of aqueous vapour, at Zeven- 0.00892922 boompjeS .eseseeee oo anapnsile 600 .0%'s 06 ‘ : at Kooltjesberg 0,0101137 Mean tension of aqueous vapour.......+... 0,00952149 = F Calculating by this datum we shall have the observed velo- ‘city of sound in 1” reduced to dry air and 0° temperature V = 338,20 = 1109,927 feet; but the experiments. of the 25th gave V’ = 331",85 = 1089,087 feet. Difference 6™,35 = 20,840 feet per 1” between the experiments of the 25th and 26th of June, in which the shots were not reciprocal. This difference is about 1. of the.mean of both observations. But the 27th and 28th of June, when the shots were. reciprocal, the difference between the results of both days were Sty 0™,66 = 2,166 feet, that is about .1. of the mean result of the obser- vations. | . From the comparison. of. these results we may safely infer, that only such shots will answer the purpose for which these experiments are made, which are exactly fired at the same ‘instant on both stations. . «Tt is in this respect, 1 imagine, that our experiment. may claim some attention, as the very great care and ability of our 1825.] artillery men enabled us to have the Velocity vf Sound. of one second. 281 guns‘fired within the interval A Table showing the Results. of Experiments on the Velocity of Sound as observed by different. Philosophers. Time when |Country where Velocity. of sound Names of observers, made, made. _|Length of basis in feet.| per second in feet. Mersenne ‘ France © — 1469-88 1 Florentine philosophers| 1660 | Italy 5905:8 1184-44 2 Walker 1698 England 2624°8 1305°83 3 Cassini, Huigens, &c. | France 6906-50 1151-63 4 Flamsteed and Halley {England 16405:0 1141-78 5 Derham 1704 & 1705|England 5249°6 to 6562 «= {1141-78 6 French Academians _ {1738 - France 15177-55 and 93593°8|1092°57 at 32° F. | 7 Blanconi ° 1740 Italy 1874-0 1043°35 8 La Condamine 1740 ~ |Quito 6740158 1112°25 » 9 La Condamine 1744 Cayenne 129366-54 1174-59 10 T. F. Mayer 1778 Germany 3702-40 1105-69 li G. E, Muller 1791 Germany 8530-6 1108-97 12 Epinoza and Banza 1794 Chili 53627:94 1168-50 13 Benzenberg 1809 Germany 29765°23 1092-57 at 32° F. |14 Art Mathieu Prony|1822 France 61065-97 1086:0 15 oll, Van Beek, and ; f 1089°7445 at Kv peanaae t 1893 Netherlands |5797290°76 di dee ay 16 1. Mersenne de Arte Ballistica, Prop. 39. ’ 2. Tentamina Experim. Acad. del Cimento, L. B. 1738, Part II. p. 116. 3. Philos. Trans. 1698, No. 247. , 4, Duhamel, Hist. Acad. Reg. L. II. Sect. 3, Cap. II. 5. Philos. Trans. 1708 and 1709. | 6. Ibid. ibid. 7. Mem. de l’Academie des Sciences, 1738 and 1739, 8. Comment, Bononienses, vol. ii. p. 365. ; 9. La Condamine Introduction Historique, &c. 1751, p. 98. 10. Mem. de l’Acad. Royale des Sciences, 1745, p. 488. ‘ 11. J. T. Mayer, Praktische Géométrie Gottingen, 1792, B. 1, p. 166. St. 1, p. 170. ‘ 13. Annales de Chimie et de Phys. t. vii: p. 93. - 14, Gilbert’s Annalen, neue Folge, B. v, p. 383. 15. Connoissance des Tems, 1825, p. 361. ArticLE VIII. On Copper Sheathing. . Muller, Gétting. Gelehrt. Anzeige, 1791, St. 159 et Voigts Magazin, &c. B. 8, We copy the following answer to an article which appeared, it seems, in the Plymouth Journal a short, time since, from the Devonport Telegraph of Sept. 3 :— . Sir H. Davy’s Protectors. ‘We cannot descend to” personalities with the Plymouth Journal, and its, vulgar auxiliaries—a style of writing which we thought had departed with its former editor. We repeat our 282 Copper Sheathing. [Ocr. conviction, that the article originally complained of was’ calew- lated to convey a wrong impression to the world, atid we know it has in more than one case produced an injurious effect. The impression derived from that article was, that Government had abandoned Sir H. Davy’s plan altogether, which is contrary to the fact ; and our cotemporary has been compelled by us~to~- admit, that all uli: in.a good condition in ordinary are to be fitted with protectors. Our assertion was, that the application of pro- tectors was suspended for sea-going ships, but that they were: to be applied to ships in ordinary, and we cited the Royal Sovereign as an instance. Let,our readers compare this assertion with rae following public order, copied from the Plymouth Journal,.and we are sure they will feel satisfied that we have done that which was right—right for the public service, and right for the fame of Sir i. Davy—the true and equitable mean which ought at all times to be observed :— “ ¢ Public Order, July 23, «< «In pursuance of an order from the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty of the 19th inst. we direct and require you to. consider it as a general rule, that no sea-going ship is to be fitted with Sir Humphry Davy’s protectors, aad that when such ships, in good condition, come into dock from time to time to refit, the protectors’ now upon them are to be removed. | «¢, MAD BN oh ot ato & ho bw dios weie'd od aa Kiee ae PUBCE 6 a4 asd Lisle &RS 6 dhs an'ed das da aR ee Oxides of lead and iron. .....0..c00s 2°08 100-514 I have not, deducted the oxygen of the 2:08, the weight of the oxides of iron and lead, which is the cause of the slight excess that I obtained. ea | 47°43 of lead combine with 18°13 of selenium to form seleniu- ret of lead, and 15:45 of copper with 9:69 of selenium to form seleniuret of copper, and with 19°38 to form the biseleniuret. What I have already said of the probable composition of the _* \A second analysis gave me 57:15 lead, and 9°56 copper; the latter, however, con~ tained some iron which was not separated from it. t+ Some sulphurets exhibit similat phenomena. A compound of one atom of cobal with four atoms of copper would lose sulphur by being heated in a matrass. It, how- ever, loses nothing, ifit contain arseniuret, of cobalt, as in the grey cobalt. t- On repeating the analysis I obtained 14°23 ‘per cent. of copper, 50-27 lead, and 1°09-silver, The difference between these two analyses is greater than should exist between two analyses of a crystallized mineral. | New Series, vou. x, U 290 - M. Rose’s Analysis of the [Ocr, gther mineral may be applied to this, It appears also that, the same proportion obtains between the two seleniurets of copper, The proportions of the elements of these two minerals, are not perhaps definite: We may call the least fusible one, which alse. contains the smallest quantity of copper, cupriferous selenturgéyof lead; and the other, which has a larger quantity of copper, and is more fusible, seleninret of lead and copper, i 5. Seleniuret of Lead with Seleniuret of Mercury “The analyses of this compound were more troublesome than ose of the other seleniurets, because the seleniuret of mercury is not combined with the seleniuret of lead in any definite proportion. Different portions of the same specimen are so unequal ly com~. posed that two pieces of the same mass gave very different results. A seleniuret of lead which contains no seleniuret, of _ mercury, cannot be distinguished by its external appearance from those seleniurets which contain either much or kittle of it, They have the same colour, are only found massive, and disse-. minated in bitter spar, Some specimens have a small grained, saccharoidal fracture; others are coarse grained, and afford parts which have a pretty distinct triple cleavage, according to the planes of the cube. I! observed in several specimens of this mineral that the seleniuret of lead most remote from the, bitter spar, contained the greatest quantity of seleniuret of mereury, and that that in immediate contact with it was quite free from it. When the mineral has a distinet cleavage, only the latter presents lamellar parts: the first (that in contact with the bitter spar) is always fine grained saccharoidal. It is easy to ascer- tain whether the seleniuret of lead contains much seleniuret of mercury, or not;- for the pure seleniuret of lead does not fuse, and gives no sublimate when heated in a small matrass ; but if it contain seleniuret: of mercury, the latter rises, and forms a very crystalline sublimate, the quantity of which is proportionate to that of the seleniuret of mercury in the mineral. , If it be large, theassay boils up strongly at first, whilst the seleniuret of mercury sublimes, and only infusible seleniuret of lead is left. A small portion of seleniate of mercury is usnally formed by, the action of the air in the matrass, which js rather more volatile than the seleniuret. The latter may be wholly converted into seleniate by heating the assay in an open tube. The fused sele- niate of mercury forms yellowish drops which, have some resem>, blance to the oxide of tellurium, whose presence I suspected in these minerals before I had satisfied myself that they contain mercury. The presence of mercury is deteeted by heating the mineral in a small matrass with a little dry carbonate of soda, when the mercury sublimes, It is also sometimes obtained, as well as the seleniuret of mereury, by peeking the mineral with- out the soda, but in the latter case, its production is owing to the bitter spar which decomposes the assays... vio tigasy en 1825.) .. \ Welenturets of the Eastern Harz. » 28% some resemblance to perchloride of selenium, butis less volatile, nip added ip excess, | Sulpbure of merenry fell down which. recently containe U 999 Analysis of the Selenturets of the’ Baste Harz. [Oer. PRAMS 2. « Sis ks ho Chips o. DEOF Lead... 3. ... A saat eAAy ... i... 55:84 RP CRMRTOGIY 54. ih cons ckalaedemsybe. 1694 Loss 2iwaspussgd. Wnosmas Oyo dal A 2°25 ont aside} sis eisdmu. sniwollot sdt .anoigsaxQQred {i" f] esiqion 1 tend od3_ daildes . igmetiA > “e'noamod .4 The loss is too great to allow us accurately. to determine the composition of the mineral, Lut I have reason to believe that it consisted principally of selenium. 55°84 of lead combine with 21°39 of selenium, and 16-94 of mercury with 6°63 ‘of sélenium. We may, perhaps, imagine it to consist of an atom of sélétiuret of mercury,and three atoms of seleniuret oflead. = I'am satisfied, howeyer, th the seleniuret of lead in’ this vy mineral is not combined with the, seleniuret of mercury in any definite proportion, but that the.two seleniurets are capable of pont uniting (like isomorphous, substances) in_all proportior § Wl 9 affecting the form of the, compound ; for I treated 0 gramme (13°9 grains) of the same specimen from which I. select ed the portion. for the first analysis with chlorine, caref vibe ose the cubic pieces which had.precisely the same externalappear-_ ance as those which I had..analysed in the first instance,,.and I obtained only 0°33 gratame (5 grains) of chloride of lead, equi- valenttd 0246 gramme(3:8 grains) of lead. If we caleulate the from the other. atet9os composition of the mineral! ‘according to this result, »weoobtain the following as the proportions of its elements, wholly different pho Jimtror a ORS ; Os : soilteoult Selenium Sow ee wee ee emer e eet eeaeneasn 97°98. »tllso Leads CONRAD oe ee wi ee ar ee naneene 27°39 cided Mercury. o oc6lw lee ee. ‘ « es ee ee eee aete 44569 oo:yd ki © ‘ © e , fo. . - 100" eoqya 6 . Sisaodts. 0g rug tuecdy dA In addition to the’ préceding minerals, M. Zinken has also “seit me another cotitdining selenium, lead, copper, and‘a'good deal of silver. I havé'Hdt, however, submitted it 'to"a qiantita- _ tive analysis, because the specimen was mixed Tet vere _magnesian spar, but also with, copper /pyrites, fro’ Which I with could not separate it. The copper pyrites moreover covered the ee ;* Lo vo large portion of selenium. whole mass in the form of mammelle, and containéd, itself, a ’ Db) Sraden - OWS Ol og .qe binpil 5 ) Jehu2odgd ah - = BiTOTIIG steriqeodg | aE : vilsxo {.w 1) stanodissiupesz 1 8y. : (.w B .3) w& .9) stamiooue 4 ge - - orioldo1sg sdadqine 8s - - 2 orroilgeodg | OY - - evorodqeody 1a] A aecth-Obernieal Raninglents a E-86 ,, _.Articig. X. A Table of Chemical Equivalents. [With few exceptions, the following numbers are taken from Chee Thomson’s “ Attempt to establish the First Pripaiples of istiy’ by Eepecimentr, "1 tf ie 3 9V Acids acetic ;, - | Ske - 50 - saclactic . m - 104 mii lS" 4 w.) . i - 59 selenic "4 3 2308 +» BEsenic, - - - 62 succinic (anhydrous crystals) - ~80 ~ arsenious - - - 54 sulphuric = - .A0 ,, boracie - so Ta Et Gigaids-apagr. I 4838, " W3 “49 Woe a kD eer Pe ae sulphurous < ea 2 carbonic ss = ate TS tertatic, oon -- ue 2h +BIDH 1g ~ ehloric - ae pee OT RE aHQE TOG 01g: SITIES hss perchloric (2 ers 2g SO Agee FIOM Oe 32 iL) Saf ht iag ~ ¢chloriodic BOM A. FOR OF96 OH M0 Sa sightic « » mip? oft gaitog igo °* chloroéarbonic LOM {IggIpI4s Qrpse ont Jo- (amgre Vf lag ¢dhlorocyanie OP POLL) 6a cleviso@, Qwiy OF Tor. OU sO90 182 @hrénifel T9149 aise 90 ylpgop lua. dow y eoocig side > 2d8T {igitnig ISI aO We ve Ti ail b6g7\sAtubind | doidy, sz0di 2% s9n97 + ; “ Dfen2 w.) sadote- feared €¢ ssnlphate: OG vito $9 3 316T 0). eolumbic ss oo) 2 W52idvo &subsulphates(2 bit+ bs) + 116 )fluoboric., | = 2 Hf aia b3ao Weiner Slt. = isodg \ fluoric - 2 97 WO Ac Anpmonig oil tea -agierol YL aT formic - “ Lh BT acetate & wali ry OT fluosilicic - - - 26 TOT wp < - - 180 gallic Ss te te ~ 62° >’ «>» arseniate (UMLSIO® 2 - 9 hydriodic *> «40 +6440 6 a 325 bicarbonate (2 w.) - = 79 hydrocyanic ar eee ~- 27 borate VUO19 in $ Al hyposulphurous ote (c. 2 w.) . - 59 hyposulphuric . - 36 _. carbonate - - = 39 ‘jodic ~ “ . - 104 ,fitrate, §, 2 - - 15 malic - of ER TO fluoborate - . - 49 manganesous - - =» §2 hydriodate ¥ s.-« 142 manganesic « oes ae iodate owe 2 Ast molybdous =. * - 64 molybdate - ° = @9 molybdic - “ - 72 muriate =) ‘ - ao) 54 muriatic - PR, nitrate aes ea nitric dry) = : - 54 ofits °* 4° 2ergrslony 53 (liquid sp. gr. 1°5, 2.) = 172 2 wy! LONG S3I8y) nitrous ~ - - A6 phosphate (c, 2 w.) - - 63 oxalic - > - 36 phosphate - - «, 87 (c. 4 We) . - = 7% sesquicarbonate (1 w.) - 59 perchloric " a RNa G2 succinate (c. 2 w.) “ - 85 phosphoric “ = - 28 sulphate - a’ phosphorous - - 20 (c. 1 w.) - - 63 294 sulphite . - - 49 aie wre mshi vnpify OO tartrate - - ~ 83 - = 130 Antimony - - vate At Ire dscoles wn) - jury bh 60, chloride - - - , 80 _ carbonate + opin O2 iodide ~ raat. Ve: = 168. ¥ citrate =. e open (38 oxide - - -, 52 iodide - - = (196°) dettoxide, =. ss =, 5B " nitrate (c. Sw.) 0 = yond Gl peroxide. « = = 60} — oxalate ae eere uth EB . sulphuret - *.. e, 60 phosphate (3 w.) « + 35 » hydrosulphuret . - » 69 |. phosphuret oe rove thy 84 »» tartarized (emetic tartar, ose) 363 | __ sulphate _« * jon 20 epenic .. cMastoriiee aioe SO £2. ( gulphuret 7m siveinse, 88 . sulphuret (realgar) -..» 54 tartrate (5 w.) sooeote AGL er peraniealnyseet expel) - 62} Borax (c.8 Ww.) a = anatbil B2 dxzote | ° - - 14} Boron Se oe ay a asim 8 . 9» chloride . - ,,,,158? | Cadmium ni a seeroers> 56 carburet (cyanogen) ‘al - 26]; chloride . -. = cirijecelcy 92 dodide _ mits = ‘phate, 46°) | oxide ees 2 terete 64 oxide aig . - 22) | © acetate (c. 2 w.) oe aie 182 4 deutoxide, - | - ‘Seepne 80.7 | carbonate @.,; ne] vesamethohe 88 Barium - =. 5», 10 | ©: iodide - - i 180), siehloride . = = sputehO6 | | wonitrate(.4w.) 2 = bine oi ASAD iodide = . = «f=,k04 | » «> phosphate (1 w.) - ~ AOL oxide _ - - oheom T8 |) oophosphuret . - - © 5A 68 peroxide _- * sence, 86] |»: sulphate (c. 4 w.) Syolsomd40 phosphuret = — syeigtm 82 |» -- sulphuret «.. , oiitighiborT2 » sulphuret « \¢w ¥ eghosiee Daleinm song ee ~ afixo 20 Barytes - © petted 1S chloride “ = sbrxosed 56 acetate | - - | - 128 iodide . - - eiais d44 (c. 3 w.) - = = 155 oxide (lime)... 2 = ~ os) = 28 arseniate =, -~ .,,,*,140 » -phosphuret = sataoehidS? arsenite - ° », 132 sulphuret.. . = jw 4 5) = 36 carbonate _ - $412 100 alamel or set) 93009008236 Silents =, ata dA a. . eiekditlananedies © \ehromate - ~ ..* 180 | |, bisulphuret =... 2-9) = 38 » o¢itrate ; t) - 136 | , chloride = ywciares F hydrate (1 w.) - 2,2 87 perchloride | « morgue /d20 -iodate - nah + 242 |, subchloride = © meyiiguer(gA8 “muriate (c. 1 w.) - sypintet?4 | | gabydruret ey 01 sur sincgleid T nitrate (anhydrous crystals) - 1382 | \obihydruret ~ - hopaaudegtase. 8 _ voxalate . ba " - 114 | Q subhydruret Sretidue oe iphBo' - phosphate - -~ 106 | » chydrochloride s 2 hO, ) » phosphite - = «98 ; oxide Re - ei dA (Succinate - sed m 128 »phosphuret = - emo hSi ()Wsulphate - - «= 118 | Cerium aS ea - ~ (BO) ‘(stlphite - - , » 110 oxide = £4 ~ 580) 4 itartrate - - tok 144 : peroxide - * bireld H2 Bismuth * = ti il 72 Chlorine ? > proldeeB6 ) chloride - - - 108 a A, Fable of Chemigal Equivalents, 4 oxide _ - x ties fm fy AA ‘ LT kHGAS 1826.) A Table of Chemical Equivalents. ° deutoxide ~* Bee 60 | ©! peroxide - od ‘peroxide mr s 68 '’ sulphuret - Chromium: - ° {28 | Hydrogen « - “0 loxide - é u 36 arsenietted - © ldeutoxide ~ ~ id AAY earburetted = “ Cobalt’ ™ - = 26 ' bicarburet . ') Iehloride “ ao” - 62 bicarburetted (olefiant gas) 0) §odide - “ « 150 sesquicarburet (napthaline)’ «© oxide * ” aw B34 selenietted - *© peroxide - a i er) sulphuretted - “acetate “= | - (e 84 bisulphuretted + °° arseniate (4 w.) «= «132 | Hydruret of phosphorus -— ' ’© earbonate « . =» 56 bihydruret. ie °° nitrate a: a 2h & 88°) Toding =" it *~ oxalate ™ = « 70 Tridium = - a “phosphate = - = 62 chloride = « “ « +“ phosphuret “ “ » 38 ' oxide ~ « ~ *” sulphate ~ . uw TA peroxide . | (c. T w.) Sve Ts7 | Hen - - “ © gulphuret: - ack 42 ~ ehioride “ Gtuinbinm « ji wk 144 ’ perchloride “ ~ Célumbic acid - ~ 5 198 | 7 iodide - “ Copper “ be a arene G4 | | BO oxide - - ®° chloride « “ = 100 peroxide . ~ ' perchloride - ~'136 ' carbonate - S"iedide - «= - « 188 “sulphate - -~ s * oxide - ~ = 72 (c. T w.) i peroxide * - = 80 sulphuret - - “geetate = -« ~ ~ 130 ' persulphuret “ (c. 6 w. com, verdigtisy +9184 | Lead ree - “pinacetate = oe suites] BO ~ chloride - (c. 3 we distilled verdigris)- 207 oxide - - ' subacetate (Lacidet+ base) ='210 deutoxide . al carbonate - ~ 102 peroxide ~ - (2 w. malachite) 4) 2111 acetate - aay “nitrate =" - - 188 (c. 3 w.) - “phosphate - =. 136 sub-binacetate’ ~ ‘ phosphuret a SOREN PIA TG sub-tritacetate bisulphate (c, 10 w.) “8250 arseniate « - “ sulphuret - ve 80 “benzoate © = - Corrosive sublimate a “272 carbonate - - Cyanogen - “ VIR TERG chlorate ~ “ _ Fluorine - - HUARD chromate - Glucinum ~ - 248 subchromate ~ Gliiéina - - « 26 citrate - - Gold - - = 200 nitrate - - “chloride - KLE “oxalate Sve - ‘perchloride - + ‘272 ‘phosphate = > “fodide - ~ - 824 “phosphuret . - Oxide > - = 208 sulphate ~ " 296° A Fable of Chemical Byuivatents. | [Ocr: © ‘galphuret e waicisean 20 | @)\benzoate- « > « -sivoldaaaql 56 : OF Legrtrate ay oe olano d3g9178 “\icarbonate = - - = .0.58 Title. -. - « » “told @8 |] Siloxslate . - -- » chicuag 42 eerie OF l gpetate - -- * Seianonds 18 “1 ‘phosphate co = & wdglue 64 OCLapseniate > - sebdylgar 90 Fe Npaeaphae ~ + ao) = 40 Si iyenzoate>. . - - - siewir14g |) 0 sulphate - i Han 248 per Ug f stele 50 oy +} (c. 5 w.) ea 295009321 chlorate » == Sedqeods 104 || Miioury .- . .- - .shibei200 Sl ehloride” = dgudgeods 64 |] Bb chloride - -.-- - si 286 Sel chromate. - -siadighy 80°}, 4 perchloride = -~ ghixoraq2T2 OS! strate ~ . S4 waudqhy 96 Se iodide a derudoecshy 344 *S fluate ~ ‘. 2188 | OS periodide. =») ionodgiue 448 08 hydrate (i w.) ~ - 2bicolb 87 |) Bh oxide -- -. -de208 8M wnuriate (ow) < - %ibgigno || 8@ peroxide. -- -» gtaigan216 S© nitrate ¢ chin gg || Ofbnitrate - +. -. — sisindess 262 Sb gxalate™ = abixotag 64 |} iS! pernitrate (.w !.odoteiasexsaid 270 VE. phosphate - isgudqeody 56 co | sulphate - sisoxasd 248 O*. siecinate >. dgpadglye 7g || OF persulphate -. <«tsnod1m 256 Be sulphate > « mae} - 568 |) (0! bipersulphate.w { .o) ataviodrs9k! 296 rm > -. Gw:8,9)..... 94 |} QOL persulphuret ~~ stamordo 232 > > « %aiasee 10 \|| Molybdenum; = _- -siedioutid, 48 re Gwe ¢ .9) stqptoetanid 46 |} Q@loxide - «.. - a, sien 56 Sclisaide > . - pisoxagl 134 |) Nickel - o (wt) atarhysl 29 *S gxide - - - « 28n0d1@ 18 || SiScbloride- . . - .<) stabet 65 **l sniphurer =~. (# O10) 2, 96 |} OShiodide . - ~ stabagiont158 ia “. - »sanodisou! 18 |] SGloxide . - -=. 2 sisifin ST 28 carbonaté-W & -2) staucdiscismpew 40 || b@ peroxide. .- «-sinlexo 41 BO! nitrate - - sistoldo. 12 || QGfacetate ~.- -.’. etslexonid: 87 #8 phosphate - - —_--#8007 46 |} OO arseniate ~ . stalsxorbaup 99 V2 sulphate= - - ~ ,sisextis, 58 || af carbonate - . aishdylout 48 |} 88 oxalate- = =.» -stedgiua- 73 S88 icxide - - .- = .sisxtit 20 |] OMyphosphate (.» & .2) stsdalueid. 65 <9 sulphuret - -.«,. sisiszo 98 |} Mdphosphuret -.<)-./...«,stera 41 - «/,,Stadigeodg 20 @8isulphate -- (.w! .a) ste1iigiid- 77 80: Siitiasinghibagaten Bodo 93 |] eos (tw) .- «)/eumihede $Bivachonate. - -.; «Stanisoue 42 ||! S6- sulphuret - =. abimo- 45 ST hydrate - -- iadglwe 29 || Nitrous oxide -~ - | -. sbixorsg’/ 22 S8lpuriate ~~ (.w Qi.) . 57 |i Witricoxide - +. « quuiso8® ve strate - é4e* « Sistjie? 14 Oxygen ee a “ o wp’ 01S. shosphate. deajog bos aleve! 48 |) Palladium - se powioBGr te stlphate ~ - * e, | tuec06® |} O11 oxide aiP~ =o 964 OF = (©. tw.) - + sbixolde 123 || Pikdsphorus -_- we obirqiila 142 +2. o° © Sabina 28 || PeBchloride ~ ~ -. = sbibei48 86 chloride -- - i9rutlquodg 63 |} 8L/ perchloride - - + shim 84 O@ oxide - - - -isdgiee 36 || @PMcatburet- - - - sbididua 18 8 deutoxide . asiaaod@ |) BOLsulphuret - - ~-« sists 28 #0! peroxide ee ha .. siaioae’ 44 4 Platina cle - siingewe 96 acetate - - - 86 chloride eee - - 182 . oxide ee §&{ chloride - = O0Giedide -- - @ePoxide « -+ ; ef peroxide - + -b phosphuret sulphuret . + Potash -. “acetate - . »° arseniate - °© binarseniate (c. lew.) 5 © benzoate - &S carbonate. - (we " - - 9380S tat 168 =. siénods +104 isleep ll? siadqvomy 112 « joudqeorg 128 : 40 16 Pa - Beeeleay - “4 _ As , 64 si 52 - 56 A8 ebixdrad 98 - WRT 110 idvee 181 stele lss 168 sisaginersy TO _ /° bicarbonate (c. i W.)iatiqlarroga! 101 4'Schlorate - - e&e chromate ~ - ®k bichromate- <« 6a citrate = ° « ®& hydrate (1 w.) - Gd iodate - ~- fei molybdate - TE witrate = <« oxalate - -° binoxalate- - quadroxalate = & ‘phosphate. - succinate - « ~ sulphate - - bisulphate (c. 2 w.) tartrate « = ¢ bitartrate (c. 1 w.) Rhéodiam ss es é4 oxide a SS peroxide - - Sélenium - «= Silica. ° - - Silicium = “ Silver. @i chloride .- 8h iodide - s+ $8 oxide - - | suboxide = -~ acetate =<. arsenite - - (wd 9} « aotutglee 124 taridaisuerser 100 . « afumobd 71 S28) = $bpxa 106 (BT. - abrroiae212 ~- » spibeF 120 - Spi? 102 $4 isifas 120 stsicasess 192 liso 16 - « sist 98 88 aieigeodsy 146 terurqaorkgy 114 =. ‘sissalre 189 ; AA e- jsiurigqiwe 52 shixo ewor60! ~ > a SUIROTIG - ff + ‘oe @ DVLA ey sbhixoordOl | S neg | - gimibslioSt je sbnep 110 ar autora Ae. = sbriolde 234 okholdorosy 118 = dg1udt90 1738 « JsT.0glix 168 - ow LTS. SDFIOLLS seh 64 | | op molybdate | A Mableof Cheniical Equivatentss, | O yarseniate - et | carbonate. ee chlorate - ay chromate - "> | nitrate - oxalate - t0\ phosphate — - phosphuret +. sulphate - sulphuret - \4 peroxide " phosphuret. + se sulphuret _. Soda . » acetate. -. ( arseniate . - 4s binarseniate {c. 5 w.) _ Se 4 benzoate. - ai carbonate. = - Os (c. 10 W.) ie a! bicarbonate - be. - ©.6.w.) SoTL igit_l80 Sis eu 40 - Be - 8 on VT0 i bas Sisinst iS 190 Sh piaiseeet 179 Si sno D148 154 i sievoltt 146 *shinolty 122 = tentorty 158 be islagdty 126 “i Shai 24 =) ajexbvi 60 eee # aA TE (ly OHO oy A = 4 Ip 14d gli \bl bod afok | Ik ar coodetc MNT | teed a eth] 2i aadbata PHI .. sy 4 AHlecteb iw |} bas sta a Aid | rbqio’ od. apes | Mire TA: Et ae iif ky onal H dedealh Hs Ss ud + ones ; ‘ | tihe coteiq 4a) Fane {i i} A OF 295 trde hs : oi line ‘Heavier ani arcade rhiet How Fo 194 é fi 8 odt o3 tore: yqife ei yiiesnob et .w03ehy edt diiw aois teria ii ak migorst tis 2:4} Yo ovptetie Eeme gs bisode pais _Byrareh fr Baton of Philosaphy, for Bali Cradlock wy outils | hot 22990k Ptethoms ate Teale: | + ee eetaaaialy bie Modensaxs ov. ‘Se? GQ: Hi. Jousinevnoon eiflt ybome1 oT i wedious bobba oyad | Jostisg stom maveroreb alt ai eonotgion to ersijtol omga afl : tga andy’ Be Tt adit Ly erie yd i9dt9g01 ut (ete a8 beasiq edsoo-qoia sors Kio: hic» sihts'got., botagnmoo eis TC DIO NOI oaks o18 AL bes: Lice “vob ai nodW oT hee bousgo : a1 od pow: fet afl olde batgoes 0. picusize Lin aqiuaye rs) hon udics owlted: fieosixs oda nod Ve (hie Wie 29908 boghaj ad ysie | ae San iiite 6 bas dso aworul A Fi dooo-qate ail. De _ seqpecutig, ody. anime J Holjwotauenaos od yiadd yd Ro duo: sao 3 hy poo, alt yd, “gl Bf ge A998: sean a Hove th. wagt- geod gos ws¢ me Sigh totanits ody ‘eal: iasialg edd 10 noni Phas CE cagiq adi to req dwelt, 40.100 tis ask: ate yhinoup: aio) 4 bug aunod-qola od: B. ait mon has He elosiine od. Hw 116 leaisixs aqaaee. OF LZ ait io cesibd-onld. ai aps and wodls be: ® ils igo genie um BrahoeoKe. ak soda @u0: oi; 4 AVIAI8t Of vhs: V7 Sea vOR F 8 gaiariot ‘bus: gtubaages! Picola od Yaa. xav@oe' Salty “spniavidaoo andy yf Peoeomyue sovewad dome Ik- PIE TIQo: ati to baitgeo RGU boiouticnen visigawoos i | B2é0g wg: MoLsuT© Mivogqua ail) no bas yiseeoqon Sd dlew laaied. batsomaps Y) smoss%-hluow | (bert per 30 ab wiiRtagn gaiangbned 8 sraily: (Sait 93a) edu) nego 60:40 bomiot od. boractaig ada jade basa ) ai notaiq oft aody iadt 02 .wodiod aif Faé ovlcy Inoimoa @ galess nagqo. beiis pore iy — pe me fli Aguoid) IY 8Ie9 tw 11s babulsu gilt” bie wawob bSoio! By. ati asovary yltnaiodive [lrw lio ding idgaonyy it doidw ovisy mad doc {! wed olay ate pie ik ogg om spate, Ya. bas ,agso2s as i 3 BOUIN pS. 1825.) . Mr. Herries on an improved Air-pump. 308 unexcluded, its immediate access to the receiver must. retard the exhaustion, and ultimately set a limit to the power of the ump. : To remedy this inconvenience, and render the machine still more perfect, Ihave added another barrel, figure 2, (having the same letters of reference in the description) which is joined together by a connecting tube M. On these pipes there are three stop-cocks placed as shown in the drawing. The pipes ‘DD are connected together and enter the receiver as one.’ L and L are also connected for condensation. acs en » When this double pump is worked the stop-cocks N and O are opened, and P is shut.. The pumps may be wrought in in the usual way by a rack and pinion, the one piston being made to ascend while the other is descending. | In this condition the pumps will exhaust each individually with a double stroke, so that two continued united streams of air will be thrown ont; When the exhaustion has proceeded in. this way as far as may be judged necessary, say until 42ths of the included air is thrown out, and astill more perfect vacuum be required, open the step-cock P and shut the cocks N and QO, and continue working the pumps. . : ng al _ The communication between the external air and figure 1; being cut off by the cock O, and between the receiver and fig. 2, by the cock N; and a communication being opened between these pipes, it will be easily seen by a slight exami- nation of the plates, that the effect of fig.2 must be to exhaust the air out of that part of the pipes D and L, situated below the stop-cocks N and O. Consequently the pressure of the external air will be entirely removed from the valyes I and I’; and allow the airin the barrel of fig. 1 to escape freely; for as the one’ piston is ascending and forcing out air, the other is descending and forming a vacuum ready to receive it. = _ By this contrivance the receiver may be almost completely emptied of its contents, It is not, however, supposed that for common purposes, in an accurately constructed pump, this connected barrel will be necessary, and on this supposition (where a condensing apparatus is not required), I would recom- © mend that the piston rod be formed of an open tube (sce fig. 2), haying a conical valve at the bottom, so that when the piston is ferced downwards, the included air will escape through the valve, which, if wrought with oil, will sufficiently prevent its escape; and, of course; the pipe L. with the valve I’ will not be required, | 304 _ Mr. Dalton’s Analysis of [Ocr. ARTICLE XIII. On the Analysis of Atmospheric Air by Hydrogen. By John Dalton, Esq. FRS. &c. (To Richard Phillips, Esq.) RESPECTED FRIEND, Manchester, Sept. 11, 1825. AccorpDING to my promise I transmit the results of some late experiments on the analysis of mores air by hydrogen. My chief object was to find under what circumstances the union of the oxygen and hydrogen, by the electric spark, is complete, that is, so that one or both of the gases are entirely consumed ; and in what cases either: no union takes place or a partial one, leaving portions of both gases still in mixture in the residue. Bs From a memoir of M. M. Humboldt and Gay-Lussac (Ann. de Chimie, 53, 1805,) we learn that one volume of hydrogen, mixed with two or nine volumes of oxygen, gives the same loss by electricity, namely, 1°46; but if mixed with 9°5 oxygen, the loss is only *68; and this loss diminishes rapidly till the oxygen becomes 16, when there is no lossat all. They found that‘if the surplus gas was azote or carbonic acid, the loss was not much different; but they do not seem to have ascertained this with precision. : | . It is right to observe that the hydrogen I used was obtained in the usual way from zinc and dilute sulphuric acid, and was received in bottles filled with as pure rain water as I could procure; the bottles were filled with the gas, and not more than one-third of the gas of each bottle was used; the hydrogen was free from atmospheric air, except what was expelled from the water by the hydrogen bubbling into the bottle: this quan- tity of atmospheric air, however, must be something; yet, on firing 10 measures of hydrogen with oxygen, the diminution is usually 14°6 to 15. . - The mixtures of gases fired at once were commonly about 150 measures, each measure being the volume of one grain of water. ‘The eudiometer has six inches in length, correspondent to 150 measures; and all the experiments were made over water. The atmospheric air I mostly used was’ procured in the country, and was found by frequent trials to contain almost exactly 21 per cent. of oxygen. This is not the case at all times. I once found the oxygen as high as 21°15 per cent. from an average of many experiments; 1t was on the 8th of January last, when the barometer was 30°9, wind N.E. and very moderate, after three days of calm and gentle frost. But the general state of the atmosphere yields only 20°7 or 20°8 per 1895.) Atmospheric Air by Hydrogen. 305 cent. of oxygen. All the results below must be considered as averages of four or five experiments. _ . Labular, Arrangement of the Experiments. St Boa apni Pa x Lec ed 5 ae | Azote. “Hydr. pe eae 4 tia ath s ae arioado ailvest odt dishenss) 1-5 hy Yn iG AOID LA ‘P01 4-0! | LC 3°76 ¥.10'24) | Does not explode, eee O ~ st pk0 4 (3°76 4} 9°24)\Fires imperfect. { 24Yoss 247° (221 w and 'k 1 (12:0 |3()3:76.4 §:24)|Fires perfect. ¢ 5. ;|Dittos8-Ori.}0 orks 1 Me it 3°76 + 124)|Ditto, ) Ditto; 87054. atalcr feeds 1 10:0 |}=C 3°76+ 6°24)! Ditto. Ditto. 30° 1S. th 1 -gsOq] 28291630 Fredy Ditton d)i9 202.09 16. Dit $O 1 Ddtuangp 1 8:0 jee 8°16-4 | 424) Ditto. yg te oy Ditedie3:0) og | orirdey « 1° 7:0 |=( 3°16+ 3-24) Ditto, . \TDitto, 3°06... qnbypodr 1 60 [£€ 3-164 SeayBite. yo Geox, Ki NDittoe. 30 1... yk Poy SB ALC 3-16 4 210) Ditto b> M's Sey SO “ee oe n ods 4 5F6| 36 3:76 +4! £00))Ditto.)) crieal 9 Ditto. 30-3...) o H dr, nN onl : Oxy. sis iq vpartnloy N y oft “9:38 /=(.1-88 4° 03°) Ditto. oye Ditto. 14 —..... oO; Vo 3.0 F2(°9:37 4 0-68)! Ditto. sentra Skit RO. AEN pee, Oe 1 »40 ha et ean bffli,). G20) 210), Ditto, OR Yes “0 1 5:0; | 56 3/95 +. 1°05)|Ditto.. oso) og. as ove dDitte dd 00% @ d09 oF! you 6-0 | bhe "74 +, 1-26)|Fires rather imperfect. d “Dito if et Es ners pul. 7Qpl 21553 4 1-47) 'Fires imperfect. °° Ditto, V0 4... oahndh ky 280 [506324 )1568)/Ditto.)) 09% JOf \ )Ditte. O42... o and zk 1 9-0 |=( 711+ 1-89) Ditto. Ditto. 0°75 ..i. oandh I. 100 [=( 790+. 2°10) Ditto, | 4 Ditto, 0°60 .... 0 andh- Vo o1P6 bib 869. 2-31) Ditto. . The 'Ditto. 0°45 .3.. oandh by 190 J309-484. 252) Ditto, 9) 00. 2018 D680 AL o and h 1,130 d=@0-27+ 2°73) Bitte an oti fo.) (Ditto, O80... 2:0 and & ved 4tta doko @od| 5/08 not fire some. ,) |... oa; L140] $¢1006 4 294) {ees rg at other \ Ditto. 0-20 ....°0 and / N. B. Those experiments marked: h denote that hydrogen remained)in the residue after detonation; those marked. 9 denote oxygen;.and that. marked, denotes that. neither of the two was found. biatiees one side of the cavity is a mass, an inch in diameter, of a light coloured friable limestone. All the coneretions are hollow; but the cavities in‘ the dif- ferent specimens are surrounded by different materials. In one, the inner surface is composed of translucent, and almost trans- parent botryoidal chalcedony. In another, the surface of the - botryoidal chalcedony is covered with a white,smooth, unctuous, siliceous matter. In a third, it is surmounted by a countless — number of elegant, pearly, microscopical crystals of quartz. In a fourth, is a small mass of semi-opal, containing cavities. Allusion is unquestionably had to these stones, in a paragraph of Dr. Clarke’s Travels. “‘ Djezzar Pacha, of Acre,” says he, “‘ informed us that upon Mount Carmel, he had found several thousand large balls, and never could discover a cannon to fit them.” In anote it is added, “ We supposed that by these balls Djezzar alluded to mineral concretions of a spherical form, found in that mountain. As the Turks made use of stones, instead of cannon-shot, it is probable that Djezzar, who was in great want of ammunition, had determined upon using the stalagmites of Mount Carmel for that purpose.” When I first read Clarke, | had not the most distant expectation of ever having the pleasure, personally, to examine specimens of these singular stones. | Professor Hall concludes by observing, that from the speci- mens sent him by Mr. Fisk, and the remarks of various travel- lers, it may be inferred that a large portion of Palestine is of limestone formation. 2. On the flexible or elastic Marble of Berkshire County. Prof. Dewey describes this American marble as follows :— * It has various colours, nearly white with a reddish tinge, 814 | Scientifie Notices=Mineralooy. [Oe diay, aid dové-coloured. Some of it has a finé gtain; other 1 gain are coarsely granular and have 4 loose texture. It is not tihcdinmon for one side of a loose block to be flexible, while the other pe is destitute of this property. It takes a &vod polish, and appears to be carbonate of lime, and not & magnesian catbonate. - « Tt is well known that Dolomieu attributed the flexibility of thé niarble he examined to its exsiccation, and that Bellevue ascertained that wrelastic marble might be madé elastic by exsiccation. The flexible marble of this county, however, loses this property in part on becoming dry. hen it is made patie wet by the operation of sawing or of polishitig, it must bé hatidled with great care to prevent its breaking, and the large slabs of it cannot be relat with safety unless sup- ported in'the middle as well as at the ends. The existetice of this property is doubtless dependent tipon the same general causes ii Marble as if other densé bodies. From thie extensive view of marble given in Rees’ Cyclo- pédia, flexible marble appears to be @ rate mineral: One of the specimens I have lately obtained is to be sent by the Austrian onstil to thé Imperial Cabinet of Vienna. As mote spéci- méns may doubtless be obtained at a reasonable expense, I Wotild gladly aid those mineralogists who desire to procure spe- - Gitiens for their cabinets.”—(American Journal of Scietice.) 3: New and extraordinary Minerals discovered in Warwick; Orange County, New York. The following is an abstract from Dr. Samuel Fowler’s paper, im the Ametican Journal of Science :— Every thing extraordinary in the valleys of Sparta, Franklin, and Warwick, belongs to the formation of crystalline limestone, which, Sage has no parallel in any other region of the world. Even Arendel and Wroe are inferior in mineral riches to this erystalline calcareous valley. While recently exploring this formation, I made a discovery in the township of Warwick, Orange county, N. Y. of minerals, the most extraordinary for magnitude and beauty, which have éver yet come to notice. What will be thought of Spinedle leonasie, the side of one of whose bases measures three to four inches, or twelve to sixteen inches in circumference? These crystals are black and brilliant, sometimes aggregated, at other times solitary ; at this locality seldom or ever less than the size of a bullet. Some are partly alluvial, their matrix decompos- ing, but when unaltered they are found associated with what has never yet been described, namely, crystals of serpentine, slightly rhomboidal prisms of a magnitude parallel with the orystals of spinelle, often greenish and compact, at other times tinged yellow by an admixture of brucite. These crystals bear not the smallest resemblance to the mar- 1895.] Scientific Notices—Zoology. ' B16 molite of Nuttall, erroteously referted to sérpentine, on the mere ground of chemical affinity, by Mr. Vanuxem. ; The magnitude of other crystals at this place (Warwick) is equally surprising as that of the spinelles. Crystals of scapos lite, terminated, are to be foutid, each of the six faces of the prisms measuring four inches—or & circumferente of twenty- four inches, or éven more. They are of coutse rough and cor- réded; but the smaller prisms, often with natrow replacements of the edges, are very perfect and almost transparetit—all of these slightly tinged with green. ! In a very singular bed, subordinate to,-and indeed in the crystalline limestone occuring in the form of a breccia of. the old red satidstone, red graphic granite, and white feldspar, I have found partly diaphanous, softish, gréen octahedral crystals 6f considerable magnitude for which I know of no ascertained character, They appear almost similar in substance to steatite, being easily cut by a knife. They aré not however fond, as the spined/e of this locality, in carbonate of lime. Considering therefore this mineral as new, I propose to call it Pséudolite, in © allusion to its affinity to the psewdomorphous crystals of steatite. The following analyses are by Professor Gmelin, of Tubingen, in Wurtemberg :— : 4, Lepidolite. INCH, sae peace ces y bia acy's Sis o's wee. 4) 52-954 PUTING 5 in'3.5 55 5 45 5° Syietae pies ¢ DO ORG CE. OF PIATORTESE OL ee iw eee sae 3°602 WOES ceca dokty be enee oe beet 6903 BRIN ce Gabe cad Oh aia ht Fes G0 Oe eC . 4°792 Fluoric Acid ..... TaN Hae sadeee UCR 99°505 5. Helvin. Silica eseeweeesereeeeee eee Geteoorse 33°258 CMMCING sg bans spe es Petro arcey baw 12-089 Oxydule of manganese........ cee g OLOLE RPOCORING OP TTOR osc os > uss bseee es 5°564 Sulphuret of manganese ...... ood» L&O00 7 96°728 Loss by ignition... ..y%ssi...56 658. 1°555 ZOoouUoGyY. 6. On Lamouroux’s New Division of the Animal Kingdom. _Lamouroux, on the 7th of February, 1825, presented to the Linnean Society of Calvados, a Treatise on a new: Distribution 316 Scientific Notices Zoology. [Ocr. of the Animal Kingdom, in which he proposed to divide it into two groups, thus: 1, Aeroxoces. Living in air or water; organs of respiration double ; water rarely useful, sometimes injurious ; skeleton com- pee of articulated pieces; head always distinct; organs of ocomotion formed of jointed pieces ; lateral opposite, parallel, or in pairs, that is to say, symmetrical; nervous system den- droidal, very apparent, composed of a moniliform spinal marrow, each knot or joint of which received two trunks of the principal nerves ; reproduction by union of the two sexes, separate on the different individuals. Dioicous. 2. Hydroxoces. Living in the water, or in a damp air ; organs of respiration simple, or indistinct; water indispensable to all | the individuals in all ages and in all states; skeleton not inter- rupted or wanting; head sometimes apparent, usually wanting ; organs of locomotion never jointed, nor symmetrical, often wanting; nervous system slightly apparent, often invisible, with- out any spinal marrow, sometimes radiating very rarely with a cephalic ganglia. Reproduction by the union of unesexual being in some groups (Dioicous); by the union of bisexual in others (Hermaphrodite) ; and without sexual union in others (Agamous). In the last the reproduction is oviparous, gemmi- ous, or fissiparous. ; The first of these groups contains the Vertebrata and Annulosa of Cuvier, and the second the Mollusca Radiata and zoophites of the same author. Lamz. Bul. Sci. Nat. 1825. The division is exactly the same as that proposed by Mr. W.S. Macleay, in his paper on certain Laws which regulate the Arrangement of Insects and Fungi, which was reprinted in the Annals, vol.vi.p. 324,and abridged into the Bulletin of Sciences for 1824.» 7. On the Horn of Plenty, a Variety of the Common Garden Snail. A most beautiful specimen of the monstrosity of the common garden snail (Helix asper'se) called the Cork screw, or Horn of plenty, onaccount of the whorles being separate from each other, so as exactly to represent the figures of the latter, was disco- yvered a few months ago in a garden in Devonshire. This monstrosity was first described by Born in his descrip- tion of the shell in the Museum of Maria Theresa, where he formed it into a genus under the name of Corni (Born Mus. $62, t. 13, f. 10, 11, and Vignette. p. 361), and gave three good figures of the shell, Chemnitz added monstrosum to the named and copied figure of Born. Shaw, in his Naturalist’s Miscellany, figured the shell, and under the name of Cornucopia Heltcina (xiv. t, 518), Gmelin and Schroeter considered it as a species 1825.] New Scientific Books. 317 of Serpula, calling it S. cornucopia, and Mr. Dillwyn used the latter name, but confounded it with Serpula helicina of the Portland cabinet, which is Magtlus antiquus of Lamarck, and does, as Mr. Humphreys describes, live in stones and corals ; and Mr. Dillwyn, arguing from this fact, observes, that “the habitat which Mr: H. has given precludes the possibility of its being a distorted land shell.” Ferussac, in his Synopsis of the Species of Snails, does not refer to these synonima, nor take any notice of the monstrosity. Articte XVI. NEW SCIENTIFIC BOOKS. PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION. ' An Essay on the Geological and Chemical Phenomena of Volcar noes, being the Substance of Two Lectures read before the University, By C. Daubeny, MD. FRS. Professor of Chemistry at Oxford. | _ Botanical. 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Teissier, Tottenham-court-road, for improvements in steam- engines.—Sept. 15. | Lite ‘ C. Dempster, Lawrence, Pountney Hill, for improved cordage.—~ ept. 15. V RO . H. Palmer, Royal Mint, civil engineer, for a new arrangement of machinery for propelling vessels through the water to be effected by steam or any other power.—Sept. 15. | A. Eve, South, Lincolnshire, carpet-manufacturer, for improve- ments in manufacturing carpets, which he intends to denominate Prince’s Patent Union Carpet.—Sept. 15. | I. Lukens, Adam-street, Adelphi, machinist, for an instrument for destroying the stone in the bladder without cutting, which he deno- minates Lithontrepton.—Sept. 15. Sir T. Cochrane, Knt. (commonly called Lord Cochrane) of Ton- bridge Wells, Kent, for a new method of propelling ships, vessels, and boats, at sea.—Sept. 15. C. Jacomb, Basinghall-street, wool-broker, for improvements in the construction of furnaces, stoves, grates, and fire-places.—Sept. 15. 1825]. Mr. Howard’s Meteorological Journal, «ala ArTIcLE XVIII. METEOROLOGICAL TABLE, ae witee ' BAROMETER, ‘THERMOMETER, 1825. | Wind. Max. Min. Max. | Min. | Evap. | Rain. 8th Mon. , Aug, 1) E 30°10 30°08 92 62 ile 25 E| 30°09 30:08 82 55 a 05 Sh8 30°08 29°73 80 62 —~ 05 4S Wi 2973 29°65 7 55 - 36 5S Wi 29°76 29°65 75 55 05 10 6} W 29°80 29°76 72 55 a 70 71S Wi 29°81 29°80 72 53 — 8] W 29°84 29°81 a2 55 = 20 9} W | . 29°85 29°84 73 53 — 10S Wi 30:10 29°85 72 50 — 15 11S Wi 30°10 30:08 74 52 85 125 Wi 30°08 29°77. |. 74 58 — , 13'S: Wi 29°77 29°59 70 57 —_— 38 14IN W} 29°63 29°59 iz 55 cF 03 15IN Wi 29°94 29°63 68 57 a 12 16\iN W) 29°98 20°94 73 52 — 17, W 30°13 29°98 79 59 _ 01 18siIN Wi 30°31 30°13 72 50 |.» *83 19IN Wi 30°45 30°41 69 4.4, — 20) N 30°45 | 30°42 | 72° |) 425) °— 21N Wi 30°42 30°40 84 51 — 22, E 30:40 30°27 78 55 — Q@3IN E| 30°27 30°20 79 50 — 24IN. E| 30°24 30°22 84 49 rs) 25IN E| 30°25 30°24 |. 81 49 — 2655 E} 30°25 30°23 78 52 02) — 27), B 30°23 30°14 62 58 — 56 28IN Wi 30°18 30°14 70 60 ~—e 02 29S WI 3021 30°18 70 58 aes 20 30I8 E}] 30°21 30°21 80 60 — $1) E 30°21 30°20 | 85 54 40 30°45 29°59 92 AA, 3°95 | 2:93 The observations in each line of the table apply to a period of twenty-four hours, beginning at 9 A.M. on the day indicated in the first column. the resuit is included in the next following observation. A dash denotes that 320 Mr. Howard’s Meteorological Journal, [Ocr, 1825. REMARES. Eighth Month—1l. Fine. 2. Showery. 3. Fine. 4, 5. Showery. 6. Rainy: some lightning with thunder about three, p.m. 7. Fine. 8. Showery. 9. Fine. 10. Showery. 11, 12. Fine. 13. Rainy. 14, Fire. 15. Cloudy. 16—20, Fine. 21. Fine: sultry, 22—26. Fine, 27. Rainy. 28. Cloudy. 29, Showery. 30—31. Sultry. RESULTS. Winds: N,1; NE,3; E, 4; SE, 3; 8,1; SW,8; W, 43 NW, 7. Barometer: Mean height For the month. .......... a venice 3$.5.0 eebele abd dete 0 ee eee aenes Thermometer: Mean height Wee ad month, 6S. ein n Sle dics bee RE: he bieules 65°064° Evaporation se eereeeereece ne cb co ob ha onie'c.ouwkiines das did bessh soale 3°95 in. Rain. SHH SHEATH SHEE HHH EEEEE SETHI HOHE e ee EER H OEE HEEEE 2°98 Laboratory, Stratford, Ninth Month, 26, 1825. - -R. HOWARD. ANNALS OF PHILOSOPHY. “NOVEMBER, 1825. Artic.LeE I. On a Digest of the Plans of Ships in the British Navy. By John Major, Foreman of Chatham Yard, late of the School of Naval Architecture. (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, Chatham Yard, Oct.2, 1825. Amone the many plans that may be had recourse to for attaining a knowledge of the principles of naval architecture, it has appeared tome that none is so likely to produce the desired — effect as a digest of the plans of ships ia the British navy. By this is meant an analysis of their forms and equipments, and a comparison of their elementary compositions with the sea service of the ships, | To speak more parhenlarly, [ think the following elements of every sea-going ship in the British navy, if calculated and gene- rally made known, would throw more light on this subject than any courses of experiments on resistance, on models of ships, or than any theoretical deductions alone, though conducted by the first rate mathematical genius. They are, the channel service, foreign and light displacements, or the weight of the whole ship when fitted for channel service, foreign expeditions, and the weight of the hull; the principal dimensions, viz. the length on the load water line, breadth and draught of water; the areas of the load water plane and midship section; the place of the centre of gravity of the displacement,.or its distance from the load water line and the middle of the length of the ship; the centre of gravity of the ship and its contents, obtained by an experiment, which is here appended; the height of the meta- centre at the mean height of ports out of water; the length of masts, and size of the sails, so that the whole surface of can- vass, set with different strengths of wind, might be seen, together with the centre of effort of such sail; the weight of the metal New Series, vou. x. = ia | ase 322 Mr. Major on a Digest of the [Nov. on each deck, of the masts, rigging, ballast, water, and provi- sions ; the moment of the guns out of water, or their weight multiplied into the dievateaio Ptr fgommon centre. of gra- vity from the water, which is the best criterion of their force. The force of stability at 10°.of inclination ought also to be calculated by Atwood’s method, arid it would serve in the experiment for. finding the centre of gravity of the ship. Analytical research might be carried further than this at a more advanced period of naval architecture in this coun- try, and ought to be; but-at»present, perhaps, the above outline should not be exceeded... ‘When the analysis is interest- ing, Dr. Inman’s calculation for ascertaining the form between wind and water to make the ship revolve round a longitudinal axis ought to be applied. . : - By documents in-use at the Navy Office, the dimensions of the ship, of their masts, and the number cof guns and men, with the draught of water, and an incotrect estimate of the tonnage, are already officially noted. The accounts of the ships there obtained are, however, from the infant state of the science of naval architecture in this country, not very minute, or adequately descriptive. It is impossible for one person to obtain by private calculation enough data to guide him sufficiently in designing ships, yet nothing more than what is stated is the result of official duties. es _ Although much has been done by the presetit naval adminis« tration in introducing scientific knowledge into our dock Phe by the appointifient of the students from the School of Naval Architecture to offices in them, yet it has not become the official duty of any one officer to be concerned in the theoretical con- structions of ships. It, therefore, happens that the above elements recommended, are by no means generally known, some of them not at all, and most of those supposed to be so, imper- fectly: the error is, therefore, as bad as ignorance ; and hence has arisen the practice of building from foreign ships. ; As the British navy contains ‘ships of all nations, the inves- tigation proposed would go far to exhibit a comparison gene- rally of ships. It might be desirable also to obtain an analysis of some of the latest French and American ships, both merchant and martial. | ana: In October, 1821, I submitted the above plan to the Honour- able Navy Board, and they did me the honour 10 approve of it, by consenting to the execution of it by myself only, on account of economy. As the work, however, is sufficient for the physical exertions of six mathematicians for four years, with the requisite assistance of labour from the dock yards, such an asbratittion was abortive. It was announced to me in Oct. 1822, “ that it _ was not considered necessary to prosecute the work any further at present.” The object I had principally in view was to derive 1825.) Plans of Ships in the British Navy. 328 a-theory: of! vessels from facts; in addition to, this, it would afford correct official data for computation, and a navy which costs 16,000,000/.,. sterling in every ten years would have its construction founded on accurate estimates. 1 have ardently pursued the study of the subject since, and in consequence do not hesitate to state, that the government would save by it more than the value, which the execution: of the plaa would cost, besides raising the dock yard service of the navy in scientific competition with that of foreign powers. | 9 Col. Beaufoy and Mr. G. Harvey, of Plymouth, a few months ago, in the Annals of Philosophy, recommended a course :of experiments on resistance as the only means of extending our knowledge of the scientific construction of ships. So strongly did the latter dssertthenecessity of it, that he said “ all was darkness and uncertainty without it.” It is my opinion, however, from the little advantage hitherto derived from such courses, and the difficultiés of applying what knowledge could be obtained from them to ships, that.itis by no means a promising track of pur- suit for a. theory of vessels. The maximum of the power. of carrying sail must be united with the minimum of resistance, and both with the weight of hull, pitching, and rolling qualities, &c. When we consider-the paucity of knowledge applicable to ship- building, arising from the efforts of the splendid constellation’ of enius that pursued the subject of the resistance of fluids in the rench, Academy for: twenty years (from 1770 to 1790); -the results of the ardent application of the Society for the Encou- ragement of Naval Architecture; in making 10,000. experiments for the same branch of knowledge; together with the failures of several other distinguished bodies and individuals :—our expec- tation from the institution of another course! of experiments on resistance ought not to. be very sanguine. To obtain the theory of resistance seems’ to. be;more in the department of a national learned: body, asthe resolution of a fine physical problem in mathematics, rather than, as a work to be depended on for improvement in ship-building. i en | if we can ascertain the force or moving power of the sails acting at the point velique or resultant of the resistance, we may note 100 formal experiments on resistance in every ship that goes to sea; and this I believe:it possible to obtain to a very near degree of approximation, probably as nearly asin any regu- lar experiment on a model. BSc . Again, if we have the resistance ata given velocity of a ship, which may be obtained by swinging a'ship in a stream, and measuring the pull, we have the power of the sail acting at its centre of effort when this ship sails on the ocean with such a celerity as the given motion. | Ships: sail. on different lines of bearing ; therefore the best form for resistance in one direction is not hkely to be that in the ¥ 2 . 324 Mr. Major on a Digest of the {Nov. other. The maximum of the power of carrying sail is also to be united with the minimum of resistance. The smallness of the ship for expense and saving of timber, the working by pitching and rolling, and the weatherly qualities, are all to be blended and properly considered in a hig And this it appears to me can be only developed by the analysis of facts, and critical methods of comparison. In this manner a generalisation of principle would soon, on a little study, occur to a reflecting mind, and facts would check the spoctlbaey fancies which have sata been the principal ground for the different forms of ships. _ The most important information we have respecting ships is that by increasing the principal dimensions of the various classes of ships, maintaining a similarly constructed body, we have faster sailing vessels. Conversely, if we similarly reduce the forms of ships, we have slower going vessels, This is derived from the observation of facts. And although the princi- ple leads to greater expences, yet the superior quality of sailing, renders the adoption of increased vessels desirable. By this means three ships may expedite what four others do: they would also have the advantage of overtaking all weaker enemies, and avoiding fleets and more powerful ones. The importance of such ships was never so much shown as in the late American war, where six large frigates eluded an English navy of six line-of-battle ships and 30 frigates. For the last 200 years the principle has been increasingly acted on; the French have | always preceded us in it, and still continue to do so. The above feature in vessels is not the only one to be consi- dered: there are others necessary to make a good ship. A ship of the line may be built of better qualities than our 74 gun ships, and cost 6000/. less. This the Swedes have effected through the efforts of Chapman, their great theoretical constructor of ships. The Swedish 74 is 350 tons less in weight of hull, which would make the saving just asserted, being 1250 tons, while ours are 1600 tons in weight. They are sufficiently strong to stand the storms of the Baltic for 20 or 30 years without considerable repairs, and carry one-fifth more weight of metal. The plan of floatation is larger, and the midship section consi- derably less: they carry more sail, so that most probably they sail faster by two knots an hour; they also carry more ballast. From three different authorities of unquestionable verity, I have — it in my power to confirm these assertions by presenting the analysis of each. : Chapman will be of immortal memory in ship-building. Per- haps, next to Bouguer, who calculated the metacentre, and first established the true method of stability, he has rendered most service to naval architecture. He had not the advantage of early initiation into mathematics, but in mature life he made 1825. Plans of Ships in the British Navy. 325 considerable progress in them, and exercised his knowledge with great effect. He appears to have applied himself with much energy to the study of the formation of ships by observing the effects of their different forms and equipments, after a similar plan to that laid down in this article, though not with such great advantages as improved calculations since afford, nor on so ample a field for observation as an analysis of the British navy. Neither did Sweden in the time of Chapman produce a corps du génie maratime of thirty students of naval architecture, of good mathematical attainments, and who have been devoted to the study of all the problems of the theory, as well as being ac- quainted with the practice of ship-building. The plan is equally applicable to steam vessels. The French have already done this, by sending a mathematician of the name of Marastier over to America, in 1823, who has given the ana- lyses of above 100 steam vessels, with a theory derivable from ‘them. The knowledge of the place of the centre of gravity of the ship and its contents, 1s of the greatest consequence. Most mathematicians have agreed that it is the centre of rotation in a ship. Without knowing it, the stability cannot be measured in any case. It has not been found in this country on more than two ships: By calculating the moments of the weights from a horizontal plane, and dividing by the whole weight of the ship, the point was ascertained on the Bulwark and on the Ajax, at the School of Naval Architecture, under Dr. Inman, in 1817. It was found to be at four feet five inches from the ports in each case nearly, or at one foot seven inches above the channel ser- vice water-line. In obtaining the point in this way, the objec- tions are, the method is very long, and the specific gravity of wood differing at sea, from absorption and exhalation, itis liable to errors. The vertical moments are, however, highly useful for more than one purpose. The time of its calculation for each ship was two persons for a year each, besides the assistance of labour in weighing many of the component articles, as stores, blocks, &c. bogs To find the point at any period of a ship’s service without — regard to the specific circumstances of each component weight, must evidently be a most important acquisition. This was first proposed to be done by an experiment on the ship itself by Chapman, the eminent Swedish naval architect, in 1793. It has not been undertaken in this country for any ship. Chap- man’s mode of ascertaining the point has two objections belong- ing to it. He uses the metacentre as a measure of stability at an angle of 8° or 10°, which is decidedly erroneous. This is, how- ever, easily corrected by substituting Atwood’s equation of sta- bility for it. The second objection is, that he has overlooked, apparently, the change of place of the centre of gravity of the 326 » Mr. Major on a Digest of the. [Now, ship by moving his guns on one:side. This latter obscurity caused Mr. Charles Bonnycastle, late of the School of Naval Architecture, but now Professor of Natural Philosophy at Char- lotteville, near Washington, Virginia, United States, who was the best mathematician belonging to our institution, to reject the proposition as illegitimate in its conclusions; and he bestowed considerable time in endeavouring to find it experimentally by other means. His attempts were, however, unsuccessful, The difficulty is here obviated by finding the new centre of gravity of the ship, and by investigating its line of transfer, we are enabled to ascertain the point in the upright position of the masts. 3 | As Chapman’s mode is performed by moving the guns and component weights of the ship, some naval architects have. regretted the inconvenience of the method. This induced me. to study another mode of effecting it by inclining the ship. by a horizontal. force applied to the masts, by which the weights of the ship are not disturbed, augmented, or diminished: it is here Bator i | or the resolution of the problem for finding the centre of gravity of the ship, by mov- eeu w' | ing weights horizontally, let CAOD Brepresent the bottom of the ship, A B its load water- line in the inclined’ position, C D that in the upright one. WV Suppose E to be the centre of le gravity of the displacement, G _ that of the ship: let M be the tp place of the guns, which are transferred to N, in adirection at right angles to the masts. Now the new centres of gra- .@ vity of the displacement -and 7 : ship may be found from the translations of the parts of them, the guns and newly immersed part, which latter must he equal to the emerged part. The lines of transfer are parallel with those ofthe parts, and in distance they are inversely as the weights. Suppose Q to be the new centre of gravity of the inclined dis- lacement, and m to be that of the ship. Join Q m, and produce it to the plane of the masts. Now since the ship is ina state of quiescence, Q m is perpendicular to A B. Draw GZ, ET, parallel to A B, and GR perpendicular to it. Then put V for the whole volume displaced of the ship in cubic feet of sea water; A for that of the immersed part by inclination, in the same measure; x for E G, the unknown dist- ance of G from E; W for the weight of guns incubic feet of sea | water; d for M N, A for the angle of inclination; and 6 for the 1825:]) | Plansof Shipsinithe British Navy.. 397 transfer of immersed part. We then have G ih = vA and G Z i r bA , = Samet. »G@ Zis also equalto ET — ER = ap wsin. A. Hence, <. Wad.cos.A bA : i > ae Ph re —_ v , @. Sin. A. be A bA W d.cos. A az .°Sin.. Fh Byte Vv bA—Wd.cos. A V sinwA To obtain the value of b, A and V,see Atwood’s Stability.* - The other mode is for finding the centre of gravity of the ship from knowing the force of the sails, or any given power, with its.place of action on the plane of the masts. It may be also used conversely. Thus, if we know the centre of gravity of the ship, we can tell the inclining power of the’ sails at a certain inclination. Let a power P, measured in cu- f a bic feet of sea water, incline the | ship a known height from the R centre of gravity of the displace- ment, which represent by a. Let A be the angle of inclination of the vessel, G the centre of gravity of the ship, E that of the displace- ment, Q the new centre of gravity of the displacement. Then using the same notation as in the last proposition, GP =a—2, RT rGZ=— +s. Draw GR perpendicular to A B, and PR parallel to it. For this expres- sion of stability, see Atwood’s disquisition on the subject. » Now since the power which inclines the ship is equal to the buoyancy of stability, the vessel being at rest, P. a — x.sin. A is equal to V'. GZ. Or, : BGA PGR bA “ Z Vining —xcsin. A= P.a—a.sn.A 6A —xsin. A V = PasinA — P x sin. A Pesin. A — xsin.- AV = Pasin.A—bA x.P.sn.A— V.sin. A = Pasin.A— OA. = so is Pasin.A—bA “ Psin. A — Vsin. A’ * The theory of Stability, which consists in finding the distance of the vertical central line of buoyancy from the centre of gravity of the ship, is applied to all forms of. ships by Atwood, in a disquisition on the subject in Phil, Trans. 1798, Part II. The inves- tigation applies exactly to finding R T, which is equal to G Z above. 328 A Digest of the Plans of Ships in the British Navy. (Nov. The foregoing sketch of an analysis of the ships of the navy, with a view to estvs from it a body of experience to guide the designs of his Majesty’s ships, includes all the principal elements of a ship’s composition. There is no new calculation introduced, except Dr: Inman’s for ascertaining the necessary form between wind and water to produce transverse motion in rolling, and the experiment for finding the centre of gravity of the ship and con- tents. A regard has been had to making the comparisons on a general and comprehensive scale, rather than on a minute refer- ence to particulars, which do not materially affect the ship’s ualities, and would render the calculations extremely diffuse. t amore advanced period of the science of naval architecture in this country, an analysis more refined in its parts may be used for comparing cases of particular interest, when the principal limits have become familiarly known. The manner in which the inductive mode of philosophy is here applied to ascertain the principles of ship-building, from its extreme brevity, is more imperfect than it is thought the project itself is capable of being shown to be. In a future article some account of experiments on ships, to ascertain the relative velocity of the ship and wind, and the centre of mean resistance, will be ven. . Our navy of England consists of 500 ships of war, of which 120 are line-of-battle ships. Of these, about two-thirds may be said to be ‘ good conditioned ships for sea.” The extent of the calculations, therefore, appears very great. It must be remem- bered, however, that there are only six different rates, which have, for the most part, the same masts, rigging, guns, provi~ sions, &c.; and that in some cases 30 or 40 ships are built from the same draught. The variations are, therefore, not so great as might be imagined. Interpolations may also be used that wiil give results with asuflicient nicety. ? The liberality which the Admiralty have extended to the institution to which I have the honour to belong, renders obliga- tory every exertion on our part to promote the object of their Lordships in the improvement of the navy; and I shall be extremely happy if the foregoing disquisition should effect it in a humble degree. | ' 1825.] Col. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations, 329 ARTICLE II, Astronomical Observations, 1825. By Col. Beaufoy, FRS. Bushey Heath, near Stanmore. ‘Latitude 51° 37’ 44°3” North. Longitude West in time 1’ 20°93”, Observed Transits of the Moon and Moon-culminating Stars over the Middle ne of the Transit Instrument i in Sidereal Time. 1825. Stars. Transits. Sept: 20.—z'Sagitt.:..iic.csseiceseusee.. J8h, 59. 25°63" 20. —Moon’s First or West Limb.... 19 36 52°17 a ee ee ee ate. 1D 4B: 1907 Ci OT GMM a ccdaye bac cs covenant 19 42 05:92 Di irig Bagitte ois skitagiss fee ls -. 19 48 05:48 21.—Moon’s First or : West Limb .... 20 00 4036 21.—o Capric. ..... tSethia aids thin a 42 © 20 09 21°60 if MPL EID RAMPS s o'6 os 5 eh Upt ee oh's > ewes 2 20° It 143 21.—z Capric. ...... whee SND oes toe) BO. TT (2244 . 21. Capric. .........0.. d aoja coins) 20. 18::-60-07 BI eet: CApTic. ooocescsacsccica aceon, 2020... See WPT OUING, siased cdiccseanee ses 20 11 14-81 B2immt Capric. . .esccscccecsssoees 20 29 33°55 22.—<« Aquarii......... S aorerevee 51d a 20 38 16°18 cf EO CADTIL. o’ coc docceind ace pe 20 Al O7-04 Reo GUM oss. cock ccc ee score 20 43 17:22 22.—8 Aqualli ....0ccceeccesceceve 20 .50 21-79 22,—Moon’s First or West Limb.... 20 51. 27°15 Thr) DAUM So FP ak ns tae bgp “en 21 00 07:88 Ree TE AMOM o eee cee scene. 21 06 58-38 SZ.— 18 Aiquari, oc ecies ec eels 21 14 41-78 Rater Ei Oa iCs 16. ss039 e940 wind bie 0 0b Ws 21 335 44°89 BT te EE oak perp Nha 55:4 0h ace 0 11 39:90 DIET PUAN ons cc casacconeese 0° 39. 17-23 27.—Moon’s Second or East Limb... 0 44 44:AT 27.—75 Piscium ...... 5 aly tune’ O 5T 26-07 Bien POUR onic pac uadcesiee ceietes 1 02 23-94 26 .2-TS Pinch re dbs so. EEL - 0 5T 26-91 Si Bh.) Pieciams sess. vie babe vdGele 1 OL 00°48 Reicrty imCi 0 ii590 cds on ne oles bods 1. .22. 12°89 28.— 10) Piscium . 60.005 ssc e eke 1 26 31:06 28.—Moor’s Second or East Limb... 1 31 38:88 28.—4 Arietis ..... ial Gikweoe dois 1 38 AT°28 ZO hb M: AMIOKIS « is'e dante 6d eines je Bx Oh -OL-Fh HE MMIOLED 5, oc co dose sas bees s 2 08 29°57 29.—Moon’s Second or East Limb... 2 20 14°54 BOs Ae, ads Tens Ue Se 2 34 39°03 29,.—40 Arietis. ...scacseccces maletie 2 38 49°24 29.9 Arietis.. 6. .cceccesecesewence 2 46 04-27 29-~3 ‘Avietin 2 o'5 (a) c'e cc's letersi seca Sr Or Galt Sept. 17, Immersion of g Ophiuchi 18 39’ 35” Sidereal Time. Observation uncertain to three seconds. 330 . Mr. Brooke’s Reply.to Dr. Brewster, — ENows Articie III. On some Observations by Dr. Brewster in the fifth Number of the Journal of Science, concerning the Crystalline Forms of Sulphate of Potash, By H.J. Brooke, FRS.&c. (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, | - » Octs 15, 1825. Ir is only within the last week that I have seen an article relating to myself in the fifth Number of Dr. Brewster’s Journal of Science, p. 147, containing insinuations and assertions which are wholly unsupported by fact. ; The article in question is one of those which Dr. Brewster occasionally inserts under the title of ‘ Decisions on disputed Inventions and Discoveries.” _ On the general question of original discovery, we may borrow from Dr. ites 8 own case an illustration of what ought or ought not to be regardedas such. | r. B. either did or did not pilfer the kaleidoscope from Bradley. - If hedid not; if, during the industrious and extensive researches to which, as the editor of an Encyclopedia, we may conceive him to have been led, he did not happen to meet with Bradley’s volume before he discovered the principle of the instru- ment himself; and if on this ground he claims the merit of being an original discoverer of a principle which.was already known ; it would in him be no more than an exercise of common candour to concede to other second discoverers an equal claim to origina- lity, except indeed in those instances in which there is strong moral presumption, if not direct evidence of plagiarism. The article I have alluded to is the following :— *¢ Our mineralogical readers. are no doubt aware.of the bypyramidal form in which sulphate of potash often crystallises. Count Bournon considered this the primitive form of the salt. In a paper in the 4nnals of Philosophy, Mr. Brooke has described this form of the salt, and shows that it is a composite form, consisting of rhomboidal prisms combined in the manner which he has represented in a diagram. *¢ This composite form had been discovered long before by the agency of polarised light, and dhe combination distinctly described in the first paper of No. I. of the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal. ¢ ** As Mr. Brooke has made.no reference whatever to that paper, it might have been presumed that he had not read.it. But we find that he has actually read it and quoted it in his lucybrations on the structute of apophyllite, with which he has favoured the public ; and which have already shared the same fate as his speculations on the primitive . form of the sulphato-tri-carbonate of Iead.”’ Now the insinuation which this article is intended to convey, standing as it does among the notices of ‘disputed discoveries,” is, that I have assumed the credit of discovering something. which was already known, and had been previously discovered by Dr. Brewster. 7 ; 1825.) Mv Brooke's Reply to Dr. Brewster. 331 But this insinuation is unfounded. It is not true that Dr. Brewster had, as he asserts ‘‘ distinctly described” the combi- nation in question in the paper he refers to.. Nor, unless Dr. Brewster has learned something more on the subject since he wrote that paper, does he even now understand how the bypyra- midal crystals are formed. The following is the short description I gave of this salt in the Annals of Philosophy for January, 1824 :— | ) ‘Sulphate of Potash. The primary form of this salt was, I believe, first determined by Mr. Levy to be a right rhombic prism, and described in No. 30 of the Royal Institution Journal; but probably from not _ Fig. 1. postesting sufficiently explanatory crystals, Mr. L. as not pointed out the relation of its primary form to the bi-pyramidal figure under which it generally occurs. I have been enabled to do this in a very satisfac. tory manner by meatis of a compound crystal which I have obtained from the solution of a portion of thi salt in distilled water. ' Fig. 1 is a single modified erystal. BF on") r gene ene, APO SO ME On BUGS TTS. . "Tis ayests 120 45 Mond. Uiiee 4. acti enavieatad jee CR he Re eee . 146 10 PUNE dee a aN os odes oe . 112 20 S a@onatsery. B STU. COTS 131 12 Fig. 2 is the compound crystal, which consists of three single crystals, so united that their upper edges meet at angles of 120°, and consequently their planes of junction incline to each other at the same angle. Hence , . M on M”. mwas Ree we P44 s aie 6 ee 119° 30! eon Oi ini eee ensee OO cersvrece 130 24 There is not in this brief noticé any attempt to set myself up as the discoverer of the composite character of the bypyramidal crystals. On the cuntrary, I suppose that fact already known, and the evident object of the notice was merely to point out the precise relation of che simple to the compound crystal which had not to my knowledge been previously ascertained. ' "Fhe reason why | did not'refer to Dr. Brewster's paper on the same subject was,’that I knew it to be incorrect both in measure- ment and description, and felt at that time no particular motive to expose these inaccuracies, ror should I have noticed them now if the task had not been forced upon me by Dr. Brewster. The prismatic planes which commonly appear on the simple crystals of this salt are those marked c and ¢” in fig. |, the mutual inclination of which is 112° 20’ very nearly, but according to Dr. Brewster it is 114°—an error of not much more than a degree and a half, and which may, perhaps, not be an uncharitable ineasure of Dr. Brewstet’s ordinary precision. : 332 Mr. Brooke’s Reply to Dr. Brewster. fNov. Dr. Brewster also supposes these planes c to remain upon the compound crystal, whereas it is evident from fig. 2, that they entirely disappear from that form. The measurement of the planes e over M, in the bypyramidal crystal, is 112° 44’ very nearly, instead of 114° as quoted by Dr. Buowetor: Dr. Brewster also alludes in his paper on this salt to crystals with one axis and crystals with two aves of double refraction,—a fact which seems to place another stumbling block in the way of Dr. Brewster’s optical system, and which affords additional evidence that the optical characters of minerals are liable to modifications from causes not yet understood. I would have here closed my observations upon the article quoted above from Dr. Brewster’s review, had not the Doctor chosen to tack to its tail what I suppose he intended for its sting—an observation about Apophyllite, or rather, as I suppose he means, about his favourite Vesse/ite. On this mineral, as I have, shown elsewhere, Dr. Brewster has allowed his imagination to revel to . the top of its bent; and whatever may be the fate of any other of Dr. Brewster’s novel speculations, his extraordinary disco- very in crystal building * relative to this imaginary species, is not likely to have any other claimant, or ever to find its way among “ Decisions on disputed Inventions.” It will remain a memorial of the great extent of the Doctor’s knowledge of nature, and may at last be fortunate enough to occupy a niche in the temple of Fame as a companion to the celebrated optical system of Miss Margaret Macavoy.. But seriously, for really these sprightly effusions of the Doc- tor’s pen, in which, as regards myself, he has indulged himself wherever an opportunity has been afforded him, scarcely merit a serious attention, if the claim of Tesse/tte to be ranked as a sepa- rate species had any real foundation, it might have been expected to be so distinguished in the latest work on mineralogy which has been published in this country, I mean that by Dr. Brews- ter’s coadjutor, Mr. Haidinger. But the observations of this gentleman on Tesselite, although they are, perhaps, calculated to soothe the froward philosopher, do not compromise his own judgment as a mineralogist. * The following extract from a paper by Dr. Brewster in the Edinburgh Philosophi- cal Transactions for 1823, announces the discovery here alluded to: “ The Tesselile could not,” Dr. Brewster says, ‘* have been formed by the ordinary process of crystallization, but that a foundation appears to be first laid by means of uniform homogeneous plates, the primitive form of which is pyramidal; a central pillar whose section is a rectangular lozenge, then rises perpendicularly from the base, and consists of similar particles, Round this pillar are placed new materials, in the form of four trapezoidal solids, the primitive form of whose particles is prismatic, and in those solids the lines of similar properties are at right angles to each other. The crys- tal is then made quadrangular by the application of four triangular prisms of unusual acuteness. These nine solids arranged in this symmetrical manner, and joined by tran- sparent lines performing the functions of a cement, are then surrounded by a wall com- posed of numerous films, deposited in succession, and the whole of this singular assem- blage is finally roofed in by a plate exactly similar to that which formed its foundation,” 1825. Tentperature of the Surface Water of the Atlantic. 333. He thus disposes of the mineral in question. “ Dr. Brewsterhas observed that in certain varieties (of apophyllite) to which he has given the name of Tessedite, the phenomena of double refraction cannot beexplained upon the supposition ofa single axis, and even the properties of the mineral are not uniform in this respect through- out the whole mass, but that it appears to be composed of various parts acting differently upon light. It will depend upon a future accurate examination of the crystalline forms and other properties of this substance in comparison with these observa- tions, whether they will concur in fixing the limits of the species, or whether this will depend solely upon the optical structure of the mineral,” | : Thus the fate of my lucubratious-on the structure of apophyl- lite, which, it will be recollected, went to show that the optical characters of minerals were not yet sutficiently understood to be relied upon for the discrimination of species, is their distinct recognition by one of the best mineralogists of the present day. H. J.B. ArTIcLE IV. Notice on the Temperature of the Surface Water of the Atlantic, observed during a Voyage to and from Jamaica. By H.T. De la Beche, Esq. FRS. &c. (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, My principal object in presenting the annexed notice of tem- peratures for insertion in the Annals is to induce some of the many persons who so often traverse the Atlantic to and from our West In- dian Colonies, to make similar observations (than which nothing can be more easy) respecting the temperature of the surface water during their voyages, as we can only arrive at any thing like a satisfactory theory on this subject from accumulated observa- tions, made at different seasons of the year, and in various parts of the Ocean. The following observations were made at noon each day, the temperature of the surface water being found by plunging a thermometer into a bucket of water just taken from the sea, and that of the air being ascertained on deck, and in the shade. Currents must of course have considerable influence on the temperature of the surface water, for instance, it seems probable that the continuation of the Gulf Stream raises the temperature. to the southward of the Great Bank of Newfoundland. As it is not, however, my present object to enter more fully \ $84. Mueller Boohe'on'the Temperatire of». [Now - on this subject,* I shall content myself by adding the following list: of temperatures, observed during my voyages, trusting that they may be found useful by adding a few facts to ouranformas tion respecting the surface temperature of the Atlantic. , Observations made during a voyage from England to Jamaica in the Ship Kingston. — Temperature. 1823. | Latitude, |Longitude.|S. Water.| Air. |Wind. ne ea Noy.10/50° 40’N| 5° 30,W] 52° | 51° | SE_ |Fine breeze; cleat weatlier, 11/48 23 |10. 4 56 53 ..| SSE. |Fresh breeze. 5. 12:46 00. |12. 43 56 56..;| SSE |Moderate.” i348° $4 115 3 60 | 59° | SE are Ah Ce Peete ree ' Mjar 12 [1t 30° FP 62 E © |Fine breeze, 15/88 20° 119. O | 6. |. 61 .E |Squalls. 16/36 40 19 29 66 68..| Calm}. ¥ 17/36 28 §|20 16 65 | 67 | SSW [Light wind. ~~ ad 18/35° 22 21 59 67 64 NE .|Fine breeze. 19/33 28 |22 26. |...68 66 | .W__|Light wind. 20\33 12 |23 #10 68$ 70 SSW | Ditto. 21/33 10: |23 30 68 67 Calm 22/32 54 |24 0 68 Tk |. Var. |Light winds. 23/31 31 24 A2 69 71 NE_ |Moderate. 2499 45 196 18..| TW | 75 E |Ditto. 25/28 00 (27 51 12 16 SE |Fine breeze. © 9 5 2626 40. (29.7 74 OUT S Moderate... oo viseds 27125 39. {31 2 7134 74 S$ |Fresh wind; gale at night. 28/25 00 {382 49 15 69°" |S © |Gale. * ee ee 29/24 50 (84 4 7% | 76 SE _|Strong breeze; galeatnight. 30/24 1b” |36° 88 75 75 | . /@ale,- Y Dec, 1/23 13 . |38° 43 153 17 -SE_ |Strong breeze; galeat night. 2/22 40 |40 56 77 17 — |GaerirairTy ao 3/21 39 |42 56 174 785 | SE_ {Fine breeze; thunder storms a vatnight. © & 4/21 10 {44 16 17 AT SE |Light winds and calms. 52} 22. 45 4 17 717 | NW. |Light airs and calms. 621 6 46 9 Tis | 78% |S by Blight breeze. . qj21 93° (147) 78 | 754 | NW |Light winds atid calms. 820° 84 |47 18 19 18 | Cah }). | fst 920 6 48 22 19 77 | NE |Moderate. . sich 1019 O |50 20 79 774 | NE |Fine breeze. ory mts 1 52 4T 79% 11g NE |Ditto. 1217. 9 {54 57 193 79 NE Ditto. } SOs AMON 13}16 34 {58 14 80 80 ENE |Ditto. 4416 1 eee § | 808} 79. | BNE Ditto 1516 42 Ni64 4 Wj 80 80 E | |Ditto. 16/16 52 |66 32 803 804 | .E.. [Ditto, 17/16 56 69. 9 81 81 E __|Ditto. 1s}i? 18 |72 30 81 80 E Strong breeze. 1917 38° |15 3 |} 803 80 Fine breeze. 9p, $O# Port my gt “99 83° SE .-| € . Jamaica. 1) 4 af _™ For the same reason I refrain from comparing the temperatures that I obtained with those that have already been noticed by others. _ LG 1825.) the Sunface Water of the Atlantic. - 858 Observations made during a Voyage from Jamaica to England, in ae his Majesty’s Packet Francis Freeling. ra y Temperature. Date. | Latitude. |Longitude.|/S, Water.! - Air. Wind, 1824, A ~ Dec. 30)189,. 54’ N 74° 58’ W}, 819 83° Vet ; “8H19 30 |74 43 81g 805 Ditto. _ |Light breezes. 1825. Jane 1j19 42 174. 4B} 888 81. | Calm {Find Wwindintheevening. 2119:, 56) (TB Bt 81 79 N — |Gale. \ 3/20. 9 |13,.45 78 is NE __ jStrong ENE in the evening, 422 8 |T4 24 78 76 E Fine breeze. a 5) BIQS 820 0114 12 fo ae UY & E Light wind, 6/2427 73. 19. oh ET 74 SW Fine breeze. 25... do . Thy 19 15 13 N____|Fresh breeze. 8/725 24 {10° 40 © 75 70 |INNE & E/Squally. 9126 53. 169 50 15 695075 Man eireshss + 10/28 18. |67 34 Jest 13 ‘SW |Light breezes. lijg8 21. 466. I8...|... 72 TI ENE . |Fresh breeze. 12129 52 ~ 166 00 72 710 ~ War. --|Fine breeze. 13/31 20 |63 20 694 69 SSE _ |Ditto. 14)32 54 160 24. 68 66 Os Strong breeze.’ 15/34 32 {58 39 67 644 SE _ |Ditto. 16135 935.5 [55 40 66 67 SW _ |Moderate. 17/3633 53-8 664 | 69 | SW. [Ditto 18i3t 45 «= j5L) 5 664 665 SW _ |Ditto. 19139 Vie {AT 54 67 65 Var. |Strong wind. 40, 22:44 30 66) |) - 56% sha. N Moderate. |; 21140 87 |48 9 65 63 |NEtoSSE/Squally. 2244L; 49,440 33 62 64. | SSW |Moderate. 23/43 18 {37 29 62 61 W jDitto. 24143 18 (34 53 61 63 SW... |Moderate; fog. 25/44 30 {30 50 60 62 SW Gale. 26/45... 47. |26 ..4 . 574- | 60 WSW _ {Strong wind. 27146 GA 2) 17 57 54 Var. |Ditto. 28/47 00 19 O 55 55 Ditto. |Moderate. 2947 45 1b 4 53% 52% S Ditto. 30/48 41 |11 8 524 52 SW. Ditto. 31149 21 8 5 51 52 SW {Fresh breeze. ArTicLe V. ‘On the Value of Leases. . (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, Tue following question being one of very frequent occurrence, and having met with, no solution of it, you will oblige me‘by the insertion of that which I now send. ) , A. leasehold estate, after deducting ground rent, produces annually a clear improved rental of (a). It is renewable every. - 336 . On the Value of Leases. [Nov. (n) years ¢ on the payment of a fine of (6). What is the lease worth, considering it as a perpetuity subject to the ground rent and renewal fines, and allowing interest at 7 per cent. ? Ky} “Solution, seeeati A sn to sahiwO i? dat i = the amount of M,\ at nthe send. ofvorie ‘yearvatf\per ret sa ae SV Hage of PEED DED Wt ax 1 cent.; then «ill — “be the present; valué ofian ‘annuity (a). to continue for (m) years. But if (m) be infinite;vthen will is be = 0; and the present value of a’ Livan nar a Wwill haute acti beers th Davi 10) anit yargol At the end of m years, the amount of the Be dnd ne hee rest thereon Will be O°x R™ 4b x R™=* Dae ab 0 (RY Lp Rese eRe me, Bu IP nai the number of ties x” is contained 3 in m td i and put: Re ip! } | air & Rese y): 10 Of Riva —! ngs h'di iding this Rites ite a R* we have Re-* + Ree + en Ret 1h sail ie cand by subtracting: me latter equation from Tat erefic In GIORW OFLD8: ; } } the’ used Rr — Re +e 8 oun? 4 “and 8 ol Bar ti 7” n? bs R ee me the amount of the fines and interest thereon will, EpoeWore Rm — Rm—p +i: n be,’ = ‘6 x : . and since 11. present money is, equal Hideb I teak tadtondh dayne atti RR 7 ety dio bas Taiys* B to Ret to be paid: at the end of m years, Roly =< es : rin ‘i WE ; ot sis ' 12) eerie ' i MU &19 Wfitiesbur {tie ay cme | i R™ Reet bem itidad [e190 19 saith wand? the. present value “AaB fines = » ies ls peer ' ri AsiesG is ditt Re R®— Pht 341 Lema thy aTatL Me hal Oo) om dag iid ; beep abe “Bu ifm be infinite, p LBs * igh TRY ly paihy Bi f AWaOmA * ad OF" ary e w Awe lain qe . i} 1g bone a3 i bbe efit “a me and the quantity ———— pa - being infinitely Ao tea gacinnged tant small wall dictate fromthe, equation, ,and sere will ‘be 'the present value of the fines on'a perpetuity. ‘nth present value of thé Tease’ will, therefore, bess gare Bae wid os! “Ww. B. : aad PT my -310 O3% -B3iQUGe th)? 476 DOF DAMA te iff Re ee ar | i CELE! TF. aT 1825.] Mr. Gray on Mammalia. 337 Articte VI. An Outline of an Atiempt at the Disposition of Mammalia into Tribes and Families, with a List of the Genera apparenily appertaining to each Tribe. By J.E. Gray, Esq. FGS. &c. (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, British Museum. ALTHOUGH popular curiosity is almost, exclusively confined to the study of the manners of this class of animals, an eminent zoologist has observed, that notwithstanding the anatomy of the - Mammalia has had infinitely more attention paid to it than that of all the rest of the organized creation put together, it is not too much to say that their natural arrangement is as little or even less known than that of any other part of zoology. : Indeed Illiger and Cuvier are the only zoologists, since the time of Linneus, who have paid attention to the classification of Mam- malia. ‘The arrangement of the former is professedly artificial, and of that of the latter, the above quoted, zoologist has observed, that no where at least do we find mconsistencies so conspicuous | as in the following order (quoting that of Cuvier), which is that nevertheless of the most learned comparative anatomist in existence. I have found the orders of Linneus, which are merely a para~ _ phrase of those proposed by Ray, to be exceedingly natural, and several of my families have been established as orders and genera by Cuvier and others. In the following sketch, the disposition is more novel than the families themselves, except in the order ~ Glires, where I have attempted (but not very successfully I am afraid), to re-model them entirely, and to divide them according to their general habits. In so doing I placed the genera together, in what I considered natural tribes, and then threw them into what appeared to be natural groups, and -have at- tempted to find out some character common to the tribes by which these groups might be distinguished ; but much more is wanting to be known respecting the genera of this order. I have added to each of the tribes a list of the published genera which have come to my knowledge, with the name of the original describer.* | 81. Teeth of the three distinct sorts, and forming a continuous series, — 3 Order l.—Primates, Lin. | The anterior, and the hinder extremity, with a distinct and * The Mammalia at present in the Museum amounting to about 200 species, are dis- posed, as far as is consistent with their being well seen in the present confined space, according to the following arrangement. New Series, vou. x. z 338 Mr, Gray on Mammalia, — fNow opposite thumb ; claws flat, small; grinders uniform, tubercu- lar:;\condyle ofi the} jaws round ; orbital: and temporal, fossey dis- tinct ; ‘penis free, pendulous ; tents pectoral)» esgoey( Qos obidestion! } Mix % thie y ELE 3 U nig makiied omo a Fam, 1. uo 4 eh Peihegsisiqorydd ha Cutting teeth four above and below ; grinders 5-5 above and below ; nostrils separated by a narrow septum, bohPail none. 01. Hominina, Homo. 2. Simiina. ipreonT'cs, Geo of Simia, Lin. Hylobates, Liliger. t+Tail long or, short 3. Presbytina. Presbytes, Eschy, 4. Cercopithecina. Tasos Illig. Cercopithecus, Lin, “Cercocebus, Geoff. Macacus 5. _ Cynocephalina. _Cynocephalus, Brisson. ab wishin ft Boere eae 2. 5 aniivn pian batvor “stiddn \ (Grinders 5-5: in each jaw, acutely. hieoens On 646: bluntly tabereulat ; nostrils Separeged uy a broad space;\ tail long. South iddhertons LNOIBO! mm Wace) Sin, +f Tail end naked. HiMycetinas:: Mycetes,. ae, 2. Atelina. Ateles; Geoff. Brachyteles, Spix.. Gastromargus, S ix, . Lago- pre '}+Tailiend hairy. . 3. Callithricina..,| ebus,, Lral. 4. Saguinna. Saguinus, ee +e vofipinieante Spix. Pithecia, st Brachypus;) Spia. arpatina.. Jacchus, Geof. as, Geoff. ** Quadrupedoid. r Sone Fam. 3.° LEM eR ®. 9): putitovustes ofl slidaemners 6-6 above, 5-5 belowy icant uaniinele extremities tree ; first finger of the hind feet ‘armed with recurved: claws?) | Head long; grinders blunt. 1. Lemurinas Lemur;dany |2. La- ‘chanotina. Andris, ‘Laeep. Lichanotisy Illigs:. \++Head round. 3: Loridina. Loris, Geoff. Nyaticebus, Geoff. +4. Galagonina; Otolienus; Jélig. Galaco, Adams. Cheirogallus, Geoff. .5.-Tar- ine, Tarsius. "6. ‘Cheiromina. a: pacha a4) rates wroled bi sh ! ny lV wed RI : en 4, Gas nenevseeeaiall fol Grinders 6-6 above, 5-5 below, acutely sts 6 extremir ties and tail nathng: p13 ina hati okie: pine ebeanas a? Galeopithecus, Pallas, Nwov9dwd Hinaelnl yeleor oars Ae Fam. 5. VesPERTILIONIDE. Lah) isos ‘Grinders various, true 3-3 in each jaw isaldiselons and fin ers, eto dea iv thin, naked membranes, fingers very om copa ing the membrane. yeMosereqas 4 OF bold v\\-PNoseileaveds « /1. Rhinoloy hinay« Mesedariiie Geoff. | *Rhi- eqolophus, Geoff. Nycteris, Geoff)\\ Mormoops, Leach... Nycto- \philus, Leach. \iBiptiseroase ‘Phyllostomus, Geof, .Nam- pas, \Geoff.. Arctibeus;: Medateus, and Monophyllusy.J Leach. iphylla, Spix. | Khinopoma and Glossophaga, Geoff. opiNose leafless. 3. Pteropina. Pteropus, Geof. Cynopterus and 1825.] Mr.Gray on Mammalha. 339 Macroglossum;' ‘FeCuo. Cephalotis, Geoff. Bris si dllig. 4, Noetilioninas°N octilio, Lin. ) Stenoderma and Nyctinomus, Geoff. Dysopes and Molossus, /. Cuv. 4. Vespertilionina. Ves- pertilio and Plecotus, Geo, . Barbastellus, Gray. eeneri are and Thyroptera, Spix. Celano, Leach. fg avods cs. itay , oP as Order Il.—Frrx, Lin. ‘Phamb'6f the fore extremities not oppos site ; phir clawed ; teats ventral; penis sheathed. “RC tiring teeth six above and below; grinders of thee sorts. . FamvlOFELIpE. Toes only applied to the ground in walking: Nose’ scarcely mobile, rounded. ‘No Otabercular orinders im the lower jaws. . 1, Hyenina, Hyena,’ Brisson; Proteles,: Geoff. na ried Felis, Lin. Lyncus, Gray. Frronodon, Horsf. Pano aoe grinders in both jaws. 3, Mustelina.) Putorius; Zorilla, and: Mephitis,’ Cuv, Mustela, ‘Lin. © Lutra, Ray. 4. Veverrina. Viverra,) Lin. Genetta, ‘Cuv. Herpestes, I lig. Crossarchus, #.Cuv. Suricata, Desm: ' Paradoxurus, F.Cuv. . Ictides, Valence. a ‘Canina, Canis, Lin Fennecus, Desm. Lycaon, Brookes hooad ae ©: Fam. 2. Ursipm. The soles of the feet bald, cartilaginous, applied to the ground in walking ;| toes 5-5 often armed. with. long claws; nose mobile, often used in digging. | _ fTubercular grinders, 2-2 above, and 2-2 ree i blow.) 1 OF sina: ‘Ursus, Lan,:\\Danis, Gray. Prochilus, Illig. Helarctos, Hors: Thalassaretos, Gray. 2: Procyonina. | Procyon, and ~ Nasua, Storr, .°?Potos, Geoff. ;:+Tubercular grinders ]-1 above and below. 3.:Gulonina.:’ Gulo, Retz. Galera, Brown. Gri- sonia, Gray. Mellivora, Storr. 4. Myadina. Myadus, F. Cur. 5, Taxina. _Meles, Brisson: » | | 29 OS TBH } , se Cutting? teeth: stgpibies: (rarely, six above and below) grinders of two sorts, false and tubercular. 7 rye Fam. 3. TALPipE. Outtine teeth distinct ; pgrinders acutely babeoutars legs short forwalking:or digging ; no nursing pouch nor marsupial bones. Allied to Vespertilionide. , MEdrenfeet fitefor'diggings: 1. Talpina. Talpa, Tedinic 2 Gliry- sochlorina: Condylura,’ Iidiger.) Chrysochloris and ; Sealops, Cuv. Fore: feet 'for walking. 3. Soricina.\ . Sorex, Lin. Mygale;''\Cuy. 4/ Lrinacina. Kitinaceus; Lin. 6, Tenrecina. ‘Tenrecus)Lacepo sd. Lupaina, ‘Tupaia, Raffles: si Svrekot dT en istaqoryee wos e) mogng a ae M?. Gray on Maminalia. {Nov. Fam. 4, DipE.Peuip2. ACY: ASD .G, Sty Cutting teeth distinct; canine’ séthetiines ‘wtetl sxpeileddne acutely tubercular ; thumb of hind feet mostly distinct, clawless ; nursing pouch and marsupial bones distinets’ ny ae, ge eth BAD OnG two Pees i. RE: lacno- us, Shaw., Halmaturus, |. Illiger, Potorous, DB ed Acrobata, Desm., pen ee Pi ies ee Pee, Tlliger,?, Phascolaretus, Bla Ae teeth not six above, and two below. 3. Pinca is 8, Illiger. 4. Didelphina. Didelphis, Lin, Ch of sn nt 5. Dasyurina. Peracyon, Gray. Dasyurus, L/hger. asco- gale, Lem....6, Péramelina, . Perameles and Asodon, Geof \* Fam. 5. Puocipe. BOT ATM |b n't Cutting: teeth six or four Ubave, four or two ‘below’s ‘canine teeth ‘distinct; grindets ‘tubercular, or'truncated);” limbs short fin-Shaped} hinidet Ones ‘hotizontal ; ‘nostrils opereulated. pagar pret varie y rooted ; ears rione $ nose simple.’ ‘I’ Steno- cina. P ais 'F. Cio: Steniorhyneus, PF. Cuv.°2.'Phocina. ot es RO r§ roots ‘simple, or divided, ‘arid with ears Po. 3. Enhiydrina. “Enhydra, Flém. «4: ‘Otdriind: Otatia; Peron. Platythy chus, Fi'Cuv. 5,58 eminiotopina:® ‘Stettimoto- pus arid’ Macrorhinus, Fy Cue. Ay Ory ho § 2. Teeth not of three sorts, or not forming a continuous series. t, 4 Order Ill.—Creraz, Tin. di oo he ) 4993 SUNT is "Teeth none, or all similar, conical ; body, says a ; mae ; bald ; lime ae shaped, hinder romedines, fora a. horizontal tail. , AA Loie jis Ade ot Sin, simoath, without any. hair : whiskers. adh see ‘i BALENIDZ. Head very large, one-third the length of the body. 1. Bale- nina. Balena, Willoughby. Baleno tera; Lacep. 2. Physe- terina, \\Physalus, Lacep... Physeter; Lan. Catodon,, Lary oh m.2. DELPHINID. 3 qaialnou ate ead small or moderate ; ‘body 1 long; ;STBIBdI- Fam. 4. lianding. Ldos foi Cutting teeth two in each jaw; grinders simple, or sseteatt Ae rooted; ears moderate; eyes large, prominent, ‘elavicles jdis- tinct ; fore feet short (used as hands) ; hind feet very long ; tail long, hairy, used in leaping or walking ; ; fur soft. 342 M#. Gray on Mammalia,’ [Nov +Grinders compound or rootless. 1, Pedestina. Pedestes, Iilig.. 2, Dipina,. Dipus, Schreb. Metiones, F. Cuv. not Tiliger. +tGrin ers simple, roots divided ; legs nearly equal. 3, Gerbil- lina. Gerbillus, Desm. 4. Myoaina..” Myoxus, Gmelin. 5. Scrurina. Bclurp terns, F’, Cuv, Pteromys, aa Mee F. Cuz. Sciurus, Lin. Tamia, Illiger. The latter geniis is. very closely allied to Arctominu. , Fam. 5. AsPALACIDE. ! idan esd Bey 3h ‘Cutting teeth two in each jaw, lower chisel, or awlshaped, often very much exposed ; grinders compound or siniple,) rarely rootless ; ears and eyes often very small, sometimes hid;:clavicles strong ; limbs ‘proportionate; tail none, or hairy, cylindrical ; fur very soft. LE). latin loqotean! +1. Aspalacina. Orycterus, F. Cuv. Bathyergus, Iiliger. Aspalax, Oliv. 2. Lemnina. Arvicola, Lacep. Sigmodon, Say. Neotoma, Say.’ Lemnus, Lin. | 4+3. Cricetinas> Crice~ tus, Lacep. 4. Pseudotomina. Pseudotoma, Say. Diplostoma and Geomys, Raf. 5. Arctomina, Arctomys, Gmel. Spermo- philus, FP. Cuv. ) 1. 2 ae Order Vi—Uneviara, Ray. Bruta, Pecora, and Bellues, Lin. Teeth irregular; ctitting and canine teeth often wanting in one or both jaws; grinders all similar, sometimes wanting ; toes large, covered with hoofs or large conical claws. aa { : Liis «& th Fo sip *Two middle toes large, equal; bones of the metacarpus and meta- tarsus united. bide lititede ite ahi da Feiss : Fam. 1. Bovine. PSR T EOD ASE T 2 Two middle toes separate ; cutting teeth eight below; ‘upper jaw callous ; erinders 6-6 in each jaw ; frontal bones with horns ; Sees with two large pouches just before the stomach, used for olding and soaking the food before it is chewed; using their head and hortis in defence. ee a ete _ }Horns persistent. 1. Bovina. Bos, Lin, ‘Ovis, Lin! Capra, Lin. Antilocapra, Ord. Antilope, Brisson. Catoblepas, Gray, Med. Rep, The nostrils of this genus are véry peculiar, being very large, anid exactly covered with a moveable lid:'' 2. Camelopar- o?rerisenyA ed | dina. Camelopardalis, Lin. be off f+}Horns none, or deciduous. 3. Camelina.''*Camélus, Tin. Auchenia, ‘Tiliger. ’ 4. Moschina.’ Moschus,’ Lin» Memina, Gray, M. R. 5. Cervina. Muntjaccus, Gray. Coassus and Capreolus, Gesner. Axis, Blainv. Cervus, Lin. Dama, Gesner. Tarandus, Pliny. Alus, Pliny. | Fam.2. Equip. Two middle toes soldered in one ; cutting teeth six in each jaw ; canine teeth one in each jaw; gullet and stomach simple: using the hind feet in defence. Equus, Lin... Asinus, Gray. 1825)}) 0. My Gray on Mammalia... 343, ** Toes3,4,0r 5, toeach:foot, nearly equal; teeth nearly in one series. Fam,3., ELEPHANTIDE, ;, Dk LUD. ae C res Saat Grinders rooted, transversely ridged; toes 3-3, 3-4, or 5-5; last joint, covered with a hoof; ,skin thick, nearly naked ;, hairs — large, ridged ; gullet simple. E POUR OSE RUE +No se. extended into a trunk. 1.. Elephantina.. Elephas, Lin. ibasbod ou: Cuv. 2. Tapirina, Tapirus, Brass, , Lophio- don and Paleotherium, Cuv. ++Nose not produced into a trunk. 3. Rhinocerina. Rhinoceros, Lin. , Hyrax, Herman. (allied'to Caviina.) Lipura and Elasmotherium,, fscher.2,,,Ano- plotherium, Xyphodon,; Dolichotuna, Adapis, Anthacotherium and, Cheropotamus, Cuv. (all. very much allied to Suina)....4. Suna. Sus. Len. Babiroussa; Phascocherus, f.Cuv. Dicotyles,; Caw, 5. Hippopotamina. Hippopotamus, Lin. (allied to Halicoride?) fame 4, Dasy Pid Be) 05 ‘bea iO. oeeleca/ Grinders: rootless, crown, flat, sometimes, entirely, wanting,;. face long, acute; mouth) mostly very small.;.body armed with scales orridged. hairse:.) > ol wil avinio9). ba + Body covered with scales and armour, revolute..,..1. Manina. Manis, Lin. 2. Dasypina. Tylopeutes, Id/iger. Priodon, F. Cuv. not Horsf. Dasypus, Lin. Chlamyphorus, Harlan -++Body hairy or spinous, not convolute. 3. Orycterapina. , Orycteropus, Geoff. 4..Myrmecophagina. Myrmecophagus, Lin. .Taman- dua, Gray, M.R.. Cyclothurus, Gray, 5., Ornithoryncina, Echidna, Cuv. Ornithorhyncus, Blum. _ Fam. 5. BRapypip#. sat ok Grinders rootless, cylindrical ; crown, when young, conical ; tail round ; neck short,; limbs very long ; teats pectoral; hair, dry, crisp; stomach two or three celled (allied to Loride in habits). Bradypus, Lin. Cholepus, Ilhger. Megatherium, Cuv. Megalonix, Jefferson. | : [have placed Glires between Cete and Ungulata that the orders of mammalia and birds should be parallel in analogy; and, also because both orders have apparently a nearly,equal affinity to the Primates by. the, genera Bradypus in one, and Cheiromys in the other; \but theaffinity of Hzppopotamus to some of the Cete . is much more apparent than any affinity that I am able,to dis- cover betweemany of the Glires and the latter. ‘The G/ixes and the, Ungulata are allied, by means of the genera Hydrocharus BG MANEGKA). onl). ctinmiteaa his wicker bi hat 344 Dr. M‘Keever onthe Influence\of Solar Light [Nov. + Lhe- following series will exhibit the: manner sity which):the orders appear to'be connected togethers s)!:)/!2 oi!) s20l9 of » elsrisiéom garaivd 9s 0 Be9do8 Srl). sldiaeoq'a8 dos: éuw etl? Jedd toiled Order T—PRIMATES, enol Sah Bsw at beteitypieal Groups; », Yismicr Avnestant Coors y lara¢ psy remem Hominidee. bi sso) 8. Lemunidas,.):..} Beh gl} ot old Sariguidees . _ 4. Galeopitheeidas 3 )\.; to se NO} 5. Vespertilionidarss ic) >! ‘Ine Order 1.—Frerx. * alidw conaud a Foal +. : o Of anomi T ohent:sluictialiaens 3. Talpides iin cno.ci — 2.. Ursidee. 4. Didelphide,.., dora fi. ride: 5. Phocider., to t9¥etsdy “Order THL—Certig? ° 58d oved Tt Typical Groups, vee Anpeoint Conse? Qautu) TLFOHOL 9 a Of .giilanue nia YO foie Fam. 1. Balenide,.,.,.,. ,« ..5, Trichechide. 2. Delphinide 3 4,? Manatide, - Delphinide,,.. 4.) y.)4.? Manatide, aot i estyr Ot afinre 12. FO 9n3 2+? Halicoridee, mt 4 °\ “Order IV Giirkis.8 Gogo od) Histricidee. Leporide, Muridees! ooidaise . booslglerboide, i, . ao diel _ Aspalacide. Tam uncertain which are the typical families of this order. Order V.-Uneutara, © Fam. 1. Bovide. - 3. Elephantide. 2. Equide. 9) 4. Dasypide. 5. Bradypide. Articue VII... On the Influence of Solar Light on the Process of Combustion. y Thomas M‘Keever, MD. (To the Editors of the Annals of: Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, (Seatac i a hiss "THERE is an opinion prevalent in this, and I have reason to believe in other countries, that the sun’s rays, or even the ordi- nary light of day, when admitted freely into an apartment in which a common fire is burning, have! the, power either of dullin it considerably, or should the combustion be going on languidly, of altogether effecting its extinction, Hetide it is a common 1826-7; iy: t onthe Process of Combustion. “a 345 practice: to place screens of different kinds before: the 'fire-place, or to close the shutters of the: apartmentiim order to prevent as much as possible the access of, light to the burning materials. I was for a long time impressed with the belief that this was merely a piece of popular prejudice, for which theré'existed no rational foundation whatever, or that at furthest,'the appearances might be owing to the retina having become'less ‘sensible to the comparatively feeble rays emitted by a body in a low state of combustion while already under the influence of a stronger light.* But as opinions so generally entertained usually rest more or less on observation and experience, the best sources of evidence in all such cases ;and as 1 was unable to procure any information whatever on the’subject ‘from the several works on Boy which I have had an opportunity of consulting, I was induced, during the late summer, when we had such an unusual succes- sion of steady sunshine, to make the following experiments. Exper. |.—Two portions of green wax taper, each weighing ten grains, were both ignited at the same moment; one of them I placed in a darkened room, the other I exposed to broad sun- shine in the open air: thermometer in sun 78° Fahr.; in room 67°; loss as follows :+ | ~ In five minutes that placed in sunshine lost. .../... 84 grs. darkened room lost.. 92 Exper. 2.—Two portions of taper, each weighing 23 grains, were placed under similar circumstances, as in the former expe- riment. In seven minutes that placed in sunshine lost......... 10 ors. . darkened room lost tl We here see, notwithstanding the higher temperature to which the taper in sunshine was exposed, which must of course have favoured the liquefaction of the wax, and consequently its ascent in the wick, that during the short period of seven minutes, there was a difference of loss amounting to not less than one grain. . Exper. 3—A common mould candle, fourteen inches in length and three in circumference, was accurately divided into inches, half-inches, and eighths, and exposed’ in the first instance to strong sunshine : thermometer 80° Fahr.; atmosphere remark- ably calm. — SE ey WAL IAMSiBVeT ° PE TATH Lb i349 aV81 ea end tens ILD lO 0). s¥atisd * Hence it is that the strongest light,appears to produce the deepest shadow, “A total eclipse of the sun occasions a more’sensible darkness than midnight, being more ininie- diately contrasted with the strong light of noon-day: if NOPAIOS ISieb + Jshould mention that in, all these,experiments | the, snuff was karefully jemoved is was with a sharp scissars, whenever a quarter of an inch of taper was consumed. ‘This wa obviously necessary as the length of the snuff is known to influence materially the'rate of combustion. - f 346 Dr. M‘ Keever on the Influence of Solar Light _[Nov. ‘+ of Poreonsume! one inch it took . CAE ober BOte Dtao wax que odmdarkened room (temp..68° Fy). 0.4. 2.56...0 tos 54 \ eIn ordinary light of day (temp. 68°F.) ..,57 104) jue. Exper, 4.—A piece of taper, seven inches in length) and’ six eighths of an inch in circumference, was carefully divided into Bs d, as in former experiment, submitted to bright suh- shine; thermometer 79°. erty, 51 alleles ti wh pve OoTo consume one inch it took so. .e. 8 a On OM eu 95) Transferred to darkened room (temp. 67°) 44.100) oo In ‘ordinary light of day (temp. 67°) ....04) G2hoe-5-) Exper. 5.—-In order to, vary the experiment, and to guard as much as possible against the agitation of the surrounding atmo- sphere, 1 procured two lanterns; one of them I coated with black paint; the, other I left naked, In these I placed two parent of taper, of precisely equal weights, Ha exposed them oth to a strong glareof sunshines. .,,.,0,0., 64) 4h ns In 10 minutes that placed in painted lantern lost.) 164 ers. that placed in uncoated lantern lost!15* Exper, 6.—With the view of ascertaining whether, similar results were to be obtained by exposure to the light of the moon, I prepared the lanterns as in the last experiment, and took an opportunity lately when this, luminary shone forth with peculiar splendour, of trying its effects; but although. I,employed,an exceedingly delicate balance for the purpose, I could detect.n difference whatever in the loss. sustained by the two portions of taper. | Tinic yay TY after I had made these experiments, I naturally turned my attention to an explanation of the principles, on which results o f so singular a nature could depend; and it occurred to me that they probably were, owing to. the, well-known decomposing power powibaned by, the solar rays, in consequence of which the shell of air that immediately encircles a particle of matter about to enter into combustion, is deprived, to a certain extent, of its oxygenous principle, and is thus rendered less fitted for the maintenance of this important process.} . Thus in order to nar- row and simplify the matter, Jet us suppose that one atom of carbon is about to enter into combmation with two atoms of oxygen, we can readily conceive that the chemical rays may possess the power of withdrawing one of those atoms from the * The diminished rate of consumption in this experiment was probably owing to the want of a free current of air through the interior of the lantern. + That an affinity or attraction is exerted between light and the particles of bodies may be justly inferred from the great refractive power of inflammable bodies, which, all other things being equal, must be supposed to attract light more powerfully than other substances,—(See Ellis on Atmospheric Air, p, 167.) 1825.] onthe Process of Combustion. 347 sphere of action, -and thus offer considerable resistance to the chemical union ‘of the two elements. Further it may be sup- posed, that when: combustion has become: very brisk, ‘as it 1s termed, the;attraction between the combustible material and the oxygen, shall have become so energetic as to suspend or altoge- ther, to overcome the deoxidizing power of the sun’s rays. Nay, that those very rays which, at a less elevated temperature, had but a few moments before retarded the process, may now contri- bute matérially to its acceleration. In this respect we merely assign to'them a property equivalent to that unquestionably ossessed by the calorific rays under particular circumstances. n several instances these last mentioned rays have the power, when of acertain degree of intensity, of causing the union of several, bases with oxygen, while at a more elevated range of tern etna Ty will have the effect of “he cook Me their total disseveration. Perhaps the red oxide of mercury affords us one of the most remarkable and satisfactory instances of this circum- stance. At the temperature of 600°, mercury will combine with about 8 per cent. of oxygen, forming an acrid caustic substance consisting of brilliant, sparkling, deep red scales; but if the heat be raised even a few degrees beyond this, so far from combin- ing with a still further proportion of oxygen, the whole of this principle is released from its combination, and the metal returns to its original state of fluidity. : As the solar rays are now ascertained to consist of three dis- tinct species of radiant matter; namely, those that impart heat, those that impart light, and the chemically acting rays, it appeared to me that the best mode of putting the conjecture | have ventured to advance to the test of experiment would be to try whether any difference could be detected in the loss sustained by a lighted taper when exposed to the several portions of the solar spectrum. Accordingly I constructed an apparatus similar to that described by Dr. Herschell in his interesting researches on “the Power of the Prismatic Colours to heat and illuminate Objects,” consisting of a frame AB moveable on two centres, into which T inserted a piece of pasteboard C D, having an open- ing in it mn of sufficient’ size to allow the whole extent of one of the prismatic colours to pass through. (HUY eavei 348 = Dr. M‘ Keewen,on the Influence of Solar Light (Nov. fons So sertirecos oT MOE ‘db .. coloors ve i RE eae RE Be eS 2. Ob) Ba, Of pe. at: Ane bsatoubtoo jon -olidg sortie 10} foloryto seTsy oft tA sloiv Yo : oT edt al Vispiti Jioda aidT 6 yosoilsb jsd} Ile daiiy 19189291 [goidgo laud .tesisini sa Se i0 anofaulono . An SAS 2209 918 ydiensto adit yf 8) oig. ods Jassxe alk eYlbsos esobi aslugoc, -inrodo $fi3 to 1 ted -~9Vd9 yladail bg vst Is. ~2udimtooa to £ 29G0 10 fois10q £ bis ,f10l alsiisign radii’ ont. to com 3 lols eiiesva anoisoidaro. aren i onisibixost Jasv od} isd} .sdolg 30 Pichu (odd.6a0 4 O19 2aisioirsish avyonsy-a oloe asititasy; a4 ydq2osmis st OJ VSTOI is +33 s1uien ic 7285 < to Sisie & On l2.v1isvs ot bas aby, i ¥ 198914 OJ .2@8 0 I then l ced a prism moveable on sta adie before an opening in the’ w indovr a rn so that the sun’s rays should fall oit it! at : ingle’, and’ having ‘got the spectrum inet tak the ust es Tal owed the rays of one colour’ be Ba ated a » A piece of ‘gieen, taper, accurately marked after the! er, was’ abere nited,’and Neubbaiteed to racrirtin primes Secs ve fallowing resullts’>" lo sldsqso Danot 199 thes SEEMEN SS 3 DG yoyo oat as ,2dcslq deisn te 99 sth Sex J To.congume two inches of, ~ smssdolsa: In the eit a, it ee (Peewee eriogse 8%, ( O! bommts as ti 26 283 N9e20 1 io green, ray,, ae le ewe eels ool el 8 J. beisiogs: snnlecan Violet TAY <>; pas bps c's dishes bie “39 i twolos eid gnitieqai Werte of violet FAY sseias blows Buri oft Yo sotto. oe if as .sonsizqi Li 103 is oldiatry tebras1 ot datw ow tedt ats tdo © encing with the violet ray, the: loss was.as-follows.:¥ 0.0: or sali , ylos msi ¢ 429 ne s blvode 1 bas .esenorl- tini oa the pristhati adic oi a'pagé Ot pitt ene ine plaéedt th grants Ins ne nlf ang farogog tion d apr: distan Wiuose ISINBY rba 9d stairs olqi bas olexiloh cic Inthe, violet ray at. Pree eer eect AA inch ChES oi)104 1siso1g of rovoozih ot vlibe aT STON UME yd sheaate hacbicalcasitaa cools eldhAs vam .1uo0lo9 unidesitsy omisesdT .ji vd bs Aailabhe@e du ene «xb veers 0.69459 Hete 16k) t2nqot byiaow tiotit datlqmooo8 0% ty wwolore: ) ee cooumeb wrens cvvweblecthe 14S) si 9A) afr $1928 olqmniz eep YOTOW 2. ce ccceiccc cece nuee PA {: i0 VISITSV Ja23Is9TQ 9if3 OP VOPANGO 6d oalem pele enn mts meee wm Mddo suits: roqmist oT ihe, 2170 asw ylio ton MOA oicsochrene 4 Aoi SHOE PIAS PLN RD ooh AG6$.1) Davot siyeeuse + opi escheat’ oF the liininvas rays ‘existing ‘in greatest abimdancect the geen on 1825.] on the Process of Combustion. 349. To consume one inch, At the verge of violet my it took. .. 4’ 36” In the céntre of violetray. ........ 4 26 STEM TAY. 6. pee eee ee eens 4 20 ee ee 4 16 This short inquiry’ “then, although, perhaps, not conducted with all that delicacy and precision so Hecessary for strict philo- sophical research, would appear to warrant two conclusions of some interest. First, thatthe solar rays in preportion to their intensity are possessed of the power of retarding to a considera- ble extent the process of combustion ; and that consequently the popular ideas on this subject are founded in truth. Secondly, that thrs phenomenon i is occasioned by | the action of the chemi- cal ray§ on the portion of atmospheric air that immediately enve- lopes a particle of matter about to enter into a state of combus- tion, aidéd no doubt by the high temperature* of the portion of materials that have alre ise commenced this process. ~ Before concluding, F-would suggest it as a subject for further iconng ts a he t may not be owing to_the action of the deoxidizing rays of the solar beam, on the ‘Various combinations of matter diffused over the surface of our globe, that the vast quantities of oxygen consumed on the various deteriorating pro- cesses of nature and of art are again restored to the atmosphere so as to preserve at all periods, and i in ay situation, astate of constant uniformity of composition. . Plants, it is satisfactorily ascertained, give « ‘out a large quan- tity of oxygen, gas when exposed to sunshine, an. effect that may very fairly be. attributed to the action of the chemical rays on the carbonic jacid generated in the minute vascular system of the leaf. Even the ordinary light, of day has, in some. instances, been found capable of accomplishing the same. purpose. Thus marsh plants, as the polygonum persicaria and the ineines salt- caria, yielded oxygen gas by a weak diffused light when confined in an nimonpnety ofnitrogen; and different species of epzlobcum vegetated a long time, and grew as well in pure nitrogen gas as portion of the spectruth would appear to stiggest the propriety of imparting this colour to objects that we wish to render visible at great distances, such, for instance, as lights situated: along theisea coast. -I ammot aware of the experiment haying, been, tried in light-houses, and I should anticipate but one objection to its success; namely, that the bing. Satene, ofthe atmosphere combining with the green would impart a yellowish tinge. e col ouring of our apartments, how erst and a variety of other occasions, this prin- ciple might be advantageously attended to. The circumstance of our fields, as well’as the greater portion of thé vegetable world, having beer clothed with this delieate and refreshing colour, may enable those animals that feed by night: more readily to discover their wonted repast. This. at all events, may be one end accomplished by it. The same simple agent in the hands 6f an-all-wise Providencei is ce uaa 4 employed to accomplish the greatest variety of purposes, * The temperature of a'common fire, according to Tnviney is'790°. + Saussure found that by the decomposition of -carbonic ‘acid not only was oxygen discharged fromthe plant, but.that;the proportion. of its carbon, was materially,increased. 350 Dr, M‘Keever onthe Influence of Solar Light [Novw. in common ait, though exposed only to a weak light, or protected from the action of the sun. The’ nitrogenous atniospherecat the end of two months was increased in bulky and containedissiths of oxygen’ pe ; whereas ‘when ‘similar’ plants owere confined (in pure nitrogén gas, and kept in’ perfect darkness; thoughothey were renewed every twelve hours, lest their’ vegetation might languish ; yet they produced no oxygen gas; but! augriented their ‘atmosphere by a quantity of carbonic acid.* 1!) y!icotsgge ~The production of the green colour in plants (a! process'Idnay observe intimately connected with the discharge’ of*okygen)} has been clearly demonstrated to be influenced by'the'portion‘of the spectrum to which the plant may have been subjected sand these changes, it has been further proved, were occasioned Hot ny the heating or illuminating rays, but by the peculiar ties of the’ chemical Tays associated’ with thea! » Senebier haying sowed different quantities of lettuce seeds in several small! cups, subjected them to’ the influence of light transmitted: through fluids tinged of various ‘colours. The leaves|expo8ed to yellow light were at first of a faint green, but afterwards bécame yellow: those exposed to violet’ light were of a fd green, and “their colour augmented with their age; while those raisedcin obsdu- rity possessed no verdure whatever.f 9) ait t# 92 As animal substances (according to the experiments’of Aber- nethy, Cruickshank, and Jurin) deteriorate the air after the manner of vegetables ; namely, by the absorption of bxygen!and the emission of an equivalent quantity of carbonice acid gas} the supposition seems not improbable, from their similarity! inistruc- ture and other circumstances, that they also-when ‘exposed to sunshine would give out oxygen gas. | But for this, ‘we haveoas et no data, I believe the experiment has not been/tried; and merely mention it as affording a field for curious ‘and mteresting inguiry both ‘to the chemist and physiologist; Withcrégard to inorganic matter, we find that the most/compact and solid mate- rials with which we are acquainted ‘are incessantly subjected to those slow and silent charges to which we commonly-apply the term decay. By this in truth we understand, thatthe elements of which they are composed are’constantly entering intommew-and varied states of combination, Influenced by Pate ei that’surround them, the results of this. mutual.inte ge.of u ransom on yd 2i Tatts bed mist yiisret * We can readily conceive that during the ordinary light of day, the chemic is, from their dilute and feeble state, may itm possess: sulace twat b begrirenes nat i in a few instahces such as those to which I: have alluded): withthe) usual: funetionsof plants; but that during sunshine, their intensity’ may become:iso much ineréased as) ito occasion a directly opposite round of changes, the air that had:hithetto bedn contaminated by vegetation being now restored to’ its original state eS hr bar tigilnoont yd nw “4 “The eniission of oxygen and the production of the green’ colour in-plants.appear ‘both'to depend ‘on the ‘same’ cause—the decomposition sof carbonic: acid 3:30} that, ive ‘ahndt' so’ properly affirm’ that ‘the we 8 afford oxygen as that they becoind green whet ‘that’ is expelled.” — (See ’s Farther Enquiries;)') of yer ioe fre % fo See Me? Elis’s Purther Enquiries, &t. p, 18'5°Sanssure's Recherchés,9p 1640 01h ? Ag Y 4825.) » on the Process of Combustion, | 35h affinities are again destined to, pass away,jand having thrown off the forms they, had,assumed,. they serve. as the basis of other, perhaps far different compounds, it has been usual to attribute the changes here spoken of almost, exclusively to the combined influence of air-and.of moisture aided by. inequalities in, atmo- spherietemperature.* These no doubt,are powerful, and.to, a centaimextent, effective agents; yet when we come to,consider saps the most simple phenomena, how many serious and unbénding difficulties have we not to encounter,!, The co-opera- tiom ofan, active energetic principle. such as that I have.sug- gested, would, it appears to me, afford a ready explanation, of many miscellaneous .occurrences at present involved, in, much obscurity. Above all, its. well-known power of causing the dis- engagement of oxygen from a variety of compound bodies would appearito offer a fair,and satisfactory explanation of one of the most abstruse and difficult problems that has as yet engaged, the attentions of scientific men. “By whatever process,” observes Mr. Ellis,“ the purification of the atmosphere maybe, accom- plished, of,this general fact we may rest satisfied, thatas oxygen isiwithdrawn,from it in order to enter into new combinations, so it can,againibe restored only by such decompositions, as. shall set it free, and these decompositions must be as numerous, and - to|/an extent as great, as the combinations to which they succeed.”, eles -Icam,fully aware that this is a subject on which even a con- jecture should be hazarded with extreme caution, but_I trust its importance; as well as the acknowledged want of any thing like a satisfactory!explanation of the principles on which such inte- resting and important changes depend, will furnish an apology for the few imperfect ideas I have here ventured to throw gut... Whether chemically acting rays exist. in the moonbeams,is ‘a point Libélieve notyet fully determined, It as likely, /however, that they do, although) in an extremely dilute and attenuated ' condition, Indeed if the colorization of the leafis once admit- ted to. be owing:to the action, of these rays (and of this the expe- riments of Senebier appear to, leave no, doubt), we, can, hardly hesitate to admit their existence.| . The Abbe, Lessier,,and “# Matter is commonly divided by chemists and natural ‘philosophers into Mvmg/and dead, but the distinction 'is:probably not founded on rational or accurate views: »what! we usually term dead matter is by no means inert or indifferent with regard to itself; there “issnota particle of dust on which we tread, but has its peculiar relations and affinities, by ewhich it-is enabled to-form:a' portion of that perpetual round of modifications that form osoiremarkable a featuré:in the material world. . Attraction.in fact may be said to.consti- tute the dife of the inorganic masses of our globe, poh jack dud xeiaela 's*PAdvhoughno difference could be: detected in the process of combustion; when, carried on by moonlight and in a darkened room, yet this might be owing to the imperfection of sthemeans “employed to-ascertain the weights of the respective portions of taper. «'The »dightlofthis hminary does not amount: to 100,000th part of that of the,szn,,,and the-xery -fegblecheat! whith this excites has never yetbeen detected by the most delicate, contrivance of art. Such may be the case with the: chemical ‘rays sour) best, devised. experiments may hot. be. ableto' detect their preserice, although from a variety of natural phenomena their existence is hardly to be questioned. 352 Dr. Thomson's Answer. to: Mr. Rainy. [Nov. Sehers Copia fully \established) the »fact;that thé light of the mooh;has the! power of imparting the:preen colour to’ platits, although ofa. tinge less deep, thay that voevasioned by thetight of day.| Fruits also(that have been keptiéxcluded fron? thé sun are found to ripen) with considerable rapidityl when &xpoved'to the. BAYSsao vilorys wait 1 sdoneliolao Vit AT TOTIS Yns h | nally may be; stated); the several species Ofirays that! &ém- ose,the solar beam would appear to\exert/thevfoll Hig pee C but vated actions. 4 heamros av6d of Sdguo esg megoTby: irst, the calorific, rays: they ‘impart heat» tovthe different combinations. of matter, organi¢as well as’ inorganic)’ aifd thus assist in the various chemical changes to which) théy!ar@ineés- 8 tly 's jected... +1! baydalyaid sisw Gordy stab os ite besiso aval y, the, calorific, rays by which thetobjects thatsuftdufid us are, illuminated, and, but: for which ait as» obvidus all natite would, be; as a, dreary blatks!coleo ont to abso et jedd lieis Lastly, the deoxydizing or chemical rays, by means of whi (it is suggested) the /oxygen consunied during éombustion; respi- ration, anda variety df other processesyis again restored to the atmosphere; thus preservitg this medium im ialstatereonstatitly fitted for administering to the support of organized*beings)!)*'! ¢ RTO OOV4 - eo S es o 2s f fs ® 2 % ais We ~ OOF biog srudq ive ~~ Articte VIII. Answer to Mr. Pree Paper on the 6 a ‘fydof cud guar yey Dell eee ee orhek tO dil aes sag Jf dlyanged Gas. BY Thonas Thomaeny MB EW oe (i por’ JOM @ In, the Aamals.of Philosophy for A ep Tas (HO. HE tH 85 New. Series), my-friend Mr. Rainy has endedvotifed to's at I have, undenrated| the quantity of! vapour ini" iP gas) by making its specific gravity too low; and that°whéntthe’ertors’ my, calculations are/correeted, the’ spécifie ‘gravity! éf't gees that of oxygem gas not'ds Ihave Supposed? us 1 td V6, ut.as|1 to 16°64, on as: 0°967 to 16)°He' drawy as’ i pet that, my. experiments» disprove the’ hypothesis that the’ gravities of allthe gases are multiples y integer iuiiblts the specific.gravity ofjhydrogenigas! ci) Seely ofl) to Gdgaos © twas anxious, before answering this? oper Mi Rly to make a few additional) experiments'ow t et bi a ai the manipulations, were rather delicate) Ithodght it! are a e first place to. get my balance put inito-the best poss rt 1) and my. weights, adjusted: so as towvender the uifaveidablé errors if Ww hin vas \trivial; as) possible! My: friend Mr." Onieht ; to whose, atacommon) zeal; abilitids,/ anid accuracy) EP 'Have bésn alveaiy so. frequently indebted) wasitkind® enough b6 pit iy balance into excellent order; but it, was eA mON tere ated! September before I was_able.to «xecute iprojectedh expéri- ments. .% W2O¥ «teats 1825.5 Drs Lhoinson’sAnswer toys Rainy, 353 reiR Se is written with’ all that perspieuity, wb. fen jot peak mi Islooked: for from: him } - OWA HE Sete eenkesloonson all the; citcumétaneés’ 0 f) the! ease, me cgnclasions hwould) have béen sndotibtedi * But I flatter miyselfthat Ishiallybesable to satisfy him that if T have eommits ted ay error in my calculations, it lies exactly on’ ‘tie Opposite fqn; what} he supposes’; and ' that! instead: of! unde rating, 4, Lie eality. overrated the weight of the moisturé which’ the ydrogen gas ought to have contained, on the supposition ‘that th theory .ofivapourat present adopted is correct,’ Of) Jel i my; resentwork,: to which Mr. Rainy alludes, Bt kl eVvelt consider, it, roperito enter into: any’ details.’ Thave'not’ noticed all va data which were employed. by me in caléul the quantity/of vapour-it the hydrogen’ gas.’ It willbe requisite, therefore,,to state some) particulars! of the experiments ‘a ‘httlé in’ Sop that the grounds of the sec raaeee cay’ be ely under’ w lo -ansont Ya aver le 9, 10 “QOIsIby x£09D VU ght of. the: small. ei im weak I “diel wees the zine. w: 08478 Rmnineaickts apart? was 8:8 cubie inches" OU /Theidilute-sulphuric acid! iat ay for dissolving a ne is a mixturqef.very:nearly: ' o doqqua ofl} OF garrosertion WHOM E Vos) pp ae bl wa dncke nee 1700 grs. Sulphuric acid, 0» Sanya gaece eesleecs; SOD LilV awoiraaé 2100 sd ‘that’ Ms ly weig fut e glass. il stent ute aul nrc acid o A i ns. This cpN ie ae i a sa ign ent {¢ eas 55 ph dde, the \adid\andwater ! ) Not weighed. But the hrdifference’ OREN) ) exeeede d eig en 3 except in, adew a alin the quantit és Were, AYoMATLE Ger) Hn 5 M0 liosda et Qalasmy Pat sae at Ye of my dilute! ach was! sab? 224°) ‘exept in “‘£W9, ,0 ie eli swhich -the acid: was; made tronget' on ao ay t_as,none, ofthese trials were employed in my détetd! sihe evenen serenity sh ip apesins gat, ne ‘teed! nt lf bag Hi TEeVIEW ac ° vg ott set "The en the glass tube ‘filled saab velitbride of ealeian was, Iduine amie. dts weight ywhew so filled’ varied’ front’ a gra 0 grains in diferent experiment Wibb: # SAsrit pout oe Be inches|jof theylask :were: left’ capi “Phe zing nie need, whilesthe flask was kept in'a sloping posi” hon, | position, was maintained during the’ whole 4 = that, t t ca 28 da fing This i was} to: prevent any’ om drop at might be,elevat by, the esvapévof the: rd ee oe from, making theis way; obts.of the flasks: 1¢! om * e 2 ade \ Mernedab isa sash tebtiy 48 Yor 7 67," ne 0 fro 1949 OFM meted taste serofetakeindesy al ice Ry Masson 5 é€ fay eres, VOL. X« 354 Dr. Thomson’s Answer to\ Mr. Rainy. [Nov. water of the temperature’ 49° during the! whole time that the zinc was dissolving, in order t6’prevent arly elevation of temperature. - When the zinc was completely dissolved, the flask was taken out of the water_trough, and wiped dry on the outside. It was: then laid upon'a. table ‘with its mouth open; and! gently moved for about ter minutes to allow the two cubic itehés of hydrogen gas which it contained to make their escape, and common air to take its place. It was then weighed, taking care to allow it to remain on the'séalés till the weight became stationary, /if it was not so at first, which, however, was generally the:case.; ‘When the tube containing the chloride of calcium was detached from the flask, I put that extremity of it which had been furthest from the flask into my mouth, and, drawing a long breath, displaced the whole of the hydrogen gas which it con- tained, substituting in its place the common aif of the room, The tube was then wiped dry and weighed.."* °'y “°™ After these details, which will enable the reader to appreciate | the degree ofconfidence which may be put in, the experiments, I shall follow Mr. Rainy through ‘his éaléulations.” «°° | Mr. Rainy says that_I have employed an erroneous formula in calculating the specific gravity of vapour. In fact, however, the formula which { used is precisely the same’as his); excepting that heshas»introduced an additional term ae I didnot consi ler it a8 Worth While: to Th froduce ‘this’ additional tery ;/ bécause some uncertainty still hangs over the value of p;' and ‘must'con- tine to a6 66 til, he favtof the expansioni’ of vapour! be accu- rately deterinined. But T have no objection; since Mr: Rainy chooses it, to introduce the term na It will in fact produce only a Very trifling alteration in the result:ioow stuloads od? w I must begin by reminding Mr. Rainy that! the /boilimg point of the liquidofrom which the hydrogen gas was evolved was not 212°, but 224°, or 12° above the Yoiling oteh of water. It was a liquid that required to be raised 12° higher than water before it gave out the same quantity of vapour that water placed in the same circumstances would do. It was necessary on this account to reduce the temperature of 49° (at which the experi- ment was made) by’12°5 for the vapour given outiwas what would haye been given out by water of the temperature 37°. ‘The volume ‘of gas ‘extricated at 49° was 137-08! cubic inches. T6 ‘find its ‘volume’ at 60°, we have this analogy, 497 =) 508 :: 137-08 : 140-896 cubic itiches’=°volume’ of gasat 60%!) 0 » penn teceo, vapour ‘at 37° (accorditig to’ Dalton’stable) is 0-237 inch of mercury’ = p. Let us calculate the specific gravity tui ef Bithi 2k iF f wtiisiar it [ 63 132" Seid ep OF xg 18 of this vapour by Mr Rainy’s formula, whichis yx, ia% 0;625 = specific gravity. w *1825,] Dr. Thomson’s Answer to Mir. nahin “355 mort tedt oarit | 10 se iV =) 140° vib mrst oft'tg % 5} wie vi Pee {TO We = 137) 08 oat Ore rloee2tt 3 sast esw slash ‘oh wi —4 10287.» r sats ont aol WW nf ahietio sc i+ y 4 SvVoOnt % 140: 306. We oe ee we ewe & » eee, ou a7b bat rie ' . xgo1by Og. EAB ABS Kin cnr See oe 2 oe oe rea Di f PUA MAAHA LAF sige ee oans beanie ,, 00103820 1°" « aw’ ti VLeg 0:987- eoseveeae re eeeese 13747487; c 6s state 80" ES ee levee 14771212) if BW ofmrales Det ri rl Vi et doider V6%0.insonsrs $0 = 88970275: 4. Ts 0-625 . mide TSHR MTSE ae _ 1-7958800 ly ae i'd Log. v eal abl 0-0103820 | | 89%) Gog! Bi eae Le 318976275 “Loe. 0°68 idheoan iy eth v-ttereo eet 1:7958800 i wea} aifostiOTS ik bsiyolgms oveit Lagiyegesgniey lt The pre ir i wide this logarithm corresponds is0° 00505695 specific ravity of vapour at 37° (or extricated from weak cull utic’ acid’ of 49°). Thus the specific gravity:calculated by _ Mr. Rainy’s,own formula, instead of being higher than I made it, turns out in fact rather lower. The: difference between this and my fiver calculation is owingyto,some Jittle alterations in the data,, But these altera- tions, for reasons. to be immediately 2 I consider it as need- less to discus’ here! '" | Boas Now the absolute weight: of this vapour ealgulated re Ss Sp anecyriner 0:00505695,'x 137-08 x 0:305:is 0:21143 ers. | fag ty 0: MARE — 37038891 o ind sts be ae HE pA S: | + 2-1369741 vie Ta Stresses ere sos — 1°4843000 © — 13251632 (AD nr Ao The! nislpungeaien ne to this logarithm. is 0: 91143, This is about!-44th.of a grain less than,[ estimated it. These details have been both tedious, and minute; but they were(necessary to satisfy Mr..Rainy, that my conclusions are PO) liable to the objections which he.supposes. |, ) If owe: subtract |the 0163. grain= of, moisture, ieiniaed by, NS chloride -ofi-caleium from, 0:21143 gr... The. remainder, 0704843 will be the moisture still retained by the gas. This is 0-011 grain less)than my former estimates (05. 1 34 2A 2 356 . Dr. Thomson’s.Answer to, Mr. Rainy. {Nov. If we take 0:048:from 3,/theinémainder,2:952 will be the weight of 138°7551:ewbie anchessofshydrogen) gas. ho} ev 198°7551 : 1000:: 206lr2Q1274ie weight,of 100 cubic inches of hydrogen gas ;andadimitting:that 100 ,cubic inches of oxygen gas weigh 33°915 grains) otlieyspeeifie’ gravity. of oxygen gas is to that of hydrogen gas asGitond:0036, This deviates less than =1,th from theoratio of)d tod6,,20 9. But a careful examination of my former-experiments, which I was induced to make by the perusal of Mr. Rainy’s paper, led me to entertain some doubts about the accuracy of this mode of - proceeding. Of ten experiments which I formerly made, nine gave a greater augmentation of weight in the chloride of calcium than the weight of all the vapour that could have-been contained in the hydrogen gas at the temperature in which the experiments were made. Now it appeared somewhat unreasonable to lay aside nine-tenths of all the experiments, and to draw my conclu- sions from the odd tenth. I was desirous, therefore, to try - whether by increasing the length of tube filled with chloride of calcium, 1 could not render the gas perfectly dry, and thus get rid of the necessity of introducing the specific gravity of vapour into the calculation. The experiments which I am going to give an account of were four in number. They were made when the thermometer stood at 60°, and the barometer at very nearly 30 inches, so that no correction whatever was required for pressure or temperature. [ filled three glass tubes with chloride of calcium, the two extre- anities of each of which were stuffed in the usual manner with amianthus. These tubes were united by slips of caoutchouc, which were cemented into tubes by means of a solution of caout- chouc in naphtha. The length of these tubes was as follows: First tube... ccsccceccceccceese LO inches. Second tube......+eeees ep EY , TERIOR AUIS b>0 5 case ce eh essen 27 Total length........+esseeeee- 64 The zinc dissolved was 130:21 grains. Weight of flask with dilute acid... 2780°7 grains _ * “Weight of first tube ...,......... 815°95 Weight of second tube.......... 1033-05 Weight of third tube............ 1051°79 f The experiments were sper s the way already RES TER BS Neat guar Aaa rete eutetoyed in 29i eighing i tubes,,and,.. ° yom “he..weat happens £0 be -opaiiy31was-afraidsthatsonie moisture «night havecanginuated of Bf ‘1 yh: 7 ri 5 a \itdelfihto the oper'end of the 't Jini “eoritaint II ioride‘of cal anidotew edt at betiin 1826.] Dr. Thomson’s Answer to Mr. Rainy. 357 | cium. ‘To prevent °this;\that tube. wasimade' to pass through a perforated cork fixedin the'beak/ofia tubulated retort containing some ‘sulphuric acid, while\a sewing thréad :doubled was inserted between the tubulure and the glass stoppertorallow the hydrogen gas to &sca eas Ib was evolvedsl' sig COG fgiay - The third tube containing chloride oof) calcium,’ which was furthest from the flask, ‘had! undergoneno alteration whatever in weight.°! eoucluded from this'that three: feet one inch of tube filled with? chloride'of-caletum, was’ sufficient’ to» render the hydrover' ‘gas as dryoas it ‘could*be made by this'method. In conségténce of this in°a subsequent experiment, [omitted the thivtubedltopether) oi idgiow To rorntstiora’gns tose3" 0d * UPhOinérease’of weicht of the second tube was,..... Orl gr. e smmi1egx9.ond doidw OF o10d819.: firstAeb 363 SPs eee O84 o} sldsnoessiay Isiwor heis9qys 3 | Ay é i re Sie eve j ts | teed H{IOD 7 oT Wb6ID OJ Ooms vetrisirri9 eetalts [ds eie@eeooes ove O94 : Od a10lg ions: . auotizah BW os Ph fi 1D 2 ; brroldo Pheloss of flask, was)...5 «j++» 48 grains. aiid pn@ain of tubes. « oreeece hee wpeyd ye jeje ty O14 3 . niememenl i 4pav To yaieverg onipade orion be to yelepoen ey '° “Weight of hydrogen gas. ...... 3'86° ‘Now4302h¢ 100 ¢? 8°862:92:9640= weight: ofcgas evolved during thesolation of h0Or grains of zines landih80:2h 2: 100° :: 0:94; 00-7219 = moisture/ deposited scinothe tubenduring ithe solation of 100 grains’ of zine uinpdilute sulphutiecacids::The volame of thisi@as being 138°7551 cubic: inches; 1t-is:easyto see that'wherthe-barometer stands ato30dnchesjoand: the thermo- dinesto this determination the specific gravity ofioxygen gas is to.that of hydrogen gas as 16 to 10077, This deviates ~1_th part from.the fatio I to 16 ; and this, ratio ‘will be exact, if it be admitted that ari eivor’amounting to0'02"grain was com- mitted in the weighing.* statisti ROMANS If we calculatejthe weight of vapour which.the, hydrogen gas ought to have carried off from the dilute acid, we shall find it to amount to 0:313128 g¥ain? bat’ the: moisture-imbibedoby the chloride..of caleium amounted to 0°94 grain,, or three times the calculated quantity. ‘We must, the age rent that our notions respecting vapour are ‘still imperfect ;, or that the hydro-~ OTTO! 20.0 02 J adat birds to dota W * It is reasonable to expect that the specific gravity of hydrogen gas as determined experimentally) willibeyachttle) higher jthan the sheorotival: Weights hecpater it;is}almost imposthler © peepare.it.alisolutely pure, and every impurity, myst ne sary increase its weight. he give which em] fered tabigh it ka best distilled ih ae ea} kan Ware ret reeds BG nd’ means d6aiitely pure; for’ I could still detect in it miatité quantities of foteigh matters! Ndw itis sureynotat allrunlikély/that)so great:a volame efthydro- geii as. J87eubie inch, righ, concn, 0-02 grain of, foreign matter ‘Thivjs.all the mg OC e@meGnwlOe sto ansoom yd esdus otai botasaiss s19w doidw-’ i} impurity which it is requisite to admit on the supposition that no error wha committed in the weighing, 858 Dr. Thomson’s Answer to Mr, Rainy. [Nov. gen gas carries along ‘with it’ and deposits ‘in the- chloride. of calcium small quantities of sulphuric acid, or of sulphate‘ofzinc, or of bath te ier* CLIW 26S Lf STEN Ms BQ SU LOY S _ Whether Mr. Rainy will-consider an experiment which comes within less than one per cent. of the ratio of 1 to 16, as esta- blishing the truth of that ratio, I cannot pretend to conjecture. But Lam sure that,.I am not able to, come nearer the truth by means of the balance which 1 employed. I am not atvall certain that the real weight of the hydrogen was not 0:02 grain less than I reckon it; for notwithstanding the goodness 6 the ‘beam, and. the scrupulous attention with which every thing was weighed, it is scarcely possible to guarantee a deviation from accuracy to so small an amount as 0°02 grain when the whole wei pores to 4759-91 grains, or not much short of a troy sotintt ~ This was weighing to +5>455th part of the whole, a degree of precision to which I believe it to be very difficult to attain. a i But it was not by means of these experiments that, I satisfied myself ofthe truth of the ratio between the specific grayities of hydrogen and oxygen gases. The evidence already brought forward was conclusive. My object. was merely to produce an approximation by means so simple as would be likely to satisfy those who had not the requisite knowledge to draw their conclu- sions from more complicated sources. It may be worth while to mention afew of the facts upon which my opinion was originally founded... |. , | , 1. I determined by actual. experiment that the specific gravity of hydrogen gas is 0°0694. The subsequent determination of Berzelius and Dulong will be found to approach so near to this, - that I have often been surprised that these ingenious gentlemen did not perceive that 0:0694 approaches more nearly to the mean of their experiments than the number which they themselves pitched upon. | 2. I consider the evidence which I have adduced in my late work as conclusive that air is a mixture or compound of one volume of oxygen gas and four volumes of azotic gas, or of one atom oxygen and two atoms azote. From this it follows that the specific gravity of oxygen gas must be 1°1111, ifatmospheric air be reckoned unity. . 3. The specific gravity of ammoniacal gas, deduced from a mean of the determinations of Sir H. Davy and my own, is 0-590237. It has been proved I consider to the satisfaction of every person.that it is,a compound of one volume of azotic ’ ‘ i ~/ »? , ae lo VJINBIS' OF 99K . JIiAGS 1 2H fiGRBOoTD ys On 89gad: 23-3 de of salsiusn would Bop, mpecely {eplitbs, As’ moynuare ‘te an the h yee ping gh barn be ny ang fe or 24 it if nob unzeaSonable:to. suppose that more vapour might be; absorbed than ba a existing. f-the, given temperature. in, the hydrogens gas. which passed orice. 1825.) Dr. Thomson’s Answer to,Mr. Rainy. — 359 gas, and. three volumes, .of hydrogen, gas, condensed into two VOLUMES 5 (|p) ye 16 LO. B108 OPT a 10 Beit J ) 2 volumes ammoniacal gas weigh. .,. 17180474 J; Subtract,1 volume.azotic gas,,.,.. 0°972222 Peet a Remain for 3 volumes hydrogen gas “0208252 The third of which, or 0069417, must represent the specific gravity of hydrogengas. Now 0-069417 : 1:1111°:: 1 : 16-006. Thus we see,that the specific gravity of hydrogen gas deduced from that ofammoniacal gas is within.,!, th part of th of that of oxygen gas... , 4. Water has been shown to be a compound of one volume of hydrogen gas and half.a volume of oxygen gas united together, and condensed into a liquid. Weight'ofa volume of hydrogen gas ...... 0:069417 _ Weight of half a volume of oxygen gas .... 0555555 Now 0:069417 ::0°555555 :: 1 : 8003 Here we have the same ratio as before. The compositions of water and ammonia have been deter- mined with fully as much care as any thing within the whole range of chemical science ; and they concur in establishing the ratio between the specific gravities of hydrogen and oxygen gases to be 1 : 16. Indeed Iam aware of very few numerical ratios in any department of science that have been determined with so much accuracy. 5. Even the specific gravity of vapour, upon which Mr. Rainy lays so much stress, and which he considers as so completely established, leads to the same conclusion, or rather indeed is founded on the assumption of the truth of this ratio. This spe- cific gravity bas been settled at 0°625. Now vapour is a compound of one volume of hydrogen gas and half a volume of oxygen gas united tegether, and condensed into one volume. If we subtract 0°555 from 0°625, the remainder 0:0694 must represent the specific gravity of hydrogen gas ; but 070694. : 11111 =: 1; 16. ey In reality, therefore, all the calculations and objections of Mr. Rainy were founded on the admission of the very ratio which he endeayoured in his paper to overturn, “I might easily bring forward’ a great number of other proofs that the specific gravity of hydrogen gas is exactly =1,th of that " Ghat kygen pas.’ But Tt have already extended this peper much farther, than,.L, originally intended; pid, HelinN thas dB rise Bntain« at’ least,s.the specific gravities. of hydrogen and.exygen GAses,’as'Thave heéte statedithem, are universally adunittedto be 360 Prof. Buckland onthe Anoplotherium Commune. {Nov. true. » Dhavevmyself consideredsthe subjéct/frequentlysand with all the attention of which I am capablejcand:h amvsatishied) that a better estabhshedpfact is! not to*béfoundywithin thedimits of chemical science. Ny vd stir i300. orit to crate Glasgow, Oct, 1, 1825, to eftic w Most oot edt to wor i | as i! On the gs ay | of te Anoplotherium Commune in the Isle of the Wight. . By ev. W. Buckland, Professor of Geology in the University of Oxford. bb IA | | (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) TO R90 PNSTION SIONT. GB SvIThe. | he GENTLEMEN, iyo. oif} ee bb + Oxford, Oct. 4, 1824. - Since the publication of:Mr. Webster’s excellent Memoirs on the Geology of the Isle of Wight, and the coasts adjacent to it, no doubt has existed as to the identity of the freshwater forma- tions that occur so extensively in that island with those described by Cuvier and Brongniart in the vicinity of Paris; and this conclusion has rested on the similarity of the remains of fresh- water mollusce and vegetables which these formations respect ively contain, and on a correspondence in their substance, and their relative position to other strata of marine origin, quite sufficient to establish the contemporaneous deposition of these remarkable strata at the bottom of ancient fresh water lakes in the districts which are geologically distinguished by the appel- lation of the basin of Hampshire and the basin of Paris. There was still, however, a further point on which evidence appeared desirable, inasmuch as the remains of the genus Anoplotheriumand other large lacustrine quadrupeds which occur in the basin of Paris, had not been ascertained to exist in earsa Shitiabegl-hydibe iia quently s ving itto Mr. Péntland (whois acburately versed an’ 1825.] ‘Mr..Levyon Two. New'Minerals. 364 once pronoimeed it ito be! ae -molartodthoof the lower jaw of the Anoplotherium: cohimunes ic sqso ors I dordw to aottaat Therdinadxed:idravting) ‘ofthe tooth insiqhestion sbeing of the 999190 Base of the tooth with broke portions Crown of the tooth much worn. of the'r Low. is M By barat natural size eran” give a more correct idea of it than can be con- veyed! by any ‘description ; and as the evidence of its havin been found’! in: the quarries offreshwater limestone at Binstea (1 believe theclower freshwater) rests on such accurate authority as that ofiMr. Allan;iwe may consider this important and almost only deficientiilink in the chain of evidence that unites the English freshwater formations with those of France to be now supplied, and hope that this discovery will stimulate others whose local position affords them opportunity, to persevere in the attempt to collect further traces of the remains of this remarkable class of extinct quadrupeds in the freshwater strata of = Isle of spokes ath ARTICLE X, | Dearne of Two New Minerals. By Mr. A. Leyy, MA. of the University of Paris. (To the Editors of the Annals of Pratosoghy: ) GENTLEMEN, : Oct, 14, 1825. Herschelite. ‘Tur substance for which I propose this name, in honour of the Secretary of the Royal Society, was brought by him from Aci Reale, in Sicily, and has not yet been noticed, I believe, as a distinct species. {t-occurs in white, translucent, and Fig. 1. opaque crystals of the form represented by fig.’l, sometimes isolated‘ on the ’ matrix, but:most-gerierally:wety:closely! sib aggregated am aomanner anmalogousito Bt thabimiwhi¢h)incthe erystals of spreh4 aM od df ON nite are: so frequéhtly met: withy: > Fhe!ieeo! orf? % ghd toh ‘ah ihe Oita Wi 862 Mr, Levy on Two New Minerals. [Nov. matrix, in the cavities of which it.is. found, greatly resembles lava, but upon a close examination, I found it entirely composed of small grains and crystals of olivine, several of which I have detached, and measured by means of the reflective goniometer. Dr! Wollaston, with his usual kindness, has examined chemi- ‘eally'a small quantity of Herschelite, and has found it contains silex, alumina, and potash. These are also the constituent parts ‘offelspar and amphigene, but the new substance most certainly ‘differs from both by its crystallographical and other characters. ‘The form of the crystals indicates that they are derived either from a rhomboid or a six-sided prism, but the exact dimensions ‘of the’ primitive form’ I cannot give, on account of the difficulty of obtaining accurate measurements. The face p is always dull ‘and curved, the faces 6’, though sometimes sufficiently brilliant for measurement, are generally composed of a number of planes shghtly raised one above the other. The mean between several “measurements gives eaten a, Beat ABP b’, b’ = 124’ 45’ -'°If; therefore, we suppose the primitive form to be a six-sided ‘prism, and the faces 6’ to be the result of a decrement by one ‘row'on the terminal edges, the ratio between one side of the base ‘andthe height of the prism will be nearly that of equality. I could obtain no cleavage either parallel to the base of the prism, or in any other direction. The mean of two experiments to determine the specific gravity gives 2°11. The fracture is con- choidal, and this substance is easily scratched by the knife, Phillipsite. Herschelite.is accompanied by another substance, which, I also believe, belongs to a distinct species, for which I propose the name of Phillipsite, in honour of Mr. W. . 7 (Phillips, whose contributions to mineralogy — Fig. 2. vare 80 humerous and so: valuable, i) This) substance. occurs -in | minute! \white, strdnslucent, and opaque crystals of the form) dar cn Gre i Inthe specimens from ¢iv}) \oAcr Reale, these .crystals).ane, lengthened, | » adhereo!closely together radiating ,« frome.aoo common centre, and forming globulat concres)).61 ‘tions). It is also: found m/separateienystals! » \ _ disseminatedron the matrix ;with ;comptonitie; |) ) sand ‘other substances, im specimens, from) ioy \ya vMesbvios: yDhe form of:these:citystalsus the modo io N# osameélasthat of harmotome, Haiiyhas: called ji)o19 901 uevig ododeeuiedre, andthe incidences iof the facesvare nearly the:same. | dnsconseyweneds of these-analogies;. this substance hassbeen slconsidered by some mineralogists as identical: with haymotome, 1825,] On the Method.of analyzing Sulphate of Zinc. 863 The incidencessof the faces‘marked a’ in the figure: could not obtaino with great accuracy, but yet they appeared to differ constantlyfrom those of harmotome, the|,most obtuse, being nearly: 123°:30%j:and the less obtuse 117°.30/.. The substance appears to‘cleave parallel to: the: planes mand ¢, but not/in the direction ofthe diagonal planes as harmotome, and. finally the hardness! 1is:much less, » These differences induced, me to re- quest) Dr.cW ollaston to ascertain whether this substance could be chemically ‘considered as harmotome: The result of his exa- mination was, ‘that it’ contained silex, alumina, potash, and lime, but not’ the slightest trace of barytes. | . 'The absence of this earth, which is an essential constituent of ‘harmotome, decides at once the propriety of separating the new substance from that mineral, and to make.a distinct species of it. Its easy'to:verify the chemical, difference between the two substances in the following manner: ifa fragment of harmotome is pounded and digested for a minute or two in boiling nitric or muriatic acid, and then the liquid filtered, a drop of sulphuric acid put into it will give a precipitate, whilst there will not be the least appearance of one, if Phillipsite be treated in the same manner. . | do not give the dimensions of the primitive form, because the measurements are not sufficiently accurate, but it is obvious that aright rectangular prism, or a right rhombic prism, may be assumed as the primitive. bet Arricte XI, On the Method of analyzing Sulphate of Zinc. By Thomas Thomson, MD.FRS. In my late work entitled “ An Attempt to establish the First Principles of Chemistry by Experiment,” [-have made the analysis of sulphate of zinc the foundation on which: I ‘have endeavoured to rear the whole. subsequent: doctrine of the atomic weight of bodies: I was: obliged: to begin somewhere, and the analysis of this 'salt:appearedas simple and as decisive as any other. I abstaitied from deseribing the processes which I followed, because:dithought them) rather too tedious for a work of the nature'that Ishad»projected, and because it:was in my power in a book vmtended) chiefly for my.own students to supply verbally whateveriwas wanting, in the practicaloparti,, I i Keirever thatil was) mistaken: in. the opmuion which Ichad formed’ of chemists, «whem I> supposed that théy would-dhave given me credit for' being acquainted: withithe usuali methods of Sapenehiagihe oxidecof zinc-fromiavids. > Bord: lately wedeived oacletter froma gentleman; of whose practical skill Leentertaih a ‘highscopuidn, inforimimg -me/ that wny: experiments! and caloula- “Drs Thomsbwor the ni y little’ alte, ‘as T decomposed's epee wert ay) aa int6 a'cold solitr | ‘th ae ein ie ob deal of ae Pao work how I performe nalysis, bu el sls were & WotR? We ie P MpHetcll ahudigd w thie “ui ual (ade “dow Phe et ete fhe Metin tes) was! naaeed from my bleh ev % ie nal oa érimented with ouTit é"revard “aon ‘to be ‘satisfied ‘with a” mode’ which w ky ‘Weft fhott! than‘ eters of the oxide’ of Zine’ still? im solution? “L ‘reason’ to be apprehensive that’ those’ gett titleni 6 ae éémmencing' the: study of practical ¢ amy ore ‘injuriously misled, ‘that’ they ‘may’ empe th lysis @ Sulphate of zine’ without, beg" rae! of: 8 qu - pan and that a tities which they will ‘thus procure will be’ so’ different those’ which’ fT mihi stated; that’ they will Be at apt ‘alder iy Statements’ as eirond us, se what Would ‘be stil ie unfortinate, be discotitaged ‘froin aii feria sven mselves ill they have ‘satisfied ‘thems He’ truth’ of he 2 . él re ets which I: a a Hierdfore, it it will be highly proper'tg ; a: ‘ nivtiess, the differ ¢ thodes' “hal is Wh : i of eke DNS Hd th feat? fiethiéd of | re adi nae este ita fee of my actwal 4 ral nea sth ate‘o eee of ‘Commerce’ is’ enelly eee gut einai Ni lone ‘atom oxide of’ inc if Wty fre from iron,’ an perpen! it tb f cddimiuth.’ When’ the sult ‘is made’ ‘by diss in the ot la atic id-eolphivic aed, and en sal ie del tis you Often tay alt ‘containing rari , much a6 Em is re me is not’ ‘all ot #: a ule Gd Bi id. prystallized” several tiftils "Swectisy Bids, davicwonilt « pte a xine uo ee ci a hid to eave seiscurengreleas all excess of : a a rocess nich, when heat is ‘alp poled 3 4 Gon- sid pa ee ted ree’ the “salt i i ro to iy din a el Hest ed : distilled’ wat ee ri ‘Sra spn een wndiet whe ithe ist of ine 8, pure 6 constitue: nts it as’ P Riive ‘stated nod O Brot 2BW ois to Hr ya JAgISW MOVES & 940g 2. The water of crystalli late: ‘of’ papestviet lend eehandE We obtained diréetly by experiment. 1 usually reduced, the crystals to powder in @/porcelain mortar, wrapt;up the powder in several folds of blottin Poet er, and ke 1 for some time pnder a Pre tty st ik “OF ‘the salt’: ‘this sate ere ora! Ailtoatt 0 ie éfucibléy ‘atld ‘expos Falalt 14h ‘W'tenipératare” as nearly’ Aa possible’ - they ceased to give out moisture. The loss of weight in several 1825.] Method of analyzing Sulphate of Zinc. 368 successive trials’ varied from 68°5 grains to 69:2 grains, and nothing was given out but water. This Lascertained by makin; the experiment in a retort, and collecting the water in a receiver. aie After the salt had ceased to give out water on the sand- bat ] pe crucible was transferred _to a spirit lamp, and the heat gra ually raised to redness. Water was given off at first Steel pure; but it was soon mixed with sulphuric acid fumes, and the quantity of these fumes was greatest when the salt bece red-hot. The total loss of weight which 181-25 grains. of crystallized. sulphate of zinc sustained when thus treated, varied in different trials from 81:6 to 81:9 grains... The salt treated did not dissolve completely in distilled water, and. t undissolved portion was always greatest when the loss. of welg it was oreatest. From these experiments, repeated about a dozen of. ‘times, val concluded that 181-25 grains of sulphate of zinc do not SoniHA so much water as 81-6 grains, nor so little as 69-2 grains. . The conclusions to be drawn from these experiments wall he better understood if we divide the quantities experimente by 10. If we doso, we find that 18-125 grains of crystalli: : sulphate of zinc contain more water than 6:92 grains, but. than 8-16 grains. I had previously satisfied myself. that, the atomic weight of water is 1:125.. Now six atoms of wate r amount to 6°75, and seven atoms to 7:875. 8:16 exceed this last number by 0: 285, which is only a small fraction of an, atom. The conclusion which I drew from these experiments js, that crystallized sulphate of zinc contains seven atoms ta water, that. when placed on the sand-bath it gives out, six, of, these seven, and that the remaining atom cannot be separated with out taking along with it a portion of sulphuric acid. _ These conclusions, indeed, required to be veribied byt yt the ‘subsequent steps of the analysis, Meanwhil 8. ap pro- bable that 18-125 grains of suphals of ‘ZING, contain ght ? grains, or seven atoms of water... ; nate fi sal 2209 i 3. To obtain the oxide. of zinc ion "at. mee the dil ite 1 had recourse to a wap of fuss Q Nar more, Thea less, successful. i Hae ate these may be atl, (1.) .The qu ; >of barytes, necess sory epee RSE era ee pose a given weig te of zinc was fo posing, both, sean seta ayio tos i wodT 2 ssayio oA datate of husyte tg ue poze. vd .VhO8%5 bonisido esto fll Sulphate of ita ich a IBLIO MM sighap el serene ap o} rf i395 "Ot gg 70 The is alk fy Hod aie Pas, tee fone, and O aed, rs in Sulphate ,o pharytes 8; Mas Fie See ra ter, an “ agetate of, zikgi sas, exaporated, to, dryness and exposed, Foren ni 3dgtow to eeolodT .ountetona duo evig ot beasse vodt 366 Drs "Dhomsonion the [Nov. red heat ina balanced platinum crucible!) The) sulphate, of barytes obtained by this Panter gave the’ quantity of:sulphuric acid in the sulphate: of) zine’ with sufficient! exacthesst:o But there:were two sources of! inaccuracy which prevented mé firdin obtaining exactly the! oxide» ofi zines |A! portion) ofthe ozine waseustally sublimed ‘during the exposure’ of the\acetatesto a rediheat,:» When the oxide of zine obtained was!dissélvedam an | acid) a little’ charcoal from the’ decomposed’ acetic: acid: usually remaimed behind. (0) 5) teel ant Yo Slodw 3: (2)) ‘The sulphate of zine was dissolved im waterjoandy!the solution mixed with a sufficient quantity of oxalate of ammdnia: to:throw down all the zinc. ‘The oxalate of zinc: was collected. ona ‘double filter; and the: liquid which! passed ithrough; together with that employed in washing the oxalate he veri or evaporated to dryness, and the residue redissolved) in' water; ‘to obtainany oxalate of'zine which might not have’ been deposited: at “first. The oxalate) of! zinc thus obtained was’! dried) on the! filterand weighed.) ‘A portion of it was exposed to a red heat; and the!loss of weight determined. From this, the whole oxide: of zinc contained in the salt wasdeduced. hoe to stan This mode of analysis came much nearer the trath thanthe precedingy ‘Indeed, the: oxide of zine calculated! from: the: oxalate; would be \exact;: but this method could: not: besem» ployed, because it: required the previous knowledge of !tle very: thing which«was under investigation., The ‘oxideof ime ‘obs: tained:b bins mise the oxalate to a red heat, always was below thé truths: Thes deficiency, » when 181:25 «grains of>sulphate : of zinc: had: been employed, ‘varied in different ‘trials “from. grain\to 21.grains, and it was never less than !onesigraini! oh ascribe this toa littlé zinc sublimed during the application of : the heat» It was: not owing to any of the: zine ‘\beitig ‘ini the metallic state; for I digested the residuevin nitric acid without any alteration in the total: weight! «© toioifiue bobrvoig sia - 4, Foiled in both of these modes of experimenting; hi had res coursé ‘to the! decomposition of sulphate of ‘zinc by ‘carbonate of -soda.';' This ‘method came sufficiently near ther truth to: sa- tisfy myself completely respecting the ‘true weight of oxide of zine veontamed in‘a given weight of sulphate.:»'Perhaps ‘the: mostinstructive analysis I can select will be ‘the preliminary: oné;/by which I’ determined the circumstance! ‘necessary to be attended to: in order to obtain the’ whole|ofithe ‘oxide of zine frome a given weight of sulphate. | ttl . (4) Titanate took 90-625 grains (fivesatoms)of crystal~ _ lizédy sulphate! of)zine; the smallest weight which J ‘employ;\is— 0-01 grain. L weighed out commonly 90°63: grains of sulphates, ofezinéjiand afterwards checked this analysis by another, in whieh the weight of the salt-was 90°62. grains. These:two At t 4YST 1825.]. Method of’ analyzing Sulphate of Zinc. 3673 analyses added togethér gave me the quantity of oxide ofszine in 18125 egtains' (10: atoms)/of sulphate -of) zinc. Lt: will tbe sufficientifi distate here one-of these:twoianalysesie of) oh (2:)! The ‘saltowas weighed in: a small flask ; distilled water: was; poured ‘into it; and/it was placed!on the sand. bath ill the! salt was! dissolved. 90 grains (five atoms) of: crystallized: cars bonate wf: soda; previously reduced to coarse powder, ) were: themputiinto the flask; and the flask ‘was gently agitated » till, the whole of this last salt had dissolved. This process ‘was: usudllysoveriin about 10 minutes, and the temperature! of ‘the liquid was: about: 70°. As the carbonate of soda> dissolved) carbonate of zinc was deposited in white flocks ; this carbonate: was immediately:collected by pouring the whole contents: of thes flask upon’ a double filter. The carbonate’ of zine: was washed with: distilled water till the liquid that: passed through: the filter; ceased! to: produce any effect on muriate-of barytes. The! obyect:of> this:part:of the experiment was to: ascertain’ how mucl»carbonate of zinc would be precipitated: from avcold solution of five:dtoms of sulphate of zinc by five:atoms of) car= bonate of soda. boait ve '316e 5 Denis too Sth The: carbonate of zinc thus obtained was dried wpon the filter in aitempertature, which never much exceeded 212°: It wasithen weighed’ by placing the balanced filters'in, the: 'two: opposite scales’ of }the ~balance; the weight’ in different» experiments: varied from 29°3 to 31:03 grains; as:much: of this carbonate:as ossible was detached from the filter,’ and after: being weighed in wbalanced platinum crucible of a very small size, was heated to redness “inthe: flame: of a spirit lamp!» From»:thesloss: of weight sustained “by the portion thus treated, it was’ easy:to infer how:much the whole carbonate would’ have lost} there remained :20°37 grains: of oxide of zinc: There: was scarcely any difference inthe amount of this weight in different experi- ments, provided sufficient care had been taken'not to vary’ the previous stéps:of the process. : | i baltoy (3.); The -liquid which had passed through the filter together’ with all the:'washings (properly concentrated) was! put back into the flask. ' It had the property of rendering cudbear paper purple ; but after being boiled for about half an hour it was capable of reddening ‘vegetable blues! It was obvious: from this, that the whole of the soda had not united with the, sul- phuric acid of the sulphate of zinc; but that this union: was effected by half an hour’s boiling. During the boiling, an additional precipitate fell, notin loose white flocks:as the first precipitate, but in'a powder which was less white’ and much heavier: for it fell much’ more rapidly: to the: bottom. «:The liquid ‘thus treated was: thrown upon a double filter,:and:the’ powder)(6)'femaining’ on’ the filter, was ‘washed with distilled water till the liquid ceased to affect muriate of barytes. 368 ie Dr. Thomson onthe °° [Nov. (4.) All this liquid that had passed through the filter (pro- perly concentrated) was again poured into the original flask, and a solution of carbonate of soda was added to it till the. liquid contained a decided excess of alkali. This new alkaline liquid occasioned the appearance of a new precipitate which was in white light flocks, like the carbonate of zinc which had been thrown down cold, After this. precipitate had subsided, the flask was heated by a spirit lamp and kept boiling for about 20 minutes ; the whole was then poured upon the same double filter upon which the second precipitate (6) had been collected ; and the filter was washed with distilled water till it ceased to produce any alteration on muriate of barytes, r , The precipitate collected on this filter was now dried on the filter and weighed. Its weight was 6:07 grains.. After exposure to a red heat it was reduced to 4°54 grains. : _ (5.) The liquid thus freed from all the oxide of zinc that could be thrown down by boiling was put into a porcelain dish, and slowly evaporated to dryness on the sand-bath. The dry resi- dual salt being redissolved in water, a few flocks of oxide of zinc’ separated. These collected and dried on the filter weighed 0-44 | rain, and when heated to redness were reduced to 0°431 grain. (6.) The liquid containing the residual sulphate and carbonate of soda was again evaporated to ig bana in a platinum vessel, and the dry residue exposed for an hour to a strong red heat. The salt thus treated when dissolved in water deposited a few black flocks. These being collected and exposed to a red heat in a platinum spoon became grey, and weighed 0:3 grain. Being digested in nitromuriatic acid, the bulk. diminished, and a por- tion was dissolved. The solution was colourless, and was prect- pitated in white gelatinous flocks by prussiate of potash, showing _ that it was oxide ofzinc. The undissolved portion was not ae on by any acid, but it fused before the blowpipe with carbonate of soda into a white globule, and the solution was accompanied with effervescence. Hence I considered it as silica; conse- quently the precipitate was silicate of zinc, and it contained 0°22 in of oxide of zinc. | | _I do not know the cause of the black colour which this powder had at first. It seems to have been owing to the presence of some combustible matter, as it was dissipated by heat. The platinum crucible was covered with a-lid all the time that it was in the fire, so that no charcoal could have reached it from the fuel. | The carbonate of soda used was pure, consisting of crystals icked with great care from Mr. esata evaporating pans. apes I am disposed to ascribe the origin of the silica to the lass flask ia which the mixture had been so long boiled. (7.) The solution from which. the silicate of zinc had been deposited was neutralized with muriatic acid, and then mixed 1825.) Method of analyzing Sulphate of Zinc. 369 with a few drops of hydrosulphuret of ammonia, and the mixture left to digest for 24 hours ina very moderate heat. On exa- mining the flask containing this mixture next day, I observed a deposition of a few dark coloured flocks ; the supernatant liquid was ‘drawn off with a syphon, and the flask again filled with distilled water. Next day the liquid was again drawn off and fresh distilled water poured in; this process was repeated till the water drawn off had become pure; the precipitate was now dried and exposed to a red heat in a glass capsule; m this state it weighed 0°9 grain: it had a yellow colour, was tasteless and fixed in the fire. Being digested in nitromu- riatic acid it slowly dissolved, leaving a portion of sulphur. The solution was precipitated white by muriate of barytes, and in white gelatinous flocks by prussiate of. potash. - Hence it consisted of sulphuric acid and oxide of zinc.’ From this it is obvious, that the yellow matter was sulphuret of zinc; and ~ it must have contained the equivalent of 0°65 grains of oxide of zinc. | : (8.) If we collect all the oxide of zinc obtained in these different processes, we shall find them as follows: KR TARO at be a Grains. From the carbonate’. .....c.sseeee. QUO7 Thrown down by boiling. .......... 4°54 Obtained by evaporating to dryness. 0:431 From the silicate of zinc . ...4...... 0°22 From the sulphuret of zinc. ........ 0°65 etre emt Total . BRE AEF PR GIER 26-211 Now 26:211 divided by 5, gives 5245 for the quantity of oxide of zinc contained in 18°125 grains of sulphate of zinc. , According to this determination, the atomic weight of oxide of zinc is 5°245; this, I am persuaded, is about +3,,th part below the truth ; I believe that in the preceding analysis I lost 0-039 grain of oxide of zinc, which constituted about 54, part of the whole. The loss I conceive to be owing to the want of a substance capable of precipitating the whole of the oxide of zinc from its solution in sulphuric acid. Carbonate of soda does not throw it down completely ; and I can affirm from experiments made with care, that hydrosulphuret of ammonia likewise acts imperfectly. 3 : eee i My experiments, though numerous, never gave me more oxide of ziric from 18°125 of sulphate than 5°245 grains of oxide of zinc. But this quantity I can always get when I take the © requisite pains. | 5. I have detailed rather minutely my mode of determining the water and oxide in sulphate of zinc; but it will not be necessary to describe with equal minuteness the method fol- New Series, VoL. x. 2B , 370 : “Dr, Thomson on the | [Nov. lowed todetermine the quantity of aa ag .. The process has been already given in the xo vol. ie ig New Series. It SPN we ain oti ins if gu shate of zine,, and 1325 a ch eee Me wat mare possible, mixing the so lutions d a nine of Bay tgs has subsided, testin ng tHe, en neat ‘gt -with muriate of barytes and sulpl oe ie ie g seed, find ‘ “the liquid is affected by neither. “expe ni nee eluded, ¢ that 18125 grains, of Cichaat Dey “7in {con ain -€x setly five grains of sulphuric acid. ‘ I made an ittane on purpose to ascertain "Na i vA q sodliba of ‘sulp! uric acid could be detected in a is ite. One | grain. of elauber salt being’ tae i T2000 of water, I found that the solution, was d pre- Salute ty ‘by muriate of barytes., Now, one grain, ner t contains rather less than 4th grain of sul fic ot seid in which: had-dissolved the 18-125 igrains(of sulphate of zinc and13.26 grains of chloride off bariumodid'not amount to so much as 500-grains; hence had so much as th of a rain of sulphuric acid remained in solution, it would have been rendered visible by the muriate of sen Li meni ta in ta eli aie. T was. sure ‘therefore, Bar his. e acid in 18°12 25° grains of Ny ulph i oF ‘ing 30h han. grains, and not so much as i grains, There co id i te hesitation in concluding that the a antit was, ve, espe- cially as ‘this is the atomic weight of alpha Knowing that 18-125 grains or ‘stilphate of ine contain five grains of sulphuric. acid, and that the oxide of zine is not less than 5°245 grains, and the water not so much as 8°16 grains ; and knowing farther, that the water‘in crystallized salts, constitutes a ééftain| number of. atoms, and that the atom, of »water weighs 1:125 ; there was no longer any difficulty in determining’ the; true atomic: weight) of oxide: of zinc, and the exact: ven gi iit Wane ¢eoritained in 18-125 grains of sulphateiof zines) |... sedi svom. ~{:Let:the atom of oxide of zine = a, pec let va 126 sulphate'of nine be compound of iqe5%9 cl OTR J! : if atom ahh acid = 77 5 : sah i sa: pola 1 atom oxide ofzinc = 2 ¥ ates 7 atoms water ..... »= 11 y We have 5 + x + 1:125y = 18-125 We know that ¢ is not less than 5245, and that y is more than 6, and not more than7. If we make y = 7, then we have 5 + 7:875 + x = 18125, and consequently 2 = 18125 — 12-875 = 5°26, Nor can any numbers be substituted for y and x consistently with the preceding experiments, except 7 and 5°26. 1825.) Method of analyzing Sulphate of Zinc. 371 my of 2 ate iii These, were! a asons for pitching upon 5:25 as the atomic wei ght of'an SN atom f zine, ,1 consider the analysis by means of chide ae) bs rium Saat kava ng, proxiniation, the quantity of water and oxide of can ae ermine th e amount of each with mathematical ac pias fa hé‘uncertainty’ Tesp ect ine the uantit of sulphuric ( mt JUG a 5h qt y P. ac a ‘be een at altneee! Ge lout imit b concentrating the the _experimentum: crucis from which, ligui ‘ay ip ying. the test of muriate of barytes ; and I made if pig cea the error which I could haye committed did SAmoURE to zssgth of a grain by that method, ee ing d de} ermined, the composition of. sulphate of 7 zinc: in vii SUreAte 1 calculated the composition of ear hone, of HRY al tven n page 60 of my late work, in this 1 Fs The car= bonate ’ at He “obtained by precipitation from 90-63 grains of sulp! ate of zinc, weighed 31°03 grains, and was composed of tadqiue 4 Wnkderof abet | evel edee cues 2087 or 5:25 § woes 10 ‘Carbomie acid. Baise yes oto EOGEY © BAY 30m Se ad rn Ge ——mene 50 aved bhiot if 81 03 New 9 747 'a nen so near 2°75, which I knew to be the atomic’ wei rere carbonic acid, that I considered myself entitled to consider ii carbonate of zinc when anhydrous as a com: pound of” “ Tatom oxide of tingsresensererves 5:25 1 atom carboniciacid. ..eceeveeesses 275 — 43 8:00 t thought) it bette? merely to state the general results in my prelimmary’chapters than to enter into tedious details. Who- everowill take the trouble’ to repeat the analyses which I have giver ‘with: fhe requisite care will obtain results not eal am afraid! that: rH actual analyses we can seldom come nearer the truth, except indeed by peculiar contrivances, some of which [I employed i in determining the fundamental points of the atomic weights of bodies. : 282 372 vA ORB Mr Lmmere oh bparioman [Nov. 1p 10 ,ytroritogle to an igi om todtis wode yor? cost onidere: vongi19ttib aiclt Yo naned! 4 Arr 0 eds diiw beiinio agmijgmoa ef aoijoubai A N91sqgs anssm on y te ade ae ag Pity, 297 R198 > Moua ti “By IW no. dsoul qs ne on br bas ‘odiassr qisimgy \e¢o sn tho snap iy bas Brie: {109 GENTE snidaroo teite ‘odie pt ae “Sn ree ci ry of, ee are ita i f as. a chemical a EH | Tae ‘been cl peta sebee | cie cet t uly. devel ORES, a envoee aro, sagan we fase oret Bh laws ‘of na S$ di ea ish mates into pani se : te ho cig dese ln each tae eee SHEA ES OE ty nd acid inigltek eooe I Py to th POS ve, po e, whilst” SHER RSA Th appear at, the negative," Henee' ane oe ain chemical ¢ an Aa decom Sitig on th . sepsmuicel gombinatien pid decaiibosisteh Up Mae ciple os at he i : atid: t ae rs rally received is tha é ul qinte on AF i : oD Poa ign ap ti big ef a ont « i pi a a iat ae ah iM , a nha put A ee sal ia oe sane oe f ; Oxi en 5 tie v I ‘Will = ome Ppa: Iso si end aN eye ia Bi a Poe} ne pole sig Par Get el a a Chemic TS. At Pp hi los i crit P a ye ence of elect no RE oe ne he ie ne €. as cience, it is, impos ek at Tes tis panna al most of equal ea i nid aia ne nd : st. th eir pee inp sno thee seers parte les of matter Hay tae aay appears from many electrical fac 9" th i ie ute ee PSP, A ae. one, and excite. ‘them be *4 : e | any, soft exciting substance; no sighs, i ONES, at Hap will appear ; sep al ia papa posite states of élec a a, the ¢ FSi {ig eaalaey and ons a x them alt ernately, MA signs of elect Thee PEE ec ey bay With h one yan 1 Ban ARUP. Bi Ht aes ae i he oA tors be insulated, and cleatribed th ie ih ‘on 5 gs them my an equilibrium i is ie 1825.] Mathematical Principles of Chemical Philosophy. 378 separating them, they show either 7 hee of electricity, or are electrified with the Same PME TH rh cause of this difference is by no means apparent ; fs wees celia ties 1S bande con or such phenomena ;, “however, Sal AR, AS AGH? ty ju ane a. Sah of push dou tful meaning a uncertain application. anes if such energies exist, and.bécthe \eatisd: teivetnicd changes, | they must remain pereaene tly and. pnghanged, after combination, as. they con- AE AD, ih case of P'the tibbons ; ;, for then the attraction is per : Hedity! appears ; for if they be not unchange- al Aa t C} veh S of: matter themselves, then, as in’ the eae of Go ductor ritact produces. an equilibrium, and there’ is ‘1 a atiraction. oF i ‘energies.do exist, the particles ofvall oa Samia f me rie pete act upon each other as hon corde a no “inherent or permanén re Bea donne or ice cooled nat e dtisk, A bra brs @, nop-cond hictor this. property of bodies, th réfore, fs : re AS, UPON. on Prien yet it it is difficult to imagine t es, -0 al ( duc oo ries exist, this ae be’ thé slbilae ‘Also Hie tafe les | ah ies la C hemical ise ates we oh it follo: Ed ep t we: sup J rae RoR! tt A hey a. Supp at is ai ‘bedaiive we have trical, re ion (a doubt tfu ul power) is ‘geiterally at aN ve powerfu Lui a tiracti tion, 1 intensi ties ‘Being eee e force of ae ‘a ‘att ie n Tus usua Ne powerful than "aide Hof Bose ISO OG sae action 0! f electric energies | must seve a any SS) c cat ‘ exist ence “Of Such a relat lof ck acer attract eee ctricity, F that the intensity of the chemical attrac. BY fi ahs Ey if, this. ‘be the case, the eladbieat ‘yelations oF 0 may eee as the measures of their Chemical action. oiton As aie free from hypothetical’ ‘views’ than the 4 Fike is, ‘here ‘ore, entitled to preference until bur know- em more precise. a re R ion or analogy that can be clearly and defines aaa petween. the force of gravity, chemical attraction, , i Nines ane electricity, i is of the utmost importance to science, pH By such facts can the laws of chemical action be a s fo Hith erto chemistry and the mathematical sciences fh ‘saurely insulated ; but such is the: sneeee of its : euigest Boole hat the laws by which chemical changes are pro- eas. definite and, as susceptible of, eometrical tae as in, AS. ‘those. which are sheplayed in the solar system, 374 Rev: Mr: Emmett on PRO MOKA Tews. tion of the immortal’ may be shige out may be fairly supposed; it réveives' the sane- opinion of such a man ought to have’ great” t), thay! be collected from the following ane preface tohis Prin dipia : quod, tf hui¢ philosophandi modo} vel veriori: alictii'prinéipia hic posit licem aliqtiarh preibebantey'. tase bp thee h oa ba tcees SF EOSEI PELE ut 7s “ad 2 Lead. iisiisssuantt fab stedestes eae: S . . ‘ 7 Z —_— 2 ) = SP a. pater Tin. eee eee ee ee 2 33°8 a Cees ts 1825.] Mathematical Principles of Chemical Philosophy. 378 tants HEART sold priors orn eee ee ee ee eege be 27°8530, ordi oF 135.8 To DRROSPOKASs 0»: of0 + perocecarace piace mpl olga), 74641 4 Ete F if st oft $ MEU) oe 8 pce eee yee ele wee 4d oom, 92305 i At ner igtsq no Var OD 66 ee digys epcelels worsiase/ee bole, (418560? on pare “y auesd ylodi1s92 bad viteimeds déuodsl: to, 6:5450? sali d3 bas) nomMiqo ard aysh eid ui jibes Yo ‘tive? att Smucse _JTusthe present state of science, thesenumbers, as well as others thatil hievemade public, .are|but approximations ;, for, in. deduc- ing them, the particles of all solids must, be supposed to be)simi- larly situated, whichis. not the case; and until the PHY, laws erent solids cyte wht have.been much.enlarged,) it,appears that the most, flammable , : whilst gold, silver, and lead, have great forces, and_are, scarcely inflame inflammable, and jhaye have very small forcesj;and,are; very highly inflammable: If;the order of metallic, plate, it is in a positive, and the metal ina negative state of éxcitation: ' ‘Also phosphorus separates mosty and*char- of the lay of action. To deny the validity of evidence of this sort wo q BIS vauedinitt \p Rev, Mr, Emmett on $465 vostiotan * [Nov. pataral..philosophy,.).. Supposingis the iparticles) ofitiosie to . ls eh clectrical. energies, one of,,these ysions oust either, first,,the jeanth’s attractionidsvinadeup of 1¢$umn)) Of, the energies.of; all jits-component,atoms g(then,on the,principles of electrical attraction, those chodies whigh differ mua S47 FOR REEMA ast from, the/mepn emer othe ;garth.,\Ox,; second] Ys) the, forceywhieh idéterinines, sof a, body.in, the galvanic, ser tlreoplaneo EB Po willdivide the calorific «atmospheres, beeausethe atrcle DD PeAj:and: therefore 2D: PA; is }constant; théveforé Bod AD zs PB:PA.. With radius BF and centre B. deseribeca veirelé; also with radius’ BG. The force of this. dfintlusiis'as P™ ox area of the annulus, Since: the forces are similarly tesolved, the: resolution may be neglected:p1q iy of) oy and FOreRt? P'S" fobes 44°" tt PDP Peonod lta 3 and aiillus’ PG! anfiulas DE :: PF? : PD*;' therefore) 1°" a Woni UF force, annulus EG ‘that of annulus DE: P DY"; PRA? Pia |p Hera : Ha 4 DAVOGHMOD ; “VITORMIPSIT Zi ISO SIQKR TO YuooOgIbVg Jp av20 } TIER Lie iy? And singe, the two planes may be divided into the same num- ber of similar and similarly situated annuli, of which the forces haye all the same ratio to each other, the entire forces have the between, two, adjacent yparticles of a gas is very neatly pro- portional to the distance between, them inversely; therefore FEOCON: 4 1 i se sae ‘ nent . + ee h ste, foRee PE po pips! Ppa thencem= 3; or the elastic force of ‘the calorific atmosphere is very nearly proportional "to! the cube of thé distance’ invetsely ° which is the ratio neatly of|the differenée between the a ae ‘force and the repulsive ‘power of caloric.” The taté'of expansion of gases by heat has been obscurely’ expressed “by most chemists: they’ lay down asthe datum, that thé change of temperatiire of one degree produces a change of the =1,th part of the volume ofa gas; and'‘yet the differences of temperature being equal, the volumes given in their tables are’ in arithmetical progression. Let V bée'the volume of a gas, at ally temperature A; let the increments of tempera ture be a, 2a, 3a, &c. Then at temperature A, volume = V5 when the temperature becomes A + a, let the’ volume be increased by x, then at temperature A +. a, the volume’ is ue V; at temperature A + 2a, itis pee ¢ "Vs at A'S ait : ; as “t jot PF TE ae : ‘ : oy +1) m oe (4 Sera BP s Peas: V; at A +a, itis art Vv; which is a “geo: metric series, in which "+ is the common ratio. “By heélp°of this formula may be fouiid the elastic force of a confined.portion: of gas at different temperatures, Let the temperatures,,and, voluthes: be the same as before: when the temperature 380 Mathematical Principles of Chemical Philosophy, jit is A, let the volume = V; at A — het ewer et! V; pa Fe y; i YAT@IM< THO n+1 (asaorbyH bois: ek et Tis HGY ee tke Vas os ain br ‘SHWE “thie Wlastie’ Fores 18 balanidea “by thd pe mis atmosphere, which is srpposed to be const the éxpanded gasis. loose Whilst the si hide agus TASHA a\s5 2g't 2} ie hh ) if st onrzo b Ah, OA hit Ban Se. suppose the volumes *tiV,1§ etn y, &e. bet eo S861 é “Occup the sa 3} bs pS ty as- tic force ig i oe bes deci nal t t iene deity, ty me spate eds je the voluine’S! thereto niga ne the clastic’ fotos befoie esi FealiounoAhationeblonts ot 4ua os itt weave ges We Pat F zit ear, Viiatile t ont beeahab ead ueiesmrgsm 10,,9ajlgole odt Miw Jostaos. ai .bios oiaodis) I A : 2 fncabnbe eoen compression, »: that. after dth ss : Sat TEA rtigayere) 1398-95 ns Be" i fiod al Tekits pF 2 Wwhilent t alge 84g Seoinet ical ite a q 7d-t0 bios oinodiso dtiw haiggenanl 1938W MI ped i Thereforeyif'a vonfined portion of'a @as be! heated the tempera- ture is propdrtional to the’logarithm of the elastieforees or if it be under a constant pressure, the temperdtti¥e°is the loparithm of the volume? 2Theseconclasions:d epenit upon thielk thésis thatthe elastic force ofa co prop te i alt mh which isnot quite'correct 5: but when the eliange attire intHobweryegteaty it isan ppt thostow selec Ta Gtfoses}ogsyioab aogoibyd boisowdaloe. to yiitaBL The ratios iof.the callérilidlatmosphorbo tot difkeret'bddigetiay be found as follows: Take D pro eer: to the Sstance between two adjadeiit particles’ ‘ina Solid, i.e. to the atomic diameterd heat thé!substance until it faksbsts let this: distance! be Road sehithieht dor util cts a got is increased sby anyckindwh sdf .esttitasn rb ri Stgsor er daght Ho's }erees quantity, iPM ° ‘the, densities are 2 on @ + in Dip pes! ince;the paszuo to. .eto t nyitordo a m ree, of, attraction, is, proportional ‘to =, HH HE énlsily° found; "and it is equal to the force of ‘repul ‘abo. . another substitice,' find ziti corresponding’ ‘qodtitl aes bap aren, wnsiedue [qenists pdt sii if 99ubii ait Gh Hr 3 vt a7 &c. Then, by. hslpvok the pro Blems’ 8628, a9, of lib. 1, of Newton's Pri 2th Hisar ian lig tae ns 9 Oe pe ae wf 2a5001c Omimoou at Me ae hort snot Gk MIBISSAdB omisididxs if Jav us 89 1825.) | | Scientific Notices«Chemistiry, 0. 88E 7 V = omulov odt tol .A ai .V AR: GBB; SUT. + A ts x7 * BGLENTIFIC NOTICES. ¢ ] « 7. y CHEMISTRY. 1, Reciprocal Action of Hydrosulphuric (Sulphuretted Hydrogen) and Carbonic. Acid, qn the, Carbonates and, Hydrosu lphates. By M.. Henry, Jun., Py, O9 5 } OF 4 MOU sisnqeomss Although; M.., Chevrenl,-had ‘shown’ that. carbonionacid is) capable of, decomposing the hydrosulphates, (hydrosu/phurets,) yet when M. Henry ‘advanced the opinion that the sulphuretted: hydrogen dipensaged from the mineral, waters, of. pee cee 819 SF See SsAaise ‘Optpey Zhi id DSaagkt bo Fi DO ovr Hathe agiioa fos caibonie on the Ay tras URES BOs tained in. hosé waters, 1t met with considers Marped Q, fh consequence of which he resummed the subject, and undertook a series of experiments with a view to elucidate:itsifrom which; he has deduced the following conclusions : 1. Carbonic acid, in contact with’ the alcaline, or magnesian hydrosulphates, is ‘capable’ of ‘décompésing thent €onipletely, if the action be continued for a,sufficientlength of time. | 2. The decomposition is ated either by boiling a‘hydro. sulphate in water impregnated with carbonic acid, or by p ad the mixture, without heat,an the vacuum of an,air-pump;;jorsby passing a-eurtent of, carbonie acid.gas, through) a-diluted-solux tion of, the-hydrosulphate ss, 93 a12297q jasiedoo 8 19bas od 3,/ The hydrosulphates obtained. by ,converting sulphates into: sulphusets, by carbonaceous, matter, arejless readily acteddonis lt ficTheresult of the decomposition ofall these saltsis othe, production, of | carbonates, or ntather, of bicarbonates, endothe; quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen disengaged: is proportionate, to,that of the catbonate formed.—+(Bulletin-des;Sciences. ) iT oastaib off} ot Isqoitiogoig, T jodsT. -awollot es bavot “sd ietods sft od 2. Carbono- Phosphate of Sedaris ow! sreowsed ./Ehene) is) a prussiarw blue manufactory: inethe; neighbourhood) of Glasgow vbelonging toe Mr.: Macintosh,:in: whichyllikewisé) prussiate of potash is made in very considerable quantities. The acitaebrargag by, the Combustion of the‘hi ofa OF ‘black dattley imported chiefly: from Ireland ; and the hoofs. of +f thousand, cattle‘are, req wired for every day’s constimptidi in’ t éSmathufade tory. «dbe,slanghtering of cattle in Ireland jhaying consid eyably, diminished at; the..end of the last. war, | hoofs,-hecame, searces This induced Mr. Macintosh to substitute the animal substance called crdektalesy ‘produred chiefly, I believe; from, thé’ €andl makers... Sqon after this, substitution, considera antities, a Untidiaai ene wenatce besen whats thir alent the peers potash leys, and-incommode the process con- siderably, These crystals exhibiting appearances different from 882 Seientific Notices—Chemistry. TNov. any of the common salts, Mr. Macintosh sent me 4 quantity of them to ascertain their nature, © 9 oo qeony 81038 The crystals were pretty regular six-sided pristis,'which were obtained of a pretty large size by a second érystallization. The taste was cooling, and alkaline, and they retidered eudbear paper violet, indicating the presence of an alkali. The salt was-pretty soluble in water, and the crystals were not a heat by exposure to the air. ‘They effervesced slightly; but omourey in nitric acid. oa t snodaso mois t I neutralizeda portion of ‘these. crystalsy by: means of nitric acid, and then-mixed the solution with a sufficient quantity of nitrate of barytes—a white precipitate fell, which, when washed, and dried on the filter, was a beautiful white soft powder, which dissolved ‘without effervescence in nitric acid, was ag preei- pitated by ammonia, and exhibited all the properties of p inline of barytes. I therefore decomposed a portion of it by means of sulphuric acid, ‘The acid which I obtained possessed the fol- lowing properties : : It threw down nitrate of bert and nithate 9 bem erslphate and both precipitates were dissolved bi rhitri¢ acid of iron was thrown down white, and the precipitate became red when digested in potash ley. Murat over want SCADA HE yellow; Sail the precipitate ‘way dint ad TE tHo Af of lime, muriate of magnesia, uae : of strontian, su eopper, sulphate of zine, nitrate of ‘i réuty, Were not, From these properties, there co 1d Be no vb that A Wie bile ad obifty the phous ibriay 1 foe elevelteg a vaunty of the'salt in water, and neutr Toascertain the proportions of the constituents, I dissolved 200 grains of the crystals in water, neutralized the solution with nitric acid,and precipitated by nitrate of lead.:> The \precipitate weighed: 141°3 grains, equivalent to 28°26 grains of phosphoric acid, “The residual liquid. contained no ‘lead, but was ‘entirely nitrate ofisoda, weighing 109-5 grains, equivalent to 40'74 grains ofsoda, }~Now, 28°26 grains of phosphoric acid require’ for satu- ration!,32:297, grains of soda, There remain.7:443 grains’ of — which» require for saturation 5:117 grains of” earbonic acid. OCTET Peis PEVe. AD Liban : .) Thus, the constituents of the salt are w ystagup ¥ ‘eon: douwlPhosphoricacid.,....,./28°260 or 14 boy o16s ms9O00 |) Carbonic acid, eer eeeeee 5*117 oe 12585" fi 5 12.6 008 = BS oSeda eee ee oe 40°740 o 5 20°182 ‘ " ! uf srt 110.2! Water arate eereenene ,126°883 ‘ (62:36): Ib 4 a. bDILOwW fi Parga pra 7 Ty 200°000: A NA9Y (0. B9k, + ‘ ~ 1925] Scientific. Notices— Mineralogy. 383 Now, ,. yell. 4 atoms phosphoric acid», sie 0 +s’ dol atom, carbonic acid. ..... soup ¢ TOits atoms. soda, )@e oe oO op bee wis ow a | a TSC ), atoms) water, « pPrieiee eer eesiecocnaie Hence} T ath disposed 'to consider the salt as a compound of 200%9 VO t) YFoOT hOf i) oW aS ati ' j ¢ rt} , | peel if vy 4-atoms phosphate: of soda ¥ caw eo be 30 | ‘1 atom carbonate of soda......e06-. 675 +e PEt to DD atoms water. Ccoeeererreosevenere 61*875 ~ yaitasy p Idoiom he ito Yine etree!) £1 sjreaw codwiifoidwe fist ates epi 9362510 ten Tf this “bé' ‘téally a compound of phosphate, and carbonate. of x soda, the union is yery slight; for 1 found that, by nepeated solutions and cry RP HOP A, I could Pata from it. phosphate HH Ul a ore ras) of $6da in the usual rhomboidal form. What;leads to the notion that it is a compound salt, is the form of the cryst nal re sided prism apperent Woreeular, which could not be derived. from, the rimary form of phosphate of soda, Nor is the water, of crystal- feawon ‘what - uld be if the salt were, a mere mixture of 4 it BS ) avoRt ot Be Ray of soda, and I atom of carbonate of soda ; for phosphate of soda containing 12, atoms, and, carbonate. of soda 10 atoms, the water of crystallization should haye amounted to 58 atoms, instead of 65——the quantity found, unless there was an error in the SDAP Hr 1 donot well see, however, how any supposed error could serye to, diminish the apparent quantity of water in the salt ; but it is possible that the salt may haye sus+ tained a loss of water before I began to examine it, (Dr. hom- son’s Attempt, to establish the First Principles of Chemistry.) Oe MINERALOGY. OS GUE sana ns op. Be Beryl in Cornwall, ) ral 7 We have been. favoured by Mr. A, R. Barclay; with a notice of his discovery of the existence of the Beryl,in Cornwall; he states.that the crystals are nearly colourless, though some havea very faint greenish hue; they are six-sided, the summits ofa few- have, the edges of the plane taken off, but most of them are flat; they are very small, and some thickly groupedg with the, blowpipe they become of an opaque’ white. They are accompanied with apatite and mica, crystallized upon a dark grey quartzy wall of a vein which so commonly traverses: the granite and schist of St. Michael’s Mount, and in ‘which most of the minerals to be met with at that interesting spot occur. They were not discovered in situ, but found in onelarge mass or slab, qe detached close to the little cliff ofdebris, on the south side of the Mount, at that part only which would be washed by very high or stormy tides.. | ei 384. Scientific aianennicdianes [Nov. lahat dowdw: sasbusces sveo sasy sda ota tia | j vous egook ocd ; ialileo be esate bas sicko \} otai wali sige ‘Soda *‘yrotis yisaor|: "The: ‘etystals’ ‘are! ‘dis eit po a <6f ‘Viniéstone, and soc ate with tay ¥ feldspa pememnsed i Aiehdoons parand au 2 ae Tater decade waht rathisp arent) orm th fodiens ii eet aa ate saan alos lasdodiesittion oF Oa bE the’ aaa oMsaiaD ee eleav @ pueelpandai sity to’ thé faces of the’ dodecahedron}! t Mue@hi ted fend oo ieee The surface of some of the crystal$-is but’ doés! ‘not fon much TastPeyoWhiel ’ is ther | ou cenérally, the° nce Pe Ew site | ee of a literate: D aed tepular foiling! bOolebie howhité, task 7b: “ "Ebiaintea cet to6! pes dp nat patite arid feldspaf, fiearest phe later! meth apo. aero a di deacrte esé''¢ 9 Oates ed With ‘the “question whether sodalite, Li at "iatyae, erystallized’dapis lavaH are! oe wa nous oe oa absivad dhete dliteo éxaxained é Professdr Vaihicson with & whisk! sib: ws Haidinger) dre ia*the “Ry Mrisehia at aiabuinety an sta “belong to the eatieospedibsy and (MocM, Berea Mac : Shc eaten ead oe, reécedin — 5 espéei é hatiynes afte, Br “4 hee sete. d from a, a PHP J onrndl TS powcr ont roite Me areata) fio? Yiieasoon om ai s1on3 abisxil bas! odio ee esloiiney 98} BoracidiAcidin Davai Peixe doidw awiow> bsok .wuol peas Abode to piotoatas in i sass ian ovat borate med assists 1 bene k the lavas more easily fusible. Do the lavas and obsi Lipari really contain boradidaeid!\ Dhegreén- ston Slishinty Craigs. this neighboorhaod, contains, gremtone ck cnlainaoy of ths acid... Does the sa he Sabchcobiaceney of this cunony SuOSte RED, "ro Gtite odoumnal:) . JHOH 9 isoniae odd asswied noitsoiaumemo: ‘podonts frodw ‘tis sdf Blorwoo dibuc 5 doidvw Ismiag odt oiddix 33 ib } BB J f i 6. Coste coeiaery System of See ee Prof Hagan.” “Pp WAS AesiKOuY’ 6F Co Ore Structure It Coney nptiapneer Shelidihe ip ath ne Shatt Le surface, ,While) they, remain.attached.to ithe y, i jobut, when they ai BATS Y separated, they immediately fu sp ym of the tum BL ancigeesnoAb afterwards, to., rise, from, their position, and though they continue to be vigorous for some time, they generally\die\in afew days. )As»their: respiratory organs are calculated: for the, water, this cizcumstance| is,probably a¢ci- dentabssot: wiosA 10 eaineda sve 9 aebiaros Ss dated wsbhoine Me »} Along the, surface-of the. float passes, alittle line jof, pearly fibres, and upon this line are attached the,eggiof the animal... L. fragilis the float is\eonvex;| slightly sealed aboye, and.cgneave beneath} strait and composed of large vesicles. In.the)Liglobosa itris composed of smaller, it, is flatjabove and bengath,. and) hy the re-tumion of one, ofthe edges, itis,formed dnto.aispiral.and. nearly, circular disk, “A i ihiew: dP e5teq moo aciao yer wiligan lA a. - The, float appears to;be! constmct fox, the purpose of, sup- porting its:(shelli and.its, young,upon the, surface,,of, the svater and is seereted; by, the foot, and has no.attachment to, the anim except by the close cohesion resulting from, the mice adaptation of their proxishate surfacdsa4: 9621 28) #pawswdaieodadL a! 8. On thd Verlebre of ‘Repliles and Amphibia,’ By R. Harlan, - Cuvier)in his Osseménsles Fossil,remarks, ‘the dorsal vertébra of the, Maestricht- animal have their transverse-apophys¢s short, and ‘terminated by ary articulating surface enlarged vertically, which catriesthe jribs,/(which is consequently attachedyiby a single head s;this characterizes the monitors, and most of! the Saurians, éxcepting only the. crocodile, ‘in which partioular'this structure’is absent, with ‘the exception of| the three last. ribs.) » To the-Crocodiles, as an-excep ion, Cavier'shouldshave added the Ichthyosanras, Iguana, and: Camelion, amongst the,Sau- riaus, together, with! the) Crotalus and) Coluber, »the Ophidia, in’ all which the ribs are articulated with the; bodies+of the vertebree by two tubercles, but, do motuunite withthe trans- yerse process as in the,Crocodile.) yoy ve yo TY A ee .. Conceiving it highly important to the) science-of Osteology, to ascertain correctly the manner in whichjthe ribs of the differ- ent genera of the Saurian Family are articulated ;) ds :far°as my examinations have extended (with the exception of those genera 1825.] Scientific Notices—Zoology. 387 above noticed inwhich’ the ribs are articulated to the body) the transverse processes ‘(or a ‘tubercle which ‘supplies: their place) receives the! head “ofthe ribsas' in othe following genera + viz. the, Plesivsautus, ‘Muestri¢ht: Animal, Calotes; Monitor, Ameiva, Scinctis Géekos? Agamey*Anolis, also’ the Sirena, the Triton X and!!thé. Sélamandra, (aniongst the Batrachiai(Harlan Jour; Acad. Ni SEPRIN WE QSRY 9104 20 WOO OP HTQS dptogns RC J .2a990Tg sit woot of Mess A58d OWwolds 2am. Jt mow Din. oqolevas bo Qs Ou thevenormous Sumatra Apes \ osw ou i has Been lately published “of the caption df a (Ulisse. ¥ “UP Tabueas .ghews tndeven:! | Shellerbioulat thin, diaphanous, note wbliattve 40, ie which appear to be new. to this country; 09. saolo, adt.vd'sgqas hie ») Turbo. carneus, t.:5, £12 6. Bheb sep enrssar nnweal adkes irth with, regular rather, distant elevated’ strie; the,spire short, TUE ee oma Une TR Te ae | This issalliedto Helix margarita: of Montague, ‘which Mr, Lowe: also nakes a’ Purbos it is the Margarita striatal of Dr. Leach; in thesAppendix to-Capt. Ross’s Voyage.tolsiiaviat on » Chiton' dselloidesp tb; f. 5. . Shell. -carinatedy the valves wep ay Aa aes: walaitetty but) regularly @ranulated over the whole:surface) not!at ail.in'a beaded manner 5! margin. coarsely granulate } the ‘granulations raised, black, dark. ° »Chocolate brown or black 4'the ridges, edges, and interstices) of the'valves yellowish ‘white!’ Fringe:'very short and’ indistincts!) length’ rhe Bao ebeue sere bald breadth one-fourth ofan’ iidh thhabity Oban». ppt JAIL D3IISIMSIS, A Led 49 LN), OB TE aibingy Mri Lowe) also! deseribes a’ species ‘of Terebratila sinder the ra & 388 Scientific Notices—Zoology. [Nov. a new species of Emarginula, which he discovered in Poole Harbourpunderthenameof i Emarginula,rosea,.t,A, f. 1. Shell ovate, cancellate ; inside rose)coloured, vertex/acute, much recurved or nearly involute. This) shell, is very, common on the English coast, and appears tobe only a variety of the E: contca. It has been figured by Martini, ot, Lf, 109,110, and by several other conchologists. —=JiicEn Gio f j oy ‘ . ios Hs Dad wits, Ox the East Indian Unicorn, Whether the animal called by the Bhoieas was, as they assérted,/ the; unicorm|or not, the horns which they produced proved that,they spoke! of:no imaginary creature, and warranted every exertion)t0; diseoyer the animal to which they belonged. Interest was, therefore,/made with the local authorities to assist in'the,seafelij,and inducements held out to travellers to procure the animal; ) Accordingly-a few days since the skin of the Chirsuywas-sent to |the resident, with the horns attached, proving the animal,to/be no unicorn, but a noble antelope, of a species fippareritly new.) There was no possibility of procuring it alive, as it frequents the most inaccessible parts. of the snowy moun- fains;-and sis exceedingly ;vigilant, and easily alarmed. It is found,in the haunts of the Musk Deer, and sometimes associates with Rhea 's bes ont teh a 89 | It is added that though the animal produced is bicornate, yet - thatseme sof ithe species dre unicorns—a rather odd assertion, whieh, however, is, stoutly maintained. Every one, therefore, ‘will:ofrom phe, production of the present animal, augur every thing, or nothing forthe existence of the unicorn, according to his partienlar fancy. -This only seems necessary, that the name i Chaa'su,, and the-horns (abundance of which has been furnished), should forthe present, be given to the bicornate animal, and the _ ultimate right of-participating in either, due to the unicorn, left tothe, decision,of time. It is much to be regretted that the skin owas sentofolded up in ‘such a manner, -and suffered to stiffen oindhbat state, that'the figure of the animal to which it belonged , van [hardly be, conjectured ; nay, the probable size even will be obtained, if at all, by painful admeasurement of such parts as are not shrivelled,,and-a comparison by analogy must fill up the due’ een ‘OF those pets that oA sO. “The animal a an _aptelope, not a deer, It is a male; his colour slaty or bluish oftey, juclining to red, especially on the back ; his hair, which , a8 abont- ari inch long, and exceedingly thick, has a good deal of ui G at I-like hollow appearance and feel that characterized the m eer’s hair, but it 1s softer and shorter than that animal’s. ails as nearly as possible the hair of the Nowahs, or wild I ‘of Bhote in colour, texture, and feel, and like the Nowahs OIR 7. 1825.) , Scientific Notices—Zoolovy. 389 conceals a spate’ fleéce “of ‘very soft -wool’ lying close to the animal’s skin. The forehead is neatly ‘black;’ and‘so are the legs; thé’ belly white, atid siibut néarly'sd ; the snout in‘size and shape ‘déer Vlikes the°huins! are! Placed “very! near each- other entirely ofthe’ back’ of the Keadjcand with that side uppermost on which thé annular marks are largest. '0 yovey ws yico od >. - The! M080 remarkable feature! in the ‘Aanimal’s figure is the excessive length of the neck, which is almost half of the whole body. KOMEN athe h toot shyan ou The dimensions, so far as they can be taken from so shrivelled skins areas follows’: of? yo bollso Isuiiae ont todtod ooPhe vkiti itself will probably ‘be! sentodown by! and bye)from which a’m6ve ddevfate description caw be made! hut'td guard against cotitiigenciés the*present onemay sufficesOl19%9 Y) Total Feneth five ‘feet! ei¢ht inches ;leneth'uf body four feet two inches; direuit Of body; ‘very: faulty; shritellbdp two! feet threé irtthés3! length oftody between 'the leowadnd beneath one foot éleven inches * above, from. hip to*shoulder bladesy two febt SP inehess thedeck; fron back of head to shoulder ‘bone, ‘one foot Hire inehes ;Cheight? of forelegs;'the body: béitig ‘shri- yélled,y Only 6ne 'fodt' eight! inches’; of? hind leo only; faulty, one ‘beretate inches ; léngth: of yhead tem inehes }-cireuit ef head ‘oné foot Sight and achalf inches’; length of horns two feét one and a half inch ; length of ears four inches and a half; length of talbeiehe iticheapborq Ismumac od} dovodt jsdt bahbs « Such® arethe dimensions according to careful measurement : the principaldeficiency ‘is mthe bulkiofthe-body, itsdepth, and ‘circumference; ‘neitherof'which ‘a bé°obtained in the present skin,’ “Admitting the Chitsuychowever, ‘to'‘be'an antelope, the genefal’ notion wehave of that animal’s figure, taken’ in con- — nexion' with thefroportions above given, will enable an adept in the comparative anatomy of animals to deduce ‘probably the ‘entifé size of the Chirsu'with tolerable accuracy./°° § 5 This is the rather to be attempted, because it‘is very unlikely that'we shall’soon obtain a living subject, and°as long as the ‘skins only are brought, there seems little chance of one more perfect’ than the present ever reaching Atmandra.—(Calcutta Orient. Map.) © >>. A CBT g y “12. On the Chinese Manner of forming Artificial Pearls. — _. Ina former number of this Journal, I gave an account of the manner in which pearls might be formed artificially, of any size or form that is required. In a late visit to the College of Surgeons, I observed some pearls in the same species of shell, (Barbala Plicata,) which had the external appearance of being formed artificially, which Mr. Clift, the excellent conservator of this establishment, very kindly allowed me to examime and describe, | 390 Scientific Notices—Miscellaneous. [Nov. ‘These’ pearls are’ of ‘a very fine water; and nearly orbicular > their base is supported! by a'small process which “separates at the end into two short diver Fake which stand off at right-angles to the centralrib 5) on'moré minute exaniination it appe d that! these’ pearls »were’ produced by there being in- troduced between the mantle ofthe: aninial: (while yet alive) and 'the‘shell, a small piece of silver wire} bentsinto!a ipeculiar form, that’ is ‘to ‘say,’so-as to form, a right angle, with one arm ending ii two diverging processes, so as) to’ make 'the simple end always keep its erect position. !\These wires must’ besintro- duced “in the same manner as’ the ‘semi-orbicular \pieces of mother of pearl in the other method of forming artificial pearls, as there is no eee of any external injury. ‘The pearls are solid and’ nea i orbicular, with a small: pedicell, which is continued 80" as'to entirely cover the wirey hey may be per- forated ‘atid-used so’ as to show their whole'surface; which I did not expect could ever be the-case with any artificial pearls ; but they must doubtless, unlike the’ artificial pearls formed by the other “méans;'' be @ considerable timein coming to any useful ' : iy ~ . : ’ : : poe ee | g N ’ and valtiable'sizes' 98) 1b Jom os .andap 9 Brecrat ke : : » TS 7G ii “ Tei E> +3 VisHianoe If Bare ys 27 } 7% $ { | : . : , , wet ’ WON 49 600 MYSORE AN BOUTS! “4 90s .aib bap. .estunior, sah! 40 edet. ot ; sgt ie tO ik 18, Greenwich Observations. ’ | ; } bine | The following vextract, of a, Ieiter, : addressed by | Professor Hs Gat d AOE OR Schuma er, appeared in the last No. of the. ele erence. ——* Wher Thad he pleasure of bein your guest,at Altona, y! oy shad e the numbers of the Philo- Sophigey MRSA Ahh rental neni payate censure, of, the Greenwich Observations, for 1821," I say. this censure with be me aim ea because I had always, considers | the collection of, observatio is at Greenwich as singularly valuable, and as a. » Tigh. source of astronomical truths ; nor were, you different, opinion, and. we were perfectly agreed respecting the unimportance of the inaccuracies that. were imputed to this work Os ; uy }believe, of a in, the two papers published in the 64th volume. of the. Philo- sophical Ma azine. For those, who are acquainted. with the Greenwich, observations, and who compare them with the critic’s remark ndyeny further explanation would be superfluous, but since it, maybe supposed that these remarks will fall into the hands of PAB RaIPORS not well versed in astronomy, I readily comply with the request which you made, that 1 would commit to writing our common view of the subject.’ I feel, as well as yourself, the propriety of doing my best on the occasion, ’in order that too great importance may not be attached’to: this censure of an establishment, to which astronomy is indebted for a great proportion of its advancement § and that its importance cannot be very great, is sufficiently shown by the facility with 1825.) Scientific Notices—Miscellaneous. 391 which Mr.Olufsen has computed the declinations of the funda- mental istars,ias published in Maghyichten, No,.73, from, the Greenwich observations for 1822. th! 44 fy The greater number of the errors whist have been. newt out by the censor) are merely, accidental, errors. of |the pen. . Errors of this kind are certainly disagreeable, and it would be betterif they could be entirely avoided; but,since all collections of observations in existence do contain wach, errors, they; clearly appear to jbe junavoidable. The first, class of errors mentioned in the Philosophical. Magazine contains the cases in. which the mean deduced from the readings of the two microseopes A. and B differs from the column in which that mean is assigned., - Since there must be some manifest oversight in all these cases, it may sometimes be difficult to determine whether “lt fis) dn the readings or in the mean assigned, but, it; will, an ‘general, be easy to distinguish, fiom the preceding or, following ae of the same star, where the error lies...|. The second class. contains. the. daffeetpvosie: ‘hesyiben, different records of the same observation.) . ‘These must, | be, errors in} ‘the copies sent to the press, and not in the readings of; the mi- croscopes; and they may generally be corrected by a compa- rison of the two passages: they, sometimes extend to whole degrees, or to the tens of the minutes, and are then of no importance ; for example,‘in the: observations of Procyon, the 23d Feb. 1821, and of B Cephei,, the Sth Dec. Where, {oat are errors of 30° and 5° respectively. 1°) -. The stath class of errors contains the aeeteia een” the micrometer wires, as they aré deduced from different’ obsetva- tions of the same star. “These'are often: a aN ae >| i) fof the pen, as in the observation of Capella ot the 7th uty, and in that of Sirius on the 8th, ‘where’ there are: tameer sf and of 4” respectively in the foufth wite's “Fre beret arise from inaccuracies of observation. ‘tn’ e r case ey observations, and it would be TaiGubas 4 henna astronomer that he should perform intposefit Au ters of observations exhibit imaccuraciés' “of this kinds Wid af any should be produced without them, it it tk with’ confidenee'be asserted to be a forgery. The diligence’ of the’ eae aan 1s roved, not’ by the perfect agreement in sie ot nths oP § but by ‘the magnitude of his mean or’ probable bio anak i would probably: be difficult for the critic ty ‘prove thn ¥ THiS étror is much greater-in the Greenwich observations, than: the’ nature of the instruments renders unavoidable. !) 14 10) (88) T9bto The errors of the fifth clase, which’ ‘comprehend "t wie Mit 392 Scientific Notices—Miscellaneéois. [Nov. ferences between the polar: distances observed with two and with six microscopes, seem to.me to have been introduced without the least propriety : they are either insignificant errors of the pen, as in the case y Draconis, 28th March, or slight accidental errors of observation, mixed with the changes of place of. the stars’ and of the refraction, or, lastly, changes of the place of the pole on the instrument. For this last the observer can by no means be responsible... Had the critic pointed out any new method of fixing the instrument so that it should be subject to no alterations, he would have deserved the thanks of all practical astronomers; but the constant result, of past experience shows that the greatest possible care, in pro- curing.a firm foundation for the pillars, affords us only a coms arative and not an absolute stability. The fixing. of the instruments at.Greenwich has been such as to keep them for a long time admirably firm; but at-other times it has not been so successful, as may be seen in the table of the place of the pole, printed in the Nachrichten, No. 73; the differences between the latter days of July, and the peginhing of August, 1821, depending on a change of this kind, so that they cannot be considered as accidental errors of observation, nor are they of material importance, as they may-be readily determined by a series of observations of the pole star, so complete as those which are made at Greenwich. The accidental irregularities of the polar distances, which remain after the correction of the place of the pole, can be as little considered as an imputation on the accuracy of the observer, as those of the intervals of the micrometer wires. The truth of this remark is illustrated in the Nachrichten, No. 73. ‘ a The fourth class contains the differences between the times of transits observed with the transit telescope, and the mural circle. ‘The latter instrument, however, not being intended for the observation of transits, nor being ever actually so.employed, it would have been of no manner of use to seek for greater accuracy in the memorandums which are made merely with a view of determining its place with respect to the meridian. We ought to acknowledge the occasional insertion of these memotandums with gratitude, as they assure us that the instru- ment never deviates so much from the meridian as to affect the pon distances; but they are not intended for any other purpose. ‘either ‘Bradley nor Maskelyne have ever noted the times of the transits by their mural quadrant, although it was more liable té-vuriation than the mural circle. But to correct the place Of thé? axis of this circle continually, so as to bring it perfectly iit ‘the plane of the meridian, would certainly be of no advaii 4 to the Greenwich observations. Otherétrérs which are criticised, for example, those of the names’ ofthe Stars, of the hour or minute of their transits, and eittOD BDNGIDI OF Bis _ 1826.) Scientific Notices— Miscellaneous. 393 so forth, aré of no material importance, whatever; and how difficult it is to avoid errors of this kind, may be inferred from the circumstance of my having found about; 1400 such errors in Bradley’s observations. ©. BIL; The remark that the observations at Greenwich are com- monly concluded at midnight, would be of some weight, if it cobb be proved that any thing, essential. is omitted -by this practice, which doés not appear to me to be the case. The observations relate chiefly to the sun, the fundamental stars, the moon, and the oppositions of the planets; and it may easily be discovered that these different series, are exhibited with an uncommon degree of perfection. Had the censor in the Phalosophical Magazine pointed out any other series of. observa- tions which could have been combined with these, so as not to interfere with them, no doubt the Astronomer Royal would have been much obliged to him. Every thing cannot be done at once in an observatory ; and if as much is affected as can be wished in one respect, something must be omitted in others. But to multiply observations, without any plan or object what- ever, would be mere idleness. Whoever is dissatisfied with the actual riches of the Greenwich observations, would do well to make the attempt to excel them; he would convince himself by such an experiment that the labour and patience required for doing so much, are fully sufficient to exhaust the powers of any) one man. ) , og co bas The third class of errors, relating to the. nieteorological in- struments, | have not yet mentioned, because I think myself that greater accuracy is required in this department than it has hitherto been usual to observe. “And if I should be allowed to suggest any improvement that could be made in the observa tions at Greenwich, it would be a more correct. account of the meteorological imstruments, and of the place in which the exterior thermometer is fixed.” _ : 14., On the Zetland Islands. An accurate chart of the Zetland Islands has long been a desideratum in British hydrography. Authorized surveys of them have, it is true, been made; but of these some are almost obsolete; and all are more or less partial or defective :. and to errors of this nature, perhaps as much as to any other cause, are to be ascribed many of the disastrous shipwrecks of which that remote country has too often been the melancholy scene. It is not a little surprising that while the most extended, expensive, and minute surveys have been executed by order of the English government of many distant regions of the globe, the nautical geography of the northern extremity of the British Islands should have been so long suffered to remain in ob- -scurity, Charts are to maritime, what roads are to inland coms 394 Scientific Notices— Miscellaneous. [Nov. merce: and we duly appreciate the laudable‘and fostering care which our statesmen have evinced’ to facilitate its extension andstability. | >. A beh det oaey itl cat! his Gi The Zetland Islands ‘have too long’ been the ‘bugbear, ‘the Sceylla and Charybdis of northern mariners; hence:commerce has been repelled from them; and one grand source of their improvement and prosperity injudiciously obstructed, « Besides, they might afford a seeure'refuge and resting-place, not only to vessels trading m the North Sea, but also to others forced b boisterous weather, and unavoidable accidents, into their lati- tude. And when, superadded to these circumstances, are con- sidered the barbarous and iron-bound nature of the coast, and the dangerous rapidity and variety of the currents, it cannot but be highly gratifying to learn that this important chasm in our maritime knowledge is in progress of being filled up. For this purpose the Admiralty, in the month of May, this | year, sent to Zetland their surveyor, ‘Mr. Thomas, an officer whose ability, experience, and indefatigable zeal are so con- spicuous ; and* who has more. particularly’ displayed his dexterity and talent in his surveys‘of the two metropolitan rivers of England. and Scotland, and ‘their adjacent coasts ; and we trust that no delay or impediment will now occur to a work so very desirable, and which will reflect so much honour on the enlightened liberality and humanity of our Admiralty, and on the skill and activity of its Surveyor. The coast of Zetland is everywhere bold and prominent, and intersected with numerous and €xcellent’ harbours, of which the headlands are the’ sublime and natural beacons ; and there are few situations in which the seaman 'caw be’ placed where the confident guidance of an accurate chart might be of such para- mount utility, and few where the want of it might be so perilous and fatal,, Such a chart of Zetland would be a permanent one; unlike in this respect to many, regarding other parts of Great Britain, which require to be frequently modified to suit the changes produced by the action ‘of the waves’ in the formation and dissolution of sand-banks. And where, even the best charts can be too often of little other use, from the scarcity of harbours, than to present more distinctly to the unfortunate mariner the locality of his inevitable and non ae ship+ wreck. | | é » 115. On the Thermometrical State of the Terrestrial Globe. '-M, Arrago, in an article in the “ Annales de Physique,” discusses the’ question of the temperature of the globe at its ‘surfaGés’and arrives at this conclusion, that in Europe in general, hd in particular'in France, the winters, some centuries back, have beeh a8 cold as at present. ‘He grounds his opinion upon the fact of the freezing of the rivers and seas ata great number 1825.] Scientific NoticesMiscellaneous. 395 of periods even of very remote date.’ The author then gives a table of the extreme temperatures observed at Paris, from which there, results that, in the second half of the last century, the greatest cold (23°5° cent,):took place in the 25th January, 1795, and the greatest, heat (38°4°) on the 8th July, 1793... He then gives'the temperatures observed during the expeditions of Cap- tains Parry and Franklin, and the dates of the natural congela- tion of mercury, together with the tables of the maximum tem- peratures observed on land, the maximum temperatures of the atmosphere observed:on the open sea at a distance from the continents, and of the maximum temperature of the sea at its surface. From these,observations together M. Arrago draws the following conclusions: 1st, In no part of the earth on land, and in no season, will a thermometer, raised from 2: to 3-metres above the ground, and. protected from all reverberation; attain the 46th centigrade degree; 2dly, In the open sea, the tempe- rature of the air, whatever.be the place or season, never attains the 3lst centigrade degree ; 3dly,, The greatest degree of cold which has ever been observed upon. our globe, with a thermo- meter. suspended in the air, is 50. centigrade degrees. below zero; 4thly, The temperature of the water of the sea, ins no latitude, and in no season, rises above 30 centigrade degrees. (Ann, de Phys. et de Chim.) ) 16. Light of Haloes, ts ew __M. Arrago, from observations made on the 11th April, 1825, with the instrument which he has invented for the examination of polarized light, has discovered that the light of haloes (lumi- nous circles which sometimes appear round the sun, and whose apparent diameters are 224° and 45°), is not a reflected, but a refracted light; a result which gives. much probability to the explanation of the phenomenon proposed by Mariotte., This philosopher supposed that the solar ray is refracted in its passage through the drops of water frozen and suspended; im, the atmo- sphere. .M. Arrago is of opinion, that the observation, of haloes might lead to the, discovery of the true law of the.décrease of temperature in proportion as we rise fromthe earth’s surface, a law which hitherto has had no other foundation than, a, single aerostatic ascension of Gay.Lussac.—(Bullet, Univ. May, 1825.) oe dosiw 17, On Aerolites. ” Mr. Rose of Berlin has succeeded in separating; fromca large specimen of the aerolite of Javenas, well marked erystals of augite, of the figure 109 of Hatiy’s Mineralogy.; Lhe, same specimen appedred also to contain crystals of felspar, with.soda, that is, of albite. He also finds, that the olivine; of the, Pallas meteoric iron is perfectly erystallized, and that the. trachytes,of the Andes, like the aerolite of Javenas, is mixed with augite and albite.-—(Edin. Phil. Journal.) 396 Scientific Notices Miscellaneous. [Nov. 18. On Evaporation. Pouillet, from a series.of experiments he made, on the evapo- tation of liquids, infers : 1. That, during the evaporation of perfectly pure water, no electricity. is evolved. 2. That when water contains certain alkaliés in solution, electricity is evolved, which is vitreous for the apparatus, When ‘the alkali is fixed, and resinous when the! alkali isovolatiléyras!ammonia.+4(Edin. Phil. Journal.) : i “i? | see yay “ “f Vas 19> wiiusdet Gueonotekh oobgthl aft Io wot¥ (Issttoatl yd: and dascalQ, oAmmstendam Ganad: oonsive seit 6% It may be said, with justice, that Great Britain has outstripped all the other countries of Europe iiwhat regaras’the ndetoaking and execution ‘of ‘public works, in which utiliti ern eae of conception go together. * We had béen acctis ied: to Gotisider hd PSI VIOD et ba. ee OR SL OS DAS go AQ, peiie-da Hs as unique in ifs. kind, both’ with respect to ent and its other dimensions, ‘our Medea : fan wnt bat try a large frigate from the North Sea to the west coast of Scotland; but the new Amsterdam canal, which establishes a direct commu- nication between the. ocean and this. importa it lace of com- merce, surpasses in depth and breadth’ every th ‘6f*the: sume nature existing in Great Britain. ‘ Tt appears 'th boa di of 44,cuns has already.passed-along its whole Sigma Bes ‘even capable of receiving, vessels ,80,.guns,,/2/ e projected Ports- mouth canal, which’ is; intended to;reeeiye vessels) of; the line, would’ rivalo‘thiat..of Amsterdam aerchey OP Ra AAG SAE and surpass it in length, in proportion of a hundred ‘to fifty mites.— (Edin Wil! Jénrdaldyime (A 2omal 12 yh" /etolFT dettyn be . 28 eg a ‘tiw chou | od2Q.nSea dforse killed an. Orkneyesiso..: ae Avi extract of aletter from’ Robert Searthy Esq/ of Kirkwall, is given in the last number of thé Ediiburgh'’PHilosophical Journ: 1d aGABIH thé cdpttire of: a’ waliiis of 'vérylarge: size, which afier having’ béen fist seed in. the opening of the Pent- Jand Frith, was again discovered lying on the rocks of the island of Eday by one of the dike plichas of the proprietor, who had the igood, fortane to,wound, it,,severely by.a,,shot,in. the body, and ‘having;-followed.it'to sea, with some companions,;in a boat, -succeeded m.ultimately making prize of it, and towing, it ashore. In the advénture, one of the party:had nearly paid dear for his expedition; for having seized the: walrus by atschind leg, the animal pulled him out of the boat, and dragged hin) to the bot- toths and ‘it was'with difficilty his life was ‘saved. This is the first instance, Mr. Scarth says, of any of these formidable inkebitants’ ¢ f ‘the polar regions having been ‘met with on our coasts. The hide, though dried and a good deal’ shrank up, measured 15 feet in length and 13 in breadth, and was rather more than | inch thick. The skin is in the Royal Museum of the University of Edinburgh.—(Edin, Phil. Journ.) 1825.] New Scientific Books. 397 Anrieze ‘XIV, NEW SCIENTIFIC BOOKS. PREPARING FOR: PUBLICATION. A new Edition of Dr. Henry’s Elements of Chaaniseey, 2 vols. 8vo, will be ready in a few days. An Historical View of the Hindoo Astronomy, from. the earliest Dawn of that Science in India down to the present Time, By vehs Bentley, Mem. Asiat. Soc. » Loudon’s Encyclopeedia of Agriculture, : Researches in Pathology, Part I. containing an Inquiry into. the Nature and Treatment of Dropsies. By Dr. Ayre. A Treatise on Clock and Watch Making, Theoretical and Practical. By Thomas Reid, Author ofthe Article ‘ Horology,’ in the Edinburgh per fe Royal 8vo, illustrated with numerous Plates. } JUST PUBLISHED. The Practical Miner's Guide; with a Treatise on the Art and Prac- tice of assaying Silver, Copper, Lead, and Tin, &c. By J. Rudge. Royal 8vo. 12. 10s. __A Treatise on the Ligaments ; intended as an Appendix to Sir A. Cooper’s Work ‘on Dislocations, and Fractures of the Joints. Bransby B. Cooper. Royal 4to. Plates. 12. 1s, ‘The Art of rearing Silk-worms from the Works of Count Dandolo. Post 8vo. °-9s.6d. The English Flora. _By Sir James E, Smith, Pres. Lin. Soc. &e. Vol. 3. 12s. + A Short Inquiry into the Capillary Circulation: of the Blood; with a Comparative View of the more intimate Nature of Inflammation. ot James Black, MD. 8vo. 6s. “Mathematics for Practical Men, being a Common-place Book of Principles, Theorems, Rules, and Tables in various Departments of Pure and Mixed Mathematics, with their most useful Applications, &c. 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Smith, Lawrence eT _ improvements. in. the manufacture of steel.—Oct.6. © 18 TAM ORDO Sir sG, Gayley, Bromptony Yorkahite, ‘Barts for a voll Ghedeliines asi Oot 6 rotors jmt-amtfazo i J,. §.j ‘Broadwood, Great Pliltneyistrest, piano-forte maker, ‘fo pe nents in square piano-fortes.4Oct. Bix 20%| Mbps, | New roadettrest, Soy eg St ssc vapour engitie-4 Oct. 13. | - ah meywh ‘i G&olvrodd N. Ki ball, New Yo , merchant, ‘for a pith taceea iron into steel Bet 1G | CPOeeNE BTO8 “|W a Saunders, brane, Wore bution improveinents in. zoey buttons.— Dwyér, Lower Ridge cthoet? ET De fe ee . x |. C. Daniell, 'S ilts, tee ney ay j Aa im “C, Dancely Stoke in the tan facture of buttons. argon e tothe weavin se woollen Easton;-Braford, omersets ire; Fi ee , Habiasitv or te carria ges can also in the inte oe. 4, aaah the Toads or Ways orate & ame to travel ever.4Oct, 13)) W. Hirst;J. Wood, andl J. (i: erson, cues, iniproternent in machiner for raising loth, ety 7 Gok, R. S, Pemberton; an At bis orga rm, Lal ys, Carma enshie, for ey -or jong gat driving aire ing pamp.— ot, 21. ae G, Gurney, Argyle-street, Middlesex, su eon, for i veme in the ap aratus ee g or generati thy be Uc! 81. © ae Oc Ew, right Prince: Seige. Lambeth, Sa antey Pa in Pepgeneny te he con iehatoe of steamn- ines. Oct Pf H. C.) Jennings, Devonshire-streét, ' dleséx, BD t uh Siem for for ins rETmAnty, iniths Hing ef sd aicteed sia, ) PUSY © he B ; ip iii “4 de 77 om "| AAPOR TE SOW Le de ; ; oy 1 a4, AS aS ot a, tty 3 fs de mee A i talee fi i AT *} ; ” ia v. yey 2? \} 4 i? lan ie 8 i er ce isc an, 4c Se ; i32 : of tcf : 5, * ; =, 852% 2. -% j > ba 00) . EQ «! ji] Li sx , Merit pub? Pg fe ee 6e ; a rags : PB LAAN eats Dt lai An OS; [08° ot eG os our. | ptt OE art ea (> igi es + ¢ om eile get ah | gtitet SMALE. ALD Sem Ottew 1.6 Stee Bey - w= | on fo etree ~ - 23-9 ig e 1 di R 4 Ray: hy s 2b OF wlth (tice g Vth «VI032113 Isto io wasmeia s | La ; ; ous d a.) « FAL ; i s worl qu0}-y31tws 40 bor x & OF 1 ig! aides orig, to ptt wbogoy pit ANON BY THB, tends estorob dash "te netuloo seit 96 nt Potesibat yeh: suf Ho “WF © teen AY olisvisado narwol!lot t.4ar 9) sn Hep 1825.) . “| Mr, Howard's Meteorological Journal, Agritia: al » AAHTAY qf, XVI. i/ a. F yy iY | 399 a 78 | METEOROUOGICAL | TABLES ee | IVIBG % S580 oi P DAS 419 AYR fT aa th hte Be A TRAY it biciec Se) —— maces wei ~ a — "Far ae Baltoieer ts, itt | THerMometer, | 885, :) Min. sig Mi dels Mineo! Maxtcjri Min. rok 9th mi Sieh amd. aks yor! wipom .beow bsaord.t.ai bes Sept. IN E} 30°27. }9 90°18) sxht S4eiq o:58pa bri erode gewiasi QIN yj Bp 80:81, j0f::130:27 14 83Le 820 bet S WwW 78 g EU ay Zrarorm yA Aue o he Ne N 5 Wi Sri aM ee) fee js o fn a Oc — jms ‘ 4 et im & ae = on PF Gade » [Drei hitherto intricate subject has ‘been greatly elacidated by the original researches of Dr. Bostock, who, in the year 1809, was engaged in a series of experiments (the converse of Sir H. Davy’s) in search of a vegetable astringent which might. serve as a certain test to determine the quantity of gelatine in animal fluids ; during which examination he found so many new sources of error, both in practice and principle, from the use of tan as a test for the quantity of gelatine, that he was compelled to abandon it. As I conceive that these objections equally apply to the use of gelatine as a test for the quantity of tan, i will here enumerate them, and thus bring into one view the mass of evidence which compels us, however unwillingly, to forego the mode of examination proposed by Sir H. Davy. Dr. Bostock discovered that isinglass and glue (in the state in which we generally obtain them) both contain impurities: in isinglass, the insoluble matter sometimes amounts to .},th of the whole; a circumstance rendering it’ necessary to separate this pure portion by solution, and resolidify’ it by evaporation. The glue is a still more uncertain article Romstlie quantity of water it contains, (some pieces dried at 150° Fahr. for 24 hours, indicating so much as 104 per cent.) as wellas fromthe coagu- lated albumen and muriate of soda which exist in it.» Again, isinglass and glue differ remarkably in'their powers of concretion: a solution of the former containing 1th of solid matter would be when cold perfectly concrete } whilst’ a solution of the latter containing an equal weight would (though strongly adhesive) remain quite fluid when cold. POD : In his endeavours to procure pure tan, Dr. Bostock found that the extract of rhatany contained it in a state more free from impurities than any vegetable astringent we are acquainted with ; and, therefore, with an infusion of this substance, and the puri- fied isinglass formerly mentioned, he pursued his experiments. In addition to the difficulties previously detailed, he found that all the precipitates of tanno-gelatine caught, as directed, on a filter, adhered so strongly to the paper that they could not after- wards be completely separated. Weighing the paper also (before and after) does not remedy this inconvenience, for the strong solutions so thoroughly pervade it, as to defeat all attempts at accuracy. But the most striking result obtained by Dr. Bostock is, that the precipitates formed by the gradual mixture of solutions of tan and gelatine, differ in their composition at almost every drop. The first portion of gelatine throws down a solid curd containing 50 per cent. of tan: the ensuing additions form opaque compounds containing less and less of tan, till, at last, the gelatine has so little left to unite with, that it is unable to become a real solid, and thus the imperfect curd last formed 1825:] comparative Tanning Powers of Astringents. 405. (being nearly all gelatine) remains suspended through the fluid. | i [SBaQ This one fact is sufficient.to invalidate the whole process, and all the calculations founded on it, respecting the quantity of tan. present in any solution ; for they rested entirely on the presump- tion that tam and gelatine always combined in one proportion only ; whereas it appears from Dr. B.’s researches, that they are capable of uniting in several: gelatine combining chemically with an equal weight.of tan, if within its reach, and also influenced so strongly by a smaller portion, though the union here may. be: somewhat mechanical, as to leave its solution in water to unite with it. (Vide Nicholson’s Journal, vol. 24, ‘‘ On the Union of Tan and Jelly,” and “‘ On Vegetable Astringents.”) _ Iam particularly anxious to draw to these masterly researches. of Dr. Bostock, the attention they so well deserve, and have yet toreceive. Hitherto it appears they have been almost unknown, or overlooked, as not containing facts so closely connected with the present subject. In Sir H. Davy’s “ Agricultural Chemistry,” published 1813, the process recommended in 1803 is repeated with little variation, and a table is given of the quantities of tan in various barks, estimated by the jelly test. This table is copied into the last edition of Brande’s “ Manual of Chemistry,” without any expres- sion of a doubt of its correctness in principle, and also into the last edition of Henry’s “ Elements of Chemistry,” in which we find stated (vol.ii.. p.358) : ‘‘ Ingeneral, however, Dr. Bostock has been. led to conclude that the compound formed by the union of jelly and tan consists on an average of somewhat less than two parts of tan to three of gelatine ;”’ whereas Dr. B.’s last paper (above- mentioned) leaves us no hope of any data to ground our calcula-: tions on. . | seh... cid In the Herculean task which an editor of a systematic work on chemistry necessarily undertakes, it is a moral impossibility that he can find time to consider the bearing which all the expe- rimental facts, scattered through our numerous scientific jour- nals, have on received opinions and theories. Such omissions are continually occurring in similar elementary works on other sciences, in the hands of most diligent and faithful compilers. For my own part. I am so satisfied of the proper feeling enter- tained on such points by the gentlemen at the head of the science to which I have the honour to be attached, that having once called their attention to the matter, I will leave its adjustment entirely to them. In endeavouring to strike out an unexceptionable process for the use of tanners, and complete this test in the spirit of udzlety in'which Sir H. Davy had first conceived it, I found it necessary to take a different path from that pursued by Proust and Troms- dorff, who endeavoured by the action of reagents to deprive tan 406 oop \ Mr Stephens on thee sooo [Dee of the various matters naturally combined with it, and which essentially modify its action in every case hitherto,brought under our notice. Now, the, test required) ought to resemble in its action) that. which takes place in a jtanner’s pit.jnfor) if the: mode of tral adopted: differ, materially; in, principle from. the manufacturing process which it is framed, to, aid, any estimate of the value. of astringents founded ;om,it:will)be. seriously in error, Hor instance, a» tanner’s: profit, chieflysdepends on the increase of weight which a hide acquires during, the process that converts it into leather. This in strong (sole) leather is generally one-third of the: dry weight, or, what tanners are more accus- tomed.to calculate on in Ireland, the. finished leather isjhalf the weight of the hide when fresh from the slaughter-house.:; The extractive matter forms an important -part.of this weight, and, therefore, any. test which the manufacturer might. apply to ascer- tain the tanning power of an astringent material, and which acted only on pure.tan, would completely mislead: him... am inclined. to think any. gallic,acid present is also absorbed, by. theskin, In spent ouze the power of striking black precipitates with solutions of iron is lost, and transferred to the leather, particularly that made with oak bark. In short the tannerwants:something which, when ‘presented: to. an astringent, infusion,. will seize on, and enable him to, estimate every, Sing which would (in, his process on the large scale) contribute to the weight of his leathen _ I know nothing which. can do. this,so,well asthe. skin: itself, and I find that by a little management it may be made,to yield us the information we require, quicker than, has hitherto. been thought possibless |) .6ivancm sna nega) Nake emaun wet bm - It cannot be doubted that; a strong bull hide will continue to absorb tanning matter for two years, if the process be so arranged ; but if we alter the usual proportion of the materials, the result, as to tame, will differ exceedingly. If a fresh skin be shaven down to a very thin substance on a curvier’s beam, or split into fine leaves by a machine, so as to expose a great expanse of surface, and a quantity of these be steeped in a pro- portionally small measure of tanner’s ouze, they will in a very very few hours imbibe all its useful tanning substance, and enable him to ascertain, by the difference of weight before and after steeping, the exact quantity of matter in solution, that can be made available in the manufacture of leather.* This is a test which comes home to the business of every tanner; one which he can place confidence in, beeause he can clearly understand it; and thoughsome niceties are requisite in this process also, the line of thought necessary to attain them * The strongest ouze in a Dublin tan yard, prepared in the usual cold method, was exhausted of taste and colour by this mode in seven hours ; a decoction of yalonia (the strongest I was able to make) of sp. gr. 1065, was, with the aid of frequent manipulation, to change the ouze in the pores of the skin, deprived of all astringeney in about nine hoursi 18251] comparative Tanning Powers of Astringents. 40? is already so familiar to him, that I have great hopes it is caleu° lated to ‘become ‘generally useful. i | There canbe no question ‘of the correctness of the principle of this'plan, it being that in daily operation in every tannery, yet the fields open for improvement, and the exercise of inge- nuity in the conduct of it; but having placed the subject within the grasp ofthe manufacturer, 1 candidly confess his superior right to pecealibs the details, and, therefore, look up to him for instruction in every thing connected with his handicraft opera- tionet)s 464904! vty 4 . As, however, I-have made several experiments to ascertain the proper'mode of proceeding, and acquired some: experience in the matter, I: willingly communicate: it, and devote. the remainder of this paper to hints which I hope may be of service to the tanner in going through the test on his‘own account. _ As the ‘objeet is! to' institute a comparison between two or. more astringents, and‘ decide quickly on their respective merits, whilst the ‘articles are yet at market ; a few pieces’ should be selected from ‘each lot;'so as fairly to represent every parcel. The whole of*each sample should be separately ground to pow- der in a'small ‘coffee’ or pepper mill, and passed successively - through the same sieve, to place each in similar circumstances. From these average samples, the operator may take equal weights, and obtaim complete infusions of each by agitating them with successive portions of warm water till all the soluble matter is extracted. ~ . FAK : Though botling water wilkhasten the operation, it certainly tends to decompose the astringent liquor afterwards, and induces it to deposit a portion of insoluble matter which may interfere with correct results. Water at blood heat (98° Fahr.) may be safely applied; bottles to infuse and shake the powders in, and.a piece of muslin to strain through, serve these purposes com- pletely. Care must of course be taken to preserve and return any powdered bark which may remain in the strainer, with the next quantity of warm water. Successive additions in this manner are exceedingly more powerful solvents than the whole quantity applied. at once. Their eflicacy increases in a geome- trical progression. ! When the several infusions yielded by one sample are united, the average liquor will in general be found sufficiently weak to be acted on by skin with the greatest effect; that is, to afford ‘all the colouring matter it contains along with the tan ;—an advantage the tanner is prevented from obtaining in strong decoctions of bark. If his experience should lead him to think a particular infusion too strong (which may occur in the exami- nation of astringent extracts similar to kino, rhatany,and catechu), he, may add water to reduce it to what he would call a “ safe tanning strength.” Aliquot parts of these infusions (one-sixth 408 Mr. Stephensionthe 0 [Dec.. of each, for instance) are now to be separately submitted to.the action of test skins (to be described afterwards).which should be carefully handled in the liquors now and then for seven or eight hours to expose new surfaces to the action ofthe ouze, till the tanner ascertains by eye and tongue that the liquors are absolutely spent. — » Vs pe yaaa There are a number of critical appearances in various opera- tions, altogether undescribable, and of which inanimate. tests give us no warning, and keep no record : in such cases it fortu- nately happens that the organs of sense give perfect satisfaction to an experienced operator. In the process under consideration, habit renders their decision all-sufficient. isibaey 6: The skins intended for the: trial should’ previously be well washed in tepid water to extract any lime which they may have absorbed in the process.of depilation, together with all the loose gelatine which can be squeezed out of the pores along with it ; so that nothing shall remain but the firm: fibre, which. will bear handling in the usual manner in weak ouze. They are, after this washing, to be dried in the shade, but not near a fire 5. then cut up into small pieces to fit the miniature tan-pits, and weighed in lots corresponding with the infusions ; each lot containing bulk sufficient to fill up the quantity of ouze, and (like a sponge) pre- sent an absorbent surface on every side... _ This dry skin (as every tanner. knows) is in a very unfit state to absorb astringent matter and. become leather. It is, there- fore, previous to immersion in the ouze, to be worked with the. hands for about five minutes in water just blood-warm (98° Fahr.), and induced by this treatment to soften and swell to its former dimensions, in which state it will be capable of fully exerting its absorbent powers ; and if care be taken to give the ouze an over dose of it, the action will be completed in.a few hours. : As each ouze is exhausted, its lot of skins should be taken up, dried in the shade as before, and the increase of weight in each lot separately ascertained. ‘This additional weight can consist oaly of the useful tanning matter, so that the increase of each lot will directly show the true comparative value of the astrin- gent in whose infusion it was steeped. . The skin most proper for this purpose is the strongest and freshest that can be procured, shaved down or split to the thin- nest substance it can be safely reduced to. The large fresh currier’s shavings from the strong hides intended for chaises or harness, can be obtained in quantity, and are well adapted to the process. The skins of ill-fed sheep and cattle that come to market hide bound from the mountain districts, as well as those of aged cattle in general, are also strong and fibrous enough for the purpose ; but what I would. prefer to all others (from the description I have received), are ox hides split very thin. and evenly by the patent machine. . | vorcte 1825.] comparative Tanning Powers of Astringents. 409° In Birmingham (Iam informed) this branch of the leather manufacture” is well understood. In Dublin’ we have but one ree machine, and that is only constructed for splitting: sheep skins. ‘These, from the improvement which has taken place in'our' breed of sheep, are generally so full of fat, that: they are'quite unfit to act as a test in this case, the oil shielding the skin from the action of the tan, and where it exists. in’ greatest quantity along the back’and across the neck, retarding the evaporation of moisture during the two drying processes, and consequently leading to false results. | Calf'skins, shaven down to the thinness of split sheep skins, are free enough from oil, but the fibre is in general so delicate, : that it is hable to. be injured, and partially dissolved, or rather dispersed through the warm water during the softening and swell- ing, preparatory to steeping in the astringent infusion. I found that several lots of this skin, previously dried and weighed for experiment, though beautifully transparent, and’ apparently’ perfect in every way, lost’seven per cent. of loose gelatine when’ handled in tepid water.’ Thus this species of skin also appears - Wry vce for the: purpose. | o avoid the last mentioned source of error, it will be prudent to reserve a piece out of every batch which undergoes the swelling process, to ascertain (by drying and weighing. without. tanning) whether the remaining pieces destined for experiment had lost any thing in that operation. As such a loss is only likely to occur in ‘strong hides from carelessness in the usual operations of lining, washing, &c. the tanner has it completely in his power, by proper attention, to prepare his own test skins in the most perfect’ manner. Perhaps the calf skins that I operated on had been somewhat injured in these previous pro-' cesses ; whereas if they had been carefully treated, they might have remained strong enough. This is a point which peculiarly’ rests with the tanner to ascertain correctly, as a matter of’ economy and convenience. If calf skins be really strong enough to retain a// their substance from one weighing to the other, tanners who manufacture upper leather will be much more at home in trials made with them: In Ireland, I believe, there is: quite as much of it made as of sole leather. In the shaving of strong hides, it is indifferent to the currier in what shape he takes off the pieces. A tanner who attends ' him during that operation may obtain shavings of the exact size he wants, and, therefore, need never sacrifice an entire hide to the experiment. f need scarcely mention that the test skins employed in this trial should not be expected to become perfect leather, so as to ’ enable the tanner to judge of the quality of the astringent also. That is an operation requiring length of time, and excess of tanning materials, both of which are here inadmissible. 410. — Rev. Mr. Emmett’s Observations [Dre. In the course of operas which led me to the adoption of the plan recommended in this essayy I have accumulated a number of comparative analyses of the-several astringents used in the arts, made with a view to ascertain how the test would work in all cases, as an index to their tanning properties)! These I intended to annex to the present/paper, but’ satisfied of the correct. action of the test, 1 omit them for the present, convinced that each individual lot of astringent substance brought to market may differ so widely in composition and uality from every other, thatsuch a table'as I might be able to } form from the exammation of particular samples (not now at market) would only tend to mislead. © 3 HBAS TOMY 91 My'chiefhope is, that in the preceding sketch ofa process, I have been sufficiently explicit to enable a tanner to proceed for. . himself towards the attainment of that important object,—a knowledge of the comparative value of all the astringent mate- rials which appear at market, in time to regulate his purchase of anys ie ooo) boo) Kpowarp Bern Steruens. (Li Pade ; ores ae a REE ARTICLE Tl 0 Observations on the Planet Venus made, during the Spring of the Year 1825. By the Rev.J. B. Emmett. | i: e ; (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, ; _ Great Ouseburn, Sept. 9, 1825. Since the time of Cassini, spots on Venus have rarely been seen, Dr. Herschel says, the planet has always presented to him a perfectly uniform surface, quite free from spots; and the only observations made since those of Cassini and Bianchini were by Short, who was-fortunate enough once to see them. During the spring of the present year, Venus was rarely entirely Be from them, and, therefore, I hope, that my obser- vations may not be the whole that have been made. The instruments I employed were an excellent Newtonian reflector of 6 inches aperture, using powers trom 70 to 400; an aerial, not achromatic, of 18 feet focus, with powers of 70 to 150; an aerial of 50 feet, power 160; and I hope I shall be able to show that where the old aerial telescope has sufficient light and power, it possesses some very considerable advantages over other instruments. Before I proceed with the immediate subject of this paper, it will be proper to convey a correct idea of the goodness of the instruments, to remove all doubts which otherwise might arise. With the reflector, with powers from 70 to 800, and occasionally 1200, I have repeatedly seen the double stars Castor, « Herculis, 1825.]) on the Planet. Venus. 411), a Ursee. Minoris, 2 Ursee Majoris,.the quadruple star ¢ Lyre, Rigel. ; together with the whole of those in Dr, Herschel’s first, class, which,ean be, seen with the powers I.can command.,.,Jn. the spring of the present year, I have shown, the double ving and. quintuple;beltof Saturn, and. once a spot..upon his,,southern hemisphere; to. several persons ; it shows the most minute. parts, of the solarispots,.-as well as the mottled appearanee of his sur- face, as perfectly as any instrument. I) have ever seen; and the, spring of the present year afforded many opportunities, of trying its powers in this respect; for example, March 3,, within one umbra. of small size were 11-nuclei, all distinctly defined. ~ The refractors consist of one convex object lens and a convex, eye glass. Ihave often compared them, with the reflector, and with other instruments, and in point of steadiness. there is. no. comparison 5 on account of their great length, causes which produce great tremor in shorter instruments do not affect, them;, also, what.is very,curious is, that when the,air is in such a state, as to, produce-great undulations, when the reflector is used, it affects the others very little; so that with them I can observe objects when nearer the horizon than with other instruments. With the aerial of 18 feet, I see Saturn’s ring beautifully distinct with a power of 36; with 70 some belts, and certainly a trace of the division of the ring; all seen with 50 foot, and power 160, I have not had opportunity te make many observations on double stars with these instruments; the stars are well defined through them: I have seen the double star, Castor, and the trapezium in the nebula of Oricn’s sword, and many much: cluser ones. I have often compared these instruments with the reflector, m viewing) the moon and the solar spots; every part of the moon, even the most intricate, is seen in high perfection; the limb beautifully defined ; so also are the solar spots : indeed, . except Lam taking any micrometric measures, 1 almost always use the short aerial for viewing both the sun and moon. With it, the mottled appearance of the sun is very conspicuous, and the solar spots are blacker than with any reflector I have ever seen. The bright ridges of the sun are seen in the highest per- fection by receiving the focal image of a lens of very long focus upon a white screen ; the sun’s image in the focus of the object. lens of my long aerial is about. 43. inches in diameter: in this the ridges are seen in great perfection, together with the spots, which are absolutely free from colour, It is to be regretted that the simple astronomical refracting telescope has gone into disuse: if the proper dimensions be observed, itis as free from colour as any achromatic; it is remarkably free from tremors ; the number of surfaces are small; and on account of the long focal lengths used, small imperfections in the lenses, or defects in the centering, produce but little effect. On these accounts it_ possesses many advantages. In light it exceeds not only a 412° Rev. Mr. Bininetl’s Obéervations [Dee. reflector of the same aperture and power, but every achromatic ;: indeed the quantity of light is astonishing. I have often com- ared two telescopes ; one atriple achromatic by Dollond, fitted: or terresirial observations of 141 inch aperture, which is a very’ fine instrument ; the other consists of two convex lenses; the: object glass has an aperture 0°5 inch, and the same: power as. the former; the light is as nearly equal as possible; and in point? of distinctness there is little difference. ' These’remarks - will show that no imperfections in the instruments employed in: viewing Venus can have introduced any errors. at The first time I observed any appearance of spots on Venus: was Feb. 21,7"; I used the reflector, having six inches aperture, and powers from 120 to 400. There were two narrow duskish: ivregular lines, which were best seen with 200. On the 22d, 7* 30", the spots occupied a different part of the disc to what they did the day before, having based according to the order of the signs. ‘They were very faint, and ill defined. I saw no: more spots until March 11, beginning a little before sunset, and: continued to 9°; the same instru- , . ment and powers as before. The air was in a very unfavourable state. The spots were es con~. spicuous, as in fig. ], still they were not well defined ; during the short time in which observa- tions could be made, this even- ing, no conclusion could be drawn respecting the rotation of the planet. Dr. Wasse observed Venus with the same instrument, and made a drawing of the spots, which coincided with mine. The weather was so uniformly cloudy that no observations could be made before April 4: on that evening, from 8" to 11", I had an imperfect view of spots; but the air was so extremely wremu- lous that [could notsee them well defined, or perceive any change in their position. April 7, from 7 to 9", [ had a better view. At 7", the light was so strong that stars of the first magnitude were not visible. At 7" the spots | were as in fig. 2; at 8"30™, they appeared to have sensibly ad- vanced, as in fig. 3; the spots a 6 were not in view before 8" 30". The horns projected considerably beyond the semi- ewele, which probably is owing to the planet’s atmosphere. Reflector six inches aperture ; powers 120 and 200. April 8, 8". The airin a good state. Venus appeared as in SU’ Yl? . w 1825.] -.on the Planet. Venus. A13 fig: 4. Dr. Wasse observed them with the same instrument, and madea drawing, which coincided with. mine in all respects, ener he did not; see the two bright lines at.a., In 1 30", Dr. W. and I both concluded that the spots had, approached the W limb,, and moved very little to- wards the N horn., The planet had the, same appearance with both the -aerial telescopes; in- deed with that of 50 feet, I cer- tainly saw them more evidently than with the reflector. _ April 13, 4° 30™, nearly 24” before sunset, [ had.a fine view of Venus, which is represented in fig. 5 with the reflector, powers 70 to 400; with 70 1 could not see any spots; with 120 they were very distinct. Those towards the S were so considerable that whilst some fleecy clouds were passing, the whole to the S of the line a b disappeared, and that to the N remained visible for some minutes. The evening unfortunately proved cloudy ; had it been fine, I might have obtained useful information respecting the time of rotation, as 71 hours would have been allowed for observation; and I the more regret it, because this was the only time I saw Venus so early. Lieut. Hornby, RN. observed the planet with me, and confirmed my drawing of the appearances. i ’ by _ April 20, from 7" to 9". Venus as in fig. 6; I used the reflector and both aerials, and saw the spots with all. The evening being very fine, I saw the spots better defined than usual; yet they were never so distinct as to : allow the use of a micrometer with advantage. Between 7" and 9, the bright ridge separating the two spots had evidently moved ; the most 8 part had moved towards the W, and also a little to the N. I can speak more confidently of the motion than at any former time; and although they were not so well defined as to allow measures to be taken which would determine either the exact time of rotation, or the position of the axis, yet the motion seemed so sensible as to agree with the time determined by Cassini, and not to confirm ihat fixed by Bianchini. Beyond this I could not arrive at any conclusion; because Venus, except observed when the sun is above the horizon, is always in the worst part of the atmosphere, and of course appears tremu- lous; her light also is so very powerful that no telescope shows her free from radiating light, which is a great impediment. x 4l4 Rev. Mr. Emmett’ Observations — [Decl After the most careful observations continued during thé whole time that Venus was visible, I have not been able to arrive at any certain conclusion respecting het petiod beyond this, that a change in the place of the spots could be perceived in the spacé of two or three hours, when the air was ina serené state: this agrees with the period assigned ‘by Cassini. The direction of their motion, dedubed from these observations, agrees also with the position of the planet’s axis, as determined by those astronomers. I noted down all the observations at the time they were made ;. and when the series was completed, cal+ culated the position of the axis, as seen from the earth on the 20th April. The sun’s place was & 0° 5’ 18”; Vents’s helioc. Longitude 2 11° 13’; her N pole is directed towards x 20°) and elevated about 15° above the plane of the ecliptic ; hence the N pole was 16° 49’ from the W limb, or +42, of the planet’s radius ; the illuminated part of the disc was 55° 49’, or of her radius ; so that the distance of the N pole from the W limb was about one-tenth of the illa- 394 ia minated part. In the figure, the position of the pole is shown, as_ the planet appeared in the tele- scope, inverted and reversed ; the circular arcs show the apparent paths of the spots. It is evident that the position of the planet was very unfavourable to these observations. It is to be hoped that astronomers will in future make partis cular observations upon this planet. Itis certainly very remark- able that fora century no spots have-ever been seen, except once by Short; this may be partly ascribed to the instruments in use, for I see them best with the refractors.. Several persons have seen them through my telescopes, and theirdrawings and descrip- tions always coincided with mine; therefore there could be no fallacy. I am fully persuaded that if the old aerial telescope were more generally applied, not only the spots of Venus, but other objects, might be better seen than with other instruments. I saw them better defined than with the reflector, the powers being equal; the same spots could not be seen with a good achromatic of 24 inches aperture, and very imperfectly by one of 3 inches, by Dollond, with higher powers than I used in the others, I examined the planet in hopes of seeing some appear- ance of mountains, which some observers speak of: I employed powers from 70 to 800 : with the latter I see the double ring and all the belts of Saturn, and close double stars in great perfection ; but in no instance could | perceive any trace of them, although I paid particular attention to the concave edge, sometimes with out ascreen glass; at others employing atch lasses of every variety of shade. Al Tot J. B, EMmerr. 1825.] | on the Planet Venus. — 415 P. S. Since the above was written, I have completed a series of observations made upon some very fine solar spots, which confirm the, statements made in my former paper onthe, same subject... July 22,.0" 30, a spot which had been in view for many, days disappeared, July 21, 23" 25™ (app. time), a spot had entered which was not in view at 20"; I suppose it entered about; the, 2ist, 20%, for 23" 25™ it had just entered. This was the largest.and finest spot, ever saw... On the 27th, I) saw it without the aid. of a telescope, and it continued visible to the naked eye.until the 30th, when, near the centre of the disc, the umbra passed a vertical wire in 5°5, It was in the centre ofits apparent path July 28, 1. It had described half its apparent path July 28, 1° It entered the disc......0+----+-.. July 21; 20 Time of describing half its visible path... 6 5° | therefore it must be visible 12% 10". ? Aug. 3, 15.) The spot was very near the edge, so near that it could not remain visible more than eight or ten hours. The day was so unfavourable that I had only this one view of the sun, and this through rather dense clouds. Aug. 3, 21", there was not the least trace of it. It disappeared .......ee.e0c% Aug. 3, 9h | Came into view...s- tenet ee ees July 21, 20 Therefore int!) 44 ome... 12°13 the spot. entirely crossed the disc. J Of the spot which disappeared on the 22d, there was no trace before Aug. 5, 12"; I could not see any trace the day. before ; and on the 6th, 0", I saw it; it had been on the dise about 12 hours. The spot returned.......... Aug 6, Lae It disappeared....... seeeees July 22, 0 It was invisible during.......... vi 14-12 The sum of these two observations is less than the mean period of the sun; it amounts to 27¢ 1, only, which arises from the » difficulty of determining it in this manner ;. also one of the spots has moved. Aug. 17, 22". The spot which returned on the this quite off - the disc; there is no trace of the fecule near it : therefore it was not in view-more than 124 10", ; Aug. 19, 30™, the spot which disappeared. Aug, 3, 9", has, returned; it. may have been visible 12 hours; certainly not more. i | 416 M. Rose onthe Compounds of [Dxc. It came into view .......+.. Aug. 18, 12" Disappeared ......0+e+-0+8 Aug. 3, 9 It was invisible during. ..........15. 3 This spot first came into view... July 21, 20" Returned after one revolution... Aug.18, 12 Therefore .....cseevsvesceveevee 27 IGis the time of a revolution. The spot which disappeared ,, July 22, 0" Disappeared after a revolution, Aug.17, 22 26. 22 Hence this spot has had a considerable motion on the sun’s disc, which accords with the observations, Sheiner first took notice of this’ proper motion which the macule often have ; many other, astronomers have confirmed his statements : indeed there is nothing more common than to see the spots ofa cluster change their relative places very considerably, even in the-space ofa few hours. Mr. Wollaston once saw a spot suddenly divided, and the parts fly off from each other very rapidly. Bi ; Miqiga iis .DLipil 3 | WARTIGLE III. * On the Compounds of Antimony with Chlorine and Sulphur. By M.H. Rese.* I. Compounds of Antimony and Chlorine. _ It is known that, a solid compound of antimony and chlorine, fusible at a, very moderate heat, is obtained by distilling pulve- rised antimony, with an excess of corrosive sublimate. It deli- quesces by exposure to the air, and is converted into a liquid resembling an emulsion.+ When treated with water it changes, without the evolution of heat, into hydrochloric acid, and a compound of the oxide and chloride of antimony. This white powder, which is precipitated by mixing the chloride with water, is wholly volatilized when heated in a little matrass by the blow- pipe; consequently it contains neither antimonious nor anti- monic acid. But since this chloride of antimony is converted by water into hydrochloric acid and oxide of antimony, its com- * From the Annales de Chimie. ee ! + The common butter of antimony of the shops, which forms a clear liquid, is not a solution of the solid chloride of antimony in a small quantity of water, but in muriatic acid ; for the Pharmacopeias order it to be prepared with a larger quantity of acid than is necessary to form the solid chloride, , 1825;} Antimoiy with Chlorine and Sulphur. == 417 position much corresponds with the composition’ of those substances ; and_as oxide of antimony contains 3 atoms of oxy~ en, the antimony must be combined with 3 atoms of chlorine in the solid chloride, or it must contain per cent. Morandi. . (230 gain Jos, 2yae 54-85 Chlorine. ..... GHosetivicerveneses 45°15 y ‘ar to sbiR@DHOO The analysis of chloride of antimony, however, by Dr. John Davy, gave a different result. According to him, it consists of AMNHUMONY 6610's}. gable shins oe des ook diaper BO:42 Chlorine. ce sceseseccsoeceeceesess 398 100-00 I, therefore, submitted it to a fresh analysis in the following manner :—I poured water on a quantity of the chloride, and then added tartaric acid till the liquid was perfectly clear, and ceased to-become milky by the subsequent addition of a large quantity of water. I next passed a current of sulphuretted hydrogen through the liquid, till sulphuret of antimony ceased to falldown. ‘This sulphuret, which had an orange colour, was _washed on the filter, dried, and weighed, and then fused ina glass tube; it gave a black sulphuret of antimony, and merely traces of sulphur, consequently it was sulphuret of antimony containing 3 atoms of sulphur, or precisely that which ought to be formed under the circumstances, But as it contained traces of an excess of sulphur, in consequence of the sulphuretted hydrogen having been passed for a very long time through the liquid, { heated a part of the sulphuret in a bulb blown in the middle of a glass tube, and passed over it a current of hydrogen dried by chloride of calcium. ‘The sulphuret of antimony was decomposed, and I obtained antimony, sulphuretted hydrogen, and traces of sulphur. The liquor, separated from the sulphuret of antimony, was gently heated to drive off the sulphuretted hydrogen, but not the _ hydrochloric acid, which cannot’ be ‘separated from water by heat when mixed with it in small proportion. The hydrochloric. acid was then precipitated by nitrate of silver. The chloride of silver obtained had, however, a blackish colour, from a little sulphuret of silver which was mixed with it. The results of this analysis gave 1-937 gramme (29'9 grs.) of antimony, and 6°8806. grammes (106'3 grs.) of chloride of silver, equivalent to 1-699. gramme (24°7 grs.) of chlorine. The chloride of antimony, therefore, is composed per cent. of : New Series, vou. x. 2 418 M. Rose on the Compounds of [Duc. . Antimony isis as UT UG ean 53°27 Chlorine. Ce er eee Be esse sessveseee 46°73 100-00 This result would accord much better with the calculated proportions, had I obtained the chloride of silver wholly free from sulphuret. 2: | Another chloride of antimony is obtained by passing a current of dry chlorine over heated metallic antimony. The antimony burns vividly in the gas, emitting sparks, at the same time that a volatile liquid is formed. This liquid is white, or of a very light yellowish tint, and contains also chloride of iron if the antimony employed be not wholly free from that metal. That chloridé, however, remains at the bottom of the vessel, and is not dissolved in the liquid, which resembles the fuming spirit of Libavius in all its external characters, having a strong disagree- able odour, and fuming in the atmosphere. Exposed to the air it attracts water, and is converted into a white mass, in which white crystals form, which afterwards dissolve without rendering the solution milky, This phenomenon is owing to a property of the liquid chloride of antimony, which it possesses in common with the fuming spirit of Libavius, of forming a crystalline mass when mixed ath a small quantity of water. _ The liquid chloride of antimony heats strongly when mixed with a larger portion of water. It becomes milky, and a preci- itate forms which behaves exactly like hydrated antimonic acid. Gently heated it gives off water, and becomes yellowish ; but at a Righ temperature it becomes white. The liquor contains hydrochloric acid. Since the liquid chloride of antimony is’ converted by water into hydrochloric and antimonic acids, the latter containing 5 atoms of oxygen to 1 of antimony, this chlo- ride must contain 5 atoms of chlorine to 1 of antimony, and its composition per cent. is, ADUIMONY bie sae ed aw Deedee dale 42°15. Chlorine. eeesveeoreeedoesreer essere aves 57°85 100-00 I analyzed the liquid chloride of antimony exactly in the same way as the solid chloride. I obtained sulphuret of antimony by sulphuretted hydrogen, which also had an orange colour, but rather paler than the sulphuret from the solid chloride. It con- tains 5 atoms of sulphur to 1 of antimony. Treated with dry hydrogen it is converted into metallic antimony and sulphur, and sulphuretted hydrogen is disengaged. I obtained 1:98 ramme (30°6 gts.) of metallic antimony, and the liquid freed fro the sulphuret and precipitated by nitrate of silver gave 1825.] Antimony with Chlorine and Sulphur. 419 11-764 grammes (181°6 grs.) of chloride.of silver, equivalent to 2°902 grammes (44°8 grs.) of chlorine. The.chloride of silver, however, contained rather more sulphuret of silver than that obtained in the analysis of the solid chloride. The result of this analysis, therefore, gives per cent. PMTHONY Opes Ses 6 tP Hawa ocd bh en oi ROO ODIOTING,. a fas nodded ct ba 45 85,9 ceafe COR 100-00 which differs from the calculated result: the difference, how- ever, 1s owing solely to the sulphuret of silver which remained mixed with the chloride, 144 If we pass dry chlorine over sulphuret of antimony containing 3 atoms of sulphur, we do not obtain the liquid chloride ; but solid chloride of antimony and chloride of sulphur are formed. The latter may be separated from the chloride of antimony by heating them very gently ina matrass with a very narrow mouth; chloride of antimony alone remains. This is the same compound that is formed in the analysis of grey copper by. chlorine; only chloride of antimony and chloride of sulphur are obtained, the first containing 3 atoms of chlorine, the second 2. No double chloride is formed, and the chloride of sulphur remains on the solid chloride of antimony. Heated so as merely to fuse the chloride of antimony, the latter dissolves entirely in the chloride of sulphur, and forms with it a homogeneous liquor; but the chloride of antimony separates in crystals on cooling. This is one method of obtaining large crystals of this chloride; but it must be quickly filtered through blotting paper to separate, as completely as possible, the adhering chloride of sulphur. {tis remarkable that the liquid chloride of antimony is pro- duced by the action of chlorine on metallic antimony only, and that none is formed when the sulphuret of antimony is acted on by chlorine.* II. Compounds of Antimony and. Sulphur. I have made many experiments on the sulphurets of antimony, but have only found three, which correspond with the oxides of that metal. Sulphuret of antimony with 3 atoms of sulphur has different * T frequently passed chlorine over sulphuret of antimony, and always with the same result. I fancied, for reasons to be stated in the sequel, that chloride of antimony with 5 atoms of chlorine was formed ; I only obtained, however, the chloride with 3 atoms, if I drove off the chloride of sulphur. I was then led to think that 2 atoms of chlorine were Separated from the chloride of antimony, and had combined with the chloride of sulphur to form, perhaps, a chloride with 4 atoms of chlorine. I, therefore, passed chloririe over chloride of sulphur, and freed it carefully by distillation from the sulphur dissolved, in order to discover such a chloride of sulphur. The colour of the chloride of sulphur became indeed a little darker, but it underwent no other change, although the chlorine was passed over it for a considerable length of oT 2E 420. _ ML. Rose on the Compounds of [Drc. colours. The native is lead grey ;.its composition has been demonstrated by Berzelius. It is analogous to the oxide of antimony with 5 atoms of oxygen, for it dissolves in hydrochloric acid without leaving any residuum, and with the disengagement of sulphuretted hydrogen only. The same sulphuret is obtained by passing a current of sul- phuretted hydrogen through a’ solution ‘containing oxide of antimony; but it has an orange colour, almost like that of the golden sulphuret. It becomes brownish Py drying, and then assumes an aspect more similar to that of kermes. The same -sulphuret is obtained by passing sulphuretted hydrogen through a solution of tartar emetic, or through a solution of butter of antimony in water and tartaric acid. ; _ M. Berzelius first proved that the composition of kermes mineral is exactly similar; its colour, however, is brownish-red.* The deuto-sulphuret of antimony with 4 atoms of sulphur has an orange colour a good deal like that of the golden sulphuret. {t is formed when sulphuretted hydrogen is passed through a solution of antimonious acid. Tartaric acid, however, must not be added for the purpose of enabling us to dilute the liquid with water, but only hydrochloric acid. The best method of making a solution of antimonious acid is to dissolve antimony in aqua regia, and evaporate the solution to dryness. The antimonic acid formedisthento be converted into antimonious acid by ared heat; the latter fused with caustic potash, and the fused mass heated with hydrochloric acid and water till a clear liquid is obtained. I precipitated this solution by sulphuretted hydrogen, and the sulphuret obtained, after being carefully dried, was decomposed by hydrogen. I obtained in one experiment 1305 gramme (20°1 grs.) of antimony from 1:973 gramme (30°5 ers.) of | sulphuret, and in another 0-977 gramme (15:1 grs.) of antimony from. 1:468 gramme (22:7 grs.) of sulphuret. [ts composition, therefore, according to the first trial, is per cent. ADUMONE «+.» :s.0:0,0590,0,0,9,0:018,0,019,0,0,.0)0 SO Sulphar's: Lia wants. ig ove 1 ISB6 100:00 and, according to the second, Antiniony®. (2.6021 Aed gle, 6665 OID AEE os ors o snip His niece heels nie kek hee 100-00 * T analyzed a kermes prepared by digesting black sulphuret of antimony in a solu- tion of carbonate of potash. I expelled the hygrometric moisture by a gentle heat, and decomposed it by hydrogen, 0-719 gramme (11°! grs.) of kermes gave 0-52 gramme -(8 grs.) of antimony: its composition. therefore, was antimony 72°32, sulphur 27°68, + The addition of tartaric acid to antimonious acid affords very remarkable results. I shall give a separate memoir on that subject. 1825.) Antimony with Chlorine and Sulphur. 421 - According to calculation, its composition is, ACN 2..«. 6's s'0-4; a ery hioigha-tiele Baiplec aig, AG" 42 SMBHBD 6: /o-0.o¢ cote cesiehble snngisisataie foe eo | 100-00 The sulphuret of antimony with 5 atoms of sulphur to 1 of metal, which corresponds to antimonic acid, and by calculation contains 61°59 antimony and 38°41 sulphur, is realized in the golden sulphuret of the shops. The different modes of prepar- ing it are well known. It is also obtained if we pass a current of sulphuretted hydrogen through solutions containing antimonic acid, as, for instance, that of the liquid chloride of antimony in water, to which tartaric acid has been added. The precipitate obtained is of a paler orange colour than the precipitate from solutions of oxide of antimony, and its colour does not change in drying. | I analyzed the golden sulphuret in two ways; I dried it at a heat not sufficient to decompose it, till it ceased to lose weight. It had then parted with all its hygrometric moisture. [I usually analyzed it by passing a current of dry hydrogen over the heated golden sulphuret. Sulphuretted hydrogen was formed, but no water; sulphur sublimed, and metallic antimony remained behind. I also analyzed it by aqua regia, to which I added tartaric acid. I separated the undissolved sulphur, and precipi- tated the sulphuric acid by muriate of barytes; this method, however, is more tedious than that with hydrogen. We do not obtain accurate results by fusing the golden sulphuret in a small matrass in order to convert it'into sulphuret of antimony with 3 atoms of sulphur, and calculating the composition of the former from the weight of the latter, not only because the sul- phuret of antimony is not absolutely fixed, but also because some oxide of antimony is formed by the air in the matrass, which produces a crocus antimonit with the sulphur sublimed in its neck, I do not mention the results of the analyses which I made of this sulphuret of antimony ata maximum, because they scarcely differ from the calculated result. | II]. Compounds of Sulphuret of Antimony with Oxide of An- | linony. The compounds in which sulphuret of antimony is combined with oxide of antimony in various proportions are called in the shops by the name of crocus and nitrum antimonit. ‘Kermes has also been supposed to be a similar compound. M. Berzelius, however, has shown that its composition does not differ from that of the sulphuret of antimony with 5 atoms of sulphur, and the analysis.of kermes related: above confirms his opinion. 422 M, Rose on the Compounds of Antimony, &c. [Dee. There is, however, a combination of sulphuret of antimony with oxide of antimony in definite proportion, and that is the native kermes of mineralogists (rothspiesglanzerz). The result of my analysis of that substance differs very much from that obtained by Riaproth, in consequence of his having supposed that the whole of the antimony was both oxidated and sulphuretted, and of his not having determined the quantity of the antimony. According to him, its composition is, Antimony. eeeeeeaeeeeeepeweeereeeeeeee 67°8 . Oxy en. ee eer eere eee eeeeaeeeeeaneeeee 10°8 Sulp Mes isis ae kideecns ebudseewe ean bu 19°7 —_——-— —-— 983 1 analyzed the rothspiesglanzerz from Braunsdorf, near Frei- berg, in Saxony, which M. Weiss had the goodness to send me for the purpose. The analysis was made by hydrogen in the same manner as those of the different sulphurets of antimony. I added, however, to the apparatus a weighed tube containing chloride of calcium, to absorb the water formed, In one expe- riment I obtained 0°676 gramme (10:4 grs.) of antimony and 0-054 gramme (0°84 grs.) of water from 0°908 gramme (14 grs.) of the mineral, or 74°45 per cent. of antimony and 5:29 of oxy- gen; and in another, from 0:978 gramme (15:1 grs.) of the mine- ral, 0°74 gramme (11°4 grs.) of antimony, and 0-047 gramme (0°73 gr.) of water, or 75°66 per cent. of antimony and 4-27 oxygen. | then dissolved 0:34 gramme (5:24 grs.) of the mineral in aqua regia, added tartaric acid to the solution, and precipitated by muriate of barytes. I obtained 0°517 gramme (8 grs.) of sulphate of barytes, equivalent to 20°47 per cent. of sulphur. If we take the mean of the oxygen in the two first analyses, yiz.. 4°78 per cent. and add to it as much antimony as is neces- sary to form the oxide, the remaining quantity of metal is suffi- . cient, neglecting slight errors of observation, to form with the sulphur, the sulphuret of antimony with 3 atoms of sulphur. We shall find besides that the quantity of oxide of antimony is to the quantity of sulphuretas the weight,of an atom of the first is to the weight of two atoms of the second, so that the native kermes consists of | atom of oxide of antimony and 2 atoms of sulphuret of antimony, or per cent. of Sulphuret of antimony. .......+++++ 69°86 Oxide of antimony ..........s00.04 30°14 100-00 This composition accords with that which M. Berzelius had already assigned to the native kermes. This compound is remarkable as presenting the only instance of a native crystal- lized oxisulphuret that has hitherto been discovered. 1825.) Mr. Gray on the Sea Eggs. 423 ArTIcLE IV. An Attempt to divide the Echinida, or Sea Eggs, into Natural Families. By J. E. Gray, Esq. FGS, &c. (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, British Museum. Lamarckx in his History of Animals without Vertebre, esta- blished as a class of his Apathic animals a very natural group, which he called Radiata. Mr. Macleay has since proposed to consider this group as equal in rank to the subkingdoms, Verte- brata, Annulosa, Mollusca, &c. ? Lamarck divided his Radiata into two great divisions, which Cuvier placed in distinct Ete of his Zoophytes. The former separated the first of his divisions into two, and the second into three sections. Mr. Macleay, in his Hore Entomologice (part ii. 116), has hinted at the connexion which exists between these five principal constructions, which, if Radiata is to be consi- dered as a subkingdom, should, for uniformity sake, be called | classes, although each group formed only a single genus in the works of Linneeus and his followers. : The following are the groups proposed by Lamarck and Macleay, which may be divided in the following manner :— 1, Normal Group, Echinodermata, Echinida, Mac. Les echinides, Lam. Stellerida, Mac. Les stellerides, Lam. | 2. Annectant Group. Medusida, Mac. Les medusaires, Lam. Acalephida, Mac. Les anomales, Lam. Fistulida, Mac. Les Fistulides, Lam. Leaving the determination ofthe rank which these groups ought to sustain to be considered till more is known of their anatomy and habits, I shall at once proceed to the division of Echinida, the object of my present communication, into families. Class 1,? Order1.? Ecutn1pa, Macleay. Les echinides, Lam. Echinus, Lin. Cuv. ; Essential character.—Body not contractile, nor radiately lobed, subglobular, covered with mobile spines ; anus distinct from the mouth. These animals are furnished with a distinct crustaceous skele- ton, composed of numerous regularly disposed plates, united b a strait suture, and furnished externally with rounded tubercles, ‘on which mobile spines are attached. These spines are affixed to the base of the tubercles by a circular ligament, and are 424 Mr. Gray on the Sea Eggs. [Dec. furnished with numerous muscles for the purpose of moving ‘ them in every direction, The manner in which -the spines and plates enlarge has never been satisfactorily explained. The plates appear to be placed between two skins, anda small process of membrane seems to extend between each of them.» The spines evidently grow by a disposition of matter placed under their outer edge, more espe- gay at the apical extremity; the matter is, perhaps, deposited by the processes of the skin of the articulation being extended up the longitudinal grooves with which these spines are always furnished. Their manner of growth may easily be seen by cutting down longitudinally the spines of Echinus mammilatus, Lam, when the outer surfaces of each complete spine will be ‘distinctly visible in the form of a darker line, occasioned by the outer edge being the hardest and most compact. The older naturalists paid very great attention to the group, and several of them divided them systematically into “ classes, sections, and genera.” Morton (1712), in his History of Nor- thamptonshire, divided the fossil species found in that county into three groups. Bryerius, in 1732, divided the Echini into seven genera from the position of their mouth and vent: these. genera have all been adopted by Lamarck, but under otber names. Klein, two years after, published his natural disposition of-Echinodermata, where he divided them into nine sections, containing twenty-two genera, placing them according to two systems ; first, after the position of their vent, forming them into three classes, called Anocystos, Catocystos, and Pleurocystos ; secondly, with respect to the situation of the mouth, as Bislene. sostomt and Apomesostomi. . Van Phelsum, in 1714, extended Klein’s method by taking notice forthe first time of the form and extent of the Ambulacra. He divided them into the same number of genera as Klein, but several of them were very differ- ent from those of the latter. Leske, in 1778, published an addi- tion to Klein, and he reduced the number of Klein’s genera to ten, which agree very nearly with the sections of his author, and he adopted the prior names of Bryerius for his genera. Davilla, in 1767, divided the Echini into six groups, according to the general form of the shell, but these groups are very indefinite. Linneus took no notice of the works of Klein or others, but considered the whole of the group as one genus. Muller divided it into two, under the names of yest and Spatangus. The Echinida may be divided intu two sections. 1. TypicaAn Grour.—Body globular; mouth central, below ; jaws conical, projectile, with five acute teeth; anus vertical, dor- sal; ambulacra complete, forming bands extending from the mouth to the anus. The crustaceous covering of the body of these animals is formed of twenty perpendicular bands, each formed of .several ¢ 1826.] Mr. Gray on the Sea Eggs. 425 horizontal pentagonal pieces. These bands are placed symme- trically in pairs united together by a flexous suture, the project- ing angle of one series being fitted into the concave angles of the other. The pairs of bands are united together by a strait suture. They are alternately broad and narrow. ‘The broad ones are formed of a few plates, and always imperforated, and the outer edges of the narrow bands, which consist of very numerous nar- row pieces, are perforated by two or more series of minute per- forations placed in pairs; these perforations form bands, which Linneus compared to the walks in a garden, calling them ambu- lacra or walks, and the tubercular parts aree, pulvilli, or beds. As in describing the species, it is often necessary to distinguish the character of each of the beds, those of the broad bands might be called extra, and those of the narrow bands intra ambu- lacral beds. ; The vent is surrounded by numerous small scale-like pieces attached to the skin; these are again surrounded by two series of plates, each formed of five pieces, which are affixed to the body of the crustaceous skeleton. The series of these plates which is next the body, are the smallest ; they are placed just at the top of the ambulacra, and each is perforated with a minute hole, the use of which is quite unknown. The inner series is formed of larger pieces, each perforated with a considerable foramen, which lead to the ovaria. The latter may, therefore, be called the ovarial, and the former, as they are partly between them, the interovarial pieces. One of the ovarial plates is considerably larger than the rest, convex externally, and per- forated like a sieve with numerous minute foramina, and Mmter- wally thick and rugose. This plate is somewhat similar both in form, and perhaps in use, to the orbicular spot on the back of the Stellerida called Corpus Spongiosum, by Spix, figured in the Annals of the Museum (vol. xiii. t. 32, f. 1, a), where M. Spix considers that it may, perhaps, be the orifice of the organs of generation as it is perforated with two foramina (see p. 446). The skin round the mouth is scaly, and furnished with ten somewhat prominent glands, placed in pairs; the jaws, which were compared by Aristotle to a lantern, consist or five conical triangular bones, each formed of two pieces, containing in their middle a long linear curved tooth; the teeth are externally con- vex, and furnished with an internal mid-rib, and the end hardens as they are worn away ; these jaws are articulated together by the intervention of five oblong bones, converging towards the centre, and furnished with five other linear arched bones. The jaws are moved by muscles placed between them, and by some attached to five variously formed erect processes placed on. the oral edge of the body of the shell; these parts are figured, but not very correctly, by Klein, t. 21. Round the oral edge of the body of the shell are placed ten 426 Mr. Gray on the Sea Eggs, [Dre. more or less distinct grooves, situated at the base of each arm of the internal processes, and diverging from them ; and on the edge of the extra ambulacral beds just by the outer margin of the ambulacra. I am not quite sure what is the use of these grooves, but they have very much the appearance of pulleys, over which some muscles work, and examining a specimen of Echinus mammillaius preserved in spirits, I observed ten shrub-like bodies attached to filiform nerves, or muscles, which appear to extend up towards the body of the shell: I am, therefore, inclined to think that they are the means by which spines are moved and nourished, but [ cannot at present decide, from the want of live and preserved specimens, to dissect and examine more minutely. : . This group is synonimous with the genus Echinometra of Bryerius, and the section Cidaris of Klein. . It is divisible into two families. Fam. 1. Ciparipm. Cidaris, Lam. pou Body with two-sized spines ; larger ones club-shaped, or very - long; spine-bearing tubercles perforated at the apex. ae: 1, Ciparis, Klein, Lam. Turbans. Body depressed, spheroidal ; ambulacra waved ; small spines compressed, two edged, two rowed, covering the ambulacra, and. surrounding the base of the larger spines.)}/). | This genus may be divided according.to the form of the larger spines ; the extra ambulacral beads have only.two rows of spines. C. imperialis, Lam. Klein, t. vii. fi Avs” : 2. Diapema. Diadems. | Body orbicular, rather depressed ; ambulacra strait, spines. often fistulous. | 1 tee *D. setosa, Leske, Klein, t.37, f. 1, 2. Echinus Diadema, Lin, **D, calamaria. Echinus, Pallas, Spix. Zool. t. 2, f.4, 8. 3. ASTROPYGA. : : Body orbicular, very depressed ; ambulacra strait; ovarian scales very long, lanceolate ; beds with several series of spines. A. radiata, Teshe: t. 44, f. 1. i Fam. 2. Ecutnipx. Body with nearly uniform spines ; spine-bearing tubercles not perforated. ; 3 Ecuinus, Lin. Van. Phelsum. . Body orbicular, subangular ; beds with cross rows of spines. E. esculentus, Lin. Ecu1nometra, Bryerius. Van Phelsum. Body ovate or elliptical, each bed with two rows of large tubereles ; ambulacra flexuous ; allied to Cidaris, 1825.) Mr, Gray on the Sea Eggs, ‘A427 *E. Lucuntur. Echinus, Lin. Klein, t. 30, f. A. B. **E, atratus, Klein, t.47, f.12. ***E. mammillatus, Kein, t. 29, f. 1. The last two.sections will most probably form a new genus. The genus Clypeus of Klein and Leske, the Echinosinus of Van Pheisum, appears to be very doubtful. Lamarck considers - them species of Galerites. 2. Anwectrant Grovr.—Body not globular, variously shaped; jaws not projecting ; anus lateral or below; anus and mouth covered with imbricate irregular scales. Fam. 3. SCUTELLIDE. Body depressed or conical, covered with numerous minute equal-sized, immersed tubercles; spines short, conical, thin, equal ; ambulacra in ten short bands bending together in pairs, like the petals of a flower, formed of two distinct lateral holes united by an external groove; mouth central; teeth blunt, not exserted ; jaws formed of five pair of depressed triangular bones; internal cavity divided by numerous vertical columns supporting the jaws; internal oral edge with five pair of simple processes; ovarial pores 4-5, situated between the ambulacra surrounding the Cor- pus Spongiosum ; interovarian pores minute, at the centre of the apex of the interambulacral area, The crustaceous covering of the body is usually thickened internally by an additional coat, and, being strengthened by the internal columns, resists the action of the sea for a length of time. It is formed of twenty bands of pieces, but the conti- nuation of the ambulacral bands are often very much dilated and erforated. ! This family is allied to the Echinide by the equal spines, and ~ having jaws, &c.; to the annectant families of the order Stellerida, by their jaws being only used for pressing the food, and by the radiated-lobed form of some of the species. *Echinanthus, Bryerius. Clypeaster, Lam. | Ecuinantuus, nob. not Van Phel. Echinorodum, Van Phel. Scutum angulare, Klezn. Body oval, or sub-pentangular, above convex, beneath con- cave, with five grooves; ambulacra in pairs, rounded; ovarial pores five ; mouth central ; anus marginal; the jaws, K/ezn, t. 33, : Alf iciainbulkert area rounded, E. humilis, Leske, t. 17, f. A. t. 10 B. Echinus rosaceus, Lin. E. subdepressa, nob. Klein, t. 19, f.A B, Seba, iii. t. 15, f. 15 and 12. E.ambigena, scu- tella, Lam. Seba, iii. t. 15, f. 18, 14. **Interambulacral ; area acute, E. altus, Leske, t. 53, f. 4. Laeana. Placenta lagana, Klein. Echinodiscus, Van Phel. not Bryerius. _ Body sub-pentangular, depressed, below rather concave; 428 Mr, Gray on the Sea Eggs. [Dre. ambulacra in pairs, rounded ; mouth central ; anus between the margin and the mouth. | L. minor. Echinodiscus ‘laganum, Leske, t. 22, f. a, b,c. L. scutiformis, Seba, iii. t. 15, f. 23, 24; see Scutella, n. 15, 16, Lam.: **Echinodiscus, Bryerius. Scutella,, Lam. EcuiNARACHNI1uS,Leske. Arachnoides, Klein. Body flattened, outline orbicular, or subangular, above rather convex, edge thin; ambulacra in pairs, like a flower; mouth central; anus marginal, E, placenta. Scutella, Lam. Klein, t. 20, f. AB. E, parma, Scutella, Lam. E. lenticularis, Scutella, Lam. Ecurnopiscus, Leske. Mellita and Rotula, Klein. Body flattened, outline orbicular, above rather convex, edges thin; ambulacra in pairs, like a flower; mouth central; anus between the margin and the mouth. Jaws, Klein, t.33,f. 7, s. *Entire. E. orbicularis. Echinus, Gmelin. Leske, t. 45, f. 6, 7. E. fibularis, Scutella, Lam. .**Lobed. E.° inauritus, Seba, iii. t. 15, f. 3, 4. E. auritus, Seba, iii. t. 15, f? 1, 2. E. dentata, Klein, t. 22, f. E F. ***Perforated. E. bifora, Klein, t. 21, f. A B. E. digitata, Kéein, t. 22,f. A B. E. octo- dactylus, Klein, t. 22,f.C D,&ce. 5 | EcuinocyaAmus, Leske. Fibularia, Lam. Body subglobular; outline ovate, or orbicular, edge rounded ; inside with columns ; ambulacra in pairs, short, like a flower ; mouth central ; anus between the mouth and edge. : E. ovulum, Fibularia, Lam. EE. pusillus, Spatangus, Mudler, Zool. Dan. iii. t. 91, f. 5, 6. E. tarentina, Past E. trigona. Fibularia, Lam. . | HHH Cassiputus, Lam. Body elliptical ; outline ovate, above rather convex; ambu- lacra 5 stellate; mouth central; anus between the vertex and the margin. | ~C. complanatus, Lam. | C. scutella, Lam. C. lapis Cancri by its figure appears to be allied to the genus Echinolampas, and will, perhaps, form anew genus. ~ Fam.4. GALERITID&. Body ovate or conical, covered with numerous small, equal, sunk tubercles; spines short, small, equal ; ambulacra complete, forming bands (rarely interrupted at the edge) from the mouth to the vertex ; mouth mostly central; jaws ——?; internal cavity hollow, destitute of vertical pillars; ovarian pores 4; corpus spongiosum vertical, in the centre of the ovarial perforations ; 1825.] Mr, Gray on the Sea Eggs. 429 the interovarial perforations minute, at the apex of the ambulacra. The body formed like Echinide of twenty bands, the ambulacral band being the narrowest ; the sutures are not so distinctly sinuous as in Lchinide. GaLerites, Lam. Fibula conulus, Klein. Echinites, Van Phel. Echinometra, Van Phel. Body conical; base orbicular or subangular; ambulacra ten, each formed of two series of perforations placed together in pairs, extending without interruption from the mouth to the | vertex ; mouth central; anus marginal; only found fossil. G. vulgaris, Lam. Klein, t. 14, f. A K. Discopta. . Fibula discoidea, Klein. Galerites, Lam. Echino discoides, Van Phel. Body orbicular, depressed; ambulacra ten, placed in pairs ; alternately smaller, rest like Galerites. D.rotularis. Galerites rotularis, Klein, t. 14, f. L—O. Ecuinanaus, Kaenig. Echinoneus, Van Phel. and Lam. Echinoconi pars, Bryerzus. Body obovate or orbicular, rather depressed ; ambulacra ten, placed in pairs, extending without interruption from the vertex to the mouth; mouth central; anus placed between the mouth and the margin. E. cyclostomus, nob. Echinoneus cyclostomus, Klein, t. 37, f.3, 4. Ecuinocorys, Bryerius. Hchinus salaris and pelagius, Van Phel.. Cassis Galeaand Galeola, Klein. Anachites, Lam. Body ovate, convex; base oval, flattened; ambulacra ten, placed in pairs, extending without interruption from the vertex to the mouth, where they become closed together ; mouth lateral, transverse; anus marginal. . _E. ovatus, Leske, t. 53, f. 3. Anachites ovata, Lam. This genus is very closely allied to the Spatungide, and, perhaps, should be referred to them. 3 EcuHiINnoLAMPaAs, ob. Echinanthus? Van Phel. Echinanthus, Leske. Clypeaster, Lam. Scutum ovatum, Klein. th Body ovate, convex ; base ovate, flattened, extended poste- riorly ; ambulacra ten, placed in pairs, rather distant, near the vertex, interrupted at the edge, and close together near the mouth ; mouth subcentral; anus marginal. *E. Keenigii, nob. Echinoneus lampus, De /a Beche, Trans. Geol. Soc. i. t. 3; f..3, 4, 5. **E: oviformis, 206, Echinus, Gmelin. Clypeaster oviformis, Lam. Klein, t. 20, f. ¢ d, E. orientalis, x06. . Seba, iii. t. 10, f. 23, 24. Ecuinogrissus, Bryertus. Nucleolites, Lam. Body ovate or cordiform, rather convex, grooved in front ; am- 430 Mr. Gray on the Sea Eggs. [Dic bulacra ten, in pairs, radiating without interruption from the vertex to the mouth ; mouth subcentral ; anus dorsal. . E. Bryerii, n. Nucleolites scutata, Lam. Bryerius, t. 6, fileB : Fam. 5. SPATANGIDE. if . Body ovate or heart-shaped, rather gibbous, covered with numerous small, and some scattered, rather larger tubercles ; spines setaceous, depressed, unequal-sized, the larger tubercles perforated ; ambulacra subcomplete, interrupted at the edge, forming a cross, uniting by pairs, each formed of two rows of erforations ; mouth submarginal, below, transverse, destitute of jaws ; internal cavity destitute of vertical pillars ; ovarial pores four, close together, vertical; interovarial pores very small ; corpus spongiosum vertical, anterior. e crustaceous covering of the body of these animals is thin, and formed of twenty bands of pieces, like all the other Echinida, but theinterambulacral arez are unequal; the posterior lateral ones are usually very broad, the lengthening of sf is formed more especially by the extension of the pieces of the posterior band of this area; the hinder middie area is rather irregular ; the pos- terior series of each of the two hinder petatiacs berg extended into it just below the anus so as to form an isolated subpentan- gular piece, externally marked by a smooth groove, the ambu- lacra then being extended beyond it, leaving a central ovate, or lanceolate medial inferior area. Round the mouth there are five grooves, the continuation of the ambulacra, which are more or less perforated with holes, through which pass out branched ten- tacula, like those of Holothuria, see Leske, t. 43, f. 5. The species like Brissus purpureus, which have very distinct larger spines, are allied to Cidaride by the tubercles of the lar- ger spines being perforated. The whole family is allied to Holothuriade by the thin texture of the crustaceous covering, and by the mouth being destitute of jaws, and surrounded by branched appendages. | iy *Echino spatangus, Bryerius. Cor marinum, Kein. Sparancus, Klein. LAS Body cordiform ; back with large perforated tubercles ; am- bulacra four, the posterior one wanting, or not perforated. | S. purpureus, Leske, t. 43, £.3, 5; t. 45, f. 5. Ecuinocarpium, Van Phel.? Body cordiform ; back equal, tuberculated ; ambulacra five, the posterior one in a groove, perforated. : E. atropos. Spatangus, Lam. E. pusillus, Leske, t. 38, f. 5 ; Klein, t. 24, fede. E, seba, Seba, in. t. 10, f. 21, A Bs. **Echino brissus, Bryerius. Ovum marinum, Klein. 1825.) Mr. Levison on some singular Fossil Nuts. 43} Brissus, Klein. Nuces, Van Phel. Body ovate; ambulacra four, the hinder wanting, all sur- rounded by a groove., : 7 *B,. ventricosus, Leske. Klein, t. 26, f. A.3; unicolor, Leske. Klein, t. 26, f. BC. **B. carinatus, Leske, t. 48, f. 4, 5. Seba, iii, t. 14, £.3, 4. B. columbaris, Sebay,ii.t. 10, f. 19. Ova, Van Phel. Brissoides, Klein. - Body ovate, deeply grooved in front; ambulacra five, -im- pressed. a ) ' QO. canaliferus. Spatangus, Lam. Klein, t. 27, f. A. The Spatangus prunella, Lam. Kenig, Icones Koss. Sectiles, t.3, £34, appears tobe the type of Van Phelsum’s genus Amygdala, which is peculiar for the anus being nearly dorsal; and Spatangus radiatus, Klein, t.2,5, appears to form a new genus. ArTICcLE V. Singular Fossil Nuts. By J. L. Levison, Esq. (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, .....,.. -. 54, Berwick-street, Ox ford-street. As I am in, possession of some fossil nuts which I think highly interesting in a, ‘scientific view, particularly as I do not recollect having seen them noticed in any work on geology, I will, therefore, briefly state their history. They are, or appear to be, a similar kind to our common wood nuts, and were found near the Giant’s Causeway in the North of Ireland; the kernels are changed into carbonate of lime, with a slight trace of iron; | they have quite a chalcedonic aspect, are translucent, and much’ harder than common. limestone fossils ; in their general appear- ance they, in common with other organic remains, have all the peculiarities of the original substance ; these appear to be’ worni-eaten, the places originally perforated remaining ; but the’ phenomena | would more particularly request your attention to are, that the shells of these nuts are unaltered in their peculiar pro- perties; they are slightly discoloured, they retain the ligneous appearance, burn with a bright flame, which converts them into charcoal: the only difference I can detect in these fossil shells from recent ones is, that during combustion they give out a sulphurous odour, and do not make any crackling noise. With these shells and nuts are found fragments of fossil wood (proba- bly from the tree the nuts grew upon) perfectly converted into carbonate of lime; and what appears to me the most enigmatical is, that the shells have not any adventitious earthy matter, and that these pieces of wood do not retain any of the original sub- 432 05 0. Mire Prideaux on-the > ° (Dre: stance. I applied heat to a specimen of the wood, but it-only became hot giving off the acid, Xc.; it effervesces with muriatic acid very ponely- If you think these curious facts worthy of a place in the Annals of Philosophy, they may probably induce some of your readers to offer a theory to elucidate these very natural questions ; viz. Why the shells are unaltered in all the characteristic properties of wood? And why the fragments of the wood and the nuts (which were all found together) have, under- gone a perfect change? Whether we may consider the shells preserved (chemically) by essential oil of the nuts, bitumen, or the adventitious circumstance of being impregnated with sulphur? I remain, Gentlemen, your very obedient servant, J. L. Levison. P, S. I shall be most ha py to give you or any of your corre- spondents ocular proof of the facts stated, by calling on me, * Specimens of fossil nuts, precisely similar to those de- scribed by Mr. Levison, may be seen in the British Museum : they are from Carrickfergus Bay.—Ldit. : 7 ArticLe VI, On the Advantages of High Pressure Steam. By Mr. John Prideaux, (To the Editors of the Annals of’ Philosophy.) GENTLEMEN, Plymouth, Oct. 4, 1825. Ir the following obvious remarks have been any where anti- cipated, this letter may be destroyed. But having seen an attempted demonstration in your fourth volume, and heard it lately repeated by distinguished practical engineers, that no, direct advantage results from the use of high pressure in steam engines, because the force of steam is as tts density, and rts caloric a constant quantity at all densities, thus making the force ie proportional to the fuel employed; it seemed to me worth while. to ‘occupy one or two of your pages with what I apprehend to be. a more correct view of the subject. | It is established by sufficient experiments, : 1. That the caloric of steam, in contact with water, is a con- | stant quantity at all Semipenetusee. 2. That every elastic fluid, at a given density, has its expansive force in proportion to its temperature, increasing +1, for each ascending degree. of Fahrenheit. 3. That every elastic fluid, at a given temperature, has its expansive force directly as its density. 1825.] Advantages of High Pressure Steam, — 433 From these premises it follows, thatthe force of steam is directly as its density, multiplied by #81 for each degree of increased temperature, the caloric corresponding with the density alone. For instance: steam at 212° has an elastic force = 30 inches of mercury; and at 300° = nearly 140 inches, neglecting frac- tions. , By the second law, steam of the density due to 212° raised 88° _ with a geometrical increase of 481 for each degree, shall gain about 5°6 inches ; or possess at 300° a force = 35°6 inches of mercury. | And by the third, the density due to 300° shall be as 35°6 inches to the force found = 140 inches, or about 3°9 times greater than at 212°. But the caloric being constant is in simple proportion to this density ; and the fuel consumed must be expected to correspond with the caloric. . | Then 30 inches x.39 = 117 inches, the force due to the density at 300°, deducted from 140 inches, the force found by experiment, gives 23 inches, the profit by working at 300°. If this example be just, the weight of steam employed having its caloric constant, shall be a measure of the fuel consumed ; and there is a direct profit in the ratio of 431. for each ascending degree of Fahrenheit, as above stated. Itis plain from the nature of geometrical progression, that this profit shall increase as the temperature is more elevated: if we work at 600° the force of each pound of steam shall be double of that at 212°; and if we go up to 960° or 980°, it shall be quad- ruple ; the caloric, and consequently the fuel, remaining a con- stant quantity. : It is easy to illustrate this from the reports of working engines, but the effects in these cases are dependent on such mixed causes, that no uniform conclusion can be drawn from them. Can you refer me to Watt’s experiments on the density of steam ? ; In taking the caloric contained in the steam as a measure of the fuel consumed, there is not exact precision: radiation will of course increase with temperature; but I thought this might probably be miore than compensated by the diminished surface of the vessels; and that, in the rapid action of a steam engine, it could hardly make an appreciable difference. A collateral advantage of not less importance, well known to engineers, and which did not escape the sagacity of Mr. Waitt, is gained, in allowing high pressure steam to expand in the cylinder. Mr. Watt has given a formula for calculating the profit on this proceeding; but for a much more perspicuous demonstration, [ am indebted to a conversation with Mr. Perkins. | New Series, vou. x. QF 434 On the Advantages of High Pressure Steam. {Duc Suppose we have to work at a pressure of 10 Ibs. on the inch. i ie Let the steam be raised to a force of 80 lbs. on the =} yy inch, and let in 1th of the stroke; then stop the communication, the piston being at I. We have thus 1th at 80 lbs. | When the steam has expanded to II, the volume is doubled, and the force reduced to 40 lbs. (suppos- Vv ing the cylinder to keep the temperature constant), the mean from [ to II being 60 Ibs. Ht Hence we have 1th at 60 lbs. Vil When the piston reaches IV, the volume is again vin doubled, and the force reduced to 20 Ibs. the mean from II toIV being 30 Ibs. This gives 1th stroke at 30 Ibs, , On reaching VIII, the volume will again double itself, and the force will be reduced to 1; thus. becoming 10 Ibs. on the ‘inch as pc ans ; but the mean; from 1V to the bottom, is 15lbs. _ Which makes 4 stroke at 15Ibs. leche Adding these quantities together, we have J.2at 80lbs. = .10lbs.: : Ito. Il. 2 at 60 lbs. &* 7-5)» Isto, IV. at S0lbsose) 7:0 6 IV to VIII, 4 at lo lbs. = 7), , 32°5 Ibs, on the inch. for the mean impetus communicated to the fly-wheel by each stroke of the piston: and as the cylinder full of steam is at a density of only 10 Ibs. on the inch, the power thus gained appears, at first view, enormous. | . But against this must be set, the irregularity of the impulse communicated to the fly, and of the temperature supplied to the eylinder; beside ‘the additional weight and’ friction of the machinery, and other considerations ; involving too many theo- retical principles to allow of a satisfactory estimate from calcu- lation, without direct and repeated experiment. Enough, however, is known, to prove both in practice and theory, that great profit is attainable by working steam at high temperatures ; and the limit of economy appears to me the degree at which water is decomposed by the containing vessels. I am, Gentlemen, your very humble servant, | JoHN PRIDBAUX. / 1895.] Col. Beaufoy’s Astronomical Observations, Artic.e VII. Astronomical Observations, 1825, ' _ Latitude 51° 37’ 44°3” North. Longitude West in time 1’ 20°93”. By Col. Beaufoy, FRS. Bushey Heath, near Stanmore. 435 Observed Transits of the Moon and Moon-culminating Stars over the Middle Wire of 1825. Oct. Bhic Caprics ov ick ec dseeccecce Bb 35! ADTTM | 21.—345 Aquarii..sscceceececeeeee 21 AD the Transit Instrument in Sidereal Time. Stars. Transits. Bhan AGUA ..6 oc cncccsecteocss VA OF 21.—44 Aquarii .....-........006- 22 08 21,—Moon’s First or West Limb.... 22 If 21.— BI Aquarli. ......0... cee eeeee 22 #15 21.—166 Aquarii...... Peoih bins @h weis 22 28 21.—183 Aquarii........ ioe bapeape <7) 22 30 21.219 Aquarii. ... 5.2... 068 sive 22 38 22,.—p Aquarii ........ pasa bbo ede 2B ae 22.—n Aquaril.....-.0+- teKedae's% 22 26 Bgl Pia) 5 isc ds psec céesees 22 A6 CES Pidcitttiy) ide fe id bo ph we aids 22 50 22.—-Moon’s First or West Limb .... 22 56 22.—a Piscium .......¢. CL 22 59 Meo——y PISCUM. ..occcessccecs saeas' WO OS 99.68 Piscitum. fo) ees giedvees 23 14 99,e—x! Piscigim is 80" PONS cea ee ei . 90 i DE OR iano nt step nto ; mv | Le) ga aa 115 BER POW Ee. a 6 at oe ERE oe @ on 6, o-8" Ai. wees ‘150 ries We may consider the primary form as hired a right rectangular prism with a rectan- 3 é ar gular base. bir Th The common carbonate of soda is a bipyramidal octahedron, the common base of the pyramids of which is a rhomb with : angles of 120° and 60°. If we suppose | | < Ga | this form to be represented by the figure ABCD, then an idea of the commoncry s- tal of this salt will be obtained, if we suppose the acuteangles A, B, of the rhomb, which forms the common base of the pyramids, to be truncated by a plane parallel to the axis C D of the octahedron, These truncations are more or less deep; but I have never met with a crystal without them, though I have examined several hundred crystals of all sizes from half an inch to eight inches in length. It would be possible to derive the right rectangular prism from 444 - Dr. Thomson on [Dp EC. this octahedron, by supposing the four angles of the rhomb Ac Bd to be replaced by tangent planes ; but this is unneces- ‘sary, as the two salts differ from each other iu their composition; and as the pyramidal termination is quite different from the summits C, b of the rhomboidal octahedron which constitutes the primary crystal of common carbonate of soda, 100 parts of water at the temperature of 63° dissolve 63°87 parts of thése crystals. This is rather more than the quantity dissolved of common carbonate of soda at the same temperature, provided any confidence can be put in an old set of experiments on the solubility of this salt made in my laboratory, by which I find that 100 parts of water at 65° dissolve 51:03 parts of the ‘crystals. _ When heated, the salt partly liquefies, but not completely, as is the case with the octahedral carbonate. A portion remains always solid; and when the salt is cooled, imperfect crystals soon appear. ‘This leads to the supposition that there exists a third species of crystal of carbonated soda containing still less water of crystallization. Its specific gravity is 1°51. To determine the composition of this salt, a variety of experi- ments were made, the most important of which I shall briefly state. (J.) 50 grains of the salt were dissolved in water, and neutral- ized with nitric acid. The solution being tested by muriate of barytes was found to contain no trace of sulphuric acid; but nitrate of silver threw down a quantity of chloride of silver, the weight of which was 1°58 grain. This is equivalent to 0°39 grain of chlorine, or 0°65 chloride of sodium ; so that 100 grains of the salt contain 1°3 grain of common salt. (2.) 50 grains of the salt lost, when exposed to a red heat in three several trials, 28-09 grains. Now common salt being anhy- drous, we must deduct it from the weight of the carbonate of soda employed. This being done, we find that 49-35 grains of pure prismatic carbonate of soda lose, when heated to redness, 28°09 grs.; consequently 100 grains of the salt would lose by this treatment 56-92 grains of weight. This is the amount of the water of crystallization. (3.) Into a small Woulf’s bottle furnished with two mouths, one of which was stopped with cotton wool, were introduced through the other mouth 50 grains of the crystals of this salt. The bottle contained a quantity of concentrated and colourless nitric acid ; it had been previously carefully weighed, and it was held in an oblique position when the crystals were introduced. The stopper was immediately put into the mouth of the bottle, and it was left at rest till the solution was completed. The stopper was then withdrawn, and a small sucker introduced, by which I extracted all the carbonic acid gas contained in the 1825.] Three new Salts of Soda. 445 bottle, and allowed common air to take its place. The loss of weight sustained, owing to the escape of carbonic acid gas, was 8:47 grains. When dilute sulphuric acid was substituted for nitric, the loss of weight was always less ; because a portion of the carbonic acid remains in the liquid, and is extricated when heat is applied. In two trials made in this way, the loss was 8:06 and 8°01 grains. From the experiment with the nitric acid, which was twice made, it follows that 100 grains of the prismatic carbonate of soda, if pure, would contain 17°163 grains of car- bonic acid. | .(4.) 50 grains of the salt were dissolved in nitric acid, and the solution evaporated to dryness. The nitrate of soda ' obtained weighed 35:59 grains, equivalent to 12°991 grains of soda. ; 50 grains were dissolved in sulphuric acid. The solution was evaporated to dryness, and heated to redness with some carbo- nate of ammonia to get rid of all excess ofacid. ‘The sulphate of soda weighed 29°73 grains, equivalent to 13°213 prams soda. We cannot employ the quantity of sulphate of soda obtained for determining the quantity of soda in the carbonate, because the acid employed was the sulphuric acid of commerce, which is never quite free from lead. The soda in 50 grains of the carbo- nate determined by the nitrate is 12-991 grains. Hence 100 grs. of the salt contain 25:982 grains. . If from this we subtract the 0°52 grain soda contained in the common salt present in the salt, there will remain 25°462 grains of soda as the constituent of 98°7 grains of pure carhonate. Hence 100 grains contain 25:797 grs. Thus the constituents of the salt are as follows : Carbonic acid siacéiee cee 17°163 or 2°661 SOda. cc pdcdcscccsccicszc 2O797: 40 Water eeecesdiveccccdees 56°920 §=8824 99°880 Loss. er eeeeneceeeeoseovsteore 0:12 100-000 The second column gives the. atomic equivalents for the con- stituents. If we consider the loss as carbonic acid, which it was most likely to be, then the equivalent for the carbonic acid is 2:68, which is about th less than the weight of an atom. The soda was originally in the state of sulphate. It was con- verted into sulphuret by heating it with combustible matter (common pit coal). The sulphuret thus formed was dissolved in water, evaporated to dryness, mixed with saw-dust, and exposed to a heat strong enough to consume the saw-dust. By this pro- cess the sulphur is disengaged, and carbonic acid takes its place. Mr. Tennant’s soda usually contains a small portion of sulphate 446 Dr. Thomson on Three new Salis of Soda. [Dre. of soda, owing obviously to a little of the sulphur being acidified during the carbonating process; but the prismatic carbonate contained no sulphuric acid whatever; neither could I detect in it any sulphur, or sulphuretted hydrogen, by the most delicate tests that I could apply. It remains, therefore, somewhat doubtful, whether the small excess of soda perceptible in the preceding analysis be owing to an error in the experiments, or to the salt containing a small portion of hydrate of soda mixed or combined with the carbonate. i By the analogy 2°75 : 4 :: 17-283 : 25°136 = soda combined with carbonic acid; and by subtracting 25-136 from 25°797, we obtain 0°659 for the caustic soda that may be contained in 100 grains of the salt. This soda, supposing it present, will be in the state of a hydrate united to 0°185 water, and constituting 0°844 erain in weight. Subtracting these quantities, we have 17-283 + 25°138 : 56735 :: 6°75 : 9:027 = the water united in the salt with 6°75 of anhydrous carbonate of soda. ha IT am rather disposed to admit an excess of soda, or rather the existence of a little hydrate of soda in the salt, because consider- able pains were taken, after the deficiency of carbonic acid was observed, to determine the quantity of carbonic acid with every attention to accuracy, but all the experiments led to precisely the same result; and if we reckon the carbonic acid Feet the . nitrate of soda, we obtain almost exactly the same weight of carbonic acid as by the direct method.* There seems no doubt, from the preceding analysis, that the constituents of prismatic carbonate of soda (supposing it pure) are, }atom carbonic acid 0s... dee cene ele! t Qe SOGGr OO ees cccccccetcees ane BOLGIS PAGE, oii nc cect bust ome -—__o 15°75 * It was shown that 49°35 grains of the pure salt lost by heat 28°09 grains. The remaining 21-26 grains, when decomposed by nitric acid, furnished (12:991 — 0°26) 12°731 grains ofsoda. Hence the 21°26 grains must have been composed of , Cathonic acid, 5s. .cererdsneew anes cas 8-529 Gent o0s 2h maid vances teihawenn 12731 21260 Now 8°529 : 12°731 :: 4; 2°666 = carbonic acid united to 4 soda in the carbonate. 1825.] Mr. Davies on Flame. |. oe ARTICLE Ta Some Investigations respecting the Nature and Phenomena of Flame. By Mr. John Davies, MWS. &c. &e. Lecturer on Chemistry, &c.* (Communicated by the Author.) ase Tue important researches of Sir H. Davy on the nature and henomena of flame have shown that the subject combines interesting speculation with practical utility. Since the con- trivance of his lamp, and the publication of his admirable investigations connected with it, the inquiry, which. had been - previously neglected, has excited the attention which it merits. I have, therefore, presumed that an account of some results which I have obtained on the subject will, like my former papers, be received with indulgence by-this Society. . Flame, or that species of combustion in which light. is fur- nished, is produced by the rapid, union of a combustible body with a supporter of combustion. ‘cacti cab dRY daa vaheees aT The cause of inflammation. has never been clearly developed. It has, indeed, been ascribed to the agency of electricity; but this explanation, which is rather fanciful, is liable to the reproach which the President of this Society applied, in one of his late lectures, to certain hasty and fashionable speculations, when he remarked, that we are, in the present day, very apt to refer to. the agency of electricity every thing which we do ok ire aba amas Ua ik A iia bihadal i aioe It may, however, be expedient to offer here a brief statement of the hypothesis. i y In most cases of inflammation, hydrogen is the burning body; and its combustion is effected in general by its union with oxygen.. When, however, hydrogen is the only combus- tible present, the inflammation is always feeble ; and in order to obtain a brilliant and powerful flame, carbon seems, in or- dinary. cases, to be indispensable. In the instance of a common candle, the hydrogen and part of the carbon are supplied from the decomposition of the tallow; the remainder, which must be a very small quantity, arises from the wick, and the oxygen is furnished by the atmosphere. An elevation of temperature, such as is pro- duced by a lighted taper, is required to give the first impulse to the combustion ; but afterwards it goes on of itself, because the candle finds asupply of caloric in the successive quantities of heat which, it is conceived, result from the union of the two electricities given out by the gases. during their combustion. This explanation, though rather gratuitous, is certainly coun» tenanced by two striking facts: I. The principal agents in the .-® Read before the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, Oct. 21, 1825. 448 Mr. Davies on Flame. [Dec: operation are known, from other experiments, to be in opposite states of electricity ; and, 2. Flame gives, under some circum- stances, indications that electricity is developed during the changes which inflammation produces. Respecting the nature of flame there are two opinions. The first is that of Mr. Sym, who has, in the eighth volume of the Annals of Philosophy, attempted to show, that flame is capable of being truncated, and that it presents only a superficial rocess of combustion. The other opinion is that of Sir H. avy, who conceives that “ flame cannot be regarded as a mere combustion at the surface of contact of the inflammable matter.” | | is These opinions are manifestly at variance with each other. I shall request your attention to a brief examination of the subject. ! i | Ay AE Mr. Sym in his paper, the merits of which have been most unaccountably overlooked, has described some very amusing and easy experiments in illustration of his opinion.’ “ When a wire gauze of the requisite fineness is held horizontally across the flame of a candle, the appearance is not that of repression, but of truncation. The part of the flame below the gauze has suffered no alteration in shape, size, or intensity ; aiid the part which ought to be above has simply disappeared. In looking down, therefore, through the gauze into a Aids thus truncated, we have an opportunity of examining a transverse section of it, and of'thus ‘inspecting its mside. Now it is immediately perceived that this transverse ‘section consists of a narrow luminous ring’ surrounding a disk which is not luminous; and though the’obseurity of the disk may at first sight be ascribed’ to the blackness of the wick, seen through intervening flame, it will be discovered, on more careful examination, that the wick occupies only the centre of the obscure space, which extends to some distance ‘around it.” Mr. Sym therefore contends, that “the only conclusion that remains, or rather the direct percep- tion, is, that the lower segment of the apparent flame of a candle consists of ‘only a thin superficial film of real flame, which has’ the shape of a cup, surrounding’ the wick, and closing in upon it below, but filled, beside, with volatilized WERT 388 aes | e nal | Mr. Sym' has given some interesting modifications of his’ experiments. What I have extracted is, however, sufficient for our present purpose. Those who desire more information on the subject would be gratified by consulting the paper re- ferred to. *” ? ‘ Sir H. Davy states, in page 46 of his Researches, that “ the flame of combustible bodies may in all cases be considered ‘as the combustion of an explosive: mixture of inflammable gas, or vapour, with air. It cannot-be regarded as a mere combustion, 1825.) Mr. Davies on Flame. 449 at the. surface..of contact. ofthe inflammable matter, This fact, he adds,,is proved by hcelding a taper, or a piece of burning phosphorus, within a large flame made by the com- bustion of alcohol. The flame of the taper, or of the phos- phorus, will-appear in the centre of the other flame, proving that there is oxygen even in its interior part.” The statements which I have here transcribed appear to be drreconcileable ; I therefore thought it desirable to repeat the experiments mentioned by both, as the only way to arrive at.a fair decision with respect.to either. | »” shave found the experiments of Mr. Sym, which are so simple, as almost, to preclude the possibility of mistake, to cor- respond. precisely. with what he, has stated. A piece of, wire gauze, applied in the manner already described, showed a thin ‘film: of flame enclosing a mass of opaque carbonaceous matter. 1, then varied my experiments so as to submit the fact to a_ careful examination. The result was invariably in accordance with Mr. Sym’s statements. . | I have. also repeated, under every variety of circumstances which has occurred to me, the. experiments of Sir H, Davy. ‘By enlarging the wick of a common candle, and introducing into the, flame small, pieces .of phosphorus and of sulphur, on the point of a needle, I soon found that the interior of ordinary lame would not support combustion. BP _ Similar experiments were made in the flame of a spirit lamp, rand; the same results were obtained. A. small portion of -phosphorus, having. accidentally attached itself to the wick. of the lamp, remained there for a very considerable time, and was not burnt until it was brought to the edge of the flame. Influenced ,by the high authority of Sir H. Davy, I have been anxious to, conduct my experiments in such a way as to avoid, as far as I have been able, the possibility of exception. A. piece of phosphorus was placed upon a small wooden - stand in, a, Wedgwood dish; spirit of wine was then poured into the dish in such.a manner that it did not reach the phos- phorus. The. spirit of wine was now lighted, and its flame completely enveloped the combustible body. In the course of a few seconds the phosphorus became fluid, and remained in that state upon the stand; and never in a single instance inflamed, until the alcohol was consumed, or its flame extin- guished ; though, in several instances, the spirit of wine con-— tinued to burn for three or four minutes. The phosphorus always burst into a vigorous flame when the spirit of wine was extinguished; nor was the combustible power of the phosphorus, as far as I could judge, in the least impaired. When the flame of the spirit, of wine was blown upon, so that the edge of it came in contact with the phosphorus, the phos- phorus immediately burst into a flame; but the flame was New Series, vou. x. 2G | 450 My. Davies on Flame. | [Dre. instantly extinguished, and the boiling restimed, as soon as the flame of the alcohol was restored to its natural position, $0 as to enclose the phosphorus. It would hence appear, not only that the interior of flame will not support combustién, but that‘it contains no oxygen. | Foor | rity . _. This conclusion is further countenanced by the following addition to the experiment. The extreinity of a common “aid was introduced into the flame of aleohol: it was found that every time the phosphorus was blown upon, and in that way furnished with oxygen, it instantly inflamed ; but it was again extinguished as soon as its supply of oxygen was exhausted. In this manner the phosphorus, whilé surrounded by the flame of alcohol, was itself répeatedly inflamed and extinguished inthe course of two or thrée minutes.) 1°: | That the interior of the flame of alcohol is ‘incapable of supporting combustion, and that it’ consequently contains no ‘oxygen, 18 also shown by the following experiment: While a piece of phosphorus, about the size of a pea, was in the centre of a flathe of alcohol, I repeatedly touched it with a red hot wite ; every time the wire came in contact with the combus- tible body, there'was a slight flash, often hardly perceptible ; ‘but the phosphorus never entered into combustion until the flamé of ‘the spirit of wine was extinguished, or blown aside in such a manner that the ‘mere edge of the flame, ‘as already ‘mentioned, should touch the phosphorus. [confess ‘that I had some hesitation as to the correcttiess of my opinions, upen the first performance of this experiment; for ‘in this case, the combustion of the phosphorus, though feeble and transient, seems to indicate the presence of oxygen. Tam, however, induced to’ believe, that the oxygen which occasioned the combustion was supplied by the ‘oxide of iron formed by heating the wire red hot. If the quantity of oxygen obtained in this way be thought small, it should be recollected that only a véry small quantity is required to produce the effect. ~“T have tried several oth latte 6sdieh Sbekdden phosphorus, and the result, as far as respects the géneral principle, has been always the same. ‘A wax taper, about half an inch’ long, was lighted and placed upright m a small cup, and surrounded by alcohol ; as soon as the alcohol was lighted, its flame ‘enveloped the taper, carrying away the flame of the latter in rather'a singular manner; nor was the extinguished taper apparently affected during the operation by the surrounding flame. I[t sometimes happened that when the flame of the alcohol was burnt out, the flame of the taper would, like that of the phos- phorus, be spontaneously rekindled. >) ke , It is hardly necessary to remark, that the result of the ex- periments which I have described,’ and’ of others which I might have stated, appears to be at variance with Sir H. Davy’s - 1825.] Mr. Davies on Flame. - 451 opinion on the subject, while it is, at the same time, in accord- ance with the views of Mr. Sym. i | From the nature of flame, as explained in this paper, we are enabled to assign a cause for. many of the phenomena of com- bustion, some of which could not be easily accounted for on or other principle. “fh he great power of the Argand burner is owing, as is well known, to the stream of airwhich passes up the flame. This stream of air nearly doubles the surface of the flame; and, as upon the principle just stated, the intensity of the, flame in- creases, ceteris paribus, in the same ratio, the effect is only that which might have been expected. It shows us why combustion is comparatively feeble in rarified air: for in this case there is a deficiency in the supply of the oxygen, and the combustion at the surface of the flame must be accordingly diminished... We see, too, a reason for the vi- gorous combustion which is occasioned by introducing the burning body-into oxygen gas. by Some of the researches of Sir H. Davy might, at first view, appear to militate against the principle which is here applied ; since he found that, in an atmosphere so much rarified as to extinguish a small flame of hydrogen gas, a large flame of the same material might still be supported. This objection, though plausible, may, I think, be easily obviated. The languid action of the small flame does not enable it to make use of the scanty supply of oxygen; but the increased energy, of. the. larger flame, presents, by its greater heat and surface, an augmented attractive force for the oxygen, which it seizes. with, avidity, as a any remains. | suoione hen candles and lamps produce, while burning, a quantity of. smoke, the circumstance is owing to imperfect. combustion arising from a deficiency of oxygen. If the lamp or candle in this state be put into a vessel containing oxygen gas, the smoke will, for obvious reasons, be no longer afforded. | It is found that gas burners are, to a certain point, capable of giving a greater quantity of light, in proportion to. the number of holes: made for the emission of the gas, although beyond that point the illuminating power is diminished. The fact may, I conceive, be explained upon’ the principles. which I have attempted to establish. By increasing to a certain extent the number of perforations, we augment the external surface ‘of the flame ; and, therefore, according to the views of Mr, Sym, we. — obtain a greater quantity of hght: but if we exceed. that number of perforations, the flames, which were before, distinct, become united, and form only one flame, the surface of- which must obviously be less than'it was in the other case ; andthe quantity of light will. accordingly be, by theory, what we ‘find it actually is in fact. It ought to’ be observed, however, 262 452 Analyses of Books.” ~ fDeci | that, as my friend Mr. Dalton has determined, the’ diameter of these perforations must not be diminished beyond a certain extent, otherwise the flame will not be so luminous as it is when they are of the ordinary size. After the explanations which have been given of the nature of flame, it seems easy to assign a reason for the amazing power of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe. In this instance, the combustible body, or hydrogen, is so completely supplied with the supporter of combustion or oxygen, that the flame, instead of having, as in ordinary cases, only a superficial film of in- flammation, is a solid ‘mass of fire: The cause of the differ- ence, therefore, between common flame and that of the oxy- hydrogen blowpipe is evident. The common Saw may also be explained upon the samie princiiae The power of the flame is increased by the intro- uction of a quantity of oxygen, which affords a thicker cover- ing of combustion. Hence the reason that the mouth, blow- pipe 1s, Jnferior to one of common air; since the air blown through it contains a less proportion of oxygen than is contained in the same bulk of the atmosphere. I shall not lengthen this pany by adverting to any other topics that may be suggested by a consideration of the prin- ciple which it has been my object, on this oceasion, to illus- trate and confirm, | me | ARTICLE X. -ANALYSEsS or. Books. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, for 1825. Part I. Havine already reprinted one of the papers contained in this part of the Philosophical Transactions, the titles of which are given below, in the Annals for August last, and offered soine account of the contents of four others in our reports of the Proceedings of the Royal Society, but one of the remaining communications, that by Mr. Christie, which begins the volume, will now require to be noticed at any length. 1, On the Effects of Temperature on the Intensity of Magnetic Forces; and on the Diurnal Variation of the Terrestrial Mag- netic Intensity. By S. H. Christie, Esq. MA. of the Royal Military Academy: communicated by the President. Mr. Christie has already distinguished himself among the labourers in the rich field of philosophical research which ‘Magnetism has for some years past afforded, in consequence principally of Professor Oersted’s discovery of its relations to 1825.] Philosophical Transactions for 1825, Part I. 453 electricity on the one hand, and of the various investigations in pure magnetism carried on by Prof. Hansteen and Mr. Barlow on the other ; and the paper now before us, another important contribution to our knowledge of this science, will still further tend to establish his reputation as a natural philosopher.—It commences as follows :— ‘‘In the paper on the diurnal deviations of the horizontal needle when under the influence of magnets, which the Presi- dent did me the honour to present, I stated that these deviations were partly the effects of changes that took place in the temper- ature of the magnets; and that although the conclusions which I drew from the observations respecting the increase and decrease of the terrestrial magnetic forces during the day would not be materially affected, it was my intention to undertake a series of experiments for the purpose of determining the precise effects of changes of temperature in the magnets, so as to.be able to free the observations entirely from such effects. , _ “These experiments were immediately made; but I was induced from some effects which I observed, to carry them to a greater extent, in the scale of temperature, than was necessary for the object which I had at first in view. In consequence of this, and the length of the calculations into which J have been obliged to enter, the accomplishment of my purpose was delayed for a considerable time, and continued indisposition has since prevented me, until now, completing the arrangement of the tables of results. “‘ In the present paper, I propose to detail the experiments which I made in order to determine the effect of changes of temperature on the forces of the magnets, to the extent to which I observed their temperature to vary, during my observa- tions on the diurnal changes in the direction of the needle, when under their influence ; to apply the results which I obtained to the correction of the observations themselves, thereby account- ing for the apparent anomalies noticed by Mr. Barlow and myself, in the observations made in doors and in the open air; and by means of these corrected observations, to point out the diurnal variations in the terrestrial magnetic intensity.” Having found it impracticable to determine purely from observation .the portion of the are of deviation due to the changes which he noticed in the temperature of the magnets, . Mr. Christie was, therefore, under the necessity of having recourse to theory; and he adopted the simplest, and that which is most generally received, viz. that the forces which two magnets exert upon one another may be referred to two centres or poles in each, near their respective ends; and that for either pole in one of the magnets, one pole of the other magnet is urged towards it, and the other from it, by forces varying inversely as the squares of their respective distances from that pole. 454 Analyses of Books: [Dec, After this statement he proceeds to explain and wrote es J the application of the theory to the investigation detailed in the paper; and then, describing the compass and magnets made use of (the verbal description being illustrated by an engraving), he gives the subjoined account of the mode of experimenting adopted. | us . . . . \ ] ‘ >, ae nt Act : . “A meridian line being drawn,on.a firm table, standing on a stone floor, the compass was accurately adjusted’ on it, so from one magnet to the other.” | eae vont mine * * os SS eee Suey i i. aneee? A “The observations contained in’the tables were made thus : I first noted the time ceo ereoeeecer Concer es eres werer oesee and then the temperature of the north magnet ; afterwhich I placed the thermometer-on the pole of the south magnet; 1 next observed the westerly point, at which the needle was held in equilibrio by the terrestrial forces and those of the magnets, slightly agitating the needle, that it might the more readily assume the true position ; from this it was led, by means of a very smalland weak magnet, Leldion the outside,of the com-. pass-box, towards the easterly point of equilibrium, which was observed in the same manner; and from this it was led in the same way towards the southerly point. ....,....- After these observations of the points of equilibrium, the temperature of the south magnet being observed, the time .....04.e0.00+++05 at which the observations concluded, was noted. The temperature of the water in the pans was now increased or diminished, according to circumstances, by the addition of other water, and the pans covered over, to prevent any rapid changes of temper- ature during the observations: after allowing a short time for 1826.] _ Philosophical Transactions for 1825, Part I | 455 the magnets to acquire the temperature of the water, the obser- vations were repeated. ...+,+++.+.-+. Lhe scale made use of for the temperature was in all cases that of Fahrenheit,” From the results of the observations given in the tables described in the paragraph last quoted, we extract the following : “ Tables of the Magnetic Intensities corresponding to different Temperatures of the Magnets, 6th June, 1828. Lay ie Variation of bad Magnetic in-|p .. Mean temper-|Diff. of temp-| tensity or ya-|— for 1° Fahr, ature of the} in’ successive EF M magnets, obseryations, | lues of ae oe 59°05 . #12:9423 | . + 18°60. ; | OAC Hoan 17°65 210°6228 : — 3°65 " 0:1004 74:00 - 210-9892 Seaaew .sa 54 — 3:35 0°1279 70°65 , Sialon! 211-4178 auticuies 1 a — 3°50 O1F9SI9H sonst 6715. Fi 211°8353 fester Bpaaq| ot $38 0°1138 63°80 1-75 212°2167 0°1413 62°05 © Tey en 212°4640 Lary 7th June, 1823. Variation of | Mean temper- Diff. of temp. Magnetic in- ~ ature of the} in successive F magnets. |/observations,| *°"*Y- vid JA 2 8ee 57-002 toa 2129803 | oiinrg 67-00 paren acca ee ETE 10°85 cag. }21t-3007 01219 75-00 sc ieso. | 2108848 01148 60-50 212-5489 13th June, 1823. Variation of Mean temper- Diff, of temp. Magnetic in- ; F tensity or va-| M for 19 Fah. ature of the} in suecessive itt magnets. observations. | lue of —. aah : ‘ M orA. iM s 62-809 218-5687 ce | Tae | hee | oe 71-05 — B10. 217-3014 0°1182 65-95 hia 217-9040 + for 1° Fah, ; Sonie anomalies obsérved by Mr. Barlow between the daily changes in the direction of a needle when placed in the house 456 Analyses of Books O°. Fie! and wher in the open air,* which Mr. Christie also noticed, and’ stated, in a former paper; his opine that they had arisen from the difference in the changes of temperature in the magnets in: the two situations, are next investigated in the memoir before us; Observations on the temperature of the magnets having’ been made in the open air, corresponding to those made in doors. “We select the subjoined tables from among the results of this’ branch of Mr. Christie’s inquiry : . 17th and 18¢h June, 1823. lMtagmetie incl tiation of Mean temper-|Diff.-of temp. tensity, or va-|—— for 1° Fah, ture of the} in suécessive sg M A ‘ maghets. observations,| due o: Wr ink — yi ¥e: = 49*30° 224-0981 > 6085” +10°95) | Soo-gi71 O-1179 ! “68:25 af pe 221-7046 patch | 74: x ~ 220°7198 Ojon), ; ro Gu, | TAREE | Seewoan | (A. AEs mn 220°87.78. 1260 a as i? 5 222°G4GRi 1] 1 0.8299 827! 00% 66-00 + lee | 221-2655) oe ia-0e 73-60 * EO) f 220-1588 O-3i4 a 16 56°90. } 222°bb4G0-11 | cit ia b moe pal b 48 Ke100'T | TTT T+ ] oH oN. p90 18 | OF 18th, 19th, 20th, nd 224 Fie, 182-6 3 “oF IR} } Os errs ts PO en FE CORE Ds Oy -|- Variation of » Mean temper-|Diff. of temp. gestae pee Foto eh, 0" ~ ature of in successive} «(..)) opt ~}M Sep pasa pcr" magnets. | observations, lue of Ta oftids #UR euieron e i; , Sea STTE TTT ott 55409} ’ ss ae ae 73:80 head. -[ 2BFALOR. 2A TORE) bow 95°40 222-9113 AA 55°45 222-5640 Se90 SOE nrg’ of Oe 73°90 * 9:69 | 220°0549 01394 64-28 — 9-73 | 22173962 0°1990 i 0 fog re 222-4610 "S60 55°15 kas 222-7917 Agel’ > 66°15 +1160 | Sorgoig | O'1224 _ 50-65 | 220-9399 . 55°80 saan || ee 3es | eee 51-85 53 | 2228660 ees 57-20 222-2080 08, | wag | 22504 | orton 55-94 + 4°59 | 999-4977 O'1064 * These anomalies are described by Mr. B; in his paper on the daily variation of the horizontal and dipping needles under a reduced directive power, of which an abstract was given in the Annals for March, 1824,-- ~ -- ° Lt: Bh ES SURG 1825.] Philosophical Transactions for 1825, Part I. 457 A double series of observations on the diurnal changes in the positions of the points of equilibrium at which a magnetic needle was retained by the joint action of terrestrial magnetism and of two bar magnets, having their axes horizontal and in the mag- netic meridian, and their’céntres at the distance 21:21 inches from the centre of the’ needle, afford by correction and calcula tion the following: © °° ) Tables of the mean Terrestrial Magnetic Intensities at different Hours during the Day. 1. From observations made within doors, ee » ., | Mean of the oer esine of | Mean of the obseryations of,,,.Mean of the s G | May,22, 23, 24, 25,26,. | May 27,28, 29, $0,3ly./ two sets. Ss ———— 4 : qk Azimuth of | Terrestrial | Azimuth of | ‘Terrestrial | Terrestrial Ej ® | the-pointsof-}magneticin-—| the points of | magnetic iny | magnetic in- equilibrium, | | tensity, | equilibrium, | _ tensity, |. tensity. 6h 00m} gle A) 10075 |S} gic-56;9'.| 1-00170°" | 1-00173 % 30} S2 499..} 1-00700St 82 -e%4—} 1-00128" 1-00114 9 00| 83 AX9..| 1-0003ES*} 83 -33°6 1-00046 © 100039 10° 30} 83 40% | 1-:00000°°) 84 162 100000. | + 1-00000 Noon. | 82 oon 0 '1-00096"*-} 83 403 1:00038 ~ 1-0006T 1 30] 81 4375. |} 1-0085F SS 82 (395 100112 | 1-00132 3 00| SL 29:1} 1008734 SL (Sig 1-00170° 100172 4 30] 81 115 | |1-00t99S5 82 10:8 100151 |. 100175 6 00 | 81 ITT 1-00190 81 41-7 1-00192 10019 7 30| 81 0095] 10021600), 81 SOR _f\Cl-00224 | 1-00220 -§ 9 80 | 80 526" ] © 100229" | 81° 14-5 | 1-00232 | 1-0028k 11 20 es IaGT 81 19-7 1-00225 1-00225 9 and 10 o’clock in the évening; after which it decreased, and continued décreasing during the morning until the time of the minimum.” | | 2, From observations made in the open air. \ : Mean of the observations of Time of obser-! June 20, 21, 22. vation, Azimuth of the point| Terrestrial magnetic of equilibrium. intensity. 6h OO™ 719 30-0 1:00112 4. 3@ 19), SVT 1-00061 9 00 80 24°71 100028 10 30 80 42-2 1:00000 Noon 80. 32:7 1-00015 ee, | UR 19 23:0 1-00134 3 00 18 53:2 1-:00188 4 30 78 34:8 1-00223 6 00 18 203 }-00251 7 30 78 26°5 1:00239 9 00 78 42:3 1-00209 458 Analyses of Books. - s the ‘¢ Brom these it appears, that the minimum intensity happened nearly at the time the sun passed the magnetic meridian, and rather later than in May, which was also the case with the time of the sun’s passage over the meridian :* the intensity increased until about six o’clock in the afternoon, after which time it appears to have decreased during the evening, and to have been decreasing from an early hour in the morning. zn “The general agreement of these intensities with those deduced 9p the observations made in doors, is ag near as could be expected, considering that an interval of twenty days had elapsed between the two sets of observations, , From this, and the agreement in the manner in which the westerly and easterly points of equilibrium approach and recede from the north in the two cases, which I have before pointed out, we ma conclude, that there is nothing anomalous in the action whic takes place on the needle under the different circumstances of its being placed in doors or in the open air ; and that the apparent “¢ * The.diurnal yariation, both in the direction of the needle and in the magnetic intensity, appears to haye a reference to the position of the sun with regard to the mag- netic meridian ; it is therefore probable, that the sun is the principal cause of both these phenomena. The circumstance of the situation of the magnetic pole in what appears to be, independent of elevation, the coldest region of the globe, supported asit.is by the fact of a diminution of temperature causing an increase of magnetic intensity, would lead us to infer, that the effect produced by the sun is principally to be attributed to the heat developed by it; but should any periodical effects, corresponding to the time of the sun’s rotation about its axis, be observable in the diurnal variation, we must sup- pose that the sun, like the earth, is endued with magnetism, and look for a cause of this magnetism, common to all the planets. Being engaged more than two years ago in making some experiments on the effects produced on the needle by unpolarized iron, I discovered that a peculiar polarity was imparted to the iron by simply making it revolve about'an axis; and this naturally suggested the question to me, whether the magnetism of the earth, and consequently, that. of the other planets and the sun, might not be owing to their rotation ? From the effects which I have observed to be produced on iron by its rotation, it appears probable, if the magnetism of these bodies be not caused by their rotation, that at least the effects will be modified by, and, to a certain extent, dependent on such rotation. Since first observing the fact, that simple rotation will cause a peculiar polarity, if I may be allowed the expression, in iron, I have made a great variety of experiments on the subject, which have enabled me to trace the laws according to which this polarity in the iron affects a magnetic needle; independently of the effect produced by the mass. It would lead me to too great a length here to state the several effects that’ are produced by the rotation of iron, or the laws which govern them; but I will briefly mention one. Let us imagine a plane to pass through the centre of a horizontal needle, at right angles to the meridian, and making an angle with tke horizon equal to the dip; then, if the plane of a circular plate of iron coincide with this plane, ‘and’ the plate’ be fixed én an axis passing through its centre at right angles to- its plane, so that it)can be made to revolve in its own plane, the direction of the needle will be different, according as the several points of the plate are brought into any particular position by making it revolve in one direction or the opposite, excepting in- four positions of the centre of the plate. If the centre of the plate be successively placed to the east or west'of the centre of the needle in the same horizontal line, and over the needle in the plane of its meridian, then the deviation of the needle due to the rotation of the plate will be in contrary directions in the two cases, the plate revolving in the same direction in both. These and other peculiar effects arise entirely from the rotation of the iron, and are not produced by any friction on the axis. As the effects are not very considerable, to render them conspicuous it is necessary to make use of a plate eighteen inches in diameter, and to have its ceatre within sixteen inches of that of the needle. If the needle is under the inflience of magnets, asin the foregoing obsetvations, the effects produced by the rotation of the plate are considexable,” von AED ) 1825] Philosophical Transuetions for 1825, Part I. 459 anomaly in the directions of the needle in the two cases, which was observed by Mr. Barlow and myself, arose from the cause which I have assigned for it in my former paper; namely, the difference in the changes of temperature in the magnets when in doors and when in the open air. “ The diurnal changes in the terrestrial magnetic intensity have been determined by Professor Hansteen, by means of the vibrations of a needle delicately suspended, From these obser- vations it appears, that in general the time of minimum intensity was between ten-and eleven o’clock in the morning; that the maximum happened between four and seven for the month of May, 1820, and about seven o’clock in the evening for the month of June. The intensity which, in these observations, is taken as unity, is that deduced from an observation made during an aurora borealis; but for the purpose of comparison, | have, for the months of May and June, taken the intensity deduced from his observations at 10" 30™ in the morning as unity, reduced the intensities, which he gives for other times in the - day, to this standard, and placed them in the following table, with the corresponding intensities deduced from my own, obser- vationss$¥ «0 slog 9690) : ? Wile aotar arti eG Reis Ta: ‘Intensity ‘ ke d uced from Hansteen’s Intensity deduced from. the preceding “3 observations in 1820, observations in 1823. Times |. Maye: June. > |}i Time. - May... |» June. gh 0™ acm.}, 1-00034. |..1-00010 |} 75 30™a, m.| 1-00114 |..1-00061 _ 10 30... oof + 100000 400000. |}10 30 1°00000 Fe 100000 4 00 pym.| 1 -00299.. 100251 4 30 p. m. 1:00175 ||. 1:90223 ° T 00 boo och 1200294. '61:00302 qv 30 1-00220...4.. 100239. 10) (3009 tor} 100194 »,| »1-00267 9:30. 2, 100231 1-00209 _ .The-principal difference to be observed in the nature of the changes ‘of intensity during the day, in the two cases, is, that from my observations, the intensity appears to decrease more rapidly.in the morniug,.and increase more slowly in the. after- noon; than it does from those of Professor Hansteen; but the general character of these changes is as nearly the same as we can expect from methods. so difforent, at different times, and at places where both the variation and dip of the needle are different. My object however was, to point out what might be deduced from.a.series of such observations as I have detailed, rather ‘than ‘to compare the results deduced from them with those Obtained by others, for which purpose it would have been necessary to have continued them for a greater length of time, “We have seen that with the magnets I made use of, their intensity being nearly 218 M, at the temperature 60°, a change in their temperature of 1° would cause a change of intensity of 460 Analyses of Books, — ‘ack Fee. 0-123 M; or taking the intensity of the magnets 1, for each degree of increase in temperature we should have a decrease of antensity of 0000564. Now if the same, or nearly the same, take place with all magnets, it is evidently necessary, in all cases where the terrestrial magnetic intensity is to be deduced from the vibrations of a needle, that great care should be taken to make the observations at the same temperature ; or, the pre- cise effect of change of temperature having been previously ascertained, to correct the observations according to the differ- ence of the temperatures at which they were made. I am not aware that any one has yet attempted to make sucha correction; but it is manifest from the experiments I have described, that it is indispensible, in order to deduce correct results from the times of vibration of a needle in different parts of the earth, where the temperatures at which the observations are made are almost necessarily different, that these temperatures should be regis- tered, and the times of vibration reduced to a standard of tem- perature. It appears to me, that the effects will be the most sensible in large and powerful needles; and consequently, in making use of such, the reduction for a variation of temperature will be most necessary. There would be no difficulty in this reduction, if we could give in terms of the intensity of any mag- net the increment or decrement of intensity corresponding to a certain decrement or increment of temperature at all tempera- tures. To determine this accurately would however require a great variety.of experiments to be, made with magnets of very different intensities ; but as. I have not made these, I must cons tent myself for the present with pointing out some of the facts which I have ascertained from more extended experiments than those I have already given, reserving the detail of these experi- ments for another opportunity, should they be deemed of suffi- cient interest. “‘ These experiments were made with a balance of torsion, the meedle being suspended by a brass wire =4, inch in diameter: by them I ascertained the following facts : “], Commencing with a temperature — 3° Fahrenheit, .up to a temperature 127°, as the temperature of the magnets increased, their intensity decreased. Owing to the almost total absence of snow during the winter, I was unable to reduce lower the temperature of the large magnets which I[ made use of; but from an experiment I made at the Royal Institution, in conjunction with Mr. Faraday, in which a small magnet, enve- loped in lint well moistened with sulphuret of carbon, was placed on the edges of a basin containing sulphuric acid, under the receiver of an air pump, I found that the intensity of the magnet increased to the lowest point to which the temperature was reduced, and that the intensity decreased on the admission of air into the receiver, and consequent increase of temperature in 1825.] Philosophical Transactions for'1825, Part I. 464 the magnet. This is in direct contradiction to the notion which. has been entertained of destroying the magnetism of the needle by the application of intense cold. “‘ 2. With a certain increment of temperature, the decrement of intensity is not constant at all temperatures, but increases as the temperature increases. “ 3. From a temperature of about 80° the intensity decreases very rapidly as the temperature increases: so that, if up to this temperature, the differences of the decrements are nearly con- stant, to ascertain which requires a precision in the experiments that perhaps their nature does not admit of, beyond this temper- ature, the differénces of the decrements also increase. «4, Beyond the temperature of 100°, a portion of the power of the magnet is permanently destroyed. — | oie ' ©. Ona change of temperature, the most considerable por- tion of the effect, on the intensity of the magnet, is produced instantaneously ; showing that the magnetic power resides on or very near the surface. This is more particularly observable when the temperature of the magnet is increased, little change of intensity taking place after the first effect is produced; on the contrary, when the temperature of the magnet is diminished, although nearly the whole effect is produced instantly, yet the magnet appears to continue to gain a small power for some time. E: “6. The effect? produced on unpolarized iron by changes of temperature are directly the reverse of those produced on a magnet ; an increase of temperature causing an increase in: the magnetic power of the iron, the limits between which [ observed. being 50° and 100°. That the effect on iron of an increase of temperature should be the reverse of that produced ona magnet, is, I think, a strong argument against the hypothesis, that the action of iron upon the needle arises from the polarity which is ‘communicated to it from the earth. “It may be objected to the method which I have adopted for determining the diurnal changes in the terrestrial magnetic intensity, that, after the observations have been made, they require a correction for temperature, which can only be deter- mined by experiments previously made on the magnets and needle employed. The same objection may, however, be made against the method of determining the intensity by the vibra- tions of a needle. As such a correction has not in the latter case been hitherto applied, the results which have been obtained relative either to the diurnal changes of intensity, or the intensi- ties in different parts of the earth, by means of observations on the vibrations of a needle, will be so far incorrect as the needle “may happen to have been affected by differences in the temper- ature. The method I have described, however, possesses advantages over the other: a very considerable one is, that 462 x) Analyses of Books. [Dive whatever effects are produced may easily be observed with cons siderable precision, the time required for each observation being not more than five minutes ; another is, that, the magnets bein immersed in water, as faras regards them, we may sdinthiind the temperature at which the observations are to be made, and thus limit the correction for temperature to a very small quans tity ; and it possesses another decided advantage, that whatever are the effects produced on the needle by atmospheric changes, they are, by means of it, rendered immediately visible, and can be observed as they occur.” Pat ah Il. The Croonian Lecture. (On the Existence of Nerves in the Placenta. .By Sir E. Home, Bart. VPRS. (See Annals for January last.) | baowsels III. Observations on the. Changes the Ovum of the Frog under- goes during the Formation of the Tadpole. By the same Author. “In the year 1822,” Sir Everard observes, ‘1 laid: before the Society aseries of observations on the progress of the formation ‘of the'chick in the egg of the pullet, illustrated by drawings from the pencil of Mr. Bauer, showing that in the ova of hot- blooded animals, the first parts formed are the brain and spinal matrow. I have now brought forward a similar series on the rogress of organization in the ova of cold-blooded animals, illustrated in the same manner by microscopical drawings made by the same hand.” 7 Le SE Se ais By comparing together the first rudiments. of organization in the ova of these very distinct classes of animals, he shows that in both the same general principle is: employed in the formation of ‘the embryo, although the ‘respective ova are not composed of similar parts. Those of the frog, which have been selected for this investigation, being found to have no elk. | cl tht | et ‘ IV. A general Method of calculating the Angles made. by any Planes of Crystals, and the Laws) according to which they are formed. By the Rev. W. Whewell, FRS. Fellow) of Trinity College, Cambridge. | | igh to “It has been usual,” Mr. Whewell states in the commence- ment of this paper, “ to calculate the angles of crystals and their latvs of decrement from one another, by methods which were different as the figure was differently related to its. nucleus; which were consequently incapable of any general expression or investigation, and which had no connexion with the notation by which the planes of the crystals were sometimes expressed. And the notation which has hitherto been employed, . besides being merely a mode of registering the laws) of decrement, without leading to any consequences, is in itself very inelegant and imperfect. The different modes of decrement are expressed by means of different arbitrary symbols; and these are combined in a manner which in some cases, as for instance in that of inter- 1825.] Philosophical Transactions for 1825, Part I. 463 mediary decrements, is quite devoid both of simplicity and of uniformity, and indeed, it may be added, of precision. The object of the present paper is to propose a system which seems exempt from these inconveniences, and adapted to reduce the mathematical portion of crystallography to a small. number of simple formule of universal application. According to the method here explained, each plane ofa crystal is represented by a symbol indicative of the laws from which it results; the sym- bol, by varying the indices only, may be made to represent any law whatever: and by means of these indices, and of the primary angles of the substance, we obtain a general formula, expressing the dihedral angle contained between any one plane resulting from crystalline laws, and any other. In the same manner we can fird' the angle contained between any two edges of the derived crystal. Conversely, knowing the plane or dihedral : oe of'any crystal, and its primary form, we can by a direct an general process deduce the laws of decrement according to which it is constituted. The same formule are capable of being applied to the investigation of a great variety of properties of crystals of various kinds, as will be shown in the sequel. We shall’ begin with the consideration of the rhomboid, and the figures deduced from it; and we shall afterwards proceed to other primary forms.”’ | | We cannot transfer to our pages the formule, occupying ten sections, in which the author proceeds to develope his method ; and must, therefore, refer the student in crystallography to the ‘Transactions for them. } , : Article V. is Dr. Roget’s Explanation of an Optical Deception, already given in the Annals for August last. “VI. On a new Photometer, with tts Application to determine the relative Intensities of Artificial. Light, &c. By William Ritchie, AM. Rector of the Academy at Tain: communicated by the President. | poe The accuracy of Mr. Ritchie’s photometer ‘is founded, he states, “on the axiom, that equal volumes of air are equally expanded by equal quantities of light, converted into heat by absorption by black surfaces: and also on the well established principle that the quantity of light diminishes as the square of the distance of the luminous source from the object on which it . ¥8 received. . “