VOLUME 70 PART 2 MAY 1976 ISSN 0303-2515 


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BULLOUGH, W. S. 1960. Practical invertebrate anatomy. 2nd ed. London: Macmillan. 

FISCHER, P.-H. 1948. Données sur la résistance et de le vitalité des mollusques. —J. Conch., Paris 88: 100-140. 

FISCHER, P.-H., DuvaAL, M. & Rarry, A. 1933. Etudes sur les échanges respiratoires des littorines.— Archs 
Zool. exp. gén. 74: 627-634. 

Konn, A. J. 1960a. Ecological notes on Conus (Mollusca: Gastropoda) in the Trincomalee region of Ceylon. — 
Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (13) 2: 309-320. 

Konn, A. J. 19605. Spawning behaviour, egg masses and larval development in Conus from the Indian Ocean. — 
Bull. Bingham oceanogr. Coll. 17 (4): 1-51. 

THIELE, J. 1910. Mollusca: B. Polyplacophora, Gastropoda marina, Bivalvia. In: SCHULTZE, L. Zoologische 
und anthropologische Ergebnisse einer Forschungsreise im westlichen und zentralen Siid-Afrika 4: 269-270. 
Jena: Fischer.— Denkschr. med.-naturw. Ges. Jena 16: 269-270. 


(continued inside back cover) 


ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 
ANNALE VAN DIE SUID-AFRIKAANSE MUSEUM 


Volume 70 Band 
May 1976 Mei 
Part 2 Deel 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS. 
PART 2 
THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 


By 


PATRICIA DAVISON 


Cape Town Kaapstad 


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SOME NGUNI CRAFTS 
PART 2 
THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 


By 


PATRICIA DAVISON 
South African Museum, Cape Town 


(With 57 figures and | table) 
[MS accepted 27August 1975] 


ABSTRACT 


The traditional uses of horn, bone and ivory have been recorded using data from the 
ethnographic and historical literature, museum collections and recent fieldwork. There was 
some degree of specialization in the carving of these materials but it was not a major craft 
and none of the objects made was essential to the economy of the Nguni. 


CONTENTS 
PAGE 
Horn 
Introduction eee eI: eetie me ane 80 
Use of horn by the 
GCapeiN cuneate, eet te ee 81 
INBLING SEIT 5 6 6 Coe) 6) Jo, 6 99 
S WAZ) Ge time oe oie bute) a aurea 116 
Southern Transvaal Ndebele. . . . 121 
Northern Transvaal Ndebele od a 122 
RhodesianvNdebele mien cau asap 122 
Bone 
Imtroductioniey se. snes eee ee ee le 
Use of bone by the 
CaperNeunig Pes ee Sie eee 124 
INataleINGunitiyea er. ecu h sor enn seem 
SWZ eases) oe veal ica ee eed ee en eR a 137 
Southern Transvaal Ndebele. . . . 138 
Northern Transvaal Ndebele Shh aan 138 
RhodesianwNdebelen ise) | ee ue 138 
Ivory 
Imtroductionin us) cee) oe oecteaes 138 
Use of ivory by the 
@apesNcunitiees wren ya ems) 
INataliNounim eae ie be ee ma 
SWaZit tae saan oracle Ne oa Me nati 147 
Southern Transvaal Ndebele. . . . 148 
Northern Transvaal Ndebele aes 148 
Rhodesian Ndebele . . ... . 148 
Discussion ip Mee it Me ee Roe gies Eel chre | os 148 
ACknowled Sementsmem enue linen tane) cere eal 0) 
References PT est) Wee ute Wee eda he mite eg 152 
Abbreviations es fa say Pl Me ER fe 155 
79 


Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 70 (2), 1976: 79-155, 57 figs, 1 table. 


80 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


HORN 


INTRODUCTION 
Ayailability of horn 

In the seventeenth century game was plentiful throughout southern Africa. 
Hunting, in which the spear was the main weapon, was a favourite pursuit of 
all the Nguni tribes and even when pitfalls were used, game was not killed on a 
scale large enough to endanger the game-population. Hunting provided the 
Nguni pastoralists and cultivators with an additional source of food and also 
with the raw material for horn- and skin-working. The horn-carver used the 
horns of antelope and rhinoceros as well as those of cattle, goats and sheep. 
In general there was a relationship between the distribution of game and the 
types of horn available. For example, the use of sable antelope horn by the 
Zulu and the Swazi but not by the Xhosa is directly related to the distribu- 
tion of the sable, which was not found in the Transkei. The absence of a Xhosa 
term for the sable antelope confirms that it was not well known to them. Kudu, 
however, which was found throughout southern Africa, was used by all the 
Nguni people and vernacular terms for the kudu exist in the Xhosa, Zulu, 
Swazi and Ndebele languages. The fact that the white rhinoceros was found 
only north of the Orange River indicates that the long horn of the white 
rhinoceros would not have been available to the southern Nguni except through 
trade. In the northern Nguni area, however, particularly in Matabeleland where 
the white rhinoceros was common until the late nineteenth century, the long 
horn is recorded as being used frequently for clubs and axe-hafts. The shorter 
horn of the black rhinoceros, which had a much wider distribution, would 
have been available to all the Nguni people. (Sclater 1900: 223, 242, 244, 301, 
306.) 

In the nineteenth century the use of firearms in hunting and the demand 
for horns and hides as trade commodities caused a vast reduction in the game- 
population. According to Holman (1834: 274) on one day at the Fort Willshire 
fair an average of 800 hides and between | 000 and 2 000 horns were brought 
to be traded. The decrease in the game-population together with the trade value 
of the horns must have reduced the availability of antelope-horn to craftsmen. 
By the end of the century laws for the protection of game had become essential. 

Cattle and sheep horns have always been available and are still used 
today by practising horn-carvers. 


General uses 


There are two broad categories of horn objects: 
1. Objects which are carved from solid horn, for example snuff-spoons or 
clubs. 
2. Objects which use the natural form of the horn (i.e. the horn-sheath) as a 
vessel or a resonator, as in the case of a water-pipe or trumpet respectively, 
and which have relatively little carving. 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 81 


Craftsmen 
Horn was carved by men, some of whom became specialists. 


USE OF HORN BY THE CAPE NGUNI 
CLUBS 


Xhosa 


The Xhosa used a rhinoceros-horn throwing-club both in battle and in 
hunting (King 1853: 171; Fritsch 1872: 66). 

No specimens were seen in museums or in the field. 

Rhinoceros-horn clubs were not recorded among the other Cape Nguni 
groups. 


MEDICAL EQUIPMENT 


1. Cupping-horns 


Terms: isilumeko—a cupping instrument (Shaw & Van Warmelo 1972 MS.); uphondo 
lokulumeka—a cupping-horn (Kropf 1915). 


General 


A number of authors mention the practice of cupping among the ‘Kaffirs’ 
for the treatment of disease (Fleming 1856: 228; MacDonald 1890: 274, Hewatt 
1906: 48). 

A small horn-sheath or cut-off end of a larger horn-sheath could be made 
into a cupping-horn by perforating a hole in the solid tip or cutting off the tip 
so that the horn was open at both ends. The horns of cattle were generally 
used for this purpose. 


Xhosa 


Cupping among the Xhosa was described as follows: ‘For severe head- 
aches they universally practise cupping on the temples, which they perform by 
making slight incisions, and then placing upon the part the end of a bullock’s 
horn, perforated for the purpose, and sucking till a sufficient quantity of blood 
be withdrawn’ (Thompson 1827: 357). 

Other descriptions from the nineteenth and twentieth centuries do not 
differ in principle (Lichtenstein 1811: 408; Morgan 1833: 35; Alexander 1837: 
401; Soga 1932: 178). Alberti (1811: 82) adds that it was important that no 
air get in under the horn to break the vacuum. At Idutywa (1955) cupping was 
said still to be practised among the Xhosa in the area. 


M pondo 


The Mpondo used cupping-horns in a similar way for the treatment of 
headaches (Hunter 1936: 304). 


82 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


Bhaca 


On the tip of a cupping-horn photographed at Mt. Frere in 1948, wax 
had been applied and was used to seal the opening while the blood was being 
drawn into the horn (Fig. 1). 


Xesibe 


Xesibe descriptions (Mt. Ayliff, 1955) did not differ from those of the 
Xhosa. Dampening the skin was said to ensure a good vacuum because the 
horn would adhere better to the skin. 


Thembu, Bomvana, Mpondomise, Mfengu, Hlubi 


No information on cupping was recorded. 


C4) Feat oilineenl 


Fig. 1. Bhaca cupping-horn with wax on tip, 
Mt. Frere, 1948. 


2. Enema 
Term: uphondo lokucima—enema-horn (Shaw & Van Warmelo 1972 MS.). 


General 

An ox-horn sheath perforated at the tip was used for the injection of an 
enema (Shaw & Van Warmelo 1972 MS.). 
Mpondo 

At Mbotyi (1948) an ox-horn, open at the point, was said to be used as 
an enema. 
Xhosa, Thembu, Bomvana, Mpondomise, Mfengu, Hlubi, Bhaca, Xesibe 

No information on enema-horns was recorded. 


3. Medicine flasks 


Terms: uphondo—a horn (Kropf 1915); uphondo lweyeza—medicine-horn (Shaw & Van 
Warmelo 1972 MS.). 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 83 


General 


Diviners used large horns as medicine flasks and made amulets by filling 
smaller horns with protective medicine (Hoernlé 1937: 233). 


Xhosa 


The Xhosa diviner kept his herbs and medicines in horns which were 
often strung together with other paraphernalia and worn around the neck 
or on a girdle. In addition his skin bag almost invariably contained a number 
of small horns of medicine (Schilde 1929: 61; Soga 1932: 178; De Jager & 
Gitywa 1963: 113 fig.). 


Thembu 


Horns containing medicine were worn as amulets. A good example in 
the Hamilton-Welsh collection is a charm consisting of three duikers’ horns, 
one holding medicine against illness, one against evil spirits and one against 
cattle sickness (HW 611, Cofimvaba, 1911). Many Thembu necklets have small 
medicine-horns attached. These will be mentioned in the ornament section. 


Mpondomise 

A diviner’s equipment included a necklet of small antelope-horns con- 
taining medicines as well as a number of larger medicine-horns (Duggan- 
Cronin 1949, pl 76). 
Mpondo 

The Mpondo made use of antelope-horns to hold medicines and potions 
(Hunter 1936: 343; Tyrrell 1968: 169; NASKO 61/21, 1961). 
Bhaca 


Among the Bhaca the special medicines used in the First Fruits ceremony 
were kept in horns (Hammond-Tooke 1953: 77). At Mt. Frere (1948) an example 
of a stoppered medicine-horn covered with beadwork was:seen. 


Bomvyana, Mfengu, Hlubi, Xesibe 


No information on medicine flasks was recorded. 


MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 
1. Trumpets 


Terms: isigodlo—the horn of an animal when severed from the head (used as a powder 
flask or trumpet) (Kropf 1915); butyu—ox-horn trumpet (Kirby 1934: 79); imbelempe—war- 
horn made of kudu- or eland-horn (Shaw & Van Warmelo 1972 MS.). 


Xhosa 


The isigodlo was made from a large antelope-horn and was traditionally 
blown through a lateral embouchure and not through an opening at the tip 
(Kirby 1934: 73). An example in the F. S. Malan Museum, however, is a kudu- 
horn with the embouchure at the extreme tip, like the European trumpet 


84 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


(Fig. 2). In former times the isigodlo was sounded to summon tribesmen to 
the chief’s enclosure and to mobilize the regiments for war. When antelope- 
horns were unobtainable ox-horns were substituted and, nowadays, the ox-horn 
trumpet is used by boys in play to sound signals in mock battles. 


cM err 


Fig. 2. Xhosa kudu-horn trumpet, Middledrift, 1943, Fort Hare A337. 


Bomyana 


The Bomvana used an ox-horn trumpet, butyu, for the same purposes as 
the Xhosa and it was also used in the boys’ initiation ceremony (Kirby 1934: 
79). An example photographed at Elliotdale in 1948 has the embouchure at 
the tip of the horn (Shaw & Van Warmelo 1972 MS.). 

A horn called imbelempe, made from an eland- or kudu-horn, was said 
to have been used formerly by Bomvana warriors (Shaw & Van Warmelo 1972 
MS.). This was not recorded by Kirby. 

No museum specimens were seen. 


Mpondo 
Hunter (1936: 370 footnote) mentions a Mpondo horn instrument, ubo- 
komela, but does not describe it. 


Thembu, Mpondomise, Mfengu, Hlubi, Bhaca, Xesibe 


No information on horn trumpets was recorded. 


2. Plectrum 


Xhosa 


Another use of horn in a Xhosa musical instrument is the horn plectrum 
which was used for plucking the inkinge, a stringed instrument made of a reed 
to which a string of twisted hair is attached (Aitchison 1917: 28; Kirby 1934: 
225): 


This use was not recorded among any other Cape Nguni group. 


ORNAMENTS AND CHARMS 


Term: ikhubalo—charm, ornament (Kropf 1915). 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 85 


General 

Kay (1833: 116) noted that the dividing line between charms and ornaments 
was not easy to define and this is particularly so in the case of ornaments which 
incorporate small horns. In general, if the horns contain medicine they have 
been considered primarily as charms and secondly as ornaments (charm- 
ornament). 


Xhosa 
A Xhosa charm-ornament in the Hamilton-Welsh collection is a necklet 


of beads to which is attached a small black horn containing medicine to prevent 
body pains (HW 848, Idutywa, 1931). 


Thembu 

Small horns frequently formed part of Thembu charm-ornaments. A 
teething charm consists of a necklace of grey seeds, a lucky bean and a small 
black horn containing protective medicine. The horn is also said to indicate 
that the parents of the child are wealthy (HW 857, Umtata, 1915). In other 
examples horns are strung on necklets together with animal claws or roots 
(HW 588, Cofimvaba, 1930; HW 603, Cofimvaba, 1937). 


Bomvana 

Horn is also attached to beadwork ornaments which are purely decorative. 
A pair of beaded shoulder-bands consists of two harnesses at the ends of 
which are attached two solid pieces of horn. Solid sections of horn have been 
trimmed down following the shape of the horn-tip and the wider ends are 
covered with bands of beadwork (Fig. 3). 


Mpondo 


Two examples of Mpondo love-charms collected by Hamilton-Welsh 
incorporate small horns. One is a beadwork necklace which has a small black 
horn attached. It is worn by a boy at a dance, hopefully to attract the attention 
of a favoured girl (HW 834, Libode, 1917). The other is a horn, strung on fibre 
and filled with a special love potion (HW 826, Ngqeleni, 1936). 


Xesibe 

A pair of Xesibe beaded shoulder-bands has a horn covered with bead- 
work attached to it (EL 4920, Fort Donald, 1967). 
Mpondomise, Mfengu, Hlubi, Bhaca 


No information was recorded. 


PIPES 


1. Water-pipes 


Term: igudu—a bullock’s horn used for smoking wild hemp. It contains water, in which 
is inserted a reed, so placed that the smoke has to pass through water before it reaches the 
smoker’s mouth (Kropf 1915). 


86 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


eM rT 


Fig. 3. Bomvana ornament, Ngqgeleni, 1969, SAM—9568. 


Xhosa 


The smoking of hemp (dagga) was a much enjoyed social custom among 
the Xhosa. The most common dagga-pipe was a water-pipe consisting of a 
clay bowl, a reed stem and a water-vessel, which was often a large horn. 

Barrow (1806: 170) gives the following description: “The bowl of their 
earthenware pipe is attached to the end of a thick reed which passes obliquely 
through one side of an eland’s horn. This horn being filled with water, the 
mouth is applied to its open end, and the smoke drawn out of the reed is quali- 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 87 


fied and rendered less acrid by its passage through the water.’ Other accounts 
do not differ from Barrow’s except in the types of horn used, which were ox 
(King 1853: 64; Shaw 1860: 507; Norbury 1880: 13), cow (Alexander 1837: 
113) or eland (Barrow 1806: 170; Alberti 1811: 42-43; Smith 1824: 73). In 
some pipes instead of a reed being inserted through one side of the horn, the 
bowl was fitted directly on to the horn at right angles to it (Norbury 1880: 13) 


Thembu 


Accounts of the Thembu water-pipe by Whitworth (1825: 854) and Kay 
(1833: 290) show that it did not differ from that of the Xhosa. In both accounts 
the horn was said to have a hole in the side through which a reed stem was fitted. 


Bomvyana 


No literature references were found but there are two Bomvana dagga- 
pipes in the South African Museum collection. In both examples the water- 
vessel is an ox-horn into which the reed is inserted at the mouth, not through a 
hole in the side of the horn (SAM-—6678, 6680, Elliotdale, 1948). 


Mpondomise 


Cornner (SAM correspondence 1937) said that in the Tsolo area dagga- 
pipes had been used formerly by the Mpondomise but were no longer in use. 


Mpondo 

The Mpondo water-pipe did not differ in principle from that of the Xhosa 
(Kidd 1925, pl. 56; Bachmann 1901: 193-194; UCT 23/158). 
Mfengu 

King (1853: 162) mentioned that the Mfengu smoked a dagga-pipe of 
the same type as that of the ‘Kaffirs’. 
Bhaca 

At Mt. Frere (1969) an informant described a water-pipe which the Bhaca 
had used formerly. It did not differ in any way from the Xhosa pipe. 
Hlubi, Xesibe 

No information on water-pipes was recorded. 


2. Mouthpieces of tobacco pipes 
Term: incam—the end or point of a thing (Kropf 1915). 


General 


A number of pipes from the Transkei in the R. C. Camp Collection (now 
disbanded) had horn mouthpieces which were finely carved and attached to 
the stem so that the joins were scarcely visible. 


88 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


Xhosa 


Gitywa (1971: 133) gives the following account of the making of the horn 
mouthpiece of an umbhekaphesheya pipe: ‘The tip of a black cow’s horn is 
usually preferred. The tip is sawn off at the point where the hollowness of the 
horn ends, a position which is marked by the difference in colour between the 
tip of the horn, incam, and the rest of the horn, isigodlo. A sharpened, thick 
plain wire is burnt red hot and used to bore through the horn from the broad 
end. When this is done the horn is whittled straight with a knife in relation to 
the direction of the bore, care being taken to make the sides as equal as possible. 
Before the horn is whittled down to its desired size, a tennon, uphondlo, is made 
on the horn and fitted into the already made mortice in the pipe stem... .” 
A horn mouthpiece is also used in a Xhosa pipe, the style of which is borrowed 
from a certain type of European pipe. This mouthpiece differs from the one 
above in that it is curved. After the bore has been drilled and the mouthpiece 
carved to the correct shape it is heated and bent to the desired angle (SAM—9600, 
Kentani, 1969). 


Thembu 


Two examples of pipes from the Cala district have horn mouthpieces, 
similar to the curved Xhosa example above. Both mouthpieces are bent at an 
angle and fitted into a roughly U-shaped pipe (SAM-10304, 10313, Cala, 
1935) (Fig. 4). 


a8 e———— 


Fig. 4. Thembu pipe with horn mouthpiece, Cala, 1935, SAM-10304. 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 89 


Bomyvana, Mpondo, Mpondomise, Mfengu, Hlubi, Bhaca, Xesibe 


No information on horn mouthpieces was recorded. 


SNUFF-BOXES 
Term: ighaga—any small box or case which is carried on the person; hence a snuff- 
box . . . (Kropf 1915). 


General 
Horn snuff-boxes fall into two broad types: 
1. Snuff-boxes carved from a solid piece of horn. 
2. Snuff-boxes which utilize the natural cavity of the horn: 
a. Those in which the tapering end-section, part of which is solid, is used. 
b. Those in which a middle section, open at both ends, is used. 


Xhosa 
In the early nineteenth century Kay (1833: 134) observed that the Xhosa 
‘smoke constantly and seldom or never take snuff’. Later in the nineteenth 
century, however, Fritsch (1872: 68) and Kropf (1889: 103) recorded that 
horn snuff-boxes were used by the Xhosa but no descriptions were given. 
According to informants in the field snuff-taking is rare among the Xhosa 
today. 


Thembu 


Two Thembu horn snuff-boxes (Fig. 5) are good examples of Type 2a. 
The natural form of the horn has been taken into account by the carver in 


CAA Cia cam icant 


Fig. 5. Thembu snuff-boxes (Type 2a), Herschel, 1907, SAM—988(1) and (2). 


90 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


both cases. The solid tip, in the first example, has been carved in the shape 
of a buck’s head with two long horns; in the second there is a raised ridge 
under which a thong is attached. Both snuff-boxes have a passage through 
the solid tip to the hollow. A base of wood is fitted to the horn and secured 
with small metal tacks hammered in from the outer surface of the horn. 


Mpondo 


According to Backhouse (1844: 269) the Mpondo used horn snuff-boxes. 
No description, however, was given. 


Mfengu 

An example from Fort Beaufort is a small, round vessel carved from the 
solid, polished overall, and with a small lug on one side. The base is slightly 
flattened and the opening is fitted with a stopper carved in a darker coloured 
horn (Fig. 6). 


oes 


Fig. 6. Mfengu snuff-box (Type 1), Fort Beaufort, collected 1920s, 
SAM-9100. 


Another Mfengu specimen is simply a hollow section of horn filled in at 
both ends with wooden plugs held in position by iron tacks. A small hole has 
been bored through the horn for the mouth opening (BM 1905-55, no locality) 
(Type 25). 

Xesibe 

A Xesibe specimen (Fig. 7) follows the shape of the horn; the solid tip 
is carved to resemble a buck’s head and the base is filled in. A passage has been 
bored through to the hollow inside. 

Bomvana, Mpondomise, Hlubi, Bhaca 


No information was recorded. 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 91 


Fig. 7. Xesibe snuff-box (Type 2a) Mt. Ayliff, 1944, EL 18. 


SNUFF-SPOONS 


Terms: ingcebetsha—snuff-spoon, Mfengu (Kropf 1915); intshaza—snuff-spoon, Mpondo 
(Shaw & Van Warmelo 1972 MS.); intshengula—snuff-spoon, Mfengu (Kropf 1915). 


General 


Snuff was taken by means of a small spoon with which the snuff was 
carried to the nose. As snuff-spoons vary a great deal in shape and size it is 
convenient to divide them into types as shown in Figures 8, 9 and 38. 


Xhosa 


According to Kropf (1889: 103) the Xhosa used horn snuff-spoons. No 
examples were seen in museums or in the field. 


Thembu 


The Thembu used horn snuff-spoons (Kay 1833: 290). There are two 
examples in the Hamilton-Welsh collection: a spatulate snuff-spoon, decorated 
with blackened incised designs on the underside of the handle (HW 2119, 
Umtata, 1917) (Type 2a) and a snuff-spoon with almond-shaped bowl and 
thin handle of medium length (HW 2127, Tsomo, 1936) (Type la). 


g2 


ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


Fig. 8. Types of snuff-spoon: 
la. Long handle, almond-shaped bowl. 
1b. Very long handle, almond-shaped bowl. 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 93 


Fig. 9. Types of snuff-spoon: 2a. Spatulate, straight. 
2b. Spatulate, curved. 


Bomyana 
The only Bomvana snuff-spoon which was seen has a very long handie 


and is decorated with incised designs near the bowl (HW 2128, Elliotdale, 
1923) (Type 18). 


Mpondomise 

Two Mpondomise examples were recorded: a very long-handled snuff- 
spoon with almond-shaped bowl and incised, blackened designs on the under- 
side of the handle at the bowl-end (SAM-—5509, Tsolo, 1935) (Type 15), and a 
snuff-spoon with an almond-shaped bowl and a long handle, completely 
covered with beadwork (Fig. 10). 


Mpondo 


Two Mpondo examples have very long handles, decorated with incised 
designs, and almond-shaped bowls (DC 2147, 1932; HW 2122, Bizana, 1912) 
(Type 1d). 

In 1969 horn snuff-spoons were said to be made in the Nggeleni district. 


Mfengu 


A Mfengu example has an almond-shaped bowl with blackened, incised 
decoration on the handle (HW 2121, Cofimvaba, 1936) (Type 1a). 


94 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


MAMPI 


CMif_t-t te 


Fig. 10. Mpondomise snuff-spoon (Type la), Tsolo 1935, SAM-—5514. 


Bhaca 


Horn snuff-spoons were carved by men specialists and used by both men 
and women (Hammond-Tooke 1962: 28). Long-handled snuff-spoons were 
also worn as ornaments in the hair by Bhaca women (Shaw & Van Warmelo 
1972 MS.). 

Two short handled snuff-spoons were bought from a horn-carver in the 
Mt. Frere district in 1969 (SAM—9626, 9627). Both are spatulate in shape and 
curve smoothly from an elongated oval bowl to the end of the handle without 
an indentation between bowl and handle (Type 25). 

The horn-carver’s technique was to soften and straighten an ox- or cow- 
horn by heating it, thereafter to saw it into pieces and carve the spoon into 
shape with a sharp knife. To make the curve the spoon was heated and the 
handle bent up round a stone. Finally the spoon was filed smooth. No decora- 
tion was added. A spoon cost 10 cents unless the client supplied the horn, in 
which case the specialist made two spoons from the horn for himself and two 
for the client (Mt. Frere district, 1969). 


Xesibe 


In 1948 a Xesibe informant stated that the tools used in horn-carving 
were an axe for splitting the horn, and a stick for shaping the horn after softening 
it by heating, a gouge for scraping out hollow areas and a spear-head for 
carving and for incising decoration (Shaw & Van Warmelo 1972 MS.). 

In 1960 a saw was used instead of an axe for cutting the horn into pieces 
and the spear-head had been replaced by a knife or any blade adopted for the 
purpose. A gouge was not mentioned but a stick for shaping was still used. The 
technique of a specialist snuff-spoon maker (Mt. Ayliff, 1969) was as follows: 
a sheep’s horn was straightened by heating and thereafter was sawn into pieces. 
A spoon with almond-shaped bowl and a long handle was carved with a knife 
and the angle between bowl and handle was made by bending it around a stick 
after the horn had been made pliable by heating. Geometric designs were 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 95 


incised on the handle and a mixture of fat and ashes rubbed into the incisions 
to blacken the design (Fig. 11). 

Snuff-spoons were sold for 30 cents each or for 25 cents if the buyer supplied 
the horn. 


CM ts 


Fig. 11. Xesibe snuff-spoon (Type la), Mt. Ayliff, 1969, SAM-—9632. 


Hlubi 


No information was recorded on snuff-spoons from this group. 


SPOONS 

Term: icephe—a spoon (Kropf 1915). 
Xhosa 

Spoons for domestic use were carved from the horns of cattle (Rose 1829: 
80). 
Thembu 

Spoons were said to be made of ram’s horn or the horns of cattle 
(Makalima 1945: chap. 9 para. 14). 
Mpondomise 


A good example is a Mpondomise spoon from Tsolo. The bowl is deep 
and is bent almost at right angles to the handle. A raised band decorated with 
incised lines has been carved on the handle (Fig. 12). 


Mpondo 


Two types of Mpondo horn spoon were seen in museums: 
1. A spoon with deep oval bowl set almost at right angles to the handle 
(NM 131, Pondoland, 1899). 
2. A spoon with shallow bowl which forms a very wide obtuse angle to 
the handle (UCT 23/163, Pondoland, 1923). 


Mfengu 

Horn spoons were said to be used by the Mfengu (Makalima 1945: chap. 9, 
para 14). 
Xesibe 


Two examples (SAM-9629, 9630, Mt. Ayliff, 1969) both have shallow 
bowls set at obtuse angles to the handles. The technique of manufacture was 


96 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


cart Tt 


Fig. 12. Mpondomise horn spoon, 
Tsolo, 1936, SAM-5553. 


to soften the horn near the fire and cut it into two pieces with a saw, thereafter 
the piece was carved to shape with a knife and smoothed with a file. A stone 
was placed in the bowl and the handle bent up to the required angle before 
shaping was completed (Fig. 13). 


CA ee see ee | 


Fig. 13. Xesibe horn spoon, Mt. Ayliff, 1969, SAM—9629. 


Bomvyana, Hlubi, Bhaca 


No information on horn spoons was recorded. 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 97 


MISCELLANEOUS 
1. Smithing bellows 
Xhosa 


The bellows used by smiths had a cow-horn fitted to the neck of the skin 
for the passage of air to the fire (Moodie 1835: 258-9; Gitywa 1971: 139). 


2. Powder-flasks 
Xhosa 


Gunpowder was kept in horn flasks during the later frontier wars (PE 329, 
no date). 


SUMMARY 
Horn objects can be divided into two broad categories: 


1. Those which utilize the natural cavity of the horn. 
2. Those which are carved from the solid. 


1. In the first category are cupping-horns, enemas, medicine flasks, 
trumpets, water-vessels of dagga-pipes, bellows-nozzles, certain charm- 
ornaments, and certain snuff-boxes. No specific information on the manufacture 
of these objects was obtained, but from examining them it is apparent that 
relatively little carving was necessary and it is unlikely that their manufacture 
was a specialized craft. In the case of a cupping-horn or enema the pointed 
end of a horn needed only to be perforated at the tip; medicine flasks and 
charm-ornaments were uncarved except for the holes bored for threading them 
on thongs or necklets; the horn water-vessel of a dagga-pipe usually had a 
hole bored in one side for the insertion of a reed stem, but was otherwise 
unworked. In the case of a Bomvana dagga-pipe the reed was inserted at the 
mouth of the horn so that no hole was required. For a bellows-nozzle the 
horn was cut off below the solid end. The only working on the horn trumpet 
was the making of the embouchure. Two trumpets which were seen had the 
embouchure at the extreme tip and not at the side as was traditionally the case. 
Certain snuff-boxes utilized the horn cavity and, in addition, were carved at the 
solid end. 

As regards the occurrence of these objects among the Cape Nguni, it is 
probable that they were more generally used than is reflected in the recorded 
information. Relatively uncarved horn objects were seldom described in the 
literature nor did they find their way into museum collections. Although 
dagga-smoking was frequently described, very little attention was given to the 
making of the pipe. The lack of relevant information among some groups, for 
example the Hlubi, can be explained by the fact that very little information 
of any sort has been published about them, nor were they investigated in the 
field. 

2. In the second category are snuff-spoons, certain snuff-boxes, ordinary 
spoons, the mouthpieces of certain pipes and rhinoceros-horn clubs. These 


98 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


objects required more carving and were probably made by specialists for sale 
to others. 

In the field three practising horn-carvers were found. They were two 
Xesibe men, one of whom made porridge-spoons and the other snuff-spoons, 
and a Bhaca man at Mt. Frere who made snuff-spoons. They all used modern 
tools of the same type: these were a saw for cutting the horn into pieces, a 
sharp knife for carving and a file for smoothing the finished object. 

To soften and bend the horn it was heated near a fire and shaped around 
a stick or a stone. A spear-head which had formerly been used for carving was 
no longer in use. The Bhaca carver did not decorate his snuff-spoons whereas 
the Xesibe carver decorated his snuff-spoons with incised designs, blackened 
with a mixture of fat and ashes. No technical information was found on the 
making of horn snuff-boxes or clubs. Information, however, was obtained in 
the field and from the literature on the making of the horn mouthpieces of 
certain Xhosa pipes. In addition to a saw and a knife, a sharpened piece of 
red-hot wire was used to drill a passage through the solid horn. Particular 
care was taken to carve the sides evenly in relation to the bore. The specialist 
pipe-maker was an expert carver of both wood and horn, but there is no record 
of a pipe-maker carving anything in horn other than mouthpieces, although 
his skill would have enabled him to do so. 

Ornamental carving was limited among the Cape Nguni. A Thembu snuff- 
box (Fig. 5), carved to resemble a buck’s head, comes from the Herschel district 
on the Lesotho border and may have been influenced by the very similar Sotho 
style of snuff-box or may have been bought from the Basotho. A carved Xesibe 
snuff-box (Fig. 7) is the only other example of ornamental carving that was 
recorded. 

Horn snuff-boxes were not recorded for all groups and it is probable that 
other materials, fruit-shells for example, were more commonly used for making 
snuff-boxes. 

There are literature references to horn snuff-spoons for all groups except 
the Hlubi, and there are museum specimens from all of these groups except 
the Xhosa. A number of photographs show snuff-spoons worn decoratively 
in the hair. Seventy per cent of the snuff-spoons seen had almond-shaped 
bowls and long or very long handles (Type 1). The other 30 per cent were 
spatulate in shape (Type 2). Incising of designs on the handles was the most 
common form of decoration. All except two recent Bhaca specimens were 
decorated in this way. 

There seems to be a correlation between the relative absence of snuff- 
boxes and snuff-spoons among the Xhosa and the presence of tobacco-pipes. 
The Xhosa, after first contact with the settlers, took rapidly to smoking tobacco 
in pipes based on European pipe-shapes, and pipe-making became a specialized 
craft. In the early nineteenth century Kay recorded that the Xhosa seldom or 
never took snuff. The fact that horn mouthpieces for tobacco-pipes were 
recorded only among the Xhosa and the Thembu fits in with the hypothesis 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 99 


that tobacco-smoking was more popular in the western than the eastern Transkei 
where snuff-taking was favoured. 

Ordinary spoons for domestic use were not recorded among all groups, 
but it is likely that they were more generally used than the record suggests. 

A nineteenth-century reference to a Xhosa club is the only reference that 
was found on the use of the rhinoceros-horn by the Cape Nguni. 

Horn objects did not comprise a major part of the material culture of the 
Cape Nguni and horn-carving cannot be considered a major craft. With very 
little working, however, horns were adapted to a number of uses and horn 
was a particularly suitable material for carving small objects. 


USE OF HORN BY THE NATAL NGUNI 


CLUBS 
Zululand 


The Zulu made clubs of rhinoceros-horn as well as of wood (Delegorgue 
1847: 219-220). An example from Natal was seen in the State Ethnographic 
Museum, Stockholm (Wahlberg collection No. 1845.1.29) but no information 
on the working of rhinoceros-horn was recorded. 

No horn clubs were seen in the field. 


MEDICAL EQUIPMENT 


1. Cupping-horns 


Terms: isilumeko—cupping instrument (Doke & Vilakazi 1964); uphondo lokulumeka— 
cupping-horn (Doke & Vilakazi 1964). 


Zululand 


Cupping was a favourite treatment of disease among the Zulu (Krige 
1950: 332). The cupping instrument was an 8 to 10 cm section from the tip 
of an ox-horn, perforated at the solid end. The cupping-horn was placed over 
an incision in the skin and blood was withdrawn by suction at the perforated 
narrow end (Fynn 1950: 281; Isaacs 1935: 42; Krauss 1969: 219; Mayr 1907: 
391): 


2. Enemas 


Terms: ubojo—enema-horn (Doke & Vilakazi 1964); uphondo lokuchatha—enema-horn 
(Doke & Vilakazi 1964). 


Zululand 


A section of horn, approximately 24 cm long, was used for the injection 
of an enema. For a child a section of reed was used instead of a horn (Mayr 
1907: 394). This was and still is a common treatment of abdominal disorders 
among the Zulu (Krige 1950: 331; P-RM No. 1956.9.26; Mahlabatini district, 
1971). 


100 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


3. Medicine flasks 


Terms: uphondo—a small horn of medicine (Doke & Vilakazi 1964). Note: the term 
uphondo has a number of different meanings according to the context; ukhohlomba—a string 
of medicine horns (Doke & Vilakazi 1964). 


Zululand 


Antelope, cattle or goat’s horns were used as containers for medicines. 
Frequently they were strung together and worn around the neck, particularly 
by doctors (Fig. 14) (Mayr 1907: 398; NASKO 8362, no locality, 1939). A 
chief usually possessed horns containing special medicines which were used in 
rituals and he, too, might wear a string of medicine-horns around the neck 
(Krantz 1880: 113; Krige 1950: 375). 


Msinga area 


There is a diviner’s medicine-horn from Msinga in the Hamilton-Welsh 
collection (HW 938, 1940). 


Fig. 14. Zulu diviner wearing medicine horns strung around the neck. 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 101 


Southern Natal 


Horns were used for storing medicines and small medicine-horns were 
worn on necklets (Miiller 1912-13: 853; NASKO 8043, Zwartkops, 1939). An 
example in the Hamilton-Welsh collection is a light-coloured horn containing 
bark, said to be a cure for backache (HW 921, St Michael’s on Sea, 1942). 


Drakensberg area 


No information on medical equipment was recorded. 


MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 
1. Trumpets 


Terms: impalampala—a signal horn, originally made from the horn of the sable antelope. 
though occasionally from that of the kudu (Doke & Vilakazi 1964); uphondo—signal horn 
made from ox-horn hollowed and bored just below the solid tip (Doke & Vilakazi 1964); 
icilongo—trumpet made from a long reed with an ox-horn fixed to the end (Doke & Vilakazi 
1964). 


Zululand 


The traditional impalampala was made from the horn of the sable antelope 
or the kudu, wmganhxa; it was blown through an embouchure at the side, 
not at the tip and it yielded only one note. As game became more rare cattle 
horns were substituted and the instrument was generally referred to as uphondo 
(Kirby 1934: 79-80). Bryant (1949: 221), however, described a trumpet made 
of ‘a hollow cow’s horn with a hole bored at its tip or a few inches up its side, 
for blowing’ and called it impalampala not uphondo. 

The impalampala was essentially a signal horn, used primarily by men in 
battle and in hunting. Its function as a war-horn ceased with the decline of 
inter-tribal warfare but it was said still to be occasionally used in hunting in 
the 1930s. By this time, however, its main function was a social one as it was 
blown to sound an invitation to a beer-drink or celebration, particularly by 
young men after a successful courtship (Kirby 1934: 79-80; Bryant 1949: 221). 

The icilongo was a completely different instrument which, according to 
Kirby, was adopted from an early style of European trumpet. Kirby (1934: 81) 
described it as consisting of ‘a tube of bamboo about an inch in diameter and 
from two to four feet in length, cleared of all interior obstructions, one end 
of which, is sheared off at right angles, the other being bevelled so as to fit 
snugly into the end of an ox-horn which has been cleaned out and had the 
solid tip cut off’. The icilongo was blown at the extreme tip and could yield 
several notes. It was played by herd-boys and by young men courting. 


2. Whistles 
Term: uveye—signal whistle of horn or wood (Doke & Vilakazi 1964). 
Zululand 


A whistle, uveve, made from a small antelope-horn, was formerly used 
by the Zulu in hunting. Later they applied this name to a European style of 
whistle. 


102 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


Msinga area, Southern Natal, Drakensberg area 


No information on musical instruments was recorded. 


ORNAMENTS AND CHARMS 


1. Necklets 


Term: umgexo wezimpondo—necklace of ox-horns (Krige 1950: 375). 


Zululand 


Ornaments which incorporated small horns were usually thought of as 
charms (Grout 1862: 107). As previously mentioned, it was the prerogative of 
doctors and chiefs to wear strings of medicine-horns around their necks. The 
ordinary man, however, often wore a few horns on a necklet to give protection 
against danger and illness (Krauss 1969: 212). A special necklet of horns and 
charred blocks of willow wood was worn by warriors who had excelled in battle 
(Krige 1950: 264). 


2. Ear-studs 


Term: isiviliba—large circular ornament inserted through a hole in the lobe of the ear 
(Doke & Vilakazi 1964). 


Zululand 


Ornaments worn in pierced ear-lobes were characteristic of the Zulu. 
Horn ear-studs, which consisted of circular, slightly conical plugs ‘an inch’ in 
diameter, were mentioned by Bryant (1949: 141) and a number of examples 
were seen in museum collections. They were shaped like conical buttons on a 
stem which fitted through the ear-lobe (NM 838, 1908). 


Southern Natal 


The Bhaca in southern Natal wore horn ear-studs similar to those of the 
Zulu (Fig. 15). 


CM) st ene saat 


Fig. 15. Bhaca horn ear-studs, 1909, NM 1045. 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 103 
3. Hair-pins 


Zululand 

A hair-pin decorated with tail hair and beads was seen at the Volkerkunde 
Museum, Berlin (111 D4543). It is said to be Zulu and is very similar to a bone 
hair-pin collected by Grout in the nineteenth century (Brottem & Lang 1973: 
64). 
Msinga area, Drakensberg area 


No information on ornaments was recorded. 


PIPES 
Term: igudu—horn for smoking wild hemp; hemp pipe (Doke & Vilakazi 1964). 


Zululand 


A number of writers recorded the pleasure which Zulu men took in smoking 
hemp: ‘Gregarious by nature, Zulus love to assemble for a grand smoke... .’ 
(Tyler 1891: 123) (Fig. 16). (For manner of smoking and related customs see 
Little 1887: 445; Plant 1905: 46-47). 


Fig. 16. Zulu men smoking dagga. 


104 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


Gardiner (1836: 106) gives the following description of a Zulu smoking- 
horn: ‘The tobacco is placed at the end of a reed introduced into the side of 
an ox’s horn, which is filled with water, and the mouth applied to the upper 
part of the horn.’ Later accounts (Grout 1862: 109; Little 1887: 45; Balfour 
1901: 10; Plant 1905: 46-47) confirm this and Tyler (1891: 123) added that 
gum was used to seal the join between the horn and the reed. 

Most writers referred to the water-vessel as an ox- or cow-horn but Grout 
(1862: 109) recorded that the most popular was a kudu-horn which had the 
advantage of a long body and a small diameter at the mouth. No record was 
found on the making of water-pipes. Bryant (1949: 408) remarked: ‘We deem 
it hardly of sufficient importance to go further into the details of the less sig- 
nificant trades of various minor craftsmen—how the maker of smoking-horns 
(igudu) polished his cow- or kudu-horn, or carved his hemp holder (imbiza) 
out of soapstone... .’ 

The position of the hole for the reed must have varied according to the 
shape and the size of the horn. Grout, referring to a kudu-horn, stated that 
it was ‘10 or 12 inches’ from the largest end. Tyler, referring to an ox or large 
antelope horn, estimated it at ‘6 inches’ from the largest end and Little stated 
that it was in the middle of an ox horn. A number of photographs and diagrams 
appear to confirm the latter (Duggan-Cronin 1938, pl. III; Mayr 1906, fig. 6; 
Balfour 1901: 11; Anon 1874: 82). 

A specimen from Nongoma consists of an ox-horn water-vessel, a wooden 
stem and a stone bowl. The horn has been scraped smooth, leaving a small 
raised section about midway down the concave side where a hole for the reed 
has been carved (Fig. 17). 


CN TTT Tt 
Fig. 17. Dagga-pipe, Nongoma 1962, SAM-8827. 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 105 


Drakensberg area 


A specimen from Bergville is similar to the Zulu specimen although the 
hole is on the convex side of the horn. A black cement-like substance has been 
applied to seal the join between horn and stem (SAM-10215, Bergville, 1973). 


Southern Natal 


A cow-horn was used as the water-vessel in the pipe igudu, used for smoking 
hemp (Miiller 1912-13: 857). 


Msinga area 


No information on pipes was recorded. 


SNUFF-BOXES 


Terms: ishungu snuff-box (Doke & Vilakazi 1964); iguza—snuff-box (Doke & Vilakazi 
1964); isigqgobhela—cigar-shaped snuff-box, worn in the lobe of the ear (Doke & Vilakazi 
1964); uhlanga—reed snuff-box (Doke & Vilakazi 1964). 

Horn snuff-boxes fall into two broad types which can be subdivided 
according to shape. 


1. Snuff-boxes carved from the solid end-section of the horn (Fig. 18): 


a. Elliptical boxes 
b. Fluted boxes 
c. Bulb-shaped boxes. 


2. Snuff-boxes utilizing the natural hollow of the horn (Fig. 19): 


a. Horn-shaped boxes, using both the solid tip and the hollow 
b. Boxes made from a section of the hollow part of the horn. 


Zululand 


Grout (1862: 108) remarked that among the Zulu snuff-taking was a 
social institution of surpassing importance. Snuff-taking was especially enjoyed 
in the company of friends and generosity with snuff was highly praised. This 
ideal is indicated in the Zulu idiom, Ugwayi usuka entendeni, uhlala entendeni, 
literally, snuff goes from one palm to another; i.e. one good turn deserves 
another (Doke & Vilakazi 1964: 284). Snuff was usually poured into the hand 
from a snuff-box and then inhaled from a small spoon specially made for the 
purpose. The resulting sensation and profuse flow of tears was much enjoyed 
(Shooter 1857: 8-9). 

Snuff-boxes varied from a simple length of hollow reed or a fruit shell 
to finely decorated gourds and ornately carved vessels. They were considered 
indispensable by both men and women and were generally carried by the 
person on a necklet or girdle, in a bag, or worn in the ear-lobe. The carving of 
snuff-boxes in horn was a specialist craft among the Zulu. Bryant (1949: 376) 


106 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


Fig. 18. Types of snuff-box: la. Elliptical 
1b. Fluted 
1c. Bulb-shaped. 


mentioned the manufacture of ‘fancy snuff-boxes and spoons of horn’ but gave 
no description of the techniques which were used. Apart from a brief reference 
to horn snuff-boxes by Grout (1862: 108) no other information was found 
in the literature. 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 107 


Fig. 19. Types of snuff-box: 2a. Horn-shaped 
2b. Section of hollow part of horn. 


Museum specimens reflect the wide variety of horn snuff-boxes which was 
made in Zululand. 


1. Snuff-boxes carved from the solid end-section of the horn 
a. Elliptical snuff-boxes (elongated oval) 


Snuff-boxes which are not perfectly elliptical but which can most readily 
be described under this heading, are included here as are the snuff-boxes which 
Bryant (1929: 141) referred to as shaped like slender, elongated barrels. 

The example in Figure 20 is elliptical, apart from a small lug in the centre 
by which it is attached to a beadwork necklet. The body of the container has 
been hollowed out, a removable stopper fitted into one end and an identical 
plug fixed in the other. The overall shape of the box is perfectly symmetrical 
and it has a smooth polish, possibly from wear. 

Figure 21 shows two examples collected in the late nineteenth century 
and which may be described as ellipses with cut-off ends. The containers have 
been hollowed out from the open ends, which are fitted with conical stoppers. 

The example in Figure 22 is an elongated, narrow ellipse carved to a blunt 
point at one end and cut off and hollowed out from the other end, which is 
fitted with an intricately carved horn stopper. It is highly polished overall. 
The term uhlanga, by which this snuff-box was described, is generally applied 
to the reed snuff-box worn in the ear. This fact, together with the shape of the 
snuff-box, suggests that it, too, was worn in the ear. 


108 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


CMit= cleat 
Fig. 20. Zulu snuff-box (Type 1a), Zululand, 1954, DC 1191. 


CS i em Ge een fm 


Fig. 21. Zulu snuff-boxes (Type 1a), 
Zululand, late nineteenth century, 
SAM-6746, 6747. 


b. Fluted snuff-boxes 


Figure 23 shows a pair of two fluted vessels joined to each other by a 
heavily beaded cord attached to their bases. One has a conical wooden stopper, 
the other stopper has been lost. 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 109 


fo 


capt 


Fig. 22. Zulu snuff-box (Type 1a), Nongoma, SAM-8816. 


CAT tots) 


Fig. 23. Zulu snuff-box (Type 14), Zululand, late nineteenth century, SAM-—6738. 


Figure 24 shows a fluted snuff-box with elongated neck. 

The term isiggobhela suggests that it may have been worn in the ear-lobe, 
which would account for the shape of the neck, but the loop on the base and 
the proportions of the snuff-box indicate that it probably hung on a cord from 
the neck or waist. 


Fig. 24. Zulu snuff-box (Type 15), Ingwavuma, 1936, SAM-8818. 


c. Bulb-shaped snuff-boxes 


Figure 25A shows a good example of a bulb-shaped vessel standing on 
three short legs and decorated with carved designs very similar to the charac- 


110 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


A FE oe ee B 


Fig. 25. A. Zulu snuff-box (Type 1c), NM, Adams Loan. 
B. ‘Kaffir’ snuff-box (Type Ic), P-RM No. 2853(319). 


teristic decoration of Zulu pots and wooden vessels. The stopper is made of 
wood and the snuff-box of rhinoceros-horn. 

Another Zulu specimen in the Natal Museum (NM 2999, Zululand, 
1948) is of the same type except that it is decorated with a rectangular design. 

Two rhinoceros-horn snuff-boxes seen in overseas museums and docu- 
mented as ‘Kaffir’ are similar enough to authentic Zulu specimens to be included 
here. Both are decorated with carved grooves and ridges that form embossed 
designs (BM No. 1936-10-S5S—13; P-RM No. 2853 (319)) (Fig. 25B). 


2. Snuff-boxes using the natural form and hollow of the horn 


The wide opening is usually filled in with a piece of horn, wood or calabash 
to form the base of the snuff-box. These may be held by exact fit or may be 
secured with tacks. An opening may be bored through the solid tip to the 
hollow interior, or the thickness of the horn may be thinned down so that the 
narrowest part of the natural hollow forms the mouth opening. In the latter 
case one can see from the unworked inner surface that no tools have been used 
to create the passage. 

Figure 26 shows a snuff-box carved from the end-section of a horn which 
was scraped down following the shape of the horn and leaving a raised ridge 
just below the mouth opening for the attachment of a thong. The existing 
hollow of the horn was used and the base was filled in with a piece of horn 
held in position with three small bone pins. A carved horn stopper is attached 
to the thong. 

Another example consists of a section from the hollow part of the horn, 
filled in at both ends with wood. A small opening has been drilled through the 
horn at the centre of the concave side (Type 2b, see Fig. 19). 

The example in Figure 27 is an 8 cm section of the horn which has been 
cut starting just above the hollow, so that one end is solid horn and the other 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 111 


CM if atnaectannl 
Fig. 26. Zulu snuff-box (Type 2a), Eshowe, 1965, NASKO 65/32. 


Chi lnaslioml 


Fig. 27. Zulu snuff-box (Type 2b), Mapumulo, 1962, 
SAM-8813. 


is open. The solid base is decorated with notches and the sides are covered 
with a beadwork sleeve to which is attached a beaded handle. The stopper is 
missing. 

A horn-carver’s son in the Nongoma district (1971) stated that his father 


A ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


carved ‘ear-rings’, to contain snuff, out of the solid end of a horn but he did 
not have an example. At all other places in Zululand traditional snuff-boxes 
have been replaced by small tins or bottles from the stores. 


Southern Natal 
The bowl of a Lala snuff-box (NM 2061, Richmond, 1911) is bulb-shaped 


but two streamers extend from the base. There are decorative ridges around 
the mouth, which is fitted with a horn stopper. 


Msinga area 

A large horn snuff-box (NM 61, Msinga, collected by Fynn, nineteenth 
century) forms the seat of a stool which stands on three legs. The sharp tip 
of the horn has been cut off but it is otherwise unworked except for the attach- 
ment of the legs. 


Drakensberg area 


No information was recorded. 


SNUFF-SPOONS 
Terms: intshengula snuff-spoon (Doke & Vilakazi 1964); intshasa snuff-spoon (Doke & 
Vilakazi 1964). 


Zululand 


Small spoons elegantly carved out of cow-horn were used for taking snuff 
(Bleek 1965: 15; Krantz 1880: 64). The snuff-spoon had, in addition, a number 
of other uses: the handle was used to wipe perspiration from the face, to clean 
the nose before taking snuff, to loosen clogged snuff in the box and as an aid 
to hair-dressing. When not in use it might be worn as an ornament in the hair 
(Krige 1950: 60) (Fig. 28). This useful accessory was, furthermore, an outlet 


Fig. 28. Zulu men taking snuff. Note the snuff-spoons in the hair. 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 113 


for the talent of the specialist horn-carver, who produced finely carved snuff- 
spoons. All the examples seen in museum collections were of the same basic 
shape (Type 1) and were decorated with incised designs (SAM-8815, Nongoma, 
1936; DC 135, Zululand, 1954; DC 2380, Zululand, 1938; SAM-10340, no 
locality, 1973). Two examples had carved rectangular frames on the handles 
(Fig. 29A). 

In all the areas of Zululand which were visited, snuff-spoons were known 
to the people. In some areas, however, they were thought of as things which 
had been used in the past but which were no longer in use (Buthelezi in Mahla- 
batini district, 1970; Zulu in Nqutu district, 1969). A Biyela informant (Nkandla 
district, 1971) mentioned that mustard-spoons from the store had replaced 
carved snuff-spoons. In Babanango (1971) horn snuff-spoons were said to be 
in current use among the Zulu, and a Zulu carver in the Nongoma district 
(1971) still made snuff-spoons. No examples were seen in the field. 


cmrT Tr 4 


Fig. 29. Zulu snuff-spoons (Type 1). A. Zululand, 1938, DC 2380. 
B. Mahlabatini, 1936, SAM-8815. 


Msinga area 

In the Msinga district (1969) horn snuff-spoons were said to be used by 
the Jozi. 

At Tugela Ferry a Mabaso specialist horn-carver was still practising his 
craft in 1970. The technique he used was as follows: he soaked an ox-horn in 


114 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


cold water for five to six days to soften it and then cut it in half lengthwise. 
From each half a spoon was made. The bowl of the spoon was carved from the 
solid end-section of the horn and the handle from the thinner side-section. 
The only tool used in carving was a chisel. The horn was heated to make it 
pliable enough to bend the angle between bowl and handle. The spoons were 
not decorated. 


Southern Natal 


Horn snuff-spoons were said to be used by the Khuzi (Bulwer district, 
1969). 


Drakensberg 
No information recorded in this area. 


SPOONS 
Term: ukhezo—spoon (Doke & Vilakazi 1964). 


Zululand 


Horn spoons were included by Isaacs (1936: 270) in his list of Zulu ‘manu- 
factures’, but no other information was found in the literature. 

A specimen in the Natal Museum has an almond-shaped bowl and straight 
handle (NM 129, 1896). 


Southern Natal 


The Natal Bhaca used horn spoons for drinking sour milk, amasi (NM 1036, 
southern Natal, 1909). A specimen from Ixopo is spatulate in shape and is 
32 cm long (NM 582, 1906). 

At a Khuzi homestead in the Bulwer district a similar horn spoon was still 
in use in 1969. 


SWEAT-SCRAPERS 


Terms: uphephela—bone or horn scraper (used to scrape perspiration from the face) 
(Doke & Vilakazi 1964); isikhwece—curved bone or horn face-scraper (Doke & Vilakazi 
1964). 


Zululand 


As mentioned previously, the handle of a snuff-spoon was used to wipe 
perspiration from the face. A long, thin spatula of horn or bone was used for 
the same purpose. 


No horn specimens were seen in museum collections nor were any seen 
in the field. 


MISCELLANEOUS 
1. Bellows-nozzle 
Zululand 


Ox-horns or antelope-horns were used for nozzles in the bellows used by 
smiths (Holden 1963: 241; Krantz 1880: 66; Angas 1849, fig. 23). 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 115 


2. Needle 
Zululand 

An iron, horn or bone needle was used in the making of a man’s head-ring 
(Fynn 1950: 292). 


3. Tool 
Term: uphondo—horn (Doke & Vilakazi 1964). 


Zululand 


An ox-horn of suitable size is used to roll metal wire around a core of 
tail hair in the making of a certain bangle, wbusenga. The process was seen at 
Nqutu (1969), and at Mahlabatini (1971) (Fig. 30). 


7 
7 
~ 
Fig. 30. Horn tool used in rolling bangles, Mahlabatini, 1971. 
SUMMARY 


The following horn objects used by the Natal Nguni required very little 
carving: cupping-horns, enemas, medicine flasks, trumpets, whistles, charm- 
ornaments, water-vessels for pipes, bellows-nozzles and certain snuff-boxes. 

Carved horn objects included snuff-boxes, snuff-spoons, ordinary spoons, 
clubs, ornaments, a tool for rolling bangles and a needle used in making a 
man’s head-ring. Of the carved objects snuff-boxes and snuff-spoons were the 
most numerous and many displayed a high degree of craftmanship. This seems 
to reflect the importance of snuff-taking among the Natal Nguni. Snuff-boxes 


116 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


were often worn as ornaments in the ear-lobe or on a necklet, and snuff-spoons, 
when not in use, were generally tucked into the hair as ornaments. Ornaments 
for pierced ears are characteristic of the Natal Nguni. Among those seen were 
ear-studs made of a variety of materials including horn. Examples from southern 
Natal were shaped like conically-domed mushrooms. Horn sweat-scrapers and 
hair-pins were also used. 

Information was obtained from two practising horn-carvers. One at 
Tugela Ferry made snuff-spoons, and the other at Nongoma made snuff-spoons 
and snuff-boxes. The tools used for carving were a knife and a chisel, and the 
horn was softened by heating. 

In all other areas horn objects were said to have been made in the past 
but were no longer made. Substitutes from the stores have replaced many of 
the older horn objects, and others became obsolete because of the decline of the 
practices in which they were used. 

Nearly all the information was obtained from the Zulu and the tribes 
living in Zululand (now the KwaZulu homeland). There is insufficient material 
from groups outside Zululand to discuss the distribution of particular horn 
objects over the wider Natal Nguni area. 


USE OF HORN BY THE SWAZI 


MEDICAL EQUIPMENT 


Medicine flasks 


A doctor’s outfit seen at the F. S. Malan Museum included a number of 
horns containing medicines (HW 782, 1935). No further information was 
recorded. 


MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 


1. Trumpets 
Term: impalampala—horn trumpet (Kirby 1934: 78). 


The impalampala trumpet was made traditionally from the horn of the 
sable antelope and the same name was given to the instrument made from a 
kudu horn. It was blown through an embouchure in the side of the horn, not 
at the tip (Fig. 31). Among the Swazi the impalampala was a royal instrument, 
blown in peace time only by men of the court to call people together for a 
ceremony, a communal hunt, or by the royal herdsmen to control the cattle. 
In time of war the impalampala was sounded by the warriors to give military 
signals, a practice which has fallen into disuse (Kirby 1934: 78; Marwick 1966: 
81; Mankaiana district, 1971). 

No information on the manufacture of the Swazi impalampala was found 
in the literature or in the field and no specimens were seen in museums. 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 117, 


Fig. 31. Swazi impalampala (horn trumpet). 


2. Whistles 
Term: /uveve—whistle (Kirby 1934: 92). 


Two whistles, both termed /uveve, one made from the horn of a small 
antelope and the other from that of a larger antelope, were used by the Swazi. 

The smaller /uveve consisted of a small horn, often duiker or springbok, 
which formed a natural ‘stopped pipe’ (the closed tip of the horn formed a 
natural stopper) and from which sound was produced by blowing across the 
open end. Such a whistle was used for calling the dogs (Kirby 1934: 92). 

The larger whistle was originally made from an antelope horn, but as 
antelope became increasingly scarce, wood carved to the shape of the horn was 
used for the /uveve (Kirby 1934: 110-111, pl. 38b). This whistle is referred to by 
Marwick as a ‘hunting horn’ which is confusing, for although its uses coincided 
to some extent with those of the impalampala, it was blown as a whistle, not as 
a horn. 

The main use of the larger /uveve was to announce a hunt and to encourage 
the dogs during the hunt. It was also used to sound military signals and by 
doctors to call up departed spirits, a practice which inhibited ordinary men 
from sounding this whistle except for its specific use in the hunt (Kirby 1934: 
EL). 


ORNAMENTS AND CHARMS 


Necklets made of the horns of small game were worn by young people in 
Swaziland (Myburgh 1949: 93). An example collected in the nineteenth century 
consists of six small horns strung together, with pieces of wood, to form a 
necklet (Fig. 32). 

No reference to the use of carved horn ornaments was recorded. 


118 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


cm rr rTrrtT 


Fig. 32. Swazi necklet, Swaziland, late nineteenth century, SAM-—6722. 


PIPES 


The smoking of dagga was a social practice much enjoyed by Swazi, par- 
ticularly when in the company of age-mates (Kuper 1947: 121). 

They used a water-pipe consisting of a horn water-vessel, a reed stem and 
a clay or stone bowl. Three specimens were seen in museum collections (SAM— 
M17, 1936; UCT 34/6; Stellenbosch University collection). In one the water- 
vessel is an eland-horn, in the other two cattle horns are used. In all three the 
reed is inserted at the mouth opening of the horn and not through a hole in 
the side. Decorative ridges have been carved in the solid ends of the cattle horn 
vessels (Fig. 33). The eland-horn has two bands and a loop of raw hide attached 
at the mouth for ease of carrying. 


SNUFF-BOXES 


No reference to horn snuff-boxes was found in the literature. A Swazi 
informant at Mankaiana (1971), however, stated that horn snuff-boxes had been 
made and used by the Swazi but that the craft of horn-carving was dying out. 
The traditional horn snuff-box was described as having ridges carved on the 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 119 


Fig. 33. Water-vessel of Swazi dagga-pipe, 1934, UCT 34/6. 


sides, a feature which was seen in the only Swazi snuff-box examined (Cambridge 
Ethnographic Museum 83). This snuff-box was carved from a solid piece of 
horn; the body is roughly oval-shaped with fluted sides; the neck is unfluted, 
and on the base a loop has been carved. 


SNUFF-SPOONS 


No references to horn snuff-spoons were found in the literature nor were 
any seen in museum collections. In the field (Ingwavuma district, 1970) an 
informant stated that an old man in a distant kraal used horn snuff-spoons 
—this was the only field reference to snuff-spoons. 


MISCELLANEOUS 


1. Awls 


According to informants at Piggs Peak (1962) an awl made of a piece of 
horn was used in basket-making. 


2. Drinking-vessels 

Term: /ugabi—ox horn drinking-vessel. 

An ox-horn which has been scraped smooth and decorated at the solid 
end by means of four raised ridges was used as a container for marula beer. 
Young men used this in preference to a calabash beer-cup which the older men 
used. A hole is usually made in the horn so that a thong can be attached and 
the horn carried over the shoulder (NASKO 1971/22) (Fig. 34). 


3. Fly-switches 

A Swazi fly-switch with a horn handle was seen at the V6lkerkunde 
Museum, Berlin (IIID 1327). 
4. Toilet-boxes 


A small antelope-horn containing fat for cosmetic use was worn on a 
beaded necklet (Myburgh 1956: 237). 


120 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


Fig. 34. Swazi man drinking from horn vessel, Swaziland, 1971. 
(Photograph NASKO No. A410.) 


5. Penis-sheaths 


According to Marwick (1966: 85) a man of high standing usually wore a 
penis-sheath made of horn. 


SUMMARY 


Far less information on the use of horn was found in the literature on the 
Swazi than on the Cape or Natal Nguni, and in the field no horn-carvers were 
found nor were any horn objects seen in use. It is difficult to say whether the 
absence of reference to certain objects is significant or whether the objects 
existed but were not recorded before they fell into disuse. For example, although 
the Swazi were snuff-takers and may have used snuff-spoons, the use of snuff- 
spoons was not recorded in the literature nor were any seen in museum collec- 
tions or in the field. 

Horn objects with little carving included medicine flasks, toilet-boxes, 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 121 


the impalampala horn, whistles, ornament-charms, water-vessels for pipes, 
and a drinking-vessel. Among the Swazi the impalampala was used only by 
court officials and the royal regiments. No information on its manufacture was 
found. In all three water-pipes examined the reed was inserted at the mouth 
opening and not through a hole in the side. Two of the horns had carved 
ridges on the solid tip. This decorative motif was also seen on a horn drinking- 
vessel which is similar in form to the water-vessel of a pipe. 

Single references were found to carved horn penis-sheaths, a handle for a 
fly-switch and an awl for basket-making. A Swazi informant said that snuff- 
boxes had formerly been made of horn but that the craft of horn-carving was 
dying out. His description of the traditional style of snuff-box compared exactly 
with the only museum specimen which was seen. It is a small oval-shaped 
container with fluted sides. It is interesting to note that carved fluting is found 
on other Swazi objects, for example head-rests and the heads of sticks, and this 
form of decorative carving seems to be characteristic of the Swazi. 

No technical information on horn-carving was obtained from any of the 
three sources. 


USE OF HORN BY THE SOUTHERN TRANSVAAL NDEBELE 


CLUBS 


A rhinoceros-horn club was an essential part of a chief’s regalia. It 
functioned both as a staff of office and as a symbol of personal dignity (Weiss 
1963: 63). When Chief Nyabela surrendered to Gen. Joubert in 1883, his 
rhinoceros-horn club was confiscated and later it was given to the National 
Open-Air and Cultural History Museum in Pretoria (Fig. 35). 


CMrrttl 
Fig. 35. Ndzundza rhinoceros-horn club, Transvaal 1883, NASKO 4492. 


MEDICAL EQUIPMENT 
Horns were used as containers for medicines (Nebo district, 1972). 


122 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


ORNAMENTS AND CHARMS 


The horn of a small antelope was often worn on a necklet as a charm to 
give protection against illness (Weiss 1963: 75). 


SNUFF-BOXES 


Horn snuff-boxes were said to be made by an old Ndzundza man in the 
Nebo district (1972) but none was seen. A knife for carving and a stone for 
smoothing were the tools mentioned. 


MISCELLANEOUS 
1. Divining bones 


Among a set of divining bones seen in the field, five of the principal bones 
were carved from horn or hoof. The piece representing the chief was carved 
from the horn of a beast which he had killed, the two female pieces were carved 
from cow-horn and the two male pieces were carved from ox-hoof (Nebo 
district, 1972). 


2. Flasks 


Horns were used as containers for the fat and for the pegs used in skin- 
dressing (Nebo district, 1972). 


SUMMARY 


In the Nebo district horns were said to ‘work hard’. They were used as 
containers for medicines and for the fat and for the pegs used in skin-dressing; 
small horns were worn as amulets on necklets; the principal pieces of a set of 
divining bones were carved in horn or hoof and horn snuff-boxes were said 
to be made by an old man in the area. No horn-carvers, however, were located. 

A rhinoceros-horn club used to be a sign of office and an essential part 
of a chief’s regalia. An interesting nineteenth-century specimen is preserved 
in the National Open-Air and Cultural History Museum in Pretoria. This was 
the only Ndebele horn object seen in a museum collection. 


USE OF HORN BY THE NORTHERN TRANSVAAL NDEBELE 


No information was found in the literature and museum records, nor 
was any information obtained in the field. 


USE OF HORN BY THE RHODESIAN NDEBELE 
CLUBS 


Burrow (1971: 51) noted that the Matabele hunted white rhinoceros 
by trapping them in pitfalls and used their horns for making clubs and axe- 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 123 


hafts. The elasticity and pliability of rhinoceros-horn made it a particularly 
suitable material for this purpose (Widstrand 1958: 24). 

The only specimen which was recorded is a rhinoceros-horn club in the 
Pitt-Rivers Museum, Oxford (No. 2048, Matabeleland 1939). 


MEDICAL EQUIPMENT 


A number of small horns containing medicines were included in a witch- 
doctor’s outfit (Fig. 36). Matabele warriors wore horns containing protective 
medicines strung on thongs around their necks (Hughes & Summers 1955: 789). 


CM fetes inlet’ 


a8 
Fig. 36. Rhodesian Ndebele doctor’s outfit, Matabeleland, Bulawayo Museum 45° 


ORNAMENTS AND CHARMS 


Certain wild animals were thought to have magical powers and necklets 
made of their horns, bones, claws, teeth or hoofs were not thought of as orna- 
ments but as amulets to protect the wearer from disease or danger (McCallum 
1971: 10; Holub 1893: 197). 


PIPES 


The Matabele smoked dagga through water in the same manner as the 
Zulu. An ox-horn with a hole in the side for the insertion of a reed stem was 
used as a water-vessel (Burrow 1971: 48). 


SUMMARY 


Horns were used by the Rhodesian Ndebele as medicine flasks and as 
water-vessels for pipes, and small horns were worn as amulets on necklets. 


124 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


Rhinoceros-horn was used for clubs and axe-hafts. No further information 
on the uses of horn was recorded. 


BONE 


INTRODUCTION 


Availability of bone 

Cattle and sheep bones have always been available and are still used by 
craftsmen today. Bones from game animals were available in the past but are 
no longer generally available. 


General uses 


Small objects, such as snuff-spoons and ornaments, were carved in bone 
and hollow lengths of bone were made into small wind-instruments. 

Bones which belong to the diviner’s set of ‘bones’ have not been included 
in the survey unless they are carved. 


Craftsmen 
Bone was and still is carved by men specialists. 


USE OF BONE BY THE CAPE NGUNI 
Musical Instruments 


1. Flutes 


Term: imbande—a. the shin-bone... b. a pipe, flute (Kropf 1915). 

Flute—is used to describe a small wind-instrument from which more than one note is 
usually produced. Whistle—is used to describe a small wind-instrument from which only one 
note is usually produced. 


Xhosa 

The Xhosa made a flute, imbande, from a hollow length of bone (Kirby 
1934: 108). According to Kropf (1915: 22) and McLaren (1919: 449) a shin- 
bone was used; however, according to Campbell (1815: 519) and Thunberg 
(1793: 37) it was made from a thigh-bone. It was said to be used for signalling 
during a hunt and to summon people to the chief’s place. 

No detailed description of the instrument was found and no specimens 
were seen. 


2. Whistles 
Term: impempe—a toy whistle (Kropf 1915). 
Xhosa 


The Xhosa used a small whistle made of bone when herding cattle (Paterson 
1789: 94; Barrow 1806: 169). 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 145) 


Thembu, Bomvana, Mpondomise, Mpondo, Mfengu, Hlubi, Bhaca, Xesibe 


No information was recorded. 


ORNAMENTS AND CHARMS 


1. Necklets 
Terms: ikhubalo—ornament, charm (Kropf 1915); amazinyo—teeth (Kropf 1915). 


Xhosa 


Traditionally the chief wore a necklet of leopard’s teeth as a symbol of 
power (King 1853: 169). An animal-tooth necklet was also considered an 
essential part of a Xhosa bride’s outfit (De Lange 1963: 91). It is interesting to 
note that similar necklets were made from pieces of bone carved to the shape 
of teeth (SAM-—S2, 1898; SAM-5361, before 1897) (Fig. 37). A Ndlambe example 
(EL 5076, King William’s Town, 1968) consists of thirty tooth-shaped pieces 
of bone interspersed with large beads, strung on twisted sinew. It was said 
to have been worn at a marriage ceremony in 1918. 

Small uncarved bones incorporated in ornaments were regarded as charms 
rather than ornaments (Kay 1833: 116). 


GUN ie. 
Fig. 37. Carved bone ‘tooth’ necklet, Xhosa 1898, SAM-—S52. 


2. Ear-studs 
Term: isiviliba—an ear-ornament of wood or bone, Mfengu (Kropf 1915). 
Mfengu 


The term isiviliba is a Zulu term used by the Mfengu immigrants and it 
indicates that the Mfengu brought with them to the Cape the typical Natal 
Nguni ear-ornaments usually made of bone, horn or wood. 


126 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


Thembu, Bomyana, Mpondomise, Mpondo, Hlubi, Bhaca, Xesibe 


No information on bone ornaments was recorded. 


SNUFF-BOXES 
No reference to bone snuff-boxes was found in the literature nor were 
any specimens seen in museums or the field. 


SNUFF-SPOONS 

Terms: intshaza—snuff-spoon, Mpondo (Shaw & Van Warmelo 1972 MS.); intshengula— 
snuff-spoon, Mfengu (Kropf 1915); Note: Snuff-spoons have been divided into four basic 
types. (See Figs 8-9 for Types 1 and 2. Fig. 38 shows Types 3 and 4.) 


Fig. 38. Types of snuff-spoon: 3. Forked handle, almond bowl. 4. Short, straight handle, 
almond bowl. 


General 


According to Fleming (1853: 204) bone snuff-spoons were used by the 
“Kaffirs’. 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY P27 


Xhosa 

An old Gcaleka specimen has an oval bowl and a short, fairly thick handle 
(Fig. 39A). It is attached to an old-style snuff-box made of a paste of skin 
scrapings, blood and clay. 
Thembu 


A bone snuff-spoon similar to the above example was collected among the 
Thembu by Dunn in the late nineteenth century (Fig. 39B). 


t~ 
A a ae ” 


(te ee | 


Fig. 39. Bone snuff-spoons (Type 4). 
A. Gcealeka, Transkei, 1930, DC 1801. 
B. Thembu, nineteenth century, SAM-6935. 


Mpondo 


Bone snuff-spoons were mentioned by both nineteenth- and twentieth- 
century writers (Backhouse 1844: 265; Hunter 1936: 152), and Mpondo men 
still carve bone snuff-spoons today (Libode district, 1969; Port St Johns, 
1974) (Fig. 40).They were frequently worn in the hair as ornaments (Duggan- 
Cronin 1949, pl. 41; Shaw & Van Warmelo 1972 MS.). Most of the bone 
snuff-spoons seen in museum collections are Mpondo specimens. They fall into 
two categories: those with unforked handles (Type 1) and those with forked 
handles (Type 3). 


Snuff-spoons with unforked handles 


A number of bone snuff-spoons which were examined have unforked, 
straight handles with almond-shaped bowls (SAM-—78a, E. Pondoland, 1901; 
SAM-6682, Lusikisiki, 1948; UCT 32/62a, Flagstaff, 1932; EL 4758-59, Lusiki- 
siki, 1967; SAM-10204-10207, Port St Johns, 1973) (Fig. 41). 


128 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


Fig. 40. Mpondo bone-carver making snuff-spoons. 
(Photograph Mrs Fred Clarke, Umtata.) 


This type of snuff-spoon is still made today by a bone-carver near Port 
St Johns. He boils the shin-bone of an ox, scrapes it clean and cuts it in half 
with a hack-saw. An axe is used for the rough-shaping of the spoon, a pocket- 
knife or any suitable blade for the fine carving, a gouging tool for shaping the 
bowl and a file for smoothing the finished spoon. 

Designs are incised on the handle and blackened by rubbing in a mixture 
of soot and fat. The snuff-spoons are sold for 25 cents each. 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 129 


ge “ 
>. 


© ESS 


cmr-— T_T t 


Fig. 41. Mpondo bone snuff-spoon (Type 1), Port St. Johns, 1973, 
SAM-10204. 


A variation of this type was seen in an example which flanges at the butt 
of the handle instead of ending in a point (Fig. 42). 


en 1 
Fig. 42. Mpondo bone snuff-spoon, Pondoland, 1932, UCT 32/62c. 


Snuff-spoons with forked handles 


The typical example of this type has a two-or three-pronged handle, a 
narrow neck and an almond-shaped bowl (Fig. 43A). Incised, blackened cross- 
hatching on the neck is the most common form of decoration (SAM-78b, 
E. Pondoland 1901; UCT 32/626, d, Pondoland, 1932). One example which 
was seen has five short prongs, a narrow neck and large leaf-shaped bowl. 
It is decorated with incised circles on the neck and the flat area above the 
prongs, and cross-hatching on the underside of the neck (Fig. 43B). 

The pronged end of a snuff-spoon was used in hairdressing and was also 
referred to as a comb (DC 1634, Pondoland). 


Bomyana, Mpondomise, Mfengu, Hlubi, Bhaca, Xesibe 
No information was recorded. 


MISCELLANEOUS 
Awls 
Xhosa 
A bone awl was used by the Xhosa when making a snuff-box of paste 
(Fleming 1853: 205). 
SUMMARY 


The most common use of bone was for small snuff-spoons which were 
recorded among the Xhosa, Thembu, and Mpondo, and which are still made in 


130 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


B 


Fig. 43. Mpondo bone snuff-spoon (Type 3). A. Pondoland, 1932, UCT 32/626. B. Ngqeleni, 
1936, SAM-8817. 


Pondoland today. Modern snuff-spoons are carved from ox tibias, using a 
pocket-knife or any suitable blade. 

Museum specimens from the Mpondo, dating from 1901 to 1973, reflect a 
continuing tradition and comprise 90 per cent of all the Cape Nguni bone 
snuff-spoons which were seen. Bone snuff-spoons fall roughly into two groups: 
those with forked handles and those with unforked handles. The former have 
very finely carved comb-like handles and both types are frequently decorated 
with incised designs. 

The Xhosa used the tibias of small animals for making whistles and flutes 
used in signalling. 

Bone awls were probably used more widely than the one reference indicates. 

An interesting use of bone occurs in the Xhosa necklet made of pieces of 
bone carved to the shape of teeth, in imitation of the leopard-tooth necklet 
traditionally worn by a chief. Carved bone ear-studs were worn by the Mfengu, 
and small uncarved bones were often incorporated in ornaments as amulets. 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 131 


USE OF BONE BY THE NATAL NGUNI 


MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 
1. Flutes 


Term: imbande—musical pipe or flute made of shin-bone of a reed-buck or goat (rarely 
used today) (Bryant 1905; Doke & Vilakazi 1964). 


Zululand 


Dictionary definitions indicate that the Zulu made a flute, imbande, from 
the shin-bone of a small buck or goat. The term imbande is also used to refer 
to the shin-bone itself (Doke & Vilakazi 1964: 64). The instrument which 
Kirby (1934: 107) described was made from the leg-bone of a bird in the follow- 
ing way. A 10 cm section of bone was hollowed out and two U-shaped notches 
were carved on opposite sides of the mouth to serve as the embouchure. The 
lower end was cut off at right-angles to the length. A band of skin was 
stitched around the instrument and a loop made to facilitate attachment to 
a necklet. 

The imbande is said to have been played at the nqgwamtha ceremony during 
which the warriors of the nation were treated by the doctors to give them 
protection from danger in battle (Kirby 1934: 108). This use, together with a 
photograph of a Zulu diviner sounding his imbande (Kirby 1934, pl. 36B), 
suggests that the instrument had ritual importance. 

No specimens were seen in museum collections or in the field. 


2. Whistles 


Term: impempe—small single ‘pan-pipe’ of reed or bone open at one end (Doke & Vila- 
kazi 1964). 


Zululand 


Simple whistles were made from hollow sections of quill, reed or bone 
which were closed at one end and which were blown across the open end. 
A bone whistle attracted the attention of Gardiner (1836: 105, pl. 1(6)), who 
sketched the instrument and described it as the leg-bone of a sheep or goat 
from which a sound was produced by blowing across the smaller end. A bone 
whistle was briefly described by Shooter (1857: 238) and it is probable that the 
‘reed or hollowed-out bone’ which Krauss (1969: 218) mentioned was an 
impempe. The impempe was blown at all important dances, producing a shrill, 
piercing note (Kirby 1934: 89). 


3. Clappers 


Terms: amathambo—bones; ukushaya amathambo—to rattle the rib-bones of cattle 
(Doke & Vilakazi 1964). 


Zululand 


The Zulu used clappers, amatambo, made from the rib-bones of cattle, 
to provide the rhythmical accompaniment to singing at any celebration (Kirby 
1934: 10, pl. Sa). 


132 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


Southern Natal, Msinga area, Drakensberg area 


No information on musical instruments was recorded. 


ORNAMENTS AND CHARMS 
1. Necklets 


Term: amazipho—claws; necklet of carved bone to imitate claws (Krige 1950). 


Zululand 


Unworked bones were often incorporated in necklets but were generally 
thought of as charms rather than ornaments (Grout 1862: 107). 

Necklets made from the vertebrae of snakes, particularly pythons and 
mambas, were thought to have the supernatural power of giving strength and 
wisdom to the wearer (Schlosser 1972: 61, 111, pl. 12). 

Carved bone beads were recorded among the Zulu (Grout 1862: 27; 
Laidler 1937: 42) and bone was also carved to imitate the claws of wild beasts. 
The bone ‘claws’ were strung together to form a necklet, amazipho, worn by 
men (Mayr 1907: 637). 


2. Ear-studs 


Term: ishaza, isiviliba—ear ornament or stud (Doke & Vilakazi 1964). 


Zululand 


‘The distinguishing mark of the whole Zulu nation was their pierced ears 
... (Krige 1950: 375). Consequently ear-ornaments were a particular feature 
of Zulu attire. Among these ornaments were ear ‘buttons’, carved out of bone 
to the shape of a flat disc which was fitted into the ear-lobe (Mayr 1907: 638, 
640) (Fig. 44). 


30 Pins 
Term: isikhipha—pin of carved bone . . . (Krige 1950: 398). 


Zululand 


Another use of bone was for ornamental hair-pins which were usually 
carved from rib-bones. Bone pins were also used to clean the nails (Krige 
1950: 398). A number of examples are bound with tail hair or decorated with 
beads strung on tail hair (Figs 45-46). One specimen was bound with black 
cotton (BM 95-8-6-14, Zululand). A hair-pin collected by Grout in the nine- 
teenth century is described as being bound with wire but it is possible that tail 
hair was mistaken for wire (Brottem & Lang 1973: 64). 


Southern Natal, Msinga area, Drakensberg 
No information was recorded. 

PIPES 

General 


Balfour (1901: 12) photographed and described two tubular bone pipes 
from Natal, ‘. . . these pipes are simple short tubes of bone wide open at both 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 133 


Fig. 44. Zulu man wearing bone ear-stud. 


ends. One of them is partly wrapped in skin and is decorated with beads, and 
would be worn suspended as a charm round the neck. . . .’ Bone pipes like 
these were probably substitutes for other pipes (Lindblom 1947: 12). No other 
references to bone pipes were found and the only specimens seen were two 
tubular bone pipes collected in Port Natal in 1859 (BM 59-9-8 30, 31). 

No further information was recorded. 


A A I ire ii aa 


om rT 
Fig. 45. Bone hair-pins, Zululand, late nineteenth century, SAM-—6879. 


134 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


Solel 2 WO ce acca ee ene eee 


Fig. 46. Bone pins, Zululand, 1911, DC 539. 


SNUFF-BOXES 
Term: uhlanga—reed snuff-box (Doke & Vilakazi 1964). 


Southern Natal 


Figure 47 shows a well-made bone snuff-box collected among the Lala 
tribe in the early twentieth century. It is a hollow section of bone, 10 cm in 
length, with diagonal ridges carved around a central panel, which is bordered 
at each end by a band of reptile skin. Round pieces of calabash are fitted into 
the open ends, which are trimmed with two rows of beads. A beadwork cord 


a 


Cute 


Fig. 47. Lala bone snuff-box, 1909, NM 1005. 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 135 


is attached to the ends so that it can be worn around the neck. 

The term given for this snuff-box is whlanga, which usually means a reed 
or reed snuff-box. It seems that the term was adopted through association of 
function. 


Zululand, Msinga area, Drakensberg area 


No information was recorded. 


SNUFF-SPOONS 


Terms: intshengula—snuff-spoon (of bone or horn); intshasa—bone snuff-spoon (Doke 
& Vilakazi 1964). 


Zululand 


Bone snuff-spoons attracted the attention of a number of observers in 
the nineteenth century and early twentieth century, in Zululand (Norbury 
1880: 11; Krantz 1880: 64; Mayr 1907: 469; Mason 1968: 229-230). Grout 
(1862: 108), describing the practice of snuff-taking, remarked on the spoon 
‘with which the native is to convey his snuff... from the hollow of his hand 
to his nostrils. This is made of ivory or bone and carried sometimes in the ear, 
and sometimes stuck in the hair or under the head-ring, for which the three 
or four-tined handle is well fitted.” Mayr (1907: 469) sketched a bone snuff-spoon 
with pointed handle which was also used in hairdressing and ‘to wipe away 
the perspiration on the forehead’. 

Among the museum specimens examined are examples with straight 
handles and almond-shaped bowls (DC 1810, Zululand, 1906; SAM-6734, 
Zululand, nineteenth century); spatulate-shaped spoons with tapering handles 
(Fig. 48) or handles which flange at the end (NAS 0.480) and those with forked, 
comb-like handles (Fig. 49). 


Fig. 48. Bone snuff-spoon (Type 2a) Zululand, late nineteenth century, 
SAM-6735. 


Incised geometric designs, blackened with a mixture of fat and ash, have 
been carved on a number of specimens, often on the neck or on the underside 
of the handle. One example (SAM-6734) has a small decorative band of wire- 
binding on the handle as well as incised cross-hatching on the underside of 
the neck. 

No bone snuff-spoons were seen in the field. 


136 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


QO oer 


Fig. 49. Comb-like snuff-spoons (Type 3), Zululand, 1907, NM 814. 


Southern Natal 


A snuff-spoon collected among the Lala tribe has a deep, elongated, oval 
bowl and tapered handle. It is decorated with incised, blackened triangles on 
the underside (NM 2400, 1916). 


Msinga area, Drakensberg area 


No information was recorded. 


SWEAT-SCRAPERS 


Terms: uphephela—bone or horn sweat-scraper (Doke & Vilakazi 1964); ubambo— 
scraper (used for removing sweat, cleaning nostrils etc. generally made of rib-bone) (Doke & 
Vilakazi 1964); isikhwece—curved bone or horn face-scraper (Krige 1950: 398). 


Zululand 


Krauss (1969: 212) referred to ‘a type of spatula with a daintily chiselled 
handle made from the bones of oxen, more rarely made from ebony and which 
took the place of a handkerchief’. Rib-bones seem to have been particularly 
suitable for making sweat-scrapers because of their length and thinness. Two 
Zulu scrapers which were examined are thin, curved sections of rib-bone 
smoothed off and carved to a rounded point at one end, but are otherwise 
uncarved (SAM-6733, Zululand 1871-76; NASKO 8038, Pietermaritzburg 
1939) (Fig. 50). Three other Zulu examples are straight pieces of bone with a 
carved serrated edge at one end and a point at the other (HW 2138, 2139, 2140, 
Durban, no date). 

No information on sweat-scrapers was obtained in the field. 


Southern Natal, Msinga area, Drakensberg area 


No information was recorded. 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 137 


Fig. 50. Bone sweat-scraper, Pietermaritzburg, 1939, NASKO 8038. 


MISCELLANEOUS 
Awls 


Term: usungulo—native awl or large needle (Doke & Vilakazi 1964). 
The Zulu used a bone awl in basket-making (Krige 1950: 398). 


SUMMARY 

Bone-carving is no longer an active craft among the Natal Nguni. Bone 
objects, however, are referred to in the literature and some examples are pre- 
served in museum collections. These include bone ear-studs, hair-pins, beads, 
sweat-scrapers and a variety of snuff-spoons. Only one bone snuff-box was 
seen but it is a very fine example of bone-carving. 

Musical instruments were made from the tibias of small animals. For a 
flute the bone was open at both ends, with a notch on either side of the mouth 
to vary the sound; for a whistle one end was closed and sound was produced 
by blowing across the open end. Clappers were made from the rib-bones of 
cattle. ; 

Bone pipes, although mentioned, do not appear to have been characteristic 
of the Natal Nguni. 


USE OF BONE BY THE SWAZI 


Marwick (1966: 73) states that ‘. . . bone and wood carving . . . which 
formerly were crafts known to everyone, are now becoming specialised .. .’. 


138 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


No information on bone-carving, however, was found in the literature and no 
specialists were found in the field. 

Snuff-boxes carved from bone were mentioned by Duggan-Cronin (1941, 
pl. 141) and bone hair-pins were seen in the V6dlkerkunde Museum, Berlin 
Cie Dsl635): 

No other uses of bone by the Swazi were recorded. 


USE OF BONE BY THE SOUTHERN AND NORTHERN TRANSVAAL 
NDEBELE 


No information on bone carving was recorded. 


USE OF BONE BY THE RHODESIAN NDEBELE 


No information on bone-carving was recorded among the Rhodesian 
Ndebele, and the only bone object mentioned was a whistle used in a ceremony 
to prevent lightning (Tucker 1958: 16). 

No museum specimens were seen and although one might have expected 
to find objects similar to those found among the Natal Neguni, if they did exist 
they have not been preserved. 


IVORY 


INTRODUCTION 
Availability of ivory 

Formerly large numbers of elephant were to be found throughout the 
Nguni area and, according to Alberti, the Xhosa would ‘not infrequently at 
the risk of their lives occupy themselves for several days with killing an Ele- 
phant’. The extreme difficulty of the hunt, however, meant that a kill was rare. 
Furthermore when a kill was made the tusks had to be delivered to the chief 
of the tribe to which the hunting party belonged (Alberti 1968 : 29, 76). According 
to Fynn (1950: 17) only one tusk was given in tribute to a Mpondo chief, the 
other being kept by the hunter. Traditionally there was great prestige attached 
to the possession of ivory as it indicated the chief’s favour and was regarded 
‘purely as a luxury’ (Alberti 1968: 29). 

The introduction of firearms and the increased demand for ivory as a trade 
commodity changed the traditional pattern considerably. ‘Sportsmen’ killed 
hundreds of elephant during the nineteenth century and there was a constant 
demand for ivory on the overseas markets. 

The establishment of the Fort Willshire fair in 1824 stimulated the trade 
in ivory between the Xhosa and European traders. By 1831 ivory worth £2 000 
was exported annually from Grahamstown in return for blankets, beads, metal, 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 139 


guns and horses (Wilson & Thompson 1969: 242) (Fig. 51). In Natal large 
quantities of elephant tusks were exported via Delagoa Bay and from the 
beginning of the nineteenth century trade was encouraged and expanded by 
Dingiswayo and later by Shaka (Wilson & Thompson 1969: 251). A chief’s 
power and wealth were greatly enhanced if he could increase and maintain 
control of the ivory trade in his area but this was not easy in the Eastern Cape 
where trade was dispersed over a wide area, under many different chiefs. 

A corollary of the ivory trade was that ivory became less available to 
craftsmen (Kay 1833: 120). By the end of the nineteenth century, as a result 
of the ivory trade, the elephant was extinct in the Nguni area in all but a few 
places (Sclater 1900: 322). 


Fig. 51. Mr Hume’s Wagons on Market Square, Grahamstown, 1850 (Thomas Baines). 
(By kind permission 1820 Settlers Memorial Museum, Grahamstown.) 


General uses 


Ivory was used mainly for ornaments and to a lesser extent for finely 
carved utility objects. All the ivory objects seen in museum collections were 
said to have belonged to chiefs or men of valour. 


Craftsmen 


No reference to ivory-carvers was found in the literature but it is probable 
that the craftsmen were men specialists. 


140 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


USE OF IVORY BY THE CAPE NGUNI 


ORNAMENTS 


Term: umxhaka—A ring of ivory worn on the upper arm as a sign of distinction (Kropf 
1915). 


Xhosa 


A number of writers in the late eighteenth and early ninteenth centuries 
remarked on the ivory arm-rings worn by men on the left upper-arm (Von 
Winkelman 1932: 68; Renshaw 1804: 19; Barrow 1806: 126; Alberti 1968: 33; 
Van der Kemp 1804: 335). Possession of an arm-ring was a sign of honour 
and up to ten arm-rings were said to have been worn by chiefs. They were 
made from tusks belonging to the chief or from tusks which the chief had 
allocated to men of distinction, but they remained the property of the chief 
should the wearer be killed in battle. According to Alberti (1968: 83) certain 
Xhosa men held the superstition that deliberate alienation or breakage of an 
ivory ring would be followed by misfortune. Rather than lose an arm-ring to 
an opponent in battle, however, the owner would break it into pieces (Streat- 
field 1879: 42). This might partly account for the relatively large number of 
broken and carefully repaired specimens that came into museum collections. 

By the end of the eighteenth century ivory arm-rings were being sold to 
travellers (Von Winkelman 1932: 67) and according to Kay (1833: 120), as the 
trade in tusks became more active, arm-rings were made less frequently. By the 
end of the nineteenth century their value as marks of distinction had declined 
and it is reported that ivory arm-rings could be bought by anyone who could 
afford them. They were advertised for sale in the Kaffrarian Watchman by 
Messrs Mitchell and Dyer in December 1876. 

There is very little information on the making of the arm-rings. A section 
of the required width was cut off the tusk with a spear-blade and the inner 
circumference was enlarged to fit the upper arm. This allegedly was done with 
sharp-edged stones (Von Winkelman 1932: 68; Makalima 1945: chap. 9 para. 
42). 

One writer refers to incised decoration but this is not supported by any 
other evidence (KGrner 1874: 174). 

The width of an arm-band which varied from approximately one cm 
(Sparrman 1785: 8) to three cm (Von Winkelman 1932: 68; Fritsch 1872: 61) 
must have limited the number of arm-bands worn together. In a twentieth- 
century photograph a Nggqika chief is wearing just one wide arm-band on the 
left upper arm (Duggan-Cronin 1939, pl. 3) as is the figure depicted in a rock- 
painting of a Xhosa warrior (Rosenthal & Goodwin 1953, pl. 45). 

Of the eight Xhosa arm-rings in the South African Museum collection, 
six are wide (mean 3,0 cm) and fairly thick (mean 2,0 cm), and two are narrower 
(mean 1,5 cm) and thinner (mean 0,6 cm) (SAM-67, 1900; SAM-—5907, 1938; 
SAM-6922, 6924, King William’s Town, nineteenth century; SAM-9423, 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 141 


9604 (Fig. 52), King William’s Town, 1968, 1969; SAM-6923, 6925, Transkei, 
nineteenth century). 

Cracked arm-rings have been carefully repaired with molten lead and 
metal pegs (SAM-67, 1900; Bigalke 1966, pl. 5) (Fig. 53). 


CMU nleeal 


Fig. 52. Ivory arm-band, Xhosa, King William’s Town, 1969, SAM-—9604. 


CMA alae alies te 
Fig. 53. Ivory arm-band showing repair, Xhosa, 1900, SAM-67. 


Thembu 


Duggan-Cronin (1939, pl. 26) photographed a Thembu chief wearing a 
thick ivory arm-band. 


142 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


Bomvana 


Tshomane chiefs wore ivory arm-rings (Hubberly 1953: 82). A Bomvana 
specimen from Elliotdale (NASKO 35/387) has become highly polished and 
golden in colour from wear. It was said to have been worn by a ‘true man’. 


Mpondo 


Smith (1824: 281) stated that Mpondo men wore ivory arm-rings on the 
upper arm, and in the late nineteenth century Dunn collected an ivory arm-ring 
in Pondoland. It is of the narrower, thinner type (Fig. 54). 


CM) tT eet 
Fig. 54. Mpondo ivory arm-band, Pondoland, late nineteenth century, SAM-6952. 


Mpondomise, Mfengu, Hlubi, Bhaca, Xesibe 


No information on ivory ornaments was recorded. 


SNUFF-SPOONS 
Term: intshaza—snuff-spoon, Mpondo (Shaw & Van Warmelo 1972 MS.). 
General 


Ivory snuff-spoons were mentioned by a number of nineteenth-century 
writers (Fleming 1856: 204; Kretzschmar 1853: 239-240; Fritsch 1872: 68) 
but no further details were recorded and no ivory snuff-spoons were seen in 
museum collections. This might be explained by the fact that ivory was rare, 
but it is also possible that polished bone was mistaken for ivory and that most 
of the ‘ivory’ snuff-spoons were in fact bone. 

Xhosa 
According to Kropf (1889: 103) the Xhosa used ivory snuff-spoons. 


Thembu 
Kay (1833: 290) noted ivory snuff-spoons in use among the Thembu. 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 143 


Mpondo 

According to Smith (1824: 398) the Mpondo used ivory snuff-spoons. 
Mfengu 

Kay (1833: 134) also remarked on ivory snuff-spoons among the Mfengu. 
Bomvana, Mpondomise, Hlubi, Bhaca, Xesibe 

No information on ivory snuff-spoons was recorded. 


MISCELLANEOUS 
1. Medicine flask 
Xhosa 


One example of an ivory medicine flask (Fig. 55) said to have been collected 
in the Transkei in about 1840, was seen in the Hamilton-Welsh collection. 


CT cee cee oo 


Fig. 55. Ivory medicine flask, Transkei 
1840, HW 604. 


2. Musical instrument 
Xhosa 


There is one early reference to an ivory whistle used by Xhosa herd-boys 
but this is not supported by any other evidence (Paterson 1789: 94). 


144 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


SUMMARY 


Ivory differed from horn and bone in that it was more rare and had greater 
prestige attached to it. Traditionally chiefs controlled the use of and trade in 
ivory. Of the few ivory objects which were recorded the most important is the 
ivory arm-band, uwmxhaka, worn by men as a sign of distinction and of the 
chief’s favour. To make an arm-band a section of tusk was cut with a spear- 
blade and the inner circle enlarged to the required size. Sharp-edged stones 
were said to have been used for this purpose. Carefully repaired specimens 
confirm the high value placed on these ornaments. 

The prestige attached to the umxhaka seems to have been particularly 
characteristic of the Xhosa. Van der Kemp (1804: 439) states that it was an 
ornament ‘peculiar to the subjects of Gika’. Among the Thembu, Bomvana 
and Mpondo, however, ivory arm-bands were also used. They were not recorded 
among the immigrant tribes and the Mpondomise. 

Ivory snuff-spoons were mentioned in the literature but none were seen 
in museum collections. One early reference to an ivory whistle and an ivory 
medicine flask collected in the Transkei in the early nineteenth century indicates 
that ivory was occasionally used for utility as well as for ornamental purposes. 

As a result of the ivory trade, the traditional value of ivory was replaced 
by its commercial value as a medium of exchange. By the end of the nineteenth 
century ivory was no longer available. 


USE OF IVORY BY THE NATAL NGUNI 


ORNAMENTS 
1. Arm-bands 
Zululand 


Arbousset (1846: 146) says of the Zulu king in 1823, ‘. . . in the course of 
one year, he killed no less than 28 elephants and of the tusks had a number of 
ivory bracelets, made for his mistresses . . .’. This is an unusual reference to 
the use of ivory at a time when the ivory trade was active. The only museum 
specimens seen were two ivory arm-bands in the Linden Museum acquired 
in 1903 (Nos. 29714, 29712). 


2. Ear-studs 
Term: isiviliba—ear-stud. (Doke & Vilakazi 1964). 


Zululand 


Ivory ear-ornaments were frequently mentioned. Bryant (1949: 141) 
described them as ‘circular, slightly conical plugs, and an inch in diamter, 
made of polished ivory, horn or baked clay’, and other writers simply referred 
to them as ‘ivory knobs’ worn in the ear (Grout 1862: 108; Tyler 1891: 61). 

None were seen in museum collections. 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 145 


3. Hair ornaments 


Zululand 

Deléage (1879: 64) mentions pieces of ivory worn in the hair by young 
Zulu men but does not describe the ornaments. It is possible that they were 
hair-pins of ivory. 

No ivory ornaments were seen in the field. 


Southern Natal, Msinga area, Drakensberg area 


No information was recorded. 
SNUFF-BOXES 


Zululand 


Ivory was used occasionally for making a snuff-box (Faye 1940: 9-10). 

Two ivory snuff-boxes (Fig. 56) were examined at the Natal Museum. 
Both are carved from the solid to an oval shape slightly flattened at the base. 
One stands on four carved legs and has a carved ivory stopper; the other has a 
lug on one side and a wooden stopper. Both snuff-boxes show a high degree 
of craftsmanship and were said to have belonged to chiefs. 

An ivory snuff-box, said to have belonged to Cetshwayo, was seen in the 
Pitt-Rivers Museum (No. 1941.12.11). None were seen in the field. 


es = r= 


Fig. 56. Two ivory snuff-boxes, Zululand, nineteenth century, NM, Adams Loan. 


146 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


Southern Natal, Msinga area, Drakensberg area 


No information was recorded in these areas. 


SNUFF-SPOONS 
Term: intshengula—snuff-spoon (Doke & Vilakazi 1964). 


Zululand 


Ivory snuff-spoons were used by those who could afford them (Shooter 
1857: 8; Grout 1862: 108; Gardiner 1836: 107). Of the comb-type snuff-spoon 
Holden (1963: 254) remarked, ‘In making the comb part, great patience is 
requisite; as, to shave the solid piece of ivory to the proper size, and then saw 
the long teeth with a rough piece of iron, is no small task .. .’. 

No ivory snuff-spoons were seen in museum collections nor were any seen 
in the field. 


Southern Natal, Msinga area, Drakensberg area 


No information was recorded in these areas. 


SWEAT-SCRAPERS 
Zululand 


Sweat-scrapers of ivory were noted among the Zulu by Gardiner (1836: 
107) who sketched a ‘scraping-knife’, rounded at both ends and spatulate in 
shape, and by Norbury (1880: 11-12) who stated, ‘A chief often provides himself 
with a finely carved, sharp-pointed ivory instrument, something like a paper- 
knife; with this he scrapes the perspiration from his skin. . .’ 

No museum specimens were seen nor were any seen in the field. 


Southern Natal, Msinga area, Drakensberg area 


No information was recorded. 


MISCELLANEOUS 
Drinking-vessels 

A drinking-vessel (Fig. 57) carved from a hollow section of ivory was 
seen in the Natal Museum. A round piece of horn was used to plug the opening 


at the base. It is said to have been made from the tusk of an elephant killed by 
Cetshwayo’s hunters. 


SUMMARY 


The extent to which ivory was used before it became a valuable trade 
commodity is not known, but as the ivory trade increased other uses of ivory 
must have declined. 

Ivory objects that were carved were almost invariably made for chiefs. 
Arm-bands, ear-studs, hair ornaments, snuff-boxes, snuff-spoons and sweat- 
scrapers were recorded in the literature and two finely carved ivory snuff-boxes 
and an ivory drinking-vessel were seen in the Natal Museum. 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 147 


C8 4} 


Fig. 57. Ivory drinking-vessel, Zululand, 
nineteenth century, NM, Adams Loan. 


Ivory arm-bands, although recorded, were not the symbols of distinction 
that they were among the Cape Nguni. The absence of a specific Zulu term to 
describe ivory arm-bands suggests that they did not have a cultural significance 
greater than that of other arm-bands. Among the Zulu it was the brass armlet, 
ingxotha, that signified the highest honour and the favour of the chief (Krige 
1950: 374). 

Holden commented on the patience required to carve a comb-like snuff- 
spoon with a piece of iron but no further technical information on ivory- 
carving was found. 


USE OF IVORY BY THE SWAZI 


Among the Swazi the elephant is an important animal symbol. At the 
head of the political hierarchy is the king, Ngwenyama (Lion) and his mother, 
Ndlovukati (She-Elephant). 

The lion and the elephant personify the traits of ideal rulers—they are both 
fearless and the most powerful of their kind. The two are perceived as equal in 
powers and complementary. On the main day of the Ncwala Ceremony the 
king wears only a penis-sheath of ivory when he walks before his people; and 
he is praised as ‘Wena wendlovuw’ (You of the Elephant) and ‘Ndlovu yaka 
Ngwane (Elephant of the Ngwane) (Kuper 1973: 622, 626). 

No other references to the use of ivory by the Swazi were recorded. 


148 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


USE OF IVORY BY THE SOUTHERN TRANSVAAL NDEBELE 


Among the Ndzundza a chief used a sweat-scraper made of ivory (Weiss 
1963: 63). No other references to the use of ivory were found. 


USE OF IVORY BY THE NORTHERN TRANSVAAL NDEBELE 


No information was recorded. 


USE OF IVORY BY THE RHODESIAN NDEBELE 


The chief commanded all available ivory for his personal use, and orna- 
ments of ivory were worn only by the chief (Holub 1893: 197). The only specimen 
seen was an ivory arm-band in the Linden Museum (No. 3791: 414). No further 
information was found. 


DISCUSSION: USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY AMONG THE 
NGUNI 


Horn, bone, and ivory as media have been grouped together because 
objects that were carved out of one were often carved out of the others as 
well and, as far as is known, the tools used in carving the three media were 
similar. Each material, however, does have properties which are different from 
the others and in each case there are uses which relate specifically to the nature 
of that material. 

The carving of these materials was not a major craft and few writers did 
more than refer briefly to the objects made. 

The lack of technical information in the literature, together with the fact 
that very few craftsmen are still practising today, resulted in a minimum of 
data on which to base conclusions, which must therefore remain tentative. 
The paucity of information may be explained by the fact that most writers 
were not concerned with recording details on minor crafts and many of the 
objects, especially those with little carving, were not outstanding enough to 
attract the attention of the observer. Furthermore, by the time travellers started 
making records some of the crafts were already disappearing. For example, 
the ivory trade attracted far more attention than the carving of ivory, with the 
result that we do not know the extent to which ivory was used by craftsmen 
before it became a valuable trade commodity. 

The two most important factors influencing the availability of antelope- 
horn and rhinoceros-horn and ivory were the use of firearms in hunting and 
the demand for horns and tusks on the local and European markets. 

Before game was largely hunted out in the Nguni area, horn from game 
as well as from cattle, goats and sheep was freely available. The availability 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 149 


of particular types of horn was dependent on the distribution of game; for 
example, horns of sable antelope were not available to the Xhosa, whereas 
they were to the Zulu and Swazi. Today only the horns of domestic animals 
are available to craftsmen. 

Bone from wild and domestic animals was available formerly but there 
is no record of the extent to which different kinds of bone were used for carving. 
Today only cattle bones are used. 

Ivory differed from horn and bone in that it was rare, both as a result of 
the dangers involved in the elephant-hunt and because all ivory was the property 
of the chief who would allocate it only to favoured subjects. 

Among the Swazi the elephant is an important animal symbol. The king’s 
mother is known as Ndloyukati (She-elephant). On the great day of the Incwala 
ceremony the king wears an ivory penis-sheath and is praised as ‘You of the 
Elephant’ and ‘Elephant of the Ngwane’. The Zulu chief, Cetshwayo, was 
also praised as ‘You of the Elephant’ (Faye 1940: 4). Although this specific 
symbolism has not been recorded among the other Nguni tribes it is true to 
say that there was a special attitude towards the elephant which is expressed 
in the association of ivory with the chief and the prestige attached to the posses- 
sion of ivory. This may be explained partly by the qualities of supernatural 
strength and bravery which were required in hunting elephant before firearms 
were introduced, and partly by the association of ivory with the power of the 
animal itself. The large-scale hunting of elephant, together with the introduction 
of Western trade goods, caused a marked change in the system of values, and 
the traditional value of ivory was replaced by its commercial value as a medium 
of exchange. 

The carving of horn, bone and ivory was done by men. It is probable that 
most men knew how to carve but that some were more talented than others 
and became specialists. Those who carve today are specialists who learnt the 
technique of carving from their fathers. Snuff-spoons are still made for sale 
at the local stores in Pondoland but there is no record of former trade patterns. 

The traditional tools, a spear-head and an axe, have been replaced by a 
pocket-knife or any suitable blade and a saw which, together with a gouging 
tool and a file, are the main tools used today. Horn was made easier to work 
with by heating and in this it differed from bone and ivory. In other respects 
the carving of the three media was the same. 

The main method of decoration was by incision. Snuff-spoons were usually 
incised with geometric designs, blackened by the rubbing in of ashes mixed 
with fat. Occasionally a Cape Nguni snuff-box was carved to resemble an 
animal and among the Zulu, bulb-shaped snuff-boxes carved in rhinoceros-horn 
were decorated with raised triangles and ridges very similar to the typical 
decoration on Zulu wood-carving and pottery. Among the Swazi it is interesting 
to note that the carved fluting on snuff-boxes and horn water-vessels was also 
seen on their wooden head-rests and stick-heads. 

The only type of repair recorded was the use of molten lead to repair 


150 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


broken ivory arm-rings. This was recorded only among the Xhosa and can have 
been done only after European material became available. It is a reflection of 
the high value placed on ivory arm-rings by the Xhosa. 

As far as has been recorded no taboos or rituals were observed when 


working with these materials. 
The recorded uses of horn, bone and ivory are summarized in Table 1. 


Uses Horn Bone Ivory 
oO o oO 
423_. ¢22 22 
ett Se Maca cmc 3 33  # 3 8 
Sp 50 ATA Se a4 > hm BD 7 Z 
ce ee tea AMEE ACS Ko 
Bg e68 ee eee 8 eee 
OZanZz £026 wn 2 BO ae 
Uncarved 
Bellows-nozzle Peat Been 
@lappersmue eee: x 
Cupping-horns . . Xx &X 
Drinking-vessels x 
Enemas ae ae ase De ae iON 
Rlasksi(@ens) ee oN XxX 
JEWS: 15 Mee Bo BOs <a tusks important for 
Medicine-horns . . X xX x > trade 
Ornamentsandcharms * XX xX xX <a xX 
Tools x 
Trumpets A XK 
WRI INSS. 5) 5 6, es wt o4 6 
NAMIE See <x > < 
Carved 
Awls/Needles . . . <x x x 
Clubs é eae x < 
Divining bones. 
Drinking-vessels x 
Fly-switch handles. x 
Medicine flasks . . < 
Mouthpieces for pipes 
Ornaments 
arm-bands . . . <a xX 
ear-studs PP se oe »< ee x 
necklets rea <a 
hairpinss, 5. x << & x 
Penis-sheaths . . . < x 
SMUT DOS, 4 5 6 oO © Oo SC x 
Snuff-spoons, 2 2 . X xX <a <i 
Spoons Se SSK 
Sweat-scrapers eae x x x x 


Table 1. Recorded uses of horn, bone and ivory. 


Rhod. Ndebele 


SOME NGUNI CRAFTS: THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY 151 


Certain conclusions may be drawn from the table. 

The uncarved objects utilize the physical characteristics of the material 
as such, and these objects are therefore not usually made in an alternative 
material. For example a horn was particularly suitable for making a trumpet 
or water-vessel, and similarly a hollow section of bone was easily made into a 
flute. Small horns and bones were both used, unmodified, as ornaments and 
amulets. 

Although not recorded for all groups, it is likely that these uses of horn 
and bone were general throughout the Nguni area. 

Certain carved objects were made only in one of the three materials because 
the other two were not suitable, for example the ivory arm-rings and the 
rhinoceros-horn clubs. 

Small carved objects like snuff-boxes, snuff-spoons, sweat-scrapers, ear- 
studs and hair-pins were made in all three media and it is likely that the choice 
of material would have depended on availability and, in the case of ivory, the 
rank of the owner. 

One cannot draw conclusions about the distribution of horn, bone and 
ivory objects over the Nguni area because the information on the Cape and 
Natal Nguni far outweighs that on the other groups, but from the available 
information there is nothing to suggest that there were any marked differences 
in the use made of horn, bone and ivory by the different groups. The presence 
of horn mouthpieces for pipes only among the Cape Nguni is a reflection of 
their preference for smoking tobacco rather than their exceptional ability as 
horn-carvers. 

The present position is that there are a few specialist horn and bone- 
carvers still practising but that these crafts have largely disappeared. 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 


Acknowledgement is hereby made of the financial assistance of the Human 
Sciences Research Council towards the research and publication of this work. 
Opinions expressed or conclusions reached are those of the author and should 
not be regarded as representative of those of the Human Sciences Research 
Council. 

Thanks are due to the directors of the Alexander McGregor Memorial 
Museum, Kimberley; the East London Museum; the F. S. Malan Museum, 
Fort Hare; the National Museum, Bloemfontein; the National Open-Air and 
Cultural History Museum, Pretoria; the Natal Museum, Pietermaritzburg; 
the Port Elizabeth Museum; the British Museum, London; the Pitt-Rivers 
Museum, Oxford; the Cambridge Ethnographic Museum; the Linden Museum, 
Stuttgart; the State Ethnographic Museum, Stockholm; the V6lkerkunde 
Museum, Berlin; and to the Department of Bantu Administration and Develop- 
ment for permission to work in tribal areas. 


Sy ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


The author is grateful to Mrs June Hosford for her assistance, particularly 
in the photographic work, to Mr V.iBranco for the drawings and to Mrs Tessa 
Zieve for typing the manuscript. 


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Witson, M. & THOompsOoN, L., eds. 1969. The Oxford History of South Africa. 1. Oxford: 
Clarendon Press. 

WINKELMANN, F. Von. 1932. Reisaanteekeningen van F. von W. 1788-1789. In: GODEE MOLs- 
BERGEN, E. C. Reizen in Zuid-Afrika in de Hollandse tijd. 4: 63-99. s’Gravenhage: Nijhoff. 


ABBREVIATIONS 
BM — British Museum ethnographic collection. 
DE — Duggan-Cronin Bantu Gallery, Kimberley. 
EL — East London Museum. 
HW — Hamilton-Welsh collection, F. S. Malan Museum, Fort Hare. 
NAS — National Museum, Bloemfontein. 
NASKO — National Open-air and Cultural History Museum, Pretoria. 
NM — Natal Museum, Pietermaritzburg. 
PE — Port Elizabeth Museum. 
P-RM —  Pitt-Rivers Museum, Oxford. 
SAM — South African Museum, Cape Town. 


WUIGIE — University of Cape Town collection at the South African Museum. 


6. SYSTEMATIC papers must conform with the International code of zoological nomenclature 
(particularly Articles 22 and 51). 

Names of new taxa, combinations, synonyms, etc., when used for the first time, must be 
followed by the appropriate Latin (not English) abbreviation, e.g. gen. nov., sp. nov., comb. 
nov., syn. nov., etc. 

An author’s name when cited must follow the name of the taxon without intervening 
punctuation and not be abbreviated; if the year is added, a comma must separate author’s 
name and year. The author’s name (and date, if cited) must be placed in parentheses if a 
species or subspecies is transferred from its original genus. The name of a subsequent user of 
a scientific name must be separated from the scientific name by a colon. 

Synonymy arrangement should be according to chronology of names, i.e. all published 
scientific names by which the species previously has been designated are listed in chronological 
order, with all references to that name following in chronological order, e.g.: 


Family Nuculanidae 
Nuculana (Lembulus) bicuspidata (Gould, 1845) 


Figs 14-15A 
Nucula (Leda) bicuspidata Gould, 1845: 37. 
Leda plicifera A. Adams, 1856: 50. 
Laeda bicuspidata Hanley, 1859: 118, pl. 228 (fig. 73). Sowerby, 1871: pl. 2 (figs 8a—b). 
Nucula largillierti Philippi, 1861: 87. 
Leda bicuspidata: Nicklés, 1950: 163, fig. 301; 1955: 110. Barnard, 1964: 234, figs 8-9 


Note punctuation in the above example: 
comma separates author’s name and year 
semicolon separates more than one reference by the same author 
full stop separates references by different authors 
figures of plates are enclosed in parentheses to distinguish them from text-figures 
dash, not comma separates consecutive numbers 


Synonymy arrangement according to chronology of bibliographic references, whereby 
the year is placed in front of each entry, and the synonym repeated in full for each entry, is 
not acceptable. 

In describing new species, one specimen must be designated as the holotype; other speci- 
mens mentioned in the original description are to be designated paratypes; additional material 
not regarded as paratypes should be listed separately. The complete data (registration number, 
depository, description of specimen, locality, collector, date) of the holotype and paratypes 
must be recorded, e.g.: 


Holotype 
SAM-—A13535 in the South African Museum, Cape Town. Adult female from mid-tide region, King’s Beach, 
Port Elizabeth (33.51S, 25.39E), collected by A. Smith, 15 January 1973. 


Note standard form of writing South African Museum registration numbers, date and geographical positions. 


7. SPECIAL HOUSE RULES 


Capital initial letters 


(a) The ee Maps and Tables of the paper when referred to in the text 
e.g. . the Figure depicting C. namacolus . . in C. namacolus(Fig. 10) . 


(b) The olives of prefixed surnames in all i iguacee: when used in the text, if not preceded 
by initials or full names 
e.g. Du Toit but A.L.du Toit; Von Huene but F. von Huene 


(c) Scientific names, but not their vernacular derivatives 
e.g. Therocephalia, but therocephalian 

Punctuation should be loose, omitting all not strictly necessary 

Reference to the author should be expressed in the third person 

Roman numerals should be converted to arabic, except when forming part of the title of a 
book or article, such as 
‘Revision of the Crustacea. Part VIII. The Amphipoda.’ 

Specific name must not stand alone, but be preceded by the generic name or its abbreviation 
to initial capital letter, provided the same generic name is used consecutively. 

Name of new genus or species is not to be included in the title: it should be included in the 
abstract, counter to Recommendation 23 of the Code, to meet the requirements of Bio- 
logical Abstracts. 


“wii 


PATRICIA DAVISON 

SOME NGUNI CRAFTS 

PART 2 

THE USES OF HORN, BONE AND IVORY